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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 382, 1942 


KE es eee e, 
ae . if. fF Hae? ~~ 
a se” } 1ST, Sy, ~ 
ae 
oo fe bs i % y 
\ EF ag) Bi ,eg¥ 7 
BOARD OF EDITORS 
RAYMOND J. SEEGER G. ARTHUR COOPER JASON R. SWALLEN 
GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 
ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
W. EpwWARDs DEMING C. F. W. MuESEBECK 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
HaRALp A. REHDER Epwin Kirk 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT T. DALE STEWART 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOLICAL SOCIETY 


Horace S. ISBELL 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
BY THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
450 AHNAIP St. 


AT MENASHA, WISCONSIN 


ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 32 


_ 1, pp. 
. 2, pp. 
3; PD. 
. 4 pp: 
5 . 125-156, May 16, 1942. 

. 157-188, June 16, 1942. 

. 189-220, July 17, 1942. 

. 221-252, August 14, 1942. 

; . 253-284, Sue 15, 1942. 
10! pp. 285-320, October 28, 1942. 

. 11, pp. 321-352, November 16. 1942. 
: 12, pp. 353-376, December 22, 1942. 


1-32, January 24, 1942. 
33-64, February 17, 1942. 
65-92, March 14, 1942. 
93-124, April 16, 1942. 


ae es 
a ed ‘y _ } 
Peeve. 2). 4: January 15, 1942 No. 1 


\ 


1 ‘ 7 


_ WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


James H. Kempton _Raymonp J. SEEGER G. ArtHuR CooPER 
U. S. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


Lewis V. JuDSON | Austin H. Ciarx 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
ie Haraup A, REHDER Epwin Kirx 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY : : GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY 
CHARLOTTE ELLiotTT T. DaLE STEWART 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY , } } ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


Horace S. IsBEuu 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 


BY THE 


MNS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Me : 450 Aunarp Sr. 
AT MmNASHA, WISCONSIN 


Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. 
Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 
Authorized January 21, 1933. 


Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


WoL. 32 


ETHNOLOGY.—A scientific approach 
Lanham, Md. 


Going fifty years ago from western New 
York to Liberia, and there observing the 
results of African colonization from the 
United States, was an experience that in 
retrospect appears very different from any 
noted in published accounts of African 
travel or racial history. The difference may 
be ascribed largely to the absence of pre- 
vious contacts, commitments, or teachings 
of a nature to affect, even unconsciously, the 
observation and study of racial characters 
and relations. A prolonged and intensive 
controversy had raged in the northern 
States before the Civil War, and echoed 
widely through the period of Reconstruc- 
tion, but it was possible in a rural commu- 
nity to grow up without acquiring any racial 
presumptions or knowing any Negroes. 
Visiting Africa with congenial associates 
was an opportunity that an interest in na- 
ture could not refuse. 

Negroes in numbers were seen for the 
first time at Monrovia and in the settle- 
ments along the St. Paul River in -Decem- 
ber, 1891. Two widely contrasting groups 
were apparent, the civilized ‘“Liberians”’ 
and the primitive ‘“‘natives,”’ living in sepa- 
rate communities with the customs and 
conditions of the native life but little dis- 
turbed. A racial viewpoint was provided in 
advance, before the Liberian people were 
studied, or Negroes in our southern States. 
Several visits were made to Liberia, and 
subsequent contacts with the Cotton Belt 
extended through many years. <Agricul- 
tural explorations in several tropical and 
subtropical countries, Puerto Rieo, Haiti, 
Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 
Peru, Egypt, Palestine, and China afforded 

1 Received May 10, 1941. 


<. H A 4gA2 
JAN 94 


JANUARY 15, 1942 


No. 1 


to African colonization.' 


O. F. Cook, 


a basis of judgment regarding the status of 
Liberia. 

Social elements must be admitted in ra- 
cial evaluations, since different ways of 
living may largely determine cultural devel- 
opment among primitive peoples. The 
African system of living in compact villages 
is a form of social organization that pro- 
vides only limited contacts between the 
children and the parents, and little oppor- 
tunity for experience to accumulate through 
successive generations, thus explaining the 
generally backward state of civilization 
among the natives of Africa. A few years 
after leaving Liberia I observed an essen- 
tially different system among primitive 
peoples in Central America, not living in 
villages but in scattered families. The two 
systems were described and contrasted in 
this JouRNAL, March 4, 1912, ‘“‘Definitions 
of Two Primitive Social States.” 

It seems remarkable that the need of 
knowing the native life of the Negroes in 
Africa seldom is recognized. Only one author 
has been found, a writer of letters from San 
Domingo before the French Revolution, 
who reflected that knowledge of native con- 
ditions would be required in order to esti- 
mate fairly the hardships or privations suf- 
fered by the Negroes in slavery. Hundreds 
of foreign missionaries, of course, have lived 
among the African tribes and have re- 
counted incidents of native life, but rarely 
have they attempted to interpret the racial 
character or to project a racial future. Mis- 
sionaries in Liberia often are devoted en- 
tirely to the natives, with little or no inter- 
est in the civilized Liberians, descendants 
of the colonists who returned to Africa from 
the United States. 


2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Colonization was a constructive effort in 
the field of race relations and had a back- 
ground of scientific interest at the period of 
inception. The field operations often were 
mismanaged and many difficulties arose 
from lack of knowledge of tropical economic 
plants and tropical diseases; also from inter- 
est being diverted by the sectional tensions 
that brought us to the Civil War. The 
numerical result of colonization must ap- 
pear insignificant, less than 20,000 civilized 
people scattered in small settlements along 
300 miles of the African coast. Yet the 
Liberians have attained their principal ob- 
ject of escaping the racial tensions that 
often were felt acutely in the United States. 
They feel sure that their people never will 
be contented in America and that the 
pioneer effort in civilizing and developing 
the African home-land eventually will be 
followed and appreciated. 

Thomas Jefferson and George Washing- 
ton were the traditional sponsors of the 
policy of colonization. Jefferson studied the 
racial problem from many sides, including 
the need of educating the more capable 
Negroes, in order that they might furnish 
the necessary skill and leadership for the 
new communities in Africa. Washington 
instructed his executors to provide such 
education for some of his freedmen. Many 
slaves and freedmen were educated during 
the early period of colonization and later 
were assisted in emigrating and establishing 
themselves in Liberia. The policy of forbid- 
ding the education of Negroes developed 
later, opposing the demand for immediate 
abolition and racial equality in the United 
States. The interest of Washington and 
Jefferson eventuated in the formation of 
the American Colonization Society, in 
December, 1816. The first president of the 
Society, elected in January, 1817, was Jus- 
tice Bushrod Washington of the Supreme 
Court, a nephew of George Washington. 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson, William H. 
Crawford of Georgia, and several other 
eminent statesmen were elected as vice- 
presidents. 

Liberia has had its place on the map of 
Africa for more than a century, a challenge 
to historians to understand, explain, and 
evaluate the effort made and the experience 
gained in this unique colonial undertaking. 
Many historical or descriptive accounts of 
Liberia and the colonization movement have 
been written, but usually they disregard the 
basic interest that existed more than a cen- 
tury ago among both races in the southern 
States in working out a gradual and peace- 
ful emancipation of the slaves and restoring 
them to Africa on a civilized footing. The 
little book Liberia published in 1913 by 
Prof. Frederick Starr, of the University of 
Chicago, contains a detailed history of 
colonization and of resulting progress among 
the natives. A large, two-volume, richly 
illustrated work, Liberia, by Sir Harry 
Johnston, appeared in 1906. 

In view of the possibility of an eventual 
return to the plan of resettlement of Ameri- 
can Negroes in Africa, the nature of the 
pioneer undertaking should be better known 
—how such an interest developed, what the 
settlements in Africa accomplished, what 
the limiting requirements proved to be, and 
whether these requirements could now be 
met. It was supposed that the colonization 
project would lapse completely with the 
Civil War, but small numbers of Negroes 
have continued to go to Liberia and several 
movements for large-scale resumption of 
colonization have occurred, showing that 
an underlying interest still exists. A recent 
proposal in the field of colonization is that 
of Senator Bilbo of Mississippi, presented 
in a speech before the first session of the 
Seventy-sixth Congress, April 24, 1939. 
Colonization appedrs much more feasible 
now than it was in the former century. 


BOTANICAL FORERUNNERS OF COLONIZATION 


Two tropical botanists of the eighteenth 
century, Aublet and Smeathman, were pre- 
sented in this JouRNAL, July 15, 1940, as 
pioneers against slavery. Although these 


men have not figured in histories of the anti- 
slavery movement, they appear to have 
given the first scientific attention to African 
slavery as a racial problem, before the 


Jan. 15, 1942 


French Revolution affected colonial policies 
and brought the racial questions into politi- 
cal controversy. It is not without interest 
that the plan of repatriating the Negroes in 
Africa arose in the early period of scientific 
exploration of the Tropics. 

Wadstrom’s monumental Hssay on coloni- 
zation, published in 1794, states that 
Smeathman was ‘‘the person who first pro- 
posed a specific plan for colonizing Africa, 
with a view to civilization.’”’ Wadstrom was 
a Swedish economist and had made a voy- 
age to Africa on a French vessel. He pro- 
jected an elaborate agricultural and com- 
mercial development that was expected to 
absorb the activities of the natives and thus 
put an end to the slave trade. 

-Smeathman’s plan of repatriating Ne- 
groes from England or from America was 
developed after several years had been 
spent among the natives in the vicinity of 
Sierra Leone. Emancipation served as a 
military measure in the Revolutionary War, 
as later in the Civil War. Thousands of 
refugee Negroes had been sent from Vir- 
ginia, South Carolina, and Georgia to the 
West Indies in the war period, while several 
hundreds of destitute and distressed people 
had drifted to London. These were to form 
the colony at Sierra Leone, but Smeathman 
died before the expedition sailed, and the 
settlement soon was abandoned. Yet reports 
of the undertaking reached America and 
served at least as suggestions in developing 
the project of colonizing Negroes from the 
United States. 

Wadstrom and many later historians 
overlooked a brief but significant paper on 
African colonization by Ferdinando Fair- 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 3 


fax, of Richmond, Va., that appeared in 
December, 1790, at Philadelphia in a short- 
lived pioneer journal of popular science and 
general literature, The American Museum 
or Universal Magazine. The statement by 
Fairfax provides a nexus between Smeath- 
man’s project at Sierra Leone and the de- 
velopment in the United States of the policy 
of returning the Negroes to Africa. No 
reference to this paper has been found, and 
it may not be accessible in many libraries. 
A photographic copy is reproduced in Fig. 1. 

Although Smeathman was not mentioned 
by Fairfax, the statement that “England, 
not long since, made an experiment of this 
kind, which was found not to succeed”’ 
undoubtedly refers to the effort at Sierra 
Leone. The proposal to repeat the experi- 
ment in spite of the initial failure leaves no 
doubt of an underlying approval of the plan. 
Fairfax sensed the danger of tensions and 
conflicts arising from arguments addressed 
‘rather to the feelings than to the cool de- 
liberate judgment.” 

Letting the free Negroes go back to Africa 
prepared to live as civilized people appeared 
to Fairfax an acceptable solution of the 
racial problem. A failure of later generations 
to continue a project may not lessen the 
interest of the original suggestion. Return- 
ing the Negroes to Africa appeared before 
the Civil War as the only practicable alter- 
native of slavery, and many writers of the 
pre-War period rested in the belief that a 
practical solution would be worked out in 
Liberia. Daniel Webster and Abraham 
Lincoln looked to colonization as the even- 
tual adjustment. 


SMEATHMAN A BOTANICAL EXPLORER 


Aublet and Smeathman were botanical 
explorers, not actuated by the zeal of mis- 
sionaries or philanthropists but by the de- 
sire to see the plants and animals of the 
tropical countries and the human inhabi- 
tants as well. Earlier botanists, Plumier, 
Jacquin, and others, had discovered a new 
plant world in the West Indian Islands, but 
the forest floras of South America and 
Africa were still unknown. Adanson had 


botanized in Senegal from 1749 to 1754, and 
even in the previous century a little plant 
material had come from the Gold Coast, 
but vast regions remained untouched. 
Aublet in Guinea and Smeathman in 
Sierra Leone collected hundreds of new 
plants, but their interest was not restricted 
to the herbarium specimens. Smeathman 
has distinction among entomologists for 
first describing the specialized castes and 


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[:e6és 


Jan. 15, 1942 


social habits of the African termites, a study 
that may have conduced to interest in hu- 
man adjustments. The date of Smeathman’s 
exploration given in the recently published 
Flora of West Tropical Africa, by Hutchin- 
son and Dalziel, is several years too 
late. ““SSmeathmann,”’ with the final letter 
doubled, is listed as ‘‘Agent—Conductor of 
the scheme for settling freed slaves at Free- 
town in 1787.” This is the date of the at- 
tempted colony and of Smeathman’s death, 
but his account of the termites was pub- 
lished in 1781, and his botanical collecting 
probably was done in the preceding decade. 

mecordime to KR. H. Fox, m Dr. John 
Fothergill and his friends, Smeathman was 
engaged in 1771 to spend three years in- 
vestigating ‘‘the natural history and prod- 
ucts of Spain and the West Coast of Africa.” 
Fox states that Smeathman went later to 
the West Indies, and Smeathman says: 
“My stay in the West Indies was with a 
view to inform myself of tropical cultiva- 
tion, previous to my return to Africa.’ The 
range of scientific interest in the Fothergill 
coterie was remarkable. One of Fothergill’s 
friends was Peter Collinson, known to 
American botanists for supporting the ex- 
-plorations of the Bartrams. 

Smeathman says that his plan of coloni- 
zation was based on ‘‘observations made in 
a 4 years residence,” doubtless referring to 
his stay in Africa, most of the time among 
the natives, learning their ways of living 
and working under the local conditions. 
The native foods and methods of produc- 
tion were considered, as well as the need of 
introducing crops from other countries. His 
views of the need and advantage of labor 
for continued health and enjoyment of life 
in tropical countries were far in advance of 
his time, or even of our present time, since 
traditional habits of social parasitism still 
vitiate our relations with other races. 
Smeathman seems to have been entirely 
free from the notion so prevalent in tropical 
countries, and doubtless of oriental origin, 
that physical labor is degrading and marks 
an inferior social caste. He says: 

If I was to conduct this enterprise, I would 


lift the first axe and the first hoe myself; and 
may say without vanity, since it is said from 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 5 


experience, set an example of labour and in- 
dustry in cultivation. For husbandry, far 
from being to me a drudgery, is the most 
delightful amusement. I attribute all the ex- 
treme good health I enjoyed by intervals in 
Africa, with the soundness of my constitution 
at this hour, to the hard labour I then sus- 
tained with infinite pleasure, often contem- 
plating with how much greater enjoyment I 
could labour, in prosecuting such an attempt 
of civilization. It would be our business to take 
not only the seeds common in the climates, 
but also all the seeds to be procured from 
warmer regions, of use in food or medicine. 
Our own hot-houses would furnish us with 
coffee, American indigo, aloes and other useful 
plants; and I should think the chocolate tree 
(theobroma cacao) might be procured. These 
are not indeed primary objects, but by the 
time they increase, will be very worthy of 
attention. 


Much of the subsequent history might 
have been different if Smeathman had 
lived and made the experiment that he had 
in mind. With all their difficulties and fail- 
ures, the colonies planted at Sierra Leone 
and in Liberia may be said to have demon- 
strated that communities of civilized Ne- 
groes could be established in Africa, but 
the significance of these pioneer undertak- 
ings was overlooked in the period of inten- 
sive controversy. The death of Smeathman 
may be said to have aborted the project, in 
the absence of any successor with compar- 
able experience and insight. The later 
operations in the United States developed 
no leaders with scientific interest and tropi- 
cal experience that would qualify them as 
normal successors of Smeathman. 

Smeathman’s plan may have been an 
echo or resumption of an earlier project by 
Fothergill as noted by Fox: 

Fothergill joined with his friends in the 
moral crusade against slavery and all its works. 
His practical mind, ever seeking ways to rem- 
edy the ills of men, projected a scheme for 
settling a colony of freed negroes in Africa to 
cultivate the sugar-cane, and he was ready, it 
is said, to subscribe 10,000 pounds towards the 
expense. He received a letter, however, from 
Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia, one of the 
most enlightened advocates of the slave, in 


6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


1773, discouraging the plan: it was better, he 
thought, that the negroes should live together 
with whites in a mixed community. 


White people were not excluded from 
Smeathman’s plan, or from Wadstrom’s 
extensive scheme, which had hundreds of 
prominent patrons. A large agricultural and 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


commercial organization was planned in 
great detail. Wadstrom made an intensive 
study of the economic principles that 
should govern such undertakings, including 
precautions for preventing harmful specu- 
lation in “imaginary paper,” to keep his 
project from becoming another ‘‘South Sea 
Bubble.”’ 


BIOLOGY AND RACIAL STUDY 


The biological sciences provide us with 
methods and experience in observing and 
taking account of diversity and also furnish 
the actual backgrounds of conditions of life 
as settings for our problems of human wel- 
fare and racial adjustments. Ethnology, the 
science of race, admittedly is a branch of 
biology, and the same will be true of sociol- 
ogy and economics as soon as these sciences 
are developed beyond the philosophic stage 
of abstract terms and formal distinctions. 

A racial interest that is real and func- 
tional has to be a biological interest, a 
natural taste for seeing, appreciating, and 
understanding the diversities of nature. The 
complexity of biological facts places them 
beyond the range of merely verbal or ‘‘phil- 
osophical’’ minds, unaccustomed to obser- 
vation. Inferences are useful if they lead us 
to observe more closely, but not if they lead 
only to abstractions. Seeing what can be 
seen 1s the basic impulse of mental develop- 
ment. The dialectic philosophy of Plato and 
his successors 1s a serious impediment to 
science, as Bacon so clearly perceived. More 
general interest and understanding of plant 
and animal life is the best assurance of sub- 
stantial progress in the social or racial 
sciences. 

The diversities of people are of a piece 
with the diversities of plants and animals, a 
part of the same creation. The diversity of 


living forms and the complexity of the limit- 
ing factors are the most general and signifi- 
cant of all biological facts. We gain under- 
standing of life as we learn to appreciate and 
to take account of the infinite variety of 
adjustments made possible through diver- 
sity of form and function. Science is our 
effort to see clearly, which often is difficult, 
so that special precautions are required. 
Goethe gave us a general warning that “we 
see only what we know,” meaning that 
we have to become familiar with our facts 
before we reach the stage of effective vision. 
Casual observations and inferences may be 
thoroughly misleading, as often has oc- 
curred in the racial controversies. 

Naturalists have a basic social function 
in extending our view of the living world. 
Not only the facts that science substanti- 
ates, but also the careful tentative methods 
of scientific study, must be more widely 
diffused in order to be appreciated and ap- 
plied by a far larger proportion of the gen- 
eral public, before we may hope to deal con- 
structively with our human relations. The 
most important applications of the biologi- 
cal sciences in racial welfare are in the na- 
ture of community undertakings and re- 
quire full understanding by the functioning 
personnel as the basis of effective coopera- 
tion. 


IS SCIENCE ALOOF FROM RACIAL PROBLEMS? 


The charge of science holding aloof from 
human interests is echoed frequently in the 
discussion of racial relations. Problems of 
public information are vastly more difficult 
in fields of thought that have suffered from 
controversy, but to say that science eschews 


controversy may not be an adequate de- 
fense in an age of revolution. Controversies 
are said to prove nothing, but they show | 
that facts are obscure or deficient. Neglect- 
ing to bring a significant fact to public 
attention, leaving it concealed and disre- 


JAN. 15, 1942 
garded in “‘technical literature,’ may ap- 
pear even more culpable from a standpoint 
of social responsibility than a failure to 
make original investigations. 

Science may need to admit a responsible 
function in popular knowledge. The actual 
state of public opinion or belief regarding 
any field of knowledge is a fact that science 
may determine and report. Freedom of con- 
troversy is abused when ascertained facts 
are disregarded or misrepresented in a man- 
ner to misinform the public. A traditional 
assumption has been that scientific facts 
may be left to speak for themselves, but 
often they are smothered by ‘‘the natural 
conservatism of all professional people.” 
Important discoveries may lie dormant for 
many years, like Mendel’s reports of his 
basic experiments in heredity. A published 
record may establish priority among scien- 
tific specialists, but may not be an adequate 
defense at the bar of social responsibility. 

The spirit of controversy is repugnant to 
science because controversy deals with ar- 
guments rather than with facts, and be- 
cause language is perverted, so that custom- 
ary forms of expression become too mislead- 
ing for scientific use. Thus scientific study 
is impeded or even inhibited during a period 
of intensive controversy. The entire field 
of racial thought was devastated during the 
last century to an extent that is hardly to 
be appreciated. But by going back to earlier 
writers it is possible to see that racial dif- 
ferences were observed and noted like other 
biological facts, without being complicated 
by the controversial intrusions of later 
periods. 

The small paper relating to Aublet was 
noticed in Science News Letter of October 
6, 1940, in a manner to show how the tradi- 
tions of the antislavery crusade carry for- 
ward to the present day, even in the field of 
scientific reporting. Aublet had been pre- 
sented as an early example of an interest in 
human welfare on the part of a scientific 
explorer, hidden in an old book of technical 
botany that no conventional historian would 
be expected to consult. The scientific inter- 
est of this early reaction to slavery was com- 
pletely sidetracked in Science News Letter 
by dressing Aublet in the conventional 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION Z 


character of the petulant reformer, instant 
in protest: ‘‘His writings contain in addition 
to the customary Natural History descrip- 
tions and travel notes, frequent references 
of strong disapproval of the institution of 
negro slavery. He opposed the system, not 
only because of its inhumanity to the 
blacks, but because of the deterioration in 
character it brought about in the white 
owners and overseers.” 

This is not Aublet’s attitude, but an echo 
of the antislavery controversy, with the 
subversive implication that social reforms 
are possible only through sanguinary strug- 
gles, as with the many writers who assume 
that our Civil War was necessary. “It need- 
ed a great war and the convulsion of the 
nation to establish their principles in the 
mind of the majority.’’ A false philosophy 
of revolution is implied in this theory of 
social progress requiring intensive agitation 
by militant minorities, disregarding the 
scientific outlook to wider understanding of 
our human nature and the world we live 
in, “the increase and diffusion of knowl- 
edge.’ Progress means more understanding, 
not more irritation. 

Aublet was a reformer, but not an agita- 
tor. If he had a scientific sense of social 
responsibility it extended in the case that 
was cited only to placing on record an opin- 
ion reached through observation of Negro 
slaves in the French colonies, that they 
were people of peaceable temperament who 
for colonial purposes did not need to be held 
in slavery, which was proved by later 
events. Aublet’s four volumes on the plants 
of French Guiana, although titled as His- 
towre, are not a work of ‘‘natural history” 
in our modern sense, but of formal Latin 
and French descriptions of genera and spe- 
cies, hundreds of engraved plates, and 
thousands of drawings of structural details. 
Travel notes are not interspersed, nor are 
there protests against “the institution of 
negro slavery,” an expression of later usage. 
The separate short chapter of ‘‘Observa- 
tions on the Slave Negroes” is not contro- 
versial, and nobody is denounced. Aublet, 
Smeathman, Jefferson, and Fairfax were 
strongly opposed to slavery but sought 
understanding and constructive courses. 


8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


JEFFERSON’S APPEAL TO “NATURAL HISTORY’’ 


The charge of science neglecting racial 
questions is not new, since it was rather 
directly implied in Thomas Jefferson’s 
Notes on Virginia written in 1781. It seemed 
to Jefferson that science should be able to 
give more definite answers to questions that 
even then were being debated from widely 
different standpoints: 


To our reproach it must be said, that though 
for a century and a half we have had under our 
eyes the races of black and of red men, they 
have never yet been viewed by us as subjects of 
natural history. I advance it therefore as a 
suspicion only, that the blacks, whether origi- 
nally a distinct race, or made distinct by time 
and circumstances, are inferior to the whites 
in the endowments both of body and mind. 
It is not against experience to suppose, that 
different species of the same genus, or varieties 
of the same species, may possess different 
qualifications. Will not a lover of natural his- 
tory then, one who views the gradations in all 
the races of animals with the eye of philoso- 
phy, excuse an effort to keep those in the de- 
partment of man as distinct as nature has 
formed them. This unfortunate difference of 
colour, and perhaps of faculty, is a powerful 
obstacle to the emancipation of these people. 
Many of their advocates, while they wish to 
vindicate the liberty of human nature are 
anxious also to preserve its dignity and beauty. 
Some of these, embarrassed by the question 
‘What further is to be done with them?” join 
themselves in opposition with those who are 
actuated by sordid avarice only. Among the 
Romans emancipation required but one effort. 
The slave, when made free, might mix with, 
without staining the blood of his master. But 
with us a second is necessary, unknown to 
history. When freed, he is to be removed be- 
yond the reach of mixture. 


Although Jefferson in another place refers 
to the slave population as ‘‘this blot in our 
country,’ the system of slavery was in 
mind, not the racial color. The context re- 
lates to a law passed by the Legislature of 
Virginia to prohibit further importation of 
slaves. ‘‘This will in some measure stop the 
increase of this great political and moral 


evil, while the minds of our citizens may 
be ripening for a complete emancipation of 
our human nature.” Few writers, if any, 
with equal interest and opportunity of 
critical observation, have placed on record 
higher estimates of Negro ability and char- 
acter. The charge of pilfering is explained 
and excused, while essential moral qualities 
are recognized: 


Whether further observation will or will not 
verify the conjecture, that nature has been 
less bountiful to them in the endowments of 
the head, I believe that in those of the heart 
she will be found to have done them justice. 
That disposition to theft with which they have 
been branded, must be ascribed to their situa- 
tion, and not to any depravity of the moral 
sense. The man, in whose favor no laws of 
property exist, probably feels himself less 
bound to respect those made in favor of others. 

Notwithstanding these considerations 
which must weaken their respect for the laws 
of property, we find among them numerous 
instances of the most rigid integrity, and as 
many as among their better instructed mast- 
ers, of benevolence, gratitude, and unshaken 
fidelity. The opinion, that they are inferior 
in the faculties of reason and imagination, 
must be hazarded with great diffidence. To 
justify a general conclusion, requires many ob- 
servations, even where the subject may be 
submitted to the anatomical knife, to optical 
glasses, to analysis by fire, or by solvents. 


Moral qualities are found among Negroes, 
and mental abilities as well, beyond any 
development that could be expected from 
the usual exercise of such qualities in the 
native life of Africa, limited as it is by the 
universal village system. The Negroes had 
had no experience with our institutions of 
property. The ability of the race is much 
greater than its native attainments would 
indicate. Regarding the moral abilities being 
better developed than the mental abilities, 
the opposite opinion was strongly stated to 
me by Gen. 8. C. Armstrong, from his ex- 
tensive experience at Hampton Institute. 
Such questions obviously would be affected 
by opportunities of exercising and mani- 


JAN. 15, 1942 


festing the various abilities. 

Jefferson saw that statistical study, as we 
now say, would be required as the basis of 
general conclusions on the nature and ex- 
tent of the racial differences, rather than 
rare examples of special talent, although he 
was interested in these. He considered 
Benjamin Banneker, the ‘Negro Astrono- 
mer,” as an authentic example of Negro 
ability, “the son of a black man born in 
Africa and a black woman born in the 
United States, who is a very respectable 
mathematician.’”’ This was in 1791, in a 
letter to Condorcet transmitting an almanac 
that Banneker had prepared while em- 
ployed at the instance of Jefferson “‘in lay- 
ing out the new Federal City on the 
Potomac.”’ But in writing to Joel Barlow in 
1809 Jefferson reflects that Banneker doubt- 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 9 


less was prompted by Ellicot ‘““‘who was his 
neighbor and friend, and never missed an 
opportunity of puffing him. I have a long 
letter from Banneker which shows him to 
have had a mind of very common stature 
indeed.’”? Many other Jefferson letters 
touched on different phases of the racial 
problem and showed the same scientific 
avoidance of general conclusions, unless 
supported by facts of common knowledge. 
Thus Jefferson refers to racial crossing, but 
not in the manner of those who look to an 
ultimate fusion as a solution of the racial 
problem. ‘‘The improvement of the blacks 
in body and mind, in the first instance of 
their mixture with the whites, has been ob- 
served by everyone, and proves that their 
inferiority is not the effect merely of their 
conditions of life.” 


GENOLYTIC HYBRIDS 


The slower progress of ethnology on the 
side of genetics is shown in racial crossing 
still being debated on traditional lines, with 
no account taken of a fact now widely 
known among biologists, that later genera- 
tions of hybrid plants and animals often 
differ profoundly from the first generation. 
Even where the first generation of a hybrid 
stock is uniform, and regularly exceeds the 
parental types in vigor and productiveness, 
the later generations may show a wide 
range of diversity, including many sterile 
or otherwise abnormal individuals, some re- 
sembling the first generation, but few equal 
to the original parents. Diversity and de- 
terioration continue in successive genera- 
tions, even where selection for desirable 
characters is applied. 

This phenomenon of deterioration in later 
generations of hybrid stocks has received 
less attention than would be expected, pos- 
sibly because no distinctive name has been 
suggested. The term genolytic would be ap- 
propriate for this class of hybrids, uniform 
and fertile in the first generation, but di- 
verse and degenerate in the later genera- 
tions, as if the mechanism of heredity had 
become loose-jointed and only partially 
effective. The diversity is not limited to the 
range between the parental differences, but 


often is extraparental, a fact recognized in 
1909 in Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 
147, Suppressed and intensified characters 
in cotton hybrids. Genolytic bovine hy- 
brids were described in the American 
Naturalist for April, 1913, ‘“Mendelism and 
Interspecific Hybrids.’ Genolytic cotton 
hybrids were illustrated in the Journal of 
Heredity for February, 1915, ‘‘T'wo Classes 
of Hybrids.’’ Mendelian alternative inheri- 
tance of various contrasting characters is 
shown, of course, in all such hybrids and 
has received attention, but the genolytic 
diversity is a fact of even greater signifi- 
cance in racial crossing and is in need of 
separate study. 

Under the former theory of blended in- 
heritance it was supposed that the racial 
mixtures eventually would reach a stage of 
intermediate uniformity in all their charac- 
ters, but now it is known that the racial 
crosses yield patchwork populations through 
many generations. The extent of racial 
crossing in the United States often is 
greatly overestimated on account of a popu- 
lar belief that the only unmixed people are 
very black, with the skin as dark as the hair. 
In reality most of the natives of the interior 
of Liberia and the neighboring regions are 
brown rather than black, and often rather 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


light. Only rare individuals among the 
Liberian natives are black like the Congo 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


people, a few of whom were settled in 
Liberia, from captured slave-ships. 


AUBLET AND JEFFERSON 


Aublet’s assay of the racial temperament 
of the Negroes as quiet, kindly people evi- 
denced a deeper insight than was attained 
by many others who sought to interpret the 
Negro character. Even to Thomas Jefferson 
it seemed reasonable to ascribe the atroci- 
ties of the revolution in Haiti to racial ani- 
mosity, without considering what the mobs 
had done in Paris, or the suicidal perfidies 
of Bonaparte and Le Clerc, or Rocham- 
beau’s despairing resort to Schrecklichkeit. 
The peaceful history of Liberia should figure 
in the racial reckoning, as well as the san- 
guinary history of Haiti. 

The effect of slavery on the white people 
was the critical fact with Aublet, without 
irrelevant debate on the loss or gain to the 
Negroes. Jefferson saw the social lesions of 
slavery as clearly as Aublet, and his state- 
ment is more specific: 

There must doubtless be an unhappy in- 
fluence on the manners of our people produced 
by the existence of slavery among us. The 
whole commerce between master and slave is 
a perpetual exercise of the most boisterous 
passions, the most unremitting despotism on 
the one part, and degrading submissions on the 
other. Our children see this, and learn to imi- 
tate it; for man is an imitative animal. This 
quality is the germ of all education in him. 
From his cradle to his grave he is learning to 
do what he sees others do. If a parent could 
find no motive either in his philanthropy or 
his self love, for restraining the intemperance 
of passion towards his slave, it should always 
be a sufficient one that his child is present. 
But generally it is not sufficient. The parent 
storms, the child looks on, catches the linea- 
ments of wrath, puts on the same airs in the 
circle of smaller slaves, gives a loose to the 
worst of passions, and thus nursed, educated, 
and daily exercised in tyranny, cannot but be 
stamped by it with odious peculiarities. The 
man must be a prodigy who can retain his 
manners and morals undepraved by such cir- 
cumstances. ... With the morals of the people, 


their industry also is destroyed. For in a warm 
climate, no man will labour for himself who 
can make another labour for him. This is so 
true, that of the proprietors of slaves a very 
small proportion indeed are ever seen to labour. 
And can the liberties of a nation be thought 
secure when we have removed their only firm 
basis, a conviction in the minds of the people 
that these liberties are of the gift of God? 


Thus with Jefferson as with Aublet, the 
question did not turn primarily on the 
Negroes being inferior, or being badly 
treated, but on slavery as a social institu- 
tion. Jefferson saw that the manners and 
minds of his people were affected uncon- 
sciously by the keeping of slaves, even as 
John Woolman had observed. The North 
did not know the Negroes, and the South 
was not aware of being affected by the 
Negroes. Both sections may learn eventu- 
ally what their forefathers overlooked. 
Charles Francis Adams, second of that 
name, a grandson of John Quincy Adams, 
speaking at the University of South Caro- 
lina in 1913, formally recanted the belief 
of New England abolitionists in political 
equality and race absorption: ‘In this all- 
important respect I do not hesitate to say 
we theorists and abstractionists of the 
North, throughout that long anti-slavery 
discussion which ended with the 1861 clash 
of arms, were thoroughly wrong.” 

Slavery as a social institution could not 
be defended, but emphasis on the wrongs 
and hardships of the Negroes carried the 
issue to debatable ground. “The basis of 
abolition is the wrongs of the Negro through 
slavery.’”’ Advantages for the Negroes could 
be urged with all who admitted a missionary 
responsibility for bringing “‘savages”’ out of 
heathenism. Jefferson, because he had 
deeper convictions of democracy than any 
other statesman, could feel a more radical 
aversion, and sought by every means to— 
remove such an obstacle to the development 
of free institutions in the United States. 


Jan. 15, 1942 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION tt 


AN INHIBITORY SOCIAL SYSTEM 


Smeathman’s account of the native 
people near Sierra Leone is in line with 
Jefferson’s call for biological study of the 
racial characters. Features of native polity 
that bore upon the question of establishing 
civilized communities were noted by Smeath- 
man, and he was led to believe that no 
serious interference need be expected, as 
proved by later experience. Settlements 
were made among many native tribes in 
Sierra Leone and Liberia, not in all cases 
without friction, but on the whole with little 
difficulty, showing that this aspect of the 
native character had been correctly judged. 
It was observed that the native polity was 
based on slavery, and that it tended in 
several ways to limit development. ‘‘Hence 
it is evident that their government is neither 
calculated to promote the happiness, nor 
the increase of the community.” 

Jefferson noted as a limiting factor of so- 
cial organization among the Indians ‘‘their 
having never submitted themselves to any 
laws, any coercive power, any shadow of gov- 
ernment,” a state of mind with which he sym- 
pathized. “It will be said, that great societies 
cannot exist without government. The sav- 
ages therefore break them into small ones.” 

Smeathman was aware that the attain- 
ments of the African race were not a just 
measure of its ability and looked forward to 
a study of the factors that determined the 
exercise and development of ability, beyond 
merely physical conditions. ‘‘Whatever may 
be said of effects of local situations and the 
extremes of heat and cold, it probably will 
be found hereafter that all men, in their dis- 
positions and conduct of life, are formed 
more by artificial than by natural causes— 
in short, by custom and habit.’’ The power 
of custom and habit is firmly embedded 
in the native African system of living in 
compact villages, which plainly tends to 
restrict the mental development of the chil- 
dren, on account of the slight contacts with 
the parents. The waking hours of childhood 
are spent mostly with other children, run- 
ning about in little squads, only casually 
associated with parents or elders. 


The alternative system of social organi- 
zation, the children fully associated with 
their parents, living in separate families 
scattered upon the land, is exemplified 
among primitive people in tropical America, 
as already stated. Terms were suggested in 
the paper published in 1912 to carry the dis- 
tinction between the two social systems, 
sympedic for the African system with the 
children herding together and choripedic for 
the American system with the children re- 
maining apart. The children are socialized 
prematurely under the African system, 
while in America they develop as members 
of family groups. The village system has the 
social effect of restricting cultural progress, 
so that the racial carry-over and accumula- 
tion of experience does not extend to the 
stage of civilization. 

Neither the arts of civilized life nor the 
outlook on life that we call consciousness 
are attained under the African village sys- 
tem, only a state of perennial childhood. 
George Santayana, Plato of our present 
day, says that “‘society itself is an accident 
to the spirit,’’ but this is because we have 
not perceived the genetic relation of the 
parental contacts. The conscious mind is a 
social attainment, a structure formed by 
gradual accretion of experience through the 
overlapping generations, like a coral reef 
building up to the ocean level, not a sudden 
magical growth like Jack’s beanstalk reach- 
ing the sky. Limiting the individual devel- 
opment limits the racial development. The 
social system of the native Africans is es- 
sentially self-limiting. Smeathman observed 
that the natives have ‘‘a very singular juris- 
prudence ... which renders improvement 
unacceptable to the public, and ingenuity 
dangerous to the possessor.’’ Contacts with 
civilization have largely removed these 
limitations, as one appreciates in knowing 
personally a capable, cultured, considerate, 
thoughtful man, like Arthur Barclay, after- 
ward President of Liberia. The prompt 
return of civilized Negroes to barbarism, 
predicted by many writers, has not occurred, 
either in Liberia or in Haiti. 


12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 1 


JEFFERSON AND FAIRFAX 


The paper by Fairfax may be considered 
as a sequel of Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on 
Virginia, reported to have been written in 
1781 but not issued in America till 1787. 
Objections to slavery were strongly stated 
and several vivid passages might seem to be 
‘‘addressed rather to the feelings than to 
the cool and deliberate judgment’’ which 
Fairfax sought. Jefferson was not uncon- 
scious of writing with heat against slavery. 
“Tt is impossible to be temperate and to 
pursue this subject through the various con- 
siderations of policy, of morals, of history 
—natural and civil. We must be contented 
to hope they will force their way into every 
one’s mind.” Yet Jefferson wished to avoid 
needless offense and may have delayed 
publication on this account. A small edition 
of the ‘‘Notes” was privately printed in 
France in 1784 or 1785, but Jefferson re- 
fused to have his “strictures on slavery” 
issued separately, ‘‘at least till I know 
whether their publication would do most 
harm or good.” 

Jefferson recognized the need of the races 
being separated and outlined a policy of 
gradual emancipation, education, and col- 
onization of the Negroes, but leaving the 
location indefinite, except that ‘“‘transpor- 
tation to Africa” was suggested for ‘‘slaves 
guilty of offences.’’ It remained for Fairfax 
to combine Jefferson’s policy with Smeath- 
man’s plan, and to perceive the underlying 
interest to the Negroes of coming again into 
contact with their own people, and of being 
thus enabled to appreciate and extend the 
civilization which they had acquired during 
their sojourn in America. To believe what 
American Negroes often are told, that they 
have been deprived of a valuable racial 
culture, is a mistake that is hardly to be 


corrected except by direct knowledge of 
native life in Africa. 

A limited circulation of the Fairfax paper 
may be inferred from the absence of any 
reference in The Virginian history of Afri- 
can colonization, by Rev. P. Slaughter, pub- 
lished at Richmond in 1855, a work that 
stresses the value of colonization as a mis- 
sionary enterprise, and even the value of 
slavery as a training in civilization. ‘‘Africa 
gave to Virginia a savage and a slave, Vir- 
ginia gives back to Africa a citizen and a 
Christian.’’ The entire credit of the coloni- 
zation project is claimed by Slaughter for 
Virginia. “If any scheme of policy is thor- 
oughly Virginian, it is the scheme of African 
colonization.”’ This claim would have had 
additional support from the interest of 
Fairfax as a member of the family distin- 
guished for its association with George 
Washington. 

The title of the paper by Fairfax, ‘‘Plan 
for Liberating the Negroes within the 
United States,” is somewhat misleading, 
since the return of the Negroes to Africa is 
an essential feature. In reality it was a plan 
for abolishing slavery in the United States 
through the resettlement of the Negroes in 
Africa. A scientific character may be claimed 
for a consistent effort like that of Fairfax 
to understand a complex and difficult prob- 
lem. The paper is short, of nearly the same 
wordage as the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, and gives an impression of the policy 
of African colonization as fairly ‘‘thought 
through.’’ Words may be said to “‘erystal- 
lize thought” if they bring the essential 
facts vividly before us. ‘‘The great quality 
of the mind is finality,’ by which it was 
possible for the Declaration of Independ- 
ence to create a new allegiance. 


COLONIZATION AND THE CIVIL WAR 


The plan of education, colonization, and 
gradual emancipation, as outlined by Jeffer- 
son in the Notes on Virginia, would not 
have led the nation to the disaster of the 
Civil War. The judgment of history is chal- 
lenged when a policy devised by a states- 
man like Jefferson is disregarded. No other 


subject appears to have had more of his 
attention than the racial problem. What 
other statesman was more scientific, or 
constructive, or devoted to human welfare? 
“The effectiveness of a social objective lies 
in the methods employed to achieve it and 
not in its noble intentions.” 


Jan. 15, 1942 


Jefferson’s plan of colonization included 
the suggestion ‘‘to send vessels at the same 
time to other parts of the world for an equal 
number of white inhabitants.”’ The alterna- 
tive course was considered: “‘It will probably 
be asked, ‘why not retain and incorporate 
the blacks into the state, and thus save the 
expense of supplying by importation of 
white settlers the vacancies they will 
leave?’ ”’ To Jefferson it appeared that this 
course was not practicable. He was con- 
vineed that the two races should not be 
monegrelized, that they would not be recon- 
ciled to each other, and that they eventually 
would need to be separated, which coloni- 
zation would bring about. 

But Americans of that period would not 
let the Negroes go back to Africa. Aboli- 
tionists condemned colonization as in 
league with slavery, sectional feeling be- 
came more inflamed, and the youth of the 
Nation was sacrificed. Millions of new im- 
migrants were brought from Europe to re- 
place that “lost generation,” the wives 
they would have married, and the families 
of pioneer children they would have raised. 
Instead of replacing the Negroes as Jeffer- 
son had proposed, we destroyed one an- 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 13 


other. No question in America today is 
more in need of critical attention than our 
racial relations, not for emergency reasons, 
but because the racial questions occasion a 
general confusion of thought in our national 
problems. The only escape is by way of 
better understanding and of finding con- 
structive courses. 

The sacrifice to sectional feeling in the 
Civil War confers no permanent immunity 
from social disorders. Tensions now are 
being generated by the system of tenant 
farming, which is one of the sequels of 
slavery and emancipation, a form of ‘‘near- 
slavery” that incidentally replaced direct 
ownership. Slavery as a legal institution has 
been discarded, but commercial and indus- 
trial exploitations of backward or depend- 
ant people are reckoned as legitimate. Our 
‘“advanced”’ nations are destroying each 
other in a struggle for control of primitive 
peoples as producers of raw materials and 
customers for manufactured goods, in order 
to support our competing industrial sys- 
tems. Eventually it may be seen that all the 
forms of social parasitism are self-limiting 
and dysgenic, as slavery proved to be. 


THE BIRACIAL PROSPECT 


A large population of free Negroes “form- 
ing a separate interest from the rest of the 
community” was foreseen by Fairfax as a 
social and political danger. The separation 
of the races was considered necessary by 
Jefferson and all the “founding fathers,” 
including Abraham Lincoln, for two essen- 
tial reasons, one biological, to avoid mon- 
grelizing, the other social, to avoid the con- 
dition of “separate interest” that gradually 
has developed and is now being recognized 
in textbooks of sociology in describing the 
United States as ‘a biracial nation.” Bi- 
racial is a recent word, dating from 1922 in 
the Supplement of the Oxford Dictionary, 
“Belgium is bilingual and biracial.’ 

Efforts to avoid biracialism may be 
traced far back. Economic dependency 
among the free Negroes attracted attention 
even in the eighteenth century. Statistics 
were collected showing more frequent crimes 


and diseases than among the slaves, and 
on these grounds several States passed laws 
regulating the emancipation of slaves, or 
excluding free Negroes. “‘It has ever been 
the policy of Virginia to allow the master 
to free the slave. But since 1806 her laws 
have required all slaves thereafter manu- 
mitted, to leave the Commonwealth.” 
Pennsylvania had a law requiring a bond 
to be executed, to protect the community 
from freedmen becoming public charges. 
Competition of free Negroes with white 
labor also was opposed by various expedi- 
ents, sharply protested by abolitionists, as 
William Jay in 1835. ‘‘The laws of Ohio 
against the free blacks are peculiarly de- 
testable, because not originating from the 
fears and prejudices of slave-holders. Not 
only are the blacks excluded in that State 
from the benefit of public schools, but with 
a refinement of cruelty unparalleled they 


14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


are doomed to idleness and poverty, by a 
law which renders a white man who em- 
ploys a colored one to labor for him for one 
hour liable for his support through life. By 
a late law of Maryland, a free Negro coming 
into the State, is hable to a fine of fifty 
dollars for every week he remains in it. 
If he cannot pay the fine, he is sold.” 
Colonization often was urged as a means of 
avoiding these economic obstacles to the 
emancipation of the slaves. 

The conclusion reached in South Africa, 
from intensive study and experience with 


THE WHITE 


Some of the underlying difficulties, not 
recognized when colonization was pro- 
jected, may be appreciated by taking ac- 
count of facts determined since the work 
began. Sierra Leone very early became 
known as ‘““The White Man’s Grave,” and 
other regions of the West Coast shared the 
same evil fame. The climate of West Africa 
was considered ‘‘deadly”’ to the European 
race, until it was found, near the end of the 
last century, that malaria and yellow fever 
were carried by mosquitoes. 

Few white people have been able to live 
and work in Liberia or other parts of West 
Africa long enough to be practically useful. 
Most of them did not survive the prelimi- 
nary period of becoming accustomed to the 
tropical life and gaining the experience that 
is necessary to deal with the local condi- 
tions. The effective field work was done 
largely by Negroes, Paul Cuffy, John 
Kizzel, Lot Carey and Elijah Johnson, 
father of President Hilary Johnson. The 
assistance that was needed from white men, 
as foreseen by Smeathman and Fairfax, 
could be furnished to only a slight extent. 
The same mortality was encountered in 
missionary undertakings. ‘“‘Let thousands 
fall, but Africa be redeemed.” 

A medical discovery that may have great 
importance is reported recently from South 
America, a simple and effective method of 
immunizing against yellow fever. This dis- 
ease, although not definitely recognized in 
Africa until the present century, probably 
has been the most serious hazard of life and 


VOL. 32, No. 1 


the racial problems, is that neither race is 
advantaged by its contacts with the other 
race. The exploitive relations tend to de- 
terioration, since both races are deprived 
and inhibited. Limiting the range of ac- 
tivity for one race also establishes a limita- 
tion for the other race. Social parasitism is 
a condition of adverse selection, and is es- 
sentially antiracial. Measures of gradual 
separation are being attempted under the 
policy of “‘trusteeship” or ‘‘indirect rule,”’ 
reviewed in the Journal of Heredity, May 
1930, ‘‘Race Segregation in South Africa.” 


MAN’S GRAVE 


progress. The malaria of West Africa is a 
severe ‘‘pernicious” type, with symptoms so 
closely parallel to those of yellow fever that 
the two diseases were not distinguished. 
The Negro colonists from America suffered 
severely, and many died. 

Members of the European race often 
lived only a few days or a few weeks after 
landing in Africa, although a few survived 
for many years and remained vigorous. 
Frequent replacements were the rule in 
colonial governments and commercial agen- 
cies along the West Coast. In the face of 
such hazards, merely living from day to 
day could be felt as an achievement, lending 
a ‘“‘charm”’ to life in Africa, which some pre- 
ferred, declaring England or Germany ‘‘too 
dull.” 

Liberia is a pleasant land, and its climate 
is better than in many tropical countries, 
the daily maximum often not exceeding 
90° F., and seldom above 93°, moderated 
in the dry season by the “‘harmattan”’ winds 
from the north. Mosquitoes generally are 
scarce in Liberia, screening precautions are 
not difficult, and in many districts simple 
measures of drainage or grading may give 
complete protection. The natives had par- 
tial protection by clearing all vegetation 
from the sites of their villages and keeping 
fires all night in the houses. Explorers seem 
to have better health than missionaries or 
merchants, perhaps from being more vig- 
orous men and taking more exercise, 
which doubtless facilitates dermal excre- 
tion. 


Jan. 15, 1942 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION ty 


AFRICA A DENUDED CONTINENT 


The notion of tropical Africa as in a 
“virgin state’ of unexploited agricultural 
resources is entirely fallacious. Primitive 
agriculture has been practiced for long pe- 
riods and has altered profoundly the natural 
condition of the plant world. Most of the 
forests are secondary growths, on land that 
has been denuded and abandoned after long 
periods of repeated clearing and burning. 
The same is true of other tropical regions, 
in America and in Malaysia. Doubtless 
Africa had in the prehuman period a com- 
plete forest cover, even of great areas that 
now are deserts, grasslands or ‘‘open bush.” 
The former presence of woody vegetation 
would account for the Sahara and the 
Arabian Desert not being provided with a 
true desert flora of plants adapted to open 
conditions, such as the cacti, Agave, Euphor- 
bia, Mesembryanthemum, or Stapelia, that 
have developed in the American deserts and 
in South Africa. The mountains of tropical 
Africa have highly specialized plants on the 
slopes above the forests. Forest vegetation 
forming a canopy of shade adjacent to 
naked desert is shown in a recent work by 
L. M. Nesbitt, Hell-hole of creation, 1931, 
describing the Abyssinian Danakil, a region 
of extreme conditions with many districts 
not inhabited. 

The original tropical forests, when such 
areas are found, have specialized plants that 
are tolerant of shade, but this undergrowth 
flora is entirely exterminated when the 
forest is destroyed and is only slowly re- 
placed in secondary growth. The tropical 
forests also have specialized faunas of milli- 
peds, insects, and other small animals that 
live on the surface or in the humus layer of 
the forest soil, but not in forests of recent 
growth. With repeated clearing and burning 
the humus layer is removed and the sterile 
subsoil exposed. Trees give place to stunted 
bushes, and eventually the stage of open 


fire-swept grass lands is reached, which sets 
a limit to the primitive system of agricul- 
ture, as explained in the Smithsonian Re- 
port for 1919, ‘‘Milpa Agriculture, a Primi- 
tive Tropical System.” 

Among pastoral peoples grasslands are 
utilized and denudation may be carried to 
the stage of complete desert. Goats and 
camels may destroy not only the grass but 
also the woody vegetation. Recent studies 
show that the desert of Sahara is advancing 
rather rapidly to the southward, in the 
French and British colonies. An active 
denudation of a densely inhabited district 
was witnessed 70 years ago in the interior 
of Liberia. Benjamin Anderson, a Liberian 
explorer, reached the Mandingo country in 
1869, and wrote a report, A journey to 
Musardu, the capital of the Western Mandin- 
goes, which was published by his backers in 
New York, Henry M. Schieffelin and Caleb 
Swan. 

Referring to a locality called Vuccah or 
Yukkah, Anderson says: ‘““At Mahommadu, 
the south-east slope strikes the plain at a 
great angle; but at Vukkah, it rests upon a 
series of small table-lands that extend out a 
half-mile before they finally come down 
into the plains. The vast spaces of grass 
and reddish soil are relieved by patches of 
dense vegetation, marking the gullies and 
ravines. Heavy blocks of granite are set in 
the sides of the Vukkah hills, awaiting only 
to be loosened by the rains to roll from their 
places to the bottom. At night, the whole 
country seems on fire, from the burning of 
the grass.”’ Anderson in 1868 found at 
Boporu a large native town estimated at 
3,000 people, and several adjacent towns, or 
a total estimate of 10,000 for the district. 
Thirty years later the site of Boporu, 
visited by the writer in April 1892, was a 
grassy expanse entirely uninhabited. 


PERMANENT AGRICULTURE WITH TREE CROPS 


The alternative of continued erosion and 
denudation in tropical countries is a general 
change from annual short-season crops to 


permanent tree crops. A vast range of food 
products is obtainable from trees, and 
eventually it may be considered that tillage 


16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


agriculture, required for the annual field 
crops, is out of place in the tropics. A few of 
the tree crops, those that furnish commer- 
cial products, are widely known, while 
others have only local use and many po- 
tentially valuable species are still to be 
domesticated, as the several different trees 
that produce rubber. 

A permanent soil cover is made possible 
where tree crops are grown, with no occa- 
sion for plowing, weeding, or cultivating. 
Sloping lands are promptly injured by ex- 
posure of the soil surface, especially in re- 


gions of heavy rainfall. The native African. 


agriculture moves every year to a new 
clearing, oftén at a distance from the pre- 
vious “farm.” Only field or garden crops 
are planted, rice, sesame, and others, most 
of them ripening in a few weeks. Cassava 
and bananas continue bearing for several 
months, and remnants may be gleaned for 
two or three seasons, until the plants are 
completely smothered by ‘“‘the bush.”’ 

Ini various parts of Africa the natives 
made extensive use of edible fruits of forest 
trees, or of oil extracted from the seeds, but 


TROPICAL PLANT 


Developing permanent systems of tree- 
crop agriculture is a vast undertaking in the 
field of plant introduction and experimental 
study. Hundreds of different kinds of trees 
furnish food and other useful products in 
tropical countries. Many years will be re- 
quired for each series of experiments with 
tree crops and many decades or even cen- 
turies may elapse before such a project can 
be far advanced, although even slight prog- 
ress may be valuable. 

In each country the native tree crops, if 
any, should be utilized as far as possible 
and studied carefully as standards for com- 
paring with introduced trees, in cultural 
behavior or in economic utility. The wealth 
of potential tree crops may be judged by 
noting the range of possibilities in the single 
group of palms. Starch is obtainable from 
Metroxylon and Caryota; sugar from Arenga, 
Caryota, Borassus, Phoenix, Jubaea, and 
many others; edible oils from numerous 
kinds, as Cocos} Elaeis, Attalea, and Oeno- 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


no tree crops were domesticated, since this 
is feasible only among people settled per- 
manently on the same land. The natives of 
America allowed many useful trees, as 
sapotes, sapodillas, avocados, bread-nuts, 
anonas, and chirimoyas, to grow around 
their settlements, but only cacao in Guate- 
mala and coca in the valleys of the eastern 
Andes appear to have reached the stage of 
commercial cultivation. Date palms, olives, 
and figs were the traditional tree crops of 
the Mediterranean region. 

Under the African system of agriculture 
relatively small populations can be sup- 
ported. If people become numerous larger 
forest clearings must be made, the forest 
area is more rapidly exhausted, and crops 
become more precarious. Villages may 
move to other districts, or the people may 
scatter and starve in a season of famine. 
The problem of colonization in Africa is not 
to replace the native tribes, but to replace 
the destructive methods of primitive agri- 
culture and create conditions of permanent 
production from tree crops. 


INTRODUCTION 


carpus; edible fruits from Phoenix, Guili- 
elma, Butia, Hyphaene, and Mauritia; 
fibers from Raphia, Attalea, Astrocaryum, 
and Mauritia; and vegetable ivory from 
Phytelephas, Palandra, Coelococcus, and 
Hyphaene. Although no other order of 
plants may promise such utility as the 
palms, tree crops probably can be found to 
replace many of the tillage crops, if not all. 
Smeathman’s proposed introduction of 
cacao may seem prophetic, since cacao is 
the first of the commercial tree crops to be 
adopted by native Africans and carried to 
large-scale production, competing with 
America and Asia. The future of Liberia, as 
of other ‘“‘undeveloped”’ tropical countries, 
to a great extent will be determined by the 
introduction of tree crops from other re- 
gions. Tropical trees are localized to a re- 
markable extent, both the wild and the 
cultivated kinds, except the few commercial 
species that have been widely distributed. 


The slave trade provided early communi- 
> 


Jan. 15, 1942 


cation between Brazil and West Africa, and 
many plant introductions took place in that 
period. America was rich in food plants, 
while Africa was poor. With the single ex- 
ception of the sorghums, all the important 
food crops of Africa are supposed to have 
been introduced—tice, taro, and bananas, 
from Asia; cassava, maize, tobacco, pine- 
apple, peanuts, and many others, from 
America. Even the so-called ‘‘African oil 
palm,” Elaezs guineensis, probably was in- 
troduced from Brazil to the Portuguese 
settlements on the coast of Africa. 

The most serious difficulties of coloniza- 
tion may not lie in introducing or develop- 
ing new products, but in readjustments of 
customs and habits, notably those relating 
to food, which have a special, instinctive 
inertia. The introduction of a potentially 
valuable new crop may be entirely ineffec- 
tive if people will not use it. The difficulty 
of inducing the French people to use the 
potato, and their refusal during the World 
War to eat any of our Indian corn, are 
familiar examples. The bread-fruit tree and 
the “‘African”’ oil-palm were introduced to 
the West Indies in the eighteenth century 
for feeding the slaves, but they were not 


COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION iui 


adopted. Some of the colonists in Liberia 
preferred to starve rather than eat cassava. 
People usually can be inducted to taste an 
unfamiliar food, and readily give an adverse 
opinion. Only a few are tolerant to the ex- 
tent of making a practical test. Diversified 
agriculture and varied diet are the modern 
ideals recently enforced from the knowledge 
of vitamins. 

In view of the many needs of special 
knowledge and training, capable American 
Negroes may go to Africa, not as outcasts 
or refugees, but as participants in a vast 
progressive undertaking, nothing less than 
a reconstruction of the African Continent. 
The widest expanses of livable land in the 
entire world are in Africa, now largely de- 
nuded and lying waste but capable of being 
reclaimed and utilized in permanent pro- 
duction. Liberia may be made what it 
originally was intended to be, a center of 
progress in the arts of civilized life. All the 
special talent that can be developed among 
the Negroes of America, in agriculture, 
biology, chemistry, conservation, sanita- 
tion, medicine, dietetics, or other sciences, 


may be used constructively. 


18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


BIOPHYSICS.— Effect of temperature and time on the x-ray sensitivity of maize 


seeds.’ 
U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry. 


Temperatures of dry maize seeds? during 
the time of x-irradiation determine, to a 
certain extent, the size and number of sur- 
viving seedlings. Maximum x-ray sensitivity 
occurs for temperatures within the range 
0°C. to about 25°C. ; values extending either 
above or below this range produce a greater 
resistance to x-rays; this includes cooling by 


Louis R. Maxwe tu, J. H. Kempron, and VERNon M. MosLey, 


the use of liquid air and heating to 66°C. 
The present investigation is concerned with 
simultaneity between temperature and 
x-irradiation, determined by heating or 
cooling before, during, or after irradiation. 
Time also may be a factor influencing re- 
covery. 


EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS 


Descriptions of the x-ray apparatus, dos- 
age chamber, procedures for cooling, heat- 
ing, and growing the seeds are covered by 
earlier papers.? Exposure times used for ir- 
radiation, heat treatments, and cold treat- 
ments were from 43 to 53 hours. The seeds 
were always placed on the same metal sur- 
face during exposure to the x-rays to insure 
a constant amount of back-scattering. The 
seed stock was taken from a large, carefully 
mixed lot of Funk Yellow Dent that had 
been stored at 2—4°C. A constant dosage of 
35 kr? at 45 kv was used throughout in order 
to produce a high percentage of delayed 
deaths* at room temperature. - Seedling 
heights were recorded every 48 hours fol- 
lowing germination, and any plants that 
failed to increase in height between the 
second and third measurement were con- 
sidered dead. Height measurements were 
frequently continued to insure correctness 
of the number of dead and living plants. 
Mean heights reported are averages of 
height measurements of both living and 
dead plants taken on a given date, usually 
the third measurement. Not unexpectedly, 
however, it has been found that the number 
of survivors depends upon the growing con- 
ditions in the greenhouse. In some eases a 
dosage of 35 kr will result in the delayed 

* Received August 28, 1941. 

? MaxweELL, Louis R., and J. H. Kempron. 
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 368. 1939. 

Kempton, J. H., and Louis R. MaxwEtt. 
Journ. Agr. Res. 62: 603. 1941. 

’ kr is the abbreviation for a unit of dosage, the 
kilo-roentgen, equal to 1000 ‘‘r.”’ 


‘Couiins, G. N., and Louis R. MaxweEuu. 
Science 83: 375. 1936. 


death of all plants, a condition frequently 
found with winter plantings, while occa- 
sionally during the summer months most 
of the plants survive. This behavior con- 
stitutes a variable factor that must be 
superimposed on the following results as a 
systematic error. It has been reduced, how- 
ever, by limiting the planting dates to the 
period extending from October to May. 

X-ray sensitivity in relation to temperature 
changes before, during, and after x-ray treat- 
ment.—Effects of cooling with liquid air are 
shown in Table 1, which includes results 
obtained in two separate experiments. The 
first, conducted in April, 1940, resulted in 
no survivors; however, the height of the 
dead plants from seeds held at a tempera- 
ture of —187°C. during the time of irradia- 
tion was slightly greater than that of any 
of the other plants. Since no survivors were 
obtained in this instance, the experiment 
was repeated in May, 1940. Height meas- 
urements show a definite resistance to 
x-rays for the seeds held at — 187°C. during 
irradiation. In addition, the number of sur- 
vivors for this treatment is significantly 
greater than the number found for any of 
the other treatments. It is also evident that 
cold treatment following irradiation at room 
temperature has a detrimental effect both 
on the mean height and number of surviv- 
ors. 

Similar results were obtained by cooling 
with a mixture of CO. snow and alcohol, 
which gave a seed temperature of —66°C. 
Table 2 summarizes the results, which show 
that —66°C. during irradiation produces an 


Jan. 15, 1942 


increased resistance to the effects of x-rays, 
as indicated both by the height of plant 
and the number of survivors. In addition, 
it is seen that this same degree of cooling 
after x-ray treatment also increased the 
sensitivity to x-rays. There is an increase of 
3.62 mm in mean height of seedlings from 
seeds cooled before irradiation as compared 
to those seeds kept at room temperature, 
which is greater than the amount required 
for statistical significance. The difference 
in survival number, however, is not signifi- 
cant. 

increasing the temperature to 50°C. pro- 
vided another region of investigation. Table 
3 shows the results of an experiment con- 
ducted in March, 1940, in which there were 
no survivors, but a significant increase in 
plant height for heating during irradiation 
as compared with the other treatments; the 
latter were not statistically different. In a 
repetition of this experiment in December, 
1940, a large number of plants lived when 
the seeds were held at 50°C. during irradia- 
tion. Mean plant height of ‘during’ is 
definitely greater than in any of the other 
treatments, in agreement with the experi- 
ment of March, 1940. Furthermore, it is 
clear that seeds heated to 50°C. before 
x-raying ‘produced significantly smaller 
seedlings than any of the other treatments. 
Differences in seedling height between 
“after” and the “irradiated controls’ are 
not significant. The proportion of plants 
surviving was essentially alike in the “be- 
fore,’ ‘after,’ and “irradiated control” 
groups. 

Recovery with time.—As a means of deter- 
mining whether there is a recovery from 
X-ray injury with the time elapsing from 
irradiation to planting, four lots of seeds 
were x-rayed at different times and planted 
together. Heat treatments of 50°C. were 
given before, during, and after x-raying, 
and in addition there were corresponding 
x-rayed control samples at each irradiation 
period kept at room temperature through- 
out. 

These treatments were given in the four 
periods: September 16 to 19; September 30 
to October 3; October 22 to 25; and Novem- 
ber 18-22. In each period 200 seeds were 


MAXWELL, KEMPTON, AND MOSLEY: X-RAY SENSITIVITY 19 


x-rayed for each heat treatment, giving 800 
x-rayed seeds for each of the four periods. 
Upon completion of the laboratory treat- 
ments the samples were stored at room 
temperature until the planting date. As the 
planting arrangement could accommodate 
only half the total number of seeds at one 
time, two separate plantings were made, the 


30 


+100 


FIRST PLANTING 


Mean Height (mm) 


i 

uw 

re) 
Percentage Survival 


3OF 


8 
Tie G= eae 


Mean Height (mm) 


fo 


| 

uo 

oO 
Percentage Survivol 


(e) 20 40 60 80 
Meon Time Between X-raying and Planting (Days) 


Fig. 1.—Curves showing mean heights and 
percentage survival of maize seedlings from two 
plantings of x-rayed seed (35 kr) receiving vari- 
ous heat treatments (50°C.) and held at room 
temperature for different periods before planting. 
The controls were irradiated and held at room 
temperature throughout. Differences in mean 
height in excess of 2.20 mm have probabilities 
less than 0.01. 


first on November 26 and the second on 
December 10, immediately following the 
harvest of the first planting. The numerous 
lots were randomized, with all treatments 
appearing twice in each planting flat and 
with twelve flats in each planting period. 
The two plantings provided eight differ- 
ent mean elapsed times between x-raying 
and planting, extending from 6 to 83 days. 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Only 100 seeds could be irradiated at a time, 
so that it required 4 days to complete one 
set of exposures, with 200 seeds used for 
each heat treatment. However, the variance 
introduced through this duplication proved 
to be no greater than was to be expected on 
the basis of chance, leading to the conclu- 
sion that the unavoidable time interval of 
4 days within each x-ray period does not 
produce differences in seedlings behavior 
large enough to be detected by the methods 
here used. 

Table 4 gives the mean heights for the 
several treatments for the two plantings and 
Fig. 1 illustrates the results graphically. It 
is evident that the two growing periods, al- 
though separated in time by only two 
weeks, produced seedlings differing in size. 
Gross features of the environment were not 
noticeably different in the two periods. The 
planting technique controlled the available 
moisture, and the greenhouse temperatures 
were approximately controlled by thermo- 
stats, but the amount of sunlight was a 
free variable. Thermograph charts for the 
two periods are not dissimilar; however, 
very small differences in temperature may 
produce measurable results. At least the 
analysis of variance showed that the two 
clinostats on which the flats were rotated 
differed significantly, which may be inter- 
preted as a temperature effect as the 
benches on which they were mounted side 
by side also supported the steam radiators. 

Although the two growing periods re- 
sulted in seedlings significantly different in 
size, they did not result in differential re- 
sponses to the seed treatments. The single 
interactions of planting dates with the two 
treatment variables (1) elapsed time be- 
tween x-raying and planting and (2) high 
temperature before, during, or after irradia- 
tion were not significantly greater than the 
error term. 

Analysis of variance showed, furthermore, 
that both treatment variables produced 
significant differences in seedling size. Seeds 
treated at 50°C. during irradiation pro- 
duced the tallest plants for waiting periods 
up to and including 55 days in the first 
planting and through the 69 day period in 
the second planting. For longer periods the 


VOL. 32, No. 1 


mean heights of “during” and “room tem- 
perature’ were not significantly different 
in either planting, and this is true also for 
“after” in the second planting. Mean height 
of plants from seeds heated before irradia- 
tion was consistently lower than for any of 
the other treatments, although not always 
significantly so. 

There was a significant interaction of 
x-ray dates with the time at which the tem- 
perature was applied to the seeds. This re- 
sulted from a differential recovery among the 
heat treatments with waiting period. For 
the seeds planted 20 days after x-raying, 
the several heat treatments gave rather 
wide differences in mean height, which be- 
came practically the same after 83 days 
elapsed before planting. The size of the 
seedlings from seeds heated during x-raying 
was rather constant for all waiting periods 
while the other heat treatments gave mean 
heights increasing with time. Seedling size 
for any given category depends upon the 
three elements, planting date, elapsed time, 
and temperature treatment, as the triple 
interaction of these variables was found to 
be significant. 

Table 5 gives the distribution of number 
of living and dead plants obtained as a func- 
tion of elapsed time between x-raying and 
planting, while in Fig. 1 the corresponding 
percentage survivals are shown graphically. 
The x2 test for the four temperature treat- 
ments, irrespective of time lapse from the 
date of x-raying, showed for both plantings 
that the difference between number of dead 
and living plants in the four groupings was 
not one of chance. For the first planting 
x2= 185.73; for the second, 156.87, both of 
which are clearly too great with seven de- 
grees of freedom to be considered chance 
departures. In both plantings the large con- 
tribution to x? was made by the group 
treated during irradiation because in each 
case the proportion of alive to dead seed- 
lings was relatively high in this treatment 
in agreement with the measurements of 
height. A continuous increase in survival is 
noted up to the fifty-fifth day for the first 
planting and the sixty-ninth day for the 
second planting, also in agreement with 
results observed for seedling height. The 


Jan. 15, 1942 


second planting with its taller seedlings 
gave a significantly higher death rate of 
76.0+1.10 per cent than the value of 65.7 
+1.2 per cent, which was observed for the 
first planting. 

Thus it is evident from both the measure- 
ments of size and from the proportion of 
living to dead plants that the seedlings from 
the four x-raying periods were not alike. 
The nature of this experiment is such that 
the observed changes in seedling size and 
in survivors between successive x-rayed 
samples cannot be ascribed with certainty 


MAXWELL, KEMPTON, AND MOSLEY: X-RAY SENSITIVITY 21 


only to the time elapsing between x-raying 
and planting. Undoubtedly there are other 
and unknown variables connected with the 
samples x-rayed at different times, but in 
the present design there is no way to sepa- 
rate the effects produced by elapsed time 
between x-raying and planting from other 
possible variables. Therefore, although the 
experiment discloses an apparent recovery 
from x-ray injury with time in these air 
dry seeds, it should be kept in mind that 
there may be a less esoteric explanation 
when the experiment has been repeated. 


DISCUSSION 


The observed reduction in x-ray sensitiv- 
ity brought about by cold treatments dur- 
ing the time of irradiation may be caused 
by the absence of certain thermal or low 
energy reactions that normally take place 
when the seeds are irradiated at room tem- 
perature, as suggested earlier.2, Svedberg 
and Brohult® have shown that under irra- 
diation by ultraviolet and a particles Helix 
haemocyanin will split into half molecules 
when held at either room temperature or 
liquid-air temperature. However, when 
haemoglobin and serum albumin were ir- 
radiated, they decomposed readily at room 
temperature and O0°C., but at liquid-air 
temperature no forms of low molecular 
weight were found for haemoglobin, while 
serum albumin showed only slight decom- 
position. These proteins apparently respond 
quite differently to irradiation; splitting of 
Helix haemocyanin is evidently produced 
by initial or primary high energy reactions 
which are independent of temperature. 
Haemoglobin and serum albumin, on the 
other hand, will decompose only when the 
temperature is high enough to permit ther- 
mal reactions to occur. The observed low 
temperature behavior of maize seeds is not 
so striking as in the case reported for 
haemoglobin and serum albumin, although 
certain similarities are apparent. 

Detrimental effects produced by cold 
treatments following irradiation can be ex- 
plained as simply an additive effect of x- 


6’ SvepBERG, T., and S. Bronutr. Nature 143: 
939. 1939. 


rays and cold treatments, for it has been 
shown earlier that cold treatments alone 
will cause a retardation in subsequent 
growth of maize seedlings. However, this 
simple theory fails for cold treatment at 
—187°C. before irradiation in which case 
no change in x-ray sensitivity was observed. 

Increased x-ray sensitivity induced by 
heating prior to irradiation was expected in 
view of former work’ where normal 8-per- 
cent moisture dry maize seeds oven-dried 
to 2-percent moisture before irradiation 
showed a considerable increase in suscepti- 
bility to x-rays. Moisture content of the 
seeds alone may be an important factor in 
determining the resistance to x-rays. Heat 
treatments following x-irradiation produced 
no appreciable changes in sensitivity, also 
confirming previous results. 

Temperature effects were the greatest 
when the heat treatment and x-ray absorp- 
tion occurred simultaneously causing a 
large reduction in x-ray sensitivity. No 
adequate explanation is offered for this 
phenomenon; however dry maize seeds are 
living systems that undoubtedly attempt 
to throw off or recover from the x-ray in- 
duced effects as soon as they appear. Abil- 
ity to recover is evidently strengthened by 
increasing the temperature during irradia- 
tion. 

The above discussion has been concerned 
with variations in response when seeds are 
planted soon after treatment. If the seeds 

6 MAXWELL and KemprTon. Op. cit. 

7 KemMpTon and MAXwELL. Op. cit. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


are held at room temperature before plant- 
ing for various periods extending up to 69 
or 83 days, three noticeable effects occur: 
(1) There exists a general but a varying 
amount of recovery with time for all the 
treatments used; (2) the marked reduction 
in sensitivity of seeds heated during irra- 
diation as compared to those heated after 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


x-raying, or to the irradiated controls, 
finally disappears by the end of the 69- or 
83-day period; (3) seeds heated before irra- 
diation although showing some recovery 
with time are consistently the most sus- 
ceptible to the radiation. The results seem 
to indicate also that a certain limiting 
amount of recovery with time is attainable. 


SUMMARY 


(1) Dry maize seeds held at temperatures 
ranging from —187°C. to 50°C. during ex- 
posure to x-rays, dosage 35 kr, showed a 
maximum sensitivity in the region 0 to 
room temperature, in confirmation of earlier 
work. 

(2) To decrease the x-ray sensitivity of 
dry maize seeds by hot or cold treatments 
the high or low temperatures must prevail 
during the time of irradiation. A possible 
exception occurred for a cold treatment at 
— 66°C. before irradiation where a slightly 
significant decrease in sensitivity was found. 

(3) Cold treatments following irradiation 
increase the effects produced by x-rays in 


an apparently additive manner. 

(4) Heat treatments prior to irradiation 
increase the x-ray sensitivity. 

(5) Time elapsed between x-raying and 
planting gives rise to the following results: 
(1) A general but varying amount of re- 
covery with time for all the treatments 
used, (2) the marked reduction in sensitiv- 
ity of seeds heated during irradiation com- 
pared to ‘‘after’’ or the “irradiated con- 
trols’ finally disappears by the end of 69 or 
83 days, (3) seeds heated before irradiation 
although showing recovery with time are 
consistently the most susceptible to irra- 
diation. 


TABLE 1.—EFFECT OF A SEED TEMPERATURE OF —187°C. BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER IRRADIATION 
WITH X-RAYS (35 kr) ON S1zE OF SEEDLINGS AND NUMBER OF SURVIVORS COMPARED WITH I[R- 
RADIATED CONTROLS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT. 


Number and 


Cold treatment (—187°C.) relative 


Irradiated con- 
trols at room 


mean height Date to time of x-raying temperature 
throughout 
1940 Before} | During After 
Number of seedlings... April 173 175 176 178 
Number of survivors... 0 0 0 0 
Mean height (mm).... 13.42? toro 13.42 14.39 
Number of seedlings... May® 173 170 166 174 
Number of survivors... 73 115 12 63 
Mean height (mm)..... 19.868 33 .02 10.45 20.41 


1180 seeds planted for each treatment. 
2 Differences in mean height must exceed 1.09 mm to be significant. 
3 Differences in mean height must exceed 2.94 mm to be significant. 


4 Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 6 to 12 days. 
‘Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 7 to 12 days. 


JAN. 15, 1942 MAXWELL, KEMPTON, AND MOSLEY: X-RAY SENSITIVITY 23 


TABLE 2.— EFFECT OF A SEED TEMPERATURE OF —66°C. BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER [IRRADIATION 
WITH X-RAYS (35 kr) ON S1zE oF SEEDLINGS AND NUMBER OF SURVIVORS COMPARED WITH IR- 
RADIATED CONTROLS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT. 


| Irradiated con- 


Number and Dat Cold treatment (—66°C.) relative trols at room 
mean height ge to time of x-raying temperature 
throughout 
1940 Before} During After 
Number of seedlings... April? 173 176 164 77 
Number of survivors... 28 77 4 17 
Mean height (mm).... Deoreiic 36.04 17.33 22ND 


1180 seeds planted for each treatment. 
2 Differences in mean height must exceed 2.88 mm to be significant. 
3 Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 3 to 6 days. 


TABLE 3.—EFFECT OF A SEED TEMPERATURE OF 50°C. BErorE, DURING, AND AFTER IRRADIATION 
WITH X-RAYS (35 kr) ON S1zE OF SEEDLINGS AND NUMBER OF SURVIVORS COMPARED WITH I[R- 
RADIATED CONTROLS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT. 


Irradiated con- 


Number and DE Heat treatment (50°C.) relative trols at room 
mean height ae to time of x-raying temperature 
throughout 
1940 Before: — During After 
Number of seedlings... Marché 93! 95 95 93 
Number of survivors... 0 0 0 0 
Mean height (mm).... 14.27? 21.91 14.84 14.70 
Number of seedlings...; | December® 1893 186 189 189 
Number of survivors... 0 67 2 7 
Mean height (mm).... 18.194 30.23 20 .66 20.55 


196 seeds planted for each treatment. 

2 Differences in mean height must exceed 2.22 mm to be significant. 
3 192 seeds planted for each treatment. 

4 Differences between means must exceed 1.62 mm to be significant. 
5 Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 1 to 3 days. 

6 Hlapsed time between x-raying and planting was 8 to 22 days. 


TaBLE 4.—Meran Hetcuts (MM) or Maize SEEDLINGS FROM Two PLANTINGS OF SEEDS X-RAYED AT 
35 kr REcEtvine Various Heat TREATMENTS AND HELD AT Room TEMPERATURE FOR DIFFER- 
ENT PERIODS BEFORE PLANTING. 


First planting, November 26, 1940 Second planting, December 10, 1940 
Mea 
iz Heat treatment (50°C.) | Irradiated Weee Heat treatment (50°C.) | Irradiated 
elapsed elapsed : 
time relative to time of controls re relative to time of controls 
between xX-raying at room henneen x-raying at room 
x-raying rocrge x-raying | gga 
and plant- ure nate | . ; ure 
ing esa) Before | During} After | throughout an ee) Before | During} After | throughout 
Doo col] LICE SOcee) less) 19.25 Nee | he <oou|paorOe..| 20-00 21.85 
Bee | LOSO oe slo. 240.04 26.65 £4. os) Sacks | oa Sk.| 2¢.31 26.80 
DOM 2CeO2 S458) | 28.86 34.42 6Q2.4. + S¥42 139.81 | 29°04 32.22 
Ceonzo son) oo. 16.) 28.06 31.28 SS... .cle29.78.| 34.75 | 36.11 34.35 


1 Differences exceeding 2.20 have probabilities less than 0.01. 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 1 


TABLE 5.—NUMBER OF LIVING AND Drap MalizE SEEDLINGS FROM Two PLANTINGS OF SEEDS 
X-RAYED (35 kr) at Various Heat TREATMENTS AND HELD aT Room EEE Ds FOR VAR- 
10US PERIODS BEFORE PLANTING. 


First planting, November 26, 19-40 Second planting, December 10, 1940 
ieee Irradiated || Irradiated | 
Mou Heat treatment (50°C. ) rela- | couieote:. (ote | Heat treatment (50°C.) rela- counted Total 
elapsed tive to time of x-raying | at room || elapsed | tive to time of x-raying | at room 1 
time tempera- time | tempera- | 
between Before During After ture | between| Before | During After | ture 
x-raying through- | x-raying | through- 
and | out || and | out pe 
planting | Liv- Liv- iv- | planting Liv- ‘Liv- Liv- | | L4V-| Dead) Po 
(days) | ing Dead aa Dead a ead is | Ges Se Dead ng) Dead a | Dead i. ing | tal 
| | | “te ie| | | ae haa | 
622 0 | 93 | 44 | 49 2| 92 | 4| 89 | 20 =| 0) 96 | 23 | "70'| O} 95 | 3 93 || 76) 677 753 
255: 6 | 89 | 50 | 45 9485 300) J650 |" 4722) 4 | 821) 4S) 50 ado | 84 | 12 | 82 | 164) 592 |756 
Gs 4 || Se: | 61 66 | 28 | 43 | 52 | 55 39 ] 69...| 26 | 70 | 60 | 35 | 20] 74 31 | 63 || 334] 422 |756 
G92 4IC11 85 63 | 30 | 54 | 40 | 46 46 | 83. Or} Si | sOW 4G 132-268: 39 | 46 || 306| 442 |748 


BOTAN Y.—Three new varieties and two new 
WALTER T. SwincLe#, U.S. Bureau of Plant 


genera of the orange subfamily. 
Industry. 


In preparing an extended treatment of 
the taxonomy of the aurantioid plants, en- 
titled ‘“The Botany of Citrus and its Wild 
Relatives of the Orange Subfamily (Family 
Rutaceae, Subfamily Aurantioideae),’’ which 
will be published shortly, I have found it 
necessary to describe a few new genera, 
new species, and new varieties as well as to 
make a number of new combinations. This 
paper, and five others previously published 
since April 1939,? have cleared the ground 
for my new classification of the entire sub- 
family. 


1 Received November 28, 1941. 

2 SwINGLE, WALTER T. A new taxonomic ar- 
rangement of the orange subfamily; Aurantioideae. 
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 530-533. Dec. 
1938. 

Clymenia and _ Burkillanthus, new 
genera, also three new species of Pleiospermium 
(Rutaceae-Aurantioideae). Journ. Arn. Arb. 20: 
250-263, pls. 1-3. Apr. 1939. 

— Limnocitrus, a new genus, also new spe- 
cies of Wenzelia. Paramignya and Atalantia 
(Rutaceae-Aurantioideae). Journ. Arn. Arb. 21: 
1—25, pls. 1-4. Jan. 1940. 

—— New varieties and new combinations in 
the genera Clausena, Oxanthera, and Triphasia of 
the orange subfamily Aurantioideae. Journ. Wash- 
ington Acad. Sci. 30: 79-83. Feb. 1940. 


Three new species of Citropsis, also new 


varieties of Atalantia and Fortunella (Rutaceae- 
Avrantioideae). Journ. Arn. Arb. 21: 116-188, pls. 
1-4. Apr. 1940. 


combinations in Citrus and related 


Citrus macroptera var. Kerrii Swingle, n. var. 


Differt a specie fructu maiore, cortice fructus 
multe crassiore; vesiculis pulpiferis non solum 
ad parietes dorsales loculorum fructus sed 
etiam numerosissimis ad parietes laterales col- 
ligatis. 

Differs from the typical form in having larger 
ovoid fruits, up to 8 or 9 cm in diameter instead 
of 5-53 cm; pulp-vesicles attached in large 
numbers to the side (radial) walls of the locules 
for 2 to 2 of the distance from the dorsal walls 
of the segments to the core of the fruit; peel 
very thick, 12-14 instead of 5-6 mm, as in the 
typical form; flowers (known only from one 
collection, Kerr 11983) small, 4- or 5-merous 
with 16-20 stamens borne on slender, free fila- 
ments. 


Type specimen.—Thailand, Nakwan Sawan, 
Kampéngpat, Mé Lamung, alt. 540 m; lat. 
16°15’ N.: long. 98°58’ E., Drs Al Bae 
Herb. Aberdeen University No. 6081. 

Remarks.—This interesting new orange is a 
member of the subgenus Papeda, the species 
of which have numerous droplets of acrid, 
bitter oil in the pulp-vesicles, because of which 
the fruits are inedible and are called bitter- 
oranges. 

This variety was discovered by Dr. Kerr in 
west-central Thailand. At the type locality he 
reports it to be a ‘common tree in the ever- 
green forest’’ and also notes that it grows “‘up 


Jan. 15, 1942 


to 10 meters high.’”’? The type material and 
another collection, Kerr 11983, from Ban 
Kragé, Thailand, were kindly lent to me by 
Prof. J. R. Matthews, curator of the Her- 
barium, University of Aberdeen, Scotland. 
This Thailand bitter-orange has long, stout, 
sharp spines on the lower branches (Fig. 1, B) 
but shorter ones or none on the fruiting 
branches (Fig. 1, C). This variety differs 
strikingly from, the typical form of Citrus 
macroptera in having fruits with a much 
thicker, chalky-white peel covered by a thin, 


SWINGLE: VARIETIES IN CITRUS WL, 


19877). This material differs from the Thai- 
land type specimens chiefly in having strongly 
acuminate leaves (Fig. 1, D), those of Dr. 


Kerr’s collections being narrowed to a blunt 
apex (Fig. 1, B). 


Citrus reticulata var. austera Swingle, n. var. 


Differt a specie suco acidissimo; fructibus 
minoribus. 

Differs from the typical form in having 
smaller fruits with intensely acid pulp. 


Ty pe.—Ch’ao-chou, Kwangtung Province. 


Fig. 1.—Citrus macroptera var. Kerri Swingle, n. var: 


A, Fruit in cross section; B, fruiting 


branch with very short spines; C, long spine on young shoot (A, B, C all from the type specimen); 
D, twig with acuminate leaves; E, entire fruit; F, part of a cut fruit (D, HE, F all from Tung Kung, 
Tonkin, Indochina, Groff 19877). One-half natural size. 


green, surface layer only about 1 mm thick, 
which has numerous very small oil glands. The 
segments of the half-grown fruits contain very 
small pulp-vesicles only 1.5-2 mm long, borne 
on stalks 1-3 mm long, which are attached 
both to the dorsal wall of the locule and also 
in large numbers to the lateral (radial) walls 
for two-thirds to three-fourths of the distance 
from the dorsal wall of the locule to the core. 
Apparently this same variety occurs at Tung 
Kung (lat. 22°15’ N., long. 102°50’E.) in north- 


ern Tonkin near the Chinese border (Groff 


China, Groff 233 (1918), Herb. Lingnan Uni- 
versity, Canton, China. 

Remarks.—G. W. Groff in 1918 wrote a de- 
tailed description for me of this variety, called 
swan chieh in Chinese (siin kat in Cantonese), 
and commonly grown in the Swatow region of 
southeastern China for use as a rootstock. As 
it is grown from seeds and not propagated by 
grafting it is evidently able to reproduce itself 
indefinitely from seeds and is not to be con- 
fused with any of the numerous Cifrus hybrids, 
mutations, and monstrosities, many of which 


26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


can be propagated only by grafting. I have 
drawn up from Groff’s manuscript tabulations 
and outline figures wherein he compares the 
characters of 7 sour mandarin (kat) varieties 
the following description: 

Fruits slightly depressed globose, 2.9-3.3 em 
long, 3.8-3.6 em diameter, with smooth, loose 
peel about 4 mm thick, capucine yellow (Ridg- 
way’s pl. 3) when ripe; oil glands small, round, 
far apart, fragrant; segments 9, easily sepa- 
rated; segment walls thin, tender, white; core 


Fig. 2.—Ciztrus macroptera var. Kerrit Swingle, 
n. var. A, Cross section of half-grown dried fruit; 
B, longitudinal section of fruit, both fruits from 
the type tree showing thick white peel and minute 
pulp-vesicles. Natural size. 


VOL. 32, No. 1 


6-8 mm diam. soft; pulp deep chrome (Ridg- 
way’s pl. 3) composed of small, short pulp- 
vesicles, clinging together but irregularly ar- 
ranged and easily broken; juice reddish yellow, 
very sour; seeds about 9, rounded at one end, 
pointed at the other, showing white parallel 
lines from base to tip; leaves lanceolate-ellipti- 
cal, blades 6.8-2.5 cm, rather acutely cuneate 
at the base and narrowed to a blunt apex, with 
about 10 pairs of lateral veins; petioles nearly 
wingless. 


This variety is widely grown about Swatow, 
China, where it is used as a rootstock upon 
which to graft the mi-tang-ka, honey-pot or- 
ange, and other famous varieties widely ex- 
ported from Swatow. . 

Probably some of the other sour mandarins 
called kat by the Cantonese are forms of this 
variety. Some of the so-called kat varieties 
with large fruits, which as they ripen may be- 
come sweet enough to eat, are probably hy- 
brids between this variety (austera) and sweet 
mandarins (Citrus reticulata Blanco) or sweet 
oranges (Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck). A 
hybrid between Citrus reticulata var. austera 
and some species of kumquat belonging to the 
genus Fortunella is commonly cultivated in 
Citrus collections under the name calamondin. 


Murraya alata var. hainensis Swingle, var. nov. 


Differt specie folioliis junioribus minute 
puberulentibus. 

Differs from the typical form in having the 
leaflets minutely pubescent on both surfaces 
when young, while the species itself has leaves 
always completely glabrous. 


Type.-—China, Hainan Island, Strand at 
Haichow, McClure 7611, Herb. Nat. Arbor- 
etum, Washington, D. C. 

Remarks.—Both this variety and the typical 
form are very small trees with leaves having 
a plainly winged rachis and are distinct from 
other species of the genus Murraya. 


Clausena heptaphylla var. Engleri (Tan.) 
Swingle, n. comb. 


Clausena Englert Tan. in Mededeel, van’s Rijks 
Herb. 69: 6. 1931. 


Murraya microphylla (Merr. and Chun) 
Swingle, n. comb. 


Clausena microphylla Merr. and Chun in 


Sunyatsenia 2: 251. 1935. 


JAN. 15, 1942 


HARRIS: SPECIES OF HARMOSTES 2b 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on Harmostes, with descriptions of some new species 


(Hemiptera: Corizidae).' 


Because the earlier descriptions dealt 
largely with color and because it is now rec- 
ognized that intraspecific variation in color 
is very great, entomologists in general have 
had great difficulty in identifying specimens 
of Corizidae. The present notes are offered 
in an attempt to make known structural 
features that it now appears may be of 
some worth in segregating species of the 
genus Harmostes Burmeister. 

For the privilege of studying the types of 
the species described by Berg I am indebted 
to Dr. Max Biraben, Jefe del Departmento 
de Zoologia (Invertebrados) del Museo de 
La Plata. Dr. Jose A. de Carlo has kindly 
sent me for study the specimens belonging 
to the collection of the Museo Argentina de 
Ciencias Naturales and H. G. Barber has 
sent the undetermined material in the col- 
lection of the U. 8. National Museum. Dr. 
Carl J. Drake and John C. Lutz have 
graciously permitted me to study the tropi- 
cal species represented in their extensive 
collections. 


Harmostes procerus Berg 


1879. Harmostes procerus Berg, Hemip. Argen- 
tina: 91. 

1922. Harmostes procerus Pennington, Physis 
5: 166. 

1924. Harmostes procerus Jensen-Haarup, Ent. 
Medd. 14: 329, figs. 10c, 10d. 

1941. Harmostes procerus Torre-Bueno, Bull. 
Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 86. 


I have had the privilege of studying the type 
series of this species. One of the specimens 
bears the pin label “‘T'ypus’”’ and a second label 
“Harmostes procerus Berg.’ This individual, a 
male in good condition, also carries the label 
“Banda Oriental.” I designate it lectotype and 
have added a label. The other specimens in the 
type series all bearing Berg’s ‘“Typus’’ label 
are designated paratypes. 

The species appears to be common in the 
Argentine. It exhibits a wide range in color 
variations and seems to bear a somewhat simi- 
lar relation to the South American Harmostini 
as fH. refleculus (Say) does to the North 


1 Received August 21, 1941. 


H. M. Harris, Ames, Iowa. 


American forms. Gibson was wrong in his 
synopsis of the original description when he 
said of the pronotum, “lateral margins strongly 
crenulate,’ as was Torre-Bueno also in 
placing the species in that section of his key 
with lateral margins of pronotum smooth. As a 
matter of fact, the edge of the pronotal side 
margins is very minutely, obsoletely crenulate. 
The membrane is not spotted but is marked 
with a more or less distinct fuscous streak 
through its middle. This is sometimes distinctly 
divided by the pale veins. 

In addition to the type series I have seen a 
long series of specimens from Montevideo and 
various localities in the Argentine belonging 
to the La Plata Museum, the Museum of 
Buenos Aires, the U. 8. National Museum, and 
the Pennington collection. The size varies from 
5.9 mm, small males, to 8.4 mm, larger females. 
Jensen-Haarup has figured the male genital 
segments. 

Harmostes prolixus Stal 


1860. Harmostes prolixus Stal, Rio Janeiro 
Hemip. 1: 30. 

1879. Harmostes prolixus Berg, Hemip. Argen- 
tina: 91. 

1922. Harmostes prolixus Pennington, Physis 
5: 165. 

1924. Harmostes prolixus Jensen-Haarup, Ent. 
Medd. 14: 327, figs. 10a—b. 

1934. Harmostes prolixus Blote, Zool. Meded. 
17: 254. 

1941. Harmostes prolixus Torre-Bueno, Bull. 


Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 85. 


The.La Plata collection contains the speci- 
men recorded by Berg from ‘‘Corrientes’”’ and 
two additional specimens from Cérdoba. The 
Museum of Buenos Aires collection contains a 
specimen from La Paz, Dep. San Javier, Cér- 
doba, and another from Bolivia, Steinbach, 
1916. I have seen other specimens from Grand 
Chaco, Paraguay; Cuatro Ojos and Santa 
Cruz, Bolivia; Prov. Buenos Aires and Puesta, 
Argentina; Sao Paulo and Nova Teutonia, 
Brazil. 

The species is closely related to Harmostes 
raphimerus Spinola but has a narrower, more 
elongate form, and the pronotal lateral margin 
is very narrow and sharply reflexed. The buc- 
culae end on or slightly before a line drawn 


28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


through front margin of eyes. The entire 
clavus and corium, except for a small area 
near apex of middle basal cell of corium (cell 
R or discal cell), is coarsely punctate. The 
male parameres are distinctly shorter and 
broader than depicted in Jensen-Haarup’s fig- 
ure and the rim of the genital capsule extends 
across the base of the median process and 
caudad to it. In procerus, however, it is the 
margin of the capsule that is produced as is 
figured. 
Harmostes apicatus Stal 


1860. Harmostes apicatus Stal, Freg. Eug. 


Resa., Ins.: 238. 
Harmostes apicatus Berg, Hemip. Ar- 
gentina: 91. 


1879. 


1917. Harmostes apicatus Gibson, Ent. News 
28: 444. 

1922. Harmostes apicatus Pennington, Physis 
52165: 


1924. Harmostes apicatus Jensen-Haarup, Ent. 


Medd. 14: 327, fig. 10f. 

Harmostes apicatus Blote, Zool. Meded. 
We 253. 

Harmostes apicatus Torre-Bueno, Bull. 
Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 86. 


The two specimens recorded by Berg from 
Buenos Aires and Corrientes are present in the 
La Plata collection. Other examples before 
me are from Buenos Aires and Tigre, Argen- 
tina; Horqueta and Grand Chaco, Paraguay; 
Villa Montes, Izozo, Cuatro Ojos, and Santa 
Cruz, Bolivia; and Para and Nova Teutonia, 
Brazil. 

The small size, the rather wide and punctate 
reflexed lateral margins of the pronotum, the 
transparent and impunctate (except for margi- 
nal rows) inner cells of the corium, and the 
short bucculae, which taper posteriorly to a 
point opposite front half of eyes, are distinc- 
tive features. The pronotal edge while not cal- 
loused and completely smooth can not be called 
crenulate (cf. Gibson). 

In all the specimens I have seen there is 4 
more or less distinct infuscation in the apical 
cells of the corium. The hind margin of the 
male genital capsule is sinuately emarginate, 
with a small angular notch at its middle. 


1934. 
1941. 


Harmostes serratus (Fabricius) 


1794. Acanthia serrata Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 4: 
io 

1794. Coreus gravidator Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 4: 
en 

1803. Coreus gravidator Fabricius, Syst. Rhyng. 
199. 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


1852. Harmostes perpunctatus List 


Hemip. 2: 521. 


Dallas, 


1868. Harmostes serratus Stal, Hemip. Fabri- 
ciana 1: 67. 

1934. Harmostes serratus Blote, Zool. Meded. 
17: 254. 

1939. Harmostes serratus Barber, Sci. Survey 
Porto Rico 14 (3): 326. 

1941. Harmostes serratus Torre-Bueno, Bull. 


Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 83. 


I have seen specimens of what I take to be 
serratus from Antigua, Trinidad, Hayti, Co- 
lombia, and Panama. This form has a very 
wide range, and the complex consists of several 
incipient and as yet unfixed species or it is a 
highly plastic thing. As might be expected, the 
literature concerning it is involved. 

Lateral margins of pronotum pale, reflexed 
and with a row of 10 to 12 clean-cut teeth ex- 
tending well up on hind lobe and there giving 
way to coarse serrations. Tylus, as seen from 
the side, conspicuously angularly produced, 
reaching to distal fifth of antennal I. Spine of 
antenniferous tubercule much longer than in 
affinis, the distance from front of eye to apex 
of spine greater than length of an eye. Buc- 
culae about attaining a point opposite middle 
of eye. Antennal III distinctly longer than II, 
IV about one-half of III. Humeri of pronotum 
distinctly angular. Male paramere short, broad. 
Membrane spotted. Clavus and entire corium, 
except small area at apex of emboliar suture 
(median furrow), opaque, coarsely punctate. 


Harmostes affinis Dallas 


1852. Harmostes affints Dallas, List Hemip. 2: 
522. 

1879. Harmostes serratus Berg, Hemip. Argen- 
tina: 90. 

1907. Harmostes affinis Van Duzee, Bull. 
Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 8 (5): 18. 

1909. Harmostes affinis Van Duzee, Bull. Buf- 
falo Soc.-Nat. Sci. 9: 161. 

1917. Harmostes affinis Gibson, Ent. News 28: 
441, 442. 

1922. Harmostes serratus Pennington, Physis 5: 
164. 

1939. Harmostes affinis Barber, Sci. Survey 
Porto Rico 14 (8): 326. 

1941. Harmostes affinis Torre-Bueno, Bull. 


Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 83. 


Specimens are at hand from Florida, Texas, 
Mexico, Panama, Colombia, Antigua, Brazil, 
Paraguay, and Argentina and a long series 
from various localities in Bolivia. The Argen- 
tina specimens are those recorded by Berg and 
Pennington as H. serratus (Fabricius). 


JAN. 15, 1942 


The species shows considerable variation and 
at times is very difficult to separate from H. 
serratus (Fabricius). As pointed out by Van 
Duzee and by Barber, however, in their ex- 
tremes the two forms may readily be separated 
by the degree of development of the tylus, 
antenniferous spines, and denticulations of 
lateral edge of pronotum and by the length of 
the antennal segments and rostrum. It will re- 
main for future studies to show whether af- 
finis and serratus are distinct segments of a 
widely distributed and highly plastic species 
complex and therefore worthy of more than 
subspecific rank. 

Apex of tylus angularly rounded, not dis- 
tinctly produced, the distance from tip of 
jugum to tip of tylus distinctly less than length 
of an eye. Lateral edge of pronotum serrate 
in front and becoming crenulate posteriorly on 
hind lobe. Distance from front of eye to apex of 
antenniferous spine less than length of eye. 


Harmostes dorsalis Burmeister 


1835. Harmostes dorsalis Burmeister, Handb. 
d’Ent. 2: 307. 

1881. Harmostes dorsalis Distant, Biol. Centr.- 
Amer., Rhyn. Heterop. 1: 168. 

1917. Harmostes dorsalis Gibson, Ent. News 
28: 439, 444. 

1934. Harmostes dorsalis Blote, Zool. Meded. 
17: 254. 

1941. Harmostes dorsalis Torre-Bueno, Bull. 


Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 89. 


This species was described from Mexico and 
is the haplotype of the genus, yet it apparently 
has remained unknown to workers since the 
time of Burmeister. Distant, in working up the 
Mexican species for the Biologia, passed it over 
as unknown, and Gibson on the basis of deter- 
minations made by Heidemann placed it in 
synonymy with H. serratus (Fabricius). Blote 
has more recently recorded the species from 
Brazil without comment. Of the species I have 
seen from Mexico it appears to me that the 
form treated above as H. affinis is the one that 
will most likely prove to be dorsalis. A careful 
study of Burmeister’s generic diagnosis with 
particular attention to the characters of the 
head, antennae, antenniferous spine, and pro- 
notal margins, as well as the abbreviated color 
description of the species only serves to in- 
tensify my suspicion. 

Harmostes formosus Distant 
1881. Harmostes formosus Distant, Biol. Centr. 


HARRIS: SPECIES OF HARMOSTES 29 


Amer., Rhyn. Heterop. 1: 167, pl. 15, 
fig. 15 


1917. Harmostes formosus Gibson, Ent. News 
28: 442. 

1941. Harmostes formosus Torre-Bueno, Bull. 
Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 84. 


There is in the National Museum a male 
specimen labeled Atencingo, Mexico, June, 
1922, E. G. Smyth, and determined as formosus 
by Mr. Barber. The species is very distinctive 
by reason of its irregularly dentate lateral 
margins of the pronotum, the strongly raised 
posterior lobe with broadly rounded somewhat 
flaring humeral angles, the long, convex head, 
the short antennae, and long rostrum. In tex- 
ture of hemelytra and type of clasper it is 
nearest croceus Gibson and bicolor Distant. 

Head longer than broad (40:35), distinctly 
longitudinally convex. Antennae not so long as 
head, pronotum and scutellum combined, seg- 
ment I just attaining apex of head, II enlarged 
at apex, IV not over 4 times as long as thick; 
proportions, 14:30:30:20. Bucculae tapering 
posteriorly and ending before a point opposite 
middle of eye. Rostrum reaching base of third 
segment of venter. 

Pronotum twice as wide as long (66:33), the 
disk coarsely punctate and rugose, the anterior 
angles prominent, the lateral margin wide and 
irregularly serrate in front, narrowing and be- 
coming crenulate backwards to humeri, the 
latter broadly rounded. Scutellum slightly 
longer than wide. Hemelytra coriaceous, not 
noticeably punctate. Membrane spotted, ap- 
pearing smoky due to dark wings beneath. 
Metasternum with prominent borders to rostral 
channel, these high and truncate in front. 
Venter sulcate at middle of two basal segments. 
Genital characters of refleculus type, but para- 
meres with characteristic proportions. 

Length, 9.0 mm. Width, across humeri, 3.0. 

The color is deeper than depicted by Distant. 
The apices of antennal II and III, all of IV, 
the apices of the tibiae, the tarsi, and the base 
of hind tibiae are more deeply colored. The 
hind tibiae are stout and distinctly compressed. 


Harmostes marmoratus Blanchard 


In his notes on the Argentinian species of 
Harmostes Jensen-Haarup treats as marmoratus 
a form that surely is not the true Chilean 
marmoratus of Blanchard. Perhaps as he him- 
self indicates he was dealing only with strik- 


30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ingly colored examples of H. procerus Berg. I 
have given elsewhere notes on the structural 
features of specimens of marmoratus from the 
Reed Chilean collection. 


Harmostes imitabilis, n. sp. 


Size medium; form slender, elongate. Gen- 
eral color yellowish testaceous, with a roseate 
tinge, the veins of hemelytra distinctly reddish. 
Head distinctly longer than wide across eyes 
(29:24). Spines of antenniferous tubercules 
short. Tylus compressed, prominent, as seen 
from the side crenulate, reaching to middle of 
first antennal segment. Antennae long, longer 
than head, pronotum and scutellum con- 
joined; proportions, 18:24:26:17 (female, 20: 
26:29:19). Bucculae fairly low and long, 
tapering posteriorly, reaching to a point about 
opposite middle of eye. Rostrum relatively 
short, just attaining metasternum, segment I 
not extending to line of hind margin of eyes; 
proportions, 15:18:10:12. Pronotum about 
one and one-half times as wide as long (37:25) 
only slightly raised posteriorly, the median 
smooth line obsolete in front and behind but 
quite conspicuous at the interlobe constric- 
tion; the sides straight, their margins narrow, 
reflexed and finely crenulate; the anterior angle 
acute, only slightly produced and placed be- 
hind the fine collar; humeral angles obtuse. 
Scutellum longer than broad. Hemelytra with 
clavus and exocorium coriaceous and coarsely 
punctate, the rest hyaline and impunctate ex- 
cept for an incomplete marginal row bordering 
the veins; membrane extending well beyond 
margin of abdomen, clear; venter pale, the 
trichobothria dark and conspicuous. Legs pale, 
the hind femora extending just to apex of ab- 
domen. Male genital capsule deeply, rectangu- 
larly excavated at apex, the parameres slen- 
der, their tips dark, recurved. 

Length, 6.2-7.7 mm. Width across humeri, 
1.7-2.2 mm. 

Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Lujan, 
Prov. Buenos Aires, Argentina, December 8, 
1938, C. J. Drake, collector (my collection). 
Paratype, one male taken with type. 

This species has the size and form of H 
procerus Berg, with which it is very closely al- 
lied. From procerus it is differentiated by the 
more convex and laterally sloping disk of pro- 
notum and the narrower pronotal side margins, 
as well as by the character of the male genital 


VOL. 32, No. 1 


capsule which in procerus is roundly produced 
at the middle beneath. As in procerus the punc- 
tures of the pronotum and clavus are very 
large and coarse. In the male there is visible 
through the membrane two sublateral elongate 
dark spots on the last dorsal segment. The 
second antennal segment is somewhat enlarged 
and flattened at the base as in procerus. 


Harmostes petulans, n. sp. 


Size medium for the genus; body oblong. 
General color yellowish to greenish testaceous, 
marked with dark testaceous to brown; the 
head, front lobe of pronotum and scutellum at 
times varying toward orange. Head faintly 
broader across eyes than its median length (23: 
22), above rather horizontal and somewhat 
longitudinally convex; clypeus compressed 
laterally, raised, its edge only slightly granu- 
late, in front more or less rounded and not 
produced, reaching to distal third of first an- 
tennal. Spines of antenniferous tubercules as 
seen from above short, slender, slightly in- 
curved; from the side, almost triangular. Buc- 
culae short, rather high and of equal height 
throughout, ending abruptly at a line drawn 
through front margin of eyes. Antennae short, 
about as long as head, pronotum and scutellum 
combined, length of segment I faintly less than 
width of head between eyes (12:13); propor- 
tions, 12:20:21:17 (female, 13:22:22:19). 
Rostrum extending to middle of metasternum, 
segment I reaching only to a point about op- 
posite hind margin of eyes; proportions, 15: 
14:11:13. Pronotum nearly twice as wide as 
long (male, 40:22; female, 46:24), distinctly 
raised posteriorly, with a median smooth line 
which is most prominent between the lobes; 
the lateral margins moderately wide, sharply 
reflexed, punctate, the edge almost smooth 
(obsoletely granulate) and forming a straight 
or barely sinuate line; anterior angles only 
slightly produced, placed a little behind the 
very narrow collar; humeral angles obtusely 
rounded. Scutellum equally as long as wide, 
the apex broadly rounded. Hemelytra with 
clavus and exocorium thickly punctate, the 
other cells transparent and impunctate except 
for a marginal row around their borders. Mem- 
brane clear, without darker markings, ex- 
tending well beyond apex of abdomen. Pro- 
thorax as seen from the side with the reflexed 
upper edge shiny, smooth, with only a few 


Jan. 15, 1942 


punctures. Metapleuron strongly sinuate along 
its hind margin. Hind femora projecting dis- 
tinctly behind apex of abdomen. Hind tibiae 
without a distinct dark annulus at apex. Venter 
with the usual trichobothriae which are pale 
and inconspicuous; sixth segment rather 
strongly laterally compressed in the female. 
Male genital capsule with its hind margin 
almost straight, or widely truncate, between 
the prominent lateral angles. Male clasper 
slender, the apex dark, recurved and bifid. 

Length, 5.1-6.2 mm. Width (across humeri), 
1.9-2.3 mm. 

Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Cuatro 
Ojos, Bolivia, September 1917 Gn my collec- 
tion). Paratypes, one male, taken with types; 
one female, Villa Montes, Bolivia, November, 
1917; one male, Lima, Peru, February 2, 1939, 
Carl J. Drake; one female, Argentina, 1939. 

This species is perhaps nearest Harmostes 
minor Spinola which it superficially resembles 
very much. In minor, however, the bucculae 
taper posteriorly and the pronotal margin is 
broader and not so strongly reflexed. The spec- 
imens at hand show considerable color range. 
At times the clavus is darkened basally and 
the veins of hemelytra and the pronotum are 
flecked with reddish. The small distal cell of 
the corium is smoky in all specimens at hand. 


Harmostes insitivus, n. sp. 


Moderately small, elongate-oval, rather 
strongly flattened. Pale testaceous, conspicu- 
ously speckled with reddish brown. Head 
about equally as long as broad (21:22), not 
noticeably arched above; tylus low, not pro- 
duced anteriorly, extending faintly beyond 
middle of first antennal segment. Spines of 
antenniferous tubercules short, from above 
very slender, from the side almost triangular. 
Antennae short, subequally as long as head, 
pronotum, and scutellum conjoined, length of 
segment II equal to distance between eyes, 
IV stout, dark, thickest beyond the middle; 
proportions, 11:13:17:12. Bucculae low, grad- 
ually sloping posteriorly, reaching about to a 
point opposite hind margin of eyes. Rostrum 
extending to middle of metasternum, segment 
I very slightly exceeding bucculae. Pronotum 
flat for the genus, twice as broad as long 
(35:17), the lateral edges straight, the side 
margins rather wide and only slightly sloping; 
base not broader than hemelytra. Scutellum 


HARRIS: SPECIES OF HARMOSTES AA | 


equally as broad as long (15). Hemelytra with 
clavus and exocorium strongly coriaceous and 
thickly punctured, of corium not so strongly 
coriaceous and less profoundly punctured; mem- 
brane speckled with brown. Hind femora not 
attaining apex of abdomen. Venter rough, 
speckled with brown. Male genital capsule, 
strongly produced at middle of hind margin, 
produced portion broadly rounded. 

Length, 4.5 mm. Width, across humeral 
angles, 1.6 mm. 

Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Cau- 
quenes, Chile, September, my collection. Para- 
type, one male taken with type. 

This species is probably nearest marmoratus 
in the nature of the antennae, bucculae, 
hemelytra, and genital capsule but is very dis- 
tinct by virtue of its more oval.and more 
flattened form, the nature of the pronotal mar- 
gins, the spotted membrane, the more greatly 
produced median portion of male genital cap- 
sule and the lower bucculae. The front angles 
of the pronotum are not especially sharp and 
the distance across humeri is not greater than 
width across base of hemelytra. 


Harmostes gemellus, n. sp. 


Size small to medium for the genus; form 
rather oblong-oval, quite broad behind the 
head. Greenish to yellowish testaceous, the 
pronotum, scutellum, clavus, and distal por- 
tion of corium tinged with brown, the expanded 
margin of pronotum and exocorium spotted 
with brown. Head rather flat above, slightly 
longer than broad (male, 23:21; female, 26:24). 
Tylus rather narrow and high, granulate or 
obsoletely crenulate, reaching slightly beyond 
middle of first antennal segment. Spines of 
antenniferous tubercule very slender from 
above. Antennae short, not longer than head, 
pronotum and scutellum combined, and seg- 
ment II about equal to width of frons plus one 
eye, slightly swollen at apex; IV stout, sud- 
denly enlarged at basal third, not over 4+ times 
as long as thick; proportions, 12:15:16:13 (fe- 
male, 14:17:18:15). Bueculae rather high. 
sloping sharply, ending before middle of eyes, 
Rostrum extending to rear of metasternum. 

Pronotum twice as wide as long at median 
line (male, 40:19; female, 51:22), the sides 
sinuate, their margins very wide and broadly 
reflexed, the edge almost smooth; front lobe 
short and narrow, the hind lobe prominently 


on JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


raised and strongly widened; median line 
present; disc granulate as well as punctate; 
front angles obtuse, humeral angles broadly 
rounded. Scutellum subequally as long as 
broad. Hemelytra as broad as pronotum, the 
clavus and corium, except for cell enclosing 
embolial fracture (discal cell), thinly coriaceous 
and thickly punctate. Membrane clear, with- 
out darker markings. Metapleuron concave 
along hind margin. Hind femora just attaining 
tip of abdomen. Venter broad, the trichoboth- 
riae pale, inconspicuous. Male genital capsule 
short, its hind margin beneath widely excavate 
and bi-sinuate. Male clasper slender, the tip 
darkened and recurved. 

Length, male, 4.4 mm; female, 5.6 mm. 
Width, at base of pronotum, male, 1.8 mm; 
female, 2.3 mm. 

Holotype, male, Lujan, Buenos Aires, Ar- 
gentina, December 18, 1938, Carl J. Drake 
(author’s collection). Allotype, female, Lima, 
Peru, February 2, 1938, Carl J. Drake. 


Harmostes confinis, n. sp. 


Form elongate oval, the humeri projecting. 
Yellowish testaceous, the pronotum, scutel- 
lum, and hemelytra with brownish markings. 
Head slightly longer than broad (23:25), 
rather flat above, the spines of antenniferous 
tubercules as seen from above long and slender, 
the tylus high, slightly produced, but not at- 
taining middle of first antennal segment. An- 
tennae longer than head, pronotum and scu- 
tellum combined, the second segment in length 
subequal to width of head, about 6 times as 
long as thick; proportions 17:21:20:20 (fe- 
male, 19:24:26:23). Bucculae rather high, 
gradually tapering backward, ending a little 
before hind margin of eye. Rostrum reaching 
on metasternum. 

Pronotum twice as wide as long (male, 
50:22; female, 60:30), with median smooth 
line pale and prominent, hind lobe raised and 
strongly widened so that the lateral edges are 
concave, side margins quite wide, the anterior 
lateral angles sharp, distinctly produced; the 
humeral angles broadly rounded, flaring. Scu- 
tellum about as long as wide. Hemelytra with 
clavus and exocorium coriaceous and strongly 
punctate, the remainder of corium thin, trans- 
lucent, and smooth except for a marginal row 
of punctures bordering the veins. Membrane 


VOL. 32, NO. 1 


without darker markings and with only 8 to 10 
long veins. Metapleuron with hind margin 
concave. Venter pale, trichobothria inconspicu- 
ous. Hind femora extending beyond apex of 
abdomen. Male genital capsule somewhat flat- 
tened beneath, hind margin almost straight, 
only slightly and very widely emarginate. 
Length, male, 6.0; female, 6.7 mm. Width, 
across humeri, male, 2.3 mm; female, 2.7. 
Holotype, male, Valparaiso, Chile, my collec- 
tion. Allotype, female, El Salto, Santiago, Chile. 


Harmostes fusiformis, n. sp. 


Small, elongate-oval, widest slightly behind 
the middle. Head testaceous, slightly reddish 
above, longer than broad (28:24), longitudi- 
nally convex, the tylus reaching slightly beyond 
middle of first antennal segment. Antennifer- 
ous spines slender, projecting forward, distance 
from eye to apex of spine equal to length of 
eye. Bucculae long, tapering, extending about 
to base of head and to apex of first rostral seg- 
ment. Rostrum reaching on metasternum. 
Antennae short, segment I stout, surpassing 
tylus by less than half its own length, the 
three basal segments subequal in length, each 
equal to width of head between eyes (15). 
Pronotum yellowish testaceous, flat, coarsely 
punctate, with a median, smooth raised line on 
anterior two-thirds, the sides almost straight, 
converging anteriorly, their edges minutely 
crenulate, the front angles produced and prom- 
inent. Scutellum concolorous with pronotum, 
one-third longer than broad (20:15). Hemely- 
tra, greenish, the clovus and endocorium red- 
dish, entirely coriaceous, the clavus and 
exocorium coarsely punctate, the endocorium 
with punctures bordering the veins. Membrane 
narrow, twice as long as wide, reaching slightly 
beyond apex of abdomen, clear hyaline. Legs 
short, reddish testaceous, hind femora not ap- 
proaching apex of abdomen. Venter swollen, 
sixth segment in female compressed laterally. 

Length, 5.56 mm. Width, at base of pronotum, 
1.52 mm; at widest point, 2 mm. 

Holotype, female, Quintin, Peru, Dr. P. 
Weiss, collector (U. S. N. M.). 

The small size, coriaceous hemelytra, flat- 
tened pronotum, uniform length of the three 
basal antennal segments, and the almost fusi- 
form shape combine to make this species 
unique in the genus. Its general habitus is sug- 
gestive of brachypterism. 


PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES? 


Tue AcapEemy (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): 
Thursday, February 19. The Aztecs of Mexico. Grorce C. VAILLANT. 


Natrona, Grograpuic Society (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.): 
Friday, January 16. America flies. J. PARKER VAN ZANDT. 
Friday, January 23. Java prepares. Davip GRIFFIN. 


CotumBiA Historica Society (The Mayflower, 8:15 p.m.): 
Tuesday, January 20. Mrs. John H. Eaton (Peggy O’Neal). AwuLEN C. CLARK. 


Boranica Society (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8 p.m.): 
Tuesday, February 3. Medicinal plants of the Iroquois. WutL1aM N. FENTON. 


AMERICAN SocteTy oF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, Washington Section (Pepco 
Auditorium, 8 p.m.): 


Thursday, Hebraacy 12. Adventures in electricity. PHILLips THOMAS. 


Society or AMERICAN Bacreriouocists, Washington Branch (U. 8. Naval Hos- 
pital, 26th and E Streets, NW., 8 p. m.): 
Tuesday, January 27. Fate of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Pseudomonas 
aeroginesa, and Salmonella typhimurium in scavenger birds. Don R. 
Cozurn and Psycot W. WETMORE. 
Aerobacter aerogenos and Escherichia acidi lactici as causes of aartcaing 
in turkeys. Husert Bunyrea and Aneus D. MacDona.p. 
Tuberculosis case findings in George Washington University students, with 
reference to variations in susceptibility and resistance. LELAND W. 
PaRR. 


Mepicau Society or THE District or Cotumspia (1718 M Street, NW.): 

Wednesday, January 21. Panel discussion on Peripheral vascular diseases. 
Moderator: Watuacre M. Yarer. Participants: Norman E. FREEMAN, 
A. Witsur Durysez, J. Ross VEAu. 

Wednesday, January 28. Pediatrics Section symposium on Evaluation of some 
common diagnostic pediatric procedures: (1) Shick test, ERNesT L. STEB- 
BINS; (2) Tuberculin skin test, Hucu J. Davis; (3) Differential blood 
count in pertussis, Spinal puncture in poliomelitis, Dick test, ard Sig- 
nificance of blood findings in chemotherapy, E. CLARENCE Rice. Dis- 
‘cussion by H. H. Donnatty, JospPH &. Watt, V. L. Eviicorr, GEORGE 
C. RUHLAND. 


1 Notices to be published in this space must reach the Senior Editor, Raymond J. Seeger, not later than 
‘the 28th of the month, 


4 Lectures open only to members of the National Geographic Society who have subscribed to season tickets. 


CONTENTS. 


ErunoLtocy.—A scientific approach to African colonization. O. F. 
AOI Ga BUN tet ERAN MAR CUA eeBid aman A UA ena aa a A a 


Biopnysics.—Hffect of temperature and time on the x-ray sensitivity 
of maize seeds. Louis R. Maxwetu, J.H. Kempton, and VERNON 
VE: MEO RTE TU Se I a Eh SR Gerd Aa Pe ly 


Borany.—Three new varieties and two new combinations in Citrus 
and related genera of the orange subfamily. Wa.tEer T. SWINGLE. 


ENntTomMoLogy.—Notes on Harmostes, with descriptions of some new spe- 
cies (Hemiptera: Corizidae). H. M. Harris...............-. $ 


This J ournal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


18 


24 


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Horace 8S. IsBeuu 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


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wat. en 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Wow. 32 


FEBRUARY 15, 1942 


No. 2 


Science and War Austin H. CiarK, U.S. National Museum. 


In times of national emergency it is in- 
cumbent upon all of us, both as individuals 
and as members of any organization to 
which we may belong, to do everything 
within our power for the public good. We 
who are engaged in science are no longer 
justified in appraising the world and our 
fellow men in the light of their bearing upon 
our specialty, as in times of peace we are 
inclined to do. We must broaden our out- 
look and integrate our activities and our 
thoughts with that will-to-victory that 
animates us all. 

Victory, as we all know, will be achieved 
‘primarily by our armed forces working in 
cooperation with those of our allies, and in 
collaboration with our diplomats. An all-out 
victory, however, demands that we give 
thought to certain social and economic 
aspects of present-day and future existence 
that lie beyond the scope of military and 
diplomatic activities. 

Most of these social and economic aspects 
are already being cared for by various agen- 
cies either directly under, or more or 
less closely connected with, Governmental 
agencies. There are, however, a few of out- 
standing importance, though involving a 
relatively small number of individuals, that 
can better be carried on, or at least super- 
vised or encouraged, by organizations such 
as the Washington Academy of Sciences or 
similar bodies than by any Governmental 
agencies. 

Academies of science are representative 
of the scientific activities in the communi- 
ties in which they are situated. The Wash- 


+ Address of the retiring president of the 
Washington Academy of Sciences delivered at 
the 309th meeting of the Academy, January 15, 
1942. Received January 15, 1942. 


FEB 95 19g 


33 


ington Academy of Sciences includes within 
its membership representatives of all the 
branches of science in the Government 
service and in the local educational institu- 
tions. Each member has his special affilia- 
tions, but the Academy as a whole is 
capable of independent action insofar as 
such action does not interfere with the 
work, or run counter to the policies, of the 
various agencies with which its members 
are affiliated. 

As a preface to the discussion of the needs 
of science in the present emergency may I, 
at the risk of being boresomely repetitious, 
tax your patience for a few minutes by 
reviewing briefly the history of science in 
relation to human society? 

From the earliest times of which we have 
a record to the present day, the history of 
man has been marked by constant changes 
in the social systems, changes that often 
were abrupt and violent. One form of social 
structure or of government has succeeded 
another. Small but powerful social or politi- 
cal units have grown by accretion or by 
conquest into great kingdoms or empires. 
These kingdoms or empires eventually have 
decayed or fallen apart, the fragments 
maintaining a longer or shorter separate 
existence, or becoming merged into other 
larger units. 

Together with these frequent social, 
political, or economic readjustments of the 
past we see a constant and fairly continu- 
ous development of other forces which to a 
large extent are independent of transient 
political conditions. We note a growing 
interest in and understanding of the prod- 
ucts of the earth and their uses. We also 
are able to trace the ever-increasing sub- 
jugation of the forces of nature, which 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


more and more come to be the servants 
instead of the enemies of man. 

The greatest of all human achievements 
was the control and use of fire. We have no 
knowledge of when or how fire was first 
transformed from a terrifying natural phe- 
nomenon into man’s most useful servant, 
for no human race exists that does not 
know, to some extent at least, the use of 
fire. Second among human achievements 
was the fashioning and use of tools and 
weapons. The origin of the use of tools is 
lost in the far distant past. The earliest 
tools we know were crudely fashioned from 
stone. The technique of making tools grad- 
ually improved, and many of the stone axes, 
choppers, projectile points, and other ob- 
jects fashioned by early human types are 
marvels of technical skill. Then came the 
weaving of textiles from plant or animal 
fibers and the molding of pottery vessels, 
followed by the appearance of bronze. Not 
long after the appearance of bronze uten- 
sils of various sorts, the wheel and axle 
appeared in Asia, soon spreading to Europe. 

From the Bronze Age onward the knowl- 
edge of the use of natural products and the 
control of natural forces have shown a 
fairly continuous development, and to an 
ever-increasing extent have become an 
integral part of the fundamental basis of 
progressive human societies. 

Since the beginning of the present cen- 
tury the advance in the knowledge and 
understanding of the products and forces 
of nature has been greater than in all the 
thousands of years preceding—or at least 
since the subjugation of fire, the first 
fashioning of tools, and the domestication 
of animals and plants. 

Whether we like the idea or not, we 
are now living in an age, and under condi- 
tions, in which science plays a dominant 
part, and the established scientific prin- 
ciples that underlie many of the most famil- 
iar of our present-day improvements were 
unheard of, or considered fallacious, no 
longer than a generation ago. Our children 
regard as commonplace necessities all sorts 
of things that to us of the older generation 
still seem to be more or less miraculous in- 
novations—the talkies, the radio, the air- 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


plane, the wire-photograph, the neon light, 
the modern motor-car, and many others. 
This is self-evident to all; but the implica- 
tions inseparable from a culture based ever 
more intensively and extensively on in- 
creasingly abstruse science are not as yet 
fully appreciated. 

The progress that through the ages has 
been made in the understanding of natural 
phenomena and in the utilization of natural 
products is continuing at an accelerated 
pace, and will continue in the future, in 
spite of what may happen in the next few 
years. It may be locally obstructed, or 
even brought to an end, but somehow, 
somewhere, it will carry on. 

The present struggle is no more a contest 
in the military field than it is in the field 
of science. It is quite possible to win the 
war on the battle front, but lose it in the 
laboratory. The Germans and the Japanese 
both are well aware of this. So are our 
friends the Russians. They are waging their 
battles in their laboratories as vigorously 
as on the firing line. 

We in this country must see to it that, so 
far as possible, the steady advance of sci- 
ence is maintained. At the present time we 
are utilizing to the maximum extent our 
scientific resources and our scientific per- 
sonnel to aid in our war effort. We are doing 
this, I have reason to believe, more ex- 
tensively, more efficiently, and more ef- 
fectively than any other country. 

But this is not enough. Various branches 
of science not of immediate military appli- 
cation are in the long run quite as essential 
for our progress and our welfare as are 
those forms of engineering, of physics, and 
of chemistry that underlie the construction 
and the use of modern implements of war- 
fare. These are the many and varied types 
of pure science, lines of work leading to 
results seemingly of no importance that all 
too often are regarded merely as a form of 
mental exercise undertaken solely for the 
personal satisfaction and gratification of the 
person concerned. What we call pure sci- 
ence is simply a branch of science for which 
no economic application has as yet been 
found. But at any time a body of uncoordi- 
nated facts may suddenly and unexpectedly 


Fes. 15, 1942 


fit into an integrated whole, to our great 
advantage. Without its advance fringe of 
competent workers in pure science con- 
stantly probing the great unknown and 
accumulating masses of data with no ap- 
parent immediate application, the broader 
aspects of scientific progress soon would 
languish, and we would eventually lose 
heavily. Pure science is likely to suffer se- 
verely in times like the present—in times 
when it would seem to be the wisest course 
to give it the maximum encouragement. 

Recently I have received, passed by the 
German censor and wrapped in several 
unfolded signatures of an edition of Horace, 
an elaborate memoir on the Isopoda, a 
group of wretched little crustaceans com- 
monly called wood-lice or sow-bugs. The 
last publication received by the National 
Museum Library from the Institute of 
Scientific Research, Manchukuo, was de- 
voted to a detailed account of the butter- 
flies of Yablonya, Pin-chiang Province. Evi- 
dently the Germans and the Japanese con- 
sider it worth while to encourage work in 
lines of pure science apparently quite un- 
connected with military affairs. If it is 
worth while for them—and we must admit 
that both nations are military-minded— 
why is it not worth while for us? 

In Germany and in Japan things are 
done in ways that are not practicable with 
us. If Der Fuhrer considers the detailed 
study of wood-lice worth while from the 
point of view of furthering the Nazi aims, 
wood-lice will be studied, and the people 
will accept as of value to themselves, even 
if they do not applaud, the results of the 
studies. In Japan, science has been brought 
to high popular favor in the past 40 years 
through the example and excellent leader- 
ship of a group of powerful and highly re- 
spected noblemen, and a number of these 
noblemen, including some members of the 
Imperial Family and the grandson of the 
last Shogun, are enthusiastic entomologists. 

There is a natural tendency to say, ‘Well, 
if the Germans and the Japanese choose to 
squander their slender resources by sup- 
porting and publishing trivialities of this 
sort, let them go ahead and do it.’”’ But let 
us look at the matter from a different view- 


CLARK: SCIENCE AND WAR 35 


point. In the future, if any American student 
wishes to study the Isopoda of the Philip- 
pines and the Netherlands East Indies, he 
must base his work on the memoir referred 
to, and in the same way students of the 
butterflies of eastern Asia must follow the 
Japanese lead. No scientific man objects to 
working with his colleagues in any country. 
To that extent science is international. 
What patriotic scientific men do object to 
is the possibility of having in the future to 
play second fiddle to scientific men in 
other lands, not because they are in any way 
inferior, but because they were unable to 
carry on their work. 

In this country we do not have a Fiihrer 
who can dictate what science may or may 
not do, and we do not want one. Neither 
do we have a group of powerful noblemen 
to chart a course for us. We do not want 
them either. At the same time, we have no 
desire to be outdone by countries domi- 
nated by these human phenomena. 

In this country, progress in any line of 
science is mainly dependent upon the will- 
ingness of the people to support work in 
that particular line which, in turn, is de- 
pendent upon popular interest and appreci- 
ation. 

We have among us at the present time 
very many people who are by no means 
science-minded. Their attitude varies all 
the way from passive superciliousness to 
outspoken hostility. Not a few go so far as 
to say that science is the cause of the 
present war, such people being the spiritual 
descendents of those who, a little over a 
hundred years ago, tried to suppress the 
friction match on the ground that it would 
stimulate the activity of fire-bugs. Many in 
our country districts have their own pecul- 
iar ideas about the moon and stars, ideas 
in regard to which they are exceedingly 
sensitive, while in the cities many are very 
supercilious regarding the value of ento- 
mology except, perhaps, when it comes to 
discouraging the activities of bed bugs. 

We who are engaged in scientific work, 
and who understand its importance in the 
general complex of present-day human af- 
fairs, often fail to realize how recently 
science has been able more or less success- 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


fully to overcome various forms of popular 
prejudice and to secure the favor of a very 
large section of the general public. 

The present popular attitude toward sci- 
ence can not properly be understood with- 
out some knowledge of the public attitude 
in the more or less recent past. I propose 
therefore to digress for a moment in order 
to indicate briefly the changes that have 
taken place here and in England since the 
early days of the settlement of the country. 
At that time, in the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth, Galileo was still a student at the 
University of Pisa, Tycho Brahe had just 
completed his observatory, and Paracelsus 
and Agricola only recently had died. In 
those days science was almost wholly in- 
cluded in the subject of theology, and 
scientific work was restricted within narrow 
bounds by the dogmas of the theologians. 
In the words of the Marquess of Salisbury 
science was “the knowledge gained not by 
external observation, but by mere reflection. 
The student’s microscope was turned in- 
ward upon the recesses of his own brain; 
and when the supply of facts and realities 
failed, as it very speedily did, the scientific 
imagination was not wanting to furnish 
to successive generations an interminable 
series of conflicting speculations.” 

For some time there had been a growing 
restiveness against the restrictions placed 
on scientific investigations by the theo- 
logians. This restiveness began to take the 
form of concerted action in the first half 
of the seventeenth century. As early as the 
reign of Charles I, about 1645, there ex- 
isted in England an organization referred 
to by the Hon. Robert Boyle, seventh son 
of the first Earl of Cork, as the “Invisible 
College.’ This “‘Invisible College’’ was first 
suggested by Theodor Haak (or Hank), a 
German from the Palatinate, then resident 
in London. It consisted of weekly meetings 
at which the results of experimental work 
in philosophy, in its broad sense, were dis- 
cussed. This was rather an unorthodox 
procedure for the time, but those who 
attended the meetings were among the 
ablest men of England, and included theo- 
logians as well as others. One of the theo- 
logians was Dr. John Wilkins, afterward 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


Bishop of Chester, who had married Rob- 
ena, sister of Oliver Cromwell. Another 
participant was Sir Christopher Wren, who 
later laid down the plan for the College of 
William and Mary. 

According to Dr. Cromwell Mortimer, 
‘had not the Civil Wars happily ended as 
they did, Mr. Boyle and Dr. Wilkins, with 
several other learned men, would have left 
England, and, out of esteem for the most 
excellent and valuable Governor, John 
Winthrop the younger, would have retir’d 
to his new-born Colony [Connecticut] and 
there have established that Society for pro- 
moting Natural Knowledge, which those 
Gentlemen had formed, as it were, in 
Embryo among themselves.”’ 

Emigration to America was, however, 
forestalled. On November 28, 1660, the 
“Invisible College’? became visible as ‘“The 
Royal Society of London for Improving 
Natural Knowledge.’ On the Wednesday 
following, word was brought that King 
Charles II approved the design of the 
meetings; in October, 1661, the King offered 
to be entered one of the Society; and in the 
next year the Society was incorporated un- 
der the name of the Royal Society, the first 
charter of incorporation passing the Great 
Seal on July 15, 1662. 

Although the Royal Society remained in 
England, both the College of William and 
Mary and Harvard College received con- 
siderable amounts of money from the estate 
of the Hon. Mr. Boyle after his death in 
January 1691-92. 

Science now began to assume a new 
aspect. Charles II had in effect declared 
that there is nothing irreligious in reporting 
facts. So records of observed facts and their 
interpretation in the light of other facts 
began to supersede introspection in which 
the aid of facts was regarded as super- 
fluous, combined with interminable com- 
mentaries on the works of Aristotle. 

Following the Restoration, science in 
England became largely an occupation of 
the aristocratic and the wealthy and for 
the most part was followed along lines that 
had little or no economic application. In 
the public mind it came to be identified 
more or less completely with the aristocracy 


Fes. 15, 1942 


and to be regarded as partaking of the same 
aloofness from the general run of human 
affairs that characterized the social life 
of the upper classes. The natural result of 
this was that when, in the Victorian era, 
the champions of the lower classes began 
to gain a considerable following, they, or 
at least many of them, attacked science as 
one of the perquisites of the aristocracy. 
This attitude is well illustrated by Charles 
Dickens’s ‘‘Mudfog Papers’ published on 
the occasion of the first meeting of the 
British Association for the Advancement of 
Science. 

Since that time science in England gradu- 
ally has come more and more into popular 
favor. Applied science has made rapid 
strides and is now quite as fully developed 
and as highly regarded as it is in any other 
land. The rise in the prestige of applied 
science, however, has not been accompanied 
by any noticeable decline in the popularity 
of pure science, so that here we find the 
two types advancing side by side inmore 
or less ideal balance. But, unfortunately, 
science in England still does not have the 
complete confidence of the public, and is 
not by any means free from neglect, dis- 
paragement, or even attack in the popular 
press. 

In this country the history of science has 
been somewhat different. In early colonial 
times scientific effort was devoted mainly 
to making known the natural resources of 
the new land, particularly the plant and 
animal life. But applied science early at- 
tracted the attention of the colonists. In 
1612 John Rolfe perfected a method of cur- 
ing tobacco so that it would reach England 
in good condition, and as early as 1617 Sam- 
uel Argall wrote that “ground wore out 
with maize will bring English grain.” 

In later colonial times applied science, 
especially in certain engineering branches, 
was systematically discouraged in the fear 
that the colonies might become competitors 
of the mother country in the production of 
manufactured goods. 

It was possibly partly as a reaction from 
this suppression that after the Revolution 
science stood high in the favor of the repre- 
sentatives of the American people, its most 


CLARK: SCIENCE AND WAR 37 


insistent and powerful advocates being 
Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Benjamin 
Franklin of Pennsylvania, and John Adams 
of Massachusetts. But it was some time 
before the new country was sufficiently well 
organized to enable the people to devote 
much thought to science. When they did, 
a spontaneous interest, taking various 
strange and crude forms, appeared, par- 
ticularly in the agricultural areas. This 
crude popular science—and pseudoscience 
—gradually became amalgamated with the 
more orthodox science of the schools and 
colleges, and we note, especially after the 
middle of the last century, an enormous ex- 
pansion of applied science in all forms, later 
very largely supported by Federal and State 
appropriations made possible by active and 
widespread interest among all the different 
groups in our population. 

In this country popular interest in science 
is twofold, arising both from the vista of 
economic betterment resulting from applied 
science, and from its appeal to the imagina- 
tion. We all like to look forward to the day 
when we shall be even more comfortable 
than we are now. But we all have a non- 
material side. We like to get away from the 
hard realities of every-day life and to con- 
template the unknown, and beyond that 
the unknowable. We all would like to know 
more about the world we live in. What 
would we find a few hundred miles down 
in the earth, or 20,000 feet below the sur- 
face of the sea? We would like to know more 
about the stars; are there any other worlds 
like ours? And what is it like in interstellar 
space? We would like to know more about 
ultimate human origins—indeed, about very 
many things concerning which our present 
information is vague and fragmentary. Now 
although popular interest in science is more 
general and more widespread in this coun- 
try than it is in any other, it tends to gravi- 
tate in these two directions, toward the 
directly economic and toward the mysteri- 
ous. Between these two extremes lies a 
broad intermediate field in which our people 
as a whole take little interest, but which is 
intensively cultivated elsewhere. This is 
the descriptive branch of pure science, the 
results of which are of no immediate eco- 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


nomic import and are not mysterious. 

Popular interest in science must not only 
be maintained, it must be increased if we 
are to hold our own in the years to come, 
for whether carried on under Government 
support or in endowed institutions of learn- 
ing, the full development of our scientific 
potentialities is dependent upon a sympa- 
thetic public attitude. In order to secure, to 
maintain, and to increase public interest in 
and sympathy toward scientific work, and 
to convert the still disconcertingly numer- 
ous unbelievers, it is essential that we con- 
tinually provide the public with news re- 
garding scientific progress in all lines of 
interest to them, from both the material 
and non-material or philosophical view- 
points. Such impersonal news is especially 
desirable in times of national emergency, 
when it can be made to serve as a welcome 
relief from distressing accounts of mortal 
combat. 

Fortunately in this respect we are in an 
excellent position. More and better science 
is carried in our daily press and other 
journals than in those of any other country, 
and science is less frequently disparaged 
and denounced here than elsewhere. There 
is still room for improvement, but never- 
theless conditions are reasonably satis- 
factory. For this we have chiefly to thank 
the National Association of Science Writers 
the members of which, in addition to know- 
ing science, know the public mind and are 
able to present the advances in science in 
terms everyone can understand. We are 
fortunate in having among the members of 
the Academy two of the outstanding mem- 
bers of this Association, Mr. Thomas R. 
Henry of the Evening Star (a past president) 
and Dr. Frank Thone of Science Service. 

Publicity for science is not of direct con- 
cern to the Academy, but I wish to bring 
to your attention the vital importance of 
this aspect of scientific activity—for sales- 
manship is as important for science as it is 
for everything else—and to urge you all to 
do everything you can to help in this es- 
sential work. 

Progress in science is possible only with 
the support of an interested and apprecia- 
tive public. It is also possible only through 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


the efforts of a carefully selected and ade- 
quately trained personnel. This is a matter 
that heretofore scarcely has received the 
attention it deserves. 

At the present time a very serious danger 
to our continued progress in science has 
arisen. This is the induction into the Army 
of many young men who would be of vastly 
greater value to the country if they were 
permitted to continue their studies, or to 
remain in research positions. The matter is 
further complicated by the fact that as a 
rule the most valuable of these young men 
are those most likely to enlist on their own 
initiative. 

After the last war there was a marked 
scarcity of able young scientific men. This 
was most noticeable, perhaps, in the bio- 
logical sciences, though it was more or less 
noticeable in other branches as well. Many 
promising young men were killed. Others, 
as a result of several years spent in the 
various armies, found themselves unable to 
make the necessary readjustment to scien- 
tific work. Still others tried to readjust 
themselves but were only partially success- 
ful. Breaking the thread of continuity of 
effort between the impressionable boy in 
the formative period and the mature man 
can not but result in a certain amount of 
dislocation. We are reminded of the old 
Berber proverb— 


Teaching boys is like ploughing earth, 
Teaching men is like ploughing rock, 
Teaching old men is like ploughing water. 


There are two ways out of this dilemma. 
Either the student may be placed on a de- 
ferred list so that he may be enabled to con- 
tinue his studies uninterruptedly, or he may 
be assisted in carrying on his work, to what- 
ever degree may be found practicable, while 
in the service. 

Many young botanists and zoologists 
would welcome an opportunity for collect- 
ing specimens and continuing their studies 
in regions new and strange to them. Such 
material as they collected could be sent 
home to be identified, or to be stored until 
their arrival. Activities of this nature car- 
ried on in their spare hours would go far 
toward overcoming that feeling of bore- 


Fes. 15, 1942 


dom that afflicts almost everyone stationed 
at an isolated army post or naval base, and 
there is no reason to believe that these ac- 
tivities would in any way detract from their 
military efficiency. 

It is not assumed that anything of this 
sort would be practicable with an army 
in the field, on ships at sea, or at certain 
naval bases. But there are numerous places 
where the men of our armed forces will be 
stationed with nothing but monotonous 
routine to occupy their minds and where 
such recreation would be both practicable 
and welcome. | 

Not only would this work benefit the 
men engaged in it; it would also go far to- 
ward filling many gaps in our knowledge of 
the distribution of animals and plants, and 
of other features connected with them, and 
I am sure that the curators of most of our 
larger museums and herbaria would be glad 
to cooperate and to encourage most cheer- 
fully the young men concerned. By such 
sympathetic assistance and encouragement 
the morale of many young men could be 
maintained, and the gap in the continuity 
of their work in their chosen field largely 
filled in. 

In army posts and naval bases a young 
zoologist or botanist who spends his spare 
time catching insects or pressing plants will 
at first be an object of ridicule to his as- 
sociates, both officers and men. His situa- 
tion, however, is by no means without 
precedent—and most honorable precedent. 
It may comfort him to realize that the 
world’s leading authority on the Hesperi- 
idae, a peculiarly difficult group of butter- 
flies especially characteristic of America, 
is Brigadier General William H. Evans of 
the Royal Engineers, while in the Royal 
Navy Rear Admiral Hubert Lynes is the 
leading authority on a very puzzling group 
of small African birds. Some time ago the 
collections of the British Museum were en- 
riched by a fine collection of butterflies 
presented by Captain Lord Byron. 

There are many military men, now as 
well as in the past, who have, or have had, 
biology as a hobby and have made notable 
contributions to the subject. In our own 
Army I may mention Colonel Thomas L. 


CLARK: SCIENCE AND WAR 39 


Casey, Colonel Wirt Robinson, Colonel 
Martin L. Crimmins, and Lieutenant Colo- 
nel Edgar A. Mearns, and there are many 
others. Looking at the matter in a more 
frivolous light, is a young man using his 
spare time to continue his studies, and at 
the same time to advance our knowledge of 
animals and plants, any more ridiculous 
than an ancient tough old sea-dog in the 
forecastle engaged in fine embroidery work 
with delicately colored silks, to the accom- 
paniment of blood-curdling oaths? 

A vast amount of such work has been 
done by the personnel of foreign armies and 
navies in the past, particularly by officers 
in the British services. In fact, at one time 
our own Navy assigned interested young 
officers to the Smithsonian Institution for 
instruction in the collection and preserva- 
tion of material. One of these young officers 
especially, Lieutenant William E. Safford, 
subsequently made notable contributions to 
the collections of the Institution. I see no 
reason why, in the interest of the mainte- 
nance of morale and of scientific progress, 
this procedure can not be revived and ex- 
tended to the enlisted personnel. 

Whether in its material or in its non- 
material aspects, progress in science is de- 
pendent upon the fostering of the scientific 
spirit. The scientific spirit is more than 
mere curiosity. It is an insatiable curiosity 
that impels one to learn everything that 
is known about a given subject, and then 
to go further and broaden and extend that 
knowledge by personal investigation and 
research, in spite of all difficulties and dis- 
couragements—and these are always many. 

The spirit of science is inborn, though it 
may appear in anybody, anywhere, in any 
class, or group, or race. We are fortunate in 
having a population in which the scientific 
spirit is widespread, though we have not 
always encouraged it as perhaps we should 
have done. We have encouraged it mainly 
in our graduate schools, and in them chiefly 
when it was directed toward some objective 
of more or less immediate economic interest. 

In order to develop the scientific spirit 
to the maximum, as it must be developed 
if we are to hold our place in the world of 
the future, we must watch for it at its in- 


40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ception, and whenever and wherever it is 
found encourage it. In the British Navy 
the average age of an officer at the time of 
entering the service is 125 years. By the 
time a young man has attained the grade 
of ensign his whole outlook on life has been 
aligned with the Navy tradition. Something 
comparable to this is needed in science. 
Naturally, many of the boys and girls who 
are enthusiastic about science in their 
school days later devote themselves to other 
lines of activity. But the time and energy 
spent in encouraging these will be more 
than repaid by the superior excellence of 
those who finally take up science as their 
life work. Besides, those who, interested in 
science in early youth, later enter some 
other field of activity will form the nucleus 
of a sympathetic background for those who 
make of science their career. 

Here we find a real opportunity for serv- 
ice on the part of the Academy. Some 
means should be devised whereby all the 
children in the local schools showing a spe- 
cial aptitude for science may be watched 
and their progress followed. If they show 
exceptional promise they should be en- 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


couraged and, if necessary, assisted in com- 
pleting their education in the most ad- 
vanced of our graduate schools. Already 
some of the State academies of science are 
performing this service to their communi- 
ties through junior academies of science, or 
through various science clubs, or through 
both combined. Why should the Washing- 
ton Academy of Sciences not undertake it? 

We are facing a long war, and a very 
serious war, a war that, to a far greater ex- 
tent than any previous war, will be fought 
on two fronts, in the field of arms and in 
the laboratory. Our enemies understand 
this thoroughly and are acting accordingly. 
We are building a military machine of sur- 
passing power and efficiency. We must at 
the same time build up a scientific personnel 
of corresponding power, efficiency, and 
morale, reinforced by a continuous and 
adequate flow of highly trained and thor- 
oughly competent replacements able to 
carry on successfully after the military 
phase of the struggle is ended. I ask you all, 
and each of you individually, to do all in 
your power toward making our scientific 
front invincible. 


PHYSICS.—A review of the methods for the absolute determination of the ohm.} 
Harvey L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. 


It is nearly half a century since the criti- 
cal review of Dorn? on the absolute deter- 
minations of the ohm was published. In 
that review, the methods then available 
were discussed and the results which had 
been obtained were analyzed. Since then 
the number of available methods has con- 
siderably increased, principally by the in- 
troduction of those that employ alternating 
currents. Some of the older methods, how- 
ever, are still very important, so that a 
complete review has been undertaken of all 
the determinations that have been made. 

The resistance of a conductor is, by Ohm’s 
law, the ratio of the potential difference at 
its terminals to the continuous current 
through it. If both the potential difference 


1 Received October 11, 1941. 
2 On the apparent value of the ohm. Wiss. Abh. 
PYLE 22257. 1895, 


and current are measured in terms of length, 
mass, time, and the permeability of a me- 
dium, the value of the resistance is in abso- 
lute units. However, most methods for the 
absolute determination of resistance avoid 
the direct measurement of either the poten- 
tial difference or the current, since only the 
ratio of these quantities is required. In 
many methods there is an induced electro- 
motive force that can be computed from the 
electromagnetic equations, and the current 
can be determined from its mechanical ef- 
fects. In such cases the equations for deter- 
mining the electromotive force and current 
can often be so combined that the resistance 
of a circuit, or of a portion of one, can be ob- 
tained without measuring either a current 
or potential difference. 

The various methods that have been used 
are classified in Chart I. Following each 


Fes. 15, 1942 


specific method there is given in the chart the 
name of the man who proposed it. In addi- 
tion to the chart a brief description is given 
of each method listed therein. Also there is 
usually given for each method an estimate 
of the accuracy that can be obtained by its 
use. 

Cuart I: A CLASSIFICATION OF THE 

Meruops ror ABSOLUTE MEASURE- 

MENT OF THE OHM? 


A. Calorimetric method (Joule). 
B. Methods involving an induced electro- 
motive force. 
I. Relative motion of a coil and magnet. 
1. Damping of a magnet (W. Weber). 
2. Rotation of a magnet (Lippman). 
3. Dropping of a magnet (Mengarine). 


II. Rotation of a coil in the earth’s mag- 
netic field (the earth inductor). 
1. Earth inductor with rotation 
through 180° (W. Weber). 
2. Earth inductor with uniform rota- 
tion. 

a. Earth inductor with separate 
tangent galvanometer (W. 
Weber). 

b. Combined earth inductor and 
tangent galvanometer (the re- 
volving coil of the B.A. Com- 
mittee) (Lord Kelvin). 


III. Nonuniform motion of a conductor in 
the magnetic field of a current. 
1. Damping of a vibrating coil (Net- 
tleton and Lewellyn). 
2. Displacement of a coil (Kirchhoff). 


IV. Uniform motion of a conductor in the 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 41 


magnetic field of a current (genera- 
tor with air-cored magnets). 
1. Commutating generator. 
a. Average value of generated elec- 
tromotive force (Rosa). — 
b. Maximum value of generated 
electromotive force (Lippman). 
2. Homopolar generator (Lorenz ap- 
paratus) (Lorenz). 


V. Varying currents in a mutual induc- 
tance. 
1. Transient currents (Rowland). 
2. Commutated currents. 


a. Sudden reversal of current 
(Roiti). 

b. Step-by-step reversal of current 
(Wenner). 

3. Sinusoidal currents. 

a. Intermediary capacitance 
(Campbell). 

b. Two mutual inductances (Camp- 
bell). - 

c. Two-phase measured currents 
(Campbell). 


d. Two mutual inductances with 
two-phase balanced currents 
(Wenner). 


VI. Varying currents in a self inductance. 
1. Transient currents (Maxwell). 
2. Commutated currents (Curtis). 
3. Sinusoidal currents. 

a. Intermediary capacitance cali- 
brated by a commutator 
bridge (Rosa). 

b. Intermediary capacitance cali- 
brated by a resonance bridge 
(Griineisen and Giebe). 


A. CALORIMETRIC METHOD (JOULE) 


The calorimetric method of determining 
the ohm was of great importance during the 
early days of absolute measurements, since 
the electromagnetic laws involved are very 
different from those used in any other 
method. It requires not only a determina- 

3'This chart is slightly modified from the one 
given in the book by the author on Electrical 


measurements, McGraw-Hill Book Co. In the 


book a few methods are discussed in considerable 
detail. 


tion of the heat generated by a current in a 
resistance, but also some measurement that 
will give the value of the current in absolute 
units. This measurement of current can be 
made with greater accuracy than a strictly 
mechanical determination of the mechan- 
ical equivalent of heat. Hence this method 
has generally been used to determine the 
mechanical equivalent of heat in terms of 
the electrical units of resistance and current. 


42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


B. METHODS INVOLVING AN INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 


The methods of determining resistance 
that involve an induced electromotive force 
may be divided into six general classes, de- 
pending on the method of inducing the elec- 
tromotive force. Each class may be divided 
and subdivided according to the type of ap- 
paratus used. 


I. RELATIVE MOTION OF A 
COIL AND MAGNET 


Three methods have been suggested in 
which an electromotive force is induced by 
moving a magnet with respect to a coil: 


1. Damping of a Magnet (W. Weber) 


A small magnet is pivoted or suspended 
at the center of a coil of wire of known di- 
mensions, the plane of which is vertical and 
lies in the direction of the reath’s field. The 
period and damping of the magnet are ob- 
served both when the circuit through the 
coil is open and when it is closed. The dif- 
ference in damping on open and closed cir- 
cuits is caused by the reaction on the mag- 
net of the current in the coil. This in turn 
depends on the electromotive force induced 
in the coil by the swinging magnet and on 
the resistance of its winding. The resistance 
of the coil is computed from the period and 
damping of the magnet, and the dimensions 
of the coil, without determining the induced 
electromotive force or the current. This 
method has been successfully used by sev- 
eral observers, one of whom claims a preci- 
sion of a part in 10,000. 


2. Rotation of a Magnet (Lippman) 


The maximum electromotive force in- 
duced in a coil by the rotation of a magnet is 
balanced against the drop in potential over 
a resistance in which there is a known cur- 
rent. This method seems incapable of giving 
results of high accuracy. 


3. Dropping of a Magnet (Mengarine) 


The dropping of a magnet through a coil 
induces an electromotive force in the coil 
and the current produced is a function of 
the resistance. The magnetic field of the 


current decreases the acceleration of the 
magnet. The resistance of the coil can be 
computed from the mass and strength of the 
magnet and its change in acceleration to- 
gether with the dimensions of the coil. While 
this method has been proposed, it does not 
appear to be capable of giving precise re- 
sults. 


II. ROTATION OF A COIL IN THE 
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD 
(THE EARTH INDUCTOR) 


In this class are included the methods in- 
volving an induced electromotive force that 
is produced by a coil rotating in the earth’s 
magnetic field. The rotation may be through 
180° only or it may be continuous. Both of 
these methods have been used by several 
investigators, each of whom has made some 
modifications of the original method as pro- 
posed by W. Weber. 


1. Earth Inductor with Rotation 
through 180° (W. Weber) 


The coil of an earth inductor is placed 
with its plane perpendicular to the horizon- 
tal component of the earth’s field and sud- 
denly rotated through 180°. The induced 
electromotive force causes a ballistic deflec- 
tion of the needle of a tangent galvanometer 
to which the coil is connected. The value of 
the earth’s field does not need to be known 
if it is the same at the earth inductor and at 
the galvanometer. The resistance of the cir- 
cuit which includes the coil and galvanom- 
eter is computed from their dimensions, and 
the period and damping of the galvanom- 
eter magnet. 


2. Earth Inductor with Uniform 
Rotation 


The uniform rotation of an earth inductor 
has two modifications. In one the rotating 
coil is connected to a tangent galvanometer 
through a commutator. The galvanometer 
measures the average value of the induced 
current. In the other the current induced in 
the rotating coil is measured by the deflec- 
tion of a magnet suspended at the center of 
the coil. 


Fes. 15, 1942 


a. Earth inductor with tangent galuanom- 
eter (W. Weber)—When a tangent gal- 
vanometer is employed with a uniformly ro- 
tating earth inductor having a commutator 
the current through the galvanometer does 
not change direction but varies from zero to 
a maximum. Consequently the galvanome- 
ter must measure the average current flow- 
ing through it. The resistance of the circuit 
including the rotating coil and galvanometer 
is determined from the rate of rotation of 
the coil and the dimensions of the revolving 
coil and of the coils of the tangent galva- 
nometer. 

b. Combined earth inductor and tangent 
galvanometer (the revolving coil of the B.A. 
Committee) (Lord Kelvin).—In_ combining 
the earth inductor with a galvanometer, a 
small magnetic needle is suspended at the 
center of a coil which rotates around a ver- 
tical axis. The induced electromotive force 
produced by rotating the coil in the earth’s 
field causes an alternating current in the 
coil, which reacts to produce a deflection of 
the needle. This deflection oscillates slightly 
but the oscillations are negligibly small if 
the time of a revolution is much less than 
the natural period of vibration of the mag- 
netic needle. Since the current is alternat- 
ing, its value depends on the inductance of 
the coil as well as on its resistance. 

The rotating coil method as just described 
was used in 1864 in establishing the B.A. 
unit, which was subsequently found to dif- 
fer from the absolute ohm by about 1.5 per 
cent. Since then much more accurate meas- 
urements have been made by this method, 
but in no case has the result been as accu- 
rate as a part in 10,000. 


III. NONUNIFORM MOTION OF A 
CONDUCTOR IN THE MAGNETIC 
FIELD OF A CURRENT 


This class of methods is similar to the pre- 
ceding except that a coil carrying a current 
replaces the magnet. 


1. Damping of a Vibrating Coil 
(Nettleton and Lewellyn) 
The secondary of a mutual inductor is so 


suspended that it can vibrate about an axis 
of symmetry, the zero position being the 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 43 


position for zero mutual inductance. With a 
steady current in the fixed coil, the period 
and damping of the vibrating coil, both on 
open and closed circuit, are measured. Then 
with this same current in the fixed coil, an- 
other current having a known ratio to the 
first is sent through the moving coil produc- 
ing a measured angular deflection. The 
mutual inductance is then computed for 
this angular position of the coils. This gives 
sufficient data for computing the resistance 
of the vibrating coil. The method has given 
results that do not appear to be in error by 
more than a few parts in 10,000. 


2. Displacement of a Coil (Kirchhoff) 


A moving coil is connected to a galva- 
nometer that can be used _ ballistically. 
There is a known current in a neighboring 
fixed coil. The moving coil is displaced sud- 
denly, giving a throw to the moving element 
of the galvanometer. The resistance of the 
circuit of which the galvanometer is a part 
is computed from the current in the station- 
ary coil, the dimensions of the coils, and the 
deflection and constants of the galvanom- 
eter. Kirchhoff displaced the coil by giving 
it a translation in the direction of its axis 
but most of the other experimenters have 
used a rotation. 

This is the first method ever used for the 
absolute measurement of resistance but is 
now of historical interest only. 


IV. UNIFORM MOTION OF A CONDUCTOR 
IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CUR- 
RENT (GENERATOR WITH AIR- 
CORED MAGNETS) 


The electromotive force of a generator, in 
which the magnetic field is produced by an 
iron-free coil and in which the armature has 
a simple geometric form, can be computed 
from the dimensions of the generator, the 
rate of motion of the armature, and the cur- 
rent in the coil. Three methods have been 
used for determining resistance as the ratio 
of the induced electromotive force to the 
current in the coil: 


1. Commutating Generator 


In the case of the commutating generator, 
a coil or coils rotate in the magnetic field of 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the generator, producing an alternating 
electromotive force in the rotating coil. The 
rotating coil is connected to the outside cir- 
cuit through a commutator so that in the 
outside circuit the current does not change 
direction. The basic principles involved in 
the commutating generator are excellent, 
but no satisfactory experimental test of 
either of the two modifications has been 
made. Either modification seems suitable 
for measurements of high precision. 

a. Average value of generated electromotive 
force (Rosa).—If the commutator is of such 
a type that the connections to the armature 
are reversed when the electromotive force is 
zero, the average value of the generated 
electromotive force must be balanced 
against the constant drop in potential over 
a resistance in series with the field coils of 
the generator. The essential measurements 
are the dimensions of the coils and the speed 
of rotation. 

b. Maximum value of generated electromo- 
tive force (Lippman).—This method requires 
a commutator of such a type that contact is 
made only when the generated electromo- 
tive force is a maximum. This maximum 
electromotive force can be balanced against 
the drop in potential over a resistance in se- 
ries with the field coils of the generator. The 
essential measurements are the same as in 
the preceding method. 


2. Homopolar Generator (Lorenz 
Apparatus) (Lorenz) 


A homopolar generator suitable for meas- 
uring the absolute value of a resistance is 
often called a Lorenz apparatus. It consists 
of an armature in the form of a disk whose 
axis coincides with the axes of the field coils 
of the generator. As an example, the disk 
may be concentric and coaxial with a long 
solenoid which has an inside diameter 
larger than that of the disk. When the disk 
rotates each of its radial elements cuts the 
magnetic field produced by the current in 
the solenoid. Hence there is an electromo- 
tive force between the axis and circum- 
ference of the disk that can be computed 
from the dimensions of the disk and sole- 
noid, the speed of rotation of the disk, and 
the current in the solenoid. This induced 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


electromotive force is balanced against the 
fall in potential in a resistance which is in 
series with the solenoid. The value of this 
resistance is thus obtained in absolute units. 

The Lorenz method has been used more 
often than any other, but it has inherent 
weaknesses, which are discussed in a later 
section. In the hands of skillful manipula- 
tors, an accuracy approaching 10 ppm may 
be obtained as the average of a considerable 
number of observations. 


V. VARYING CURRENTS IN A 
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE 


The ratio of the electromotive force in- 
duced in the secondary of a mutual inductor 
to the varying current in the primary can be 
employed to determine the absolute value 
of a resistance. The mutual inductor must 
be of such form that its inductance can be 
computed from its measured dimensions. 


1. Transient Currents (Rowland) 


A transient current is produced in the sec- 
ondary of a mutual inductor by opening or 
closing the circuit containing both the pri- 
mary and a constant electromotive force. 
During the time that the current is increas- 
ing or decreasing in the primary, an 
electromotive force is induced in the sec- 
ondary which depends on the mutual induc- 
tance and the rate of change of current in 
the primary. The secondary is connected to 
a ballistic galvanometer so that the integral 
of the current produces a deflection of the 
galvanometer which depends on the resist- 
ance of the circuit. 

Since this method depends on the reading 
of a deflection, results more accurate than a 
part in a thousand cannot be expected. This 
method has points of similarity with the 
method of Kirchhoff (III-2) in which one 
coil is displaced relatively to a second coil 
carrying a current. 


2. Commutated Currents 


A commutated current in a circuit con- 
taining the primary of a mutual inductance 
is obtained by periodically reversing the 
connections to the electromotive force. An 
alternating electromotive force is induced in 
the secondary of the mutual inductance. By 


Fer. 15, 1942 


means of a second commutator this becomes 
a series of unidirectional pulses in the ex- 
ternal circuit. The average or maximum 
value of this pulsating electromotive force is 
compared with the drop in potential over a 
standard of resistance in the circuit con- 
taining the primary. 

(a) Sudden reversal of current (Roiti).— 
The commutator may produce a sudden re- 
versal of the current in the primary so that 
the induced electromotive force in the 
secondary is, for each reversal, a short, in- 
tense pulse. The comparison of the average 
electromotive force in the secondary with 
the maximum potential difference across 
the resistance in the secondary is difficult. 

This method has some promise, but re- 
quires an extensive modification of the ex- 
perimental procedure that has been used 
before it can be expected to give results of 
precision. 

(b) Step-by-step reversal of current (Wen- 
ner).—The commutator and associated ap- 
paratus may be so designed that the current 
in the primary is increased and decreased in 
steps while the current through a standard 
resistor in the primary circuit is nearly con- 
stant during any half cycle. The induced 
electromotive force in the secondary is a 
series of small and frequent pulses. The 
total electromotive force in the secondary is 
made more uniform by introducing an elec- 
tromotive force produced by an induction 
generator and by the insertion in the 
secondary circuit of a large, iron-cored in- 
ductor. The fall in potential over the stand- 
ard resistor in the primary is balanced 
against the average electromotive force in 
the secondary. The electromotive forces in- 
troduced into the secondary by the gener- 
ator and the inductance do not affect the 
balance since the integral value of each is 
zero. 

A determination by this method is in 
progress at the National Bureau of Stand- 
ards and is giving results of the highest 
accuracy. 


8. Alternating Currents 


The use of alternating currents in precise 
electrical measurements has largely devel- 
oped in the last three or four decades, dur- 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 45 


ing which time very few absolute ohm 
determinations have been made. Several 
methods have been proposed and given at 
least a preliminary trial: 

(a) Intermediary capacitance (Campbell). 
—The use of an intermediary capacitance 
with a mutual inductance involves two 
different bridges, one of which uses alternat- 
ing current, the other pulsating current. In 
the alternating current bridge, the mutual 
inductance is measured in terms of a ca- 
pacitance and two resistances. In the pul- 
sating current bridge the same capacitance 
is measured in terms of a resistance, and the 
number of pulses per second. By combining 
the equations of the two bridges, the value 
of one resistance can be determined in terms 
of the mutual inductance, the number of 
pulses per second, and the ratio of two re- 
sistances. 

The simple theory of this method assumes 
that the capacitance has the same value for 
both methods of measurement and that the 
distributed capacitance of the mutual in- 
ductance produces a negligible effect on the 
computed result. The first assumption is 
justified if an air capacitor is employed but 
the second may introduce an error for some 
types of inductors. 

(b) Two mutual inductances (Campbell) — 
In the method involving two mutual in- 
ductances, the secondary of one is con- 
nected in series with the primary of the 
other. Then the electromotive force in the 
secondary of the one is balanced against a 
resistance in series with the primary of the 
other. A diagram of the electrical connec- 
tions is given in Fig. 1, by means of which 
the description of the method can be sim- 
plified. By different adjustments of resist- 
ances and inductances, the current in either 
the upper or the lower circuit of the right- 
hand portion of the diagram can be made 
zero at every instant. In either case, the 
product of two resistances in these circuits 
is proportional to the product of the square 
of the frequency of the alternating current 
and of the values of two inductances. The 
method is very direct, but the corrections 
for the inductances of the resistors are not 
easy to evaluate. An accuracy of a few parts 
in a million may be attainable. 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


(c) Two-phase measured currents (Camp- 
bell)—By using a two-phase, alternating 
current circuit, the electromotive force in 
the secondary of a mutual inductance hav- 
ing its primary in one phase can be balanced 
against the drop in potential over a resist- 
ance in the second phase. The currents in 
the two phases have a phase difference of 
90° so that the induced electromotive force 
in the secondary of the mutual inductor can 
be made equal, at every instant, to the drop 
in potential over the resistance. The resist- 
ance is determined in terms of the fre- 
quency, the mutual inductance, and the 


Fig. 1—The method of Albert Campbell, which 
employs two mutual inductors in series. As orig- 
inally described, the resistances R; and R, and 
mutual inductances M; and M2 are adjusted to 
make the current zero in the lower loop of the 
right-hand side. In the modification by Picard, 
the adjustments are so made that the current is 
zero in the upper loop. 


ratio of the effective values of the currents, 
which is obtained by the direct measure- 
ment of the current in each phase. These 
currents can not be measured with high pre- 
cision, so that an accuracy of a part in 
10,000 is all that can be expected of this 
method. 

(d) Two mutual inductances with two- 
phase balanced currents (Wenner).—Two 
mutual inductances can be so used in a two- 
phase, alternating current circuit that the 
currents do not need to be measured, pro- 
vided a double balance is employed. The 
primary of one inductor is in one of the 
phases of the alternating current, and that 
of the other inductor in the opposite phase. 
The electromotive force in the secondary of 
each mutual inductance is balanced against 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


the drop of potential in a resistance in the 
circuit of the opposite phase. The arrange- 
ment is symmetrical as shown by the dia- 
gram of Fig. 2. The product of the two re- 
sistances 1s proportional to the square of the 
frequency and to the product of the two 
mutual inductances. The method has never 
been given an experimental test but appears 


YOQO) Q 


Fig. 2.—The two-phase method using two 
mutual inductances and requiring two balances. 
The two windings A; and A: in the armature of a 
generator produce alternating electromotive 
forces which differ in phase by 90°. The resist- 
ances R; and R2, and the mutual inductances My 
and M2, are adjusted until there is no deflection 
ef either of the vibration galvanometers G; and 

Qe 


capable of giving results of the highest 
accuracy. 


VI. VARYING CURRENTS IN A 
SELF INDUCTANCE 


Self inductance methods that employ a 
varying current can be classified according 
to the kind of current employed, such as 
transient current, commutated current, and 
alternating current. Regardless of the kind 
of current, the method involves the use of a 
self inductor of such form that its induct- 
ance can be computed from its mechanical 
dimensions. A single-layer solenoid wound 
with round wire makes a suitable self in- 
ductor, as it can be precisely constructed 
and accurately measured, and as exact 
formulas for the calculation of its induct- 


Fes. 15, 1942 


ance are available. Since no other form so 
well fulfills all essential requirements, the 
single-layer solenoid has been exclusively 
used in recent determinations of the abso- 
lute value of the ohm where a self induct- 
ance is involved. 


1. Transient Currents (Maxwell) 


To employ transient currents with a self 
inductance, the inductor is placed in one 
arm of a Wheatstone bridge. There is a key 
in the battery arm and another in the 
galvanometer arm. The galvanometer is of 
the ballistic type. With both keys closed, 
the bridge is balanced. Then the key in the 
battery arm is opened, producing a ballistic 
deflection of the galvanometer. From the 
period of the galvanometer, the self induct- 
ance of the inductor, and the ratio of the 
resistances in two of the bridge arms, the 
absolute resistance of a third arm in the 
bridge can be determined. This method is 
of historic interest only. 


2. Commutated Currents (Curtis) 


The use of commutated currents in con- 
nection with a self inductance for the ab- 
solute measurement of a resistance requires 
a balanced Wheatstone bridge with one 
commutator in the battery circuit and 
another in the galvanometer circuit; the 
two commutators having a phase difference 
of approximately 90°. A pulsating current 
is produced in the galvanometer. A second 
Wheatstone bridge can be employed to 
send, through the galvanometer, a direct 
current which just balances the integral 
value of the pulsating current. The value of 
the sum of two resistances is determined in 
terms of a self inductance, a time, the ratio 
of two electromotive forces, and the ratio of 
two resistances. The method appears to be 
capable of giving results of the highest 
accuracy. 

8. Sinusoidal Currents 


All the methods so far proposed for the 
use of sinusoidal currents with a self in- 
ductance have involved the use of an 
intermediary capacitance. With such a ca- 
pacitance, two entirely independent meas- 
urements must be made, one to measure a 
resistance in terms of inductance and ca- 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 47 


pacitance, and the second to determine this 
capacitance in terms of resistance and time. 
From the two results, the resistance in 
terms of inductance and time can be com- 
puted. 

a. Intermediary capacitance calibrated by 
a commutator bridge (Rosa).—The method 
requires two bridges; one an alternating 
current bridge to measure the self induct- 
ance in terms of a capacitance and two re- 
sistances, the other a pulsating current 
bridge for measuring the same capacitance 
in terms of resistance and time. By elimi- 
nating the capacitance from the equations 
of the two bridges, the resistance of one 
arm is given in terms of the self inductance, 
the number of pulses per second, and two 
ratios of resistances. 

The simple theory of this method as- 
sumes that the residual inductances of the 
resistors in the alternating current bridge 
are negligible, and that the capacitance has 
the same value in the two bridges. To elimi- 
nate the effect of the residual inductances, 
there is substituted for the inductor a con- 
ductor of the same resistance but made 
from high resistivity material and having a 
form such that its inductance can be com- 
puted from its dimensions. In this way the 
effect of residual inductances in the resistors 
can be accurately evaluated. The capaci- 
tance has the same value in both bridges 
when the dielectric of the capacitor is either 
a vacuum or air. This method is capable of 
giving an accuracy of a few parts in a 
million. 

b. Intermediary capacitance calibrated by a 
resonance bridge (Griineisen and Giebe).— 
This method also requires two bridges, but 
both use alternating current. The first 
bridge is the same type as that used in the 
preceding method; the second is a resonance 
bridge in which the product of a capacitance 
and inductance is proportional to the re- 
ciprocal of the square of the frequency. The 
balance of a resonance bridge is affected by 
extraneous capacitances and by the wave 
form of the alternating current. While the 
fundamental principles of this method in- 
dicate that it should give a precise result, 
the experimental difficulties have not yet 
been overcome. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


DISCUSSION OF PRECISION METHODS 


There are great differences in the accuracy 
that can be obtained by the different meth- 
ods. At the present time an accuracy of ten 
parts in a million should be the goal in any 
absolute measurement of the ohm. The 
characteristics that a method must possess 
in order to give results of high precision are: 


1. The resistance to be measured must be 
that of a standard resistor having a 
low temperature coefficient. 

2. The method must be a null method or 
one in which galvanometer deflec- 
tions are only of secondary im- 
portance. 

3. The method must give the value of a 
resistance directly in terms of length, 
time, and permeability, without an 
absolute measurement of any derived 
quantity such as current, power, 
magnetic induction, or magnetic 
moment. 


Applying these requirements to the meth- 
ods that have been outlined, we see that 
they can not be satisfied by the calorimetric 
method (A), by the methods involving a 
magnet (B, I), by the methods making use 
of the earth’s magnetic field (B, II), by the 
methods using a nonuniform motion of a 
coil (B, III), or by methods requiring tran- 
sient currents in either a mutual or self in- 
ductance (B,V, 1, and B, VI, 1). Of the meth- 
ods that are not thus eliminated, there is 
only one, the homopolar generator of 
Lorenz (B, IV, 2), that does not use either 
commutated currents or alternating cur- 
rents. The discussion of precision methods 
will therefore be made under these headings 
rather than by following the order given in 
Chart I. 


1. THE HOMOPOLAR GENERATOR 


The homopolar generator of Lorenz (B, 
IV, 2), in which the electromotive force in- 
duced in a rotating disk by the magnetic 
field of a current is balanced against the fall 
in potential in a resistance carrying the 
current, fulfills all the requirements for a 
precision method enumerated in the pre- 


ceding section. However, there are certain 
experimental difficulties. The earth’s mag- 
netic field induces an electromotive force in 
the disk, which is added vectorially to that 
resulting from the current. This difficulty 
has usually been minimized by making the 
axis of the disk perpendicular to the direc- 
tion of the earth’s field. In the Lorenz ap- 
paratus of the National Physical Labora- 
tory two rotating disks are mounted near 
the ends of a long shaft. The magnetic field 
produced in one disk by the current in one 
set of coils has the opposite direction from 
the field produced in the other disk by the 
current in another set of coils. The electro- 
motive forces induced by the current have 
opposite directions in the two disks, while 
those induced by the earth’s field have the 
same direction. Hence, the sum of the elec- 
tromotive forces in the two disks is inde- 
pendent of the earth’s field. Another diffi- 
culty encountered when using a single disk 
is the impracticability of making a connec- 
tion at the center of a disk, but this is 
avoided by using two disks. An unsolved 
difficulty results from the heating produced 
by the friction of the brushes on the rotat- 
ing disk. This introduces into the circuit of 
the balancing galvanometer thermal elec- 
tromotive forces at the brushes. These 
thermal electromotive forces are very er- 
ratic and may be as large as several micro- 
volts, while the induced electromotive 
forces may be only a thousand times as 
large. The erratic deflections of the bal- 
ancing galvanometer must be integrated 
over a period of several minutes in order to 
estimate the balance point that the gal- 
vanometer would have if thermal electro- 
motive forces were absent. This apparatus 
at the National Physical Laboratory was 
used by Smith in 1912 and by Vigoureux in 
1936. Each claimed an accuracy of 20 ppm 
as the average of a large number of measure- 
ments. To improve on this accuracy, either 
the induced electromotive force would have 
to be increased or the thermal electro- 
motive forces decreased, without introduc- 
ing any other uncertainty. 


Fes. 15, 1942 


2. METHODS EMPLOYING COM- 
MUTATED CURRENTS 


Commutated currents or electromotive 
forces may be used in connection with a 
mutual inductance, a self inductance, or the 
armature of an air-cored generator. In the 
Lippman method (B, IV, 1, b) the maxi- 
mum value of an induced electromotive 
force is employed, while in all the other 
methods the average value is used. 

The Lippman method has some of the 
features of the Lorenz method. The im- 
portant difference is that the electromotive 
force is induced in a rotating coil. This coil 
may have a number of turns, so that the 
induced electromotive force may be so 
large that thermal electromotive forces are 
of no importance. However, the dimensions 
of the coil while rotating must be accurately 
determined. This method has not been used 
for 50 years, but with modern apparatus it 
should give results of the highest accuracy. 

The methods that measure the average 
value of the commutated currents (B, IV, 
1, a; B, V, 2; and B, VI, 2) or electromotive 
forces have the common difficulty that the 
current or electromotive force to be meas- 
ured is made unidirectional by a commu- 
tator that reverses the connections to the 
measuring apparatus when the current or 
electromotive force is exactly zero. The 
average value of the pulsating current or 
electromotive force resulting from the com- 
mutation must be compared with a con- 
stant current or electromotive force. Prob- 
ably this can be so well accomplished for all 
methods that employ commutated currents 
that each will give results of the highest 
accuracy. This has been definitely shown at 
the National Bureau of Standards by Wen- 
ner and associates for the method which 
uses a mutual inductance, but the details 
of the work have not yet been published. 


3. METHODS EMPLOYING ALTER- 
NATING CURRENTS 


Alternating current methods have, in 
recent years, been employed with both 
mutual and self inductances. At present, 
more research work is being done to perfect 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 49 


this class of methods than is the case with 
any other class. An important group in this 
class employs an intermediary capacitance 
which is used in an alternating current 
bridge with an inductance and also in a 
pulsating current bridge without the in- 
ductance. This requires that the capaci- 
tance have the same value in the two types 
of bridges. That this is a correct assumption 
for an air capacitor appears to be justified 
since measurements with different fre- 
quencies of alternating current and different 
rates of pulsation for the pulsating current 
give the same value of the inductance pro- 
vided the frequencies and the pulsations are 
so small that extraneous effects are negli- 
gible. 

Methods belonging to this group are 
being used at the Physicalisch-Technische 
Reichsanstalt of Germany, the Electro- 
technical Laboratory of Japan, and the 
National Bureau of Standards. Only two 
publications giving the details of the experi- 
mental procedure have appeared in the last 
decade. Both of these are by Curtis, Moon, 
and Sparks, of the National Bureau of 
Standards, who employed self inductances. 
The results obtained by using the three in- 
ductors described in their first paper showed 
discrepancies which apparently resulted 
from slight imperfections in the construc- 
tion of the inductance standards, although 
these standards gave evidence of being the 


equal of any that had been produced else- 


where. In the second paper, they describe a 
self inductor which has such uniform dimen- 
sions that the uncertainty in the computed 
inductance was much less than that for 
their previous inductors. The electrical 
measurements have been improved, so that 
the final result appears to be in error by 
only a few parts in a million. It seems prob- 
able that equally good results can be ob- 
tained with a mutual inductance, but 
Yoneda who is using one at the Electro- 
technical Laboratory has not yet published 
the details of his work. 

The method of Campbell (B, V, 3, b), 
which uses two mutual inductances (Fig. 1), 
requires a very stable frequency and an 
alternating current for which the wave form 


50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


is very nearly sinusoidal. In the form as 
originally proposed, some copper resist- 
ances have to be evaluated. Picard’s modi- 
fication avoids this difficulty, but requires 
the evaluation of both a self and a mutual 
inductance. In any case there are a number 
of correction terms depending on the re- 
sidual inductances of resistors and the ca- 
pacitances of each part of the apparatus to 
other parts and to earth. If the apparatus is 
suitably designed and properly operated, 
either modification of this method will give 
results of high accuracy. 

A determination was recently made at the 
National Physical Laboratory by Harts- 
horn and Astbury using Campbell’s origi- 
nal method. They estimate that the error in 
their electrical measurements is less than 
5 ppm, while there is an uncertainty in the 
value of the computed inductance of their 
standard mutual inductor of 10 ppm. A de- 
termination using the Picard modification 
has recently been made at the Laboratoire 
Central d’Electricité by Jouaust, Picard, 
and Héron. They had so much difficulty in 
constructing their inductor and in making 
precise mechanical measurements upon it 
that their result is not of high accuracy. 

Wenner’s two-phase method (B, V, 3, d) 
also seems capable of giving results of high 
accuracy. It requires the simultaneous bal- 
ancing of two circuits. (See Fig. 2.) The 
wave form of the current in both phases 
must be nearly sinusoidal, the frequency 
constant, and the phase angle between the 
currents must be known. It is a promising 
method that has never been given an ex- 
perimental test. 

In Table 1 is given in chronological order 
a list of all the important results on the 
absolute ohm. All results have been re- 
duced, when necessary, to the length of the 
mercury column, 1 mm? in cross section and 
maintained at 0°C., which would give a 
resistance of one absolute ohm. This reduc- 
tion has been necessary for many of the 
results that were obtained between 1875 
and 1885, when investigators usually gave 
the value of the B.A. unit in absolute ohms. 
These results have been converted to the 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


length of the standard mercury column by 
using the values obtained in contemporary 
measurements on the resistivity of mercury. 
Also the reduction has been required for all 
results obtained during the last two decades 
when investigators have expressed their re- 
sults in terms of the international ohm as 
maintained by their national laboratory. 
These results can readily be converted to 
mean international ohms as a result of the 
international comparisons that have been 
made at periodic intervals. The mean inter- 
national ohm is the mean of the units of the 
national laboratories. Hence, recent results 
have been reduced to the same basis as the 
earlier results by assuming that the mean 
international ohm is represented by a col- 
umn of mercury at 0°C., which has 1 mm? 
cross section’ and a length of 106.3000 cm. 

The bibliography included in this review 
has been prepared not only to give refer- 
ences to the different determinations but 
also to present the salient facts connected 
with the work. 

This paper is a historical study of an im- 
portant phase of physics. The question of 
the present relationship between the abso- 
lute ohm and international ohm has been 
intentionally omitted. The International 
Committee of Weights and Measures de- 
cided in 1939 that the most probable value 
of this relationship is 


1 mean international ohm 
= 1.00048 absolute ohms. 


A more definite value will be promulgated 
by this committee when conditions war- 
rant. A committee of the National Research 
Council has under consideration the ques- 
tion of reeommending a value to be used in 
the United States. 


4 The specifications for the mercury ohm as 
prepared by the Chicago Electrical Congress of 
1893 give the mass of mercury instead of the cross 
section of the tube. This was adopted because the 
cross section is experimentally determined from 
the mass and density of the mercury and the 
length of the tube. By specifying mass, a knowl- 
edge of the density of mercury and of the cross 
section of the tube is not required. However, the 
Congress intended that the cross section of the 
tube should be 1 mm?. 


Fes. 15, 1942 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 


51 


TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF ABSOLUTE DETERMINATIONS OF THE OHM 


Year 


1849 


1851 


1862 


1863 


1864 


1867 
1870 


1873 
1877 


1878 


1881 


1882 


1882 


1882 


1883 


1883 


1884 


1884 
1884 


1884 


1884 


1884 
1884 


1884 


1885 


1885 
1885 


1888 
1889 


1889 


1890 


Author 


Kirchhoff 
W. Weber 
W. Weber 
Maxwell, Stewart, 


Jenkin 


Maxwell, Stewart, 
Jenkin 


Joule 
Kohlrausch 


Lorenz 
H. F. Weber 


Rowland 

Rayleigh, Schuster 

Dorn 

Rayleigh 

H. Weber 

Glazebrook, Dodds, 
Sargent 

Rayleigh, Sidgwick 

Wiedemann ' 


H. F. Weber 
Himstedt 


Mascart, deNerville, 
and Benoit 


Roiti 


Wild 
Baille 


Rowland, Kimball 


Fletcher 


Lorenz 
Himstedt 


Kohlrausch 
Dorn 


Duncan, Wilkes, 
Hutchinson 
Wuilleumier 


Principle of method 


Displacement of a coil 


Earth inductor 
Damping of magnet 
Earth inductor 
Rotating coil in earth’s 
field 


As above 


Generation of heat 


Earth inductor 

Rotating disk 

Damping of magnet 

Mutual inductance with 
transient currents 

Generation of heat 

Mutual inductance, 
transient currents 

Rotating coil in earth’s 
field 

Damping of magnet 

Rotating coil in earth’s 
field 


Rotating coil in earth’s 
field 

Mutual inductance, 
transient currents 

Rotating disk 


Earth inductor 

Earth inductor 

Mutual inductance, 
commutated currents 

(Earth inductor 


ewe inductance 


transient currents 
Mutual inductance, 

commutated currents 
Damping of magnet 
Damping of magnet 


Mutual inductance, 
transient currents 

Rotating dise 

Generation of heat 


Rotating dise 

Mutual inductance 
commutated currents 

Damping of magnet 

Damping of magnet 


Rotating disk 
Commutating generator. 


Maximum electromo- 
tive force 


Results expressed in 
length of Hg column 
(em) having cross 


Number section of 1 mm? 
in chart uf 
Publish Deduced or 
ublished corrected 

33}, JOUL, 140 

133, 100, a 91 

133, 1h, J 91 

383, JO, i 98 

B, II, 2,b 105.02 

or 

104.70 

B, II, 2,b |} 104.56 104.86 

A 105.91 

133, JEL, al 102.9 

13, JOY, 107.1 

133, Il, i 104.79 

iB; Vi L 104.67 

A 104.71 

Br Viel 105.7 

1835 JUG, 2, 10) 105.8 

1335 1G, 105.46 

B, II, 2,b 106.23 

183, JOC, B51) 106.14 

1B, Wo 106.22 

B, IV, 2 106.214 

135 JUG, a 106.19 

B, II, 1 105.31 

18, Wo 2 105.98 

B, II, 1 106.33 

13, Wo 1 106.30 

1B, Wy 2 105.896 

B, I, 1 106.027 | 106.2 

183, 1 al 105.7 

1B We, a 106 .34 

B, IV, 2 106.32 

A 105.90 

18}, JOY) & 105.93 

B, V, 2 106.08 

13%, It, a 106.32 

1a}, Its a 106.248 | 106.245 

Belv 2 106.34 


B, IV, 1,b] 106.267 | 106.32 


Remarks 


Results expressed in terms of re- 
sistivity of copper. 


| Result expressed in Jacobi’s units. 


Authors give magnitude of differ- 
ence from 1864 result but not 
sign. 

Results used to establish the B.A. 
unit. Corrected value by Jenkin 
in 1871. 

Results expressed as 1 
unit =0.98953 ohm. 


B.A. 


A careful research. 
Result confirms that of B.A. Com- 
mittee. 


Results expressed as 1 B.A. 
ohm =0.9911 earth quadrant /sec. 

Author’s result 1 B.A. ohm =0.9893 
earth quadrant /sec. 


Author’s result 1 B.A. unit =0.98651 
earth quadrant /sec and 1 mereury 
unit =0.95418 B.A. unit. 

Result given as 1 B.A. unit =0.9877 
ohm. 

Result given as 1 B.A. unit =0.98665 
ohm. 

Also states 1 B.A. unit =0.98677 
10-9 C.G:S. 


Authors state that result with mu- 
tual inductance is the more reli- 
able. 


Corrected by Dorn. 
Estimated results accurate to 1 per 
cent. 


ciseaaesie results. 


Results expressed as 1 B.A. unit 
=0.9104 earth quadrant /sec. 


A very careful determination. Cor- 
rection by author. 

Also state: 1 B.A. 
ohm. 

Corrected by Leduc. 


unit =0.9863 


52 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF ABSOLUTE DETERMINATIONS OF THE OnHM—Continued 


Year 


1914 


1920 


1925 


1936 


1937 


1937 


1937 


1938 


1938 


1939 


1939 


Results expressed in 


length of Hg column 


(em) having cross 


Author Principle of method Number section of 1 mm? Remarks 
in chart 
Deduced or 
Published Sorrectod 
Jones Rotating disk ByiVe2 106.307 
Wiedemann Earth inductor Beet 106.265 | 106.249 Recomputed by Peter. 
Jones Rotating disk IB LV. 2 106.326 Estimates accuracy as 1 in 10,000. 
Himstedt Mutual inductance B, V, 2,a} 106.282 
commutated currents 
Ayrton, Jones Rotating disk Beer 106.274 Result expressed as 1 Board of 
Trade ohm =1.00026 true ohms. 
Guillet Mutual inductance, IBY Vi; 22251) 106220 
commutated currents 
Campbell Mutual inductance, 
sinusoidal currents Results in N.P.L. units. Author’s 
a. Two-phase B, V, 3, ¢ 106.327 estimate of error is 1 in 10,000. 
b. Intermediary con- | B, V, 3, a 106.329 Preliminary. 
denser 
Smith Rotating disk IB EVee2 106.245 Author’s estimate of error is 4 in 
100,000. 
Griineisen, Giebe Self inductance, sinu- | B, VI, 3,a| 106.246 Result given is 1 int ohm =1.00051 
soidal currents within- +0.00003 abs ohms 
termediary condenser 
Campbell Two mutual inductances | B, V, 3, b| 106.246 Author’s estimate of error is 1 in 
10,000. 
Curtis, Moon, Sparks | Self inductance with in- | B, VI, 3,a 106.2519 | Result expressed as 1 NBS int 
termediary  capaci- ohm ~1.000450 abs ohms. 
tance 
Vigoureux Rotating disk IBaiVeeo 106.2471 | Result expressed as 1 NPL int 
ohm =1.000495 abs ohms. 
Yoneda Mutual inductance with | B, V, 3, a 106.2506 | Result expressed as 1 ETL int 
intermediary capaci- ohm =1.000455 + 20 abs ohms. 
tance 
Hartshorn, Astbury | Two mutualinductances | B, V, 3, b 106.2464 | Result expressed as 1 NPL int 
in series ohm =1.000501 abs ohms. 
Jouaust, Picard, Two mutual inductances | B, V, 3, b 106.245 Result expressed as 1 LCE int 
Héron in series ohm =1.00052 abs ohms. 
Curtis, Moon, Sparks | Self inductance with in- | B, VI, 3,a 106.2488 | Result expressed as 1 NBS int 
termediary  capaci- ohm =1.000479 abs ohms. 
tance 
Zickner Self inductance with in- | B, VI, 3,a 106.241 Result expressed as 1 PTR int 
termediary  capaci- ohm =1.00051 abs ohms. 
tance 
Wenner, Thomas, Mutual inductance with | B, V, 2, b 106.2482 | Result expressed as 1 NBS int 


Cooter, Kotter 


commutated currents 


ohm =1.000485 abs ohms. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ABSOLUTE OHM MEASUREMENTS 
(All titles are given in English) 


1849. G. R. KircHHorr. 


Determination of the constant on which the 
intensity of the induced current depends. 
Ann. Phys. Chem. 76: 412. 


This is the first determination of a resist- 


unity if the unit of velocity is 1000 ft/sec 
and the unit of resistance is a copper wire of 
a square line cross section and a length of 
0.434 inch.’”’ The Prussian/foot =31.4 em. 
144 lines = 12 inches = 1 foot. 


1851. WILHELM WEBER. 


ance in terms of mechanical units and per- 
meability. The primary purpose of the article 
was to determine the permeability of air in 
terms of the resistivity of copper. The final 
e equals 


Measurements of electrical resistance ac- 
cording to an absolute standard. Ann. 
Phys. Chem. 82: 337. (Translated in 
Phil. Mag. (4) 22: 226. 261, 1861.) 


conclusion was, ‘‘The constant 


Fes. 15, 1942 


Outlined a complete system of electric 
units based on the mechanical units. Gave 
two methods for determining the absolute 
ohm; one the earth inductor rotating through 
180° and the other the damping of a magnet. 
The two results agree to 0.3 per cent. Re- 
sults were given in Jacobi’s units and have 
been reduced to the length of a mercury col- 
umn by values given in 1864 B.A. Report. 
See complete reference below (1863-64). 


1862. WILHELM WEBER. 


On electrical measurements. Abh. Math. 
Klasse Géttingen Ges. 10: 3. (Also 
printed separately under the title Zur 
Galvanometrie, Géttingen, 1862.) 


A very long article dealing with many 
phases of electrical measurements. States 
result on ohm (p. 58) as the Siemens stand- 
ard resistance =10257000 meter/second. If 
this refers to a Siemens Hinheit, then the 
length of the mercury column is 98 cms for 
an absolute ohm. The B.A. report of 1865 
gives the value as 96. The author notes the 
unsatisfactory state of resistance standards. 


1863-64. J. CLERK MAxwe.t, 
STEWART, and FLEMING JENKIN. 


Description of an experimental measure- 
ment of electrical resistance made at 
King’s College. Rep. British Assoc. 33: 
163, 1863; 34: 345. 1864. (Also in Re- 
ports of the Committee on Electrical 
Standards of B.A. edited by F. E. 
Smith, pp. 140, 166.) | 


Results used to establish the B.A. unit of 
resistance. Individual results differ by sev- 
eral per cent. There was an uncertainty of 
2 per cent in the mercury resistors then avail- 
able while the probable error of the 1864 
result was only 0.1 per cent. 


£50/. J. P. JouULE. 


Determination of the dynamical equivalent 
of heat from the thermal effect of electric 
currents. Rep. British Assoc. 37: 474. 
(Also in Reports of Electrical Standards 
Committee of B.A. p. 256, 1913; edited 
by F. E. Smith.) 


Makes experiments with both mechanical 
and electrical calorimeter. Does not empha- 
size the result on the ohm. 


BALFOUR 


1870. F. KoHLRAUSCH. 


Determination of the Siemens unit of re- 
sistance in absolute measure. Nachr. Ges. 
Wiss. Gottingen (abstract) 10: 513. 
(Also Ann. Phys. Chem., Erganzungs 
Band 6, p. 1, 1874; translation: Phil. 
Mag. (4) 47: 294, 342. 1874.) 


Uses the same apparatus as employed by 
W. Weber in 1862. Rowland, in Phil. Mag. (4) 
50: 161. 1875, suggested a modification of 
the theory which might change the result by 
2 per cent. 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 53 


1873. L. LoRENz. 


The electrical resistivity of mercury in abso- 
lute measure. Ann. Phys. Chem. 149: 
251. 


First use of the rotating disk as a homo- 
polar generator. The resistance measured, 
about 0.002 ohm, was too small to compare 
accurately with a mercury column 1 meter 
long. 


1877. H. F. WEBER. 


Electromagnetic and calorimetric absolute 
measurements: The absolute value of Sie- 
mens unit of resistance in electromag- 
netic measure; the relation between cur- 
rent-work and the _ heat-evolution in 
stationary galvanic currents; and the ab- 
solute values of some constant hydroelec- 
tromotive forces in electromagnetic meas- 
ure. Natur. Ges. Zurich, Vierteljahrsschr. 
22: 273. (Translation in Phil. Mag. (5) 
5: 30, 127, 189. 1878.) 


Used three methods and concluded that all 
gave the same result. His value agreed with 
that of the B.A. Committee. 


1878. Henry A. ROWLAND. 


Research on the absolute unit of resistance. 
Amer. Journ. Sci. 115: 281, 325, 430. 
(Also Collected Papers, p. 145.) 


First experimenter to show definitely that 
the B.A. unit was in error by more than 1 
per cent. 


1880. W. WEBER and F. ZOLLNER. 


An apparatus for use in absolute measure- 
ments in electrodynamics with practical 
applications. Ber. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. 
Math-Phys. Klasse 32: 77. 


Work interrupted by death of Zéllner. 
Completed in 1884 by G. Wiedemann. 


1881. Lorp RAYLEIGH and A. SCHUSTER. 


Determination of the ohm in absolute meas- 
ure. Proc. Roy. Soc. 32: 104. 


Used the method employed by Maxwell, 
Stewart, and Jenkin, with much of their 
apparatus. Improved method of obtaining 
inductance of coil. Used water motor for 
driving coil. 


1881. G. Carry Foster. 


Account of preliminary experiments on the 
determination of the ohm in absolute 
measure. British Assoc. Rep. 51: 428. 
(Also Reports of Committee on Electri- 
cal Standards, p. 296. 1913; Electrician 
7: 266. 1881.) 


Described a method in which the electro- 
motive force induced in a coil rotating in the 
earth’s field is balanced against the fall of 
potential of a known current in the resistance 
to be measured. Preliminary results check 
B.A. ohm. 


54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


1882. Lorp RAYLEIGH. 


Experiments to determine the value of the 
British Association unit of resistance in 
absolute measure. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 
173. (pte 2): 766. 


Used same method as in previous experi- 
ment but constructed new apparatus. Gave 
value in B.A. units. To convert to mercury 
column, see Rayleigh and Sidgwick on the 
Specific Resistance of Mercury, Proc. Roy. 
Soc. 34: p. 27. 1882. 


1882. G. LIPPMAN. 


The methods to be employed for the deter- 
mination of the ohm. Journ. Physique 
(@)) 305 asila}. 

Proposed a method for balancing the maxi- 
mum electromotive force of a continuously 
rotating earth inductor against the fall in 
potential in a resistance produced by a meas- 
ured current. No results. 


1882. J. JOUBERT. 


Method for determination of the ohm. 
Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 94: 1519. 


Suggested a method in which (1) the ef- 
fective electromotive force induced in a coil 
rotating in the earth’s field is measured by 
an electrometer, and (2) the drop in potential 
over a resistance through which a known 
current is flowing is measured by the same 
electrometer. No results. 


1882. HEINRICH WEBER. 


The rotation inductor, its theory and its use 
for the determination of the ohm in abso- 
lute measure. (Published in book form by 
Teubner, Leipzig, 1882, translated in 
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 174 (pt. 1): 223. 
1883.) 


Used a rotating coil in the earth’s field with 
axis horizontal. 


1882. E. Dorn. 


The determination of the Siemens unit im 
absolute measure. Ann. Phys. Chem. 
253: U3: 


Use a method that depended on the 
damping of a magnet. 


1882. A. RorTt. 
Method for the determination of the ohm. 
Atti. Ace. Sei. Torino 17: 588. (Also 
Nuovo Cimento 12: 60. 1882.) 


Outlined method for using a commutated 
current with a mutual inductance. No result. 


1883. R. T. GuazeBrook, J. M. Donpps, and 
K. B. SARGENT. 
Value of the British Association unit of 


resistance. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 174 
(pt. 1): 223. 


Worked under direction of Lord Rayleigh. 


VOL. 32, No. 2 


1883. Lorp RAYLEIGH and Mrs. H. Sipewick. 


Experiments, by the method of Lorenz, for 
the further determination of the absolute 
value of the British Association unit of 
resistance. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe. 174 
(pt. 1): 295. (Abstract in Proc. Roy. 
Soc. 34: 4388. 1883.) 


This research was very carefully planned 
and skillfully executed. 


1883. M. Brintuouin. 


Methods for the determination of the ohm. 
Comp. Rend. Acad. Sci. 96: 190. 


Suggested the use of alternating currents 
in connection with a mutual inductance. No 
results. 


1883. J. FROELICH. 


On the determination of the ohm by dynami- 
cal methods. Ann. Phys. Chem. 255: 106. 


Gave a rough outline of a method that in- 
volves the rotation of one coil with respect 
to another. The important contribution is a 
formula for computing mutual inductance. 


1884. G. WIEDEMANN. 


On the determination of the ohm. Abh. 
Berlin Akad., Phys. Kl., 3: 75. Lumiére 
Electrique 12: 419. 


Continued work of Weber and Zdllner 
(1880), which was interrupted by Zdéllner’s 
death. Value of 106.265 cm of mercury 
given in Abh. Berlin Akad. Corrected to 
106.19 in Lumiére Electrique. 


1884. H. F. WEBER. 


The absolute value of the Siemens mercury 
unit and the magnitude of the ohm in 
terms of a mercury column. (Published in 
book form by Zurcher & Furrer of 
Zurich.) 


Observed ballistic throw of a tangent 
galvanometer produced by the rotation of an 
earth inductor through 180°. 


1884. F. HImMstTepT. 


On a method for determining the ohm. Ann. 
Phys. Chem. 258: 281. 


Published a method of using a mutual in- — 
ductance with commutated currents but 
gave no result on the ohm. Fundamental 
principle same as that of Roiti. 


1884. M. Mascart, F. p—E NERVILLE, and R. 
BENOIT. 


Determination of the ohm and its value in 
terms of a column of mercury. Ann. Phys. ° 
Chem. (6) 6: 5. (Abstract in Journ. 
Physique (2) 3: 230. 1884.) 


Used two methods: One an earth inductor 
with galvanometer and the other a variable 
mutual inductor substituted for the earth 
inductor. 


Fes. 15, 1942 


1884. A. Rorrtt. 


Determination of the electrical resistance of 
a wire in absolute measure; preluminary 
note. Nuova Cim. (3) 15: 97. (Also Atti 
Acecad. Sci. Turino 19: 643. 1884.) 


Used a mutual inductance with com- 
mutated current. 


1884. G. MENGARINI. 


Method for the determination of the ohm in 
absolute measure. Atti Accad. Lincei (3) 
8: 318. 

Proposed a method by which the resistance 
of a horizontal coil may be measured from the 
decrease in acceleration of a magnet falling 
through the coil and the electrical energy 
induced in the coil. No results. 


1884. H. WIL. 


Determination of the value of the Siemens 
unit of resistance in absolute electromag- 
netic units. Ann. Phys. Chem. 259: 665. 
(Original publication in Trans. St. 
Petersburg Acad.) 

Original Value of 106.027 later corrected 
by per (Ann. Phys. Chem. 271: 273. 1888) 
O a2. 


1884. J. B. Barun. 


On the determination of the ohm by the 
method of the damping of a moving mag- 
net. Ann. Télégr. 11: 89, 131. 


1884. H. A. Rowxanp and A. S. KImBALu. 


Report in Philadelphia Electrical Con- 
gress, p. 41. 1884; Electrical World 6: 
27. 1885. 


Reporter’s account of Rowland’s paper 
before the British Association in La Lumiére 
Electrique 26: 188. 1887. Second article re- 
printed in Rowland’s Collected Works, p. 
239. A personal letter from one of Rowland’s 
assistants stated that, in disassembling the 
apparatus, Rowland discovered two pieces ot 
iron in the frames on which the coils were 
wound. That made him uncertain as to the 
results, so that only preliminary values have 
been published. 


1885. L. B. FuetcHer. 


A determination of the B.A. unit in terms of 
the mechanical equivalent of heat. Phil. 
ae (5) 20: 1; Amer. Journ. Sci. 130: 


7 


Work done at Johns Hopkins University, 
Baltimore, Md., using Rowland’s value of 
the mechanical equivalent of heat. 


1885. L. Lorenz. 


Determination of the electrical resistance of 
a mercury column in absolute electromag- 
netic units. Ann. Phys. Chem. 261: 1. 


Gave more attention to the mercury ohm 
| than to the absolute measurement. 


CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 55 


1885. F. HimstTept. 


A determination of the ohm. Ann. Phys. 
Chem. 262: 547. (Translation in Phil. 
Mag. (5) 20: 417. 1885; Sitz. Ber. Akad. 
Wiss. Berlin, pt. 2; 753. 1885. Correc- 
tions in Ann. Phys. Chem. 264: 338, 
1886; 267: 617. 1887.) 


Used same method as in 1884. Value of 
105.98 finally corrected to 106.08. 


1888. F. KoHLRAUSCH. 


On the electrical resistivity of mercury. Ann. 
Phys. Chem. 271: 700. (Also Collected 
Works, vol. 1, p. 773.) 


A very elaborate set of experiments giving 
considerable attention to the mercury ohm. 


1889. E. Dorn. 


A determination of the ohm. Ann. Phys. 
Chem. 272: 22, 398. 


A very elaborate determination with ob- 
servations running over more than a year. 
Compared resistances with the mercury ohm 
of Kohlrausch. 


1889. L. Duncan, G. WiILkzEs, and C. T. 
HUTCHINSON. 


A determination of the value of the B.A. unit 
of resistance in absolute measure by the 
method of Lorenz. Phil. Mag. (5) 28: 98. 


Used Rowland’s apparatus. Result in B.A. 
units and in terms of the mercury column as 
obtained from work of Hutchinson and 
Wilkes, Phil. Mag. (5) 28: 17. 1889. 


1890. M. H. WuILLEuMIER. 


Determination of the ohm by the electrody- 
namic method of M. Lippman. Journ. 
Phys. 9: 220. 


Rotated a coil inside a long solenoid, com- 
paring the maximum induced electromotive 
force with the drop in potential over a re- 
sistance in series with the solenoid. Leduc 
(Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 118: 1246. 1894) 
corrected result for finite length of solenoid. 


1890. J. V. JoNnzEs. 


On the determination of the specific re- 
sistance of mercury in absolute measure. 
Phil. Trans. 182: 1. 


Mercury contained in a paraffin trough. 
Method of rotating disk used for resistance 
measurements. 


1891. G. WIEDEMANN. 


On the determination of the ohm. Ann. Phys. 
Chem. 278: 227, 425. 


Completion of the work of W. Weber and 
Zoéllner for which there was a first report in 
1884. Peter (Ber. Versich. Akad. Wiss. Leipzig, 
Math.-phys. Kl., 46: 139. 1894) corrected 
result by considering finite cross section of 
coil of tangent galvanometer. 


56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


1894. J. V. JONES. 


On the determination of the international 
ohm in absolute measure. Rep. British 
Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1894, p. 123. (Also 
Rep. Comm. of B.A. on Electrical 
Standards, p. 489, 1913.) 


Used same apparatus as in 1890. 


1895. F. HIMSTEDT. 


On an absolute resistance measurement. Ann. 
Phys. Chem. 290: 305. 


Used a mutual inductance with commu- 
tated currents. Measured primary and sec- 
ondary currents by a tangent galvanometer. 
The mutual inductance consisted of a coil 
within a solenoid. Employed two solenoids 
and several coils. Results vary by a few 
parts in 10,000. : 


1897. W. E. Ayrton and J. V. JoNES. 


On a determination of the ohm made 1n test- 
ing the Lorenz apparatus of the McGull 
Unwersity, Montreal. Rep. British As- 
soc. Adv. Sci., 1897, p. 212. (Also Rep. 
Comm. of B.A. on Electrical Standards, 
po07 2191S.) 


Result expressed in Board of Trade ohms; 
was later reduced to mercury ohm by F. E. 


Smith (Coll. Res. of NPL 11: 209. 1914. — 


Reduction on p. 217). 


1899. A. GUILLET. 


Direct determination of an absolute kilohm. 
Journ. Physique (3) 8: 471. 


Commutated currents were used with a 
mutual inductance and differential galvano- 
meter. Apparatus poorly described. 


1908. E. B. Rosa. 


A new method for the absolute measurement 
of resistance. Bull. Bur. Standards 5: 
499, 


Gave theory of a method using a com- 
mutating generator. No results. 


1912. ALBERT CAMPBELL. 


On the determination of the absolute unit of 
resistance by alternating current methods. 
Proc. Roy. Soc. London 87: 391. 


Used mutual inductance with two differ- 
ent methods, (1) two-phase measured cur- 
rents, and (2) intermediary condenser. Pur- 
pose was to investigate methods rather than 
obtain an exact result. 


1914. F. E. Suirs. 


Absolute measurement of a resistance by a 
method based on that of Lorenz. Phil. 
Trans. Roy. Sci. 214-A: 27; NPL Coll. 
Res. 9: p. 209. 

This determination, made at the National 


Physical Laboratory, is more precise than 
any that preceded it. Every source of error 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


was checked. Almost simultaneously (see 
Report of National Physical Laboratory for 
1912, p. 39) a comparison of the resistance 
eas used was made with the mercury 
ohm. 


1920. E. GRUNEISEN and E. GIEBE. 


A new determination of the absolute unit of 
electrical resistance. Wiss. Abh. P.T.R. 
Charlottenburg 5: 1. 1921. (Abbreviated 
article in Ann. Phys. 368: 179. 1920.) 


A determination using self inductance and 
alternating current. Accuracy compares with 
that of Smith. Measurements completed in 
1914, but publication delayed by war. A 
direct comparison was made with Smith’s 
resistance standards. Result showed that the 
error of a mercury ohm determination is of 
the same order as the error in an absolute 
determination. 


1925. A. CAMPBELL. 


On the determination of resistance in terms 
of mutual inductance. Proc. Roy. Soe. 
London 107: 310. 


Simple experiments to test feasibility of 
the method that employs two mutual in- 
ductances in series. 


1936. H. L. Curtis, C. Moon, and C. M. 
SPARKS. 


An absolute determination of the ohm. 
Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 16: 1. 


Three different self inductors were used. 


1937. J. E. P. L. VigourEux. 


Determination of the ohm by the method of 
Lorenz. Coll. Res. NPL 24: 209. 1936-7. 


Used apparatus described by F. E. Smith 
(1914) but remeasured the mechanical di- 
mensions. 


1937. RINKICHI YONEDA. 


Absolute determination of electrical resist- 
ance. Proc. Verb. Comm. Int. Poids et 
Mes. (2) 18: 178. 


Used alternating currents with a mutual 
inductance. An intermediary capacitance 
was employed. 


1937. L. HartsHorn and N. F. Astsury. 


The absolute measurement of resistance by 
the method of Albert Campbell. Phil. 
Trans. Roy. Sci. 236A: 423. 


An extremely careful determination. Esti- 
mated uncertainty is 5 ppm for the electrical 
measurements and 10 ppm for the value of 
the computed inductance. There are numer- 
ous small corrections. 


1938. R. Jouaust, M. Picarp, and R. Héron. 


Determination of the unit of resistance in the 
CGS electromagnetic system. Bull. Soc. 
Franc. Elec. (5) 8: 1. 


Fes. 15, 1942 


An extensive investigation, but the ap- 
paratus available gave results accurate only 
to parts in a hundred thousand. Used Pic- 
eard’s modification of Campbell’s method 
(Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 189: 125. 1929). 


1938. H. L. Curtis, C. Moon, and C. M. 
SPARKS. 


A determination of the absolute ohm, using 
an wmproved self inductor. Journ. Res. 
Nat. Bur. Standards 21: 375. 


Used a self inductor of superior construc- 
tion. 


1939. G. ZICKNER. 


On the condition of the experiments for the 
determination of the international ohm in 
absolute units. MS. Report to the In- 
ternational Committee of Weights and 
Measures. Not yet published. 


ALICATA: TRANSMISSION OF ENDEMIC TYPHUS FEVER 57 


1939. F. Wenner, J. L. THomas, I. L. Cooter, 
and F. R. Korrer. 


Prelaminary report on the absolute measure- 
ment of a resistance based on the reversal 
of a direct current in a mutual inductance. 
A report sent to the International Com- 
mittee of Weights and Measures in 
December, 1938. 


Apparatus not described. 


1940. H. L. Curtis and L. W. Hartman. 


A dual bridge for the measurement of self 
inductance wn terms of resistance and 
time. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 
25 ule 


An experimental test of the method for 
using commutated currents with a self 
inductance. 


MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY.—Exzperimental transmission of endemic typhus 


fever by the sticktight flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea.! 


JOSEPH E. ALICATA, 


Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Hawaii. 


In 1931, Dyer, Rumreich, and Badger 
(1, 2) first demonstrated the natural infec- 
tion of the rat fleas Xenopsylla cheopis and 
Ceratophyllus fasciatus with endemic ty- 
phus. The fleas were collected from wild 
rats trapped at typhus foci in Baltimore, 
Md., and Savannah, Ga. In 1931 and 1932 
Dyer (3, 4) and collaborators were also able 
to demonstrate experimentally the suscepti- 
bility of these fleas to endemic typhus. In 
1932, Mooser and Castaneda (5) reported 
experimental transmission of this disease by 
the following fleas: Leptopsylla muscult, 
Ctenocephalus (=Ctenocephalides) felis, C. 
canis, and Pulex irritans. Blanc and Bal- 
tazard (6) also reported P. irritans as a 
carrier of endemic typhus. In 1933 Work- 
mann (7) reported the experimental trans- 
mission of endemic typhus by Xenopsylla 
astia. 

1 Published with the approval of the director 
as Technical Paper No. 93, Hawaii Agricultural 
Experiment Station. This study has been con- 
ducted through special funds appropriated by 
the Public Health Committee, Chamber of Com- 
merce of Honolulu. Received October 6, 1941. 

The writer is indebted to Drs. R. E. Dyer and 
N. H. Topping, of the National Institute of 
Health, U. 8. Public Health Service, Washington, 
D. C., for supplying the Wilmington strain of 
endemic typhus used in the experiments reported 
in this paper. Acknowledgment is made also to 
Dr. R. D. Lillie, of the National Institute of 


Health, for the histological examination of the 
’ brain of one of the experimental animals. 


The present paper deals with the experi- 
mental transmission of endemic typhus by 
the sticktight flea E'chidnophaga gallinacea. 
So far as is known to the writer, the sus- 
ceptibility of this flea to endemic typhus 
has not previously been reported.” The find- 
ing is of considerable interest in the Ha- 
waiian Islands since the flea is of common 
occurrence on rats as well as on dogs, cats, 
mongooses, and chickens. According to a 
survey conducted by Eskey (8), H#. galli- 
nacea has been found on 13 percent of the 
rats trapped in the city of Honolulu. This 
flea frequently infests rats in large number, 
Eskey having shown that about 52 percent 
of the fleas collected on rats of the island of 
Oahu were found to be sticktight fleas. 


EXPERIMENTAL DATA 


On April 12, 1941, about 150 sticktight 
fleas were obtained from the ears of a dog 
in Honolulu. In order to be assured of ab- 
sence of natural infection, 50 fleas were 
emulsified in physiological saline solution 


2 After this paper was sent to the editor, the 
writer noted a recent publication by Dr. G. D. 
Brigham (Pub. Health Rep. 56(86): 1803-1804. 
Sept. 5, 1941) reporting the recovery of typhus 
virus from sticktight fleas (EZ. gallinacea) removed 
from two rats collected in Georgia. This report 
adds to the public health importance of these 
fleas. 


58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and injected intraperitoneally into two 
guinea pigs. Neither of these animals de- 
veloped any signs of typhus fever during a 
period of two weeks, nor was either found 
immune following experimental inoculation 
with a known endemic typhus virus (Wil- 
mington strain) obtained from National 
Institute of Health, U. 8. Public Health 
Service. The remaining fleas were placed on 
the body of a white rat freshly inoculated 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


were placed into a small test tube overnight. 
The following morning the fleas and eggs 
were removed from the test tube, and all 
the feces of the fleas found adhering to the 
walls of the test tube were taken up in 
saline solution and inoculated intraperi- 
toneally into a male guinea pig (No. 53). 
At the same time all the fleas were emulsi- 
fied in saline solution and inoculated intra- 
peritoneally into a male guinea pig (No. 54). 


4—Days-i 2 


Guinea pig 53 


k 


lnvolvement 


Guinea Pig 68 


Scrofa/ 


involvement A 


k 


(Shaded areas denote fever ) 


thvolverment’ 


Fresh guinea pig 113 


Scrofa/ 
srvolyernent A 


Fig. 1.—Cross immunity test: Daily temperature records of (A) guinea 
pigs inoculated with virus recovered from the sticktight fleas; (B) guinea 


pigs inoculated with the known 
strain). 


with 2.5 cc of testicular washings from a 
guinea pig experimentally infected with the 
Wilmington strain of endemic typhus. Two 
guinea-pig controls, injected with the same 
inoculation, developed typical fever and 
scrotal reaction. 

Most of the fleas that were placed on the 
rat attached themselves in a short time to 
various parts of the body particularly 
around the ears, eyes, and face. Thirteen 
days after the experimental infestation the 
rat was killed by a blow on the head, and 
82 fleas were carefully removed. These fleas 


endemic typhus virus (Wilmington 


A few days after these inoculations, both 
guinea pigs developed clinical typhus. 
Guinea pig 53 was later found to be im- 
mune when inoculated with the Wilmington 
strain of endemic typhus (Fig. 1). Guinea 
pig 54 (first generation) was killed on the 
second day of fever and testicular involve- 
ment, and testicular washings from this 
animal were inoculated into guinea pig 57 
(second generation). From this animal the 
strain was passed to three guinea pigs, 68, 
69, and 70 (third generation), and later the 
strain was passed from guinea pig 69 to 


Fes. 15, 1942 


guinea pig 97 (fourth generation). All the 
guinea pigs involved in the passage of the 
virus developed clinical endemic typhus. 
One of the animals (No. 68) of the third 
generation was then tested for suscepti- 
bility to endemic typhus and was found 
immune. Blood cultures made from the 
guinea pigs were uniformly negative. Scrap- 
ings from the tunica vaginalis of these ani- 
mals also revealed intracellular rickettsial 
bodies. 


39 Serofa/ 
/avolvernen? 


_ (Shaded areas denote fever ) 


ALICATA: TRANSMISSION OF ENDEMIC TYPHUS FEVER 59 


“4 Days 


~ 


no agglutination in any dilution; second 
week, complete agglutination (four plus) in 
the 1:10 and 1:20 dilutions and partial 
(two plus) in the 1:40 dilution. Third week, 
complete agglutination in 1:10, partial (two 
plus) in 1:20, and traces (one plus) in 1:40. 
Fourth week, complete agglutination (three 
plus) in 1:10 and traces (one plus) in 1:20. 

The brain of one of the guinea pigs (No. 
70) reported in these experiments was sub- 
mitted to Dr. R. D. Lillie, of the National 


Fresh guinea pig 68 


Serota/ 


17 Vehenina 


K 


Fresh guinea pig 69 


Scrota/ 4 
iavoherrent 
Fresh guinea pig 70 


Scrofa/ 


Involyement 


_Fig. 2.—Cross immunity test: Daily temperature records of (A) guinea 
pig inoculated with the known endemic typhus virus (Wilmington strain); 
(B) guinea pigs inoculated with the virus recovered from the sticktight 


fleas. 


As indicated in Figs. 1 and 2, cross-im- 
munity tests were found to be complete 
between the flea strain of virus and that 
of the known endemic typhus (Wilmington 
strain). 

A rabbit was inoculated with testicular 
washings from guinea pig 97 infested with 
the flea strain of virus. The rabbit was 
tested at weekly intervals for the presence 
of B. proteus OXi agglutinins in the serum, 
and the following results were obtained: 
Just before inoculation and one week later, 


Institute of Health, Washington, D. C., for 
histological examination. Sections from this 
brain revealed lesions which in type and 
distribution were consistent with typhus 
infection. 


SUMMARY 


The virus of endemic typhus (Wilming- 
ton strain) has been successfully transferred 
to sticktight fleas as a result of allowing the 
fleas to feed on an experimentally infected 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


rat. An emulsion of the feces of these fleas 
and an emulsion of the body of these fleas 
produced clinical typhus when inoculated 
into guinea pigs. 

Clear cut cross-immunity has been shown 
in guinea pigs inoculated with the virus 
from the fleas and with a known endemic 
typhus virus (Wilmington strain). 

Histological examination of the brain of 
one of the guinea pigs inoculated with the 
strain of virus recovered from the fleas re- 
vealed characteristic lesions of typhus 
fever. 

Agglutinins for B. proteus OX: 9 were 
demonstrated in the serum of a rabbit 
inoculated with the strain of virus recovered 
from the fleas. 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Dyrr, R. E., Rumretcu, A., and BapGEr, 
L. F. Publ. Health Rep. 46: 334. 1931. 

2. Dyrr, R. E., Rumreicn, A., and BADGER, 
L. F. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. 97: 589. 
1931. 

3. Dyer, R. E., Cenar, Eo Tiere 
RumreticuH, A., and Bapcer, L. F. Publ. 
Health Rep. 46: 2481. 1931. 

4. Dysr, R. E., Worxmann, W. G., BADGER, 
L. F., and Rumreicu, A. Publ. Health 
Rep. 47: 931. 1932. 

5. Mooser, H., and Castanepa, M.R. Journ. 
Exp. Med. 55: 307. 1932. 


6. Buanc, G., and BautTazarp, M. Compt. 
Rend. Soc. Biol. 124: 1058. 1937. 

7. WorKMANN, W.G. Publ. Health Rep. 48: 
(ORY ISB EY j 

8. Eskny, C. R. Publ. Health Bull. 213, 70 
pp. 1934. 


ZOOLOGY .—Description of a new genus and species of copepod parasitic in a ship- 
worm. CHARLES BRANCH WILSON, State Teachers College, Westfield, Mass.' 
(Communicated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.) 


So far as known, the first internal cope- 
pod parasites reported from the shipworm, 
Teredo, are some that were discovered by 
Dr. C. H. Edmondson, of the University of 
Hawaii, in the course of a study of ship- 
worms taken from Honolulu Harbor. In 
view of the large number of Teredos that 
have been handled in the course of many 
studies of these destructive mollusks, the 
copepod parasite here described can not be 
very common or it would have been found 
before. Concerning its occurrence, Dr. Ed- 
mondson has written me as follows: 

“The copepod was first observed during 
the fall of 1939, when fully 75 percent of the 
specimens of Teredo millert Dall, Bartsch, 
and Rehder, 1938 (B. P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 
153: 209, 210) over 30 mm in length re- 
covered from Honolulu Harbor were found 
to be parasitized. The parasite has appeared 
in shipworms at three additional localities 
about Oahu, and also in Hilo Harbor, 
Hawaii, and at Kahului, Maui. 

“Six shipworms, five species of Teredo 
and one of Bankia, in Hawaiian waters are 
known to serve as hosts of the parasite. 

1 Dr. Wilson completed this paper some months 


before his death on August 18, 1941. Received 
October 28, 1941. 


“The female clings tightly to the lining of 
the infrabranchial cavity of the host by 
means of stout, sharp mouthparts, while the 
male is likely to be unattached in the cavity 
and when released from the host is capable 
of swimming quite freely. Because of the 
greatly inflated body the female is capable 
of but slight movement when detached 
from the shipworm.” 


Teredicola, new genus? 


Diagnosis—Female: First three thoracic seg- 
ments enlarged and fused with the head into a 
cylindrical body. Fourth and fifth segments 
abruptly reduced in length and width; genital 
segment about as large as the fifth segment; 
abdomen 3-segmented; caudal rami slender 
rods, each tipped with two setae. Ovisacs as 
long as the enlarged anterior body; eggs minute 
and numerous. 

Male: Much smaller than the female, first 
segment only fused with the head, the others 
free. The first four segments with lateral plates 
diminishing in size backward. Abdomen 4-seg- 
mented, segments about equal in size. First 
antennae 6-segmented; second antennae 2- 
segmented, prehensile; maxilliped one stout 


2 Dr. Wilson did not specify the family for this 
genus, but in correspondence with Dr. 
son he mentioned that it “evidently belongs to 
the family Clausidiidae which includes many of 
the Cyclopoida that infest annelids and mol- 
lusks.”—W.L.S. 


dmond- | 


Fes. 15, 1942 


a 


segment tipped with a claw. Two pairs of 
swimming legs biramose, rami equal and 2-seg- 
mented. 

Genotype.—Teredicola typica. 


Teredicola typica, new species 
Fig. 1, a-h 


Description —Female: First three thoracic 
segments more or less fused with the head and 
with one another to form a cylindrical body a 
little more than twice as long as wide. Fourth 
and fifth segments reduced to a third of the 
width of the first and second segments, the 
fifth segment twice as long as the fourth. Geni- 
tal segment about the same size as the fifth 


WILSON: A NEW COPEPOD PARASITIC IN A SHIPWORM 61 


¢ h 


Fig. 1.—Teredicola typica, new species: a, Dorsal view of female; b, first antenna 
of female; c, second antenna of female; d, maxilliped of female; e, f, first and second 
legs of female; g, dorsal view of male; h, first antenna of male. 


segment and subspherical in form. Abdomen 
3-segmented, the first and third segments about 
the same width and length, the second segment 
shorter and a trifle narrower. Caudal rami nar- 
row cylindrical, as long as the anal segment and 
widely divergent, each with two terminal 
setae as long as the ramus itself. 

First antennae 6-segmented, the two basal 
segments considerably widened, the third seg- 
ment the longest and the fifth segment the 
shortest, all except the basal segment bearing 
setae. The second maxilla and maxilliped are 
each made up of a single stout segment tipped 
with a strong claw, the one on the maxilla 
acute and curved into a semicircle, the one on 
the maxilliped blunt and nearly straight. Two 


62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


pairs of biramose swimming legs, the rami 2- 
segmented and of approximately the same 
length. Each end segment is armed with many 
setae of different lengths; each basal exopod 
segment has two small setae at its outer distal 
corner, while the basal endopod segments are 
unarmed. 

Total length 4.43 mm. Enlarged cylindrical 
body 3.20 mm long, 1.50 mm wide. 

Male: Much smaller than the female, the 
body made up of ten segments, the first three 
considerably widened, the remaining seven reg- 
ularly tapering a little backward. The head is 
fused with the first thoracic segment, which 
carries a lateral plate or lamella on each side. 
The next three segments also carry lateral 
plates diminishing in size to become mere 
knobs on the fourth segment. The fifth seg- 
ment, genital segment, and the four abdominal 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


segments have convex lateral margins and dif- 
fer but little in length. The caudal rami are like 
those of the female except that each has four 
terminal setae, the two outer ones very short, 
the middle ones as long as the ramus. 

The first antennae arise from the dorsal sur- 
face of the head close to the anterior margin 
and are strongly curved backward. The mouth- 
parts and swimming legs are like those of the 
female. 

Total length 2.35 mm. Width of first seg- 
ment, including wings, 1 mm. 

Material examined.—A dozen specimens, in- 
cluding both sexes, were taken from the body 
cavities of Teredos in Honolulu Harbor, Oahu, 
Hawai, by Dr. C. H. Edmondson. A single 
male and a female have been selected to serve 
as types of the new genus and species and have 
been given U.S.N.M. no. 79639. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND ee 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 
371ST MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 371st meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the Library of the Cosmos Club on 
Friday, December 5, 1941. President CLarK 
called the meeting to order at 8:07 p.m. with 
19 persons present, as follows: A. H. Cuark, 
F. D. Rossini, N. R. Smita, W. W. Diu, 
J. H. Kempton, J. H. Hipsen, F. C. KRacex, 
JecheeGrar Hea HOB MRIS weies ere Gr. 
BRICKWEDDE, R. M. Hann, M. C. MERRILL, 
W. A. Dayton, H. L. Curtis, W. RaMBERG, 
and, by invitation, R. J. Smecer, G. A. 
Coopmr, J. M. Coopzr, and H. G. Dorsey. 

The minutes of the 370th meeting were read 
and approved. 

President CLARK announced the following 
appointments: Committee of Tellers, L. B. 
TUCKERMAN (chairman), R. W. Brown, and 
GEORGE TUNELL; Committee of Auditors, 
P. A. SmiruH (chairman), H. G. Avers, and 
C. H. Swick. 

Chairman GARNER of the Committee on 
Meetings reported that the December meeting 
of the Academy would be held in the Audi- 
torium of the U.S. National Museum. 

The Board considered individually and duly 
elected to membership the seven persons (six 
resident and one nonresident) whose nomina- 
tions had been presented on November 7, 1941. 

The Committee to consider the policy for 


future editions of the Directory, H. L. Curtis 
(chairman), F. C. Kracrex, L. W. Parr, and 
F. H. H. Roperts, Jr., presented a report 
carrying the following recommendations: 

(a) The Academy shall continue the estab- 
lished practice of publishing the Directory bi- 
ennially. 

(b) As soon as possible after January 1, 
1942, and every year thereafter, there shall be 
published an addendum to the Directory, giv- 
ing the officers of the Academy and of the af- 
filiated societies for the calendar year. It will 
not be necessary to include the officers of cer- 
tain societies that change in the middle of the 
year. The format for publishing these adden- 
da should be at the discretion of the Secretary 
and Treasurer. 

(c) In future editions of the Directory, there 
shall be reserved space for the officers of the 
two following years. This space, for each so- 
ciety, shall come directly under the list of 
officers and shall have printed across it “Re- 
served for officers for 1944, etc.” 

(d) The publication of the Directory shall 
be entrusted to the Secretary and Treasurer. 

The Board approved this report, with the 
insertion of ‘‘and new members of the Acad- 
emy”’ at the end of the first sentence in part 
(b). It was further moved and carried that 
these addenda be supplied to all members of 
the Academy and to all purchasers of the 
Directory. 


Fes. 15, 1942 


The committees on awards for scientific 
achievement for 1941, J. M. Coopmr, General 
Chairman, reported that the work was com- 
pleted. For the committee on the biological 
sciences, Chairman J. M. Cooprr recom- 
mended that the award for 1941 be presented 
to G. ARTHUR CoopER, of the U. S. National 
Museum. For the committee on the engineer- 
ing sciences, Chairman H. G. Dorsny recom- 
mended that the award for 1941 be presented 
to THEODORE R. GILLILAND, of the National 
Bureau of Standards. For the committee on 
the physical sciences, W. E. Drmina, chair- 
man, President CuLAarkK reported a recom- 
mendation that the award for 1941 be pre- 
sented to STerLInc B. HeENpricks, of the 
U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. 

On request of the Secretary, the Treasurer 
was authorized to increase the allotment for 
the office of the Secretary by the amount of 
$49.85 for the year 1941. 

The Custodian and Subscription Manager 
of Publications, W. W. Diput, reported that 
the situation with regard to back volumes of 
the JOURNAL was vastly improved and that 
there were now on hand seven complete sets 
and one set lacking but six single numbers, and 
that to date three complete sets of the Jour- 
NAL have been sold. 

Adjournment was made at 9:07 P.M. 


308TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 308th meeting of the Academy was held 
jointly with the Washington Section of the 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 
the Auditorium of the U. 8. National Museum 
at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, December 18, 1941, 
with H. L. Curtis, Vice President of the 
Academy, representing the Washington Sec- 
tion of the American Institute of Electrical 
Engineers, presiding. Kart B. McEacuron, 
research engineer in charge of the High Voltage 
Engineering Laboratory of the General Elec- 
tric Company at Pittsfield, Mass., delivered 
an illustrated address entitled Lightning. Dr. 
McEacuron told the story of researches on 
lightning and described the production of 
lightning artificially, the photographing of 
natural lightning, the effects of lightning dis- 
charges as a function of location and their rela- 
tion to old superstitions and beliefs, and the 
investigation of a number of so-called “pranks”’ 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 63 


of lightning. He disclosed that deaths from 
lightning have averaged 390 annually for this 
country since 1924, just a little more than 
attacks from animals and only a tiny fraction 
of the deaths caused by automobiles; that the 
real danger of lightning is to property; that 
office buildings and factory buildings offer ex- 
cellent protection to their occupants; that sub- 
urban homes are not so likely to be struck as 
isolated buildings on a farm; that the ordinary 
lightning flash seen by the observer is not a 
brilliant bolt from the sky, but rather the union 
of a cloud streamer with another streamer from 
the earth; that lightning may strike many 
times in the same place, as it has on the top 
of the Empire State Building in New York 
City; that lightning rods do not keep lightning 
away but serve to attract the electrical dis- 
charge and to lead it safely to the ground; that 
every flash of lightning is not accompanied by 
a clap of thunder; and that thunder is the re- 
sult of a pressure wave caused by the sudden 
expansion of air created by a quick lightning 
discharge. 

There were about 175 persons present. The 
meeting adjourned at 10:15 p.m. 


NEW MEMBERS 


The following persons were recently elected 
to membership: 

ERNEST GOLSAN Hott, chief of the Wildlife 
Management Section, U. 8. Soil Conservation 
Service, in recognition of his biological and 
ornithological investigations and, more re- 
cently, his contributions to wildlife manage- 
ment. 

HERBERT Lupwic JAcoB HALLER, principal 
chemist, Division of Insecticide Investigations, 
U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran- 
tine, in recognition of his contributions in the 
field of insecticidal chemistry, particularly with 
regard to pyrethrum flowers. 

Mitton Harris, director of the Textile 
Foundation Research Associateship at the 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition 
of his work on the chemical and physical 
structure of the textile fibers, wool, silk, cot- 
ton, and rayon. 

Mario Mo.uuart, professor and director of 
the Department of Bacteriology and Pre- 
ventive Medicine, Georgetown University, in 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


recognition of his work on the diseases of man 
caused by fungi and bacteria. 

JACINTO STEINHARDT, physical chemist on 
the Textile Foundation Research Associateship 
at the National Bureau of Standards, in recog- 
nition of his studies on the chemical structure 
of the wool molecule. 

FREDERICK LOVEJOY WELLMAN, associate 
pathologist, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, 
in recognition of his contributions in plant 
pathology and in particular his researches on 
club root of crucifers, banana wilt, and tomato 
wilt. 

HaLtBerT Marion Harris, associate pro- 
fessor of entomology, Iowa State College, 
Ames, Iowa, in recognition of his work in the 
field of systematic entomology, in particular 
in the classification of the Hemiptera. 

JOSEF PIKu, research chemist, E. I. DuPont 
de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, Del., in 
recognition of his contributions to the chem- 
istry of the compounds of the indol series. 

HERBERT HoLpsworTH Ross, systematic 
entomologist, Illinois State Natural History 
Survey, Department of Education, Urbana, 
Ill., in recognition of his work in insect taxon- 
omy, with special reference to the classification 
of the sawflies and caddisflies. 

Harry AARON Bricut, chief of the Section 
on Metal and Ore Analysis and Standard 
Samples, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his work in metallurgical 
analysis. 

REGINA FLANNERY, research associate, De- 
partment of Anthropology, Catholic Univer- 
sity of America, in recognition of her contri- 
butions to the anthropology of the Algonquian 
peoples, especially the northeastern and east- 
ern. 

Wiii1amM McKINLEY GAFAFER, senior statis- 
tician, National Institute of Health, in recog- 
nition of his statistical investigations in the 
field of public health, and his studies in medi- 
cal history. 

Gustav Ernst FREDERICK LUNDELL, chief 


VOL. 32, NO. 2 


of the Division of Chemistry, National Bureau 
of Standards, in recognition of his work in in- 
organic analytical chemistry. 

PauL SALMON RO.uueER, physical chemist, 
Eastern Experiment Station, U. 8. Bureau of 
Mines, in recognition of his contributions to 
the physical chemistry of nonmetallic minerals, 
especially with reference to the properties of 
fine particulate matter and the measurement of 
these properties. 

Lewis Witi1aM Butz, biochemist, U. S. 
Bureau of Animal Industry, in recognition of 
his work in organic chemistry and biochem- 
istry, and in particular that on diene syntheses 
of condensed ring systems related to the 
steroids. 

JoHN PuTNAM MARBLE, research associate 
in geochemistry, National Research Council, in 
recognition of his contributions to mineral 
analysis, with particular reference to the esti- 
mation of geologic time. 

Joun R. Matcuert, chemist, U. 8S. Bureau 
of Narcotics, in recognition of his work in the 
chemistry of narcotic drugs, particularly can- 
nabis (marihuana). 

WILLIAM HENRY SEBRELL, chief of the Divi- 
sion of Chemotherapy, National Institute of 
Health, in recognition of his contributions to 
the study of human and animal nutrition, in 
particular on pellagra ariboflavinosis. 

JAROMIL VACLAV SLADEK, instructor in bio- 
chemistry, Georgetown University, in recogni- 
tion of his work in biochemistry and organic 
chemistry. 

JoHN TucKER, JR., Chief of the Section on 
Cement and Concrete, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his studies in 
concrete and in the application of the mathe- 
matical theory of probability to problems in 
the strength of materials. 

Leon Witson HArTMAN, president of the 
University of Nevada, Reno, Nev., in recog- 
nition of his contributions to radiometry and 
electrical measurements. 

FREDERICK D. Rossini, Secretary 


"PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES! 


‘Te AcapDEMY (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): 
_ Thursday, February 19. The Aztecs of Mexico. Gnoras C. VAILLANT. (Jointly 
with the Anthropological Society of Washington.) 
Thursday, March 19. Awards for scientific achievement, 1941. 


CHEMICAL SocieTY oF WASHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 6:30 p.m.): 
Thursday, March 12. Annual banquet—Award of the Hildebrand prize. 


NationaL Grocrapuic Society (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.)?: 
Friday, February 20. With the Albees in the Sierras. Ruts and WiLLIAM 
ALBEE. 
_ Friday, February 27. Cruising tropic seas in Idle Hour. Cart. Dwiaut Lona. 
Friday, March 6. California cyclorama. BRANSON DE Cov. 
_ Friday, March 13. Defrosting Alaska. Karu Rosinson. 


-Mepicat Society oF THE District or Cotumsia (1718 M Street, NW.): 
Wednesday, February 18. The value of cystometry in the every-day practice of 
surgery and medicine. RuEp N. NEssit. 
Wednesday, February 25. Ovarian defictencies and their treatment. FULLER 
ALBRIGHT. 
Wednesday, March 11. The minimum laboratory procedures essential to the 
diagnosis of blood dyscrastas. GEORGE J. BRILMYER. 
The tmportance of laboratory examinations in the administration of the 
sulfonamides. THomas M. Prrry. 
The chemical and cytological changes in spinal fluid in disease. LESTER 
NEUMAN. 
The significance of blood protein and nitrogen variations. H. H. LEFFLER. 
Laboratory examinations essential in the diagnosts of obscure fevers. Lr, 
ALFRED GOLDEN. 
Comparative usefulness of whole blood and plasma transfusions. JANVIERW. 
LINDSAY. 


BoTANICAL SocreTy OF WASHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8 p.m.): 
Tuesday, March 3. Photopertodic responses of Biloxi soy bean. H. A. BortTu- 
wick and M. W. Barker. 
A bacterial disease of the giant cactus. Lex M. Hutcuins. 


AMERICAN SocreTY OF MEcHANICAL ENGINEERS, Washington Section (Pepco 
Auditorium, 8 p.m.): 
Thursday, March 12. Some properties and uses of explosives. WILBERT J, 
Horr. 


Society or AMERICAN BacTERIOLOGISTS, Washington Branch (Georgetown Uni- 
versity School of Medicine, 3900 Reservoir Road, 8 p.m.): 
puendsy, February 24. Studies in skin disinfection; Price’s method for the 
evaluation of mercurzals. E. P. CasMAn. 
Capsule formation in the genus Brucella. CoRNELIA CoTToN, 
Correlations of the cultural characteristics in the genus Lactobacillus. 
RaupuH P. Tirrster, Morrison Rogosa, and Harte O. WHITTIER. 


1 Notices to be published in this space must reach the Senior Editor, Raymond J. Seeger, not later than 
the 28th of the month preceding that of publication. 
2 Lectures open only to members of the National Geographic Society who have subsoribed to season tickets. 


Loe 
CONTENTS 
SCIENCE AND War. AuvstTIN H. CLARE: fy, si595 ae ee 
Puysics.—A review of the methods for the suena dementia : 
the ohm. Harvey L. CURTIS. oo ae 
: MepicaL ENToMOLOGy.—Experimental transmission of endemi 
phus fever by the sticktight flea, beset gall 
= JOSEPH “Eh, ALICATA. fo isis 1s 610s Nee eee eee 
a be vi 
As Zootocy.—Description of a new genus and species of copepod P 
; in a shipworm. CHARLES BRANCH WILSON.............-. 
Proceepines: Tae ACADEMY: .6. 2. 2° Re ee eee a a 
sts This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


No. 3 


ACADEMY 


_ BOARD OF EDITORS ; 4 


G. Arraur Coorsr = ~—dJ aso _R. SWALLEN 
hal 83 NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 


Wigs SOY ate 


"ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


ee OE W. Munsnence * 
cae bey ae _ ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


oe Epwin Kirx | 
eae : GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; 
eee TT. Dars Stewart 

< ; 2k Nae, ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


ewkcn 8. spar 
| CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


ar Maas, Wiscoxsts ‘ 


"i any 
as an i 
Vie *; a m1 


ere the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis: 


“i 


Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes 
(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) 
proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) — 
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAt is issued 
monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 


' Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. It is urgently re- 
quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of the JourNat and conform their 
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Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good paper. Footnotes should 
be numbered serially in pencil and submitted on a separate sheet. The editors do not 
assume responsibility for the ideas expressed by the author, nor can they undertake to 
correct other than obvious minor errors. 


Illustrations in excess of the equivalent (in cost) of two full-page line drawings are 
to be paid for by the author. 5 


Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication one proof will generally be sent — 


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form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. . 


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Bingle Numbers. se. 3 9. a a's Saree se ch ie ois we aya Sa we ree at -00 


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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: Harvey L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. 

Secretary: FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards. 
Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Archivist: NATHAN R. Smitu, Bureau of Plant Industry. 5 
Custodian of Publications: Witt1am W. Diext, Bureau of Plant Industry. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Won. 32 


Marcu 15, 1942 


No. 3 


GEOPHYSICS.—Geophysical measurements in the laboratory and in the field. 
H. HE. McComs, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


It has been recorded that, in the begin- 
ning, Jehovah created the heaven and the 
earth. Since those early days time has 
wrought many changes, not only in the uni- 
verse at large as we suspect it exists today, 
but upon this planet upon which our senses 
seem to indicate to us we are living and 
striving to preserve some kind of continuity 
of that life. Experience and experiments tell 
us that, among other things, this planet, the 
earth, is surrounded by an ionosphere, a 
stratosphere, an atmosphere, and a mag- 
netic field. Those portions of the earth that 
are on or immediately below the surface 
are called the hydrosphere (water area) and 
the lithosphere (crust). Within a relatively 
thin film of the atmosphere, the hydro- 
sphere, and the lithosphere, we observe the 
effects of forces that are continuously and 
relentlessly modifying the earth. The science 
that treats of these forces is known as geo- 
physics, and in this field we find such 
sciences as geodesy, seismology, geomag- 
netism, meteorology, volcanology, hydrol- 
ogy, and techtonophysics. 

This paper deals briefly with certain 
physical measurements in geomagnetism 
and in seismology, describes in some detail 
a few of the instruments and methods used 
in such measurements, and compares some 
of the results obtained in the laboratory 
with results obtained in the field with the 
same equipment. While these few illustra- 
tions by no means cover the whole field, 
either in the experiences of the author or of 
his immediate associates, they will serve to 
illustrate the complex nature of some of the 

1 Address of the retiring President of the Philo- 
sophical Society of Washington delivered at the 


1194th meeting of the Society, January 17, 1942. 
Received February 2, 1942. 


MAR 2 
MAK « | 


projects upon which we are working— 
projects that involve questions of law, regu- 
lations, policy, funds, personnel, and equip- 
ment. 

In the field of geomagnetism, one of our 
main objectives has been, and still is, the 
production of magnetic maps, charts, and 
tables, applicable to the United States and 
its possessions. Unfortunately it is necessary 
to reconstruct or revise these charts and 
tables at intervals of a few years simply be- 
cause the earth’s magnetic field is not uni- 
form and because it is changing continu- 
ously in both direction and intensity. The 
magnetic meridian at a particular site is de- 
fined as the vertical plane fixed by the di- 
rection of the earth’s field at that site. The 
true meridian at the same site is a vertical 
plane containing the earth’s axis. The latter 
is determined by astronomical observations 
and for convenience may be marked by the 
establishment of a permanent monument 
erected at some distance from the site. It is 
usually more convenient to erect the mark 
and then determine its true azimuth. 

The angle between the true meridian and 
magnetic meridian is known as magnetic dec- 
lination. The direction of the magnetic 
field changes as time passes, and while 
many of these changes are irregular and 
some may even be classed as violent, there 
is, after all, considerable regularity in these 
changes. At Cheltenham, Md., for example, 
the direction of the field has changed from 
N. 5° 41’ W. to N. 7° 06’ W. during the 
past 30 years, the average rate being about 
3’ per year. This is known as secular varia- 
tion or secular change. Where the rate of 
secular change has been fairly uniform for 
several years, it is reasonably safe for all 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


practical purposes to predict changes for a 
few years in advance. This rate has been 
diminishing for the past few years, and at 
present it is practically at zero at Chelten- 
ham. In addition to this secular variation, 
the direction of the field normally passes 
through a complete cycle of change every 
solar day. The normal daily range in declina- 
tion at Cheltenham is of the order of 4 or 5 
minutes of arc. Likewise, the total field in- 
tensity varies in direction and magnitude 
from day to day and from year to year. All 
these changes vary over wide ranges for dif- 
ferent parts of the earth. In order to make 
it possible to obtain continuous records of 
all the fluctuations, magnetic observatories 
have been established in various parts of 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


Alaska to Puerto Rico, and from Maryland 
to Hawaii. 

The base, the standardizing observatory, 
is at Cheltenham, Md. The buildings there 
are constructed of nonferrous materials — 
throughout and are insulated against tem- 
perature changes. It has been found con- 
venient to record photographically the 
changes in magnetic declination and the hor- 
izontal and vertical components of the field 
intensity. The declination variometer con- 
sists of a small magnet suspended in a 
damping chamber by a fine quartz fiber, 
which, when in proper adjustment, is free of 
torsion. A plane mirror attached to the 
magnet system permits photographic re- 
cording. For convenience, the recording dis- 


Fig. 1—Magnetic variation observatory at Tucson. The photographic recording instruments are 
mounted on concrete piers within the building, which is constructed of nonmagnetic materials and 
the interior is well insulated against temperature changes. 


the world. One of the earliest of these ob- 
servatories was established at Girard Col- 
lege, Pennsylvania, in 1838, and was oper- 
ated almost continuously with eye-reading 
instruments for 6 years, beginning with 
1840. In 1852 the Smithsonian Institution 
established a magnetic observatory on the 
Smithsonian grounds and operated the first 
photographic recording instruments in this 
country. Since the early part of the present 
century the Coast and Geodetic Survey 
has operated observatories at five widely 
separated sites, ranging from southern 


tance is usually arranged so that 1 milli- 
meter change of ordinate corresponds to a 
change of direction of the field of one 
minute of are. The mirror is prismatic, that 
is, it has three aluminized surfaces, the 
angles being such that should the image 
from the central mirror move beyond the 
limits of the recorder at either side, a re- 
serve image will enter the picture and pre- 
vent loss of record. The intensity instru- 
ments are not ‘so simple. The instrument > 
that records the changes in the horizontal 
component of the field is similar to the dec- 


hilosophieal Society of Washington. 


P 


MeComb, retiring President of the 


» 
4s 


} 


lel 


Mar. 15, 1942 


lination variometer, but the suspended 
magnet is oriented so that its axis 1s ap- 
proximately at right angles to the field and 
is held in this position by the torsion of a 
quartz fiber. Under the assumption of cer- 
tain ideal conditions, namely, that the in- 
strument, except for the magnet, is non- 
magnetic, that the rigidity modulus of 
quartz remains constant, that the magnetic 
moment of the suspended magnet does not 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 


67 


experience has shown that most of the 
specifications cannot or at least have not 
been maintained over long periods of time 
in the field. 

The quartz fibers are relatively large, 
being of the order of 30 to 40 microns in di- 
ameter. In the early installations, the fibers 
were attached to their supports by fused 
shellac, but in the course of time shellac 
will yield and the magnet will drift away 


MAGNETIC NORTH 


RECORDING 


Ww 


SENSITIVITY 


TORSION HEAD 


Zo 


Ss 


EX-MERIDIAN ANGLE 


TORSION IN FIBER 


TEMPERATURE 


Fig. 2.—Arrangement of recording magnet and control magnets on a 
unifilar horizontal intensity variometer. 


change, that there is no relative motion be- 
tween the quartz suspension and its upper 
and lower attachments, that the tempera- 
ture remains constant, and that there are 
no natural or artificial mechanical vibrations 
disturbing the system, then and only then 
is the angular motion of the suspended 
magnet a measure of the changes in the hori- 
zontal component of the field. While all 
these specifications may be met and may be 
maintained with sufficient precision for a 
few hours or a few days in the laboratory, 


from its normal position. This difficulty has 
been overcome by bending the ends of the 
filament or by making the fibers with en- 
larged, pear-shaped ends, which furnish suf- 
ficient bearing surface to eliminate slipping 
of the fiber relative to its supports. Some of 
the quartz fibers used in these instruments 
have been under constant torsion of two or 
three radians for many years. There is evi- 
dence that they have suffered little if any 
permanent strain. 

We have not yet found a bar magnet 


68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


whose magnetic moment remains constant, 
and all the magnets that we have tested 
have temperature coefficients. Thus we find 
ourselves attempting to measure something 
that is changing continuously, with a meas- 
uring device the parts of which change in 
several ways while the operation is in prog- 
ress. It is recognized that conditions of this 
kind are the rule rather than the exception 
in all physical measurements, even in the 
laboratory, but in this particular operation 
we are not attempting to determine the 
value of some constant; we are attempting 


Fig. 3.—La Cour type of quartz fiber suspen- 
sion showing enlarged ends resting in conical 
cups. 


to record, with some accuracy, the changes 
in the horizontal component of the field. In 
spite of every reasonable precaution, we 
find that the magnetogram may be, and 
usually is, a record of the algebraic sum of 
the changes in the field intensity and 
changes in the instrument parts. Since both 
the rigidity modulus of quartz and the 
magnetic moment of the suspended magnet 
have temperature coefficients so large that 
they must be taken into consideration, the 
observatories are well insulated against 
sudden or large changes in temperature. 
In addition, the intensity instruments are 
compensated for temperature in a simple 
and effective manner. 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


The vertical-component instrument. is 
simply a delicate magnetic balance. It is 
similar in many respects to the ordinary 
analytical balance, the basic difference being 


that the beam of the magnetic balance is a - 


permanent magnet. The magnet is balanced 
against gravity on quartz or steel knife 
edges, and when in proper adjustment is 
extremely sensitive. To give some idea of 
the sensitivity of one of these balances it 
can be stated that when operating. under 
normal conditions, a mass of 0.2 milligram, 
if placed at the end of the beam, would just 
about upset it. The moving system is, of 
course, provided with a suitable mirror for 
photographic recording. The latest type of 
recording magnet is that devised by Dr. D. 
la Cour of the Danish Meteorological In- 
stitute. The magnet, knife edges, and the 
mirror are made from one piece of special 
magnet steel. The instrument as a whole is 
so designed that the magnet may be oper- 
ated in a vacuum. Here again is an instru- 
ment that is required to operate continu- 
ously over long periods and that is expected 
to provide a record of the changes in the 
vertical component of the field. 

The three variometers that have been 
described, together with a suitable photo- 
graphic recorder, constitute what is known 
as a magnetograph. The record we obtain 
from such a set-up is called a magnetogram. 

In order to be able to analyze these rec- 
ords quantitatively, it is necessary to know 
something about the sensitivity of each 
component. Such measurements are made 
at regular intervals, and consist simply of 
noting the deflection produced on each 
component by the application of a known 
field, properly directed. 

Magnetic fields are commonly expressed 
in gausses, that is, lines of force per square 
centimeter in air. For convenience, it has 
been found practical in geomagnetic work 
to use a much smaller unit, the gamma, 
which is 0.00001 gauss. Also in common use 
is the milligauss, which is 100 gammas. The 
average value of horizontal component of 
the earth’s field at Cheltenham Observatory 


at the present time is around 18,200 gam-_ 


mas. This is known as the absolute value, 
and at an observatory it may be determined 


es 


Mar. 15, 1942 


easily and quickly with a sine galvanometer 
to an accuracy of perhaps one gamma. If 
the absolute value is determined at the 
moment when the H curve of a magneto- 
gram coincides with an arbitrary base line, 
then we may assign that absolute value to 
the base line. Once we have determined the 
base line value, it is a simple matter to 
_ scale the absolute value for any particular 
moment or to scale the average value for 
any interval. 

Unfortunately there is only one sine 
galvyanometer in the United States suitable 
for measuring H to an accuracy of one 
gamma. Except for the electromagnetic 
method, the only other known method of 


VERTICAL COMPONENT 
SEPT. 18, 1941 
TUCSON, LA COUR 


VERTICAL COMPONENT 
SEPT. 18, 1941 


TUCSON, ESCHENHAGEN 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 69 


comparable with that which can be at- 
tained with the sine galvanometer. The 
usual method and one by no means satis- 
factory is to measure the angle of inclina- 
tion of the field and from this value and the 
known value of the horizontal component 
derive a value of the vertical component. 
At an observatory a single value of dip can 
be determined by means of an earth induc- 
tor to an accuracy of perhaps one-half 
minute of arc. In latitude 40° N. an un- 
certainty of 0.5’ in inclination gives an un- 
certainty of about 50 gammas in the de- 
rived value of the vertical intensity. In 
practice the uncertainty is much less, since 
average values are used. 


Fig. 4.—Magnetograms recorded by two types of vertical intensity variometers operating simul- 
taneously in different observatories at Tucson. The new observatory, in which the la Cour instrument 
operates, is partly underground. The vertical lines are hour-marks, the first being at 8.00 a.m., local 


standard time. 


HORIZONTAL COMPONENT 
SEPT. 19, 1941 


TUCSON, LA COUR 


HORIZONTAL COMPONENT 
SEPT. 19, 1941 
TUCSON, ESCHENHAGEN 


Fig. 5.—Magnetograms as recorded by two types of horizontal intensity variometers under conditions 
similar to those described under Fig. 4. 


determining the absolute value of H is by 
means of a magnetometer. Experience has 
shown that, under most favorable condi- 
tions, the results obtained with magnetom- 
eters may be expected to be in error by as 
much as 5 to 10 gammas. 

There are no electromagnetic instruments 
in the United States suitable for making a 
direct measurement of the absolute value of 
the vertical component to an accuracy 


From all this it should be apparent that, 
even though observatory values may be 
given to gammas, the uncertainty in the 
absolute values may be much greater. How- 
ever, in spite of the fact that there may be 
considerable uncertainty in the absolute 
values of some of the elements, the magneto- 
graph furnishes an excellent continuous 
record of the changes in these elements to a 
surprisingly high degree of accuracy. This 


70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


is fortunate, since in recent years there has 
been considerable demand for immediate 
and fairly complete information concerning 
the so-called magnetic character of the day 
and its shorter intervals. Data of this kind 
are supplied daily to investigators in radio 
transmission. The time may not be far 
distant when through cooperative efforts of 
many agencies it may be possible to make 
fairly reliable forecasts of the quality of 
radio reception to be expected. 

Let us now consider what happens when 
we attempt to make a magnetic survey of 
large areas such as the United States. Ob- 
viously, the first step is to make a great 
many observations, well distributed over 


ie 
VOL. 32, NO. 3 


interpolate secular change in order to cover 
areas in which actual observations have not 
been made. While the isogonic chart gives 
a general picture of the situation as it ap- 
plies to any particular magnetic element, it 
may not be safe to rely upon absolute 
values scaled from a chart or interpolated 
between two or more stations at which 
actual observations have been made. The 
primary reason for this is that the distribu- 
tion of the earth’s field is by no means so 
uniform as the large scale charts would 
seem to indicate. This lack of uniformity is 
due primarily, of course, to magnetic ma- 
terials in the earth’s crust, and it is well 
known that the composition of the crust is 


Fig. 6.—Magnetic observing tent and magnetic station at Kineo, Maine (Moosehead Lake), in 
1910. Field observations are made within the tent to protect the instruments against wind, rain, or 


direct rays of the sun. 


the whole area, the density of stations to 
depend primarily upon funds available for 
the project. As a result of rather intensive 
work, covering a period of about 50 years, 
observations have been made at some 6,000 
stations. Data from these observations have 
been compiled and brought up to date and 
are graphically represented in what is known 
as an isogonic chart of the United States. 
Similar charts have been compiled for hori- 
zontal and vertical intensities for the same 
area. Several of these stations have been 
selected to serve as so-called repeat stations, 
that is, stations at which observations are 
made at intervals of a few years for the de- 
termination of secular change. Experience 
has shown that it is reasonably safe to 


anything but uniform. If these magnetic 
materials or formations lie on or near the 
surface, their effects on the distribution of 
the field a few feet above the surface may be 
quite large. If the magnetic materials lie 
deeply buried under formations that are 
practically nonmagnetic, the distribution of 
the field at the surface may be relatively 
uniform and the chances of bringing some 
order out of the results by a reasonable 
number of observations may be fairly good. 
This condition exists generally in the west- 
ern half of the Great Plains region of the 
United States, where the crustal layers near 
the surface consist of thick beds of lime- 
stone, overlaid by the so-called ‘‘loess”’ 
formation. 


Mar. 15, 1942 


Many surprises, however, await the ob- 
server who is overoptimistic. One of the 
greatest of these surprises, in the experience 
of the author, happened in northwestern 
Iowa, a region in which one would not ex- 
pect to find any large magnetic anomalies. 
Nevertheless, many areas were found in this 
region where the magnetic declination dif- 
fered by 2 to 3 degrees within a radius of a 
few hundred feet, and tests indicated that 
this condition prevailed for miles around. 
The surface geology gave no indication that 
such conditions might exist. On the other 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS ya 


tion and intensity of the field may vary 
over wide ranges with change in elevation 
above the surface. Differences of several de- 
grees in declination have been observed by 
simply altering the height of the instrument. 
This is precisely what one should expect. 
Most of the land observations for declina- 
tion and horizontal intensity are made with 
the center of the magnet at varying eleva- 
tions of 4 to 5 feet above the surface of the 
ground, depending upon the height of the 
particular observer. This is fortunate, in a 
way, since the values found represent condi- 


(Courtesy National Park Serxice) 


Fig. 7.—Devils Tower, Wyo. A basaltic lava formation, usually quite magnetic, fragments frequently 
showing distinct polarity. . 


hand, there are large areas where we know 
from experience that anomalies are the rule 
rather than the exception. In the eastern 
half of Idaho, the eastern half of Oregon, 
and the southern half of the State of Wash- 
ington there are vast areas in which highly 
magnetic basalt lies on or just below the 
surface. Whether the basalt is 7m sztu or is 
strewn over the area as talus or rubble, the 
magnetic disturbance is there. If these 
areas were only small, we could simply ig- 
nore them or by-pass them, but it is not so 
easy to by-pass or ignore the greater part 
of three whole States. Observations in such 
disturbed areas have shown that the direc- 


tions as they exist in the layer or region 
above the surface where they will be most 
useful. But we should not be surprised if in 
a moderately disturbed area, a tall observer 
obtains values decidedly different from 
those obtained by another not so tall. 

Let us take the not uncommon case where 
we have three stations located in a disturbed 
area. Suppose that the observed values of 
declination at stations A, B, and C are 
22.7° E., 30.4° E., and 25.1° E. and that it 
is desired to know the value at some inter- 
mediate point D, within the boundaries de- 
fined by A, B, and C. It should be obvious, 
even to one who has never made magnetic 


a2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


observations in such an area, that a mean 
value, a weighted mean value, or an in- 
terpolated value, under such conditions, 
will, more than likely, not represent the 
facts. The value at D may be much smaller 
or even much larger than those at A, B, and 
C. Even though observations are made 
systematically at hundreds of sites in the 
area, interpolated values would have little 
meaning. True, the average of all of them 
might closer represent the average value 
for the area at the elevation above the 
surface at which the observations were 
made, but nothing more. Suppose again 
that the area contains no natural magnetic 
material scattered about, but that we dis- 
tribute promiscuously over the area hun- 
dreds of large bar magnets of sufficient size 
and moment to produce distortions of the 
kind we know exist in some disturbed areas. 
Would any practical magnetician, would 
any mathematician or physicist be so opti- 
mistic as to hazard a guess as to the prob- 
able value of a magnetic element at some 
random point in the area? I cannot answer 
for the mathematician or the physicist, but 
I can tell you what the practical magneti- 
cian would like to do about such a situation. 
He would recommend that the limits of the 
disturbance be delineated with reasonable 
precision, whether the disturbing cause be 
natural or artificial, and so indicate the area 
on the chart. 

Let us now consider the case where it is 
desired that we know something about the 
declination or intensity on or near the sur- 
face of navigable waters such as a narrow 
channel or a bay or a harbor bordered by 
land areas that are known to be highly 
magnetic. If the land areas adjacent to the 
channel are highly magnetic, it is almost 
certain that the same condition exists at the 
bottom of the channel. The distribution of 
the field at any position above the surface 
of the water will depend not only upon the 
nature of the disturbance on shore and at 
the bottom but upon the depth of the water 
and the distance off shore. We know that 
these magnetic effects die out rapidly with 
distance, but we first must know something 
about the nature and extent of the disturb- 
ance before we can estimate even approxi- 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


mately what the effects are at a distance. 
Interpolation of declination values between 
two or more shore stations is about as 
risky as an attempt to estimate values of 
declination high above the surface of the 
earth by extrapolation. Either process might 
be reasonably safe if one could know some- 
thing about the nature and extent of the 
disturbing influence, but if the data upon 
which calculations are based were obtained 
by assumptions the extrapolations may 
mean exactly nothing in practice. 

I repeat, it is not possible to obtain a 
perfect picture of the distribution of mag- 
netism in a highly disturbed area (disturb- 
ing influence near the surface) even though 
the area be covered with stations spaced 
every few feet horizontally and vertically. 
The average of observed values is simply the 
average value, nothing more. It tells you 
practically nothing about a particular value 
at a particular latitude, longitude, and 
elevation. 

If the geological structure or formation 
causing the disturbance lies buried to some . 
depth below the surface, then it is possible 
to make some order out of chaos, because of 
the fact that the effects die off rapidly with 
distance and the gradients become less 
steep. One of the most satisfactory instru- 
ments used in making a magnetic survey is 
the vertical-intensity field balance. This is 
similar in many respects to the laboratory 
or observatory instrument but is so designed 
that it can determine differences in the 
vertical component to a fairly high degree 
of accuracy in a short time and at com- 
paratively low cost. Practically all the 
magnetic surveys made by oil companies 
have been carried out with instruments of 
this type. The technique is simple. One 
observer makes continuous or nearly con- 
tinuous observations at a base station with 
one instrument while other observers cover 
the adjacent area with similar instruments. 
Following a definite program of checks and 
comparisons at the beginning and end of a 
day’s routine it 1s possible to eliminate from 
the final results the effects of diurnal varia- 
tion. A magnetic survey of central South 
Dakota has recently been completed by the 
South Dakota State Geological Survey, 


Mar. 15, 1942 


and the results have been compiled as a 
vertical intensity chart. It would be almost 
impossible to complete a survey of this kind 
if the magnetic formation were at or near 
the surface. One of the great disappoint- 
ments in a map of this kind is that it cannot 
be joined up readily to a similar adjacent 
chart. The values are all relative, no ab- 
solute value of the vertical intensity having 
been determined. Here again is a very prac- 
tical problem and one that at present can 
be met to a limited extent by means of 
an earth inductor and a magnetometer. 
In other words, it is necessary to deter- 
mine the absolute value of the vertical 
intensity at the base stations and then ob- 
tain the absolute values at any position in 
the survey by applying differences as ob- 
tained by means of the field balance. This 
method is satisfactory if one is satisfied with 
absolute values, the accuracy of which is no 
better than 40 to 50 gammas or about 4 
milligauss in the middle latitudes. 

I have just tried to show that there is no 
particular problem in securing data of suf- 
ficient accuracy for magnetic charts in an 
undisturbed area, but that in highly dis- 
turbed areas the charts and tables may not 
represent actual conditions at random 
points in that area. We also know that a 
great many additional precise observations 
taken at random over large areas would not 
clarify the general picture a great deal; 
perhaps they would only tend to confuse us 
still more. The first important element in 
the whole observing program in the field 
is that the establishment and preservation 
of certain master repeat stations is recog- 
nized. Reasonably precise observations at 
these stations furnish the necessary data 
for revision of charts at regular intervals. 
The second important element is that there 
is urgent demand for special intensive 
surveys in limited areas. 

If we had a perfect three-dimensional 
picture (motion-picture, by the way) both 
in direction and intensity of that portion 
of the earth’s field that is useful in magnetic 
surveys and in other geomagnetic investiga- 
tions, would it serve any more useful pur- 
pose than the picture we now possess? In 
general, I think not. In special cases, yes. 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 73 


In the first place, there are only a few in- 
dividuals who would understand how to use 
the precise data, and in the second place 
there are comparatively few instruments so 
designed as to make possible the utiliza- 
tion of more precise data. 

Now we have almost forgotten one of the 
most important elements in this whole ob- 
serving program—the observer himself. 
Consider for a moment what happens when 
the observer, Mr. X, carries on a day’s 
routine of magnetic work in some remote 
corner of the country. When observing con- 
ditions are ideal, the task is relatively 
simple, but experience has shown that ideal 
conditions rarely exist for the man in the 
field. It seems to be axiomatic that as soon 
as the observing program starts, all inani- 
mate nature in the immediate neighborhood 
suddenly comes to life, as it were, and 
marshalls its forces to defeat the observer. 
The wind and the rain; the blistering heat 
or the freezing cold; the desert dust or the 
tropical humidity; yes, even animate nature 
in the form of swarms of persistent mos- 
quitoes join the battle against the observer; 
but the show must go on. Occasionally none 
of these evil things seems to be on the alert, 
and then it happens, not infrequently, that 
the very elements being measured go on a 
rampage, and Mr. X finds himself in the 
midst of a magnetic storm that may last 
for days. Needless to say, it takes courage, 
strategy, stamina, and an almost insane de- 
sire on the part of the observer to complete 
the task. Any one of the opposing elements 
or forces may be the immediate cause of 
significant errors in the results. Compare 
these field conditions with those which are 
obtained at an observatory or in the labora- 
tory. In the laboratory, reasonable safe- 
guards have been set up to eliminate, 
neutralize, or compensate for the hostile 
elements, but in the field the observer is 
practically on his own. He must substitute 
strategy and judgment for the comforts and 
compensations of the laboratory and while 
being eternally vigilant and on the alert he 
must, at the same time, make scientific 
observations requiring the utmost in care 
and skill. Small wonder that, under average 
conditions in the field, some combination of 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


opposing forces or circumstances introduce 
elements that may influence the results 
adversely. 

Let us now turn our attention to another 
branch of geophysics, seismology, or the 
science of earthquakes. In the instrumental 
and operational side of this science we find 
many problems strikingly similar to those 
one meets in geomagnetism. Instruments 
are developed and perfected in the labora- 
tory and then they are scattered far and 
wide over areas to be investigated. Investi- 
gators have confined their attention princi- 
pally to four main branches of the science— 
(a) The delineation or charting of worldwide 
seismic zones (teleseismic studies); (b) in- 
tensive studies of restricted areas (regional 
investigations); (c) seismic prospecting 
(search for oil, minerals, ete.); and (d) in- 
vestigations of strong seismic motion. (de- 
structive earthquakes). 

Owing to the great interest taken in tele- 
seismic work in recent years, especially in 
the United States, it is now possible to 
locate rather quickly, and probably with 
sufficient accuracy for most purposes, the 
epicenters of practically all earthquakes 
that are of sufficient intensity to set up seis- 
mic waves that can be recorded at some 
distance by delicate instruments known as 
seismographs. Nearly all these seismo- 
graphs are of the inertia type, in which a 
pendulum of some kind, horizontal or verti- 
cal, is set up in such a*manner that its 
motion is restricted to one degree of free- 
dom. The support for the pendulum is of 
rigid construction, and this in turn is rigidly 
attached to the underlying geological for- 
mation or foundation. When the founda- 
tion, that is, the ground, is displaced in the 
direction in which the pendulum is free to 
move, the pendulum has already made up 
its inanimate mind to try to remain at rest 
relative to its support and in general it suc- 
ceeds reasonably well. The relative motion 
between the center of oscillation and the 
ground is a function of the ground period, 
the natural period of the pendulum, the de- 
gree of damping of the pendulum, and other 
factors. In ordinary teleseismic work these 
ground motions are usually extremely small 
at a recording station. Different methods 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


have been devised for magnifying the ap- 
parent motion of the pendulum to such a 
degree that it can be detected or measured. 
This magnification may be accomplished 
mechanically, electromagnetically, electro- 
statically, optically, or by combinations of 
these methods. All modern seismographs 
are designed for continuous photographic 
registration. It is customary to set up two or 
three instruments oriented at right angles 
to each other, the idea being that two or 
three components of the motion will be re- 
corded and thereby furnish data from which, 
theoretically at least, the complete ground 
motion can be deduced. Complete analysis 
would include displacement, velocity, ac- 
celeration, distance and direction to the 
epicenter, and perhaps some other elements 
of which the author has not yet been in- 
formed. It will not be possible, in a short 
paper, to describe all the different types of 
instruments now in operation. Their num- 
ber is legion, but in general, their effective- 
ness (or their efficiency or their usefulness) 
is a function not only of the magnification 
and some other instrumental constants but 
also of their sturdiness and their ability to 
remain in adjustment and to operate reason- 
ably well over long periods of time, far from 
home. 

Let us take one of these modern tele- 
seismic seismographs through some labora- 
tory tests and then transport it to some 
remote seismological station, say in the 
West Indies or Alaska, and compare the re- 
sults that we have obtained under labora- 
tory conditions with those that we get in 
the field. The instrument to be described is 
of the electromagnetic type. To the steady 
mass is attached a coil of nonmagnetic cop- 
per wire, which is free to move with the 
steady mass in a strong, radial, magnetic 
field. The terminals of this coil are con- 
nected to a high-sensitivity galvanometer 
equipped with suitable optical parts for 
photographic registration. Shunted across 
this circuit is a variable resistance to pro- 
vide proper damping. Essentially this is a 
motor-generator, or, in this case, a genera- 
tor-motor. When the ground moves it takes 
everything else with it including the mag- 
netic field of the seismometer magnets, but 


Mar. 15, 1942 


the pendulum and the coil tend to remain 
at rest. We then have relative motion be- 
tween coil and magnetic field; an emf is set 
up, and current flows in the circuit, and the 
galvanometer responds. The dimensions of 
the seismometer and the galvanometer have 
been so designed that for ground periods 
such as one encounters in teleseismic work 
the angular motion of the galvanometer is 
perhaps 5 to 20 times greater than the 
angular motion of the seismometer pendu- 
lum. Further magnification is obtained by 
optical lever so that the overall nominal 
magnification of the system is from 1,000 
to 2,000, depending upon the particular in- 
strument. 

One of the methods of testing the effi- 
ciency of a seismometer is to place it on a 
shaking table, the motions of which can be 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 15 


whole apparatus was located in a room 
about 30 feet below the ground level so that 
there was reasonable assurance of stability. 
Table displacements as small as 1 micron 
could be recorded without difficulty. The 
selsmometer just described was mounted 
upon this table along with two other seis- 
mometers of radically different type, and 
the responses of the different instruments to 
known motions of the table were measured 
and compared. Also, the responses of the 
different instruments to harmonic motions 
varying in frequency from 30 eps to 1 cycle 
in 30 seconds were determined, thereby 
furnishing data from which so-called mag- 
nification curves were prepared. The char- 
acter of the response records for the three 
different instruments show remarkable 
similarity. The electromagnetic seismograph 


Fig. 8.—Wenner seismometer, bridge, and commercial galvanometer modified for photographic 
recording. A modern electromagnetic type of seismometer used in teleseismic registration. 


controlled arbitrarily and measured ac- 
curately. Since the magnification of the 
teleseismic instrument is usually high, it is 
necessary that such a shaking table be of 
sturdy construction and supported on a 


firm foundation so that one may be assured 


that the measured motions of the table rela- 
tive to the ground are reasonably accurate. 
In cooperation with the Survey, such a 
shaking table was set up at the National 
Bureau of Standards a few years ago. It 
consisted essentially of a triangular slab of 
concrete suspended near each vertex by 
piano wires attached to rigid concrete piers, 
which were poured upon and rest upon 
natural, undisturbed, leached gneiss. The 


was then subjected to critical routine 
operating tests: for several months, after 
which it was installed and placed in routine 
operation in the Franklin Institute, at 
Philadelphia, where it has been in con- 
tinuous operation, without appreciable in- 
terruption, for several years. This is a re- 
markable record and is a good example of 
what can happen when an instrument is 
operated at a station where conditions are 
quite as satisfactory as they would be in the 
best of laboratories. The efficiency or ef- 
fectiveness of this instrument in recording 
ground motion is well illustrated in the 
Franklin Institute records of an earthquake 
that occurred on April 15, 1941, about 3,600 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


kilometers southwest of Philadelphia. The 
azimuth of the epicenter was in the neigh- 
borhood of 45° to each of the two horizontal 
component instruments, and the selsmo- 
grams are almost duplicates, at least for the 
first 2 or 3 minutes. When earthquake waves 
and instruments behave in this manner it is 
not difficult to estimate the azimuth of the 
epicenter, but performance of this kind is 
the exception rather than the rule. 

With electromagnetic instruments having 
small dimensions and high magnification it 
should be apparent at once that the mag- 


SHAKING TABLE RECORD 


20 


SHAKING 
TABLE 
NUMBER I 


we I ps oe Se ee 


SEISMOMETER 
NUMBER 1 


ro) 
TRACE AMPLITUDE IN CENTIMETERS 


SEISMOMETER 
NUMBER 2 
SEISMOMETER 
NUMBER 3 


Al gall SL SNE ge [ eat la fie lal ad 
te) Ss 10 6 
TiME IN SECONDS 


Fig. 9.—Shaking table record showing the re- 
sponse of three different types of seismometer to a 
sudden displacement of the table. The table mo- 
tion is magnified about 400 times. 


netic field in which the seismometer coil 
moves must be reasonably uniform over the 
full range of motion if the sensitivity of the 
system is to be uniform over that range. 
This matter has been investigated fully and 
the latest instruments of this type have been 
adjusted to this condition. Also the system 
has been equipped with a so-called dynamic 
tester, which permits testing the sensitivity 
of the individual components quickly and 
accurately under routine operating condi- 
tions. Such tests, if recorded daily, furnish 
data that can be used in estimating the 
approximate nominal magnification of the 
particular component at that time. While 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


these devices have proved highly satisfac- 
tory in extended laboratory tests, they have 
not shown much promise in the field. 

Instruments of the type described above 
and equipped with dynamic testers, after 
having passed their physical examination 
and laboratory tests, have recently been 
placed in routine operation in San Juan, 
Puerto Rico. Experience has shown that in 
a climate where the humidity is excessive 
and the mean temperature rather high many 
things can happen to a delicate instrument 
in a comparatively short time. A minute 
growth of fungus, perhaps invisible to the 
unaided eye, may contrive to be born and 
flourish in the most inaccessible part of the 
instrument, and if it obstructs the motion 
of the pendulum or the galvanometer in the 
slightest degree, the usefulness of that in- 
strument is precisely zero. Extra precautions 
have been taken to seal up these instru- 
ments and operate them in air that has 
been thoroughly dried. Such precautions 
are usually not considered necessary even 
in extended laboratory tests, but they seem 
to be imperative in the tropics. Once an 
instrument is placed in operation in the 
field, however, its usefulness is measured 
by its continuity of service since if fre- 
quently out of commission for one reason or 
another it may not be operating when the 
unpredictable earthquake waves arrive. Its — 
primary function is to record them, all of 
them, when they do arrive. It frequently 
happens that the type of instrument that 
produces records that are the best from the 
point of view of the seismologist who must 
interpret these records is the one that is 
most difficult to keep in operation in remote 
places. For this reason we usually find it 
necessary to compromise by sacrificing per- 
fect performance of limited duration for 
reasonably good performance with no inter- 
ruptions. 

We have tried to follow this same policy 
in our program of investigation of strong 
seismic motion. When this project was ini- 
tiated several years ago by the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey there was little reliable in- 
formation available upon which to formu- 
late a program of attack. But the heat was 
on, funds were appropriated for the project, 


Mar. 15, 1942 


and it was necessary to achieve some kind of 
success in a few short months lest the sup- 
port be withdrawn because we had accom- 
plished nothing. The seismological literature 
was searched, seismologists, mathemati- 
cians, physicists, geologists, and structural 
engineers were canvassed and consulted for 
advice. After all the available evidence was 
in, a decision was made. We would concen- 
trate on strong motion accelerometers; but, 
lest we find ourselves on the wrong track, 
allotments were made for a few instruments 
of other types. The work was divided up 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 77h 


our major effort has been concentrated on 
the accelerograph, it will receive the at- 
tention here. 

The original accelerometer consisted es- 
sentially of a copper loop supported rather 
rigidly by a quadrifilar suspension. The 
copper loop served the double purpose of 
steady mass and damping vane and was so 
arranged as to oscillate between the pole 
pieces of a strong permanent magnet. In 
reality it was a miniature, short period, low 
magnification, optical, seismometer. It was 
subjected to some laboratory tests with ex- 


Fig. 10.—Typical accelerograph st 
to a concrete pier and is pr otected by a 
and power for operation of the instrumen 
power during a major earthquake. 


ani 


among cooperative agencies. Out of the 
National Bureau of Standards came the ac- 
celerometer; from the University of Vir- 
ginia came an intermediate period mechani- 
cal instrument; from funds provided by the 
National Research Council came the tilt- 
meters; and from the Survey came the 
strong-motion displacement-meters, vibra- 
tion meters, and the automatic recorders 
for use with the accelerometers. The re- 
corder in combination with a group of three 
accelerometers is now known as an ac- 
celerograph. Again it is quite impossible 
here to describe all these instruments. Since 


metal cover. 


ry 


tation in a Seismic area. The whole instrument i 


s securely bolted 


Note that storage batteries, which supply light 


t, are lashed to the pier to guard against interruption of 


perimental recorders, and since it gave 
promise of meeting requirements it was 
placed: in quantity production. Within a 
comparatively short time 10 complete, 
three-component accelerographs were in 
routine, stand-by operation in seismic zones 
on the west coast. The field installations 
came none too soon. Within three months 
came the Long Beach earthquake, and all 
the accelerographs in that area operated 
and furnished records that were reasonably 
good when all the circumstances are taken 
into consideration. It was apparent at once, 
however, that certain improvements were 


78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


quite essential especially in the matter of 
recording. Also, the quadrifilar suspension, 
while its performance in the laboratory was 
eminently satisfactory and although it 
could be adjusted and tuned within a 
reasonable time, presented quite a problem 
in the field, especially since there were 30 
of them to keep in adjustment. One cannot 
spend all his time making adjustments. 
Otherwise, the earthquakes might never 
have an opportunity to make use of the ac- 
celerometers. As a result of further labora- 
tory experiments and tests, the pivot ac- 
celerometer was developed and at the same 
time combined with a low-magnification 


PIVOT ACCELEROMETER 
45° TO NORMAL 


PIVOT ACCELEROMETER 
NORMAL 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


attachment, which, it is believed, will record 
the strongest shocks without loss of record. 
Since there are now about 150 of these units 
in operation in the United States, it is 
quite obvious that servicing these instru- 
ments is no small task. While we may have 
sacrificed accuracy in some degree by the 
use of pivot instruments, they have made 
it possible, because of their ease of assembly 
and adjustment, to keep the program 
going. 

In cooperation with the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology the Survey has 
conducted some shaking table investigations 
with these accelerographs. The whole ac- 


Fig. 11.—Shaking table record at Massachusetts Institute of Technology showing response of two 
pivot accelerometers to sudden and irregular motions of the table. One accelerometer is oriented at 
45° to the direction of motion. The time marks (broken line) are spaced at one-half second between 
centers. 


PIVOT ACCELEROMETER 


cll 


QUADRIFILAR ACCELEROMETER 


Fig. 12.—Shaking table record at Massachusetts Institute of Technology showing response of pivot 
and quadrifilar accelerometers to the same table motion. Time marks (broken line) are spaced at one- 
half second between centers. 


Mar. 15, 1942 


celerograph was mounted upon a sturdy 
shaking table, which was so designed that 
oscillations of variable frequencies and am- 
plitudes as well as irregular motions could 
be obtained. By means of an ingenious 
photoelectric device the table was made to 
simulate the ground motion to which one of 
the accelerographs was subjected in the 
Long Beach earthquake. The accelerograph 
then reproduced with considerable fidelity 
the accelerogram that had been recorded 
originally at Long Beach. In one of the 
tests a pivot accelerometer and a quadrifilar 
accelerometer were allowed to record simul- 
taneously. Casual examination of the re- 
cords would seem to indicate that they are 
duplicates. Intensive study, however, has 
shown that if an attempt is made to derive 
ground displacements from the records 
made with pivot instruments, serious dis- 
erepancies appear that seem to be due pri- 
marily to slight shifts of the pivots in their 
bearings. These discrepancies may or may 
not be of engineering significance. Only time 
and possibly further experiments may de- 
cide the matter. 

There is still much to learn about the 
dynamics of destructive earthquakes. We 
do know, of course, that when one of these 
major earthquakes occurs near a center of 
population the loss in life and damage to 
property may be terrific. We know also that 
certain engineering structures are totally 
demolished while others nearby escape with 
only slight damage. As a result of rather in- 
tensive investigations in engineering labora- 
tories and owing in no small part to our own 
field work in connection with the determi- 
nations of natural periods of engineering 
structures when subjected to artificial vi- 
brations, building codes have been im- 
proved in certain States to the extent that 
some kind of earthquake-proof construction 
must be included in specifications before 
building permits will be issued. 

We do not know when or where earth- 
quakes are likely to occur in the future, but 
it does not seem unreasonable to expect 
that most of the earthquakes of the future 
will continue to occur in regions where they 


MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 79 


have occurred before, that is, in seismic 
zones. However, wishful thinking or expert 
opinions to the contrary will not prevent 
them from happening anywhere on the 
earth, but that phase of the problem must 
be left for time alone to solve. It is believed 
that the published results of our investiga- 
tions of strong seismic motion have been 
effective in convincing engineers and others 
that by exercising reasonable precautions 
in their building specifications, property 
damage and loss of life during a major 
earthquake may be reduced considerably. 
If our influence along this line has con- 
tributed in any degree whatsoever to the 
saving of life and property, our efforts have 
not been in vain. 

In conclusion I should like to ae a few 
remarks about the necessity of keeping on 
the track in carrying on this geophysical 
work. If it is our appointed duty to collect 
certain data in the laboratory or in the field, 
or if it falls to our lot to translate these data 
into language that the public can under- 
stand and use, then let us stay on the track 
and do that job. Whether or not we may like 
it, all of us must perform a certain amount 
of deadly routine. Until we learn that lesson 
and learn it thoroughly we cannot solve 
these geophysical problems nor can we keep 
the production line moving. 

If, while I am supposed to be standardiz- 
ing a magnetometer I spend weeks and 
weeks determining the induction factor of 
one of its magnets to an accuracy of 0.1 per- 
cent when I am fully aware of the fact that 
I need to know it to an accuracy of only 5 
percent, I may be having a perfectly jolly 
time—yes, I may be thrilled with the re- 
sults, but I have lost sight of my objective 
—I am off the track. By the same token, if 
the statistician who is compiling and pub- 
lishing geophysical data insists on extracting 
the last drop of tribute from his instruments 
or from the man on the firing line who is 
operating them, sooner or later he will find 
that his production line is not moving ahead 
but has stopped. That statistician has in- - 
dicted himself under an old but unrepealed 
statute—the law of diminishing returns. 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Amphipoda from Uruguay and Brazil.1 CLAR- 
ENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. 


In July, 1941, some amphipods of the 
genus Hyalella Smith, taken in the river 
Imbé, a stream flowing into Lake Traman- 
dai in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, 
Brazil, were sent to the U. 8S. National 
Museum for identification. These specimens 
superficially resembled Hyalella azteca var. 
inermis Smith, but, upon dissection, char- 
acters were observed that distinguish them 
from that form of Hyalella azteca (Saussure). 
I am, therefore, describing them as a new 
species, as follows: 


Hyalella curvispina, new species 


Male.—Eye dark, slightly reniform or oval. 
Antenna 1 about as long as the head plus the 
first three or four body segments and reaching 
to about the middle of the flagellum. of antenna 
2. Peduncular joints successively shorter and 
narrower; flagellum longer than peduncle and 
composed of about 11 joints, which do not 
carry sense-organs. Antenna 2, fifth peduncular 
joint longer than fourth; flagellum much longer 
than peduncle and composed of about 14 joints, 
which do not carry sense-organs. 

Right mandible, molar strong and well de- 
veloped, seta on inside edge and a tuft of setules 
at base between it and spine-row, which con- 
tains two long and one shorter spine; cutting- 
edge toothed and accessory plate well developed 
and toothed; a knoblike protuberance on inside 
surface at base of molar. Maxilla 1, inner plate 
with two apical plumose setae; outer plate 
with nine serrate and pectinate spine-teeth; 
palp small and ending in a narrow sharp point. 
This palp is much smaller in proportion than 
in H. azteca. Maxilla 2 normal, inner plate 
shorter than outer and bearing, in addition to 
the terminal spines, two plumose setae on 
upper inner margin. Maxillipeds, inner plate 
longer than outer plate and reaching beyond 
the middle of outer plate, the truncate upper 
margin armed with three teeth; outer plate 
rather short, inner margin armed with two or 
three rows of slender spines, but no spine-teeth; 
palp rather short and broad with the inner dis- 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received Decem- 
ber 12, 1941. 


tal corners of the second and third joints pro- 
duced into lobes; fourth joint rather weak and 
bearing a long slender nail. 

Gnathopod 1 shorter and stouter than in H. 
azteca; fifth joint subequal in length to sixth, 
lobe of lower margin bearing a row of long and 
short spines; sixth joint a little longer than 
wide, palm oblique and convex, armed through- 
out with a row of slender spines, and defined by 
a lobe bearing a short spine, below which on the 
inside surface of joint is a similar spine; hind 
margin of joint bearing a slender spine and an 
armament of the minute pectinate scales which 
occur also in H. azteca; the front margin also 
bears a spine near the middle and an armament 
of pectinate scales distally; seventh joint fitting 
palm, bearing a nail and a few pectinate scales 
on outer margin, and a row of minute spinules 
on inner margin. Gnathopod 2 rather short 
and robust; palm quite oblique, convex and 
with only a mere suggestion of the tooth nor- 
mally found near the hinge of the seventh joint 
in H. azteca. The hind margin of sixth joint is 
rather short and somewhat produced or lobed 
at the defining angle of palm; the inner surface 
of the defining lobe of the palm bearing an 
armament of pectinate scales. Seventh joint 
fitting palm with the apex dipping into a shal- 
low pocket. 

Peraeopods 1 and 2 much alike in shape and 
spinous armature, but 2 slightly the longer. 
Peraeopods 3 to 5 much alike but increasing 
consecutively in length, second joints much 
expanded with lower hind margin produced 
into a broad rounding lobe. 

Lower hind corners of metasome segments 2 
and 3 somewhat produced and sharply angular. 
Uropods not very spinose, but the inner ramus 
of uropod 1 bearing on the inner margin usually 
one but sometimes two long slender curved 
spines which are very characteristic of the 
males of this species. Uropod 3 with ramus sub- 
equal in length to peduncle. Telson as long as 
wide, reaching to about the end of peduncle of 
uropod 38, and bearing apically two stout spines 
and several slenderer and shorter spines. Length 
of male 9 mm from front of head to end of 
uropod 1. 

The gill arrangement is the same in both 


Mar. 15, 1942 SHOEMAKER: A NEW AMPHIPOD 


Fig. 1.—Hyalella curvispina, new species: Male: a, antenna 1 and antenna 2; b, maxilla 1; ¢, gnatho- 
pod 1; d, end of gnathopod 1 showing the pectinate scales on inside surface of joint; e, enathopod 2; 
ie defining angle of palm of enathopod 2 showing the pectinate scales on inside surface; g, peraeopod 2 


h, peraeopod 3; 7, uropod 1;7, uropod 3; k, telson; l, end of telson showing spines. Female: mm, zaathunad 
1: N, enathopod 2. 


81 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


sexes. Each of the mesosome segments 2 to 6 
bears a pair of coxal gills and a pair of simple 
lateral sternal gills, while segment 7 bears only 
a pair of lateral sternal gills. This species has 
no dorsal teeth. 

Female.—The female is like the male except 
in the gnathopods and the first uropod. 
Gnathopod 1 is longer and slenderer than in the 
male; the sixth joint is proportionately nar- 
rower and the palm is transverse; the front and 
hind margins bear a few spines and a few pecti- 
nate scales. Gnathopod 2 much like gnathopod 
1 but longer and slenderer; sixth joint equal in 
length to fifth, widening distally and with palm 
slightly chelate; hind margin well provided 
with pectinate scales on inner distal surface. 
Uropod 1 does not have the long curved spines 
on the inner ramus. Length of female 9 mm 
from front of head to end of uropod 1. 

Type locality—Small mud puddles which 
dry up in summer (5 to 15 cm deep), near 
Montevideo, Uruguay, December, 1932, Ri- 
cardo Thomsen, collector. Type, a mature 
male, U.S. N. M. no. 79388. 

Other records.—There are specimens of this 
species in the National Museum taken at the 
following localities: 

Paso de la Arena (fresh water), near Monte- 
video, Uruguay, November 27, 1925, Ricardo 
Thomsen, collector. 

Montevideo, Uruguay (from General Buz- 
zano’s Place), December 10, 1925, Ricardo 
Thomsen, collector. 

Pajas Blancas, quite near the sea coast, but 
still fresh water, near Montevideo, Uruguay, 
December 7, 1932, Ricardo Thomsen, collector. 

Carrasco Creek, near Montevideo, Uruguay, 
December 11, 1925, Ricardo Thomsen, col- 
ector. 

From a well, 20 meters deep, subsoil line, near 
Montevideo, Uruguay, July or December, 
1932, Ricardo Thomsen, collector. : 

Among the roots of Pontederia and Rhyn- 
chospora in the river Imbé, flowing into the 
Lagoa de Tramandai; littoral of Rio Grande 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


do Sul, Brazil, June, 1941, Herm. Kleerekoper, 
collector. 

Remarks.—The gill arrangement is slightly 
different from that of Hyalella azteca of North 
America. In H. azteca there are no lateral 
sternal gills on the second body segment, 
whereas they are present in H. curvispina. 

Prof. A. S. Pearse, in describing Hyalella 
ornata from the State of Veracruz, Mexico, said 
that the specific name was given on account of 
the tubercles that cover parts of the anterior 
margins of the last two segments and the pos- 
terior margins of the last four segments of the 
first gnathopods of both sexes and that are 
found also on the same places on the second 
gnathopods of the female, but appear only on 
the posterior margins of the fourth and sixth 
segments of the second gnathopods of the male. 
These tubercles, when highly magnified, have 
the appearance of oblong scales armed on their 
convex edges. with very minute teeth or spi- 
nules, which give them a pectinate appearance. 
On the sixth joint of the first gnathopods of 
both sexes these scales are directed away from 
the central longitudinal axis of the joint on the 
outside surface and toward the axis on the in- 
side surface. Those of the seventh joint are 
directed away from the inner concave margin 
on the outside and toward it on the inside 
surface. 

I have examined specimens of Hyalella from 
several localities in the state of Veracruz, which 
is the type locality for H. azteca, and find that 
they all possess these pectinate scales. I am 
therefore of the opinion that H. ornata is a 
synonym of H. azteca. These scales appear on 
all the specimens of Hyalella from Mexico I 
have been able to examine. In passing north- 
ward, westward, and eastward from Mexico in 
the United States the scales appear to become 
considerably less in number and less conspicu- 
ous. I believe that all the specimens of Hyalella 
I have seen from Mexico and the United States 
are Hyalella azteca, which is a very variable 
species, and that they all possess these scales 
in varying degrees. 


Mar. 15, 1942 


SCHULTZ: NOTES ON OPHICHTHYID EELS 83 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—The first record of the ophichthyid eel Scytalichthys miurus 
(Jordan and Gilbert) from the Galapagos Islands, with notes on Mystriophis 


intertinctus (Richardson).! 


In identifying a small collection of fishes 
made by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt in the Gala- 
pagos Islands, I had opportunity to study a 
specimen of Scytalichthys miurus (Jordan 
and Gilbert). Jordan and Davis (Rept. U.S. 
Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1888, pt. 16, 
pp. 634-636. 1892) described the subgenus 
Scytalichthys, genotype Ophichthys miurus 
Jordan and Gilbert, and based the generic 
distinction on ‘“‘vomerine teeth in one series 
of about four slender depressible canines; 
tail very short, much shorter than rest of 
body.” Jordan and Evermann (U. 8. Nat. 
Mus. Bull. 47, pt. 1, pp. 386-387. 1896) 
copied Jordan and Davis in their generic 


description. It is my good fortune to have 


at hand all the specimens studied by those 
authors, as well as some additional speci- 
mens. The vomerine teeth of the types of 
Ophichthys miurus Jordan and _ Gilbert, 
U.S. N. M. no. 2304, are fixed and not de- 
pressible or movable (except where broken 
loose from their bases). Although the types 
of S. miurus are small specimens, the teeth 
have the same arrangement as in the larger 
specimen (total length 685 mm) collected 
by Dr. Schmitt in Aeolian Bay, South Sey- 
mour Island, April 11, 1941, U. S. N. M. 
no. 119785.. From the above-mentioned 
specimens I have made a sketch of the teeth 
giving the actual number of teeth in the 
jaws as counted by me along with their 
relative sizes (Fig. 1, a). 

Closely related to S. miurus is Mystrio- 
phis intertinctus (Richardson) from the 
West Indies to the region of Florida. The 
arrangement of the teeth in this species is 
similar but very distinct from that in S. 
miurus. After examining all seven specimens 
available (U. S. N. M. nos. 6956, St. 
_ Thomas, W. I.; 23635 and 49797, Florida; 
0984 and 31891, Florida), I made a sketch 
of the dentition of M. intertinctus showing 
the relative number of teeth and their rela- 
tive sizes (Fig. 1, b). 

A comparison of the dentition of these 

1 Published with the permission of the Secre- 


tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
January 6, 1942. 


LEONARD P. ScHULTZ, 


U.S. National Museum. 


two species indicates without exception 
that the vomer and dentary have but a 
single row of caninelike teeth on S. miurus 
but a double row on M. intertinctus. The 
teeth on the maxillary of S. miurus are in 
two rows anteriorly and four rows pos- 
teriorly, but on M. intertinctus in but two 
rows. The teeth at front of upper jaw are 
likewise entirely different. It is concluded 
therefore that since these differences are so 


= 
SS) 


Ni 
ie iy 4 
Lae Gye 
SA NZ 
Ss fe 4 AVF, 
VW es PB Vy 
S. iy i Vg 
Ny X + 
a ee SS 
Sipe Seg “NU Ff 
Sy 8 a A >» Ve 
SHY 2 Be Ne b 
SEES k LM, 1 
2A a // + 4B Soe 
VO CRUE TG E 
SEN <p ¢ rag aS ; 
a Sa iN - ers \ 
SAN N g BO 
SENSE Vi onc san XN 
Rea ane. 
se 8 4 O 


Aa A. 


saa? 
a7 


OA a, 
earings ? 


T4944 
aad 


Fig. 1.—a, Dentition of Scytalichthys miurus 
(Jordan and Gilbert);-b, dentition of Mystriophis 
intertinctus (Richardson). 


great the two species should be considered 
generically distinct. Thus Scytalichthys 
should be given full generic rank as was 
done by Jordan, Evermann, and Clark 
(Rept. U.S. Bur. Fish. for 1928, pt. 2, p. 89. 
1930) but not on the basis of depressible 
canines on the vomer. It should be based 
instead, among other characters, on the 
dentition as indicated in this study, on the 
small pectoral fins that are 1} length of eye, 
and origin of dorsal fin one head length be- 
hind gill openings. 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 
372D MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 372d meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the private dining room of the 
Cosmos Club on Friday, January 9, 1942. In 
the absence of President Clark, Vice-President 
H. E. McComp called the meeting to order at 
8:10 P.m., with 14 persons present as follows: 
H. EK. McComp, F. D. Rossin1, N. R. Smita, 
W. W. Dieut, J. H. Kempton, F. C. Kracex, 
F. G. BrickweppE, M. C. MeErritu, W. A. 
Dayvron, HH. ih. ‘Curtis; L. We Parr. ©. 1: 
GARNER, and, by invitation, R. J. SEEGER and 
G. A. COOPER. 

The minutes of the 371st meeting were read 
and approved. 

For the Executive Committee, the Secretary 
reported that this committee met at the Cosmos 
Club on December 5, 1941, at 9:30 P.M., with 
Messrs. A. H. Cuarkx, H. L. Curtis, J. EH. Grar, 
and F. D. Rossini present, to review the action 
recently taken by the Committee with regard 
to the investment of $5,200 that has come into 
the treasury from the closing out of two previ- 
ous investments (see minutes of the Board of 
Managers meeting on November 7, 1941, and 
October 3, 1941). The Committee considered 
investing these funds in 43 per cent cumulative 
preferred stock of the Citizens Bank of Takoma 
Park, Md., which stock was currently available 
for purchase, but agreed that the reinvestments 
should be made as previously planned, namely, 
investment in savings accounts in federally- 
insured savings and loan associations, the total 
amount in each to be not more than $5,000. 
The Treasurer was further authorized to trans- 
fer $300 from the checking account to the funds 
for reinvestment to make the total $5,500. Of 
this amount, $500 and $1,000 are to be added 
to the accounts in the Northwestern Federal 
Savings and Loan Association and the First 
Federal Savings and Loan Association, re- 
spectively, bringing the total in each to $5,000. 
The remaining $4,000 is to be placed in a third 
federally-insured savings and loan association. 

For the Committee on Meetings, Chairman 
GARNER reported the speaker for the February 
meeting to be GrEorGE C. VAILLANT, director 


of the Museum of the University of Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia, Pa. 

For the Committee on Membership, Chair- 
man KRaAcExK presented nominations for mem- 
gership for six persons, four honorary and two 
nonresident. 

The Committee of Tellers appointed to can- 
vas the votes on the affiliation of the Washing- 
ton Section of the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, L. B. TuckERMAN (chairman), R. 
W. Brown, and GrorcGE TUNELL, presented 
their report as follows: The Committee met on 
December 9, 1941. It compared the ballot 
envelopes with the list of the members of the 
Academy in good standing and found 202 bal- 
lots from members in good standing; 2 ballots 
from members in arrears; | ballot in unsigned 
envelope; total 205. The count of the ballots 
from members in good standing showed: For 
affiliation 196; against affiliation 6; total 202. 
The Board formally declared the Washington 
Section of the American Society of Civil Engi- 
neers affiliated with the Academy. 

The Secretary reported the following data 
concerning membership: Deaths, 1; acceptances 
to membership, 6; qualified for membership, 4; 
retirements, 2. The status of the membership 
as of January 8, 1942, was: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total 
Resident 435 33 3 0 471 
Nonresident 128 18 13 2 161 
Total 563 51 16 2 632 


Under new business, the Board authorized 
the appointment of two committees: One to 
study the matter of the affiliation of the Acad- 
emy with the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science; and the other to con- 
sider questions relating to the Committee on 
Membership, involving the establishment of a 
greater continuity in the personnel of the Com- 
mittee and general criteria for honorary mem- 
bership. The meeting adjourned at 9:40 P.M. 


309TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 309th meeting of the Academy was held 
in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 
8:15 p.m. on January 15, 1942, with Vice- 
President H. E. McComp, representing the 


Mar. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS 
Philosophical Society, presiding. The retiring 
president of the Academy, Austin H. Ciark, 
delivered an address entitled Science and war, 
which was published in the February 15, 1942, 
issue of the JourNAL. Following his address, 
President Cuarx took the chair and adjourned 
the meeting at 9:15 P.M. 


4ATH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 44th annual meeting of the Academy 
was held on January 15, 1942, immediately 
following the 309th regular meeting of the 
Academy. President Cuarxk called the meeting 
to order at 9:25 p.m., with about 75 persons 
present. The minutes of the 43d annual meet- 
ing were approved as published on pages 155 to 
164 of the JourNaAL of April 15, 1941. 


Report of the Secretary 


The Secretary presented the following report 
for 1941: 

During 1941 a total of 39 persons (32 resident 
and 7 nonresident) were elected to membership, 
all of whom accepted. Of these, 11 were elected 
in recognition of their work in chemistry, 5 in 


zoology, 3 in entomology, 3 in physics, 2 in ~ 


agronomy, 2 in geology, and 1 each in anthro- 
pology, astronomy, bacteriology, biochemistry, 
cartography, cytology, engineering, helmin- 
thology, horticulture, medicine, parasitology, 
plant pathology, and public health. 

Because of their retirement from active work, 
10 members (5 resident and 5 nonresident) were 
placed on the “‘retired”’ list. Resignations were 
accepted from 9 members in good standing (4 
resident and 5 nonresident). 

During 1941, 10 deaths (7 resident and 3 
nonresident, including 1 patron) were reported 
to the Secretary as follows: 

Mrs. Henry L. Hieeinson, Boston, Mass., May 

6, 1935. 

Max Weserr, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 

February 7, 1937. 

Wi.i1aAmM WILLIAMS GILBERT, Washington, D. C., 

December 22, 1940. 

Dayton CLARENCE MILLER, Cleveland, Ohio, 

February 22, 1941. 

Morton GirHens Luoyp, Washington, D. C., 

April 26, 1941. 

ERNEST WERNER EICKELBERG, Washington, D. 

C., May 20, 1941. 

CLaupE Haure BirpsryE, Washington, D. C., 

May 30, 1941. 

Davip Ives BUSHNELL, JR., Washington, D. C., 

June 4, 1941. 


: THE ACADEMY 85 


HuexH McCormick Smiru, Washington, D. C., 
September 28, 1941. 

Ernest Everett Just, Washington, D. C., Oc- 
tober 27, 1941. 


On January 1, 1942, the membership was as 
follows: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patrons T otal 
Resident 433 33 3 0 469 
Nonresident 127 18 13 2, 160 
Total 560 51 16 2 629 


During the period from February 7, 1941, to 
January 9, 1942, the Board of Managers held 
seven meetings, with an average attendance of 
17 persons. One of two special committees car- 
ried over from 1940 completed its work. Of the 
six special committees appointed by the Presi- 
dent during the past year, four completed their 
work and two will carry over. 

During the past year, the Academy held 
seven meetings, beginning with the 303d and 
ending with the 309th, as follows: 

On February 20, 1941, jointly with the 
Philosophical Society of Washington, with an 
address by P. W. Bripaman, of Harvard Uni- 
versity, entitled The changing position of 
thermodynamics. 

On March 20, 1941, for the presentation of 
the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- 
ment for 1940, to Harry D1amonp, of the 
National Bureau of Standards, in the engineer- 
ing sciences, and to FERDINAND G. BRIcK- 
WEDDE, of the National Bureau of Standards, in 
the physical sciences. 

On April 17, 1941, to hear reports on various 
phases of the 1940 South American Eclipse 
Expedition, sponsored by the National Geo- 
graphic Society and the National Bureau of 
Standards, from IRvINE C. GARDNER, CARL C. 
Kirss, and THropore R. GILLILAND, of the 
National Bureau of Standards, Paut A. Mc- 
Natty, 8. J., of Georgetown University, and 
EpWARD QO. HuLBeErt, of the U. 8. Naval Re- 
search Laboratory. 

On October 16, 1941, jointly with the 
Philosophical Society of Washington and the 
Washington Society of Engineers, with an ad- 
dress by Francis W. REICHELDERFER, of the 
U. S. Weather Bureau, entitled Some famous 
weather maps. 

On November 27, 1941, jointly with the 
Anthropological Society of Washington, with 
an address by Marruew W. STIRLING, of the 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Bureau of American Ethnology (assisted by 
Mrs. Stirling), entitled Treasure trove of Mexican 
archeology. 

On December 18, 1941, jointly with the 
Washington Section of the American Institute 
of Electrical Engineers, with an address by 
Karu B. McEacuron, of the General Electric 
Company, entitled Lightning. 

On January 15, 1942, with an address by 
Austin H. Cuark, the Retiring President of 
the Academy, entitled Science and war. 

Accounts of the first five of these meetings 
have been published in the JouRNAL under the 
Proceedings of the Academy, and the last two 
will soon appear. One of the meetings was held 
in the Auditorium of the U. 8S. National 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


Museum and the other six in the Assembly Hall 
of the Cosmos Club. 

On January 9, 1942, the Board of Managers 
formally declared the Washington Section of 
the American Society of Civil Engineers affili- 
ated with the Academy, as a result of the 
favorable vote of the membership of the 
Academy in a balloting by mail which began 
November 10, 1941, and ended December 9, 
1941. There are now a total of 20 societies af- 
filiated with the Academy. On motion, the 
report of the Secretary was accepted. 


Report of the Treasurer 


The treasurer, H. 8. RAPPLEYE, submitted 
the following report for 1941: 


CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS 


RECEIPTS: 


Brome dues OS 034 ei Metis. een se ark opie 
Mrommdures O40. oe ook ck a Ph cee eek eh tere 
Rromaeates TOA ek el ee een Beet oF, 
rom raues TOAD Res A sre mea ctnk Vlat ee o n nee a Ba) 
Hromy subscriptions 1940 tet. foe ae ee 
HromisubseriptionselO4le as a5 40 Sear 
Rromrsubscrptionsel 949) Be 2... eet wa hats enki 
Fromesales Ol OURN ALESHA). tam ee ste es, 
Hromesales of Wirectoryt sc 4c oe eee 
Brompayments for reprints: . 5,4.) 2 
Krom interest ond epositsenst 2. cians nee ee ee 
Rromenterest oniimvestments. 245)... aa 
Hiromssale- on butler motese sc. . et ee 
rom salesot Bil kakWay, proOpertycces 7.6. 
From withdrawn for investments............. 


Total -Tecei pis eae oe ee oe oh ee 
Cashipalancecian slr 1 94ers obec me ed on 


Tosbe-accounbed eras ae ne = Soe ees 


DISBURSEMENTS: 


Hor secretary s.© Gicesl940 © an 8 ates 
Korslresasarers Otice: 19402. ne, os CA 
Kor JOURNAL printing TOt0) 6 oe Ges ee 
Por Jourgnwan prrating 194105). 5 eee 
Fon JOURNAL Teprints 19402... o Aas Seles ee 
RorJouRnaAw reprints: 194th ..s0 2 eo. hen es 
Por JOURNAL Hinstrations; 1940... a2 os ec 
Por JouRNAIUimsthations. L944 i ooo 6 oe 
For Custodian & Subs. Mgr., 1941../.......... 
For Custodian & Subs. Mgr. (Special)* ....... 
Hor JouRNAm Ofice194G Ah one, Bee AAs 
Hor JOURN Ad Ofiiees | O41 fy deh oe ey AR 
For Meetings Committee, 1940............... 
For Meetings Committee, 1941............... 
Por Directory, oh Sakae oe <5 hee ee eee ee 
Hor: dues returmed sya) a es oe a 


5) eel 0! (wlieife) fee re, le 9) 0) le ye. 0) (0) (aye ce fe" ebes) (ol a] (eco ain uname 
«Vor et ia_o tegte: (e tele e* 0. Je se. (s)'a Lege) (a) 0. ele) ceria g lel pio enna nn 


© Gel et esl wees fa ele (a) [e) key-») Jol) staple te eal see aoe 
‘exe ts! “s) je) we) eis) a)iet (ol relia” ee) 0 tevie) je, \0° tale s.0b-e) te) (elle (oi nn 
© (ews) fate! fe) .e el, 10) ier (ee ie! les. .w ie: je) 50, felis o) 0) (be) eso me elon 
8 \a) seine) 7s “te slat vessel es) «as «) a) fel-eM se euvulhe! loc ies sate isin iin iiaiin 
aMfel(sMe! le te) eye, ol 8) \e” et\a) co, jel als eine ie Mel. ce; io) Leikeaie lewis ies 
6) (ed ay Toles a oof Helo Jeep fal je* cere let in, Fol e Kul fe, ter ees). = ede site) eine 
a) feet a) ie Te) loitie. (etal eo: 2) arte, Yea) fy «|! ele! je) tet.e) te. \e Mavens ©) Roe nne 
Wow (eae)! 6) fe ve’ 10: o) eo, 16) fo’ eis) Js\e\ el une!) a) fel. w he) jeltw) ow aie Malini 


o ja, se) eo) vee) mol ene aloe vee =) alte is 0) = fee) mi iel =) le] [= -ing aie 


© lelte Jie" fale ele, ‘a, 0) ‘a .0° josie, enisl met elem esiee ow. wile) oleae mn eile 


el sis, je: e: <0 6 yarre: (6 -o-70) 0 es eye, © 10, tele fel. a) eure _s) aul lotie nomen 


A Ee 
| TRG ole oor Se aren sce 
urd ol ae oe ee 
eT Man MM Nee. 2,407 .42 
ee I el ee 

fhe Sete ae eo 
ean Soe hor Le en 
ets prema e ete 
hoe 6 bo ah ed oa 
abt: ite ae eee 
seid chests tk cgettcrl reece eee ee 


©) (e! me), (6) 0.) ee ie fess eye) otPatie jel al »-lel y= ei elser elm a) (Ol 


e/a yel tee. #6) ie 3s: ees ae ws helenae mee) ene e, | ements gente 
os, ee m, ue fee. ona, ie pe. aie) Sim (alee, a Suede ends) lee bee eel ae 


1,120.52 


$20,233.61 


$ 499.24 


Mar. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


Bank debit memos as follows: 


RCE Me ae PI I, ea er tat epO Ge: Sc Tees Face lke eh aa eae $ 6.29 
RSE RF By TOS NCE altar ears rer ee ME AG? aie, aden, BURR! «Galo. ty 6 lo le oh4 lope 1 p9 
cos sym Ronen TQS Ege hr cen SPR anette Girl i ae a ea ge 1.38 
REE SEMO HT MECC SEINEMtSy L shaie ene See ae te aalane oe o's ath viet ew Shade lanes s 20.00 
MR MR SIBTRRE Setup NCO UIING 5 0h ch ok ks} See OE ree hee nitoc 2G cdg ht oa eta GONE old aie es 
DRCEe eC MCCS POA MEM. orld ei ale ORM Us eee Oe Goll A Ayer nle ee 
Invested in Northwestern Federal Savings & Loan Assn................0eeeeeeeeee 
Peeeainebirst Pederal Savings & Loam ASM. 0... 06 ces ene nee cece ede sees 
DURE 5 2 g 655 "Gly eed OR eta ee diner ee ert eS eb AR a gray Meg age 
RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE 
Pree mmenedsit book 2-31 aA ne ees es So eee cane en eho lols shee bt ce oe one 
Bank Balance American Sec. & Trust Co. per statement 12-31-41......... $4,930.15 
“SS SEDSDOAS TNOIR GISTOOISIRGaX0 Deas oe dict ch An eee gC ee Irae ei eh ne ee ee D5 PES, 
‘ $4,955.40 
Checks outstanding, not cashed: 
Se Pe ico ee aN Ss a gk unmade eRe owas as $21.50 
Ss NI Ry coe ences ace / AS SOE aE at pada us gota) ahh wg Gs. 25) 
el rte ie nae mee Sen uce es whack be mae ote. eanea te eas 9.00 
PEE). 2 5 ou Wah goon aee ae ee ee to i ees nn one Re ee 5.00 
SAEs oo ach oc. HSER ct aeae OR eu. PIER el RAR cote Ry aI 1.50 
FOS, . 2 a doo oh BCATS IED SHSM Milena die: SROM@ ri Ee Age go) ter ae cae eee EN 13.50 
EG. ot ob aS late oa lia Cabernet wl Rt oO Annie gr Auer cca anes ae 3385.5 15) 
EI eG eng n he ahon ce es an Sa os Men Mt es he ae 46.89 
OPI ee eae Rn Le a a ey aime apenn maha ys wets 5.64 152.43 
INVESTMENTS 


409 Shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10 per share, 


OS eras rete Nea eer CMe cae ceed conan a eas cM ay eM MaR ee Reo ORCS cathe eats, Ane eoe ehle Ye fe "gabe «eae ass 

Pie ouanes stock Potomac HMlec. Power Co.,'6% Pref., cost... 0). ose. 02s i Sh eae 
4 Certificates Corporate Stock of the City of New York, 1 for $500 and 3 for $100, 
EOS ee een yet RP er oe ne ON MR io. t: Wore, oth) virayalten dl Busey Bin “doin vets wc oie TDs sap Qileow € ahets 

1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., #1027; interest at 5%, due 1927; par value $1,000 
Heyy. CSVARY OS COOKE orci Ao ane eat mn A en 1S) GL PRI ACRE ofl aa a i ec Se aR 

1 Real Estate Note of T. Q. Donaldson (#6 of 12) dated June 26, 1937 (extended to 
ela) PENI GERE SU 7o8 (COSUN. metre ERAT EOS... « Ann uMer se oak lee ot NRE ELS oi Bon ein ote y 

2 Real Estate Notes of Yetta Korman et al., dated October 5, 1938 for 3 years (#7 of 
Seto oO caliG: 7 Or Olean Or pOOO)AECOste tas... otc cit nes da exo Ga Owe cee 


Extended from 1941 to 1944 with interest at 44% 
**2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 for $1,000)—First Federal Savings & Loan Assn., 


IMG Seno ancl OGG aa. Met ere ania Sacre ites, eC ee aes, Teg a ma Bc) 
**2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 for $500)—Northwestern Federal Savings and Loan 
FAS SID ered NO Seplieas On ur Chatl 4 Aileen tenn wie" dee TU ee a alg oR Ni och ak 


Deposited in savings account, American Sec. & Trust Co 


Cash book balance Dee. 31, 1941 


BIRO Le IU Leese w ee egiele Teele ve. eee. eh eel @ (6 46 6.6, Be ie BARE Te tw © § ew. ea (© 


Total Assets 


CRS aer es Rha emo Le le Ae Ae RW Tete e, eel kw Beet eee eee eee tee Se Bee ee Bye ee Oe eS 8 We ee 


$4,802. 


1,000. 


1,000. 


5,000. 


$19, 897.1: 


5.000. 
45. 


87 


oon 


4,802.97 


$24,700. 


09 


88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 3 
Rotal AssetswDecucaily MGAO each eh oe oh ell 18 oi ule a re $25,468.75 
Totals Acsetse Decor SO Mo se skeen ose Ao oes, Saeco ce Ee 24,700.09 
ADC CREASC Meteora Safe ca ck Sesto sa) catia es Poon Save, die fo. Ae ae $ 768.66 


* These certificates were purchased with the approval of the Executive Committee of the Board of 
Managers with money received from the following sources: 


Butler ZNotes i eres eee aera en ee ane $1,190.12 
Savines: Neches cra Ne ere eee les $8,500.00 
Checkine Acct! 2c. fe ree Gree ee 309.88 


The original investment in the Butler notes was $2,000 on which only $1,190.12 was realized when 
the property was sold—a loss of $809.88 on the investment. 


ALLOTMENTS 

Allotted Receipts Expended 
SOCEELAT WS SO MICER tae oat tenes en es el $ 499.85* ~ $ 499.24 
Mreasurel sy OmMiCes.. ash... sees cs eee nee ee ere 225.00 202.12 
LIGETI ea RRA Sn eee rer Rh aeL hon, Yateitie earn 3,100.00 +%535.49=$3,635.49 3,548.217 
Meetings Commaitieesss. a0) 0-5 uc cee ee 350.00 306.70 
Custodianrcé SmbsadMor ye ear eer aes 120.00 a7 .79t 
Niemibership Committees = 45 see eine ae 10.00 — 
iinxecutives® omimmithecness egy eee eee eee 10.00 = 
Journal@lerical Asst: 27s (aha ane eo a ee eee 240.00\ _ 
JournaleNlises Expenses a. wy Lan oer 60.00 eee ee 
Dine Choniya earn ey Aspe caytncs Wat, Ree tina eee: 350 .00 341.35 


* Original allotment of $450 plus additional allotment of $49.85. 
+ This includes bill for December JouRNAL printing and estimated amount of December reprints. 


t This amount does not include a bill for $1.90 outstanding from 1941 expenses. 


Report of the Committee of Auditors 


The Committee of Auditors, P. A. SmiTH 
(chairman), H. G. Avrers, and C. H. Swick, 
presented the following report: 

The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1941 
were examined by your committee on January 
13, 1942. The neat and orderly manner in which 
the records were found is a matter for especial 
commendation. All receipts and disbursements 
in his report were verified against all vouchers 
and balance sheets from the bank. Vouchers are 
properly approved and the report is correct. 
Securities listed in the Treasurer’s report were 
inspected on January 13, 1942, and the state- 
ment of assets of the Academy is correct. 

On motion, the reports of the Treasurer and 
the Committee of Auditors were accepted. 


Report of the Archivist 


The Archivist, N. R. Smiru, presented the 
following report: 

Since this is the first formal report of the 
Archivist, the larger items now in the Archives 
are listed: A complete bound set of the Pro- 
ceedings of the Academy from 1899 to 1911, a 
complete bound set of the JourNnaL from 1911 
to date, both in good condition. 


Of the Directories published by the Academy 
since 1899 only two editions are missing, viz: 
1901 and 1912. Prior to the publication of the 
Academy Directory, the Joint Commission of 
Scientific Societies published directories each 
year beginning with 1889 and ending with 1898. 
Of these ten editions, the following six are 
missing: 1889, 1890, 1891, 1893, 1894, and 1896. 
Although strictly speaking these may not be- 
long to the Academy Archives, it is felt that 
they should be included and some effort be 
made to complete the set. Therefore, if anyone 
has copies of the missing editions mentioned 
above, the Archivist will be very glad to have 
them. 

One mysterious small package has remained 
sealed since March 23, 1898. The label says, 
“This package containing the ballots by which 
the nucleus of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences was selected as presented by the Joint 
Commission of Scientific Societies to the 
Academy with the request that it be not opened 
within 20 years. Its official history appears on 
pages 41, 45, 46, and 55 of ‘Record Joint Com- 
mission Vol. II, 1897.’ Sealed and delivered 
March 28rd, 1898. Marcus Baker, Secretary, - 
Joint Commission.” 

The main bulk of the material turned over 


Mar. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS 
to the Archivist consists of old records of the 
secretaries and the treasurers together with 
nomination blanks and correspondence. Up to 
1912, all correspondence was copied into letter 
press books which are in the Archives. Since 
then the correspondence has been filed in vari- 
ous ways, each officer having his own likes in 
the matter. This dusty material is being sorted 
as time permits. 

On motion, the report of the Archivist was 
accepted. 


Report of the Board of Editors 


The Board of Editors, J. H. Kempton, R. J. 
Seecer, and G. A. Coorrr, submitted the 
following report for 1941: 

Volume 31 of the JourNaAt for the calendar 
year 1941 consisted of 12 issues totaling 528 
pages. It contained 62 original articles of which 
36 were by members of the Academy and 26 
were communicated. Space was distributed as 
follows: 


Natural Sciences 3193 pages 60 per cent 
Physical Sciences 151% pages 29 per cent 
Proceedings 4035 pages 8 per cent 
Obituaries 102 pages 2 per cent 
Index 62 pages 1 per cent 


There was appropriated by the Board of 
Managers to the Editors for printing, illustrat- 
ing, reprints, and mailing the JouRNAL $3,100; 
for clerical assistance $240; for postage and 
incidentals $60—a total of $3,400. Of this sum 
there was expended for clerical assistance $240; 
for postage and incidentals $28.93; and for 
printing, illustrating, reprints, and mailing 
$3,545.54. The total cost of issuing Volume 31 
was, therefore, $3,814.47. Of this amount 
authors, institutions, or societies paid $604.48 
to cover the cost of excess illustrations, printing 
costs, and reprints, leaving $3,209.99 to be 
charged to the Editors’ budget of $3,400. 
There is, therefore, an unexpended balance of 
$190.01. 

At the close of the year the Editors had on 
hand and accepted for publication 13 manu- 
scripts totaling 259 typewritten pages and 18 
‘illustrations. 

On motion, the report of the Board of Editors 
was accepted. 


: THE ACADEMY 89 


Report of the Custodian and Subscription 
Manager of Publications 


The Custodian and Subscription Manager of 
Publications, W. W. DieHt, presented the fol- 
lowing report for 1941: 

The stocks of Academy publications avail- 
able for sale as revealed by the appended in- 
ventory are more complete than during the 
previous year. At the beginning of the year 
1941 by special action of the Board the Cus- 
todian was authorized to augment the then de- 
pleted supply of certain volumes of the 
JOURNAL sufficient to secure a reserve available 
to purchasers of unbroken sets, particularly in 
the interest of prospective institution sub- 
scribers. This was to be accomplished by means 
of a fund supplied by the sale of complete sets. 
Since this fund was available early in the year 
it has been possible to purchase advantageously 
most of the numbers needed; and at the present 
time there are lacking but six numbers in older 
volumes and three recent volumes, all in one 
set, to complete the authorized reserve: eight 
sets Vols. 1-30, six sets Vols. 11-30, and 13 
sets Vols. 16-30. To this reserve there have 
been added two additional sets, Vols. 1-29, re- 
leased for sale on order of the Board by the 
Secretary of the Academy and the Editor of 
the JouRNAL. That this policy of assembling 
reserve sets has been justified is attested by the 
fact that although three of these reserve sets 
were sold during the year to institutions, we 
are still in a position to meet any reasonable 
demand in the near future. 

Contrasted with the favorable aspects of 
stocks at hand the subscription list is less 


satisfactory. 
Nonmember subscribers in the United 
SiGaibe Seman gee sone eteae ce Ue mae as 89 
Nonmember subscribers in foreign coun- 
UIETISIST Dee cam ential ae ye, gee RR RO IN eta ES 40 
Geological Society of Washington..... 15 


Because conditions have not warranted the 
expenditures anticipated the amount actually 
used, chiefly in maintaining correspondence, 
has been but $37.79 of the budget allowance, 
leaving an unexpended balance of $82.21. 

On motion, the report of the Custodian and 
Subscription Manager of Publications was ac- 
cepted. 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Report of the Tellers 


The Committee of Tellers, L. B. TUcKERMAN 
(chairman), and R. W. Brown, presented their 
report as follows on the annual election of of- 
ficers for 1942 and on the amendments to the 
bylaws: 

A total of 237 ballot envelopes were delivered 
to the Committee by the Secretary. Of these, 2 
bore no signature and 1 bore the signature of a 
member in arrears. 

In the remaining 234 envelopes there were 
found 184 ballots on the Amendments to the 
Constitution and 234 ballots for Officers and 
Manager of the Academy. 

The count of the ballots on the Amendments 
showed 


Hor the Amendments: :-2..!. 5. +: 182 
Against the Amendments......... 1 
INO OULIE cee oan Seen ne rn oer 1 


The count of the ballots on Officers of the 
Academy showed 


For President, HArvry L. Curtis 222 
For Secretary, FREDERICK D. RossINI 221 
For Treasurer, Howarp 8. RAPPLEYE 221 


Examination of the preferential ballot for 
Managers by the Hare system showed 4 un- 
marked ballots and 30 ballots which were in- 
valid because marked with crosses from which 
no first choice could be determined, leaving 200 
valid ballots. The Droop quota was therefore 
(200 -+1)/(2+1) =67. The count of the ballots 
showed the necessary quotas for RosrertT F. 
Grices and Frank C. Kracrk, after transfer 
of votes from the fourth place. 


Nominations for Vice-Presidents 


For the respective affiliated societies, the 
Secretary presented the following nominations 
for Vice-Presidents of the Academy for 1942: 


Philosophical Society of Washington: WILLIAM G. 
BROMBACHER 

Biological Society of Washington: Ernest P. 
WALKER 

Chemical Society of Washington: HERspeErr L. 
HALLER 

Entomological Society of Washington: Austin H. 
CLARK 

National Geographic Society: ALEXANDER WET- 
MORE 

Geological Society of Washington: 
REESIDE, JR. 

Medical Society of the District of Columbia: 
FRED O. Cor 


JOHN B. 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


Columbia Historical Society: ALLEN C. CLarK 
Botanical Society of Washington: Jamgs E. 
McMuourtrey, JR. : 
Archaeological 
HRDLICKA 
Washington Section of the Society of American 
Foresters: W1LLt1AM A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers: 
WHITNEY 
Washington Section of the American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers: FrRANcIsS B. SILSBEE 
Washington Section of the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers: WALTER RAMBERG 
Helminthological Society of Washington: Em- 
METT W. PRICE , 
Washington Branch of the Society of American 
Bacteriologists: LELAND W. PARR 
Washington Post of the Society of American 
Military Engineers: CLEMENT L. GARNER 
Washington Section of the Institute of Radio 
Engineers: HERBERT GROVE DORSEY 
Washington Section of the American Society of 
Civil Engineers: HERMAN STABLER 


Society of Washington: ALES 


PAu: 


On motion, the Secretary was instructed 
to cast a unanimous ballot for these Vice- 
Presidents. 


Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1941 


President CLARK announced the recipients of 
the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- 
ment for 1941, as follows: 


For the Biological Sciences, to— 


G. ArTHUR Coopsr, U. 8. National Museum, 
un recognition of his distinguished service in 
invertebrate paleontology, notably for discovery 
of anatomical structures hitherto unknown. 


For the Engineering Sciences, to— 


THEODORE R. GILLILAND, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his distinguished 
service in originating automatic ionosphere 
recordings for continuously variable radio 
frequencies. 


For the Physical Sciences, to— 


STERLING B. Henpricxs, U. 8. Bureau of 
Plant Industry, in recognition of his distin- 
guished service in determining the constitution 
of micaceous and other complex minerals. 


As business from the floor, remarks were 
made by ATHERTON SEIDELL and W. J. 
Humpureys. The former suggested two ways 
in which the Academy could increase its service ~ 
to science, one by publishing in the JoURNAL 
lists of the publications issued by the Govern- 


Mar. 15, 1942 


ment in scientific fields and the other by main- 
taining in its library a complete file of Govern- 
ment publications. The latter suggested first, 
that the Archivist could advertise in the 
JouRNAL the need for certain old Directories in 
order to complete the files, and second, that a 
committee should be appointed to examine the 
sealed package of ballots (see report of the 
Archivist), which was requested by the Joint 
Commission of the Scientific Societies not to be 
opened within 20 years of March 23, 1898. 
President CLARK appointed Past Presidents 
ALEXANDER WetTMoRE and T. WAYLAND 
VauGHAN to escort the new President, HARVEY 
L. Curtis, to the chair. After a short address, 
President Curtis declared the meeting ad- 
journed at 10:20 p.m., for a social hour. 
FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


The Anthropological Society of Washington 
at its annual meeting held January 20, 
1942, elected the following officers: President, 
GrorcE S. Duncan; Vice-President, JULIAN 
H. STewarp; Secretary, ReGInA FLANNERY; 
Treasurer, T. Date Stewart; Members of the 
Board of Managers, Wm. N. Fenton, H. W. 
Krisecer, R. UNDERHILL, J. E. WeECKLER, and 
WaLtpo R. Wepe.. A report of the member- 
ship and activities of the Society since the last 
annual meeting follows: 


MeMEMINEMMOERS HS 08s le Oe a ee 2 
AGES: TUSTON OY ea 43 
PASSMCHALEMMEMIDCIS. 2. ches bcd wce e Tet 

Sie ee es 56 


The members elected during the year were: 
Sister BERNARD CoLeman, Mrs. Marcarsgt D. 
Fosrer, S. L. Percuicx, and J. E. WEcKLER, 
all active members. 

Through death the Society lost one associate 
member, Davip Ives BUSHNELL, Jr. The fol- 
lowing resolution was adopted: 


Whereas: David I. Bushnell, Jr., a member of 
this Society for more than 30 years, passed from 
this life on June 4, 1941, and 

Whereas: Mr. Bushnell was closely associated 
with the members of this Society during the 
greater part of that time, was a collaborator in 
the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology 
and the Smithsonian Institution, and the author 
of numerous valuable papers in ethnology and 
archeology, which appeared in the publications 
of the Bureau and the Institution, and in the 


PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 91 


American Anthropologist, the organ of the Anthro- 
pological Society, 

Be it resolved: That the Anthropological Society 
of Washington hereby expresses its high apprecia- 
tion of Mr. Bushnell’s work, its deep sense of the 
loss suffered by our science in his removal] from 
among us, and on the part of our membership a 
profound feeling of personal bereavement. 


The Treasurer’s report is as follows: 


Funds invested in Perpetual Building 


Association (with interest to date). $1636.74 

21 shares Washington Sanitary Im- 

provement Co. (par value $10 
DELESINATE Ae ceen ew hots. nis oe hs 210.00 

2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous- 
ing Co. (par value $100 per share) 200.00 
U.S. Savings Bond, Series G (on order) 500.00 
Cashtinpb ame res Sek vet. ee oh eee: 188.20 
$2734. 94 

Bills outstanding: 
To American Anthropological 

Association..... $55.00 55.00 
$2679 .94 
Total as of January 18, 1941.. 2529.81 
IB eV CIEE SS) ata Mittin al aera gear $ 150.13 


It was decided to set aside a portion of the 
annual increase each year as a reserve for pub- 
lication. When funds are adequate these funds 
may be appropriated to underwrite the publica- 
tion of anthropological papers to be known as 
“Contributions from the Anthropological So- 
ciety of Washington’? and _ published as 
Memoirs of the AAA. Special attention will be 
given to studies of the history and archeology 
of the early inhabitants of the District of 
Columbia and vicinity, since no other society 
assumes responsibility for such studies. 

Papers presented before the regular meetings 
of the Society were as follows: 

January 21, 1941, 697th meeting, WaLpo R. 
WeEDEL, Archeology and environment in the 
Great Plains. 

February 18, 1941, 698th meeting, T. DALE 
STEWART, Archeological investigations at the 
historic Indian village of Patawomeke in Stafford 
County, Va. 

March 18, 1941, 699th meeting, held jointly 
with the D. C. Chapter of the American Socio- 
logical Society, JOHN PROVINSE, Cooperative 
effort in sociology and anthropology. 

April 15, 1941, 700th meeting, Ina C. Brown, 
Social structure and the status of the American 
Negro. 


92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


October 21, 1941, 701st meeting, RoprerT H. 
LowiE, Nimuendaji’s findings among the 
Botocudo. 

November 27, 1941, 702d meeting, held 
jointly with the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, MatrHew W. StTIRuine, Treasure 
trove of Mexican archeology. 

December 16, 1941, 703d meeting, WALTER 
W. Tayutor, Cave exploration in northern 
Mexico. 

REGINA FLANNERY, Secretary. 


CHEMICAL SOCIETY 
535TH MEETING 


The 535th meeting was held in Corcoran 
Hall, George Washington University, on 
Thursday, October 9, 1941, at 8:15 P.m., with 
Dr. H. L. HALLER as Chairman. After routine 
business of the Society, 14 papers were pre- 
sented by 24 authors in four sections as follows: 


Biochemistry, Dr. H. M. Dymr, presiding 


Plant gonadotropes. J. T. BrapBury and 
BK. T. Gomez. 

A comparative study of methods for the de- 
termination of vitamin C. JosrpH H. Rok and 
JAMES M. Hatt. 

Co-carcinogenesis. M. J. SHEAR and JOSEPH 
LEITER. 

A crystalline protein fragment from a wheat 
lipoprotein. A. K. Batis, W. 8. Haus, and 
T. H. Harris. 


Organic chemistry, Dr. E. E. FLEcK, presiding 


The influence of structure on the hydrolysis of 
glycosides by the enzymes of almond emulsin. 
WittiAmM Warp PicgMan and Netson K: 
RICHTMYER. 

Centers of asymmetry in the chlorophyll mole- 
cule. LEwis J. SARGENT. 

Problems confronting the pharmaceutical chem- 
ictal Th. Wainy. 


Physical chemistry, Dr. F. D. Rossint, presiding 


Transition behavior of some of the sulphide- 
type compounds of silver. FRANK C. KRACEK. 

Mechanism of the decomposition of ammonia. 
STEPHEN BRUNAUER, KATHARINE 9S. Love, and 
R. G. KEENAN. 

Photochemical reduction of methylene blue in 
fats and owls. GEorGE R. GREENBANK and 
GrorGE E. Hom. 

Some metallic ton complexes. J. E. DRALEY. 


VOL. 32, NO. 3 


Inorganic and analytical chemistry, 
Dr. P. 8. RouuER, presiding 

Preparing refractory materials for analysis by 
treatment with HCl at elevated temperatures. 
Epw. WicHERsS and W. G. SCHLECRT. 

Determination of free silica in the presence of 
stlicate by hydrofluosilicic acid. F. H. GotpMAN. 

Some aspects of the coordination chemistry of 
the platinum group. R. GILCHRIST. 


536TH MEETING 


The 536th meeting was held in Room 108 of 
the Chemistry Building, Georgetown Uni- 
versity, on Thursday, October 30, 1941, at 
8:15 p.m., with H. L. HaLuer as Chairman. 
The speaker of the evening was Dr. B. H. 
NicouteT, of the Bureau of Dairy Industry, 
Beltsville, Md., who spoke on the subject 
The use of periodic acid on the study of proteins. 


537TH MEETING 


The 537th meeting was held in the Audi- 
torium of The Catholic University of America, 
on Thursday, November 13, 1941, at 8:15 P.M., 
with H. L. Hatuer as Chairman. Election of 
officers for the Society for 1942 took place, the 
results being as follows: 

President: NORMAN BEKKEDAHL. 

Secretary: E. R. Smita. 

Treasurer: M. M. Harina. 

Councilors: N. L. Draxr, W. D. Couuins, H. 
L. Hauuer, R. M. Hann, J. H. Hissen, F. O. 
Rice, F. D. Rossint, M. X. Sunirvan, E. 
WICHERS. 

Managers: J. J. Faney, R. Giucurist, 8. B. 
HeEnpricks, C. Heuricu, D. B. Jonsus, N. K. 
RICHTMYER. 


The speaker of the evening was Prof. 
ALEXANDER SILVERMAN, head of the Depart- 
ment of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 
who spoke on the subject Glass: Today and 
tomorrow. 


538TH MEETING 


The 538th meeting was held in the Audi- 
torium of the Cosmos Club, on Thursday, 
December 11, 1941, at 8:15 p.m., with H. L. 
HALLER as Chairman. The speaker of the eve- 
ning was Prof. Henry Eyrine, Chemistry De- 
partment, Princeton University, who spoke on 
the subject A theory of some rate and thermo- 
dynamic properties of surfaces, including bound- — 
ary lubrication. 

NorRMAN BEKKEDABL, Secretary. 


= 


PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES! 


ca THE AcapEMY (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8: 15 p. M.): 
bi: Thursday, March 19. Awards for scientific achievement, 1941. 
Thursday, April 16. Cosmic emotion. Paut R. Hert. 


S _ PHILOSOPHICAL Society or WasHINeToON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): 
x Saturday, March 28. Adsorption of gases and vapors in solids. SrerHEeN BRUNAUER. 


a 
ee roocrcat SocieTy or WasHineTON (U.S. National Museum, 8 P.m.): 
_ Tuesday, March 17. The Jesuits in South America. ALFRED Mérravx. 


" Cuemicat Socrmry or WasHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8: 15 P.M.): 
Thursday, April 9. The electrophoretic study of proteins. D. A. MacInnes. 


Natronat Grocrapuic Society (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.)?: 

Friday, March 20. Program to be announced. 

Friday, March 27. Hawaii. Capt. Jon Crate. 

Friday, April 3. Familvar birds turn movie stars. ARTHUR A. ALLEN. 

| Biccorca: Society oF THE District or CoLumsia (1718 M Street, N. W., 8 P.M.): 

_ ~~ *~Wednesday, March 18. Syphilis looks at the doctor. Neus A. NELSON. 

a. Sound and color film: Syphilis, its diagnosis and management. 

& Wednesday, March 25. Presentation of papers selected as meriting prizes among those sub- 

“a. mitted by house officers in the District of Columbia. 

i | Wednesday, April 8 (program by Washington Heart Association). Cardioangiography—the x-ray 

a visualization of the heart chambers and great vessels by contrast substance. IstporE SHUL- 

MAN. Discussion led by BreRNaRD J. WALSH. 

Incomplete rupture of the aorta—a cause of cardiac pain and cardiac murmurs. THomas M. 
PreEry. Discussion led by Joun A. REISINGER. 

Wednesday, April 15 (program by Obstetrical Board). Report of the Obstetrical Board. HERBERT P. 

AMSEY. 

_ Responsibilities of the hospital obstetric staff conference in relation to the problems of maternal 
welfare. Poitie F. WILLIAMS. 

The county maternal welfare committee; possibilities for postgraduate education. Harvey B. 

MatrHEws. 

Obstetrical care in the United States. EpwIN ¥. Daly. 


BoranIca. Socrery or WasHINGTON (Women’s Club of Chevy Chase, Md., 7 p.m.): 
Thursday, April 2. Annual dinner, followed by illustrated lecture: 
Fairchild Tropical Expedition. Epwarp P. BrecKwWITH. 


AMERICAN Sociery or Mecuantcau ENnainenrs, Washington Section (Pepco Auditorium, 8 P.m.): 
Thursday, April 9. The Washington National Arrport—its conception construction, and 
maintenance. JOHN GROVES. 


OCIETY OF AMERICAN BacTERIOLOGISTs, Washington Branch (Georgetown University School of 
Medicine, 3900 Reservoir Road, 8 P.M.): 

_ Tuesday, March 24. Influence of culture media and hydrogen-ton concentration on production 
of color variance in certain plant bacteria. AGNES J. QUIRK. 

Relation a A abil deficiency to fatal pneuwmococcus infection in mice. JERALD G. WooLery and 
i EBRELL. 


1 Notices to be published in this space must reach the Senior Editor, Raymond J. Seeger, not later than the 28th of the month 
ading that of publication. 
3 Lectures open only to members of the National Geographic Society who have subsoribed to season tickets. 


ig Bee” 3 ae iy oe 

sg CONTENTS 

‘oe GroPuysics.—Geophysical sidnsunesnan in the laboratory and in tk 
: field. H.E. McComp .. 0-02. 


‘ 


& % miurus (J ordan and Gilbert) from ae gee Islands 
E | notes on M Ba ues imtertinctus (Richardson). 


: Selous: 0h fe a i ee ee 
oe Procrrpines: THE ACADEMY...........0002.0 000002000 e eee 
pees _ PRoceEDINGs: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY...............-- s 
PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY..........0..-.20 00020005 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals ; bal. 


~ 


32 | Heats Ae Aprin 15, 1942 No. 4 


JOURNAL 


_ WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


RayMonpD J. SEEGER G. ARTHUR COOPER JASON R. SWALLEN 
GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY U. S&S NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 
. an ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
is W. Epwarps Demina C. F. W. Musseseck 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
Haraup A. REHDER Epwin Kirre—. 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL soulnty, ‘ 
2 om 7 AO 3 8 : 
fe, y c Ph — 
CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT Ty Datk STEWART 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY _ 
Horace S. Ispeu | WLAN 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY my (bs <a 
WA, Kh 98 
S a 77 Of) ff Q 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Mer. 32 


Aprit 15, 1942 


No. 4 


ANTHROPOLOGY .—The Ainu double foreshaft toggle harpoon and western North 


America.' 
cated by Henry B. Coins, JR.) 


O. T. Mason (1900, p. 233) noted the 
similarity of Ainu double foreshaft har- 
poons to those of northwestern North 
America. Distributional data are now far 
more complete for the latter area, and it 
seems worth while to reexamine an ap- 
parently significant Asiatic-American paral- 
lel. First, as to the Asiatic occurrence, it 
must be admitted that the writer has not 
been able to find any descriptions of the 
Ainu implement that include material un- 
available to Mason in 1900. Hitchcock 
(1890, pp. 470-471, 494) described and 
illustrated an Ainu harpoon in the U. S. 
National Museum collection, but this dif- 
fers in details from Batchelor’s reference 
(1892, pp. 154-155); subsequent references 
to Ainu double foreshaft harpoons in the 
literature are unfortunately content to refer 
to these sources (e.g., Montandon, 1937). 
Batchelor’s further Ainu writings repro- 
duce the 1892 drawing. The following quo- 
tation and Fig. 1, a, constitute Batchelor’s 
original reference: 


Trout and pike are caught with a spear called 
chinininiap, or apninap. The handle of this 
spear is about eight or nine feet long, and when 
fitted up ready for use it is fully ten feet in 
length. As will be seen from the figure, this 
spear has two heads to it, which are fastened 
to the pole by means of string. These heads are 
barbed, and consist of two parts—an iron point 
and a bone foundation. As soon as a fish is 
struck with this spear, the barbed heads come 
off the points of the pole, but the fish is secured 
by means of the strings which are attached to 


1 Received September 24, 1941. The author is 
indebted to Prof. E. W. Gifford and Dr. Margaret 
Lantis for helpful suggestions and criticism. 


Gorpon W. Hewes, University of California. 


93 


(Communi- 


the spear-heads and back part of the shaft or 
pole. 


Unmentioned but noteworthy are the string 
connecting the foreshafts midway between 
the toggles and the main shaft and the fact 
that one of the foreshafts is shorter than the 
other. In the drawing the strings from the 
toggles are clearly shown attached to the 
shaft; while other Ainu specimens may have 
longer lines, held in the user’s hand, or lying 
coiled in the canoe; such is not the case 
here. Hitchcock deals with a larger device, 
used for seals, whales, turtles, and large 
fish; it is shown in Fig. 1, 6, c. Though the 
arrangement and proportions of the two 
foreshafts, toggles, and the reinforcing 
string between the foreshafts are the same, 
the toggles are connected to a tough strip 
of hide, to the middle of which is attached 
a long, braided, bark, rope line, shown 
looped around the main shaft and passing 
on into a loose coil. This line when the har- 
poon is in use is stated to pass over the orna- 
mented crotch at the distal end of the shaft, 
shown in Fig. 1, c. The length of the Na- 
tional Museum’s specimen’s shaft is 15 feet. 

Thus there seem to be two types of 
double foreshaft toggle harpoons used by 
the Ainu, the one for smaller fish—trout 
and pike—in which the toggles are tied 
directly to the shaft, and a larger one, with 
a long hand line, for sea mammals, sharks, 
and swordfish. It is probable that for the 
smaller fish, the harpoon was thrust, not 
thrown clear of the user’s hands, and the 
quarry retrieved simply by pulling in the 
shaft, to which the embedded toggle is at- 
tached. With sea mammals and larger fish, 
the whole harpoon is thrown clear, the user 


94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


retaining the line in his hands; the floating 
wooden shaft impedes the efforts of the 
animal to escape. Japanese paintings illus- 
trate this technique (Greey, 1884, p. 52). 
Findeisen (1929, p. 28 ff.) mentions the 
two types of harpoons and contrasts them 
in respect to the toggle-lines. The Ainu are 


VOL. 32, No. 4 


mareks have been described by many 
writers on the Ainu, including Hitchcock, 
Batchelor, Montandon. The Ainu also fish 
with hook and line, nets, traps, ete. 7 
In northeast Asia, only the Ainu and 
Amur peoples fish with harpoons (Findeisen, 
1929, p. 28), and while Chukchi, Koryak, 


Fic. 1.—a, Ainu harpoon (after Batchelor, 1892, p. 154); b, Ainu harpoon (after Hitchcock, 
1890, p. 470); c, Ainu harpoon, base of shaft showing ornamented device (Hitchcock, 1890, p. 470); d, 
Kwakiutl harpoon base device (after Goddard, 1924, p. 61); e, Wailaki (California) harpoon, from 


a photograph by the writer, 1940. 


said by Hitchcock to poison their toggles 
occasionally with aconite (presumably this 
would apply only to the sea-mammal har- 
poon, as there would be no need to poison 
harpoon points for fish). On the Asiatic- 
American distribution of this poison, see 
Heizer’s report (1938a). The Ainu do most 
of their salmon (Oncorhynchus) fishing not 
with harpoons, but with the marek, an iron 
hook resembling a gaff, but with a trigger 
action that pins the fish to the shaft; 


and Kamchadal used harpoons for sea- 
mammal hunting, these were all of the 
single-toggle type, or the socketed foreshaft 
and multiple barbed head type. The double 
foreshaft toggle harpoon is restricted to the 
Ainu; review of the available Gold, Gilyak, 
and Udekhe material yields references only 
to single toggle and barbed types. Harpoon ~ 
fishery has been described for the Manchu 
and Gold (Lattimore, 1933, pp. 33-34), as 
well as for the coastal Udekhe (Arsenjew, 


Apr. 15, 1942 


1924, vol. 2, pp. 137, 276). The Sakhalin 
Ainu use a sealing spear with a single offset 
foreshaft, for use under the edges of broken 
ice (Greey, 1884, pp. 274-275). 

The situation in western North America 
is decidedly different (see Fig. 2, map). 
The double foreshaft toggle harpoon occurs 
in 60 native tribes at least, from Vancouver 
Island southward along the coast almost to 
San Francisco Bay, and inland from the 


HEWES: AINU HARPOONS 95 


toggle head were used by many groups as 
alternatives to the double foreshaft type, 
and by some groups exclusively, though in 
the northwestern California area by prefer- 
ence rather than through ignorance of the 
double foreshaft device. In the eastern 


Plateau and the northeastern Basin, only 
single toggle harpoons were employed. 
Finally, many types of thrusting and hurl- 
ing implements, often confused in the 


Fig. 2.—The North Pacific area, showing the distribution of double foreshaft toggle harpoons 
(in black), single toggle harpoons (in Northwest coast, Plateau, and California-Basin areas only; 
horizontal hatching), and the boundaries of Pacific salmon, i.e., Oncorhynchus, fishery (heavy 


black line). 


Chilkotin to the southernmost Yokuts of 
the San Joaquin Valley, as well as on the 
Arctic coast among the Copper Eskimo. 
Over most of the area within the Pacific 
drainage, the implement is used for taking 
the large salmon (Oncorhynchus), but on 
the southern Northwest coast the device 
was employed frequently for seal and 
porpoise. | 

One must carefully distinguish the double 
foreshaft toggle harpoon in western North 
America from other harpoon and harpoon- 
like devices used in the pursuit of aquatic 
animals. From Alaska south as far as the 
Mattole River in California, the larger sea 
mammals were taken with a single-pointed 
barbed harpoon. Harpoons with a single 


literature with harpoons, were used: Barbed 
fish-spears, gaff hooks, bidents, and tri- 
dents. The trident fish-spear, or leister, 
was common in western North America, 
though the literature indicates that it was 
lacking, at least in recent times, south of 
the Columbia River, except among the 
Umatilla (Ray, MS.). Transitions between 
trident and harpoon occur in the Plateau, 
in which the three prongs were detachable 
as a unit, the main shaft fitting into a socket 
in the butt of the middle prong (Ray, MS.; 
and Ray, 1933). 

The following lists of tribes and refer- 
ences constitute the basis of the map, Fig. 
2 (the listings in parentheses are uncer- 
tain): 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


TRIBES USING DOUBLE FORESHAFT TOGGLE HAR- 
POONS IN NORTHWESTERN AMERICA 


Copper Eskimo—Rasmussen, 1932. 
Kwakiutl—Boas, 1909; Barnett, 1939. 
Nutka—Curtis, 1916. 
Gulf of Georgia Salish—Barnett, 1940. 
Sanetch—Barnett, 1939. 
Cowichan—Barnett, 1939. 
Nanaimo—Barnett, 1939. 
Pentlatch—Barnett, 1939. 
Comox—Barnett, 1939. 
Slaiamun—Barnett, 1939. 
Klahuse—Barnett, 1939. 
Homalco—Barnett, 1939. 
Sechelt—Barnett, 1939. 
Squamish—Barnett, 1939. 
Lummi—Stern, 1934. 
Puget Sound—Haeberlin and Gunther, 1930. 
Skokomish—Gunther, MS. 
Klallam—Gunther, MS. 
Makah—Gunther, MS.; Mason, 1900. 
Quinault—Olson, 1936. 
Chilkotin— Morice, 1910. 
Lillooet—Ray, MS. 
Thompson—Teit, 1900. 
Okanagan—Teit, 1930. 
Coeur d’Alene—Ray, MS. 
Lower Chinook—Ray, 1938. 
Tillamook—Barnett, 1937. 
(Alsea—Drucker, 1939). 
Siuslaw—Barnett, 1937. 
Galice Creek Athabaskans—Barnett, 1937. 
Chetco—Barnett, 1937. 
Tolowa—Driver, 1939. 
Yurok—Driver, 1939. 
Karok—Driver, 1939. 
Hupa—Driver, 1939; Goddard, 1903. 
Wiyot—Driver, 1939. 
Chilula—Driver, 1939. 
Mattole—Driver, 1939. 
Sinkyone—Driver, 1939. 
Kato—Driver, 1939; Essene, MS. 
Coast Yuki—Driver, 1939; Gifford, 1939. 
Lassik—Essene, MS. 
Yuki—Essene, MS. 
Pomo-Kabedile—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 
Buldam-Willits—Gifford and Kroeber, 
1937 
Kacha-Bida—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 
Shanel (North)—Gifford and Kroeber, 
1937. 
Yokaia—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


Northeastern—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937 
Klamath (and Modoc)—Spier, 1930. 
(Achomawi—Kniffen, 1928). 
Yana—Gifford and Klimek, 1936. 
Wintu— DuBois, 1935. 

Hill Wintun—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 
Miwok—Barrett and Gifford, 1933. 
Mono-Tuhukwadj—Driver, 1937. 

Wopunuch—Driver, 1937. 

Entimbich—Driver, 1937. 

Waksachi— Driver, 1937 
Yokuts-Choinimni— Driver, 1937. 

Wukchamni—Driver, 1937. 

Yaudanchi— Driver, 1937. 

Yauelmani— Driver, 1937. 

Kern River Bankalachi—Driver, 1937. 


TRIBES USING SINGLE TOGGLE HARPOONS 
IN NORTHWESTERN AMERICA 


Aleut—Jochelson, 1925. 

Western Eskimo—Nelson, 1897. 
Ingalik—Osgood, 1940. 

Kutchin, Crow and Peel R.—Osgood, 1936. 
(Tahltan—Emmons, 1911). 

Babine— Morice, 1910. 

Haida—Mason, 1900. 
Kwakiutl—Barnett, 1939. 
Nutka—Curtis, 1916. 
Cowichan—Barnett, 1939. 
Pentlatch—Barnett, 1939. 
Comox—Barnett, 1939. 
Squamish—Barnett, 1939. 
Skokomish—Gunther, MS. 
Makah—Mason, 1900; Densmore, 1939. 
Shuswap—Teit, 1909. 
Okanagan—Teit, 1930. 

Kutenai—Teit, 1909; Turney—High, 1941. 
(Flathead—Teit, 1930). 
Sanpoil-Nespelem—Ray, 1933. 
Spokan—Curtis, 1911. 

Coeur d’Alene—Teit, 1930. 

Nez Percé—Spinden, 1908. 

Lower Chinook—Ray, 1938. 

Santiam Kalapuya—Jacobs, MS. 
Alsea— Drucker, 1939. 
Tututni—Barnett, 1937. 
Takelma—Sapir, 1907. 
Chetco—Barnett, 1937. 
Tolowa—Drucker, 1937; Barnett, 1937. 
Yurok— Driver, 1939. 

Karok—Driver, 1939. 

Wiyot—Driver, 1939. 


Apr. 15, 1942 


Chilula—Driver, 1939. 
Chimariko—Driver, 1939. 
Van Duzen (Nongatl)—Driver, 1939. 
Sinkyone— Driver, 1939; Nomland, 1939. 
Lassik—Essene, MS. 
Coast Yuki—Driver, 1939. 
Yuki—Essene, MS. 
Pomo-Kalekau—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 
Shanel (South)—Gifford and Kroeber, 
1937. 
Meteni (Fort Ross)—Gifford and Kroeber, 
1937. 
Wappo—Driver, 1936. 
Pomo-Makahmo—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 
Hill Patwin—Gifford and Kroeber, 1937. 
Nisenan—Beals, 1933. 
Shoshoni-Lemhi—Steward, 1941. 
Snake River—Steward, 1941. 
North Fork of Owyhee River—Steward, 
1941. 
Battle Mountain—Steward, 1941. 


TRIBES USING BARBED HARPOONS IN 
NORTHWESTERN AMERICA 


Aleut—J ochelson, 1933. 

Western Eskimo—Nelson, 1897. 
Ingalik—Osgood, 1940. 
Tanaina—Osgood, 1937. 
Eyak—Birket-Smith and DeLaguna, 1938. 
Tlinkit—Krause, 1885. 

Haida— Mason, 1900; Curtis, 1916. 
Kwakiutl—Boas, 1909. 
Nutka—Mason, 1900. 
Quinault—Olson, 1936. 
(Thompson—Teit, 1900). 
Tillamook—Barnett, 1937. 
Siuslaw—Barnett, 1937. 

Kus—Barnett, 1937. 

Sixes River—Barnett, 1937. 
Chetco—Barnett, 1937. 
Tolowa—Barnett, 1937; Drucker, 1937. 
Yurok—Driver, 1939. 

Wiyot— Driver, 1939. 
Mattole—Driver, 1939. 

(Chumash and Nicolefio—Nelson, 1936). 


Illustrated specimens of double foreshaft 
toggle harpoons from northwestern Amer- 
ica show the expectable local variations in 
details and workmanship, so that it is fairly 
easy to pick out examples that closely re- 
semble the Ainu types (see Fig. 1, e). The 
large Nutka and Kwakiutl porpoise and 


HEWES: AINU HARPOONS 97 


seal harpoons are similar in most details, 
including dimensions, to the Ainu specimen 
illustrated by Hitchcock (1890, fig. 85, p. 
470; cf. Boas, 1909, p. 488 ff., and Curtis, 
1916, p. 74). Even the construction of the 
toggles is similar; the foreshafts are of un- 
equal length (more so in the Nutka and 
Kwakiutl examples than in the Ainu), and, 
perhaps most significant of all, the base of 
the main shaft has an expanded device, 
slightly indented at two points along the 
butt to form a blunt trident. This object, 
like the Ainu crotched shaft base, is deco- 
rated—in a Kwakiutl specimen, with a 
fish design and ornamental border. The 
Pentlatch in the Gulf of Georgia perhaps 
approach the Ainu more closely, for they 
use a “‘cupped” base as an alternative to 
the blunt ‘“‘trident”’ (Barnett, 1939, p. 229; 
a diagram of the trident base is shown on 
p. 279, n. 39). Boas (1909, p. 495) suggested 
that the notched handle-end device is 
closely related to the spear-thrower. If the 
suggestion were valid, we would expect to 
find similar devices on the bases of harpoons 
and spears among peoples who possess the 
spear-thrower, since it is lacking on the 
southern Northwest coast and is also un- 
known to the Ainu. Tlinkit, Eskimo, and 
Aleut harpoons and spears have nothing 
resembling the crotched or trident ex- 
panded base. If similarities must be found, 
the expanded crotch bases of harpoon 
arrows, as used on the Bering Sea, are more 
convincing, although the writer is inclined 
to question the significance of this parallel 
(Mason, 1900, pl. 16, fig. 4, and pl. 17, fig. 
2; ef. Kwakiutl arrows, in Goddard, 1924, 
p. 76, e). According to Hitchcock, the ex- 
panded base on the hurling harpoon is for 
the line to pass over; if this is true, Japanese 
drawings of the Ainu about to hurl har- 
poons are at fault, because they show the 
line going no farther than the thrower’s 
hands. Mason’s drawing (1900, fig. 19, p. 
226) of a Quinault using a harpoon of this 
type’ has the line coiled in the thrower’s 
right hand, while Curtis (1916, pl. 74) shows 
the Nutka harpoon line coiled on the throw- 
er’s left wrist. Whatever the etiology of the 
device may be, the striking similarity of 
the Ainu and southern Northwest coast 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


occurrences remains significant, in the ab- 
sence of anything similar in between. 

In another detail, closer correspondences 
are to be found in the harpoons from certain 
Californian groups. The reinforcing string 
connecting the foreshafts of unequal length 
is present on both types of Ainu double fore- 
shaft toggle harpoons. Although this is not 
noted from the southern Northwest coast 
(it may have been present but gone un- 
noticed by the authors of our sources), it 
is a common trait of Wailaki, Mattole, 
Yuki, and Lassik harpoons in northwest 
California. The author’s informants in the 
latter area explained the string connecting 
the foreshafts as a necessary reinforcement, 
“to keep the prongs from spreading”’ in the 
words of a Mattole. A Wailaki added that 
the string might be adjusted in order to 
alter the distance between toggles.? The in- 
equality of the foreshafts was explained 
variously by informants in this area. A 
Mattole said that the longer prong was 
held above, and that the shorter foreshaft 
and its toggle would strike the fish if the 
upper one missed; similar reasons were 
voiced by a Yuki and a Sinkyone, the lat- 
ter remarking that young men used a single 
foreshaft type, since they had good aim. A 
Wailaki thought the inequality was to pre- 
vent simultaneous breakage of the points 
of both toggles if the harpooner struck a 
submerged rock by mistake. 

A simple experiment in water with mod- 
els will convince anyone that the presence 
of two divergent foreshafts increases the 
likelihood of a successful strike, if the fore- 
shafts are held one above the other. A quick 
thrust carefully aimed at the refracted 
image of a submerged object, in any but a 
vertical direction, will carry the point of a 
single shaft well above the actual target; 
to the error of aim due to refraction is add- 
ed the tendency for the buoyant shaft to 
swerve upward. While practice with a single 
foreshaft harpoon might enable one to com- 
pensate for the refraction by aiming well 
below the apparent position of the target, 
it seems that use of two foreshafts is a sim- 
pler and surer way of overcoming the dif- 
ficulty. 

2 Field notes of the author, 1940. 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


How is the Ainu harpoon to be inter- 
preted in the light of these facts? Direct 
trans-Pacific diffusion from Yezo to the 
southern Northwest coast and California, 
or the reverse, seems quite improbable. On 
a pure age-area basis, diffusion would seem 
to have been from America to Asia, since 
the trait is far more widespread in the for- 
mer continent. If careful search of Japanese 
sources showed no evidence for the Ainu 
occurrence prior to the early nineteenth 
century, one might venture to ascribe its 
introduction to the ubiquitous Aleut sea- 
otter hunters in Russian service, who may 
conceivably have picked up knowledge of 
the device while hunting on the American 
coast anywhere from Vancouver Island to 
California.*? Conclusive settlement of this 
point requires Japanese documentation 
which the writer at present cannot under- 
take, but the facts surrounding the Ainu 
trait under discussion, together with arche- 
ological hints from Japan itself, to say 
nothing of the improbability of Aleuts as 
neutral go-betweens in the transfer, leads 
the writer to seek for a more plausible ex- 
planation based on present evidence.* 

Independent invention of double fore- 
shafted toggle harpoons in Yezo and north- 
western America, while not transcending 
ethnological possibilites, also seems doubt- 
ful. A convergence theory might well cite 
the numerous transitional types between 
single toggle harpoons and double foreshaft 


toggle harpoons, such as double foreshaft 


types, wherein one point is fixed, the other 
detachable, as reported from some Mono 
and Yokuts groups by Driver (1937, n. 
157), or double foreshaft fish-spears, along 
with tridents and bidents detachable as a 


3 Mason (1900, p. 298) notes the introduction 
of Aleutian harpoon arrows and the sinew backed 
bow to the Kuriles (presumably to the Kurilian 
Ainu) by nineteenth-century Aleut otter hunters; 
aboriginally the Yezo Ainu used a simple yew 
bow. (The double foreshaft toggle harpoon is not 
mentioned by Jochelson, 1933, for the Aleut.) 

4 One is reminded, however, of the caution with 
which one must approach any question of autoch- 
thony of artifact types by Heizer’s critical in- 
quiry into the status of the Santa Barbara 
(Chumash) spear-thrower (1938b, pp. 137-141), 
wherein a device long uncritically regarded as 
indigenous to California is tentatively attributed 
to Mexican Indian contacts in post-Spanish 
times. 


Apr. 15, 1942 


whole from the shaft, found in the Plateau 
(Ray, 1933; Ray, MS). The Eyak used a 
bident fish-spear with nondetachable barbs 
(Birket-Smith and DeLaguna, 1938). Fur- 
ther, the actual advantages of divergent 
foreshafts as demonstrated by the experi- 
ment described above, might be adduced as 
evidence to prove the likelihood of inde- 
pendent invention. There is no gainsaying 
the fact that the harpoon toggle principle 
has been applied to a variety of related 
thrusting and hurling implements in 
northwestern America. Nevertheless, the 
continuous or near-continuous distribution 
of double foreshaft toggle harpoons within 
the coastal area of the Oncorhynchus fishery 
in northwestern America, and the periph- 
eral distribution of other forms such as 
tridents detachable as a unit, single-toggle 
harpoons, etc., strongly suggests a single 
origin for the double foreshaft type, with- 
out of course denying the rather obvious 
derivation of the invention from a simple, 
single-toggle harpoon ancestor. The Copper 
Eskimo occurrence, illustrated by Rasmus- 
sen, may fit into the general interpretation 
later on in this paper. Typologically, both 
the Ainu examples belong in the western 
American series. There is nothing in the 
harpoon situation of the Amur and north- 
eastern Asiatic region to correspond to the 
variety of transitional forms encountered 
in northwestern America. Outside the Yezo 
region, fishing and sea-mammal harpoons 
are uniformly either single toggle or single 


barbed-headed types, the latter provided | 


with the elaborate bone or ivory slotted 
foreshaft typical of the Bering Sea. Im- 
probability of the convergence of Ainu and 
American forms is increased by the occur- 
rence of such features as the crotched and 
ornamented base, unequal length of fore- 
shafts, and the presence of reinforcing string 
between them. A survey of harpoon types 
in various parts of the world indicates that 
while there is undoubtedly an ultimate 
limitation of the possibilities of formal vari- 
ation in these devices, the range is very 
great (Gruvel, 1928, pp. 81-90). 

An interpretation based on assumption 
of an earlier continuity in the distribution 
of the double foreshaft toggle harpoon from 


HEWES: AINU HARPOONS 99 


Yezo to the southern Northwest coast 
seems to be called for. As both barbed and 
toggle single-pointed harpoons have wide 
distributions in both northeastern Asia and 
America, there can be no serious suggestion 
that the continuity of double-foreshaft 
toggle harpoons assumed in this interpreta- 
tion represents the prior type. Barbed har- 
poon heads occur frequently in archeologi- 
cal sites in the northern Eurasiatic region, 
beginning as far back as the European 
Magdalenian and aspects of similar an- 
tiquity from Siberia such as Vercholensk 
Mountain and Mal’ta (Childe, 1936; see 
also, s. v. Sibirien, Ebert’s Reallexikon der 
Vorgeschichte). Moreover, in the Meso- 
lithic remains from Ulan Khada, Lake 
Baikal, which are regarded by some as ap- 
proaching the postulated proto-American 
culture of the first migrants, fish-spears and 
harpoons of barbed type occur (Clark, 
1940).5 In America, the earliest and still 
the most widespread harpoon type is 
barbed; Fuegian harpoons are barbed and 
provided with wedge-shaped tangs (Ma- 
son, 1900, pl. 2, p. 213). Single toggle har- 
poons likewise have a more extensive distri- 
bution in time and space than _ the 
specialized double foreshafted toggle vari- 
ety. Birket-Smith (1929, pt. 2) has a 
discussion of these distributions. 

Except under unusual conditions for pres- 
ervation, evidence for double-foreshafted 
toggle harpoons does not survive archeo- 


logically. Bone toggle-heads by themselves 


give no indication of their use in pairs, 
while wooden foreshafts and lashing seldom 
last more than a few years in the ground. 
Our interpretation is thus practically re- 
stricted to inferences from ethnography 
and the negative evidence of archeology. 
As stated above, barbed harpoons occur 
within the northwestern American distribu- 
tion of double foreshaft toggle harpoons, 
along the coast, where they are used for sea 
mammals but not for fishing. Inland, there 
is archeological evidence for the abandon- 
ment of barbed fishing harpoons at no re- 
mote time, in regions where toggle harpoons 
were used subsequently, or harpoons were 


6 They occur also in Predynastic Egypt; ef. 
Bates, 1917. 


100 


given up altogether. In the ethnography of 
the Lower Sacramento Valley, there is no 
clear evidence of the use of barbed fishing 
harpoons; element lists and ethnographies 
cite only the toggle type (cf. Beals, 1933, 
fig. 1, p. 481—Nisenan). Yet, in the area 
occupied historically by Patwin, Nisenan, 
and northern Yokuts, archeology yields nu- 
merous unilaterally and bilaterally barbed 
harpoon points. These are not associated 
with the Early culture horizon, but occur 
in the Late Period (Lillard, Heizer, and 
Fenenga, 1939, pl. 29; Heizer and Fenenga, 
1939, fig. 1, p. 384). Schenck and Dawson 
(1929, p. 369, pl. 80) attribute them to 
Aleut sea-otter hunters operating at the 
beginning of the nineteenth century, but 
this supposition is not entertained by later 
investigators. 

A Kacha-Bida (Northern) Pomo infor- 
mant stated that double foreshaft toggle 
harpoons were recent introductions, and 
that anciently only single-pointed fish- 
spears were used (Gifford and Kroeber, 
1937, p. 173, n. 210). In the same general 
area the writer noted a_ well-preserved 
multibarbed fish-spear found near Clear 
Lake under conditions suggesting some 
antiquity, now in the Lake County Mu- 
seum, Lakeport. Questioning of native in- 
formants at Clear Lake and elsewhere in 
northern California yielded only denials 
that any such spear type was known. This 
evidence, unsatisfactory as it is, indicates 
that multibarbed fish-spears and harpoons 
were formerly in use in inland central 
California, though they went out of use 
before the period covered by memories of 
surviving informants. Archeological evi- 
dence of a similar abandonment of barbed 
harpoons has come from central Utah 
(Gillin, 1940, pp. 170-171) and from the 
Red River Valley, N. Dak. (Jenks, 1932, 
pp. 456-459). 

In the Eskimo area and in southern 
Alaska, both toggle-heads and barbed har- 
poon points occur in the most ancient hori- 
zons. While changes in the construction of 
toggle-heads are significant criteria for Es- 
kimo culture periods, there is no level at 
which toggles suggestive of the cruder type 
used on double foreshaft toggle harpoons 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


in the northern Plateau and California 
occur (Collins, 1940, p. 550 ff., pl. 16). Even 
at Ipiutak, Point Hope, presumably ante- 
dating any other Eskimoid culture in the 
Bering Sea region, toggle and barbed har- 
poon heads occur, though not with great 
frequency (Rainey, 1941, p. 170). No evi- 
dence bearing on our problem has yet come 
to light from the recent work in central 
Alaska on accidentally discovered arti- 
facts from muck-deposits, in apparent as- 
sociation with Pleistocene fauna, though it 
is worth while to note the recognition of a 
long archeological sequence, which must 
extend far back of the advent of Eskimo 
culture on the Bering Sea (Rainey, 1940; 
Jenness, 1940, pp. 14-15). 

On the Asiatic side there are examples of 
both barbed and toggle harpoons from 
Japan (Kishinouye, 1909, pp. 336, 341, pl. 
22); DeLaguna has drawn attention to the 
striking similarities in the placement of 
line holes on toggles from neolithic Japan 
and Port Moller, Alaska Peninsula (De- 
Laguna, 1934, p. 189). Soviet work on the 
lower Amur has yielded archeological re- 
sults that should be made available in full 
to American investigators; brief notices 
and summaries are not enough (Field and 
Prostov, 1937, pp. 457-490; cf. Zolotarev, 
1938). 

The Jesup expedition established the 
hypothesis that there had been an original 
cultural continuity from the Palae-Asiatic 
peoples to the Indians of British Columbia, 
interrupted by the advance of the Eskimo 
culture in the Bering Strait region. Subse- 
quent work in the north Pacific area has 
established a continuity, though the rela- 
tive antiquity of its components has yet 
to be determined (Birket-Smith, 1930, p. 
623; Jenness, 1940, p. 6). Some of the con- 
nections seem to have been very early 
obliterated perhaps by the crystallization 
of Eskimo culture, while others have sur- 
viving links in the Aleutian chain. Collins 
(1940, p. 583) discusses a number of these 
and also mentions the very frequent gap 
in such distributions on the northern North- 
west coast; south Alaskan traits which are 
lacking among the Tlingit and Tsimshian, 
but which are retained in full vigor on the 


Apr. 15, 1942 


southern end of Vancouver Island (Collins, 
1940, pp. 576-577). Lantis’s (1938, p. 448) 
whaling cult, to mention only one example, 
has a gap from Nutka to Kodiak, which 
ean be explained most plausibly by assum- 
ing the abandonment of whaling along all 
but the southernmost Northwest coast. On 
the west, it is easy to account for the gap 
in traits between Yezo and the Chukchi 
Peninsula; the advent of reindeer nomadism 
in northeast Asia, radically altering the 
economic pattern of the Tungusic peoples 
north of the Amur, must have eliminated 
many fishing and sea-mammal-hunting spe- 
cializations on the borders of the Sea of 
Okhotsk. Bogoras (1929, p. 600) has men- 
tioned the difficulties of combining serious 
fishing with extensive reindeer breeding. 

The isolated occurrence of the Ainu 
double foreshaft toggle harpoon and the 
wide distribution of the same device in 
western America may be tentatively inter- 
preted in the following way: 

At an early period, perhaps not much 
later than the time of the first migrations 
into the New World, use of barbed fish- 
spears and harpoons was general from 
northern Asia far into North America. 
Exploitation of the annual salmon runs 
around the shores of the North Pacific from 
the Amur to California, in which barbed 
harpoon and fish-spears played a part, was 
probably established relatively early. Sea 
mammals, especially those frequenting the 
shoreline, were taken with barbed harpoons. 
Secondarily the use of single toggle har- 
poons spread through this area; the present 
evidence certainly suggests the priority of 
barbed heads, even though toggles are 
easier to fabricate. 

At a time antedating the crystallization 
of Eskimo culture on the Bering Sea coasts, 
the double foreshaft toggle harpoon was 
invented, possibly on the southern North- 
west coast; this invention was spread north 
and westward, carrying with it details such 
as the crotched shaft end device, and rein- 
forcing string between divergent foreshafts, 
either directly across Bering Strait, or, more 
probably, by way of the Aleutians. Whether 
it reached Yezo from the Kuriles, or via 
Sakhalin and the western edge of the Sea 


HEWES: AINU HARPOONS 


101 


of Okhotsk, does not alter the shape of the 
present conjecture. Gradual abandonment 
of the double foreshaft toggle device north 
and west of Yezo may have been due to 
shift in economic pattern occasioned by 
reindeer breeding; on the Bering Sea lit- 
toral, the abandonment may have been 
caused by the specialization of sea-mam- 
mal-hunting techniques, the growth of de- 
pendence on hook and line fishing, and on 
net fishing. The role of fish-trap devices— 
weirs, pens, fyke baskets, etc.—requires 
separate study; it can not have been in- 
significant. On the northern Northwest 
coast, while no elaboration approaching 
that of the Eskimo sea-hunting and sea- 
fishing techniques occurred, the same forces 
that led to the lapse of whaling, originally 
continuous from Kodiak to Nutka, may 
have caused the abandonment of double 
foreshaft harpoons. 

By the time typical Eskimo culture and 
its influences were settled in the Bering 
Sea region, and the northern Northwest 
coast culture had begun to differ from that 
of the southern coast, the Ainu may have 
been the only group in northeastern Asia 
still retaining the double foreshaft toggle 
harpoon. The Northern Athabaskans who 
transmitted the trait to the Copper Eskimo 
must have likewise given it up; the north- 
western American distribution had shrunk 
to the coastal margin of the Oncorhynchus 
area. Scanty evidence in California makes it 
possible that occurrences of double fore- 
shaft toggle harpoons represent a relatively 
recent extension southward. 

Although there is much archeology yet 
to be derived from shellmounds in the north 
Pacific area, the writer feels that they will 
not yield any extensive series of harpoons 
with their two toggles still lashed to the 
spreading foreshafts. The improbability of 
obtaining such evidence means that the 
ultimate solution of the present problem 
must come from other sources.§ A careful 

6 The Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic 
Egyptian bident fish-spear, used by nobles for 
sport-fishing, is known only from paintings. No 
archeological specimens survive. This device, 
while it is not a harpoon, has foreshafts of un- 
equal length, giving it a superficial resemblance 


to the double foreshaft harpoons discussed here 
(cf. Bates. 1917, pp. 232-245). 


102 


laying of the ghosts of the Aleut sea-otter 
hunters by an exhaustive historical study 
of their effects on the coastal cultures of 
the North Pacific from Yezo to Baja 
California is urgently called for. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ARSENJEW, WiLApDIMIR. In der Wildnis Ostsi- 
birtens—Forschungsreisen 1m Ussurigebeit 
(tr. Franz Daniel), 2 vols. Berlin, 1934. 

BARNETT, HoMERG. Culture element distribu- 
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ICHTHYOLOGY.—The osteology and relationships of the Argentinidae, a family 


of oceanic fishes. 
Service. 


The genus Argentina was proposed by 
Linnaeus and was known before him by 
Gronow and Artedi. The classification of the 
argentines has ever since been indescribably 
mixed up with the Salmonidae, Bathylagi- 
dae, Retropinnidae, Osmeridae, Muicro- 
stomidae, etc. All ichthyologists, up to and 
including Gtinther (1866), retained these 
fishes in the family Salmonidae, and this 
was continued to as recently as 1929 (Kyle 
and Ehrenbaum, 1929). Gill (1861) recog- 
nized Bonaparte’s splitting of the Salmo- 
ninae and the Argentininae, but he included 
part of the osmerid fishes in each of the two 
subfamilies. This he corrected (Gill, 1862) 
by including all the smelts with Argentina 
in the Argentininae, placing Microstoma in 
a separate family, and introducing a new 
subfamily in the Salmonidae for Retropinna. 

Later, Gill (1884) proposed full family 
status for the group, although he did not 
give any diagnosis of the family. As late as 
1936 (Fowler, 1936), the smelts and argen- 
tines were being grouped together in the 
Argentinidae. 

Regan (1914) first showed the differences 
between, and clearly defined, the Argentini- 
dae and Osmeridae. His classification has 
been generally accepted, and further ana- 
tomical work (Chapman, 1941) has shown 
it to be well-founded. Regan, however, con- 


1 Received September 26, 1941. 


WiLBertT McL&rop CHapmMan, U. 8. Fish and Wildlife 
(Communicated by LEoNARD P. SCHULTZ.) 


sidered Bathylagus to be an Argentinidae 
and was followed in this by Norman (1930), 
Parr (1931), and Beebe (1933), although 
others, including Barnard (1925), placed 
Bathylagus in the Microstomidae. It has 
been recently shown (Chapman, 1942) that 
Bathylagus and Leuroglossus are only dis- 
tantly related to Argentina, not much more 
closely related to Microstoma, and should 
be placed in the family Bathylagidae. 
Leuroglossus had been formerly placed in 
the Argentinidae (Jordan, 1923) and in the 
Osmeridae (Soldatov and Lindberg, 1930). 

As thus restricted, then, the family 
Argentinidae contains the single genus 
Argentina, of which Szlus Reinhardt, 1833, 
Acantholepis Kroyer, 1846, and Glossanodon 
Guichenot, 1866, are synonyms. It is the 
purpose of the present report to describe the 
osteology of Argentina and define the proper 
position of the Argentinidae in the ich- 
thyological system. 

The report is based upon dissections of 
two specimens of Argentina sphyraena, one 
collected in Christiania Fjord, Norway, by 
Robert Collett (U.S.N.M. no. 23013), about 
192 mm long, and the other taken at 
Christiania, Norway, by M. G. Hetting 
(U.S.N.M. no. 17461), about 125 mm long. 
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the kindness. 
of Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, 
U. 8. National Museum, in permitting me 
to work on these specimens. 


Apr. 15, 1942 


CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF THE ARGENTINIDAE 


105 


THE CRANIUM 


The ethmoid cartilage (Figs. 1 and 2) is much 


less developed than in the typical salmonoid 


cranium. It extends anteriorly a little beyond 
the end of the mesethmoid to end on the ex- 
tended vomer. Between the nasal capsules 
there is a long narrow foramen in the cartilage. 
The cartilage which forms the dorsal roof of 
this foramen is an extension of that which lies 
under the mesethmoid. The cartilage forming 
the floor of the foramen ends anteriorly 
squarely against the ventral ethmoid which in- 
deed appears to be only an ossification of the 
anterior end of this body of cartilage. In the 
region of the prefrontals the two bodies of 
cartilage are united but the presence of the 
large mesial foramen of the olfactory nerve be- 
tween the prefrontals restricts their union to a 
strip of cartilage along the inner edge of each 
prefrontal. Behind the prefrontals the dorsal 
cartilage splits and sends a broad, but thin, 
band of cartilage back to the orbitosphenoid. 
These two bands of cartilage form the ventral 
protection of the anterior end of the brain 
cavity from the orbitosphenoid to the pre- 
frontals. The ventral body of cartilage is broad- 
est and thickest between the prefrontals. A 
little ahead of these bones it puts out a thick- 
ened nubbin of cartilage which aids in the 
articulation of the palatine arch with the 
cranium. Directly behind the prefrontal the 
thickened dorsal surface of this body of carti- 
lage is slightly indented and here are inserted 
the anterior eye muscles. The cartilage then 
tapers rapidly to a sharp point directly under 
the base of the anterior spike of the orbito- 
sphenoid. This point is hidden in a deep cavity 
in the dorsal surface of the parasphenoid be- 
hind the end of the vomer. The thin spatulate 
end of the parasphenoid does not reach to the 
ventral ethmoid and, therefore, the vomer for 
a way lies directly on the ventral cartilage. 
The mesethmoid (Fig. 1) is a complex ele- 
ment. In dorsal view it appears as a broad 
nearly flat shield rounded anteriorly and cut 
off squarely behind, where it extends under the 
frontals nearly halfway to the prefrontals. If 
the dorsal portion of the bone is cut transversely 
ahead of the frontals there is seen to be a thin 
blade of ossification extending ventrally be- 
tween two portions of cartilage so that the ap- 


pearance of double origin is given the element. 
There is also a ventral ethmoid ossification. 
In such fishes as Thalewchthys, Spirinchus 
(Chapman, 1941), and the more closely related 
Bathylagus (Chapman, 1942), this bone is 
completely separated from the mesethmoid by 
the intervening ethmoid cartilage. But in Ar- 
gentina the mesethmoid and ventral ethmoid 
are ankylosed around their anterior borders. 
The posterior ends of the bones are well sepa- 
rated and the ventral ethmoid does not extend 
as far posteriorly as does the mesethmoid. It 
does not reach to the parasphenoid. The broad 
shaft of the vomer covers most of the ventral 
surface of the bone. 

The frontals (Figs. 1 and 2) are separate for 
their entire length, but are divergent only an- 
teriorly where they part to expose the meseth- 
moid. The interorbital space is depressed to 
form a broad \V/-shaped trough. At the upper 
edges of the trough, near the outer edge of each 
bone, runs the closed tube of the sensory canal. 
The tube ends over the prefrontals in a large 
pore, from whence the sensory canal continues 
through the nasal. The tube has branches pos- 
teriorly, over the sphenotic, and sends one 
branch to the lateral corner of the frontal, 
where the sensory canal extends down onto 
the circumorbital bones. A second branch ends 
in a pore on the posterior corner of the frontal 
from whence the sensory canal proceeds pos- 
tero-mesially across the parietal to meet its 
opposite over the supraoccipital. Lateral to the 
tube of the sensory canal the edge of the 
frontal arches over the socket of the eye, thus 
protecting the latter dorsally. On its underside 
the frontal bears a ventrally projecting wing in 
the posterior ocular region which extends over 
the dorsal edge of the orbitosphenoid, ali- 
sphenoid, and a portion of the anterior face of 
the sphenotic, which serves to bind the bone 
more securely to the chondrocranial elements. 
The frontals cover about half the dorsal surface 
of the small sphenotics. They also slightly over- 
hie the parietals, but only enough so that the 
bones are well bound together. Near the mid- 
line of the cranium the parietal and frontal do 
little more than meet. There is no cartilage 
under the bones at this point. The frontals do 
not reach to the supraoccipital. 


106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 4 


Figs. 1-8.—(See opposite page for explanation.) 


Apr. 15, 1942 


The parietals (Fig. 1) are thin, broad bones of 
nearly square shape. The bones meet broadly 
along the midline where the one on the right 
overlaps the one on the left very slightly. The 
parietals cover more than two-thirds of the 
dorsal surface of the small supraoccipital. To- 
gether with the supratemporal, whose edge lies 
over that of the parietal, the parietal of each 
side forms a complete osseous roof over the 
anterior two-thirds of the deep temporal fossa, 
in which are inserted the anterior trunk mus- 
cles, thus forming a deep cavern quite unlike 
the condition in the salmonoid or other opis- 
thoproctoid fishes, and reminiscent of the con- 
dition in Esox. 

Only a small surface of the supraoccipital 
(Fig. 1) is exposed dorsally between and be- 
hind the parietals. The bone sends a broad 
prong anterolaterally along the sturdy cartilage 
over the anterior semicircular canal. These 
prongs are covered by the parietals. In con- 
trast to the condition normally found in the 
salmonids and osmerids, where the dorsal sur- 
face is shield-like, nearly circular and extends at 
least as far as the frontals, the anterior edge of 
the supraoccipital of Argentina is deeply cres- 
centic so that the parietals actually form part 
of the roof over the brain cavity. The posterior 
surface of the supraoccipital is at nearly right 
angles to the dorsal surface. Its broad shield- 
like area is concave mesially and ends ventrally 
in a blunt point where it is widely separated 
from the foramen magnum by the exoccipitals. 


AC =actinost E 


=epihyal 

AL =alisphenoid EC =ethmoid carti- 
AN =angular lage 
AR =articular EP =epiotic 
B =hbasioccipital EX =exoccipital 
BB =basibranchial F = frontal 
BR =branchiostegal FM =foramen mag- 

ray num 
CB =ceratobranchial G = glossohyal 
CE =ceratohyal H =hyomandibular 
CL =cleithrum HB =hypobranchial 
CO =coracoid I =interhyal 
D =dentary IN =interopercle 
DC =dental cement M  =maxillary 

bone MC =mesocoracoid 
DH =dorsal hypohyal 


Figs. 1-8.—Argentina sphyraena Linnaeus: 1, Dorsal view of cranium of small specimen; 2, 


CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF THE ARGENTINIDAE 


107 


Near the dorsal angle of the bone a delicate 
flange projects posteriorly between the muscles 
of either side. This is connected with the first 
interneural by a thin ligament. 

The supratemporal (Fig. 1) is a thin, but 
broad, bone which, with the parietal, covers 
the anterior two-thirds of the temporal fossa. 
Its entire lateral edge is securely ankylosed to 
that of the underlying pterotic. Anteriorly the 
bone overlies the dorsal surface of the sphenotic 
to such an extent that there is only a narrow 
slit of the latter exposed between the frontal 
and supratemporal. Anteromesially the bone 
rests on the cartilage over the anterior semi- 
circular canal, and here in turn it is covered 
by the frontal. Along its entire mesial edge the 
bone overlies, and is securely bound to, the 
parietal. On the dorsal side of the lateral edge 
of the bone is the slender tube of the sensory 
canal, which is not completely closed over 
dorsally. The sensory canal, after leaving the 
skull at the end of this bone, extends on to pass 
through a well-formed tube on the lateral face 
of the supracleithrum which is indistinguish- 
ably fused with that bone. 

Each epiotic (Fig. 1) presents a small dorsal 
surface, only a small portion of which is covered 
by the parietal. The rounded angle of the bone 
which slopes off posterolaterally encloses the 
posterior semicircular canal of the inner ear. 
The tiny dorsal surface not covered by the 
parietal is flattened and the dorsal fork of the 
posttemporal is attached there by a broad liga- 


ABBREVIATIONS USED ON FIGURES 


MD =myodome POT =prootic 


ME =mesethmoid PT =pterotic 

MES =mesopterygoid PTT =posttemporal 
MET =metapterygoid Q = quadrate 

O =opercle S =symplectic 

OR = =orbitosphenoid SC =supracleithrum 
OT =opisthotic SCA =scapula 

1B = parietal SO =supraoccipital 
PA =palatine SOP =subopercle 
PAR =parasphenoid SP =sphenotic 

PC =postcleithrum ST  =supratemporal 
PF =prefrontal V —yomer 

PG =pterygoid VE =ventral ethmoid 
PM =premaxillary VH =ventral  hypo- 


POP =preopercle hyal 


ventral 


view of cranium of small specimen; 3, lateral view of suspensorium of large specimen; 4, circumorbital 
bones of large specimen; 5, lateral view of hyoid apparatus of large specimen; 6, lateral and dorsal 
views of urohyal of large specimen; 7, dorsal view of ventral bones of the gill arches of large specimen; 
8, mesial view of the shoulder girdle of large specimen. (Figs. 1, 2, and 8, X 3; Figs. 3—7, X 13, approxi- 


mately.) 


108 


ment. A strongly ossified strut extends laterally 
under the posterior edge of the parietal and 
serves to strengthen that thin bone. The an- 
terolateral face of the bone is shallowly con- 
cave to form the mesial wall of the temporal 
fossa. The posterior face of the bone adjacent 
to the supraoccipital is heavily ossified. Be- 
tween this flattened surface and the rounded 
posterolateral corner of the bone, the lower por- 
tion of the bone is deeply concave, continuing 
the adjacent indentation of the exoccipital. The 
epiotic touches the supraoccipital dorsally, but 
ventrally the bones are separated by a narrow 
band of cartilage. A similar band of cartilage 
separates the epiotic and the exoccipital. The 
cartilage between the epiotic and pterotic is 
broader. The opisthotic touches, but does not 
overlie the epiotic. 

The opisthotic (Figs. 1 and 2) is a small, thin 
bone of irregular shape which curves around the 
cartilage between the epiotic, exoccipital, and 
pterotic. It is visible from the dorsal aspect, 
but has no definite dorsal surface. There is an 
irregular ventral surface of some size lying over 
the exoccipital, pterotic and the cartilage be- 
tween the two and extending more than a third 
of the way to the junction of these two bones 
with the prootic. 

The dorsal surface of the pterotic (Figs. 1 and 
2) forms most of the floor of the temporal fossa 
and is mostly excluded from view by the supra- 
temporal. The bone has no definite posterior or 
lateral surface. It is only a rounded cover over 
the horizontal semicircular canal and its junc- 
tion with the posterior semicircular canal. The 
ventral surface of the bone is marked by the 
cartilage-lined socket of articulation of the 
hyomandibular which extends from. near the 
posterodorsal corner of the skull to the junc- 
tion of the sphenotic and prootic. About half 
of the hyomandibular articulation is borne on 
this bone, the rest being on the cartilage be- 
tween the sphenotic and prootic and, at its 
anterior end, on the sphenotic. The pterotic is 
separated from all other cartilage bones of the 
cranium by a continuous band of cartilage. 

The sphenotic (Figs. 1 and 2) is a small, but 
sturdy, bone with three surfaces. The dorsal 
surface is nearly covered by the frontal and 
supratemporal. From the corner of the bone a 
strongly ossified spur which supports the post- 
orbital projects downward. The sphenotic is 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


separated from the pterotic, prootic, and 
alisphenoid by a continuous, narrow band of 
cartilage. 

The alisphenord (Fig. 2) is a bone of roughly 
rectangular shape between the orbitosphenoid 
anteriorly, and the sphenotic and prootic pos- 
teriorly. Its dorsal edge is covered by the ven- 
tral flange of the frontal. It is separated from 
the sphenotic by a narrow band of cartilage. 
The dorsal half of the junction with the prootic 
is separated by cartilage, but in the lower half 
the ossifications meet. The anterior ends of the 
alisphenoids are widely separate. 

The orbitosphenoid (Fig. 2), which is bi- 
laterally symmetrical, unites the anterior por- 
tion of the braincase firmly. On the midline a 
thin vane of bone projects ventrally. It is ex- 
tended forward in a fine spike well beyond the 
main portion of the bone, and a similar, but 
broader, projection extends posteriorly. From 
this vane the interorbital septum extends to the 
parasphenoid. The dorsoposterior corner of the 
orbitosphenoid is overlapped by the ventral 
flange of the frontal and thus securely bound to 
that bone. The entire dorsal edge of the bone 
abuts on the posterodorsal extension of the 
ethmoid cartilage. The anteromesial corner is 
rounded into a cylindrical foramen for the 
emergence of the large olfactory nerves. 

The prootic (Fig. 2) is divided into an an- 
terior and lateral face by a sharp ridge that 
continues the upsweeping line of the para- 
sphenoid wing to the dorsal edge of the prootic 
at the anterior end of the facet for the hyo- 
mandibular. Midway in its length this ridge 
forms a narrow bridge over the emerging tri- 
geminofacial complex. Two other nerves from 
this complex emerge in separate foramina on 
the posterior face of the bone. One extends pos- 
teriorly at the dorsal edge of the otolith bulge, 
the other goes ventrally and emerges on the 
anterior side of the otolith bulge. On the an- 
terior face of the bone there are also two 
foramina besides the large opening of the 
trigeminofacial complex. The dorsalmost one 
is on the anterior edge of the bone and is not 
entirely closed, so that it is in fact a deeply 
rounded notch. The other is more ventral and 
posterior, directly above the base of the basi- | 
sphenoid. The two prootics meet ventrally to 
form the roof of the high, vaulted myodome. 
The myodome is large anteriorly where its 


Apr. 15, 1942 


bottom and sides are formed by the wings of 
the parasphenoid. It forms a deep channel be- 
tween the otolith bulges, which is hidden from 
sight by the flat posterior part of the para- 
sphenoid, and opens posteriorly on the basioc- 
cipital under the occipital condyle. The lower 
portion of the posterior face of the prootic 
curves outward to form part of the otolith 
bulges. There is a broad band of cartilage be- 
tween the prootics and basioccipital, but the 
bands between them and the other cartilage 
bones is narrow, although continuous. 

The basisphenoid is a simple, small rod of 
bone forking at its dorsal end, sending a short 
arm to each prootic. It ends ventrally in a 
small cap of cartilage by which it is attached 
to the parasphenoid. It serves to separate the 
posterior eye muscles as they enter the myo- 
dome, and to bind the postorbital portion of 
the cranium more securely to the parasphenoid. 

The basioccipital (Figs. 1 and 2) forms the 
entire occipital condyle. Here the bone is con- 
stricted and heavily ossified. Anteriorly it 
broadens out and becomes thinner to form the 
posterior floor of the otolith bulge. A good deal 
of its ventral surface is covered by the broad 
posterior end of the parasphenoid. 

The exoccipital (Figs. 1 and 2) is the principal 
bone of the posterior part of the cranium. 
Prominent on its lateral face is the large fora- 
men of the vagus nerve. Below and ahead of 
this the bone curves outward to form its share 
of the otolith bulge. The cartilage at the junc- 
tion of the exoccipital, pterotic, and prootic is 
not exposed. The exoccipitals send wings mesi- 
ally over the posterior surface of the cranium 


SPECIAL OSSIFICATIONS 


The nasal is a long, slender, tubular bone ex- 
tending from the anterior edge of the frontal, 
and ending well forward on the mesethmoid. 
It lies over the dorsal side of the nasal capsule 
but extends well to the posterior and anterior 
sides of that structure. It is incompletely 
closed dorsally so as to form a trough rather 
than a tube, although it is roughly circular in 
cross section. The dorsal opening is expanded 
at each end and in the middle, where pores 
open to the dorsal surface of the skull. 

There are nine circumorbital bones in the 
smaller specimen and eight in the larger (Tig. 


CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF THE ARGENTINIDAE 


109 


which are separated at the midline by a narrow 
band of cartilage. These wings form the upper 
part of the foramen magnum and exclude the 
supraoccipital from that opening. Lateral to 
the foramen magnum each bone is deeply con- 
cave. The exoccipital rests on the dorsal part 
of the occipital condyle, but does not enter into 
its formation. 

The spatulate anterior end of the para- 
sphenoid (Fig. 2) terminates on the ethmoid 
cartilage under the nasal capsule, well short of 
the ventral ethmoid. Its ventral surface is 
broadly grooved for the reception of the pos- 
terior end of the vomer shaft. Its dorsal sur- 
face, in the same region, is more deeply grooved 
yet to receive the posterior end of the ethmoid 
cartilage. The interorbital portion of the bone 
is most narrow, but is well ossified and strong. 
Ahead of the prootics the bone expands and 
sends broad but short wings to those bones. 
Behind these wings the bone again expands 
slightly over the broad cartilage area between 
the prootics and the basioccipital. It then 
tapers to a broad end below the occipital con- 
dyle. 

The vomer (Figs. 1 and 2) is a large, long 
bone. It is widest anteriorly where its single 
row of small conical teeth, and the continuing 
rows on the palatine, form the entire dentition 
of the upper jaw. The bone is also most heavily 
ossified at this point. It projects anterior to the 
mesethmoid and is visible from the dorsal as- 
pect. From here the broad, thin shaft tapers 
gradually backward over the ventral ethmoid, 
ethmoid cartilage, and parasphenoid to end on 
the latter, well behind the prefrontals. 


OF THE SENSORY SYSTEM 


4), whose thin, yet broad, areas form a pro- 
tective shield for the lateral surface of the 
skull. The long and broad preorbital (No. 1) 
has the appearance of two elements that are 
nearly indistinguishably anastomosed. The 
bone’s inner (and dorsal) edge lies along the 
frontal. The element lies over the eye and ex- 
tends anteriorly to the nasal capsule. The 
anterior half of the dorsal edge is bent over 
laterally to form a half-closed tube for the 
sensory canal. No. 2 is a thin, flat, circular 
bone lying between the preorbital and the 
lachrymal, but not entirely filling the space 


110 


between them. This bone is absent in the larger 
specimen. The broad lachrymal (No. 3) extends 
forward beyond the end of the frontals where 
it ends in a sharp point. Its posterior dorsal 
edge is curved over laterally like that of the 
preorbital to form a trough for the sensory 
canal. The rest of the circumorbital bones bear 
a similar trough along their orbital edges, 
which in no instance is completely closed over 
to form a tube. Nos. 5 and 6 overlie each other 
and are ankylosed securely together but their 
margins are still distinguishable. No. 7 is rather 
loosely bound to No. 6 by membranes. No. 8 is 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


a tiny bone lying at the corner of the sphenotic 
which is little more than the trough of the 
sensory canal. No. 9 is larger and more slen- 
der. It is only a curved shell around the sensory 
canal, like the nasal, and has no broad base. 
There is a considerable space between No. 9 
and the preorbital, which is covered above by 
the lateral extension of the frontal. 

The other special ossifications of the sensory 
system—tubes on the frontals, supratemporals, 
supracleithra, preopercles, etc.—are described 
in their proper places. 


UPPER JAW 


There are but two elements in the upper jaw 
(Fig. 3): the premazillary and the mazillary. 
Both are slight, slender, and possess slight func- 
tion. They are toothless, the entire dorsal den- 
tition being borne by the vomer and palatines. 
The premaxillary is curved around the snout 


and attached for its full length to the maxillary. 
The maxillary is broadened posteriorly where 
it lies for the most part under the lachrymal. 
Anteriorly it is slender, but more heavily os- 
sified, and ends in a knob which rests against 
the cranium. 


MANDIBLE 


The mandible (Fig. 3) is made up of the 
dentary, articular, angular, sesamovd articular, 
and Meckel’s cartilage. The dentary is little 
larger than the articular. The two bones are 
overlapped along their junction and firmly 
ankylosed together. This bond is further 
strengthened by the heavy Meckel’s cartilage, 
the largest part of which is borne by the articu- 
lar, but which ends anteriorly in a cavity in 
the dentary. The lower edge of the dentary is 
heavy and thickened and, except for the small 
angular, forms the entire ventral edge of the 
mandible. The dentary bears no teeth, but the 
dental surface is sharp and well ossified and 
could be useful in a shearing action. Along the 
outer side of the lower edge of the dentary is 


the tube of the sensory canal. Posteriorly its 
ventral edge is not completely closed, but an- 
teriorly it is completely closed and tubular and 
opens to the surface by pores. The sesamoid 
articular is slenderly ovoid, with its long axis 
antero-posteriorly. It is thin and rests on top 
of the columnar Meckel’s cartilage. On it is 
inserted the adductor mandibularis. The artic- 
ular end of the articular, with its facet, is 
thick and bulky. The major part of this forma- 
tion appears to be an ossification of the pos- 
terior end of Meckel’s cartilage and, therefore, 
endosteal in origin. The triangular angular is 
small, but heavy. Its entire posterior end is the 
surface of insertion of the ligament from the 
interopercle. 


PALATINE ARCH 


The elements of the palatine arch (Fig. 3) 
which are present are the palatine, pterygoid, 
quadrate, mesopterygoid, and metapterygoid. The 
palatine is long and rather slender, but well 
ossified. It bears a band of tiny conical teeth 
on its anterior end. They are about thirty in 
number and arranged irregularly in three 
rows. The teeth are similar to those of the 


vomer and are continuous with those. This is 
made possible by the fact that the dentigerous 
end of the palatine fits closely in a groove be- 
tween the ventral ethmoid, ethmoid cartilage, 
and vomer. For this reason it would be easy 
in undissected specimens to conclude that all 
the teeth are on the vomer. The dorsal side 
of the palatine for its entire length is securely 


Apr. 15, 1942 


attached to the ethmoid cartilage. At its pos- 
terior end the palatine sends a short, super- 
ficial splint of bone along the external side of 
the pterygoid which serves to bind the two 
bones more tightly together. 

The broad, rather thin pterygoid is irregular 
in shape. Instead of a clean junction with the 
quadrate, separated by cartilage, the pterygoid 
extends a short way along the inner side of the 
quadrate along the entire edge of junction, and 
there is, furthermore, a small flange which over- 
laps the quadrate externally, thus locking the 
bones securely together. There is a thin, super- 
ficial, larger ossification extending from the 
pterygoid dorsally over the cartilage of the 
region to lie along the anterior side of the pre- 
frontal, making the junction of the palatine 
arch to the cranium more secure. 

Beside the normal quadrant-shaped main 
body of the quadrate, and the condyle of ar- 
ticulation for the lower jaw, both of which are 
heavily ossified, the bone is notable for the 
length and size of the posterior process which 
is sent back along the anterior arm of the pre- 
opercle. This spike is longer than the main 
body of the bone. From the lateral aspect it 


CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF THE ARGENTINIDAE 


111 


appears razor-thin, but seen dorsally it appears 
as a broad process tapering to a sharp point 
under the bend of the symplectic. It lies be- 
tween the preopercle and the anterior process 
of the symplectic and binds all these elements 
together. 

The mesopterygoid is much the largest bone 
in the palatine series. Although broad and long, 
it is quite thin and pliable. The mesial, or 
dorsal, end is fairly straight and is bound to 
the parasphenoid along its entire length. The 
lower edge is overlain respectively by the me- 
tapterygoid, quadrate, pterygoid, palatine, and 
the cartilage in this region. It forms the roof 
of the mouth. Although it bears no teeth, there 
is a rounded patch of heavier ossification in the 
region of the pterygoid which is perhaps in- 
tended for opposition to the large glossohyal 
teeth below. The bone is shallowly concave on 
its outer side. 

The metapterygoid is a small, thin, triangu- 
lar bone. The spike-like dorsal end lies against 
the hyomandibular and the broader ventral 
end rests on the mesopterygoid. Its strength- 
ening function must be negligible. 


HYOID ARCH 


The cartilage-capped articular head of the 
_hyomandibular (Fig. 3) and the heavily ossified 
supporting structure form the principal part 
of the bone. The opercular condyle, which is 
borne on a short shaft, is likewise heavily os- 
sified. The dorsal angle between it and the 
articular head of the bone is filled with a wedge 
of lighter ossification. On the lateral face of the 
articular head a ridge of bone projects pos- 
teriorly and outward. The dorsal part of this 
ridge slightly overlaps the preopercle and 
serves to wedge the dorsal end of that bone 
securely against the opercular condyle. The 
ventral shaft of the hyomandibular, while not 
especially broad, or as heavily ossified, as the 
articular head, is thick and sturdy. A part of 
its ventral end is covered by the angular flange 
of the preopercle, and the bones are here again 
securely bound together by membranes. But 
between this point and the lateral, more dorsal, 
ridge of the hyomandibular there is a consider- 
able open space between the two bones. In 
the anterior angle between the articular head 


and the ventral shaft is a broad wing of thin- 
ner bone. 

The symplectic (Fig. 3), as usual, is separated 
from the hyomandibular by a short column of 
cartilage. It is a long, slender bone, only half 
the width of the ventral shaft of the hyo- 
mandibular. Its long anterior portion is bound 
to the posterior process of the quadrate and 
ends in a pad of cartilage in a little concavity 
on the posterior side of the main body of the 
quadrate. There is a slight wing of light bone 
in the broad dorsal angle of the symplectic. 

The interhyal (Fig. 5) is small but stout. The 
broad base is capped with cartilage and at- 
tached to the epihyal. The more pointed dorsal 
end is likewise capped with cartilage and in- 
serted in a tiny cup on the inner side of the 
cartilage between the hyomandibular and 
symplectic. 

The epihyal, ceratohyal, and two hypohyals 
(Fig. 5) form a long, slender, but heavily os- 
sified, connection between the gill arches and 
the hyoid arch. The epiphyal is only about one- 


112 


third the length of the ceratohyal. Around its 
lower edge and between the two bones is a 
narrow band of cartilage. The last two branchi- 
ostegals are inserted on the side of this carti- 
lage. The two hypohyals are heavy, small 
bones, the interior of which remains cartilagi- 
nous. The dorsal one is securely bound to the 
junction of the glossohyal and the first basi- 
branchial. On the ventral one is inserted the 
short, tough ligament of the urohyal. 

There are seven branchtostegal rays (Fig. 5), 
all thin and pliable. The first five are attached 
to the ceratohyal; the last two to the epihyal. 
The first is tiny, short, and slender. The second 
is a little broader, but is much longer. The third 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


is somewhat broader and a little longer. The 
remaining four are broad and have the curved 
shape of the blade of a saber, each with the 
proximal end shallowly furcate, and the ventral 
edge of the blade flattened distally. 

The urohyal (Fig. 6) is a long, thin, pliable 
bone, the main part of which is in a vertical 
plane and lies between the sternohyoideus 
muscles. The anterior end is slender, strongly 
ossified and nearly circular in cross section. 
It splits into two slender rods which reach 
nearly to the two ventral hypohyals to which 
they are inserted by very short but stout liga- 
ments. The appearance is that the ligaments 
have been ossified nearly to the hypohyals. 


OPERCULAR APPARATUS 


All four opercular elements are present (Fig. 
3). The opercle, subopercle, and interopercle are 
very thin and pliable. Only the facet of the 
opercle and a short supporting ray behind it 
are more strongly ossified. The opercle is much 
the largest of the bones. Its lower edge slightly 
overlaps the entire dorsal edge of the suboper- 
cle and the bones here are tightly bound to- 


gether by connective tissue. There is only a. 


slight crack of open space between the opercle 
and preopercle, and the lower part of this is 
filled by the dorsally projecting process of the 
subopercle. The interopercle is a long bone 
nearly entirely hidden from lateral view by the 


preopercle. It is firmly bound to the subopercle 
posteriorly, and a short ligament connects it 
with the angular anteriorly. The preopercle is 
little more than a tube for the sensory canal. 
The anterior arm is longer than the vertical 
arm and the two come together at only a little 
more than a right angle. In the angle is a broad 
wing of thin bone which overlaps and is bound 
to the hyomandibular and symplectic. The an- 
terior arm is an open trough. At the angle is a 
bridge of bone across the trough. The dorsal 
arm of the bone is made at least semitubular by 
three other such bridges of thin bone. 


GILL ARCHES 


The glossohyal (Fig. 7) is peculiar because of 
its dentition and the fact that the dental ce- 
ment bone is so much larger than the ossifica- 
tion of the glossohyal itself. Only the posterior 
end of the glossohyal cartilage is ossified where 
it articulates with the first basibranchial and 
where the dorsal hypohyals are inserted. The 
remainder of the glossohyal cartilage extends 
anteriorly as a long, sturdy rod to the anterior 
end of the dentigerous surface. The dorsal and 
lateral surfaces of the cartilage are covered by 
the thin, dental cement bone. This is purely 
superficial and can be teased off the cartilage. 
The two sides do not meet ventrally and the 
cartilage is there exposed for its full length. 
This ossification bears nine strong, recurved, 
conical teeth around its anterior edge, but none 


at all on its shank in the smaller specimen. 
The larger specimen has six teeth, as shown in 
Fig. 7. The teeth are longer than the bone is 
wide at this point. 

The first bastbranchial (Fig. 7) is very thin, 
but deep. It is deeply indented on its posterior 
edge. Here it sends a slender spur posteriorly 
to the second basibranchial. This bone sends a 
similar spur from its dorsal edge to the first 
basibranchial. In between these two spurs is a 
rectangular open space of some size. The hypo- 
branchials of the first arch are inserted in this 
open space above the junction of the ventral 
spur of the first basibranchial with the second 
basibranchial. The long, slender second basi- 
branchial becomes broader posteriorly but 
from lateral view it tapers posteriorly until at 


Apr. 15, 1942 


its junction with the third basibranchial it is 
more nearly circular in cross section. The third 
basibranchial is short and shaped like an awl, 
with the point posteriorly. The fourth basi- 
branchial is broad, has a flat dorsal surface, 
and is entirely cartilaginous. From its posterior 
end a short nubbin of cartilage projects along 
the floor of the oesophagus between the fifth 
ceratobranchials. 

There are hypobranchials (Fig. 7) on the first 
three arches. Those of the first are narrow, slen- 
der rods of bone hardly half the length of the 
ceratobranchials. Those of the second arch are 
similar in shape but considerably shorter. The 
hypobranchials of the third arch are broad and 
short. They are inserted by their distal ends to 
the anterior edge of the fourth basibranchial 
and the ceratobranchial. The proximal end is 
cartilage-capped and projects ventrally as in 
the osmerid fishes. 

There are five pairs of ceratobranchials (Fig. 
7). They are long, slender bones which become 
progressively broader, heavier, and shorter, 
from those on the first arch to the fifth. Those 
of the third arch are inserted not only on the 
hypobranchial but on the fourth basibranchial. 
Those of the fourth and fifth arches are inserted 
by broad bases on the fourth basibranchial. 
The ceratobranchials of the fifth arch have ex- 
panded proximal ends and on the base so 
formed on each is a group of several small, 
blunt, conical teeth. : 

Epibranchials are present on the first four 
arches. Furthermore, on the distal end of the 
fifth ceratobranchial a short rod of cartilage 
extends inward that may represent the unos- 
sified remnant of a fifth epibranchial. The 
first epibranchial is similar in size and shape to 
the ceratobranchial. But near its mesial end a 
short, slender, cartilage-capped projection 
meets a similar process from the second supra- 
branchial. There are similar processes for the 
same purpose on the second and third epi- 
branchials and on the third and fourth supra- 
branchials so that the gill arches are securely 


CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF THE ARGENTINIDAE 


113 


bound together dorsally. The epibranchial of 
the fourth arch is entirely cartilaginous. It is 
a simple rod projecting dorsally from the 
ceratobranchial very much like the condition 
in Bathylagus and Mucrostoma where this 
cartilaginous fourth epibranchial is attached 
along the posterior edge of the expanded fourth 
suprabranchial. 

The first swprabranchial is a slender, simple 
rod extending upward from the gill arches to 
the parasphenoid. It is attached proximally to 
the first epibranchial and second suprabran- 
chial. Both ends are capped with cartilage. The 
second suprabranchial is flattened with a 
pointed, cartilage-tipped anterior end, a pointed 
cartilage-capped process for articulation with 
the first epibranchial, and a truncated pos- 
terior end which is likewise cartilage-capped 
and joined to the second epibranchial. The 
third suprabranchial is quite like the second 
only a little longer and with a broader posterior 
end to which are attached not only the third 
epibranchial but the cartilaginous anterior end 
of the fourth suprabranchial. The cartilage of 
the anterior end of the bone is not attached to 
anything. The fourth suprabranchial is greatly 
expanded dorsally. A well ossified rod extends 
from the ceratobranchial mesially, in a position 
normal for the epibranchial. From the anterior 
end of this a similar heavily ossified rod extends 
at a posterior angle dorsally and is of the same 
length as the first rod. It is capped with carti- 
lage at the end. Between these rods of heavier 
ossification is a wedge of thinner ossification 
that makes up most of the surface of the bone. 
On the posterior surface of this high bone is 
inserted the broad muscle which extends ven- 
trally to the ceratobranchial below. 

On the cartilaginous anterior end of the 
fourth suprabranchial is borne an oblong, 
superficial dental cement bone which is cov- 
ered by a group of about twelve short, conical 
teeth that oppose those on the fifth cerato- 
branchial below. 


PECTORAL GIRDLE 


The dorsal fork of the posttemporal (Fig. 8) 
is larger, broader, and stronger than the ventral 
fork. It lies just under the skin and is attached 
by ligament to the epiotic. The main body of 
the bone bears on its outer side a short, well- 


ossified tube that carries the lateral line canal, 
which is open at either end. The ventral fork 
is slender, nearly circular in cross section and, 
like the anterior forks of the urohyal, it ap- 
pears that the ligament has ossified nearly to 


114 


the bone of attachment, the opisthotic in this 
case. It is stiff and stands at nearly right angles 
to the main body of the bone and the dorsal 
fork, instead of being in the same plane, as is 
usual. There is a shallow, broad facet on the 
inner side of the bone for attachment to the 
supracleithrum. 

The supracleithrum (Fig. 8) has a constricted 
knob at its dorsal end which is attached to the 
posttemporal. The dorsal third of the bone is 
thickened by the short tube of the lateral line 
canal which it bears on its outer surface. The 
rest of the bone is thin and flat. The bone is 
slightly coneave dorsally to conform to the 
curvature of the body. 

For the most part, the cleithrum (Fig. 8) is 
a thin, flat bone. There is a short dorsal spike 
from which a ray of heavier ossification extends 
downward to the insertion of the primary 
shoulder girdle. Here it is met by a similar 
strongly ossified ridge from the anterior edge of 
the ventral arm of the bone. This ridge projects 
on the inner side of the bone and to this is 
attached the primary shoulder girdle. A wing 
of bone projects inward from this ridge to lie 
over the edge of the coracoid, where there is a 
slight groove for its reception, and binds the 
primary shoulder girdle more firmly to the 
cleithrum. 

The primary shoulder girdle (Fig. 8) projects 
downward at more than a right angle from the 
cleithrum. The mesocoracotid, although slender, 
and simple, is well ossified and well formed. 
It ends ventrally in a broadened base on the 
cartilage between the scapula and coracoid. 
The edges of those bones are raised to form a 
simple column for its reception. The bone 
tapers rapidly to the slender dorsal end where 
the bone becomes thin and slender and turns 
posteriorly along the inner surface of the 
cleithrum to the cartilage over the scapula, 
thus serving to strengthen the junction be- 
tween the cleithrum and the primary shoulder 
girdle. 

The scapula is large and well ossified. The 
oval foramen lies nearly in the center of the 
bone. The lateral edge is straight and attached 
for its whole length to the cleithrum. The 
posterior side bears a deeply indented and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 4 


heavily ossified facet for the articulation of the 
first ray of the fin. The entire mesial edge 
participates in the formation of the raised base 
for the mesocoracoid. It is separate from the 
coracoid by a narrow band of cartilage. This 
band expands anteriorly into a broad, thick 
triangle, the edge of which joins the cleithrum. 

The coracotd is normal in shape with a short, 
blunt, posterior process. The anterior process, 
which attaches to the anterior end of the cleith- 
rum, is long and slender and leaves a broad 
interosseous space between the coracoid and 
cleithrum. The posterior edge is thickened and 
raised to participate in the mesocoracoid base. 
There are four proportionately large actinosts. 
The first three are inserted on the scapula; the 
fourth on the scapula and the adjoining carti- 
lage, but not on the coracoid. There is a con- 
tinuous band of cartilage around the distal 
ends of the actinosts, over which the fin rays 
ride, and each of these bones is also capped 
with cartilage. The first actinost is nearly as 
broad as long. The remaining bones are also 
broad, without the typical hour-glass shape, 
but they become progressively longer until the 
fourth is three times the length of the first. It 
is as long as the scapula. 

There are four postcleithra on the pectoral 
girdle of the smaller specimen, here described, 
but only three on that of the larger specimen, 
illustrated in Fig. 8. The bones are superficial, 
covered only by thin skin and are visible ex- . 
ternally. All are thin. The uppermost is nearly 
circular and small. It overlaps, and is there 
bound to the second and also to the ecleithrum 
and supracleithrum. The second is nearly four 
times the length, and as broad, as the first. - 
The third is only half the length of the second, 
and is only a little slenderer. The fourth is as 
long as the second and third, but is less than 
half as broad. It is attached ventrally to the 
posterior process of the coracoid and it appears 
that the whole series is at least a partial sup- 
port for the primary shoulder girdle. The 
fourth postcleithrum lies wholly under the 
pectoral fin. These bones were apparently 
overlooked by Kendall and Crawford (1922). 
Unless stained they could easily escape obser- 
vation by being torn off with the skin. 


Apr. 15, 1942 


CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF THE ARGENTINIDAE 


115 


AXIAL SKELETON 


There are 53 vertebra plus the single up- 
turned caudal element, of which 36 are ab- 
dominal and seventeen caudal. There are no 
ribs on the first two. Their places on the centra 
are taken by ligaments between the cleithrum 
and supracleithrum and serve to bind the 
shoulder girdle to the axial skeleton. The ribs 
on the next 24 vertebrae are adnate to the 
centra. On the ‘twenty-seventh centrum are 
short parapophyses to which the ribs are at- 
tached. These parapophyses become progres- 
sively longer on the remaining nine abdominal 
vertebrae, and from then on each pair unite 
ventrally as the haemal spines of the caudal 
vertebrae. There are no epipleurals on the 
first nineteen ribs. The next fifteen ribs bear 
long, slender epipleurals. On the first six of 
these the epipleurals seem to be ankylosed to 
the heads of the ribs. The ribs are, in this place, 
thick and heavy and perhaps represent the fu- 
sion of ribs and parapophyses. On the last nine 
abdominal vertebrae the epipleurals adhere to 
the parapophyses at the side of the junction 
with the rib. On the first eight ribs there are 
slender tendons of the same size and attached 
in the same position as the epipleurals. It is 
believed that they are homologous, and also 
that the ligament on the first vertebra is like- 
wise homologous, with the epipleurals. No sign 
of epipleural or tendon is seen on the ribs 
between the ninth and twentieth vertebrae 
and it is not believed that they were accident- 
ally removed in dissection. 

On the first 27 vertebrae are borne long, 
slender epineurals, quite similar in shape and 


length to the epipleurals. They are attached 
at the base of the neural spine and seem to be 
ankylosed thereto. 

The neural spines on the abdominal verte- 
brae are all slender and pliable. The two spines 
of each vertebra do not become united into a 
single spine until the twenty-first vertebra, 
which is the third behind the dorsal fin. The 
spines beyond this point become progressively 
heavier and stiffer. 

There are eight thin, but broad, interneurals 
which fill nearly all the space between the 
neural spines and the top of the body. The first 
interneural is enormously expanded, and is 
much broader than any of the remaining ones. 

There are 12 pterygiophores for the dorsal 
fin. The first is inserted between the neural 
spines of the ninth and tenth vertebrae, well 
in advance of the first ray of the fin, and the 
last, which is tiny, lies between the nineteenth 
and twentieth vertebrae. The second is the 
longest and largest, although all of the first 
three pterygiophores are broad and long. 

The rays of the anal fin are borne on thirteen 
slender pterygiophores between the haemal 
spines of the first eight caudal vertebrae. 

The support of the caudal fin is typically 
homocercal with a single upturned centrum. 
The neural spines and haemal spines of the 
next five anterior vertebrae also lend at least 
some support to the ray of the fin, the neural 
spine of the penultimate vertebrae being 
especially shortened and broadened for this 
purpose. 


RELATIONSHIPS 


A review of the anatomy of Argentina 
makes understandable the long association 
that the argentines have had with the 
salmonoid fishes in ichthyological system- 
atics. The general shape and proportions of 
the head and body, the disposition of the 
fins on the body, the presence of an adipose 
fin, orbitosphenoid, basisphenoid, the broad 
and deep myodome, which opens poste- 
riorly, the well-formed and functional meso- 
coracoid, the several postcleithra, and the 
peculiarly inverted third hypobranchials 
(which are so reminiscent of the osmerid 


fishes) are all typical of the salmonoid fishes. 
But, on the other hand, the argentines in 
common with the other opisthoproctoid 
fishes, and in distinction from the salmonoid 
fishes, have the following characteristics: 
(1) Dentition is completely lacking on the 
premaxillaries and maxillaries, and these 
bones are much reduced in size and func- 
tion; (2) there is complete lack of supra- 
maxillaries; (8) the anterior portion of the 
palatine arch is strongly bound by both 
cartilage and bony articulation with the 
ethmoid region of the cranium in the char- 


116 


acteristic opisthoproctoid manner; (4) the 
broad and long mesoptergoid which is ob- 
viously destined to aid in the support of the 
enlarged eye has its ventral edge wnder the 
cartilage of the palatine arch, not in the 
same plane with it, and for its entire mesial 
length it is bound tightly to the parasphe- 
noid; (5) the mesopterygoid and meta- 
pterygoid are obviously membrane, not 
cartilage, bones and the latter is much re- 
duced in size and function; (6) the hyo- 
mandibular articulates broadly across the 
entire lateral edge of the posterior part of 
the cranium, from the posterior edge of the 
pterotic to the anterior edge of the sphe- 
notic; (7) the vomer is characteristically 
broad and thin, has a long posterior shaft 
(in distinction to the osmerids), and a 
single row of teeth around the anterior edge 
which, with the palatine teeth, form the 
entire dorsal dentition of the mouth; (8) the 
supraoccipital is broadly shut out from the 
foramen magnum by the exoccipitals; (9) 
the fish are exclusively marine and typically 
bathypelagic with pelagic eggs and larvae 
(Schmidt, 1918) in abrupt distinction to the 
normal demersal eggs of salmonoid fishes 
which are typically buried in, or adhere to, 
gravel, either near the intertidal area or in 
fresh water; (10) the cartilage of the cra- 
nium, especially of the ethmoid region, is 
much less developed than in the salmonoids; 
and last, but by no means least, (11) there 
is a well-formed and apparently functional 
spiral valve in the intestine as in the other 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 4 


opisthoproctoid fishes, quite in distinction 
to the vestigial remnants of spiral valves 
encountered in occasional specimens of 
salmonoid fishes (Kendall and Crawford, 
1922). 

For these reasons the Argentinidae are to 
be considered as members of the suborder 
Opisthoproctoidei of the order Isospondyli, 
although without question they go a long 
step toward bridging the gap between those 
bizarre inhabitants of the ocean depths and 
normal isospondylous fishes. In a group of 
fishes the members of which are typically 
widely different from the other members, 
the Argentinidae diverge especially far, 
anatomically speaking. To the rest of the 
Opisthoproctoidei they stand in much the 
same relation as the Esocidae do to the 
other families of haplomid fishes: widely 
divergent, but descended from a similar 
stock. 

The following synopsis of the Argentini- 
dae will serve to distinguish this family 
sharply from the other opisthoproctoid 
fishes (Opisthoproctidae, Macropinnidae, 
Winteriidae, Xenophthalmichthyidae, Ba- 
thylagidae, and Microstomidae). Of these 
fishes it is most closely related to the 
Microstomidae. 

Synopsis of the family Argentinidae.— 
Opisthoproctoid fishes with several post- 
cleithra, mesocoracoid, basisphenoid, opis- 
thoties, large air bladder, premaxillaries, 
laterally directed eyes, and a broad myo- 
dome that opens posteriorly. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BARNARD, KeppEL Harcourt. A monograph 
of the marine fishes of South Africa, pt. 1. 
Ann. South African Mus. 21: 1-418, pls. 
1-17, figs. 1-18. 1925. 

BEEBE, WILLIAM. Deep sea fishes of the Ber- 
muda Oceanographic Expedition, No. 3: 
Argentinidae. Zoologica 16 (3): 97-147, 
figs. 26-46. 1933. 

CHAPMAN, WILBERT McLeEop. The osteology 
and relationships of the osmerid fishes. 
Journ. Morph. 69 (2): 279-301, 15 figs. 
1941. 

. The osteology and relationships of the 

bathypelagic fishes of the genus Bathylagus 

Giinther, with a note on the proper sys- 

tematic position of Leuroglossus stilbius 

Gilbert. Univ. Washington Publ. Biol. 1942. 

(In press.) 


Fowuer, Henry WEED. The marine fishes of 
West Africa, pt. If. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist. 70 (1): 1-605, figs. 1-275. 1956. 

GILL, THEODORE. Catalogue of the fishes of the 
eastern coast of North America, from Green- 
land to Georgia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia (ser. 2) 13: 1-63. 1861. 

. On the subfamily of Argentininae. 

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (ser. 2) 

14: 14-15. 1862. 

. The ichthyological peculiarities of the 
Bassalian fauna. Science 3 (68): 620- 
622. 1884. 

GUICHENOT, ALPHONSE. 
glosse, nouveau genre 
Ann. Soc. Maine-et-Loire, 
(After Jordan, 1919b.). 

GUNTHER, ALBERT. Catalogue of the fishes in 


L’ Argentine  leto-— 
de Salmonovdes. 
IX. 1866. 


Apr. 15, 1942 


the British Museum 6: 1-368. 1866. 
JORDAN, Davip Starr. The genera of fishes, 
pt. II. Stanford Univ. Publ:, Univ. Ser:: 
163-284. 1919a. 
. The genera of fishes, pt. III. Ibid.: 
285-410. 1919b. 


. A classification of fishes including fami- 
lies and genera as far as known. Stanford 
ans Publ. Biol. Sci., 3 (2): 79-243: 
19238. 

KENDALL, WILLIAM C., and CrawFrorp, Don- 
ALD R. Notice of a spiral valve in the 
teleostean fish Argentina silus, with a dis- 
cussion of some skeletal and other characters. 
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 12: 8-19, 
mec 2. 1922. 

Kroyer, Henrik Nixouas. Danmarks Fiske. 
1846. (After Jordan, 1919a.) 

Kye, H. M., and Exrensavum, E. Teolester 
Physostomi, XII, f10—86, in Die Fische der 
Nord- und Ostsee. Leipzig, 1929. 

Norman, JOHN RoxsBorouGH. Oceanic fishes 
and flatfishes collected in 1925-1927. Dis- 


NUTTING: A STUDY OF IONIC ADSORPTION 


tly 


covery Rep. 2: 261-370, pl. 2, figs. 1-47. 
1930. 

Parr, ALBERT E1pE. Deep sea fishes from off 
the western coast of North and Central 
America. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 
ZA sa nigs- tts, 19ST, 

REGAN, CHARLES TaTE. The Antarctic fishes 
of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedi- 
tion. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 49 (2): 
229-292, pls. 1-11, figs. 1-16. 1914. 

REINHARDT, JOHANNES. Bemdrkningen Til- 
den Skandinaviske Ichthyologie. 1833. 
(After Jordan, 1919a.) 

ScHMIDT, JOHANNES. Argentinidae, Micro- 
stomidae, Oprsthoproctidae, Mediterranean 
Odontostomidae. Rep. Dan. Oceanogr. 
Exped. 1908-1910 2 (Biclons) (A.5): 1-40, 
figs. 1-23, 4 charts. 1918 

SOLDATOV, V. Ae and LINDBERG, Gide tAre- 
view of the fishes of the seas of the Far East 


(Russian text). Bull. Pacific Sci. Fish. 
Inst. Vladivostok 5: 1-576, figs. 1-76. 
1930. 


CHEMISTRY.—A study of ionic adsorption in solutions of silica and alumina. 
P. G. Nuttine, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


Some years ago I noted an acid solution 
of clay that became more acid on the first 
addition of ammonia. Recently a similar 
but more pronounced effect was found on 
adding an alkali to dilute water solutions of 
pure silica and alumina. This led to finding 
alkaline solutions that became more alka- 
line on adding acid. Aside from their purely 
chemical interest, these findings suggest 
possible explanations of some puzzling 
mineral replacements, and the field seemed 
worth thorough exploration to determine its 
limits and underlying principles. This task 
is far from completed but a first summary 
of results seems in order. 

Electrometric titration was the method 
chiefly used. This gave a series of pH values 
varying with the amount of reagent added 
to the solution being studied, which plot in 
a smooth curve readily repeatable. From 
among dozens of curves run, I have selected 
four groups of three concentrations each. 
These are (1) silica solutions and (2) alu- 
mina solutions, each titrated with potas- 
sium hydroxide and (3) potassium silicate 

1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological punvey. Received October 23, 1941. 


and (4) potassium aluminate, each titrated 
with hydrochloric acid. 

Impurities were carefully avoided, but it 
was later found that they had little effect on 
the shape of a curve, only displacing it 
slightly. Filter paper, because of its strong 
adsorption of cations, was not used. Solu- 
tions were made up in fresh pyrex glass 
Concentrations were determined in plati- 
num. Carbon dioxide from the air interfered 
with two concentrations of potassium 
aluminate as noted below. In a freshly 
diluted or titrated solution a period of 10 to 
40 minutes is required to attain an equi- 
librium pH reading. 

Silica solutions are easily obtained by dis- 
solving pure silica in distilled water— about 
5 grams in a 4-liter flask. The pure silica 
is obtained either from silica gel or from a 
pure bentonite by digesting in hot strong 
acid for 24 hours to remove bases followed 
by thorough washing. In hot water, silica 
approaches saturation (about 0.4 gram per 
liter) in about 30 hours. The preparation of 
pure alumina stock solutions by dissolving 
in hot water was found not to be feasible. 
Alumina is soluble to the extent of only 


118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 4 
TABLE 1.—TITRATION OF THREE SILICA SOLUTIONS WITH PoTAssiIuM HYDROXIDE 
10 gram §,O./ce 10-4 gram§,O2/ee 10-3 gram §,02/ce 
1 mg/100 ce 10 mg/100 ce 100 mg/100 ce 
ec or m cc or m cc or m 
KOH™ pH OH pH : pH 
0 5.68 0 Dp lall 0 4.55 
0.5 4.73 1 4.45 PA'S. 415 
£20 4.08 2 3.94 5 3.83 
1a 3.95 3 3.68 15 3.61 
230 LOK 4 3.69 10 3.48 
— 5 4.14 15) oot 
~- 6 6.30 20 425 
1.91 7.00 6225 7.00 23.4 7.00 (neutrality) 
1.4 3.94 3.4 gOS 1255 3.44 (minima) 


three parts per million, and the residue con- 
taining it was found to be always about 30 
percent silica. Bredig’s method (are under 
water) produced too wide a variety of par- 
ticle sizes. Finally the ammonia precipitate 
of the chloride was washed down to about 
4 percent chloride, then electrodialyzed. 
The potassium silica and aluminate solu- 
tions were made up by dissolving weighed 
amounts of silica and alumina in potassium 
hydroxide of known concentration. For 
titration, 100-ce portions were used, ob- 
tained by successive dilution of the stock 
with distilled water whose pH varied little 
from 6.7. The titrating was by half cc steps 
from a burette containing 0.1 percent (1 mg 


7 


per cc) acid or alkali. The pH of even 10~° 
(one part per billion) silica or alumina solu- 
tion differs markedly from that of the dis- 
tilled water with which it is diluted. In 
Table 1 and Fig. 1 are given results for 
silica solutions of concentrations 10~, 107+, 
and 10-3 absolute. 

All three solutions became more acid by 
more than one pH unit on adding the first 
alkali. At the bottom of Table 1 are given 
(in pH) the maximum acidity reached, the 
amount of KOH causing it, and the alkali 
necessary to neutralize each solution. The 
stoichiometric ratio is 1.87 grams KOH to 
combine with each gram of SiO: if KeSi03 is 
formed. That ratio is slightly exceeded in 


ees ee 
| Pera anes che he 2 Oe 
NCO 


te] mg KOH added 


Fig. 1.—Potentiometric titration of 100-cc portions of silica solutions of 
concentrations 10~, 10~*, and 107% gram SiO, per ce with 0.1 per cent KOH 
solution. Note three different abscissae scales for the three curves. 


Apr. 15, 1942 


2 
mg KOH .added 


Fig. 2.—Titration of alumina solutions with KOH. 
Portions of curves below pH =0 (dashed) are in- 
terpolated. 


2 
mg HCl added 


Fig. 3.—Curves showing pH of three dilute solu- 
tions of K.SiO; titrated with 0.1 per cent HCl. 


NUTTING: A STUDY OF IONIC ADSORPTION 


119 


TABLE 2.—TITRATION OF ALUMINA SOLUTIONS 
wiTH PorassiumM HyDROXIDE 


4 Ls 10-4 gram/ce 
1077 10-6 
cc or mg | 10 mg/100 
KOH 0.01 0.1 | ne 
pH pH pH 
0 7.46 Spy) 4.15 
0.5 5.62 4.75 3.59 
1.0 4.51 4.11 245 
ie) 3) (Os 3.20 1.86 
2.0 2.55 1595 0.85 
2.5 0.72 0.34 (—0.10) 
3.0 0.22 (—0.06) (—0.29) 
3.5 6.04 1.00 0.29 
4.0 7.68 5.23 2.24 


the most dilute solution at pH 7, 0.625 gram 

KOH per gram S10, being sufficient to 

neutralize the 10~* solution, and 0.234 the 

10-? solution. The more concentrated solu- 
aa aE 


ES oma 
pers th ke 
Zama 
POO 
oo 


2 
mg HCl added 


Fig. 4.—Curves showing pH of three dilute solu- 
tions of KAIO, titrated with 0.1 per cent HCl. 


~ 


tions require proportionately less alkali to 
neutralize or produce maximum acidity— 
quite the reverse of alumina solutions. The 


TABLE 3.—POTASSIUM SILICATE AND ALUMINATE SOLUTIONS TITRATED wiTH HypROCHLORIC ACID 


K,SiO; gram/cc 


cc or mg 
HCl 10-7 10-8 107! 
pH pH pH 
0 Gal oto 8.40 
0.5 8.17 9.58 9.25 
1.0 9.08 10.12 8.98 
1.5 9.80 9.98 8.42 
2.0 10.01 9.61 S12 
\ ae) 9.61 9.10 8.08 
3y 0) 8.98 8.48 8.07 
4.0 7.08 — _—. 

HCl: K.SiO; at 

max. 185 11 0.05 


KAIO;: gram/ce 


105° HI) Fe is. 

pH pH pH 
7.68 7.86 8.33 
8.38 9.13 9.50 
8.87 9.84 | 10.31 
9.08 9.20 | 10.82 
8.91 7.83 11.04 
8.51 6.01 11.03 
8 .02 4.18 10.91 
6.95 | 2.22 10.30 

HCl: KAIO, | 


at max. 16 .0023 


120 


amount of alkali required to produce the 
minimum pH is roughly proportional to the 
square root of the concentration. 

Typical results of titrating pure alumina 
solutions with KOH are given in Table 2 
and Fig. 2 for solutions 10-7, 10-§ and 10-4 
in absolute concentration. 

The first addition of alkali to alumina 
solutions causes a much larger increase in 
apparent acidity than in silica solutions. 
pH minima occur with the same addition 
of KOH at all three concentrations of 
alumina. With the 10-* and 10~ solutions 
these minima are below pH =0. The lowest 
point reached by the 10~* curve is —0.30 
corresponding to an effective hydrogen ion 
concentration of 2 molar. Such negative 
(by interpolation) pH values were obtained 
on a great many titration curves and furnish 
a clue to the interpretation of the appar- 
ently anomalous effects observed. 

With alumina solutions, the alkali dis- 
posed of bears no relation to the reaction 
KOH+AIOOH. At the pH minima, for ex- 
ample, 3 mg KOH is associated with 0.01, 
0.1, and 10 mg of Al,O3 in the three solu- 
tions. Instead of the combining ratio 
2KOH: Al],.03=1.10, those ratios are 300, 
30, and 0.3. A lowest ratio (0.3) might sig- 
nify an incomplete reaction but, where a 
gram of alumina associates with 300 grams 
of alkali, it can hardly be simple chemical 
reaction. 

Other basic solutions tried with solutions 
of alumina, silica, and clay include am- 
monia, alcohol, triethanolamine, sodium 
hydroxide, and potassium aluminate and 
fluoride. Many silicates adsorb potassium 
salts much more powerfully than sodium, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


salts, but the pH depressions caused by their 
hydroxides do not differ markedly. The 
alkali aluminates produce much the same 
effects as the hydroxides. The addition of 
triethanolamine to silica solutions gives a 
deep pH depression but the curve is irregu- 
lar perhaps due to its tribasic character. 
Even alcohol causes a measurable depres- 
sion. 

The reverse effect—an alkaline solution 
becoming more alkaline on titrating with 
acid—seemed plausible and was found 
without difficulty. Dilute solutions of po- 
tassium silicate and aluminate, titrated 
with hydrochloric acid show it well. Three 
selected curves for each salt are reproduced 
in Figs. 3 and 4, the numerical data for 
which are collected in Table 3. As before, 
100 ce of solution was titrated with 0.1 
percent acid. 

The aluminate solutions 10-4 and 1073 
formed precipitates (by hydrolysis?) on 
standing. Their residual liquors gave pH 
curves similar to that for 10-6 which is the 
solubility of the hydroxide. No such effect 
was apparent in the silicate solutions. 

Maximum pH is produced in the silicate 
solutions by the addition of from 0.5 (Gn 
10-*) to 1.8 mg HCl in the 107" solution, 
the more dilute requiring more acid, quite 
the contrary of any chemical reaction. At 
the maximum of the 107+ curve the HCl: 
K,Si03 ratio is 0.5:10=0.05, on the 10-6 
curve it is 1.1:0.1=11 while on the 107‘ 
curve it is 1.85:0.01 =185. In the aluminate 
solutions the disparity is even greater. Evi- 
dently both adsorption and hydrolysis play 
important roles. 


DISCUSSION 


Only tentative suggestions bearing on the 
results recorded above appear possible at 
this time. Although they appear to be 
caused by selective adsorption, the details 
are far from clear. 

The study of electrolytic conduction 40 
years ago showed that each migrating ion 
carried from 10 to 30 molecules of water 
with it. The miscellae of silica and alumina 
sols are notoriously avid adsorbers of ions 


and on electrodialysis are dragged through 
the membranes by both anions and cations. 
In pure water, with H and OH ions present 
in equal numbers and strength, the migra- 
tion of silica or gelatin is impartially toward 
anode and cathode. The addition of a little 
KOH or HCl to the sol throws the migra- 
tion far off balance. | 

An alkaline precipitate in an acid solution 
may be readily obtained. To a suspension 


Apr. 15, 1942 


of sodium clay (e.g., a swelling bentonite) 
methyl! orange is added, then just sufficient 
acid to cause precipitation. If carefully done 
the precipitate will be yellow and the solu- 
tion red. An acid precipitate in an alkaline 
solution may be obtained from the same 
clay by first treating with acid to remove 
alkali, then neutralizing with alkali. These 
tests show the powerful selective adsorption 
of alumino-silicates. Silica gel turns pink 
when wet with water containing methyl 
orange, the liquor turning yellow. 

The large changes in pH noted in some 


cases would seem to indicate that heavy- 


concentrations of H (or OH) ions might 
occur in a thin layer on the glass electrode 
or at the boundary of the KCl solution. 
Wiping the glass electrode or rinsing it with 
distilled water, with or without previous 
soaking in salt solution, did not affect the 
pH reading. Replacing the solution being 
observed with fresh solution was also with- 
out effect. A polarization effect is improb- 
able because of the infinitesimal current 
used for only a small fraction of a second in 
making a reading and because standing 
over night did not affect the reading. 

Mattson? has recently suggested that soil 
humus, under certain conditions of oxida- 
tion, might be made more acid on the addi- 
tion of an alkali by permitting the escape of 
free hydrogen during the oxidation-reduc- 
tion process. If Mattson’s theoretical pre- 
diction is realized in actual tests, it may 
point to an explanation of the simpler and 
much more general results here reported, 
but its present application to these results 
is not apparent. 

The wide diversity of cases in which in- 


NUTTING: A STUDY OF IONIC ADSORPTION 


121 


verse pH effects were noted suggested that 
perhaps many classes of chemical reaction 
start off with the adsorption of ions and 
continue so until the adsorption of ions is 
sufficient to pass the potential hump and 
complete the reaction. Not denying this 
possibility, one notes that in some cases 
reported the reverse effect is at its height 
with reagent more than a hundred times 
that called for by the chemical reaction. 
This would seem to mean an enormous in- 
crease in the chemical energy hump with 
extreme dilution. 

The dissociation of water supplies ions of 
about the same concentration (10-7 moles) 
as that of some of the solutions worked with 
but it is difficult to see how these ions could 
be effective in producing an unbalance be- 
tween anions and cations. 

The break-up of long chains of solute into 
shorter ones and eventually into single 
molecules would produce an unbalanced 
demand for OH ions to fill out broken ends 
leaving excess H ions and acidity. Con- 
versely, the building up of such chains 
would produce excess OH ions. For a time 
this explanation seemed acceptable to the 
writer but it was later found to be inade- 
quate for it would require that a reagent 
break up (or build up) chains, at a fixed 
concentration, according to a very definite 
law. This seems very improbable particu- 
larly at the lowest concentrations where the 
solute probably exists as single molecules. 

The ultimate explanation of the observed 
effects seems likely to be based on selective 
adsorption; that is, on the formation of ion- 
rich osmotic atmospheres surrounding mis- 
cellae and molecules of silica and alumina. 


SUMMARY 


Experiments are described in which the 
addition of alkali to acid solutions renders 
them more acid and in which the addition 
of acid to alkaline solutions increases their 
alkalinity. 

Curves of electrometric titration of silica 
and alumina solutions with potassium hy- 
droxide are smooth and show a regular pro- 


2 Matrson, Saute. The acid-base condition in 
vegetation: Ann. Agr. Coll. Sweden 9: 50. 1941. 


gression with concentration. The silica 
curves drop about 1.5 pH units, the alumina 
curves about 5 units before the final rise to 
alkalinity. The silica solutions reach maxi- 
mum acidity on addition of alkali just less 
than the combining proportion, the alumina 
solutions on addition of a fixed amount of 
alkali which, in the most dilute solution, is 
300 times the combining proportion. 

In titrating solutions of potassium silicate 


122 


and aluminate with hydrochloric acid the 
pH first rises by from one to three pH units 
before the final decrease to neutrality. At 
the maxima of these curves, the ratios of 
acid to alkali vary enormously with con- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


centration and in inverse proportion. 

The explanation of the observed anoma- 
lous behavior of these titrations is held to 
lie in a high selective adsorption. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


373D MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 373d meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the Library of the Cosmos Club on 
February 6, 1942. President Curtis called the 
meeting to order at 8:08 p.m., with 17 persons 
present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros- 
sINI, H. S. RappLteye, N. R. Smitu, W. W. 
Dieut, R. J. Srecer, F. H. H. Roperts, Jr., 
F. G. BrickwEppE, H. B. Coins, JRr., F. C. 
Kracek, J. B. Reesipe, Jr., J. HE. McMur- 
TREY, JR., W. A. Dayton, F. B. SILsBEE, HE. W. 
Price, L. W. Parr, and C. L. GARNER. 

The minutes of the 372d meeting were read 
and approved. 

President Curtis announced the following 
appointments, for 1942 unless otherwise stated: 

Executive Committee: J. E. Grar, L. W. 
PARR. 

Board of Editors of the JouRNAL: R. J. SEE- 
GER, Senior Editor; J. R. SWALLEN, to January, 
1945. 

Associate Editors of the JouRNAL: W. E. DEm- 
ING, representing the Philosophical Society, to 
January, 1945; 
senting the Entomological Society, to January, 
1945. 

Committee on Membership: F. C. Kracrx 
(chairman), F. P. Cunuinan, F. M. DeEran- 
DORF, ALICE C. EVANS, C. L. Gazin, and J. 8. 
WADE. 

Committee on Monographs: ALEXANDER 
WetTMorE and J. H. Kempton, to January, 
1945. 


C. F. W. MuEsEBECK, repre- — 


Committees on Awards for Scientific Achieve- 
ment: ALEXANDER WETMORE, general chair- 
man. 

For the Biological Sciences: ALEXANDER 
WETMORE (chairman), J. H. Kempton, F. H. H. 
RoBeErts, Jr., W. A. Dayton, C. F. W. Muzs- 
BECK, L. W. STEPHENSON and E. W. PRIcz. 

For the Engineering Sciences: H. N. 
EaTon (chairman), G. W. Vinau, W. D. Sut- 
CLIFFE, W. J. Roonny, Hi: ©, Hawes eo oi 
ipmeame, and C.S. Pieeot. 

For the Physical Sciences: L. ¥ JUDSON 
(chairman), A. T. McPuHeErRson, K. F. Herz- 
FELD, O. 8S. Apams, F. S..Brackett, L. H. 
Apams, and R. C. WELLs. 

Committee of Tellers: W. RamBere (chair- 
man), L. W. Butz, and P.S. RouuEr. 

Committee of Auditors: J. W. RoseErts 
(chairman), E. W. Posnsak, and C. H. Swick. 

Committee on Meetings, from June, 1942, to 
May, 1943: J. H. Kempton (chairman), K. S. 
Gipson, M. C. Mrrritt, ATHERTON SEIDELL, 
and P. A. SMITH. 

The Executive Committee reported that it 
had instructed the Treasurer to invest the 
$4,000 mentioned in the previous report as 
available for reinvestment in U. 8. Savings 
Bonds of Series G at 24 per cent interest, in- 
stead of in a savings account in a new federally- 
insured savings and loan association. The Exec- 
utive Committee also presented the following 
budget for 1942, which was approved by the 
Board: 


BUDGET 


DECLECUAEY odie aeens cashwhaes SR ease le cake 
(Predeurer. 2 ti.4l ee arert os tots See MEA 
A elias Stiga. Gea: ar ak ca PEEL Gis Gee RRM cs 
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Fublications: 
Committee: one Meetings: 44 6.04458 ig Os tess 
Committee onj Memberships >. 4732 .nis26.)t. 


Allotments 
1941 1942 

eyhee $ 450 $ 450 
EE: 225 200 
. ee — 10 
120 #5 
yar 350 300 
ee 10 10 


Apr. 15, 1942 


Seerutve Committee... . fs pee ee ok 
PERMOEE CO TUORS ose ue ss. a ee 
Printing, mailing, engraving, reprints...... 
Spmmebial assistance’... 226. S602. ate 
Miscellaneous expenses............2..---- 
ENON Sr 2 re dn sy 3 se eee ea aa 
madendum to the Directory................ 


Subscriptions and sales of the JoURNAL....... 
Meberecnima dividends. ... 2.5... 66.5.0 e ee 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


123 


ea 10 10 
Ane 3, 400* 3, 100* 
3,100 2,800 

zeaheae 240 240 

en 60 60 

oes 350 eS 
Fuh as 60 
eeroas 4,915 4,215 
Meera MURR Ee LT LN Ol th eee, 2,575 
BITE fe) MORE a a Range ae a 615 
SAME RU Me ie SE ak) ee 1,049 
ew re ent meen een) Ee 4,239 


-* Not including services charged to, and paid for by, authors or their sponsors. 


The two nonresident persons whose nomina- 
tions were presented to the Board on January 
9, 1942, were considered individually and duly 
elected to membership. 

The Committee to consider certain questions 
relating to the Committee on Membership 
(F. C. Kracrx, chairman) reported some sug- 
gestions, which were referred for the making of 
definite recommendations to a second commit- 
tee. 

The Committee to consider affiliation of the 
Academy with the American Association for 
the Advancement of Science (N. R. Situ, 
chairman) recommended such affiliation, which 
was thereby authorized to the Board. 

The Secretary reported the following changes 
in membership: Acceptances, 1; qualified, 2; 
resignations, 3; retirements, 1. The status of 
membership as of February 6 was as follows: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total 
Resident 434 34 3 0 471 
Nonresident 127 19 1153 2 161 
Total 561 53 16 2 632 


The Treasurer, H. S. RappLeye, reported 
that, in accordance with the instructions of the 
Executive Committee, he had invested $4,000 
in U. S. Savings Bonds of Series G at 23 per 
cent interest. 

The Board approved the recommendation 
of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of 
Publications, W. W. Drent, that 900 copies of 
the JouRNAL (the same as in 1941) be printed 
for 1942 and until further notice. 


Upon nomination by the Anthropological So- 
ciety of Washington, F. M. SrtzLterR was 
elected a Vice-President of the Academy for 
1942 representing that Society. 

The Board authorized the President to ap- 
point a Committee to consider the petition for 
affilhation with the Academy that the Secretary 
reported received from the District of Colum- 
bia Society of Medical Technologists. 

The Board instructed the Archivist to deliver 
to the Board at its next meeting a report on, 
and the contents of, the sealed package in the 
Archives relating to the ballots, etc., pertaining 
to the selection of the original membership of 
the Academy by the Joint Commission of the 
Scientific Societies of Washington. 

The Board authorized the President to ap- 
point a Committee to consider ways and means 
of increasing the income of the Academy. 

The meeting adjourned at 10:18 p.m. 


310TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 310th meeting of the Academy was held 
in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 
8:15 p.m. on February 19, 1942, with President 
CURTIS presiding. 

GEORGE C. VAILLANT, director of the Mu- 
seum of the University of Pennsylvania, Phila- 
delphia, Pa., delivered an address entitled The 
Aztecs of Mexico, in which it was shown that 
archeology has a more direct bearing on history 
in Mexico than in the United States because 
the Indian population there is almost as impor- 
tant now as in the past. Excavations and docu- 


124 


mentary manuscripts were discussed, and the 
evolution of civilization in Indian Mexico was 
described. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 4 


There were about 90 persons present. The 
meeting adjourned at 10 p.m. for a social hour. 


FREDERICK D. Rosstnt1, Secretary 


Obituary 


Ernest Everett Just died on October 27, 
1941. Born August 14, 1883, at Charleston, 
S. C., he received his early education at Kim- 
ball Union Academy in New Hampshire and 
his A.B. degree at Dartmouth College in 1907. 
At Dartmouth he specialized in zoology, de- 
voting much of his time to research, and was 
elected to Phi Beta Kappa. His graduate train- 
ing was begun at Woods Hole, Mass., under 
Prof. Frank R. Lillie while he was a member 
of the faculty of Howard University, and he 
received his Ph.D. from the University of 
Chicago in 1916. He was a member of the staff 
of Howard University from 1907 until his 
death, being head of the department of zoology 
from 1912. Most of his summers from 1909 to 
1930 were spent at the Maine Biological 
Laboratory at Woods Hole. During the last 10 
or 12 years he conducted his researches in vari- 
ous European laboratories. Just published over 


50 papers dealing with fertilization and experi- 
mental parthenogenesis in marine eggs, chiefly 
of annelids and echinoderms. He also published 
two books, Basic methods for experiments in 
eggs of marine animals and The biology of the cell 
surface. Much of his research was made possible 
by grants from Julius Rosenwald, the General 
Education Board, the Carnegie Corporation, 
and the Rosenwald Foundation with which 
Howard University cooperated wholeheartedly 
by extending him numerous prolonged leaves of 
absence. 

He was a member of many societies, among 
them the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, the American Society of Nat- 
uralists, the American Society of Zoologists, 
the Ecological Society of America, and the So- 
ciété Nationale des Sciences Naturelles et 
Mathématiques de Cherbourg. 


PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


i ne AcapEmy (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.M.): MG 
_ Thursday, April 16. Cosmic emotion. Paut R. Heyt. 

a | 
Anrnropowocican Soctery or Wasutneton (U.S. National Museum, 8 p.M.): 


- Tuesday, April 21. Archaeological accomplishments during the past decade in the United States. 
_ Frank M. SETzuer. 


TEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON: 


_ Thursday, April 30. Precision in the field of biochemistry: The quantitative estimation of impor- 
Ro) tant biological substances. M. X. SuLuivan. (Georgetown University, 8:15 P.M.) 


Thursday, May 14. Section meetings. (University of Maryland, 8:15 p.m.) 


EDICAL Baie oF THE District or CoLtumBia (1718 M Street, NW., 8 P.M.): ap 


| Wednesday, April 22 (program by Section on eect Geeta eey): M La etiee and significance 
of abdominal pain. Henry LeRoy Bockus. 


Wednesday, April 29. President’s night. 
_ Wednesday, May 6. Annual business meeting. ; 
. Wednesday, May 13. Program to be announced. 


Tuesday, May 5. Recent developments in wood pathology. CARu HARTLEY. 
Nutrient study of the cantaloupe. CHarLtes H. MAnonry. 


Yet CIETY OF AMERICAN BacTERIOLOGISTS, Washington Branch (Georgetown University School of 
} Medicine, 8 P.M.): 


aay. April 28. The bacteriological work of John Tyndall. Morris C. LerKinp. 
Coccidiomycosis. C. W. EMMONS. 
Reclamation of used agar. Howarp |. THALLER. 


wy 


CONTENTS 


a family of oceanic fishes. Wineerr Nghe CHapMan 


Cuemisrry.—A study of ionic adsorption in solutions of sili 
alumina. P. G. Meh catte faa 


“6 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY Oe hh on ae a eee 


Oxsrruary: Ernest Evererr St ni pe eas 


‘This Journal is Indexed in the International Tle ee Periodicals i % 


i 
+2. 
* 
i. 
se 
Fret 
z | 
+. 
=_ 


May 15, 1942 | No. 5 


JOURNAL.” 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


ss BOARD OF EDITORS 


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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: Harvey L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. 

Secretary: FrepERiIcK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards. 
Treasurer: Howarp S. Raprpieye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


WOL. 32 


May 15, 1942 


No; 5 


GEODESY.—The distance between two widely separated points on the surface of 
the earth.1| WautTER D. LamBmrt, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


Suppose two points on the earth to be 
given by their latitudes and longitudes: 
What is the length of the line joining the 
points and what is its direction at these 
end points? The problem will be discussed 
and the results stated and illustrated, the 
proofs being deferred to another occasion. 

If we treat the earth as a sphere of given 
radius, the “‘line’”’ joining the two points is 
the arc of a great circle less than 180°, 
which gives the shortest distance between 
them, and the problem is one of spherical 
trigonometry. Two sides and the included 
angle of a spherical triangle are, in effect, 
given. 

A second approximation to the figure of 
the earth is a slightly flattened ellipsoid of 
revolution. It is of interest to inquire what 
the effect of the flattening is on the length 
and the direction of the ‘‘line’”’ joining the 
two points. In what follows it will be as- 
sumed without much discussion that the 
line connecting the two points is a geodesic 
line, or simply a geodesic. The geodesic on 
an ellipsoid of revolution corresponds to an 
arc of great circle on a sphere or to a 
straight line in a plane. If we let the flat- 
tening of the ellipsoid decrease to zero, a 
geodesic on the ellipsoid becomes an arc 
of great circle on the limiting sphere; but, 
unlike the arc of a great circle, an in- 
definitely extended geodesic on an ellipsoid 
does not generally return into itself. Even 
if we reject those geodesics roughly analo- 
gous to arcs of a great circle greater than 
27, we find that there may be more than 
one geodesic between the same two points. 
Although the shortest distance is always 
measured along a geodesic, not every geo- 
desic gives a shortest distance. 


* Received February 24, 1942. 


12 


When two points A and B are inter- 
visible the lines actually observed by a sur- 
veyor are the two plane sections of the sur- 
face: (1) by a plane containing the normal 
at A and the point B; (2) by a plane con- 
taining the normal at B and the point A. 
These plane sections are in general two 
distinct curves and a plane section has its 
characteristic property for only one of its 
points, the point where the plane contains 
the normal to the surface; in this it differs 
from the geodesic on the ellipsoid, from the 
are of great circle on the sphere, and from 
the straight line in the plane. All these have 
their characteristic properties for all their 
points, with the possible limitation that the 
points must not be too far apart. Later an 
illustration will be given that will show the 
inapplicability of the idea of a plane section 
to the present problem. 

In deriving the formulas to be given it is 
necessary to use the parametric, or reduced, 
latitude of a point on an ellipsoid of revolu- 
tion, even though the reduced latitude does 
not appear explicitly in one group of for- 
mulas hereinafter given. 

Let a and b be the semimajor and semi- 
minor axes of an oblate ellipsoid of revolu- 
tion. Let f denote flattening, (a—b)/a. Let 
¢@ denote the geographic latitude of a point 
(inclination of the normal to the surface 
at the point to the plane of the equator) 
and 6 the corresponding reduced or para- 
metric latitude. The relation between @ 
and £6 is 


b 
tan B=— tan @=(1—f) tang. (1) 
a 


Approximately, by neglecting small quan- 
tities of the order f?, we have in radians 


5 


126 
=f sin 26=3f sin 28. 


Astronomers sometimes use the geocentric 
latitude y, connected with the geographic 
latitude ¢ by the relation 


2 


tan Wipes tan ¢, 
a2 


or approximately in radians 
¢—w=f sin 2¢. 


If we have tables of ¢—y, the reduction 
from geographic to geocentric latitude, we 
may take half this reduction as the approxi- 
mate reduction from geographic to para- 
metric latitude. 

First assume that the parametric lati- 
tudes of the points A and B have been 
found and are §, and Bs, respectively, 
and that the difference of longitude is 
A(A<180°). On a sphere 2X is the angle at 
the north pole, C, between the two sides of 
a spherical triangle; the lengths of these 
sides, AC and BC, are 90°—; and 90°—£, 
(south latitudes are treated as negative). 
We may solve this triangle by any of vari- 
ous formulas for the side AB opposite C, 
which call o, and for the angles at A and 
B, which we may denote by the same let- 
ters A and B, as is usual in trigonometric 
formulas. These angles give the directions 
at A and B of the arc AB. 

In surveying it is usual to specify direc- 
tion by azimuth, reckoned from south by 
way of west around to 360°. If B is west 
of A and west longitudes are reckoned as 
positive, it is easy to see by drawing a 
figure that the azimuths a; and a2 at A and 
B are connected with the angles A and B 
of the triangle by the relations 


a,=forward azimuth of AB at A=180°—A 
ao=back azimuth at B=180°+B 
(in direction BA) 


The following formulas for the solution of 
the triangle ACB come from Delambre’s 
(Gauss’s) equations for a spherical triangle. 
The results are expressed directly in terms 
of the azimuth instead of in terms of the 
angles of the triangle. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 32, No. 5 


Let B=3(62+ 61), AB = 3(B2— 1) 


sin $(a2+a,) sin $¢o= —sin AB cos $A 

COS 4(a2+a;) sin 3¢=—cos B sin $A ‘ 
sin 3(@2—a,) cos 3g= cos AB cos 5A 2) 
cos $(@2—a1) cos zo= sin BsindA | 


These formulas are proposed rather than 
other possible ones because: (1) they are 
nearly self-checking in ways that the ex- 
perienced computer will readily observe; 
(2) they are adapted to obtaining the great- 
est possible accuracy from trigonometric 
tables to a given number of places; (3) the 
quantities used are needed later in reducing 
from the sphere to the ellipsoid. 

Though they are nearly self-checking, 
there is still a possibility that certain errors 
may escape detection that would be de- 
tected by the law of sines, namely, 
sin a2 


sind sin ay 


sino cos Bo cos By 

The azimuths a; and a», since they have 
been obtained from the sphere, need cor- 
rections to reduce them to their values on 
the ellipsoid. If we assume the radius of 
the sphere to be a, the semimayjor axis of the 
ellipsoid, the distance on the sphere= 
AB=s=ao (o in radians) also needs cor- 
rection to reduce to the distance along a 
geodesic on the ellipsoid. The required cor- 
rections 6a;, da, and 6s are 


da, = (f cos? Bz SIN ae COS a2) — 
sine ~ (3) 


= Na/sin o 


daa = (f cos? 8; sin a, COS a1) — 
S 


= Ma/sin o 


nee (4) 


where the meanings of M and W are ob- 
vious. da; and dae will be expressed in the 
same unit as o 


sin? B cos? AB 
cos? 40 
cos? B sin? Ap 


sin? $o 


6s= —taf(o—sin oc) 
(5) 
— jaf(o+sin oc) 


May 15, 1942 - LAMBERT: DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE EARTH 


In (5) the o within the parentheses must 
evidently be expressed in radians. We then 
have 


Forward azimuth on ellipsoid at A 
=a,+ day 

Back azimuth on ellipsoid at B 
=a2+ dar 

Distance AB on ellipsoid along 


(6) 


geodesic =ac+6s 


where ai, a2 and o come from (2) and 6a, 
daz and 6s from (3), (4), and (5). 
A variant form for 6s is 


sin? (a2— a1) 


6s = — 4af(o—sin oc) cos? $0 
sin? (7) 
J ; sin? (a2+az) 
—taf(o+sin oc) sin? $c 
sin? \ 


It is not necessary to compute the para- 
metric latitudes if they are not known or 
readily available, but the resulting formulas 
when geographic latitudes are used are 
slightly more complex. 

Compute the spherical triangle given, as 
before, by the included angle C at the north 
pole equal to X, the difference in longitude 
of A and B, and by the including sides AC 
and BC, which are now equal to 90°—¢, 
and 90°—d¢s, where ¢; and ¢»2 are the geo- 
graphic latitudes of A and B respectively. 

By analogy with (2) we put 


b= 3(¢2+ 41) Ad =3(¢2— 91) 
sin 30 sin $(a2+a;) = —sin Ad cos 4A 
sin 30 COS $(a2+a,) = —cos ¢ sin 4d 
cos $0 Sin 4(a2—a,) = cos Ad cos 4A © 
COS 30 COS 4(a2—a) =sin ¢ sin 4A 
For a check the law of sines is 


sind sin ay SIN ae 


COS ¢, 


sino COS do 


The values of a1, a, and o are not quite 
the same as those previously found; the 
differences are small quantities of the order 


- The corrections to be applied are 


127 
6a,=(f cos? de SIN a2 COS ag)a/sin 
+f cos? $1, sin a; cos a (9) 
=No/sino+M 
daa = (f cos? ¢1 sin a, COS a1)a/sin o 
+f cos? de SIN ae COS ae (10) 


= Mo/sin o+N. 


If o is in radians, formulas (9) and (10) 
as they stand give 6a; and dae in radians. 
We have used the same symbol, M, for f 
cos? 6; sin a; COS a, and f cos? ¢1 Sin a; COS a4 
since these two quantities differ from one 
another by small quantities of the order f?, 
quantities neglected in this discussion. Sim- 
ilarly for N. 
For the distance we have now 


sin? @ cos? Ad 
ame ali = 

6s=4af(3 sin ¢o—c) ————_———— 

cos” 40 


; (11) 
cos? ¢ sin? A¢d 
— 5af(3 sin o+c) ———————_ 
sin? 30 
As before, o within the parentheses is ex- 
pressed in radians. We then have 


Forward azimuth on ellipsoid at A 
= OU OCs 
Back azimuth on ellipsoid at B 
= a2 0a 
Distance AB on ellipsoid along 


pea (le) 


geodesic = ac+ ds 


where ai, a and o come from (8) and the 
corrections to them from (9), (10), and (11). 
The quantities ai, a2, o, dai, daz, and és 
differ from the like-named quantities ob- 
tained from (2), (3), (4), and (5) by small 
quantities of the order f?, but the combina- 
tions ai +daj,a2.+ da, and ac+és are nearly 
the same in (6) and (12). See the numerical 
examples. 
Alternative formulas are 


COS.G 
ds = 5af(3 sin c—oc) — sin? (ag— a1) 
sin* 
; (13) 
et re Sree 
— 3af(3 sin o+o) ——— sin? (ag+ay) 


sin? X 


128 


2 (da2+ day) = —3( = +1) 
sin o 


-COS ¢1 COS 2 SIN (a2+ a1) 


oO 
3 (Sa — So) = — 11 , -1) 
SIn o 


-COS ¢1 COS 2 SIN (A@2— a) | 


(14) 


da and 6q are obtained from (14) by addi- 
tion and subtraction. 

The formulas for 6a, and 6a contain the 
factor o/sin o. When og is small this factor 
is nearly unity and no difficulty arises, but 
when o is nearly 180°, that is, when the 
points A and B are nearly antipodal, 
g/sin o is large. A necessary condition that 
the preceding formulas give at least a first 
rough approximation to the effect of the 
flattening on the azimuths is that r—o>f7z; 
or 180°—ca>f 180°, if o be in sexagesimal 
measure. For the earth f 180° is about 36 
minutes of are. In practice 180°—o should 
amount to several degrees. The behavior 
of geodesic lines between two nearly antip- 
odal points is rather curious but the ex- 
position would require considerable space. 

Some idea of the possible complications 
encountered in seeking the line of minimum 
length between nearly antipodal points may 
be obtained by considering points on the 
Equator. Between two points on the 
Equator not too far apart the Equator 
itself is obviously a geodesic and a line of 
minimum length. 

But let the two points on the Equator be 
exactly 180° apart in longitude. The short- 
est distance between them is along the 
meridian over the pole. This route takes ad- 
vantage of the flattening of the earth to 
decrease the distance traveled. Suppose the 
difference in longitude to be, not 180°=7 
radians, but 7 (1l—e) radians. It can be 
shown that for e sufficiently small there is 
a route between the two points that takes 
advantage of the flattening by leaving the 
Equator and going north or south but not 
all the way to a pole. The azimuth, a, of the 
geodesic of minimum length and the high- 
est parametric latitude, 8, attained by it 
are given approximately by 


sin a=cos Bo=«/f, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


where f is, as usual, the flattening. 

Let us take the flattening as 1/300 in 
round numbers (the value adopted inter- 
nationally is 1/297); we have the following 
table of approximate values: 


TABLE 1.—PROPERTIES OF A MINIMUM GEODESIC 
BETWEEN Two PoInts oN EARTH’S 
EQUATOR 
(f =1/300 az =20,000 km) 


Diff. 


Az. of Max. 


long. geodesic lat. Dist. saved 
ON a Bo ees 

179°24’ 90° Ae 0 

179 30 123 .6 33.6 | zAefr= 0.9km 
179 36 138.2 48.2 | “#afr= 3.7 
179 42 150.0 60.0 | %afr= 8.3 
179 48 160.5 70.5 | Hafr=14.7 
179 54 170.4 80.4 | 23afm=23.1 
180 00 180 90 2$afnr =33.3 


Sz is the length along the Equator, s¢ the 
length along the geodesic. There are ob- 
viously two symmetrical geodesics, one in 
each hemisphere. The figures in the table 
apply to the geodesic in the northern hemi- 
sphere. For difference of longitude equal to 
180° the meridian and the Equator are both 
vertical sections; for any pair of points on 
the equator, the equator itself is the vertical 
section but does not necessarily give the 
minimum distance. 

No attempt has been made to evaluate 
the omitted terms in f?, f?, etc. Presumably 
the coefficients would be extremely com- 
plicated. Some idea of the accuracy obtain- 
able with the formulas here given may be 
obtained from the numerical examples in 
Table 2. 

The table gives: (1) the results, marked 
a, from formulas (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6), 
using reduced latitudes; (2) the results, 
marked b, from formulas (8), (9), (10), (11), 
and (12), using geographic latitudes; and 
(3) the results from a more accurate proc- 
ess, marked c, using the necessary number 
of successive approximations to obtain all 
the accuracy possible with a seven-place 
table. 

It must be remembered that seven-place 
tables leave the final figures of the results 
given decidedly uncertain, so that the dis- 
crepancies between results a and 6 and be- 
tween either and the accurate result c is 


May 15, 1942 LAMBERT: DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE EARTH 


not necessarily much greater than that due 
to omitted decimals. We may fairly say 
that for examples I-IV inclusive the theo- 
retical accuracy of the approximate for- 
mulas and the numerical accuracy obtain- 
able with six-place tables are about the 
same. 

But in example V, the errors due to omit- 
ted terms are much greater. Here the points 
are within 6° of being antipodal. This 6° is 
ten times the limit f 180° previously given. 
For points more nearly antipodal than in 


129 


Several years before the publication of An- 
doyer’s article the writer of this note had the 
proofs for formulas equivalent to all those 
given above but did not publish them. 

The process given in this note is only a first 
approximation and fails for nearly antipodal 
points. The rigorous solution in any case re- 
quires successive approximations and the in- 
clusion of terms of higher order than the first- 
order terms here considered. The method is 
explained briefly in Clarke’s Geodesy (Oxford, 
1880), chapter 6, and much more fully with 


TABLE 2.—COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS FORMULAS 


I Il 
Spheroid | Gjarke, 1866 Beeel 
> (ae 6378 .206 6377 .397 
1/f 294 98 299.15 
gl +.25°00’ 4.51°12" 
bo +65 00 TLR AR 
x +50 00 +69 03 
a, +6a; ea keh 119°09’ 
(a) 25/740 18’’.24 
(b) 26 |39 iG) ile 
(c) 25 45 18 20 
Le, 296°37' 242°30’ 
(a) 45! 48 57’".30 
(b) iG, ado 57.39 
(c) Wee a 57 32 
s+é6s (km) 5675 4602 
(a) 585 925 
(b) 605 910 
(c) 591 920 


JUG AY V 
Bessel Clarke, 1866 Clarke, 1866 
+55°45’ +26°29’06’’ .57: — 55°00’ 
—33 28 +55 00 +65 00 

—108 13 +30°07'38’’ .94 +174 00 
Dapapa ADE 150°32’ 2 AS 
38’ .82 HB 1172 34/52’ .49 
38 .02 Hey eel’ BU as 
38 .00 KB SG STs oF 
83°23’ 310°00’ 150° 
50’’.09 00’’.16 20’08’’ .53 
49 .53 COON 21 20 00 .32 
Bye JUS) 00 .00 19 40 .51 
14110 19344 
OF 3999 .997 Yi 
48 4000.011 .29 
nS 4000 .000 ae 


V the approximation may be expected to 
be still rougher. The distance in example V 
by the approximate formulas is fairly ac- 
curate; this is to be expected. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 


Formula (11), the correction to the distance 
computed on a sphere with geographic lati- 
tudes, has for some years past been given with- 
out proof in the Annuaire du Bureau des 
Longitudes. It is presumably due to Henri 
Andoyer. A proof by him dated 1927 was 
published posthumously in the Bulletin géo- 
désique (No. 34, p. 77, 1932) under the title 
“Formule donnant la longueur de la géodésique 
joignant 2 points de Jl’ellipsoide donnés par 
leurs coordonnées géographiques.”’ 


abundant numerical illustrations in Helmert’s 
Die mathematischen und physikalischen The- 
orteen der héheren Geoddste 1, chapters 5 and 
7 (Leipzig, 1880). 

The behavior of a system of geodesics issuing 
in all directions from a fixed point and extend- 
ing about halfway around the ellipsoid is 
treated by Clarke and more fully by Helmert. 
There is also a posthumous note by Jacobi 
completed by A. Wangerin in vol. 7 (p. 72) of 
his Jacobi’s Gesammelte Werke, entitled ‘‘Uber 
die Curve, welche alle von einem Punkte an- 
gvehenden geoditischen Linien eines Rotations- 
ellipsoid beriihrt.”’ 

A very full treatment of the same general 
subject was published by E. Fichot in the 


Annales Hydrographiques (ser. 3) 4: 99, 1921, 


130 


under the title “Sur les systémes géodésiques 
equilatéres 4 la surface du sphéroide terrestre.”’ 
The subject is continued by E. Fichot and P. 
Gerson in the Annales (ser. 3) 5: 1937, under 
the title: ‘‘La zone géodésique antipode.”’ 

There is an article by Cayley in the London, 
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Maga- 
zine and Journal of Science 40: 329, 1870, 
entitled: ‘On the Geodesic Lines on an Oblate 
Spheroid,”’ in which the results are expressed 
in terms of elliptic integrals. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 32, NO. 5 


There appears to be no comprehensive treat- 
ment readily available in English. The author 
hopes to publish one shortly. 

For reduced, geocentric, and other kinds of 
latitude and their relation to geographic lati- 
tude see O. S. Adams, Latitude developments 
connected with geodesy and cartography, U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication 
No. 67. 


CHEMISTRY.—The determination of the cystine content of various proteins by 
different hydrolytic agents, sulphuric, hydrochloric, hydriodic, and a mixture of 


hydrochloric and formic acids.! 
town University. 


In the analysis of proteins some type of 
hydrolysis must be employed to separate 
the complex material into the constituent 
amino acids. Occasionally, as for example in 
the estimation of tryptophane, a mild alka- 
line hydrolysis with Ba(OH): has been 
found useful, but for most of the amino 
acids an acid hydrolysis is necessary. For 
years workers in the protein field have 
hydrolyzed with 20 per cent HCl or with 
6N H2SO, or, occasionally, with stronger 
H.SO,. Many proteins however, on hydroly- 
sis with these acids form black soluble or 
insoluble humin. Because of the necessity 
of decolorizing the black solution and the 
possible loss of reactive amino acid in the 
formation of the humin, soluble or in- 
soluble, various investigators have sought 
to hydrolyze under conditions that avoid 
humin formation as much as possible. 

Sullivan (1) early recommended hydro- 
lyzing with HCl containing TiCls;, and Sul- 
livan and Hess (2) found not only that in 
such an hydrolysis there was an inhibition 
of humin formation but also that the time 
required for hydrolysis was greatly lessened. 
Then Baernstein (3) emphasized the fact 
that no humin is formed if proteins are 
hydrolyzed by HI containing H3PO:, and 
Miller and du Vigneaud (4) reported that 
a mixture of HCl and HCOOH was su- 
perior to HCl for the estimation of cystine 
in insulin. 

1 Received February 9, 1942. 


W. C. Hess and M. X. SuLLivan, George- 


If the protein is properly hydrolyzed 
there are several methods of estimating the 
cystine, and of these the Sullivan method 
(1) is the most specific and accurate. If the 
hydrolysis is conducted in a reducing atmo- 
sphere as with HI and H;PQO, the solution 
contains not cystine but the reduced form — 
cysteine. In general, sulphuric acid has been 
found to be a less efficient hydrolytic agent 
than HCl in that it requires a longer period 
of heating (5). In work with edestin Kassell 
and Brand (6), however, report that hy- 
drolysis with H.SO, gives low results for 
cystine particularly with the Sullivan meth- 
od, whether the time of hydrolysis is 8 or 
15 hours, a finding they attribute to the 
tendency of the H,SO, to produce sub- 
stances that interfere with the Sullivan re- 
action, a situation they find also with HCl 
if the time of hydrolysis is long. Provided 
the acids are free from impurities we have 
never met with such interference. Higher 
values after precipitation with cuprous 
chloride, as found by Kassell and Brand, do 
not necessarily indicate the presence of in- 
hibiting material since cuprous chloride 
opens a number of cystine complexes that 
do not react of themselves in the Sullivan 
reaction (7). 

In fact, in work on the determination of 
cystine in zein we obtained practically the 
same value whether the hydrolytic agent 
was H.SO, or HCl, and so were at a loss to 
account for the findings of Kassell and 


May 15, 1942 


Brand with edestin. Accordingly we sub- 
mitted 10 proteins at our disposal to diges- 
tion with H.SO,, HCl, HCI-HCOOH, and 
HI for periods of time considered optimum 
for the respective acid and estimated the 
cystine in the hydrolysates by means of the 
Sullivan method and the Okuda method. 


EXPERIMENTAL 


The proteins selected were known to vary 
from less than 0.5 percent to over 1.25 per- 
cent cystine, a range that covers most of 
the known proteins, exclusive of some al- 
bumins and keratins. If any variation from 
method to method is to be expected it 
would be more apt to occur in proteins with 
cystine contents of these orders of magni- 
tude than in the keratins with extremely 
high cystine values. The edestin, arachin, 
and casein were carefully isolated and highly 
purified samples prepared in our laboratory. 
The proteins from halibut, haddock, sal- 
mon, round, and sirloin steaks were samples 
of those previously described and analyzed 
by Sullivan and Hess (8). The ox-muscle 
protein and the shrimp protein were pre- 
pared by Dr. D. B. Jones, Bureau of Agri- 
cultural Chemistry and Engineering. For 
the cystine determination a suitable amount 


of the protein, usually 500 mg, was hy- | 


drolyzed with (1) 2.0 cc 6N H.SO, for 12 
hours; (2) 2.0 cc 20 percent HCl for 8 hours; 
(3) 2.0 ce 36 percent HCl and 2.0 ce 95 per- 
cent HCOOH for 24 hours; (4) 5.0 ce 57 
percent HI containing some H3PO, for 16 
hours. The temperature of the bath for all 
the hydrolyses was 125-130°. With the 
H.SO, and the HCl digestion there was 
formed considerable humin, soluble and in- 
soluble. With HClI-HCOOH hydrolysis 
there was soluble humin but only in some 
few cases insoluble humin. Hydrolysis with 
HI led to no humin formation. The HCl- 
HCOOH hydrolysate was concentrated to 
a syrup on the water bath and the residue 
was taken up with 10 cc H,0. This solution 
and the hydrolysates from procedures (1) 
and (2) were decolorized by bringing to a 
gentle boil with 100 mg acid-washed Car- 
bex E. After filtration the carbon was mixed 
with 5.0 ce hot N HCl, collected on a filter 
and washed with water. The respective fil- 


HESS AND SULLIVAN: CYSTINE CONTENT OF PROTEINS 


151 


trates and washings were brought to pH 3.5 
by the addition of 5N NaOH dropwise with 
stirring, and then diluted to 30 or 25 cc 
with 0.1 N HCl. The HI hydrolysates were 
concentrated to a syrup, brought to pH 3.5 
and diluted to volume as above. 

In the HI hydrolysates only cysteine was 
present, and the standard for comparison, 
in the Sullivan method, was a freshly pre- 


TABLE 1.—PERCENTAGE CYSTINE CONTENT: 
SULLIVAN MrtTHop 


; HCl 
Protein H.SO, HCl HCOOH HI 
Haltibutoence OAS elO6 20 jas As: 
Eiaddockaye ses The Qh eo ieee 128 
Salone eee ed Souls se bess ine 
Silonite eee 5074 | Oa 27 0.78 0.81 
IRYOWINCL. 5 445600 c 0.78 | 0.82 0.79 0.83 
Mdestinam es tole 2 Onl 23 ie L225 
Ox muscle...... 0.89 | 0.89 0.94 0.96 
Shain p eee 0.88 | 0.90 0.93 0.96 
Casein seb 0.26 | 0.25 0.28 0.26 
Ata chun ae eee AS ales 1.26 hePa7¢ 


pared solution of a highly purified cysteine 
hydrochloride. It is necessary that the 
cysteine hydrochloride used as a standard 
be thoroughly evaluated because cysteine 
hydrochloride may contain water of crystal- 
lization or may be somewhat oxidized. As a 


TABLE 2.— PERCENTAGE CYSTINE CONTENT: 
Oxupa METHOD 


Protein igs Oa rCI ee EDL 
[BleMMO,. 6 ca eo 0 Lee iat Oe aloha bee 
Haddock ssn). eS ales De fees 
Sallinmonpeee aes Wee) Ike i 320 BDZ 
SMAIOIUN . . oo oo noe ORATOR KE 0.79 0.83 
IROWINC 452550. 0.80 | 0.87 0.84 0.84 
Edestin. . Pee lee ore maleny, P74 1.29 
Ox muscle...... 0.89 | 0.89 0.94 0.96 
SIMALIN On oom 6 6 O287|-0.295: | 0.97 110296 
Caseinveun she. Os27 720228 4 -0. 30° 1 O:29 
Arachinmnes ccs ae 26 26 L293 SS 


consequence, too high results will be found 
for cysteine in the materials under investi- 
gation. The results of the analysis of the 10 
proteins by the several hydrolytic methods 
are given in Tables 1 and 2. All results are 
corrected for moisture and ash and com- 
puted as cystine. 

In contradiction to the work of Kassell 
and Brand, the data given in the tables 


132 


show that the cystine values obtained with 
H.SO, hydrolysis are in agreement with 
those obtained with HCI hydrolysis (even 
for edestin) and that there is no evidence 
of the formation of any material which in- 
hibits the Sullivan method. It may be 
noted, also, that the Sullivan method and 
the Okuda method on these hydrolysates 
give results of the same order of magnitude, 
and that the results with HCl and with 
H.SO. are only slightly below those with 
HCI-HCOOH and with HI. The HI hy- 
drolysates give slightly higher values, a 
finding that is probably due to the nonfor- 
mation of humin. 


CHEMISTRY.—A crystalline sulphur-protein from wheat.' 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32; NOJ5 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Suuuivan, M. X. U.S. Publ. Health Reps 
Suppl. 78. 1929. 

2. SULLIVAN, M. X., and Hess, W.C. Journ: 
Biol. Chem. 117: 423. 1937. 

3. BAERNSTEIN, H. D. Journ. Biol. Chem. 
HIS 25) od. 1936: 

4. Miuuer, G. L., and pu Vieneaup, V. 
Journ. Biol. Chem. 118: 101. 1937. 

5. Levene, P. A., and Bass, L. W. Journ. 
Biol. Chem. 74: 715. 1927. 

6. KassELL, B., and Brann, E. Journ. Biol. 
Chem. 125: 435. 1988. 

7. Howarp, H. W., and Suniivan, M. X. 
[Unpublished data. ] 

8. SuLLivan, M. X., and Hess, W. C. U.S. 
Publ. Health Rep., Suppl. 94. 1931. 


A. K. Baus, Bureau 


of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering. 


For the past two years the Enzyme Re- 
search Laboratory has been interested as a 
unit in the investigation of a series of sul- 
phur-containing substances resembling pro- 
teins and extracted from wheat flour by 
gasoline. Practically every member of the 
laboratory has contributed to the progress 
of this research. The object of this paper is 
to present a summary of the findings to 
date. Later publications will endeavor to 
present the data in more detail than would 
be suitable here. 

This work started with the observation 
of Balls and Hale (1) that extraction of un- 
bleached wheat flour by gasoline or ether 
removed a nitrogen-containing body that 
gave tests for cysteine when fresh; for 
cystine after standing in air. Similar obser- 
vations were made on barley, oats, and 
corn. After extraction from flour, much of 
the sulphur-carrying material could be re- 
peatedly precipitated by ethyl acetate and 
again dissolved in ether or low-boiling pe- 
troleum fractions. This “ethyl acetate pre- 
cipitate’’ was insoluble in water and con- 
tained nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. 
On dilution of an ether solution with alco- 
holic HCl, a material was precipitated that 
was soluble in water but no longer soluble 


1 Enzyme Research Laboratory Contribution 
no. 76. Received February 19, 1942. Part of the 
work reported on in this paper was done under a 
grant from the Special Research Funds. 


in fat solvents. This precipitate contained 
nitrogen and sulphur but no phosphorus. 
The solvent still held a mixture of lipids 
containing both nitrogen and phosphorus. 
This lipid material is now being investi- 
gated and will be reported on in due course. 
The general pattern of the main constituent 
is that of a phospholipid; it is not, however, 
lecithin. 

A similar precipitate was obtained with 
acid alcohol from the crude mixture of 
lipids without prior treatment by ethyl ace- 
tate. Both precipitates are evidently mix- 
tures of substances high in nitrogen, but 
that from the crude material is appreciably 
higher. 

From its content of nitrogen and sulphur 
and its tendency to dialyze slowly through 
Cellophane membranes and because solu- 
tions thereof did not precipitate with tri- 
chloracetic acid, this material was at first 
thought to be a peptide of high molecular | 
weight. Later experience has shown it to be 
a mixture, of which one component is a 
protein of border line magnitude. This pro- 
tein was prepared as a crystalline hydro- 
chloride and has been subjected to consid- 
erable study. Similar crystals have been 
prepared in the same way, though in smaller 
yield, from the “ethyl acetate precipitate,” 
but these have not yet been investigated. 

Attempts to recombine the protein and 
the lipoidal material separated by the acid- 


May 15, 1942 


alcohol treatment have been unsuccessful. 
The existence of compounds of lipid and 
protein, however, would account for the 
ready solubility of the protein portion in 
gasoline. even after partial purification had 
removed most of the fats, sterols, and other 
concurrent substances that were in the 
original extract. It seems reasonable to sup- 
pose that a combination existed in the origi- 
nal plant material, and if this is so, the 
crystalline protein is the first known frag- 
ment of a lipoprotein to be obtained in a 
pure state. 

The data of this paper were obtained 
with crystals made directly from the crude 
extract, omitting the precipitation by ethyl 
acetate. The substance was crystallized 
thrice, with removal of the mother liquor 
each time. A detailed report of these ex- 
periments has been submitted for publica- 
tion elsewhere by Balls, Hale, and Harris 
(2). 

Freshly milled (unbleached) patent flour 
was extracted in a large percolator with 
high-grade petroleum ether. Much of the 
solvent was next removed from the ex- 
tract by distillation in vacuum, but enough 
was allowed to remain so that the extract 
was still fluid. This extract was then stored 
at —1.5° for several weeks. The sterols that 
precipitated during storage were then re- 
moved by -centrifuging in the cold. The 
supernatant liquid was diluted with an 
equal volume of ether and then with 3 vol- 
umes of cold 1 N HCl in absolute ethyl al- 
cohol. After standing 1 hour at 0° the pre- 
cipitate formed by the addition of acid 
alcohol was separated in a refrigerated cen- 
trifuge and repeatedly washed by centrifug- 
ing first with absolute alcohol and finally 
with dry ether. The washing was continued 
until the solvents dissolved no more mate- 
rial from the precipitate. The residue was 
then dried in vacuum. About 25 grams of 
material were obtained from a barrel of 
flour. This amount of the crude material 
(which is comparable to that described in 
our first paper), was dissolved in 100 ce of 
water, and 300 cc of absolute alcohol was 
added thereto. A precipitate that formed on 
addition of the alcohol was centrifuged out, 
and the supernatant liquid was evaporated 


BALLS: A SULPHUR-PROTEIN FROM WHEAT 


first on a water bath and finally to dryness 
in vacuum over P,O;. This residue weighed 
16.8 grams. 

Fifteen grams of the residue were dis- 
solved in 25 cc of water, 225 cc of absolute 
alcohol then added, and the mixture al- 


Fig. 1.— Crystals of peptide, 300. 


lowed to stand for 4 hours at about 5°. A 
precipitate was formed that appeared under 
the microscope to consist entirely of crystals 
(Fig. 1). After removal and drying, these 
weighed 4.10 grams. Recrystallization was 
done in the same manner as the step just 
described. The data of Table 1 show the 
constancy of composition after recrystalliza- 
tion. 


TABLE 1.—CoNnSTANT CoMposiITION AFTER RE- 
CRYSTALLIZATIONS (MATERIAL PRECIPITATED 
DIRECTLY FROM CRUDE EXTRACT) 


Number of 


erystallizations N Cl = 
| Percent | Percent | Percent 
One ee 16.20 6.64 4.40 
PAWRON ita eee trot ack GS Rey 6.57 4.46 
PHreeti oe See LP PSS8 ~- 
EOune Ase at | POE TSO 6.56 4.44 


134 


The crystals are definitely those of a 
hydrochloride. An aqueous solution con- 
taining 1 mg of substance per cc was at pH 
3.9 and contained chlorine precipitable by 
silver nitrate. The total chlorine found was 
0.185 mole per 100 grams, whereas nitrogen 
present as free amino groups determined by 
the Van Slyke apparatus was 0.118 mole per 
100 grams. The proportion of chlorine to 
free amino groups is thus very nearly 3:2. 

Approximately two-thirds of the mole- 
cule of this protein has been identified after 
the usual acid hydrolysis. Table 2 shows the 


TABLE 2.—CONSTITUTION OF THE 
CRYSTALLIZED SUBSTANCE! 


Constituent Percent 
Chlorine ssn... s cee ae 6.57 
DSulphure sy eee ee oc pee seo 4.42 
Nitrocen total ae. eas s es 17.35 
Nitrogen, free NH» groups.... 1.65 
Proportion of 


equivalents 


Constituent (tyrosine = 1.00) 
AOL St SS ot ak eres Se ores 6.9 
COVSURIE Bie, oer Te eae ee tate 3.9 
‘EY TOSIME? aces bate toe tes Se es 1.0 


1 Of the total nitrogen, 59.6 percent, or nearly 
two-thirds, is accounted for by arginine, cystine, 
and tyrosine. 


composition as found so far, expressed in 
equivalents. If the constituent occurring 
to the least extent (tyrosine) is assumed to 
be present once in the molecule, a molecular 
weight of about 6,000 is indicated. The rate 
of diffusion through a porous membrane 
from a solution containing 0.5 M NaCl into 
a solution of the same salt concentration 
indicated a molecular weight of 10,200, or 
roughly twice the value calculated from the 
tryosine content. Both figures must be very 
approximate, but they are quite in accord 
with the observed behavior of the sub- 
stance, which forms only a slight turbidity 
in warm five-percent aqueous trichloracetic 
acid. 

The substance thus appears to be on the 
border line between proteins and high 
molecular peptides, and on account of the 
large content of arginine it resembles most 
the protamines described by Kossel. Since 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


these similarly basic bodies are usually re- 
garded as the simplest of the proteins, our 
material is probably better classed as a pro- 
tein than as a peptide. | 

The substance is remarkable for its high 
content of cystine. It was found that 95 
percent of the sulphur (so probably all of 
it) is present as cystine in the crystals, al- 
though some existed in an SH form in the 
original plant material. The new protein is 
thus capable of oxidation and reduction. 
Attempts to crystallize the reduced form 
have failed, apparently because the reduc- 
tion of all the cystine was not accomplished, 
and a mixture of reduction products re- 
sulted. Nevertheless, the ability of the pro- 
tein to undergo reduction and oxidation 
makes it biologically very reactive. 

Toxicity to tissues and bacterra.—The 
work of Stuart and Harris (3) has shown 
that the crystalline protein, like Dubos’s 
gramicidin (4), is specifically poisonous to 
certain bacteria. Gram positive bacteria and 
yeasts were found to be most vulnerable. 
Ordinary baker’s yeast was killed when 5 y 
of protein hydrochloride was present per cc 
of a medium that contained sucrose and the 
usual nutrient inorganic salts. Growth was 
prevented by a concentration as low as 1 y 
per cc. These investigators advance the 
opinion that this protein is the yeast- 
poisonous material long known by brewers 
to exist in many grains and particularly in 
wheat. 

That toxicity is not confined to microor- 
ganisms has been shown by Coulson, Har- 
ris, and Axelrod (5). Rabbits were killed in 
a few minutes by intravenous injections of 
1.6 mg per kg, while mice and guinea pigs 
were killed by intraperitoneal injections of 
approximately 10 times this dose. Large 
quantities of the substance, however, could 
be repeatedly fed by mouth without any 
noticeable effect, either on the welfare of the 
animals or on their subsequent susceptibil- 
ity to injection. 

Very small amounts of the protein dis- 
solved in Tyrode’s solution produced 
marked and sustained contraction of the 
uteri of virgin guinea pigs. The pharmaco- 
logical picture resembled that produced 


| 


| 
| 


May 15, 1942 


by histamine, rather than by proteins, in 
that repeated doses, after removal of the 
previously applied solution, caused repeat- 
ed sets of contractions, thus showing that 
the tissue was not desensitized by the first 
application. 50 y of protein in 50 cc of 
solution produced contractions similar to 
those caused by 10 y of histamine in the 
same volume. 

The effect is not due to histamine or ap- 
parently to any small toxic group in the 
protein structure, for when the protein was 
subjected to digestion by crude papain and 
HS, the toxicity disappeared. The digestion 
increased the free amino nitrogen (Van 
Slyke) in an amount representing the break 
of only about one-third of the peptide link- 
ages presumed to be present, so that the 
molecular size of some of the nontoxic end 
products may still have been considerable. 
Comparable experiments showed further- 
more that this enzyme mixture had no ef- 
fect on the toxicity of histamine (7.e., did 
not deaminate or otherwise destroy it). 

Effects with certain enzymes.—The oxi- 
dative capacity of the new protein in its 
S-S form is shown by the inhibition of 
chymopapain, a proteolytic sulphur-con- 
taining protein active only in the SH form 
(6). Buffered mixtures at (pH 4) of crystal- 
line chymopapain and the wheat protein 
were tested with respect to milk-clotting 
power, which was found to diminish at a 
rapid but measurable rate (Fig. 2). 


nN 
fo) 


MILK CLOTTING UNITS 


35 


. i; ; < ere (Minutes) a: 

Fig. 2.—Upper curve, rate of inhibition of 
crystalline chymopapain in a solution of 214 milk- 
clotting units (active without CN) per ce of 0.1 
M ammonium chloride buffer (pH 7.5+0.2), con- 
taining 0.3 mg per cc of crystalline flour protein. 
Lower curve, same but with twice the amount of 
protein. 


BALLS: A SULPHUR-PROTEIN FROM WHEAT 


135 


Chymopapain is moreover unable to di- 
gest the oxidized form of this wheat protein. 
After saturating the mixture with hydrogen 
sulphide digestion proceeds rapidly, as with 
crude papain, until about one-third of the 
computed number of amino acid linkages 
have been hydrolyzed. This experiment 
shows furthermore that while the enzyme is 
inhibited it is not destroyed and may be re- 
activated by reduction, thus indicating that 
the effect of the protein on the enzyme is an 
oxidation similar to that produced by large 
amounts of cystine. 

Another property of the wheat protein, 
recently observed by Axelrod and Kies, of 
the Enzyme Research Laboratory, is its 
power to inhibit carotene oxidase. This 
enzyme is a constituent of many legumes 
and catalyzes the destruction of all carot- 
inoid pigments so far tested. It is thought 
to acclerate the destruction of carotene and 
other pigment precursors of vitamin A (as 
well as of vitamin A itself)? when plant tis- 
sues are stored or when dried without prior 
pasteurization. The enzyme may be readily 
demonstrated by adding a few drops of a 
water extract of soybean meal to an acetone 
solution of carotene that must contain also 
some unsaturated fat and that has been 
previously diluted with phosphate buffer 
(pH 6.4). The color of the carotene rapidly 
fades, provided only that the water present 
has not been deprived of its dissolved oxy- 
gen. Double bonds in the fatty acid struc- 
ture participate in the reaction at the end 
of which the fat shows an increased peroxide 
number. The enzyme is therefore often re- 
ferred to as a lipooxidase, whose effect on 
carotene is an indirect one. | 

The presence of very small amounts of 
the protein hydrochloride in a suspension of 
carotene and fat in buffer was enough to 
prevent the action of large doses of soybean 


2 The destruction of carotene by the soybean 
enzyme was found by Frey, Schultz, and Light 
(7) to destroy also all appreciable vitamin A 
activity. Dr. E. M. Nelson, Chief, Vitamin Divi- 
sion, Food and Drug Administration, has also 
found that destruction of the vitamin A activity 
results from oxidation of carotene with our en- 
zyme preparation. The Enzyme Laboratory is 
greatly indebted to Dr. Nelson and Dr. C. D. 
Tolle for this important information. 


136 


extract added subsequently.? The inhibi- 
tion, however, requires the presence of an 
electrolyte, but not necessarily of a buffer. 
Sodium chloride was sufficient. Other pro- 
teins, for example egg white, chymotrypsin, 
and chymopapain, also inhibit the oxida- 
tion. The quantity required of these pro- 
teins is much larger, however, so that the 
effect of the flour protein appears to be out- 
standing. Furthermore, the inhibition ob- 
served with other proteins is independent of 
the amount of unsaturated fat mixed with 
the carotene, whereas in the case of the 
flour protein it is not. Inhibition by the new 
protein may be overcome by increasing the 
fat present in the carotene mixture. The 
quantity of fat needed was found to be 
roughly proportional to the amount of pro- 
tein present. The substitution of petroleum 
oil for the additional fat was without effect, 
which indicates the inhibition is not alto- 
gether a surface matter. 

This inhibition, however, is peculiar in 
that it does not occur if the protein is 
added first to the soybean extract rather 
than to the carotene-buffer mixture. The 
reason for this behavior is unexplained and 
in all probability will remain so until prep- 
arations free from other enzymes are avail- 
able. There is some evidence that the de- 


struction of the inhibiting power of the. 


flour protein may be due to proteolysis. 
The soybean extract we have used con- 
tained a proteolytic enzyme, and protein- 
ases such as commercial trypsin and crystal- 


line chymotrypsin were found to destroy 


the inhibitory effect of the flour protein. 
In view of these observations, wheat 
flour itself might be expected to act as an 
inhibitor, and this was found to be the case, 
not only with a suspension of flour in water 
but also with an aqueous extract thereof. 
Prior digestion of either preparation with 


3 A solution of carotene and corn oil was made 
in acetone containing 10 percent of absolute al- 
cohol. This solution contained 43 y of carotene 
and 100 y of corn oil per cc. One cc of the solution 
was placed in a dry flask and diluted with 10 cc of 
water and 0.5 ce of 0.6 M phosphate buffer (pH 
6.5). One-tenth cc of an aqueous extract of soy- 
bean meal (2.5 g per 100 cc water) usually decol- 
orized half the carotene present in less than one 
minute. In the presence of 20 y of the protein 
hydrochloride, no measurable bleaching was ob- 
served in this system during 30 minutes. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


chymotrypsin removed the inhibitory prop- 
erty. This is of interest because soybean meal 
has been used in bread making for bleaching . 
the yellow color normally imparted to bread 
by the flour. It has long been known that 
this bleaching was due to a destruction of 
carotinoid pigments (chiefly lutein) in the 
flour. The commercial use was in all prob- 
ability the first recognition of this oxidizing 
enzyme. 

It is obvious that when soybean meal is 
added to bread dough, some mechanism 
destroys the inhibitor originally present in 
the flour. Since soybean meal and flour are 
both known to contain proteinases, it may 
be that the destruction of the yellow color 
in bread dough is preceded by a proteolysis. 
It must be remembered that the flour pro- 
tein, inhibitory to carotene oxidase in the 
S-S form, is found in flour also in the SH 
form. In this form it is an activator of any 
papainlike enzyme present, including the 
proteinase of wheat. 


It is well known that the behavior of caro- 
tene oxidase, particularly with respect to 
the necessity for the presence of unsatu- 
rated fats with the carotene, points to the 
classification of this enzyme as a lipo-oxi- 
dase. Moreover, Sumner and Dounce (8) 
and Sumner and Sumner (9) have shown 
that soybean meal and oxygen are able to 
increase markedly the peroxide groups in 
fat. This was shown experimentally by stir- 
ring air into a mixture of fat, soybean meal, 
and buffer. We have observed here, more- 
over, that in the presence of the flour pro- 
tein, peroxide formation in the fat is also 
diminished. The protein is therefore an 
inhibitor of the enzymic oxidation of fat. 


Because the protein forms a reversible 
oxidation-reduction system, it was thought 
that it might also serve as an antioxidant 
for fats in the absence of an oxidizing en- 
zyme. The previously described ‘‘ethyl ace- 
tate precipitate,” containing this protein 
and other bodies similar to it in combina- 
tion with lipids that render the complex | 
soluble in ether and gasoline, is best suited 
for a test, because the complex is somewhat 
soluble in fats and oils, whereas the protein 
portion is not. Dr. M. B. Matlack, of the 
Enzyme Research Laboratory, has made an 


May 15, 1942 


investigation of the effect -of this material 
on the speed at which corn oil turns rancid. 
Judged from the peroxide number of the oil 
after exposure to light and air for many 
days, the lipoprotein compound is a good 
antioxidant. Judged by organoleptic tests, 
however, the oil was not only not protected 
but may even have become more susceptible 
(Fig. 3). The matter is thus not decided. It 


Ww 


LY) 
ro) 


C.C. 0.0IN THIOSULPHATE PER GRAM OF FAT 


4 
: MO 
Ex 


ie) 10 20 30 
TIME (DAYS) 


Fig. 3.—Increase in peroxide number of corn’ 


oil kept at room temperature (in daylight). 


is not improbable that the protein can 
catalyze the formation of aldehyde and/or 
ketone bodies at the expense of the fat 
peroxides, thus causing a low peroxide value 
but considerable organoleptic rancidity. 
Summary.—The composition of a crystal- 
line protein hydrochloride isolated from 
wheat flour has been partially worked out. 
There is evidence that this protein is an 
oxidized fragment of what in the original 
plant tissue was a cysteine-containing lipo- 
protein. In the oxidized state, after crystal- 
lization, this substance lies on the border 
line between proteins and similarly consti- 
tuted bodies of lower molecular weight. It 
resembles the protamines, being rich in 
arginine; but unlike the hitherto described 
protamines, it contains much cystine. 
About two-thirds of the molecule (esti- 
mated molecular weight, 12,000) has been 


BALLS: A SULPHUR-PROTEIN FROM WHEAT 


137 


identified as consisting of arginine, cystine 
and tyrosine (in order of frequency). 

This protein is particularly toxic to 
yeasts. It may be the yeast-poisonous sub- 
stance long known to be present in several 
grains. It is also toxic when injected into 
small animals but has no effect by mouth. 

The protein is very inhibitory to certain 
enzymes. Chymopapain is evidently in- 
hibited reversibly by oxidation, presumably 
at the expense of the cystine in this protein. 
The protein also protects carotene from oxi- 
dation by the carotene oxidase that occurs 
in many vegetables and seeds. 

As a protein, this substance is readily de- 
composed by certain proteolytic enzymes. 
Its inhibitory power against the carotene 
(fat) oxidase disappears on digestion as does 
its toxicity. The question remains whether 
the enzymic oxidation of vitamin A and the 
precursors thereof, inhibited in the plant by 
substances such as this flour protein, may 
occur after proteolytic enzymes have de- 
stroyed the inhibitor. Because in the plant 
the protein is in the reduced state, it is a 
natural activator of the proteinases of the 
papain type that are almost always present. 
Should conditions favor proteolysis (and 
the death of tissue does so), carotene and 
thus potential vitamin A would be de- 
stroyed by a simple oxidative side-reaction. 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Bauus, A. K., and Hann, W. S. . Cereal 
Chem. 17: 248-245. 1940. 

> Baus vAy Ke EAnE, We S.; and Harts, 

T. H. Cereal Chem. (In press.) 

PE OTNU PARRY wee Sa eenCle AGREES) de. ete 
Chem. (In press.) 


2 

3 Cereal 
4. HorcHkiss, and Dusos, 

5 

6 

0 


e Leen 
Journ. Biol. Chem. 132: 279. 1940. 
- Counson, Ein; HARRIC. bE. and Axcnr— 
ROD, B. Cereal Chem. (In press.) 
. JANSEN, 2 Ee and Banus, A. K-. 
Biol. Chem. 137: 459-460. 1941. 
. Frey, C. N.; Scouttz, A.; and Lieut, R. F. 
Ind. and Eng. Chem. 28: 1254. 1936. 
8. Sumner, J. B., and Douncs, A. L. En- 
zymologia 7: 130-132. 1939. 
9. Sumner, J. B., and SumMnzmR, R. J. 
Biol. Chem. 134: 531-533. 1940. 


Journ. 


Journ. 


138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


BOTAN Y.—Linanthastrum, a new West American genus of Polemoniaceae.' 


JOSEPH Ewan, University of Colorado. 


WHERRY.) 


The perennial montane genus Linan- 
thastrum as here established represents a 
small series of Polemoniaceae of conceiv- 
ably greater antiquity from the phylo- 
genetic standpoint than the related annual 
genus Linanthus. The present distribution 
of the genus Linanthastrum constitutes 
what may well be a relict pattern of boreal 
origin, occupying as it does old mountain 
masses and tablelands of western North 
America. This genus is most closely related 
morphologically to Linanthus, but its more 
northern and montane-to-subalpine distri- 
bution suggests a different origin from that 
genus of more Sonoran tendencies, if one 
may borrow vegetation-terms from two 
different schools of ecologists. Furthermore, 
Linanthastrum differs from Linanthus in 
that the calyces are not scarious below the 
sinuses (cf. Fig. 2)—a character of reliable 
constancy in the rather natural genus 
Linanthus, when the present perennial 


(Communicated by Epaar T. 


group is removed from it. Leptodactylon is 
its nearest morphological ally on the other 
side; from this genus Linanthastrum differs 
in having scarcely or not at all pungent, 
closely opposite, falsely whorled leaves, and 
very dissimilar calyx. Though Lzinanthas- 
trum occupies about the same geographic 
region and ecologic niche as Leptodactylon, 
it is not so strongly xerophytic as that 
genus. A phylogeny of the Polemoniaceae 
has recently been suggested? in which 
Linanthus is a derivative from Lepto- 
dactylon, the two genera constituting an 
evolutionary line distinct from the true 
Gilias, Langloisia, Ipomopsis, and Hugelia. 
Wherry’s phylogeny needs to be modified 
but slightly to include Linanthastrum, in 
what the author believes to be a natural 
relationship: 


1 Received October 28, 1941. 
2 Wuerry, Epaar T. A provisional Key to 
the Polemontaceae. Bartonia 20: 17. 1940. 


Linanthus (15-20 spp.) 


Mesophytic to 
xerophytic annuals 


Linanthastrum (1 sp.) 


Leptodactylon (5-6 spp.) 


Subxerophytic Extreme xerophytic 
perennial woody perennials 
Ancestor 


Fig. 1.—A putative phylogeny for three genera of Polemoniaceae: Leptodactylon, Linanthastrum, 
and Linanthus; in all these the chromosome number n=9. 


May 15, 1942 


HISTORICAL NOTE 


Thomas Nuttall first recognized the 
present genus Linanthastrum in essentially 
the sense here defined, naming it Szphonella. 
This was never published by him, but Asa 
Gray cited the binomial S:phonella montana 
when publishing Gilia nuttallia (1870). By 
his choice of specific name Gray evidently 


zmo 


Fig. 2.—Linanthastrum nuttalla (Gray) Ewan: 
Habit sketch from Payson & Armstrong 3458, 
Wyoming, X%. Calyces: Upper, Linanthasirum 
nuttallit; middle, Leptodactylon pungens (Torr.) 
Nutt.; lower, Linanthus androsaceus (Benth.) 
Greene. Intercostal membranes stippled. 


wished to record his recognition of Nuttall’s 
part in the characterization of the species. 
Gray did not designate a type in his original 
description, for he did not practice the 
“type basis concept” of the present day. 
However, Nuttall’s contribution toward es- 
tablishing the concept of Gilia nuttallit must 
be borne in mind when fixing the type of 
that species. When describing the species 
Gray placed it in a section Siphonella— 
taking up Nuttall’s manuscript generic 
name—which he considered to be related to 
the section Leptodactylon. (Dalla Torre 
and Harms (1907) erroneously date the es- 
tablishment of the section Siphonella from 
the Botany of California (1880) rather than 
1870.) Up to 1904, then, our plant was 
treated as a species of Gilza. But in that 
year Greene’s manuscript herbarium name 


EWAN: A NEW GENUS OF POLEMONIACEAE 


139 


Linanthus nuttalliit was published.*? Milliken 
did not accept Leptodactylon as a genus of 
the Californian flora, and no comment was 
made by her as to the anomalous nature of 
Linanthus nuttallit within the genus Linan- 
thus. When Rydberg in 1906 resurrected 
Leptodactylon as a genus he included Gila 
nuttalua therein. (Though proposed by 
Hooker and Arnott in 1841, Bentham 
placed Leptodactylon in the genus Gila as a 
section in 1845, and was widely followed.) 
After Rydberg, Linanthastrum was con- 
sidered a member of the genus Gilia by 
Brand (1907), of Leptodactylon by Jepson 
(1925), and of Linanthus by both MacMinn 
(1939) and Wherry (1940). From this sum- 
mary of the taxonomic history of Linan- 
thastrum it is clear that we are dealing with 
an anomalous group, fitting poorly into our 
present alignment of the gilioid genera. 


, Linanthastrum, genus novum 


Siphonella Nutt. ex Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 

8: 267. 1870, as a synonym. 

Herba perennis caulibus e basi lignescente 
suffrutescentibus plurimus simpliciusculis erec- 
tis subscoparis; foliis 3-7 partitis, laciniis 
acicularibus non pungentibus brevo-mucro- 
natis integerrimis enervosis; floribus subspe- 
closis in acillaris superioribus, calycium tubis 
campanulatis brevibus sinubis inter dentes non 
scarloso-membranaceis; staminibus sub fauce 
insertis filamentibus glabris. 

Tufted puberulent perennials with rather 
virgate simple stems, the upper internodes 
mostly shorter than the leaves; leaves appear- 
ing as if whorled, the blades 3-7 parted, the 
segments linear to acicular, entire, the mid- 
nerves obscure. Flowers borne in the upper 
axils, scarcely exserted from the tufted leaves 
but somewhat showy. Calyx campanulate, the 
tube short, not scarious-membranous below the 
sinuses between the subulate teeth. Corolla- 
tube funnelform, pale yellow, the lobes 5, obo- 
vate, rounded, cream to white or very pale 
blue. Stamens inserted just below the throat, 
the filaments glabrous. Pistil included, nearly 
equalling the tube. Seeds 2—4 in each locule. 
Fig. 2. 

Type species: Linanthastrum nuttallii (Gray) 
Ewan. 


Linanthastrum nuttallii (Gray) comb. nov. 


Based on Gilia Nuttallit Gray, Proe. Am. 
Acad. 8: 267. 1870, in turn based on Nuttall 
coll. from ‘‘R[ocky] Mts. Bear Rfiver] hills’’ in 

8 MILLIKEN, JESSIE. 


Polemonitaceae. Univ. 
1904. 


A review of Californian 
Calif. Publ. Bot. 2: 54. 


140 


Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia and in Gray 
Herbarium a fragment labeled asfrom “Hb. Ac. 
Phil.”” According to the map of Nuttall’s 
travels given by Pennell? the type locality 
would be in the region of Caribou and Bannock 
Counties, Idaho. There might be some justifi- 
cation for selecting one of the several collections 
cited by Gray in the original description as the 
type, but the present author construes these to 
be paratypes and has so treated them beyond. 
Gray’s choice of specific name seems to me to 
denote his intentions clearly. 

Paratypes: Fremont, without loc.; Anderson, 
from near Carson City, Nev.; Brewer 2042, 
Silver Mountain, Sierra Nevada, Calif. (cf. 
Jepson, Madrono 2: 85. 1933, on this mining 
town); and Watson 907, ‘‘E. Humboldt Mts.,” 
Nev., which are the present Ruby Mountains, 
central Elko County (cf. Linsdale, Pacific 
Coast Avifauna 23:16. 1936). Gray has noted 
on sheet of Brewer 2042, “Filaments unusually 
long” and ‘‘between S. montana and S. parvi- 
flora.”” This would indicate that he regarded 
this collection as somewhat exceptional, as 
C. A. Weatherby has suggested to the author. 
However, Wherry (in litt.) considers that these 
paratypes are ‘‘all conspecific, but may repre- 
sent ecological forms of one another.” 

Linanthus Nuttallaa (Gray) Greene ex Muilli- 
ken, Univ. California Publ. Bot. 2: 54. 1904. 

Leptodactylon Nuttallia (Gray) Rydb., Bull. 
Torr. Club. 33: 149: Mar. 1906; practically 
simultaneously published in Colorado Agr. 
Expt. Stat. Bull., Flora of Colorado, 100: 279. 
Introduction dated March, 1906, but appar- 
ently not issued until later that year. 

Gilia Nuttalliaa var. montana (Nutt.) Brand 
in Engler, Pfizr. IV. 250: 125. 1907, based on 
Siphonella montana Nutt. ex Gray. Epithet 
used by Brand to designate the typical phase of 
the species. 

Gilia Nuttall var. parviflora (Nutt.) Brand, 


loc. cit., based on Stphonella parviflora Nutt. ex - 


Gray, l.c., as synonym, and in turn based on 
Nuttall coll. from ‘‘Bear R. hills’ acc. frag- 
ments at both Gray Herb. (ex Brit. Mus. Nat. 
Hist.) and Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 
Wherry (in litt.) states that the differences be- 
tween this collection and that of S. montana 
are ‘‘so slight that it is strange that Nuttall 
named them differently. His ‘“S7phonella mon- 
tana”’ has the leaves essentially glabrous, his 
““S. parviflora’ has them more or less pilose. I 
can not see any difference in the size of the 
flowers which would have suggested the name 
parviflora.” 

Illustrations: Watson, Botany Fortieth Par- 
allel, pl. 25, fig. 8, 1871, presumably based on 
Watson 907 from Nevada, a paratype, is good. 
MacMinn, Illus. Man. California Shrubs, fig. 
532, 1939, presumably drawn from either a 


4*PENNELL, Francis W. Travels. . 


. of Thom- 
as Nuttall. Bartonia 18: pl. 3. 1936. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


Sierran (e.g., Lake Tahoe) or Cascadean speci- 
men, but not indicated. 

Rather bushy perennial from a woody branch- 
ing suffrutescent crown, the stems several, 
simple, 15-20 cm tall, puberulent, straw-col- 
ored; leaf segments 3-7, flat, 1.0-1.5 cm long, 
strictly linear or actually less than 1 mm broad, 
glabrous or glabrate, sparingly ciliolate, the 
leaves overlapping due to the relative shortness 
of the internodes especially in the upper parts 
(except in plants of southernmost portions of 
its range), thus forming chara-like tufts near 
the tips of the stems, those in the lower half 
soon withering; calyx 8-10 mm long, the tube 
2 mm long, the teeth lance-subulate, shortly 
acute, puberulous; corolla-tube yellow, 8-9 mm 
long, glabrous within, pubescent with curling 
hairs without, the lobes 4-5 mm long, white or 
pale, somewhat chalky, blue; capsule narrowly 
obovoid, 5 mm long, smooth. 

Subalpine meadow borders or less often 
among rock outcrops and about the margins 
of scree slopes, always in well-drained, often 
granitic soils. Washington and northern Idaho 
south along the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to 
southern California, the mountains of northern 
Nevada and Utah, and south along the Rocky 
Mountains to central Colorado. A taller more 
slender form differing in greater pubescence 
occurs in New Mexico, northern Arizona, and 
(?) in Baja California. 

Representative collections (at Univ. Colo- 
rado unless indicated): WasHINGTON: Lewis 
County: Eagle Peak, 5,600 ft., Tatoosh Range, 
Ewan 10601; Goat Mts., Allen 119 (ANSP)5. 
Kittitas County: Mts. n. Ellensburg (Piper, FI. 
Wash. 462). Columbia County: Blue Mts. 
(Piper, l.c.). Ipano: Ridges. Pole Mt., 5,000 ft., 
Epling et Kempf s.n. Valley County: Gold Fork 
lookout, Sawtooth Mts., 8,000 ft., J. W. Thomp- 
son 138763. Custer County: Robinson Bar, 25 
VI 1931 Wherry (Univ. Pa. Herb.). OREGON: 
Wallowa County: Wallowa Mts., Ownbey 1843 
(Univ. Pa. Herb.). Crook County: Peck 9637 
(ANSP). Harney County: Steins Mt., 8,000— 
9,000 ft., 1 VII (no year) Percy Train. UTAH: 
Salt Lake County: Garrett 1559a (ANSP). 
CALIFORNIA: Humboldt County: 28 mi. se. 
Orick, S. W. Hutchinson 4152. Modoc County: 
Little Lily Lake, Pine Creek, Warner Mts., 
Wheeler 3789 (ANSP).. Mono County: Mam- 
moth Lakes P.O., Constance 2423 (ANSP); 
Leevining Canyon, Benson 3767 (ANSP); Inyo 
Mts. (Coville, Death Valley Rept. 156). Inyo 
County: Bishop, 1928, S. W. Hutchinson s. n. 
Wyman Creek, White Mts., Duran 3048 
(Univ. Pa. Herb.). Tulare County: Farewell 
Gap, Culbertson 4536 (ANSP); Mt. Whitney 
(Brand, op. cit.). San Bernardino County: 
Foxesee Creek, Parish 3686 (ANSP). River- 
side County: El Toro, Santa Rosa Mts. (Milli- 


5 Abbreviation for Academy of Natural Sci- 
ences of Philadelphia. 


May 15, 1942 


ken, op. cit.). Nervapa: -Douglas County: 
Zephyr Point, 6,300 ft., Lake Tahoe, Mason 
12161, Elko County: East Humboldt Mts. (.e., 
Ruby Mts.), Watson 907 (ANSP). WyYomina: 
Lincoln County: Sheep Mt., Snake R. Range, 
Payson et Armstrong 3458. Sublette County: 
Gros Ventre Mts., HE. B. et L. B. Payson 3028. 
Cotorapo: ?Lake County: s. slope Fremont 
Pass, A. et R. Nelson 145. Eagle County: w. 
slope Tennessee Pass, 10,400 ft., Schmoll 1545; 
Oro City, 10,800 ft. (Wheeler Survey Rept. 
199). Routt County: Steamboat Sprs., 6,500 
ft., VII 1891, Hastwood. Jackson County: 
(formerly part of Larimer County.) Rabbit 
Ears, Goodding 1540. Gunnison County: Ragged 
Mt., 11,700 ft., (Rydberg, Fl. Colo.). Mineral 
County: Near Pagosa Peak, San Juan Range 
(Rydberg, l.c.); 10 mi. e. Wolf Creek Pass on 
Continental Divide, 12,000 ft., Penland 1154 
(Colo. Coll. Herb.). Custer County: Venable 
Lake, Sangre de Cristo Mts., M. Marriage et 
P. Johnson 14 VII 19382 (Colo. Coll. Herb.). 
Bent County: Robinson, 4,007 ft. (Rydberg, 
l.e., presumably pls. carried down on flood 
waters of Arkansas R.). 


Linanthastrum nuttallii subsp. floribundum 
(Gray) comb. nov. 


Based on Gilia floribunda Gray, Proc. Amer. 
Acad. 8: 267. 1870, in turn based on Coulter 
454 “California, probably on se. borders.” 
Likely from vicinity of Warner Hot Springs, 
San Diego County, where Thomas Coulter is 
known to have passed. Paratypes: HK. W. 
Morse coll., 1866, from 50 mi. s. San Diego, 
Baja California and Coues et Palmer coll., 1865, 
from “‘pine woods of Arizona,’’ according to 
label from Ft. Whipple, 5 VIII 1865, numbered 
98 and annotated ‘‘fl. white; throat yellow; 
scent delicate.’ (For a descriptive account of 
Coues’s visit to Fort Whipple see the Ibis 
(ser. 2) 2: 259-275. 1866.) 

Linanthus floribundus Greene ex Milliken, 
Univ. California Publ. Bot. 2:55. 1904. 


G. Nuttallii var. parviflora (Nutt.) Brand 


subvar. floribunda (Gray) Brand in Engler 
enatel y= 250::125.-.-1907. 

G. Nuttall var. floribunda (Gray) Munz, 
Man. 8S. California Bot. 399. 1935. 

Leptodactylon floribundum (Gray) Tide- 
strom, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48: 42. 
1935. 

Linanthus Nuttallia var. floribundus (Gray) 
McMinn, Illus. Man. Calif. Shrubs 446. 1939. 

Illustration: Mac Minn, op. cit. fig. 533. 

Plants of more open habit, the stems slender, 
generally taller, rather wiry, densely clothed 
with simple subfiliform or few-lobed leaves; 
flowers hardly crowded or glomerate, the up- 
permost distinctly pedicellate, the corollas 
smaller, 10-15 mm long; seeds usually 4 in each 
locule (always 2 in each locule in the typical 
subspecies of L. nuttallit, fide Gray and Brand). 


EWAN: A NEW GENUS OF POLEMONIACEAE 


14] 


Dry brushy slopes in clearings of the chapar- 
ral. New Mexico south to Chihuahua, Mexico, 
west to Baja and southern California, but ap- 
parently local. 

Representative collections (as above, at 
Univ. Colorado unless otherwise indicated): 
New Mexico: Lincoln County: Tularosa 
Creek, White Mts., 18 VIII 1899, Wooton. 
Catron County: 15 mi. s. Luna, 6,700 ft. C. L. 
Hitchcock et al. 4482. Arizona: Yavapai 
County: Fort Whipple. Mexico: Chihuahua: 
Pachaco, Hartmann 682 (ANSP); Baja Cali- 
fornia: paratype cited above. CALIFORNIA: 
San Diego County: Warner’s Rch., 3,165 ft., VI 
1927, S. W. Hutchinson s. n.; Descanso, 20 VI 
1932, Epling et al.; Cold Spring, 21 VI 1932, 
Epling et al. Riverside County: Coyote Canyon, 
fide Milliken, op. cit.; Elsinore, ibid.; San Ja- 
cinto (tbid.); Santiago Peak, Santa Ana Mts., 
Abrams 1809 (ANSP). 

In an occasional individual collection Lin- 
anthastrum nuttallir floribundum may appear 
fully distinct from the typical subspecies, but 
when a series is studied really satisfactory 
characters for a key can not be found. Though 
the two have not been found growing together, 
the more southern subspecies occupies the more 
xeric habitats at rather distinctly lower eleva- 
tions. In the Santa Rosa Mountains of southern 
California the two subspecies approach each 
other closely; nevertheless, the two may even 
there show ecologic preferences. It cannot be 
finally declared that there are not two species 
in this genus, as held by Asa Gray, Greene and 
Milliken. The herbage of the typical subspecies 
is distinctly hay-scented and the flowers of 
both it and L. nuttallii floribundum are deli- 
cately fragrant. 


SUMMARY 


Iinanthastrum is established as a segre- 
gate genus of the gilioid complex, most 
closely related to Linanthus, but differing 
from that rather natural genus in its habit- 
form, in the calyces not being scarious be- 
low the sinuses, in its perennial duration 
and its more northern, usually upper mon- 
tane or subalpine, distribution suggestive of 
a different origin. From Leptodactylon it 
differs in having scarcely or not at all 
pungent, closely opposite, falsely whorled 
leaves, as well as in calyx-features. This 
eroup of one species with two subspecies is 
more naturally disposed among the gilioid 
members of the Polemoniaceae when ad- 
mitted as a small genus of transitional 
morphology, sharing as it does certain 
characters of both Linanthus and Lepio- 
dactylon. 


142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


BOTAN Y.—Marine algae of Hong Kong, II: The genus Catenella.. C. K. 


TsenG, University of Michigan. 


Catenella Grev. (1830) is a genus of small, 
creeping, dark-purplish algae that form in- 
tricate, overlapping patches on mangroves, 
other marine seed-plants, and muddy rocks 
in sheltered places, especially the salt 
marshes between tide marks. It is chiefly 
tropical and subtropical in distribution, but 
one of its species occurs also in temperate 
seas. 

Generally, members of this genus have 
decumbent, creeping, cylindrical or sub- 
cylindrical, irregularly branched, stolonifer- 
ous parts from which issue the more regu- 
larly, pinnately or dichotomously to poly- 
chotomously branched upper parts, which 
are, in typical forms, regularly and deeply 
constricted into subcylindrical to strongly 
compressed, lomentlike segments. The at- 
tachment of the fronds to the substratum is 
by means of primary, stout, discoid hold- 
fasts issuing from the stolon and also by 
secondary haptera, issuing regularly or ir- 
regularly from the upper segments. In- 
ternally the segments are each composed of 
a very lacunose medulla of loosely inter- 
lacing and anatomosing longitudinal fila- 
ments that originate from a central axis 
and give rise toward the periphery to di- 
chotomously branched, moniliform fila- 
ments, which unite firmly to form a compact 
cortex. Cystocarps are generally solitary 
and sessile on shortened, terminal segments, 
each provided with a terminal pore. Sperma- 
tangia, consisting of small cell groups im- 
mersed in the cortical tissue, are found on 
swollen segments. Tetrasporangia are ob- 
long, transversely zonately divided, and 
scattered in the cortex between the monili- 


1 Received December 31, 1941. The writer 
planned this series of papers for publication in 
the Journal of the Hong Kong Fisheries Research 
Station, and the first number, entitled Hzstorzcal 
survey and list of recorded species, was issued 
September, 1940, in Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 194-210. 
On account of the fall of Hong Kong the Station 
and its Journal will now presumably be sus- 
pended for an indefinite period, and for the time 
being the remaining papers of the series are 
therefore being published wherever circum- 
stances permit. 


(Communicated by H. H. Bartuert.) 


form filaments; they are aggregated in 
terminal segments. 

The type of the genus is Catenella opuntia 
(Good. et Woodw.) Grev., now known as 
Catenella repens (Lightf.) Batt., from Tenby, 
South Wales, which is now found to be 
widely distributed in most of the warmer 
seas. Since the proposal of this genus by 
Greville in 1830, seven other species have 
been added. One of these, C. pinnata Harv., 
is now regarded as synonymous with C. 
repens, whereas three others, C. oligarthra 
J. Ag., C. procera J. Ag., and C. major 
Sond, are found to belong to other genera 
and are excluded. There are now four recog- 
nized species of Catenella: C. repens, C. fusi- 
formis (J. Ag.) Skottsb., C. «mpudica 
(Mont.) J. Ag., and C. nipae Zanard. To 
these is to be added another, C. subumbel- 
lata, described as new in the present paper. 

In the past there has been confusion in 
the naming and separation of these few 
species. Rather recently, Post (1936) made 
a revisional study of the genus and cleared 
up the situation. The nature and relative 
position of the haptera have been used as 
the chief distinguishing characteristics; 
others, such as the differentiation of the 
long and dwarf shoots, the branching 
method, and the shape of the segments, 
have also been used. 

Because of their peculiar habitat, dif- 
ferent from that of most marine algae, and 
their relatively small and inconspicuous 
fronds, members of this genus are not often 
collected, although they are actually widely 
distributed in the warmer seas. None has 
ever been reported from China so far. Quite 
recently the writer and his collector secured 
four samples which, when carefully studied 
and analyzed, are found to represent three 
species, including one new to science. The 
following key serves to distinguish them: 

A. Haptera equivalent to entire independent 


segments, developed at nodes.......... 
dirt ie-yo Behe cs ee in ree eee 1. C. tmpudica 


AA. Haptera formed by distal ends of seg- | 


ments. 


May 15, 1942 


B. Frond stout, regularly dichotomously 
to trichotomously branched, with 
stout, oblong segments: haptera ter- 
minal or seemingly subterminal on 
SOGMENES! 5 en ais 2. C. nvpae 
Frond slender, irregularly unilater- 
ally, subpinnately or, more generally, 
subumbellately branched, with linear- 
elliptical segments; haptera situated 
nme CeMtek OF WEEtICElS. 2.5 5... «2 


BB. 


a eee 3. C. subumbellata 


1. Catenella impudica (Mont.) J. Ag. 
figure! 

Catenella impudica J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 2 (2): 701. 
1852; Mobius, Bearb. Bras. Alg. 335, pl. 10, 
figs. 16-21. 1889; De-Toni, Syll. Alg. 4: 320. 
1897; Post, Notizen 66. 1936. 

Lomentaria impudica Mont. Pl. Cell. Cent. 197. 
1840; Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 863. 1849; Kiitz. Tab. 
Phye. 15: pl. 92, figs. a-c. 1865. 


The frond of this species forms a decumbent 
patch about 1.5 em high and several centi- 
meters broad. It is distinctly articulate, re- 
peatedly dichotomously or _ trichotomously 
branched. The segments are deeply constricted 
at the nodes, subcylindrical when young but 
greatly compressed when older, and elliptical 


Fig. 1.—Habit sketch of Catenella impudica 
(Mont.) J. Ag. About X4. 


or oblanceolate, rarely oblong, in shape. Ma- 
ture segments are as much as 1.5 mm broad 
and are generally three to four times as long. 
The haptera represent entire independent seg- 
ments, which remain linear-subcylindrical in 
shape and become definite in growth as the 
apices are transformed into adhesive, broad 
discs. They always occur at the deeply con- 
stricted nodes, generally between two other 


TSENG: MARINE ALGAE OF HONG KONG 


143 


segments of the same order (cf. Fig. 1). The 
materials collected are all sterile. 

HasitatT: Forming decumbent patches on 
trunks of mangroves in sheltered salt marshes, 
in the littoral region, Aberdeen, Hong Kong 
Island, in July 1941 (Taam A151). 

DISTRIBUTION: Sinnamary, French Guiana, 
northern South America (type locality), and 
nearby regions; the West Indies, Brazil, Africa, 
India, and the Malay Archipelago. 

Catenella impudica can be easily recognized 
by its regularly, repeatedly, predominantly tri- 
chotomous branching, its deeply constricted, 
elliptical or oblanceolate segments, and its 
haptera representing entire, independent seg- 
ments issuing at the constricted nodes. 


Fig. 2.—Habit sketch of Catenella nipae 
Zanard. About X5.4. 


2. Catenella nipae Zanard. 
Figure 2 

Catenella Nipae Zanard. Phye. Ind. Pub. 148. 
1872; De-Toni, Syll. Alg. 4: 321. 1897; Post, 
Notizen 68. 1936; Boergesen, Cat. Nip. 
Burma 266. 1988. 

Catenella Opuntia Harv. Phyc. Austr. 5: pl. 296. 
1863 [non C. Opuntia Good. & Woodw.) 
Grev.]|. 

Catenella Opuntia var. elatior J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 3 
(1): 588. 1876. 

Plants of C. nipae are larger and stouter than 
those of the other known species of Catenella. 
The frond is creeping below and subflabellately 
caespitose, about 3 em high. It is distinctly, 
deeply constricted and regularly, repeatedly 


144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


dichotomously to trichotomously branched. 
The segments are strongly compressed, el- 
liptically oblong, sometimes obovate, reaching 
a breadth of 2 mm and about two to three 


Fig. 3—Habit sketch of Catenella subumbellata 
Tseng, sp. nov. About X3.4. 


times as long. The haptera are developed from 
the terminal ends of all the segments, which 
thus become limited. However, the subterminal 
growth of these segments usually continues to 
some extent after the formation of the haptera, 
which then become pushed to a lateral position, 
thus appearing subterminally situated (ef. Fig. 
2). The branches of the next order originate 
close behind the haptera, which are actually 
the distal ends of the segments of the preceding 
order. These haptera always bend down ven- 
trally, thus attaching the frond to the sub- 
stratum. The few specimens collected are all 
sterile. 

HasitatT: Forming decumbent patches on 
muddy rocks in sheltered salt marsh, in the 
littoral region, Shatin, Kowloon, in May 1940 
(Tseng 2788). 

DISTRIBUTION: Sarawak, Borneo (type local- 
ity); widely distributed in the area from Aru 
Islands, New Guinea and East Australia in the 
South Pacific, westward to Calcutta, India. 

The present species is easily recognized by its 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


regular, predominantly dichotomous branch- 
ing, its large, stout, oblong, deeply constricted 
segments, and its terminal or seemingly sub- 
terminal haptera developed from all the seg- 
ments. 


3. Catenella subumbellata sp. nov. 
Figures 3-5 


Frons fusco-purpurea, surculis procumbenti- 
bus reptans, pulvinato-caespitosa, plerumque 
inferne unilateraliter vel subpinnata, superne 
subumbellatim ramosa; ramis ramulisque li- 
neari-filiformibus, solum ad basin constrictis; 
fulcris flagelliformibus ad mediam partem sub- 
umbellarum formantibus, apud terminem ra- 
morum praecedentium; tetrasporangiis ad 
apices solum articulorum aggregatis, inter fila 
moniliformia corticis positis, transverse divisis. 
Cystocarpia et spermatangia ignota. 

Specimen typicum, J’seng 2840 (in Herb. C. 
K. Tseng), ad rupes argillosas littoreas, in aqua 
tranquilla prope Taipo, Kowloon, 19 VI, 1940. 

The new species has a dark purple frond, 
creeping with a slender, linear, procumbent, 
stolonlike part from which issue downward 
well-developed, primary, discoid holdfasts, at- 
taching firmly to the substratum. The upper 


part is rather profusely branched, the branch- 


ing usually subpinnate or rarely unilateral near 
the base and predominately repeatedly sub- 
umbellate upward (cf. Figs. 3 and 4). The seg- 
ments are subcylindrical to slightly compressed, 
linear to elliptical in shape, reaching a breadth 
of 1 mm but generally much slenderer, usually 
only 500—800y broad and generally three to six 
times as long, although in the lower subpin- 
nately branched portions the segments may be 
more than ten times longer than broad. The 
terminal segments taper upward to a fine point, 
sometimes even aculeate. Constrictions as a 
rule are found only at the bases of the branches; 
in other words, there is usually only one seg- 
ment to a branch. 

Virtually all the segments are definite in 
growth and always terminate in the formation 
of a hapteron, soon after the formation of which 
two to four, sometimes more, new segment- 
initials are differentiated somewhere below, but 
always very close to it (cf. Fig. 4). At first this 
newly formed attachment organ occupies the 
central part, surrounded by the much younger 


. 


May 15, 1942 


new segments, thus forming a more or less 
cymose ‘‘umbel.”’ In the early stage of the de- 
velopment the hapteron, with its stalk now cut 
off from the mother segments, is still the most 
conspicuous in the pseudoumbel. Soon, how- 
ever, because of its much slower growth, it be- 
comes more and more obscured by the fast- 
growing young segments surrounding it (ef. 


Fig. 4.—Upper portion of Catenella subumbel- 
lata Tseng, sp. nov., showing young and mature 
haptera. About X8. 


Fig. 4). It also begins to bend more strongly 
toward the ventral side while the surrounding 
segments grow upward. When mature this 
hapteron, originally the apex of the preceding 
segment, becomes a comparatively obscure and 
insignificant discoid structure generally de- 
flected ventrally, in the middle of the pseudo- 
umbel, the segments of which have now 
branched repeatedly in a similar way, always 
with a similar attachment organ forming the 
center of each ‘‘umbel.”’ 

Internally, the structure of C. subuwmbellata 
is typical of members of this genus, that is, 
having a very lacunose medulla with inter- 
lacing, longitudinal filaments and a compact 
cortex of dichotomous, moniliform filaments. 
Specimens collected are all tetrasporic. Tetra- 
sporangia are aggregated in the terminal seg- 
ments. They are oblong and transversely, 
zonately divided, about 45—-55u broad and 60- 
70u long, found between the moniliform fila- 
ments of the cortex (cf. Fig. 5). 

HapitatT: Forming procumbent patches on 


TSENG: MARINE ALGAE OF HONG KONG 


145 


muddy rocks in sheltered salt marsh in the 
littoral regions, Kowloon: Shatin, in May 1940 
(Tseng 2787), and near the market, Taipo, in 
June 1940 (Tseng 2840, Typr). 

The present new species is most closely re- 
lated to C. nipae in the similarity of hapteron 
formation. In both cases the haptera are the 
distal ends of the segments, not the whole seg- 
ment as in the case of C. impudica. It is, how- 
ever, distinctly different from C. nipae in the 
much slenderer, less stout, longer and linear- 
elliptical segments, in the predominantly sub- 
umbellate branching, sometimes subpinnate or 
unilateral near the base, and in the strictly 
terminal position of the haptera, which form 
the umbos of the pseudoumbels. In the umbel- 
late branching it also resembles C’. ampudica, 
which differs, however, in having the independ- 
ent segment type of hapteron; the latter is 
also much more robust and has more swollen 
and deeply constricted segments. The present 
species also reminds one somewhat of C’. repens 
(C. opuntia). The latter, however, has a much 


Fig. 5.—Transverse section of a segment of 
Catenella subumbellata Tseng, sp. nov., showing 
structure of frond and tetrasporangia. About 
X 247. 


more robust thallus, with strongly and regu- 
larly constricted branches, with much more 
compressed and laterally swollen segments, 
and with irregularly placed haptera, belonging 
to the emergent type and representing out- 
growths rather than modified branches as in 
the cases of C. nipae, C. tmpudica, and the 
present species. 


146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


SUMMARY 


From a single region three species of 
Catenella are found, including one new 
species, which are all recorded here for the 
first time from Hong Kong as well as from 
China as a whole. They are C. impudica 
(Mont.) J. Ag., C. nipae Zanard., and C. 
subumbellata Tseng, sp. nov., all fully de- 
scribed herein. They all represent plants 
of the salt-marsh flora of the Hong Kong 
region, the first one growing on trunks of 
mangroves and the last two on muddy 
rocks, all found in the littoral region and in 
very sheltered places. 

The writer wishes to express his thanks to 
Prof. William Randolph Taylor, of the 
University of Michigan, for his advice 
during this study. 


LITERATURE CITED 


AGARDH, J. G. Species genera et ordines al- 
garum 2 (2):337-720. 1852; 3: i-vii, 1-724. 
Lund, 1876. 

BoERGESEN, F. Catenella nipae used as food 
in Burma. Journ. Bot. 76 (909): 265- 
Zils = 1938. 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


Dr-Toni, J. B. Sylloge algarum omnium 
hucusque cognitarum (Sylloge Floridearum) 
4 (1): xx+lxi+388 pp. Patavii, 1897. 

GREVILLE, R. K. Algae Britannicae, or De- 
scriptions of the marine and other inarticu- 
lated plants of the British Islands, belonging 
to the order Algae; with plates rllustrative of 
the genera, \xxxvili+218 pp. Edinburgh, 
1830. 

Harvey, W. H. Phycologia Australica; or, A 
history of Australian seaweeds, etc. 5: x pp. 
+pls. 241-300 (with descriptions) +]xxiii 
pp. London, 1863. 

Ktrzine, F. T. Species algarum, vi +922 pp. 
Leipzig, 1849. 

. Tabulae phycologicae 15: 36 pp., 100 
pls. Leipzig, 1865. 

Mostus, M. Bearbeitung der von H. Schenck 
in Brazilien gesammelten Algen. Hedwigia 
28 (5): 309-347, pls. 11,12. sisse: 

MontTanGeE, C. Seconde centurie de plantes cel- 
lulatres exotiques nouvelles. Décades I et II. 
Ann. Sci. Nat. Sér. 2, Bot., 13: 193-207. 
1840. 

Post, E. Systematische und pflanzengeograph- 
ische Notizen zur Bostrychra-Caloglossa- 
Assoziation. Rev. Alg. 9: 1-84. 19386. 

ZANARDINI, J. Phycearum indicarum pugillus. 
Mem. Ist. Veneto 17: 129-170, pls. 1-12. 
1872. 


BOTANY.—WNew Asteraceae from northern Mezxico collected by C. H. Muller. 
S. F. Buaks, Bureau of Plant Industry. 


This paper contains descriptions of six 
apparently new species and one variety of 
Asteraceae collected by Dr. C. H. Muller 
in 1939 in the Mexican states of Coahuila 
and Nuevo Leon on his expedition for the 
Division of Plant Exploration and Intro- 
duction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. The only spe- 
cies here described of any particular phyto- 
geographic significance is Brickellia uro- 
lepis. This is strikingly similar to Brickellia 
hastata Benth. of southern Baja California, 
and no very closely related species is known 
from the intervening region. 

With the exception of the Brickellza, 
which was collected in Coahuila, all these 
plants come from the Sierra de la Cebolla, 
a part of the Sierra Madre about 50 miles 
south of Monterrey in Nuevo Leon. Dr. 
Muller informs me that a considerable 


1 Received March 3, 1942. 


number of new species in other groups were 
collected in the same range, which reaches 
an altitude of at least 2,900 m (9,500 feet) 
and is perhaps fourth in height among the 
mountains of Nuevo Leon. The name Sierra 
de la Cebolla does not occur on the offi- 
cially published topographic map of Mexico 
(‘Carta de la Reptblica Mexicana 4 la 
100,000a”), but it is the range passing 
southwest of La Trinidad shown on sheet 
11-III-(F) [published in 1904], and its loca- 
tion is approximately longitude 100°15 W., 
latitude 25° N. 


Brickellia urolepis Blake, sp. nov. 


Herba perennis infra inflorescentiam saepius 
simplex 6-11 dm alta, caulibus minute crispo- 
puberulis foliosis; folia infimis exceptis alterna 
tenuiter petiolata linearia v. linear-lanceolata 
acuminata basi late hastata et saepe leviter 
cordata supra glabrescentia subtus crispe 
puberula vel hispidula et dense glanduloso- 


May 15, 1942 


adspersa; capitula mediocria 23—26-flora ca. 
12 mm alta ca. 7-18 per caulem prope apicem 
caulis in ramis axillaribus 2—4-cephalis diver- 
gentibus 4-7 cm longis paucibracteatis v. sub- 
nudis paniculata, pedicellis tenuissimis crispo- 
puberulis non glandulosis saepius 8-15 mm 
longis; involucri campanulati valde gradati 
6-7-seriati appressi 10-12 mm alti phyllaria 
extima anguste subulata attenuata ca. 2 mm 
longa 0.5 mm lata puberula subherbacea ca. 
1-costata apice interdum laxa, sequentia ovata 
1-1.3 mm lata viridescentia v. purpurascentia 
albide 4—6-costata obtusa deinde abrupte sub- 
cirrhate herbaceo-appendiculata (appendice 
0.5-0.8 mm longa) breviter ciliata prope 
apicem sparse puberula et sessili-glandulosa, 
sequentia lineari-oblonga obtusa v. acutiuscula 
brevi-ciliata ceterum glabra, intima linearia 
obtusa v. acuta laxe brevi-ciliata margine 
scariosa; achenia submatura 10-costata dense 
erecto-hispidula 4 mm longa; pappi albi 6 mm 
longi setae ca. 28 hispidulae. 

Stems solitary or few, slender, from a short 
thick rhizome, the slender elongate roots some- 
times tuberous-thickened at apex; lowest leaves 
(so far as seen) hastate-ovate, obtuse, ca. 5.5 
cm long, 2—2.5 cm wide above the lobes; leaves 
thin, 3- or 5-plinerved, entire-margined (except 
for the basal pair of lobes), above green, 
minutely crisp-puberulous, glabrescent, be- 
neath slightly paler green, the blade (middle 
leaves) 4.5-10.5 cm long, 2.3-6.5 em wide at 
base (including the lobes), 7-10 mm wide 
above the lobes, the very slender petiole 7—20 
mm long; heads at first nodding; disk (mois- 
tened) 12 mm high, 8 mm thick; involucre about 
equaling the corollas; corollas ochroleucous, 
subcylindric, 6.4 mm long, glabrous except 
for the apically sessile-glandular, semicircular, 
obtuse, apiculate teeth; undivided part of style 
2.3 mm long, at base turbinate-thickened and 
densely tomentose, the branches linear-clavel- 
late, 4.7 mm long. 

Mexico: Common in moist oak-maple 
woods, Cafion del Pajarito, Sierra dela Madera, 
Municipio de Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila, 6 
Sept., 1939, C. H. Muller 3185 (type no. 145130, 
Nat. Arb. Herb.). 

The only close ally of this species is the geo- 
graphically remote Brickellia hastata Benth., 
of southern Baja California (Magdalena Bay 
and Santa Margarita Island). That is a 


BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE FROM MEXICO 


147 


shrubby plant; the leaves are mostly opposite, 
and well-developed ones bear 1 or 2 or some- 
times several broad blunt teeth or short lobes 
above the basal pair; the 12—17-flowered heads 
are crowded at apex of stem and branches into 
close cymose panicles; and the conspicuous cir- 
rhate phyllary tip of B. urolepis is absent or 
barely indicated. 


Grindelia obovatifolia Blake, sp. nov. 


Herba perennis erecta 3-5 dm alta; caules 
1-2 simplices ubique villosi non glandulosi 
foliosi 1—2-capitati; folia basalia ovalia vy. el- 
liptica obtusa crenato-serrata utrinque villosa, 
lamina 4-5 em longa 2—2.7 em lata, petiolo vix 
marginato laminam subaequante saepe prope 
apicem lobos parvos foliaceos 1—2-jugos ge- 
rente; folia caulina 14-17, inferiora et media 
obovata obtusa sessilia amplectentia crenato- 
serrata dentibus obtusis supra ubique sed non 
dense hirsutula subtus in costa laxe villosa in 
superficie sparsius hirsutula et substipitato- 
glandulosa 3.5-6 cm longa 1.5-2.8 em lata, 
superiora sensim minora oblonga vy. elliptico- 
oblongo acutiuscula sessilia amplectentia; ped- 
unculus 2-4 cm longus nudus: capitula (sic- 
co) 2.8-4.2 cm lata non foliaceobracteata; in- 
volucri 7-9.5 mm alti gradati ca. 5—6-seriati 
parum resinosi phyllaria exteriora et media 
lanceolata v. extima subulata glabra (extimis 
dorso paullum villosulis exceptis) 0.8-1.5 mm 
lata, appendice herbacea anguste triangulari 
v. lanceolato-subulata 1.5-2.5 mm longa plana 
acuta patente non revoluta quam basi char- 
tacea breviore donata, intima lineari-oblonga 
breviter acuminata non patentia non herbaceo- 
appendiculata; radii ca. 17-20, lamina 13-14 
mm longa 4 mm lata; achenia submatura ob- 
longo-obovata 3-3.5 mm longa apice truncato- 
rotundata edentata non rugosa; pappi aristae 
ut videtur 2-3 caducae subcapillares laevis- 
simae subrectae 4.2-4.7 mm longae quam co- 
rolla paullo breviores. 

Rhizome up to 10 em long, 5 mm thick; basal 
leaves subcordate to acute at base, slightly 
stipitate-glandular beneath; stem leaves mostly 
somewhat longer than the internodes, thin- 
chartaceous, not resinous, closely crenate-ser- 
rate throughout, the teeth usually bearing a 
thick apical gland; disk depressed-hemispheri- 
cal, 7-10 mm high, 1.3-1.7 em thick (as 
pressed); rays golden-yellow, linear-elliptic, 


148 


2-3-denticulate; disk flowers numerous, their 
corollas golden-yellow, glabrous, 5—5.6 mm long 
(tube 2.2-2.5 mm, teeth 1 mm); style append- 
ages triangular-ovate, acute, slightly shorter 
than the stigmatic lines. 

Mexico: Abundant throughout pine—-oak 
and oak—Douglas fir forest, Transition Zone, 
east slope of Sierra de la Cebolla, Municipio de 
Montemorelos, Nuevo Leon, 21 Aug., 1939, 
C. H. Muller 2932 (type no. 145127, Nat. Arb. 
Herb.). 

This plant is distinctive in appearance be- 
cause of its decidedly obovate stem leaves. It 
is probably nearest Grindelia robinsonit Steyer- 
mark, of San Luis Potosi, a smaller plant with 
much shorter rays, smaller achenes, fewer stem 
leaves (only the lowest of which are obovate) 
and shorter and broader, mostly erect phyllary 
tips. 


Erigeron basilobatus Blake, sp. nov. 


Perennis rhizomatosus simplex 3.5-5 dm 
altus; caulis 1(—2)-capitatus patenti- vel re- 
flexo-pilosus supra longe nudus; folia basalia 
subrosulata majuscula ovata obtusa grosse 
crenata vel sinuata basi abrupte in petiolum 
subaequalem anguste marginatum contracta 
saepe basi pinnatifida lobis 1—2-jugis oblongis 
obtusis 8-10 mm longis, utrinque non dense 
pilosa pilis patentibus basi plusminusve incras- 
satis, lamina 4-10.5 cm longa 2.8—4.5 cm lata; 
folia caulina 4-6, inferiora saepius oblonga v. 
ovata obtusa sessilia amplectentia grosse 
pauciserrata, superiora sensim minora oblonga 
integra, suprema multo minora lanceolata v. 
subulata bracteiformia; pedunculus nudus 6-19 
cm longus; capitulum majusculum 3.5-4 em 
latum; involucri 6-8 mm alti ca. 3-seriati paul- 
lum gradati phyllaria appressa lineari-lanceo- 
lata longe acuminata parce patenti-pilosa, in- 
teriora ca. 3-vittata anguste scarioso-margin- 
ata; radii numerosi albi ca. 3-seriati 12 mm 
longi 1.2 mm lati; achenia hirsutula 2-nervia; 
pappus simplex persistens. 

Rhizomes creeping, slender, 8 cm long and 
more, bearing 1—3 terminal flowering stems or 
sometimes a sterile rosette; stem naked in its 
upper half or third, rarely bearing a single erect 
l-headed branch from below the middle, the 
hairs in its lower part spreading or reflexed, 
many-celled, white, about 1 mm long, those in 
its upper part reflexed; petioles of basal leaves 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


3.5-5.5 em long; crenations or lobes of the - 
leaves blunt, callous-apiculate like the apex of 
leaf; lower stem leaves 5.5-8.5 em long, 1.5-2.5 
cm wide, the upper 2—4.5 cm long, 0.8-1.8 em 
wide; disk (as pressed) 1.3-1.5 em wide, about 
8 mm high; rays numerous (100 or more), 
sparsely puberulous at apex of tube, about 14 
mm long (tube 2 mm, lamina linear, 12 mm 
long, 1.2 mm wide, 2-3-denticulate, 3-4- 
nerved); disk flowers very numerous, their 
corollas yellow, glabrous except for the sparsely 
puberulous and apically slightly crested teeth, 
4 mm long (tube 1.2 mm, throat 2.2 mm, 
teeth 0.6 mm long); disk achenes (immature) 
oblong, compressed, 2-nerved, 1 mm long, 
sparsely hirsutulous, their pappus simple, of 
about 28-30 slender subequal hispidulous 
bristles 2.5-3 mm long; ray achenes and 
pappus similar; style branches with very short 
deltoid obtusish hispidulous appendages. 

Mexico: Common in pine-oak forest, east 
slope of Sierra de la Cebolla, Municipio de 
Montemorelos, Nuevo Leon, 21 Aug., 1939, 
C. H. Muller 2934 (type no. 145128, Nat. Arb. 
Herb.). 

A comparatively coarse plant, rather dis- 
tinctive in appearance because of the large, 
usually basally pinnatifid basal leaves and 
greatly reduced, mostly clasping and entire 
stem leaves. 


Erigeron metrius Blake, sp. nov. 


Perennis saepius pauciramosus adscendens 
v. decumbens 3-6 dm altus ubique dense 
canescenti- vel cinereo-pilosus foliosus; folia 
internodiis subaequalia sessilia integra in- 
feriora anguste obovata obtusiuscula 2—2.5 cm 
longa 4-7 mm lata superiora anguste elliptica 
v. lineari-oblonga sensim minora; capitula in 
apicibus caulis et ramorum solitaria longe 
pedunculata 2—2.3 em lata; involucri ca. 3-seri- 
ati paullum gradati 5 mm alti phyllaria lineari- 
lanceolata acuminata dense pilosa; radii nu- 
merosi albi roseo-tincti ca. 7 mm longi; achenia 
2-nervia hirsutula; pappus e corona brevi 
lacerato-ciliata et aristis ca. 10 fragilibus 
sistens. 

Stem 1-2 mm thick at base, usually with few 
ascending branches, sometimes simple and 
1-headed, densely pilose with slenderly conical- _ 
based few-celled white hairs 1-2 mm long, the 
hairs varying from wide-spreading on lower 


May 15, 1942 


part of stem to subappressed on the peduncles; 
internodes mostly 5-15 mm long; leaves alter- 
nate, densely pilose on both sides with spread- 
ing or subascending hairs with small tubercu- 
late bases, the lower obtuse to acutish, weakly 
3-nerved, the upper 1—1.5 cm long, 1.5-3 mm 
wide; peduncles 6-14 cm long, canescent-pilose 
with erectish or subappressed hairs; rays 100 
or more, 3-seriate, white, rosy on the back, 
sparsely pubescent on tube, 8 mm long (tube 
1.5 mm, lamina linear, 2-3-denticulate, 4- 
nerved, 6.5 mm long, 0.8-1 mm wide); disk 
corollas very numerous, yellow, sparsely pu- 
berulous toward base of tube, hispidulous- 
crested on teeth, 2.7 mm long (tube 0.7 mm, 
throat 1.5 mm, teeth 0.5 mm long); disk 
achenes (very immature) oblong, erect-hirsutu- 
lous, 2-nerved, their pappus of a lacerate- 
ciliate basally connate crown of squamellae 
about 0.4 mm long and about 10-13 fragile 
hispidulous bristles 2.5 mm long, the whole in 
a single series; ray achenes and pappus similar; 
appendages of the style branches (disk flowers) 
so short as to make the tips appear subtrun- 
cate; anther tips narrowly triangular. 

Mexico: Scattered in chaparral, upper west 
slope of Sierra de la Cebolla, above 2750 m 
altitude, Municipio de Rayones, Nuevo Leon, 
21 Aug., 19389, C. H. Muller 2914 (type no. 
145126, Nat. Arb. Herb.). 

A member of the group of Erigeron centering 
about the imperfectly known Erigeron pubes- 
cens H.B.K., but apparently distinct from any 
described species. 


Sabazia mullerae Blake, sp. nov. 


Perennis gracilis decumbens nodis infimis 
radicantibus 2.5-3 dm longa; caulis simplex v. 
breviter ramosus subsparse pilosus, pilis in- 
ferioribus patentibus superioribus erectis v. 
subappressis; folia (inferioribus delapsis ex- 
clusis) ca. 4—6-juga lanceolato-ovata acuta basi 
cuneata v. rotundato-cuneata pauciserrata 
brevissime petiolata subsparse pilosa; ped- 
unculi solitarii terminales 1l-capitati 9-16.5 
em longi; capitulum 1.5-1.8 em latum; involu- 
cri 5-6 mm alti 3-seriati gradati phyllaria ovata 
acutiuscula v. obtusa basi albida subchartacea 
supra membranaceo-herbacea ciliata ceterum 
glabra 3-5-vittata; radii 10-13 albi dorso 
roseo-tincti alte 3-dentati; achenia radii glabra 
epapposa, disci hispidula pappifera, pappo 


BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE FROM MEXICO 149 


sub-3-seriato gradato ca. 25-aristato persis- 
tente. 

Stem about 1 mm thick, usually with few 
short erectish branches below, pubescent with 
mostly spreading hairs below, erect- or sub- 
appressed-pilose above; leaves opposite; inter- 
nodes 1.8-4 em long, mostly surpassing the 
leaves; petioles narrowly margined, 1-2 mm 
long; blades 1.8-2.8 cm long, 7-12 mm wide, 
rather sparsely pilose on both sides with more 
or less ascending subtuberculate-based white 
hairs, few-serrate (teeth 2-3 pairs, remote, 
callous-tipped, 0.5-1 mm high), triplinerved; 
peduncles rather sparsely pilose with erectish 
hairs; phyllaries 1.5 (outer) to 2.5 mm wide, 
the outer rather stiffly white-ciliate, the inner 
more loosely pilose-ciliate with many-celled 
purplish-based hairs, on back glabrous or the 
outer with a few hairs along the midrib; ray 
flowers fertile, the corolla densely pilose on 
tube, 8-9 mm long (tube 2 mm, limb cuneate- 
oblong, 7—8-nerved, 6-7 mm long, about 3.5 
mm wide, the teeth ovate, obtuse, 1.5-2 mm 
long); disk flowers numerous, their corollas 
yellow, densely pilose on tube, hirsutulous 
outside and papillose within on teeth, 3.4 mm 
long (tube 1.2 mm, throat 1.6 mm, teeth 0.6 
mm long); outer pales lance-ovate, usually 
abruptly contracted near middle and there 
often with a shoulder or short tooth on one or 
both sides, submembranous, 4-5 mm long, 
about 1.5 mm wide, 3—4-vittate, obscurely cilio- 
late, the inner narrowly lanceolate, 3.56 mm 
long, 0.5 mm wide, entire; ray achenes obcom- 
pressed, obovoid, glabrous, epappose, 2 mm 
long; disk achenes (not quite mature) obovoid, 
plumpish, erect-hirsutulous, 2.2 mm long, their 
pappus of about 25 graduated sub-3-seriate 
linear-lanceolate hispidulous-ciliolate awns, the 
outer about 1.5 mm, the inner 2.8 mm long. 

Mexico: Sparse in open chaparral, upper 
west slope of Sierra de la Cebolla, above 2750 
m altitude, Municipio de Rayones, Nuevo 
Leon, 21 Aug., 1939, C. H. Muller 2902 (type 
no. 145123, Nat. Arb. Herb.). 

This species, the northernmost true member 
of the genus, is nearest Sabazia triangularts 
var. papposa Blake, of Chiriqui, Panama, and 
S. ptnetorum var. dispar Blake, of Guatemala, 
and is very similar to both of these in habit. 
In the former the pappus of the disk achenes 
consists of 5-6 obtuse squamellae 0.8 mm long. 


150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


In the latter the stem is ascending- or sub- 
appressed-pubescent, the upper leaves are de- 
cidedly narrower than the lower, and the 
pappus is definitely double, the outer series 
consisting of 10 acuminate or obtusish linear 
awns 1.2—1.7 mm long, the inner of 10 subaris- 
tate lanceolate awns 2.5 mm long. Sabazia 
anomala Greenm. and S. lezachenia Blake, the 
only other pappiferous species of the genus, 
are erect or erectish annuals with a pappus of 
10 equal 1-seriate blunt squamellae. 

The species is named for Mrs. Katherine 
Muller, who accompanied her husband on the 
expedition and assisted in the field work. 


Tagetes mulleri Blake, sp. nov. 


Perennis simplex v. erecte ramosa ca. 7 dm 
alta foliosa ubique glaberrima, venis paginae 
superioris foliorum et dentibus involucri mi- 
nute puberulis exceptis; folia majuscula pin- 
natisecta, segmentis majoribus 3—4-jugis cum 
terminali lanceolato-ellipticis v. lanceolatis 
acuminatis crebre et acutissime serratis dis- 
perse punctatis lateralibus 2.5-4.5 cm longis 
8-17 mm latis, jugis 2 infimis multo minoribus 
laceratis additis, rachi angustissime marginata; 
capitula apice caulis terna et in apice rami soli- 
taria majuscula ca. 4 em lata, pedunculis 
sparse bracteatis 5.5-8.5 em longis; involucri 
campanulati 11 mm alti ca. 8-dentati, dentibus 
deltoideis acutiusculis apice 1-glandulosis et 
dense sordide puberulis, tubo lineis duplicibus 
glandularum praedito; radii 8 magni flavi ca. 
2 cm longi; corollae disci nigro-virides; achenia 
supra sparse hispidula 7 mm longa; pappi 
aristae 4-6 lineari-lanceolatae acuminatae 
4—5.5 mm longae cum squamellis 5-7 similibus 
multo brevioribus alternantes, omnes liberae. 

Stem solitary from a slender running rhizome 
or this sometimes apparently deeper and verti- 
cal, 2-4 mm thick below, subterete, multistri- 
ate, somewhat angled above, pithy, simple 
below the inflorescence or with few erect 
branches; leaves opposite; internodes mostly 
3-6 cm long, much shorter than the leaves; 
leaves including petiole 8-12 cm long, 4-9 cm 
wide, the proper petiole (below the lowest pair 
of leaflets) only 3-5 mm long, the 2 lower pairs 
of leaflets deeply laciniate, 4-9 mm long, the 
segments cirrhus-tipped, the principal leaflets 
3-4 pairs, sharply and closely serrate with 
mostly simple triangular 1-glandular cuspidate 


VOL. 32, No. 5 


teeth 1.5-2 mm long, acute at base, rather 
sparsely punctate with small round glands, 
above dark green, minutely and sparsely his- 
pidulous along the veins, beneath lighter 
brighter green, glabrous, the terminal leaflet 
up to 5.5 em long, 1.8 em wide; peduncles 
slender, striate, not distinctly thickened below 
the head; each phyllary bearing a terminal 
linear-oblong gland and (on the tube) 2 rows 
of 4-5 glands each, the upper roundish, the 
lower oblong-linear, the teeth densely sordid- 
puberulous toward apex; rays ‘“‘deep yellow,”’ 
2.5 em long, glabrous (tube 5 mm, lamina obo- 
vate-oblong, 3-denticulate, 8-10-nerved, 2 cm 
long, 7 mm wide); disk corollas blackish-green, 
obscurely puberulous at base of throat, 7.5 
mm long (tube 3 mm, throat slender, 2 mm, 
teeth oblong, acute, 2.5 mm long); achenes of 
ray and disk similar, linear, slightly hispidulous 
above on the angles, 6.5-7 mm long; pappus 
essentially similar in ray and disk, of 4-6 nar- 
rowly linear-lanceolate, acuminate, hispidu- 
lous-ciliolate awns (3) 4-5.5 mm long, and 
about 5-7 acuminate or sometimes obtuse and 
lacerate-tipped, narrowly linear to _ linear- 
lanceolate squamellae 1—2.5 mm long, all free; 
style branches with deltoid, hispidulous, 
abruptly and slenderly cuspidate-tipped ap- 
pendages. 

Mexico: Very abundant on moist slopes, in 
pine forest, trail from La Trinidad up the Si- 
erra de la Cebolla, Municipio de Montemorelos, 
Nuevo Leon, 20 Aug., 1939, C. H. Muller 2869 
(type no. 145122, Nat. Arb. Herb.). 

Allied to Tagetes lemmoni Gray and T. palm- 
ert Gray but with relatively broader leaflets, 
distinctive pappus, and many minor differen- 
tial characters. 


Psacalium peltatum var. adenophorum 
Blake, var. nov. 


Inflorescentia dense glanduloso-puberula pi- 
lis aliis brevibus pluriloculatis aliis longioribus 
crasse conicis vel basi inflatis, omnibus apice 
glanduliferis; involucrum similiter sed minus 
dense glandulosum. 

Mexico: Common in chaparral on both sides 
of the mountain, upper west slope of Sierra de 
la Cebolla, above 2750 m altitude, Municipio 
de Rayones, Nuevo Leon, 21 Aug. 1939, C. H. 
Muller 2911 (type no. 145124-5, Nat. Arb. 
Herb.). 


os 


; 
; 
; 
} 
: 


May 15, 1942 


In typical Psacaliwm peltatum (H. B. K.) 
Cass., as represented in the U. 8. National 
Herbarium by Pringle 3340 and C. & E. Seler 
1259 from the vicinity of Patzcuaro, Michoa- 
ean, the type locality, the inflorescence and 
involucre are densely villous with many-celled, 
loosely spreading, eglandular white hairs. In 
Pringle 9871, from Cuernavaca, Morelos, which 
Rydberg? has referred to P. peltatum, the in- 
florescence is pilosulous or villosulous with 
shorter hairs containing much purplish color- 


2 Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 51: 373. 1924. 


EATON: ‘‘FRONTOPARIETAL””’ BONES IN FROGS 151 


ing matter but without evident terminal 
glands. In the very closely allied and probably 
not specifically distinct P. argutwm Rydb., 
from Durango and San Luis Potosi, the pubes- 
cence is much as in Pringle 9871, but perhaps 
shorter and stiffer. Although the difference in 
pubescence between var. adenophorum and 
typical P. peltatum would ordinarily indicate 
specific distinctness in this group, it is appar- 
ently not reinforced by any other distinctive 
characters, and the form collected by Dr. Mul- 
ler seems, on the whole, best regarded as of only 
varietal rank. 


ZOOLOGY .—Are “‘frontoparietal’”’ bones in frogs actually frontals?! THropore H. 


EATON, JR., Cornell University. 


Recently the writer (1939) showed that 
in Rana clamitans, Hyla regilla, Bufo cali- 
fornicus, and Scaphiopus hammondii the so- 
called “frontoparietal”’ bones each develop 
from a single center of ossification instead 
of from two, as stated by W. K. Parker 
(1871) for Rana temporaria. Parker’s opin- 
ion, which has been repeated by many 
writers, was that the anterior center repre- 
sented the frontal, the posterior the parietal ; 
hence the compound name for the adult 
bones. He also (1876) speaks of the ‘‘fronto- 
parietals”’ as being “‘double bones” in Bufo 
vulgaris. 

Since 1939 I have found that in Pseudis 
paradoxa (Figs. 1-4), Rana esculenta (Figs. 
5-7), R. temporaria (Parker’s species; Fig. 
8), and Dendrobates auratus (Fig. 9) these 
bones develop from single centers, just as in 
the four types described previously. Cleared 
larvae of Rana catesbeiana and two late 
larvae of R. aurora draytoni that I exam- 
ined also agree with these. 

The apparent reason for Parker’s state- 
ments and figures is this: Under a dissecting 
microscope the wet, illuminated surface of 
each “‘frontoparietal”’ at an early stage re- 
flects an anterior and a posterior ring of 
light where it bulges over the forebrain and 
midbrain, respectively. These rings cor- 
respond with the edges of Parker’s “fron- 
tals” and ‘“‘parietals,’’ but they indicate 
only convexities, not separation. Sometimes 


1 Received November 29, 1941. 


(Communicated by C. Lewis Gazin.) 


there are circles of melanophores (Fig. 8), 
giving the same illusion. 

The fact that no exception is found 
among these several genera, and even in 
Parker’s species, to the rule of development 
from single sliverlike centers of ossification 
suggests that this method may be universal 
in Salientia and that no evidence exists to 
warrant the term “frontoparietal.”’ 

Another statement by Parker (1877) is 
the following, called to my attention by 
Prof. E. L. Rice, of Ohio Wesleyan Uni- 
versity: “‘In the small frog, Pseudis paradoxa 
... the parieto-frontals arise as one bone 
on either side, and are subsequently seg- 
mented into parietal and frontal.’? The 
series I examined, however, verifies only the 
first half of this sentence. There was no 
trace of subsequent segmentation (Figs. 
1-4). 

In Pipa parva the right and left ‘‘fronto- 
parietals” fuse in the median line, making 
a single broad plate over the brain, even in 
larvae in which the legs are not yet well 
developed (for example, head—body length 
15 mm, tail 25, foreleg 3, hindleg 9). In my 
series, unfortunately, no younger stages 
were available. 

The general scheme of development of 
these bones in Salientia, then, is as follows: 
They first appear, one on each side, above 
the lateral wall of the cranium, fitting the 
depression between cerebral hemispheres 
and optic lobes; this is in half-grown or 
slightly older larvae. Extending forward and 


152 


back they reach the ethmoid cartilage and 
synotic tectum, partly overlapping each. 
This stage, in which they are slender, 
widely separated strips of bone, is passed 


Figs. 1-4.—Pseudis paradozxa: 1, Larva (148 
mm, head—body 54 mm, hindlegs minute), dorsal 
view of cranium, stippled parts cartilage; 2, neo- 
tenic larva (188 mm, head—body 64 mm, legs 
large); 3, transforming (140 mm, head—body 44 
mm, hindlegs large, one foreleg out); 4, adult 
head-body 53 mm). 


in the late larvae of most species, but in 
Hyla and Pseudacris it is retained in the 
adult. With most genera, as Rana, Bufo, 
Pseudis, Dendrobates, and Scaphiopus, the 
“frontoparietals’” spread to meet in the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 5 


median line at or before transformation, 
but a permanent suture remains. Only in 
Pipa, of the types I have seen, does this 
suture disappear. . 

The next question concerns the homology 
of these bones. As the Salientia are in all 
probability derived from early labyrintho- 
donts, we may to advantage compare the 
frog skull with that of the Carboniferous 
Paleogyrinus decorus (Fig. 10). The Salientia 
lack most of the dermal roofing bones, those 
that are stippled in the figure. This loss af- 
fects two regions, the orbital and temporal, 
and may be correlated with (a) shortening 
of snout with relative enlargement of eyes, 
and (b) dorsomedial spread of the area of 
origin of the temporal muscles, which in a 
labyrinthodont filled a narrow space be- 
neath the roofing bones, lateral to the wall 
of the cranium. In the posterior part of the 
skull a frog retains no dermal bones except 
the quadratojugal and squamosal, both of 
which lie entirely lateral to the jaw muscle 
origin on the prootic. Postorbital, post- 
frontal, intertemporal, supratemporal, tabu- 
lar, and dermosupraoccipital are missing. 
Since these extend around three sides of the 
parietals in Paleogyrinus, it is highly prob- 
able that the latter also atrophied in re- 
sponse to the same influence, leaving the 
frontals to extend somewhat posteriorly as 


Figs. 1-7.—Rana esculenta: 5, Larva (32 mm, head—body 16 mm, short legs); 6, larva (63 mm, 
headbody 25 mm, short legs); 7, transforming (21 mm, head—body 15 mm, four legs, tail stump.) 
Fig. 8.—Rana temporaria: Late larva (57 mm, head—body 22 mm, hindlegs 21 mm). 
Fig. 9.—Dendrobates auratus: Late metamorphosis (head-body 14 mm). 
Fig. 10.—Paleogyrinus decorus (adapted from Watson, 1926, fig. 13): 
Stippled bones are those absent in frog skull. 


May 15, 1942 


the snout shortened and eyes enlarged. For 
these reasons, in the absence of any develop- 
mental evidence in modern frogs, it appears 
likely that the ‘‘frontoparietals” are fron- 
tals only. 

For the use of specimens in this study I 
wish to thank Dr. Arthur Loveridge, Mu- 
seum of Comparative Zoology (Pseudis 
paradoxa, Rana temporaria, and R. escu- 
lenta); Dr. C. M. Bogert, American Museum 
of Natural History (Pseudis paradoxa); 
Mr. Edgardo Mondolfi, Caracas, Venezuela, 
and Dr. Doris M. Cochran, U. 8. National 
Museum (Pipa parva). 


LITERATURE CITED 


Baron, UC. H., JR. 
parietal bones in frogs. 
95-97, 1 fig. 1939. 

PaRKER, W. K. On the structure and develop- 
ment of the skull of the common frog (Rana 
temporaria L.). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 
London, 161: 137-211, 8 pls.. 1871. 

. On the structure and development of the 

skull in the Batrachia; Part II. Ibid. 166: 

601-670, 9 pls. 1876. 


Development of the fronto- 
Copeia 1939 (2): 


SCHULTZ: FISHES FROM THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA 


153 


and Bretrany, G. The morphology of 
the skull. London, 1877. 

Watson, D. M.S. The evolution and origin of 
the Amphibia. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 
London (ser B) 214: 189-257. 1926. 


ABBREVIATIONS FOR FIGURES 


dso = dermosupraoccipital 
e=eye 
exo =exoccipital 
f =frontal 
f-+ml =frontal with rings of melanophores 
at =intertemporal 
4 =jugal 
=lacrimal 
m = maxillary 
n =nasal 
ot =otic capsule 
p = parietal 
pf =postfrontal 
pm = premaxillary 
po = prootic 
poo = postorbital 
prf = prefrontal 
q = quadrate 
qj = quadratojugal 
Ss =squamosal 
st =supratemporal 
ste =synotic tectum 
t=tabular 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—WNotes on some fishes from the Gulf of California, with the 


description of a new genus and species of blennioid fish.' 


ScHuLTz, U.S. National Museum. 


Among some fishes sent to the United 
States National Museum from the Gulf of 
California, a blennioid fish was found to be 
undescribed and other species are worthy of 
report. The author wishes to thank E. F. 
Ricketts for sending these specimens in for 
study. 


Hypsoblenniops, new genus 


After studyin the fishes related to Hypso- 
blennius and Herre’s description of his Spino- 
blennius (Herre, Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. 
Zool. 18 (12): 435. 1935, type S. spiniger ; Herre, 
ibid. 21: 399, fig. 39. 1936), along with a para- 
type of S. spiniger kindly sent from the Field 
Museum to the United States National Mu- 
seum, I have considered it best to propose a 
new genus for this little blenny from the Gulf 
of California. 


1 Published with the permission of the Secre- 
tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
December 26, 1941. 


LEONARD P. 


Genotype: Hypsoblenniops rickettst, new 
species. 

Named Hypsoblenniops in reference to its 
relationship with Hypsoblennius. 

This new genus is close to Hypsoblennius Gill 
and Spinoblennius Herre but differs from the 
former in having the preopercle armed with 
three strong spines, one at the lower angle and 
a smaller one above and another below that 
spine, and from the latter in having three 
slender, pointed preopercular spines instead of 
a single flat one at the lower angle. 

A simple tentacle about 3 to } diameter of 
eye occurs on its upper margin. All cirri are 
said to be lacking in Spinoblennius sptniger 
Herre, but an examination of one of his para- 
types shows a small, simple ocular tentacle, its 
length about = the pupil. The anterior nostril 
near front of eye is tubular, with a very small 
cirrhus on its dorsal margin in the new species 
but rudimentary in Spinodblennius, though said 
in the original description to be lacking. 


154 


The lateral line is incomplete, of about 9 to 
11 pores, ending over a verticle through the 
anus; the gill membranes are attached as far 
up as the lower edge of the base of the pectoral 
fin; teeth more or less rigid, set on jaw bones 
and not on the fleshy lips; no canine tooth at 
corner of mouth; about 16 teeth in each jaw. 


Hypsoblenniops rickettsi, new species 
Fig. 1 

Holotype—A specimen (U.S.N.M. no. 
119731) 19.8 mm in standard length was taken 
by E. F. Ricketts in Concepcion Bay, Mexico, 
the night of March 28, 1940, by a light while 
at anchorage, along with eight paratypes bear- 
ing same data, U.S.N.M. no. 119732. In ad- 
dition, one paratype was taken in San Carlos 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 5 


snout to origin of anal 52.0, 46.6, 49.2; length 
of longest ray of caudal fin 24.2, 21.8, 24.0; 
longest ray of pectoral 27.8, 25.2, 29.0; longest 
pelvic ray 20.2, 21.3, 20.7; longest dorsal spine 
(third) 11.1,—, 12.0; longest soft ray of anal 
8.6,—,9.3. 

The following counts were made respectively: 
Dorsal rays X11, 16; X11, 16; XG exsnieSG: 
XII, 16; XII, 16; XII, 16; analrays hielo 
18; 11, 19; 1, 18; 11, 17; 11, 18; 11, 19; pectoral rays 
12-12: 12-12; 12-12; 12-12; 12-12: pelvies 
usually I, 2, occasionally I, 3; pores in lateral 
line 9:—; 10; 9; 11; branchiostegals 5. 

The lower rays of the pectoral fin are a little 
exserted and enlarged; the large eye is mostly in 
the anterior half of the head; the maxillary 
extends to below the front of the pupil: the 


Fig. 1.—Hypsoblenniops rickettsi, new species. Photograph of holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 119731. The 
preopercular spines have been outlined on the photograph to bring out their shape. 


Bay, Mexico, at night by use of a light, April 4, 
1940, by E. F. Ricketts, U.S.N.M. no. 119733. 

Description.—Based on holotype and 9 para- 
types. The counts and measurements are given 
first for the holotype and then for certain of the 
paratypes, respectively. The standard lengths 
are 19.8; 20.2; and 18.3 mm. Total lengths 
24.5, 23.1, and 22.1 mm. All the following meas- 
urements are expressed in hundredths of the 
standard length: Length of head 31.3, 28.7, 
30.6; length of snout 8.6, 7.4, 8.7; diameter of 
eye 10.1, 9.9, 12.0; postorbital length of head 
14.1, 14.9, 15.3; width of interorbital space 7.1, 
7.4, 8.2; length from front of premaxillary to 
rear edge of maxillary 9.1, 9.4, 9.8; greatest 
depth (at rear of head) 20.2, 21.3, 23.0; least 
depth of body 7.1, 7.9, 8.7; distance from tip 
of snout to origin of dorsal fin 27.3, 26.7, 27.5; 


head is blunt forward, with a rounded profile, 
and the mouth not quite so far forward as 
region in front of eyes; the body is compressed; 
top of head flat, with some more or less 
hardened skin in region of occiput. 

The color pattern in alcohol of Hypsoblennius 
rickettst consists of six bars or dorsal saddles, all 
situated under the dorsal fin and extending 
down to midsides, on some specimens ending 
there as aninverted V-shaped mark or in others 
the a-shaped marks extend to the anal fin 
in an irregular manner; these dorsal saddles 
divide into a U-shaped mark on the dorsal fin 
to form 12 bars on it; the lower six rays of the 
pectoral fin are blackish, the upper rays hyaline; 
at the base of each anal ray is a black pigment 
spot; the under side of the head is crossed with 
three dark bars, the first from below front of 


May 15, 1942 


eye through corner of mouth meeting its fellow 
on chin, although front of chin is pale; the second 
bar from below eye meets its fellow on under 
side of head; the third, less distinct than the 
others, ends at base of branchiostegals; tip of 
snout with two narrow dark color bars sepa- 
rated by a pale space, rear of head pigmented; 
base of rays of caudal fin pigmented, forming a 
dark wavy line. 

In color pattern this new species resembles 
Spinoblennius spiniger Herre. S. spiniger has 
XII, 11 dorsal and II, 15 or 16 anal rays in 
contrast to XII, 16 and II, 17 to 19 in Hypso- 
blenniops rickettse. 

Named rickettsi in honor of E. F. Ricketts, of 
the Pacific Biological Laboratory, who was re- 
sponsible for the collection of the specimens. 


Genus Chaenopsis Gill 


Chaenopsis Gill, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New 
York 8: 141, pl. 3, fig. 3. 1863 (type, C. 
ocellatus Poey). 

Lucioblennius Gilbert, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 
13: 103. 1890 (type, L. alepidotus Gilbert). 


After having examined the types of the 
species referred to the genera Chaenopsis and 
Lucioblennius, as well as other specimens in the 
United States National Museum, I am con- 
vinced that only a single species should be 
recognized in the American waters of the Pacific 
Ocean and only one in the American waters of 
the Atlantic Ocean. The types of Lucioblennius 
alepidotus and L. lucius are small specimens in 
poor condition and difficult to study. With the 
aid of a binocular microscope it is thought that 


SCHULTZ: FISHES FROM THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA 


Or 


the fin rays have been counted correctly, and 
my counts differ considerably from those in 
current descriptions. Data are given in the ac- 
companying table. 

The number of spines in the dorsal fin ap- 
pears to be from XVIII to XX in both species, 
although it is difficult to determine the first 
soft ray. There are 13 rays in the pectoral 
fins and 12 or 13 rakers on the lower part of the 
first gill arch. Sometimes a few rudiments occur 
between the main rakers, these not included in 
the above counts. Probably the vomer always 
has a few very weak teeth. This character is 
more strongly developed in the Atlantic speci- 
mens than in the Pacific ones. 


Chaenopsis alepidotus (Gilbert) 


Luctoblennius alepidotus Gilbert, Proc. U. S. 
Nat. Mus. 13: 103. 1890. 

Lucvoblennius luctus Osburn and Nichols, Bull. 
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 25: 179, fig. 15. 1916. 


The following specimens in the U. S. Na- 
tional Museum have been examined: 


U.S.N.M. no. 44873 (co-type of L. alepidotus), 
lat. 25°02’30’" N., long. 110°43’30’’ W., March 
17, 1889, Albatross. 

U.S.N.M. no. 48264 (co-type of L. alepidotus), lat. 
25°02’45” N., long. 110°43’30’" W., March 17, 
1889, Albatross. 

U.S.N.M. no. 87550? (type of L. luctus), San Josef 
Island, 1911, Albatross. 

U.S.N.M. no. 56396, Santa Catalina Island, Miss 
Frances Lauderback. 

U.S.N.M. no. 102159, San Gabriel Bay, Espiritu, 


2 Catalogued in American Museum by error as 
no. 5207. 


TABLE 1.—Dorsau AND ANAL FIN Ray Counts MADE ON THE Two SPECIES OF CHAENOPSIS 


Standard Dorsal rays Anal rays 
Specimen length 
(in mm.) | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 
C. ocellatus: | 
WES2 IN: no SOO Ge eiactisehie sic 110.5 — 1)/—/]—}]—/}—)} 1);—)}]— 
Wee Ne Morno. bIGSO%.2e ise... 46-88 1 3 2\|—|,— 2 2 2/;— 
MIN Ole aes, loess Riaca chee Marea nate es 1 + 2/—)|]— 2 3 2|— 
C. alepidotus: 
WRSeENe Me mo: S443 73500 se oe ce 34.0 — | — 1|—}— —_— | — 
WES SNGM. mo: 48264 6.0 cece. 33.5 — 1 | — | 1|;—) — 
ESN EIMIS MOS COOO.. od. sntoe ae OMe — 1} —}—}]— l 
CRSeNe None: 56396" 2. 752s 153.0 — | — | — | — 1 - l 
ORSON ME no: LOM4S. occ’. 39.5 1}—}—)}— jy — IT | 1) — 
WESINe MESO. THOZTGO oe. le ae 45.4 a 1}—}|—|—{]— 1|;/—j;— 
TOP AS LING AY CC Ro ee a i Pea ae 120.0 1;/—}]— l -—- 
DOUG ihe cee ete MS, 1 3 l 1 l 2 3 l l 


156 


Santo Island, 1 to 4 fathoms, February 22, 
1936, Hancock Expedition. 

U.S.N.M. no. 101948, Playa Blanco, Costa Rica, 
February 8, 19385, W.- L. Schmitt, U.S.N.M. no. 
119721, Concepcion Bay, March 29, 1940, 
E. F. Ricketts, Pacific Biological Laboratory. 


Jordan and Starks (Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 
32: 74-76, fig. 7. 1907) give an excellent figure 
of this species. There are a few tiny teeth at the 
head of the vomer that show up in clay impres- 
sions not visible otherwise. 


Chaenopsis ocellatus Poey 


Chaenopsis ocellatus Poey, in Gill, Ann. Lye. 
Nat. Hist. New York 8: 143. 1863. 


The following specimens are in the U. 8. 
National Museum and have been examined: 
U.S.N.M. no. 8007 (type of C. ocellatus), Cuba, 

Prof. F. Poey. 

U.S.N.M. no. 116807, Tortugas, Fla., W. H. 

Longley. 

Longley and Hildebrand (Papers Tortugas 
Lab. Carnegie Inst. Washington 34: 275-276. 
1941) give an excellent color description of this 
species. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE ADULT OF PORICHTHYS 
ANALIS Hubbs and Schultz 


The original description of Porichthys analis 
Hubbs and Schultz (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 86: 
485. 1939) was based on two small specimens 
95.5 and 80 mm in standard length, the only 
known examples of this toadfish then known. It 
now gives me pleasure to describe an adult of 
this species, 255 mm in standard length and 280 
mm from tip of snout to tip of tail. 

The following measurements are expressed 
in hundredths of the standard length: Greatest 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


depth 17.5; distance from tip of snout to ori- 
gin of soft dorsal 35.5; and to origin of spi- 
nous dorsal 27.9; from tip of chin to anus 
39.4; length of head 28.1; interorbital width 
11.8; length of orbit 3.3; length of upper 
jaw 15.8; length of snout 7.6; distance from tip 
of lower jaw to tip of V of branchiostegal row of 
photophores 8.3; least distance between the 
nearly parallel ventral rows of photophores 3.9; 
distance from anus to anterior extension of 
ventral row of photophores 16.3; height of pec- 
toral arch of pleural row of photophores 5.5; 
length of this arch 9.4. 

Teeth on premaxillaries, vomer and dentary 
hooked backward, those on palatines mostly in 
a single row hooked inward; dorsal and anal 
fins free from the caudal; pectoral fin pointed 
medially; peritoneum black; lateral line organs 
essentially as described for the young of this 
species. 

The color in alcohol is dark above, paler 
below with a tinge of brown, with 7 or 8 dorso- 
lateral dark bars that are obscured forward 
more or less by the uniform dark color of the 
upper parts of the body, but more evident pos- 
teriorly; the dorsal fin has 7 obliquely directed 
darkish bars, but these are separated from those 
on the body at the base of the fin by the ob- 
liquely directed pale areas, except the first 
one at the origin of the soft dorsal fin; base of 
caudal fin blackish, then across the middle of 
this fin is a wide pale band; the distal half of 
the caudal fin is blackish; pelvies and pectorals 
dusky; basal half of anal fin pale, the distal 
margin with a wide blackish band; area under 
pectoral fin base (axil) pale; upper part of lower 
lip dark with white band below that extends to 
behind maxillary and joins a more extensive 
pale area. 


VOL. 32, NO. DF 


CONTENTS 


as GroprEsy.—The distance between two widely separated points 0 on nthe 
ee a, surface of the earth. Watrer D. Lampert. cece e eee 

Miegi | at CaS oe 
Ss CHEMISTRY.—The determination of the cystine content of various pro a 
eu? teins by different hydrolytic agents, sulphuric, hydrochloric, hydri- 3 
ane odic, and a mixture of hydrochloric and formie acids. W.C. ‘Huss — 


ial | - and M. X. SuLLIvaNn : | 
Cuemistry.—A crystalline sulphur-protein from wheat. A. K. Bat LS 


Botany.—Linanthastrum, a new West American genus i Polemo 
= meade. JOBBPH’ EWAN GS iso 90). 1. roe Fe eae, dee bee eg 


ree ra hic tM RE eg Soca rime Me i NN A : 
: - Borany.—New Asteraceae from northern Mexico collected by OH. Jas 
ee Mater SR. Bran tei eee Weipa ane) 1 es a ae 
ate | J ee 
pick ZooLocy.—Are “frontoparietal’”’ bones in frogs actually fronta 
toes Tanoporne, HW: HATO dt. ogee SPE. eG eect ou ee ees 
edt : IcHTHYOLOGY.—Notes on some fishes from the Gulf of Caltemnat wi 
a SR the description of a new genus and Sly ger of blennioid fish. 
4 ait LEonarn: P: SGHUeTS i boy TL eee PE Re PED ILM AE Shy 


The Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


ein a eet 
eo ee 


neil) ie 


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So hy cities ey, rae, ¢ 
fergh tF ata 
§ 
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JOURNAL 


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WoL. 32 


BOTAN Y.—New grasses from Venezuela. 
Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Caracas, Venezuela. 


AGNES CHASE.) 


In the course of a year’s study, on behalf 
of the Ministry of Agriculture of Venezuela, 
in the grass division of the United States 
National Herbarium, under the supervision 
of Mrs. Agnes Chase, several undescribed 
species were found in the collection of Vene- 
zuelan grasses, which it was my official 
mission to study. The main results of my 
labor are condensed in a memoir on the 
Genera of grasses of Venezuela, which it is 
hoped will be published in the near future. 
Meanwhile, the new species are presented 
herewith. In addition there are a new genus 
and six new species of bamboos, which Dr. 
F. A. McClure kindly undertook to de- 
scribe. This is the place to express to Mrs. 
Chase my profound gratitude for her con- 
stant help and teaching during my stay in 
Washington, and my sincere thanks to Dr. 
F. A. McClure, our foremost specialist on 
bamboos, and to all the friends who have 
aided me in my work. Following are the de- 
scriptions of the new species: 


Helleria Fourn. Mex. Pl. 2: 128. 1886 


A single species, Helleria livida (H.B.K.) 
Fourn., based on Bromus lividus H.B.K., is in- 
cluded. This species was placed in Festuca by 
Willdenow (Spreng. Syst. Veg. 1: 353. 1825). 
The genus differs from Festuca chiefly in the 
large loose spikelets with flexuous rachilla, the 
florets spreading at maturity, the lemmas and 
paleas thin-membranaceous, the lemma at 
maturity expanded from just above the base, 
the palea loose, narrow, acuminate; caryopsis 
oblong-lanceolate, concavo-convex in cross sec- 
tion, with a minute embryo. Densely caespitose 
grasses of high paramos of Mexico and the 
Andes of Venezuela. 


1 Received February 24, 1942. 


JUNE 15, 1942 


No. 6 


ZORAIDA Lucss, Servicio Botanico, 
(Communicated by 


Helleria fragilis Luces, sp. nov. 
Baom t 
Perennis, dense caespitosa; culmi 30-35 cm 
alti, compressiusculi; vaginae glabrae; ligula 


Fig. 1.—Helleria fragilis, spikelet and floret, 
X24; caryopsis, X10. (Type.) 


firma, acuminata, scaberrima; laminae firmae, 
5-11 em longae, involuto-setaceae, scaberri- 
mae; panicula simplex, 7-9 em longa, 2-4 em 
lata, axi pedicellisque rigidis scabris; spiculae 
geminae, 3-4 cm longae, 5-7 florae, pedicello 
altero 5 mm, altero 8-15 mm longo; rachilla 


157 


158 


flexuosa, fragilissima, flosculis patentibus; 
glumae acuminatae, tenuiter membranaceae, 
prima 7-10 mm, secunda 11-15 mm longa; 
lemma planum, ecarinatum, 2.2—3 em longum, 
5-nervium, lanceolato-acuminatum, in aristam 
5-7 mm longam attenuatum; palea subhyalina, 
longe acuminata quam lemma multo brevior 
et angustior; caryopsis oblongo-lanceolata, 
circa 3.5 mm longa, concavo-convexa. 

Plant perennial, in dense tussocks; culms 30 
to 35 em tall, very slender, stiff, scabrous to 
glabrous, subcompressed, branching at the 
lower nodes, the nodes glabrous; sheaths longer 
than the internodes, glabrous; ligule mem- 
branaceous, acute, 3 to 5 mm long; blades 5 to 
11 cm long, firm, involute, setaceous, acumi- 
nate, very scabrous; panicle simple, narrow, 7 
to 9 em long, 2 to 4 em wide, the axis and 
pedicels stiff, angled, scabrous; spikelets in 
groups of 2, one pedicel 5 mm long or less. the 
other 8 to 15 mm, erect, the spikelets 3 to 4 
em long, with 5 to 7 florets and a rudiment; 
rachilla minutely scabrous, zigzag, very fragile, 
the florets spreading; glumes acuminate, thin- 
membranaceous, scabrous, the first 7 to 10 mm 
long, the second 11 to 15 mm long, broader than 
the first; lemma flat from just above the base, 
without a keel, 2.2 to 3 cm long, thin-mem- 
branaceous, minutely scabrous, 5-nerved, lan- 
ceolate-acuminate, tapering into an awn about 
5 to 7 mm long; palea thin, minutely scabrous, 
2-keeled, long-acuminate, about 2/3 as long as 
the body of the lemma and much narrower; 
caryopsis oblong-lanceolate, about 3.5 mm long, 
concavo-convex, the embryo minute. 

This species is related to Helleria ‘livida 
(H.B.K.) Fourn., but in that species the panicles 
are compound, the axis and pedicels capillary, 
flexuous, very scabrous, the spikelets in groups 
of three, smaller, with the glumes as long as 
the florets. 

The type is in the Herbario Nacional de 
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, a 
duplicate type in the U. S. National Herbar- 
ium, collected in Pdéramo de Tucani, Sierra 
Nevada de Mérida, altitude 4,500 m, State of 
Mérida, Venezuela, December 17, 1910, by 
Dr. A. Jahn, no. 62. Another collection was 
made on rocky ridges, higher paramos, near 
E] Gavilan, 4,200 m, State of Mérida, Vene- 
zuela, January 25, 1929, by H. Pittier, no. 
13276. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 6 


Eragrostis plurinodis Swallen, sp. nov, 
Fig. 2 


Perennis dense caespitosa; culmi 35-55 em 
longi, graciles, ramosi, erecti vel patentes, 
plurinodes, internodiis inferioribus elongatis; 
vaginae internodis breviores, glabrae, in ore 
pilosae; laminae 3-10 cm longae, 1—2 mm latae, 
glabrae, firmae, adscendentes, planae vel in- 
volutae; paniculae 3-6 cm longae, ramis 
brevibus appressis 1-3 spiculatis; spiculae 7-13 
mm longae, 1.5-2 mm latae, 10—20-florae, pal- 
lidae vel purpurascentes; lemmata 2—-2.1 mm 
longa, abrupte acuta vel subacuminata, nervis 
prominentibus; paleae lemmatibus paulo brevi- 
ores, carinis minute ciliatis. 


Fig. 2.—Eragrostis plurinodis, panicle, X1; 
floret, X5. (Type.) 


Densely tufted perennial; culms 35-55 cm 
long, slender, branching or proliferous at the 
lower and middle nodes or with a few short 
flowering branches from the upper nodes, erect 
or apparently finally spreading and appearing 
like stolons, the lower internodes usually elon- 
gate, the upper ones much shorter; sheaths 
shorter than the internodes, glabrous or with a 
small tuft of hairs at the mouth; blades 3-10 
cm long, 1-2 mm wide, glabrous, fine-pointed, 
firm, stiffly ascending, flat, or drying involute 
especially toward the tip; panicles 3-6 em long, 
the short branches appressed, bearing 1-3 
short-pediceled spikelets; spikelets 7-13 mm 
long, 1.5-2 mm wide, 10—20-flowered, pale but 
tinged with purple; lemmas 2-2.1 mm long, 
rather abruptly acute or subacuminate, the 
nerves prominent, minutely scabrous on the 


| 
| 


JUNE 15, 1942 


keel; palea a little shorter than the lemma, 
minutely ciliate on the keels. 

The type is in the Herbario Nacional de 
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, 
collected in fields around Cunaviche, State of 
Apure, Venezuela, February 13, 1941, by C. E. 
Chardon, no. 249. 

This species is related to HE. acuminata Doell 
and H. rufescens Schult. but differs from the 
former in being perennial and from the latter in 
having slender, several-noded, stolonlike culms. 


Luziola pittieri Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 3 

Perennis, debilis; culmi caespitosi, graciles, 
foliis laxis; vaginae compressae, subcarinatae, 
scabrae; ligula subhyalina acuminata, 10-13 
mm longa; laminae planae, lineares, acumi- 
natae, 10-35 cm longae, 2-6 mm latae; panic- 
ulae masculae femineaeque similes, pyrami- 
dales, laxae, patentes, circa 6-8 cm longae, raro 
usque ad 14 cm longae, axi ramisque scabris; 
spiculae longe pedicellatae, pallidae, masculae 


circa 4 mm longae, lemmate paleaque subhya- - 


linis, lemmate 7—9-nervio, palea 9—11-nervia; 
spiculae femineae circa 1.5 mm longae, palea 
lemmateque valde 9-l1-nerviis; caryopsis 
globosa, 1.4-1.5 mm longa, pallida, striata. 
Plant perennial, weak, 30-50 cm _ tall, 
branching at the straight or somewhat genicu- 
late base, from soft slender rhizomes; culms 
very slender, caespitose, the nodes glabrous; 
foliage lax, the sheaths strongly compressed, 
subearinate, glabrous, membranaceous, with 
transverse distant veins visible on the inner 
face, the margins more delicate; ligule sub- 
hyaline, long-acuminate, 10-13 mm _ long; 
blades flat, scabrous on both surfaces and on 
the margins, linear, acuminate, 10 to 35 em 
long, 2 to 6 mm wide; inflorescence of unisexual 
panicles, the staminate and pistillate similar, 
but the pistillate often on shorter culms, 
pyramidal, lax, open, usually not more than 8 
em long, rarely as much as 14 cm long, the axis 
and branches scabrous; spikelets long-pedicel- 
late, pale, the staminate spikelets about 4 mm 
long, lemma and palea obtuse, subhyaline, the 
nerves inconspicuous, the lemma 7—9-nerved, 
the palea 9-11-nerved; pistillate spikelets about 
1.5 mm long, lemma and palea equal, not com- 
pletely covering the caryopsis, with 9-11 con- 
Spicuous minutely scabrous nerves; caryopsis 


LUCES: NEW GRASSES FROM VENEZUELA 


159 


globose, 1.4-1.5 mm long, pale, striate. 

The type is in the Herbario Nacional de 
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, 
duplicate type in U. S. National Herbarium, 
collected near Dos Caminos, Gudrico, Venezu- 
ela, by H. Pittier, no. 12530, September 12, 
1927. Known only from State of Guarico, 


Fig. 3.—Luatola pittiert, staminate and _pistil- 
late spikelets, X10; caryopsis, X20. (Type.) 


Venezuela. A second collection is from Lagoon 
of Mesa de El Sombrero, Gudrico, in muddy 
places. September 10, 1917, H. Pittier, no. 
12475. 

This species is related to Luziola peruviana 
Gmel. and to L. gracilluma Prod. From the 
first it differs in the larger staminate panicle 
and smaller staminate spikelets, in the smaller 
pistillate spikelets, the lemma and palea not 
exceeding the caryopsis, and in the strongly 
striate fruit. From L. gracillzma it differs in the 
laxer blades, smaller staminate spikelets and in 


the larger pale pistillate spikelets, the blades of 


L. gracillima being erect and relatively stiff, the 
staminate spikelets 7 mm long and the pistil- 
late spikelets dark purple and 1 mm long. 


Digitaria atra Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 4 

Perennis; culmi caespitosi, gracillimi, erecti, 
30-38 em alti, nodis 2 vel 3; vaginae quam in- 
ternodia breviores, striatae, papilloso-villosae; 
ligula membranacea, 1—-1.5 mm longa; laminae 
marginibus involutis, flexuosae, acuminatae, 
6-25 cm longae, utrinque papilloso-villosae; 
racemi solitarii (rarius geminati), 6-7 em longi, 
rachi 3-angulata, 0.5 mm lata; pedicelli pilo- 
suli; spiculae ellipticae, acuminatae, circa 2.5 
mm longae, glumis nullis; lemma sterile palli- 


160 


dum, acutum, 3-nervium, pubescens, pilis 
capitellatis; fructus atra-brunnescens, minutis- 
sime papillosus, marginibus pallidis, subhya- 
linis. 

Plant perennial, caespitose, 30 to 38 cm tall; 
culms very slender, somewhat flat, erect, stiff, 
with 2 or 3 nodes, from copiously pilose to al- 
most glabrous near the base; sheaths much 
shorter than the internodes, striate, minutely 
papillose and with long silky hairs; ligule ob- 
tuse, membranaceous, | to 1.5 mm long; blades 


Fig. 4.—Digitaria atra, two views of spikelet, 
and fruit, X10. (Type.) 


flexuous, striate, acuminate, 6 to 25 cm long, 
2 to 3 mm wide, papillose-villous on both sur- 
faces, the hairs longer and denser toward the 
base, the margins involute; racemes solitary 
(rarely paired), 6 to 7 cm long, the rachis 3- 
angled, 0.5 mm wide, slightly winged; pedicels 
loosely pilose; spikelets elliptic, acuminate, 
about 2.5 mm long, both glumes wanting; 
sterile lemma pale, acute, 3-nerved, slightly 
shorter than the fruit, covered with whitish 
capitellate hairs; fruit blackish brown, the 
lemma minutely papillose-roughened, with nar- 
row pale subhyaline margins, the base at the 
back with a minute stripe of pale capitellate 
hairs on either side, sometimes with but one 
stripe. 

The type is in the Herbario Nacional de 
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, 
collected by A. 8. Miller in Tabay, State of 
Mérida, Venezuela. Only known from the type 
collection. 

This is the only American species of Digitaria 
in which the second glume is wholly suppressed. 
In D. gracillima (Scribn.) Fernald the second 
glume is one-fourth to two-thirds as long as the 
dark brown fruit, but in that the 2 to 5 long 
slender racemes are distant on an elongate axis. 
The African group allied to D. uniglumis 
(Rich.) Stapf, with blackish fruit and sup- 
pressed or reduced second glume, has panicles of 
several to very numerous racemes on an elon- 


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VOL. 32, NOME 


gate axis, and the pedicels bear stiff hairs as 
long as the spikelets. 


Digitaria fragilis (Steud.) Luces, comb. nov. 


Paspalum fragile Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1: 
17. 1854. The type specimen, collected in 
Cumand4, Venezuela, by Funck & Schlim, no. 
724, the name in Steudel’s script, is in the Paris 
Herbarium. 

Digitaria rhachitricha Henr. Blumea 1: 95. 
1934. Based on Funck & Schlim 724, but the 
locality given as Colombia. It seems probable 
that some specimens of this collection were dis- 
tributed with the name written on a Colombia 
label, but that the plants really came from Cu- 
manda. The specimen of this number in the Bois- 
sier Herbarium in Geneva is labeled ‘‘Vene- 
zuela, Cumanda.”’ 


Mesosetum chaseae Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 5 


Perenne, caespitosum, valde stoloniferum, 
stolonibus foliosis, 70-100 cm longis; culmi 
floriferi erecti, 60-65 cm alti; vaginae glabrae, 
marginibus ciliatis; ligula minuta, fimbriato- 
ciliata; laminae firmae, planae vel subinvolu- 
tae, 3-13 cm longae, 3-7 mm latae, acuminatae, 
marginibus cartilagineis, papilloso-hispidis; 
racemus 5.4-7.5 cm longus, 4-5 mm latus, rachi 
1 mm lata, anguste alata, marginibus scabris; 
spiculae imbricatae, lateraliter compressae, 
pallidae, 5 mm longae; glumae aequales, circa 
4.5 mm longae, gluma prima 3-nervia, nervo 
centrali scabro, supra medium carinato suba- 
lato, apice mucronato; gluma secunda navic- 
ulata, 5—-7-nervia; lemma flosculae masculae 
naviculatum, 5 mm longum, quam glumae la- 
tius et longius, 5-nervium; palea 4 mm longa; 
fructus circa 4.5 mm longus, elliptico-lanceola- 
tus, acuminatus, leommate subcompresso apice 
subcarinato, carina minute hirsuta. 

Plant perennial, caespitose, with strong leafy 
stolons, 70 to 100 cm long, branching at the 
nodes, the nodes pubescent, the internodes sub- 
compressed, glabrous, purplish; flowering culms 
simple or sparingly branching, erect, 60 to 
65 cm tall; leaves about 9, rather crowded on 
the lower half of the culm, the sheaths shorter 
than the internodes, glabrous, the margins cili- 
ate, the hairs longer toward the summit, the 
collar with a ring of erect hairs or glabrescent; 
ligule minute, fimbriate-ciliate; blades firm, 


JUNE 15, 1942 LUCES: NEW GRASSES FROM VENEZUELA 161 


Fig. 5— Mesosetum chaseae, flowering plant, stolon, and reverse view of raceme, X34; spikelet, X10 
(duplicate type); mature fruit, X10. (Chase 12550.) 


162 


flat to subinvolute, 3 to’. 13 cm long, 3 to 7mm 
wide, tapering from the base to an acuminate 
apex, papillose-hispid on the upper surface at 
least toward the base, the nerves prominent on 
the lower surface, the margins cartilaginous, 
papillose-hispid; raceme 5.4 to 7.5 cm long, 4 to 
5 mm wide, the rachis 1 mm wide, narrowly 
winged, the margins scabrous; spikelets imbri- 
cate, laterally compressed, pale, 5 mm long, 
very minutely scaberulous; glumes equal, 
about 4.5 mm long, the first 3-nerved, the mid- 
nerve scabrous, keeled above the middle, and 
narrowly winged, extending into a mucro be- 
tween the lobes of the 2-lobed apex, the lateral 
nerves approaching the midnerve toward the 
summit; second glume naviculate, 5- to 7- 
nerved, with obliquely transverse nerves visi- 
ble on the inner face; lemma of the staminate 
floret naviculate, 5 mm long, exceeding the 
glumes and much wider, 5-nerved, the nerves 
stronger and darker toward the apex, with ob- 
liquely transverse veins visible on the inner 
face toward the summit, its palea 4 mm long, 
the margins inflexed, hyaline; fruit about 4.5 
mm long, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, the 
lemma subcompressed and slightly keeled to- 
ward the apex, the keel with short stiff hairs, 
the palea enclosed by the margins of the lemma. 

Type is in the Herbario Nacional de Vene- 


zuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, a 


duplicate type in the U. S. National Her- 
barium; collected in vicinity of Santomé, 
State of Anzodtegui, Venezuela, August to 
November 1940, by A. G. Sandoval. Other col- 
lections from the same locality are ‘‘sandy soil 
above morichale along Rio Guara Guara, vicin- 
ity of Santomé, March 25, 1940,” Chase 12550 
(very overmature); and Sandoval, July 1940. 

In the U. 8. National Herbarium is a frag- 
mentary specimen of this species from Rupu- 
nuni Savanna, British Guiana, collected by 
Melville. 

This species does not fall into any of the 
groups proposed by Swallen in his revision of 
the genus Mesosetum (Brittonia 2: 363-392. 
1937). 

Paspalum indutum Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 6 

Perenne, subrobustum, basi hirsutissimum; 
culmi erecti, 100-115 cm alti, nodis longe vil- 
losis; vaginae subcompressae, collo velutissi- 
mae, infimae appresso-villosissimae, supremae 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


basi pilosae, marginibus glabris vel pilosissimis; 
ligula 0.5-1.5 mm longa; laminae planae, 4.5- 
42 cm longae, 3-11 mm latae, acuminatae, 
dense velutissimae, basi longe villosissimae, 
nervo medio valido; panicula tota subviscida, 
17-21 cm longa, racemis 25-32, axi scabro, 
sparse piloso, basi et axillis longe villoso; 
spiculae geminae, ellipticae, 2-2.5 mm longae, 
1 mm latae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile 
glanduloso-pubescentia fructum occultantia, 
gluma 5-nervia; lemmate 3-nervio; fructus 
ellipticus, pallidus. 


Fig. 6.—Paspalum indutum, two views of spikelet, 
and fruit, X10. (Type.) 


Plant perennial, rather robust, with very 
strong and hairy base; culms erect, thick toward 
the base, rather slender toward the summit, 
compressed or subcompressed, 1—1.15 m tall, 
sparsely pilose or glabrescent, the nodes with 
long very silky hairs; sheaths subcompressed 
toward the summit, mostly shorter than the 
internodes, closely enveloping the culms, the 
lowest copiously appressed-villous, the upper 
pilose at the very base, very minutely papillose, 
glabrous to very pilose especially along the 
margins, a dense band of grayish silky hairs on 
the collar; ligule membranaceous, 0.5-1.5 mm 
long; blades flat, linear, 4.5-42 em long, 3-11 
mm wide, acuminate, densely appressed gray- 
ish velvety, with a tuft of silky hairs about 7 
mm long at the back of the ligule, the midnerve 
strong, the margins often fluted, the lower nar- 
rowed toward the base, the upper rounded at 
base; panicle long-exserted, 17-21 cm long, of 
25-32 racemes, the whole panicle somewhat vis- 
cid, the common axis scabrous, sparsely pilose, 
with a tuft of silky hairs at the very base and in 
the axils; rachis very slender, scabrous, sparsely 
pilose; spikelets in pairs on slender pedicels, 
elliptic, 2-2.5 mm long, 1 mm wide; second 
glume and sterile lemma equal, covering the 
fruit, the glume 5-nerved, the lemma 3-nerved, 
both glandular-pubescent, the lemma less 
densely so; fruit elliptic, pale. 


June 15, 1942 


The type is in Herbario Nacional de Vene- 
zuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, a frag- 
ment of it in the U. S. National Herbarium, 
collected in Pozo Hondo, near Egido, 960 m 
altitude, State of Mérida, Venezuela, April 
1940, by R. Sergent, no. 37. 

Related to Paspalum coryphaewm Trin., dif- 
fering in the less robust culms, the narrower, 
velvety blades, and smaller and viscid panicles. 


Paspalum nudatum Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 7 


Perenne, verisimiliter subaquaticum, caes- 
pitosum; culmi gracillimi, erecti, 30-44 cm 
alti; vaginae internodiis longiores, compressae, 
carinatae; ligula hyalina, 5-6 mm longa, acu- 
minata; laminae erectae, involutae, glabrae, 
minutissime papillosae; racemi bini, conjugati, 
ascendentes, graciles, 3-5.5 cm longi; spiculae 
solitariae, pallidae, elliptico-obovatae, 1.5 mm 
longae, 1 mm latae, glumis nullis, lemmate 
sterili glabro minutissime papilloso, 5-nervio; 
fructus pallidus, elliptico-obovatus, papillosus. 


Fig. 7.—Paspaium nudatum, two views of 
spikelet, and fruit, X10. (Type.) 


Plant perennial, apparently subaquatic, 
caespitose; culms 30 to 44 cm tall, very slender, 
erect, stiff, subcompressed, with 1 or 2 nodes, 
glabrous; sheaths much longer than the inter- 
nodes, strongly compressed, carinate, loose, 
the nodes visible, strongly striate, glabrous; 
ligule hyaline, 5 to 6 mm long, acuminate; 
blades firm, erect, glabrous, obscurely minutely 
papillose, closely involute, 0.8 mm wide as 
folded, narrower than the top of the sheath, 
with rather stiff hairs at base, back of the ligule; 
racemes 2, conjugate, narrowly ascending, very 
slender, 3 to 5.5 cm long; margins of the rachis 
and pedicels minutely scabrous; spikelets soli- 
tary, pale, elliptic-obovate, 1.5 mm long, 1 mm 
wide; both glumes wanting, the sterile lemma 
glabrous, very minutely papillose, 5-nerved, 
as long as the fruit but narrower; fruit pale, 
elliptic-obovate, strongly papillose. 

The type is in the Herbario Nacional de 


LUCES: NEW GRASSES FROM VENEZUELA 163 


Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, 
duplicate type in the U. 8. National Herbar- 
ium, collected in Tinaquillo, altitude 422 m, 
State of Cojedes, Venezuela, August 8, 1940, 
by Carlos Chardon. Only known from the type 
collection. 

This species resembles Paspalum pictum Ek- 
man, but that has sheaths much less com- 
pressed, the racemes | to 4, not conjugate, the 
spikelets paired, more crowded, smaller, obo- 
vate-pyriform, the second glume present and 
the fruit less papillose. 


Panicum mirandum Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 8 

Perenne, basi decumbens, nodis infra radi- 
cantes; culmi ascendentes, 90-100 cm alti, 
papilloso-hirsuti ramosi, ramis divaricatis, no- 
dis pubescentibus; vaginae papilloso-pilosae; 
ligula minuta; laminae planae, lanceolatae, 
acuminatae, 6-15 cm longae, 7-16 mm latae; 
paniculae 12—14 cm longae lataeque, axi ramis- 
que gracilibus, flexuosis; spiculae plerumque 
geminae, interdum solitariae, raro ternatae, 2 
mm longae, ellipticae, glabrae, glumis et lem- 
mate sterili 7—9-nerviis, gluma prima quam 
spicula brevior; gluma secunda et lemmate 
sterili fructum occultantibus; fructus ellipticus, 
brunneus, laevis, 1.5 mm longus, 1 mm latus, 
apiculatus. 


Fig. 8.— Panicum mirandum, paired spikelets, 
and fruit, X10. (Type.) 


Plant perennial, decumbent at base and pro- 
ducing stilt roots at the nodes; culms ascending, 
90 to 100 cm tall, terete, producing divaricate 
branches, the internodes papillose to papillose- 
hirsute, the nodes densely pubescent; sheaths 
striate, shorter than the internodes on the main 
culm, longer on the branches, papillose-pilose, 
especially toward the summit and on the mar- 
gins, densely pubescent at the junction with the 
blades; ligule membranaceous, less than 0.5 
mm long; blades flat, somewhat firm, lanceo- 
late, acuminate, usually asymmetric at the 
narrowed base, 6 to 15 em long, 7 to 16 mm 


164 


wide, glabrous or sparsely hirsute on the upper 
surface, especially toward the base, faintly ap- 
pressed-pubescent on the under surface, the 
margins scabrous and minutely fluted; panicles 
12 to 14 cm long, as wide or somewhat wider, 
the axis and branches very slender, flexuous, 
pilose in the axils; spikelets usually in pairs, 
both sessile or nearly so at the ends of the deli- 
cate ultimate branchlets, some spikeletssolitary, 
rarely in threes, equal, 2 mm long, elliptic, gla- 
brous, minutely scabrous toward the summit, 
the nerves prominent, 7 to 9 in both glumes and 
sterile lemma; first glumes of both spikelets 
slightly shorter than the spikelets, sometimes 
in one of the spikelets less than half or minute; 
second glume and sterile lemma equal, covering 
the fruit; sterile palea small and delicate; fruit 
elliptic, dark-brown, smooth and shining, 1.5 
mm long, 1 mm wide, apiculate. 

The type is in the U. 8. National Herbarium, 
no. 602176, and a fragment of it in the Herbario 
Nacional de Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricul- 
tura y Cria, collected in Guinand Estate (C4r- 
denas) Siquire Valley; altitude 500 to 1,000 m, 
State of Miranda, Venezuela, March 19-24, 
1913, by H. Pittier, no. 6483. Only known from 
the type collection. 

This species is not closely related to any 
other Panicum; it appears to be in the group 
with P. ovuliferum Trin. and P. pantrichum 
Hack. but differs from both in many characters 
and strikingly in the dark brown fruit. 


Panicum orinocanum Luces, sp. nov. 
Fig. 9 


Perenne, caespitosum; culmi _ simplices, 
erecti, 30-40 cm longi, gracillimi, basi nodosi; 
vaginae striatae, glabrae, internodiis breviores; 
ligula 0.3 mm longa; laminae firmae, 2-10.5 em 
longae, 1-2 mm latae, acuminatae, planae vel 
involutae, glabrae; panicula patens, 3-5 cm 
longa lataque, axi ramisque capillaribus, flexuo- 
sis; spiculae longe pedicellatae, ellipticae, 1.5—-2 


mm longae, nervis prominentibus; gluma prima — 


quam dimidio spicula brevior, 3-nervia; gluma 
secunda et lemma sterile 6—7 nervia, firmula; 
fructus ellipticus, subacuminatus, circa 1.5 mm 
longus, 0.7 mm latus, lemmate obscure pubes- 
centi. 

Plant perennial, caespitose, the culms knot- 
ted at base, 30 to 40 em tall, simple, very slen- 
der, erect, stiff, glabrous, the nodes usually 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


dark, sometimes pale; sheaths striate, glabrous, 
shorter than the internodes; ligule membrana- 
ceous, 0.3 mm long, with a dense ring of hairs, 
about 1 mm. long, back of it; blades firm, lin- 
ear, acuminate, flat or involute, glabrous on 
both surfaces, 2 to 10.5 em long, 1 to 2 mm 
wide, the lower sometimes shorter; panicle 
open, 3 to 5 cm long and about as wide, the axis 


Fig. 9.—Panicum orinocanum, spikelet and two 
views of fruit, X10. (Type.) 


and branches capillary, flexuous, glabrous; 
spikelets long-pedicelled, elliptic, glabrous or 
minutely scaberulous, sometimes with few ob- 
scure hairs at the base, 1.5 to 2 mm long, the 
nerves prominent; first glume 3-nerved, half 
as long as the spikelet or slightly shorter, sec- 
ond glume and sterile lemma 6- to 7-nerved, 
rather firm, the first slightly shorter than the 
second, the sterile lemma usually with a stam- 
inate flower, the sterile palea shorter than the 
lemma, membranaceous; fruit pale, elliptic, 
subacuminate, about 1.5 mm long, 0.7 mm wide, 
the lemma sparsely and obscurely pubescent 
with delicate white hairs. 

. The type is in the Herbario Nacional de 
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria; 
a duplicate type in U. 8S. National Herbarium; 
collected in Alto Orinoco, in savannas of the 
Rio Cataniapo, Puerto Ayacucho, altitude 88 
m, Venezuela; May 23, 1940, by Ll. Williams, 
no. 13090. 

Coxomsta: In thin pockets of soil in cavities 
of ferruginous sandstone, about 60 km south- 
east of Orocue, altitude about 150 m, Comisaria 
El Vichada, April 20, 1939, Oscar Haught, no. 
PATE TESY 

This species is related to Panicum micran- 
thum H.B.K., but that is freely branching 
from a delicate base, has broader pilose blades, 
smaller spikelets, and glabrous fruits. 


Panicum cervicatum Chase, sp. nov. 
Fig. 10 


Perenne, olivaceum; culmi simplices subro- 
busti, rigidi, erecti vel ascendentes, 80-135 cm 


JUNE 15, 1942 


alti; vaginae glabrae vel hispidae; ligula ciliata, 
1-2 mm longa; laminae erectae vel ascendentes, 
durae, plerumque planae, 20-35 cm longae, 
10-18 mm latae, acuminatae, glabrae, scaberu- 
lae, vel hispidae; panicula erecta, 30-50 cm 
longa, ramis rigidis patentibus, pedicellis rigi- 


LUCES: NEW GRASSES FROM VENEZUELA 


165 


hispid to nearly glabrous; sheaths glabrous to 
strongly hispid, the lower overlapping, the 
others shorter than the internodes, sometimes 
retrorse-hispid at the summit; ligule a ring of 
stiff hairs 1 to 2 mm long; blades erect or as- 
cending, stiff, flat or the margins involute in 


Fig. 10.—Panicum cervicatum, portion of panicle, X1; spikelet, two views of rachilla segment, and 
fruit, X10. (Type.) 


dis, spiculis oblique positis; spiculae 6.5-8.5 
mm longae 3-3.5 mm latae, turgidae, glabrae, 
basi constrictae; rachillae segmentum supre- 
mum (infra lemma fertile) subcarnosum, pro- 
cessum cartilagineum, crassiusculum, glabrum, 
ad basin (juxta supraque lemma sterile) geren- 
tum; glumae et lemma sterile 9-11 nervia, 
acuminatae; gluma prima ovata, 3.5-4 mm 
longa; gluma secunda et lemma sterile hiantes, 
purpurascentes, fructum superantes; fructus 
4—4.5 mm longus, 2.2-2.4 mm latus, ellipticus, 
laevis. 

Plants perennial, olivaceous, in clumps of 
few to several simple subrobust culms 80 to 
135 cm tall, stiffly ascending to spreading, 
glabrous to roughened or hispid below the 
nodes and below the panicle; nodes appressed 


drying, 20 to 35 cm long, 10 to 18 mm wide, 
long-acuminate, glabrous or scaberulous to ap- 
pressed-hispid on both surfaces, the firm sca- 
brous margins hispid-ciliate, but the hairs 
readily breaking off; panicle erect, 30 to 50 em 
long, open and nearly as wide at maturity, the 
stiff axis, branches, and branchlets striate, sca- 
brous, stiffly flexuous toward the ends, the 
spikelets set obliquely on stiff pedicels toward 
the ends of the branchlets; spikelets 6.5 to 8.5 
mm long, 3 to 3.5 mm wide, turgid, but con- 
stricted at base, glabrous, the glumes and sterile 
lemma firm, widely gaping at maturity, strongly 
9- to 11-nerved, strongly pointed, blotched with 
dark purple, the first glume broadly ovate, 
about half as long as the sterile lemma, the 
second glume slightly longer than the sterile 


166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


lemma, both exceeding the fruit, the sterile 
lemma enclosing a_ well-developed palea; 
rachilla segments 0.7 to 1.2 mm long, thick, 
that between the sterile and fertile florets some- 
what fleshy with an expanded summit and a 
thick cartilaginous process at the back; fruit 4 
to 4.5 mm long, 2.2 to 2.4 mm wide, elliptic, 
smooth and shining, with a prominent scar at 
base. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1500814, collected in sandy clay cerrado aberto 
(campo with low scattered trees), 300-325 m 
altitude, Tres Lagoas, Matto Grosso, Brazil, 
February 4, 1930, by Agnes Chase, no. 10737. 

The peculiar upper rachilla segment with the 
cartilaginous flaplike process is unlike anything 
in Panicum known to the writer. Before ma- 
turity this rachilla segment disarticulates at 
the base, remaining attached to the fruit (the 
flap sometimes remaining with the sterile 
lemma) but at maturity the rachilla segment 
usually breaks at the summit remaining with 
the sterile lemma. The specific name refers to 
the stiff-necked posture of the spikelets. 

This species somewhat resembles Panicum 
olyroides H.B.K., to which Doell referred two 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


early collections from Minas Geraes, Regnell — | 


III 1369, Caldas (examined in Brussels), and 
Warming, Lagoa Santa, in 1864 (examined in 
Paris). It differs from P. olyroides in the less 
diffuse panicle and in the spikelets constricted 
at base with relatively long rachilla segments, 
and in the glabrous fruit, the fruit of P. oly- 
roides having a tuft of thick hairs on the mar- 
gins of the lemma at base. 

Sandy or sandy-clay savannas, campos, 
and open cerrados, southern Venezuela and 
Brazil. 

VENEZUELA: Amazonas, Isla de El Raton, 
Williams 13221. 

BraziLt: Maranhao: Barra do Corda to Gra- 
jaht, Swallen 3648. Minas Geraes: Serra do 
Cipé, Chase 9138. Pratinha, Dorsett & Popenoe 
189b; Uberlandia, Chase 11167. Goyaz: An- 
napolis, Chase 11519; Viannapolis, Chase 
11281; Rio Verde, Chase 117138; between Ja- 
tahy and Rio Araguaya, Chase 11736. Matto 
Grosso: Near Rio Araguaya, Chase 11863; 
Tres Lagoas, Chase 10737; northwest of Sao 
Lourenco, Chase 11959; Sources du Paraguay, 
Weddell 3081. Sao Paulo: Casa Branca, Chase 
10591. 


JuNE 15, 1942 McCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 167 


BOTANY.—New bamboos from Venezuela and Colombia.’ F. A. McCuurs,? 


U. S. National Herbarium. 


A study of the bamboos of Venezuela 
was undertaken at the request of Miss 
Zoraida Luces, Servicio Botanico, Minis- 
terio de Agricultura y Cria, Venezuela, in 
connection with the preparation of her 
memoir on the Genera of grasses of Vene- 
zuela, which she carried out in the grass 
division of the U. 8. National Herbarium. 
By way of facilitating the completion of this 
part of the project and familiarizing herself 
with the special technique, Miss Luces pre- 
pared dissections of the spikelets of all the 
critical species of bamboos. Mrs. Agnes 
Chase inked my pencil drawings, thus 
greatly hastening the consummation of the 
work. 

Seven species (six from Venezuela, one 
from Colombia) are here described, in four 
genera, one of which is new to science. One 
transfer is made. A complete enumeration 
of the Venezuelan bamboos represented in 
the collections of the Herbario Nacional de 


Venezuela and the U. S. National Her- 


barium will be published later. 


Arthrostylidium ampliflorum sp. nov. 
igs 


Species flosculis amplissimis insignis. 

Rami (floriferi tantum ex culmo disjuncti 
adsunt) usque ad 48 cm longi, tenues, omnino 
glabri, ima basi tantum divisi, internodiis 
basalibus aliquot brevissimis exceptis elongatis, 
infra nodos primo glaucis, nodis ad cicatricem 
collario glauco cinctis, supra cicatricem saepe 
valde et gibbose inflatis et secundum summam 
supercilii circumsecus anguste sulcatis, vaginae 
inferiores deciduae glabrae leviter farinosae. 
Foliorum vaginae angustae arctae omnino gla- 
brae, nervis parum elevatis striatae, apice vel 
truncatae vel concavae; auriculae haud vel 
parum evolutae, glabrae; setae orales utrinque 

+ Contribution from the Botanical Survey, 
Lingnan University, in continuation of bamboo 
research facilitated by occasional grants-in-aid 
from the National Research Council, the Rocke- 
feller Foundation, and the China Foundation. 
Received February 24, 1942. 

* Professor and curator of economic botany, 


Lingnan University, Canton, China, on leave in 
the United States. 


(Communicated by AGNES CHASE.) 


0-1-2, 1-2 cm longae, graciles, glabrae; ligula 
subnulla; petiolus 1-2 mm longus, supra hispi- 
dulus, subtus glaber; foltorum laminae usque 
ad 128 mm longae et usque ad 13 mm latae, 
anguste lanceolatae, attenuate acuminatae, 
basi cuneato-rotundatae, textura tenues, supra 
glabrae subtus obscure scabrae, altero margine 
antrorse spinulosae altero subglabrae, costa 
invalida, nervis secundarlis utrinque 4-5 vix 
quam tertiariis validioribus, venulis transversis 
supra haud visibilibus subtus interdum raris ac 
prope nullis aegre distinguendis, obliquis, sese 
remotis. IJnflorescentiae ex apice ramorum 
foliiferorum egredientes, subspicatae, usque ad 
10 cm longae, pleraeque 7—9-spiculatae. Pe- 
dunculus in foliorum vaginis ex toto celatus. 
Rhachis usque ad 5.5 cm longa, tenuis, glabra, 
semel ramosa, ramis (pedicellis) vix 1 mm longis, 
adpressis, glabris, solitariis, 1-spiculatis. Spicu- 
lae amplae, valde compressae, 4—6-florae, laxius- 
culae. Flosculae perfectae, infima interdum et 
suprema semper paullo tabescente. Glumae 2 
vel 3, sibi approximatae, apice acuminatae, in 
aristam longam attenuatae, subglabrae vel 


plus minusve valde hispidulae, inaequales I: 


angustissima, l-nervi, 5-7 mm longa, arista 
2.5-3.5 mm longa non exclusa, II: 5—7-nervi, 
10-11 mm longa, arista 2.6-4 mm longa non 
exclusa, III (forsan potius lemma sterilem di- 
cenda): 9-11 nervi, usque ad 18 mm longa, 
arista 3-6 mm longa non exclusa. Lemma lan- 
ceolatum, apice acuminatum in aristam sca- 
bram attenuatum, usque ad 28 mm longum, 
arista usque ad 9 mm longa non exclusa, 13—15- 
nerve, extus subtiliter scabrum vel granulosum, 
nervo mediano deorsum scabro sursum hispi- 
dulo prominuloque. Palea usque ad 19 mm 
longa, lemma (dempto aristo) aequans vel bre- 
vior vel paullo exserta, apice obtusa, bicarinata, 
quum carinis ciliatis sursum in apiculas breves 
penicillatas excurrentibus bicornata, extra cari- 
nas utrinque 3-nervis hispidulaque, inter cari- 
nas 2-4 nervis, antrorse hispida. Rhachillae 
segmenta gracilia, compresse claviformia, apice 
subito inflata (post abscessionem flosculae apice 
late poculiformia), omnino glabra, infimis 1-2 
mm longis haud disarticulantibus, ceteris 5-7 
mm longis, infra lemmata fertilia disarticulanti- 


168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


bus. Lodiculae 2 (an typice?) interdum 1-0, 
subaequales, 4-5 mm longae, vel lanceolatae 
vel suboblanceolatae, obtusae, subopacae, 3—5- 
nerves, utrinque glabrae vel extus subtilissime 


A D 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


via, tenuia, glabra (an semper?). Fructus ma- 
turus non ad huc inventus. 

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
1126694, ex Herb. Nat. Hist. Mus. Vienna, col- 


Fig. 1.—Arthrostylidium ampliflorum: A, Apical portion of an inflorescence; B, glume I (abaxial 
aspect); C, glume II; D, glume III (or sterile lemma); H, floret; F, lateral aspect (above) and outer 
aspect of rhachilla segment; G, lemma; H, palea; I, lodicules; J, stamen complement; K, pistil. All <2. 


(Type.) 


adpresse puberulae, margine subglabrae vel 
prope apicem obscure ciliolatae. Antherae us- 
que ad 10 mm longae, sublineares, sursum 
paullo attenuatae, apice obtusae. Ovarium gla- 
brum, angustum, sursum in stylum longum 
tenuem glabrum attenuatum. Stigmata 2, bre- 


lected by H. Karsten s.n., Venezuela, without 
other data. U. 8. National Herbarium no. 
1298695, ex Herb. Hort. Petrop., a single flow- 
ering branch, evidently represents the same col- 
lection. 

This species is clearly distinguished from all 


JUNE 15, 1942 MccCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 169 


others of the genus known to me by its very Arthrostylidium geminatum sp. nov. 
large florets. Another striking feature is the Pig. 2 
conspicuous junction of the rhachilla segments Species distinctissima sine affinitate arcta 


with the florets. Viewed as a distinct unit, this quam ad speciem mihi cognitam. 


7 
a ( <—— 
& a 


—— 


Fig. 2.—Arthrostylidium geminatum: A, Inflorescence; B, typical pair of spikelets; C, floret from 
middle of spikelet; D, typical set of 3 glumes; E, typical set of 2 glumes; F, lemma; G, palea; H, 
rhachilla segment; I, lodicules; J, stamens; K, pistil (stigmas lacking). All X2. (Type.) 


region may be described as oblately inflated. Culmi altitudinis ignoratae usque ad 2.5 em 
After the floret falls, the abruptly spreading  crassi; internodia fistulosa, inania, leviter ele- 
summit of the rhachilla segment is like a shal- vato-striata, omnino glabra, teretia, supra 
low bowl. sedem ramorum haud suleata; nod? supra ci- 


170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


catricem vix inflati, ad cicatricem fibrillis 
vaginarum dissolutarum fimbriati. Culmorwm 
vaginae (desideratae) evidenter haud deciduae 
sed in situ dissolventes. Rami (floriferi tantum 
adsunt) numerosissimi, subverticillati, omnes 
tenuissimi, 8-40 cm longi, ima basi tantum di- 
visi, omnino glabri, levi, nitidi, plerique simul 
folias simul inflorescentias gerentes, nodis in- 
fimis tantum gemmiferis, saepe gibbose inflatis 
geniculatisque, vaginis glabris persistentibus 
fotis. Foliorum vaginae tenues, glabrae, sursum 
tenuiter elevato-nervosae, basi leves, pleraeque 
altero margine ciliatae altero glabrae; awriculae 
haud vel vix evolutae; setae orales paucae vel 
plurae vel nullae, 2-3 mm longae, rigidae, con- 
fertae, parallelae, glabrae, graciles, basi vix in- 
flatae; ligula subnulla; petiolus 2-3 mm longus, 
fuscus, gracilis, utrinsecus glaber; foliorum 
laminae textura tenues, usque ad 9 cm longae et 
usque ad 9 mm latae, lineari-lanceolatae, apice 
attenuate acuminatae, basi cuneato-rotunda- 
tae, utrinsecus glabrae vel subglabrae, margini- 
bus antrorse spinulosae, mox vel tarde decid- 
uae, nervis secundariis quam tertiariis utrin- 
que vix validioribus, venulis transversis haud 
visibilibus. Inflorescentiae ex apice ramorum 
foliiferorum singulatim egredientes, subpanicu- 
latae. Pedunculus tenuis, enodosus, basi in foli- 
orum vagina suprema velatus, sursum usque 
ad 3 cm exsertus, glaber. Rhachis usque ad 10.5 
em longa, gracilis, rigidiuscula, glabra, supra 
sedem ramulorum applanata vel sulcata, ramis 
glabris, adpressis, usque ad 2.5 mm longis, soli- 
tarlis vel rarius approximatis, vulgo 2- (raro 3-) 
spiculatis, spicula suprema tantum in quoque 
ramulo brevipedicellata, lateralibus sessilibus 
vel subsessilibus. Spiculae in quoque inflores- 
centia usque 18 circa, usque ad 15 mm longae, 
compressae, pauciflorae, laxiusculae. Glumae 
2-3, sibi approximatae, extus glabrae, intus 
apicem versus setis albis antrorse strigosae, I: 
1.5-4 mm longa, oblonga vel subtriangula, 
apice obtusa et apiculata vel longe acuminata, 
dorso 1-3 nervi vel 1-carinata, II: 2.5-4 mm 
longa, ovata vel oblonga, apice obtusa, apicu- 
lata, dorso 3-nervi, III (forsan potius lemma 
sterilem dicenda): 3-4 mm longa, oblonga, 
apice obtusa apiculata, dorso 3-nervi, lemma- 
tibus fertilibus simili sed multo breviore. Flos- 
culae vulgo 5-6 quarum infima saepe suprema 
semper tabescente. Lemma fertile medianum 
usque ad 7 mm longum, superioribus inferiori- 


VOL. 32, No. 6 


busque vulgo paullo brevioribus, omnibus apice 
subacutis vel subito acuminatis, extus omnino 
glabris, intus apicem versus saepissime setis 
albis antrorse strigosis, nervis extus obscuris 
intus prominentibus circa 5. Palea lemma ae- 
quans vel brevior, raro paullo exserta, apice 
obtusa vel subacuta, interdum subtiliter co- 
mosa, dorso inter et secus carinas antrorse sca- 
bra, alioquin omnino glabra, nervis extus ob- 
scuris. Rhachillae segmenta infra tantum lem- 
mata fertilia disarticulantia, infimis 1-2 mm 
longis, superioribus gradatim longioribus us- 
que ad 3 mm longis, omnia secus latus proxi- 
mum valde applanata, apicem versus abrupte 
infundibuliformia, apice subtilissime ciliolata 
alioquin glabra. Lodiculae 3 (eisdem in typo in 
mala conditione) parvae, circa 1 mm longae, 
crassiusculae, opacae, utrinsecus glabrae, mar- 
gine (?). Antherae pleraeque in typo descitae 
reliquis usque ad 3.5 mm longis, linearibus, 
apice obtusis. Ovartum angustum, glabrum. 
Stylt 2, glabri, fere ad basin distincti. Stigmata 
(desiderata). Fructus maturus non ad huc in- 
ventus. 

Type in Herbario Nacional de Venezuela, 
Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Alfredo Jahn 
no. “125?” (no. 11, teste Zoraida Luces), col- 
lected Oct. 20, 1910, at P&ramo de La Crista- 
lina, on the border of the State of Trujillo, 
Venezuela; duplicate in the U. S. National 
Herbarium, no. 602204 (Jahn no. 11). 


Arthrostylidium purpuratum sp. nov. 
Fig. 3 

Species arcte affinis Aruwndinariae aristulatae 
Doell, sed praecipue characteribus sequentibus 
differt: foliorum laminis supra glabris subtus 
omnino pilosis; pedicellis multo brevioribus; 
flosculis fuscis, lemmatibus paleisque intus pur- 
pura aciter tinctis extus haud viride punctatis; 
spiculis flosculisque multo longioribus; lemma- 
tibus dorso valde scabris, marginibus ad api- 
cem longe ciliatis; rhachillae segmentis fere du- 
plo longioribus. 

Rami (3 floriferi tantum inter se disjuncti, 
partem infimam carentes, in specimine adsunt) 
usque et ultra 68 cm longi, gracillimi, debiles, 
sublignosi, nisi forsan ima basi indivisi, omnino 
glabri, substriate maculati, nodis plus minusve 
inflatis. Foliorum vaginae arctae, angustae, 
omnino glabrae, elevato-nervosae, striate ma- 
culatae; auriculae raro subnullae, vulgo valide 


JUNE 15, 1942 MCCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 171 


evolutae, oblongae vel subfalcatae, crassae, serta, dorso hispidula, apice recta, margine 
plus minusve excurrentes inflataeque, tubero- denticulata ciliataque; petiolus 1-2 mm longus, 
sae, pleraeque glabrae vel interdum sparse his- fusce purpuratus, supra antrorse scaber, subtus 
pidae; setae orales raro perpaucae, vulgo nu-_ glaber; foliorum laminae usque ad 10.5 cm lon- 


Fig. 3.—Arthrostylidium purpuratum: A, Apical portion of inflorescence; B, glume I (abaxial aspect); 
C, glume IJ, with acuminate apex; C’, glume II, with two keels and bifurcate apex, as found where 
it is addorsed to the main rhachis; D, floret; E, rhachilla segment, lateral (left) and inner aspects; 
F, lemma; G, palea; H, lodicule complement; I, two stamens from floret in lower part of spikelet; 
I’, stamen from floret in upper part of spikelet; J, pistil; K, apex of leaf sheath showing typical well- 
developed auricle and oral setae, petiole, and base of leaf blade. All X2 except A, whichis X1}. (Type.) 


merosae, tenues, glabrae vel basi scabriusculae, gae et usque ad 12 mm latae, lanceolatae, acu- 
subpurpuratae, usque ad 10 mm longae, valde minatae, basi anguste rotundatae, supra gla- 
flexuosae, vel ex marginibus vel undique ex brae, subtus omnino pilis antrorsis pallidis 
auriculis egredientes; ligula brevissima vix ex- dense vestitae, marginibus  cartilaginosae, 


172 


altero margine valide altero debiliter spinu- 
losae, nervo medio valido, secundariis utrinque 
4—5 e tertiariis vix distinctis, venulis transversis 
utrinque haud visibilibus. Injflorescentiae ex 
apice ramorum foliiferorum singulatim egre- 
dientes, paniculatae. Pedunculus usque ad 15 
cm exsertus (parte infima usque ad 6.5 cm 
longa in foliae vagina fota), tenuis, subherba- 
ceus, fistulosus, glaber, tenuiter elevato-nervo- 
sus. Rhachis usque ad 10 em longa, tenuis, plus 
minusve angulata, glabra vel secus angulas vel 
scabra vel hispidula, simul iterumve divisa, 
ramis paucis, tenuissimis, vel adpressis vel pa- 
tulis vel etiam retrorsis, quum pulvinis valide 
evolutis. Pedicelli gracillimi, vel scabri vel his- 
pidi, lateralibus brevibus, 2-3 mm longis his- 
pidis vel pilosis, terminalibus usque ad 12 mm 
longis, scabris vel hispidis. Spiculae angustae, 
gracillimae, laxiusculae, compressiusculae, sub- 
rectae. Glumae 2, sibi approximatae, inaequa- 
les, apicem versus secus nervum medium an- 
trorse scabrae, nervo medio in aristam scabram 
producto, I: circa 5 mm longa arista 1-2 mm 
longa non exclusa, anguste lanceolata, apice 
attenuate acuminata, subhyalina, decolorata 
vel viridiuscula, 1-3 nervi, II: usque ad 9 mm 
longa arista 1-2 mm longa non exclusa, oblongo- 
lanceolata, dorso apiceque variabile, nunc 3- 
nervi quum apice integro acuminata, nunc 
dorso bicarinata quum apice inaequaliter bi- 
furcata, altera carina (nervo principali) in 
aristulam scabram producta, altera ad latus 
exteriorem obtuse alata, textura membranacea, 
deorsum purpura tincta sursum viridiuscula, 
extus glabra vel prope apicem hispidula, mar- 
ginibus ad apicem ciliata. Flosculae subfusi- 
formes vix compressae, usque ad 6 bene evo- 
lutae, adde huc unam terminalem tabescentem, 
omnes purpura fusca tinctae. Lemma lanceola- 
tum, apice acuminatum, in aristam longam at- 
tenuatum, marginibus prope apicem longe 
ciliatum, plerumque 7-nerve, usque 17 mm 
rarius 18 mm longum arista 7 mm longa non 
exclusa, inferioribus superioribusque breviori- 
bus. Palea 9-10 mm longa, fere numquam ex- 
serta, angusta, apice acuta vel subacuta, bi- 
carinata, secus carinas anguste cartilaginas 
ciliata, inter carinas prope apicem hispida, 
alioquin extus fere omnino subtiliter scabra. 
Rhachillae segmenta infra tantum lemmata fer- 
tilia disarticulantia, gracillima, subclaviformia, 
secus latus proximum applanata, sulcata gla- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


braque, secus latus distantem convexa et supra 
medium fusca granulosaque, infra medium 
straminea levia nitidaque, apice interdum sub- 
tilissime ciliolata, I: cirea 4 mm longo, supe- 
rioribus gradatim longioribus usque ad 7 mm 
longis. Lodiculae 3, hyalinae vel subopacae, in- 
terdum purpura leviter tinctae, intus glabrae 
extus hispidulae, marginibus ciliolatae, anterio- 
ribus 2 usque ad 1.5 mm longis, deorsum angus- 
tatis, sursum oblique ovatis, apice obtusis, 
posteriore usque ad 2 mm longa, lanceolata, 
apice attenuate acuminata. Stamina 2 (an 
typice ?), antheris usque ad 7 mm longis, line- 
aribus, apice obtusis emarginatisque, in statu 
siceato fusco-brunneis. Ovarzwm glabrum, an- 
gustum, postice sulculo leviter notatum, apice 
in stylum gracillimum glabrum attenuatum. 
Stigmata 2, adpresse pilosa vel subplumosa. 
Fructus maturus non ad huc inventus. 

Type in Herbario Nacional de Venezuela, 
Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Ll. Williams 
no. 10905, collected in 1938 at the summit of El 
Alvila, Federal District, Venezuela. There are 
two sheets under this number. The second sheet 
bearing a ramiferous node of a sterile culm, 
apparently not conspecific, was excluded from 
the type and given the number Williams 
10905-A to distinguish it. Principal among the 
peculiarities of this specimen that led to its ex- 
clusion are: the more highly lignified, firmer 
texture of the wood, the almost complete lack 
of auricles and oral setae on the leaf sheaths, 
the very different shape of the leaf blades and, 
perhaps most important, the very different 
character and distribution of the pubescence of 
the leaf blades. 

The specific epithet alludes to the dark pur- 
ple color of the lemmas and paleas, which is 
particularly intense on the inner surface. 


Arthrostylidium venezuelae (Steud.) 
comb. nov. 


Chusquea Venezuelae Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1: 
337. 1854; Munro, Trans. Linn. Soc. 26: 55. 
1868. 


Although he had not seen the plant, Munro 
suspected, on account of the sessile spikelets, 
that it belonged in Arthrostylidium. This sus- 
picion has been confirmed by a study of authen- 
tic material of the species. The type, J. Linden 
no. 494 (Voy. Funck et Schlim), cited by 
Steudel as Funck et Schlim no. 494, collected 


JUNE 15, 1942 MCCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 173 


at alt. 5000 ft. at Galipan, Caracas, Federal 
District, Venezuela, ‘1846, fl. en Avril,” was 
seen by Dr. A. 8. Hitchcock in the Boissier 
Herbarium at Geneva. I have studied several 
fragmentary specimens from the type collection 
at the U. S. National Herbarium, and the fol- 
lowing specimens from Venezuela in the Her- 
bario Nacional de Venezuela and U.8. National 
Herbarium: 

Aracua: Rancho Grande (Parque Nacio- 
nal), Pitter 13983. 

WITHOUT PRECISE LOCALITY: Voronoff [Wo- 
ronow| 454. 


Elytrostachys® gen. nov. 


Genus faciebus aliis Nasto Juss. aliis Perrier- 
bambut A. Camus arcte affine. Tamen, genus 
nostrum a Perrierbambu (genere in Hannonis! 
Insula indigeno) characteribus saltem sequen- 
tibus distinguendum est: planta caespitosa; 
rhizoma stricte determinatum; rhachin fotenti- 
bus bracteis laminiferis setas orales insignas 
gerentibus; spiculae sesquiflorae; palea dorso 
invaginata ita intus fistulifera, in fistulam rha- 
chillae segmentum gracillimum cum floscula 
inchoativa praefixa celans. Genus Elytrostachys 
a Nasto (genere in Insula Bourbonia et Han- 
nonis Insula indigeno) characteribus sequenti- 
bus abit: inflorescentia brevissima quasi spi- 
cata, sine pedunculo distincto, paucispiculata, 
a latere indeterminata, rhachi principali brevis- 
simi, bracteis amplis plerisque laminiferis gem- 
miparis, setas orales insignes gerentibus obtecta, 
rhacheos ramulis unisquibusque prophyllum 
ima basi gerentibus; spiculae pauciflorae (in 
speciebus notis sesquifloris); lemmata sterilia 
nulla; stigmata typice 2. Denique, ut aliquis 
opinabatur, genus nostrum, saltem inflorescen- 
tiarum habitu superficiali (videlicet: inflores- 
centiae ex apice ramorum egredientes, compres- 
sae, quasi spicatae, bracteis laminiferis tectae) 
remote simile Phyllostachy Sieb. & Zucc. vide- 
tur. Tamen, rhizomate determinato tantum, 
culmi internodiis teretibus, ramis plurimis ver- 
ticillatis, staminibus 6, stigmatibus 2, palea 
intus fistulosa, etc., quamobrem Elytrostachys 
a Phyllostachy remote distat. 


3 €\urpov, covering, alluding to the elytra-like 
bracts that cover the main rhachis and conceal 
the real structure of the inflorescence from the 
casual observer, + oraxus, a spike, alluding to the 
spikelike aspect of the inflorescence. 

4“Hannibal’s Island, i.e. Madagascar. 


Characteres generis: Planta  caespitosa, 
caespitibus discretis. Rhizoma determinatum. 
Culmi <internodia fistulosa, inania, teretia, 
supra sedem ramorum vix vel leviter et breviter 
tantum sulcata. Culmi vaginae (demptis eis 
plantarum juvenissimarum) desideratae. Rami 
plurimi, vel subverticillati vel verticillati, 
tenues. Foliorum laminae marginibus subtiliter 
serrato-scabrae, maturitate quidem venulas 
transversas manifestas carentes. Inflorescen- 
tae ex apice ramorum foliferorum singulatim 
egredientes, sine pedunculo distincto, breves, 
compressae, quasi spicatae, vel racemose vel 
paniculatim ramosae, a latere indeterminatae, 
axibus subsidiariis brevibus unisquibusque ima 
basi prophyllo fotis, plerisque sursum bracteis 
gemmiparis tectis itaque pseudospiculas® com- 
ponentibus; rhachin principalem foventibus 
bracteis laminiferis setas orales insignes geren- 
tibus. Spiculae pauciflorae (in speciebus notis 
sesquiflorae), lemmata sterilos carentes. Glu- 
mae typice 2, sibi approximatae. Rhachillae 
segmentum infra tantum lemma fertilem dis- 
articulans claviforme, haud applanatum, vel 
breve vel plus minusve elongatum. Palea 
dorso invaginata ita intus fistulifera, intra fis- 
tulam rhachillae segmentum gracillimum cum 
floscula inchoativa praefixa celans. Lodiculae 
typice 3. Stamina typice 6. Fructus ignoratus. 

Typus: Hlytrostachys typica. 

The specimens that served as the basis of the 
description of the type species of the genus 
Elytrostachys had been labeled by someone 
‘Phyllostachys aurea Riviere?”’. This misidenti- 
fication apparently led to the supposition that 
both this and the Colombian species were in- 
troduced, since no species of Phyllostachys has 
been found to be native in South America. 
Aside from the rather deceptive appearance of 
the peculiar, spikelike inflorescences that are 
borne singly at the tips of leafy branches and 
are clothed with laminiferous bracts, the plant 
has nothing in common with Phyllostachys 
except the very general characters that bind 
all the bamboos together. The most obvious 
affinities of the genus Elytrostachys are with 
Nastus Juss. and Perrierbambus A. Camus. 
With Nastus, Elytrostachys has in common the 
verticillate branching habit of the culm, the 

5 For definition and explanation of term pseu- 


dospikelet see McClure, this JoURNAL 24: 541- 
548. 1934. 


174 


lack of conspicuous transverse veinlets in the 
leaf blades, and the general plan of the spike- 
lets, including the terminal, rudimentary floret. 
The type species of Nastus, however, differs 
from that of Elytrostachys in the following 
fundamental respects: Inflorescences borne on 
more elongate, specialized, ebracteate pe- 
duncles, larger and more effusely branched but 
laterally determinate (i.e., without tardily de- 
veloping buds) and lacking throughout pro- 
phylls, gemmiparous bracts and undeveloped 
buds; spikelets very uniform in size, each with 
several sterile lemmas, the palea shallowly sul- 
cate at the back, not fistulose, and 3 styles. 
Elytrostachys has in common with Perrierbam- 
bus, so far as their type species are concerned, 
the following characters: the  verticillate 
branching habit of the culm, the lack of trans- 
verse veinlets in the leaf blades, the general 
orientation and structure of the inflorescence, 
and the following features of the spikelet: two 
glumes, one fertile lemma, no sterile lemmas, 
three lodicules, six stamens with free, filiform 
filaments. Perrierbambus, however, besides hav- 
ing a very different appearance in the frag- 
ments seen, differs, as described by Mlle. 
Camus, in the following respects: rhizomes 
tracant (indeterminate?), the culms distant 
from each other, giving the plant a dumetose 
habit; the spikelets 1-flowered, the palea not 
keeled nor dorsally invaginate, and without 
any vestige of a rhachilla segment or rudi- 
mentary terminal floret at its back. While the 
two lines are apparently rather closely allied, 
their fundamental difference in the rhizome 
habit, on the vegetative side, and in the struc- 
ture of the spikelet and the palea of the fertile 
floret, on the reproductive side, have led me, 
in the light of the significance of these char- 
acters in other genera, to expect that other 
supporting differences will be found when 
more ample material becomes available. 

It is a noteworthy fact, though not one to 
be given undue weight in deciding their taxo- 
nomic disposition, that Nastus and’ Perrier- 
bambus are both Old World genera. Perrier- 
bambus is known only from Madagascar, and 
Nastus from the Isle of Bourbon and Mada- 
gascar. All South American species hitherto 
attached to Nastus have proved, insofar as they 
have been studied critically, to belong to other 
New World genera. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


Elytrostachys typica sp. nov. 
Fig. 4 


Planta conferte caespitosa; rhizoma deter- 
minatum (teste Pittier per colloquia). Culmi 
6-10 m alti, basi usque ad 4 cm crassi (teste 
Pittier), anternodiis (ramifero sectio mediano 
tantum culmi adest) teretibus, infra nodos 
paullo sericeis, alioquin glabris vel glabres- 
centibus, intus fistulosis, inanibus, nodis vix 
inflatis. Culmorum vaginae (desideratae). Rami 
(floriferi tantum adsunt )5-33 cm longi, tenues, 
crassitudine subaequales, ima basi tantum divi- 
visl, omnino glabri, nodis vix inflatis, eorum 
mediis haud gemmiferis, vaginas persistentes 
gerentibus. Foliorum vaginae arctae, cylin- 
dratae, glabrae, apice tantum elevato-nervosae 
alioquin immerse nervosae; auriculae parvae, 
glabrae, interdum subnullae; setae orales per- 
paucae, usque ad 15 mm longae, rigidulae, 
erectae (haud radiatae), dempta basi bulbosa 
gracillimae, antrorse scabrae; ligula subnulla; 
petrolus gracilis, 1.5-2 mm longus, subtus 
glaber, supra secus medium hispidulus; fol7- 
orum laminae usque ad 83 mm longae et usque 
ad paene 10 mm latae, lanceolatae vel oblongo- 
lanceolatae, apice attenuate acuminatae basi 
rotundatae, supra prope margines plus minusve 
scabrae alioquin utrinsecus glabrae, nervis 
secundariis utrinque 3-4, e tertiariis sursum 
aegre distinguendis. Inflorescentia circa 30 em 
longa; rhachis principalis glabris, internodiis 
claviformibus, infimo usque ad 8 mm longo 
superioribus gradatim multo brevioribus; brac- 
teae gemmiparae (rhacheos principalis) vulgo 
3, rarius 4, subspatuliformes, laxae, usque ad 
15 mm longae, subelevate nervosae, glabrae, 
suprema interdum excepta foliiferae; auriculae 
minutae, glabrae; setae orales paucae, usque 
ad 25 mm longae, graciles, pleraeque radiatae, 
dempta basi bulbosa glabra gracillimae scab- 
rae; ligula subnulla; laminae petiolatae, et 
alioquin ut in foliorum laminis (vide supra); 
bractea swprema (rhacheos principalis) inter- 
dum a ceteris differens: oblonga, auriculas et 
setas orales carens, apice integra vel laminellam 
decoloratam angustissime linearem sessilem 
persistentem gerens, lamellam tamen interdum 
funditus carens; pseudospiculae (axes subsidi- 
arii, omnes in typo juveniles) superiores maxi- 
mae; prophylla carinis late alata, margine alae 
subtiliter ciliolata alioquin utrinque glabra; 


JuNE 15, 1942 MCCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 175 


‘By 


Fig. 4.—Elytrostachys typica: A, Inflorescence at tip of leafy branch (note tip of rhachilla segment 
_at base of exserted floret); B, laminiferous bract (or sheath) from the base of the inflorescence (the 
. blade has fallen); C, very young pseudospikelet from the axil of bract at left (note prophyll at its base); 

D, aphyllous, long-tipped bract, the uppermost on the main rhachis; E, immature pseudospikelet from 
the axil of bract at left (note prophyll at its base); F, glume I; G, glume II; H, rhachilla segment 
which terminated the main rhachis and bore a fertile floret; I, lemma; J, palea; K, palea in longi- 
tudinal section, showing rudimentary rhachilla segment and floret, which lie in the fistula or dorsal 
fold; L, a lodicule from the anterior pair: adaxial (left) and abaxial aspects; M, anther; N, pistil; 
O, diagram showing the parts of a typical inflorescence: Beginning at the base, we find the following 
appendages at the successive levels: A prophyll, with a vegetative bud in its axil; two bracts, each with 
a vegetative bud in its axil; three empty bracts; three laminiferous bracts (or sheaths) each with a 
reproductive bud (young pseudospikelet, its prophyll shown separately) in its axil; aphyllous, long- 
tipped bract, with a reproductive bud (young pseudospikelet; its prophyll shown separately) in its axil; 
first glume; second glume; lemma, in longitudinal section; palea, in longitudinal section, showing, 
within the fistula or dorsal fold, the slender rhachilla segment bearing a rudimentary. floret (the re- 
productive organs of the fertile floret omitted); P, diagram showing the appendages of a typical 
lateral axis or pseudospikelet, as compared with those of the main axis of the inflorescence. The ap- 
pendages are (beginning at the base): A prophyll; gemmiparous bract with a pseudospikelet in its 
axil; first glume; second glume; a perfect floret (the slender rhachilla segment bearing a rudimentary 
floret shown removed from the dorsal fold of the palea); the reproductive organs of the fertile floret 
omitted. All, except O and P, <2. (Type.) 


176 


bracteae gemmiparae (axium subsidiorum) vul- 
go 1, raro nullae, glumis similes sed multo 
breviores. Spiculae sesquiflorae subfusiformes 
vix compressae. Glumae 2, laxae, glabrae, papy- 
raceae, nervosae, apice acutae vel obtusae, I: 
usque ad 11 mm longa, anguste triangula, II: 
usque ad 15 mm longa, quam I fere duplo am- 
pliore, naviculiforme. Rhachillae segmentum 
flosculam fertilem gerens glabrum, in axi 
principali plerumque brevissimum, rarissime 
usque ad 6 mm longum, in axibus subsidiariis 
vulgo usque ad 6.5 mm longum. Floscula 
fertilis decidua, subfusiformis, modice inflata, 
vix compressa. Lemma usque ad 22 vel 23 mm 
longum lanceolatum, apice attenuate acumi- 
natum, extus glabrum, nervis plus minusve 
manifeste nervosissimum, intus et nervis et 
venulis oblique transversis prominentibus no- 
tatum. Palea lemma aequans vel brevior vel 
rarius longior, angustior, ventricosula, apice 
subobtusa, extus glabra, nervosa, intus venu- 
las transversas carens. Lodiculae 3, typice sub- 
hyalinae trinervesque, intus glabrae, extus 
puberulae, margine subtiliter ciliatae, anteri- 
oribus 2 maioribus usque ad 4 mm longis, basi 
angustatis, sursum gibbose ovatis, posteriore 
lanceolata angustioreque, omnibus pervari- 
abilis, interdum deformibus crassis et opacis, 
saepe minutis. Stamina vulgo 6, raro 5 (1-2 
interdum plus minusve tabescentibus), usque 
ad 15 mm longa, angusta, supra in apicem 
obtusam paullo attenuata. Ovarium glabrum 
fusiforme, apice attenuatum. Stigmata 2, sibi 
approximata, erecta, rigidula, scabra vel to- 
mentosa (an typice?). Fructus non ad hue 
inventus. 

Type in Herbario Nacional de Venezuela, 
Ministerio de Agricultura y Crfa, Pittier no. 
9226, collected February 21, 1921, at alt. 600 
m, in the edge of a monsoon forest near El 
Limon, Valle Puerto La Cruz, Federal District, 
Venezuela. Duplicate in U. 8. National Herb- 
arium, no. 1067333. 


Elytrostachys clavigera sp. nov. 
Figs. 5, 6 


Species e generis typo differt praecipue foli- 
orum laminis supra, basin versus, scabris; in- 
florescentiarum bracteis laminiferis ultra #4 
longioribus latioribusque et pro parte saltem 
sericeo-pubescentibus; glumis circa 3 longio- 
ribus; rhachillae segmenta flosculam fertilem 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


gerente vulgo circa duplo longiore et per me- 
dium saltem pubescente; flosculis perfectis 
vulgo 3 brevioribus. 

Culmi altitudinis ignoratae usque ad vel 
ultra 4 cm diametro, internodiis in medio 
culmi usque ad vel ultra 37 cm longis, setis 
aciculiformibus adpressis plus minusve dense 
obsitis, fistulosis, imanibus, teretibus, ligno 
circa 2 mm crasso, nodis vix inflatis, ad cica- 
tricem prominulam collario angusto cinctis. 
Culmorum vaginae (desideratae). Rami (flori- 
feri tantum adsunt) usque ad 20 em longi, 
tenues, crassitudine subaequales, ima basi 
tantum divisi, omnino glabri, nodis vix inflatis, 
eorumdem mediis haud gemmiferis, omnibus 
vaginas persistentes gerentibus. Foliorum vagi- 
nae arctae, cylindratae, glabrae vel fere glabrae, 
omnino immerse nervosae vel apice tantum ele- 
vato-nervosae; auriculae parvae, glabrae, inter- 
dum subnullae; setae orales paucae, usque ad 
12 mm longae, dempta basi bulbosa glabra 
graciles scabraeque, rigidulae, erectae vel 
patentes; ligula subnulla; petiolus gracilis, circa 
1 mm longus, aut utrinque vel glaber vel 
hispidulus aut superficiei altera utra hispidulus; 
foliorum laminae pleraeque descitae, reliquis 
usque ad 75 mm longis et usque ad 11 mm latis, 
lanceolatis, apice attenuate acuminatis, basi 
rotundatis, infra glabris, supra praecipue basin 
versus antrorse scabris, marginibus subtiliter 
serrato-scabrae, nervis secundariis utrinque 
3-4, sursum a tertiariis aegre distinguendis. 
Inflorescentia usque ad 50 mm longa; rhachis 
principalis deorsum saltem pubescens, inter- 
nodiis claviformibus, infimo usque ad 9 mm 
longo, superioribus gradatim multo brevior- 
ibus, supremo vix 1 mm longo; bracteae gem- 
miparae (rhacheos principalis) vulgo 3-4, al- 
veoliformes, laxae, subpapyraceae, fragiles, 
facile fissiles, usque ad 22 mm longae, plerae- 
que immerse nervosae, pro parte saltem sub- 
sericeo-pubescentes, suprema interdum excepta 
omnes foliiferae; auriculae modice evolutae, 
angustissimae, glabrae, fragilissimae prius dis- 
solventes quam eas foliarum vaginarum; 
setae orales plures, usque ad 18 mm longae, 
pleraeque radiatae, graciles, rigidulae, dempta 
basi bulbosa scabrae; ligula subnulla; lami- 
nae petiolatae, alioquin ut in foliorum lami- 
nis (vide supra); bractea suwprema (rhacheos 
principalis) interdum a ceteris differens: ob- 
longa, auriculas et setas orales carens, apice 


al 


if 


; 


JuNE 15, 1942 McCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 


Ja) 


——-—— 
as: 


Pr 1 
Soe 
Prey 


-~ 


= 


ey 
—=>= 


177 


E i: G 


Fig. 5.—Elytrostachys clavigera: A, Inflorescence (the bracts have lost their blades, note apex of 
empty rhachilla segment at center); B, laminiferous bract (or sheath) from base of inflorescence; 
C, pseudospikelet (with disarticulated floret) from axil of bract at left (note prophyll at base); D, bract 
(or sheath) from which the blade has fallen; EK, immature pseudospikelet from axil of bract at left 
(note prophyll at base); F, glume I; G, glume IJ; H, rhachilla segment, which bore a fertile floret (at 
tip of main rhachis); I, lemma; J, palea (note dark line marking course of fistula or dorsal fold, which 
often widens to an elongate, narrowly funnel shaped mouth at the apex); K, diagrammatic cross section 
of the palea (the dot indicates the rudimentary rhachilla and floret which lie in the dorsal fold); 
L, lodicules (left and right are abaxial and adaxial aspects, respectively, of one of the anterior pair, 
center is adaxial aspect of the posterior one); M, anther; N, pistil. All X2. (Type.) 


integra vel laminellam decoloratam angustis- 
Simam linearem sessilem persistentem gerens, 
laminellam tamen interdum funditus carens; 


_ pseudospiculae (rhacheos rami) compositae, bis 


terve divisae; prophylla carinis late alata, alis 
margine subtiliter ciliolatis, alioquin utrinque 


glabra; bracteae gemmitparae (axium_ subsidi- 
orum) vulgo 1, rarius 2-0, glumis similes sed 
multo breviores, suprema rarissime inani 
(gemmam carente). Sprculae sesquiflorae sub- 
fusiformes, vix compressae. Gluwmae 2, laxae, 
papyraceae, pallidae, nervosae, lanceolatae, 


a ee 


178 


apice acutae vel obtusae, vulgo (infima in 
rhachi principali excepta) glabrae vel fere 
glabrae, I: usque ad 14 mm longa, II: usque ad 
18 mm longa. Rhachillae segmentum flosculam 
fertilem gerens claviforme, valde striatum, 
plus minusve curvatum, per medium pilosum, 
in axi principali usque ad 17 mm longum, 


Fig. 6—Elytrostachys clavigera: I, Diagram 
showing the parts of a typical inflorescence: A,A’, 
Prophylls; B, aphyllous bracts (the lower two 
have vegetative buds in their axils); C, laminifer- 
ous bracts, the blades omitted; D, pseudospikelets 
with prophylls removed; E,E’, glumes I and IJ; 
F, rhachilla segments supporting fertile florets; 
G, fertile florets; H, palea of fertile floret and, in 
its fistula, a rudimentary rhachilla segment and 
floret. IJ and III, Diagrams of secondary rha- 
chises (pseudospikelets) shown at D above. 


(Type.) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


ceteris brevioribus gracilioribusque. Floscula 
fertulis decidua, fusiformis, modice inflata, vix 
vel paullo compressa. Lemma usque ad 17 mm 
longum, naviculiforme, ventricosulum, extus 
fere glabrum sed subtiliter granulosum, om- 
nino plus minusve manifeste nervosum, intus 
et nervis et venulis oblique transversis promi- 
nentibus notatum. Palea lemma aequans vel 
paullo longior, ventricosula, sparse nervosa, 
glabra, subtiliter granulosa, apice subobtusa. 
Lodiculae typice 3, intus glabrae extus puberu- 
lae, margine subtiliter ciliolatae, anterioribus 
2 maioribus, usque ad 4 mm longis, basi an- 
gustatis, supra gibbose ovatis, posteriore an- 
gustiore brevioreque, lanceolata, omnibus per- 
variabilis, vel hyalinis vel opacis, interdum 
deformibus. Stamina 6, usque ad 8 mm longa, 
apice obtusa (pleraque in specimine descita). 
Ovarium angustum, subfusiforme, sursum his- 
pidulum. Stigmata 2, sibi approximata, erecta, 
rigidula, hispidula. Fructus non ad huc inventus. 

Type in U.S. National Herbarium (4 sheets) 
1062456-1062459, H. M. Curran no. 123, col- 
lected ‘April-May, 1916, growing wild in in- 
accessible mountain region, alt. 150-600 m, 
along the Norosi-Tiquisio trail, Lands of Loba, 
Dept. of Bolivar, Colombia. Cariso de Castilla, 
Introduced (?).” 

The following flowering specimens from 
Costa Rica belong here: Tonduz 3627 (U. 5. 
Nat. Herb. nos. 825695 and 1111016) and — 
Tonduz 9498 (U. 8. Nat. Herb. nos. 825696 | 
and 1021541). | : 

This species was misunderstood, by the col- — 
lector, as belonging to the genus Phyllostachys, 


' 
which accounts for the queried word ‘‘intro- — 


duced” in the field notes attached to the type. | 
It is clearly and closely related to the type of | 
Elytrostachys but is easily distinguishable, as 
far as the available material is concerned, by 
the following characters: leaf blades scabrous 
on the upper surface, especially toward the 
base; laminiferous bracts of the inflorescence a 
half larger and at least in part pubescent; 
glumes one-fourth longer; rhachilla segments _ 
bearing fertile florets commonly twice as long | 
and pubescent, at least in the middle portion; © 
perfect florets commonly one-third shorter; 
ovary hispidulous in the upper part. | 
The specific epithet alludes to the elongate 
rhachilla segments which support the fertile . 
florets. These remain as a cluster of club- 


— Se 


JUNE 15, 1942 MCCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 


shaped branches, exserted beyond the glumes, 
and constitute a characteristic feature of the 
subsidiary axes in old inflorescences from which 
the fugacious mature florets have fallen away. 

The following description of seedling plants 
included in the type collection, but not used 
as a basis of the formal description of the 
species may be helpful in field identifications 
(the plants are about 25 cm tall and of un- 
known age, perhaps about a year old): Plant 
caespitose. Rhizome:strictly determinate. Culms 
(the primary one evidently withering soon 
alter the secondary. ones are established) erect or 
suberect, the internodes terete, entirely gla- 
brous and purple-punctate to densely tomentose 
throughout, fistulose, the wood thin. Culm 
sheaths apparently persistent, or at least some- 
what so, shorter than the internodes, elevate- 
nervose, glabrous and purple-punctate to 
densely tomentose throughout, subtruncate 
at the summit; auricles minute, very variable, 
sometimes almost entirely undeveloped, more 
rarely strongly developed, falcate, glabrous; 
oral setae several, commonly up to 10 mm, 
rarely 20 mm, long, slender, stiff, somewhat 
spreading, obscurely and sparsely scabrous; 
ligule very short, not exserted; blades green, 
fugacious, lanceolate, like the leaf blades but 
sessile or subsessile, smaller, and more obtuse 
at the apex and subtruncate at the base. 
Branches (not yet developed). Leaf sheaths ele- 
vate-nervose, densely covered between the 
veins with very minute points, otherwise 
glabrous throughout but sometimes hirsute 
near the margins or more or less densely hispid 
throughout; auricles very variable, sometimes 
almost entirely undeveloped, rarely strongly 
developed, falcate, glabrous; oral setae several, 
often wine-colored, 10-20 mm long, slender, 
stiff, erect or somewhat spreading, obscurely 
and sparsely scabrous; ligule very short, not ex- 
serted; petiole very short, pale, glabrous or 
hispidulous on both surfaces, the margins 
somewhat ciliolate; leaf blades up to 126 mm 
or more in length and up to 24 mm in width, 
oblong-lanceolate, acuminate at the apex, 
rounded at the base, the upper surface, prin- 
cipally near the base, densely scabrous or 
hispidulous, the lower glabrous throughout 
or with a few short hairs near the base, the 
margins minutely serrate-scabrous, the sec- 
ondary nerves 3-4 on each side of the midrib, 


£79 


clearly distinct from the tertiary ones, trans- 
verse veinlets usually not at all evident but 
sometimes seen on the upper surface of very 
young leaves as very distant and oblique. 


Chusquea hispida sp. nov. 
Li fase Ch 


Species in forma vaginarum culmi arcte 
similis Chusqueae tuberculosae Swallen sed, 
quoad specimina quae ad manum sunt, in 
characteribus sequentibus differt: culmi vagi- 
nis textura tenuioribus, conferte et pulchre 
elevato-nervosis, cum setis patulis aciculiform- 
ibus basi bulbosis obsitis; culmorum internodiis 
infra nodos tantum hirsutis alioquin glabris; 
foliorum laminis tenuioribus; alioquin omnibus 
partibus textura plus herbaceis. 

Culmi subscandentes (teste Pittier) longitud- 
inis ignotae usque (statu siccato) ad 7.5 mm 
diametro; internodia teretia vel cylindrata, 
supra sedem ramorum haud applanata nec 
suleata, sublignosa, solida vel subsolida, intus 
textura submedullosa, extus infra nodos cum 
setis aciculiformibus basi bulbosis hirsuta alio- 
quin glabra nitidaque; nodz: ad cicatricem 
prominulam cum collario tenui hispido cincti, 
supra cicatricem modice inflati. Culmorum 
vaginae plus minusve persistentes, arcte am- 
plectantes, basi in zonam angustam fuscam 
hispidam tenuatae, supra basin omnino fari- 
nosae conferte et pulchre elevato-nervosae, 
cum setis patulis aciculiformibus basi bulbosis 
obsitae, apice extus in laminam sensim inentes, 
intus ligula tenui 1 mm alta subacute arcuata 
margine subtiliter ciliata notatae, auriculas et 
setas orales carentes; lamina amplissima, pat- 
ula, vaginae propriae subaequilonga, apice in 
apicula subito acuminata, basi cordata utrin- 
que excurrens, textura omnino tenella, extus 
ad medium basis interdum sparse pilosa alio- 
quin utrinsecus glabra, marginibus subtilis- 
sime spinulosa, utrinque elevato-nervosa, ven- 
ulis transversis obliquis sese remotulis prae- 
cipue extus manifestis notata. Ram? primari 
interdum solitarii sed typice ad quemque 
nodum culmi in ordinibus duobus dispositi, I 
(inferiores): numerosi, prompte evoluti, graci- 
les, crassitudine subaequales, usque ad 24 em 
longi, vulgo ima basi tantum divisi, II (su- 
perior): unus tantum, tarde evolutus, longus, 
robustus, ad quemque nodum_ verticillum 


180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 6 | 


Fig. 7.—Chusquea hispida: A, Portion of young culm, showing two culm sheaths, the base of the 
upper sheath removed to show a cluster of very young, subequal branches (below) and an unopened 
bud (compare later stage at E); B, enlargement of a portion of the surface of the culm sheath proper; 
C, adaxial aspect of upper portion of culm sheath and blade, showing the ligule; D, portion of culm, 
showing lowest branching nodes; E, portion of culm, showing a typical branching node from the midst 
of the series (compare the early stage shown at the upper node in A); F, enlargement of the meeting 
place of the leaf sheath and blade. All x4 except B and F. (Type.) 


\] 


JUNE 15, 1942 MCCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 


ramulorum gerens, ramis ramulisque omnibus 
nodis plus minusve inflatis hirsutisque, inter- 
nodiis scabris, cum vaginis plus minusve per- 
sistentibus elevato-nervosis inter nervos gran- 
ulosis hispidisque obtectis. Foliorwm vaginae in 
quoque ramo usque ad 13, insigniter carinatae, 
valde elevato-nervosae, inter nervos subtiliter 
eranulosae, vulgo praecipue apicem versus 
dorso pilosae et marginibus longe ciliatae, 
margine poculi (petioli cicatrice) prominentis 
longe ciliatae; ligula subnulla; auriculae nullae; 
setae orales plures, confertae, usque ad 1.5 mm 
longae; tenuissimae, pallidae, glabrae, flexuo- 
sae; petiolus brevissimus subnullus; foliorwm 
laminae usque ad 11 cm longae et usque ad 18 
mm latae, oblongo- vel -ovato-lanceolatae, 
acuminatae, basi cuneato-rotundatae, textura 
tenues, marginibus subtiliter spinulosae et 
vulgo revolutae, subtus prope basin et inter- 
dum secus costam pilosae, supra secus costam 
et secus alterem marginem scabrae alioquin vel 
glabrae vel subtilissime asperae, nervis se- 
cundariis utrinque 2-3, sese remotis, tenuis sed 
subtus distinctissimis, venulis transversis de- 
bilibus et sese remotis, in laminis juvenilibus 
interdum manifestis, alioquin aegre vel haud 
discernendis. Inflorescentiae (desideratae). 

Type in the Herbario Nacional de Vene- 
guela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, H. 
Pittier no. 7159, collected May 13, 1917, at alt. 
above 1,400 m, in upper Catuche wood, near 
Caracas, Federal District, Venezuela; ‘‘half- 
climbing, forming extensive thickets (carri- 
zales) characteristic.’’ Duplicate type in U. S. 
National Herbarium, no. 987284. 


Neurolepis pittieri sp. nov. 
Fig. 8 


Species habitu et coloratione inflorescentiae 
arcte affinis N. nobili (Munro) Pilger. Tamen, 
posterior species differt planta fere omnibus 
partibus ampliore, panicularum axi ramisque 
inter tantum supercilios prominentes pubes- 
centibus, spiculis 4-3} brevioribus sed propor- 
tione latioribus, glumis hirsutiusculis distincte 
carinatis apiculatisque, lemmatibus subtiliter 
pubescentibus. 

Planta monocarpica, caespitosa, caespitibus 
discretis (teste Pittier per colloquia). Culm 
5.5-6 m alti, erecti vel suberecti, simplices vel 
basin versus divisi, sublignosi; internodia per- 


181 


brevia, infra nodos interdum setis pallidis 
brevibus adpressis leviter vestita alioquin 
glabra, cum vaginis imbricatis persistentibus 
foliorum omnino velata (culmorum vaginis dis- 
tinctis in type saltem speciei nullis). Foltorum 
vaginae compressae, crasse carinatae, praecipue 
deorsum elevato-nervosae, basin versus pube- 
rulae alioquin glabrae nitidaeque, apice post et 
ultra ligulam productae in processibus duobus, 
eisdem usque ad 6.3 cm longis, planis, tenuis, 
anguste subtriangulis, sursum ad apicem ob- 
tusam attenuatis, textura medullosis, in statu 
siccato fragilissimis, utrinque dense et sub- 
adpresse hirsutis, facie adaxiale ad hoc, prae- 
cipue basin versus, setis vel fibrillis crassis ad- 
pressis compressis ciliatis obsitis, marginibus 
interioribus glabris exterioribus sursum glabris 
deorsum setis crassis conferte ciliatis et sensim 
in auriculas inentibus; auriculae oblique egredi- 
entes, usque ad 2 cm longae et 2-3 mm latae, 
crassae, inflatae, adpressae haud excurrentes, 
basi glabrae, apice cum setis crassis 2-5 mm 
longis conferte vestitae; ligula ad medium circa 
7 mm longa, apice subtiliter convexa vel sub- 
recta, margine dense ciliolata; petiolus haud 
articulatus, deorsum in vaginam et sursum in 
laminam sensim inens, glaber, crassus, rigidus, 
profunde sulcatus; foltorum laminae usque ad 
215 cm longae, attenuatae, et usque ad 17 
cm latae, lanceolatae, apice longe acuminatae, 
basi longe angusteque attenuatae fere ad basin 
petioli decurrentes, supra secus marginem 
alterem scabrae alioquin utrinsecus glabrae, 
marginibus cartilagineis antrorse spinulosae, 
nervis secundariis utrinque usque ad 16 vel 17, 
tertiarlis IN quoque commissura 6-8, venulis 
transversis sese remotis, supra aegre vel haud 
discernendis, subtus fere omnino plus minusve 
clare visibilibus. Inflorescentia ex apice culmi 
singulatim egrediens, paniculata, erecta, sub- 
herbacea, omnino rigida, ramosissima; pedun- 
culus fistulosus, inanis, usque ad 2 m longus, 
longe exsertus, internodiis longissimis prope 
tantum nodos haud inflatos hispidulis, alioquin 
glabris; rhachis usque ad 174 em longa, fistu- 
losa, inanis, crasse elevato-striata, supra sedem 
ramorum valde suleata, omnino puberula, prae- 
cipue versus nodos hirsuta, paniculae axibus 
alioquin omnino dense hispidis; ram? primarii 
plerique solitarii, adpressi vel plus minusve 
patuli, longitudine pervariabiles, usque ad 24.5 
em longi, crassi, elevato-striati, ramis secunda- 


182 


riis gracilis, adpressis vel patulis, interdum basi 
pulvinatis, ramulis ultimis (pedicellis) 1-2 mm 
longis, tenuissimis. Spiculae usque ad 5-5.5 
mm longae, numerosissimae, confertissimae, 
primo ovato-fusiformes, demum plus minusve 


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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


redactis. Lemmata sterilia subaequales circa 3 
mm longa, ovata vel oblongo-ovata, apice 
rotundato apiculata, omnino nitida, glabra vel 
infima subtilissime hispidula, ut in lemmatibus 
fertilibus colorata, 1-carinata, nervis alioquin 


Fig. 8.—Neurolepis pittieri: A, Branch of the inflorescence; B, spikelet; C, glume I; D, glume I]; 
E, sterile lemma I; F, sterile lemma II; G, fertile lemma; H, palea; I, lodicule complement; J, stamen; 
K, pistil; L, apex of leaf sheath, showing the unarticulated petiole and the peculiar processes extending 
behind and beyond the ligule. All X4 except A, which is X2, and L, which is X1. (Type.) 


compressae laxaeque. Glumae 2, sibi approxi- 
matae, decoloratae, intus strigosae extus gla- 
brae, dorso interdum leviter tantum carinatae, 
I: circa 0.75 mm longa, ovata vel subtriangula, 
apice obtusa vel hebete acuta, II: circa 1 mm 
longa, cordiforme, apice late obtuso interdum 
apiculata. Floscula suprema tantum perfecta, 
maturitate hians, infimis 2 ad lemmata sterilia 


obscurissimis. Lemma fertile 4.5-5 mm longum, 
ovato-lanceolatum, apice in apiculam teretem 
subito acuminatum, extus omnino glabrum, 
leve, nitidum, intus deorsum viridis tinctum, 
sursum purpura dense et aciter maculatum, 
ventricosum, dorso haud carinatum, nervis 
paucis, extus obscurissimis, intus prominulis 
purpuratisque. Palea lemmati similiuscula sed 


JUNE 15, 1942 McCLURE: NEW BAMBOOS FROM VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA 


vulgo paullo brevior apice obtuse vel emargi- 
nata, dorso haud carinata sed nervis duobus 
sese remotis immersis aegre discernendis no- 
tata. Rhachillae segmenta fere obsoleta, haud 
vel supra tantum glumam superiorem disarti- 
culantia. Lodiculae 3, subaequales, circa 0.75 
mm longae, subhyalinae, apice vulgo purpura 
tinctae, margine ciliolatae, anterioribus duo- 
bus gibbose ovato-lanceolatis, posteriore an- 
guste lanceolata. Antherae 3, usque ad 3 mm 
longae, apice obtusae emarginataeque. Ova- 
rium minutum fusiforme glabrum. Stylz 2, sibi 
approximati, circa 0.5 mm longi, glabri. Stzg- 
mata 2, plumosa. Fructus maturus non ad hue 
inventus. 

Type (4 sheets) in the Herbario Nacional de 
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Crfa, 
Pittier no. 10067, collected January 2, 1922, in 
meadows and forest at alt. 1,700—2,000 m, be- 
tween Colonia Tovar and El Lagunazo, State 
of Aragua, Venezuela. Duplicate in U. S. Na- 
tional Herbarium, nos. 1064685—1064687. 

The following specimens in the Herbario 
Nacional de Venezuela also apparently belong 
here: Tomayo 1613, collected February 25, 
1941, at alt. 1,550 m, enroute Maracay- 
Choroni, State of Aragua, Venezuela, under 
the native names Cogollo and Cogollo de mon- 
tana, with the field note ‘‘yerba sublenosa. En 
selvas nubladas.”’ The collector says that, ac- 
cording to the village people, the leaves are 
used to make hats. This sterile specimen shows 
the peculiar buds at the base of the culm, which 
are not shown in the type. Allart 368, collected 
in December, 1924, at alt. 1,800-2,000 m in 
Colonia Tovar, State of Aragua, Venezuela 
‘(dupl. in U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1230261), is 
apparently a depauperate state of the species, 
as there is no perceptible difference in the 
spikelets. Allart’s specimens differ from the 
type, however, in much smaller stature (68 
em); in the denser arrangement and greater 
length of the pubescence of the inflorescence 
axes; and in the lack of petiolate leaf blades, 
the sheaths clothing the culms bearing only 
sessile blades of greatly reduced size. It is pos- 
sible, therefore, that this plant may be found, 
when more fully known, to merit a.separate 
taxonomic status. 

Although apparently quite distinct from all 
the known species of the genus, Newurolepis 
pittiert bears a broad similarity to N. nobilis 


183 


(Munro) Pilger, especially in the general ap- 
pearance of the inflorescence and the coloration 
of the spikelets. The latter species differs, 
however, judging by duplicates from Purdie’s 
collection on which Munro based his descrip- 
tion (Trans. Linn. Soc. 26: 72. 1868) in the 
following respects: the plant much larger in 
stature and in nearly all parts, notably the 
inflorescences and leaf blades; the axis and 
branches of the inflorescence pubescent only on 
the prominent ridges; spikelets much shorter 
(one-half to two-thirds as long) and propor- 
tionately broader; glumes distinctly keeled and 
apiculate and somewhat hirsute; and lemmas 
obscurely pubescent. 

Dr. Pittier reports that the leaf blades are 


_ used by the natives to make hats and to thatch 


houses, and that the plant dies upon flowering. 
According to Dr. Pittier, the Spanish name 
Cogollo signifies ‘“‘clumps,” in allusion to the 
caespitose habit of the plant. 

The opportunity recently afforded for the 
study of representatives of Neurolepis (syn.: 
Platonia Kunth, Planotia Munro), in compari- 
son with various bamboo genera, has inclined 
me to the belief that its true taxonomic posi- 
tion is somewhere among the other grass genera 
rather than with the bamboos. I shall not pre- 
sume to speculate upon the proper taxonomic 
disposition of the genus. It seems appropriate, 
however, to point out here the following char- 
acters that I believe to be sufficient to exclude 
Neurolepis from consideration as a ‘‘true bam- 
boo”’: Inflorescence axes coarse, subherbaceous; 
leaf petioles very thick, deeply sulcate, not at 
all articulated, the blades persistent; culms 
subligneous or subherbaceous, unbranched ex- 
cept at the base; culm sheaths usually not 
differentiated from the leaf sheaths. 

The only obvious affinity of Neurolepis with 
any of the generally accepted bamboo genera is 
toward Chusquea, through the very close simi- 
larity of the fundamental structure of the spike- 
lets, which led Nees (Linnaea 9: 486. 1834) 
to place it as a subgenus (Platonia Kunth) 
under Chusquea, and Munro to include it in 
his Monograph. But here the resemblance ends 
and, as Ruprecht pointed out more than a 
hundred years ago (Act. Acad. Caes. Petrop. 
ser. VI. Sci. Nat. 3: 120. 1840), “‘.. . Platonia 
[Neurolepis] vero natura sua valde a Chusquea 
distat.”’ 


184 


BOTAN Y.—WNew tropical American Acanthaceae.! 


tional Museum. 


A critical study of material assembled 
under the genus Blechum in the U. 8. Na- 
tional Herbarium and the herbaria of the 
Missouri Botanical Garden, the New York 
Botanical Garden, and Field Museum of 
Natural History has disclosed four new 
species, which are described herewith. One 
of these belongs to Blechum; the others, 
though bearing a superficial resemblance to 
Blechum, pertain to three genera that are 
not very closely related to it. 

In the present paper a new form of 
Blechum brownei is described, also, and B. 
pedunculatum is transferred to Stenandrium. 


Blechum killipii Leonard, sp. nov. 


Herba, caulibus simplicibus vel ramosis, 
erectis vel adscendentibus, bifariam_hirtellis, 
pilis retrorsis, infra glabratis; folia petiolata, 
laminis oblongis vel oblongo-lanceolatis, acu- 
minatis, in petiolum decurrentibus, undulatis 
vel leviter crenatis, supra sparse hirsutis, pilis 
albis, costa et venis subtus pubescentibus, pilis 
minutis curvatis; spicae terminales; bracteae 
dense imbricatae, ovatae, obtusae vel sub- 
acutae, pilosae et ciliatae; bracteolae oblan- 
ceolatae, acutae, dense pilosae et ciliatae; 
calycis segmenta linearia, infra pilosa, ciliata; 
corolla alba vel lilacina, pubescens; capsulae 
minute pubescentes, pilis retrorsis; semina 
brunnea. 

Erect or ascending, suffrutescent herbs up 
to 40 em high; stems simple or branched, 
hirtellous, the tips densely so, the hairs lower 
down arranged in 2 rows, the basal portions 
sometimes glabrate; petioles up to 1.5 cm long 
or occasionally as much as 2.5 cm, hirtellous; 
leaf blades oblong-lanceolate, mostly up to 6 
cm long and 2.5 cm wide (occasionally larger), 
acuminate and often slightly curved toward 
the blunt tip, narrowed at base and decurrent 
on the petiole, undulate to shallowly crenate, 
the costa and veins minutely pubescent (the 
hairs curved), otherwise glabrous, or the upper 
surface beset with scattered stiff white hairs 
about 1 mm long; spikes terminal, up to 4 cm 
long and about 2 em in diameter, the rachis 


1 Received March 14, 1942. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


E. C. Lronarp, U. 8S. Na- 


(Communicated by Witi1aAmM R. Maxon.) 


densely hirtellous, the bracts closely imbricate, 
ovate, up to 12 mm long and 10 mm wide (the 
lowermost often larger and leaf-like), obtuse 
to acutish, more or less pilose and ciliate with 
white straight hairs up to 1.5 mm long, the 
velns sometimes pubescent with small curved 
hairs; bractlets oblanceolate, about 10 mm 
long and 3 mm wide, acute, densely pilose and 
ciliate with straight white hairs up to 3 mm 
long; calyx segments linear, pilose and ciliate 
(basal portions glabrous), the posterior seg- 
ment 4.5 mm long and barely 0.5 mm wide, the 
others about 5 mm long and 0.75 mm wide; 
corolla white or tinged with lavender, finely 
pubescent, about 1.5 ecm long, 5 mm in di- 
ameter at throat, the limb about 12 mm broad, 
the segments obovate, about 5 mm in diameter, 
shallowly emarginate; capsule 7.5 mm long, 5 
mm broad, pubescent, the hairs minute, those 
of the tip spreading, the others retrorse; seeds 
flat, brown, about 2 mm in diameter. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1045999, collected on rocks of stream bed in 
dense forest, Seamens Valley, Portland, Ja- 
maica, altitude 150 to 250 m, February 14, 
1920, by William R. Maxon and Ellsworth P. 
Killip (no. 82). 

The following additional specimens, all from 
Jamaica, have been examined: Woodlands on 
eastern slopes of John Crow Mountains, Brit- 
ton 4132; Seamens Valley, Portland, Maxon & 
Killip 61a; foothills of John Crow Mountains, 
Maxon & Killtp 223; Stony Valley River gully, 
Orcutt 5893; Vinegar Hill, Perkins 1245; Spring 
Bank, 2¢ miles west of Port Antonio, Wight 91. 

Intermediate between Blechum brownei Juss. 
and B. blechioides (Sw.) Hitche. From the latter 
it differs in its much smaller corollas (white or 
lilac, instead of violet), and its densely pilose 
and ciliate bracts. It is more closely related to 
B. brownet, but in that species the corollas are 
somewhat smaller and more slender, and are 
usually purple or pinkish, and the hairs on the 
bracts and bractlets are much shorter and less 
numerous. 


Blechum brownei Juss. forma puberulum 
Leonard, f. nov. 


A forma typica bracteis puberulis recedit. 


JUNE 15, 1942 


Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
1451437, collected on dry roadbed along bank 
of Jean Rabel River, vicinity of Jean Rabel, 
Haiti, January 30, 1929, by E. C. Leonard and 
G. M. Leonard (no. 12696). 

This appears to be more widely distributed 
than the typical form of the species, its range 
extending from eastern and southern Mexico 
throughout Central America, the West Indies, 
and northern South America; it occurs also in 
Guam, Formosa, and the Philippine and Caro- 
line Islands. The typical form apparently is 
limited to Florida, Oaxaca, Veracruz, the Yuca- 
tan Peninsula, British Honduras, Honduras, 
Costa Rica, several of the West Indian Islands, 
and the Guianas. Occasional intermediate spec- 
imens with slightly downy bracts are to be 
found in regions where both grow together. 
From data given on the labels, there is no indi- 
cation that the puberulent form results as an 
environmental response. It is as likely to occur 
in moist situations as in dry arid places. 


Herpetacanthus panamensis Leonard, sp. nov. 


Herba, caulibus simplicibus vel parce ramo- 
sis, adscendentibus, bifariam pubescentibus, 
pilis retrorsis, infra glabratis; folia pauca, 
breviter petiolata, laminis ellipticis, apice 
acutis vel subobtusis, basi angustatis in peti- 
olum decurrentibus, integris vel undulatis, 
glabris, cystoligeris, costa et venis subtus 
pubescentibus, pilis minutis curvatis; spicae 
plures, terminales et subterminales; bracteae 
laxe imbricatae, ovatae vel ellipticae, acutae, 
subglabrae, ciliatae; bracteolae oblongae, acu- 
minatae, glabrae, ciliatae; calyx subinaequalis, 
segmentis glabris, ciliatis; corolla pilosula; 
capsulae glabrae. 

Herbaceous; stems ascending, up to 20 em 
high, simple or sparingly branched, pubescent 
in 2 lines, the hairs minute, jointed, retrorsely 
curved, or the lower portion of the stem gla- 
brate; leaves few, usually about 4, the blades 
elliptic, up to 10 cm long and 4 cm wide, acute 
or obtusish at apex (the tip blunt), narrowed 
at base and decurrent on the short petiole (2 
to 5 mm), entire or undulate, glabrous except 
for the petiole, costa and veins beneath, these 
pubescent with minute curved hairs; cystoliths 
prominent on the upper surface; spikes several, 
up to 4 cm long, 1 to 1.5 ecm in diameter, form- 
ing a terminal panicle, the rachis sparingly 


LEONARD: NEW TROPICAL AMERICAN ACANTHACEAE 


185 


pubescent, with minute curved hairs; bracts 
rather loosely imbricate, ovate to elliptic, up 
to 12 mm long and 7 mm wide, acutish, thin, 
glabrous or subglabrous, sparingly ciliate, the 
hairs about 0.5 mm long; bractlets oblong, 7 
mm long, 0.25 to 1.5 mm wide, acuminate, 
glabrous, ciliate; calyx about 6 mm long, 
slightly asymmetric, the segments subulate, 4 
to 5 mm long, the larger ones about 0.5 mm 
wide, the others slightly narrower, all tipped 
by 1 or 2 white hairs up to 0.5 mm long, ciliate 
with minute gland-tipped hairs, otherwise 
glabrous; corolla 8 mm long, the lips about 5 
mm long, pilosulous, the upper one ovate, 
acuminate, minutely bidentate, the lower one 
3-lobed, the lobes rounded, about 3 mm long, 
the tube white-pilose within; stamens typical 
of the genus; capsules glabrous, pointed at 
apex, 9 mm long, 3 mm broad, the solid 
stipitate base 4 mm long; mature seed not seen; 
retinacula rounded at apex. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 
1405734, collected in deep shade in the Chan- 
guinola Valley, Panama, March 14, 1924, by 
V. C. Dunlap (no. 554); isotype in herbarium 
of Field Museum of Natural History, no. 
708196. Standley’s no. 40851, collected in wet 
forest of Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, 
November 1925, is also this species. 

Herpetacanthus, belonging to the subtribe 
Isoglossinae, is one of several genera having a 
2-lipped corolla and four stamens. Among these 
it is readily recognized by the peculiar char- 
acter of the stamens, the posterior pair being 
2-celled (with one of the cells distinctly super- 
posed), the anterior pair 1-celled. Eight species 
have previously been known, all from Brazil. 
H. panamensis is probably nearest H. schulzvi 
but can be separated readily by its shorter 
spikes (much shorter than the subtending 
leaves) and by its glabrous capsules. The color 
of the corolla can not be ascertained from the 
herbarium material but may be assumed to be 
white, as is usual in the genus. 


Justicia herpetacanthoides Leonard, sp. noy. 


Suffrutex, caulibus erectis vel adscendenti- 
bus, bifariam pilosis; folia breviter petiolata, 
laminis ovatis, apice rotundatis, vel obtusis 
vel emarginatis, basi angustatis, integris, 
pilosis; spicae multae, terminales et subtermi- 
nales; bracteae imbricatae, ovatae, obtusae vel 


186 


subacutae, hirsutae, ciliatae; bracteolae ob- 
lanceolatae; calycis segmenta lanceolata, cili- 
ata; corolla alba, pubescens; capsulae retrorse 
puberulae; semina fusca. 

Suffrutescent herb up to 30 cm high or more; 
stems branched, erect or ascending, pilose in 2 
lines, the hairs spreading or slightly retrorse; 
petioles up to 1 cm long, pilose; leaf blades 
ovate, up to 4 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, 
rounded, obtuse or emarginate at apex, nar- 
rowed at base, rather firm, entire, pilose, the 
hairs diminishing in size and number toward 
tip of blade; spikes up to 4 cm long and 1.5 
cm in diameter, numerous, terminal and sub- 
terminal, forming a panicle, the rachis hirtel- 
lous, the bracts ovate, up to 8 mm long and 6 
mm wide, obtuse to acutish, rounded at base 
to a short flat petiole, hirsute, ciliate, the 
marginal hairs about 0.75 mm long: bractlets 
oblanceolate, up to 6 mm long and 2.5 mm 
wide, otherwise similar to bracts; calyx seg- 
ments lanceolate, 3.56 mm long, about 1 mm 
wide, ciliate, faintly 3-nerved; corolla 8 mm 
long, white, pubescent, the lower anther cells 
strongly calcarate; capsule 5 mm long, 2 mm 
broad, puberulent, the hairs spreading at tip, 
retrorse toward base; seeds dark brown, acu- 
tish, slightly more than 1 mm broad and long. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 
1493986, collected along a rocky trail at 
Chichen Itza, Yucatan, June 23, 1932, by 
W. C. Steere (no. 1510). 

Related to Justicia lundellit Leonard but 
easily distinguishable by its larger and more 
numerous spikes and its larger, ovate bracts 
and corollas. Moreover, it seems not to black- 
en in drying, as does J. lundellit. 


Beloperone blechioides Leonard, sp. nov. 


Suffrutex, caulibus pubescentibus, pilis albis 
curvatis retrorsis, infra glabratis; folia petio- 
lata, laminis lanceolato-ovatis, acutis, subapicu- 
latis, basi angustatis, in petiolum decurrenti- 
bus, sparse pubescentibus et ciliatis; spicae 
terminales vel subterminales; bracteae ovatae, 
obtusae vel subacutae, dense imbricatae, 
pilosae, dense ciliatae; bracteolae oblongo- 
lanceolatae; calycis segmenta lanceolata, tri- 
nervia, tenuia, ciliata; corolla alba, pauce pur- 
pureo-maculata; capsulae retrorse hirtellae. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


A suffrutescent herb up to 40 cm high or 
more; stems shallowly grooved, pubescent with 
white retrorsely curved hairs about 0.75 mm 
long, these arranged more or less in 2 rows, the 
lower portions of the stem sometimes glabrate; 
petioles up to 2 cm long, the pubescence a 
mixture of pointed, spreading, variously curved 
hairs and shorter glandular ones ending in flat 
expanded tips; leaf blades lance-ovate, up to 
9.5 cm long and 4.5 cm wide, acute at apex (the 
tip blunt and subapiculate), acute or obtuse 
at base and decurrent on the petiole, dull 
green, undulate, sparingly pubescent and cili- 
ate, the hairs 0.5 to 0.75 mm long, on the lower 
surface confined chiefly to costa and nerves; 
cystoliths conspicuous under lens; spikes ter- 
minal and subterminal, about 2 cm long and 2 
cm in diameter, each subtended by a pair of 
small leaves (up to 3 cm long and 1.5 em wide), 
the rachis and peduncle pilose; bracts closely 
imbricate, quadrifarious, ovate, obtuse to acut- 
ish, thin, dull green, pilose, densely ciliate, the 
hairs white, about 1 mm long; bractlets oblong- 
lanceolate, about 8 mm long and 2.5 mm wide, 
otherwise similar to bracts; calyx deeply 5- 


lobed, the segments lanceolate, about 5 mm 


long and 1.5 mm wide near base, thin, green, 
3-nerved, ciliate; corolla about 2 em long, 
white, spotted with purple around the throat 
and lips, pubescent, the lobes about 5 mm 
long, ciliate; capsule 11 mm long and 4 mm 
broad, hirtellous, the hairs spreading at the 
tip, those of the lower portion retrorse; mature 
seed not seen. 

Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of 
Natural History, no. 1035787, collected on 


moist shady slopes of a barranca near a stream ~ 


on Montafia Nonoj4, 3 to 5 miles east of Camo- 
tan, Department of Chiquimula, Guatemala, 
altitude 600 to 1800 m, November 11, 1939, by 
Julian A. Steyermark (no. 31740). 

Except for its corollas, typical in every re- 
spect of Beloperone, this species could be mis- 
taken for Blechum. The nature of growth and 
the exact height of the plant can not be ascer- 
tained from the present material, which con- 
sists of a single branch about 40 cm long. Nor 
is the exact length of the mature corolla 
known, the description being drawn from an 
immature flower extracted from one of the 
spikes. 


JUNE 15, 1942 BARTSCH: NEW UROCOPTID LAND MOLLUSKS FROM MEXICO 


Stenandrium pedunculatum (Donn. Sm.) 
Leonard, comb. nov. 


Blechum pedunculatum Donn. Sm. Bot. Gaz. 

49: 457. 1910. 

The present species, founded on specimens 
collected near Gualan, Guatemala, by Charles 
C. Deam (no. 6277), is very closely allied to S. 
mandioccanum Nees, of southern South Amer- 
ica. The two have much the same appearance, 
except that S. pedunculatum is usually larger 
with stronger suffrutescent stems. The seeds 
of both species are covered with peculiar 


ZOOLOGY .—New species of urocoptid land mollusks from Mexico.} 
Bartscu, U. 8. National Museum. 


The United States National Museum has 
recently received a collection of Mexican 
land shells from Miss Marie E. Bourgeois, 
of Mexico, D.F., among which are two new 
species of the family Urocoptidae. A third 
species, which was collected by J. Mathew- 
son in 1898 and which has come to the Na- 
tional Museum through the Shimek collec- 
tion, also proves to be a remarkable new 
member of the family. The three are here 
described and figured. 


Coelostemma bourgeoisana, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Shell small, white, early whorls slightly horn 
colored, cylindric-conic, with the summit taper- 
ing rather acutely toward the apex. The nu- 
cleus consists of about 2 well-rounded turns, 
which are microscopically granulose. The post- 
nuclear whorls are slightly rounded and marked 
by retractively slanting axial ribs, which are 
slightly variable in strength and spacing. Su- 
ture moderately constricted. Base well round- 
ed, narrowly, openly umbilicated, and marked 
by the continuation of the axial ribs. The last 
whorl is solute for about one-tenth of a turn. 
The aperture is irregularly triangular; peri- 
stome reflected and somewhat thickened. The 
columella is rather large, equal to about one- 
fourth of the width of a whorl. It is heavier in 
the early whorls and becomes materially re- 


* Published by permission of the Secretary of 
ee asonian Institution. Received March 2, 


187 


retrorsely barbed hairs, these shorter in S. 
mandioccanum than in S. pedunculatum. Dis- 
tinguishing characters, however, are found in 
the capsules and in the pubescence of the 
branchlets. In S. pedunculatum the capsules 
are entirely glabrous and the pubescence of 
the branchlets is composed of rather straight, 
whitish, spreading hairs. In S. mandioccanum 
the capsules are pubescent, though sparingly 
so, with minute mostly retrorse hairs, and the 
stems are densely pubescent with small, brown, 
curved hairs or are even subtomentose. 


PAUL 


duced in the last and is marked by numerous 
very slender, almost hairlike, granulose axial 
riblets. 

The 30 specimens before me were collected 


by Miss Marie E. Bourgeois on a hillside under 


limestone rocks at Ixtapan de la Sal, State of 
Mexico, in May 1939. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536039, has 15.3 
whorls and measures: Height, 15.4 mm; greatest 
width of spire, 5.0 mm. Paratypes: U.S.N.M. 
no. 536040. 

The exceedingly fine, hairlike, granulose 
axial riblets of the columella will distinguish 
this from the other members of the group. 


Haplocion mariae, n. sp. 
Fig. 2 


Shell small, pupoid, horn colored, covered 
with a curious film, almost suggesting a more 
or less dehiscent periostractum, tapering gently 
toward the apex. The nucleus consists of about 
1.5 rounded, microscopically granulose turns. 
The early succeeding whorls are well rounded; 
the later ones are a little less so. They are 
crossed by strong, decidedly retractively 
curved axial ribs, which are about half as wide 
as the spaces that separate them. Suture 
strongly constricted. Periphery well-rounded. 
Base short, narrowly perforate; the last whorl 
solute for about one-tenth of a turn. Aperture 
irregularly triangular; peristome expanded and 
reflected. The columella is rather slender and 
apparently solid in the penultimate turn and 
on the three or four preceding it where it is 
also somewhat twisted. In the whorls posterior 


188 


to this, the axis becomes broader, hollow, and 
straight. 

Sixty specimens of this species are before me 
collected by Miss Marie E. Bourgeois on a hill- 
side under limestone rocks at Ixtapan de la 
Sal, State of Mexico, in May 1939. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536037, has 12.6 
whorls and measures: Height, 11.3 mm.; 
greatest width of spire, 3.4 mm. Paratypes: 
U.S.N.M. no. 536038. 

The peculiar axis of this species differentiates 
it from any of the other Haplocions known to 
me. 


Ee sz Fees = Bane eae ci tinea ists ieee ee oe 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 6 


rounded on the median cylindric portion of the 
shell. They are crossed by retractively curved, 
irregular lines of growth, which on the last 
whorl attain the strength of axial riblets. These 
are about half as wide as the spaces that sepa- 
rate them. On the last fifth of a turn these 
riblets become quite irregular and much more 
closely approximated. The last whorl is solute 
for about one-tenth of a turn. Base well round- 
ed, with an umbilical pit or a slight perforation. 
Aperture irregularly triangular; peristome 
slightly expanded and reflected. The columella 
is hollow and very broad, widest on the poste- 


Figs. 1-3.—New urocoptid mollusks from Mexico: 1, Coelostemma 
bourgeoitsana, X4; 2, Haplocion mariae, X4; H. mathewsoni, X2. 


Haplocion mathewsoni, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 


Shell of pupoid shape, tapering abruptly to- 
ward the summit, with the median part cylin- 
dric and slightly contracted basally. The shell 
is bicolor; that is, the posterior half of the 
whorls is brown, while the anterior is flesh 
colored. The nucleus consists of about 2 whorls, 
which are microscopically granulose. The suc- 
ceeding turns are moderately rounded on the 
posterior part of the sloping top, almost flat- 
tened on the anterior portion and slightly 


rior portion and decidedly narrowed on the last 
turn. It is smooth and marked only by slightly 
retractively slanting lines of growth. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536036, has 17.3 
whorls and measures: Height, 28.0 mm; great- 
est width of spire, 8.8 mm. 

There were 10 specimens in the lot collected 
by J. Mathewson in 1898 in the State of Mex- 
ico. The 9 paratypes bear the U.S.N.M. no. 
510074. They came to the United States Na- 
tional Museum through the Shimek collection. 

This is the largest species of Haplocion 
known to me. 


CONTENTS 


i 


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a 
A 

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se 
(aD) 
q 
o 
S 
E 
Ret 
as 
2 
ins] 
BD 
5 

A 
I 
g 
Oo 
jaa) 


Botany.—New bamboos from Venezuela and Colombia. ‘i 


te tes 


5 


. C. Leon 


\ 


Borany.—New tropical American Acanthaceae. E 


a,/0 ea a 8; o\ alm se, eee fe, a. 2 ls\'e eile te) wre Jefe le) 2.6 Awe 6a aleve \aln, 6, oiih ye Uetteukanee) wire 


CLURE 


exico. 


.—New species of urocoptid land mollusks from M 


PRAISED NGS oie ON tc Sait tale tare pn ee ooh a Late Soin 


ZOOLOGY 


- 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 32 


JULY 15, 1942 


No: 7 


ASTRONOMY.—Great astronomical treatises of the past... EpGAR W. WooLaRD 
Washington. (Communicated by RAYMOND J. SEEGER.) 


INTRODUCTION 


Through the ages, the torch of learning 
has been handed on largely by means of tan- 
gible records and documents—in ancient 
times by inscriptions and written manu- 
scripts, in more recent times by printed 
books. In the development of the sciences 
this transmission of knowledge from gener- 
ation to generation and from one civiliza- 
tion to another is as vital a factor as the ob- 
servation and the creative thought by which 
knowledge is first brought into existence, 
because without the benefit of accumulated 
information, experience, and thought from 
the past, no natural science could be 
brought to a highly advanced state. 

The progressive evolution of astronomy 
from its emergence in remote antiquity to 
its present highly developed form, as re- 
corded in the extant writings from succes- 
sive periods during the past 3,000 years or 
more, is one of its principal sources of gen- 
eral interest; a knowledge of modern 
astronomy is immeasurably enriched, and 
its fascination and romance are greatly en- 
hanced, by a familiarity with the circum- 
stances of its beginnings and early develop- 
ment, the methods by which astronomical 
observations and calculations have been 
made and results established throughout 
past times, and the succession of concepts to 
which the steady accumulation of observed 
facts gave rise, until finally the subject at- 
tained its present form. This historical de- 
velopment is also of direct technical inter- 
est; a familiarity with the provenience and 
evolution of astronomical ideas and prac- 
tices—their adumbration, filiation, and de- 


1 Received February 6, 1942. 


velopment—and with the reasoning by 
which principles and theories have been 
successively formulated through the cen- 
turies is of inestimable didactic value in 
contributing to a clear and appreciative 
comprehension and a convincing under- 
standing of the now established concepts, 
accepted technical practices, and prevailing 
theories to which the course of thought dur- 
ing the past has progressively led. Many as- 
tronomical ideas and procedures, although 
they have evolved from origins in simple 
concepts naturally suggested by observa- 
tion and have developed by a succession of 
steps each natural in itself, are in their pres- 
ent form so remote from their beginnings 
that they may seem far from natural; the 
categorical presentation of modern refined 
concepts and established results in sys- 
tematic logical form, with the description of 
the elaborate instrumental equipment, com- 
plex observational procedures, and intricate 
mathematical calculations on which they 
now are based, is greatly illuminated by an 
indication of the path actually followed his- 
torically in the progressive construction of 
this system with the former methods and 
means available at successive times during 
its development. Historical knowledge and 
perspective with critical insight will also 
prevent the attitude of scepticism some- 
times engendered by the revisions of thought 
continually involved in the progress of the 
sciences; it will lead to a more adequate 
realization of the intrinsic merit of the an- 
cient learning, and to a recognition of the 
importance of this learning both as a basic 
element in our own knowledge and as an 
indispensable foundation for the derivation 


189 


190 


of many modern results;-and it will materi- 
ally aid toward the desirable end of inte- 
grating scientific knowledge with the rest of 
human culture. 

The historian himself, in the difficult task 
of constructing as complete and accurate an 
account as possible of the development of 
astronomy, must critically study all the sur- 
viving earlier astronomical records and doc- 
uments—the sole original source of in- 
formation—from every land. In all times 
(including the present), however, among the 
total multitude of existing books there have 
always been a limited few that stand out 
from others in their field and with the pas- 
sage of time survive as monuments, either 
marking a particularly fundamental ad- 
vance through the accounts of important 
original investigations they contain or else 
being of permanent value as outstanding 
presentations of the state of knowledge of 
their subject at the time; and the greater 
among these writings are worthy of being 
treasured and read by all students and lov- 
ers of astronomy as well as by historians. 
These great scientific works are as precious 
a heritage as other imperishable literature 
from the past; they offer the reader rich re- 
wards in pleasure and satisfaction and are a 
valuable auxiliary to the general histories of 
astronomy. No more effective or inspiring 
method is available for extending the usual 
textbook information about the outstand- 
ing developments and advances during the 
past than to study the actual original writ- 
ings wherein those who were the principal 
contributors give their own expositions of 
their work and describe the procedures by 
which they arrived at their results; no text- 
book account of any of these works can take 
the place of an actual examination of the 
original. 

The purpose of the present paper is to in- 
dicate the more noteworthy writings that 
have been of the greatest significance in 
either determining or recording the histori- 
cal evolution of astronomy, from ancient to 
modern times; and in the case of each, to 
discuss briefly its part in the development of 
astronomical thought, and to provide bib- 
hographical references to printed editions 
now available to the general reader. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


Astronomy may be broadly divided into 
(1) spherical and practical astronomy—the 
observation, exact description, and sys-— 
tematic discussion of the apparent positions 
and motions of the heavenly bodies on the 
celestial sphere; (2) theoretical astronomy 
—the construction of systematic theories of 
the actual arrangement and real motions of 
the celestial bodies in space that will ac- 
count for the observed phenomena and 
from which these phenomena may be pre- 
dicted by mathematical calculation; and 
(3) descriptive astronomy and astrophysics 
—the observation and physical interpreta- 
tion of the characteristic features and in- 
trinsic natures of the individual celestial 
bodies. During the pretelescopic period, 
from antiquity to the early seventeenth 
century, astronomy was practically con- 
fined to the first and second of these subdi- 
visions, i.e., to what may be called ‘“‘funda- 
mental astronomy’’; moreover, this part of 
astronomy, though now overshadowed by 
astrophysics (the rise of which began 
shortly after the middle of the nineteenth 
century), forms the essential foundation 
and framework of the entire science. In 
this paper we therefore confine ourselves to 
fundamental astronomy, and shall limit the 
discussion to the period closing with La- 
place (d. 1827) and Bessel (d. 1846). 

For readers whose interest is primarily in 
astronomy itself, rather than in history as 
such, the principal criterion for appraising 
the relative importance of early writings 
will be their comparative significance in 
having influenced the developments of 
thought that actually led to the eventual 
establishment of our own learning. Con- 
trary to the impression likely to be con- 
veyed by some modern writers, the astro- 
nomical ideas that now prevail in our 
civilization are not simply the chronologi- 
cally latest of a discontinuous succession of 
mutually independent systems of thought, 
each a complete revolution over its prede- 
cessors, and all (with the exception of the 
most recent!) of little merit. Instead, funda- 
mental astronomy as it now exists is the out- 
come of an essentially unbroken develop- 
ment extending from remote antiquity to 
modern times, throughout which the ac- 


JuLY 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


cumulated learning from the past conserved 
and transmitted down the centuries by suc- 
cessive Civilizations, was explicitly the basis 
for progressive extensions and attendant 
successive revisions in particulars that grad- 
ually led to the now established system. 
Modern astronomy has developed out of the 
ancient learning; and in it old and new ideas 
are combined in a design woven in many 
lands through many ages. A study of the 
more important original writings from suc- 
cessive periods will lead to a realization of 
this essential continuity of the development, 
and to an appreciation of the enduring im- 
portance of the earlier learning for the later 
achievements. Necessarily, to have been of 
significance in this development, knowledge 
that originated at any particular time and 


191 


place must, through some channel, have be- 
come synthesized with the astronomical 
thought of the civilizations by way of which 
our own civilization has received its culture; 
from the scientific astronomical point of 
view, any knowledge that developed in iso- 
lation from the particular stream of thought 
through which learning historically became 
established in our own civilization is of only 
limited interest, although it may be of the 
utmost significance and importance from 
other points of view. 

Hence a generalized sketch of the histori- 
cal development of astronomy within a 
framework of social and political history is 
an essential background for a discussion of 
the astronomical writings of the past and 
their significance.’ 


DEVELOPMENT OF ASTRONOMY IN RELATION TO 
POLITICAL HISTORY 


Modern science is essentially a develop- 
ment of Western learning, but it has been 
founded upon the heritage from the ancient 


Orient, where the earliest civilizations ap-_ 


peared. Of the three principal cultural 
groups in the world, broadly speaking—the 
Chinese, the Hindu, and our own—all three 
are of Eastern origin; but the first two re- 
mained exclusively Eastern, while the third 
has developed from a blend of Eastern and 
Western elements. Civilization and culture 
in Kurope, during both ancient and medi- 
eval times, originated by diffusion westward 
from the nearer Orient, by way of the Medi- 
terranean regions. 

The historic period—i.e., the era of con- 
temporary written records of the history and 
culture of mankind—first opens about 3100 
B.c. in Egypt along the Nile River, and 
somewhat earlier in Sumer along the lower 
Tigris and Euphrates; but archeological ex- 
plorations have shown that in these regions 
and also in some other parts of the great 
crescent-shaped area that stretches north- 
ward along the eastern shore of the Medi- 
terranean and eastward and southward 
down the Tigris and Euphrates to the Per- 
sian Gulf, as well as in parts of Asia Minor, 
the development of civilization had been in 
progress over a period which in some locali- 
ties probably extends back to 4500 B.c. or 


earlier. Through trade and commerce, mi- 
gration and colonization, warfare and con- 
quest, the ancient peoples of western Asia 
and the eastern Mediterranean regions were 
in continual contact with one another; and, 
under cultural influences from Egypt and 
Sumer, Oriental civilization steadily spread 
and developed among the other early na- 
tions that became established in western 
Asia,® while one great empire after another 
rose to political supremacy over the region. 


2 In preparing the following historical section, 
the author has relied principally upon: J. H. 
BREASTED, The conquest of civilization, new ed. 
(New York), 1938. J. H. BREASTED, Ancient 
times, 2d ed. (Boston), 1935. Cf. V. G. CHILDE, 
The Orient and Europe, Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. 
Sci. for 1938, pp. 181-196; and E. A. SpPEIsEr, 
Ancient Mesopotamia and the beginnings of science, 
Univ. Pennsylvania Bicentennial Conference: 
Studies in the History of Science, pp. 1-11 
(Philadelphia), 1941. 

3 Particularly the Phoenicians along the Medi- 
terranean coast in north Syria and the Canaanites 
in Palestine, among both of whom a flourishing 
civilization had developed by the twentieth cen- 
tury B.c.; the Hittites in Anatolia (Asia Minor), 
from remote times until the great empire they 
built up in Asia Minor, Syria, and eastward be- 
yond the Euphrates, finally collapsed under 
barbarian invasions about 1200 B.c.; and, in 
somewhat later times, the Syrians (Arameans) 
who had developed a flourishing civilization 
(especially at Damascus) by 1200 B.c., and the 
Hebrews, who began to displace the Canaanites 
after 1400 B.c. and developed a notable culture in 
Judea after the ninth or eighth century B.c. 


192 


Sumer had come under the control of Ak- 
kad, just to the north, by the twenty-sixth 
century B.c., when Sargon built up a pow- 
erful nation in western Asia that extended 
from Elam at the head of the Persian Gulf, 
far up the Tigris and Euphrates to the 
west and north, penetrating to the Medi- 
terranean and probably into eastern Asia 
Minor; after about 2300 B.c., the whole 
lower Tigris-Euphrates region (Plain of 
Shinar) was a unified nation under both 
Sumer and Akkad with a great civilization 
centered at the city of Ur, but it declined 
after 2200 B.c. before the attacks of invad- 
ers, Sumer and Ur falling to the Elamites. 
Later, however, Amorites from Syria, in- 
vading Akkad, seized the town of Babylon, 
and before 1900 B.c., under Hammurabi, 
had become supreme over the entire region 
of Sumer and Akkad, which henceforth was 
known as Babylonia. This early Babylonian 
civilization had been completely destroyed 
by about 1750 B.c. through a plundering in- 
vasion by Hittites, and subsequent per- 
manent occupation by Kassites from the 
east; and cultural progress ceased. Still 
farther north along the Tigris, however, 
was a civilization drawn largely from Su- 
meria that had for many centuries been de- 
veloping at Assur. About 1300 B.c. Assur 
commenced to extend her power, first over 
the Tigris-Euphrates region and then over 
other areas, until finally, by the capture of 
Damascus in 732 B.c. and the conquest of 
Egypt in 674 B.c.,* the Assyrian Empire had 
come to include the whole of western Asia 
and the Nile Valley. Under the Assyrians 
the ancient learning was revived; the time 
of Assurbanipal (d. 626 B.c.) was the golden 
age of Assyrian art and learning in which 
astronomy held an important place, though 
it was in part only a reflection of more an- 
cient Assyrian and Babylonian culture. 

4 Egypt, except for a brief period of domination 
by the Hyksos from Syria in the seventeenth 
century B.c., had until this time been independ- 
ent, and in fact during the sixteenth and fifteenth 
centuries B.c. had extended her own power until 
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and some 
of the territory over to the northern Euphrates 
had been brought under her rule; after 1400 B.c., 
however, under invasions (especially by the Hit- 
tites) and revolts, the Egyptian Empire in Asia 


began to decline and finally collapsed about 1150 
B.C. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


Meanwhile, the desert tribes of the Chal- 
deans had been establishing themselves at 
the head of the Persian Gulf and gradually 
mastering Babylonia, while the Medes were 
advancing from the northeastern moun- 
tains; under their combined assault, Nine- 
veh was destroyed in 612 B.c., and the As- 
syrian Empire fell. The Medes established 
a strong Iranian kingdom in the mountains 
east of the Tigris, extending from the Per- 
sian Gulf to the Black Sea, while the Chal- 
deans ruled the whole of the Tigris and 
Euphrates Valleys and the eastern Medi- 
terranean shores, with their capital at 
Babylon, reviving the early Babylonian 
civilization, which had perished centuries 
before, and attaining a much higher level 
(particularly in astronomy); but 60 years 
after the fall of Nineveh the Iranian tribes 
known as the Persians, who had long been 
settled in the mountains of Elam at the 
head of the Persian Gulf, conquered the 
Medes, brought the Chaldean Empire to an 
end by the capture of Babylon in 538 B.c., 
and by 525 B.c. had extended the Persian 
Empire over Egypt, western Asia and Asia 
Minor, and eastward almost to India. Ira- 
nian culture and learning, dawning about the 
sixth century B.c. at the time of Zoroaster, 
advanced to high levels under the influence 
of the conquered civilizations; much of the 
most important Chaldean astronomical 
work was done under Persian rule. 

Persia was the last of the great Oriental 
powers of antiquity; political and cultural 
supremacy were now to pass temporarily to 
the West, where another civilization had al- 
ready begun to arise. 

As early as 2000 B.c., under Egyptian and 
Hittite influence, a high level of civilization 
had become established on the island of 
Crete and was beginning to spread to the 
adjacent coast of the Aegean Peninsula to 
the northwest, where an especially notable 
development took place at Mycenae after 
1600; but a succession of barbarian inva- 
sions of the Aegean region by tribes from 
the north, migrating southward west of the 
Black Sea, which began before 2000 B.c., 
had almost destroyed this early Aegean civ- 
ilization by 1200 B.c. or before, and led to 
many migrations and disturbances through- 


JuLy 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


out the eastern Mediterranean regions. Be- 
tween 1300 and 1000 B.c., these invading 
tribes—the ancestors of the later Greeks— 
became established throughout the Aegean 
region, including the coast of Asia Minor, 
commingling to some extent with the earlier 
Aegean peoples; and among them, from the 
surviving remnants of the Cretan civiliza- 
tion and under continued Oriental influ- 
ences, civilization and culture began slowly 
to develop. After the sixth century B.c., 
Greek civilization and learning made re- 
markable progress, and during the next few 
centuries the Greeks achieved the highest 
civilization and greatest culture ever at- 
tained in the ancient world. 

Greece did not come under Assyrian or 
Persian rule, although Greek colonies in 
Asia Minor were at times conquered; but in 
the fourth century B.c. the Macedonians, 
north of the Greek Peninsula, began a se- 
ries of conquests that by 338 B.c. had made 
them masters of all Greece, by 333 had 
overthrown the Persian Empire, and by 323 
had built up the vast empire of Alexander 
the Great, which included Greece, Egypt, 
Asia Minor, and western Asia over into In- 
dia. The Macedonian rulers had _ been 
strongly influenced by the Greek culture; 
the conquests of Alexander carried Greek 
civilization throughout the ancient world 
and into the very heart of Asia, and at the 
same time materially enlarged Greek learn- 
ing. After Alexander’s death his empire 
became divided under different Macedonian 
leaders: The kingdom of the Ptolemies was 
established in Egypt; the Seleucids ruled 
over western Asia, but the Seleucid Empire 
soon began to disintegrate—in particular, 
Bactria (adjacent to India) became inde- 
pendent in 250 B.c.; and Parthia (north of 
Persia) not only became a separate country 
in 249 B.c., ruled by the Arsacid dynasty, 
but during the second century B.c. built up 
an empire of its own that included Baby- 
lonia. From the many centers of influence 
founded by the Macedonians, the Greek 
culture continued during the next three 
centuries to spread and become widely 
established, particularly in Egypt, western 
Asia, and India. Alexandria, founded in 332 
B.Cc., became the leading intellectual center 


195 


of the world. At the same time, the Baby- 
lonians continued their own developments, 
especially in astronomy, through the Seleu- 
cid and Arsacid periods, and contributed 
materially to Greek learning. 

Meanwhile, the vast power of Rome had 
been slowly rising in the West: The western 
Mediterranean lands had long remained in 
a state of barbarism, little influenced by the 
Oriental civilizations. It was in Italy and 
Sicily that the West first began to be influ- 
enced by the eastern Mediterranean cul- 
ture, largely through westward migrations 
(especially of the Etruscans) beginning in 
the twelfth century B.c. and through con- 
tact with Greek and Phoenician colonies 
founded in that region while Rome was still 
a rude barbarian settlement. The Latin 
(Italic) tribes then occupying central Italy, 
after having been subject to the Etruscans 
from the eighth century B.c. until about 500 
B.C., had become securely established under 
the leadership of Rome by about 400 B.c.; 
and the city of Rome then began to expand 
her power. By 275 B.c. Rome controlled 
Italy north of the Po; she then began the 
development of an empire that successively 
took in all of Italy, the Phoenician colony 
of Carthage on the African coast, Mace- 
donia, the eastern empires that had been 
formed from Alexander’s empire, Greece, 
Egypt, and eventually the still barbaric 
peoples of western Europe, reaching its 
greatest extent about 100 a.p. The Romans 
themselves added little to Greek learning; 
but as Roman civilization developed during 
the growth of the empire, it continually be- 
came more and more influenced by the 
Greeks (though its foundation was Etrus- 
can), establishing the Greek culture and 
language still more firmly throughout the 
civilized world. 

Barbarian invasions, which began about 
the third century A.p., combined with in- 
ternal strife and decline, and the rise of a 
New Persia in the Tigris-Euphrates region 
(under the Sassanians), led to a division of 
the Roman Empire in the fourth century 
into Eastern and Western Empires, and 
finally to its collapse and breakup. In the 
West, the ancient world came to a final end 
in 476 a.p., the Western Roman Empire 


194 


having been completely replaced by bar- 
barian kingdoms; the ancient civilization 
and learning almost disappeared in the 
West, and the Dark Ages settled over 
Europe. In the East, classical learning 
steadily declined; and a rapid rise of the 
Moslem Arabs in the early seventh century 
destroyed the remaining Eastern Roman 
Empire (Byzantine Empire) except for a 
small fragment in Asia Minor and the Bal- 
kan peninsula ruled by the successors of 
the Roman Emperors at Constantinople, 
where the ancient civilization survived un- 
til the Turkish conquest in 1453. 

By 750 a.p. the Moslem Empire included 
Arabia, western Asia (over to India), 
Egypt and northern Africa, and Spain; the 
capital was at Baghdad. After the middle of 
the eighth century the Moslems actively 
cultivated the ancient learning that came 
into their possession: First, from their con- 
tacts with the peoples of the Tigris-EKu- 
phrates region and, after the conquest of 
Persia, with the scholars of India, they ob- 
tained Babylonian and Hindu knowledge 
and also the Greek learning that had been 
transmitted to those regions; later, they 
came into contact with the original Greek 
writings. The culture of Islam—a fusion of 
Arabic with Persian and Greco-Persian ele- 
ments—soon became supreme throughout 
the learned world, and Arabic the principal 
literary language. The Moslem supremacy 
in Asia declined after the tenth century, but 
continued in Spain (among the Moors) 
until the capture of Cordova and Seville by 
the Spaniards in the thirteenth century, and 
survived still longer in Egypt. The rise of 
Mongol power in Asia during the thirteenth 
century, with the capture of Baghdad in 
1258, destroyed the Eastern Caliphate. 
Under the Mongols, Persia became for a 
time a leading center of learning, but during 
the fifteenth century intellectual progress 
came to an end in the Kast. 

Meanwhile, the cultivation of classical 
learning, gathered from Persia, Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria, Egypt, and the Byzantine 
Empire, and concentrated with knowledge 
from India, by Moslem. scholars of many 
different nationalities, had carried the 
legacy of the ancients westward along both 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL: 32.-Noue 


the northern and southern shores of the 
Mediterranean as far as Spain and Morocco. 
During the eleventh century, the Arabic 
learning had commenced to spread slowly 
from Spain into other parts of western 
Europe, but this diffusion did not reach 
significant proportions until about the 
thirteenth century. Finally, during the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Ren- 
aissance in western Europe opened the 
modern era, first in Italy and then succes- 
sively in other countries. 

During the course of the long succession 
of historical events sketched above, the 
cultivation of astronomy among the nations 
that were involved resulted in the eventual 
establishment of astronomical learning in 
its present form in our own civilization.® 

The astronomical knowledge that de- 
veloped among the ancient Oriental nations 
of the pre-Hellenic period as a result of cen- 
turies of continued astronomical observa- 
tion—principally in Egypt and Babylonia, 
where the cloudless skies and clear atmos- 
phere were especially favorable for the ob- 
servation of celestial phenomena—consti- 
tuted the beginning from which modern 
astronomy has evolved. Historical records 
from ancient Egypt give evidence of astro- 
nomical observation extending back into 
the early third millennium, although no 
actual records of systematic observations 
from any period are known, nor are any 
specific Egyptian observations used in ex- 
tant writings from later times. From Baby- 
lonia, written records of observations of the 
planet Venus made nearly 4,000 years ago 
are still extant; but not until after the 


-eighth century B.c. did the Babylonian 


astronomical observations become suffi- 
ciently systematic and precise to lead to a 
very exact knowledge of celestial phenom- 
ena. The earliest observations were 
necessarily simple, and more or less rough: 
All ancient peoples grouped the brighter 


’ The development of astronomy is included in 
the general summaries of scientific and cultural 
progress among different nations given in the 
various introductory sections and chapters of 
GEORGE SarTON, Introduction to the history of 
science, Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. No. 376; 
volumes 1 (1927) and 2 (1931) cover the period 
from antiquity through the thirteenth century. 


Juty 15, 1942 WoOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 195 


stars into constellations; introduced the 
zodiac in one form or another, as a means 
of following the apparent motions of the 
sun, the moon, and the five planets visible 
to the unaided eye; and based calendars, 
and methods of measuring time, on celestial 
phenomena. Particular attention was al- 
ways given to eclipses, heliacal risings and 
settings of the planets and bright stars, con- 
junctions, and other similar occurrences. 
From centuries of observation, the charac- 
teristics of the apparent motions of the sun, 
moon, and planets among the fixed stars 
became accurately enough known, espe- 
cially in Babylonia, for empirical methods 
of predicting celestial phenomena to be 
constructed. In general, astronomy was 
cultivated largely for religious and astro- 
logical purposes. 

Babylonian astronomy was gradually de- 
veloped during the 3,000 years or more 
preceding the Christian Era, by the various 
peoples who occupied the Tigris-Kuphrates 
region from Sumerian to Roman times. It 
remained primitive until during the late 
Assyrian period, when a continuous series 
of carefully recorded systematic astronom- 
ical observations began with the reign of 
Nabonassar in 747 B.c. and extended over 
several centuries. From the long records of 
observations, the later Babylonians ob- 
tained an accurate knowledge of the periods 
and principal inequalities of the apparent 
motions of the celestial bodies, and con- 
structed elaborate methods for mathemat- 
ically representing these motions and cal- 
culating remarkably exact ephemerides of 
the positions and principal phenomena of 
the sun, moon, and planets, including the 
prediction of eclipses. Babylonian astron- 
omy reached its most advanced stage dur- 
ing the third and second centuries B.c. at 
the period when Greek astronomy was 
rapidly developing; and the Greeks, espe- 
cially Hipparchus, used many of the Baby- 
lonian results. 

Egyptian astronomy never approached 
the level attained by Assyro-Babylonian 
learning, nor apparently was it ever greatly 
influenced by the Greek and Babylonian 
knowledge, and it can not compare in im- 
portance with the Babylonian as a founda- 


tion for Greek astronomy. The later 
Egyptians developed methods for roughly 
calculating the apparent motions of the 
moon and the planets, but they never ad- 
vanced beyond simple approximate proce- 
dures in which no account was taken of the 
details of the inequalities. 

The Chaldean astronomy was the earliest 
scientific system of astronomical knowledge; 
but apparently it was entirely empirical, 
and dominated by religious and astrological 
motives. There is no certain evidence that 
either the Egyptians or the Babylonians 
constructed any explanatory theories, other 
than primitive mythological cosmologies, 
to account for the phenomena they ob- 
served or for the empirical rules they devel- 
oped. Upon the basis of the accumulated 
Oriental knowledge, however, particularly 
that of the Chaldeans, the ancient Greeks 
initiated the development of astronomy as 
a logical science, by introducing natural 
physical law and abstract rational thought 
in place of mythology and mysticism, for- 
mulating general principles in place of par- 
ticular statements, and constructing sys- 
tematic physical and mathematical theories 
of the arrangement and motions of the 
heavenly bodies in space for the explanation 
and calculation of celestial phenomena in 
place of a collection of empirical rules. An- 
cient astronomical science was essentially 
and almost wholly a creation by the Greeks; 
but the Orient provided the initial stimulus 
to the constructive intellectual genius of the 
Greeks, and supplied an _ indispensable 
foundation of observational data and em- 
pirical results from 30 centuries of activity. 
It was among the Ionians, in closest contact 
with the Orient, that Greek philosophy and 
science first began to develop. 

The astronomical and mathematical 
knowledge of their Oriental predecessors 
and contemporaries began to be introduced 
among the Greeks about the seventh cen- 
tury B.c., and Greek philosophy appeared 
in the sixth century with Thales and the 
Pythagoreans, although scientific astron- 
omy as distinguished from philosophical 
speculation did not begin until the early 
fourth century B.c. While Hellenic culture 
was being disseminated and established 


196 


throughout the civilized world by the con- 
quests of Alexander and the expansion of 
the Roman Empire, the Greeks actively 
continued the development of astronomy, 
making particularly extensive use of the 
Babylonian results. 

The great Greek astronomers Hipparchus 
(second century B.c.) and Ptolemy (second 
century A.D.) developed astronomy to the 
most advanced stage that was attained in 
ancient times; and for more than 1,000 
years after the fall of the ancient civiliza- 
tion, no essentially new development or 
important further progress was effected in 
astronomy as left by the Greeks. Learning 
practically disappeared in the West, al- 
though a limited knowledge of Greek 
astronomy (obtained from old Roman 
writings) existed in some of the monasteries, 
especially after the eighth or ninth century; 
but at the declining Alexandrian school and 
among the nations of the East, Greek as- 
tronomy continued to be cultivated to a 
limited extent: Syriac versions of the Greek 
writings had been preserved among the 
Nestorian Christians, followers of the 
Syrian monk Nestorius who was exiled from 
Constantinople in the early fifth century, 
and whose missionaries founded religious 
institutions in many parts of western Asia; 
Greek astronomy had been carried to Persia 
by refugees from the Academy at Athens, 
closed by Justinian in 529; and in the pagan 
Harranian settlements the classical tradi- 
tion still survived. Through these channels 
of diffusion, Greek learning was first trans- 
mitted to Baghdad after the rise of the 
Moslem Empire. Moslem astronomy, after 
the first impulse from India, was based 
wholly on the Greek writings—principally 
those of Ptolemy; and as transmitted by 
the Arabs to western Europe after the open- 
ing of the revival of learning, astronomy 
was substantially the same as when left by 
Ptolemy. The Arabs were accurate observ- 
ers and skillful calculators; they contrib- 
uted many new observations, tables, and 
treatises; and some of the Hindu and Arabie 
ideas which became integrated with the 
Greek knowledge, particularly in mathe- 
matics, were of great importance; but the 
improvements effected by the Moslems in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


astronomical science were only in details. 
Astronomy as slowly revived in Europe— 


first through Latin, Hebrew, and Spanish | 


versions of Arabic astronomical and mathe- 
matical writings translated during the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and later 
through the study of original Greek writ- 
ings—was therefore essentially the ancient 
Greek astronomy as developed by Ptolemy 
(although the earlier and much less ad- 
vanced ideas of Aristotle were also accepted 
to some extent); and modern astronomy 
emerged in western Europe directly through 
a progressive modification of the Ptolemaic 
astronomy. The impress of the Greeks and 
the Arabs is still apparent in the terminol- 
ogy of astronomy and uranography; and 
even traces of ancient Babylonian influence 
remain. 

As the ancient astronomy gradually be- 
came known in Europe, the first active 
efforts to continue its development, and to 
remove the imperfections that became ap- 
parent, began during the fifteenth century 
—particularly in Germany, through the 
work of Peurbach (1423-1461) and Regio- 
montanus (1436-1476); but no important 
advances were made until, during the six- 
teenth and seventeenth centuries, Coperni- 
cus and Kepler transformed the Ptolemaic 
astronomy into a form which prepared the 
way for Newton and his successors. 

The writings now surviving, which pro- 
vide the original record of these ages of 
development, become fewer and more frag- 
mentary the farther back in history we 
penetrate; the details of the earliest devel- 
opments and mutual exchanges of ideas 
among different peoples are obscured by the 
mists of remote antiquity and cannot now 
be traced with certainty, while the begin- 
nings are completely lost in the darkness of 
prehistoric times. The more conspicuous of 
the celestial phenomena that are immedi- 
ately apparent to direct observation were 
undoubtedly among the first natural occur- 
rences to be consciously noticed by primi- 
tive man; and even in prehistoric times the 
inhabitants of many different lands were 
led by one motive or another to begin 
astronomical observations and records. To 
early peoples, the starry heavens were an 


Juty 15, 1942 WoOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


intimate part of daily life and thought; 
celestial phenomena were the guide for nu- 
merous practical activities, and the basis of 
many popular customs. The cultivation of 
astronomy was not confined to the nearer 
Orient, where the particular development 
that has led to the learning of our own civili- 
zation had its beginning; and the relations 
between the nearer Orient and the ancient 
civilizations in India and eastern Asia, where 
the other principal cultural developments 
originated,® are imperfectly known, but ap- 
parently the development of ideas in west- 
ern Asia and the Mediterranean region was 
not significantly influenced by the eastern 
Asiatic peoples. Astronomy was cultivated 
in China and India, beginning in very re- 
mote times—possibly extending back to the 
third millennium B.c. in China, and prob- 
ably into the second millennium or farther 
in India—but in both regions it remained 
rather primitive until comparatively late 
times, and mostly independent of develop- 
ments to the westward. Chinese culture 
may have been somewhat influenced in 
very remote times by Babylonia and pos- 
sibly by ancient India, and it is certain that 
a trade connection existed between Sumeria 
and an early civilization in the Indus Valley 
that extended back to 2500 B.c. or earlier; 
but only very little is known either of the 
earliest part of the historic period in China 
(which does not open until about the four- 
teenth century B.c.) or of the period in India 
before 1500 3.c. Later, through contacts 
during the time of the Persian Empire and 
after the conquests of Alexander, learning 
was introduced into India from the west- 
ward; and in time some of the Hindu knowl- 

6 The theme of the present discussion does not 
require any consideration of the astronomical 
knowledge which developed among the Maya, 
Aztec, and Inca civilizations, or among the differ- 
ent aboriginal and primitive peoples of various 
parts of the world. The astronomical ideas of some 
of these races are briefly described by E. ZINNER, 
Geschichte der Sternkunde (Berlin), 1931. For a 
summary of Mayan astronomy, see also: J. E. 
TEEPE, Maya astronomy, Carnegie Inst. Wash- 
ington Publ. 403, pp. 29-115, 1930; cf. Maup W. 
Makemson, The Maya calendar, Pop. Astron. 50: 
6-15, 1942. Some writers have advanced the 
speculation that the Chinese and the Mayan 
systems of astronomy had a common origin (see, 


e.g., Journ. Roy. Astron. Soc. Canada 33: 1-4, 
1939), 


197 


edge permeated to China, especially after 
the first century A.D. The earliest historic 
contact of China with the West was in the 
second century B.c., when the silk route to 
the Roman Orient was established; but at 
least a few ideas seem to have filtered 
through from Chaldea, Greece and possibly 
Persia as early as the fourth century B.c., 
and perhaps from India in the eighth cen- 
tury B.c. After the fourth century A.pD., the 
development of Chinese astronomy was 
dominated by influences from the nations to 
the westward. 

The earliest coherent Chinese astronom- 
ical writings now extant date from shortly 
before the Christian Era; the ancient as- 
tronomy recorded in them undoubtedly 
dates back in large part to at least 400 B.c., 
and includes some material that is several 
centuries older still. With some further de- 
velopment, this ancient system continued 
to prevail in China until the adoption of 
Western astronomy from the Jesuits in the 
late seventeenth century.’ The Chinese 
astronomers directed their efforts almost 
wholly to the mere observation of celestial 
phenomena and the regulation of the calen- 
dar, and to the cultivation of astrology; 
during the thirteenth century, the influence 
of the Moslem Persians and Arabs pene- 
trated to China, and observatories (superior 
to any in Europe at that time) were estab- 
lished (e.g., at Pekin) where observations 
with the ancient instruments were made for 
several centuries, but Chinese astronomical 
knowledge remained comparatively primi- 
tive, and astronomical science was never 
developed to an important extent. In India, 
however, a scientific Hindu astronomy had 
developed by the fifth or sixth century A.D., 
although some uncertainty exists as to the 
extent to which it developed independently 
of Greek influence; but progress ceased after 
the twelfth century, and a belated attempt 
(at Jaipur and elsewhere in north India) to 
revive activity in the early eighteenth cen- 
tury did not accomplish anything of impor- 
tance. 

The Hindus exerted an indirect influence 

7See HERBERT CHaATLEY, Anctent Chinese 


astronomy, Occas. Notes Roy. Astron. Soc. No. 5, 
pp. 65-74, June 19389. 


198 


on western astronomy by being the first 
nation to communicate astronomical knowl- 
edge to the Arabs and by contributing sev- 
eral important mathematical ideas; the 
principal Hindu astronomical writings are 
therefore of some interest for the present 
discussion. Of more direct interest are the 
principal Arabic treatises, particularly those 
which were most influential in the trans- 
mission of the ancient astronomy to the 
West during the Revival of Learning. The 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


writings of greatest general interest, how- 
ever, are: The outstanding Hellenic treatises 
that record the most important creative 
achievements of the Greeks; the Egyptian 
and more particularly the Babylonian 
records that served as the original founda- 
tion for the Greek developments; and the 
contributions from western Europe that 
transformed the ancient astronomy into 
modern form.$ 


THE CONTEMPORARY WRITINGS 


No general treatise on astronomy is 
known from either Egypt or Babylonia. The 
astronomical knowledge of the ancient 
Egyptians must be inferred from the sur- 
viving inscriptions and pictorial representa- 
tions of the heavens found on monuments 
and in the temples and tombs, from a few 
fragmentary manuscripts, and from the 
existing references (often untrustworthy) 
to Egyptian astronomy in Greek writings. 
Our knowledge of Assyro-Babylonian and 
Chaldean astronomy is derived principally 
from cuneiform clay tablets found in large 
numbers in the ruins of the temples and 
palaces, particularly in the great library 
where works of past ages were systemati- 
cally assembled by the Assyrian king Assur- 
banipal at Nineveh in the seventh century 
B.c. The cuneiform astronomical tablets 
date from about 2000 B.c. to the beginning 
of the Christian Era, and are inscribed with 
records of observations, astrological omens, 
data on the rising, setting, and other phe- 
nomena of stars and constellations and 
calculated ephemerides of the moon and 
planets. 

Many of the more important Babylonian 
astronomical tablets are reproduced in 
cuneiform and phonetic transcriptions, ac- 
companied by German translations and 
explanatory discussions, in F. X. KuGLER, 
Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel (2 vols. 
and 3 supplements, Aschendorffsche Ver- 
lagsbuchhandlung, Miinster in Westfalen, 
1907-1935; the third supplement was pre- 
pared by J. Schaumberger, after Kugler’s 
death in 1929); and an examination of rep- 
resentative examples of these original texts 


is the best way of obtaining a satisfactory 
idea of Babylonian astronomy.’ The Baby- 
lonian ephemerides were based on empirical 
rules deduced from long observation of 
celestial phenomena; auxiliary tables and 
occasional precepts for computing the ap- 


8 An essential factor in the progress of as- 
tronomy was the development of appropriate 
mathematical methods for the treatment of celes- 
tial phenomena. Effective mathematical aids 
adapted to this purpose (other than ordinary 
numerical calculation) were not available until 
the Greeks formulated spherical geometry and 
the elements of trigonometry; the early de- 
velopment of these subjects was to a large ex- 
tent directly in connection with astronomy. The 
Greeks were the first to construct an abstract 
logical system of mathematical knowledge, es- 
pecially geometry; but, as in the case of astron- 
omy, the development which led to the great 
mathematical achievements of the Greeks origi- 
nated under Oriental influence. The Egyptians 
and especially the Babylonians made remarkable 
progress in elementary mathematics—principally 
in the solution of arithmetical problems, the for- 
mulation of rules for finding areas and volumes of 
geometric figures, and the solution of algebraic 
equations—but accomplished little in the way of 
general theorems or logical proofs. For a general 
account of Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics 
as recorded in extant papyrus manuscripts and 
cuneiform tablets, see O. NEUGEBAUER, Vorle- 
sungen ueber Geschichte der antiken mathematischen 
Wissenschaften, Bd. I; Vorgriechische Mathe- 
matik (Berlin), 1934; and on Greek mathematics, 
Sir Tuomas L. Hreatu, Manual of Greek mathe- 
matics (Oxford), 1931. 

®° For general accounts of Babylonian astron- 
omy, see: J. K. ForHERINGHAM, The indebtedness 
of Greek to Chaldean astronomy, Observatory 51: 
301-315, 1928 (rep. in Quellen und Studien Gesch. 
Math. Astr. u. Phys. B2: 28-41, 1932); A. T. Oum- 
STEAD, Babylonian astronomy, Amer. Journ. 
Semitic Lang. and Lit. 55: 113-129, 1938; 
ZINNER, Geschichte der Sternkunde, pp. 33-69. On 
Babylonian influences in early Greek astronomy, 
cf. O. NEUGEBAUER, On some asironomical papyrt 
and related problems of ancient geography, Trans. 
Amer. Phil. Soc. 32: 251-263, 1942. 


——— 


Ee ae eee 


oa 


JuLY 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


parent lunar and planetary motions are 
included among the cuneiform tablets, but 
in the absence of expository texts the meth- 
ods of computation must usually be inferred 
from an analysis of the entries themselves. 
These ephemerides are characterized by 
being constructed with the aid of arithmetic 
progressions. The Babylonians were the 
first to represent the irregular motion of a 
celestial body as the mathematical resultant 
of a set of simple artificial components; the 
particular resolution of the actual motion 
into components that could be represented 
and compounded by arithmetic progres- 
sions was determined by the mathematical 
methods then available. 

There is no treatise in which all the prin- 
cipal Egyptian records are reproduced and 
critically discussed, although a large num- 
ber of examples of the inscriptions and pic- 
torial diagrams are scattered through vari- 
ous publications. Typical examples of the 
Egyptian portrayal of the sky are repro- 
duced in the Bulletin of the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art (New York), Feb. 1928 
(Sect. II), and vol. 18, pp. 283-286, 1923; 
and in Isis 14: 301-325, 1930, and 17: 
262-263, 1925. Examples of calendarial 
star tables are given in Osiris I: 500—509, 
1936, and Isis 17: 6-24, 1932. The noted 
Denderah planisphere has been repro- 
duced in many books and articles (recently 
in The Sky, Dec. 1940). A facsimile and 
translation of a demotic papyrus show- 
ing a calculation of the dates of new moon 
will be found in Quellen und Studien Gesch. 
Math. Astron. u. Phys. B4: 383-406, 1938; 
and the extant tables of planetary posi- 
tions (probably constructed from com- 
bined observations and calculations) have 
been edited and discussed by O. NruGer- 
BAUER, HKgyptian planetary texts, Trans. 
Amer. Phil. Soc. 32: 209-250, 1942. These 
lunar and planetary texts are from Roman 
times, but the methods seem to date from at 
least the first period of the Hellenistic age. 


On Egyptian astronomy, see: ZINNER, Ge- 
schichte der Sternkunde, pp. 1-32; HERBERT Cuar- 
LEY, Egyptian astronomy. Journ. Egyptian Ar- 
chaeol. 26: 120-126, 1941; and O. NeuGEBauER, 
Nature (London) 143: 115, 1939. The book by 
BH. M. Anrontant, L’astronomie égyptienne (Paris, 
1934) is too uncritical to be a source of reliable 


199 


The way in which Egyptian and Baby- 
lonian astronomical and mathematical 
knowledge was transmitted to Greece is 
incompletely known; many of the earlier 
Greek writings are lost, and hence the de- 
velopment of ideas cannot be completely 
traced, either among the early Greeks them- 
selves or from the Greeks to their sources.4 
It is known, however, that many Greek 
scholars traveled extensively in foreign 
countries, especially Egypt; and that col- 
lections of Babylonian astronomical obser- 
vations were sent to Greece after the cap- 
ture of Babylon by Alexander (331 B.c.). 

In the abundance of Greek writings that 
survive comparatively little has been pre- 
served in original form. In general, the ex- 
tant manuscripts are transcriptions made 
long after the works were originally written, 
and they require critical collation and edit- 
ing by competent scholars before trust- 
worthy versions of the ancient writings can 
be obtained. Some of the Greek writings 
have been found only in medieval Arabic 
translations. Arabic manuscripts—compris- 
ing many translations as well as original 
Moslem. writings—survive in large num- 
bers, especially in the Spanish archives, al- 
though many of them have not been care- 
fully examined. In fact, museums and 
libraries contain a large quantity of source 
material for the history of learning among 
the ancient nations which has not yet been 
critically studied, while additional mate- 
rial is constantly being discovered through 
continued explorations in the Orient; and 
as these documents come to be studied, fur- 
ther vistas into the past may be opened up, 
although our historical knowledge must 
always remain more or less incomplete. 

Many medieval Latin manuscripts— 
both translations of Arabic and Greek writ- 
ings, and original Latin compositions—are 
in existence. With the invention of printing 


information and does not take account of recent 
important discoveries, but the extensive collection 
of citations from Greek and Roman writers that 
it includes is of interest; Antoniadi greatly exag- 
gerates the achievements of the Egyptians and the 
extent to which the Greeks were indebted to 
them. 

1 On early Greek astronomy (to about 250 
B.c.), see Sir THomas H&atu, Aristarchus of 
Samos (Oxford), 19138. 


200 


about 1450, astronomical works, both an- 
cient and contemporary, were printed in 
great numbers; the ancient works were 
issued in the original tongues and in Latin 
translations. These early editions, as well as 
the original editions of many later writings, 
are of course now rare; but most of the more 
important astronomical writings of past 
times (including those of the Hindus) are 
now available in comparatively recent edi- 
tions, usually in both the original language 
and a translation into a modern language, 
although many have not been translated 
into English. A few are available only in 
‘old scarce editions; and some still do not 
exist in a modern language. 

In reviewing the writings that have been 
most influential in the development of 
astronomical thought—either because they 
constitute especially significant advances 
in the evolution of ideas that have directly 
led to our own learning, or because they 
were widely accepted as standard sources 
of information—we shall list the most easily 
obtainable good editions of each, including 
in general both the original text and a trans- 
lation into a modern language.” 

From among all astronomical writings, 


12 The original text is, of course, necessary for 
critical study and is desirable even for the general 
reader. An ability, if not actually to read a work 
independently in the original language, at least 
to follow the original intelligently with the aid 
of a translation adds immeasurably to the pleas- 
ure and satisfaction of the reader and greatly 
enhances his appreciation of the content; it is 
principally for the expression of thought contained 
in the ancient writings that they are now read, not 
primarily for factual information, and much of 
the character of the original is inevitably lost in 
even the best of translations by competent 
scholars, to say nothing of inferior translations. 
A sufficient reading knowledge of Greek and Latin 
for the purposes of the general reader ot astronom- 
ical and mathematical writings does not offer any 
insurmountable obstacle to the earnest student. 
Arabic presents more difficulties, while the Egyp- 
tian (hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic) and 
cuneiform must usually be left to specialists, but 
a knowledge of the fundamental principles of 
these languages is an aid to the appreciative and 
effective use of the edited texts and translations 
prepared by Oriental scholars. On the Egyptian 
language, see O. NEUGEBAUER, Vorgriechische 
Mathematik, pp. 72-78; and ApoLF Erman, Die 
Hieroglyphen (Sammlung Géschen. Nr. 608), 
2te aufl. (Berlin), 1923. On the cuneiform writing, 
see NEUGEBAUER, ibid. pp. 49-67; and Bruno 
MeIssnER, Die Keilschrift (Samml. Gésch. 708), 
2te aufl. (Berlin), 1922. 


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VOL. 32, NOLF 


there is little difficulty in selecting three 
outstanding treatises which rank foremost 
in fundamental importance for the histori- 
cal evolution of modern astronomy, and 
which may be recommended to the general 
reader for first attention. The first of these 
works is the Syntaxis mathematica of 
ProLtemy, usually referred to as _ the 
Almagest; written in the second century 
A.D., 1t remained for 1,400 years the almost 
universally accepted standard authority, 
and upon it were based practically all other 
important astronomical writings during 
this period. The Almagest occupies a posi- 
tion in astronomy corresponding to that of 
Euclid’s Elements in geometry. Ptolemy 
collects and systematizes the astronomical 
knowledge that had been developed by his 
predecessors, and amplifies and extends it 
by his own contributions; his treatise forms 
a comprehensive account of the final stage 
to which astronomy was developed in an- 
cient times. The second of the three trea- 
tises is the Astronomia nova of KEPLER, 
1609, which constitutes the first funda- 
mental advance in astronomical ideas that 


-was accomplished after Ptolemy; it records 


the results obtained from Kepler’s study of 
Tycho Brahe’s observations, including the 
first two laws of planetary motion. The 
third is the Philosophiae naturals principia 
mathematica of NEwTon, 1687, which com- 
pleted the foundation of astronomy; it gives 
the physical interpretation of Kepler’s 
empirically derived kinematical laws, and 
provides all the theoretical principles neces- 
sary for the exact mathematical calculation 
of celestial phenomena. The entire develop- 
ment represented by these three treatises 
was completely effected without the aid of 
the telescope. 

There are also a number of other writings 
which, for one reason or another, are of 
sufficient historical importance or especial 
interest to claim particular attention in the 
present discussion, some of which—e.g., the 
De_ revolutionibus orbium coelestium of 
CoPERNICUS—will immediately occur to the 
reader; but from the viewpoint of their sig- 
nificance for the logical development of the 
fundamental principles of astronomy, the 
above three works overshadow all others. 


| 
| 
: 
; 


JuLy 15, 1942 WooLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 201 


The most authoritative version of the 
Greek text of the Almagest is the edition 
by Herpere: Claudiz Piolemaei opera quae 
exstant omnia Volumen I, Syntaxis Mathe- 
matica, editit J. L. Heiberg (in 2 vols., 1154 


pp. 64 X4% in.), Leipzig (Teubner), 1898—_ 


1903. A German translation from Heiberg’s 
text is available: Karu Manirius, Des 
Ptoleméus Handbuch der Astronomie, 2 vols., 
Leipzig (Teubner), 1912-1913. The Greek 
text accompaniéd by a French translation 
was published by the Abbé Haima, 1813-— 
1816; the original is now rare, but a photo- 
graphic reprint has recently been issued: 
Composition mathématique de Claude Pto- 
lémée, par M. Halma, réimpression fac- 
similé, 2 vols., Paris (Hermann), 1927. 
Halma’s text, however, can not be regarded 
as definitive, and his translation is some- 
what deficient in places. No English trans- 
lation of the Almagest has been published. 

The 13 books of the Almagest contain an 
account of spherical astronomy, including 
the necessary principles of trigonometry, a 
discussion of precession, and a star cata- 
logue; theories and tables of the motions of 
the sun, the moon, and the five planets, 
based on the hypothesis of excentrics and 
epicycles; the theory of solar and lunar 
eclipses; and a determination of the sizes 
and distances of the sun and the moon. 
Except for constructing the theories of the 
planets and discovering the lunar inequality 
now called the evection, Ptolemy probably 
derived the contents of the Almagest al- 
most entirely from Hipparchus (though 
adding many extensions and improve- 
ments), and many of the results depend 
upon principles that had been established 
very early in the development of scientific 
Greek astronomy. This development had 

183 For other astronomical writings of Ptolemy, 
see Vol. 2 of the above edition of the Opera Omnia: 
Opera astronomica minora, ed. J. L. Heiberg, 
Leipzig (Teubner), 1907. For a German transla- 
tion of the treatise in which Ptolemy explains the 
principles of the stereographic projection, see 
Isis 9: 255-278, 1927. Ptolemy is also noted for 
his treatise on geography, which is second in im- 
portance only to the Almagest, and which in- 
fluenced geography as long and as profoundly as 
the Almagest influenced astronomy; on the impor- 
tant manuscripts and editions of the geographical 


treatise, see Isis 20: 267-274, 1983; 22: 533-539, 
1935; and 30: 328, 1939. 


begun in the fourth century B.c.; the work 
of Eudoxus of Cnidos (408-355) consti- 
tuted the transition from the early specula- 
tive period to the period of scientific in- 
vestigation. Hudoxus wrote a systematic 
description of the recognized constellations 
and the phenomena of the heavens, devel- 
oped the elementary principles of the geom- 
etry of the celestial sphere and through 
his hypothesis of homocentric spheres made 
the earliest -known attempt to account 
quantitatively for the observed irregular 
motions of the sun, moon, and planets 
among the stars by means of a true physical 
theory; his astronomical writings, none of 
which have survived, were partly the basis 
of many of the later treatises and further 
developments through which astronomy 
gradually reached the stage represented by 
the Almagest. 

The fundamental hypotheses of the Al- 
magest, as stated by Ptolemy, are 

... that the firmament is spherical and moves 
as a sphere; and that the earth also is sensibly 
spherical in form, considered as a whole, while in 
position it lies at the middle of the universe as 
though it were the center, being in magnitude and 
distance relatively only a point with respect to 


the sphere of the fixed stars, and undergoing no 
change of place through motion. 


These principles had long been a generally 
accepted part of Greek thought; they began 
to emerge during the sixth and fifth cen- 
turles B.c. among some of the Greek specu- 
lative philosophers of that period, and to 
replace the older fanciful cosmologies of the 
mythological period, although in general 
the astronomical ideas of the early philoso- 
phers were exceedingly primitive and dif- 
fered greatly from one another.“ The con- 
cept of the heavens as a complete revolving 
sphere, or series of concentric spheres, en- 
tirely surrounding the earth, was a part of 
several of the early philosophical systems; 
that the earth was located at the center in 
free space, without support, was held by 
Anaximander (ca. 611-547) and Parmenides 

4 The details of the astronomical ideas held by 
the different Greek philosophers prior to the time 
of Eudoxus will be found in HEATH, Arvsiarchus 
of Samos, pp. 1-189; and J. L. E. Dreyer, 
History of the planetary systems, pp. 6-86 (Cam- 


bridge Press), 1906. Both of these books are now 
rare. 


202 


(early fifth century) among others; while 
the spherical form of the earth was taught 
by the Pythagoreans in the late sixth cen- 
tury B.c. (although it is uncertain whether 
Pythagoras himself adhered to this view) 
and by Parmenides (who recognized that 
the temperature zones of the earth arise 
from its sphericity). In many cases, these 
ideas appear to have been mere a priori 
opinions without much foundation; but 
empirical data and rational arguments in 
support of them were in time forthcoming 
as Greek knowledge continued to develop. 
The sphericity of the earth came to be gen- 
erally accepted during the early fourth 
century B.C.; several estimates of its size 
were made, though on what basis is un- 
known. The first known actual measure- 
ment of the dimensions of the earth was by 
Eratosthenes (275-194); in Ptolemy’s trea- 
tise on geography a later measurement by 
Posidonius (ca. 185-50) is adopted. In gen- 
eral, on the basis of the evidence then avail- 
able, the earth was regarded as stationary 
at the center of the universe; but the Greeks 
explicitly recognized that conceivably the 
earth could be in motion and the observed 
motions of the heavenly bodies only appar- 
ent, and this hypothesis was definitely 
adopted by some; Philolaus (fifth century 
B.C.), €.g., maintained that the earth, in 
common with the sun and other heavenly 
bodies, revolves around a ‘‘central fire’’; 
Heraclides of Pontus (fourth century B.c.) 
taught the axial rotation of the earth (and 
incidentally a motion of Mercury and 
Venus around the sun); and Aristarchus of 
Samos (fl. ca. 280 B.c.) advocated both a 
rotation of the earth and an orbital revolu- 
tion around the sun. The basis for these 
ideas is uncertain, and they appear to have 
met with little acceptance in ancient times. 

Spherical astronomy in the form found in 
the Almagest was the result of a develop- 
ment that had begun with Eudoxus or pos- 
sibly even earlier. The oldest Greek mathe- 
matical writings now extant, however, are 
two small treatises by Autolycus of Pitane 
(fl. ca. 310 B.c.), one on the formal geometry 
of the rotating celestial sphere (though the 
celestial sphere is not mentioned by name) 
and the other on the diurnal and heliacal 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


risings and settings and daily and annual 
periods of visibility of the fixed stars and 
zodiacal signs; both apparently were de- 
rived largely from a still earlier work on 
Spherics probably written by Eudoxus. The 
Greeks used the term ‘‘Spherics” for ab- 
stract spherical geometry developed spe- 
cifically in a form for application in astron- 
omy but without explicit reference to the 
celestial sphere; while the description of the 
actual aspects of the heavens was called 
‘‘Phenomena.”’ For the Greek text (79 pp., 
64 X44 in.) of the treatises by Autolycus, 
with a Latin translation, see F. HuLtscn: 
Autolycit de sphaera quae movetur, de ortibus 
et occasibus, Leipzig (Teubner), 1885; these 
treatises are also available in a German 
translation: Autolykos, Rotierende Kugel und 
Aufgang und Untergang der Gestirne, iiber- 
setzt von ARTHUR CzWALINA, Leipzig 
(Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft), 1931. 
The writings of Autolycus were one of the 
sources used by his younger contemporary, 
the geometer Euclid (323-285? B.c.), in 
preparing a treatise on Phenomena, of 
which the Greek text (56 pp., 64X44 in.) 
with a Latin translation, edited by H. 
MENGE, is included in Euclidis opera omnia 
ediderunt J. L. Heiberg et H. Menge, vol. 
VIII, Leipzig (Teubner), 1916; this treatise 
is devoted principally to the geometrical 
theory of the phenomena of the diurnal 
motion. These early works do not contain 
any trigonometry or any consideration of 
spherical triangles as such; the principal 
special circles of the celestial sphere are 
recognized—horizon, equator, tropics, eclip- 
tic and its obliquity, etc.—but no reference 
is made to any system of coordinates. The 
systematic use of formal geometric coor- 
dinate systems, particularly ecliptic coor- 
dinates, on the celestial sphere, and the 
development and application of adequate 
observational procedures and mathematical 
aids, were apparently largely owing to 
Hipparchus, second century B.c.; only un- 
important fragments of his writings now 
remain, but the Almagest provides an ex- 
tended account of his accomplishments and 
results. Hipparchus effected many improve- 
ments in the instrumental equipment then 
in use, probably devising several of the 


Juty 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


instruments himself; he began the develop- 
ment of trigonometry, without which 
many necessary astronomical calculations 
were difficult or impossible except as aided 
by the use of a celestial globe or armillary 
sphere; and he systematically observed the 
celestial bodies, discovering the precession 
of the equinoxes (which apparently was 
never recognized by the Babylonians, 
though different authorities are not in agree- 
ment on this point), and constructing a 
catalogue of several hundred stars. Among 
the Greeks, observation, though not lack- 
ing, was always overshadowed by theo- 
retical investigation; according to Ptolemy, 
practically no records of observations of the 
fixed stars existed prior to Hipparchus, ex- 
cept a few by Aristyllus and Timocharis in 
the early third century B.c. The star cata- 
logue in the Almagest, extending the one 
compiled by Hipparchus, is the earliest 
existing record of the aspect of the fixed 
stars; and it is a primary source of the 
classic 48 constellations which, with the 40 
others added in later times, still appear on 
modern charts of the heavens with the 
romantic legends of Greek and Roman 
mythology woven about them, although 
even in ancient Greek times the historical 
origin of most of these asterisms was already 


1 The earliest trigonometrical treatise now ex- 
tant is a work on Spheries written by Menelaus 
of Alexandria about 100 a.p.; the Greek original 
is lost, but Arabic and other translations survive. 
This work is a treatise on spherical trigonometry 
disengaged from stereometry and astronomy. See 
Max Kravussz, Die Sphdrik von Menelaos aus 
Alexandrien. Abh. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, Phil.- 
Hist. Kl., Dritte Folge, Nr. 17, Berlin (Weid- 
mann), 1936, which includes the Arabic text and 
a German translation; and A. A. BusorNBo, 
Studien ueber Menelaos’ Sphdrik. Abh. Ges. math. 
Wiss. 14: 1-154, Leipzig (Teubner), 1902. Evi- 
dence exists that the development of trigonometry 
by Hipparchus, Menelaus, and Ptolemy was a 
natural continuation of Babylonian ideas; this 
development was continued by the Moslems, 
who incorporated some ideas from the Hindus. 
Trigonometry, insofar as it consists of the geo- 
metrical properties of plane and spherical tri- 
angles and methods for their numerical solution, 
was brought to essentially its present form by 
Regiomontanus (Johann Miiller) and Peurbach in 
the sixteenth century. The Greeks inscribed angles 
in circles, and accomplished their calculations by 
means of the chords subtending central angles; 
the chord was replaced by the sine, and the other 
trigonometric functions added, in later times. 


203 


obscured by the mists of antiquity.“ A 
critical edition of this star catalogue was 
issued by C. H. F. Prrers and FE. B. 
KnoBEL, Ptolemy’s catalogue of stars (Car- 
negie Inst. Washington Publ. No. 86), 
Washington, 1915. Ptolemy also gives a 
careful description of the course of the 
Milky Way among the constellations. 

The Ptolemaic theory of the solar system 
was the culmination of a progressive devel- 
opment extending back to the period in the 
sixth century B.c. when the concept of ro- 
tating crystalline spheres, naturally sug- 
gested by the apparent celestial motions, 
was introduced by the early Greek philoso- 
phers. On the basis of this general concept, 
Eudoxus constructed the first geometric 
theory that attempted to represent quan- 
titatively the details of the observed appar- 
ent motions of the sun, moon, planets and 
fixed stars; by means of a system of 27 
revolving spheres with mutually inclined 
axes, he accounted for the diurnal motions, 
and for the paths and principal variations 
in speed of the sun, moon, and planets 
among the fixed stars. Shortly afterward 
Callippus modified this system by adding 
seven more spheres to improve the agree- 
ment of the theory with observation. Prob- 
ably these spheres were generally regarded, 
not as material bodies, but only as abstract 
geometrical constructions for computing 
the motions; but Aristotle (884-322 B.c.), 
who further developed the theory” by add- 

16 The stars were grouped into constellations in 
very remote times among all peoples. Possibly the 
Greeks derived their constellations, at least in 
part, from the earlier ones of the Egyptians and 
Babylonians, of which our knowledge is incom- 
plete and often uncertain. The oldest systematic 
description of the Greek constellations that has 
come down to us was written about 270 B.c. by 
the poet Aratus; it is based on an earlier treatise 
by Eudoxus. The Greek text (732 lines) and an 
English translation of the Phaenomena of Aratus, 
edited by G. R. Marr, are included in the same 
volume of the Loeb Classical Library that con- 
tains the writings of Callimachus and Lycophron 
(London, Heinemann, 1921; now handled by the 
Harvard University Press); the excellent English 
translation published by Robert Brown, Jr., in 
1885, is now difficult to obtain, but is reprinted in 
an astrological volume by A. E. Parrrin@s, The 
story of the heavens, Seattle (Simplex Publishing 
Co.), 1936. 

17 See GIOVANNI SCHIAPARELLI (1835-1910), 
Le sfere omocentriche di Eudosso, dt Callippe e di 
Aristotele, Scritti sulla Storia della astronomia 


204 


ing 22 more spheres to the system, explicitly 
considered them to be physical realities. As 
a theory of the physical constitution of the 
universe, the Aristotelian spheres continued 
to be rather widely accepted, not only in 
Greek and Roman times, but also during 
the Middle Ages!*; in mathematical as- 
tronomy, however, they were gradually 
superseded by systems of moving excentric 
circles and epicycles. The theory of homo- 
centric spheres could not satisfactorily 
account for some phenomena—in particu- 
lar, as the Greeks recognized at an early 
period, the occurrence of annular eclipses 
and the great variations in brightness of 
the planets imply considerable variations 
in the distances of the moon and the planets 
from the earth. The conception of excentric 
and epicyclic motions in space—which is 
essentially only a modification of the con- 
cept of homocentric spheres—was applied 
by Apollonius of Perga (third century B.c.) 
to explain the apparent motions, though 


antica (3 vols. Bologna, Zanichelli, 1925-1927): vol. 
2, pp. 1-112 (first published in 1877). Cf. DREYER, 
History of the planetary systems, pp. 87-122; and 
Heatu, Aristarchus of Samos, pp. 190-224. 

18 Aristotle’s extension of the theory of homo- 
centric spheres was his principal contribution to 
the development of astronomy. His astronomical 
writings as a whole are of secondary importance 
and interest; he collected and systematized the 
best knowledge of his time, as he did in other sub- 
jects, but the Greek astronomy of that period was 
still in an undeveloped state and unfortunately 
was crystallized in this form in Aristotle’s writ- 
ings, to be persistently invoked during later 
centuries in support of doctrines that could no 
longer reasonably be considered tenable. Aristotle 
was primarily a speculative philosopher, and his 
voluminous writings include many obscurities and 
unfounded ideas, although they also contain evi- 
dence of independent and careful observation. 
The astronomical material (largely of a meta- 
physical character) is found principally in the 
second book of De caelo; but shooting stars, 
comets and the Milky Way are discussed in 
Meteorologica (Bk. I), and the system of planetary 
spheres (though not fully treated in any of Aris- 
totle’s own extant writings) is briefly described in 
Metaphysica (Bk. XI, ch. 8). Translations of all 
these treatises have appeared in The works of 
Aristotle translated into English published at Ox- 
ford (Clarendon Press); the Greek text of De 
caelo with an English translation by W. K. C. 
GUTHRIE, has been published in the Loeb Classical 
Library (Harvard Univ. Press, 1939); the passages 
from Metaphysica are quoted in Hratu, Aristar- 
chus of Samos, pp. 194, 212, 217, and the other 
astronomical writings of Aristotle are discussed in 
chap. xvii. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


probably the idea had originated still 
earlier; and it was systematically employed 
by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, who regarded 
it, however, not as a physical reality, but 
only as a basis on which the motions of the 
sun, moon and planets could be represented 
and calculated by means of an abstract geo- 
metrical system. Ptolemy adopted Hip- 
parchus’s theories of the sun and the moon, 
extending the latter by including evection; 
and constructed corresponding theories and 
tables of the planets, for which the neces- 
sary observations had not been available to 
Hipparchus. 

Ptolemy’s theory of eclipses is taken sub- 
stantially from Hipparchus, with some im- 
provements. Naturally, at that time only 
vague and conflicting ideas prevailed in gen- 
eral as to the physical nature of the celestial 
bodies; but the correct explanations of the 
moon’s light, the phases of the moon, and 
lunar and solar eclipses had been given by 
several philosophers of the sixth and fifth 
centuries, and were an accepted part of 
Greek elementary astronomy at the time 
of Aristotle (although apparently this 
knowledge was not widespread among the 
people, who looked upon eclipses with 
superstitious terror). From the theory con- 
structed by Hipparchus, the time of a lunar 
eclipse could be predicted to within an hour 
or two, and that of a solar eclipse with 
somewhat less accuracy, but the magni- 
tudes could be only roughly calculated. 

As Ptolemy explicitly states, no way of 
determining the distances of the planets 
from the earth was available in ancient 
times. That the celestial bodies are not all 
at the same distance had long been evident 
from such phenomena as occultations and 
eclipses; and various orders of distance had 
been adopted by different writers on the 
basis of the indirect evidence then available. 
The traditional order adopted by Ptolemy 
—Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupi- 
ter, Saturn—had been generally accepted 
since the second century B.c., and was based 
principally on the criterion of relative rapid- 
ity of apparent motions; the planets con- 
fined to limited elongations were separated 
from the others by the sun. The earliest 
ideas of the magnitudes of the distances 


JuLyY 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


were mere speculations or arbitrary sur- 
mises; the first known actual measurement 
was by Aristarchus, who determined the 
relative distances of the sun and the moon 
(and hence the relative diameters too) by 
observing the angular distance of the moon 
from the sun at the time of the quarter 
phase. Aristarchus also determined the 
relative diameters of the sun and the earth 
by a method based on the measurement of 
the angular breadth of the earth’s shadow 
through observations of lunar eclipses. The 
Greek text (30 pp., 6X9 inches) of Aristar- 
chus’s treatise ‘“‘On the Sizes and Distances 
of the Sun and the Moon,” with an English 
translation, is included in Sir THOMAS 
Heatu, Aristarchus of Samos, Oxford 
(Clarendon Press), 1913, a book unfor- 
tunately already rare. The eclipse method 
was further developed and applied by Hip- 
parchus to determine the sizes and distances 
of the sun and the moon in terms of the 
earth’s radius. These methods are perfectly 
sound; but the values obtained for the size 
and distance of the sun were greatly in error 
because of the difficulty of accurately 
measuring the necessary quantities, espe- 
cially with the rough instruments then 
available, and their uncertainty seems to 
have been realized by Hipparchus. Ptolemy 
adopted the eclipse method to get the dis- 
tance of the sun in terms of that of the 
moon; but he determined the distance of the 
moon by a parallax method. The values 
adopted in the Almagest for the size and 
distance of the moon are fairly accurate; 
but the value of 1210 radii of the earth for 
the distance of the sun was highly erroneous 
although it was not substantially improved 
until the solar parallax was determined by 
Richer and Cassini from observations of 
Mars in 1671-73. 

After the appearance of the Almagest, 
many of the earlier writings continued to be 
extensively used in preparation for the 
study of Ptolemy’s advanced and difficult 
treatise; several of them, in fact, were sys- 
tematically gathered together into a collec- 
tion that became known as the “Little 
Astronomy,” in contradistinction to Ptol- 
emy’s great treatise to which they formed 
an introduction. This collection comprised: 


205 


the works on Spherics by Autolycus and 
Kuclid, already discussed; a later treatise 
on Spherics by Theodosius, who probably 
flourished about the beginning of the first 
century B.c., but whose works are largely 
compilations that have their source in Eu- 
doxus or other early writers antedating 
Autolycus and Euclid; two other works by 
Theodosius—‘“‘On Habitations,” relating to 
the aspects of the right, parallel, and 
oblique spheres, and ‘On Days and 
Nights,” devoted principally to the varia- 
tions of the lengths of day and night and 
the location of the sunrise and sunset 
points in relation to the position of the sun 
in the ecliptic; Euclid’s ‘‘Optics’’—a treat- 
ment of elementary perspective; Aristar- 
chus’s treatise on the sizes and distances of 
the sun and the moon; Hypsicles’s ‘On 
Ascensions”’ (early second century B.c.)— 
a rudimentary set of six theorems on the 
times of rising of the zodiacal signs, and the 
oldest Greek work wherein the (ecliptic) 
circle is divided into 360 parts; and Mene- 
laus’s ‘“‘Spherics.’’!9 

Moreover, there were in ancient times 
several elementary general textbooks of 
considerable interest: Preceding the Alma- 
gest was the introductory treatise ‘‘Ele- 
ments of Astronomy” commonly attributed 
to Geminus (fl. ca. 70 B.c.), although it may 
not be genuine. It is largely a compilation 

19 A eritical edition of the works of Theodosius 
was recentlv issued by Heiberg and Fecht: J. L. 
Heisere, Theodosius Tripolites sphaerica, Abh. 
Ges. Wiss. G6ttingen, Phil.-Hist. Kl., Neue Folge, 
19, Nr. 3; RupouFr FrEecut, Theodosii de habita- 
tionibus liber: De diebus et noctibus libri duo, ibid., 
Nr. 4, Berlin (Weidmann), 1927. This edition 
gives the Greek text (148 pp. 63 X10 inches) and 
a Latin translation; a German translation of the 
Spherics by Czwautina, Theodosios von Tripelis 
Sphaertk, is included in the same volume with the 
translation of Autolycus, previously cited; and a 
French translation has been published by Pat. 
VER EEcke, Les sphériques de Théodose de Tripoli, 
Bruges (Desclée de Brouwer), 1927, the introduc- 
tion to which contains a list of the theorems from 
the other two treatises. Euclid’s work on Opties 
(in vol. 7 of Euclidis opera omnia) has been trans- 
lated into French by Paut VER E&EcKE, Euelide, 
Voptique et la catoptrique, Paris et Bruges (Desclée 
de Brouwer), 1938. On Hypsicles, see K. Manti- 
Trius, Des Hypsikles Schrift Anaphoricos nach 
Ueberlieferung und Inhalt kritisch dargestellt. 
(Dresden) 1888; cf. V. DE Fatco, Betirdége zur 
krittschen Textgestaltung des Autolykos und des 
Hypsikles, Quellen u. Stud. Ges. Math. Astr. u. 
Phys. Bl: 278-300, 1930. 


206 


of common knowledge from the time just 
before Hipparchus, and shows an influence 
of the Stoic philosopher Posidonius; it in- 
cludes a valuable treatment of the calendar, 
calendrical cycles and the exeligmos, and 
considers rather fully the zodiac, the con- 
stellations, the circles on the celestial 
sphere, the apparent motions of the celestial 
bodies, eclipses, the climatic zones of the 
earth, and other topics, but contains very 
little about the planetary theories. The 
Greek text (116 pp., 6243 in.) with a 
German translation was edited by CaroLus 
Manitius: Gemini elementa astronomiae, 
Leipzig (Teubner), 1898. Cleomedes (prob- 
ably first century B.c.) also wrote a sum- 
mary of Stoic astronomy, based chiefly on 
Posidonius, which is of particular interest 
for the details it contains of the measure- 
ments of the earth by Eratosthenes and 
Posidonius, and the recognition of some of 
the effects of astronomical refraction. The 
Greek text (114 pp., 64X44 in.) with a 
Latin translation was issued by H. Z1rGurEr: 
Cleomedis de motu circulari corporum caeles- 
tium libri duo, Leipzig (Teubner), 1891; and 
a German translation was made by ARTHUR 
CzwaLina: Kleomedes Die Kreisbewegung 
der Gestirne, Leipzig (Akademische Ver- 
lagsgesellschaft), 1927. A treatise ‘“‘On the 
Mathematical Knowledge Needed to Read 
Plato,” by Theon of Smyrna (second cen- 
tury A.D., nearly a contemporary of 
Ptolemy), includes a book on astronomy 
that forms a valuable supplement to the 
Almagest; it is largely a compilation from 
Adrastus and Dercyllides of knowledge at 
the time of Hipparchus. The Greek text 
(165 pp., 6X93 in.) with a French transla- 
tion was edited by J. Dupuis: Théon de 
Smyrne, philosophe platonicien, exposition 
des connaissances mathématiques utiles pour 
la lecture de Platon, Paris (Hachette), 1892. 
A later textbook, introductory to the as- 
tronomy of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, par- 
ticularly the theories of the sun, moon, and 
planets, was written by Proclus (410-485 
A.D.); the Greek text (119 pp., 6444 in.) 
with a German translation was published 
by Carotus Manirius: Procli Diadochi 
hypotyposis astronomicarum  positionum, 
Leipzig (Teubner), 1909. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32; NOM # 


The Almagest, like many ancient writ- 
ings, was the subject of later commentaries, 
which often are especially valuable for the 
historical details, and the extracts from 
earlier writings now lost, which they con- 
tain but which are usually very tedious 
reading. Among the writings of Pappus of 
Alexandria (probably end of third century 
A.D.) is a commentary on the Almagest, of 
which only Books V and VI are known to 
have survived; Theon of Alexandria (late 
fourth century A.pD.), the father of Hypatia, 
wrote another commentary, which incor- 
porates much of the one by Pappus. An 
edition of the Greek text of these two com- 
mentaries (with valuable notes) is being 
issued by the Abbé Roms, Commentaires 
de Pappus et de Théon d’Alexandrie sur 
l’ Almageste: Tome I, Pappus d’Alexandrie, 
commentaire sur les livres 5 et 6 de l Alma- 
geste, Rome (Biblioteca Apostolica Vati- 
cana), 1931; Tome II, Théon d’Alexandrie, 
commentaire sur les livres 1 et 2 de lV Alma- 
geste, Vatican City (Bibl. Apost. Vat.), 
1936. The introductions to these volumes 
include an explanation (in French) of the 
tables in the Almagest. Of commentaries on 
other writings,, the one by Simplicius 
(sixth century A.D.) on Aristotle is espe- 
cially valuable to the historian; it has been 
edited by J. L. Hrrpera: In Aristotelis de 
caelo commentaria (Berlin, 1894).?° 

The few Roman astronomical writings 
contain nothing original and are of little 
scientific importance. Pliny’s famous ‘“‘Na- 

20 In chronological order, the authors of the ex- 


tant Greek writings of which editions have been 
cited in the foregoing discussion are: 


B.C. A.D. 


384-322 Aristotle ca. 100 Menelaus 
Fl.ca.310 Autolycus 2nd cent. Ptolemy 
323-285? Euclid 2nd cent. Theon of 
Smyrna 

F].ca.280 Aristarchus | Late 3rd 

cent.? Pappus 
Fl.ca.275 Aratus Late 4th Theon of 

cent. Alexandria 
2nd cent. Hypsicles 410-485 Proclus 
Ca. 100? Theodosius | 6th cent. Simplicius 


{st cent.? Cleomedes 
Fl.ca.70 Geminus 


Brief extracts (in English) from some of these and 
a number of other Greek writers are given by 
Heatu, Greek astronomy, New York (Dutton), 
1932. See also the delightful little volume by 
D’Arcy W. Tuompson, Science and the classics 
(Oxford Univ. Press), 1940. 


Juty 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


tural History’”’ contains an interesting sec- 
tion (Bk. II) devoted to astronomy (avail- 
able in the Loeb Classical Library), and 
several other compilers and commentators 
wrote on the subject. 

The respects in which the Ptolemaic 
astronomy is now known to be defective 
have been much overemphasized in modern 
textbooks and popular writings, to the 
neglect of its intrinsic merit and its great 
importance as a foundation for the later 
development of modern astronomy. Greek 
astronomy, especially from the time of 
Hipparchus on, was for the most part 
developed according to sound scientific 
principles, by means of mathematical 
reasoning based on observational data that 
extended over many centuries. A high de- 
gree of success was achieved in the progres- 
sive formulation of theories by which 
celestial phenomena could be represented 
and calculated as accurately as they were 
then known from observation. For this 
purpose, the adoption of the geocentric 
hypothesis rather than the heliocentric is 
logically of secondary importance; and the 
system of excentrics and epicycles as a 
formal mathematical method is in princi- 
ple above criticism. Besides, the plane- 
tary theory is not the whole of even the 
ancient astronomy; and a number of 
passages in the Almagest may easily be 
recognized as occurring in practically un- 
changed form as an integral part of modern 
treatises, while many other sections have 
merely now been superseded by material 
entirely equivalent but in a more refined 
or expeditious form. Of the physical argu- 
ments in the Almagest, few can justly be 
characterized as absurd. Ptolemy insisted 
on the physical reality of the fixity of the 
earth at the center of the universe, but only 
after express recognition and consideration 
of the evidence then available for other 
possibilities; some of the arguments by 
which he supported his hypothesis are 
scientifically unsound, but the others, 
though now recognized to be untenable, 
were entirely reasonable in the state of 
physics and mechanics at that time. There 
is ample evidence that the Greek scientific 
astronomers, unlike the early speculative 


207 


philosophers, regarded their systems of 
spheres and epicycles, however, as nothing 
more than abstract geometrical construc- 
tions for conveniently representing and cal- 
culating celestial motions. The Almagest 
is an enduring monument to the genius of 
the ancient astronomers; and moreover it 
was through the explicit further develop- 
ment and revision of ancient astronomy in 
the form left by Ptolemy—not through its 
replacement by independent developments 
—that modern astronomy was constructed. 

A change from the geocentric basis to 
the heliocentric is easily made without 
otherwise essentially altering the Ptolemaic 
system, and was the first of the successive 
modifications through which the Ptolemaic 
theory was transformed into the modern 
structure. This simple change of reference 
basis was made by Copernicus (1473-1543), 
and is the only important respect in which 
the Copernican system differs from the 
Ptolemaic; the traditional system of excen- 
trics and epicycles is retained practically 
unchanged except for the simplification re- 
sulting from the reduction in the number of 
circles needed, 34 being used altogether, 
while the mathematical demonstrations and 
calculations in the Almagest are not funda- 
mentally affected. The significance of the 
Copernican theory is as a transition be- 
tween ancient and modern astronomy; as a 
contribution to the planetary theory, it was 
neither an original concept nor an impor- 
tant advance; and even the practical gain 
for computation was not great, either in 
convenience or in improved accuracy of the 
representation of phenomena. The cele- 
brated treatise by Copernicus is expressly 
only a formal revision or reconstruction of 
the Almagest, in which Ptolemy is followed 
in the main with great fidelity and no basic 
new empirical considerations are intro- 
duced. An exceptional understanding of 
Ptolemy’s principles and methods enabled 
Copernicus to adapt them to the helio- 
centric hypothesis, and to initiate the 
fundamental criticism and reconstruction 
of astronomy for which a need had long 
been apparent.*! The Almagest had first 


21 See A. ARMITAGE, Copernicus, London (Allen 


208 


become generally known in the West 
through a Latin translation completed in 
1175 by Gerard of Cremona from an Arabic 
version. The Moslem astronomers had al- 
ready perceived that the tables based on 
Ptolemy’s theories were frequently at vari- 
ance with observations; and some of the 
later Moslems had attempted to return to 
Aristotle’s system of material spheres or to 
introduce various makeshifts. During the 
general revival of learning, the diverse and 
conflicting hypotheses encountered in the 
different Greek writings and the rise of the 
authority of Aristotle (whose astronomical 
writings were first introduced in the West 
at the end of the twelfth century), together 
with the disagreements among the different 
tables that had been constructed and the 
failure of any of them to represent celestial 
phenomena accurately, led to many further 
attempts to improve on Ptolemy or to sub- 
stitute other theories, although many of 
the fanciful ideas which were advocated 
could not seriously profess to account for 
the details of the celestial motions. These 
attempts persisted into the sixteenth cen- 
tury; Fracaster, for example, in 1538 used 
an Aristotelian system of 79 revolving crys- 
talline spheres. In general, however, Aris- 
totle did not gain the supremacy in astron- 
omy, especially among the learned, that he 
attained in many other fields of thought 
from the thirteenth century until the Ren- 
alssance; nor was any appreciable success 
achieved in attempting to improve on the 
Ptolemaic system. Astronomy at the time 
of Copernicus was essentially still where 
Ptolemy had left it. 

A faesimile reprint of the original Latin 
edition of Copernicus’s treatise has been 
issued: Nzicolat Copernict Torinensis de 
revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri VI, 
1543, Paris (Hermann), 1927. The best 
text, however, is that of the third edition 
(Amsterdam, 1617; reprinted in 1640). A 
new Latin edition, printed from the original 
manuscript, was issued at Thorn in 1873 on 
the occasion of the 400th anniversary of 
the birth of Copernicus. Other than a rare 


and Unwin), 1938; and GRANT McCoutey, The 
eighth sphere of Copernicus, Popular Astronomy 
50: 133-137, 1942. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


Latin-Polish edition (Warsaw, 1854), the 
only complete translation into a modern 
language is a German version by C. L. 
MenzzEr: Nicolaus Coppernicus aus Thorn 
ueber die Kreisbewegungen der Weltkérper, 
Thorn 1879 (rep. Leipzig, Akad. Verlagsges. 
1939); but the first 11 chapters of Book I 
may be obtained in a French translation 
accompanied by the Latin text: A. Koyrs&, 
Nicolas Copernic, des révolutions des orbes 
célestes, Paris (Alcan) 1934 (this edition 
contains a number of misprints and some 
errors of translation). The general reader 
may be more interested in the much briefer 
and simpler Commentariolus, which (to- 
gether with the Letter against Werner and 
the Narratio Prima of Rheticus) is trans- 
lated into English, with many helpful notes, 
in Epwarp Rossen, Three Copernican 
treatises, New York (Columbia Univ. Press), 
1939. 

The diffusion and general acceptance 
of the Copernican hypothesis were very 
gradual. For a long time, the Copernican 
and the Ptolemaic systems were both in 
use as formal means for the calculation of 
ephemerides; the tables based on the 
Copernican theory were widely used for this 
purpose even when the theory itself was 
but little accepted. Copernicus definitely 
insisted on the physical truth of his hypoth- 
eses of the revolution and the rotation of 
the earth, and sought to establish them 
exclusively on the basis of astronomical 
data, but his arguments were not logically 
conclusive. The conflicts and inconsisten- 
cies that had existed for ages between efforts 
to determine the physical structure of the 
planetary system and attempts to construct 
tables that would represent observations, 
and the failure of mathematical astronomy 
to exert much influence on prevailing phil- 
osophical and theological views, continued 
throughout the Middle Ages, especially 
during the periods when the hostility and 
intolerance of the Church made it unsafe 
in many places to declare adherence to the 
new doctrines; and of course at all times in 
history many backward ideas prevailed 
among people at large. The telescopic dis- 
coveries by Galileo (1564-1642), especially 
his detection of the satellites of Jupiter and 


JuLY 15, 1942 WoOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


the phases of Venus, provided the first new 
evidence in support of the Copernican doc- 
trine, and helped to establish the helio- 
centric theory through their immediate 
popular appeal; but Galileo did not take 
any direct part in the development of the 
planetary theory, nor were his arguments 
in favor of the Copernican ideas logically 
effective. During more than 200 years after 
the death of Copernicus, both the Ptolemaic 
and the Copernican systems continued to 
be taught in many places. 

Meanwhile, in the sixteenth century the 
obvious need for additional and more ac- 
curate cbservations on which to base the 
development of improved theories and 
tables led to widespread activity in obser- 
vational astronomy, carried on by means 
of the ancient instruments. The first im- 
provements of consequence that had been 
effected in methods and instruments of ob- 


servation since the time of Hipparchus and 


Ptolemy were accomplished by ‘Tycho 
Brahe (1546-1601), who was the earliest 
observer to estimate and allow for instru- 
mental errors and the effects of refraction, 
and to realize the importance of continuous 
records of the positions and motions of all 
the celestial bodies. He attained a much 
greater degree of accuracy in his observa- 
tions than had ever before been achieved; 
he redetermined all important astronomical 
constants except the solar parallax, and 
constructed the last important star cata- 
logue of the pretelescopic era.”? Tycho’s 
magnificent series of observations of the 


*% A definitive edition of Tycho’s complete 
works (in Latin), including his letters and the 
records of his observations, has been edited by 
J. L. E. Dreyer, Tychonis Brahe Dani opera 
omma, 15 vols., Hauniae (Libraria Gyldenda- 
liana), 19138-1929. The contents of the principal 
writings are described in some detail in the biog- 
raphy by Dreyrer, Tycho Brahe, Edinburgh 
(Black), 1890. Tycho’s contributions to theoretical 
astronomy were comparatively unimportant, but 
for historical completeness his planetary system 
(Opera 4: 155-170) should be mentioned. Of 
especial interest to the general reader are the 
descriptions of Tycho’s instruments and methods 
of observation in the Astronomiae instauratae 
mechanica (Opera 5: 1-162), and the nature of the 
observations that he took (which fill T. X—XIII of 
the Opera). On the improvements that he intro- 
duced into trigonometrical calculation, see 
Dreyer, Observatory 39: 127-131, 1916. 


209 


sun, moon and planets, when compared 
with the contemporary tables and ephemer- 
ides, demonstrated the insufficiency of all 
existing theories; and from a detailed analy- 
sis of these observations, especially those of 
the planet Mars, Kepler (1571-1630), in a 
prolonged systematic search for an hypoth- 
esis that would satisfy them, finally de- 
rived, by successive trial of one hypothesis 
after another, both geocentric and _ helio- 
centric, his three laws of planetary motion, 
modifying the Copernican excentrics to 
ellipses and formulating the laws govern- 
ing the motions of the planets in these 
ellipses. The first two laws were explicitly 
established for Mars from the observa- 
tions, but their validity for the other 
planets and for the moon was mostly as- 
sumed; the third law was demonstrated for 
the planets and for Jupiter’s satellites. 
Kepler’s complete writings (mostly in 
Latin) fill eight large volumes??; but the 
greater part is a curious mixture of science, 
pseudoscience and mysticism, including as- 
trology. From the viewpoint of scientific 
astronomy, there is comparatively little of 
value except in the Astronomia nova seu 
physica coelestis tradita commentariis de 
motibus stellae Martis and the Epitome as- 
tronomiae Copernicanae. In his first pub- 
lished work, the Prodromus dissertationum 
cosmographicarum continens mysterium cos- 
mographicum (1596), Kepler compares the 
Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, stress- 
ing the greater simplicity of the latter; and 
constructs his fanciful planetary system 
based on the five regular solids.“ Later, he 
derived his first two laws of planetary mo- 
tion in the Astronomia nova (1609), which 
also contains a qualitative foreshadowing 
of the law of gravitation; for a German 
version of this great treatise, see Johannes 
Kepler Neue Astronomie uebersetzt und 


23 Joannis Kepleri astronomi opera omnia edidit 
Ch. Frisch, 8 vols., Frankfurt (Heyder & Zim- 
mer), 1858-1871. A new edition of the original 
text of Kepler’s works is now in course of publica- 
tion: Johannes Kepler Gesammelie Werke, hrsg. 
von Walther von Dyekyt und Max Caspar, 
Munich (Beck), 1937-. 

24This work has been translated into German 
by Max Caspar, Johannes Kepler Mystertwm 
Cosmographicum—Das Weligeheitmnis, Augsburg 
(Filser), 1923. 


210 


eingeleitet von Max Caspar, Miinchen- 
Berlin (Oldenbourg) 1929. The third law 
appears in the Harmonices Mundi (1619), 
which has also been translated by Caspar: 
Johannes Kepler Weltharmontk, Miinchen- 
Berlin (Oldenbourg) 1939. The Epitome 
astronomiae Copernicanae, 1618 (Opera, V1) 
is of particular interest as an attractive 
general summary of contemporary ideas 
and for the information it contains on the 
historical development of astronomical 
terminology. 

The Tabulae Rudolphinae prepared by 
Kepler for the calculation of ephemerides 
appeared in 1627, superseding the Tabulae 
Prutenicae (1551), which had been con- 
structed by Reinhold on the basis of the 
Copernican theory but which had effected 
little improvement over the medieval 
tables based on the Ptolemaic astronomy. 

Very few of Kepler’s contemporaries 
fully comprehended and appreciated his 
work; and the general acceptance of his 
results, even among the adherents of the 
Copernican doctrine, was very slow, espe- 
cially on the Continent. Meanwhile, many 
fruitless philosophical speculations were 
proposed such as the vortex theory of 
Descartes. 

Kepler’s Laws are simply empirical 
statements describing the way in which the 
planets move, inferred directly from ob- 
servations. These laws do not explain the 
planetary motions, but they suggest that an 
influence of some kind is exerted on the 
planets by the sun; this fact was realized by 
Kepler, and the same idea had also occurred 
to many others who had speculated on the 
cause of planetary motions—even the in- 
verse square law, among others, had been 
suggested—but these ideas remained barren 
of results until the profound investigations 
by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). The 
limited knowledge of mechanics which 
existed during ancient and medieval times 
related principally to statics; only confused 
and largely erroneous ideas prevailed as to 
the motions of bodies. The explicit formu- 
lation of the correct general physical laws 
to which motions of material bodies con- 
form was begun by Galileo and completed 
by Newton; since the celestial bodies do 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


not move in the straight lines which, ac- 
cording to the Laws of Motion, are charac- 
teristic of motions undisturbed by the ac- 
tion of external forces, it was natural to 
infer that the moon and the planets are 
acted upon by forces of attraction. It had, 
of course, long been realized that the earth 
exerts an attraction on all bodies at its sur- 
face; and the laws of the motion of bodies 
falling under the action of this attraction 
had been investigated by Galileo. Newton 
demonstrated (1) that the force which holds 
the moon in its orbit around the earth is- 
identical with the force which causes bodies 
near the surface of the earth to fall; and (2) . 
that the law to which this force conforms 
is of the inverse square type. On this basis, 
Newton formulated the hypothesis of uni- 
versal gravitation, and systematically ap- 
plied it to explain the celestial motions; in 
particular, he showed that all three of Kep- 
ler’s Laws may be deduced from this prin- 
ciple alone, and he accounted for many of 
the irregularities in the motion of the moon 
that had been known from observation 
since ancient times. 

The original Latin editions of Newton’s 
monumental treatise are, of course, now all 
rare. The first edition appeared in 1687, the 
third in 1726: Sir Isaac Newron, Philoso- 
phiae naturalis principia mathematica, Edi- 
tio tertia, London, 1726. The third edition 
was reprinted in 1871: Szr Isaac Newton’s 
Principia reprinted for Sir William Thomson 
and Hugh Blackburn, Glasgow, 1871. A 
fine English translation (from the third 
edition) is now easily accessible: FLORIAN 
Casori, Sir Isaac Newton’s Mathematical 
principles of natural philosophy and his sys- 
tem of the world (Motte’s translations re- 
vised), Berkeley (University of California 
Press), 1934. The first two Books of the 
Principia are devoted to the motions of 
bodies in general, while in the third Book 
these general results are applied to the 
phenomena of the solar system: the System 
of the world is a nonmathematical summary 
of the material in the third Book of the 
Principia. Newton probably obtained many 
of his results with the aid of the Infinitesi- 
mal Calculus which he had devised, but in 
the Principia the work is recast into the 


JuLty 15, 1942 WoOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


customary geometric form of the time.” 

The Principia is the culmination of the 
long development, beginning in remote an- 
tiquity, through which the fundamental 
ideas and principles of modern astronomy 
gradually were progressively evolved and 
established. In this development, each suc- 
cessive outstanding advance was_ based 
directly and explicitly on the accumulated 
learning from the past. The great Baby- 
lonian astronomers Naburianos and Cide- 
nas relied on the preceding centuries of 
observations; Hipparchus based his work 
on the Babylonian data and results, and 
on the ideas of his Greek predecessors; 
Ptolemy extended and completed the work 
of Hipparchus; fourteen centuries later 
Kepler, on the basis of Tycho Brahe’s 
observations and with the aid of mathe- 
matical theorems developed 18 centuries 
previously by the Greek geometer Apollo- 
nius, completed the revision of the Ptole- 
maic astronomy that had been begun by 
Copernicus, and laid the foundation on 
which the Newtonian system has been 
erected. The Babylonians had analyzed the 
observed apparent planetary motions em- 
pirically, in terms of numerical progressions; 
the Greeks represented these motions by 
means of geometric theories in which the 
complex apparent movements were re- 
solved into combinations of component 
uniform circular motions in space—first by 
the Eudoxian device of homocentric spheres, 
later by systems of excentrics and epicy- 
cles. The Greek geometrical procedures are 
entirely comparable to modern analytical 
methods—the terms of the infinite trigono- 
metric series now used in formal calcula- 
tions are the algebraic counterparts of the 
ancient geometric epicycles and deferents— 
but the Greek system was not adapted to 
the extension necessary to take into account 
all the irregularities subsequently revealed 
as observations accumulated. In the evolu- 
tion of ideas, from the empirical rules for 
the apparent motions on the sky derived by 
the Babylonians, through the successive 


*> A useful analysis of Newton’s investigations 
and results is given by W. W. Rousse Batt, An 
essay on Newton’s “Principia.”’ London (Macmil- 
lan), 1893; now rare. 


211 


formal geometric theories of the motions in 
space constructed by the Greeks and, cen- 
turies later, by Copernicus, to the kine- 
matical laws of Kepler and the physical 
theory of Newton, each stage is explicitly 
founded on a revision of previous systems, 
largely conserving the learning of the past 
but incorporating further developments of 
ideas that often had begun to emerge long 
before. A familiarity with the theories of 
Hipparchus and Ptolemy, especially with 
the terminology of the Ptolemaic theory, is 
essential to a proper understanding of the 
work of Copernicus and Kepler and to a 
full comprehension of the evolutionary de- 
velopment and the basis of modern astron- 
omy. In the writings of each outstanding 
contributor, we find frequent explicit refer- 
ences and acknowledgements to his great 
predecessors, connecting modern astronomy 
directly with its beginnings in the past by 
a continuous chain of thought extending 
back nearly 30 centuries to the ancient 
Babylonian and Egyptian observers. 

During the long stationary period follow- 
ing Ptolemy, the Moslem astronomers, in 
addition to translating the Greek works, 
wrote numerous original treatises and com- 
piled many new tables; and the more out- 
standing of these writings, though con- 
taining no fundamental advances, are of 
great interest and importance as having 
been standard and widely used works 
among the Moslems and as being the me- 
dium through which western Europe first 
became acquainted with the ancient as- 
stronomy. 

The initial source of Arabic knowledge 
was principally the Hindu learning, which 
had its origin in extreme antiquity. In re- 
mote times the inhabitants of ancient In- 
dia, profoundly impressed by the beauty of 
the heavens, cultivated astronomy as a 
sacred duty. The beginnings of Indian as- 
tronomy—in the form of a rudimentary 
and often inaccurate acquaintance with 
the simplest aspects of celestial phenomena, 
a rough calendar, and a crude cosmology— 
are found in the Vedas, and in the Brah- 
manas and Jydtisas annexed to the Vedas; 
the earliest known formal astronomical 
treatise is the Vedanga Jydtisa, probably 


—__ « 


DA Pe JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


dating from about 1400 B.c. and devoted 
mostly to a calendar for use in the regula- 
tion of religious ceremonies. The successive 
Vedic, and post-Vedic or Jaina, writings re- 
flect a gradually increasing knowledge of the 
principal fixed stars and asterisms, the 
planets, the phenomena of the diurnal mo- 
tion, and the apparent motions of the sun, 
moon, and planets through the zodiac; and 
improved calendars and systems of chron- 
ology were devised; but until a century or 
more after the opening of the Christian 
Era, Hindu astronomy remained very prim- 
itive and rudimentary, and not until about 
the fifth century a.p. did the scientific 
period in its development begin. It was 
brought to its most highly developed form 
during the interval from 500 a.p. to 1150 
A.D. 

Most of the Hindu astronomical writings 
prior to 500 a.p. have perished and are 
known only through fragments or through 
references and citations in other works. 
Many of the extant writings, in the form in 
which they now survive, have resulted from 
successive revisions and interpolations of 
older works, of unknown date and author- 


ship, over a long period of time. It is uncer-. 


tain how much of the content of the original 
older compositions is retained in the recen- 
sions now known; and the extent to which 
the progressive later developments were in- 
dependent of influence from other nations, 
especially Greece, is somewhat contro- 
versial. A native Hindu astronomy un- 
questionably existed in remote antiquity 
and remained an important element in 
the learning of later times; but astronomi- 
cal knowledge is known also to have been 
transmitted to India from other regions 
at several different periods during an- 
cient times. There is archeological evi- 
dence that in the remote past, perhaps 
the early third millennium B.c., the earliest 
Indian civilization was influenced by Baby- 
lonia. Possibly contacts with China existed. 
In the time of Darius the Great, about 500 
B.c., the valley of the Indus was a Persian 
satrapy; Alexander’s invasion of India in 
327 B.c., and the rise of the Greek kingdom 
of Bactria, established long enduring con- 
tacts with the Hellenic world. Probably, 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


however, it must always remain more or less 
uncertain to what extent the origin and de- 
velopment of scientific astronomy in India 
were influenced by such Babylonian and 
Greek learning as may have been intro- 
duced. Some Greek knowledge was eventu- 
ally incorporated into Hindu astronomy— 
Greek methods and Greek technical terms 
may readily be recognized in many of the 
Hindu writings; but apparently the Greek 
astronomy was transmitted in very imper- 
fect and incomplete form. Often the Greek 
and the Hindu methods and numerical con- 
stants are quite different, but in many 
cases numerical values identical with Greek 
or Babylonian values are used. There can 
be no doubt that considerable original work 
was done in India, notwithstanding what 
may have been borrowed bodily or sug- 
gested by Greek and Greco-Babylonian 
ideas; but it is difficult to determine the ex- 
tent to which Hindu astronomy in its final 
form represents a natural development of 
native elements and the extent to which it 
represents an assimilation and develop- 
ment of foreign ideas. 

The earliest Hindu astronomical writings 
of a scientific character were the so-called 
Siddhantas. A considerable number were 
originally composed sometime before 500 
A.D., but the now surviving texts of the 
ones that have been preserved are later ver- 
sions. The most important were the Brahma 
Siddhanta and the Strya Siddhanta. The 
content of some appears to have been 
drawn from a foreign source—the lost 
Romaka Siddhanta, as the name suggests, 
must have been an adaptation from some 
Greek or Roman work, and is known to 
have adopted for the length of the year the 
exact value used by MHipparchus and 
Ptolemy, while the Paulisa Siddhanta may 
have been of Babylonian origin. In the 
Siddhantas, the early mythological cos- 
mologies are replaced by a spherical earth, 
unsupported and stationary in space. 

The earliest extant text from the scien- 
tific period is the Aryabhatiya by Aryab- 
hata, who was born in 476 a.p. and with 
whom the most important period of Hindu 
astronomy begins. His treatise, composed in 
499, is the oldest extant Hindu astronomical 


JuLy 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 


text bearing the name of an individual 
author. An English translation with notes 
has been published by W. E. Cuarx: The 
Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, University of 
Chicago Press, 1930; and another English 
translation, by PRABODH CHANDRA SEN- 
GUPTA, appeared in Journal of the Depart- 
ment of Letters (Calcutta University), vol. 
16, 1927. The Aryabhatiya is a brief de- 
secriptive summary of the most distinctive 
principles of the author’s own system of 
astronomy, not a detailed working manual 
of then existing astronomical knowledge in 
general, and it contains many imperfec- 
tions; it is the earliest known Hindu text 
to include a section dealing specifically with 
mathematics. Aryabhata based his treatise 
on the main principles of the older Sid- 
dhantas, but systematized and further de- 
veloped the subject; apparently he was 
largely the founder of scientific Hindu as- 
tronomy—his writings exerted great in- 
fluence for many centuries, and were the 
basis for many subsequent developments by 
later Indian astronomers. He explained the 
planetary motions by means of a system of 
epicycles; whether the idea was original 
with him or borrowed from the Greeks is un- 
certain, but the Hindu system of epicycles 
differs in several important ways from the 
Greek theory. Aryabhata also introduced 
into India the theory of the diurnal rotation 
of the earth, but this idea was rejected by 
other Hindu astronomers. 

Aryabhata was followed during succeed- 
ing centuries by several outstanding writers: 
Varahamihira, early sixth century, was 
mainly a compiler; his Paficasiddhantika, a 
summary of five of the older Siddhantas, 
formed an exposition of all the more im- 
portant astronomical doctrines current in 
his time. In the seventh century, Brah- 
magupta, one of the greatest of the Hindu 
scientists (although a severe critic of 
Aryabhata), wrote two treatises which for 
many centuries were among the most 
widely used astronomical works in India; 
the earlier was the Brahma Sphuta Sid- 
dhanta, a revised version of the old Brahma 
Siddhanta with some original developments 
by Brahmagupta incorporated, and the 

later was the Khandakhadyaka. An Eng- 


213 


lish translation of this second work, with 
notes and a series of appendices which pro- 
vide a summary of Hindu astronomical 
ideas, has recently been issued by P. C. 
SencuPptTa: The Khandakhadyaka, an astro- 
nomical treatise of Brahmagupta, University 
of Calcutta, 1934. The most celebrated of 
the Hindu astronomers was Bhaskara or 
Bhaskaracarya, born in 1114; his greatest 
work, the Siddhanta S’iromani, on mathe- 
matics and astronomy, was written about 
1150, and like many of the other Hindu 
writings is based largely on late versions of 
the Stirya Siddhanta. 

The Sutrya Siddhanta is the foremost 
work among the astronomical writings of 
ancient India; it is a complete treatise on 
Hindu astronomy, and in somewhat mod- 
ernized form it has remained a standard 
work in widespread use in India along with 
Brahmagupta’s writings. The compilers of 
the Strya Siddhanta are unknown—it 
claims to have been revealed directly by 
the Sun about 2,165,000 years ago. The 
version now extant probably had taken 
form about 1100 a.p., and is a composite 
work founded on an original 800 or 900 
years older. The monumental English 
translation and commentary by Burgess is 
a model of scholarly research, and indis- 
pensable in any study of Hindu astronomy; 
originally published in 1860 in the Journal 
of the American Oriental Society, it has re- 
cently been made again available: EBENE- 
ZER Buresss, Translation of the Strya- 
Siddhdnta, a text-book of Hindu astronomy, 
reprinted from the edition of 1860, edited 
by P. Gangooly, with an introduction by 
P. C. Sengupta; University of Calcutta, 
1935. This version embodies considerable 
material drawn from Aryabhata and Brah- 
magupta. A fantastic theory of the physical 
cause of planetary motions is included, and 
many of the methods give only approximate 
results, but on the whole the Sirya Sid- 
hanta is a sound and fairly accurate system 
of astronomical knowledge. 

The Hindu works are written in Sanskrit 
verse, which is exceedingly difficult to 
translate and often is difficult to interpret 
after it has been translated; the style is so 
concise and elliptical that a copious com- 


214 


mentary, exceeding the original text in 
length, is usually required to make the text 
intelligible. For the most part the Hindu 
writings are simply collections of factual 
assertions and rules for solving problems, 
rather than formal expositions. The specific 
editions listed in the foregoing discussion 
have been confined to ones issued very re- 
cently; many of the other writings men- 
tioned are also available in less easily ob- 
tainable publications, but those cited in- 
clude the works of greatest general interest 
and are representative of Hindu astronomy. 
Much the same topics are covered in all the 
different treatises—rules for finding the 
mean and the true places of the planets 
with the aid of epicycles or eccentrics; solu- 
tions of a wide variety of problems in spher- 
ical and practical astronomy, including the 
use of the gnomon and the armillary sphere; 
methods for calculating conjunctions and 
other aspects of the planets, lunar and solar 
eclipses, the position of the moon’s cusps, 
and heliacal risings and settings of stars 
and planets; the calendar, and systems of 
chronology; and descriptions of the con- 
stellations, particularly the zodiac.” 

It was from the works of Brahmagupta 
that the Arabs first obtained a knowledge 
of astronomy: At the court of al-Mansur, in 
the eighth century, the Arabian scholars 
met the Hindu scientist Kankah, who ac- 
quainted them with Brahmagupta’s trea- 
tises. Many of the Hindu writings were 
translated into Arabic. After the initial im- 
pulse, however, Moslem astronomy was 
based wholly on the ancient Greek writings 
—almost exclusively on Ptolemy; a knowl- 
edge of the Greek learning was first com- 
municated to the Moslems at the court of 
Baghdad by Nestorian Christians from 
Khusistan at the head of the Persian Gulf 

Among the great profusion of Arabic 
writings on astronomy, the treatise by al- 
Farghani or Alfraganus, composed in the 
ninth century, was later one of the most in- 
fluential in western Europe. The Arabic text 


26 See the introductions and other explanatory 
material in the editions of the Hindu writings to 
which reference has been made. Cf. SUKUMAR 
Ransan Das, Scope and development of Indian 
astronomy, Osiris II: 197-219, 1936. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


(109 pp., 6X8 inches) with a Latin transla- 
tion was edited by J. Goutus: Alfraganus, 
Elementa astronomica, Amsterdam, 1669 
(no later edition has been published). This 
treatise, based on Ptolemy, is an account of 
astronomy as known to the Moslems in the 
ninth century; it was translated into Latin 
in the twelfth century, and widely read in 
Europe until the time of Regiomontanus. 
The most outstanding of the Arabic trea- 
tises, however, was written by al-Battani or 
Albategnius (ca. 857-929), one of the great- 
est of the Moslem astronomers. The Arabic 
text, with a Latin translation and extensive 
notes including a glossary of Arabic astro- 
nomical terms, has been edited by C. A. 
Nauuino: Al-Battdni sive Albatenia opus 
astronomicum, Pubblicazioni del Reale Os- 
servatorio di Brera in Milano, No. XL, 3 
vols., 1899-1907. This treatise, likewise 
based on the Almagest but with improved 
tables and constants, was also extremely in- 
fluential in western Europe until the time 
of the Renaissance. 

The Moslems were ardent observers, and 
are particularly noted for their activity in 
the construction of instruments and the 
compilation of tables. The Arabic instru- 
ments and methods of observation and cal- 
culation were described by Aboul-Hassan 
Ali de Maroc, whose treatise has been 
translated into French: Trazté des instru- 
ments astronomiques des Arabes composé au 
trieziéme siécle par Aboul Hhassan Ali, de 
Maroc; traduit par J.-J. Sédillot et publié 
par L. Am. Sédillot, 2 vols., Paris, 1834— 
1835; and Supplément, 1844. Among the 
masterpieces of Moslem observational as- 
tronomy is the systematic description of 
the constellations by Al-Sufi (903-986); a 
French translation, with parts of the Arabic 
text, was published by H. C. F. C. ScuJE.- 
LERUP: Description des étoiles fixes composée 
au milieu du dixiéme siécle de notre ére par 
V’astronome Persan Abd-al-Rahman al-Sifi: 
St.-Pétersbourg (l’Académie Impériale des 
Sciences) 1874. Cf. Metrop. Mus. Studies 
(New York), vol. 4 (pt. 2): 179-197, March, 
1933. Of the Moslem astronomical tables, 
the more important were: the Hakemite 
Tables, compiled in Egypt by Ibn Jinis 
(d. 1009), perhaps the greatest of the Mos- 


JuLY 15, 1942 WOOLARD: GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TREATISES OF THE PAST 215 


lem astronomers; the Toledan Tables, which 
superseded the Hakemite Tables in the 
twelfth century; and the famous Alfonsine 
Tables, probably completed about 1272 
under the patronage of King Alfonso X. 
The Alfonsine Tables, which remained the 
best available for 300 years, and the Libros 
del Saber, an encyclopedic compilation (in 
Spanish) of astronomical knowledge from 
Arabic writings (published at Madrid, 
1863-1867, in 5 large folio volumes, by Don 
Manuel Rico y Sinobas) circulated widely 
through Europe and were of great impor- 
tance in the revival of astronomy in the 
~ West.?’ 

The Arabic writings in Latin translations 
were the principal source of information in 
western Europe until studies of. original 
Greek manuscripts commenced to spread 
during the Renaissance; but criginal works 
began to be composed early in the Revival 
of Learning. The numerous astronomical 
books issued during medieval and early 
modern times are described in treatises on 
the history of astronomy; for the most part, 
they represent no significant advances, and 
are of importance chiefly to the historian. 
The principal elementary textbook of as- 
tronomy throughout medieval times was 
the Tractatus de sphaera or Sphaera mundi 
written about 1233 by Sacrogosco, also 
known as John of Halifax or Holywood. It 
remained very popular for more than 400 
years—it was one of the first astronomical 
books to be printed, and editions in great 


27 See J. H. REYNoups, The Hakemite Tables of 
Ebn Jounis, Nature (London), 128: 913-914, 
1931; Ernst ZInNER, Die Tafeln von Toledo 
(Tabulae Toletanae), Osiris I: 747-774, 1936; 
J. L. E. Dreymr, The original form of the Alfonsine 
Tables, Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 80: 243-262, 
1920. After the decline of Moslem learning in 
Asia, astronomy was later temporarily revived in 
the East by Persian and Tartar astronomers 
under the Mongols. A great observatory was 
founded at Maragha in northwest Persia, where 
extensive observations were made with magnifi- 
cent instruments; and another important scientific 
center developed at Khanbaliq. The last of the 
Oriental astronomers was Ulug Begh (d. 1449), 
who worked at an observatory built at Samarkand 
in 1420; the tables which he compiled included 
the first star catalogue constructed from original 
observations since the time of Hipparchus and 
Ptolemy. See E. B. Knosen, ‘Ulugh Beg’s cata- 
logue of stars, Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 
No. 250 (Washington), 1917. 


number continued to be issued until the 
middle of the seventeenth century; it is a 
rather crude little treatise, apparently de- 
rived from Alfraganus and Albategnius, on 
the rudiments of Ptolemaic astronomy, and 
is devoted principally to spherical astron- 
omy; the contents are reviewed in some de- 
tail by WaLTER B. VEAziE, Chaucer’s tezt- 
book of astronomy: Johannes de Sacrobosco, 
Univ. of Colorado Studies, Ser. B. 1: 169- 
182, 1940. During the transition period of 
the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, 
the textbooks which at first appeared were 
only summaries of Ptolemaic astronomy,”* 
but during the latter part of the period an 
increasing number either included an ac- 
count of both the Ptolemaic and Copernican 
hypotheses or else were explicitly based on 
the Copernican theory. Of especial interest 
to the general reader is the important expo- 
sition of contemporary astronomical knowl- 
edge from the Copernican point of view by 
Keeper, Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 
(1618), which has already been mentioned.”® 


28 PEURBACH’S Theoricae novae planetarum, 
1472, was especially noted, and editions continued 
to be issued for a hundred years. A rare work of 
this period, which, because of its unique character, 
deserves mention, is PETER APIAN, Astronomicum 
Caesareum, Ingolstadt, 1540, of which only 35 
copies are known now to be in existence; it is de- 
scribed by S. A. IonipEs, Osiris I: 356-389, 1936 
(cf. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 46: 325-338, 1934). 
The unique interest of the book lies in the numer- 
ous charts and combinations of rotatable paper 
dialsit contains for graphically calculating celestial 
phenomena and solving astronomical problems; 
it is based on the Ptolemaic theory, and gives 
remarkably accurate results. The book also dis- 
cusses Apian’s noted discovery that the tails of 
comets always point away from the sun; and it 
contains the earliest printed planisphere (first 
published separately in 1536, and reproduced in 
facsimile in 1927 by L. Rosenthal’s Antiquariat, 
Munich). 

29 Also of great interest is the earliest star atlas 
(though star maps and constellation figures had 
appeared in several earlier printed works): Jo- 
HANN BaysEr, Uranomeiria (1603), with its 51 
beautiful copper engravings of the constellations 
as drawn by Albrecht Diirer, in which the stars 
were for the first time distinguished by Greek 
letters. The next notable work of this kind, the 
great star atlas by FLAMSTEED, Atlas coelestts, 
was published at London in the eighteenth cen- 
tury, and a French edition with much smaller 
plates, edited by Forrin, was issued at Paris. 
An important and worth-while element of the 
romantic charm of the night sky has been lost 
with the disappearance of the classic constellation 
figures from modern charts of the heavens. 


216 


During the course of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, textbooks and popular treatises came 
to be generally based on Newtonian princi- 
ples, and the traditional content amplified 
by descriptive material obtained from tele- 
scopic observation; the first treatise based 
on gravitational principles was Davip 
GreGory, Astronomiae physicae et geome- 
tricae elementa, Oxford, 1702. Among the 
most widely used books, representative of 
the generally accepted astronomical thought 
of this period, were the numerous editions 
(during the 18th and early 19th centuries) 
of JAMES FERGUSON, Astronomy explained 
upon Sir Isaac Newton’s principles, and the 
popular work by LALanpE, Abrégé d’as- 
tronomie (Paris, 1775). 

With the establishment and general ac- 
ceptance of the Newtonian system, the 
principal problem of astronomy became to 
deduce, from the Laws of Motion and the 
Law of Gravitation, the motions of the 
bodies in the solar system, and to account, 
on the basis of the Newtonian theory, for 
all the details of the observed apparent mo- 
tions. As the precision of astronomical ob- 
servations increased, many details of the 
celestial motions were revealed that had 
not appeared in Tycho Brahe’s observa- 
tions; and it is a remarkable fact that the 
Law of Gravitation both explains Kepler’s 
Laws and at the same time immediately 
shows that these laws can be only first ap- 
proximations, and had Tycho’s observa- 
tions been either a little less exact or a little 
more accurate Kepler could hardly have 
deduced his laws from them. 

The development of Celestial Mechan- 
ics was initiated by the brilliant work of 
Clairaut, D’Alembert, Euler (whose Theorza 
motuum planetarum et cometarum, 1744, is 
the earliest analytical solution of the Prob- 
lem of Two Bodies), and Lagrange. The first 
to undertake the systematic construction of 
complete gravitational theories for the 
motions of all the principal bodies of the 
solar system was LApLAce (1749-1827), 
whose results are contained in his Trazté de 
mécanique céleste. Laplace developed the 
equations to only a comparatively low order 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NOW7 


of approximation, but they demonstrated 
the agreement of the celestial motions with 
Newton’s Law to at least the degree of ac- 
curacy that had then been attained in ob- 
servational astronomy. The observations 
accumulated by Tycho Brahe, their coordi- 
nation by Kepler into his empirical laws, 
the formulation of the hypothesis of univer- 
sal gravitation by Newton, and the subse- 
quent verification of this hypothesis through 
the comparison of the theoretical motions 
with observations form a classic example of 
Scientific Method. 

Meanwhile, Bradley’s discoveries of aber- 
ration (1728) and nutation (published 1748) 
had supplied in principle the necessary basis 
for attaining in practice the increased ac- 
curacy that became potentially possible 
with the continued refinement of instru- 
mental equipment; and following Laplace, a 
need for further development of the theories 
of the celestial motions was soon provided 
by the introduction of a higher order of pre- 
cision into the astronomy of position under 
the leadership of Bessel (1784-1846). With 
the work of Laplace and Bessel, which 
opened the prolific development of gravita- 
tional astronomy and positional astronomy 
during the nineteenth century, we may ap- 
propriately conclude the present survey. 
The latter part of the nineteenth century 
closes a very definite period in the develop- 
ment of astronomical science: The great 
era of Fundamental Astronomy, extending 
back to ancient Egypt and Babylonia, was 
over; and the rise of sidereal astronomy 
(initiated by Sir William Herschel in the 
latter eighteenth century) and astrophysics 
had begun.*° We are now in the midst of the 
new period, in which astrophysics and stud- 
ies of the sidereal and extragalactic systems 
are the fields of predominating interest and 
activity. 

30 Classical astronomy, as known in the nine- 
teenth century, is well represented by Sir JoHN 
HERSCHEL, Outlines of astronomy (10th ed., 1869); 
Simon Newcomes, Popular astronomy (5th ed., 
1884); and C. A. Youne, General astronomy (rev. 
ed. 1904), all of which are still worthy of study. 
See also Agnes M. CuLEeRKE, Popular history of 


astronomy during the nineteenth century, 4th ed., 
London (Black), 1902. 


JuLY 15, 1942 


GAZIN: FOSSIL MAMMALIA FROM WESTERN WYOMING 


217 


PALEONTOLOGY —Fossil Mammalia from the Almy formation in western 


C. Lewis Gazin, U.S. 


In the course of investigations for the 
U. 8. Geological Survey in western Wy- 
oming in 1936, J. B. Reeside, Jr., B. N. 
Moore, and W. W. Rubey discovered sev- 
eral localities for fossil vertebrate remains in 
beds regarded as the Almy formation. These 
exposures were of the deeper red beds strati- 
graphically below the Knight, and at cer- 
tain places, as observed by Rubey, uncon- 
formably below this formation as it is ex- 
posed in the vicinity of the Green River in 
the southwestern part of Sublette County. 
Unfortunately all the materials were too 
fragmentary for certain identification, but 
in 1939 Rubey, with the assistance of John 
Rogers, succeeded in finding a lower jaw of 
a species of the primate Plesiadapis in Almy 
beds exposed along La Barge Creek, about 
7 miles due west of the town of La Barge in 
Lincoln County. The writer visited several 
of these localities during the summer of 
1941, and with the assistance of G. F. Stern- 
berg and Franklin Pearce he was successful 
in securing additional material from the La 
Barge Creek locality and determinable re- 
mains, including a Coryphodon skull and a 
lower jaw of Hohippus, from exposures at a 
stratigraphically higher level about 9 miles 
north of the La Barge Creek occurrence. 

The La Barge Creek locality, sections 1 
and 12, T. 26 N., R. 114 W., has produced 
the following forms: 


Wyoming.’ 


Plesiadapis rubeyi, n. sp. 
Plesiadapis, cf. cookei Jepsen 
Creodont, gen. and sp. undet. 
Phenacodus almiensis, n. sp. 
Ectocion sp. 


The very incomplete fauna here listed 
suggests the Clark Fork stage, or uppermost 
Paleocene, indicated primarily by the 
Plesiadapis material, together with the 
presence and suggested predominance of 
Phenacodus. The beds at this locality are a 
reddish, pebbly clay, partly conglomeratic. 
They were mapped by A. R. Schultz? as the 


* Published by permission of the Secretary, 
oman Institution. Received March 26, 


*Scuuttz, A. R., U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 543, 
Bed. 1914. 


National Museum. 


northward equivalent of the Almy forma- 
tion and are so regarded by Rubey, who 
interprets this site as being several hundred 
feet stratigraphically below the top of the 
formation. 

The more northerly locality mentioned 
above, in the upper part of one of the 
branches of Dry Piney Creek, sections 23 
and 24, T. 28 N., R. 114 W., has yielded but 
two forms, and these have been tentatively 
identified as Coryphodon radians and Eohip- 
pus index. The beds here were mapped by 
Schultz as a part of the Knight formation; 
Rubey, however, considers the exposures as 
being of the uppermost part of the Almy 
and possibly including the limy layers re- 
garded as representing the Fowkes forma- 
tion. In any case the beds at this point seem 
definitely of lower Eocene age, or Wa- 
satchian. The two forms encountered ap- 
pear most closely related to corresponding 
types described by Cope from the vicinity 
of Evanston, Wyo., presumably out of the 
Knight. It should be further mentioned that 
a few miles north of La Barge and a short 
distance to the east of the Dry Piney Creek 
locality well developed, variegated expo- 
sures of Knight have produced a Lost Cabin 
fauna. 

There follows a systematic description of 
the materials discovered well down in the 
Almy as exposed along La Barge Creek and 
regarded as Clarkforkian or uppermost 
Paleocene: 


Plesiadapis rubeyi, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Type.—Portion of right ramus of mandible 
with P3-Me, M, incomplete, U. 8. N. M. no. 
16696. 

Horizon and locality—Almy formation, 
NEzSW3 sec. 1, T. 26 N., R. 114 W., about 7 
miles west of La Barge, Lincoln County, Wyo. 

Specific characters ——A little larger than P. 
gidleyt. Lower cheek teeth long and relatively 
narrower than in P. gidleyt, particularly Ps, and 


$ BoNILLAS, YGNACIO, Journ. Mamm. 17: 139- 
142. 1936. 


218 


to a less extent P,. Cusps of teeth more inflated 
and basins a little less broadly excavated. An- 
teroexternal cingulum about base of protoconid 
weaker on Mz. Paraconid and metaconid on M2 
of about equal height and slightly closer to- 
gether than in P. gidleyt. 


Fig. 1.—Plesiadapis rubeyi, n. sp. Right lower 
dentition, P; to M2 inclusive, type specimen, 
U. S. N. M. no. 16696, lingual and occlusal 
views. X3. Almy Paleocene, Wyoming. Draw- 
ing by Sydney Prentice. 


Description.—Plesiadapis rubeyi, as indicated 
by the lower jaw portion, is a little larger than 
the Tiffany P. gidleyi, or than P. dubius of the 
Clark Fork. The Almy form differs from these 
two species principally in the actually and rela- 
tively greater anteroposterior length of the 
lower cheek teeth. These comparisons are facili- 
tated by the statistics given by Simpson‘ for 
P. gidleyr. The deviation of the measurements 
of P. rubeyz from the mean of P. gidleyi divided 
by the standard deviation of P. gidleyi varies 
from +4.5 to +5.5 for the lengths of the teeth, 
but with no significant figures pertaining to the 
widths. The relation of length to width of teeth 
appears comparable to that in the Silver 
Coulee P. fodinatus, and the proportions of M2 
given by Jepsen® are very close to those in P. 
rubeyt; however, M, in the Almy form is 
strikingly smaller. No measurements were 
given for the premolars of P. fodinatus. P. 
anceps from the Scarritt Quarry® in the Crazy 
Mountain field is comparable in size with P. 
rubeyt but exhibits much shorter and simpler 
premolars and Mp is relatively wider. 

In P, of P. rubeyi the acute posterointernal 
ridge extending down the protoconid is some- 
what deflected at a point about halfway down 
its length, suggesting an incipient metaconid. A 
very slight increase in the development of the 
anterior keel on Py, immediately above the 
eee’: G. G., Amer. Mus. Nov. 817: 3-7. 

- JEPSEN, G. L., Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 69: 
515-517. 1980. 


6 Simpson, G. G., Amer. Mus. Nov. 873: 19-20. 
1936. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


entoconid of P3; might suggest a paraconid. The 
heel of P, is distinctly basined and exhibits two 
cusps, the hypoconid and entoconid. These 
cusps are also distinguished on P3 but not so 
widely spaced. 


TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF 
Lower TEETH, No. 16696, oF 
PLESIADAPIS RUBEYI 


Measurement P; P, M, M, 
Anteroposterior diame- 

CER ee eee nee 2.8 | 2.0. SSa0zes. 

Transverse diameter...) 1:9) 2-250 2e see 


* Estimated. 


The length of the preserved dentition, P3- 
M2 inclusive, is 12 mm. 


Plesiadapis, cf. cookei Jepsen 


A large form of Plesiadapis is represented in 
the collection from the La Barge Creek locality 
(SW NE sec. 12, T. 26 N., R. 114 W.) by the 
greater portion of a left mandibular ramus, 
U. 8. N. M. no. 16698. The specimen includes 
P3, most of Ps, M2 complete, and a small por- | 


-tion of M3. The teeth appear to be a little 


larger than in the type from the Clark Fork, as 
indicated by Jepsen’s’ measurements, and are 
relatively elongate, particularly the premolars. 
The difference in the latter respect from the 
type of P. cooket is probably less significant 
than this character was found to be in compari- 
sons of P. rubeyt with related species. 

P; and P, both exhibit a bilobed talonid, al- 
though this portion of Py, is incomplete. The 
rugosity of the enamel on the anterolingual por- 
tion of P, gives rise to a suggestion of a para- 
conid, not developed to this extent, however, on 
P;. Neither of these teeth shows any evidence 
of a metaconid. 

In M, the metaconid, very close to the para- 
conid, is posterolingual to this cusp and joined 
by a ridge to the protoconid. The external cin- 
gulum on this tooth is not well developed and 
is in evidence only from the anterolateral por- 
tion of the hypoconid to an anterior position 
on the protoconid. The enamel on this tooth is 
somewhat rugose, most noticeably about the 
hypoconid and on the posterior wall of the 
trigonid. 


7 JEPSEN, G. L., zbid., pp. 525-528. 1930. 


JuLy 15, 1942 


TABLE 2.— MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF 
Lower Tretu, No. 16698, or 
PLESIADAPIS, CF. COOKEI 


Measurement P; P, M, M, M; 


Anteroposterior 


Mameters....| 0.2 | o.0 |-5.4*| 6.4 | 10.7% 
Transverse di- 
SONELET. .-.. ... oat 5.5 


* Estimated. 


Creodont, gen. and sp. undet. 


A portion of an upper cheek tooth, U. 8. N. 
M. no. 16699, including the protocone or deu- 
terocone but externally incomplete, is regarded 
as representing a form of creodont. A portion of 
one of the external cusps is preserved, presum- 


GAZIN: FOSSIL MAMMALIA FROM WESTERN WYOMING 


219 


Metaconule in line between metacone and hy- 
pocone. Mesostyle, metacone, and metaconule 
distinct on M?®. 

Description.—Phenacodus almiensis is repre- 
sented by a left maxillary portion, U.S. N. M. 
no. 16992, including P4 to M?, and two isolated 
upper teeth, in addition to the more extensive 
material comprising the type. The form appears 
to be appreciably smaller than any of the vari- 
ants included in the Phenacodus primaevus 
group.® It is distinctly smaller also than the 
Tiffany P. grangeri® but a little larger than the 
Gray Bull forms, P. copei and P. brachypternus. 
Comparisons with the Tiffany P. matthewi and 
P. gidleyv® are not satisfactory, inasmuch as 
these are known only from lower teeth, and 


| 


Fig. 2.—Phenacodus almiensis, n. sp. Left upper dentition, P? to M? inclusive (M? drawn reversed 
from right side), type specimen, U.S. N. M. no. 16691, occlusal view. X2. Almy Paleocene, Wyoming. 


ably the metacone, in which case the tooth re- 
sembles the posterior and lingual portions of 
M! in a species of Didymictis. The protocone 
and cusp presumed to be the metacone are of 
about equal height, although the protocone 
appears much more robust, and the outer angle 
of the tooth is evenly rounded, not projecting. 


Phenacodus almiensis, n. sp. 
Fig. 2 

Type.—Partial skeleton, including palatal 
portion of skull with canines and cheek teeth, 
P? to M3, cervical vertebrae, and incomplete 
limb and foot bones, U.S. N. M. no. 16691. 

Horizon and locality—Almy formation, 
SW: NEié sec. 12, T. 26 N., R. 114 W., about 7 
miles west of La Barge, Lincoln County, Wyo. 

Specific characters.—Size small with cusps of 
teeth relatively acute, somewhat crescentic, 
and uninflated. Anteroexternal and posteroex- 
ternal angles of upper teeth moderately acute. 
Parastyle well developed on P? to M®. Slight 
tetartocone and protoconule on P*; prominent 
on P* with the addition of a weak, posteriorly 
placed metaconule. Hypocone well developed 
and lingual in position on all upper molars. 


none was found of P. almiensis; however, the 
difference in size indicated by these lower teeth 
is significant. 

In comparison with material of the Phena- 
codus prumaevus group, P. almiensis is seen to 
have much less inflated cusps, and these tend 
to be more crescentic in appearance, and the 
outer angles of the upper teeth are more acute. 
Also, the parastyles are better developed, and 
P* exhibits a weak metaconule. In these re- 
spects P. almiensis strongly resembles Ectocion 
but differs from members of that genus in im- 
portant structural characters. That is, the 
metaconule of the upper molars is not forward 
in position but in line with the metacone and 
hypocone; also, the third upper molar is not 
triangular and has a rather well developed hy- 
pocone. The mesostyle, metacone, and meta- 
conule of Mare less developed than in Ectocion 
but are more distinct than in Phenacodus. The 


8 See MatruEw, W. D., and WALTER GRANGER, 
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 34: 332-348. 1915. 
See also Simpson, G. G., Amer. Mus. Nov. 954: 
17-19. 1937. 

9 Simpson, G. G., Amer. Mus. Nov. 817: 22-25. 
LOSSY. 


220 


hypocone in all the molars appears relatively 
heavy and more lingual in position than in 
Ectocion. 


TABLE 3.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF 
Upper Tretu, No. 16691, oF 
PHENACODUS ALMIENSIS 


Measurements C | P3 | P4 | M!| M2|} M3 
Anteroposterior 

diameter. 9 22. 5.8] 8.2) 8.5} 9.0) 9.2) 7.8 
Transverse diam- 

CleIee te wea os ARO salen) 10.011.0 10.6 


The length of the preserved portion of the 
dentition, P* to M3, is 42.5 mm. The length of 
the upper molars series, M! to M?, inclusive, is 
25.5 mm. 


Ectocion sp. 


A fragment of a left mandibular ramus ex- 
hibiting P, and the anterior part of the trigonid 
of M,, U. 8. N. M. no. 16695, is believed to 
represent a species of the condylarth Ectocion. 
The complete tooth appears to be about the 
size of Py in EH. ralstonensis!® from the Clark 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 7 


Fork beds. The cusps are relatively high and 
acute, and the pattern appears more crescentic 
in comparison with the inflated bunodont type 
of tooth seen in Phenacodus, although the ento- 
conid is lacking as in that genus. However, 
Ectocion ralstonensis is described as having a 
relatively weak entoconid in comparison with 
the typical Gray Bull forms. A very slight 
cuspule is seen near the base of the protoconid 
posteriorly, as suggested in illustrations of P, 
belonging to the type of EF. ralstonensts, not 
placed so high as observed in Phenacodus ma- 
terial. The hypoconid is more externally placed 
and both trigonid and talonid portions of the 
tooth have a much better developed crescentic 
pattern than in Hohippus. The enamel of the 
premolar is weakly rugose and there is a slight 
cingulum about the external wall. 

The possibility of this specimen belonging to 
the form herein described as Phenacodus almi- 
ensis is not entirely eliminated, but the tooth is 
distinctly too small to occlude properly with 
the upper dentition of P. almiensis. 


10See MartrHew, W. D., 
GRANGER, 2bid., p. 353. 1915. 


and WALTER 


Obituary 


THOMAS HerBeRT NORTON, distinguished 
author, diplomat, and research chemist, died 
on December 2, 1941, after a short illness. 

Dr. Norton was born June 30, 1851, at 
Rushford, N. Y. He was graduated from Ham- 
ilton College in 1873 as valedictorian. In 1883, 
after many colorful experiences abroad, which 
were vividly described by Charles E. Monroe 
in the ‘‘News Edition” of the American Chem- 
ical Society for August 10, 1935, he became 
professor of chemistry at the University of 
Cincinnati. In 1900, he was appointed Ameri- 
ean consul at Harput, Turkey; in 1905 he was 
transferred to Smyrna, and in 1906 he went to 
Chemnitz, Germany. Beginning in 1911, Dr. 
Norton made a survey of the chemical indus- 
tries of foreign countries for the Department 
of Commerce. When he returned to the United 
States he was chosen for the preparation of a 


report on the supply of dyestuffs for American 
industries. The report that he prepared re- 
vealed that foreign firms not only manufac- 
tured the chief part of the dyestuffs used in the 
United States, but that they employed various 
means to prevent the entrance of American 
rivals into the field of competition. Dr. Norton 
tcok a most active part in securing legislation 
to alleviate these unsatisfactory conditions and 
to foster the American chemical industry. 

Dr. Norton’s outstanding ability and wide 
interest brought him many honors and respon- 
sibilities. He received honorary degrees from 
Hamilton College and from the University of 
Heidelberg; in 1937 he received the Lavoisier 
Medal. Among the many scientific organiza- — 
tions to which he belonged was the Washington 
Academy of Sciences.—H.S.lI. 


CONTENTS! 1.0% (4.6 


Asrronomy.—Great astronomical treatises of the past. ce 
hicapamie) nmamuiariy tthe ee euld ae 


sah Wace. . fey Geek 2 eas 


Osrruary: THomas Herpert NorTON...............---.0-0- 


The Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicale _ 


py AEgne Ba SPP ae aan tee IR ek es! 


Aveust 15, 1942 | No. 8 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 32 


Cosmic emotion.} 


Every one of us is born into a wonderland 
—the universe in which we live and move 
and have our being, and which, from the 
dawn of human thinking, has exerted a pro- 
found fascination upon the mind. 

Man’s reaction to the riddle of the uni- 
verse is an interesting study, leading to a 
conclusion perhaps rather unexpected— 
that in this respect modern man differs less 
from his primitive forbears than might be 
supposed. An analysis of the cosmic emo- 
tion evidenced in the earliest human records 
reveals six principal elements in its composi- 
tion, five of which are to be found in mod- 
ern man, all qualitatively unaltered, though 
in some cases much intensified. The sixth 
element, though strong in earlier times, has 
now almost faded away, but its place has 
been taken by a seventh element of dis- 
tinctly modern origin. 

First and foremost among these per- 
manent elements we may place wonder and 
its invariable concomitant, curiosity. The 
presence of these elements in very young 
children testifies to their ancient racial char- 
acter. It is recorded that the physicist 
Clerk Maxwell, in his early years, was con- 
tinually asking his elders, ‘‘What is the go 
of that?” Every parent can match this 
from his own experience, and primitive man 
doubtless asked many such questions with 
no one to answer them. But curiosity, like 
hunger, becomes stronger the longer it re- 
mains unsatisfied, and lacking an answer it 
will manufacture one for itself. 

The records of the past are full of such 
guesses at the causes of natural phenomena, 
mostly anthropomorphic in character. The 


1 Address presented to the Washington Acad- 
emy of Sciences on March 19, 1942. Received 
March 19, 1942. 


Avaeust 15, 1942 


No. 8 


Pau R. Hert, National Bureau of Standards. 


stormy waves of the sea were caused by the 
wrathful strokes of Neptune’s trident; the 
attraction of the magnet for iron was due to 
an indwelling spirit, and the thunderbolts of 
Jove still live in poetic parlance. Gradu- 
ally, however, man learned that there was 
one source from which he could obtain an 
answer to his questions—Nature herself. It 
has been well said that an experiment is a 
question put to Nature, and it is interesting 
to reflect that the experimental method and 
the growth of modern science have their 
origin in the urge of these two primitive in- 
stincts—wonder and curiosity. 

Primitive though they may be, these ele- 
ments are still with us. Time has but 
strengthened and ripened them and wid- 
ened their field of application. It is no longer 
necessary that an occurrence be rare or 
spectacular to excite our wonder. We have 
learned that the simplest and most com- 
monplace natural phenomenon, even the 
falling of an apple from a tree, is, when we 
stop to think about it, as Newton did, won- 
derful past all speaking. Nor is this recog- 
nition of the wonder of the commonplace 
confined to scientific men. 

Seventy years ago, some of William 
Kingdon Clifford’s most successful popular 
addresses on science were given before audi- 
ences of London working men. It is true 
that Clifford was the greatest master of 
lucid exposition in our language, but some 
of the credit must be given to the receptive 
audiences. It is unthinkable that even a 
Clifford could interest, say, a primitive 
group of Australian black-fellows in such 
subjects without the liberal use of experi- 
ments according to the classical definition— 
involving a bright light or a loud noise. 

Several years ago I was asked to given an 


221 


Siege ie a a 


222 


address before the scientific staff of the 
General Electric Research Laboratory at 
Schenectady, and also to make a popular 
broadcast from their radio station. As a sub- 
ject for the address to the staff I suggested: 
“Old and New Ideas about Gravitation,”’ 
and for the radio broadcast: ‘Practical 
Suggestions for Improving the Acoustics 
of Buildings.”’ I was advised by the man- 
agement of the radio station to use the 
same subject for the broadcast that I had 
chosen for the staff meeting, as their ex- 
perience told them that it would excite the 
greater popular interest. 

The third element in man’s cosmic emo- 
tion is reverential awe. This also dates back 
to remote antiquity, as is evidenced by the 
world-wide prevalence of sun worship. With 
the passing centuries this element has lost 
none of its strength. It has been a favorite 
theme of the poets, ancient and modern. 
The words of the Psalmist are familiar to 
us all: 

The heavens declare the glory of God; and the 

firmament sheweth his handywork. 


Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto 
night sheweth knowledge. 


Three thousand years later Tennyson ex- 

presses the same feeling: 

Flower in the crannied wall, 

I pluck you out of the crannies, 

I hold you here, root and all, in my hand, 

Little flower—but zf I could understand 

What you are, root and all, and all in all, 

I should know what God and man is. 


Closely connected with this element of 
reverential awe and, in fact, a corollary to 
it, is man’s feeling of his own insignificance 
as compared with the physical universe. 
David gives expression to this also: 

When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy 

fingers, 

The moon and the stars, which thou hast or- 

dained; 

What is man that thou art mindful of him? 


With the growth of our knowledge of the 
universe this feeling of our own physical in- 
significance has been greatly intensified. It 
is perhaps not generally realized how small 
the ancients believed the universe to be. 
The Greeks placed the abode of the gods no 
farther away than the summit of Mount 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 8 


Olympus. Omar Khayyam complains of his 
cramped quarters: 

And that inverted Bowl they call the Sky, 

Whereunder crawling coop’d we live and die 

A legend of the days of Mohammed tells 
how the Prophet made a round trip to 
heaven and back in one night, mounted on a 
miraculous steed, to confer with Allah about 
the number of prayers to be required of the 
faithful. Even allowing for the element of 
the miraculous, such a legend could hardly 
have taken root and flourished in the en- 
vironment of our modern ideas of the size 
of the universe. Contrast the ancient con- 
cept of the universe with that of the present 
day, and we can begin to appreciate how 
much this feeling of physical insignificance 
has been intensified. 

But no matter how insignificant an indi- 
vidual may feel, there is a certain measure 
of compensation in feeling one’s self to be 
a member of a large group, and the larger 


the better. For this reason speculation as 


to the possibility of intelligent life else- 
where in the universe has been particularly 
attractive to our earthbound race. 

A generation ago there was much dis- 
cussion of the question of possible inhabi- 
tants of the planet Mars. Little is now heard 
of this in scientific circles. Cosmically 
speaking, life as we know it is a delicate 
hothouse plant, capable of existing only 
within rather narrow limits of temperature 
and composition of atmosphere, and every 
increase in our knowledge of these condi- 
tions as they prevail on Mars has made the 
existence of intelligent life on that planet 
more and more improbable. The same ap- 
plies to all the other planets of our solar 
system; they are either too hot or too cold, 
or their atmospheres lack sufficient oxygen 
and water. 

But are not the stars of heaven suns like 
our own, and among these millions of suns 
and their attendant planets is it not reason- 
able to suppose that there may be a few 
thousand bodies as well fitted as our earth 
to sustain human life? | 

For this question astronomy has rather a 
staggering answer. It is true that these stars 
are suns, but it does not necessarily follow 
that they all have planetary systems. In 


AuG. 15, 1942 


fact, it is now regarded as quite possible 
that but very few of them are so favored. 
Jeans goes so far as to call our system a 
freak system, and to suggest that there may 
be but one other like it. 

There is today no perfectly satisfactory 
and generally accepted theory of the origin 
of our solar system. That the planets once 
formed part of the sun is beyond doubt, but 
how they came to be detached from it is still 
uncertain. Laplace’s nebular hypothesis, 
after a reign of more than a century, had to 
be abandoned, as it was found that it failed 
to satisfy an important condition of celestial 
mechanics. Several other hypotheses have 
been proposed, none of which is completely 
satisfactory, but all of which agree in ascrib- 
ing the origin of the solar system to a close 
approach or a grazing collision between our 
sun and another star. And so widely scat- 
tered are the stars of heaven that such an 
encounter could not be expected to occur 
oftener than once in ten million million 
years. Our little colony of life may be only 
an ant hill in a vast desert, and man’s feeling 
of physical insignificance is intensified by 
a sense of cosmic loneliness. 

These four elements—wonder, curiosity, 
reverential awe, and physical insignificance, 
have been features of man’s cosmic emotion 
since earliest times, and bid fair to remain 
so as long as our race shall last. Such 
changes as time has wrought in them have 
been quantitative, in most cases an increase 
in intensity. To these four is to be added a 
fifth, which, though prominent in bygone 
years, has now almost faded away—super- 
stitious fear. 

During the Middle Ages it was the uni- 
versal custom in Europe to ring the church 
bells on the approach of a thunder storm 
with the idea of frightening away the Prince 
of the Power of the Air and his attendant 
demons. Bells are still to be seen in old 
churches bearing inscriptions such as: ‘TI 
break the lightning,” or ‘I put demons to 
flight.”” In earlier days this fear often 
prompted human sacrifice in times of 
famine or pestilence, to appease the sup- 
posed anger of the gods. In some places, on 
the principle that prevention is better than 
cure, a human victim was sacrificed annu- 


HEYL: COSMIC EMOTION 


223 


ally in the spring of the year in order to en- 
sure fertility of the fields during the coming 
season. In our time this element of supersti- 
tious fear has all but disappeared, but its 
place has been taken by another element, 
qualitatively new and of distinctly modern 
origin. 

The supposed agency of demons and 
spirits in natural phenomena has, with the 
modern development of the sciences, been 
replaced by physical causation and laws of 
Nature. These laws are now so well under- 
stood that we can, for instance, predict with 
reasonable accuracy a clear or rainy mor- 
row, and with perfect accuracy an eclipse 
of the sun. Passing from the macrocosm to 
the microcosm, we have learned the cause 
of many diseases and the cure for some of 
them. We prefer lightning rods to church 
bells and antitoxins to incantations. Though 
much of Nature is still beyond our predic- 
tion or control, it is no mean attainment to 
have achieved a sufficient intellectual mas- 
tery of our environment to begin to under- 
stand it. And as we pass the Cosmos in re- 
view before the mind and reflect that of all 
Nature man alone has achieved this mas- 
tery, there wells up within us a sense of in- 
tellectual superiority that goes far toward 
alleviating our feeling of physical insig- 
nificance. Man may be but the merest 
speck in the universe, yet in his intelligent 
comprehension of it is he not but little lower 
than the angels? 

In the year 1875 the physicist Maxwell 
gave this growing feeling of intellectual 
superiority a powerful stimulus. 

The more we have learned of the laws of 
Nature the more profound is the respect 
which they have inspired. Like the laws of 
the Medes and Persians, they alter not. We 
may defy them, but no one is sufficiently in- 
fluential to escape the consequences of his 
defiance. Such progress as we have made in 
the control and utilization of natural forces 
has been attained by making allies of some 
of them, and cunningly pitting one force 
against another, as, for instance, the air re- 
sistance to a parachute against the force of 
gravity on the aviator. Imagine then the 
effect produced in the scientific world when 
Maxwell pointed out. that it lies within the 


224 


power of intelligence to reverse the action of 
one of Nature’s fundamental laws, known 
as the second law of thermodynamics. 

According to this law heat, like water, 
when left to itself, naturally runs downhill. 
If we put a cold spoon in a cup of hot tea 
the spoon becomes warmer and the liquid 
cooler. This transfer of heat from the higher 
level of temperature to the lower will con- 
tinue until both spoon and liquid reach a 
common level of temperature. It would be 
against all experience to expect the spoon to 
become colder and the tea hotter. 

It is true that water can be raised from a 
lower to a higher level, but only by expend- 
ing work upon it, as, for instance, by lifting 
it in a bucket or by working a pump handle. 
And it is possible to make heat run uphill 
from a cool body to one that is warmer, but, 
as with water, only at the price of expendi- 
ture of work. But Maxwell showed that it is 
theoretically possible for intelligence to 
bring this about without expending any 
work. The practical difficulty is that we lack 
for the present a vision keen enough and a 
touch delicate enough to see and handle the 
single molecules of which all bodies are 
composed. 

Of the three states of matter, solid, lig- 
uid, and gaseous, the structure of a gas is 
the simplest, and it was upon this that Max- 
well based his demonstration. Imagine a 
swarm of bees flying about in a closed box, 
colliding with each other occasionally, and 
rebounding from the walls of the box. Sup- 
pose also that some of the bees are flying 
rapidly and some slowly, while the majority 
are flying at intermediate speeds, and you 
will have a good idea of the structure of a 
gas. The molecules of which a gas is com- 
posed are, of course, very small, far too 
small to be seen with a microscope, but 
their number is so great and their velocities 
are so high (of the order of a mile a second) 
that the pressure produced by the joint im- 
pact of millions of these molecules upon the 
walls of the containing vessel is by no means 
inconsiderable. This it is, in fact, which 
sometimes bursts a steam boiler. 

When we say that a gas or a vapor is 
“hot” it is our way of expressing the physi- 
cal fact that its molecules have a higher 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


velocity than those of a cooler gas. The 
molecules of the hot steam inside the boiler 
are moving much more rapidly than those of 
the air outside, and the pressure on the 
boiler plates from within is greater than the 
counter pressure from without. The wall of 
the boiler is supposed to be strong enough 
to take care of this difference of pressure, 
but if the water is kept boiling vigorously 
the number of steam molecules continually 
increases until their joint impact is so great 
that the boiler plates give way. 

Returning to Maxwell’s argument, imag- 
ine a gas contained in a vessel divided into 
two parts by a partition, and suppose the 
gas on each side of the partition is at the 
same temperature, that is, the molecules on 
each side have the same average velocity. 
Suppose that there is a tiny door in the 
partition, in charge of a little intelligent 
being who can see the molecules and dis- 
tinguish between the rapidly moving and 
the slow ones. When this being sees a rapid ~ 
molecule in the right-hand compartment 
headed for the door it is his duty to open 
the door and let the molecule pass into the 
left compartment, but he is to keep the 
door closed against slow molecules on 
the right. Conversely, he is to allow only the 
slow molecules to pass from the left to the 
right. By this sorting process the average 
velocity of the molecules on the right will 
continually decrease, while that of those on 
the left will increase. The effect of this will 
be that the temperature of the gas on the 
left will rise while that on the right will fall, 
and heat will run uphill. 

This argument of Maxwell’s is something 
more than an interesting fairy tale. It 
teaches us that when, from our experience, 
we have formulated what we call a law of 
Nature we are not to regard this as the last 
word on the subject; that Nature’s way of 
working when left to herself may be radi- 
cally altered when intelligence takes the 
reins. Nor is the necessary degree of intelli- 
gence to be regarded as an unattainable 
ideal. Much progress has been made in this 
direction since Maxwell’s day, and more 
will be made in the future. While we are 
not yet able to see molecules we can do 
many things with them without seeing 


AuG. 15, 1942 


them. We can, for instance, count the num- 
ber of molecules in a cubic foot of a gas with 
at least as great accuracy as we can count 
the population of New York City. 

There is much justification for the feeling 
of intellectual superiority with which man 
surveys his environment. The intensity 
which this feeling may attain is well illus- 
trated by an old story. 

It is said that at one time an astronomer 
discovered a néw star, which he found by 
his measurements to be approaching the 
earth with a high velocity. He calculated 
that it would strike the earth in a few 
months. He did not announce his discovery, 
fearing to witness the orgy of lawlessness 
and despair which might follow such an an- 
nouncement, but night after night he stud- 
ied this approaching doom, fascinated by it. 
One night he spoke out and addressed the 
star as follows: 

“IT know that you will soon destroy 
me and everything living, but I can calcu- 
late the day—nay, even the hour—when 
this will happen, while you are but a blind 
brute thing, and I would not change places 
with you!” 

There is one more element in our cosmic 
emotion which we shall consider. Man finds 
himself in a wonderland which excites 
curiosity and inspires awe. He feels his 
own physical insignificance and the transi- 
tory nature of his stay, and yet he is not 
content to be a mere “‘super’’ in the cosmic 
drama, but feels qualified for a speaking 
part. He wants to be remembered, he feels 
an urge to leave his mark on the universe, 
at least on such portion of it as is within his 
reach. 

We can trace this element far back into 
antiquity. This it was which built the pyra- 
mids, and which prompted the proud boast 
of the Roman emperor who said: ‘I found 
Rome of brick and left it of marble.’ In 
modern times this element has suffered a 
qualitative change, and assumed a form 
less materialistic and more altruistic, but 
the primitive urge is still there. When the 
founder of the Smithsonian Institution 
made his will in which his estate was left 
to the United States of America ‘for the 
increase and diffusion of knowledge among 


HEYL: COSMIC EMOTION 


225 


men,” his solicitor expressed surprise at 
this unusual bequest. Smithson replied: 
‘‘My name will be remembered among men 
when the Percys and Northumberlands are 
forgotten.” 

But after all, such monuments, physical 
or intellectual, can affect only a tiny frac- 
tion of the universe—our earth and its 
inhabitants. In ancient times, when the 
earth was regarded as the most important 
part of the visible universe, one might 
reasonably feel that in beautifying a city 
or in bettering human society he had done 
something of cosmic importance, but with 
our broader outlook the case is different. 
Not that this detracts in the slightest from 
the laudable character of such efforts, but 
considering our cosmic insignificance all 
such efforts must be recognized to be of but 
local and temporary importance. 

But there are times when all of us find 
it a relief to think qualitatively rather than 
quantitatively. Archimedes, that pioneer 
mechanical engineer, is reputed to have 
said ‘“‘Give me a place where I may stand, 
and I will move the earth.’”’ The modern 
engineer does not even ask for a place to 
stand, for he knows that by merely shooting 
a bullet in an easterly direction he can (to 
a microscopic extent) play the part of 
Joshua and lengthen the day. Moreover, 
he knows that (still qualitatively speaking) 
he can perform actions whose results reach 
far beyond terrestrial limits. When he 
strikes a match to light his cigarette as 
he walks down the street, he knows that 
he has started light waves, some of which 
will travel outward and onward in space, 
perhaps forever. 

With increasing knowledge of the uni- 
verse our eyes have been opened, and we 
see that our actions may sometimes have a 
small measure of cosmic scope. It is inevi- 
table that this should lead to speculation as 
to the possibility of broadening and increas- 
ing our cosmic reach. But here we leave the 
realm of fact and enter that of fancy. It is 
an attractive realm, as we all know, and by 
your leave I will tell you another story. 

As I journeyed through the world I came 
to the shore of an ocean reaching far as the 
eye could see. The water of this ocean was 


226 


colorless and transparent and was cease- 
lessly in motion; even in parts where there 
were no breakers the water was continually 
moving in currents. And as I walked along 
the shore I noticed that there was no living 
thing in the water, not even a blade of sea- 
grass; nor did any living thing appear on 
the beach as far as I could see inland. Thus 
I wandered ever along the shore of the 
ocean, watching for some living thing, but 
finding none. 

At length, after many miles of traveling, 
I came to a place where the sea ran inland, 
forming a little pool wherein the ceaseless 
currents played. By the side of this pool 
there lay an old man, gazing intently into 
the beautiful clear sea water, and my heart 
was glad at the sight of a living thing. 

‘Tell me, father,” said I, ‘‘what is the 
name of this ocean? And what curse is laid 
upon it that there is no living thing in its 
waters?” 

The old man looked at me for some mo- 
ments without speaking. Then he said, 
apparently ignoring my first question: 

“There are living things in it, but they 
are few.” 

“T have traveled many days,” said I, 
‘“‘but I have seen none.” 

‘‘When I was your age, my son,” said the 
old man, “I traveled many months before 
I found them, and I have lain here watching 
them ever since.”’ 

I looked in the pool, and I saw amid the 
ceaseless water currents a swarm of living 
things, hollow, clear-walled creatures, some 
like single bubbles, some like a heap 
of bubbles fused together; and the sea 
water within them was colored a beautiful 
rich tint, which was new to me. I saw that 
in those creatures which were composed of 
many bubbles the color was deep, while in 
the simpler ones the color was paler, and 
in the single bubbles I could detect no color 
at all. I watched the creatures swimming 
about and pulsating rhythmically, and I 
said to the old man: 

“They are beautiful! And are these the 
only living creatures in the ocean?” 

He shook his head. “I do not know. The 
ocean is so vast—there may be others—but 
I have found none.” 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


I looked again in the pool, and I saw that 
some of the creatures lay still, and their 
color was paler than that of their fellows of 
like degree of complexity. The old man said: 
‘They are sleeping.’’ And I saw one crea- 
ture which, from its complexity, should 
have had the deepest color of all, but it lay 
motionless and colorless; and the old man 
said: ‘It is dead.” 

I asked the old man: ‘“‘What gives to the 
water within the living creatures its color? 
Do they secrete coloring matter?” 

He answered: “‘I thought so when I be- 
gan to study them, but it is not so. Do you 
see the hairs that line theirinternal cavities?” 

I looked, and I saw that the creatures had 
little hairs within, and that these hairs 
were constantly moving, beating and churn- 
ing up the sea water within. The old man 
said: ‘‘When the sea water is beaten thus 
it suffers a subtle change and becomes 
colored.” 

And I said: ‘“‘Why then is not the whole 
ocean colored, since it is ceaselessly beating 
upon its shore?” 

The old man said: ‘‘I do not understand 
it; but it seems that it becomes colored only 
when it is stirred up by living creatures.” 

As I silently mused over this my ear 
caught the sound of a faint chirping. The 
old man said: ‘‘It is made by the creatures 
in the pool. The more complex ones are able 
to utter sounds, and the highest of all are 
even able to communicate with each other 
by this means.” 

“They talk!” said I.‘‘Then they must 
think!” 

“Ay, that they do,” said the old man, 
“and strange and sad are some of their 
thoughts; for in the years that I have 
studied them I have come to understand a 
little of their language. For instance, this 
beautiful color is to them the very essence 
of the pleasure of their lives. The deeper 
colored pity the paler, and pity most of all 
those single bubbles which appear devoid 
of color.” 

“Are they really colorless?” said I, ‘Or 
is their color only so pale as to be imper- 
ceptible?” 

The old man bade me look again into 
the pool. 


AuG, 15, 1942 


“Do you see,” said he, “how the most 
complex and active creatures, having many 
hairs moving, are the deepest in color, and 
how those with fewer hairs to churn the 
water are paler? Are the single bubbles 
totally devoid of hairs?” 

“No,” said I, “they have a few, and these 
move slowly.” 

“What think you then? Are these devoid 
of color, or is it simply a question of de- 
gree?” 

I felt that my question was answered. 

“Ay,” continued the old man, ‘“‘it is a 
question of degree; for once or twice in the 
years that I have watched them I have 
seen single bubbles, under stress of great 
excitement, churn the water within them 
so vigorously with their few hairs that it 
assumed a pale tint.” 

Then I said, remembering how I had 
seen the decoing ones and the dead one: 
“The depth of color in any creature seems 
to be proportional to its bodily activity; 
and, among different creatures, to their 
complexity.” . 

“Right,” said the old man, ‘‘and this fact 
has been recognized by the most complex 
creatures themselves.” 

I said: ‘‘When the creatures sleep or die, 
and their color fades, what becomes of it? 
Is the change produced by beating the sea 
water so unstable that when the beating 
ceases the water reverts to its colorless con- 
dition?” 

The old man looked grave. “‘So I thought 
at first, and many a sad hour have I passed 
eelomne of the labor spent in producing 
this beautiful color, so unstable that it was 
doomed to perish with the ceasing of the 
labor that produced it. But,” and here his 
face brightened, and he spoke with assur- 
ance, “it is not so. This change once 
produced is permanent; it can never be un- 
done.” 

“But what then becomes of the color?”’ 

He pointed to the pool, and I looked in. 
One of the most deeply colored creatures 
was just falling asleep. Slowly and still 
more slowly moved the hairs within it, and 
its color gradually faded. I watched closely, 
but I could not see where the color went. 
Then there came an instant when the 


HEYL: COSMIC EMOTION 


227 


ceaseless wash of the currents slackened, 
and in that instant I saw the water about 
the creature tinged with the beautiful color. 
I looked up at the old man. 

‘““Ay,” said he, “‘the color is permanent; 
but the colored water continually diffuses 
through the creature’s body, waking or 
sleeping, and is dispersed and diluted in the 
vast ocean. When they sleep their motion 
is so far reduced that diffusion renders them 
pale; and when they die they become abso- 
lutely colorless. But the color does not die, 
the beautiful color—no, it cannot!’ 

‘‘And do they know this?” said I, point- 
ing to the pool. His face again became grave. 

“‘T find that there is a great difference of 
opinion among the most complex of them. 
They all realize that it is this color that 
makes their lives worth living, and they 
recognize that its intensity is proportional 
to their bodily activity. They have an in- 
stinctive feeling that the color is perma- 
nent, but they are sorely puzzled to account 
for its fading during sleep and its disappear- 
ance at death; so that some say that this 
instinctive feeling of the permanence of the 
color is a delusion; that the color is really a 
most unstable thing, and that colored sea 
water can exist only within a living organ- 
ism. This conclusion they sorrowfully 
accept and make the best of it. Others 
there are who refuse to accept it, and who 
cling to their instinct.’’ And the old man 
sighed as he looked at the restless wash of 
the water in the pool. Presently he said: 

“How long will it take, think you, until 
the whole ocean becomes of this beautiful 
color?”’ 

I said, ‘‘If there be other creatures else- 
where, and many colonies of them—”’ 

‘‘Nay,” said he, “I know not if there be 
such—lI hope—but how long?”’ 

I looked long and silently in the pool. 
Then I said: 

“‘T see some creatures that are very pale; 
and they are not asleep, for they are moving 
about.” 

The old man’s brow grew dark. ‘These 
are lazy ones,’”’ said he. ‘‘They have allowed 
themselves to become discouraged, and 
say::‘Why should we labor and beat our 
hairs to produce a color which must perish 


228 


with us?’ These are they that retard by 
just so much the coloring of the ocean.” 

‘“‘Nay, father,”’ said I, ‘“‘be not angry with 
them. It is but natural. Remember that 
they do not know.” 

“True,” said he, and his face grew kind 
and pitiful, ‘they do not know.” 

Said I: ‘‘SSuppose some great falling rock 
should crush these creatures out of exist- 
ence?” 

“But the color!’ said the old man, ‘‘the 
color cannot be crushed out of existence! 
And the ocean is so vast—there may be 
other colonies elsewhere; and even if there 
be none now, they may in time arise as this 
colony has done, I know not how. The 
ocean will be colored!” 


PALEONTOLOGY.—WNew genera of North American brachiopods." 


Cooprr, U. 8. National Museum. 


In preparing the brachiopod chapter for 
the forthcoming ‘‘Index to North American 
Fossils,” the writer encountered a number 
of nomenclatorial problems which are here 
adjusted. It also became evident that a 
number of new generic names should be pro- 
posed for groups of species not yet ade- 
quately designated. The generic diagnoses 
are given herewith without illustration, but 
most of these genera will be well figured in 
the forthcoming book. Besides the adjust- 
ment of certain homonyms and corrections 
of printer’s errors, reasons for revival of 
erroneously suppressed names are given. In- 
asmuch as the ‘‘Index’”’ will be in constant 
use by students the suggested changes 
should make for clearer understanding and 
stability in brachiopod nomenclature. 


ADJUSTMENT OF HOMONYMS 


Callipleura n. name, to replace Cyclorhina 
Hall and Clarke (1894, p. 146); not Peters, 
1871, mammal. Genotype: Rhynchospira 
nobilis Hall, 1860. 

Plectospira n. name, to replace Ptycho- 
spira Hall and Clarke (1894, p. 112); not 
Slavik, 1869, gastropod. Genotype: Tere- 
bratula ferita von Buch, 1834. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
Heenan Institution. Received Apr. 21, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


I was silent a long time. Then I happened 
to think of my first question, which still 
remained unanswered. 

‘“‘Tell me, father,’”’ said I, ‘‘what is the 
name of this ocean?” 

‘“‘T have never heard but one name for it,” 
said he, ‘“‘and that is the name given it by 
these creatures themselves. ’Tis a strange 
name; there is no exact equivalent for it in 
our language. The nearest is Energy-of-the- 
Universe.” 

‘‘And what do they call this beautiful 
color?”’ 

“They are not agreed upon a single name. 
Some call it Consciousness, and some call 
it Soul.” 


G. ARTHUR 


Pustulina n. name, to replace Vitulina 
Hall (1860, p. 72); not Swainson, 1840, 
gastropod. Genotype: Vztulina pustulosa . 
Hall, 1860. 

Trigonirhynchia n. name, to replace Un- 
cinulina Bayle (1878, pl. 138, figs. 13-16); 
not Terquem, 1862, echinoderm. Genotype: 
Uncinulina fallaciosa Bayle, 1878. 

Barroisella campbelli n. name, to replace 
Lingula subspatulata Meek and Worthen, 
1868 (p. 437, pl. 18, fig. 1), the designated 
type of Barroisella, not Lingula subspatu- 
lata Hall and Meek, 1854—56. 


ADJUSTMENT OF SYNONYMY 


Dictyonina n. name, to replace Iphidella 
Walcott, 1912, not Walcott, 1905 (equals 
Paterina). In 1872 Billings proposed the 
genus I phidea with I. bella Billings as geno- 
type. The following year Meek proposed the 
genus Micromitra with Iphidea (??) sculp- 
tilis Meek as genotype. This name was not 
proposed as a substitute for [phzdea as sug- 
gested by Schuchert and Levene (1929, p. 
69, 84) but as a separate genus. Such substi- 
tution did take place in 1905 by Walcott 
(p. 304), who distinctly states that [phzdella 
is proposed to replace Iphidea of Billings 
(not Bayly). From the list of species placed 
under Iphidella by Walcott it is clear that 
he had a very broad conception of the 


Aug. 15, 1942 COOPER: NEW GENERA OF NORTH AMERICAN BRACHIOPODS 


genus. In 1912 Walcott (p. 359) redefined 
the genus and selected another type species, 
Trematis pannulus White, a procedure con- 
trary to the rules of nomenclature. The type 
of Iphidella is the type of Iphidea, 1e., 
Iphidea bella Billings. The genotype of 
Iphidea was placed by Walcott in the genus 
Paterina, which was proposed by Beecher in 
1891 with Obolus labradoricus as genotype, 
a species that Billings (p. 478) had already 
assigned to Iphidea. It is therefore appar- 
ent that Iphidea and Paterina are gener- 
ically identical. Inasmuch as Iphidea was 
stillborn, the name Paterina must now be 
used for these shells. [phzdella thus be- 
comes a Synonym of Paterina, leaving Wal- 
cott’s Iphidella without a name, for which 
Dictyonina is proposed. 


REVIVED NAMES 


Craniops Hall (1859, p. 84) revived and 
substituted for Pholidops. The name Crani- 
ops appeared first in a list under a heading 
“Changed Names, Remarks, etc.”’ and was 
used for the species Orbicula (?) squami- 
formis Hall. Its next use was in the ad- 
vance copies of the Paleontology of New 
York 4. 1867, but did not appear in the final 
copy. In 1860 (p. 92) Hall published the 
name Pholidops as a new genus and cited 
Orbicula ? squamiformis as the first species, 
and this was later fixed as type by S. A. 
Miller, 1889. Inasmuch as Craniops and 
Pholidops are exact and objective syno- 
nyms, the former name has priority over 
the latter. The use of Craniops in a list with 
a described species was a valid proposal of 
a name at that time. 

Stenocisma revived and substituted for 
Camerophoria. The conditions under which 
this name was proposed and the subsequent 
history are discussed fully by Dall (1877, 
p. 65) and need not be repeated here. Con- 
rad clearly designated Terebratula schlo- 
theemz von Buch as type of his genus and 
this designation must stand. 

Orthambonites revived and used for cer- 
tain brachiopods hitherto referred to Or- 
this. Orthambonites Pander, 1830, type O. 
transversa Pander, is to be used for costate 
Orthidae having both valves convex. The 
genus genérally has been regarded as a 


229 


synonym of Orthis, but the latter was re- 
stricted to species of the type of O. callactis 
with concave dorsal valve. The writer there- 
fore revives the name Orthambonites for the 
biconvex species common in the Lower and 
Middle Ordovician of this country and 
Europe. 

Resserella replaces Dalmanella as_ re- 
stricted by Schuchert and Cooper. The 
status of Dalmanella was thrown into con- 
fusion when Schuchert and Cooper (1932, 
p. 126) erroneously stated the type species 
to be Orthis testudinaria Hall and Clarke, 
not Dalman, equals O. rogata Sardeson. Ac- 
cording to the rules of nomenclature the 
type should be regarded as the species 
named by Hall and Clarke, 1.e., O. testu- 
dinaria Dalman. As thus restricted a single 
species (Dalmanella edgewoodensis Savage) 
in this country conforms strictly to the type. 
This leaves many species hitherto referred 
to Dalmanella without a generic name. Opik 
(1933) claims these species to be referable 
to Onniella Bancroft, but according to the 
writer’s view most of them are not con- 
generic with Onniella, which is restricted, 
as at present known, to a few Richmond 
species. The Black River and Trenton Dal- 
manellas actually are conspecific with Res- 
serella. Restriction of Dalmanella to species 
of the type of D. testudinaria makes Ban- 
croft’s genus Wattsella a synonym of Dal- 
manella s.s. 

Torynifer recognized. This name was pro- 
posed by Hall and Clarke (1894, pl. 84) for 
a fragment of a dorsal valve which exhibits 
a peculiar concave hinge-plate and which 
they felt was so unusual that it must be 
named despite its fragmentary condition. 
In the National Museum the writer dis- 
covered specimens almost identical with 
Hall and Clarke’s fragment, which come 
from Pierce Springs, Larue County, Ky. 
These prove Torynzfer to be the dorsal valve 
of ‘‘Reticularia’”’ pseudolineata (Hall). T. 
criticus is thus a synonym of “R.” pseudo- 
lineata, and the generic name may be ap- 
plied to the American Mississippian ‘‘Re- 
ticularias.”” Torynifer possesses a deeply 
concave undivided hinge-plate attached to 
a long median septum, a feature unlike that 
of the British type of Reticularia, according 


230 


to diagrams of the genotype published by 
George (1932). In these no septum is indi- 
cated and the hinge-plate is divided like 
that of the martinias. Torynzfer also pos- 
sesses a flat deltidial plate in the ventral 
valve which is not indicated in the British 
Reticularia. The writer therefore proposes to 
use the name T'orynifer for the American 
Mississippian species of Reticularza. 


CORRECTIONS 


Septothyris Cooper and Williams, 1935.— 
Although this genus is monotypical, a 
printer’s error prevented an unambiguous 
designation of the type. The type designa- 
tion does not appear under the heading 
“Genotype,” which is in its correct place 
but is incorrectly offset as an incomplete 
center heading ‘“‘Septothyris Cooper and 
Williams, n. sp.” The fact that the incom- 
plete center heading is the actual designa- 
tion inadvertently offset and minus the 
specific name should be obvious. The type 
of Septothyris is S. septata Cooper and Wil- 
liams. 

Trematorthis Ulrich and Cooper 1938.— 
In Ulrich and Cooper’s ‘‘Ozarkian and 
Canadian Brachiopoda”’ the heading ‘‘T7're- 
morthis Ulrich and Cooper, nov.”’ appears. 
This is a lapsus for T’rematorthis, which is 
correctly spelled in all other parts of the 
text. Page proof in the writer’s possession 
bears the correct heading T'’rematorthis. 


NEW GENERA AND SPECIES 
Longispina Cooper, n. gen. 


Small, quadrate in outline; hinge forming 
widest part; concavo-convex; costate; ven- 
tral posterior margin provided with a few 
long spines extending outward nearly paral- 
lel to the hinge. 

Ventral interior with strong teeth; del- 
thyrium open; dental plates absent; mus- 
cular field large and with flabellate diductor 
impressions. Dorsal interior with elongate, 
compressed and bilobed cardinal process. 
Brachial processes obsolete, median ridge 
low. Pseudopunctate. 

Genotype: Chonetes emmetensis A. Win- 
chell, Rep. Lower Peninsula Michigan, 
1866, p. 92. Winchell’s types redescribed 
and figured by Ehlers and Kline, Contr. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


Mus. Paleont. Univ. Michigan 4 (10): 156, 
1934. Reference specimens U.S.N.M. nos. 
108206a-d. 

Differs from Pliochonetes Paeckelmann in 
great length of spines, absence of brachio- 
phores, and presence of a median ridge. 
Species assigned here are: Chonetes mucro- 
natus (Conrad), C. robustus Raymond, and 
C. vicinus (Castelnau). 


Institella Cooper, n. gen. 


Subrectangular in outline with hinge 
equal to about greatest shell width. Ventral 
valve with convex umbo, but anterior to 
the umbo appears a deep, narrow-sulcus 
that extends anterodorsally as a long sharp 
tongue. Flanks bounding suleus convex 
with steep slopes to lateral margin. Dorsal 
valve with suleate umbo, but anterior to 
umbo a narrow carinate fold occurs that 
rises anterodorsally to meet the ventral 
tongue. Lateral margins of ventral valve 
with a frill extending ventrally and out- 
ward. Dorsal valve with corresponding ven- 
trally and outwardly directed frill. Ventral 
valve with short interarea and small del- 
thyrium under the low beak. 

Ventral interior with large flabellate di- 
ductors occupying deep cavities on each side 
of the median ridge formed on the inside by 
the sulcus. Adductors small, elongate, cren- 
ulate and located anterior to delthyrium on 
the median ridge. 

Dorsal valve with thin median septum 
occupying internal groove produced by ex- 
terior fold. Adductor field small, located 
just anterior to cardinal process. Brachial 
impressions as in Dictyoclostus but small. 
Cardinal process erect bilobed. 

Ventral valve with prominent spines 
along posterior margin and cardinal ex- 
tremity where largest ones are located. 
Dorsal valve without spines. Surface costel- 
late and reticulate. 

Genotype: Productus leonardensis R. E. 
King, Univ. Texas Bull. 3042: 70, pl. 14, 
figs. 4-9. 1930. Reference specimens 
U.S.N.M. nos. 108549a-f. 

Differs from Dictyoclostus, which it re- 
sembles externally, by the extravagant lat- 
eral flanges, the deep sulcus, carinate dorsai 
fold, and cardinal area of ventral valve. 


Aue. 15, 1942 CcooPER: NEW GENERA OF NORTH AMERICAN BRACHIOPODS 


Costellirostra Cooper, n. gen. 


Subtriangular in outline, dorsal valve 
deeper than the ventral one, ventral beak 
with minute foramen just posterior to apex. 
Uniplicate; ventral valve with long anterior 
tongue. Valves multicostellate, impunctate. 

Ventral interior with short concave del- 
tidial plates; teeth stout, supported by cal- 
lus. Muscular field elongate oval with large 
diductor impressions. Adductors nearly cen- 
tral, attached to small platform. Dorsal in- 
terior with long thick cardinal process; 
myophore having two long outer prongs and 
two shorter inner ones. Crura short and 
stout, extending anteroventrally from base 
of shaft. Median ridge long and thick. 

Genotype: Atrypa peculiaris Conrad, 5th 
Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. New York, 1841, p. 
56. Reference specimens U.S.N.M. nos. 
95547a, 108209a-c. 

Differs from Eatonia by its multicostel- 
late ornamentation, more flabellate ventral 
muscular area and more extravagantly de- 
veloped cardinal process. Other species are 
E. singularis (Vanuxem) and E. tennes- 
seensis Dunbar. 


Paurorhyncha Cooper, n. gen. 


Large, subtriangular, with unequally 
deep valves, the ventral one shghtly con- 
vex but the dorsal one very deep; uni- 
plicate; multicostellate. 

Ventral interior with much reduced den- 
tal plates and small teeth. Muscular area 
small, elongate-oval. Foramen minute, beak 
closely pressed onto dorsal umbo. Deltidial 
plates vestigial. Dorsal interior with long 
median septum supporting a small V- 
shaped chamber to which the divided hinge- 
plate is attached. Socket plates elevated, 
crural bases concave, often swollen. 

Genotype: Rhynchonella endlicht Meek, 
Boll. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (ser. 2) 1: 
46. 1875. Syntype U.S.N.M. no. 7798a; 
dorsal interior U.S.N.M. no. 108213. 

Differs from Lezorhynchus in the presence 
of a deep V-shaped chamber. From Pletho- 
rhyncha it differs in the slighter development 
of the dorsal median septum, smaller ven- 
tral muscular field and mode of thickening 
of hinge-plate. 


231 


Sedenticellula Cooper, n. gen. 


Small, rhynchonelloid, with ventral sul- 
cus and dorsal fold. Surface multicostate 
with costate increasing in number by inter- 
callation. Ventral interior with sessile spon- 
dylium; dorsal interior with long median 
septum, and small cruralium divided by a 
median septum. 

Genotype: Camarophoria hamburgensis 
Weller, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 21: 500. 1910. 

Distinguished from Camarophoria by its 
leiorhynchoid exterior and sessile spondy- 
lium. 


Brevispirifer Cooper, n. gen. 


Medium sized, generally longer than 
wide, with hinge equal to or slightly wider 
than midwidth. Valves costate, lamellose; 
fold and sulcus noncostate. 

Ventral interior with strong, short, flar- 
ing dental plates. Muscular area oval. Dor- 
sal socket-plates confined to sides of valve 
and attached to floor by short supporting 
plates. Cardinal process absent. 

Genotype: Spirifer gregaria Clapp, in 
Hall, 10th Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. 
Hist., 1857, p. 127. Reference specimens 
U.S.N.M. nos. 108216a-c. 

This genus suggests Mucrospirifer but is 
longer than wide and possesses supporting 
plates in the dorsal valve. Besides the type, 
S. lucasi Stauffer and S. davist Nettelroth 
are assigned here. 


Fimbrispirifer Cooper, n. gen. 


Wider than long with narrowly rounded 
sides; valves multicostate with fold and 
sulcus costate. Entire surface marked by 
concentric lamellae, each bearing a single 
row of small spines. Ventral interior with 
strong dental plates. Dorsal interior with 
shallow narrow socket-plates that converge 
toward the center and join a callosity under 
the beak. Median ridge low. 

Genotype: Spzrifer venustus Hall, 10th 
Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. Hist., 
1857, p. 183. Reference specimens U.S.N.M. 
nos. 39489a, 108217a. 

Suggests the completely costate Cost?- 
spirifer but differs in presence of concentric 
lamellae and spines and inside the dorsal 


232 


valve in the presence of short supporting 
plates. Paraspirifer possesses similar spin- 
iferous lamellae but the fold and sulcus are 
noncostate. S. divaricatus Hall and S. 
griert Hall belong here. 


Costispirifer Cooper, n. gen. 


Large, spiriferoid in outline and profile; 
multicostae with costate fold and sulcus. 
Costae flat and marked by fine radial 
costellae. Ventral teeth small, dental plates 
short and thick. Delthyrium covered by a 
short convex pseudodeltidium. Dorsal valve 
with stout, shallow socket plates restricted 
to the side of the valve and supported by 
callus only. 

Genotype: Spirifer arenosus planicostatus 
F. M. Swartz=Costispirifer planicostatus 
(Swartz), U. 8S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 
158-C: 56. 1929. Reference specimens 
U.S.N.M. nos. 97942a-c, 97943a, b. 

Differs from Fimbrispirifer by its broad 
flat costae, covered by radial costellae and 
absence of any plates supporting the socket 
plates. Spirifer arenosus (Conrad) and S. 
unicus Hall are also placed here. 


Dimegelasma Cooper, n. gen. 


Large, spiriferoid in outline and profile 
with smooth fold and sulcus; flanks costate. 
Shell substance coarsely endopunctate. Ven- 
tral interior with long, strong dental plates. 
Delthyrium partially covered by a flat del- 
thyrial plate. Muscular field long and oval. 
Dorsal valve with crural bases attached to 
sides of valve and united medially to a short 
low septum. 

Genotype: Spirifer. neglectus Hall, Geol. 
Surv.lowa 1 (pt. 2): 643, pl. 20, fig. 5. 1858. 
Reference specimens U.S.N.M. nos. 49163a, 
b; 108218. 

Differs from the Permian genus Spzrifer- 
ella with which it has been confused by its 
endopunctate shell, elongate dental plates, 
and flat delthyrium. The Russian Spzrzferella 
is impunctate, the dental plates are short, 
and the pseudodeltidium is convex. 


Spondylospira Cooper, n. gen. 


Shell cyrtinoid in outline with costellate 
fold and sulcus. Ventral valve hemipy- 
ramidal, delthyrium open; surface of inter- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


area deeply striated at right angles to the 
hinge, the ridges between the striae repre- 
senting growth tracks of teeth on the hinge 
margin. Interior of ventral valve with den- 
tal plates and median septum grown to- 
gether to form a cyrtinoid spondylium, in 
which the median septum extends postero- 
dorsally into the chamber formed by the 
spondylium. Dorsal interior with short and 
low median ridge, small crural bases. De- 
scending lamellae of spire supported by a 
calcareous net. Shell substance punctate, 
exterior granulose. 

Genotype: Spondylospira reesidez Cooper, 
MS): 

Resembles Cyrtina in outline and profile 
but differs in having a costate fold and sul- 
cus, dentate cardinal edge, no deltidial 
plate, and the descending lamellae of the 
spire supported by a calcareous net. Be- 
sides the genotype, Spzriferina alia Hall and 
Whitfield and Cyrtina lewesensis Lees are 
placed here. 


Spondylospira reesidei Cooper, n. sp. 

Small, cyrtinoid in outline and profile; 
wider than long. Ventral valve hemipy- 
ramidal, beak often twisted. Costae bi- 
furcating anteriorly. Sulcus shallow, occu- 
pied by a costa that bifurcates near the 
front margin. Fold low, formed by a single 
costa on the umbo. This costa bifurcates 
about 23 mm anterior to the beak. The two 
costae thus produced then bifurcate near 
the middle of the valve to produce four 
costae, which extend to the margin. Flanks 
marked by six to nine costae. 

Ventral interior with high median sep- 
tum, and shallow spondylium. Dorsal in- 
terior having united jugum and descending 
branches of spire united to floor of valve 
by a calcareous net. | 

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 10346a. Para- 
types: U.S.N.M. nos. 103468b-g. 

Triassic (Seven Devils formation), east 
side of Mission Creek, 14 miles above Mis- 
sion, 45 miles above Jaques, about sec. 15, 
T. 36 N., R.3 W., Nez Perce County, Idaho. 

Spondylospira reesidet differs from S. alia 
by its smaller size and stronger costae; it 
differs from S. lewesensis in having fewer 
costae in the fold and sulcus and more on 
the flanks. 


VOL. 32, No. 8 


rc AR BE 


Aue. 15, 1942 COOPER: NEW GENERA OF NORTH AMERICAN BRACHIOPODS 


Cryptothyrella Cooper, n. gen. 


Large, elongate, lenticular in lateral pro- 
file, elliptical to subcircular in cross section. 
Anterior commissure rectimarginate to uni- 
plicate. Beak strongly incurved; foramen 
minute, apical. Dorsal beak fitting into a 
concave plate under ventral beak. Surface 
smooth, shell substance impunctate. 

Ventral interior with long divergent den- 
tal lamellae on each side of the elongate tri- 
angular muscle field. Dorsal interior with 
long median septum supporting divided 
hingeplate. Brachidium with compressed 
spiral cones and inverted Y-shaped jugum, 
the tail of the Y directed posteroventrally. 

Genotype: Whitfieldella quadrangularis 
Foerste, Kentucky Geol. Surv. Bull. 7: 327, 
pl. 1, figs. 4a-c. 1906. Syntypes U.S.N.M. 
no. 84891. 

Differs from Whitfieldella by the minute 
foramen, large triangular muscular field, 
and the elongate form of the valves. 


Plectoconcha Cooper, n. gen. 


Terebratuloid, generally rotund and 
longer than wide; uniplicate with superim- 
posed alternate multiplication. Foramen 
large, permesothyrid, labiate. Deltidial 
plates not exposed. 

Ventral interior with large strong teeth 
not supported by dental plates. Pedicle col- 
lar strong. Cardinalia with strong, inner 
socket plate and deep sockets. Crural bases 
thin short, crural process attached at end 
of hinge-plate. Loop short and wide, de- 
scending lamellae short and flaring later- 
ally; transverse ribbon slightly arched. 

Genotype: Rhynchonella  aequiplicata 
Gabb, Geol. Surv. California, Pal., 1: 35, 
pl. 6, fig. 37. 1864. 

Externally resembles the Permian Hemi- 
- ptychina but differs in not possessing dorsal 
septal plates and in the shorter, wider 
loop. 


Oleneothyris Cooper, n. gen. 


Large, sulcate, with smooth exterior. Beak 
erect, foramen large, mesothyrid, margin- 
ate to labiate. Deltidial plates concealed in 
adults. 

Ventral hinge teeth supported by callus 
only; ventral muscular area pyriform in 


233 


outline, situated anterior to the teeth. Car- 
dinalia with strong, high inner socket ridges 
corrugated on the surface facing the socket; 
exterior hinge-plates short, moderately con- 
cave and united with a short crural base 
extending posteriorly nearly to the cardinal 
process. Crural processes moderately long, 
bluntly pointed; descending lamellae short 
and stout, produced anteriorly into mod- 
erately long processes. Transverse band di- 
rected slightly posteriorly and strongly ven- 
trally to form an inverted V. Cardinal 
process large. Dorsal adductor scars located 
near the middle of the valve and lying an- 
terior of a low and wide median ridge, pyri- 
form in outline and fairly large. 

Genotype: Terebratula harlani Morton, 
Amer. Journ. Sci. 18: 250, pl. 3, fig. 16. 
1829. Reference specimens U.S. N. M. nos. 
559395—559397. 

Differs from Derevranla s.s. In having a 
greater development of inner socket ridges, 
broader crural bases, stouter crural proc- 
esses, and the transverse band of loop in 
form of an inverted V. 


‘Choristothyris Cooper, n. gen. 


Shell thick, small, subcircular in outline 
with a narrow, slightly curved hinge. An- 
terior commissure sulcate, surface multi- 
costate to plicate. Beak suberect to erect; 
foramen large, submesothyrid; deltidial 
plates small, disjunct. 

Ventral interior with large teeth having 
deep fossettes in callus supporting them. 
Muscular area large and flabellate, divided 
by a low but stout median ridge. Cardinalia 
strong with inner socket ridges strong and 
high, bounding deep and wide sockets. 
Hinge-plates small, concave. Crural bases 
short and stout; loop terebratelliform with 
long slender crural processes. Cardinal 
process ponderous. Adductor impressions on 
each side of a high, thin median septum 
reaching to the center of the valve. 

Genotype: Terebratula plicata Say, Amer. 
Journ. Sci. 2: 43. 1820. Reference speci- 
mens U.S.N.M. nos. 2395, 103556. 

Differs from Terebratella in its angularly 
costate exterior and ecardinalia. The hinge- 
plate of Terebratella is deeply concave and 
united with the median septum, and its 
cardinal process is a small callosity at the 


234 


beak. The cardinal process of Choristothyris 
has a strong shaft with trilobed myophore 
occupying the space between the crural 
bases. 


Atrypella shrocki Cooper, n. sp. 


Shell of about average size for the genus, 
slightly longer than wide; lateral margins 
rounded, anterior margin truncated. Great- 
est width at about the middle. Dorsal valve 
the deeper, and with gentle convexity in lat- 
eral profile but strongly convex in anterior 
profile. Ventral valve with strongly in- 
curved beak; gently swollen in the umbonal 
and medial regions but depressed in the an- 
terior third to form a shallow sulcus; ven- 
tral tongue short, bent almost at right 
angles to the lateral commissure and with 
narrowly rounded extremity. Dorsal valve 
with short narrowly rounded fold in the an- 
terior third somewhat tumid in the median 
region and with steep slopes to the lateral 
margins. Surface smooth. Measurements of 
holotype: Length, 18 mm; width, 16.7 mm; 
thickness, 11.6 mm. 

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 108210a. Para- 
type: U.S.N.M. no. 108210b. 

Horizon and locality: Silurian (Hunting- 
ton limestone), SEZS W3 sec. 29, T. 27 N., 
R. 1 E., 3 miles east-northeast of the bridge 
over the Wabash River at Georgetown, 
Indiana. Named after Dr. R. R. Shrock, 
who discovered the species. 

Suggests the common Atrypa phoca 
Salter of the Arctic but differs in having a 
more elongate outline, deeper sulcus, nar- 
rower and more elevated fold, and less con- 
vex dorsal valve. 


Trigonirhynchia sulcata Cooper, n. sp. 


Uncinulus stricklandi (auct. not Sowerby) 
Bassler, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 92: 1312. 
1915. 


Large, subtriangular, slightly wider than 
long with greatest width in anterior third. 
Lateral margins curving gently to the nar- 
rowly rounded anterolateral extremities. 
Anterior margin straight. Surface marked 
by 20-26 costae, 6-9 on the fold, 7-9 on the 
flanks. 

Ventral valve shallow, gently and evenly 
convex in lateral profile. Suleus broad and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 8 


shallow, originating in posterior third; 
tongue long, anteriorly rounded and bent at 
right angles to the valve surface. Flanks 
narrowly convex. Beak small, pressed onto 
the dorsal umbo. | 

Dorsal valve the deeper, posterior half 
most convex in lateral profile, anterior half 
nearly flat. Fold low, defined in the front 
half, flanks gently convex and very steep- 
sided. 

The holotype has a length of 30 mm, 
width of 32 mm, thickness 23.7 mm, and 
width of fold of 19.5 mm. 

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 108553. 

Horizon and locality: Waldron shale, 
Waldron, Indiana. 

This species has been generally identified 
with Uncinulus  stricklandi (Sowerby) of 
the British Silurian but differs in its wider 
and shallower sulcus and narrower, less 
strongly defined fold. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Baye. Explication carte géologique France, 
Atlas. 1878. 

BILuines, E. On some fossils from the Primordial 
rocks of Newfoundland, Canadian Nat. 
Geol., n. ser., 6 (4). 1872. 

Coopsr, G. A., and J. S. Wiuuiams. Tully for- 
mation of New York. Bull. Geol. Soe. 
Amer. 46. 1935. 

Datu, W. H. Index to the names which have 
been applied to the subdivisions of the class 
Brachiopoda. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 8. 
1877. 

Grorcn, T. N. The British Carboniferous re- 
ticulate Spiriferidae. Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc. 88. 1882. 

Hau, J. Catalogue of the species of fossils 
described in Volumes I, II, and III to the 
Palaeontology of New York. 12th Ann. 
Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. Hist. 
1859. 


Contributions to paleontology. 13th 

Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. Hist. 

1860. 

and J. M. CuarKxe. Introduction to the 
study of the genera of the Palaeozoic Brachi- 
opoda. Paleont. New York 8 (2). 1894. 

Meex, F. B. Paleontological report. De- 
scriptions of new species of fossils. 6th 
Ann. Rept. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Terr. 1873. 

and A. H. WorrTHEN. Geology and 

_ paleontology. Geol. Surv. Illinois 3. 1868. 

Opix, A. Uber einige Dalmanellacea aus Est- 
land. Acta et Comment. Univ. Tartuensis 
(Dorpatensis, A25. 1933. 

PanpER, C. H. SBeitrdge zur Geognosie des rus- 
stschen Reiches. 1830. 


Aue. 15, 1942 


ScHucHERT, C., and G. A. Cooprr. Brachio- 
pod genera of the suborders Orthoidea and 
Pentameroidea. Mem. Peabody Mus. Nat. 
Hist. 4.(1). °° 1932. 

ScHUCHERT, C., and C. M. LEVENE. 
poda. Fossilium Catalogus. 1929. 

Utricu, E. O., and G. A. Cooprr. Ozarkian 


Brachio- 


GEOLOGY —Aitlantic coastal ‘terraces.’ 
(Communicated by G. ARTHUR COOPER.) 


sity. 


The problem of the Pleistocene? ‘‘ter- 
races” along the Atlantic coast of the United 
States from New Jersey to Florida breaks 
down into three subsidiary questions: (1) 
How much of the Coastal Plain was covered 
by the sea at any time during the Pleisto- 
cene? (2) What definite strandlines are 
present? (3) What is the cause of the strik- 
ing difference in Pleistocene deposits and 
topography between the regions north and 
south of the James River? On all three 
questions confusion of marine features with 
fluvial features must be avoided. Each of 
these questions will be considered briefly: 

Area covered by the sea.—Three lines of 
evidence help to fix the area covered by the 
sea at one time or another: sediments, fossils, 
and topography. 

SEDIMENTS appear to be better size- 
sorted in the marine littoral zone than 
under most stream conditions, and they 
commonly contain less ferruginous and 
kaolinitic material than do stream de- 
posits. Types of stratification may be much 
the same in both marine and fluvial de- 
posits, but cut-and-fill bedding is certainly 
fluvial and not marine. Judged on these 
characters, the sediments below an altitude 
of about 100 feet in southern Virginia and 
below 160 feet in Georgia appear to be 
mainly marine, whereas nowhere north of 
the James River do sediments that are 
thought to be marine occur higher than 50 
feet. 

Between the James River and Florida 
the average grain size of the Pleistocene 
sediments is finer than the surface expo- 
sures indicate, for borings and rare deep 


1 Received May 25, 1942. 
_ ® For the purposes of this paper, the Pleistocene 
is considered to represent the time from the Plio- 
cene to the present. 


FLINT: ATLANTIC COASTAL “‘TERRACES”’ 


235 


and Canadian Brachiopoda. Geol. Soc. 
Amer. Special Papers 13. 1938. 

Watcott, C. D. Cambrian Brachiopoda with 
descriptions of new genera and species. 
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 28. 1905. 

Cambrian Brachiopoda. Mon. U. S. 


Geol. Surv. 51. 1912. 


RicHARD FostER Fiint, Yale Univer- 


cuts exhibit a change downward from the 
common surface sand and silt to stratified 
silt and clay. The coarse surface sediments 
may represent offlapping deposits laid down 
in the littoral zone. 

Fossits: No Pleistocene marine fossils 
had been reported from the Atlantic Coastal 
Plain from altitudes higher than 28 feet 
until Hyyppa found a marine diatom flora 
in a deposit, apparently Pleistocene, sampled 
by Stephen Taber near McBeth, S. C., 
with a surface altitude of about 70 feet. 
Surface samples are commonly barren, but 
the finer subsurface sediments in the region 
south of the James River offer a promising 
field for diatom studies as borings and other 
excavations open them up. 

TopoGraPHy: The evidence afforded by 
topography is good. Cooke, Monroe, and 
others have described bars and swales in 
various districts between the James River 
and Florida. The bars are numerous and 


‘massive and include hooked spits. They oc- 


cur as high as 100 feet altitude in southern 
Virginia, 180 feet in Georgia, and 240 feet 
in north-central Florida. In general, they 
become more numerous and more massive 
from the James River southward. None has 
been reported from the region north of the 
James at altitudes greater than 50 feet. 

These bars are marine features without 
doubt, but they do not fix the sea levels of 
the times when they were built, because 
the tops of bars that are being fashioned 
by the sea at present occur through a wide 
range of vertical positions extending well 
above and well below the surface of the sea 
itself. 

Definite strandlines.—Ordinarily it is 
easier to determine that the sea has stood 


3 Flint, R. F., Pleistocene features of the Atlantic 
Coastal Plain. Amer. Journ. Sci. 238: 780. 1940. 


236 


over a broad territory than to fix the posi- 
tions at which its shore stood during ap- 
preciable pauses. The best evidence—per- 
haps the only satisfactory evidence—of the 
latter consists of wave-cut cliffs or scarps 
facing the sea. In identifying such features 
in the weak materials of the Coastal Plain 
we must set aside all river-facing scarps as 
being possibly stream-cut, and we can not 
make use of the numerous bars because 
their tops may have stood above or below 
sea level. 

Fortunately there are two definite wave- 
cut scarps, recognized in Virginia by Went- 
worth and elsewhere by Cooke: the Surry 
scarp and the Suffolk scarp. The Surry 
scarp is 15 to 35 feet high and has a slope 
of 1° to 23°. It separates a dissected surface 
to landward, from a less dissected and much 
more gently sloping surface to seaward. It 
occurs discontinuously from the James 
River to the Savannah River, a distance of 
375 miles, and throughout this distance its 
toe stands at an altitude of 90 to 100 feet. 
The suffolk scarp has a maximum height of 
60 feet and a maximum slope of 5°. Its 
discontinuous length is greater than that 
of the Surry scarp, because it continues 
south into Florida. Its toe stands at 20 to 
30 feet. This scarp is believed to be younger 
than the Surry scarp because it is fresher 
and is not blanketed by later sediments. 

The discontinuities in both scarps are 
due in part to lateral subaerial erosion but 
chiefly to lack of original development, (a) 
back of bars, and (b) near the mouths of 
large rivers. It seems likely that these rivers 
built sediments into the sea faster than the 
waves could remove them, and that thus 
significant clifing by the waves was pre- 
vented. 

The sea must have stood, at least briefly, 
at many levels other than those recorded by 
the Surry and Suffolk scarps, and perhaps 
clear evidence of other shorelines will be 
discovered, though apparently it has not 
yet been established. The burden of proof 
that other shorelines are present must rest 
with those who postulate such features. 

Striking differences between the regions 
south and north of the James River—From 
the James River south to Florida there is 


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VOL. 32, No. 8 


satisfactory evidence from sediments, fos- 
sils, and topography of Pleistocene marine 
encroachment reaching 100 feet near the 
James and reaching higher altitudes farther 
south, and, in addition, topographic evi- 
dence of two long stillstands of the sea. On 
the other hand, from the James River north 
through New Jersey, undoubted marine de- 
posits are present up to an altitude of only 
30 feet. The tops of bars stand somewhat 
higher, but generally at higher altitudes we 
find stream sediments, and, along the rivers, 
stream-cut terraces. It appears likely that 
while the Surry scarp was being cut in the 
region south of the James River, the Poto- 
mac, Susquehanna, and Delaware River 
systems were building alluvium into the sea 
farther north. At that time the shoreline 
probably lay east of the present Chesapeake 
Bay and Delaware Bay shoreline. It seems 
likely that later, as emergence and perhaps 
upwarping occurred, this alluvium was 
dissected and reworked by these same 
rivers, and that the alluvium, largely re- 
worked, is represented today by the Beacon 
Hill, Bridgeton, and Pensauken sediments 
in New Jersey and the Sunderland, Wico- 
mico, and Talbot sediments in Maryland 
and Delaware. The Suffolk scarp appears 
to postdate these events and is probably the . 
correlative of the Cape May sediments and 
shore features in New Jersey. 

The features described here are marine 
plains, marine bars, inconspicuous scarps, 
and fluvial plains. As none of them is prop- 
erly a terrace, this term is misleading. To 
be sure, the area lying between the toe of 
the Surry scarp and the toe of the Suffolk 
scarp has a terrace-like form, but its width 
is so great compared with its height that 
this form becomes conspicuous only when 
represented by a profile with the vertical 
dimension exaggerated. For this reason it 
seems best either to inclose the word terrace, 
as applied to these features, in quotation 
marks, to show that although frequently 
used it is not appropriate, or to avoid using 
it altogether. 

An independent problem concerns the 
dates of origin of the Suffolk and Surry 
scarps. As these features are warped little 
if at all, probably they record fluctuations 


Aue. 15, 1942 


of sea level rather than crustal movements. 
As they lie higher than present sea level, 
probably they date from interglacial rather 
than glacial times. According to current 
estimates, if all existing glaciers were to 
melt, the sea would rise to somewhere near 
the level of the Surry scarp. Perhaps, there- 
fore, this scarp records a complete deglacia- 
tion. Judged on this basis, the Suffolk scarp 
would record a much less complete degla- 
ciation. There is evidence, as shown by 
Mansfield and Cooke, that between Surry 
time and Suffolk time there was an interval 
when the sea level was lower than at pres- 
ent, perhaps indicating a glacial age. The 
broad wave-cut bench‘ that surrounds the 
island of Bermuda with a maximum present 
depth of 65 to 75 feet below sea level may 
perhaps be a recordof this same post-Suffolk 
interval of lower sea level. 


4 Sayles, R. W., Bermuda during the Ice Age. 
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 66: 447. 1931. 


BOTAN Y.—Hugelia Bentham preoccupied.' 


sity of Pennsylvania. 


The polemoniaceous genus Hugelia Ben- 
tham in Edwards’s Botanical Register 19 
(n. s., vol. 6): t. 1622. 1833, is recognized 
by some authors, e.g., Jepson, Man. FI. PI. 
Calif., 792-793. 1925?, though others, 
e.g., Munz, Man. So. Calif. Bot., 393, 401— 
402. 1935, Craig, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 61: 
385-396, 411-428. 1934, and Macbride, 
Contr. Gray Herb. n. s. 49: 51-58. 1917, 
consider it as only a subdivision of the 
genus Gilia Ruiz & Pavon. Brand in Engler, 
Pflanzenreich IV. 250: 164-168. 1907, 
placed it under Navarretia as a subgenus. 
There seems to be no published considera- 
tion of the effect of Article 61 of the Inter- 
national Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, 
ed. 3, 1935, on the use of Hugelia Bentham 
as a genus. The provisions of Article 61 
are: “A name of a taxonomic group is 
illegitimate and must be rejected if it is a 
later homonym, that is if it duplicates a 
name previously and validly published for 
a group of the same rank based on a differ- 
ent type. Even if the earlier homonym is 


1 Received June 6, 1942. 


WHEELER: HUGELIA BENTHAM PREOCCUPIED Dah 


It is certain that the sea has not stood 
higher than the altitude of the toe of the 
Suffolk scarp at any post-Suffolk time. 
Hence it may be inferred that the Suffolk 
scarp represents the latest interglacial time 
of any consequence—possibly the Peorian 
interglacial sub-age. In this case the Surry 
scarp might be tentatively considered to 
represent the Sangamon interglacial age. 
No direct evidence bearing on this dating, 
however, is known to the writer. 

MacClintock® suggests that the Cape 
May formation in New Jersey, which the 
writer considers to be the correlative of the 
Suffolk scarp, is of Sangamon date. If this 
dating were correct, the Surry scarp would 
have to be referred to an earlier interglacial 
age, probably the Yarmouth. But until ad- 
ditional facts become available, this matter 
remains in the realm of speculation. 

5 MacClintock, P., Marine topography of the 


Cape May formation. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 51: 
2002. 1940. 


Louis CuttER WHEELER, Univer- 


(Communicated by Epaar T. WHERRY.) 


illegitimate, or is generally treated as a 
synonym on taxonomic grounds, the later 
homonym must be rejected.”’ 

In publishing Hugelia, Bentham made 
the following explanation in a footnote: “In 
honour of Baron Charles de Hiigel of 
Vienna. Hugelia of Reichenbach is Didiscus 
1D Gr 

It has been difficult to trace the preoccu- 
pying Hugeliza. Various references are given 
in indices and nomenclators. Much weary 
delving has unearthed a work in which the 
genus was defined, after a fashion. The 
genus commemorated the same man as did 
Bentham’s, merely differing in spelling by 
an umlaut over the ‘‘u’’; therefore Hiigelia 
is a mere orthographic variant of Hugelia, 
the names are homonymous under the 
terms of Art. 61, Note, and the later of the 
two must be rejected. 

The bibliographical data are: Hiigelia 
H. G. L. Reichenbach, Iconographia Bo- 
tanica Exotica sive Hortus Botanicus 
Imagines Planatarum, t. 201, p. 2. 1828- 
1830. The genus is defined in observations 


238 


at the top of page 2 of the text for plate 
201 by telling how it differed from Trachy- 
mene Rudge. Included was only Hiigelia 
coerulea, based on Trachymene coerulea 
Graham, Edinb. New Philos. Journ. 5: 
380. 1828 (July—Sept. number). It is quite 
possible that Azigelia Reichenbach was 
published earlier elsewhere. On page 1 of 
the text for plate 201 Reichenbach cites: 
“201. Hugelia coerulea Rchb. Conspect. 
regni veget. n. 3760. C. et Mittheil. a. d. 
Geb. d. Flora, n. 18. p. 50.” The first half 
of this reference is readily interpreted; but 
in the well-known Conspectus, 144. 1828, 
the genus is undescribed, and a footnote 
refers to “Hugelia cyanea Je. exot. 201. 
planta ex elegantissima.’”’ The second part 
of Reichenbach’s reference proved difficult 
to elucidate, and the publication involved 
has not been located. The reference was 
finally explained upon consulting the AIl- 
gemeines- Biicher Lexikon by Wilhelm 
Heinsius, Achter Band, Erste Abtheilung, 
von Otto August Schulz. 1836. On page 3 
the entire reference is given as follows: 
‘“‘Abend-Zeitung. Mit ein. Wegweiser im 
Gebiete d. Kunste u. Wissenschaften. Hrsg. 
v. C. 8. Th. Winkler (Th. Hell.) Nebst. e. 
artist. Notizenblattev. C. A. Bottiger. 12-18. 
Jahrg. 1828-34. kl. Fol. Dresden, Arnold. 

“12. Jahrg. m. d. Beibl.: Einheimisches. 
13. J. m. d. Beibl.: Mittheil. a. d. Gebiete 
d: Flora; uc’ Pomona, red) 1. Tae sG@s ik: 
Reichenbach.”’ 

It appears that vol. 13 of what seems to 
have been a botanical and horticultural 
supplement to the evening paper of Dres- 
den probably was published in 1829 if vol- 
umes 12-18 appeared 1828-34. (The com- 
mon impression that publication of names 
of plants in newspapers is ineffective seems 
to be without support in the International 
Rules of Botanical Nomenclature.) If this 
newspaper supplement were really pub- 
lished in 1829, the Iconographia Exot. Bot. 
t. 201 was probably not published earlier 
than that year. It is going to require con- 
siderable bibliographical delving to estab- 
lish the exact date of publication of the 
several parts of the Iconographia. How- 
ever, for purposes of the present paper, it 
is only necessary to show that Hiigelia 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


Reichenbach was published prior to Hugelia 
Bentham (1833). Two copies of the Icono- 
graphia with Centuria III (of which only 
50 plates were published) have been ex- 
amined. The first, kindly lent by the Arnold 
Arboretum, has all three centuries bound 
together. The fascicle covers are missing 
and there is no title page for Cent. III. 
The title page of the entire work gives the 
dates as 1827-1830. The second, examined 
in the library of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, has the three cen- 
turies bound separately, each with its own 
title page, and even the original fascicle 
covers are preserved. However, this copy 
seems to be a German edition, for there is 
a brief German text in front of the Latin 
text for Cent. III and the synonymy, at 
least, for the Latin text, is abbreviated. 
The date of publication on the title page 
of Cent. III is given as 1827-1830. The 
fascicle cover of Cent. III bears no date. 
(Pritzel, Thes. Lit. Bot. ed. 2 does not men- 
tion a German edition.) In absence of proof 
to the contrary, the date given in a work 
must be accepted (Rules, Art. 45). Further- 
more, there is contemporary evidence that 
plate 201 appeared prior to 1838, since 
Otto August Schulz in Wilhelm Heinsius, 
Allgemeines Biicher Lexikon, Achter Band, 
Zweite Abtheilung (covering books pub- 
lished 1828-1834) p. 147. 1838, stated, con- 
cerning the Iconographia, that Centuria 
III, Fascicles 1-5, were published in Leip- 
zig in 1828-1830. 

Having thus established that Hugelia 
Bentham is preoccupied, the next consid- 
eration is the propriety of conserving this 
genus. The case is not impressive as the 
genus is small, comprising, according to 
Craig, a recent monographer, only 8 species; 
is of no consequence horticulturally; and 
is often considered a mere subdivision of 
Gilia. Moreover, the preoccupying genus 
may have priority over Didiscus DC., in 
which event the name Hugelia were prop- 
erly reserved for that umbelliferous genus. 

Being deemed unworthy of conservation, 
the next question is, what is the valid name 
for Hugelia Bentham? According to Brand, 
Welwitschia Reichenbach, Handbuch, 194. 


1837, was the next generic name published 


Auge. 15, 1942 


for the group, but this is a nomen rejicien- 
dum in favor of the famous gymnospermous 
Welwitschia Hooker f., Gard. Chron. 1862: 
71. 1862. According to both Macbride and 
Craig, the next generic name is Hriastrum 
Wooton & Standley, Contr. U. 8S. Nat. 
Herb. 16: 160. 1913, which was substituted 
for Hugelia Bentham 1833 on the ground 
that De Candolle had used Hugelia in 1830. 
The fact that in DC. Prod. 4: 72. 1830, 
Hugelia Reichenbach was cited in synon- 
ymy does not affect the validity of Wooton 
& Standley’s generic name. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—The genus Ferdinandea Rondani.1 


versity of Mississippi. 


The genus Ferdinandea comprises a small 
group of closely related species of flies of the 
subfamily Cheilosinae from the Holarctic 
region and as far south as Sumatra. None 
are known from South America, the Ethi- 
opian region, or Australia. There are 14 de- 
scribed species, including those of this 
study. Eight dipterists have described the 
known species, and the European species 
have been frequently redescribed. 

In this genus the opacity of the abdomen 
varies; almost all species, with the excep- 
tion of montana, n. sp., are partly or wholly 
metallic; the hyalinity of the wing varies 
from unspotted in zsabella, described in this 
paper, to characteristic tiny clouds upon the 
cross veins or larger subtriangular clouds, 
as in three species. These flies are well 
equipped with long bristles upon the thorax 
but vary in the number of scutellars, pre- 
scutellars, and especially notopleurals, as 
pointed out by Shannon. There is a certain 
amount of variation in the large thoracic 
bristles, and sometimes the number on the 
two respective sides of the same individual 
differs. In some individuals one member of 
a pair of bristles may be quite weak. Other 
characters concern the color of the antennae 
and arista, the color of the legs, and the dif- 
fuse and obscure spot sometimes found upon 
the face. There is a series of two to seven 
tiny microbristles found upon the radial 
sector of the wing. 


1 Received January 1942. 


HULL: THE GENUS FERDINANDEA RONDANI 


This study was undertaken at the in- 
stance of Prof. Edgar T. Wherry, who in 
connection with review of the Polemonia- 
ceae of certain western states desired to 
use names for taxonomic groups in accord- 
ance with current rules of nomenclature. 

Conclusion: Hugeha Bentham, 1833 (Pole- 
moniaceae), iS preoccupied oo Hiigelia 
Reichenbach, 1828-1830 (Umbelliferae). 
The proper name for the polemoniaceous 
genus, provided it be deemed worthy of 
generic rank, is Eriastrum Wooton & 
Standley, 1913. 


Frank M. Huu, Uni- 


(Communicated by ALAN STONE.) 


The following key is based upon my 
study of nine species and upon the descrip- 
tions and figures of the others: 


KEY TO THE DESCRIBED SPECIES 
OF FERDINANDEA 


1. Segments of abdomen entirely bright 
brassy colored, without any trace of 
darker posterior borders. Thorax with 
four notopleural bristles on each side, in 
groups of two; rarely with fewer...... 2 

Abdomen usually metallic, always with 
darker posterior borders (not necessarily 
Opaque) upon some of segments; two or 
three notopleural bristles present, very 
Rarely sie ever with tOUr 5) se esa. - 4 

2. Wing with cross veins definitely ee 
Occasiomalliyahaimtsessue ee 4 Sees ee 

Wing without trace of clouds ate 
only stigmal base brownish and wing 
uniformly pale yellowish brown. Four 
notopleural bristles, four scutellars, and 
four prescutellars; radial sector with two 
microbristles (India)......vsabella, n.sp. 

3. Four notopleural bristles; an obscure facial 
vitta present, which is sometimes only a 
spot upon tubercle; femur wholly yel- 
lowish or its basal half brown; four pairs 
of scutellars, one weak pair of prescutel- 
lars, five or six microbristles (western 
Winiveds States). 45.6 eS. croesus O.S. 

Two or three notopleurals, or irregular 
upon the two sides; femur wholly pale 
yellow; face yellow, tubercle faintly 
brown, cheek spot barely indicated; 
scutellum with five pairs of bristles (Ari- 
zONa)........croesus var. midas, n.var. 

4. Abdomen yellow ish brown, nonmetallic; 
at least second and third segments with 
black, wedgelike spots; cross veins of 
wing without brown clouds; antennae 
wholly black. Thorax with three pairs of 


240 


10. 


ide 


12. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


notopleurals, five scutellars, and one pair 
of prescutellars; seven microbristles 
present. (imdiay? oc oe ae montana, n.sp. 
Abdomen partly or largely metallic, with 
dark posterior borders; wing almost al- 
ways clouded, at least upon cross veins. 5 
Wing with a brownish cloud or a triangle 
lying on and below stigma.......... 6 
Wing with only cross veins clouded..... 8 
Three pairs of notopleural bristles; arista 
reddish basally, darker apically; post- 
margins of second and third abdominal 
segments black; petiole beyond first pos- 
terior cell shorter than discal cross vein. 
Face yellow, pollinose, and pilose except 
upon brown tubercle; femora brown, 
yellowish apically, anterior tibia brown- 
ish (Oregon, New Mexico)............ 
Siege chet. ae es Meyers aenevcolor Shannon 


. A strong brown cloud below stigma of 


wing; antenna reddish, arista brown; 
scutellum brownish red, black pilose, 
with five pairs of scutellars and four 
prescutellars (Malaya): 2. ee 
PAieh MAeR AL AiR Me maculipennis Curran 

A weak brown cloud beneath stigma; third 
antennal joint brownish black; scutellum 
waxyeyellow.(Summtra).: cece se oe 
Bf eet ee Ae ee sumatranus de Meij. 


. Abdomen short and broad, highly shining 


purplish bronze, hind border of segments 
2 and 3 shining blackish; spots on cross 
veins of wings faint or absent (Formosa) 
He Mae We ein AL ot gate formosanus Shiraki 
Abdomen relatively slender, the cross 
bands subopaque or at least dull; cross 
vein wing spots usually conspicuous. . =) 


. At least base of arista pale in color, often 


thickened and microscopically pubescent 


Arista wholly blackish or brownish black, 
Ta ther slemGderens) <A oe. ee Lee pees 13 
Pile of front and vertex chiefly black; 
mesonotum with some black pile; dull 
abdominal: bands premarginal, posterior 
margins brassy (Europe, from Sweden to 
Spain and Italy)... .ruficornts Rondani 
Pile of front and mesonotum pale yellow, 
at most light brown. Two pairs of noto- 
pleunalbristhesre t,t wecps ok vee ego 11 
Three pairs of black scutellar bristles, a 
single pair of weak prescutellars, and five 
microbristles on wing (Virginia, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York)...... 
rn ste ey me tly ee buccata Loew 
Four or five pairs of scutellar bristles; face 
with a brownish-black V in middle; verti- 
cal stripes of pubescence rather wide. .12 
Legs yellow; cross veins strongly clouded, 
seven microbristles on wing; arista black 
tipped, longer than antenna. Four and 
sometimes five scutellars and four weak 
prescutellars (New Jersey, Ohio, Penn- 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


sylvania, Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
shire, Connecticut, Mississippi)........ 
ee rs tt ae ae oo - dives O.S. 
Hind legs with femur brownish black on its 
basal half, cross veins weakly clouded; 
arista wholly pale, thick basally, as long 
as antenna; four scutellars, four very 
weak prescutellars, and five or six micro- 
bristles (New York, New Hampshire, 
Miassachusetts)-.. =) .eee nigripes O.S. 
13. Face with a blackish middle stripe or at 
least a dark central spot; thorax with 
four gray vittae (southern Europe)..... 
AiG Ae ceca ats AO aurea Rondani 
Face wholly reddish yellow; if brown upon 
the tubercle there are only two gray 
stripes on thorax. ... 2.252 eeeeeee 14 
14. Vertex entirely black; thorax greenish 
black with four gray vittae; four noto- 
pleurals, five pairs of scutellars, four 
strong prescutellars, six microbristles 
present; frontal and mesonotal pile black 
(Japan, Europe from Sweden and Fin- 
land to Italy)? © 222 eee cuprea Scop. 
Vertex yellow; thorax purplish black with 
two gray stripes (Bulgaria, Hungary).. 
aE oe ee sziladyt Drensky 


Ferdinandea croesus Osten Sacken var. 
midas, n. var. 


An individual from southern Arizona shows 
several differences from northwestern speci- 
mens of croesus O. 8S. in my collection. In this 


fly there are only two notopleurals on one side — | 


and three upon the other. The scutellum has 
five pairs of bristles, and there are only four in 
northwestern specimens. The femur is wholly 
pale yellow. The face is yellow, with the tu- 
bercle showing faintly brown; the cheek spot is 
barely indicated. 

Type: One male, southern Arizona; author’s 
collection. 


Ferdinandea montana, n. sp. 


Male: Length 12 mm; wing 11 mm. Head: 
Eyes quite pilose, the vertex gray-pollinose 
with long, gray bristly hairs. Occiput gray-pol- 
linose with pale silvery pile, rather short above, 
longer below. Front densely silvery-gray polli- 
nose, a bare black lunule above the antennae 
on each side. Face wholly pale yellowish pu- 
bescent or pollinose, continuing upon the 
cheeks; everywhere pale yellow in ground color | 
except for the median brown stripe and tubercle | 
and the slender brown band dividing the face 
from the cheeks. Pile of cheeks and upper sides 
of face pale, shining yellow, upon the front 


Ave. 15, 1942 


black. Antenna dark blackish brown, the third 
joint rather large, slightly subquadrate, the 
arista long and black. Thorax: Dully shining 
erayish black with four stripes of light greenish- 
eray pollen; the middle pair broad, running to 
the base of the scutellum and in some lights 
divided into an inner and outer pair, the inner 
pair narrower and present only on the anterior 
half of the thorax. Humeri light brownish yel- 
low, yellow-pollinose; humerus and pleuron and 
a narrow band along the anterior margin of the 
mesonotum, again upon the postcallus, the ven- 
tral margin and lateral corners of the scutellum 
all yellow-pilose. Pile of dorsum chiefly long, 
slender, black, and erect, with some shorter, 
golden pile. There are three extremely long 
black bristles on the sides before the suture, 
four on the sides of the thorax behind the suture 
and anterior to the posterior calli; a single 
bristle diagonally in front of the posterior calli, 
a pair of bristles in front of the scutellum, three 
bristles upon each posterior callus and five pairs 
upon the scutellum. Scutellum large, pale yel- 
low, subtranslucent, black bristly pilose. Abdo- 
men: Grayish yellow, subtranslucent on the 
first segment and middle and base of second 
segment, elsewhere on the abdomen clear, light 
brownish yellow, with a median blackish vitta 
on each of the second, third, and fourth seg- 
ments that does not reach the posterior margin. 
Pile of abdomen chiefly light golden-yellow, 
long and bushy on the sides of the segments, 
rather flat and appressed along the posterior 
margins of second, third, and fourth segments 
and somewhat less appressed in the middle of 
these segments. Legs: Almost wholly pale yel- 
low, the base of both the middle and anterior 
femur, dorsally and anteriorly, narrowly brown 
in color. Posterior femur rather slender. There 
are a few blackish bristles but not spines upon 
the apical fourth of the outer, lateroventral 
portion of the femur. There is a pair of bristles 
near the middle on the lateral surface of both 
hind and midtibiae. Wings: Pale brown, stig- 
mal cell brownish yellow, a series of seven tiny 
bristles on the basal part of the second and 
third longitudinal vein. 

Holotype: One male, Kashmir, Gulmarg, 
8,500 feet, summer, 1913. Lt. Col. F. W. 
Thomson, 1914-12; three paratypes, females, 
same data. Type in the British Museum; para- 
types in author’s collection. 


HULL: THE GENUS FERDINANDEA RONDANI 


241 
Ferdinandea isabella, n. sp. 


Female: Length 11 mm; wing 10 mm. Head: 
Vertex and occiput yellowish-brown pollinose. 
Front shining black, with more or less gray 
pollen, narrowly brown along the margin in 
front of the antennae. The whole face and 
cheeks are light, clear yellow, slightly more 
brownish red about the tubercle and the pos- 
terior part of the cheeks. Face broadly covered 
with pale yellowish pubescence. Antenna large, 
light brownish red, the third joint darker 
above, about as long as wide and broadly 
rounded; the arista blackish. Eyes moderately 
pilose. Thorax: Shining brassy-black, with four 
stripes of grayish pollen. Pleuron blackish, 
dusted with grayish pollen and with brassy pile. 
Humeri light yellow, yellowish pollinose and 
pilose. There is long yellow pile continued nar- 
rowly along the edge of the thorax, along the 
calli and the basal corners and ventral margin 
of the scutellum. Pile of thorax chiefly fine, 
bristly, and black, with some pale pile inter- 
mixed. Scutellum large, clear, translucent yel- 
low, short, black, bristly pilose; three long 
black bristles on the upper part of the meso- 
pleuron, two others between the mesopleuron 
and the suture, a pair just behind each hu- 
merus, two on the sides of the thorax just 
above the wing, three on each postcallus, one in 
front of each postcallus, four in front of the 
scutellum, and four pairs on the scutellum. 
Abdomen: Broadly oval, wider than the thorax, 
wholly brilliant, shining golden-brown, covered 
everywhere with golden pile, somewhat ap- 
pressed and conspicuous along the posterior 
margins of the segments. Legs: Pale yellow. 
The anterior and middle femur are each nar- 
rowly brownish near the base. The hind femur 
is quite slender, blackish, bristly pilose on the 
lateral and dorsal surfaces; its apical third is 
without spines. The basal and dorsal third of 
hind tibia and its apex are black bristly pilose. 
Wing: Pale brown, stigmal cell brownish yel- 
low, the area about the stigma a little thickened 
and brownish. Base of second and third longi- 
tudinal vein with two slender delicate black 
bristles. 

Holotype: One female. Kashmir, Gulmarg, 
8,500 feet, summer 1913, Lt. Col. F. W. 
Thomson, 1914-182. Type in the British Mu- 
sum. 


242 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


ZOOLOGY.—Earthworms of the Northeastern United States: A key, with distribution 


records.' 
by G. ARTHUR COOPER.) 


In the States east of the Mississippi 
River and north of Virginia about 17 species 
of native earthworms are found, with about 
13 more believed to have been introduced 
from Europe. They belong to four families; 
the great majority, including all the intro- 
duced species, are Lumbricidae. Informa- 
tion about these earthworms is too scat- 
tered to be of much help to a general biolo- 
gist, agronomist, or forester who wishes to 
identify the species he finds or uses in the 
laboratory. Most of the papers on earth- 
worms are taxonomic and concerned with a 
small area or with a limited group. It 
seemed, therefore, that a key based so far 
as possible on external features, and accom- 
panied by descriptive and distributional 
notes, might be useful. | 

Distribution records already published 
are cited by State or country, followed by 
an abbreviation in parentheses of the au- 
thor’s name and the year of publication, 
given in full in the bibliography. Names 
thus abbreviated are the following: Gates 
(G), Heimburger (H), Olson (O), Smith (8). 

Distribution records given as new are 
based upon specimens that I have collected 
or have seen in collections, and for the de- 
termination of which I therefore am re- 
sponsible. The sources of these are likewise 
abbreviated in parentheses. (E) refers to 
my own collection; (AM) the collection of 
the American Museum of Natural History, 
specimens being lent through the kindness 
of Dr. W. G. Van Name, associate curator of 
invertebrates; (FC) the collection made by 
Dr. C. E. Johnson, of the New York State 
College of Forestry, Syracuse, courtesy of 
Professors Ralph T. King and W. A. Dence; 
(NM) the United States National Museum 
collection, courtesy of Dr. Waldo L. 
Schmitt; (NY) the New York State Muse- 
um collection, Albany, kindness of Dayton 
Stoner, State zoologist. To the institutions 
and persons named I am much indebted for 
the opportunity to study these specimens. 


1 Received April 7, 1942. 


THEopoRE H. Eaton, Jr., Cornell University. 


(Communicated 


INTRODUCED VERSUS NATIVE 
EARTHWORMS 


It is the opinion of the specialists on 
earthworms (e.g., Michaelsen, 1903; Smith, 
1928; Gates, 1929; Stephenson, 1930) that 
while an individual worm can not travel 
far by its own activity, nevertheless some 
species are carried very frequently for long 
distances by human agency, as among the 
roots of plants shipped for horticultural 
purposes, and thus are introduced into for- 
eign countries. In Santiago, Chile, for in- 
stance, Michaelsen found thousands of 
worms of familiar European species to one 
native Chilean, but when he collected in the 
interior, in small towns less subject to 
European contacts, he found many Chilean 
species as well. Likewise in western Aus- 
tralia European species of Lumbricidae are 
practically the only earthworms found near 
towns. In India, Ceylon, New Zealand, 
South Africa, and elsewhere in European 
settlements, the same is true. Apparently 
the introduction of these adaptable and 
hardy kinds may cause the decline or dis- 
appearance of local species. 

In the United States, species that are well 
known in Europe have appeared at widely 
separated points, such as San Francisco, 
New York, and Illinois, and at least in a 
few cases (Smith, 1928) they are known to 
have spread since their first discovery, in- 
creased in numbers, and to a large extent 
replaced American species. The predomi- 
nant family in Europe and North America 
is Lumbricidae, which accordingly is suited 
to climatic changes. One abundant species, 
Allolobophora caliginosa, survives equally 
well winter temperatures of 40°—50° below 
zero in northern New York, and summer 
heat of 120° in the shade in the Punjab 
Province of India. In Europe and North 
America the chance of being transported by 
land or by sea is relatively great because of — 
the amount of trade and travel. It would be 
surprising, therefore, if Lumbricidae were 
not introduced into new habitats much 


Avg. 15, 1942 EATON: EARTHWORMS OF NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 


more frequently than some of the tropical 
families of earthworms. 

American species have appeared in 
Europe at least twice: Sparganophilus et- 
sent in the banks of the Thames; Hzsenia 
carolinensis at Hamburg. 

It must be left to later studies to deter- 
mine what effect introduced earthworms 
have upon soil and soil productivity. That 
they are introduced and do live successfully 
where Europeans settle has not been ques- 
tioned seriously. 


FEATURES OF EARTHWORMS 


Fig. 1 shows the more obvious external 
characters of a sexually mature Lumbricus 
terrestris. A good hand lens, or better still a 
low-power dissecting microscope, is neces- 
sary to see many of these. Earthworms are 
hermaphroditic, but fertilization of the eggs 


clitellum 


ristomium , 
P : oviduct 


pore — pore 


Tubercula 
pubertatis 


Fig. 1.—External characters of sexually mature 
earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris). 


is accomplished by an exchange of sperm 
between one individual and another; after- 
ward each of the pair releases its own eggs 
into a small capsule, which is secreted by 
its girdle or clitellum and slips off over the 
forward end. Most of the characters used in 
identifying species appear only in mature 
worms. Therefore it is necessary to collect 
individuals that have a clitellum, although 
immature ones from the same location can 
often be identified by their general resem- 
blance to the mature. 


CHARACTERS INDEPENDENT OF SEXUAL 
MATURITY 


Condition of the prostomium.—This is the 
first apparent segment of the body. It is 
not counted as a segment because it lies 
above and in front of the mouth and does 
not contain the usual segmental organs. On 
the upper (dorsal) surface the prostomium 


243 


may send a tongue backward on the surface 
of the first true segment (peristomium). If 
this tongue goes all the way to the following 
groove, completely dividing the top of the 
peristomium, then the worm is practically 
certain to be a species of Lumbricus. If the 
peristomium is not completely divided on 
top, it belongs to another genus. 

Arrangement of setae-—The minute bris- 
tles or setae of an earthworm number eight 
to the segment in the kinds found in the 
Northeastern States, although some south- 
ern and tropical worms have a great many 
more. These eight are usually in four pairs, 
as Shown in the figure, but in some species 
the pairing is so distant that they are de- 
scribed as separate, or widely paired. The 
four setae on each side occupy about the 
same positions in successive segments and 
therefore form four rows running length- 
wise. These rows, beginning with the most 
ventral, are called a, b, c, and d. 

Color.—Most earthworms are pale pink- 
ish, with little pigment or none. Others are 
dark reddish brown or purplish (Lumbricus, 
Sparganophilus). In these pigmented kinds 
the color is heaviest at the forward end and 
on the upper side. Often a dark line runs 
along the dorsal side. This is in part the 
dorsal blood vessel, which lies above the di- 
gestive canal, close to the body wall. 
Worms sometimes show iridescence, or 
physical color (bluish or purple) inde- 
pendent of pigment. A conspicuously green 
worm is Allolobophora chlorotica. 


CHARACTERS DEPENDENT ON SEXUAL 
MATURITY 


Clitellum.—In a zone covering several 
segments the cuticle becomes raised and 
smooth, so that intersegmental furrows 
wholly or partly disappear. The number of 
segments covered may be determined by 
looking on the ventral surface, which as a 
rule is not affected, or the tips of the setae 
may be visible through the swollen girdle. 
It is almost always necessary to determine, 
by counting, which segments bear the 
clitellum. Some species are extremely con- 
stant in this feature (Octolastum lacteum), 
others vary as much as three or four seg- 
ments one way or the other, so that addi- 


244 


tional characters are required. In the key 
the location of the clitellum is given by the 
numbers of the first and last segments it 
covers; e.g., 25, 26-29, 30 means that it 
begins on 25 or 26 and goes to 29 or 30. 

Tubercula pubertatis.—On each side of the 
clitellum near its lower edge may appear a 
series of two or three small swellings on suc- 
cessive or alternate segments, or a ridge 
reaching three or four or five segments. 
Their location is within the limits of the 
clitellum, but they are sometimes absent. 
If on alternate segments the numbers are 
separated by colons; e.g., 31:33:35; if in a 
ridge or on adjoining segments, a dash is 
used; e.g., 28-30. 

Openings of sperm ducts.—In the major- 
ity of North American earthworms the 
sperm ducts open low on each side of seg- 
ment 15, thus in front of the clitellum, but 
there are several exceptions to this. Also 
species sometimes differ in the presence or 
absence of a swelling or papilla at the open- 
ing of the duct. 

Openings of oviducts.—As a rule these are 
very small pores, one on each side of seg- 
ment 14, lower than the sperm duct open- 
ing. They are less frequently used in classi- 
fication. 

Spermathecae (or seminal receptacles) are 
internal pouches which receive the sperm 
from another individual. Their pores open 
on the upper part of each side in the grooves 
between certain segments, which are desig- 
nated as grooves 8/9, 9/10, etc., meaning 
those between 8 and 9, between 9 and 10, 
and so on. 

Sperm sacs (or seminal vesicles) are the 
internal pouches which hold the sperm pro- 
duced by the same individual, prior to its 
discharge. They can only be seen by dissec- 
tion. When present they are usually in some 
or all of segments 9-12. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


USE OF THE KEY 


In using the following key to identify an 
unfamiliar species, one should read first the 
statement marked A, and decide whether it 
fits the worm; if not, go to AA. If this then 
agrees, make a similar choice between B and 
BB, then C and CC, and so on, until the 
name of the species is reached. In a few 
cases there are three alternatives presented, 
as in the genus Allolobophora: I, II, and III. 
In such a case one is to be chosen. 

In “running down’? a worm that turns 
out to be Lumbricus terrestris, for example, 
we would meet the following characters: 
AA. Not threadlike; segments less than 250. 

BB. Clitellum begins behind 15; sperm duct 

pores in front of clitellum. 
cc. Prostomium completely divides peri- 
stomium... 
DD. Clitellum begins behind 28; sperm 


duct pores with distinct papillae. 
E. Clitellum 32-7; tub. pub. 33-36... 


One does not, therefore, go through the 
whole key, but simply picks out the appro- 
priate choices. If a contradiction should 
come up, so that the specimen at some point 
in the key does not fit either of the choices 
given, then one of the following must be the 
case: 


1. Itisa species not hitherto known from 
this region. 

2. It is an abnormal variation, such as 
may spoil a key character perhaps 
once in a hundred times. 

3. A mistake has been made at a previous 
point in the key. 

4. The key is at fault, which is entirely 
possible. 


For localities outside the Northeastern 
States this key will not be satisfactory be- 
cause other species may be found. Charac- 
ters given in the key should not be taken 
as adequate for genera or families. 


KEY TO EARTHWORMS OF NORTHEASTERN STATES, WITH DISTRIBUTION RECORDS 


A. Threadlike; segments 400-500; length 12-21 em. Setae in 2 ventral and 2 dorsal rows (each 
side), the dorsal sometimes absent. Clitellum ring-shaped... ................0.00eeeues 
Fe A Re Oe ares a te ee ey Haplotaxis emissarius (Forbes, 1890). HAPLOTAXIDAE 
Fairmont, Ind., Havana, Ill., Hampton, Va. (NM); Ohio (O, ’28). These slender worms, pale red 

and iridescent when alive, are aquatic, living in underground water, marshes, and wells. Native. 


AA. Not threadlike; segments less than 2850. 


B. Clitellum begins at or in front of segment 15. Sperm duct pores behind clitellum. 
c. Clitellum on 13-18; setae widely paired... Dzplocardia Garman, 1888. MEGASCOLECIDAE 


—— 


Aug. 15, 1942 EATON: EARTHWORMS OF NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 245 


p. Clitellum a complete girdle. Length 5-10 cm.............. D. singularis (Ude, 1893) 


Indiana (H, 715); Illinois (S, ’28); Ohio (O, ’28). This species is reported from stream 
banks and under logs; scattered, but locally common. Native. 


pp. Clitellum not a complete girdle. 
E. Sperm duct pores on 19. 
F. Spermathecal pores in grooves 6/7-8/9. Last hearts in 12. Length 20-30 cm. 
it Oe aia er eames Lies cate te RA ea Be eee ea D. commums Garman, 1888 
Illinois (8S, ’28); southwestern Ohio (O, ’28). Duzplocardia communis is acseubed as 
common in upland soil about Urbana, IIl., but less numerous since the introduction of 
the European Lumbricus terrestris about 1896. Native. 


FF. Spermathecal pores in grooves 7/8, 8/9. Last hearts in 13. Length 20-25 cm. 
te ee eee parte Mn fig os Ca ers wanes a 3 ee a oy ean, D. riparia Smith, 1895 


“indiana (H, 715); Illinois (S, ’28); central Ohio (O, ’28). This worm is reported in 
wooded pastures, rich bottomland, along streams or beside ponds. Native. 


EE. Sperm duct pores on 20; length 7-15 cm................. D. verrucosa Ude, 1895 
Illinois (S, ’28); Nebraska (G, ’29). Native. 


cc. Clitellum on 15-25; setae closely paired; sperm duct pores on 19.................... 
- hd Bg Ae ae Sparganophilus etsent (Smith, 1895). GLossoscoLECIDAE 
Indiana (H, 715); Illinois (S, ’28); Ohio (O, ’28); New York (O, ’40); Massachusetts, 

Florida, Michigan, Wisconsin, Louisiana, Mexico, Guatemala (G, 735). New records: Squaw 
Bay, Lake Erie (NM); Ashokan, New York (AM); north shore Oneida Lake, New York, 
marshy stream edge (FC); West branch Fish Creek, below Kasoag Lake, Osw ego County, 
New York, under stone at edge of water (FC); edge of Susquehanna River, "4 miles southwest 
of Owego, New York, in wet mud (EK). Ithaca, New York, wet mud (E). This is a slender 
species, 15-20 cm long, with 165-220 segments, pink with a bluish or purplish sheen when 
alive. It lives in very wet mud, beside or in streams or lakes. There is a record of its occurrence 
in the Thames River, England, probably by introduction from the United States. Native. 


BB. Clitellum begins behind 15; sperm duct pores in front of clitellum........ LUMBRICIDAE 
c. Prostomium does not completely divide peristomium. 
p. Clitellum begins in front of 30. 
E. Clitellum does not reach as far back as 28..... Hiseniella tetraedra (Savigny, 1826) 


Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Colorado, California, 
Washington (G, 735); New York (O, 740). New records: Cascadilla gorge, Ithaca, New 
York (18, 15. E); banks of Susquehanna River below Owego, New York (13, 15. E); 
highly organic mud beside pond, Waverley, New York (13. E); edge of creek, McLean 
bogs, Tompkins County, New York (13. FC); Cedarvale, New York, under stones, edge 
of creek (15. FC); Pratts Falls, Onondaga County, New York, along creek (11, 13. FC); 
Cascades near Collingwood, Onondaga County, New York (11. FC); Bronx County, New 
York City (11, 18. AM); Edgewater, New Jersey (13. AM); Meech’s Island, Shelburne, 
Vermont, in lake, under stones (NY); Rock Creek Park, Washington, District of Colum- 
bia, near creek, in wet mud (13. E). European. The numbers in parentheses refer to the 
segment bearing the sperm duct pores in various specimens. This is a variable feature in 
Eisentella tetraedra; several ‘‘varieties’”’ have been named according to this and the posi- 
tion of the clitellum, which likewise varies: 


Cities BY Oe PBHA8 oe 7. Shovels wrenes ws ooogesouendacecgnuadcusuodadsodd bur typica 
(Clits 233 ore PY =O. G3 ON) Vorol, Joroutas) UG codnoovgcesouooocoodoubdoonedasKr hercynia 
Clit: 20 or 21-24 or 25 Spd. pores 1ll............ Rice Orc, oR TEER hammoniensis 
Chites FO Or Bile) Oe BR Syool, Toone IB. co odsnceccocdauvccuseponcouee neapolitana 
Chis 2O) ore Bi! ore Bs} Shorel, foots Wego cocoon decccsgncancennoobcedadcaud ninnit 


Since two or more of these varieties often occur together in one locality, they are prob- 
ably not subspecies but standardized individual variations, like the black and cinnamon 
bears. Probably the difference is due to assortment of genetic allelomorphs. The species is 
small, usually 3-6 cm, and the posterior part has a four-cornered rather than cylindrical 
form in most specimens. It has a wide range in the Old World. The preferred habitat is 
wet or polluted banks of streams and ponds. 


EE. Clitellum reaches at least as far back as 28. 

F. Spermathecal pores dorsal to seta line d.................. Eisenia Malm, 1877 
G. Setae widely paired, ab:be:cd =5:9:5...E. veneta hortensts Michaelsen, 1890 
Europe, Africa, South America, San Francisco, California (8, ’17), Cleveland, 
Ohio (G, ’42). A stream-bank species, Illinois (S, ’28). European. The clitellum is on 
26, 27-32, 33; tubercula pubertatis 30-31; spermathecal pores in grooves 9/10, 

10/11; segments 80-120; length 4-10 cm. 

aq. Setae closely paired. 

H. Spermathecal pores in furrows 8/9, 9/10, 10/11; clitellum 24-30........... 
EM eA LE neth SUI: ON AY SHS RE SR Ik, a Rea cy boars E. lénnbergt (Michaelsen, 1894) 


246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 8 


Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Massachusetts (G, 785); Con- 
necticut (G, ’42). Native. The record from Massachusetts refers to a white pine- 
hemlock-hardwood forest. 


HH. Spermathecal pores in furrows 9/10, 10/11. 
1. Each segment ringed with a brown line; clitellum 24, 25, 26-32; tub. pub. 
PSO SS LE olds © seach ae tee ena eee ae eae E. foetida (Savigny, 1826) 


Europe; introduced into the United States where it is common and wide- 
spread. New records: Compost heaps, Onondaga Hill, New York (FC); Syra- 
cuse, New York (FC); Brooklyn, New York, under humus and rotten vegetables 
(AM); in rubbish heap and humus, Bergen Beach, New York (AM); Edgewater, 
New Jersey (AM); Ashokan, New York (AM); Kenwood, New York, under log 
in earth (NY); Howes Cave, New York (NY); pasture, streambank, Ithaca, 
New York (E). The published records of habitats include manure heaps, sewer 
outlets, polluted stream-banks, decaying straw, dead logs, and similar places 
where moisture and organic content are both high. The length is 6-13 cm, and 
the banded appearance is the most obvious character of this worm. 


11. Segments not ringed with brown. 

g. Tub. pub. 29-31; clitellum 24, 25, 26-31, 32,33..H. rosea (Savigny, 1826) 
Europe, Maine, New York, Georgia, Indiana, Illinois, Louisiana, Arizona» 
California (S, 717); Ohio (O, ’28). European. New records: Pratts Falls, 
Onondaga County, New York, under stones by creek (FC); Syracuse, New 
York, in ‘‘heap of clay,” on sidewalks, and in alfalfa field (FC). The length is 
3-8 cm, the color pale pinkish. A general characteristic of preserved specimens 
is that the clitellum is swollen to about twice the diameter of the adjacent 

parts of the body. 


xs. Tub. pub. 27-29; clitellum 24-31..... E. carolinensis Michaelsen, 1903 | 


This species was described from a specimen introduced with plants into | 
Hamburg from Fayetteville, North Carolina (S, 717), a second example of — 
transfer from America to Europe. Native. Length 3.5 cm. 


FF. Spermathecal pores, if present, in or ventral to seta line d. 
Gc. More than 2 pairs of sperm sacs; spermathecae present. 
H. Setae closely paired; sperm sacs in 9-12.......... Allolobophora Eisen, 1874 
I. Lub. pub. 31:33 or 31-33; chtellum 24, 25, 26, 27, 28-32) 3oyo0—sooee ee 
a Saher ME ey eg beeen? LA aN eas aah at a ae A NBA A. caliginosa (Savigny, 1826) 


Europe; the most abundant, widespread, and ecologically adaptable species 
in the United States. New records: (New York) Along brook in pasture below 
Cascades, south of Collingwood, Onondaga County (FC); alfalfa lot, Syracuse 
(FC); Pack Forest, Warrensburg (FC); Whetstone Gulf, stream side (FC); 
Jamesville, Onondaga County (FC); Junius Ponds area, Ontario County (FC); 
Ithaca: Fall and Cascadilla gorges, lawns, McGowan woodlot (E); dry ditch 
beside field, and bank of Susquehanna River, below Owego (E); Rose, Wayne 
County, in coarse mull and in woody peat (virgin and cultivated) (E); Potter, 
Yates County, in woody peat (E); Palmyra, Wayne County, in coarse mull 
under hardwood forest (E); McLean, Tompkins County, in fine mull in forest 
(EK); Newcomb, Essex County, in grassy fields (E); New York City (AM). 
(Pennsylvania) Polluted stream bank, Sayre (E). (New Jersey) Alpine, Pali- 
sades near Edgewater, Edgewater (AM). This species shows a variability similar 
to that of E7zseniella tetraedra, in that two “‘varieties’”’ have been named. But the 
distinction here concerns the tubercula pubertatis: in var. typica they are sepa- 
rate swellings on 31:33; in var. trapezoides they form ridges extending from | 
31-33. In many specimens it is difficult to decide which condition is present, and | 
the two forms very generally occur together. In New York State trapezozdes 
seems to be slightly more frequent. In Ohio (O, ’28) and Illinois (S, ’28) it is 
described as much more abundant than typica. The clitellum also varies in posi- 
tion, being most frequently about 27-34. Again I do not believe that these dif- 
ferences have subspecific value, since neither in Europe nor in America are they 
geographically significant, but suggest rather that one or more pairs of genetic 
allelomorphs may be responsible, the proportions varying among different popu- 
lations of the species. The use of trinomials would then be misleading. This worm 
is pale pinkish; length 6-17 cm. 


i. Pubs pubs32—-34- clitellum( 27, 28-35... eo ie A. longa Ude, 1885 


Europe, Maine, Grand Manan, Toronto, Indiana (S, 717); Connecticut 
(G, ’42). New records: Region of New York City (AM); Brooklyn, New York, 
under stones, humus, rotten vegetables (AM); pasture near McLean bogs, 
Tompkins County, New York (E). In size and general appearance this species 
is much like A. caliginosa. Only determination of the segments bearing the 
tubercula pubertatis will separate them externally. 


Aue. 15, 1942 EATON: EARTHWORMS OF NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 247 


ui. Tub. pub. 31:33:35; clitellum 29-37; color greenish when alive or freshly 
ORES EN TE(0| 53 2 Go Oley hee aaNet ard ES Pee Ome es A. chlorotica (Savigny, 1826) 


Europe, Greenland, Vancouver, Mexico, Guatemala, North Carolina, Dis- 
trict of Columbia, Indiana, Colorado, California (S, lis Olio (CO, 728); 
Illinois, stream banks (S, ’28). New records: (New York) Syracuse (FC): 
Ithaca, Cascadilla gorge (EF); bank of Susquehanna River below Owego, in 
mud and in dead wood (E); greenhouse, New York City (AM); Rensselaer 
(NY). (Pennsylvania) Polluted creek bank, Sayre (EK). (Maryland) Bethesda 
(NM). This worm prefers wet and usually highly organic or polluted soil. Fresh 
specimens in formalin are grass-green, with a contrasting pink clitellum, which 
is as near as any earthworm comes to beauty. The length is 5-7 cm. 


HH. Setae separate or widely paired; sperm sacs in 9, 11, 12................. 
RA teeta PRAT n My See BRW We | eNO raric rele thle Dendrobaena Eisen, 1874 
I. Clitellum 25, 26-31, 32; tub. pub. 28-30....D. subrubicunda (Eisen, 1874) 


Europe, Newfoundland, Niagara, Illinois, Colorado, California (S, 717); Indiana 
(H, 715); Ohio (O, ’28); Massachusetts (G, ’35). New records: Ashokan, New 
York (AM); Alpine, New Jersey (AM). This species is described as common in a 
polluted stream-bank in Illinois (8, ’28). Length, 4—7.5 cm. 


ir. Clitellum 27, 28, 29-33, 34; tub. pub. 31-33. .D. octaedra (Savigny, 1826) 

Europe, northern Asia, Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, Mexico, Colo- 

rado (S, 717); Illinois (S, ’28). New record: Lake Placid, New York (FC). 
Length, 2.5—4 cm. 


aa. Two pairs of sperm sacs, in 11, 12. Spermathecae absent (or imperfectly devel- 
CWCCMMG DN LCMUTS tas keene Meten eens we cenee. Le Sane ah, Bimastos Moore, 1893 
H. Setae closely paired. 

I. Clitellum covers less than 10 segments. 

J. Clitellum begins on or in front of 28. 
xs CMU Chan Oi ABA. ba das occ get pocee ve ee B. palustris Moore, 1895 
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, North Carolina (G, ’29). Native. This species 
is found in wet soil beside ponds or streams. There is a prominent swelling 
enclosing a cavity at the opening of each sperm duct. Tubercula pubertatis 

are lacking. Length, to 7.5 cm. 


KK. Clitellum 20, 22-29, 30; ab greater than cd. .B. gieseleri (Ude, 1895) 

Georgia, Florida, Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, Texas (G, ’29); Indiana 

(O, ’28). Native. Specimens from Florida and Georgia have clitellum 

20-30, and are called var. typica. Some from Florida and those from the 

other States named have it located on 22-29, 30: var. hempeli Smith, 

1915. The habitat is rotten wood, decaying logs, and leaf accumulations. 
Length, 5-8 cm. 


Keen @litelluiny22—29)5ab.— Cae nna shige. B. tumidus Eisen, 1874a 


Mount ebanout New York. Native. The only record since Eisen 
ay is a report by Olson (1940) of specimens found ‘‘near Oneida 
ake 


gg. Clitellum begins on or behind 24. 
K. Clitellum 24-30; tub. pub. (indistinct) 25, 26-29, 30............... 
EN ae eesti CEI eens Cis tas SaaS pre ns mean SES ASIA ag B. parvus (Eisen, 1874a) 
New York, Michigan, Kansas, California, Louisiana, Mexico, Guate- 
mala, also China, Japan, Africa (S, 717); Ohio (O, ’28); Massachusetts 
(G, ’35). New record: Ashokan, New York (AM), not Pratts Falls (O, ’40). 
Native. Length, 2.5—4 cm. 


KK. Clitellum 24, 25-31; tub. pub. (indistinct) 24, 25-30.............. 
RL Mere Le eee nea le 2, is B. beddardi (Michaelsen, 1894) 
Michigan, Illinois, Montana, Florida, California, Washington, Hawaii 

(S, 17); Ohio, near end of Lake Erie (O, ’28). Native. This is found in 
“wet situations and in decaying logs, stumps, or moss’”’ (S, °17). 


KKK. Clitellum 25-32 (slightly on 33).....B. heimburgeri (Smith, 1928) 
This species is described from a specimen found in a stream bank 
below White Heath, Illinois. The tubercula pubertatis are apparently ab- 
sent, there is very little pigmentation, and the length of the specimen is 
7.7 cm. Smith notes a close resemblance to B. palustris. 


248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 8 


11. Clitellum covers 10 or 11 segments. ; 
g. Clitellum 23-32 or 24-33...... B. longicinctus (Smith and Gittins, 1915) 


Urbana, Illinois (S, 717); southeastern Ohio (O, ’28). Smith describes this 
worm as common in lawns and woods, while Olson reports it from a wet, 
wooded ravine, under leaves. Length, 6-9 cm. No tubercula pubertatis. Na- 
tive. 


ae Clitellom 2737 see 2 oe ee B. zeteki (Smith and Gittins, 1915) 


Illinois, Indiana, Michigan (S, 717); Susquehanna River, New York 
(G, ’29); southwestern Ohio (O, ’28). Native. This species occurs in soil 
under logs or decaying leaves, and in dead logs under the bark. Length, 
10-14 cm. 


HH; pebac widely paired aw eee ee ne oe esee ee ene B, tenuis (Eisen, 1874a) 


Europe, Asia, Alaska, Bering Island, Canada, Vancouver Island, Mexico, 
South America, Maine, New York, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Colorado, 
California, Washington (S, ’17); Massachusetts (G, 735); Connecticut (G, 742). 
It is difficult to judge from these records whether this species was originally 
North American, European, or circumpolar. The first specimens were those de- 
scribed by Eisen from New York State. Smith (1917) considers the European 
B. constrictus (Rosa, 1884) to be the same species. These worms favor rotting 
logs, decaying leaves, hay, or manure piles. 


pp. Clitellum on 30-35; setae widely paired........... Octolastum lacteum (Orley, 1881) 


Europe, Mexico, Colorado, California, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio (S, 717); Connecticut 
(G, ’42). New records: (New York) Ithaca: Fall Creek and Cascadilla gorges (E); McLean 
bogs, Tompkins County, in fine black mull and in pasture (EK, FC); Ringwood preserve, 
Freeville, Tompkins County, in leaf mat (E); Arnot Forest, Van Etten, stream side (E); _ 
Potter, Yates County; in woody peat (E); south side of Susquehanna River, below Owego, © | 
in wet decaying wood (E); Ashokan (AM); Bergen Beach (AM); Syracuse (FC); White 
Lake, Onondaga County (FC); Pratts Falls, Onondaga County, along creek (FC); under 
stones along creek, Cedarvale (FC); Cascades, Butternut Creek, Onondaga County, along 
brook in open pasture (FC); South Pond area, North Constantia, Oswego County (FC); 
Salmon River, in woods south of Parish, Oswego County. (FC). Asthese records show, O. lac- 
teum favors, but is not limited to, moist and highly organic soil. Smith (1928) describes it 
as an upland and streambank species in Illinois. The length is highly variable, 5-16 cm, 
but the position of the clitellum combined with wide separation of the seta rows makes this 
species easy to recognize. 


cc. Prostomium completely divides peristomium by means of an extension backward on the 


dorsallside, tothe second muntowe ee ee car eee eee Lumbricus Linnaeus, 1758 
p. Clitellum begins on or in front of 28; sperm duct pores without distinct papillae. 
“:, Clitellum! on\26, 27-32 color red 4 4.5 oe L. rubellus Hoffmeister, 1843 


Europe, Siberia, Newfoundland, Washington, Oregon, California, Michigan (S, 717); 
Ohio, near Toledo (O, ’28); Massachusetts (G, ’35). New records: Ithaca, New York, Fall 
Creek gorge (E); banks of Susquehanna River, between Owego and Waverley, New York, 
in mud and dead wood (E); McLean bogs, Tompkins County, New York, in wet mull 
and in muck (E); Rose, Wayne County, New York, in woody peat, in forest (E); polluted 
creek bank, Sayre, Pennsylvania (E); Rock Creek Park, Washington, District of Colum- 
bia, beside stream (E). This worm seems to require a great deal of moisture and organic 
ei ee It and the other three species of Lumbricus listed here are European. Length, 

—15 cm. 


HE Clitellimeonc2S -sodarkened ss on ee ee L. castaneus (Savigny, 1826) 


Europe, Canada, New York (S, 717); Massachusetts (G, ’35); Syracuse, New York 
(FC). A smaller species. Length, 6-10 cm. 


pp. Clitellum begins behind 28; sperm duct pores with distinct papillae. 
E.  Clitelhimar32—37 > Cube pub: soo aero oes er en tere L. terrestris Linnaeus, 1758 


Europe, Mexico, Newfoundland, Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, 
Maryland, District of Columbia, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Colorado, Califor- 
nia (S, 717). Smith (1928) says that in Illinois this familiar species has become abundant 
after being first reported about 1896 and has tended to replace the native American 
Diplocardia communis. In Ohio Olson (1928) says it has become widely distributed ‘‘in 
the last ten years.’’ It is present abundantly in New York State, from numerous localities, 
but not the Adirondack Forest so far as known. The habitats include coarse mull soil in 
forests or fields, mud beside streams, lawns, woody peat, and the inside of a rotten log. 
Length, 10-30 cm.; color, reddish brown, especially forward. 


Be. Chitellum:34—39: tub. pub: o0-08..4. 4.20. ea eee L. festivus (Savigny, 1826) 


This is a European species reported from Canada (S, 717), but not yet from the 
United States. 


Aug. 15, 1942 EATON: EARTHWORMS OF NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 


249 


REFERENCES 


Eisen, G. Om Skandinaviens Lumbricider. 
Ofv. Vet. Akad. Forh. 30: 43-56. 1874. 

Bidrag till Kinnedom om New Eng- 
lands och Canadas Lumbricider. Ofv. Vet. 
Akad. Férh. 31: 41-49. 1874a. 

Forses, 8. A. On an American earthworm of 
the family Phreoryctidae. Bull. Illinois 
State Lab. Nat. Hist. 3: 107-116. 1890. 

GarRMAN, H. On the anatomy and histology of a 
new earthworm (Diplocardia communis gen. 
et sp. nov.). Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. 
mist. 3: 47... 1888. 

Gates, G. E. The earthworm fauna of the 
United States. Science 70(1811) : 266-267. 
1929. 


The earthworms of New England. 
Proc. New England Zool. Club 15: 41-44. 
1935. 

Check list and bibliography of North 
American earthworms. Amer. Midl. Nat. 
27(1): 86-108. 1942. 

HemmBurGcrER, H. V. Notes on Indiana earth- 
worms. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 1914: 
Zio. 1915. 

HorrMetistER, W. Beitrag zur Kenntnis deut- 
scher Landanneliden. Arch. Naturg. 9: 


183-198. 1848. 

LINNAEUS, CaroLus. Systema naturae, ed. 
nO 1758. 

Mai, A. W. Ofv. Hortik. Forh. Goteborg 
PAD. 1877. 


MicHaELSEN, W. Oligochaeten des naturhis- 
torischen Museums in Hamburg. Mitt. 
Mus. Hamburg 7. 1890. 

Die Regenwurm-Fauna von Florida 

und Georgia. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst. 8: 

177-194. 1894. 

Die Lumbriciden-Fauna Nordamer- 

kas. Abh. nat. Ver. Hamburg 16: 1-22. 

1900. 

. Die geographische Verbreitung der 
Oligochaeten, 186 pp. Berlin. 1903. 

Moors, H. F. Preliminary account of a new 
genus of Oligochaeta. Zool. Anz. 16: 333- 
334. 1898. 

On the structure of Bimastos palustris, 

a new oligochaete. Journ. Morph. 10: 473- 

496. 1895. 


Ouson, H. W. The earthworms of Ohio. Ohio 
Biol. Surv. Bull. 17: 46-90. 1928. 

Karthworms of New York State. 

_ Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 1090: 1-9. 1940. 

OrtEY, L. A Magyarorszdgi Oligochaeték 

Faundja. I. Terricolae. Math. Term. 

Kozlem. Magyar Akad. 16: 563-611. 


1881. 


A palearktibus évben élé terrikoléknak 


revisioja és elteryedése. Ertek. term. 

Kor. Magyar Akad. 15: 1-34. 1885. 
Rosa, D. Revistone det Lumbricidt. Mem. 

Accad. Sci. Torino (2) 43: 397-476. 1893. 


Saviany, J. C. Analyse d’un mémoire sur les 
lombrics par Cuvier. Mem. Acad. Sci. 
Inst. France 5: 176-184. 1826. 

SmMiTH, Frank. Notes on species of North 
American Oligochaeta. Bull. Illinois State 
Lab. Nat. Hist. 4: 285-297. 1895. 

Two new varieties of earthworms, with 


a key to described species in Illinois. Bull. 
Illinois Lab. Nat. Hist. 10: 551-559. 
OMS: 


North American earthworms of the 
family Lumbricidae in the collections of the 
U.S. National Museum. Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Mus. 523 5/-1182, “1917: 
An account of changes in the earth- 
worm fauna of Illinois, and a description of 
one new species. Bull. Div. Nat. Hist. 
Surv. Illinois 17(10): 347-362. 1928. 
and E. M. Girrins. Two new species 
of Lumbricidae from Illinois. Bull. Illhi- 
nois State Lab. Nat. Hist. 10: 545-550. 
1915. 
STEPHENSON, J. Oxford. 
19305 
Upr, H. Uber die Riickenporen der terricolen 
Oligochaeten, nebst Bettrégen zur Histologie 
des Liebesschlauches und zur Systematik der 


The Oligochaeta. 


Lumbriciden. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 43: 
87-143. 1885. 

Beitrdge zur Kenntnis ausldndischer 
Regenwiirmer. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 57: 
57-75. 1893. 


Bettrdge zur Kenntnis der Enchy- 
traeiden und Lumbriciden. Zeitschr. wiss. 
Zool. 61: 111-141. 1895. 


250 


ZOOLOGY .—Some echinoderms from northwestern Greenland.! 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 8 


AustTINn H. CLaRkK, 


U.S. National Museum, and Gorpon J. Lockey, British Museum (Natural 


History). 


In July and early August, 1940, Capt. 
Robert A. Bartlett and his associates car- 
ried out extensive dredging operations in 
the waters off northwestern Greenland in 
depths of 12 to 110 fathoms. The echino- 
derms brought back numbered 282 speci- 
mens representing 13 species. Although 
generally speaking the fauna of the shallow 
waters of the west Greenland seas, espe- 
cially the southern portion, is well known 
as a result of the work of various Danish 
investigators and expeditions, there are 
still many details to be filled in and conse- 
quently all records are of value. In the 
present collection the most interesting 
specimen is the single example of Leptas- 
terias polaris form  subacervata Fisher, 
which, though properly referable to that 
form, shows a rather close approach to the 
form acervata of the region of Bering Strait. 
The junior author left Washington before 
the completion of this paper. All the identi- 
fications were rechecked by the senior 
author, who is therefore to be held respon- 
sible for any errors that may be found. 


LOCALITIES 


The localities at which echinoderms were 
collected were the following (unless other- 
wise indicated the dredging was done by 
Captain Robert A. Bartlett): 

I1I.—West Turnavik, Labrador (lat. 55° 
15’ N., long. 59° 20’ W.); Sam Bartlett, 
July 6. XV and XVI.—Melville Bay, near 
Thom Island; 15-80 fathoms; bottom with 
much kelp; Sam Bartlett and Albert Barnes, 
July 19. XXIV, XXV, and XX VI.—Be- 
tween the north shore of Parker Snow Bay 
and Conical Rock; 25-45 fathoms; mostly 
pebbles and shells; July 22. XXX, XXXTI, 
XXXIV, XXXVII, and XXXVIII.— 
About 1 mile northwest (true) of Conical 
Rock; 25-60 fathoms; July 22. XL, XLII, 
X LIII.—West side of Wolstenholme Island; 
about 12 fathoms; July 23. XLIV.—Off 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution and the Keeper of 
fooey, British Museum. Received April 28, 

94 


Wolstenholme Island; 13-17 fathoms; July 
23. Li, LII,. LV; LVU, and ee om 
north shore of Wolstenholme Island; 13-25 
fathoms; July 23. LX XIJ.—Near the south 
end of Humboldt Glacier; 110 fathoms; 
D. C. Nutt, August 3. 


LIST OF SPECIES 


ASTEROIDEA: Crossaster papposus var. 
squamatus (Déderlein), XX XI (5, all with 
ten rays). Stephanasterias albula (Stimp- 
son), XVI (6; one is almost perfectly regu- 


lar with six rays 13 mm long; one has three 


rays 20 mm long and two buds; the others 
have six rays of various lengths). XXV (1, 
with three equal rays 10 mm long and two 
minute and inconspicuous buds). XXX (2). 
XX XI (7, of which one regenerating indi- 
vidual has seven rays, the others six; in 
some of these the skeleton is unusually 
slender with the interstices large, giving the 
animals a superficial resemblance to Leptas- 
terias groenlandica). LXIII (1). LXII (5). 
LIX (4). Other than the exceptions men- 
tioned, all have six rays. Leptasterias polaris 
var. subacervata Fisher, LII (1; R=60 mm. 
In this individual the characters are much 
more strongly marked than in one at hand 
from Disco, which does not differ very 
noticeably from L. p. polaris. Both agree 
in having the groups of enlarged spines 
confined to the midradial line of the rays, 
and about six in number. In the specimen 
from Disco [R=75 mm] the groups of en- 
larged spines consist of usually 7—9 spines 
in a circle surrounding a somewhat larger 
central one; but the peripheral spines are 
very little, if any, larger than those of the 
general abactinal surface. The groups of 
spines rise only very slightly above the 
general surface, and from above are notice- | 
able only because they form usually regular | 
rosettes in an otherwise uniformly scattered | 
spiny armature. In the specimen from | 
locality LII the groups of spines rise | 
abruptly and for some distance above the | 
abactinal surface so that they are very con- | 
spicuous in lateral view. There are 3-7 | 
smaller spines surrounding a larger central | 


Aue. 15, 1942 


one, but the lateral spines are considerably 
larger than those scattered over the abac- 
tinal surface so that the rosettes are very 
conspicuous from above. Except for the 
restriction of the groups of enlarged spines 
to the midradial line of the rays, this speci- 
men resembles others from Bering Sea 
[acervata] more than it does any we have 
hitherto seen from Greenland). Leptasterias 
groenlandica (Steenstrup), XVI (1). XX XI 
(1). XLITI (2). LI (1). LVII (2). LIX (8; in 
one R=20 mm). 

OPHIUROIDEA: Ophiacantha bidentata 
(Retzius), XX V (1). XX XI (2). XLIV (2). 
Ophiopholis aculeata (Linné), III (38). 
meiota). “XV (11). XLII (2). LI (2). 
Ophiura sarsi Liitken, XVI (4). XXV (18). 
XLII (1). Ophiura robusta (Ayres), III 
(6). XVI (1). XXV (14). XXX (1). XXXI 
fh) DOXOXVIT (1)... XX XVIII 1). XLOI 
(10). Ophiocten sericeum (Forbes), III 
eee vel (2). XXX (5). XXXVI (5). 
XLIII (1, with the disk rounded-pentag- 
onal, 13 mm in diameter). Ophiopleura 
borealis Danielssen and Koren, LX XII (1, 
large, with the disk 36 mm in diameter). 

ECHINOIDEA: Strongylocentrotus droe- 
bachiensis (O. F. Miller), XV (12; up to 55 
mm in diameter; olive brown to olive green; 
_ spinulation variable, from short, dense, and 

fairly uniform to unequal, with the pri- 
-maries long, up to 16 mm, and the second- 
aries short and slender). XXIV (5; up to 
45 mm in diameter; test purplish black, 
spines bright yellow-green, or test pale dull 
purplish, spines dull olive green; primary 
spines long, up to 17 mm, secondaries 
slender, short, and sparse; with or without 
giant pedicellariae). XX XIV (9; up to 30 
mm in diameter; yellow brown; primaries 


PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


251 


rather long, secondaries short and slender). 
XL (6; up to 43 mm in diameter; olive 
brown to olive green; spinulation variable, 
from dense and fairly uniform to sparse 
and unequal with long primaries and short 
and slender secondaries). LV (3; up to 54 
mm in diameter; orange brown; spinulation 
diverse; numerous giant pedicellariae). 

CRINOIDEA: 4Heliometra — glacialis 
(Leach), X XV (arm fragment). X XVI (1). 
DOI Gls) SIC) TEIN). 

HOLOTHUROIDEA: Cucumaria fron- 
dosa var. japonica Semper, XL (4; these 
specimens, the largest of which is 85 mm 
long, contracted, have in the body wall very 
numerous spicules that agree perfectly with 
those figured by Mortensen from a speci- 
men taken not far away; following Morten- 
sen, we assign all the specimens from this 
area to this form). LI (8). 


REFERENCES 


Cuark, AusTIN H. Echinoderms collected by 
Capt. Robert A. Bartlett in the seas about 
Baffin Land and Greenland. Journ. Wash- 
ington Acad. Sci. 26(7): 294-296, figs. 1-4. 
July 15, 1936. 

Echinoderms from Greenland collected 
by Capt. Robert A. Bartlett. Proc. U. S. 
Nat. Mus. 89: 425-433, pls. 58, 59. Feb. 
27, 1941. 

Hepine, 8. G. The Scoresby Sound Commit- 
tee’s 2nd East Greenland Expedition in 1932 
to King Christian IX’s Land. Echinoderms. 
Meddel. om Grgnland 104(13): 1-68, pls. 
I Pk, JCD, AS, We as, 

. 6 og 7 Thule Expedition til Syd¢st- 
grénland 1931-83. Echinoderms. Meddel. 
om Grgnland 108(1): 1-34, figs. 1-6, 
Nov. 20, 1936. 

MortTEensEN, TH. The Godthaab Expedition 
1928. Echinoderms. Meddel. om Grgn- 
land 79(2): 1-62, pl. 1. 1932 (with bibli- 
ography). 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


539TH MEETING 


The 539th meeting (58th annual meeting) 
_ was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club 
on Thursday, January 8, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. 
President BEKKEDAHL presided. The annual re- 
ports of officers for 1941 were read and ap- 
proved. The Society was addressed by the retir- 


ing-president, Dr. H. L. HALLER, on the sub- 
ject The search for new insecticides. 


540TH MEETING 
The 540th meeting was held in the audi- 
torilum of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, 
February 12, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. President 
BEKKEDAHL presided. It was announced that 
Prof. M. X. SuLLIVAN, of Georgetown Univer- 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


sity, was to be awarded the Hillebrand Prize of 
1941 for his studies in the biochemistry of sul- 
phur with special reference to the quantitative 
estimation of biologically important com- 
pounds. Dr. WosciEcH SWIETOSLAWSEI, of the 
Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, ad- 
dressed the Society on the subject Precritical, 
critical, and postcritical phenomena. 


541sT MEETING 


The 541st meeting and annual dinner was 
held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on 
Thursday, March 12, 1942, at 6:30 p.m. Presi- 
dent BEKKEDAHL gave an account of the rules 
of award of the Hillebrand Prize. Dr. H. L. 
HALuer spoke on the history and scientific at- 
tainments of Dr. M. X. SuLiivan, of George- 
town University, the recipient of the award for 
1941, who was then presented with the Award, 
by President BEKKEDAHL. Dr. SULLIVAN re- 
sponded with an entertaining speech of accept- 
ance. The Society was then addressed by Dr. 
VINCENT DU VIGNEAUD of the Cornell Univer- 
sity Medical School, on the subject The con- 
verston of methionine to cystine in the animal 
body. 

542D MEETING 


The 542d meeting was held in the auditorium 


of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, April 9, 1942, 


at 8:15 p.m. President BEKKEDAHL presided. 
The society was addressed by Dr. Duncan A. 
MacInnis, of the Rockefeller Institute for 
Medical Research, on the subject Electro- 
phoretic study of proteins. 


543D MEETING 


The 543d meeting was held in the White- 
Gravenor Building of Georgetown University 
on Thursday, April 30, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. Presi- 
dent BEKKEDAHL presided. The Society was ad- 
dressed by Prof. M. X. SuLiivan, of George- 
town University, on the subject Precision in the 
field of biochemistry; the quantitative estimation 
of important biochemical substances. 


544TH MEETING 


The 544th meeting was held in the Arts and 
Science Building of the University of Mary- 
land, College Park, Md., on Thursday, May 14, 
1942. The meeting was preceded by a dinner in 
the university dining hall at 6:30 p.m. A general 


VOL. 32, NO. 8 


meeting was called to order at 8:20 p.m. by 
President BEKKEDAHL. The assembly was then 
directed to the rooms where the following divi- 
sional meetings were held. 


Biochemistry, Dean Burk, Presiding 


The effect of a choline-deficient diet on the pro- 
duction of lier tumors by p-dimethylaminoazo- 
benzene (butter yellow): HELEN M. Dyer (The 
George Washington University School of Medi- 
cine). 

The application of the polarograph in biologi- 
cal chemistry: RICHARD J. WINZLER (National 
Cancer Institute). 

Enzymic hydrolysis of purothionin: W. S&S. 
Hatz, T. H. Harris, and B. A. AxELRopD 
(Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engi- 
neering). 


Organic Chemistry, Nathan L. Drake, Presiding 


The dienyne double addition reaction for the 
synthesis of alicyclic compounds: Lewis W. 
Butz (Bureau of Animal Industry). 

The preparation and properties of some func- 
tional derivatives of carcinogenic hydrocarbons: 
Hucu J. CrEEcH (University of Maryland). 

The isolation, chemical composition, and prop- 
erties of an allergenic carbohydrate-free protein 
from cottonseed: JOSEPH R. Spies (U.S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture). 


Physical Chemistry, M. M. Haring, Presiding 


Dipole moments of some organic compounds: 
W.J. SvirBeLy and JoHN LANDER (University 
of Maryland). 

Color of polymethine dyes: A. L. SKLAR (Cath- 
olic University of America). 

Catalyzed hydrolysis of amide and peptide 
bonds in proteins: JACINTO STEINHARDT (Re- 
search Laboratory of the Textile Foundation at 
the National Bureau of Standards). 


Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, W. L. Hill, 
Presiding 

Complex ions of cupric nitrite in aqueous solu- 
tion: A. I. Kosstakorr and D. V. SicKMAN 
(Catholic University of America). 

Determination of beryllium in biological ma- 
terials: E. D. Patmss and L. T. FarrHaut (Na- 
tional Institute of Health). 

Distribution of copper and zine in soils: R. 8. 
Hotmes (Bureau of Plant Industry). 


CONTENTS 
Cosmic EMOTION. 


PaLEonToLocy.—New genera . of North American brachiopods. 
ArtHurR Cooper. eee er Pe RRR es 


—— 


_GEoLoey. —Atlantic coastal “terraces.” RIcHARD Foster Fu | 


Borany. eae! ugelia Bentham preoccupied. - Louis Currer Wi 


ENTOMOLOGY. anne genus Perdinandea Rondani. ‘FRANK M. He 


with distribution records THEODORE H. vee Jr. 


5 


a 


PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL Socrgry. Hig NEAT GN gO SEA cers Pay 9 SS 


if te ale ra ~—— e 
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‘Vou. 32 — Sata aa SEPTEMBER 15, 1942 | No. 9 


JOURNAL 


Oe ocay Or Tae: 


OF SCIEN CS 
: ; 
‘S BOARD OF EDITORS 
ty _ Raymon a SEEGER G. ArtHuR CooPER JASON R. SwWALLEN 
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: _ ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
wW. EpWarpDs Dae ; : C.F. W. Mussesecx 
_ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
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Cuartotts ELLiottT —— it~ T. Date Stewart 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY i } ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: Harvey L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. 
Secretary: FrepERIcK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards. 
Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappiere, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Archivist: NATHAN R. Smita, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Custodian of Publications: Wiitam W. Dirx., Bureau of Plant Industry. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 32 


SEPTEMBER 15, 1942 


No. 9 


ANTHROPOLOGY .—Archeological accomplishments during the past decade in 


the United States. 


During the past 12 years archeological 
exploration in the United States has been 
accelerated to such a degree that many 
felt the profession scarcely prepared to 
profit by all the advantages placed at its 
disposal. Never before, and perhaps never 
again, will so many archeological sites be 
excavated simultaneously within the con- 
tinental United States. The archeologists 
who participated can congratulate them- 
selves in having accomplished so much 
under such unusual stimulation. 

Prior to 1930 average field expeditions 
consisted for the most part of 10-15 labor- 
ers and assistants, working continuously 
from’3 to 4 months, with an average cost 
of about $2,500. From 1935 to 1940 explora- 
tion personnel increased to an average of 
150 men and functioned from 36 to 48 
months continuously. Well-staffed labora- 
tories were established in the field. The 
material culture obtained was cleaned, pre- 
pared, classified, restored, and processed 
from day to day. The technique in some 
instances was streamlined to such an extent 
that almost from the time the first shovel 
was pushed into a site archeological speci- 
mens and data began to roll out in pub- 
lished form. An archeologist could no longer 
ponder or gloat over the results of a back- 
breaking day of digging. He had to serve 
as engineer and personnel manager han- 
dling large crews of men; as an efficiency 
expert, and above all, a skilled public ac- 
countant, timekeeper, and high class execu- 

1 Address of the retiring president of the An- 
thropological Society of Washington, delivered at 
the 707th meeting of the Society, April 21, 1942. 


Published by permission of the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution. Received April 23, 1942. 


FRANK M. Serzuier, U. 8. National Museum. 


tive. At night reports of the day’s work were 
written. Everything as far as possible had 
to be standardized. Above all, many thou- 
sands of men and women were given legiti- 
mate employment. Total man-hours on 
large-scale projects reached astronomical 
proportions. The final results may never be 
entirely comprehended; mistakes were made, 
but the contributions to American archeol- 
ogy have been enormous. One can safely 
assume that if a goal had been set in 1930 
under the prevailing conditions of the time, 
for archeological explorations within the 
subsequent 50 years, this goal has already 
been reached and in some areas surpassed 
during the past 6 or 7 years. 

Many factors have played an important 
part in bringing about the results during 
the past decade. One of the most important 
was the Federal financing of archeological 
projects to provide legitimate employment 
for thousands of laborers in the field and 
laboratories. Prior to 1930 Federal assist- 
ance to States was limited to a “Fund for 
Cooperative Ethnological and Archeologi- 
cal Investigations,’’ supervised by the Bu- 
reau of American Ethnology under the 
Smithsonian Institution, to which compe- 
tent scientific organizations with limited 
funds could apply. 

Early in 1933 various States obtained 
funds from the Federal Government, 
through the Emergency Relief Administra- 
tion, to assist in giving employment to 
their needy. Under such a grant the town 
of Marksville, La., provided me with a 
number of laborers for the excavation and 
restoration of the Marksville site. Because 
I was unaccustomed to providing gainful 


253 


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254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


employment to more than 10 men working 
on a mound, it required considerable ex- 
perimentation and readjustment to keep a 
crew of over 100 men busy and yet provide 
careful supervision while excavations pro- 
gressed on three mounds, a village site, and 
a man-made earth embankment partially 
encircling the site. This experience, how- 
ever, proved valuable when in December 
1933 the Civil Works Administration was 
established in Washington. Its primary 
purpose was to reduce unemployment. Pre- 
vious experience at Marksville had con- 
vinced the Smithsonian officials that under 
proper supervision and with a sufficient 
number of trained men, worth-while scien- 
tific results on a large scale could be ob- 
tained. Within a few weeks 11 archeological 
projects employing about 1,500 persons 
were organized. The sites selected were 
limited by climatic and economic factors. 
Seven projects were established in Florida, 
and one each in Georgia, North Carolina, 
Tennessee, and California. The selection 
took into consideration a long range pro- 
gram of archeological research, especially 
in areas where it would not interfere with 
existing programs of state or other outside 
organizations. Those who played an active 
part in this emergency may recall the many 
headaches and uncertainties resulting from 
the experiment. Nevertheless it proved that 
under competent and trained supervisors, 
scientific archeological explorations could 
serve as a legitimate channel for relief em- 
ployment. The publications resulting from 
these relief explorations, which lasted from 
about the middle of December 1933 to 
April 1934, indicate that scientific stand- 
ards were maintained. Many of the unfore- 
seen difficulties which resulted from this 
rapidly organized program were later cor- 
rected. 

About the same period a new type of 
emergency presented itself along the Ten- 
nessee River and its tributaries, namely, the 
eventual flooding of vast areas as a result 
of the construction of several Tennessee 
Valley Authority dams. Realizing that 
numerous archeological sites were located 
in the areas to be flooded, and that the 
impounded waters would either destroy or 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


prevent any excavation of these sites, the 
board of directors of the T.V.A. appointed 
Maj. W.S. Webb to supervise the necessary 
surveys and excavations in southern Ten- 
nessee and northern Alabama. Here again 
the required labor was furnished by C.W.A., 
F.E.R.A., and W.P.A. relief agencies. 

In some respects the success achieved by 
the archeological projects under the direc- 
tion of the Smithsonian Institution caused 
numerous archeologists to apply for similar 
projects within their States. Because of the 
limited archeological staff in the Smithso- 
nian Institution it was impossible actively 
to direct the many projects submitted to the 
new organization, known as the Works 
Progress Administration. The Smithsonian 
Institution was requested, however, to 


assist the Federal W.P.A. office in an ad- ~ 


visory capacity in determining the qualifi- 
cations of the men assigned by the state 
to direct the archeological programs out- 
lined in the various applications. Within 
the following year one-half of the States in 
the Union made application for archeologi- 
cal projects. As time went on these pro- 
grams became better organized until in 
July 1938 only state-wide projects under 
direction of the most competent organiza- 
tion, museum, or university within the 
State were considered eligible. From then 
on the responsibility of a program of exca- 
vation, laboratory analysis, and the writing 
and publishing of the final report rested 
entirely in the hands of the state archeolo- 
gist and the sponsoring agency. 

Quarterly progress reports resulted from 
all these projects and these reports were 
recently deposited in the National Mu- 
seum.”? These are now indexed and a brief 
summary made of the work reported. In 
many cases the sponsoring agency has pub- 
lished a detailed report of excavations and 
summarized the results obtained; in other 


2 The following restrictions have been placed on 
the use of these quarterly reports: ‘‘Although 
these reports are available to qualified and inter- 
ested persons, care must be taken that no publica- 
tion should result from the use of these materials 
except (A) after the scientific sponsor has been 
notified and has granted permission; (B) after the 
scientific sponsor is unable to publish a detailed 
report; (C) after the scientific sponsor has pub- 
lished a full account of the results obtained.” 


Sepr. 15, 1942 


eases the final reports are awaiting publi- 
cation. Several progress reports have been 
published from time to time. 

At the end of this fiscal year, June30, 1942, 
almost all archeological exploration spon- 
sored by the Works Progress administration 
and those assisted by C.C.C. allotments will 
terminate. Some of the laboratories process- 
ing archeological specimens may continue to 
operate on a reduced staff basis until all 
specimens have been analyzed. It is, there- 
fore, within the period covered by this 
paper that the origin and completion of one 
of the most far-flung archeological enter- 
prises ever undertaken by a single nation 
were accomplished. 

To compare the results dollar for dollar 
would be impossible. The money allotted 
by the Government was matched by the 
sponsor in varying degrees ranging from 5 
per cent to as high as 50 per cent of the total 
spent, but the main purpose was to provide 
legitimate employment to the thousands of 
relief workers. In most cases over 85 per 
cent of the total allotments were used for 
wages or salaries, because the overhead ex- 
penses of archeological supplies, such as 
shovels, trowels, and laboratory material 
cost relatively little. Since the results ob- 
tained were entirely scientific and educa- 
tional, no overproduction resulted. The 
most immediate danger, if these projects 
were to have continued for another 10 
years, would have been exhausting all 
archeological sites. After such large-scale 
operations, working under the pressure of 
time, it may be fortunate that this phase of 
field work will now be terminated. After 
the results have been digested and summary 
reports published, it will give the archeolo- 
gist an opportunity to survey critically the 
new contributions that have been made and 
plan future research work, even with a re- 
duced crew, toward the solution of certain 
important problems on the basis of the 
many new theories resulting from the work 
of the past ten years. Then, too, if our 
techniques, laboratory analyses, and classi- 
fications are to change and improve as 
much again within the next 10 years, many 
of the more important sites should be pre- 
served in order to check theories, stratifica- 
tion, and conclusions, 


SETZLER: ARCHEOLOGY IN UNITED STATES 


259 


It is of interest to review some of the 
contributions of the past 12 years. In my 
opinion the most important archeological 
contributions that have been made during 
this period are: 

1. The general acceptance that man lived 
in North America contemporaneously with 
now extinct animals, such as Bison taylorz, 
Camelops, mammoth, etc.; even though 
no exact dates can be determined, we are 
confident that these associations occurred 
some time between 10 and 20 thousand 
years ago. 

2. Outlining the more important cultural 
manifestations in the Mississippi River 
Valley, especially in the Southeast. 

3. Recognition of new archeological mani- 
festations in the southern portions of New 
Mexico and Arizona. 

4, The application of archeological tech- 
niques to the restoration and reconstruc- 
tion of several early European settlements, 
such as Jamestown, Williamsburg, St. 
Augustine, and Plymouth. 

These contributions should in no way de- 
tract from essential detailed studies that 
were made in other parts of the country. 
The four cited above, after all, form pri- 
marily a framework in which details will 
have to be grouped before the entire picture 
can be assembled and a masterpiece pro- 
duced, provided, of course, that the artist 
or artists can be found to bring together all 
the elements required for such a painting. 
Explorations in other portions of the coun- 
try have obtained important results and 
have contributed much to the details of 
previously outlined cultural patterns. 

So far as Early Man in America is con- 
cerned, the relief agencies have played only 
a minor part. Most of the work during the 
past 10 years, which was concentrated on 
the excavation of Folsom or Yuma sites, 
was financed by more or less privately en- 
dowed institutions. The Lindenmeier site 
in Colorado, the Sandia Cave and Clovis- 
Portales sites in New Mexico, Gypsum 
Cave in Nevada, Signal Butte in western 
Nebraska, sites in north-central Texas, the 
Cochise complex in southern Arizona and 
New Mexico, sites in California and Oregon, 
and others in Utah and Minnesota have 
all contributed evidence toward the Paleo- 


256 


Indian problem in North America. The 
published accounts dealing with this sub- 
ject have accumulated very rapidly during 
the past 12 years. In one of the recent sum- 
maries covering this field 112 publications 
were cited, all of which were printed since 
1930. 

As a result of these intensive studies one 
can now conclude from the archeological 
evidence that an essentially modern type of 
American Indian* migrated from Asia into 
North America about 15,000 years ago. The 
diagnostic features of his material culture 
as well as their association with certain ex- 
tinct animals is well known. Aside from the 
importance of definitely establishing the 
antiquity of man in this hemisphere, these 
investigations have attracted the interest 
of geologists and paleontologists in that 
short but constantly expanding geological 
period, the Pleistocene, during which man 
became an integral part of the American 
fauna. Geologists as well as archeologists 
have developed a spirit of cooperation in 
these studies that never existed prior to 
1930. 

The second and, from my own point of 
view, the most important area in which 
archeological work has made the most 
rapid strides during the past 12 years is in 
the Southeast, especially in eastern Texas, 
Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, 
Florida, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Arkan- 
sas. Over 60 per cent (more than 1.5 million 
dollars a year) of the total allotments for 
W.P.A. archeological projects was assigned 
here. In other words, the amount of archeo- 
logical explorations in this section of the 
Southeast is due almost entirely to the 
Federal allotments granted, through such 
agencies as C.W.A., F.E.R.A., W.P.A., and 
C.C.C., which provided the labor for exten- 
sive excavations. 

Except for the archeological program of 
the Bureau of American Ethnology in 
Florida and the earlier surveys by C. B. 
Moore, no extensive explorations had been 
carried on in the Southeast before 1933. In 
the winter of 1933-34 the Smithsonian 


3 No human skeletal material has yet been 
found in direct association with the well-estab- 
lished archeological and paleontological strata. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


Institution sponsored 10 C.W.A. excava- 
tions in the Southeast. These experiments, 
together with those inaugurated by the 
T.V.A., led the way to subsequent large- 
scale programs in the various States. Some 
of the C.W.A. work in Florida was con- 
tinued. In Georgia the city of Macon spon- 
sored the large archeological program at 
Ocmulgee, which later became a National 
Historical Monument, and excavations 
were continued under the National Park 
Service; additional projects were completed 
on St. Simons Island near Brunswick; Irene 
Mound near Savannah; sites near Colum- 
bus; and a State survey. In northern Ala- 
bama work was concentrated in the Ten- 
nessee River Valley. All are familiar with 
the T.V.A. reports published in the Bureau 
of American Ethnology bulletins. The work 
in Mississippi was limited primarily to the 
Natchez Trace Survey. In Louisiana sev- 
eral projects concentrated on the Marks- 
ville and Tchefuncte problems. 

As indicated before, the limited number 
of excavations in the Southeast prior to 
1930 gave only a jumbled picture of certain 
exceptional sites which had produced un- 
usual specimens. Nothing more than a guess 
gave any indication of the relative chronol- 
ogy. Many felt that the prehistoric ances- 
tors of the Muskogeans, Natchez, Tunica, 
and other ethnological groups lived in the 
Southeast about the beginning of the Chris- 
tian Era. Archeologists had a hunch that 
they were considerably influenced by some 
mysterious groups farther south in Mexico. 
Recent archeological excavations brought 
about a lengthening and foreshortening of 
the chronology in the Southeast. By this I 
mean that the finding of Folsom projectile 
points indicates that early man hunted 
over parts of the country. Even though no 
concentrated accumulation of such artifacts 
has been discovered in association with the 
extinct faunal complex farther west, a suffi- 
cient number of these diagnostic projectiles 
has been sent to the National Museum, as 
well as a large number discovered in our 
archeological collections from the South- 
east, to indicate that Folsom man roamed 
the rivers and valleys for his sustenance. 
From such evidence it is certainly justifiable 


Sepr. 15, 1942 
to extend man’s existence in the Southeast 
back at least to 10,000 years before the 
Christian Era. On the other hand, the 
chronology of the more sedentary groups, 
those lineal ancestors of the historically 
known Indian tribes, unquestionably has 
not only been condensed, but the cultural 
stratification much more sharply defined. 
Without repeating the various and in- 
numerable foci thus far established, one 
can safely assume in a very general way 
that the archeological complexes appearing 
in the Southeast after the beginning of the 
Christian Era can be divided into three 
main divisions: early, middle, and historic. 

By “‘early”’ is meant the widespread pre- 
agricultural complex characteristically as- 
sociated with shell heaps. Throughout the 
Southeast these deposits are found along 
the coasts and along the banks of the larger 
inland rivers. The complex is characterized 
by mortars and pestles, tubular pipes, a 
large variety of shell beads and pendants, 
bone awls and tubes, and stemmed projec- 
tile points. The lower strata give no evi- 
dence of pottery, which would indicate 
preagriculture. This suggests a simple sed- 
entary existence depending on hunting, fishk- 
ing, and root- and berry-gathering. The 
most important sites containing this com- 
plex are Stallings Island in Georgia, 
Tchefuncte in Louisiana, Pickwick Basin 
in Alabama, and Indian Knoll in Kentucky. 
Pottery does occur in the later phases in 
all of these sites and consists uniformly of a 
crude fiber-tempered variety, probably the 
earliest type in the Southeast. There are 
minor variations from site to site, such as 
disc beads plastered on bone tubes with 
asphalt, from Indian Knoll in Kentucky; 
and different decorative treatments on the 
pottery. Nevertheless, not only are there 
sufficient differences between the various 
sites to show an adjustment to the local 
environment, but a general uniformity 
exists between the archeological complexes 
in the Southeast and the objects from simi- 
lar sites in New England and the Pacific 
coast. This indicates a probable hemispheric 
similarity of a widespread cultural level. 

So far as chronology of these people is 
concerned it can be safely assumed that 


SETZLER: ARCHEOLOGY IN UNITED STATES 


257 


they represent the first pottery-using 
people in the Southeast. As to whether they 
represent descendants from the much 
earlier Folsom hunters we have no evidence. 
My guess is that these semi-sedentary 
people represent a much more recent Asiatic 
migration of modern American Indians in- 
habiting the coasts and river valleys some 
time after A.D. 500. From this period up to 
A.D. 1800 archeologists in the Southeast 
have developed a most convincing series 
of cultural manifestations. These evolve 
from this early period through the various 
stages which led to the variety of historical 
Indian cultures found in the Southeast at 
the time of European discovery. Numerous 
outside influences account for these varie- 
ties. The introduction of maize, allowing 
more leisure and a more or less guaranteed 
staple food economy, permitted the devel- 
opment of complex political and religious 
organizations as well as the byproducts of 
large ceremonial centers, such as Ocmulgee, 
Etowah, Kolemokee, Moundville, Troy- 
ville, and Spiro. Large tribal migrations 
took place into the area as well as out of the 
Southeast. Even though some slight influ- 
ence is obvious from farther south in Mex- 
ico, the only real proof of these contacts 
rests in artistic similarities, and these occur — 
almost at the close of the protohistoric 
period, probably within the sixteenth or 
seventeenth century. 

Cultural similarities have also been es- 
tablished between certain manifestations in 
the Ohio Valley and some of the Upper 
Mississippi Valley cultures. Numerous pub- 
lications have described in detail the results 
from these W.P.A. archeological explora- 
tions; more will follow. One can safely as- 
sume, I think, that the broad outlines of the 
prehistoric cultures in the Southeast have 
been more or less established as to their rela- 
tive chronology and cultural relations. 
Many more problems remain, especially the 
historical antecedence; in other words, the 
strict application of the historical method 
to Southeastern prehistory. 

These accomplishments, when considered 
from the point of view of what was known 
prior to 1930, speak for themselves. Credit, 
it seems to me, must go first to the men re- 


258 


sponsible for outlining and directing the 
programs of research. Nevertheless they 
would still be working on their plans if the 
Federal and State relief agencies had not 
supplied the labor and material. Neither 
could have accomplished the results with- 
out the other. The same is true of the proj- 
ects elsewhere. 

The third most important archeological 
contribution during the past decade re- 
sulted from concentrated excavations in 
southwestern New Mexico and southern 
and northern Arizona. From scattered ex- 
cavations in southern Arizona prior to 1930 
a concerted effort has been made, both by 
well-organized programs and continuous 
excavations, to obtain data necessary to 
solve the problems of prehistory in this 
section of the Southwest as had been done 
in northern New Mexico and northeastern 
Arizona. The results of these investigations, 
entered into by various privately endowed 
organizations, have been published and 
provide a resume of the important cultural 
manifestations. These results together with 
the highly developed dendrochronology 
make it possible to observe cultural move- 
ments and variations, and enable the spe- 
cialist to establish specific dates for the 
sites. 

As a result of these concentrated pro- 
grams the occurrence of two basic cultures 
in the Southwest can be postulated: The 
Anasazi and Hohokam. The ramifications of 
the Anasazi through the various Basket- 
maker and Pueblo stages is well known. The 
men working in the southern Arizona field 
propose that the earliest and most wide- 
spread complex, known as the Cochise, 
consisted of a simple hunting complex, the 
remains of which are found with certain 
extinct fauna which they have dated around 
8000 B.C. From this hunting and. gathering 
complex developed a more sedentary group 
out of which, about the beginning of the 


Christian era, two variations developed, the - 


Mogollon and the Hohokam. 

These people lived in large communities 
and made fine undecorated pottery and 
artistically carved stone objects—all in all a 
rather closely knit, well-developed, seden- 
- tary culture. During this same period the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


people known as the Basketmakers lived in 
caves and shelters in northern New Mexico, 
wove beautiful sandals, and made artisti- 
cally decorated coiled baskets. These two 
centers of cultural influence continued to 
expand; then contact and an interchange of 
ideas took place between the north and 
south. About A.D. 1000 the Hohokam 
reached the peak of its cultural influence, 
and the now well-established Pueblo cul- 
tures in the north began to expand to the 
south. About A.D. 1200 this northern 
Pueblo culture began a definite southward © 
movement, forcing its influence through the 
Salado group upon the Hohokam and began ~ 
the latter’s eventual decline. The Pueblos, 
owing to catastrophic droughts were forced 
out of the San Juan drainage, and owing 
to somewhat similar ecological factors 
spread southward. The droughts also 
caused a decrease in their area of domina- 
tion and resulted in several regional and 
somewhat culturally separable groups. 
About A.D. 1600 the picture is well known 
from historical accounts, with the Hopi in 
Arizona, the Zufii in New Mexico, the Pima 
along the Gila and Salt Rivers, while the 
Papago were spreading farther south. 

Definite cultural influences, coming from 
centers farther south in Mexico, have been 
found in these southern Arizona sites; 
while pottery and other culture material 
from the Great Plains area has been found 
among the Pueblo cultures in northern New 
Mexico. These represent only the highlights 
from an area which in 1930 was considered 
drained so far as new archeological mani- 
festations were concerned. 

The fourth outstanding accomplishment 
is the application of modern archeological 
techniques to recovering, verifying, and 
supplementing historical accounts of early 
European settlements in the United States. 
This approach differs only in point of time 
and cultures involved. Ever since the arche- 
ologist emphasized the historical approach 
instead of trying to accumulate quantities 
of beautiful pottery or arrowheads and 
pipes, he became a collaborator with the 
student of history and the ethnographer. 
Since 1930 this technique has proved its 
value in supplementing and verifying the 


Sept. 15, 1942 


limited written accounts dealing with some 
of the first European settlements in Amer- 
ica. 

The best-known example and one of 
longest duration is the work at Jamestown 
Island, Va. Similar approaches were made 
at St. Augustine, Fla., and quite recently 
in and around Plymouth, Mass. At James- 
town historical and archeological research 
are working together to unravel the story 
of the years between 1607 and 1699, at 
which time Jamestown was the outstanding 
community in the colony of Virginia. The 
historical records of this first century of 
English colonization of America are meagre. 
The settlers were naturally too busy trying 
_ to keep body and soul together to do much 
recording for the edification of their de- 
scendants. Many of the records that were 
made have been destroyed or lost. More- 
over, even as today, people seldom pre- 
served records of their houses, furniture, 
dishes, and the like. Many of these, espe- 
cially the nonperishable type, such as rum 
bottles, spoons, buckles, seals, and china, 
are being recovered through controlled 
archeological excavations. On the other 
hand, the existing documents, such as 
maps, deeds, and court records, assist in 
determining facts that no amount of exca- 
vation could produce. The important con- 
tribution is that both disciplines, history 
and archeology, are working together to- 
ward the solution of specific problems. This 
type of collaboration at the most recent end 
of our time scale is just as important as 
collaboration between the Pleistocene geolo- 
gist or paleontologist and the archeologist 
at the extreme opposite end of our human 
history scale. This combination of efforts 
or techniques appears to me to cover the 


SETZLER: ARCHEOLOGY IN UNITED STATES 


259 


whole field of anthropology; functional or 
applied anthropology bridges a similar gap 
between ethnology and sociology. Similar 
examples could be cited for geography, 
economics, psychology, biology. The new 
science seems to be “growing up” and ex- 
panding in every direction. 

Getting back to archeology, I feel confi- 
dent that historical-archeology* will con- 
tinue to play an important part in the res- 
toration of sites historically associated with 
our own European cultures and from the 
point of view of popular interest will play 
a very prominent part in supplementing the 
cultural background of our own ancestors. 

Many other contributions have been 
made in those sections of the country which 
have not been stressed. There is the taxo- 
nomic classification, the reanalysis of earlier 
archeological excavations, the archeological 
survey of Kansas, explorations in Maine, 
New York and Pennsylvania, the work at 
the Kincaid site in southern Illinois, and 
the excavation of the Angel Mound group 
in southwestern Indiana. To these may be 
added dendrochronology in the Mississippi 
Valley from which some definite dates have 
been determined. 

One is always limited in preparing a sum- 
mary of this kind. I have endeavored to 
select those phases of the work that in the 
light of present conditions have contributed 
most to our knowledge of prehistoric man 
in the United States. At the same time I 
have tried to point out the unusual social 
conditions that made possible the large- 
scale archeological operations. 


4A poor name. Perhaps Colonial-archeology 
would be a better term, although such a collabora- 
tion of two disciplines would not necessarily be 
limited to the Colonial period. 


260 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO.Y 


BOTAN Y.—Two new dwarf species of Rubus from western China and Tibet and 


thear Asiatic relatives. 


Several species of dwarf Rubus occur in 
the area from western North America, 
through Kamchatka, the Far East, Japan, 
China, and Tibet, the exact relationships of 
which are uncertain. To these the writer 
is now adding the two new species described 
in this review. Both belong in the subgenus 
Cylactis Focke, according to the recent char- 
acterization of the group by L. H. Bailey.? 
He places in this group the western North 
American species R. lastococcus A. Gray and 
the eastern Asiatic and western North 
American species Rk. pedatus J. E. Smith, 
and, if he were not confining his studies to 
the North American species, would prob- 
ably include also the Asiatic species R. 
fockeanus 8. Kurz, R. rubrisetulosus Cardot, 
and possibly R. potentilloides W. E. Evans. 
Focke has placed most of these species in 
the subgenus Dalibarda,? based on Dal- 
barda repens L., 1753 (Rubus dalibarda L., 
1764), which Bailey maintains as a separate 
genus.* To the writer, however, the segrega- 
tion of this as a separate genus seems un- 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. Received June 12, 
1942. 

2 Gentes Herb. 5: 21. 1941: ‘Plant unarmed, 
with wiry thinly woody or almost herbaceous 
stems often prostrate or running, with no clear 
distinction of primocanes and floricanes... ; 
leaves lobed or ternate; stipules broad, attached 
on axis but sometimes also adnate at base to 
petiole; flowers solitary or very few.’’ On p. 24 
it is described thus: “Plants low, often repent, 
unarmed or bearing a few weak bristles, without 
definite primocane and floricane succession, stems 
more or less herbaceous to thin and somewhat 
ligneous; leaves various; flowers hermaphrodite 
but sometimes functionally asexual, borne few to 
several on a branched or forked leafy weak stem; 
fruit blackberry-like. Mostly high northern.”’ 

3 Focke, in Species Ruborum, p. 13. 1910, de- 
scribes Dalibarda as follows: ‘‘Calyx fere rotatus, 
cupula brevis plana; stamina in anthesi divari- 
cata; carpella pauca (saepissime 5) vel complura 
(ad 20), discreta, matura aut sicca, aut succosa.— 
Herbae perennes, reptantes, humiles (calyce R. 
Fockeani excepto) inermes, non setoso-glandu- 
losae; stipulae liberae, persistentes, in plurimis 
speciebus latae. Species paucae, inter se parum 
affinis, sed omnes humiles, herbaceae, reptantes, 
inermes.”’ 

4 In Gentes Herb. 5: 21. 1941, he excludes Dalz- 
barda from Rubus “because of its few pistils not 
placed on a developed torus and its cleistogamous 
flowers.”’ Elsewhere he has referred to the dry, 
non-fleshy fruits. 


EcBrerT H. Waker, U. 8. National Herbarium. 


tenable, because it is distinct only in respect 
to its cleistogamous flowers, a character 
that seems to be no greater a criterion for 


generic segregation than is the character of . 


dioecious flowers used to set aside the sub- 
genus Chamaemorus within the genus Rubus. 
Dalibarda as a genus or subgenus has been 
variously treated, and the species assigned 
to it have been equally variable in the ex- 
tensive literature on the genus. 

This assemblage of Asiatic species, which 
may thus be provisionally considered in the 
subgenus Cylactis, may be distinguished by 
the following key: 

a. Leaves mostly 5-foliolate. 
b'. Carpels about 5; leaflets toothed, not 
deeply lobed. 

cl. Peduncles more than 1 cm long; sepals 
oblong-ovate, acute to obtuse...... 

oe et Me he Cr 1. R. pedatus 

c?, Peduncles 1 cm long; sepals ovate, long 
acuminate to caudate....3. R. yur 

b?. Carpels about 20; leaflets deeply lobed 
fexcchar|. 4. <:.eree 5. R. potentilloides 

a?, Leaves mostly 3-foliolate. 

b!. Leaves serrate or doubly serrate, more 
than 1 ecm wide; sepals lanceolate and 
setulose or ovate and not setulose; 
stipules entire or 1- to 5-toothed. 

c!, Stipules entire or 1-toothed. 

d'. Sepals ovate; leaves coarsely and 
doubly serrate; carpels 12 to 20 
agra ce ee ae 2. hk. fockeanus 

d?, Sepals lanceolate or oblong lanceo- 
late; leaves rather finely and sim- 
ply serrate; carpels about 6...... 
- ives «ath ee 3, hee, ye 

‘c?, Stipules 3- to 5-toothed or incised 
AER ee. es” 4. R. rubrisetulosus 

b?. Leaflets deeply lobed or incised, less than 
1 cm wide; sepals broadly ovate, not 
setulose; stipules entire. 

cl. Carpels 24; petals entire or sinuate 
[ex char.]......5. R. potentillordes 
c?. Carpels about 3; petals lobed or 
coarsely toothed...6. R. clwicola 


1. Rubus pedatus J. E. Smith, Pl. Icon. Ined. 3. 
pl. 63. 1791; W. O. Focke, Sp. Rub. 16. 1910 
(Bibl. Bot. 1772); L. H. Bailey, Gentes 
Herb. 5: 40. 1941. 

Based on a collection by A. Menzies from 
western North America. The type has not been 
examined. | 

Distribution: From northern California, 
Idaho, and Montana to Alaska and Japan. 


Sept. 15, 1942 


Asiatic specimens examined: JAPAN: T'’sunezo 
Takemoto 1195 (A)*'; Kakuo Uno 16938 (A), 
17304 (A); EH. H. Wilson in 1914 (without 
number) (A). 


2. Rubus fockeanus S. Kurz, Journ. Asiat. Soc. 
Bengal 44?: 206. 1875; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 
2: 334. 1878; W. D. Focke, Sp. 

Rub. 16. 1910. 

Based on collections, probably by J. D. 
Hooker and C. B. Clarke, “in pascuis alpinis, 
Sikkim-Himalaya, e.g, in jugis Singalelah, 
12-14000 ped. s. m.”’ (See the original descrip- 
tion and Hooker’s Flora of British India.) 

Synonym: AR. loropetalus Franch. Pl. Delav. 
203. 1889. Based on Delavay 2837, from Yun- 
nan. A photograph in the Arnold Arboretum of 
the type in the Paris herbarium has been ex- 
amined. For note on this reduction see com- 
ments with Cardot’s description of R. rubrise- 
tulosus, and Focke in Notes Bot. Gard. Edin- 
pureh 5: 71.1911. 

Distribution: Hupeh, China, to Sikkim, 
India. 

Chinese specimens examined: YUNNAN: Dela- 
vay 2837 (photo and fragment) (A), Apr. 6, 
1889 (W), July 9, 1889 (G, W), 1889 (W); 
Forrest 5679 (W); Handel-Mazzetti 3281 (W); 
Rock 4738 (W); C. W. Wang 68494 (A); T. T. 
Yu 15984 (A, W). SzecHwan: Handel-Maz- 
zeltt 7225 (A); H. H. Wilson 1002 (A). Hupern: 
A. Henry 6839 (G, W). 


3. Rubus yui Walker, sp. nov. 


Humilis inermis, caulibus reptantibus suf- 
fruticosis, junioribus pubescentibus pilis albis 
subappressis et pilis erectis glandulosis; stipu- 
lae liberae ovatae acutae vel obtusae; folia 3-5- 
foliolata, orbiculata, 3-5 cm diametro, petio- 
lata (1-5 cm), molliter pubescentia et glandu- 
loso-pubescentia praecipue in nervis, foliolis 
late ovatis vel orbicularibus obtusis duplo-ser- 
ratis; ramuli floriferi circa 10 cm longi, uniflori; 
calyx circa 8 mm longus, intus valde pubescens 
extra ad basin glanduloso-pilosus, lobis late 
ovatis longe acuminatis vel caudatis; stamina 
complura biseriata in margine tori lati inserta; 
carpella circa 6; fructus globosus, circa 1 cm 
diametro, ut videtur succulentus. 

A low repent, radicant, suffrutescent, un- 

® The locations of the specimens examined are: 


A, Arnold Arboretum; G, Gray Herbarium; W, 
U.S. National Herbarium. 


WALKER: TWO NEW SPECIES OF RUBUS 


261 


armed plant with indumentum of soft white, 
subappressed hairs and much longer erect 
glandular hairs on younger stems, petioles, 
leaves (sparingly), and calyx; creeping stems 
rather slender, branching, brownish, the 1- 
flowered erect branches about 10 cm long; 
stipules free from the petiole, ovate, acute, to 
obtuse, asymmetric, pubescent, 5 to 10 mm 
long, appearing scalelike on creeping parts; 
leaves with petioles 1 to 5 cm long, 3- to 5 
foliolate, orbicular, 3 to 5 cm broad, the 
leaflets shortly petioluled, 1.5 to 3 cm long, 
broadly ovate to orbicular, rounded at apex, 
cuneate to truncate at base, sometimes slightly 
lobed, coarsely and more or less doubly ser- 
rate, sparingly soft pubescent and glandu- 
lar on both surfaces but especially on the 
veins; flowers white, terminal, solitary, usually 
subtended by a leaf, apparently nodding, 
nearly 2 cm in diameter, the peduncle scarcely 
1 cm long; calyx deeply 5-lobed, the lobes 
broadly ovate and long acuminate or caudate 
(1.5 to 3 mm), 8 mm long, soft pubescent 
especially within, glandular-hairy at base; 
petals probably 5, elliptic ovate, obtuse, entire, 
10 to 12 mm long, glabrous, veined; stamens 
numerous, biseriate, unequal in length, on 
margin of a wide torus-cup, about half the 
length of the calyx lobes, the anthers small, 
orbicular, the filaments rather broad; carpels 
about 6, the style 1.5 mm long, the ovary 1 
mm long, glabrous; fruit globose, about 1 mm 
in diameter, crimson, apparently somewhat 
fleshy. 

Type in the herbarium of the Arnold Arbore- 
tum collected by T. T. Yii, no. 19840, at Lung- 
tsahmuru in the upper Kiukiang Valley, Yun- 
nan, in an Abves forest at 3,800 meters altitude, 
August 9, 1938; reported to be common. Ad- 
ditional specimens examined, also at the Arnold 
Arboretum, are 7. T. Yii 19303, collected at 
Newahlung, Salwin-Kiukiang Divide, Yunnan, 
under a rhododendron-bamboo thicket at 
3,000 meters altitude, July 11, 1938, also 
common; C. W. Wang 65818 (in fruit) collected 
at ‘‘Gue-sai-gue, Tsa-wa-rung,”’ Sikang, on the 
border of a woods, at 3,200 meters altitude, 
August, 1935. 

This species seems most nearly related to R. 
fockeanus S. Kurz but differs in its ovate rather 
than lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate sepals and 
petals, fewer carpels, more coarsely and doubly 


262 


serrate leaves and often five leaflets. It also 
resembles R. pedatus J. E. Smith but differs in 
its coarser stems, larger flowers, broadly ovate, 
long acuminate or caudate sepals, and shorter 
pedicels. From R. rubrisetulosus Cardot it dif- 
fers in its entire stipules and broader, less 
setulose sepals. 
4. Rubus rubrisetulosum Cardot, Not. 
Syst. (Lecomte) 3: 289. 1917. 

Based on a collection by A. David in 1870 in 
the Paris herbarium (?) from “province de 
Moupine,’’® Szechwan. 

Distribution: Tibet, Yunnan, and Szechwan. 

Specimens examined: YuNNAN: Handel- 
Mazzettt 8887 (A); T. T. Yi 68044 (A), 68204 
(A), 68204A (A). 

5. Rubus potentilloides W. E. Evans, Notes Bot. 
Gard. Edinburgh 12: 179. 1912. 

Based on Ward 1777 (type), 3166, 1132, all 
from Upper Burma. No specimens have been 
seen. 


6. Rubus clivicola’? Walker, sp. nov. 


Humilis inermis, caulibus reptantibus suf- 
fruticosis, junioribus pubescentibus; stipulae 
liberae, ovatae vel suborbiculatae, integrae; 
folia trifoliolata orbicularia, 0.8-1.5 em diame- 
tro, petiolata (circa 8 mm longa), subtus mol- 
liter pubescentia et parce glanduloso-pubes- 
centia, foliolis valde 3-lobatis, lobis alte fissis, 
apice rotundatis, acutis vel obtusis; ramuli 
floriferi breves, uniflori; calyx circa 7 mm 
longus, externe pubescens, lobis late ovatis 
longe caudatis; petala lobata vel grosse dentata; 
stamina circa 30, uniseriata inaequalia; carpella 
circa 3; fructus ignotus. 

A low, repent, radicant, suffrutescent, un- 
armed plant with indumentum of soft white 
hairs on younger stems, petioles, leaves (es- 
pecially on veins of lower surface), and calyx 
lobes and scattered shorter brown glandular 
hairs especially on the leaves; creeping stems 
slender, wiry, dark reddish brown, the flower- 
ing branches scarcely 2 em long, 1-flowered; 
stipules free from the petiole, scarious, ovate 
to suborbicular, entire, more or less ciliate, 

6 For explanation of the misuse of this name by 
David, see notes by W. P. Fang in Contr. Biol. 
Lab. Sci. Soc. China Bot. Ser. 12: 4. 1939. 

7 This name, meaning an inhabitant of the 
slopes, is selected because most of the specimens 


examined were collected on screes or other rocky 
slopes. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


often occurring on the creeping stems as scales; 
leaves with pubescent petiole about 8 mm long. 
trifoliolate, orbicular, 0.8 to 1.5 em broad, the 
leaflets petioluled (the central one longest), 
deeply 3-lobed (each lobe deeply divided), ob- 
tuse at base, the lobes rounded and acute to 
obtuse at apex, the veins rather prominent be- 
neath (but less so than in R. fockeanus); 
flowers terminal, white, about 1 cm broad, the 
peduncle about 1 cm long; calyx deeply 5- 
(sometimes 4-) lobed, the lobes broadly ovate, 
caudate (1 mm), 5 to 6 mm long, softly 
pubescent especially on the margin; petals 5 
(sometims 4), ovate, lobed or coarsely toothed, 
about 7 mm long, glabrous; stamens about 30, 
uniseriate, of several lengths, the anthers small, 
ovate, the filaments broad; carpels about 3, 
about 2.5 mm long, the ovary 0.75 mm long, 
glabrous, the style rather slender, 1.5 mm long, 
the stigma abrupt; fruit unknown. 

Type in the United States National Her- 
barium, no. 1512903, collected by J. F. Rock, 
no. 23317, on a mossy scree at 4,200 meters 
altitude in mountains of Tjonatong, Upper 
Salween River, Tsarong Province, southern 
Tibet, June-July, 1932, on the expedition of 
the University of California Botanical Garden 
to southwestern China. Additional specimens 
examined, all from Yunnan and all in the her- 
barium of the Arnold Arboretum, are: Handel- 
Mazzettt 91978 from near the Yunnan-Tibet- 
Burma border between the Salween and the 
Irrawadi Rivers, ‘‘in pluviisilvis mixtis tem- 
peratis vallis Tjiontson-lumba infra Tschamu- 
tong,’ at 3,050 meters altitude, July 2, 1916; 
T. T. Yi. 19277 from Newahlung on the Salwin- 
Kiukiang Divide, common on a rocky surface 
under a shady forest at 2,800 to 3,000 meters 
altitude; T. T. Yii 22082 from Swang-Chiang 
on the Salwin-Kiukiang Divide, common on a 
rocky mountain slope at 2,800 meters altitude. 

In its deeply divided leaves this species 
seems to resemble R. potentilloides W. E. Evans, 
but it differs from the original description in its 
distinctly lobed or coarsely toothed petals, far 
fewer carpels (3 rather than 24), and uniseriate 
(rather than biseriate) stamens. 

8 This number and no. 8339 are cited in Handel- 
Mazzetti, Symbolae Sinicae, as R. potentilloides 
W. E. Evans, but they do not conform with the 
original description of that species in respect to 


the number of carpels, number of stamen series, 
and petal-lobing. 


Sept. 15, 1942 DE LAUBENFELS: PORIFERA FROM GREENLAND AND BAFFINLAND 263 


ZOOLOGY .—Porifera from Greenland and Baffinland collected by Capt. Robert A. 


Bartlett. 
cated by Waxpo L. ScHMITT.) 


The collections of Arctic sponges on 
which this report is based were dredged by 
Capt. R. A. Bartlett in August 1927, July 
1931, August and September 1933, and 
July 1940. Twenty-one species are repre- 
sented. Nine species and one genus are new. 


Class DEMOsPONGIAE 
Haliclona permollis (Bowerbank) 


This species was described as [sodictya per- 

mollis by Bowerbank (1866, p. 278). It is one 
of the few sponges with a wide distribution 
taken by Captain Bartlett; it is cosmopolitan 
and abundant. 
‘ The specimen in the present collection is a 
mass a little over 1 cc in size. The spicules and 
their arrangement are typical. In other respects 
the smallness of the specimen precludes satis- 
factory comparison. It was dredged in Fox 
Basin, lat. 66° 43’ N., long.-80° 07’ W., at a 
depth of 32-37 fathoms, August 12, 1927. 


Isodictya histodermella, n. sp. Fig. 1 A 


The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22688) was 
dredged July 22, 1940, at a depth of 60 fathoms, 
Parker Snow Bay, NW. (true) of Conical Rock. 
A second specimen was dredged August 12, 
1927, in Fox Basin, lat. 66° 43’ N., long. 80° 07’ 
W. This is a fragment of finger-sized projection 
similar to those on the larger specimen. 

The holotype is a palmate-shaped mass with 
several projections the size and shape of fingers. 
The whole is 15 em high and between 1 and 2 
em thick. The consistency is spongy, and the 
color the usual pale drab of sponges that have 
been preserved for some months. The surface 
is nearly smooth, microscopically slightly his- 
pid, with no detachable or special ectosome 
present. The oscules are 2 to 3 mm in diameter, 
mostly scattered, occurring chiefly along the 
narrower edges of the digitate projections. The 
endosome is somewhat cavernous, the interior 
being much more ‘‘open-work”’ than the outer 
portion, so that the sponge may almost be de- 
scribed as ‘‘hollow.’”’ The megascleres are oxeas 
approximately 14 by 270u. The microscleres are 
palmate isochelas 30 to 40u long. 


1 Received May 25, 1942. 


M. W. pvE LAUBENFELS, Pasadena Junior College. 


(Communi- 


The specific name is given in recognition of 
the structural resemblance of this sponge to 
specimens of the genus Histodermella, which is 
remarkable for having just such an open-work 
but not quite hollow interior. In other respects 
the resemblance ceases. The spiculation in par- 
ticular is very different. No other species of 
Isodictya is especially close to the one under 
discussion; it may, however, be compared with 
the genotype, [sodictya palmata, originally de- 
scribed as Spongia palmata by Lamarck (1814, 
p. 452). Superficially the genotype looks like 
Isodictya histodermella, but its interior is far 
less cavernous. The microscleres of J. palmata 
(Fig. 1, B) are rather peculiar in shape, whereas 
those of the species here described are typical 
isochelas. 


Orina consimilis (Lundbeck) 


This species was described from the Arctic, 
as Gelliodes consumilis by Lundbeck (1902, p. 
77). A very similar species is the sponge de- 
scribed as Gellius arcoferus by Vosmaer (1885, 
p. 29). The latter is also Arctic, as are many 
other species and specimens of the genus Orina. 

The specimen in the present collection, taken 
August 31, 1927, at the southeast corner of Fox 
Basin, lat. 66° 46’ N., long. 79° 15’ W., is re- 
markable for having toxas of two thicknesses. 
The larger are about 5 by 100y, the smaller 
only 2 by 100u. For this reason one might be 
tempted to describe it as a new species, but the 
other characters are typical. 


Iophon piceus (Vosmaer) 


This species was described as Alebion piceum 
by Vosmaer (1882, p. 42), from the Arctic. It 
is here proposed that the following species be 
dropped in synonymy to piceus: Reniera dubia 
Hansen (1885, p. 5), from the Arctic, and 
Iophon frigidus Lundbeck (1905, p. 183), from 
Greenland. Neither piceus nor dubia is ade- 
quately known, but from what information is 
available they seem to be conspecific with the 
well-described frigidus and the specimens under 
discussion. The latter have megascleres and 
anisochelas only about 70 per cent as large as 
those of Lundbeck’s Greenland species, and 
have bipocilli far more abundant. These differ- 


264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ences, however, do not warrant setting up a 
new species for Bartlett’s material, which con- 
sisted of two Fox Basin specimens, one from 
lat. 66° 43’ N., long. 80° 07’ W., August 12, 
1927, from a depth of 32-36 fathoms; the other 
without detailed locality data, taken August 
26, 1927, from 25-31 fathoms. 


Myxilla incrustans (Johnston) 


This species was described as Halichondria 
incrustans by Johnston (1842, p. 122). It is 
abundant in the north Atlantic and Arctic re- 
gions. Captain Bartlett dredged this sponge at 
32-37 fathoms in Fox Basin, lat. 66° 43’ N., 
long. 80° 07’ W., August 12, 1927, and at a 
depth of 32-37 fathoms on August 13, 1927. 


Myzxilla acribria, n. sp. Fig. 1 C 


The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22689) was 
dredged in Fox Basin in 1933; detailed locality 
data are lacking. It is an amorphous mass 1 by 
1.5 by 2 cm in size. The consistency is spongy 
and the color dull brown. The surface is finely 
hispid and lipostomous. The structure consists 
of plumose ascending columns, with the same 
sort of spicules echinating and coring the tracts. 

The principal megascleres are commonplace 
smooth styles 12 by 465u. There are some spe- 
cial dermal tylotes with microspined heads; 
total size about 9 by 375yu. The microscleres are 
anchorate isochelas as typical of this genus, but 
are a little larger than common, often up to 90u 
in length. 

The genus Myzilla is represented by many 
Arctic species, some of which are common. The 
present specimen is as different from these 
other Arctic Myxillas as could well be and still 
be left in the genus. On the other hand, it is al- 
most identical with one of the few species of 
this genus from the southern hemisphere. Rid- 
ley and Dendy (1886, p. 472) in their ‘‘Prelimi- 
nary Report on the Monaxonida collected by 
H.M.S. Challenger,” described Myzilla cribri- 
gera from Chile. The specimen collected by 
Captain Bartlett in Greenland bears an amaz- 
ing resemblance to M. cribrigera in all charac- 
ters except the important one which Ridley 
and Dendy selected as a basis for their specific 
name. Their specimen had well-defined pores 
arranged in special inhalant areas. The Green- 
land specimen conspicuously lacks this cribrous 
structure, which to ether with the vast geo- 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


graphical separation, seems to warrant naming 
it acribria, rather than identifying it as cribri- 
gera. 

Mycale vosmaeri (Levinsen) 


This species was described from the Arctic by 
Levinsen (1886, p. 20) as Esperella vosmaert. 
Brgndsted (1914, p. 489) maintained that it 
was conspecific with Mycale lingua (described 
as Hymeniacidon lingua by Bowerbank, 1858, 
p. 305), and his opinion has been generally fol- 
lowed in this regard. This assumes that M. 
lingua is a highly variable species and that 
vosmaert falls within the range of variation. I 
disagree, and propose that vosmaeri be rein- 
stated as a valid species. 

Captain Bartlett dredged this Mycale three 
times: Fox Basin, August 13, 1927, in 34-37 
fathoms, and August 26, 1927, in 25-31 fath- 
oms; and Parker Snow Bay, NW. Greenland, 
July 22, 1940, in 25-45 fathoms. 

Levinsen’s species was supposed to differ 
from Bowerbank’s by lacking the smaller type 
of anisochelas and by having much smaller 
sigmas. In some specimens of lingua the smaller 
anisochelas do not seem to be of a conspicu- 
ously smaller range, but in all Captain Bart- 
lett’s specimens, as in Levinsen’s, there seems 
to be no smaller type of anisochela at all. In 
all Captain Bartlett’s specimens the sigmas are 
even smaller (10 to 12u) than in Levinsen’s 
(20u); in typical lingua they are 27 to 32uy. 
These sigmas 1n vosmaerz are more strongly con- 
torted than in typical lingua. In typical lingua 
the megascleres are smooth substrongyles 750 
to 850u long, but in Levinsen’s specimen they 
are 650u long, and in those collected by Captain 
Bartlett they range from 600 to 680. 


Echinoclathria schmitti, n. sp. 


The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22690) was 
dredged in Fox Basin, at a depth of 34-37 fath- 
oms, lat. 66° 46’ N., long. 79° 15’ W., August 
13, 1927. It is a lamella or fragment of a vase; 
the piece of the wall is 7 mm thick and 5 cm 
high. Foreign objects, since removed, have left 
two cavities 7 mm in diameter, clear through 
the wall. The consistency is spongy and the 
color light brown. The surface is even, puncti- 
form, with pores 50u in diameter, 125u apart 
(center to center). The numerous oscules are a 
trifle under 1 mm in diameter, about 4 mm 
apart. There is no ectosomal specialization. The 


SepT. 15, 1942 DE LAUBENFELS: PORIFERA FROM GREENLAND AND BAFFINLAND 


endosome consists of specular tracts about 100yu 
in diameter, in a confused specular matrix. The 
latter could be interpreted as representing spec- 
ular connections between the tracts, or loosely 
echinating spicules on them. 

The only spicules are styles; many are about 
A by 200u, and many others 12 by 220u. One 
might regard these as two distinct types, but 
there are fairly numerous intermediate-sized 
spicules. 

The only other species of Echinoclathria that 
is very close to this one is the genotype E. tenuis 
Carter (1885, p. 355), from south Australia. 
The two are very close indeed. There are two 
reasons for establishing a new species for the 
Arctic sponge. One is the vast distance between 
Greenland and Australia, which is certainly in- 
adequate by itself alone but is significant in 
connection with other differences. The other 
and more critical difference is that in tenuis the 
interstitial spicules are tylostyles quite unlike 
those in schmiiti. Bréndsted (1933, p. 14) de- 
scribed two sponges from Greenland that are 
practically certainly conspecific with schmittt. 
He very dubiously identified them with Pha- 
kellia beringensts Hentschel (1929, p. 975). This 
species is named for Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of 
the United States National Museum. 


Halichondria fibrosa (Fristedt) 


This species was described as Amorphina 
fibrosa by Fristedt (1887, p. 426), from the 
Arctic. : 

Captain Bartlett dredged this species on Sep- 
tember 5, 1933, between the Island of Ooglit 
and the Eskimo village of Pingitkalik, north- 
east of Melville Peninsula, Fox Basin, near the 
entrance to the Fury and Hecla Straits. Earlier, 
on August 26, 1927, he dredged a sponge from 
Fox Basin, in 25-31 fathoms, that is probably 
conspecific. It is similar in spiculation and 
structure but is different in external shape. One 
side is astonishingly smooth and imperforate, 
as if it had been closely affixed to some smooth 
flat substratum. The other side is extremely 
cavernous, as though it had been loaded with 
foreign objects since removed. 


Cioxeamastia, n. gen. 


This genus is erected for the following spe- 
cies (C. polycalypta) as genotype. It is of the 
family Halichondriidae, with spiculation and 
most other characters quite typical, but differs 


265 


in possessing conspicuous closed fistules closely 
resembling those that characterize the genus 
Polymastia of the family Suberitidae. The 
genus Ciocalypta of the Halichondriidae also 
has fistules, but these are coarser than those of 
Criozeamastia. The spiculation of Ciocalypta is 
not typical of its family. 


Cioxeamastia polycalypta, n. sp. 


The holotype (U.S.M.N. no. 22691) was 
dredged in Fox Basin at a depth of 34-37 fath- 
oms, August 13, 1927. It is subspherical, 3 cm 
in diameter, with about 50 closed fistules of the 
Polymastia type, each 1 by 3 mm in transverse 
section and 4 mm high. The consistency is 
spongy and the color pale dull yellow. The sur- 
face is smooth and lipostomous. The ectosome 
is not detachable or conspicuously different 
from the rather dense endosome; in this regard 
it is not typical of the Halichondriidae. The 
spicules, as in Halichondria, consist of oxeas of 
great variation in size and in more or less con- 
fusion; most of them range in size from 4 by 
200 to 12 by 700u. 


Hymeniacidon heliophila (Parker) 


This species was described as Stylotella 
heliophila by Parker (1910, p. 766) in his 
famous discussion of the development of the 
nervous system. His species is a_ typical 
Hymentacidon and is extremely close to H. 
carnuncula, the common European Hymeni- 
acidon. The two may be synonymous. The 
Greenland specimen is definitely more like the 
American-Atlantic species (heltophila) than the 
EKuropean-Atlantic ones. 

Captain Bartlett took this sponge while 
otter-trawling off Wolstenholm Island, north- 
west Greenland, in 13-25 fathoms, on July 23, 
1940. 

Polymastia bartletti, n. sp. 


The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22692) was 
dredged in Fox Basin, lat. 67° 45’ N., long. 
79° 09’ W., at 38 fathoms on August 24, 1927. 
It is subspherical, about 6 em in diameter, and 
somewhat flattened on top and bottom. The 
consistency is firm but elastic, and the color a 
very pale yellow. The surface is very smooth 
except that there are about a dozen large 
conules or fistules about 6 mm high and 6 mm 
diameter at the base, together with several 
dozen smaller conules about 1.5 mm high and 


266 


2 mm diameter. No oscules are evident. The 
ectosome is a dense cortex 1.5 to 2 mm thick. 
The endosome is ‘‘crumb-of-bread”’ and more 
of the ochre-yellow than is the (paler) cortex. 

The ectosomal spicules are tylostyles 6 by 
350 to 6 by 400, erect, with points toward the 
exterior. The endosomal spicules are tylostyles 
9 by 540 to 12 by 600y; the larger each is, the 
less pronouncedly tylote it is. Most of these are 
arranged in rough tracts about 130y in diame- 
ter. Between these, there are many spicules 
- strewn in confusion, some of which are as small 
as 4 by 200u. 

But for the cone-shaped fistules this would be 
a typical Suberites. One would suggest compari- 
son with Suberites insignis Carter (1886, p. 
118), from south of Australia, which is de- 
scribed as resembling a nudibranch, but unfor- 
tunately not figured. The present species differs 
from most of the representatives of the genus 
Polymastia in that the latter have much longer 
fistules. There are, however, two already de- 
scribed with very low fistules, as follows: 
Polymastia laganoides Lambe (1894, p. 129) 
from Bering Sea (Arctic), which has three 
sizes of spicules and is probably most closely 
related to P. bartlettt; and Polymastia mega- 
sclera Burton (1934, p. 567), from Australia, 
which has extremely large spicules. 

This species is named in honor of Capt. 
Robert A. Bartlett. 


Tentorium semisuberites (Schmidt) 


This species was described as Thecophora 
semisuberites by Schmidt (1870, p. 50) from 
Greenland. Lambe (1896, p. 198) recorded it 
from northeastern Canada. The specimen col- 
lected by Captain Bartlett is astonishingly like 
Schmidt’s original, even to having just four 
symmetrically placed oscular chimneys on the 
dome-shaped upper surface. It was dredged at 
20-30 fathoms on September 3, 1933, at the en- 
trance to Fury and Hecla Straits. 


Class HyALOSPONGIAE 
Trichasterina sagittaria Topsent 


This species was described by Topsent (1913, 
p. 9) from the Arctic. The specimen collected 
by Captain Bartlett was dredged at a depth of 
110 fathoms on July 29, 1931, off East Green- 
land, lat. 74° 21’ N., long. 16° 30’ W. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 9 


Acanthascus nealus, n. sp. Fig. 1 E 


The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22693) was 
dredged at 120 fathoms depth on July 30, 1931, 
off East Greenland, lat. 74° 04’ N., long. 17° 
58’ W. It is a cone-shaped vase and shows no 
certain indication of having been erect. It is 
10 cm long and 10 cm diameter, with walls 
about 1 em thick. The consistency is fragile and 
the color dirty drab. The walls are pierced by 
canals of three sizes; the largest are 3 mm in 
diameter, the medium ones nearly 1 mm in di- 
ameter, and the abundant smaller ones are 
microscopic. The surface is nearly smooth, not 
at all hispid. 


Fig. 1—A, Microscleres of Isodictya histoder- 
mella, n. sp., 750; B, microscleres of Isodictya 
palmata, from Bowerbank, ‘‘Monograph of the 
British Spongiadae,” 1866, plate 52, 750; 
C, microscleres of Myzilla acribria, n. sp., 250; 
D, microscleres of Leucettusa usa, n. sp., 205; 
EK, microscleres of Acanthascus nealus, n. sp., ends 
of the discoasters, 500. 


Another specimen was dredged the same day 
at the same place. There are a number of frag- 
ments each about the size of the palm of the 
hand. It would appear that if fitted together 
correctly they would form a cone-shaped vase 
15 cm long and 11 cm in diameter at the open 
end. This vase, however, to judge from its at- 
tachments to rocks, was decidedly not upright, 
but lay on its side as it grew. The pointed end 
clearly shows that it was not attached. The 
walls vary from 5 cm thick at the open end of 
the cone to 15 mm thick as the closed (pointed) 
end of the cone is approached. 

The bulk of the spiculation consists of diac- 
tines up to 65u in diameter and 20 mm long. 
These make a felted mass. Their ends often are 
strongylote and microspined. The dermal and 


Sept. 15, 1942 DE LAUBENFELS: PORIFERA FROM GREENLAND AND BAFFINLAND 


so-called gastral spicules are regular hexactines, 
each ray about 10 by 200u and entirely micro- 
spined; a few are pentacts and stauracts. They 
are somewhat smaller in the smaller of the two 
specimens. The microscleres consist of abun- 
dant commonplace oxyhexasters 125u in diame- 
ter, and discohexasters of the same diameter. 
The latter were not found in the second 
(larger) specimen but may have been really 
present, or possibly washed out as the specimen 
was in a damaged condition. They are not typi- 
cal for this genus. 

In spite of minor differences these two speci- 
mens may be confidently regarded as conspe- 
cific. The evidence that they grew naturally on 


one side is not regarded as peculiar; many | 


other Hyalospongia may have grown similarly, 
but once detached from the bottom by a dredge 
they cease to give evidence thereof. It is sug- 
gested that such tilted positions are associated 
with a bottom current regularly in one direction 
rather than currents coming at one time or an- 
other from different directions. There are now 
six species of this genus. 

Three are decidedly hispid: 

A. cactus Schulze (1886, p. 48), the genotype, 
from Japan, has dermal and gastral pentacts 
where most of the others have hexacts. The 
shape is cylindrical. 

A. platet Schulze (1899, p. 45), from Cali- 
fornia, is like the above but with dermal and 
gastral hexacts.- 

A. grossularia Schulze (1886, p. 48), from the 
Antarctic, is similar to both the above but has 
two sorts of discohexasters instead of one. 

Three are smooth, not hispid: 

A. pachyderma Okada (1932, p. 94), from 
Japan, is similar to plate: except for being 

smooth surfaced, thick-walled, and oval. 
A. alani Ijima (1898, p. 55), from Japan, is 
like the above except that it has two sorts of 
discohexasters instead of one. 

A. nealus (new species) from Greenland is 
similar to pachyderma except that it is thin- 
walled and conical. 


Class CALCISPONGIAE 
Leuconia ananas (Montagu) 


This species was described by Montagu 
(1812, p. 97) as Spongia ananas. It is fairly 
common in the Arctic and about the Scandina- 
vian coasts. 


267 


Captain Bartlett dredged two specimens of 
this sponge on August 4, 1927, in 25 fathoms, 
4 miles east of Cape Dorchester, and one other 
specimen in Fox Basin, August 26, 1927, at 
25-31 fathoms. All three specimens are more 
distinctly pedicillate than usual for this species. 


Sycandra hebe, n. sp. 


The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22694) was 
dredged on August 12, 1927, ata depth of 32-37 
fathoms, in Fox Basin, lat. 66° 43’ N., long. 
80° 07’ W. It is a cylinder 11 mm high. The 
lower half is nearly solid and only 1 mm in di- 
ameter. The consistency is as fragile as in most 
Calcispongiae, and the color is the usual white. 
The surface is fairly smooth. The terminal 
cloaca is less than 1 mm in diameter. The walls 
are about 170u thick, containing often only a 
single layer of flagellate chambers about 80u in 
diameter, 160u long. 

The bulk of the spiculation consists of regu- 
lar triaxons with rays 5 by 50 to 8 by 120uy. 
There are diactines with one ray only about 20u 
long, at 120° to the other, which is nearly 300u 
long; their diameter is 15u. These occur felted 
in the wall, often protrude into the cloaca, and 
sometimes protrude slightly at the surface at an 
acute angle (nearly tangent) to it. 

Associated with the protrusion of these diacts 
into the cloaca are protoplasmic auxilliaries so 
that there are cloacal trabeculae. These have 
hitherto been associated with the solitary spe- 
cies of Sycandra, its genotype; this was origi- 
nally described by Schmidt (1870, p. 74), as Ute 
utriculus, and is recorded from Greenland and 
the North Atlantic. Many other sponges were 
temporarily supposed to be in the genus Sycan- 
dra, chiefly by Haeckel, but have been removed 
to the correct genera, chiefly by Dendy and 
Row. 

One must keep in mind the _ possibility 
that the present specimen may be a juvenile 
Sycandra utriculus, but data to that effect are 
wanting as yet. The specimen collected by Cap- 
tain Bartlett lacks the gastral tetraxons of 
utriculus, and has diactines much smaller than 
those (12 by 1500) of uérrculus. 


Scypha lingua (Haeckel) 


This species was described as Sycortts lingua 
by Haeckel (1872, p. 278) from Newfoundland. 
The sponge described by Haeckel (1872, p. 353) 


268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


as Sycandra arctica var. polaris, which was ele- 
vated to specific rank by Dendy and Row 
(1913, p. 747) is synonymous with Scypha 
lingua. Captain Bartlett dredged this species 
from a depth of 25-31 fathoms in Fox Basin, 
August 26, 1927. 

It is notable that another member of the 
genus Scypha has been recorded from western 
Greenland; this was described as Sycon karaja- 
kense by Breitfuss (1898, p. 207) but differs 
strikingly from linguain having small strongyles 
on the distal tufts where lingua has long oxeas. 

Sycetta sagitta, n. sp. 

The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22695) was col- 
lected at the west end of White Island; Frozen 
Strait, Fox Channel, August 10, 1933. It is 
ovoid, subcylindrical, of typical sycon-type ar- 
chitecture. It is 18 mm high and 4.5 mm in 
diameter where it is thickest. The consistency 
is softly fragile and the color is a pale yellow. 
The surface is nearly smooth, devoid of termi- 
nal tufts for the flagellate chambers. The term- 
inal oscule is barely 300yu in diameter, and the 
cloaca scarcely wider. The flagellate chambers 
are about 120u in diameter and 450y long. 

The principal spicules are pronouncedly sag- 
ittal triactines, some actually T-shaped. The 
shorter (paired) rays are about 4 by 100yu and 
the basal (unpaired) rays about 5 by 300u. The 
gastral spicules are sagittal as usual, with the 
apical ray (projecting into the cloaca) some- 
what bent. By very careful search two gastral 
tetractines (or quadriradiates) were found and 
one freakish pentactine. This is clearly very 
close to Sycetta sagittifera Haeckel (1872, p. 
240), from Ceylon, but there are several definite 
differences between the two species. The Cey- 
lon species has flagellate chambers less packed 
together, and as a result looks lumpy from the 
surface, while sagitta is smooth. Haeckel re- 
cords no tetractines at all. Some of his spicules 
have rays 6 by 800u, whereas none of those in 
the Greenland specimen are nearly that large. 
As these two closely related species become bet- 
ter known, more differences between them may 
perhaps be discovered. 


Leucettusa usa,n.sp. Fig.1D 

The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 22696) was col- 
lected in Fox Basin, at a depth of 25-31 fath- 
oms, on August 26, 1927; two others were taken 
in the same haul, and a fourth was collected 
August 13, 1927, at 34-37 fathoms in Fox 


VOL. 32, No. 9 


Basin, lat. 66° 46’ N., long. 79° 15’ W. This last 
is the largest of the four. 

The shape is very irregularly subcylindrical, 
in one case wider than high. The sizes are 20 to 
34 mm high, 10 to 22 mm wide. The consistency 
is quite spongy for a Calcisponge, and the color 
is white. The surface is smooth, with very small 
pores. The apical oscule is from 2 to 7 mm in 
diameter, varying directly with the diameter of 
the sponge, independent of the height. The 
ectosome has more spicule content, and less 
protoplasm; the endosome has less spicule con- 
tent and more protoplasm. 

The principal spicules are very large tetrac- 
tines with angles and actines approximately 
equal but with one pair of opposite actines 
often somewhat crooked. The rays are often 
about 85 by 1,100z. 

There is a dermal layer of smaller radiates, 
rays about 30 by 450u. Some of these are tri- 
actines, tangentially placed. Others are tetrac- 
tines with three rays tangent and one ray 
hypodermal. 

There are vast numbers of very distinctive 
microscleres. These are sometimes oxeas, but 
more often bent, even sharply bent. They may 
have two or more angular bends in their length. 
Some are strongylote. The size is usually about 
3 by 100u, but with some little variation. 

This species is strongly corticate like the type 


of the genus Leucettusa, which was described as 


Leucetta corticata Haeckel (1872, p. 129) from 
the West Indies; in fact, except for spiculation 
this species and the one here described are prac- 
tically identical and very different from all 
other members of the genus. Yet corticata has 
few (if any) proper tetractines and none of the 
peculiar microscleres. On the other hand, Leu- 
cettusa dictyogaster Row and Hozawa (1931, p. 
751), from West Australia, has spicules nearly 
exactly like those of usa, although its micro- 
scleres are twice as thick as those in the 
Greenland sponge. Furthermore, the Australian 
species is scarcely corticate at all, and has a 
very peculiar habitus of anastomosing tubes. 


Leucosolenia macleayi (Lendenfeld) 


This species was described as Ascetta macleayr 
by Lendenfeld (1885, p. 1086) from Australia, 


but it was soon found to be abundant and cos- 


mopolitan. Captain Bartlett’s specimen came 
from 20-30 fathoms near the entrance to Fury 
and Hecla Straits on September 3, 1933. 


Sept. 15, 1942 DE LAUBENFELS: PORIFERA FROM GREENLAND AND BAFFINLAND 


269 


LITERATURE CITED 


BowERBANK, J.S. A monograph of the British 
Spongiadae 2: 1-388. Ray Society, Lon- 
don, 1866. 

BreitFuss, L. L. Catalog der Calcarea der 
zoologischen Sammlung des kéniglichen 
Museums fiir Naturkunde zu Berlin. Arch. 
Naturg. 63: 205-226. 1898. 

BroénsteD, H. V. Conspectus faunae Groen- 
landicae. Porifera. Medd. om Gronland 
23(2): 457-544. 1914. 

The Godthaab Expedition 1928: Porif- 

Medd. om Grénland 79(5): 1-25. 


era. 
1933. 

Burton, M. Sponges. Great Barrier Reef 
Exped. Sci. Repts. 4(14): 513-614. 1934. 

Carter, H. J. Descriptions of sponges from the 
neighborhood of Port Phillup Heads, South 
Australia, continued. Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. (ser. 5) 17: 40-53, 112-127, 431-441, 
502-516. 1886. 

Denpy, A., and R. W. H. Row. The classifica- 
tion and phylogeny of the calcareous sponges; 
with a reference list of all the described spe- 
cies, systematically arranged. Proc. Zool. 
Soc. London, 19138: 704-813. 

FristepT, K. Sponges from the Atlantic and 
Arctic Oceans and the Bering Sea. Vega- 
Expeditionens Vetensk. Iakttagelser (Nor- 
denskidld) 4: 401-471. 1887. 

HakckKgeL, KE. Die Kalkschwimme: eine Mono- 
gnapiienas..2:1-418, Berlin, 1872. 
Hansen, G. A. Spongiadae. The Norwegian 
North-Atlantic Expedition 1876-78, 13: 

1-25. Christiania, 1885. 

HENTSCHEL, E. Dre Kviesel- 
schwamme des nordlichen Hismeers. 
na Arctica 5: 859-1042. 1929. 

Isima, I. The genera and species of Rossellidae. 
Preliminary notice. Annot. Zool. Japon. 
2e4l—oo. 1898: 

JoHNSTON, G. A history of British sponges and 
Lithophytes: xii+264 pp. Edinburgh, 
London, Dublin, 1842. 

Lamarck, J. B. P. A. deM. Sur polypiers 
empdtes. Ann. du Muséum 20: 370-886, 
432-458. 1813. 

LamMBE, L. Sponges from the western coast of 
North America. Proc. and Trans. Roy. 
Soc. Canada 12(4): 113-188. 1894 [1895]. 

LENDENFELD, R. von. A monograph of the 
Australian sponges. Part III. Proc. Linn. 
Soc. New South Wales 9: 10838-1150. 
1885. 


und Horn- 
Fau- 


Lrevinsen, G. M. R. 


Kara-Havets Svampe 


(Porifera). Dijmpha-Togtets zool. bot. 
Udbytte: 341-872. 1886. 

LunpBEeck, W. Porifera. Part I: Homor- 
raphidae and Hetororrhaphidae. Danish 


Ingolf-Expedition 6: 1-108. 1902. 

Porifera. Part II: Desmacidonidae 
(pars). Danish Ingolf-Expedition 6: 
=2ING), US, 

Monraau, G. An essay on sponges, with de- 
scriptions of all the species that have been 
discovered on the coast of Great Britain. 
Mem. Werner. Soc. 2: 67-122. 1818. 

Oxapba, Y. Report on the hexactinellid sponges 
collected by the Umited States Fisheries 
steamer Albatross in the Northwestern Pa- 
cific during the summer of 1906. Proc. 
U.S. Nat. Mus. 81 (2935): 1-118. 1932. 


PARKER, G. H. The reactions of sponges with a 


consideration of the origin of the nervous 
system. Journ. Exp. Zool. 8: 765-805. 
1910. 

Ripuey, 8. O., and A. Denpy. Preliminary 
report on the Monaxonida collected by 
H.M.S. Challenger. Parts I and II. Ann. 
Miao Nate Hist (ser: 5) 1S:5325-s58- 
470-493. 1886. 

Row, R. W. H., and 8S. Hozawa. Report on the 
Calcarea obtained by the Hamburg South- 
west Australian Expedition of 1905. Sci. 
Rep. Tohoku Imp. Univ. (ser. 4: Biol.) 
6(4): 727-809. 1931. 

ScumiptT, O. Grundziige einer Spongien-Fauna 
des atlantischen Gebietes:iv +88 pp. Leip- 
zig, 1870. 

ScHuuzeH, F. E. Ueber den Bau und das Sys- 
tem der Hexactinellrden. Abh. Akad. Wiss. 
Berlin, 1886: 1—97. 

Amertkanische Hexactinelliden nach 
dem Materiale der Albatross-Expedition 
bearbertet: 126 pp. Jena, 1899. 

TopsEeNnT, E. Spongiarres provenant des cam- 
pagnes scientifiques de la Princesse Alice 
dans les mers du Nord (1898-1899, 1906- 
1907). Résult. Camp. Sci. Monaco 45: 
1-67. 1913. 

VosmMaER, G. C. J. Report on the sponges 
dredged wp in the Arctic Sea by the Willem 
Barents in the years 1878 and 1879. 
Niederl. Arch. Zool. Suppl. 1: 1—58. 1882. 

The sponges of the Willem Barents 

Expedition from 1880 and 1881. Bijdr. 

Dierk. 12; 1-47. 1885. 


270 


ZOOLOGY.—Sinocybe, a new genus of colobognath millipeds from China. 


Loomis, Bureau of Plant Industry. 


The milliped order Colobognatha is con- 
sidered more primitive than any of the 
other orders of Chilognatha, as its mouth- 
parts are of simplified form, adapted to suck- 
ing, instead of being developed into the 
more complicated mechanisms required for 
chewing foods. Parallel, but not necessarily 
simultaneous, evolution of structures is in- 
dicated by the fact that in this order legs 9 
and 10 of the males have been modified for 
sexual purposes, whereas in other orders 
having these structures, termed ‘‘gono- 
pods,” at the anterior end of the body, legs 
8 and 9 are modified. The gonopods of 
Colobognatha have not been changed to the 
extent found in the other orders, where the 
variations of structure offer many of the 
best taxonomic characters. There are other 
structural features in this order also which 
give evidence of closer association with pre- 
historic forms. 

Geographic distribution of the order is 
another measure of its antiquity, for, while 
the members are found in all of the conti- 
nents and many adjacent islands, relatively 
few genera and species are involved and, be- 
cause of this and their diversity, these are 
looked upon as somewhat disconnected rem- 
nants of a much more populous fauna in 
past eras. 

At the present time the Central American 
tropics and Malaysia vie for the lead in 
number of known species, although the 
United States is not far behind and has a 
diversity of forms surpassing all other coun- 
tries. 

One of the most typical of the Central 
American families of millipeds, although a 
small one, is the Platydesmidae of the 
present order. As the name implies, its spe- 
cies are very broad, with great development 
of the lateral carinae, and the legs are sep- 
arated by broad sterna. This family is not 
known in the United States but is replaced 
by the Andrognathidae, containing some 
species resembling the platydesmids, in de- 
velopment of carinae, while others do not, 
being more slender, although to both forms 


1 Received April 22, 1942. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


narrow sterna are common. The superficial! 
resemblance of the broad forms of these two 
families, which have quite similar gonopods, 
has caused many diplopodists to recognize 
only a single family. There are no more fun- 
damental differences, however, between re- 
lated families than the narrow sterna of the 
Andrognathidae, supporting a fungiform 
process separating the legs, and the very 
wide, simple sterna of the Platydesmidae 
lacking any counterpart of that process. 

The Malayan genus Pseudodesmus, long 
referred to the latter family, has very nar- 
row sterna, but whether a fungiform process 
is present is not known, although the nar- 
row sterna alone are sufficient grounds for 
removing the genus from the Platydesmidae 
and locating it near or in the Andro- 
gnathidae, the latter course being followed 
here. 


The discovery, 23 years ago, of a new — 


generic member of the Andrognathidae in 
the Lu Mountains, Kiangsi Province, China, 
provides a connecting link, both geograph- 
ically and structurally, between Pseudo- 
desmus and the North American Brachy- 
cybe. The new genus is represented by two 
specimens, a male and nearly mature fe- 
male, collected by O. F. Cook and the 
writer near Kuling, not far from the site 
where many specimens of an extremely 
bizarre milliped, later made the type of a 
new and archaic family of the order 
Merocheta,? were found. The presence of 
Sinocybe, as the new genus is to be named, 
lends further support to the view that the 
Lu Mountains contain a residual but super- 
ficially known milliped fauna of great age. 


Sinocybe, new genus 


Type: Sinocybe cookt, new species, from cen- 
tral China. 

Diagnosis.—Sinocybe occupies a place almost 
intermediately between the North American 
Brachycybe and the Malayan Pseudodesmus. As 
compared to Pseudodesmus the body is smaller; 


2 Coox, O. F.,and H. F.Loomis. Anew family 
of spined millipeds from central China. Journ. 
Washington Acad. Sci. 14 (5): 103-108. 1924. 


Serr. 15, 1942 


relatively broader; less convex; with fewer seg- 
ments; surface less strikingly sculptured, al- 
though having two transverse series of tubercles 
instead of one; the preanal scale is in a special 
excision of the last segment, rather than ex- 
cluded from it as shown in Pocock’s illustration 
of Pseudodesmus verrucosus.’ Sinocybe differs 
from Brachycybe in being much more convex; 
dorsal sculpture more strongly developed, es- 
pecially on the anterior segments; head much 
flatter and thinner and with a raised margining 
rim on each side above the antenna; first seg- 
ment strongly deflexed, thick, without ex- 
panded and projecting carinae and only slightly 
wider than the head. 

Description.—Body close-jointed, the size 
and shape almost the same as the Californian 
Brachycybe rosea Murray, but the dorsal arch 
much higher (Fig. 1, B), with the head and 
anterior segments sloping or deflexed (Fig. 1, 
A), while in Brachycybe the anterior segments 
are horizontal. 

Head turned underneath the first segment so 
that the vertex does not project beyond the 
first segment when viewed from above (Fig. 
1, C), subcordate in outline when viewed from 
in front; in profile very thinly lenticular; raised 
marginal rim present above each antenna, sur- 
face pubescent along the posterior margin, else- 
where glabrous and very minutely punctate; 
antennae rising from the sides of the head, 
rather robust and compact, none of the joints 
notably elongate or crassate; gnathochilarium 
asin Brachycybe. 

First segment facing forward, vertical to the 
body; rather small and thick as in Pseudo- 
desmus and like it in being without produced 
carinae or expanded margins; surface finely and 
densely pubescent, with several large, elongate 
tubercles, but without a series of smaller tu- 
bercles as on the other segments. 

Following anterior segments with lateral 
carinae produced forward as in Brachycybe, but 
with the posterior margin overlapped by the 
carinae of the next segment (Fig. 1, C); in 
Pseudodesmus the carinae are more strongly 
produced forward, the outer limits narrowed, 
subacute, whereas in Sinocybe they are broadly 
rounded, subtruncate; second segment with ca- 
rinae much thicker than any others, the dorsum 


3 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 5) 20: pl. 14, fig. 3. 
1887. 


LOOMIS: A NEW GENUS OF MILLIPEDS 


271 


strongly arched and the transverse crest beset. 
with tubercles in a single series; segments 3 and 
4 with the crest reduced but bearing a single 
series of tubercles; subsequent segments with 
two rows of tubercles, dorsum with a strongly 
impressed median sulcus and a less definite 
transverse depression between the rows of tu- 
bercles; surface above and below pubescent; 
lateral carinae projecting outward as in Brachy- 
cybe, the pore in the margin, near the posterior 
corner (Fig. 1, D). 

Posterior segments of the same general pat- 
tern as in Brachycybe; the penultimate segment 
with the two rows of tubercles scarcely reduced 
in size. 

Last segment not tuberculate above; pu- 
bescent on the sides only; apical margin with 
six small teeth; ventral margin deeply excised 
and completely enclosing the moderately sized 
and nearly semicircular preanal scale on the 
sides and in front (Fig. 1, E); a shallower, less 
apparent excision is present in Brachycybe but 
in Pseudodesmus, as shown in Pocock’s illustra- 
tion (loc. cit.), the scale does not indent the 
margin of the last segment in the least. 

Legs scarcely attaining the sides of the body; 
coxae narrowly separated; each sternum with a 
small anterior median lobe projecting slightly 
forward between the coxae of the preceding 
legs; each coxa with an inflated sack arising 
from an apical perforation. 

Gonopods rather small and compact, resem- 
bling partially atrophied legs, as in Brachycypbe. 


Sinocybe cooki, new species 


A mature male and a nearly mature female 
collected at Kuling, Kiangsi Province, China, 
October 17, 1919, by O. F. Cook and H.F. 
Loomis. Male type in the U. S. National Mu- 
seum; female paratype in Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. 

Description.—Body of the type 18 mm long 
and 3 mm wide, composed of 55 segments; simi- 
lar in outline to Brachycybe rosea Murray but 
body arch much higher. 

Head bent obliquely under body; cordate in 
front view, thinly lenticular in profile; surface 
finely pubescent along posterior margin, else- 
where glabrous, shining and very minutely 
punctate; margins of head, above antenna 
sockets, with a fine raised rim reaching half way 
to the middle of the posterior margin; antennae 


212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | 


at sides of head; moderately robust; joints 1, 3, 
4, and 5 subequal, about as broad as long, 
slightly exceeded by joints 2 and 6, the latter 
somewhat broader than the other joints. 
First segment almost vertical, at a right angle 
to the long axis of the body; size small, scarcely 
wider than the head; thick and without ex- 
panded or projecting margins; median surface 
strongly impressed longitudinally, the surface 
on either side of the middle with three large, 
crest-like tubercles; one near the front corner 
directed obliquely backward and outward; an- 


E 


VOL. 32, No. 9 


brous above but not below; last few segments 
with dorsum much less pubescent between the 
large submedian tubercles than elsewhere. 
Second segment with forwardly produced 
lateral carinae much thicker than the other 
carinae; dorsum strongly arched, transversely 
elevated into a broad, indefinite ridgelike prom- 
inence or crest bearing a series of 10 to 12 
rounded tubercles of which the inner one on 
each side is the largest; next two segments 
crossed by decreasingly elevated tuberculate 
crests; segments thereafter with two series of 


tla 


Fig. 1.—Sznocybe cooki, new species: A, Head and first five segments, lateral view; B, head and first 
three segments, anterior view; C, anterior end of body showing first four segments, dorsal view; D, seg- 
ment from middle of body, dorsal view; E, last segment, anal valves and preanal scale, ventral view. 


other of equal size close to the posterior margin 
and paralleling it; the third tubercle less than 
half as large as the others, transverse, slightly 
in front of the middle of the segment and rather 
close to the median impression; surface of seg- 
ment with dense, subappressed pubescence but 
the tubercles smooth and shining; other seg- 
ments with pubescence similarly disposed ex- 
cept that a small area near the pore is glabrous, 
and on the posterior segments the pubescence 
recedes from the lateral carinae and the last 
half dozen carinae are almost completely gla- 


tubercles separated by a depression extending 
half way to the lateral margin; anterior series of 
tubercles extending farther laterad and con- 
taining 12 to 18 tubercles decreasing in size 
from the large median pair; posterior series 
with 6 to 8 tubercles, the median pair of both 
series largest; on the anterior segments the in- 
ner pair of tubercles rather close together but 
wide apart on the posterior segments; lateral 
carinae declined from the dorsum with the 
outer portion becoming almost horizontal; 
outer margin short, the anterior corner broadly 


Sept. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS 


rounded, the posterior corner slightly produced 
caudad; pore opening outward from the margin 
near the posterior corner; carinae of the an- 
terior segments overlapped behind by the ca- 
rinae of the next segment; margins of the outer 
half of the carinae raised above the inner sur- 
face but gradually lowered after the first few 
segments. 

Penultimate segment with lateral carinae 
produced straight back, widely separated; the 
inner margins parallel, smooth; the outer mar- 
gins, and those of several preceding segments, 
finely serrate. 

Last segment longer than broad, the dorsum 
longer than on any other segment; surface 
smooth and glabrous except on the sides which 
are slightly pubescent; apex broadly rounded 
and with six small, subapical, marginal teeth or 
tubercles; ventral margin with a deep, semicir- 


: THE ACADEMY 


273 


cular excision which completely surrounds the 
preanal scale on the sides and in front. 

Preanal scale almost a semicircle, crescentic, 
the posterior margin lightly emarginate, con- 
tinuing the line of the margin of the last seg- 
ment around the anal valves. 

Valves strongly inflated, together almost 
hemispherical, the margins meeting in a groove. 

Legs close together, the narrow sterna with 
anterior lobes projecting up and forward be- 
tween the coxae of the preceding legs; coxae 
each with an inflated sack projecting from an 
apical perforation; tip of legs just attaining the 
sides of the body. 

Gonopods closely resembling those of Brachy- 
cybe, being short, rather stout, curved forward 
and inward, and with easily distinguished leg- 
like joints. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 
374TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 374th meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on 
March 16, 1942. President Curtis called the 
meeting to order at 8:01 P.M., with 23 persons 
present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros- 
emt HE S. RarpLeyve, N. R Smirx, R. J. 
SrnGcER, F. H. H. Roserts, Jr., F. G. Bricx- 
weppe, H. B. Couns, Jr., F. C. Kracnx, 
W. G. BromsBacuer, F. M. Setzumr, H. L. 
Haturr, A. H. Cuarx, A. Wetmore, J. E. 
McMourtrey, Jr., W. A. Dayton, F. B. Srus- 
BEE, EK. W. Price, L. W. Parr, H. G. Dorsey, 
H. STaBiEr, and, by invitation, G. A. Coopmr 
and J. R. SWALLEN. 

The minutes of the 373d meeting were read 
and approved. President Curtis announced 
the following appointments: 

Committee to consider certain questions re- 
lating to the membership: H. B. Couuins, Jr. 
(chairman), and E. W. Price. 

Committee to consider the petition for af- 
fiiation of the District of Columbia Society of 
Medical Technologists: L. W. Parr (chair- 
man) . H. H. Roperts, Jr., and A. H. 
CLARK. 

Committee to consider ways and means of 

increasing the income of the Academy: W. A. 
Dayton (chairman), H. S. Rappiryr, and 
_F. B. SiusBer. 

For the Committee on Membership, Chair- 
man Kracrx presented nominations for 6 
persons (4 resident and 2 nonresident). 

Three persons, one each from Canada, 
Mexico, and Argentina, were considered in- 


dividually and duly elected to honorary mem- 
bership. 

For the Committee to consider certain ques- 
tions relating to membership, Chairman CotL- 
LINS presented a report recommending (a) that 
three members of the Committee on Member- 
ship be reappointed each year in order to in- 
crease the degree of continuity in that Com- 
mittee, (6) that more honorary members from 
South America be considered, and (c) that the 
number of honorary members be limited by the 
present Board to 25. The Board approved 
these recommendations. 

For the Committee to consider the petition 
for affiliation of the District of Columbia 
Society of Medical Technologists, Chairman 
ParR presented a report recommending that 
this petition be declined. The Board approved 
this recommendation. 

For the Committee to consider ways and 
means of increasing the income of the Academy, 
Chairman Dayton presented a report recom- 
mending (a)that the number of active resident 
members be increased from 450 to 600, (0) that 
the membership of the Academy be canvassed 
regarding the matter of increasing dues from 
$5 to $6 annually, (c) that a Committee be 
appointed to obtain patrons for the Academy, 
and (d) that the JouRNAL of the Academy 
consider the placing therein of appropriate 
paid advertising. The Committee also reported 
that 33 State Academies of Science affliated 
with the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science were being circularized 
with an appropriate questionnaire. The Board 
acted separately on each of the foregoing rec- 
ommendations, as follows: (a) It was decided 


274 


to submit to the membership for their approval 
a proposed amendment to the bylaws increas- 
ing the permissible number of resident mem- 
bers from 450 to 500; (6) 1t was decided not to 
consider increasing the membership dues; (c) 
the President was authorized to appoint a 
Committee on patrons for the Academy; (d) 
the question of obtaining income by selling 
advertising space in the JoURNAL was referred 
to the Board of Editors. The Committee was 
thanked for the work accomplished. 

The Secretary reported the following data 
relating to the membership: Acceptances, 2; 
qualified, 1; retirements, 1; status of member- 
ship as of March 16, 1942: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total 
Resident 433 36 3 0 472 
Nonresident 129 19 13 2 163 
Total 562 55 16 2 635 


The Secretary reported as follows on the 
“List of Officers for 1942 of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences and its Twenty Affiliated 
Societies”: 1500 copies of a 4-page booklet, 
without cover, under the foregoing title, were 
published under date of February 9, 1942, with 
mailing actually being made on February 21, 
1942. The cost was as follows: Editorial serv- 
ices, $10; printing, $20.20; total, $30.20. Since 
a total of $60 was allotted for the job, a balance 
of $29.80 remains in the treasury. 

Archivist SMITH reported that he had opened 
the sealed package relating to the selection of 
the original membership of the Academy by 
the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies 
of Washington and found nothing in it of par- 
ticular interest. Only one ballot carried any 
notation beyond that of the marks for balloting. 

On recommendation of the Board of Editors, 
it was moved and carried that (a) the opera- 
tional increase of 6 per cent proposed by the 
George Banta Publishing Co. as a surcharge 
effective with the issue of April 15, 1942, be 
approved; (b) the practice of giving free to 
authors 50 reprints without covers be discon- 
tinued after the March 15, 1942, issue; (c) the 
Executive Committee be authorized to recon- 
sider, in consultation with the Board of Edi- 
tors of the JouRNAL, the 1942 budget allot- 
ment for the JOURNAL. 

Following a statement by the Secretary that 
the bylaws were in need of revision on several 
noncontroversial points, it was moved and 
carried that the President appoint a Com- 
mittee to consider proposed amendments to 
the bylaws. 

Following some considerable discussion, it 
was moved and carried that the President ap- 
point a Committee to consider ways and means 
of decreasing the operating expenses of the 
Academy without decreasing the services per- 
formed. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


311TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 311th meeting of the Academy was held 
in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club at 
8:15 p.m. on March 19, 1942, with President 
CurTIS presiding. ; 

The meeting was devoted to the presentation 
by the Academy of its Awards for Scientific 
Achievement for 1941, as follors: 

For the Biological Sciences, to G. ARTHUR 
Cooper, U. 8. National Museum, in recogni- 
tion of his distinguished service in the field of 
invertebrate paleontology, notably for the dis- 
covery of anatomical structures hitherto un- 
known. 

For the Engineering Sciences, to THEODORE 
R. GILLILAND, National Bureau of Standards, 
in recognition of his distinguished service in 
originating automatic ionosphere recordings 
for continuously variable radio frequencies. 

For the Physical Sciences, to Steritine B. 
Henpricks, U.§8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in 
recognition of his distinguished service in de- 
termining the constitution of micaceous and 
other complex minerals. 

The recipients were introduced by ALEx- 
ANDER WETMORE, HERBERT GrRovE Dorsey, 
and Francis O. Ricn, respectively, and gave 
brief addresses concerning the work for which 
they were given the awards. 

There were about 70 persons present. A 
social hour followed the meeting. 


312TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 312th meeting of the Academy was held 
in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club at 


8:15 p.m. on April 16, 1942, with President © . 


CuRTIs presiding. 

Pau. R. HeYt, chief of the section on sound 
at the National Bureau of Standards, delivered 
an address entitled Cosmic emotion, published 
in the August, 1942, issue of this JouRNAL. 

There were about 110 persons present. A 
social hour followed the meeting. 


375TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 375th meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on 
May 18, 1942. President Curtis called the 
meeting to order at 8:01 P.m., with 18 persons 
present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros- 
sinI, N. R. Smirs, W. W.. Dina Be oe 
SEEGER, J. E. Grar, F. H. H. Roperts, JR., 
EH. B. Cotuins, Jr., F: C. KrAcux yee 
BRoMBACHER, F. M. Srerzuer, J. B. REESIDE, 
Jr., F. B. SItSBEE, E. W. Price, C. L. GARNER, 
and, by invitation, G. A. Cooper, J. R. 
SWALLEN and C. E. CHAMBLISS. 

The minutes of the 374th meeting were read 
and approved. President Curtis announced 
the following appointments: . 

Committee on patrons for the Academy: 
C. E. CHamMBuiss (chairman) H. C. FULLER, 
C. L. GARNER, and J. W. McBurney. 


— 


Sepr. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS 


Committee to consider proposed amend- 
ments to the bylaws: F. B. StusBEE (chairman), 
N. R. Suiru, and F. D. Rossini. 

Committee to consider ways and means of 
decreasing the operating expenses of the 
Academy: F. G. BrickwrpprE (chairman), 
BK. W. Prices, and H. STABLER. 

For the Executive Committee, President 
Curtis reported that this Committee had held 
a meeting just preceding the meeting of the 
Board, had received written and oral reports 
from the Board of Editors regarding the needs 
of the JourNaL for more funds in order to 
publish as much or slightly more material in 
1942 than in 1941, had received through the 
Secretary an oral report from the Treasurer 
that the Academy would probably just balance 
its budget for 1942 with the present allotments, 
and had unanimously agreed to recommend to 
the Board that no change be made in the allot- 
ment to the JouRNAL for 1942. The Committee 
felt that any funds available for the JoURNAL 
should be conserved for the next year, when its 
needs for assistance would certainly be greater. 

For the Committee on Meetings, Chairman 
GARNER presented a summary report on the 
activities and budget of his Committee for the 
~ past 12 months. He reported that the Academy 
had held 7 meetings from October, 1941, 
through April, 1942, at an average cost of 
$40.56 per meeting. This was slightly less than 
normal because, for the October, 1941, meeting, 
half of the expenses were paid by the Washing- 
ton Society of Engineers. Under the present 
plans, each meeting of the Academy normally 
costs about $45, which includes, on the average, 
$20 for the rental of the assembly hall, $9 for 
the lantern operator, $3 for dinners for the 
Speakers, and $13 for the buffet luncheon. It 
was recommended that consideration be given 
to obtaining as many out-of-town speakers as 
possible. Of the $300 allotted to the Com- 
mittee on Meetings for 1942, $194.13 has been 
expended, leaving $105.87 for the three meet- 
ings from October through December. The 
apparent excess of the pro-rata amount for the 
first four meetings of 1942 arose from the fact 
that commitments for the first three meetings 
were made on the basis of the 1941 budget 
before the allotment for 1942 was announced. 

It was moved and carried that Chairman 
GARNER and his Committee be commended for 
their good work. 

For the Committee on Membership, Chair- 
man Kracrx presented nominations for 17 
persons (13 resident and 4 nonresident). 

Six persons (4 resident and 2 nonresident), 
whose nominations had been presented on 
March 16, were considered individually and 
duly elected to membership. 

For the Committee to consider proposed 
amendments to the bylaws, Chairman SILSBEE 
presented a report recommending five amend- 
ments, as follows: 


: THE ACADEMY 


275 


(a) In Article I, Section 2, second sentence, 
after the word ‘retired’? insert: “from the 
active practice of their profession.” 

(b) In Article I, Section 2, paragraph 1, add 
the sentence: ‘‘Persons who have been dropped 
from membership for nonpayment of dues may 
be reinstated upon approval of the Board of 
Managers and upon payment of back dues for 
two years, together with the dues for the year 
of reinstatement.” 

(c) In Article III, Section 5, delete the sen- 
tence ‘‘Associate Editors shall be appointed 
by the President for a term of three years.” 
(This sentence properly belongs in the Standing 
Rules of the Board.) 

(d) In Article IV, Section 1, third sentence, 
delete the first ‘‘and,’”’ and after “‘publications”’ 
insert ‘‘and Committee of Tellers.’’ In Article 
VI, Section 1, change the last paragraph to 
read: “The Committee of Tellers shall canvass 
the votes and report the results at the annual 
meeting of the Academy.” (This change would 
permit the Committee of Tellers to read their 
own report at the annual meeting, instead of 
transmitting it to the Secretary.) 

(e) In Article VI, Section 1, fourth para- 
graph, last sentence, change ‘“‘second Tuesday”’ 
to “first Thursday.” (This change would give 
the Committee of Tellers always two weeks in 
which to count the ballots. Under the existing 
rule, the time may be as short as one day.) 

The Board voted to submit these proposed 
amendments, with the word ‘‘gainful” in place 
of ‘active’ in part (a), to the membership for 
approval. 

The Secretary reported the following data 
relating to the membership: Acceptances, 2; 
qualified, 1; deaths, 3; retirements, 1; resigna- 
tions, 3; status of membership as of May 18, 
1942: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total 
Resident 432 35 3 0 470 
Nonresident 130 18 15 2 165 
Total 562 53 18 2 635 


Archivist Smiru reported the addition to the 
Archives of an important document, entitled 
“Royal Society (of London), Charter-Book 
Signatures, 1660-1912.” 

On recommendation of the Board of Editors, 
the Board approved the following regulation 
relating to illustrations in the JOURNAL, as of 
May 15: “Illustrations in excess of the equiva- 
lent (in cost) of one page and a half of line 
drawings shall be paid for by the author.” 

The Secretary read a letter received from the 
office of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science informing the Academy 
of its election as an affiliated member of the 
A.A.A.S. on the same basis as affiliated State 
academies of science. Each affiliated Academy 
may appoint one representative on the Council 
of the A.A.A.S., and two honorary junior 


276 


members, one boy and one girl, to the Associa- 
tion. The Association provides a research grant 
to each Affiliated Academy in the amount, each 
year, of 50 cents for each member of the 
Academy who is also a member of the A.A.A.S. 

The Secretary read a letter from Watpo L. 
ScuMitTT, resident member of the Academy, 
recommending that the Academy carry on a 
drive for increased subscriptions to the JouR- 
NAL in Central and South America by extend- 
ing one year’s free subscription to a number of 
selected institutions and by widely distributing 
copies of the contents of the JouRNAL in those 
countries. 

The letter was referred to the Custodian and 
Subscription Manager of Publications for ap- 
propriate reply. 

Adjournment was made at 10:04 P.M. 


376TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 376th meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on 
June 8, 1942. President Curtis called the 
meeting to order at 8:02 p.M., with 13 persons 
present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros- 
sinI, N. R. Smirn, R. J. Srrcer, F. H. H. 
RosERtTS 2ons (H. By Comis..Je oo: 
Kracexk, A. H. Cuarx, W. A. Dayton, L. W. 
Parr, and, by invitation, G. A. Cooprr, J. R. 
SWALLEN, and J. H. KemMprTon. 

The minutes of the 375th meeting were read 
and approved. 

President Curtis announced the following 
appointment: A. H. CLark to be the Academy’s 
representative for 1942 on the Council of the 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science. 

For the Committee on Meetings, Chairman 
. Kempton reported that Sruart Mupp, of the 
University of Pennsylvania, would address the 
October meeting of the Academy on the sub- 
ject Bacteria and the electron microscope. He 
also reported that there appeared to be in- 
sufficient funds remaining to carry the normal 
program of meetings for October, November, 
and December. 

Fifteen persons (13 resident and 2 nonresi- 
dent), whose nominations were presented on 
May 18, 1942, were considered individually and 
duly elected to membership. 

For the Committee to consider ways and 
means of increasing the income of the Acad- 
emy, Chairman Dayton presented a report 
giving in detail the results of the questionnaire 
sent out to each of 33 State Academies of 
Science affiliated with the American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, from 
whom replies were received from all but two. 
Chairman Dayton was complimented on the 
excellent work of his Committee and was in- 
structed to prepare a summary of his report for 
distribution to the members of the Board of 
Managers through the office of the Secretary. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 32, NO. 9 


The Secretary presented the following data 
relating to membership: Acceptances, 4; 
deaths, 1. 

Adjournment was made at 9:24 p.m. 


NEW MEMBERS 


The following persons were recently elected 
members of the Academy: 


Resident 


Tais1A MAXIMOVNA STADNICHENKO, associ- 
ate geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, in recog- 
nition of her microscopic and microthermal 
studies of coal. 

Leo Otis CoLBERT, director of the U. §. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rear Admiral, in 
recognition of his leadership in the advance- 
ment of the science and art of cartography. 

FLoyp SHELTON Dart, senior biochemist, 
National Institute of Health, in recognition of 
his work in biochemistry, particularly his re- 
searches with vitamins of the B complex. 

Henry Mixes O’ Bryan, associate professor 
of physics, Georgetown University, in recogni- 
tion of his contributions to physics, particu- ~ 
larly his researches on the solid state. 

MeErRITT NicHoL Pops, agronomist, U. 8. 
Bureau of Plant Industry, in recognition of his 
studies on the physiology, morphology, and 
genetics of barley. 

Mary EvizaBEeTH RetD, cytologist, National 
Institute of Health, in recognition of her con- 
tributions in the field of nutrition in relation to 
growth and development. 

STEPHEN BRUNAUER, associate chemist, U.S. 
Bureau of Plant Industry, in recognition of his 
researches in the surface layers of adsorbed 
gases on catalytic and other materials, which 
have made clear the atomic and molecular 
characters of various gases when adsorbed on 
various materials and which have thrown light 
on the reasons for the catalytic action of pro- 
moters in catalysis. 

Mary Evcente Maver, senior biochemist, 
National Cancer Institute, in recognition of her 
outstanding research on the isolation and puri- 
fication of physiologically active proteins, such 
as diphtheria toxins and the proteinase of 
cellular tissues. 

EVELYN BUTLER TILDEN, bacteriologist, Na- 
tional Institute of Health, in recognition of 
her studies on Protozoa, Oroya fever, trachoma 
and spirochetal diseases, and the preparation 
of new and rare sugars by bacterial oxidation, 
and of a new type of amylase. 

CHARLES Epwarp WuiITs, professor of in- 
organic chemistry, University of Maryland, in 
recognition of his work on fluorescence, par- 
ticularly as a means of quantitative inorganic 
microanalysis. 

WiLLiAM Donatp Urry, physical chemist, 
Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Instituticn 
of Washington, in recognition of his work on 


Sept. 15, 1942 


natural radioactivity, particularly as applied to 
problems in geophysics. 

Lee Mito Hourtcuins, head of the division 
of forest pathology, U. 8S. Bureau of Plant 
Industry, in recognition of his work on virus 
diseases of tree fruits, particularly the tech- 
nique of studying virus diseases of woody 
plants. 

RautpH WILLARD Imuay, geologist, U. S. 
Geological Survey, in recognition of his work 
on the Mesozoic geology of Mexico and the 
Gulf region of the United States. 

Karu Hiutpine Bers, hydraulic engineer, Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his investigations in connection with aircraft 
instruments, corrosion and physical properties 
of copper, and hydraulics. 

GrorGeE GorHAM DEBorp, bacteriologist, 
District of Columbia Health Department, in 
recognition of his work in food and medical 
bacteriology. 

JOSEPH JOHN Faury, geochemist, U. S. 
Geological Survey, in recognition of his meri- 
torious work in geochemistry and mineralogy. 

ERNEST FRANKLIN Frock, senior physicist, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition 
of his meritorious work in the field of calorime- 
try and for revealing studies of combustion 
processes. 

GLENN ARTHUR GREATHOUSE, physiologist, 
U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, in recognition 
of his work on the chemistry of disease re- 
sistance in plants. 

Forest Kiarre Harris, associate physicist, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition 
of his work in the field of precise electrical 
measurements. 

GarGis HovENNES KEULEGAN, physicist, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition 
of his mathematical and experimental investi- 
gations in the fields of elasticity and hydrody- 
namics. 

Rosert M. Satter, chief, U. 8. Bureau of 
Plant Industry, in recognition of his work in 
soil fertility, especially fertilizer application 
and the influence of soil reaction on efficiency 
of soil and fertilizer phosphorus. 


Nonresident 


Dow V. Baxter, associate professor of 
silvics and forest pathology, School of Forestry, 
University of Michigan, in recognition of his 
contributions to forest pathology, particularly 
his researches on the genus Portia. 

VILHJALMUR STEFANSSON, explorer, in recog- 
nition of his outstanding contributions to our 
knowledge of the history, geography, and 
ethnology of the Arctic. 

Ropert Raynoutps McMartu, director of the 
McMath-Hurlburt Observatory, University of 
Michigan, Pontiac, Mich., in recognition of his 
contributions to the science of astronomy in 
general and to our knowledge of solar promi- 
nences in particular. 


PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


bd 


CHESTER SrTock, professor of paleontology, 
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, 
Calif., research associate of the Carnegie Insti- 
tution of Washington, and curator of paleon- 
tology, Los Angeles Museum, Los Angeles, 
Calif., in recognition of his contributions to 
vertebrate paleontology, particularly the Ter- 
tiary and Pleistocene vertebrates of Western 
United States. 

Wiitu1AM Hay TALIAFERRO, dean of the di- 
vision of biological sciences and professor and 
head of the department of bacteriology and 
parasitology, University of Chicago, Chicago, 
Ill., in recognition of his distinguished leader- 
ship in the field of parasitology, with particular 
reference to the cytology, physiology, and im- 
munology of the parasitic Protozoa and to 
notions regarding the cellular basis of immunol- 
ogy in general. 

Honorary 

AuFronso Caso, director of the National 
Institute of Anthropology and History, De- 
partment of Public Education, Mexico, in 
recognition of his contributions to archeology, 
particularly his excavations at Monte Alban 
and his direction of the anthropological work 
of the Government of Mexico. 

DIAMOND JENNESS, Chief of the division of 
anthropology, National Museum of Canada, 
Ottawa, Canada, in recognition of his contri- 
butions to the ethnology, archeology, and an- 
thropology of the Canadian aborigines, both 
Eskimo and Indian. 

ALFREDO SORDELLI, director of the Institute 
of Bacteriology, Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 
recognition of his work in research on anaerobic 
antitoxins and their standardization. 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


590TH MEETING 


The 590th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, January 8, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. Rexrsipx, JR., presiding. 

Program—H. D. Miser: The Devonian sys- 
tem in Arkansas and Oklahoma. An unusual 
variety of flint of Devonian age known as 
novaculite, much of which in appearance re- 
sembles white marble, is widespread in the 
Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Okla- 
homa. This rock was used by the early Ameri- 
can Indians for making stone implements, and 
their many long-abandoned quarries, some of 
which are on Indian Mountain near the Hot 
Springs National Park, may still be visited. 
By modern man the novaculite is used for 
making oilstones, which are marketed in the 
United States and other countries. 


278 


Petrified logs of trees that lived 300,000,000 
years ago in the Devonian period are found in 
the Woodford chert in the Arbuckle Mountains 
of Oklahoma. One of the tree trunks, which is 
the largest known petrified log of so great an 
age, has been transported to the campus of the 
East Central Oklahoma State Teachers College 
at Ada, Okla., where it has been erected by 
John Fitts as a monument to the memory of 
the late David White, one of the world’s 
distinguished geologists. 

Commercial petroleum has been produced 
from porous limestone of Devonian age in the 
greater Seminole and other fields in central 
Oklahoma for almost 20 years. This limestone 
is commonly referred to as the Hunton. Oil 
is also obtained in many areas in Oklahoma 
from the Misener sand, apparently a dune 
sand of Devonian or Mississippian age. 

R. C. Wetus: The relatwe abundance of 
nickel in the earth’s crust. Figures for the per- 
centage of nickel in different classes of rocks 
were given showing that nickel is found mainly 
in magnesian rocks, especially in nickeliferous 
olivine, in pyroxenite, in peridotite, and in 
dunite. Based on the proportions of ocean and 
different kinds of rocks in the 10-mile crust the 
average nickel content was estimated to be 
0.016 percent, a slightly lower figure than most 
previous estimates. 

T. L. Kesier: Genetic history of the pegma- 
tites and associated rocks of the Carolina tin belt. 
A belt of the Piedmont province in southern 
North Carolina, extending 24.5 miles from 
Lincolnton southwestward to Grover, contains 
hundreds of pegmatite bodies characterized by 
the presence of cassiterite and spodumene. The 
pegmatite bodies are enclosed in muscovite 
schists and hornblende-biotite gneisses which, 
in the vicinity of the town of Kings Mountain, 
lie conformably between a very large and ir- 
regular granitic body to the west and inter- 
bedded crystalline limestone, quartzite, and 
muscovite schist to the east. The hornblende- 
biotite gneisses are strongly metamorphosed 
limestone; incompletely altered limestone shows 
the development of minerals characteristic of 
the hornblendic rocks. Triassic diabase dikes 
cut rocks of all other types. 

Regional folding, which preceded or accom- 
panied the metamorphism of the sedimentary 
rocks, set up strains that were compensated by 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 9 


recurrent flexing and jointing which provided 
channels for the introduction of successive 
waves of aqueous solutions that deposited the 
pegmatite minerals. In general, these minerals 
were deposited in prominent joints where the 
rocks are uniformly competent over broad 
areas, and parallel to strike and dip where 
competent and incompetent rocks are inter- 
bedded. The solutions also permeated consider- 
able muscovite schist adjacent to the channels, 
and the schist was partly replaced by pegmatite 
minerals, particularly quartz, albite, and micro- 
cline. The greisen of the tin belt, which com- 
monly contains cassiterite, is muscovite schist 
partly replaced by quartz, with residual musco- 
vite coarsened by recrystallization. 

The pegmatite bodies contain at least 25 
hypogene minerals, 5 derived from the wall 
rocks, and 7 or more formed by weathering. 
Some of the hypogene minerals are rare, and 
many cannot be reliably placed in the sequence 
of deposition. Paragenetic relations are based 
largely on successive fracturing and consequent 
veining of earlier by later minerals. Deposition 
of the commoner types occurred in the follow- 
ing stages, beginning with the earliest: (1) 
tourmaline, beryl, and apatite; (2) cassiterite 
and columbite-tantalite; (3) quartz (greisen 
formed); (4) spodumene; (5) microcline; (6) 
medium-grained albite (minor alteration of 
spodumene and microcline to muscovite); (7) 
fine-grained albite and quartz (abundant, ac- 
companied by minor quantities of sulphides 
and apatite). 


591ST MEETING 


The 591st meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, January 22, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. REEsIDE, JR., presiding. 

Informal communications —W. P. WoopRING 
reported the occurrence of marine Lower Mio- 
cene fossils in Cajon Pass, Calif., and discussed 
their paleogeographic significance. 

Program.—J. BripGe: Correlation of early 
Paleozoic sections in Texas. 

H. C. Spicer: Resistivity studies in the potash 
area of New Mexico. The results of some electri- 
cal resistivity studies were described that were 
made over the potash deposits near Carlsbad, 
N. M. The Gish-Rooney apparatus was used 
in the investigation and its application is 
briefly described. Geological features pertain- 


Supt. 15, 1942 


ing to the area are briefly given. From the inter- 
pretations of the apparent resistivity curves, 
structural contours were determined on the 
tops of the Rustler and Salado formations, 
cross sections showing the depths to the forma- 
tions were made, and the probable eastern 
boundary of salt water was located. An explan- 
ation is offered on the formation of the greatly 
depressed area found in the salt and in the 
Rustler formation near the western edge of the 
area studied. Some of the apparent resistivity 
curves are shown in conjunction with the logs 
of nearby drill holes. 

G. W. Stross: Structural interpretation of the 
Death Valley region by Levit Noble. Later pre- 
Cambrian, Cambrian, and Tertiary rocks have 
_ been thrust northwestward over earlier pre- 
Cambrian metamorphic rocks. The fault plane 
is called the Amargosa thrust. The thrust plate 
is broken into innumerable blocks and slices 
which form a complex mosaic and is named the 
Amargosa chaos. The chaos is divided into the 
Virgin Spring, Calico, and Jubilee phases, each 
characterized by certain kinds of rocks. Un- 
conformably upon the overthrust chaos was 
deposited the Funeral formation, composed of 
fanglomerate and basaltic lava of late Pliocene 
age. These younger rocks are deformed by 
folds and normal faults, which also folded the 
Amargosa thrust into several plunging anti- 
clines of northwest trend. The earlier pre- 
Cambrian rocks below the thrust are exposed 
by erosion on the crests of these anticlines. The 
folds in the late Pliocene fanglomerate and 
basalt are so recent that they are reflected in 
the present topography. Death Valley is pri- 
marily a syncline in the Funeral fanglomerate, 
modified by faulting. 


592D MEETING 


The 592d meeting of the Society was held at 
the Cosmos Club, February 12, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. Rersipg, Jr., presiding. 

Informal communications —F. L. Hess: A 
stlicified coral from Florida. 

Program.—¥. G. Cauxins: Curves for deter- 
mining plagioclases. Curves for determining the 
composition of plagioclases by the methods 
that have been found most useful are combined 
in a single convenient chart. 

D. EB. Wuire: Antimony deposits of the Yellow 
Pine District, Idaho. 


PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


279 


R. W. CuHapman: The Laurel “pseudomig- 
matite”’ and its significance in petrogenesis. The 
Laurel pseudomigmatite lies in the vicinity of 
Laurel, Md., about 17 miles southwest of Balti- 
more. A cover of Cretaceous gravels obscures 
its areal extent, but it is at least 48 square 
miles. On the north the pseudomigmatite is 
bounded by Guilford granite and Wissahickon 
schist, on the northeast by gabbro, on the east 
by Cretaceous gravels, on the south by schist 
and gneiss, and on the west by the Wissahickon 
formation. 

The pseudomigmatite is gray, medium to fine 
grained, and faintly foliated. Chief minerals 
are quartz, oligoclase, biotite, and muscovite. 
Remnants of Wissahickon schist and quartzite 
are common in it. 

Although the pseudomigmatite looks like a 
true migmatite, it is believed to have originated 
by the granulation, flowage, and recrystalliza- 
tion of the Wissahickon formation under con- 
ditions of stress, high temperature, and abun- 
dant water. This is suggested by: (1) the close 
mineralogical and chemical similarity of the 
two rocks, (2) the granulated and recrystallized 
texture, (3) the abundance of Wissahickon 
schist and quartzite remnants which do not 
show granulation or recrystallization, and (4) 
the complete gradation from pesudomigmatite 
into Wissahickon schist across contacts. 

The Laurel pseudomigmatite has most of the 
features of a plutonic igneous rock, but it does 
not show intrusive contacts. It is thought, how- 
ever, that if conditions of metamorphism had 
been more intense it might have developed 
even these. This suggests that some rock 
bodies, which have all the characteristic fea- 
tures of true igneous rocks, may have actually 
originated by the recrystallization of older 
formations. 

593D MEETING 


The 593d meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, February 26, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. Reesipe, JR., presiding. 

Informal communications —M. I. GOLDMAN 
discussed the presentation of scientific papers 
and urged that members of the Society refrain 
from reading prepared manuscripts; he then 
read extracts from recent numbers of Sctence 
on this subject. 

Program.—M. M. Knecutev: Influence of 
topography on continental glactation tn north- 


280 


central Montana. Glacial striae on shonkinite 
exposures at Snake Butte, a prominent in- 
trusive in the plains south of Harlem, Mont., 
trend southeastward. A train of shonkinite 
boulders, many of them enormous and some of 
them striated, extends southeastward 50 miles 
from Snake Butte across the plains of the Fort 
Belknap Indian Reservation. The ice of the 
Keewatin glacier is believed to have piled 
high against the north side of the Bearpaw 
Mountains, developing a southeastward gradi- 
ent of its surface down the pre-glacial Missouri 
River valley, now occupied by Milk River. 
Thinning of the ice in this down-gradient direc- 
tion offers an explanation for the southeastward 
movement of the Snake Butte boulders, as the 
rock debris in the mobile basal part of the ice 
sheet would presumably be transported in the 
directions of diminishing pressure toward the 
thinner marginal parts of-the glacier. 

Interrelations are suggested between south- 
eastward-trending glacial, topographic, and 
bedrock features in the Fort Belknap Indian 
Reservation, where roches moutonnées and 
glacial rock basins are tentatively identified. 
The speaker adopts Calhoun’s explanation of 
drainage changes brought about by the glacier 
in the vicinity of the Bearpaw and Little 
Rocky Mountains. 

C. P. Ross and R. G. Yatss: Coso quick- 
silver district, Inyo County, Calif. The hot 
springs in the Coso Range in the southwestern 
corner of Inyo County, Calif., have been known 
and utilized for their supposed medicinal value 
since about 1875. About 1929 the presence of 
cinnabar in some of the hot spring sinter de- 
posits was recognized, but development and 
production so far have been small. At least 
two of the deposits are of interest as possible 
sources of large amounts of quicksilver under 
emergency conditions. 

The Coso Range contains Jurassic (?) gran- 
itic rocks, in part covered by Pleistocene (?) 
rhyolitic and basaltic lava and pyroclastics. 
Faults furnished passageways for the lava and 
later for the hot spring water. Early in the hot- 
spring activy large quantities of opaline sinter 
were deposited from large volumes of alkaline 
solution. Later alkaline solutions of somewhat 
different composition left cinnabar in openings 
widely but irregularly distributed throughout 
the sinter. At present relatively small amounts 
of acid water and steam rise through the sinter. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


D. G. TuHompson: Fluctuations of water 
levels in wells caused by distant earthquakes. 


594TH MEETING 


The 594th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, March 12, 1941, President 
J. B. Reesipz, Jr., presiding. . 

Informal communications.—J. Brince: Drei- 
kanter from Cambrian formations of the United 
States. 

Program.—W. E. RicumMonp: Application of 
X-ray methods to mineral analysis. X-ray dif- 
fraction powder photographs of analysed 


chromites from various localities give the unit — 


cell-edge lengths. These cell-edge lengths in- 
crease with the chromium content for a given 
percentage of Fe,03. These lengths plotted 
against chromium content give a uniform 
straight-line curve. 

W.S. Bursanx: Spiral fracturing from vol- 
canic centers. 

E. Cuioos: Deformation of oolites in relation 
to cleavage. 


595TH MEETING 


The 595th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, March 26, 1941, President 
J. B. REESIDE, JR., presiding. 

Informal communications.—A. C. SPENCER 
spoke in commendation of the paper by E. 
Cioos presented at the last meeting and re- 
ferred to it as an epochal advance in studies of 
rock deformation. He described folded veinlets 
and ladder veins which also may be used to 
measure deformation. 

M. I. GotpMaNn discussed the origin of stylo- 
lites and pointed out that true stylolitic struc- 
tures may in places signify a thinning of beds 
amounting to more than 20 per cent. 

Program.—D. J. CEDERSTROM: Progressive 
down-dip changes in composition in artestan 
waters from the Cretaceous rocks of Virginia. 
Near the Fall Zone ground waters in the Cre- 
taceous strata are soft, low in dissolved mineral 
content, and contain moderate amounts of car- 
bon dioxide. Down the dip to the east the 
waters become hard, owing to solution of eal- 
cium carbonate. The free carbon dioxide in the 
waters in the Fall Zone enables the waters to 
take a maximum of 250 parts per million of bi- 
carbonate (as calcium bicarbonate) into solu- 
tion. About 20 to 30 miles east of the Fall 


Sept. 15, 1942 


Zone the waters become soft as a result of base 
exchange. Eocene glauconite sand and clayey 
sediments in the Potomac section probably act 
as exchangers. 

The difference between a maximum of 250 
parts per million of bicarbonate due to the 
solvent action of free carbon dioxide on limy 
material and a maximum of 800 parts of bi- 
carbonate found in some waters far down the 
dip has not been accounted for. Small amounts 
of free carbon dioxide in these waters appear 
to indicate that carbon dioxide is being liber- 
ated by some Coastal Plain sediments. There 
is considerable doubt that methane is capable 
of reducing sulphates, as suggested by Renick. 
Carbon dioxide and methane might be liber- 
ated and hydrogen sulphide produced by the 
reduction of sulphates through the agency of 
organic matter in the sediments. The entire 
problem, however, must be regarded as un- 
solved. 

Waters containing more than a few parts 
per million of chloride are found only in east- 
ern Nansemond County and Norfolk County. 
The brackishness of these waters is believed 
to be due to lack of flushing out of marine 
waters with which the sediments were once 
saturated. 

Waters containing 1 to 6 parts per million 
of fluoride occur within the soft water zone. 
The origin of the fluoride is unknown but it is 
believed to be derived in large part from some 
normal constituent of the Potomac group. 

P. S. SmirxH: Recent hydrographic surveys 
along the Atlantic Coast. 

R. F. Fuint: Atlantic coastal terraces. (Pub- 
lished in this JouRNAL 32 (8): 235-327. 1942.) 


596TH MEETING 


‘The 596th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, April 9, 1941, President 
J. B. Regsipe, JR., presiding. 

Informal communications —W. B. Lane dis- 
cussed the occurrence of langbeinite in this 
country and its production as a commercial 
source of potash. 

M. W. Etuts described a method of making 
casts and molds of fossils with a rubberlike 
substance soluble in ammoniacal water solu- 
tion. 

Program.—C. B. Reap: Sequence and rela- 
tionships of late Paleozoic floras in the south- 
western United States. 


PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


281 


W. P. Wooprine: Ancient soil and ancient 
dune sand in the Santa Maria district, Cali- 
fornia. Remnants of siliceous hardpan are 
widespread in the Santa Maria district. Though 
hardpan may have formed at different times, 
at least much of it antedates development of 
the present topographic surface and is con- 
sidered part of an ancient soil of post-Pleisto- 
cene age, younger than terrace deposits as- 
signed to the late Pleistocene. The hardpan is 
troublesome in geologic mapping. In extensive 
areas where bedrock consists of sand and gravel 
it is the hardest and most completely exposed 
material. Its attitude may bear any relation 
to the attitude of bedrock strata. 

Dune sand, now fixed by vegetation, is 
thought to be younger than the ancient hard- 
pan. On the south side of the Santa Maria 
Valley this inactive ancient dune sand extends 
from the coast to localities 20 miles inland, 
whereas modern dune sand is limited to a nar- 
row coastal strip. The ancient dune sand is 
inferred to indicate a climatic change, either 
stronger winds or greater aridity than at pres- 
ent, more probably greater aridity. 

E. P. HenpERson: A large weathered meteor- 
ite from the Coastal Plain of Georgia. (Published 
in extended form in Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 92: 
141-150, 2 pls. 1942.) 


597TH MEETING 


The 597th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, April 23, 1941, President 
J. B. Rexrsipe, JR., presiding. 

Informal communications —D. G. THoMp- 
son: Sand coated with humous material from 
borders of depressions in Carolina Bay country. 

Program.—G. A. Cooprr: Facies relations 
of the Hamilton group along the Catskill front. 

F. C. Kracex: The ternary system gold- 
stlver telluride. 

A. M. Morean: The role of solution in the 
development of the Pecos River basin, N. Mex. 


59STH MEETING 


The 598th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, November 12, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. Rrrsipr, Jr., presiding. 

Informal communications —RALPH CANNON 
discussed systematic variation in fluorescence 
of members of scheelite-powellite series. Ranges 
from blue through white to yellow occur in 
powellite. 


282 


Program.—E. T. McKnicut: Zoning of ore 
deposits in the Tri-State district. Examples of 
small scale zoning in peripheral parts of the 
Oklahoma—Kansas field were described and 
illustrated. The core of each zoned area is mas- 
sive gray spar dolomite formed by replacement 
of the limestone; it commonly contains, near 
its center, introduced (cave filling) Cherokee 
shale and a high percentage of chert relative 
to the dolomite. Pink spar dolomite is a vug 
phase nearly coextensive with the gray spar 
but subordinate in total mass. Surrounding 
the dolomite is the sphalerite zone which tends 
to ring the gray spar core in a closed irregular 
but commonly oblong circuit. Some of the high- 
est grade ore is found where the dolomite and 
sphalerite overlap on the inner edge of the 
sphalerite zone. Chalcopyrite and enargite are 
confined almost entirely to this area of overlap, 
though they may extend back a short distance 
in the dolomite. The galena zone overlaps the 
sphalerite zone but tends to lie just outside 
of it. Still farther out comes the barren “‘boul- 
der ground” zone characterized by coarse 
marcasite and abundant calcite in loose boul- 
dery chert that is residual from more or less 
complete removal by solution of the original 
limestone. Beyond this comes the unaltered 
limestone. Jasperoid replaces the limestone in 
all the outer zones up to the unaltered lime- 
stone but does not encroach very far on the 
dolomite core except on the inner side of the 
sphalerite zone where the gray spar dolomite is 
partly replaced. Removal of the ore along the 
combined sphalerite and galena zones leaves 
an asymmetric stope, characterized on the in- 
ner wall by massive gray spar with subordinate 
pink spar vugs that may contain some calcite, 
on the outer wall by open bouldery ground with 
jasperoid and abundant calcite. The zoned 
areas are commonly only a few hundred feet 
across. Numerous examples, more nearly circu- 
lar in ground plan, are indicated in the Joplin 
area by the descriptions of Smith and Sieben- 
thal. 

D. GALLAGHER: 
Africa. 

Max Demorest: Types of tice flow within 
glaciers. Four “‘types of ice flow” that form a 
gradational series are recognized. Each type is 
characteristic of distinct glacial conditions of 
surface configuration and underlying topogra- 
phy. The types are called: (1) extrusion flow, 


Granitization in Central 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 9 


(2) obstructed extrusion flow, (3) obstructed 
gravity flow, and (4) gravity flow. 

The first two types occur only where the 
surface of a glacier is of gentle slope and where 
the glacier’s floor is either nearly horizontal or 
sloping upward in downstream direction (ice 
sheets, piedmont glaciers, névé fields, and some 
valley glaciers). The stresses responsible for 
flow are differential pressures resulting from 
the slope of the upper surface. For that reason 
the two types are grouped together as ‘“‘pres- 
sure-controlled”’ types. In extrusion flow the 
differential pressures cause the more plastic 
basal ice of a glacier to be extruded from be- 
neath the less plastic overlying ice. Where the 
flow is obstructed, whether by a topographic 
barrier or in the forward thinning end of a 
glacier, the movement is forward and surface- 
ward. The extruded ice overrides the obstruc- 
tion. 

Gravity flow can occur only where the 
glacier’s floor has an appreciable slope. It is, 
therefore, called ‘‘drainage-controlled.”’ The 
surface of the glacier is either parallel to the 
floor or slopes less steeply. Under such circum- 
stances a glacier may be likened to a tilted 
pack of cards, in which each card (of infinitesi- 
mal thickness) slides differentially over the 
next below it. These differential movements 
increase with depth, yet the uppermost layer 
moves fastest as it is carried by the sum of all 
underlying movements. The stresses respon- 
sible for such movements are shear components 
of gravitative force. Where gravity flow is ob- 
structed, there is, as with obstructed extrusion 
flow, a forward and surfaceward movement. 
If the surface slope is gentle, such movement 
will have an upward component, but if the 
surface slope is steep, the lines of movement 
will also slope downstreamward. Where the ~ 
surface slope of a glacier is reduced down- 
streamward, a transition from obstructed grav- 
ity flow to obstructed extrusion flow occurs. 


599TH MEETING 


The 599th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, November 26, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. ReEsipe, Jr., presiding. 

Program.—P. W. Guttp: Chromite deposits 
of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. 

CHESTER STock: Cretaceous reptiles from the 
Moreno formation, California. 

M. D. Foster: Chemical composition of salty 


=e 


Sept. 15, 1942 


ground waters along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. 
Salty waters encountered in water-bearing 
sands along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts do 
not appear to be simple mixtures of ground- 
water with more or less sea water. When the 
salty waters are compared with theoretical 
mixtures of fresh ground waters and sea water 
—the ground waters being from comparable 
depths in the same formations and the amount 
of sea water being that indicated by the chlo- 
ride contents of the salty waters—the natural 
salty waters are found to be characteristically 
lower in calcium, magnesium, and sulphate and 
higher in sodium content, suggesting that the 
waters have undergone base-exchange and 
reduction of sulphate. 

The indicated replacement of magnesium 
and calcium in the salty waters by sodium from 
base-exchange minerals in the sands suggests 
that these base-exchange minerals are not in 
equilibrium with present day sea water or with 
salty waters formed by its admixture with fresh 
ground waters in which sodium bicarbonate is 
the predominant constituent. These relations 
further suggest that the water-bearing sands 
have at some time been flushed of salt water, 
at least to a point farther down the dip than 
at present by water having a lower Ca/Na and 
Mg/Na ratio and that the salt water now con- 
taminating the fresh waters is a new advance 
inland of sea water and not connate waters. 

The low sulphate content of the salty waters 
is attributed to reduction of sulphate, but 
whether the causative agent of the reduction 
was living organisms or inanimate organic 
matter or whether reduction took place at the 
time the sediments were deposited or subse- 
quently cannot be proved definitely at the 
_ present time. The parent salt waters of these 
salty waters may have been connate waters 
in which sulphate had been reduced—as reduc- 
tion is known to take place in environmental 
conditions like those under which some of the 


OBITUARIES 


283 


sediments in the Coastal Plain were laid down. 
In the flushing implied by the low calcium and 
magnesium content of the waters the connate 
waters may have been forced seaward but may 
not have been completely flushed from the beds 
and subsequent lowering of the fresh water 
head relative to the head of sea water may have 
permitted the connate water to move farther 
inland. 

The fact that unselected salty waters from 
widely different sources, both geographically 
and geologically, in the Atlantic and Gulf 
Coastal Plain have apparently undergone simi- 
lar alterations in mineral composition would 
seem to indicate that the conditions responsible 
for these alterations are rather general through- 
out the area. 


600TH MEETING 


The 600th meeting of the Society was held 
at the Cosmos Club, December 10, 1941, Presi- 
dent J. B. Rexrsipn, Jr., presiding. 

Program.—Presidential Address: Upper Cre- 
taceous sediments of the Western Interior. 


49TH ANNUAL MEETING 


The 49th Annual Meeting was held immedi- 
ately following the 600th regular meeting. The 
reports of the secretaries, treasurer, and audit- 
ing committee were read and approved. Officers 
for the year 1942 were then elected, as follows: 


President: C. S. Ross. 

Vice-Presidents: L. W. Currier, H. 
INSLEY. 

Treasurer: K. J. Murata. 

Secretary: J. J. FAHEY. 

Council RoC. *Cany, “R. P. Fiscuen;, 
Puitie §. Guitp, H. 8. Lapp, C. F. 
Park. JR. 


The Society nominated J. B. REEsIDE, JR., 
to be a Vice-President of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences for the year 1942. 


@Obituaries 


WatTer Forp REYNOLDS, principal mathe- 
_ matician and chief of the section of triangula- 
tion, Division of Geodesy, U. 8. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., diedin 
his native city of Baltimore on Friday, May 1, 
1942, after an illness of several months. 

Born on May 25, 1880, the son of Robert 


Fuller and Catherine (Myers) Reynolds, his 
school career carried him through the grammar 
and high schools of Baltimore, and through 
Johns Hopkins University (A.B., 1902) where 
he remained for several years engaged in gradu- 
ate work in mathematics and physies. Upon 
the completion of his studies, he served as an 


284 


instructor in mathematics in Baltimore City 
College (1905-6) and as a computer in the 
U. 8. Naval Observatory (1907). 

Entering the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 
1907 as a computer, Mr. Reynolds devoted his 
talents to the study of geodetic surveys, par- 
ticularly to the mathematical analysis and ad- 
justment of triangulation and to the solution 
of intricate problems in geodetic surveying. 

During the latter part of the first World War 
Mr. Reynolds served as acting chief of the Di- 
vision of Geodesy, and from 1917 to 1924 was 
chief computer of that division. Since 1924, as 
chief of the section of triangulation, he gave his 
entire time to directing the work of a staff of 
mathematicians in the computation and ad- 
justment of the national triangulation survey 
of the country. He also directed the computa- 
tion of similar work executed in Alaska, Puerto 
Rico, and the Hawaiian Islands. 

Mr. Reynolds was the author of a number of 
reports and technical manuals. The reports in- 
cluded survey results in a number of States: 
Alabama, Mississippi, Maine, Missouri, and 
Minnesota, and in Alaska. There were also two 
manuals of considerable importance: Relation 
between plane rectangular coordinates and geo- 
graphic positions (1921) and Manual of triangu- 
lation computation and adjustment (1927). These 
have become standards with engineers en- 
gaged on surveying operations, and are used in 
some technical schools. 

He held membership in the Mathematical 
Association of America, Philosophical Society 
of Washington, Washington Academy of Sci- 
ences, American Geophysical Union, National 
Geographic Society, American Congress on 
Surveying and Mapping, and Pi Gamma Mu. 

On June 26, 1907, Mr. Reynolds was married 
to Ada C. Williams, who with three children, 
Catherine A. Mummert, Robert W. and 
Walter F. Jr., survives him.—CLEemMeEntT L. 
GARNER. 


Epwarp CENTER GROESBECK, a member of 
the Washington Academy of Sciences since 
1932, died on May 9, 1942, in his sixty-first 
year. He was born at Albany, N. Y., on October 
15, 1881, and since the early age of 3 years he 
was totally deaf. With the help of a devoted 
teacher, however, he perfected his speaking 
ability and also learned the art of lip reading, 
in which he acquired great skill in later life. His 
early education was essentially that of a normal 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 9 


boy, and in 1904 he was graduated from Wil- 
liams College with the degree of B.A., and two 
years later from Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology with the degree of 8.B. All this was 
accomplished by his own endeavors without 
the aid of special tutors. The honorary degree, 
A.M., was conferred by Williams College in 
1909. 


After graduation Mr. Groesbeck served for 3 
years as research assistant to Prof. Henry 
Marion Howe, Columbia University, an as- 
sociation that was a deciding factor in his choice 
of a life career. After a year in the laboratory 
of the Taylor Wharton Steel Co., High Bridge, 
N. J., he was associated with the Pittsfield 
branch of the General Electric Co. (1910-15). 
Later (1915-18) he renewed his association 
with Professor Howe as research assistant, and 
in this capacity he was stationed at the Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards during the first 
World War where he was engaged on problems 
relating to ordnance steels. After the termina- 
tion of this work in 1918, he was retained on the 
metallurgical staff of the Bureau, where he was 
progressively advanced up to the rank of metal- 
lurgist and served for 20 years until retirement 
for physical disability in 1938. 

He made valuable contributions to knowl- 
edge in the field of microscopy of metals. In this 
work recompense for his handicap was attained 
in the ability to concentrate, which he de- 
veloped to an extraordinary degree. This was 
also a decided advantage to him in the work of 
reviewing and evaluating data in the technical 
literature as a basis for a number of Bureau of 
Standards information circulars on metals and 
alloys which he compiled. It was in research on 
corrosion, however, in which he excelled and in 
which field he made numerous notable contri-_ | 
butions. He was a member of the American | 
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engi- 
neers, the American Society for Testing Ma- 
terials, and the American Society for Metals. 


In 1926, he married Miss Lee Robinson of 
Washington, D. C., who died in 1930. Pleasant, 
genial, always cheerful, with a keen interest in 
all the commonplace incidents of daily life, 
and possessed of a keen sense of humor, Mr. 
Groesbeck, was a favorite with his fellow 
workers. He asked only to be accepted on an 
equal footing with them without any special — 
privileges because of his handicap.— HEnry S. 
RaAwDon. : 


ae ecrery OF “Ww SHINGTON (The oe Wichingie Voneniy. 8: 15 P.M.): 
ae pence 8. Divisional ee on ee ee ne and analytical chemis- 


7, ae 6. (Peay Buhne the Nevin aioe a reibuloee caused by micro- 
nisms and ey radiation, and its relation to ee fiber and fabric uses tn the 


ae OF fei PR geaue Pietict of Célumbia Section (U.S. Chamber of Com- © : “4 
erce Auditorium, 8:15 P.M.): 


S ay, September 22) Lecture, inotion oe, demonstration: Su thet rubber. 


CONTENTS 


Page 
AnTHROPOLOGY.—Archeological accomplishments during the past | 
decade in the United States. FRANK M. Serzuer............. 253° 
Botany.—Two new dwarf species of Rubus from western China and . 
Tibet and their Asiatic relatives. Ecaprert H. WALKER........ 260 
Zootocy.—Porifera from Greenland and Baffinland collected by Capt. . 
Robert A. Bartlett. M.W. pr LAUBENFELS......:;....... cele ee 
ZooLtocy.—Sinocybe, a new genus of colobognath up from 
Ching.) HS B@OMige ero re eh Ouro ea ON Se 270 
PROCEEDINGS: at ACADEMY: 2 lak ee oe 1 ae pas 
PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCLETY (0002. oo en 277 


OBITUARIES: WALTER ForD REYNOLDS, EDWARD CENTER GROESBECK 283 


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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


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Secretary: Frepprick D. Rossrni, National Bureau of Standards. 
Treasurer: Howarp 8S. Rappizeys, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


We. 32 


CcToBER 15, 1942 


No. 10 


CHEMISTRY.—The behavior of cystine dimethylester dihydrochloride and of 
cysteine monomethylester monohydrochloride in the Sullivan reaction for cysteine 


and cystine. 
town University. 


In a study of the defence mechanism of 
the animal body attention was given years 
ago to the sulphur system as exemplified 
by cystine and cysteine. For these com- 
pounds there was devised a test of remark- 
able specificity, directly for cysteine and in- 
directly for cystine, that is, after a prelimi- 
nary reduction or cleavage of the disulphide 
bonds (1, 2, 3, 4). The procedure in testing 
for cystine is as follows: To 5.0 ce of solu- 
tion containing 0.5 to 1.0 mg cystine and 
0.1N with respect to hydrochloric acid add 
(A) 2.0 ec of 5 percent aqueous sodium 
cyanide, mix and wait 10 minutes, add (B) 
1 ce of 0.5 percent aqueous 1,2-naphtho- 
quinone-4-sodium sulphonate, mix by shak- 
ing for 10 seconds; add (C) 5.0 cc of 10 per- 
cent sodium sulphite in 0.5N sodium 
hydroxide, mix and let stand 30 minutes; 
add (D) 2.0 cc of 5N sodium hydroxide, 
mix and add (E) 1.0 cc of 2.0 percent sodium 
hyposulphite (Na2S.O.) in 0.5N sodium 
hydroxide. The result is a vivid red-colored 
solution. In testing for cysteine, the cyanide 
added in step (A) is 1.0 ce of 1.0 percent 
- sodium cyanide in 0.8N sodium hydroxide 
and the naphthoquinone is added im- 
mediately after mixing. The rest of the 
procedure is as for cystine. With hydroly- 
_ sates containing material buffering against 
alkali the addition of the 5N sodium hy- 
droxide before the hyposulphite is neces- 
sary, but in other cases it may be omitted. 

In as much as a positive Sullivan reaction 
_ requires the cysteine structure and that the 
__ 1 The data in this paper were taken, in part, 

from the dissertation presented by H. W 
Howard in partial fulfillment of the requirements 


for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, George- 
town University. Received June 24, 1942. 


M. X. Suuuivan, W. C. Hess, and H. W. Howarp,! George- 


SH, NH2, and COOH groups be free, it is 
of interest to compare the behavior of 
cystine dimethylester and cysteine mono- 
methylester with the behavior of cystine 
and cysteine respectively. Measurements 
with these substances under a variety of 
conditions are described in the present 
paper. 

Brand, Harris, and Biloon (6) from pre- 
liminary observations suggested that in the 
Sullivan reaction for cystine the methyl- 
ester hydrochloride may develop more color 
than that produced by the equivalent 
amount of cystine. 

Over a period of years we have found that 
cystine dimethylester dihydrochloride will 
give approximately 20 percent more color 
than cystine when the experiment is con- 
ducted on freshly prepared solutions in 
0.1N hydrochloric acid using 2.0 cc of 5 per- 
cent aqueous sodium cyanide to open the 
disulphide bond and omitting the addition 
of the 5N sodium hydroxide. Similar re- 
sults were obtained when the solution of the 
ester was kept at 5°C. over night. However, 
when the ester hydrochloride is allowed to 
stand at 25-30°C. in 0.1N hydrochloric 
acid for 4 hours or more it gives practically 
the same value as an equivalent amount of 
cystine, whereas, if the solvent is water 
there is little difference between freshly pre- 
pared solutions and those kept at room 
temperature over night. These points are 
illustrated by the data in Table 1. 

When the agent employed to open the 
disulphide bond is 5 percent sodium cyanide 
dissolved in normal sodium hydroxide as 
used in our more recent work (5) the ester 
hydrochloride gives the same color value as 


285 


286 


an equivalent amount of cystine whether 
the ester is dissolved in 0.1N hydrochloric 
acid or in water and whether the solutions 
are freshly prepared or old, because the 
ester is saponified by the alkaline solution. 
Fischer and Suzuki (7) early reported 
that the ester hydrochloride is rapidly 
saponified by alkali. They also observed a 
slight change of rotation when the ester 
hydrochloride was allowed to stand in 
aqueous solution. Abderhalden and Wybert 
(8), however, found no change in the optical 
rotation of the ethylester hydrochloride on 
standing 2 hours in water. As far as we have 
ascertained no one has hitherto tested the 
stability of the cystine dimethylester di- 
hydrochloride in 0.1N hydrochloric acid. 
As shown in Table 1 this ester is saponified 
by 0.1N hydrochloric acid at room tem- 
perature in the course of 22 hours but in 
water it is not saponified appreciably dur- 
ing the same period. 
TaBLE 1.—THE PERCENTAGE COLORIGENIC VALUE OF CYSTINE 
DIMETHYLESTER DIHYDROCHLORIDE COMPARED WITH 


CyYsTINE TAKEN as 100 at 
VaRiIouS ACIDITIES 


Solvent 
Age of Dis- 
Solution 0.1N | 0.05N |0.025N | tiljeg 
HCl HCl HCl water 
Freshly made... 2-- =.=: 119 124 124 121 
2 hours standing at room 
temperatures.2. 5. 504. - 111 118 119 121 
4 hours standing at room 
temperature............ 108 4 TS 120 
22 hours standing at room 
temperature............ 104 111 114 118 
PPI NES ENG Crewo sob sec 121 


Since no reference to cysteine mono- 
methylester hydrochloride could be found 
this compound was made from cysteine 
hydrochloride for comparison with cysteine. 

One gram of cysteine hydrochloride was 
dissolved in 25 ec of anhydrous methy] al- 
cohol and dry gaseous hydrogen chloride 
was passed into the solution for one hour 
with warming to 45°C. for the first 10 
minutes. The solution was then poured into 
500 cc of anhydrous ethyl ether, and the 
mixture was allowed to stand in the icebox 
for 48 hours. The cysteine methylester 
hydrochloride separated out in good yield 
as prisms. Since the ester was very hygro- 
scopic it was warmed in a Schmiedeberg 
apparatus with methyl alcohol as the boil- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


ing liquid and was then transferred to a 
vacuum desiccator over sulphuric acid. 

In a capillary tube the ester hydrochloride 
melted between 137 and 138.5°C. but soft- 
ened at lower temperatures (110—130°C.). 
It is soluble in methyl alcohol and in 
water, slightly soluble in absolute ethyl 
alcohol and in acetic anhydride, insoluble in 
ethyl ether, petroleum ether, benzene, or 
acetone. Like cysteine it gave a red color 
with sodium nitroprusside and ammonia 
and a blue color with dilute ferric chloride. 
On analysis it gave the theoretical value for 
sulphur and nitrogen and 102 percent of 
the theoretical value for chlorine. 

In the Okuda (9) method for cysteine, 
equivalent amounts of the cysteine mono- 
methylester hydrochloride and cysteine 
hydrochloride gave the same titre, 0.95 ce 
of M/600 potassium iodate for 1.0 mg of 
cysteine. The Okuda method depends on 
the reactive (SH) so it does not indicate 
whether the methyl group had been split 
off at the acidity of the reaction, 2.0 percent 
hydrochloric acid. It may be said, however, 
that the ester dissolved in 2.0 percent 
hydrochloric acid saponifies very rapidly. 
After reduction with zine and hydrochloric 
acid for 30 minutes at room temperature 
the titre of the ester was the same as before 
reduction and therefore no disulphide form 
was present. 

The Sullivan method for cysteine, as 
early recommended (2), calls for the addi- 
tion of 2.0 cc of 1.0 percent solution of 
sodium cyanide in 0.8N sodium hydroxide 
as an antioxidant and accelerator of the re- 
action. Using this alkaline cyanide the 
freshly prepared ester gave 102—105 percent 
as much color as an equivalent amount of 
cysteine because the alkalinity was suff- 
ciently high to saponify the ester readily. 
In fact under these conditions the color 
generated was practically the same as that 
given by cysteine whether the test was 
made shortly after solution in 0.1N hydro- 
chloric acid or after standing 22 hours. 

On the other hand, when 2.0 cc of 5 per- 
cent aqueous sodium cyanide was used, as in 
the cystine test, the cysteine methylester 
hydrochloride in 0.1N hydrochloric acid 
gave 125 percent as much color as cysterine 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


treated in like manner. Again, with 2.0 cc 
of 1.0 percent aqueous sodium cyanide a 
freshly prepared solution of cysteine methyl- 
ester hydrochloride in 0.1N hydrochloric 
acid gave 125-129 percent as much color as 
cysteine similarly treated. When the solu- 
tion was kept at 5°C. for 22 hours, however, 
the color decreased to 118 percent, while 
kept at 25-30°C. it decreased to 115 per- 
cent. With the ester dissolved in water the 
colorimetric value compared with cysteine 
was 127 percent when tested immediately, 
and 125 percent when tested after 22 hours 
standing at room temperature. 


SUMMARY 


From the data it can be concluded 
that (1) both cystine dimethylester di- 
hydrochloride and cysteine monomethyl- 
ester monohydrochloride are _ saponified 
rapidly by cyanide dissolved in alkali to 
yield cystine and cysteine respectively; (2) 
the cystine dimethylester dihydrochloride 
is saponified by standing in 0.1N hydro- 
chloric acid for 22 hours at room tempera- 
ture, whereas, the monomethylester of 
cysteine is not appreciably saponified under 
similar circumstances; (3) the cystine di- 
methylester dihydrochloride is not saponi- 
fied appreciably by 0.1N hydrochloric acid 
at 5°C. in the course of 22 hours; (4) in 
solutions of low acidity the cystine di- 
methylester dihydrochloride at room tem- 
perature is saponified much more slowly 
than in 0.1N hydrochloric acid; (5) both 


BROWN: MIOCENE GRAPEVINE FROM NEVADA 


287 


esters are relatively stable in aqueous solu- 
tions; (6) both the cystine dimethylester 
dihydrochloride and the cysteine mono- 
methylester hydrochloride have a higher 
colorigenic value than cystine and cysteine 
respectively in the Sullivan reaction, when 
aqueous sodium cyanide is employed to 


cleave the disulphide orto act as an adjuvant 


in the cysteine reaction; (7) cystine di- 
methylester dihydrochloride gives practi- 
cally the same value as cystine if sodium cya- 
nide dissolved in normal sodium hydroxide 
is employed to cleave the disulphide; (8) 
cysteine monomethylester hydrochloride 
treated with 1.0 percent sodium cyanide in 
0.8N sodium hydroxide gives the same 
value as cysteine; (9) the preparation and 
properties of cysteine monomethylester 
hydrochloride are described. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Sutitivan, M. X. U. 8S. Public Health 
Rep., 41: 1030. 1926. 


(2) . U. S. Public Health Rep., 44: 
1421. 1929. 

(3) . U. S. Public Health Rep., Suppl. 
78. 1929. 

(4) and Hess, W. C. U. S. Public 
Health Rep., 44: 1599. 1929. 

(5) ————————. Journ. Biol. Chem., 116: 


221.4, 1936. 

(6) Brann, E.; Harris, M. M.; and BrLoon, S. 
Journ. Biol. Chem., 86: 315. 1930. 

(7) Fiscuer, E., and Suzuxi, U. Zeitschr. 
physiol. Chem., 45: 221. 1905. 

(8) ABDERHALDEN, E., and WysBert, E. Ber., 
49: 2449, 2472. 1916. 

(9) Oxupa, Y. Journ. Biochem. Japan, 5: 217. 
1925 


PALEOBOTANY.—A Miocene grapevine from the valley of Virgin Creek in north- 


western Nevada.} 


Leaves called Vitiphyllum crassifolium 
Fontaine and Cissites parvifolius (Fontaine) 
Berry and supposed to belong to species of 
the grape family (Vitaceae) have been de- 
scribed from the Lower Cretaceous forma- 
tions of the Atlantic coastal region of Mary- 
land and Virginia. If these leaves be re- 
garded as correctly identified they place 
members of this family among the first di- 
cotyledons to appear in the fossil plant 


1 Published by permission of the Director, 
U. S. Geological Survey. Received July 7, 1942. 


Roxtanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


records of the United States. Other speci- 
mens called Ampelopsis, Cissus, Cissites, 
and Vitis have been reported from the 
Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene of the 
Western Interior. Unmistakable seeds and 
leaves of grapes have been found from the 
Eocene onward both in America and Eur- 
ope. Until now, however, no fossil wood of 
the Vitaceae has appeared in the United 
States, although three species have been 
described from Europe: Vitoxrylon coheni 
Schuster (1911) from the Paleocene south- 


288 


east of Ritigen, Prussia; Vitoxylon ampelop- 
soides Schonfeld (1930) from the Miocene 
of southwestern Germany; and ?Vzitis sp. 
Krausel (1920) from the Miocene of Op- 
peln, Silesia. 

The specimen described in this paper was 
donated to the National Museum in April, 
1942, by Mark M. Foster, of Denio, Oreg. It 
came from a point about 300 feet within the 
main drift of the Rainbow Ridge Opal Mine 
located on Virgin Creek, a tributary of 
Thousand Creek in Humboldt County, 
Ney., and roughly 28 miles, as the crow 
flies, southwest of Denio. Photographs and 
a description of this locality were published 
by H. C. Dake (1933) and C. A. Reeds 
(1927), and the geology and paleontology of 
the region were described by J. C. Merriam 
(1907, 1910, 1911). According to Merriam 
the opal-bearing strata occur in the middle 
zone of a 3-parted sequence he called the 
Virgin Valley beds. These beds approxi- 
mate 1,500 feet in thickness and have a low 
synclinal structure. They rest upon ‘‘Canon 
Rhyolite’’ below and terminate beneath a 
_ capping of ‘Mesa Basalt’’ above. The lower 
zone of the Virgin Valley beds comprises 
white to varicolored voleanic ash and tuff. 
The middle zone contains brown to gray 
clay and ash, diatomaceous beds, and thin- 
bedded carbonaceous shales with numerous 
lignitic layers. The upper and largest zone, 
chiefly of white, buff, and cream-colored 
ash and tuff, and some diatomaceous beds, 
rests, perhaps unconformably, upon the 
middle series. 

In 1907 (p. 381) Merriam reported mam- 
mal remains as being common in parts of 
the lower and upper zones, and that only 
a few fragments of bones were found in the 
middle series. In 1910 (p. 30) and 1911 (p. 
204), however, without a specific reference 
by way of retraction of his previous state- 
ment, he said that no mammal remains had 
been found in characteristic beds of the 
lower zone and only imperfect fragments in 
the upper zone, but that the principal fossil 
horizons fall within a stratigraphic interval 
of only a few hundred feet near the middle 
of the section. Dake, on the other hand, in 
1933 (p. 17), presumably after visiting the 
area and recognizing Merriam’s divisions, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 32, No. 10. 


said that ‘‘the upper beds are soft in texture, 
of a light color, and carry an abundance of 
mammalian fossil remains.”’ As the writer 
has not visited the region, he can offer no 
enlightenment on these contradictory state- 
ments. Both Merriam and Dake, neverthe- 
less, are in agreement that the middle zone 
contains the precious opal, some fragmen- 
tary fossil leaves, and considerable fossil 
wood. On the basis of the mammalian re- 
mains vertebrate paleozoologists how assign 
the Virgin Valley beds to the upper half of 
the Miocene. The fauna appears to be older 
than that in the Mascall formation of Ore- 
gon and younger than that in the ‘‘Sheep 
Creek beds” of western Nebraska and 
eastern Wyoming (Stirton, 1939, p. 628). 


VITACEAE. 
Vitoxylon opalinum Brown, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-3 ; 

The specimen is light-colored, 7 em long and 
1.3 cm in diameter. The surface of the woody 
cylinder, where it is not covered by thin 
lamellae of bark, is somewhat striated and fur- 
rowed longitudinally. At nodes 4.5 em apart 
and separated by almost a half-turn around 
the stem emerge two sturdy tendrils or what 
perhaps may have been the basal portions of 
the peduncles of fruit clusters. These encircle 


the stem in a counterclockwise direction. No © 


leaf scars remain at the points opposite the 
emergence of the tendrils. 


The transverse section of the woody cylinder | 


is shown in Fig. 3, magnified 14 times. The en- 
tire section is now elliptical because of distor- 
tion by pressure before fossilization, as shown 
by the oblong and irregular outlines of the pith 


and vessels in the left half of the figure. Norm- | 


ally, these should be approximately circular in 
cross-section. The pith and vessels are either 


replaced or filled by dark opal, but the remain- | 


ing structures are of gray and somewhat softer 


opallike material that does not take as high a | 
polish and reveals no cellular details. Rays are | 
numerous and relatively narrow. Doubtless | 


some of this narrowness is illusory and not 
exactly representative of the original width 


before the wood was distorted and opalized. | 
Examined with a hand lens in just exactly the | 
right light these rays appear much wider than | 
the photograph indicates. In general, only one | 


Ocr. 15, 1942 BROWN: MIOCENE GRAPEVINE FROM NEVADA 289 
radial row of vessels lies between adjacent rays. tion and obliteration of the finer cellular struc- 
The vessels are arranged in 10 rings, suggesting tures it was deemed futile to cut radial and 


an approximate age of 10 years for this portion tangential sections. 
of the vine. Because of the extensive opaliza- The bark, structure of the woody cylinder, 


Figs. 1-3.—Vitoxylon opalinum Brown, n. sp.: 1, 2, Two views of the specimen to show emergence 
of the tendrils, natural size; 3, transverse section, X14. Fig. 4.—Transverse section of Parthenocissus 
quinquefolia, X14. Fig. 5.—Transverse section of Vitis labrusca, X14. 


290 


and especially the tendrils characterize this 
specimen as a portion of a grapevine (Vitis). 
Inasmuch as comparable woody material from 
all the 60 living species of Vitis was not readily 
available, it is at present impossible to indicate 
the relationship of the fossil within the genus. 
Its narrow rays, however, suggest that it is not 
closely related to the fox grape (V. labrusca) of 
the Eastern United States. A section of the 
latter (Fig. 5) displays much broader rays and 
somewhat larger vessels. The native species of 
Vitts now living closest to the fossil locality are 
V. arizonica, which inhabits stream banks 
from western Texas to southeastern California, 
and V. californica, which grows in the western 
Sierra Nevada foothills, the Great Valley, and 
the Coast Ranges of California. Comparison of 
the fossil with these species has, however, not 
satisfied the writer that close relationship 
exists. 

A transverse section (Fig. 4) of the Virginia- 
creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), intro- 
duced for comparison, displays fewer and 
broader rays than species of Vitis and multiple 
instead of single rows of vessels between adja- 
cent rays. In these respects the fossil is clearly 
aligned with Vitvs rather than with Partheno- 
cissus. Sections of Ampelopsis resemble those of 
Parthenocissus in having multiple rows of 
vessels between broad rays. 

The species of Vitis are distributed in the 
Northern Hemisphere but are most abundant 
in temperate regions. The related genus Ampe- 
lopsis comprises 20 species in temperate North 
America and Asia. Cissus, with about 200 spe- 
cies, is found chiefly in tropical and subtropical 
regions, and Parthenocissus, with 10 species, 
inhabits temperate North America and Asia. 

Vitoxylon opalinum is clearly different from 
the three described European fossil species. 
Schonfeld’s V. ampelopsoides, as the specific 
name implies, is apparently allied to Ampelop- 
sis. As for the other two, V. coheni and ?Vitis 
sp., Schonfeld expresses some doubt as to 
whether they are correctly identified as Vita- 
ceae. 

The writer has not seen any of the fossil 
leaves said to have been found in the middle 
zone Of the Virgin Valley beds, but they were 
reported by Merriam to be rushes, willows, and 
fragments of other species. Such wood as has 
not been completely replaced by opal and now 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


included in the Virgin Valley opal collection in 
the National Museum is coniferous and belongs 
to the division normally without resin ducts. 
One specimen appears to be a species of 
Sequoia, but, as no thin sections of these woods 
have yet been cut, definite generic identifica- 
tions can not be given. The presence of a grape 
in the flora suggests a somewhat moister climate 
than obtains in the region today, which is 
semiarid and practically treeless, the dominant 
woody vegetation being sagebrush with a few 
scattered junipers. Grapes are generally stream- 
side plants usually in association with a fair 
mixture of trees and shrubs over which they 
climb. No wild grapes now live in Humboldt 
County, Nev. The carbonaceous shales and 
thin lignitic layers in the middle zone, together 
with the large amount of included fossil wood, 
also corroborate the probability of a moister 
climate at the time those sediments were de- 
posited. The evidence from the fossil mammals 
accords with this hypothesis in that, although 
a few species seem to indicate an environment 
of open plains, some were clearly adapted to a 
region with wooded areas. 

A species of grape is represented by leaves 
called Vitis washingtonensis (Knowlton) Brown 
in the middle Miocene Latah formation at 
Grand Coulee, Wash. A seed, called Vitis 
bonsert Berry, also from that locality, may be 
the same species. Associated with these grapes 
is a large number of other species—an assem- 
blage indicating climatic conditions approach- 
ing those prevailing in the southeastern United 
States today. It may be postulated that if and 
when the associates of Vitoxylon opalinum from 
the Virgin Valley beds become known they will 
be found to be related to or perhaps identical 
with species from the Latah formation and of 
the fossil flora from Coal Valley, Nevada, now — 
being studied by Axelrod (1940a, p. 163; 
1940b, p. 480). These floras reflect the moister _ 
Miocene climate of the northern part of the 
Great Basin before the advent of more arid con- 
ditions in the Pliocene. 

The writer is grateful to Dr. J. B. Reeside, 
Jr., of the Geological Survey, for supplying the 
specimen of Parthenocissus quinquefolia; to E. 
P. Henderson, of the U. 8. National Museum, 
for petrographic examination of the fossil; and 
to N. W. Shupe, of the Geological Survey, for 
the excellent photographs. 


Oct. 15, 1942 TSENG AND GILBERT: NEW ALGAE FROM SOUTH CHINA SEA 


291 


LITERATURE CITED 


AxeLropD, D.I. The Pliocene Esmeralda flora 
of west-central Nevada. Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci. 30: 163-174. 1940a. 

. Late Tertiary floras of the Great Basin 
and border areas. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 
67: 477-487. 1940b. 

Dake, H.C. Opals in Virgin Valley, Nevada. 
Rocks and Minerals 8(1): 16-18. 1933. 

The reader interested in precious opal will 
find this issue of Rocks and Minerals partic- 
ularly helpful, as it is a special number de- 
voted to opal and includes a complete bibli- 
ography of the subject to that date. _ 

KrAvsEL, Ricuarp. WNachtrdge zur Tertidr- 
flora Schlestens 2. Braunkohlenhélzer. 
Jahrb. preuss. geol. Landesanst. f. 1918 
39(1): 459, pl. 34, fig. 5; pl. 38, figs. 8-9, 
text figs. 10-11. 1920. 

Merriam, J.C. The occurrence of middle Ter- 
tiary mammal-bearing beds in northwestern 


BOTAN Y.—On new algae of the genus Codium from the South China Sea.’ 


Nevada. 

1907. 

. Tertiary mammal beds of Virgin Valley 
and Thousand Creek, in northwestern Ne- 
vada. Part 1. Geologic history. Bull. Univ. 
California Dept. Geol. 6: 21-53. 1910; 
Part 2. Vertebrate faunas. ibid.: 199-304. 
1911. 

Reeps, C. A. Desert landscapes of northwestern 
Nevada. Nat. Hist. 27: 448-461. 1927. 

SCHONFELD, ErRicu. Uber zwet neue Laub- 
hélzer aus dem Miozén. Senckenbergiana 
12: 111-126, figs. 1-18. 1930. 

ScHusTER, JuLius. Paleozdne Rebe von der 
Greifswalder Ove. Ber. deutsch. Bot. Ges. 
(Berlin) 29: 540-544, pl. 21. 1911. 

Stirton, R.A. The Nevada Miocene and Plio- 
cene mammalian faunas as faunal units. 
Proc. 6th Pacific Sci. Congr.: 627-640. 
1939. 


Science, n. ser., 26: 380-382. 


Cig 


TsENG and Wo. J. GILBERT, Department of Botany, University of Michigan. 
(Communicated by H. H. BARTLETT.) 


When the senior author reported Codium 
elongatum C. Ag. from Hainan, China 
(Tseng, 1936, p. 170), he was not entirely 
without doubt. The plant so reported is 
similar to Codium cylindricum Holm. in 
general appearance, but the utricles are too 
small. It is similar to Codiwm elongatum in 
its utricles but differs in the divaricate 
branching and the short segments between 
the forkings. Since the materials available 
were sterile, he had to be content to place 
them with the widely distributed, rather 
variable C. elongatum of warmer waters. 

Recently, the junior author was studying 
collections of Codiwm from the Philippines 
and was puzzled with a few specimens 
found to be very similar to the Hainan 
plants, which had been provisionally iden- 
tified as C. elongatum. After the dried speci- 
mens from the two regions had been boiled 
to restore their natural conditions as nearly 
as possible, they were found to be similar 

1 Papers from the Department of Botany of the 
University of Michigan, no. 785. Received Feb. 
27, 1942. This article was submitted to the Philip- 
pine Journal of Science for publication. Its receipt 
was acknowledged by the editor in June 1941. To 
date, however, the authors have not received any 
| proof. The article has quite certainly not been 


| published yet in Manila and, under the present 
| circumstances, is most unlikely to be. 


in the size and form of the utricles. In some 
of the specimens, however, the utricles ad- 
hered to one another so closely that it was 
difficult to separate them. Others behaved 
like ordinary Codia with easily separable 
utricles. The coherent utricles of the one 
kind proved to be provided with conical, 
spinelike outgrowths, which were absent in 
the other. This and other differences con- 
vinced the authors that two species were in- 
volved, both still undescribed. Both are re- 
ported from Hainan Island, China, and the 
Philippines, in the northwestern and eastern 
parts of the South China Sea. 


1. Codium bartlettii Tseng & Gilbert, sp. nov. 
Figs. 1, 2a 


Frons viridiuscula, unilateraliter subdicho- 
toma, divaricata, ca. 17 cm alta; segmentis 
subcylindricis vel complanatis, cuneate dilata- 
tis, ca. 1 cm latis, interdum hine illinic inter se 
per tenacula adhaerentibus; filamentis medul- 
lae 30—60u diam.; utriculis 100—-360u (generaliter 
130—280u) crassis, 600—1,100u (generaliter 700— 
900“) longis, subeylindricis vel clavatis, raro 
obovoideis, apice truncatis (Fig. 2a), membrana 
apicali paulum stratosa, ca. 5-10x 
parietali tenuiore, 2-3u crassa; pilis numerosis 
sub apicem utriculorum circulatim _ positis, 


crassa ; 


292 


plerumque ca. 22—26yu latis, interdum solum 
15u, basi subconstrictis, plerumque ex vestigiis 
cicatriciformibus vel elevatis deciduis; game- 
tangiis subfusiformibus, ca. 75-90 latis, 270- 
320u longis, supra mediam utriculorum, singulis 
vel binis, interdum utriculos excedentibus. 
Specimen typicum: H. H. Bartlett 13954, ex 
loco dicto ‘‘Puerto Galera Bay,’ Mindoro, 
Insulis Philippinis, 12-17 Mai. 1935, in Herb. 
Univ. Michiganensi, ex profunditate ca. 12 ped. 
Specimina alia ex ‘““Batangas Channel,’’ Puerto 
Galera, Mindoro (Bartlett 14015) et Yuling- 
Kang, Hainan, Sina, Apr. 1934 (T’seng 853). 
As in most of the branched Codia, the frond 
of Codium bartlettit appears to be many times 
subdichotomously branched. The forking, how- 
ever, is unequal in that one side usually appears 
to be continuous with the axis below it and that 
the branches on the other side are less devel- 
oped. These features result in mature fronds of 
characteristically unilateral appearance (cf. 
Fig. 1). The branching is divaricate, with very 
broad and roundish angles. As a rule, the lower 
the dichotomy, the more divaricate the branch- 
ing. This species has the further peculiarity 
that segments of the same frond sometimes ad- 
here to one another by means of tenacula of 
rhizoidal fibers (ef. Fig. 1). Knoblike protru- 
sions are found on some segments. These, when 
examined microscopically, are also composed of 
rhizoidal filaments, and it appears that they are 
immature tenacula. Another characteristic is 
that the thallus of the new species is com- 
planate, which is especially clear in the 
infra-axillary dilations. The young segments, 
however, are generally subcylindrical. The seg- 


ments between the forkings are cuneate and 


short, generally 1-2 cm long; sometimes the 
segments are dilated at both ends and nar- 
rowed at the middle, thus assuming a dumb- 
bell shape. The dilated part of the segments 
reaches a width of one centimeter. The frond 
gradually tapers upward and seems to be much 
elongated, since the type specimen, which rep- 
resents only the upper portion of a plant, meas- 
ures 17 cm. 

Tseng 853 from Hainan is one of the two 
specimens formerly reported by the senior 
author (Tseng, 1936, p. 170) as “‘Codium elon- 
gatum.’’ This specimen is young and sterile and 
does not show adherence of segments by rhi- 
zoidal fibers. There are, however, several knob- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


like protrusions, evidently immature tenacula, 
here and there on the segments. Similar knob- 
like protrusions are also found in the type 
specimen. The important characteristics of the 
Hainan plant agree so well with the Philippine 
specimens that the authors do not feel any 
hesitation in referring it to the same species. 

Codium bartlettii is a member of the section 
Elongata De-Toni, probably nearest to C. 
elongatum, which is presumed to be widely 
distributed in warmer and tropical seas. The 
latter plant (C. Agardh, 1822, p. 454; Setchell, 
1933, p. 188, pl. 26, fig. 2; ol p29seea ere 
sembles the present species in the infra-axillary 
dilations of the thallus, the cuneate segments, 
and the size and form of the utricles. The uni- 
lateral and broadly divaricate branching, the 
much shorter segments, and the much smaller 
gametangia, however, differentiate it clearly 
from C. elongatum. The next species that should 
be compared with the present one is C. cylin- 
dricum (Holmes, 1895, p. 250, pl. 7, figs. la, b; 
also cf. Okamura, 1915, p. 177, pl. 141), which 
is found abundantly on the coast of Kwantung 
and Fukien Provinces, China, in the northern 
part of the South China Sea. In its general 
aspect C. cylindricum is similar, especially cer- 
tain forms with strong infra-axillary dilations 
and divaricate branching. It has, however, 
much longer segments between the forkings, 
does not have the characteristic unilateral 
branching even in mature specimens several 
meters long, has much larger and longer utricles 
(as much as 900u in diameter and 2 mm long), 
which are plainly visible to the naked eye and 
have differently shaped, somewhat broader 
gametangia. Also resembling the new species 
in the divaricate branching and the shape and 
size of the utricles is C. divaricatum Holmes 
(1895, p. 250, pl. 7, figs. 2a, b; also ef. Okamura, 


1915, p. 155, pl. 136), reported from Japan and | 


North China. That species, however, is a much 
larger, darker colored, and very tough plant, 
with much longer segments between the fork- 
ings, which has mature utricles with rounded, 
convex apices, very much thickened (up to 
60u) clearly stratified apical membranes, and 
somewhat differently situated and larger game- 
tangia (180u in diameter and 450yu long). 
The only species reported to have unilateral 
branching is C. unilateralis Setchell & Gardner 
(1924, p. 710, pl. 15, figs. 30, 31; pl. 36) from 


Oct. 15, 1942 TSENG AND GILBERT: NEW ALGAE FROM SOUTH CHINA SEA © 


the Gulf of California. That species, however, 
is cylindrical, with much narrower segments, 
and has very narrow angles of branching and 
much broader gametangia. Another species of 
the same alliance is C. cuneatum Setchell & 
Gardner (1924, p. 708, pl. 16, figs. 34, 35; pl. 
34) also from the Gulf of California, which has 
short cuneate segments, flattened thallus, 
utricles of similar shape and size, and sub- 
fusiform gametangia. It has, however, an en- 
tirely different’ type of branching, being 
regularly dichotomous-flabellate, with much 
narrower angles of forking, much broader, 


NN 


Fig. 1.—Codium barilettaa Tseng & Gilbert, sp. 
nov.: Habit sketch of a part of the type, showing 
especially the intersegmental cohesion by tenacu- 
lae and the unilateral branching, X0.4. 


cuneate segments, and broader and shorter 
gametangia. 

From all the more or less closely related spe- 
cies, the new one differs additionally in the 
peculiar ability of the segments to fuse with 
one another by means of tenacula of delicate 
rhizoidal fibers growing out from the thallus. 
This is apparently a result of growth stimu- 
lated by the contact of the segments. The phe- 
nomenon is not at all common among members 
of the section Elongata De-Toni, being re- 
ported, so far, in only two other species. These 
are C. intricatum Okamura (1915, p. 74, pl. 120, 
figs. 9-13) and C. coarctatum Okamura (1915, 
p. 141, pl. 134, figs. 4-12), both originally de- 
scribed from Japan and the first one later 
found in the Loochoo Islands and Hainan. The 
senior author has seen hundreds of living speci- 
mens of C. cylindricum, C. divaricatum, and 
others of similar habit with segments fre- 
quently overlapping one another but has never 
found similar cases of anastomosis by tenacula. 


293 


It seems, therefore, to be peculiar to certain 
species, notably members of the repens group 
of the section Tomentosa De-Toni. C. bartlettit, 
although resembling C. intricatum and C. 
coarctatum in the possession of intersegmental 
tenacula, differs definitely from both species 
in many respects. These latter are small, low- 
creeping plants with irregular branching, 
which, although also divaricate, has much 
narrower angles of forking and is never unilat- 
eral. In C. intricatum the segments between 
the forkings are not so distinctly flattened and 
cuneate, and the gametangia are generally 
ovate rather than elongate-subfusiform as in 
C. bartlettiit. C. coarctatum has a strongly flat- 
tened thallus, which is, however, dorsiventral, 
with much narrower utricles (50-60). 


2. Codium papillatum Tseng & Gilbert, sp. nov. 
Figs. 2, b—d, 3 


Frons viridis, subdichotoma, saepe irregu- 
laris, ut videtur unilateralis vel alternatim 
ramosa, si furcata, ramis alterutris inaequali- 
bus, divaricata, ca. 8 cm alta, parte basali 
discoidea ad substratum affixa (cf. Fig. 3); seg- 
mentis junioribus subcylindricis, vetustioribus 
complanatis, segmentis inferioribus inter bifur- 
cationes sursum dilatatis, brevioribus quam 
latioribus (ca. 7 mm latis, plerumque 2-5 mm 
longis); infimis stipitiformibus parvissimis, 
sequentibus usque ad frondis mediam gradatim 
grandioribus, superioribus aliquantalum par- 
vioribus; apicalibus elongatis, flagelliformibus 
sursum plus minusve tumidis; filamentis 
medullariis 30-60 diametientibus; utriculis 
papillatis, 100-300u (generaliter 140—240,) latis, 
600-9004 (generaliter 650—-850u) longis, sub- 
cylindricis vel obovoideis, apice truncatis vel 
subtruncatis, membrana parietali tenui, 2—3u 
crassa, apicali leviter foveolata, ca. 10-20u 
crassa (cf. Fig. 2, d); papillis solidis late coni- 
cis, 10—16u latis, 8-10u altis, apice obtusis vel 
acutiusculis (cf. Fig. 2, b, c); pilis numerosis 
sub apicem utriculorum cyclice positis, ca. 
25-30u crassis, basi saepe constrictis, caducis, 
delapsu cicatrices rotundas vel semilunares vel 
elevatas formantibus; gametangiis ellipsoideis 
vel ovoideis, plerumque ca. 70—90u latis, 200—- 
270u longis, saepissime singulis, interdum binis, 
raro trinis supra mediam utriculorum positis. 

Specimen typicum: H. H. Bartlett 13786, ex 
“Puerto Galera Bay,” Puerto Galera, Mindoro, 


294 


Insulis Philippinis, 12-17 Mai, 1935, in Herb. 
Univ. Michiganensi. Specimina alia ex Cavite, 
Cavite Prov., Luzon, Insulis Philippinis, Jul. 
1935 (Bartlett 14595a). 

Only a few specimens are available. The ma- 
terials are fortunately in good fruiting condi- 
tion, and can be well compared with other 
related species. Two specimens in the type 
collections and also Bartlett 14595a, are larger 
than the actual type specimen, being about 8 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


em high and 7 mm broad in the dilated parts 
of the segments. In general appearance and 
internal characteristics, however, they agree 
well with the type. 

The present plant was first thought to be 
only a small form of the previous species, 
namely, Codium bartlettii. Further studies re- 
vealed the important characteristic presence 
of the papilliform outgrowths of the utricles. 
So far as the information of the authors goes, 


Fig. 2.—(a) Codium bartlettii Tseng & Gilbert, sp. nov.: Two utricles showing a hair, several hair- 


scars, and two gametangia. X80. 


(6-d) Codium papillatum Tseng & Gilbert, sp. nov.: 6, Vertical 


view of some utricles with the conical papillae, X64; c, some utricular papillae, 358; d, three utricles 


showing some papillae and hair-scars, and three gametangia, X64. 


(e) Codium papillatum, var. 


hainanense Tseng, var. nov. Two utricles showing hair-scars and the thickened apical membranes, 


X 64. 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


such utricular papillae have never been re- 
ported before. As mentioned above, the plant 
is extraordinary in that the utricles adhere to 
each other quite firmly and are separated with 
difficulty. If an attempt is made to separate 
them, the upper portion of the utricles generally 
breaks away from the lower. When thus 
broken, mounted and examined microscopi- 
cally, a vertical view of the utricles, rather than 
a lateral view, was obtained, giving the clearest 
view of the papillae (cf. Fig. 2b). These are 
merely outgrowths from the cell wall of the 
utricles and have no connection with the cyto- 
plasm whatsoever (cf. Fig. 2c). They are found 
mostly somewhere below the apices of the 


SA 


Fig. 3—Codium papillatum Tseng & Gilbert, 
sp. nov.: Habit sketch of the type, showing the 
branching, X0.7. 


utricles, sometimes at the tips, and occasionally 
very low down on the side walls of the utricles. 

The present species is a member of the sec- 
tion Elongata De-Toni, probably nearest to 
C. bartlettii described above, which it resembles 
in the divaricate branching, the somewhat 
cuneate, short, flattened segments between the 
forkings, and the size and shape of the utricles. 
The absence of tenacula, the smaller size of the 
frond and segments, the much thicker, some- 
times foveolate apical ends of the utricles, and 
the different shape of the much shorter game- 
tangia, besides the presence of the character- 
istic papillae on the utricles, separate it easily 
from the first described new species. From the 
widely distributed C. elongatum it differs in the 
divaricate branching with short segments be- 


TSENG AND GILBERT: NEW ALGAE FROM SOUTH CHINA SEA 


295 


tween the forkings, the foveolate, thickened 
apical membrane of the utricles, the utricular 
papillae, and the smaller, somewhat differently 
shaped gametangia. The divaricate branching 
and the thickened apices of the utricles remind 
one of C. dwaricatum of Japan and North 
China. That species, however, is a much larger 
and tougher plant which has the segments be- 
tween the forkings several times as long, the 
apical membranes of the utricles three to four 
times as thick, and the gametangia much 
larger and differently shaped. 


2a. Codium papillatum Tseng & Gilbert, var. 
hainanense T'seng, var. nov. 


Fig. 2e 


Frons subdichotoma, divaricata, ca. 10 cm 
alta, segmentis junioribus subcylindricis, seg- 
mentis vetustioribus complanatis, infra axillas 
cuneate dilatatis, ca. 1 cm latis; utriculis papil- 
latis, 150-300u latis, 650-950u longis, sub- 
cylindricis vel obovoideis, apice truncatis vel 
subtruncatis, membrana apicali leviter foveo- 
lata, ca. 15-304 crassa; pilis numerosis sub 
apicem utriculorum positis, ca. 25—30y latis. 
Gametangia ignota. 

Specimen typicum: Tseng 771, ex Tsinglan- 
Kang, Wenchang, Hainan, Sina, 7 Apr. 1934, in 
Herb. C. K. Tseng. 

Var. hainanense is a much larger and more 
robust plant than the nomenclatorial typical 
form of the species with respect to the height 
of the frond, the breadth of the segments, and, 
to a lesser extent, the size of the utricles. The 
apical membrane of the utricles is much thicker 
and more clearly stratified and foveolate. The 
papillae, however, are not so abundant, and 
the coherence of the utricles not so firm as in 
the typical form. The specimen Tseng 771, 
upon which the new variety is based, was re- 
ported under ‘“‘Codium elongatum’’ (pro parte) 
by the senior author (Tseng, 1936, p. 170). Al- 
though the material available is sterile, the 
plant agrees well with the species to which it is 
referred in the important characteristics, e.g., 
the behavior of the utricles, the utricular papil- 
lae, the apical thickening of the sometimes 
foveolate apical membrane of the utricles, the 
form and size of the utricles, and the divaricate 
branching of the frond. Differing, however, 
from the typical form in the few points already 
mentioned, it is described as a new variety. 


296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


LITERATURE CITED 


AGARDH, C. A. Species algarum rite cognitae 
cum synonyms, differentiis specificis et de- 
scriptionibus succinctis 1 (pt. 2): 169-531. 
1822. Lund. 

Hotmgs, E. M. New marine algae from Ja- 
pan. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 31: 248-260, 
pl. 7-12. 1895. 

OxamurRA, K. Icones of Japanese algae 3: 
8 +218 pp., pls. 101-150. 1915. Tokyo. 


BOTANY.—An undescribed Atropellis on cankered Pinus virginiana. 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


SETCHELL, W. A. Some early algal confusions. 
II. Univ. California Publ. Bot. 17(9): 
187-254, pls. 26-45. 1933. 

SETCHELL, W. A., and GarpNER, N. L. New 
marine algae from the Gulf of California. 
Proc. California Acad. Sei. 12(29): 695— 
949, pls. 12-88, map. 1924. 

Tsenc, C. K. Studies on the marine Chloro- 
phyceae from Hainan. Amoy Marine 
Biol. Bull. 1(5): 129-200, map. 1936. 


bi a BP 


LoHMAN, EpitH K. Casu, and Ross W. Davipson, Bureau of Plant Industry. 
(Communicated by JoHn A. STEVENSON.) 


Two species of Atropellis have been re- 
ported (3) as occurring in association with 
cankers of scrub pine, Pinus virginiana 
Mill., in the Allegheny and Appalachian 
forest areas. The commoner of the two, Atro- 
pellis tingens Lohm. & Cash, is known to oc- 
cur on various species of pines, native and 
exotic, in natural stands or plantings from 
New England to Florida, Ohio, and Arkan- 
sas. The other, A. pinzphila (Weir) Lohm. 
& Cash, a species typically of the Rocky 
Mountain area and presumably very infre- 
quent in the Southeastern States, is re- 
corded but once for this host and once for 
loblolly pine, P. taeda L. The cankers due to 
these two fungi on various hosts are dis- 
cussed briefly by Boyce (1). That due to A. 
tungens is described more fully by Diller (2). 

It is in association with a similar canker 
that there has been found on scrub pine in 
Virginia and North Carolina a third and 
undescribed species of the genus, peculiarly 
interesting because of its rather atypical 
ascospores and the fact that it colors the test 
solution (5 per cent KOH) chocolate-brown 
rather than the greenish blue or bluish 
brown characteristic of the other species of 
Atropellis occurring on pines (2, 3). While 
no inoculations have been made, it is 
reasonable to assume that the fungus is 
pathogenic in view of its constant associa- 
tion with cankers and discolored wood as in 

1 The work of the present account, in part, and 
that incorporated in a previous account on 
Atropellis (3), .in connection with which the 
studies herein reported were initiated, are credited 
to the Civilian Conservation Corps and to the 
Division of Forest Pathology and the Division 


of Mycology and Disease Survey in cooperation. 
Received July 6, 1942. 


the case of the previously mentioned species. 
What appears to be the earliest record is 
a specimen collected by R. W. Davidson, 
in Shenandoah County, Va., May, 1933. In 
June and July, 1933, five specimens were re- 
ceived among samples of diseased pines 
from the George Washington National 
Forest, New Kent and Spotsylvania Coun- 
ties, Va., and Alamance County, N. C., all 
collected by J. D. Diller. The fungus later 
was noted in the field by Lohman and Diller 
in Buncombe, McDowell, Davie, and For- 
syth Counties, N. C., at various times from 
the following September to June, 1934. 
When the early collections of the fungus 
were received, it was believed to be a 
saprophyte of secondary importance, fol- 
lowing mechanical or insect injury and also 
following cankering due to A tropellis tungens. 
In 1940, however, in the study of specimens 
currently collected by Diller in Goochland 
County, -Va., the fungus was obtained in 
culture from ascospores and the general 
similarity in cultural characteristics be- 
tween it and A. pinicola Zell. & Goodd. and 
A. tingens was demonstrated. Except for 
the lack of production of the A tropellzs conid- 
ial (? spermatial) stage, which, however, 
likewise is lacking in all of the specimens 
among collections received to date, the 
general characteristics of the fungus are in 
agreement with those previously reported 
for ascospore cultures of A. arzzonica Lohm. 
& Cash and for a number of cultures of A. 
tingens isolated from the colored infected 
wood of various species of pines (3). 
Cultures were made from the discolored 
wood and from ascospores that had been 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


induced to shoot out onto the surface of corn 
meal agar in petri dishes. The cultures from 
these two sources were similar in rate of 
growth and general appearance. Both gave 
a brown reaction (‘“‘old gold” to ‘Hessian 
brown’’)? when particles of 3-month-old 
mycelium were placed in dilute KOH solu- 
tion. On malt agar medium the mycelial 
mats were erumpent, black and uneven, of 
slow growth and with scattered or marginal 
areas of fine, gray tomentum. (Cf. 3, fig. 1, 
A,B.) 

Most of the ascospores developed one or 
two septa on germination (Fig. 1, D). The 
germ tubes, both lateral and terminal, de- 


LOHMAN ET AL.: A NEW SPECIES OF ATROPELLIS 


297 


about 2 mm in diameter, and fusoid, more 
or less subsigmoid spores; with A. piniphila 
in the blackish-brown exciple and size of 
ascospores; and is more like A. tingens with 
respect to ascus measurements. On the other 
hand, in comparison with these four species 
it is distinct in the somewhat lighter colored 
hymenium, as seen in expanded ascocarps, 
the sharply pointed to apiculate ascospores, 
and in the apparent lack of a similar conid- 
ial stage; also, in the brownish epithecium 
which, relative to its development, is 
largely responsible for the resultant rich 
brown color given by the KOH test. Of 
these features, the characteristic shape of 


pe, 


Fig. 1.—Atropellis apiculata on Pinus virginiana: A, closed, 
B, partly opened apothecia, X10; C, ascospores outlined 
with the aid of the camera lucida; D, germinating ascospore. 


veloped and grew slowly when the test 
plates were held in the refrigerator at a 
temperature of about 11°C. No conidia 
were found in cultures grown for three 
months, in which respect they differ from 
comparable cultures of Atropellis tingens. 
This fungus agrees with the four canker- 
forming species previously described (3), 
namely, Atropellis arizonica, A. pinicola, A. 
piniphila, and A. tingens, with respect to 
all features of generic importance. It is in 
particularly close agreement with A. ar- 
zonica in having relatively small apothecia, 
2 Quoted color terms are from Ridgway (4). 


‘the ascospore is utilized in naming this 


species. 
Atropellis apiculata, sp. nov. 
Fig. 1, A-D 

Apotheciis ex cortice erumpentibus, sessilibus 
vel substipitatibus, plus minusve aggregatis, 
coriaceis, atro-fuscis, 1.5-2 mm diam., sub- 
globosis dein expansis, patelliformibus dein 
exaridis hysteriformibus, aliis triangulis atque 
irregulariter compressis; margine undulato, 
laciniato, incurvato; hymenio pruinoso, cin- 
namomeo vel atro-fusco; eylindrico- 
clavatis, apice obtusis, S-sporicis, S80-110u 
longis, 10—-12u latis; ascosporis hyalinis, fu- 


ascls 


298 


soideis, subsigmoideis, apiculatis, 1-2-septatis, 
20-24u longis, 4.8—6.5u latis, apicibus (2-3 yu 
longis) inclusis; paraphysibus filamentosis, 
septatis, ramosis, apice brunneolis, congluti- 
natis; hypothecio pallide brunneo; strato in- 
teriore subhyalino; cortice crasso, atro, ex- 
terius rugoso; statu conidico in natura et 
culturis indeprehenso. 

Hab. in cortice ramorum vivorum Pini virgi- 
nianae. 

Apothecia emerging from the bark over 
cankered areas, scattered or in more or less 
dense groups, coriaceous, sessile or substipitate, 
subglobose, then expanded and patellate, 1.5—2 
mm in diameter, with lacerate, undulate mar- 
gin, inrolled on drying, then hysteriform, tri- 
angular, or irregularly compressed, furfura- 
ceous, dark brownish (“‘blackish brown” to 
“fuscous-black’”’); hymenium pruinose, lght 
to dark brown or nearly black (‘“‘dark vina- 
ceous-drab” to “raisin black”? and sometimes 
lighter, ‘pinkish buff”’ or “cinnamon-rufous’’); 
ascl cylindric-clavate, gradually attenuated 
toward the base, broadly rounded to slightly 
flattened at the apex, 8-spored, 80-110 x10— 
12u; spores hyaline, fusoid to subsigmoid with 
sharply pointed or apiculate ends, biseriate 
above, irregularly uniseriate below, continuous 
with granular contents, at last 1-septate 


or more rarely 2-septate, unconstricted, 20— 


24 X4.8-6.5u, including the apiculae, 2-3yu 
in length; paraphyses filamentous, septate, 
branched, slightly swollen at the apex, becom- 
ing granular incrusted and forming a brownish 
epithecium which in age breaks into islands or 
tufts that tend to break away; hypothecium of 
pale brown, fine, densely interwoven hyphae; 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 10 


medullary layer 100-150u thick, subhyaline, 
appearing loose in hyphal structure; cortex 
about 50yu thick at the margin and 200y at the 
base, of compacted, black, thick-walled, closely 
septate hyphae which on the surface build 
hyphal clumps that give the exciple a furfura- 
ceous appearance. 

On cankered twigs and small branches and 
on main stems of seedlings of Pinus virginiana 
Mill. in Virginia and North Carolina, probably 
widespread but infrequent. 

Specimens examined.—VIRGINIA: Shenan- 
doah County, May 25, 1933, R. W. Davidson 
(F. P. 66206); Goochland County, June 23, 
1933, J. D. Diller 75 (F. P. 66204) and July 25, 
1940, J. D. D. 1002 (F. P. 94036); New Kent 
County, June 20, 1933, J. D. D. 29-A (F-.P. 
66208) and July 25, 1940, J. D. D. 1003 (F.-P. 
94034); Spotsylvania County, June 23, 1933, 
J: D. Do 71 @--P: 66207) and Julyazs 1920), 
J. D. D. 1001 (F. P. 94035, type); George 
Washington National Forest, July, 1933, 
J. D. D. 213-A (F. P. 66209). Nort Caro- 
LINA: Alamance County, June 28, 1933, J. D. 
De 123°Ch. P= 66205): 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Boycr, J. 8. Forest pathology, 600 pp., 
illus. New York, 19388. 

(2) DititerR, J. D. A canker of eastern pines 
associated with Atropellis tingens. Journ. 
Forestry (in press). 

(3) Louman, M. L., and Epira K. Casa. 
Atropellis species from pine cankers in the . 

~ United States. Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci. 30: 255-262, illus. 1940. 

(4) Ripaway, R. Color standards and color 
nomenclature, 43 pp., illus. Washing- 
ton, 1912. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—WNew species of Anastrepha and notes on others (Diptera, 


Tephritidae). 


As was expected when work was termi- 
nated on the writer’s revision (7)? of the 
genus Anastrepha, several new species have 
since come to light. The present paper is 
designed to describe these new species and 
to publish additional information of interest 
concerning others. Some of this material is 
from the continued active collecting of 


1 Received June 20, 1942. 
2 Numbers in parentheses refer to literature 
cited at the end of the paper. 


ALAN Stone, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. 


James Zetek, while the species from Vene- 
zuela and British Guiana were submitted by 
Pablo Anduze and J. N. Knull, respectively. 

There has been some confusion concern- 
ing the correct family name for the fruit 
flies commonly known as Trypetidae. The 
essential facts that led to the adoption in 
this paper of the little-used name Tephri- 
tidae are as follows: Until very recently the 
writer was not aware that the name Trype- 
tidae was not the first name used for the 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


family, so that when Trypeta Meigen fell as 
a synonym of EFuribia Meigen [see Stone 
(6, p. 410)] it seemed necessary to change 
to the name Euribiidae. It now appears that 
the name Trypetidae was not used until 
1862 by Loew (2, p. 49), whereas Newman in 
1834 (5, p. 396) introduced the name 
Tephritites as a ‘Natural Order’ under the 
Stirps Muscina, and based on the genus 
Tephritis. In 1835 Macquart (8, p. 447) 
used the name Tephritidae as the name of 
a “sous-tribu,”’ and other workers such as 
Bigot, Walker, Frey, and Hendel have used 
it since then. Since it is desirable, if not 
mandatory, to follow priority in family 
names, and since the well-established name 
of Trypetidae must be dropped if we con- 
sider a synonym not available as the basis 
of a valid family name, it appears advisable 
to accept the family name Tephritidae. The 
only other possibility would be the name 
Trupaneidae, arrived at either by basing 
the family name on the name of the oldest 
included genus or by sinking Tephritis as a 
subgenus of Trupanea. The former proce- 
dure, mentioned (by citation of the name 
Trypaneinae), but not accepted, by Hendel 
in 1910 (1, p. 311), would not be sanctioned 
by the International Commission of Zoo- 
logical Nomenclature in this case (opinion 
133), whereas the latter, although suggested 
by Malloch in 1931 (4, p. 276), is not sound 
from a taxonomic standpoint. 


Anastrepha gigantea, n. sp. 
Figs. 4, 8 

Very large, yellow-orange. Clypeal ridge 
strongly protuberant, with no median depres- 
sion. Mesonotum 5.0 mm long, orange, with 
humerus, lateral stripe from transverse suture 
to scutellum, very slender median stripe fading 
out posteriorly, and scutellum paler; pleura 
mostly pale yellowish; metanotum entirely 
yellow orange. Macrochaetae black; pile yellow 
orange. No sternopleural bristle. Wing 13.5 mm 
long, the band along costa yellow orange, the 
other bands brownish; costal and S-bands 
joined from anterior margin of wing to cell Ri, 
the hyaline band only very faintly indicated in 
cells R; and Reis; V-band complete and 
broadly joined to S-band anteriorly; vein Ro,5 
slightly undulant; vein M;,.2 curved forward to 


STONE: NEW SPECIES OF ANASTREPHA 


299 


meet apex of S-band. Female terminalia: Ovi- 
positor sheath 9.4 mm long, tapering from base 
to short distance beyond spiracles and then 
nearly parallel-sided to apex; spiracles about 
1.8 mm from base. Rasper of rather large hooks 
in several rows. Ovipositor about 9.0 mm long, 
with a slight lateral swelling beyond end of 
oviduct but no distinct serrations. 

Type material.—Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. 
NOy OGs li): 

Type locality El Cermefio, Panama. 

The single specimen was trapped by James 
Zetek, February 6, 1940. This, the largest 
known Anastrepha, will fit into neither half of 
the first couplet of the writer’s key to species. 
Among the species with a swollen clypeal ridge 
it is nearest to benjamini Lima, but it is quite 
distinct in wing pattern and terminalia. 


Anastrepha doryphoros, n. sp. 
Figs. 7, 14 

Large, yellow-orange. Mesonotum 3.7 mm 
long, yellow orange, with narrow median stripe 
slightly widened posteriorly, border of trans- 
verse suture, sublateral stripe from transverse 
suture to scutellum, and scutellum yellowish 
white; pleura mostly pale yellowish; metano- 
tum entirely. yellow orange. Macrochaetae 
black; pile orange-brown. Sternopleural bristle 
very fine. Wing 10.0 mm long, the pattern 
yellow-orange on basal-anterior portion, brown- 
ish on apical-posterior portion; most of wing 
colored, but costal cell, a spot at apex of vein 
R; extending into cell Ro,3, a spot near base 
of cell Ra,s, most of cell 2nd Mo, cell My, anal 
lobe, and a poorly defined band across cell Cu; 
hyaline or subhyaline. Female terminalia: Ovi- 
positor sheath 9.0 mm long, tapering to slender 
apical half, the spiracles 1.65 mm from base. 
Rasper 1.07 mm long, the hooks rather small, 
gradually decreasing in size basally; tip 0.32 
mm long, with abrupt constrictions just distad 
of end of oviduct, a slight flaring to base of ser- 
rate portion, and then tapering to apex, the ser- 
rations indistinct, occupying less than half of 
tip. 

Type material.— Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 56318). 

Type locality —El] Cermeno, Panama. 

The single specimen was trapped by James 
Zetek, December 5, 1939. 

This species goes to couplet 19 in the writer's 


300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 32, NO. 10 


EE es 

a 
ge 

Mea] 


) SS 
i yi ly 
| ! 
VW { 
N 


4 5 6 7 


Figs. 1-7.—Ovipositor tips of new species of Anastrepha: 1, teli; 2, anduzet; 3, 
dryas; 4, gigantea; 5, parishi; 6, guianae; 7, doryphoros. 


Ocr. 15, 1942 STONE: NEW SPECIES OF ANASTREPHA 


Figs. 8-14.—Wings of new species of Anastrepha: 8, gigantea; 
11, dryas; 12, anduzei; 13, guranae; 14, doryphoros. 


9, partsht; 10, telt; 


301 


302 


key, but can be carried no further because of 
the atypical wing pattern with no distinct 
S-band. The relationship of this species is not 
at all clear. The rather elongate rasper some- 
what resembles that in balloui Stone, but the 
wing pattern and ovipositor tip are unlike those 
of any other species known to the writer. 


Anastrepha anduzei, n. sp. 
Figs. 2, 12 


Medium sized, yellow-brown; mesonotum 
2.5-3.6 mm long, yellow brown, with humerus, 
median stripe expanding posteriorly, sublateral 
stripe from transverse suture to scutellum, and 
scutellum yellowish white; pleura above, in- 
cluding all of metapleuron, yellowish white; 
metanotum entirely yellow-orange. Macro- 
chaetae black, pile pale, yellow-brown. No 
sternopleural bristle, or a very weak one. Wing 
6.5-8.5 long, the bands yellow-brown; costal 
and S-bands rather broadly connected along 
vein R45, V-band complete, usually narrowly 
joined to S-band anteriorly. Female terminalia: 
Ovipositor sheath 2.5-2.7 mm long, rather 
stout, tapering apically, the spiracles about 0.5 
mm from base. Rasper of medium-sized, rather 
compressed hooks in four or five rows. Ovi- 
positor 2.2-2.4 mm long, rather stout, the base 
distinctly widened, the tip finely serrate from 
acute apex to a point basad of end of oviduct; 
width at base of serrate portion more than half 
distance from apex of ovipositor to end of ovi- 
duct. Male terminalia: Tergal ratio about 1.0; 
clasper about 0.34 mm long, stout basally, flat- 
tened apically, tapering to an acute apex; teeth 
at or near middle; a distinct postero-lateral 
swelling at level of teeth. 

Type material.— Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 56319); paratypes, 90 females, 77 males 
U. 8. National Museum and Museo Nacional 
de Ciencias, Caracas, Venezuela). 

Type locality—San Estaban, 
Venezuela. 

Distribution.—State of Carabobo, Venezuela. 

The holotype and 13 paratypes were collected 
at San Esteban, November 22 to 30, 1939, and 
the remaining paratypes at San Esteban from 


Carabobo, 


December 1, 1939, to January 7, 1940, and at — 


Puerto Caballo, on January 13, 1940, by Pablo 
Anduze, for whom the species is named. 

In the writer’s key this species would run to 
lutzt Costa Lima in couplet 71, but it differs 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


from lutzi in having the costal and S-bands of 
wing much more broadly connected, in having 
distinct pale stripes on mesonotum, and in hav- 
ing sides of ovipositor tip less angulate. 


Anastrepha parishi, n. sp. 
Figs. 5, 9 

Medium sized, yellow-orange. Mesonotum 
3.25 mm long, yellow-orange, with an indis- 
tinct median stripe widening posteriorly, 
humerus, lateral stripe from transverse suture 
to scutellum, and scutellum paler; pleura 
yellow-brown, brighter yellow just below noto- 
pleuron; metanotum entirely yellow-orange. 
Macrochaetae orange brown; pile pale yel- 
lowish. No sternopleural bristle. Wing 7.5 mm 
long, the bands yellow brown; costal and S- 
bands connected at vein R45; V-band joined to 
S-band anteriorly; vein M,,». nearly reaching 
apex of S-band. Female terminalia: Ovipositor 
sheath 2.7 mm long, the spiracles about 0.95 
mm from base. Rasper of moderate sized hooks 
in a compact mass of 7 or 8 rows. Ovipositor 
2.5 mm long, rather slender, the base slightly 
widened, the tip 0.26 mm long, tapering, with 
about 10 rather flat teeth on each side. 

Type matertal—Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 56320). 

Type locality—Bartica, British Guiana. 

The single specimen was collected by H. S. 
Parish, August 20, 1901. I take great pleasure 
in naming the species in honor of its collector. 

This species would run to irretita Stone in 
couplet 84 of the writer’s key, but differs in 
having the serrations of the ovipositor tip be- 
ginning nearer the apex of the oviduct, and in 
having the V-band of the wing joined to the S- 
band anteriorly. 


Anastrepha teli, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 10 

Medium sized, yellow-orange. Mesonotum 
3.0-3.5 mm long, yellow-orange, with narrow 
median stripe widening posteriorly to include 
the acrostichal bristles, humerus, and lateral 
stripe from transverse suture to scutellum yel- 
lowish white; usually an indistinct dark spot on 
scuto-scutellar suture; pleura pale yellowish; 
metanotum entirely yellow orange. Macro- 
chaetae nearly black; pile brownish, paler on 
median stripe. Sternopleural bristle very weak 
or absent. Wing 7-8 mm long, the bands orange 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


to brown; costal and S-bands connected on 
vein R4,;; V-band complete, separated from 
S-band. Female terminalia: Ovipositor sheath 
2.68—3.0 mm long, the spiracles about 1.0 mm 
from base. Rasper of moderate sized hooks in 
about 6 rows. Ovipositor 2.4-2.6 mm long, 
rather stout, the tip 0.22—0.28 mm long, taper- 
ing to a rather blunt apex, with about 10 in- 
conspicuous rounded serrations on scarcely 
more than apical half. 

Type materral—Holotype, female, 
types, 3 females (U.S.N.M. no. 56321). 

Type locality E] Cermefio, Panama. 

Distribution.— Panama. 

The holotype was trapped at the type local- 
ity October 17, 1939, by James Zetek. Two 
topotypes were trapped December 12, 1939, 
and February 6, 1940. The third paratype was 
trapped at La Campana, Panam4é, December 
14, 1938. 

This species runs to irretita Stone, in couplet 
84 of the writer’s key, but the ovipositor tip is 
not angulate at the base of the serrate portion 
and the serrations are shallower. It differs from 
parisht in having the serrations begin con- 
siderably farther from the apex of the oviduct, 
and in having the V-band of the wing sepa- 
rated from the S-band. 


para- 


Anasitrepha guianae, n. sp. 
Figs. 6, 13 

Medium sized, yellow-brown. Mesonotum 
3.36 mm long, yellow-brown, with humerus, 
median stripe widening posteriorly to include 
the acrostichal bristles, lateral stripe from 
transverse suture to scutellum, and scutellum 
paler yellow; pleura mostly pale yellowish; 
metanotum narrowly darkened laterally. Mac- 
rochaetae rather dark orange-brown; pile pale 
yellow. Sternopleural bristle rather strong, 
yellow brown. Wing 7.5 mm long, the bands 
yellow brown; costal and S-bands rather 
broadly connected at vein R4,;; V-band com- 
plete, very narrowly joined to S-band an- 
teriorly. Female terminalia: Ovipositor sheath 
2.18 mm long, rather stout, about 0.88 mm 
from base. Rasper of rather stout hooks in a 
triangular patch of about 5 rows. Ovipositor 
2.01 mm long, slightly widened at base, the tip 
0.25 mm long, tapering from base of serrate 
portion to rather acute apex, with about 16 
serrations on each side. 


STONE: NEW SPECIES OF ANASTREPHA 303 


Type material.— Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 56322). 

Type locality.—Bartica, British Guiana. 

The single specimen was collected by H. S. 
Parish, August 26, 1901. 

This species would run to couplet 86, but it 
differs from zuelaniae Stone in having no con- 
striction between the end of the oviduct and 
the beginning of the serrations, and in having 
the V-band of the wing narrowly joined to the 
S-band; it differs from turpiniae Stone in having 
the serrations of the ovipositor tip more ex- 
tensive, the nonserrate portion of the tip less 
tapering, and the V-band of the wing narrowly 
joined to the S-band. 


Anastrepha dryas, n. sp. 
Figs. 3, 11 

Medium sized. Mesonotum 3.0 mm long, 
orange-brown, with humerus, a median stripe 
expanding abruptly posteriorly to reach the 
dorsocentral bristles, a lateral stripe from just 
in front of transverse suture to scutellum, and 
scutellum pale yellow; pleura mostly pale 
yellow; metanotum entirely yellow-orange. 
Macrochaetae brownish black; pile yellowish 
brown. Sterno-pleural bristle very weak. Wing 
7.5 mm long, the bands orange yellow and 
brown; costal and S-bands narrowly connected 
at vein R,,; and hyaline triangle beyond stigma 
constricted or closed at vein Ro.3; V-band 
rather broad anteriorly, entirely separated 
from S-band; vein Re:;3 slightly undulant at 
level of hyaline triangle. Female terminalia: 
Ovipositor sheath 3.86 mm long, tapering to 
apical third and then nearly parallel sided, the 
spiracles 1.1 mm from base. Rasper of many 
long, curved hooks in about 11 rows. Ovipositor 
3.53 mm long, the extreme base slightly 
widened, the apical portion slightly widened to 
level of serrations; ovipositor tip about 0.4 mm 
long, the many minute serrations starting at 
basal fifth and the serrate portion tapering to 
an acute point. 

Type material.—Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 56323). 

Type locality—San 
Venezuela. 

The single specimen was collected by Pablo 
Anduze between December 1 and 6, 1939. 

This species will run to ducket Costa Lima in 
couplet 90, but differs from ducket in being a 


Esteban, Carabobo, 


304 


smaller species, with many more teeth inthe 
rasper, and with a stouter ovipositor tip, not at 
all constricted basad of the serrate portion. The 
species is also close to dissimilis Stone, the 
terminalia being very similar, but the median 
portion of the S-band is considerably narrower 
in disstmilis, so that the costal and S-bands are 
widely separated. 


New ReEcorps FoR ANASTREPHA SPECIES 
Distribution 


As a result of the study of additional ma- 
terial including the new species described in 
this paper, the following new records of distri- 
bution have been discovered: 


ARGENTINA (10)3: 


Anastrepha dissimilis Stone. Two females and 
two males reared at Corrientes, May 9, 
1941, from Passiflora, by H. L. Parker. 


BritisH Guiana (11): 


Anastrepha fraterculus (Wied.); A. guianae, 
n. sp.; A. parishi, n. sp.; A. serpentina 
(Wied.). 


PANAMA (59): 


Anastrepha doryphoros, n. sp.; A. gigantea, n. 
sp.; A. perdita Stone, a female, trapped at 
El Cermefio, January 27, 1942, by James 
Zetek; A. subramosa Stone (inadvertently 
omitted from list in writer’s revision); A. 
teli, n. sp. 


UNITED StaTEs (16); Texas (11): 


Anastrepha lathana Stone, Webb County, 
Tex., December 4, 1940, G. H. Shiner. 


VENEZUELA (15) 


Anastrepha anduzei, n. sp.; A. ‘cordata 
Aldrich; <A. dryas, n. sp.; A. grandis 
(Macquart); A. manthoti Costa Lima. 


Food Plants 


Additional reared material, from various 
sources, has resulted in the following new? data 
on food plants: 


’ Numbers in parentheses here after each 
can Ey indicate the total number of species now 
nown. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


Achras sapota L. (Sapotaceae). Experimental food 
plant of Anastrepha flavipennis Greene by 
James Zetek. 

Eugenia coloradoensis Standley (Myrtaceae). 
Anastrepha fraterculus (Wied.) on Barro 
Colorado Island, reared by James Zetek. 

Eugenia variabilis Baillon (Myrtaceae). According 
to Max Kisliuk, the guarobeiera, listed in the 
writer’s paper as host of bahiensis and bon- 
dart, is this species. 

Labatia standleyana (Pittier) (Sapotaceae). The 
first recorded natural food plant for Anas- 
trepha flavipennis Greene, reared by James 
Zetek from El Cermefio, Panama, June 17, 
1941. A. serpentina (Wied.) was reared from 
this host at the same time. : 

Lucuma obovata HBK. (Sapotaceae). Dr. J. E. 
Wille, chief of the Peruvian Entomological 
Service, has informed the writer that this is 
the preferred host of Anastrepha serpentina 
(Wied.) in Peru, the infestation sometimes 
being very heavy. 

Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae). Experi- 
mental food plant of Anastrepha flavipennis 
Greene by James Zetek. 

Passiflora sp. (Passifloraceae). A. dessimilis Stone 
reared at Corrientes, Argentina, by H. L. 
Parker. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) HenpEL, Friepricu. Uber die Nomen- 
klatur der Acalyptratengattungen nach 
Th. Beckers Katalog der paldarktischen 
Dipteren, Bd. 4. Wien Ent. Zeit. 29: 


307-313. 1910. 

(2) Lozpw, Hermann. Monographs of the 
Diptera of North America. Part 1. 
Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 6(1). 1862. 


‘(3) Macquart [PIERRE JusTIN Marie]. His- 
toire naturelle des insectes. Dapteres. 
Tome 2. 1835. 


(4) Mautuiocu,J.R. Acalyptrata (Helomyzidae, 
Trypetidae, Sciomyzidae, Sapromyzidae, 
etc.). Diptera of Patagonia and South 
Chile, pt. 6, fasc. 4. British Museum. 

(5) Newman, Epwarp. Attempted division of 


British insects into natural orders. En- 
tomologist 2: 379-431. 1834. 
(6) StonE, ALAN. The generic names of 


Meigen 1800 and their proper application 
(Diptera). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 34: 
404-418. 1941. 

The frwitflies of the genus An- 
astrepha. U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ. 
439. 1942. 


(7) 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


ALICATA AND BREAKS: LEPTOSPIROSIS AMONG DOGS 


305 


BACTERIOLOGY .—Incidence of leptospirosis among dogs in Honolulu as deter- 


mined by serological agglutination tests.' 


Breaks, Honolulu, T. H. 


Recent reports of the widespread occur- 
rence of leptospirosis among dogs in the 
continental United States have caused con- 
siderable veterinary and public-health in- 
terest in this disease. Geographically, the 
cases reported involve 14 states: Alabama, 
California, Connecticut, Georgia, Louisi- 
ana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, 


New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsyl- - 


vania, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Cases have 
been reported also from the District of 
Columbia and Puerto Rico (1). Serological 
studies have shown 34.0 percent canine 
infection in some sections of California (4), 
11.8 percent in New York (4), and 38.1 
percent in Pennsylvania (5). These and 
other reports have led to the conclusion that 
probably 25 to 50 percent of the dogs in 
the United States are temporary or per- 
manent carriers of the causative organisms 
Leptospira canicola and L. icterohemorrha- 
giae (2). 

The present paper, reporting on positive 
leptospiral sero-reactions, presents addi- 
tional information regarding the geographi- 
cal distribution and incidence of canine 
leptospirosis. The presence of this disease in 
dogs became suspected following recogni- 
tion of local human and murine leptospirosis 
in 1937 (3), and from communications re- 
ceived from local veterinarians regarding 
the existence of undiagnosed cases of acute 
jaundice. The first findings of Leptospira 
agglutinins in the sera of local dogs were 
made in 1940 on the sera of 7 out of 11 dogs 
submitted for examination by Dr. L. C. 
Moss, veterinarian, to Dr. K. F. Meyer, 
Hooper Foundation, San Francisco, Calif. 

1 Study conducted from special funds appropri- 
ated by the Public Health Committee of the 
Chamber of Commerce of Honolulu and through 
the facilities of the University of Hawaii. The 
writers wish to express their appreciation to 
Dr. K. F. Meyer and Mrs. B. Stewart-Anderson 
of the Hooper Foundation, University of Califor- 
nia, for helpful suggestions in the course of this 
study and for submitting our original strains of 
Leptospira cultures; also to thank Dr. L. C. Moss 


for making possible the obtaining of the sera used 
in this survey. Received April 9, 1942. 


JOSEPH E. ALICATA and VIRGINIA 


Methods.—Sera were collected from 23 
dogs (nos. 1-23) submitted to a veterinary 
hospital for various causes and 77 (nos. 
24-100) obtained at random from a local 
dog pound. In each case the blood was with- 
drawn from the femoral vein. Only one 
test was conducted on each animal. The 
microscopic agglutination test, using fresh 
formalin-killed antigens, was used. The 
porcelain-plate method as described by 
Meyer, Stewart-Anderson, and Eddie (4) 
was adopted. Each of the sera was tested 
for agglutinins against the canicola strain, 
L. canicola, and the classical strain, L. 
icterohemorrhagiae. A series of dilutions of 
serum was made with Verwoort-Schiiffiner 
buffer solution. The final dilutions in the 
plates ranged from 1:10 to 1:30,000. The 
clumps of agglutinated organisms were as- 
certained by the use of a darkfield. Since 
agglutination in low dilutions is considered 
doubtful, only serum positive in a dilution 
of 1:100, or greater, is regarded in this 
study as significant. 

Results and interpretation of the serological 
agglutination tests—As shown in Table 1 
and summarized in Table 2, of the 100 dogs 
examined 20 gave stronger sero-agglutina- 
tion reactions to L. icterohemorrhagiae than 
to L. canicola, as follows: 1 in 1:100, 15 in 
1:300, 2 in 1:1000, 1 in 1:10,000, and 1 in 
1:30,000. In addition, 19 sera reacted more 
strongly to L. canicola, as follows: 1 in 
1:100, 7 in 1:300, 5 in :1,000, 1 in 1:10,000, 
and 5 in 1:30,000. Those cases in which the 
titer was between 1:100 to 1:1000 and the 
animals appeared normal were considered 
as possible latent infections; those that 
showed illness, as in nos. 1, 2, 9, 138, and 21, 
might have represented an early stage of the 
disease and not sufficient time had elapsed 
for agglutinins to develop in larger amounts. 
The 8 cases reported (nos. 17, 3, 27, 12, 
35, 62, 78, and 88) in which the agglutina- 
tion titer was between 1:10,000 and 
1:30,000 are regarded as active clinical 
cases. Of these, the 2 dogs (nos. 17 and 3) 


306 


reacting positive to the classical strain 
showed jaundice whereas the other 6 dogs 
reacting positive to the canicola strain were 
anicteric and showed, in most cases, general 
malaise, muscular tremor, and dehydration. 

Through the use of culture methods (Ver- 
woort’s medium), leptospirae were iso- 
lated from the kidneys of two dogs sus- 
pected of having died of canicola fever. One 
of these dogs, just before death, showed a 
sero-agelutination titer of 1:300,000 for L. 
canicola and 1:30,000 for L. zcterohemor- 
rhagiae. The other dog, just before death, 
showed a sero-agglutination titer of 1:10,000 
for L. canicola and 1:1,000 for L. icterohe- 
morrhagiae. | 

Discussion.—The results of this study in- 
dicate that 39 percent of the dogs examined 
had or were passing through a case of lepto- 
spirosis. Of these, about one-half showed in- 
fection with the classical strain and the 
other half with the canicola strain. These 
findings differ from reports of surveys con- 
ducted in the continental United States 
where the canicola strain has usually been 
found most common. In San Francisco, of 
59 dogs examined 3 reacted to the classical 
strain and 33 to the canicola strain (4); in 
New York, of 111 dogs examined 3 reacted 
to the classical strain and 10 to the canine 
strain (4); in Pennsylvania, of 105 dogs 
examined canicola strain was found to be 
three times as frequent as the classical 
strain (5). On the other hand, Meyer and 
coworkers (4) found 10 out of 12 dog sera 
from Detroit, Mich., positive for the classi- 
cal strain; the dogs, in this case, were re- 
ported to be in some way connected with 
cases of human Weil’s disease. 

The epizootiological relationships of ca- 
nine and murine leptospirosis has not been 
definitely established. In San Francisco, 
Meyer and coworkers (4) found a low inci- 
dence of infection with L. zcterohemorrhagiae 
among dogs in spite of the fact that 35 per- 
cent of the rats in the same locality were 
found to carry this organism. Of a series of 
500 rats trapped at random in Honolulu, sil- 
ver-stained sections of kidneys of these ani- 
mals revealed only 13 or 2.6 percent infec- 
tion with leptospirae. All these positive rats 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


were trapped in localities near fresh-water 
streams. Kidney emulsion of these rats pro- 
duced clinical leptospirosis with jaundice 
when inoculated into young mice and guinea 
pigs. These findings point out a low rela- 
tionship between the incidence of murine 
and canine leptospirosis. Infection of dogs 
with the classical strain appears therefore 
to be brought about by intercanine associa- 
tion in the same way that the canicola in- 
fection takes place among dogs. The cani- 
cola strain as far as is known is not found in 
rats. | 

Summary.—Microscopic agglutination 
tests, using fresh formalin-killed Leptospira 
canicola and L. icterohemorrhagiae as anti- 
gens, have been conducted on the sera of 
100 dogs from Honolulu. Of these, 20 per- 
cent of the sera gave stronger agglutination 
reactions to L. icterohemorrhagiae than to 
L. canicola and 19 percent reacted more 
strongly to L. canicola. 

Leptospirae were recovered from two 
dogs suspected of having died of canicola 
fever. 

Out of 500 rats examined in Honolulu, 
2.6 percent were found to harbor lepto- 
spirae. This low incidence points out little 
epizootiological relationship between mu- 
rine and canine infections. The disease in 
dogs with the classical strain of Leptospira 
is believed to be brought about through in- 
tercanine associations as in the case of the 
canicola strain. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Geographical distribution of 
North Amer. 


1. ANONYMOUS. 
leptospirosis in the U. S. 
Vet. 22(12): 720. 1941. 

. ANonyMous. Leptospirosis on the increase. 
North Amer. Vet. 22(11): 662. 1941. 

. AuicaTa, J. E. A study of trichinosis and 
infectious jaundice in the Hawaiian Is- 
lands. Trans. 47th Ann. Meet. Hawaii 
Terr. Med. Assoc., pp. 95-101. 1937. 

4. Meyer, K. F., Stewart-AnpERSON, B., 
and Eppiz, B. Canine leptospirosis in the 
United States. Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. 
Assoc. 95 (753): 710-729. 1939. 

. RAveN, C., and Barnes, K. Incidence of 
canine leptospirosis as determined by ag- 
glutination-lysis tests of sera from dogs in 
Pennsylvania. Journ. Bact. 40(2): 329. 
1940. 


Cw bd 


O1 


307 


Oct. 15, 1942 ALICATA AND BREAKS: LEPTOSPIROSIS AMONG DOGS 


TABLE 1.—PosITIVE LEPTOSPIRA AGGLUTINATION REAcTIONS NOTED IN THE SERA OF 39 out oF 100 
Dogs EXAMINED; FORMALINIZED CULTURES oF L. ICTEROHEMORRHAGIAE AND L. CANICOLA USED 


Titer of sero-reaction: First line for L. icterohemorrhagiae; second line for L. canicola 
Dog Clinical observations 
No. 1:10 1:30 1:100 1:300 1:1,000 | 1:3,000 | 1:10,000 |1:30,000 
42 eet +4 ++ 0 0 0 0 | 0 Normal 
et — 0 0 0 0 0 0 
1 + + ++ Sl - 0 0 0 0 Icteric 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8) 
2 22 dase +44 +44 ++ 0 0 0 0 General malaise 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
9 2a tb +4 ++ 0 0 0 0 Bloody urine 
alpina; als 0 0 0 0 0 0 
10 ar as aheat: Spar 5 0 0 0 0 Dermatitis 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
13 +++ +++ Pon SP 0 0 0 0 Coughing, subnormal 
-o+ ++ + 0 0 0 0 0 temperature 
19 Sip ateats te satgct ae ste fe 0 0 0 0 Normal 
+ + 0 0 0 0 0 0 
51 Bag a ste apes: aa =P 0 0 0 0 Normal 
++ ata 4p 0 0 0 ° . 
53 AP aats sete oe at pate =p 0 0 0 0 Normal 
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
59 Sieetacts SPI ar Sfaate = 0 0 0 0 Normal 
tet aes ap 0 0 0 g Q 
60 aPaPSR aR ae alate ai 0 0 0 0 Normal 
424555 sae = 0 0 0 0 . 
61 Bieta Slag ain ae at as 0 0 0 0 Normal 
tesph aig ds 0 0 0 0 Y 
69 ieate ste siete te ap Gi 0 0 0 0 Normal 
++ ++ +] 4+ 0 0 0 0 
74 siesta Simalscts alactosts state 0 0 0 0 Normal 
+++ ++ + + 0 0 0 0 
84 sigatect te ahaatect= sz oie 0 0 0 0 Normal 
++ oon = 0 0 0 0 
9 | +++] +++ oe eee 0 0 0 | Normal 
++ + 0 0 0 0 0 0 
68 | ++++] +44 ++ + “ 0 0 0 | Normal 
Siecle a ar + 0 0 0 0 
Se ties at teste) cts tect ae 55 iF 0 0 0 Normal 
++ ++ + 0 0 0 0 f 
17 eet stems ateaig att ote Sear ae BRP ar SAS =F ta 0 Icteric; vomiting 
Wagar Siaats Siaate staat = + 0 0 
3 SeaqParaR | seaparar | ararsene | Sesparar SPS ta ataata ae ter stats Icteric 
ARaPAP SP | aera ql) ame apr RP aPae Staats 0 0 0 
64 aPSe -E 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Normal 
+++] +++ + 0 0 0 0 0 
16 Shee te Sele + 0 0 0 0 0 | Stomatitis 
abe ataeae Ste cleats Tate i 0 0 0 0 


308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 32, NO. 10 
) 


TABLE 1—Continued 


| Titer of sero-reaction: First line for L. icterohemorrhagiae; second line for L. canicola 


LO Me pr 
No. 1:10 | 1:30 | 1:100 | 1:300 | 1:1,000 | 1:3,000 | 1:10,000 |1:30,000 
18 — + | 0 0 0 | Oo. | 0 0 Normal 
—+ fess ee | (een 10yy a no ae a | 
29 Jose fee + 0 | 0 0 0 0 Normal 
SRaS=e SESE argh + 0 0 0 0 
SB ei eee ed eee fie ky 0 0 0 0 0 | Normal ) 
seatvabialsiweal; ainsi a al als 0 0 0 0 
67 stat at -- 0 0 0 0 0 Normal 
Vata =e SS> ates = 0 0 0 0 
83 +++ ++ + 0 0 0 0 0 Normal 
ate ahagte tat ete Salt at 0 0 0 0 
SS a ee 
93 Jest + + (8) 0 0 0 0 Normal | 
slates aia cisclga stant =f 0 0 0 0 
21 +4 == aL =f 0 0 0 0 Vomiting | 
Sineaicata =PaPSe = sige ate 0 0 0 
37 ++4 +4 - 0 0 0 0 0 Normal 
teaheats Sarat Stools aPSF cs 0 0 0 
43 SPSsb =F se =5=5 + 0 0 0 0 | Normal 
ear aear toadaet ar ots =f-=]- as 0 0 0 
46 + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 Normal 
spike = PSPs qe an Bree i 0 0 0 
By |) aPspepcr i) spsbse =P Se + + 0 0 0 Normal 
Saeame al aeapee || roe a = = 0 0 
Pa SSE ++ + + 0 0 0 0 Malaise; dehydration; 
Seamerae | SPsP aro Se ae ae ete eat a + 0 muscular tremor 
12 SSSRSPSE | SRSESESE ap seseoe aParar ahratecta =5 0 0 | Vomiting; dehydration 
SRTRpS= || TPSRSeeP | aPapSh= 1 SPseaR=P)) Seskaeae | eseseer Sacteichy + 
35 Sea5 “= 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Malaise; dehydration 


| | | | | || —— | | | 


Boi Satrsactaten |icde deste ate ote leetenl eatcote dete ahaha Shp: asta ++ | Dehydration; muscular 
++t+] +t++] ++4+4+] +444) 4444) +444] +444 | +44 | tremor 


78 +++4+]+4+4++4+]- +44 +++ + 0 0 0 | Malaise; dehydration 

Gretcals ata chastened es tatantaste ile cite tt sWeste ake i a aa 
88 ash ge We aes eo aiateat: TERE ar a ie Esk + | Malaise; muscular 

SRR Wea atsee e stds eh eck dea aeateet eh clestee ae “adnohs ++ | tremor 


TABLE 2.—SUMMARY OF THE AGGLUTINATION TITER OF THE 39 PosITIVE Dog SERA 


Number reacting more Titer Total 
Sa es 1:100 | ~ 1:300 1:1,000 | 1:3,000 | 1:10,000 | 1:30,000 

L. icterohemorrhagiae....... 1 15 2 0 1 1 20 

Dy: CONICOLG ee ee 1 7 5 0 i 5 19 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


REINHARD: ON STEREOBALANUS CANADENSIS 


309 


ZOOLOGY.—Stereobalanus canadensis (Spengel), a little-known enteropneustan 


from the coast of Mazne.! 


Epwarp G. REINHARD, Catholic University of 


America and University of Maine Marine Laboratory. 


A considerable number of specimens of-an 
enteropneustan, hitherto known only from 
four fragments dredged off Cape Breton, 
Nova Scotia, were collected by the author 
on the coast of Maine during the summers of 
1940 and 1941. William C. McIntosh, who 
collected the type material, sent it to Spengel 
in 1878 for study. The latter described the 
animal (1893) under the name Balanoglossus 
canadensis and subsequently (1901) created 
a new genus, Stereobalanus, to receive it. Al- 
though Spengel’s description is extremely 
detailed and authoritative, it is necessarily 
lacking in some particulars since the ma- 
terial was poorly preserved and did not 
comprise a complete specimen. These de- 
ficiencies, coupled with the fact that the ap- 
pearance of the animal when alive was 
entirely unknown also introduced unavoid- 
able errors into the description. Spengel 
himself, commenting on the poor quality 
of the specimens, remarks: ‘‘Dies ist um so 
mehr zu bedauern, als Balanoglossus cana- 
densis durch eine ganze Reihe interessanter 
Eigenthiimlichkeiten ausgezeichnet ist. Eine 
abermalige Untersuchung dieser Art unter 
Benutzung reicheren und besser erhaltnen 
Materials ist daher sehr wiinschenswerth.”’ 

Stereobalanus was first encountered by 
the author on July 31, 1940, while on a 
dredging trip in Frenchmans Bay with a 
party of students and staff members of the 
University of Maine Marine Laboratory. 
The collecting ground has been revisited on 
two occasions since, and no dredge haul has 
failed to yield some specimens of this 
species. The hauls were made at a depth of 
40-50 feet about half a mile southeast of 
Crabtree Light at the mouth of Sullivans 
River. The bottom at this station is a soft, 
fine mud. Together with Stereobalanus 
canadensis, the dredge usually contained 
such mud-dwellers as the hydroid Cory- 
morpha pendula, the polychaete Nephthys 
caeca, or the starfish Ctenodiscus crispatus. 

It is very difficult to collect this animal 
in perfect condition with the apparatus 

1 Received June 9, 1942. 


used, a 3-foot scallop drag. A box dredge or 
some other type of equipment might give 
better results. Stereobalanus is extremely 
soft-bodied and fragile. The specimens 
were mostly entangled in the meshes of the 
net bag and almost invariably mutilated. 
Although more than 40 were dbtained, only 
4 were entire. I was fortunate in being able 
to enlist the aid of my friend Dorothy Olsen 
Johnston, collaborating artist of the Ameri- 
can Museum of Natural History, who at 
once made color sketches of the living ani- 
mal. For her work, reproduced in Fig. 1, I 
am deeply grateful. 

Size.—Total length up to 50 mm. Since 
Maine is probably the southern limit of the 
species, it is likely that Nova Scotia speci- 
mens may be larger. 

Color.—The color is a pale lemon-yellow 
except for the liver region, which is brown. 

Proboscis.—The proboscis of the largest 
specimen, measured alive, showed a length 
of 11 mm and a width of 6 mm. Well-fixed 
mature specimens had proboscides averag- 
ing 6-7 mm in length and about 5 mm in 
width at the base. The dimensions given by 
Spengel for the proboscis (5 mm long and 7 
mm wide) and his illustration (pl. 17, fig. 1) 
are obviously based on strongly contracted 
specimens. In life, the proboscis is nearly 
twice as long as it is broad, and even in 
properly fixed animals it retains a length 
greater than the width. 

As in other Enteropneusta, the proboscis 
is joined to the anterior surface of the collar 
by means of a short, thin, tapering neck. 
Spengel’s statement that the neck is absent 
in Stereobalanus is clearly erroneous and 
again attributable to the highly contracted 
nature of the material at his disposal. 

Collar—The collar is approximately as 
wide as the base of the proboscis and has a 
length of 2-3 mm. It is very short in com- 
parison to the collar-length of most other 
Enteropneusta. The presence of two circular 
furrows gives the collar a triannulate ap- 
pearance. Spengel was unable to discover 
collar-pores in this species, but they are 


310 


clearly evident if the collar is severed from 
the trunk and the posterior collar surface 
examined. The pores lie directly dorsal to 
the pharynx, one on each side of the mid- 
line. 

Skeleton of proboscis and collar —This is 
sufficiently well illustrated in Fig. 2 to re- 
quire no additional comment. The drawing 
was made from a whole mount of a small 
specimen and checked against maceration- 
preparations “of larger specimens. 


Fig. 2——The proboscis skeleton of Stereo- 
balanus canadensis, ventral aspect, with as- 
sociated structures: A, proboscis skeleton; B, 
chondroid tissue; C. marginal lamellae. 


Trunk.—The trunk measures up to 36 
mm in length and is nearly uniform in diam- 
eter except in the caudal region where it be- 
comes somewhat less thick. Its general 
width equals or slightly exceeds that of the 
proboscis and collar. It bears a distinct 
dorsal and ventral longitudinal ridge, and 
its surface, except for these ridges, is con- 
spicuously ruffled. 

In the branchiogenital region, which is 
immediately posterior to the collar, Stereo- 
balanus exhibits several unusual features. 
Instead of possessing a series of gill pores, 
as does the familiar Dolichoglossus, there is 
a single, deep, slitlike pore on each side, 
dorsolateral in position. Its presence gives 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


rise to a smaller dorsal and larger ventral 
genital wing in which the gonads are 
located. The gills are visible externally, par- 
ticularly if the genital wings are spread 
apart slightly. 

The number of gills varies with the size 
of the individual. Young specimens have 
12 or 13 pairs of gills, while average mature 
individuals have about 36 pairs. The gill 
skeleton consists of 3-pronged forks. The 
arch that joins the three prongs of a fork 


Fig. 3.—The first three forks of the 
gill skeleton of a mature Stereobalanus 
canadensis showing chitinous thick- 
enings as seen from inner side. 


together is feeble in young specimens and 
in the posterior gills of older animals. Else- 
where it is greatly thickened with a massive 
cap of chitin. Spengel’s ‘‘Riicken massig 
verdickt.” is therefore true only of the older 
gill skeletons. 

Following the branchiogenital region, a 
portion of the trunk entirely devoid of gills 
or gonads intervenes before the liver region 
is reached. This transitional portion, which 
is somewhat longer than the branchio- 
genital region itself, was somehow missed by 
Spengel, who reported the liver region as 
following directly upon the gill region. Van 
der Horst (1927-39), on the basis of com- 
parative studies on. other Enteropneusta, 


. 


eH il Wisi jg 
nies 


iid 


ul 


‘ 
« 


anim 


iving 


h of the li 


rom a color sketc 


”» | 


il 


en Johnston, 


SIZE 


(Spengel). Four times natural 


CNSUS 


reobalanus canad 


2 
7 


1.—Sle 


lig, 


by Dorothy Ol 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


challenged this point in Spengel’s descrip- 
tion of Stereobalanus canadensis. Reexami- 
nation of this species therefore fully con- 
firms Van der Horst’s suspicion (l.c., p. 240). 

The hepatic region, distinctly set apart by 
its dark color in life, occupies about one- 
fifth of the trunk length, but its anterior 
and posterior limits are not sharply defined. 
The skin in this region is thrown into trans- 
verse rugae which appear to be finer and 
more pronounced than those present else- 
where on the trunk. 

The posthepatic region possesses no 
special external features. In some specimens 
the anus is terminal, in others it appears to 
be ventral and subterminal. 

General remarks.—This species is the 
only known representative of the genus 
Stereobalanus. It is hoped that rediscovery 
of this animal in a locality where further 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 24 Gt 


specimens are easily obtainable will stimu- 
late research into the internal anatomy and 
histology of a species that manifests 
morphological peculiarities of great interest, 
among them being a proboscis sense organ 
unique among Enteropneusta. The speci- 
mens obtained in Maine, after anesthetiza- 
tion, were fixed in Kleinenberg’s solution 
and stored in alcohol. They have been de- 
posited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


SPENGEL, J. W. Die Enteropneusten des Golfes 
von Neapel. Fauna und Flora des Golfes 
von Neapel, monogr. 18. 1893. 

. Die Benennung der Enteropneusten- 
Gattungen. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst., 15: 
209-218. 1901. 

Van DER Horst, C. J. Hemichordata, in 
Bronn’s “Klassen und Ordnungen des 
Tier-Reichs,”’ 4(4): Buch 2, t. 2, lfg. 1-6. 
1927-39. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
1187TH MEETING 


The 1187th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, October 11, 1941, 
President McComps presiding. The program 
consisted of a series of papers on the National 
Geographic Society—National Bureau of Stand- 
ards Eclipse Expedition of 1940. 

IRvINE, C. GARDNER (National Bureau of 
Standards): The design and construction of 
eclipse apparatus. 

Paut A. McNatty, S. J. (Georgetown Uni- 
versity): Contact times of the 1940 eclipse, de- 
termined from photographs of the partial phases. 

EK. O. Huisurt (Naval Research Labora- 
tory): Sky brightness at Patos, Brazil, during 
twilight and during the total solar eclipse of 1940. 

C. C. Kiuss (National Bureau of Standards), 
by invitation!: The 1940 flash spectrum. 

T. R. GIuLILANp (National Bureau of Stand- 
ards), by invitation: Radio observations of the 
tonosphere at the 1940 eclipse in Brazil. 

R. H. Stewart (National Geographic So- 
ciety), by invitation: The story of the expedition 
in colored motion pictures. 

The National Geographic Society—National 


‘The words “by invitation” signify that the 
author was not a member of the Society. 


Bureau of Standards Eclipse Expedition of 
1940 was stationed at Patos, in the state of 
Paraiba de Norte of Brazil, this location being 
north and west of Recife. The eclipse was on 
October 1. The program of scientific work 


planned for this expedition was so varied in 


nature that results of considerable scientific 
importance were obtained although a thin veil 
of clouds partially obscured the eclipse during 
the period of totality. Mr. Irvine C. Gardner, 
the leader of the expedition, described the new 
corona cameras, polarigraphs, and _ spectro- 
graphs which were specially designed and con- 
structed for use at this expedition. 


118STH MEETING 


The 1188th was a joint meeting with the 
Washington Academy of Sciences on October 
16, 1941. Commdr. Francis W. REICHELDER- 
FER, Chief of the Weather Bureau, delivered 
an address entitled Some famous weather maps. 


1189TH MEETING 
The 1189th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, October 25, 1941, 
President McComs presiding. An invited paper 
on X-ray spectroscopic studies of mulitple tontza- 
tion was presented with illustrations by Mr.L.G. 
PARRATT, of Cornell University. The paper 


312 


was discussed by Messrs. F. L. Mouuer and 
A. BLAKE. 


1190TH MEETING 


The 1190th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, November §&, 
1941, President McComps presiding. An in- 
vited paper on The modern nautical chart—a 
scientific achievement was presented with illus- 
trations by Mr. Aaron L. SHALowiTz, of the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. Ptolemy, the 
Portolanos, and Mercator were the three great 
early influences on contemporary chart making. 
The beginning of the modern nautical chart 
dates back to less than 150 years ago when 
systematic surveying was instituted by the 
various maritime nations. In this country the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey published its first 
chart of New York Harbor in 1845, and marked 
a definite departure from the uncoordinated 
and highly generalized surveys of Colonial 
days. Progressive development in methods of 
surveying, particularly in the application of 
sound to the determination of depth and 
distance, has steadily pushed forward the 
frontiers of accurate hydrographic surveys and 
has given the nautical chart a leadership in 
precision seldom attempted in other branches 
of map construction. In the most recent type 
of chart greater emphasis is laid on depth 
contours in order to bring into prominence the 
many submarine features that are useful to 
the modern navigator equipped with an echo- 
sounding device. 

An invited paper on Reproduction of charts 
and maps was presented with illustrations by 
Mr. Dupuey P. BarNnetrs, of the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey. 

Reproduction of charts and maps for issue to 
the public is accomplished by several methods. 
For quick reproduction or for temporary use, 
photostats, ozalid prints, blueprints, or bromide 
enlargements may be used. 

For quantity production, photoengraving 
(line-cuts), wax engraving, or photolithography 
are the methods to be used. Photoengraving 
and wax engraving offer little opportunity for 
corrections or changes to the printing plate, 
but in the more widely used method of photo- 
lithography the metal printing plate may be 
easily corrected or changed. Photolithography 
and offset printing are now synonymous, since 
the older method of photolithography from 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


stone printing plates is rapidly disappearing. 
In photolithography, color work, either simple, 
such as solid color areas, or complicated, such 
as patterns, stipples, rulings or screens, can be 
readily accomplished. 

Photolithography requires the skill of many 
artisans to accomplish the final product. Repre- 
sented in this list are artists, draftsmen, 
copper-plate engravers, photographers, type 
compositors, transferers, process plate makers, 
and pressmen, each rendering a separate con- 
tribution to the whole. 

In lithography such methods as deep etch, 
dry-lithography, and Van Dyke are used under 
circumstances fitting to the subject and quan- 
tity of production. . 

Many time-saving methods are used in con- 
nection with the reproduction of charts such 
as mechanically engraving lettering, soundings 
(figures), and symbols in copper plate engrav- 
ing or engraving on stained glass negatives, 
and the use of mechanically made shading 
mediums to emphasize particular features. 


1191sT MEETING 


The 1191st meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, November 22, 
1941, President McComs presiding. An in- 
vited paper on Microphotography was presented 
with illustrations by Mr. Vernon D. Tats, of 
the National Archives. It was discussed by 
Dr. BROMBACHER. 

A microphotograph is a reduced-size photo- 
graphic facsimile of a textual original that is 
too small to be read by the unaided eye. In 
recent years, microphotography has become a 
medium of immense significance in the collec- 
tion, preservation, use and dissemination of 
documentary materials of all types. The tech- 
nique is employed in archives, libraries, mu- 
seums, and other scholarly institutions, in 
business and industry, by societies and com- 
mittees, individuals, and the Federal Govern- 
ment. Although popularly considered new, 
microphotography can be traced back almost 
a hundred years. Equipment is available for 
small, medium-sized, and large-scale under- 
takings. The product, by act of Congress, must 
be judicially noticed. Microphotography is 
regarded by those who have interested them- 
selves in its application to documentation as 
the most significant technological achieve- 
ment since the invention of printing. 


Oct. 15, 1942 


A paper on Quartz resonators was presented 
with illustrations by Mr. Francis E. Fox, of 
the Catholic University of America. It was 
discussed by Mr. A. Bake. 

Quartz plates have become very widely used 
for frequency stabilization of oscillators, in 
“single frequency”’ and other electrical filters, 
and as sources of high frequency sound. There 
has been a large amount of investigation con- 
cerning the resonant and oscillating frequencies 
of such quartz plates, and the problem of de- 
termining the resonant frequencies of such a 
slab is far from simple for such a complex struc- 
ture as that of quartz. 

For special configurations (long thin rods, 
thin circular plates, wave surface plates, etc.) 
approximations may be obtained that yield 
several discrete sets of frequencies, and the in- 
teraction of these frequency sets produces ‘‘com- 
bination frequency sets.’ The vibration of 
specimens may be investigated optically by 
using the specimen as one arm of an interferom- 
eter; by an analysis of the electrical reso- 
nance curves, and so on. In one specimen, an 
x-cut quartz plate 2.50 x2.50 x0.11 cm, over 
200 distinct resonant frequencies were observed 
in the frequency range from 2,436 ke to 2,552 
ke. 


1192D MEETING 


The 1192d meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, December 6, 1941, 
President McComp presiding. Mr. Gipson 
read the report of the treasurer, Mr. Dremina, 
the latter being delayed by storms, which held 
up air service from Providence, where he had 
been lecturing. The treasurer’s report stated 
that the income from dues and investments 
was $1,308.81, that the expenditures were 
$1,280.55, leaving a surplus of $28.26. The 
average expenditure per member was $4.09. 
During the year a $2,000 Cosmos Club bond 
was called, and the $2,000 is held in a trust 
account, which was discussed by Messrs. M. D. 
Hersey, W. G. Brompacuer, F. G. Bricx- 
weppE, H. H. Hows, and W. J. Humpureys. 
The report of the auditing committee, H. S. 
Rappteye, L. V. Jupson, and G. R. Wart, 
was presented by the chairman, Mr. Rap- 
PLEYE. The report of the auditing committee 
was accepted as read, and the report of the 
treasurer was accepted. 

The joint report of the secretaries was pre- 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


313 


sented by the corresponding secretary, Mr. 
Stimson. It showed an active membership of 
315 as of December 1, 1941. The following 
persons were elected to membership during 
the fiscal year: Cart A. Breck, L. T. Bour- 
LAND, F. W. Brown, 3d, Patrick J. Dono- 
van, W. J. Eckert, ALEXANDER ELLETT, 
GAETANO FrERLAzzo, FRANcIS D. Fox, HErR- 
BERT FRIEDMAN, KARL GERHARD, ROBERT 
WINSLOW GorDON, ARMIN W. HeEtz, Joun M. 
Ipz, Wm. G. Mapow, Mrs. Marce.ua L. 
PuILuips, Morris RELSoN, GEorGE D. Rock, 
Wo. H. Sanpers, Haroup L. Saxton, Pau 
LaurRENS SmitH, RicHarp Tovusrey, Hor- 
ACE M. Trent, CLEMENT WINSTON, Wm. E. 
Woop. 

The report of the committee on elections, 
F. Wenner, H. D. Harrapon, and MicHaru 
GOLDBERG, was presented by the chairman, 
Mr. Wrenner. He announced that all the 
elected officers received a majority of the 
votes with respect to each of the remaining 
candidates for the same office. Messrs. H. H. 
Howe, H. L. Curtis, A. G. McNisu, and F. 
WENNER discussed the precedent that the 
actual count of the votes should not be an- 
nounced. The report was accepted and the 
president declared the following to be duly 
elected: 


President: W. G. BROMBACHER. 

Vice Presidents: R. J. Smrcer, H. F. 
STIMSON. 

Corresponding Secretary: W. Epwarps 
Deming. 

Treasurer: WALTER RAMBERG. 

Members-at-large of the General Com- 
mittee: G. Gamow, C. L. GARNER. 


The president opened the meeting for dis- 
cussion of Society policies and recommenda- 
tions to the General Committee. Mr. SEEGER 
as an editor of the JourNAt of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences commended Mr. L. V. 
Jupson for his efficient work as associate edi- 
tor for the Philosophical Society. The publica- 
tions of the Society and of the JouRNAL were 
also discussed by Messrs. M. D. Hersey, 
L. B. TucKERMAN, and W. J. HUMPHREYs. 

The acting secretary, Mr. Stimson, read a 
rough draft of the minutes, and these were 
approved as read. 

A paper on Great geomagnetic storms of the 
present sun-spot cycle was presented with 
illustrations by Mr. A. G. McNtsu of the De- 


partment of Terrestrial Magnetism. It was 


314 


discussed by Messrs. H. L. Curtis, P. A. 
SmiTuH, F. WENNER, and N. H. Heck. 

The President announced the program for 
the next meeting. He then asked Past Presi- 
dents, R. E. Gipson and F. G. BrRicKWEDDE, 
to escort the newly elected President, Mr. 
BROMBACHER, to the chair. After a few re- 
marks Mr. BrRoMBACHER adjourned the meet- 
ing for the social hour. 


1193D MEETING 


The 1193d meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, December 20, 
1941, President BromMBAcHER presiding. An 
invited paper on Archery paradise, paradox, 
and paralysis was presented with slides and 
motion pictures by Mr. C. N. Hickman, of the 
Bell Telephone Laboratories. It was discussed 
by Messrs. OLMSTEAD, PAWLING, DEMING, 
Briaces, Gamow, P. A. Smiru, L. B. TucKkEer- 
MAN, and F. B. SILsBEE. 

Up until about 12 years ago, the velocity of 
an arrow had never been measured except by 
the use of a stop watch. During the past 10 
years the study of the internal ballistics of the 
bow and arrow has furnished a paradise for a 
number of physicists. For at least two cen- 
turies archers have tried to explain the para- 
dox of how an arrow gets around the bow to 
hit the mark that it is pointed at. Moving 
pictures, taken at the rate of 4,000 frames a 
second, show how the arrow gets around the 
bow. Over 50 percent of the archers, sooner 
or later, are stricken with what is often called 
paralysis or freezing. This interesting but an- 
noying affliction was discussed. 

The President announced the appointments 
to the Committee on Membership for the cur- 
rent year: WiLtut1AM A. WiLpHack (National 
Bureau of Standards), chairman, ALBERT K. 
Lupy (Coast and Geodetic Survey), and 
Howarp S. Roserts (Geophysical Labora- 
tory). 


1194TH MEETING 


The 1194th meeting was held at the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, January 17, 1942, 
President BRoMBACHER presiding. The pro- 
gram consisted of an address by the retiring 
president, Mr. McComp, on the subject Geo- 
physical measurements in the laboratory and in 
the field. This address appeared in this Jour- 
NAL 32: 65-79 1942. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 10 


1195TH MEETING 


The 1195th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, January 31, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. A paper on 
The ABC’s of physical measurements was pre- 
sented with illustrations and demonstrations 
by Mr. Frank Wenner, of the National 
Bureau of Standards. It was discussed by 
Messrs. BLAKE and CRITTENDEN. The formu- 
lation of a more or less complete system of 
physical. quantities, dimensions, standards, 
units, and quantitative expressions involves 
an analysis of the results obtained in a variety 
of physical measurements. All such systems, 
whether considered to be merely systems of 
units or systems of measurements, must of 
necessity be based on some philosophical point 
of view. While any one of several philosophical 
points of view may be used, the major features 
of that used in discussing the ABC’s of physi- 
cal measurements are these: 

1. Words such as length, time, area, volume, 
velocity, resistance, field strength, induction, 
etc., serve to suggest mental concepts of 
quantities which are of different physical na- 
tures. No one of these physical natures is de- 
finable in terms of the others. 

2. The proportionality factor that appears 
in the relation between the result obtained 
when a quantity is measured by the use of a 
standard of a like quantity, and the result ob- 
tained when the quantity is measured by the 
use of a standard of an unlike quantity, is a 
physical quantity. For example, a current may 
be measured by the use of a standard of cur- 
rent. It may also be measured by the use of a 
standard of electromotive force. The first 
gives 

I=A_ units of current 
and the second gives 
I =BC units of electromotive force 


where J represents the current, A and C num- 
bers, and B the proportionality factor. Meas- 
urements similar to these constitute the ex- 
perimental basis of one of the group of rela- 
tions which taken collectively is known as 
Ohm’s law. Here B represents the conductance 
or reciprocal of. the resistance. In many analo- 
gous cases the proportionality factor always 
has the same magnitude. In these cases it is 
considered to be a constant of nature, but 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


nevertheless it is a physical quantity, not 
merely a number. 

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides 
and by the making of a number of measure- 
ments. Measurements of the earth’s magnetic 
field and of the earth’s magnetic induction 
served to show that these quantities are of 
different physical natures, and that therefore 
the proportionality factor, namely, the perme- 
ability, is a physical quantity, not merely a 
number. These conclusions are of course based 
on the particular philosophical point of view 
used. 

An invited paper on The biological action of 
high energy radiation was presented with slides 
and moving pictures by Mr. PauLS. HENsHaw, 
of the National Cancer Institute. It was dis- 
cussed by Messrs. Bowrrs, WHITE, Hum- 
PHREYS, RoLueR, and MouLeER. 

Radiation such as X-rays or gamma rays 
of radium may, on the one hand, act on cells 
‘in such manner as to cause cancer, and on 
the other hand, in such manner as to cure it. 
Some insight into this seemingly paradoxic 
action was furnished by describing how radia- 
tion acts on certain simpler forms and by con- 
sidering three basic types of radio-biologic 
action. In the killing of yeast cells, the break- 
ing of chromosomes and the production of mu- 
tations, may vary directly with exposure to 
radiation. Where the effect is all-or-none, the 
change appears to be due to some kind of single 
event occurring in the cells. Second, in cases 
where the effect (such as multipolar cell divi- 
sion) is all-or-none but not manifest until a 
certain accumulation of dosage has taken place, 
the effect is due to the combined action of a 
series of events. Third, in cases where the effect 
is not all-or-none but manifested by degree 
(such as delay in cell division), the effect is 
likewise due to the combined action of a series 
of events, but in this case each event contrib- 
utes to the amount of effect. These constitute 
the three basic types of radiobiologic action 
visualized at this time. 

Whereas multipolar cell division, such as 
that caused by X-rays, usually leads to cell 
death, it may in some instances give rise to a 
cellular modification that permits malignant 
behavior. This furnished at least a plausible 
explanation of how radiation may, by the 
same mechanism of action, cause cell death in 
one instance and malignant growth in another. 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 31 


Or 


The president announced that Mr. Joyce 
had resigned as chairman of the Communica- 
tions Committee because of duties requiring 
frequent absence from the city, and that Mr. 
JoHN BrEEk, Jr., had been elected to fill his 
place for the remainder of the term of office. 


1196TH MEETING 


The 1196th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, February 14, 1942, 
President BRoMBACHER presiding. An invited 
paper on The molecular basis for the mechanical 
properties of acetate rayon was presented with 
illustrations by Mr. ArNoLtp M. Sooxne, of 
the Textile Foundation. It was discussed by 
Messrs. O’Bryan, Harris, P. A. Smitu, Rot- 
LER, and STIMSON. 

The mechanical properties of films and fila- 
ments of cellulosic materials are known to be 
affected by the chain-lengths of the molecules 
that they are composed of, but the exact na- 
ture of the relationship is still unclear. As 
part of a general program of study of the 
physical properties of textile fibers, an investi- 
gation of the effect of chain-length on the 
mechanical properties of cellulose acetate is in 
progress by research associates of the Textile 
Foundation at the National Bureau of Stand- 
ards. 

The separation of cellulose acetate into frac- 
tions of widely different chain-lengths by frac- 
tional precipitation, and some of the mechani- 
cal properties of these fractions were described. 
The results of creep measurements made on 
films prepared from the fractions were analyzed 
in terms of the stretching of simple mechanical 
models composed of elastic elements (springs) 
and viscous elements (dashpots). 

Some of the commercial implications of fun- 
damental studies of fiber structure were dis- 
cussed, with particular reference to the pro- 
duction from abundant materials of fibers hay- 
ing the desirable properties of those natural 
fibers of which there is a national shortage. 

The president invited the members to pre- 
sent more informal communications. 


1197TH MEETING 


The 1197th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, February 28, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. An invited 
paper on The electron microscope as a tool for 
the study of tnorganic materials was presented 


316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


with moving pictures and lantern slides by Mr. 
HERBERT INSLEY, of the National Bureau of 
Standards. It was discussed by Messrs. Ram- 
BERG, H. L. Curtis, SILSBEE, HUMPHREYS, 
Dorsey, P. A. SmitH, BROMBACHER, SAYLOR, 
BRUNAUER, BEEK, and McBurNeEY. 

The electron microscope is useful for the 
study of inorganic materials occurring In very 
finely divided condition because of its high 
magnification, high resolving power, and great 
depth of focus. These characteristics are com- 
pared with those of the light microscope and 
some limitations of the electron miscroscope 
are pointed out. The operation of the micro- 
scope and preparation of object material are 
described with the aid of motion pictures. 

In the study of clay minerals, the electron 
microscope has shown that (1) kaolinite and 
halloysite, which are very similar in X-ray 
structure patterns, occur in grains having dis- 
similar shapes, (2) clays that have similar 
colloidal properties may have very different 
particle shapes, (3) clays with somewhat dif- 
ferent chemical compositions are similar in 
particle shape and size and may belong to the 
same isomorphous series. 


1198TH MEETING 


The 1198th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, March 14, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. A paper on 
A new determination of the constant of gravita- 
tion was presented with illustrations by Mr. 
Paul R. Heyl, of the National Bureau of 
Standards. It was discussed by Messrs. Mason, 
P. A. Smiru, Wuire, Stimson, H. L. Curtis, 
CRITTENDEN, and L. B. TucKERMAN. 

A new determination of the constant of 
gravitation has been made, using the torsion 
balance. The plan of work was the same as that 
published in the Bureau of Standards Journal 
of Research in December, 1930. A number of 
suggested improvements in the apparatus were 
considered, some of which were tried and two 
of which were adopted. Photographic record- 
ing of the time of swing was used in place of 
visual observation and a change was made in 
the position of the large attracting masses 
which greatly simplified the length measure- 
ments. Fwo different tungsten filaments were 
used, one hard drawn and one specially an- 
nealed and kept straight during the drawing 
and subsequent handling. The final result 


VOL. 32, NO. 10 


obtained was 6.673 +0.003 10-8 cm? g— sec-. 

Compared with the 1930 result of 6.670 
+0.005 x 10-5, it will be seen that the increase 
in precision is hardly appreciable. It may there- 
fore be concluded that the limiting point of 
diminishing returns has been reached with this 
form of apparatus, and that future work on 
this constant must make use of a radically 
different method. 

An informal communication on the trend of 
published values of the velocity of light with 
time was presented by Mr. H. L. Curtis, of 
the National Bureau of Standards. 


1199TH MEETING 


The 1199th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, March 28, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. A paper on 
The adsorption of gases and vapors on solids was 
presented with illustrations by Mr. STEPHEN 
BRUNAUER, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 
It was discussed by Messrs. HERZFELD, MOHL- 
ER, TUCKERMAN, HUMPHREYS, GOLDBERG, and 
DEMING. 

Under the term “adsorption” chemists usu- 
ally include two distinct phenomena: Van der 
Waals adsorption, a process resembling con- 
densation; and chemical adsorption, a process 
similar to chemical reactions. Although there 
are some points of similarity, the two processes 
are different and require entirely different 
theoretical approach for their explanation. The 
classical treatment of Langmuir was meant 
to apply,to both processes, and indeed there 
are a few isolated cases of adsorption where 
the theory does apply. The majority of experi- 
mental data, however, do not obey the Lang- 
muir equation. The reason for this is different 
in the two adsorption processes. 

One of the fundamental assumptions in 
Langmuir’s theory is that adsorption is uni- 
molecular. This assumption is not obeyed in 
Van der Waals adsorption, because this type 
of adsorption is usually multimolecular. In the 
literature of Van der Waals adsorption one 
finds five different isotherm types, only one of 
which obeys the Langmuir equation. In the 
last few years an equation has been developed 
by the author and coworkers for the Van der 
Waals adsorption of gases to include all five 
isotherms. The equation enables one to evalu- 
ate the surface areas and the average pore di- 
ameters of the adsorbents, as well as the heats 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


of adsorption; and the values obtained from 
the theory agree very well with the experi- 
mental results. The theory also predicts cor- 
rectly the temperature dependence of adsorp- 
tion. (The collaborators in this work were E. 
TELLER, P. H. Emmett, W. Epwarps DEMING, 
and Loua 8. DEMING). 

Langmuir’s other assumption is that the 
heat of adsorption is constant over the surface. 
This is obeyed only roughly in Van der Waals 
adsorption, but very seldom in chemisorption. 
Recently a theory of chemisorption was de- 
veloped by the author and collaborators on the 
assumption that the heat of adsorption varies 
over the surface, and that the variation is pro- 
portional to the fraction of the surface covered 
by adsorbed gas. Equations were developed 
also for the rates of adsorption and desorption. 
The new equations fit very well the curves ob- 
tained 10 years ago for the rates of adsorption 
of nitrogen on iron catalysts. In the second 
place, they enable one to calculate the adsorp- 
tion isotherm from the rates of adsorption, and 
excellent agreement was obtained between 
theory and experiment. Finally, from the same 
rate equation one can calculate the kinetic ex- 
pression for the decomposition of ammonia 
over iron catalysts, and again excellent agree- 


ment was found with experiment. (The col-- 


laborators in this work were Miss K. S. Love 
and R. G. KBENAN.) 


1200TH MEETING 


The 1200th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, April 11, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. A paper on 
Calibration of mercurial and aneroid barom- 
eters was presented with illustrations and ex- 
hibits by Mr. D. P. JoHnson, of the National 
Bureau of Standards. It was discussed by 
Messrs. H. L. Curtis, McComs, L. B. Tucx- 
ERMAN, Pawtiine, P. A. Smiru, Mears, Strm- 
son, and B. G. Jonzs. 

Five years ago an accuracy of 0.1 mm of 
mercury was regarded as entirely adequate 
for the calibration of any portable aneroid or 
mercurial barometer. The recent development 
of aneroid instruments capable of measuring 
pressure changes equivalent to a three inch 
head of air has made necessary a correspond- 
ing improvement of the standards. At the same 
time, by using a sensitive aneroid to keep track 
of small pressure changes, it is possible to 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


317 


eliminate the uncertainty which results when 
readings of a number of instruments cannot 
be exactly simultaneous. 

A normal barometer has been built which 
consists essentially of a U-tube of 20-mm bore, 
with one arm evacuated, a pair of telescopes 
for sighting on the mercury surface, and a 
scale. The uncertainty due to the capillary 
depression of the mercury meniscus in a U-tube 
of this size is about 0.01 mm of mercury and 
sets this limit to the accuracy attainable with 
the instrument. The system was therefore de- 
signed for ease and speed of reading, consistent 
with a sensitivity of 0.01 mm of mercury. A 
scale in the eyepiece of the telescope is seen 
superposed on the metal scale, forming a ver- 
nier which can be easily read to 0.01 mm. 
With proper illumination it is possible to set 
on the mercury surface more closely than the 
scale can be read. Corrections are applied for 
all factors which can be evaluated, including 
temperature, gravity, head of air between the 
standard and instruments tested, capillarity, 
and residual pressure in the evacuated arm. 
The room temperature is held constant for 
several hours before reading. With this instru- 
ment, pressure measurements can be made one 
minute apart, with an over-all accuracy be- 
lieved to be better than 0.03 mm of mercury. 

The president announced the program for a 
joint meeting with the Washington Academy 


of Sciences. 


1201sT MEETING 


The 1201st was a joint meeting with the 
Washington Academy of Sciences on April 16, 
1942. Mr. Paul R. Heyl, of the National Bu- 


_reau of Standards, delivered an address en- 


titled Cosmic emotion, published in the August 
1942 issue of this JouURNAL. 


1202p MEETING 


The 1202d meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, April 25, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. An invited 
paper on Diet in experimental cancer was pre- 
sented with illustrations by Mr. Dran Burk, 
of the National Cancer Institute. It was dis- 
cussed by Messrs. Pawniine, HUMPHREYs, 
P. A. Smit, and H. L. Curtis. 

Studies of the past few years make it certain 
that various types of cancers may be influenced 
by dietary composition. As a general rule, even 


318 


if not invariably, the growth of tumors is af- 
fected by dietary factors in much the same 
manner as is the growth of the host animals. 
In particular, tumor growth can often be pre- 
vented if constituents essential for body 
growth are largely omitted from the diet. 
Studies on the influence of diet on the forma- 
tion of liver cancers induced by the feeding of 
butter yellow (p-dimethylaminoazobenzene) to 
rats have been very illuminating in showing 
that a large array of factors may be involved. 
Some factors, such as riboflavin and protein 
(casein, egg albumen) are anti-carcinogenic 
and tend to protect against cancer formation. 
Other factors, such as biotin and inositol, have 
been found to be procarcinogenic, tending to 
promote tumor formation. Still other materials, 
including cystine, choline, and crude vitamin 
concentrates, are amphicarcinogenic, that is, 
they may act anticarcinogenically under one 
set of dietary circumstances, and procarcino- 
genically under a different set of conditions. 
Evidently both vitaminie and avitaminic fac- 
tors are involved in the controlling dietary 
balance, and the interpretation of the data 
may also be made in terms of sulfur, nitrogen, 
and methyl groups concerned. Very little work 
has been directed yet toward distinguishing 
between dietary effects upon initiation as con- 
trasted to growth and development of tumors, 
and most of the work has dealt with animal 
tumors, induced or spontaneous, primary or 
secondary. Application to human cancer of in- 
formation obtained with animal tumors is 
largely a problem for the future but certain 
aspects are definitely under attack at present. 

The president announced that the Joseph 
Henry Lecture would be presented in the fall. 


1203D MEETING 


The 1203d meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club auditorium, Saturday, May 9, 1942, 
President BRoMBACHER presiding. An invited 
paper on The absorption spectra of some organic 
dyes was presented with illustrations by Mr. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 10 


A. L. Sxuar, of the Catholic University of 
America. It was discussed by Messrs. Fourt, 
DuRAND, and BROMBACHER. | 

The assignment of the light absorption as- 
sociated with the color of organic molecules 
to a non-Rydberg electronic transition involy- 
ing the unsaturation electrons was discussed 
from chemical and physical viewpoints: Evi- 
dence was summarized for the view that the 
2,500 A band of benzene is associated with 
transition between the two molecular energy 
states which may be considered as arising from 
a resonance splitting of the two Kekule struc- 
tures. The same idea was carried over to the 
polymethine dyes, in which the two most stable 
resonance structures (I, and J;,) are the ana- 
logues of the Kekule structures. 

The only differences in the two eases are first, 
that the two structures, I, and I,, do not inter- 
act directly, but only through a series of ‘‘in- 
termediate” structures of higher energy in 
which the positive charge is on one of the 
carbon atoms of the chain; and, second, that 
the two structures, I, and I,, may, in unsym- 
metrical dyes (R;#Rz), have slightly different 
energies. This view was then used to explain 
the following observations!: the increase of 
peak wavelength with chain length n; the ex- 
istence of a ‘‘deviation”’ to shorter wavelengths 
in unsymmetrical dyes when compared to 
symmetrical dyes; the increase of the ‘‘devia- 
tion” with n; the apparent existence of a con- 
vergence limit; the Brooker sensitivity rule, 
and the Schwartzenback rule. 

The president announced the election of the 
new Committee on Communications as fol- 
lows: Messrs. K. F. Herzretp (chairman), 
LAWRENCE Woop, and PreTer Co.e. He an- 
nounced that this would be the last meeting of 
the season. 


FreD L. Mouuer, Recording Secretary. 
1L. G. S. Brooxer and coworkers. Journ. 


Amer. Chem. Soc. 62: 1116; 63: 3129, 3203, 
3214; 64: 199. 


@bituaries 


CLINTON Hart Merriam, who was an ac- 
tive spirit in the organization of the Washing- 
ton Academy of Sciences when it was being 
founded toward the close of the last century, 
died quietly on March 19,1942, after several 


years of failing health, at Berkeley, Calif., 
in his 87th year. On account of his life 
of high achievement along zoological and an- 
thropological lines, not only has the Academy 
but all students interested in these and kin- 


_<—-~ 


Ocr. 15, 1942 


dred subjects lost a leader who set a pace well 
worthy to follow. 

Dr. Merriam was born in New York City 
on December 5, 1855, son of Clinton L. Mer- 
riam and Caroline Hart Merriam. His interest 
in natural history began early in life, and it 
broadened in scope and matured in character 
as time went on. In 1872, and in his 17th year, 
he became naturalist of the Hayden Survey, 
which made explorations of the Yellowstone 
area. In 1874 he entered Sheffield Scientific 
School of Yale, and completed the course in 
1877. While there he wrote his Review of the 
Birds of Connecticut, a very creditable piece of 
work. 

He graduated from the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons, of New York, in the Class of 
1879. On March 7, 1878, he assisted in found- 
ing the Linnaean Society of New York, and 
was elected its first president. During the 
years 1879 to 1885 Dr. Merriam built up a good 
medical practice at his home in Lewis County, 
IN. Y. 

During the spring of 1883, as surgeon of the 
sealing vessel Proteus, he visited the ice fields 
off the coast of Labrador and Greenland, to 
make a study of the hooded seals. He brought 
back valuable records and many specimens. In 
the autumn of the same year he joined with 
22 others in founding the American Ornitholo- 
gists’ Union and was elected secretary, and 
during 1900-1902 he was its president. In 
1885 he became chief of the Division of Or- 
nithology, United States Department of Agri- 
culture, which was the forerunner of the Bio- 
logical Survey and, at present, the Fish and 
Wildlife Service. During the 25 years Dr. 
Merriam was chief, he planned and carried 
out a number of field expeditions to obtain 
data on life zones, distribution of animal and 
plant life, laws of temperature control, and 
geographic distribution of life. Among these 
may be mentioned the Biological Survey of 
San Francisco Mountain and Desert of the 
Little Colorado River, Arizona; Biological Re- 
connaissance of Idaho; Death Valley Expedi- 
tion; and Biological Survey of Mount Shasta, 
California. 

While Merriam was on the Death Valley 
Expedition in 1891 President Harrison ap- 
pointed him a member of the U. 8S. Bering Sea 
Commission, to study fur-seal conditions on 
the Pribilof Islands. 


OBITUARIES 


319 


The vast number of mammals collected by 
members of the Biological Survey enabled him 
to describe many new species, of which 651 
type specimens are in the National Museum 
collections. He also monographed the pocket 
gophers, shrews, weasels, and the grizzly and 
big brown bears. 

Dr. Merriam had considerable to do in plan- 
ning the personnel and route of the Harriman 
Alaska Expedition, with Dr. Lewis R. Morris, 
physician of Mr. Harriman, and member of 
the Boone and Crockett Club. On the return 
of the expedition he devoted much time to 
editing its publications. In consideration for 
his untiring services, Mrs. E. H. Harriman 
established a special trust fund to enable him 
to carry on research work, which after retiring 
from the Biological Survey in 1910 he devoted 
largely to the linguistic studies of California 
Indians. During the years 1917 to 1925 Dr... 
Merriam was chairman of the United States 
Geographic Board. 

Among the scientific societies and clubs in 
which he held membership the following may 
be mentioned: American Ornithologists’ Un- 
ion, Linnaean Society of New York, National 
Academy of Sciences, Washington Academy of 
Sciences, Boone and Crockett Club, Cosmos 
Club, American Society of Naturalists, Bio- 
logical Society of Washington, American Philo- 
sophical Society, American Society of Mam- 
malogists, Anthropological Society of Washing- 
ton, and Zoological Society of London. In a 
number of these he was among the founders, 
and of a majority of them he was president at 
one time or another. 

As author or editor he always endeavored 
to obtain exact facts, so that his 500 or more 
publications went through the most careful 
scrutiny before they were ready for publication. 
He helped many with editorial suggestions, and 
there are some reports that never would have 
seen the light of day had he not given much 
time to editing and revamping crudely pre- 
pared notes or manuscripts. Merriam was a 
man of many friends and admirers, and through 
his publications and advocacy he helped scores 
of ornithologists and mammalogists with their 
problems. . 

In science, as in other lines, there are con- 
temporary waves where groups of individuals 
interested in similar problems associate to- 
gether for a better understanding and ad- 


320 


vancement of their vocation or hobby. In the 
case of Dr. Merriam, he was one of the last 
to join his zoological contemporaries who 
passed beyond before him. The group of 
naturalists to which Dr. Merriam belonged was 
indeed a distinguished one, but none made a 
greater contribution than he to the natural 
history of America, and none will be remem- 
bered with more affection.—A. K. FisHEr. 


ANDREW STEWART, born in Washington, 
D. C., on September 3, 1867, died on June 28, 
1942, in his home at 1442 Clifton Street, Wash- 
ington, D. C., after an illness of a year. 
Through his departure science lost a devotee; 
the Nation lost a citizen of intense loyalty; 
several cultural and patriotic organizations 
lost a leader and historian; and a household 
that typifies the finest of American home life 
lost a loving husband and father. 

The Stewart family descended from Scotch 
and English lines that have been traced to the 
Royal House of England. In America they have 
long been prominent in the affairs of south- 
western Pennsylvania and the Nation’s Capi- 
tal. Stewart’s grandfather, the Honorable 
Andrew Stewart, for whom he was named, 
served Pennsylvania as a member of Con- 
gress for 18 years and gained the nickname of 
“Tariff Andy” through his continuous and 
successful advocacy of the protective tariff. 
He was also one of the initiators of the Chesa- 
peake and Ohio Canal. David Shriver Stewart, 
father of the subject of this obituary, served 
in Washington as the chief of a division of the 
Patent Office. 

The culture, sincerity, and patriotism de- 
rived from a background of ancestors who had 
served with distinction in the Revolution, the 
War of 1812, and the Civil War were reflected 
in Stewart’s character. He graduated from 
Central High School where, because of high 
scholastic standing and proficiency in military 
drill, he was made first commanding officer of 
the cadets, holding the rank of major. After 
graduation he studied chemistry in Germany, 
and in 1895 he received the degree of doctor 
of philosophy, cum laude superato, at the 
University of Leipzig. 

In 1895 Dr. Stewart returned to the United 
States and served for a short time in the “‘poi- 
son squad” of the Bureau of Chemistry, De- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 10 


partment of Agriculture, under the late Dr. 
Harvey W. Wiley. Next, he conducted re- 
search on chemical synthesis for Sharp & 
Dohme. From 1897 to 1900, he and the late 
Dr. George W. Johnston established and con- 
ducted a chemical analytical laboratory, which 
was a pioneering project in that field in Wash- 
ington. He lectured on this subject at the Na- 
tional Veterinary College and the Medical 
Schools of the George Washington and George- 
town Universities, and was associate editor of 
the National Medical Review. In 1902, he 
entered the Dendro-Chemical Laboratory of 
the Bureau of Chemistry, Department of 
Agriculture, and from 1903 to 1905 was in 
charge of that laboratory. 

After a period spent largely in writing and 
the management of family estates, Dr. Stewart 
entered the Bureau of Mines in 1918, serving 
in the Division of Mineral Technology, which 
then conducted the Bureau’s work on helium. 
As a result, he played a prominent part in pi- 
oneering work that led to important develop- 
ments in later years. In 1925, when a Helium 
Division was organized in the bureau to handle 
the development and operation of helium 
plants to supply the Army and Navy, Dr. 
Stewart was made assistant to the chief of the 
division, and served in that capacity until he 
retired in 1933. He was a member and secre- 
tary of the Interdepartmental Patents Board. 

Among his many publications was one en- 


titled About Helium, which was written to pre- 


sent information to the layman concerning the 
history, properties, production, and uses of 
helium. This pamphlet is one of the most 
widely read of the Bureau of Mines’ publica- 
tions. 

Dr. Stewart was a prominent member of 
the Sons of the American Revolution and the 
Society of Colonial Wars. From 1934 to 1938, — 
he was vice-president general of the General 
Society of the War of 1812, and served the 
District society at various times as president, 
first vice president, registrar, and historian. 
In Masonic circles, he was past master of 
Harmony Lodge No. 17, a 32d degree Mason, 
and a member of the Shrine. He was a member 
of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the 
American Chemical Society, the American As- 
sociation for the Advancement of Science, and 
the Cosmos Club.—R. A. CaTTELL. 


| Panes oe : f the ae, eo hatin pulbher Ts; 


au an 4 gladiolus. Ronap BaMForD. 


CONTENTS 


CHEMISTRY.—The behavior of cystine dimethylester dihydrochloride 
and of cysteine monomethylester monohydrochloride in the Sulli- 


van reaction for cysteine and cystine. M. X. Suniivan, W. C. 
Hiss, and. H. WisGhOWARD . 208% ni 55 St 


PALEOBOTANY.—A Miocene grapevine from the valley of Virgin Creek 


in northwestern Nevada. Rouanp W. BRown................ 9 


Botany.—On new algae of the genus Codiwm from the South China 


Sea. C. K. Tsenc and Wm. J. GILBERT (004) ee 


Botany.—An undescribed Atropellis on cankered Pinus virginiana. 
M. L. Louman, Evirx K. Casn, and Ross W. Davipson.:..... 


EntTomoLocy.—New species of Anastrepha and notes on others (Dip- 
tera, Tephritidae). ALAN STONE. ox). 000500. 2. cat ae 


BacTERIOLOGY.—Incidence of leptospirosis among dogs in Honolulu 
as determined by serological agglutination tests. JosmpH E. 
ALICATA and: VIRGINIA BREAKS 1-2) oo. ae oe Sa ea ‘ 


ZooLocy.—Stereobalanus canadensis (Spengel), a little-known cntee 
opneustan from the coast of Maine. Epwarp G. REINHARD... 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY..............-.-4- Peer in esis 


OBITUARIES: CLINTON Hart MERRIAM, ANDREW STEWART......... 


The Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicale 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 32 NovEMBER 15, 1942 No. 11 


CHEMISTRY.—The third dissociation constant of phosphoric acid and its varia- 
tion with salt content RoGrER C. WELLS. 


In studying the origin of phosphate de-_ stants,’”’ which are suitable for practical 
posits W. W. Rubey, of the Geological work up to a certain point, and that prac- 
Survey, found rather incomplete and con-_ tice is followed here. In this paper, then, 
flicting information in the literature con- [PO.s—~] and [HPO:s—] are replaced by 
cerning the third dissociation constant of [PQOu.’’’] and [HPO,’’] meaning simply the 
phosphoric acid, especially its variation stoichiometrical concentrations of those 
with ionic strength. Such measurements as_ radicals, or, for example, such salts as tri- 
had been made covered chiefly very dilute sodium phosphate and disodium phosphate, 
solutions; some included the ionic strength respectively. [H*] is retained with the usual 
of blood, but none that of sea water. At Mr. _ significance of an ionic concentration; it was 
Rubey’s request the writer has attempted determined by hydrogen electrode measure- 
to extend information on this subject, with ments. 
the ultimate object of throwing light on the The apparent constant, K;’, although 
conditions under which phosphate deposits thus defined somewhat arbitrarily, shows a 
are supposed to be formed in nature. surprising constancy for widely different 

The principal result of the investigation values of the concentration of the ions in- 
is that the concept of ionic strength is un-_ volved. 
necessary and inapplicable. The constant For ordinary practical purposes equation 
appears to have values of a different order (1) shows that at any given pH the ratio 
in salt solutions and in sea water from those [PO.’’’]/[HPO,’’] must have a fixed value, or 
obtaining when only phosphate buffers are vice versa. Examined more minutely, how- 
present. ; ever, the constant is found to vary slightly 

The constant desired was not the thermo- with temperature, with the concentration 
dynamic or activity constant but one gen- of the phosphate buffer salts and more par- 
erally termed the apparent dissociation ticularly with the presence of other salts, 
constant, which has been found more useful such as sodium chloride or sea salts. 


for at least a first approach. The thermo- The constant is best determined by meas- 
dynamic constant is based on the following uring [H+] in mixtures of, say, disodium 
equilibrium: phosphate and trisodium phosphate. These 


salts are of course not wholly ionized in 
==]] => + eS a ~ 

Ksx[HPO.~]—[H*][PO. (1) moderate concentrations but they appear 
in which the quantities in brackets repre- to be ionized to nearly the same extent, so 
sent the activities of the ions indicated. The that little is lost by using 


first difficulty encountered is to determine (PO4!”] [PO.---] 
_ these activities. As this has not yet been se EE Me gg ee 
— done for all conditions it is general practice [HPO,."’] [HPO] 


to derive and ‘tan ; ‘ nena wie 
. poe ccn a bbe rena Equilibrium (1) has little application to 


1 Published by permission of the Director, acid solutions because Ks is very small and 
Geological Survey. Received July 15, 1942. even a moderate quantity of hydrogen ions 


321 
Why 2 M, \y4 Li 


322 
would convert practically all of the PO,’”’ 
into HPO,” (or even into H2PO,’). It is 
only in alkaline solutions in which [H*™] be- 
comes small that [PO,’’’] becomes relatively 
large. Even for the alkalinity considered in 
this paper there must be a slight hydrolysis 
of the trisodium phosphate: 


Na;sPO0,+ H,O = NaOQH-+Na.HPOs.. (2) 


This hydrolysis, the extent of which can 
be calculated from the pH, obviously re- 
sults in a slight decrease in the NasPOs, 
taken and an equal increase in the NagH PO, 
taken. This correction may be made a small 
one by using suitable proportions of the 
two phosphates. 

As the solutions involved are sometimes 
made by neutralizing phosphoric acid with 
sodium hydroxide it is convenient to desig- 
nate in some way the extent of the neu- 
tralization. This may be indicated by the 
letter R, ranging from 0 to 3. Thus 1 indi- 
cates that the neutralization has gone from 
0 to 1, that is, from H3;PO, to NaHePQs,; 
2 indicates Na,.HPO.; and 3. indicates 
Na3PO,. Mixtures are intermediate. This 
number Ff has no reference to the total 
sodium in the solution but only to the 
amount of the hydrogen in the different 
phosphate combinations, H;PO., H2PO.’, 
HPO,”, and PO.’”’. Thus, in sea water 
[Nat] is high but R would be about 2, in- 
dicating HPO, as the principal phosphate 
ion. For most of the mixtures used in the 
present study R was 2.5. Mp is the total 
phosphate molality, so that for R=2.50 
very nearly half of Mp is present as HePO,”’ 


and half as PO,’’’. This paper is largely a- 


study of the pH of mixtures containing one 
mol of disodium phosphate to one mol of 
trisodium phosphate, with or without addi- 
tional sodium chloride. Mc is the molality 
of chloride, generally NaCl, and Ms the 
total molality of sea salts. For average sea 
water with Cl=1.900 per cent and density 
1.027 Ms=0.514. 

The ionic strength, yp, is calculated as in- 
dicated by Lewis and Randall.? 


PREVIOUS WORK 
Nearly all previous work deals with rela- 


2 Lewis, G. N., and RanpAuLu, MERLE. Ther- 
modynamics, p. 373, 1923. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


tions in solutions containing only phosphate 
buffers. For some reason many results have 
been plotted against the ionic strength, but 
as the concept of ionic strength has been 
found of little use in the present investiga- 
tion figures for it have been omitted in re- 
viewing the previous work unless the au- 
thors used it exclusively. 

Abbott and Bray* found 7.8X10- for 
K; at 0.05 Mp and 18° C., based on hydroly- 
sis and conductivity measurements with 
ammonium salts. Making allowances for 
ionization they derived a figure of 3.6 X 1073 
for K; or 12.44 for pK; (=—log Ks) but 
both values of K; are smaller than those 
calculated later from pH measurements by 
others using sodium salts. 

From measurements by Salm‘ at 19° C., 
Mp=0.1, and correcting for hydrolysis, one 
obtains the following results for K;’ and 


pK;’. 
R (POs [HPO,”] 
2.03 0.00293 0.097 
2.14 0.0135 0.086 
(Et) 3. pK,’ 
OES Om Sahl Gill == 1es2 
3 < 1Omtt 2200s ps ee: 4 


Similar measurements by Ringer> were 
made at 18° C. from which I calculate 
Mrp=0.0292 and the following values of 
pK’. : 
R [PO.’”) {[HPOW > pt pK; 
2.191 0.0048 0.024 10.97 11.66 
2.66 0.0154 0.01386 T1e77 eee 


Prideaux® gives data leading to the fol- 
lowing figures (Mp=0.1, t=16° C.): 
R [PO?" |= 2O24 pK; 
2.05 0.0049 0.0950 11.52 
0.0902 11.57 


0.0098 

0.0157 0.0843 11.43 

0.0185 0.0815 11.54 
0.0785 11.48 


0.0215 
0.0480 0.0520 11.57 


E. Blanc’ finds pK;’=11.64 at 25° C. for 
Mp=0.004. 


pH 
10.23 
10.60 
10.70 
10.89 
10.92 
11 54 


3 ApgpoTT, G. A., and Bray, W. C. Journ. 
Amer. Chem. Soc. 31: 760. 1909. 

4Saum, E. Zeitschr. physikal. Chem. 57: 471. 
1906. 

5 Ringer, W. E. Chemisch Weekblad 6: 446. 
909 


6 PRIDEAUX, EK. B. R. Journ. Chem. Soc. 99 
(1): 1224. 1911. 
7 Buaneo, E. Journ. Chim. Phys. 18: 28. 1920. 


Nov. 15, 1942 WELLS: THIRD DISSOCIATION CONSTANT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID 


From Sorensen’s measurements on 
NaesHPO, Prideaux and Ward® calculate 
pK;’=11.59, based on y's M solutions. 

Michaelis and Mizutani® find that pK;’ 
—hieos at 14° C. for Mp=—0.02 and that 
60 per cent of alcohol raises this to 12.58, an 
effect which is in the opposite direction to 
that of sodium chloride studied in this 
paper. 

Britton!® finds pK3’=11.57 at 20° C. as 
an average over a range of R from 2.06 to 
2.65 and Mp about 0.01, but without cor- 
rection from the hydrolysis of PO,’”’. 

Sendroy and Hastings" made a few de- 
terminations of pK3;’ at 38° C. in solutions 
containing NaCl. Their figures. decrease 
rapidly with increasing ionic strength, but 
they do not go above an ionic strength of 
0.20. 

Kugelmass’? found 11.99 and 11.83 for 
pK;’ at 20° C. and 38° C. respectively for 
Mp ranging from 0.003 to 0.025. Little or 
no variation with the molality is indicated 
over the small range covered. 

Bjerrum and Unmack® made measure- 
ments of potentials with very dilute sodi- 
um-phosphate solutions. Some of their re- 
sults calculated as above give the following 
figures: 


0°C. R [PO.’”’] 
3 (Corrected) 
18 2330 0.01270 
18 2.500 0.01710 
18 2.333 0.00285 
25 2330 0.01220 
25 2.500 0.01650 
25 2.333 0.00250 
37 2.333 0.01110 
37 2.500 0.01530 
37 2.333 0.00230 
[HPO,’’] pH pK,’ 
(Corrected) 
0.03020 11.39 aL Sere 
0.02290 11.64 aid 
0.01002 Sd 11.92 
0.03070 11.28 11.68 
0.02350 11.50 11.66 
0.01030 11.20 11.82 
0.03180 il ON E52 
0.02470 11.28 11.48 
0.01050 10.92 P59 
Average pK;’ at 18° C. and Mp=0.042. 11.77 
Average pK,’ at 25° C. and Mp=0.042 11.67 
Average pK;’ at 37° C. and Mp=0.042 = 11.50 


8 PRIDEAUX, E. B. R., and Warp, A. T. Journ. 
Chem. Soc. 125 (1): 423. 1924. 


323 


From the above results pK,’ appears to 
decrease with rising temperature at a given 
molality. The figures for lower molalities 
are apparently less reliable than the others. 
There is generally a decrease in pK;’ with 
increasing molality at each temperature. 

Hahn and Klockmann" reach a figure of 
11.89 for pK;’ in very concentrated solu- 
tions by means of a titration method. 

Considering all the above measurements 
one may conclude that pK;’ decreases 
shghtly with rising temperature and also 
with increasing molality. An average of five 
of the best results just referred to gives 
pi = 166) at 2070. Ce sand 2 Mp— 6.04 
whereas the writer finds 11.60. 


METHODS 


[H+] was determined by a hydrogen elec- 
trode combined with a tenth-normal calo- 
mel electrode. Liquid potentials were elimi- 
nated by making fresh connections with 
saturated potassium chloride before each 
measurement. A sodium-hydroxide solution 
was made by diluting a nearly saturated 
solution, as described by Sérensen, and pro- 
tected from the carbon dioxide of the air. 
Mallineckrodt’s NasHPO, -12H.O and H3PO; 
were used. Some Naz,HPO, -12H20 was also 
recrystallized for this study by F. 8. Gn- 
maldi and used as the source of phosphate 
in most of the measurements. It was brought 
to the mixture R=2.50 by adding sodium 
hydroxide. Dilutions were made with boiled 
freshly distilled water. 

Definite mixtures were prepared, pH de- 
termined and [H*] calculated. From K, 
[OH~] was calculated and taken as equal to 
the [NaOH] and [Na,HPO,] formed by 
equation (2), from which the final [HPO,”] 
and [PO,’’’] were calculated. Values of K, 
used were read from a curve passing through 
the following points: 

9 MicHaE.is, L., and Mizurani, M. Zeitschr. 


physikal. Chem. 116: 135. 1925. 
10 Britton, H. T. S. Journ. Chem. Soc. 1927: 
4 


11 SmENpDROY, J., JR., and Hastines, A. B. 
Journ. Biol. Chem. 71: 783. 1927. 

122 KuGELMASS, I. N. Biochem. Journ. 23: 587. 
1929. 

13 ByERRUM, N., and UNMack, Aua@usta. Dan- 
ske Viden. Selskab., Math. fys. Med. 9: 1. 1929. 

144 Hann, F. L., and KirockMann, R. Zeitschr. 
physikal. Chem. 151: 80. 1930. 


324 

O=C: O10 

9) 0.28 X10 

10 0°28 X 10x82 

15 0.47-<X10" 

20 Os72\<10-4 

29 reo xX LOR 

30 UO 

35 2.25 X10 

40 2.80 X10 


The variation of K, with ionic strength 
was neglected, and only mixtures requiring 
a small correction for hydrolysis were con- 
sidered, as dilute solutions and those in- 
volving a large correction for hydrolysis led 
to unreliable results. Moreover the varia- 
tion of K,, with ionic strength is not known 
for higher ranges of the ionic strength. 


RESULTS 


The effect of temperature on the pH of 
phosphate mixtures is so small that it is 
difficult to detect with indicators. A ‘‘uni- 
versal” indicator appeared to suggest a de- 
crease in pH with rise of temperature, ali- 
zarin changed in the opposite direction, and 
malachite green faded out. 

When determined by E.M.F. measure- 
ments the results for pH, with R between 
2 and 3, showed a slight decrease with rise 
of temperature, in agreement with Bjerrum 
and Unmack. As K,, increases considerably 
with rising temperature the calculated 
values of K;’ in some instances decreased 
with rising temperature but in the great 
majority of instances K;’ increased with 
rising temperature. Facilities were not 
available to make measurements over a 
wide range of temperature. Based on re- 
sults at 25° C. and 30° C. pH appeared to 
decrease about 0.02 unit per degree rise of 
temperature, agreeing fairly well with Bjer- 
rum and Unmack, who found a decrease of 
0.019 unit per degree. The calculations 
given in Table 5 for temperatures below 
20° C. and above 30° C. are based on ex- 
trapolations on the latter basis. 

The first series of measurements of pH 
and pK;’, shown in Table 1, was made with 
only the phosphate buffers, NasPO, and 
NazHPO,, present. The combined molality 
of the two phosphate radicals is expressed 
as Mp. 

The results presented in Table 1 show 
only a slight increase in pH with decreasing 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 11 


molality of the buffer mixtures, for all of 
which R=2.50. The change is approxi- 
mately linear with ,»/Mp, and may be repre- 
sented by equation (3) at 27° C. The cor- 
responding relation for pK;’ is given by 
equation (4). 


Buffer only. pH=11.43—0.26,/Mp (3) 
Buffer only. pK3’=11.57—0.50,/Mp_ (4) 
Similar equations hold for yp in place of 


Mp except that 0.26 and 0.50 become 0.13 
and 0.25, respectively. 


TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS OF PH AND PK;’ 
IN PHOSPHATE SOLUTIONS AT 
Die 50 


My. |4/Nte pH |K,’x10#| pK,’ 
0.3014 | 0.550 | 11.28 | 5.21 | 11.28 
0.2410 | 0.491 | 11.34 | 4.37 | 11.36 
0.1929 | 0.440 | 11.29 | 4.86 | 11.31 
0.1544 | 0.393 | 11.30)| 4 eouimiiees 
0.1205-| 0.347 | 11.32 | 4.36 | 11.36 
0.0964 | 0.310 | 11.38 | 3.65 | 11.44 
0.0771 | 0.278 | 11.87 |) 363mm 
0.0617 | 0.248|-11.34| 3.79 | 11.42 
0.0493 | 0.222 | 11.39 | 3.14 | 11.50 


If similar relations obtained when the 
ionic strength included sodium chloride the 
problem would be simple. Actually, the 
addition of sodium chloride introduces a 
shift of considerably greater magnitude, so 
that the results can no longer be represented 
simply as a function of the combined ionic 
strength, but they are rather some function 
of the ratio of foreign salt to the buffer phos- 
phate salts. The use of the function ionic 
strength is, of course, not necessary in con- 
sidering merely the effect of dilution on a 
single mixture of salts in a fixed proportion. 
A series of measurements is shown in Table 
2 in which a buffered mixture containing 
TABLE 2.—MEASUREMENTS OF PH AND PK;’ IN 


SoLuTIONS CONTAINING 3 Mots oF PuHos- 
PHATE TO 1 Mou oF SopiuM CHLORIDE 


27° C., R=2.50 

Mp | pH | K,’x108| pK,’ 
0.1205 | 11.00 9.54 11.02 
0.0964 | 11.05 8.41 11.08 
0.07714) 21207 7.82 11.11 
0.0617 1h 13 6.61 11.18 
0.0494 | 11.16 5.92 11.23 
0.0395 | 11.18 5.38 11.27 
0.0316 | °8t 17 5.25 11.28 


Novy. 15, 1942 WELLS: THIRD DISSOCIATION CONSTANT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID 


some sodium chloride was diluted over a 
considerable range. 

Although the results for pH and pKs3’ in 
Table 2 are linear with respect to »/Mp 
they are all considerably lower than cor- 
responding results in Table 1 and they do 
not extrapolate to the same figure for 
s/Mp=0. On the other hand, if P and 
NaCl are varied independently irregular re- 
sults are obtained. Furthermore, the lower- 
ing effect of NaCl can not be expressed as 
any simple function of the combined ionic 
strength. 

As the outcome of numerous trials the 
following equations (5) and (6) for pH and 
pK;’ respectively were found to take ac- 
count of various mixtures of buffer (R 
=2.50) and NaCl at 27° C. fairly well. 
Their application is shown in Table 3. 


In salt solutions. 

pH = 11.43 —0.26,/ Mp — 0.98 Mnaci (5) 
In salt solutions. 
pK,’ = 11.57 —0.50,/Mp—0.98¥/Myaci (6) 


Inasmuch as the ionic strength does not 
apply in general it is impossible to give an 
equation based on ionic strength without 
considering the nature of the salts. 

In sea water pH is controlled largely by 
carbonates, R for the phosphates in sea 
water is much below 2.50, and the question 
arose whether equation (6) would be ap- 
plicable. Some experiments with artificial 
sea water showed that the effect of sea salts 
is very similar to that of sodium chloride 
and that Ms can be used for Myaci in 
equations (5) and (6). 


329 


When sea salts are added to the phos- 
phate buffers a precipitate of calcium phos- 
phate is thrown down. A solution, however, 
was made up containing all the principal 
constituents of sea water except calcium 
and magnesium but with 0.054 mol of po- 
tassium chloride per liter and 0.010 mol 
per liter of the phosphate buffers substi- 
tuted for the calcium and magnesium salts 
and sodium bicarbonate. The composition 
of representative sea water and that of the 
imitation sea water are shown in Table 4. 


TABLE 4.—NORMAL SEA WATER AND 
IMITATION SEA WATER. 
Mo.s PER LITER 


Constituent Normal Imitation 

ING Oli ae eee, 0.412 0.412 
Mig. Clone eal kore 38 0.052 None 
Na2SO, 0.028 0.028 
CaCl east os 0.010 None 
Cle a: Ft ees 0.009 0.063 
NaHCO ace: 0.002 None 
HIB rate: Seeeeh ne 0.001 0.001 
Phosphate....... — 0.010 

Ota. wees 0.514 0.514 


The results for pH and pK;’ obtained 
with the imitation sea water are included 
in Table 3, next to the last row. They show 
that equations (5) and (6) are applicable 
if Mg is used in place of Mnaci where § is 
the total molality of the sea salts. The last 
row gives results when this sea water was 
diluted one half; although they are not so 
good they are of the right order and confirm 
the applicability of equations (5) and (6). 

In any equation for pK;’ for sea water 
M> is really negligible, so that, as a result 


TABLE 3.—EFFEcT oF NACL AND SEA SALTS ON PH AND PK;’ OF 
PHOSPHATE SOLUTIONS. 27° C., R=2.50 


Mp M yaci VMp | V/Myaci 
0.0100 0.0100 0.100 0.215 
0.0100 0.1000 0.100 0.464 
0.0100 0.5333 0.100 0.811 
0.0100 1.0000 0.100 1.000 
0.0150 0.8000 0.122 0.929 
0.0316 0.0105 0.178 0.219 
0.0493 None Oe222 ~ 
0.0100 0.5138 0.100 0.8008 
0.0050 0.2568 0.071 0.6348 


® Using Msg (molality of sea salts) instead of Mnac}. 


pH e pK,’ 
observed calc. ete } _ eale. 
by (5) ; | by (6) 


10.57 10.49 10.51 10.60 
Vey eat hg Pees 11.28 
11.39 bias? 11.50 11.46 
10.64 10.62" | 10.74 10.748 


326 


of the above experiments and calculations, 
we may write the following tentative equa- 
tion for sea water at 27° C.: 


pK,’ = 11.57 —0.98\/Ms (7) 


Although equations (5), (6), and (7) are 
empirical, they seem to be a great improve- 
ment Over extrapolations of equations that 
have been suggested previously. In study- 
ing the second dissociation constant of 
phosphoric acid J. W. H. Lugg! gives an 
equation of the following form to represent 
the relations when the ionic strength is con- 
tributed almost entirely by a foreign salt 
like sodium chloride: 


ee acs (8) 


in which n ranges from 0.60 for NaCl to 
1.65 for the buffers alone. Such an equation 
may be applicable to the third dissociation 
constant in the presence of any given single 
salt, but it is not known whether it could be 
applied to mixtures like sea water. 

Table 5 presents rounded values of pK,’ 
calculated for the conditions stated. Other 
values may be computed by equations (4), 
(6), or (7), taking account of variation with 
temperature, or interpolated from those 
given in the table. Mx represents Mp when 
only buffers are present and either My,aci 
or Ms when sodium chloride or sea salts are 
in considerable excess. 

The variation of pK;’ with the molality 
of the phosphate and sodium chloride, re- 
spectively, at 27° C. is shown in Fig. 1. The 


16 Trans. Faraday Soc. 27; 297. 1931. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 11 


lower curve refers to the buffer mixtures, 
the upper to a large excess of sodium chlo- 
ride or sea water. The lines are based on 
results calculated from the equations; the 
experimental results suggest a very slight 
curvature instead of straight lines. _ 

The interest and assistance of W. W. 
Rubey, P. G. Nutting, F. S. Grimaldi, K. J. 
Murata, and H. C. Spicer in the preparation 
of this paper are gratefully acknowledged. 
Mr. Rubey especially contributed many 
helpful suggestions and verified the calcu- 
lations. 


er with 
, 


dy 
saith oe 
//.0 a 
| sue a pea 


|My, O02 0.4 0.6 08 1.0 
My, .04 16 36 64 1.0 


Fig. 1.—Variation of pK;’ with molality at 
27° C. Lower curve, buffer mixture; upper curve, 
a large excess of NaCl or sea water. 


TABLE 5.—VALUEs OF PK;’ av CERTAIN TEMPERATURES AND MOLALITIES (M) 


a — — — ees 


Mx = 0.04 
Temp. 
In presence of only buf- tae c a 8 
fer of strength indicated 20° 11.60 
30° 11.41 
40° E22 
In presence of a large +e ee 
excess of NaCl or sea 90° 11.36 
salts of strength indica- 30° 11.17 


ted 


0.16 0.36 0.64 
11.88 11.78 11.68 
11.69 11.59 11.49 
11.50 11.40 11.30 
11.31 11.21 11 it 
11.12 11.02 10.92 

Ta RS 11.39 11.24 
11.36 11.20 1105 

{1 17 11.01 10.86 
10.79 


Se ee —————ee——EEOEeee 


Nov. 15, 1942 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.—Morphologie de l’idocrase.} 
LAY, Université Laval, Québec (Canada). 


SOMMAIRE 


Etude détaillée de Vimportance rela- 
tive des formes cristallines de lidocrase, 
CaipMgeAlSis034(OH),s. Le groupe spatial 
s’en déduit par la méthode morphologique 
de Donnay (1939). On trouve C4/acn, avec 
le rapport d’axes habituel c:a=0.5372. En 
tournant le cristal de 45°, le rapport d’axes 
devient c:a=0.7597, et le groupe s’écrit 
P4/nnc. Le groupe spatial trouvé au moyen 
des rayons X (Strukturbericht, 2: 127, 1937) 
est bien P4/nnc. 

L’ordre observé d’importance relative 
des formes est comparé 4 l’ordre théorique, 
dans le cas de la loi de Bravais classique, 
qui donnait l’aspect /***, et dans le cas de 


la loi généralisée (Donnay et Harker, 1937), 


qui conduit au groupe P4/nne. L’accord est 
meilleur dans ce dernier cas, quoique cer- 
taines anomalies persistent. 


INTRODUCTION 


L’analyse morphologique des _ espéces 
eristallines par la méthode Donnay (1939) 
conduit au groupe spatial, sans nécessiter 
Vemploi des rayons X. L’importance rela- 
tive des formes extérieures refléte la symé- 
trie interne, c’est-a-dire celle de la disposi- 
tion des atomes 4 l’intérieur de la maille. 
Tel est le point de départ de cette méthode, 
d’aprés laquelle sept minéraux, jusqu’d 
présent, ont été étudiés de facon détaillée. 
Donnay a publié des travaux sur cing d’en- 
tre eux: Vapophyllite, tétragonale (1937); 
le rutile et le zircon, tétragonaux (1938a); 
la danburite, orthorhombique (1940b); la 
microlite, isométrique (1941). Les deux 
autres, la columbite et la stéphanite, or- 
thorhombiques, ont été traités par un de 
ses éléves, E. D. Taylor (1940a et b). Le 
groupe spatial trouvé est, dans chaque cas, 
celui qu’ont donné les rayons X, sauf pour 
la columbite, ot le développement de la 
zone des faces (Okl) s’avére incompatible 
avec les résultats radiologiques. 

On trouvera dans ce travail l’application 
de la méthode au cas de l’idocrase (ou 


1 Received May 15, 1942. 


TREMBLAY: MORPHOLOGIE DE L’IDOCRASE 


27 


Abbé J.-ArtHuR TREMB- 
(Communicated by G. TUNELL.) 


vésuvienne). Plusieurs formules ont été 
proposées pour ce minéral. Strukturbericht 
(2: 127. 1937) donne celle de C. Gottfried, 
Caio Mg2Al8i9034(0H )a. 

L’idocrase cristallise dans le systéme 
tétragonal. Elle présente le plus souvent un 
facies prismatique allongé, avec tantdt le 
prisme m {110} dominant, tantdt le prisme 
a {010}. Elle montre assez fréquemment un 
facies pyramidal et trés rarement le facies 
tabulaire basal (Fig. 1.) 


DONNEES D’OBSERVATION 


L’Atlas der Krystallformen de Gold- 
schmidt (1918) reproduit 249 cristaux d’ido- 
erase. De ces figures, sept sont illisibles et 
quinze autres représentent des cristaux de 
localité inconnue. Négligeant ces 22 figures, 
il en reste 227 dont l’étude statistique mon- 
trera la fréquence et le développement des 
formes représentées. Sur ces figures ap- 
paraissent 47 formes, que je désignerai par 
les lettres conventionnelles de Goldschmidt. 
L’orientation habituelle (c:a=0.5372) sera 
provisoirement utilisée. On ne tiendra au- 
cun compte du clivage pour décider de 


‘importance des formes (Donnay, 1938a). 


L’importance d’une forme reléve en tout 
premier lieu de sa fréquence; la grandeur 
des faces n’intervient que pour départager 
des formes d’a peu prés méme fréquence. 

L’étude statistique est menée comme 
sult. 

(1) On examine d’abord toutes les figures 
d’une méme localité. Pour chacune de ces 
figures, on fait le relevé des formes par 
ordre de grandeur décroissante (voir ta- 
bleau 1, pour le cas des cristaux de Pfitsch). 


TABLEAU 1.—PrFitscH (TYROL) 


N° de ; 

la fig. Observateur Classement des formes 
133 | Zepharovich| pad’mcf (ts) t 
134 | Zepharovich| ampfdisct 
135 | Zepharovich} pamdcfohk (id) (sh)izu 
136 | Zepharovich| p&cmibisdu 
137 | Zepharovich| mpcetsou 


Groth 


amfpcs8idbotue 


328 


On en tire la fréquence de chaque forme 
pour la localité considérée, c’est-a-dire le 
nombre de fois que la forme a été repré- 
sentée. On calcule ensuite le rang moyen de 
chaque forme de la fagon suivante (voir 
tableau 2, pour le cas des cristaux du 
Vésuve): en face de chaque forme, désignée 
par la lettre de Goldschmidt et les indices 
de Miller, on indique combien de fois elle 
occupe le 1* rang, le 2° rang, .. . etc. Dans 
exemple du Vésuve, la forme a {010}, sur 
35 cristaux figurés, vient 16 fois au 1 
rang, 9 fois au 2°, 6 fois au 3°, 4 fois au 4°; 
son rang moyen est (16X1+9X2+6xX3 
+4 X4)/35=1.9. Le rang moyen donne 
done une mesure approximative de la 
grandeur, laquelle est d’autant plus con- 
sidérable que le rang moyen est plus petit. 
Le résultat est une liste de formes classées 
par ordre d’importance pour la _ localité 
étudiée (les formes d’importance 4 peu 
prés égale sont réunies entre parenthéses). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, WOn ume 


Trois tableaux sont donnés 4 titre d’ex- 
emples: Vésuve, facies prismatique avec a 
dominant (tableau 2); Piémont, facies 
prismatique avec m dominant (tableau 
3); Pfitsch (Tyrol), facies pyramidal avec 
p dominant (tableau 4). 

(2) On examine ensuite les différents clas- 
sements obtenus pour les diverses localités 
(tableau 5). On en tire la fréquence absolue 
ou fréquence de localité, c’est-a-dire le 
nombre de localités ot la forme est repré- 
sentée. On calcule ensuite son rang moyen 
de localité (comme ci-dessus pour le rang 
moyen de figure). On arrive ainsi (tableau 
6) a dresser la liste finale? des formes par 

2 Pour obtenir le rang moyen de localité, on 
peut accorder plus de poids aux localités qui 
sont représentées par un nombre plus grand de 
figures. Le résultat est alors le suivant: m a (c 
p) sftottdhbzuxdrvyann (an) vBé 
WA)elbcqye¢gF Y2 I; le Y3 (e771) 2N pX. 
On voit que cette liste ne différe guére de celle 


du tableau 6, surtout en ce qui concerne les 
formes les plus importantes. 


TABLEAU 2.—VESUVE (FacIES PRISMATIQUE, a DOMINANT) 


Nombre de cristaux figurés: 35 


Nombre total de formes figurées: 30 


Nombre de formes par cristal: minimum, 4; maximum, 18. 


Fré- 
quence yer | ge | ge 


Formes 


Lettre 
Indices 


010 35 16 9 6 
110 35 13 | 10 6 
ial 35 3 | 10 | 14 
5) 
9 
1 


ho: 


001 35 Ball, <5 
120 Di, 
011 25 A 
132 20 - 1 
131 16 
113 15 
331 11 ert eraraltga an lraret 
130 9 Fee | ecoa tae 
121 
P| 
241 
141 
151 
032 
112 
021 
243 
031 
377 

5.20.2 
012 

713-0 
133 : erento | tees ae 
481 es as ke lll: Seta Seca oa 

Ty {| 8.10215 

lbp 571 

ve 5.19.2 


PNHUENNRhAONE: 
wwrpdy hee: 


a 


wie 
See eS DOR NW WON: 


8 ea) cS) OS) Sti 9 RS RG OCS oe) aS) 
NOnNwWwwo rh ff - OO 


Nombre de figures ot la forme occupe le rang suivant: 


Rang 
14° 


se | ge | 10° | 11¢ | 12¢ | 13¢ 15° | 16° 17¢ | 1ge | Moyen 
1.9 

2.3 

2.9 

ie 3.4 
Paces! el: 4.6 
Gul ene eSoa\ cada tar 6.8 
Te aoe Tonitan iyo. |lieaalnea 8.7 
Pilot ib oulmes een 7.9 
Bo ieee Op oe a 7.9 
pee eee hate 7.3 
1 1 5.9 
Tle on tees * 8.6 
ea te 1 7.7 
ry ae * 8.0 
Pll ted erie eee (ocr S, 10.5 
eat lean £ 10.5 

2| 1 9.3 
Tee af 9.6 

i 1 1 9.6 
1 7.0 
beat 8.5 
6.0 

7.0 

11.0 

12.0 

12.0 

13.0. 

14.0 

15.0 

16.0 


Classement définitif: am pcfoi(sd) (th)zbd(yv)& Tru)lrwgv Fax Y2 li Le Ys. 


Nov. 15, 1942 


ordre d’importance décroissante, pour l’es- 
péce. 


PROJECTION GNOMONIQUE 


On adopte l’ordre d’importance décrois- 
sante des formes trouvé au tableau 6, 
savoir: 


rer c p) Ss fo ( 6). a8 
110 010 001 111 131 120 331 011 132 113 
Seen 00) TE DD 
130 021 121 221 241 112 133 151 118 114 
a (> = ae de Loe Aye Ay Nerve 
1.1.20 122 031 012 377 243 454 470 351 
eo On F 2 (eg. A) nk 
135 117 1.1.10 032 116 383 445 461 885 
jane oN. - 9 | eee Gee, Drie el by, 
141 350 441 5.20.2 7.13.1 481 8.10.5 571 
Ys 
5.19.2 


Outre ces 47 formes, relevées sur les des- 
sins de l|’Atlas de Goldschmidt, il en existe 
beaucoup d’autres qui, bien qu’ayant été 
observées, n’ont jamais été figurées. 

L’ordre de ces formes est mis en évidence 
sur la projection (Fig. 2): les pdéles gno- 
moniques sont marqués par des cercles dont 
le rayon décroit avec l’importance de la 


TREMBLAY: MORPHOLOGIE DE L’IDOCRASE 


329 


forme correspondante. La symétrie tétra- 
gonale holoédre permet d’utiliser seulement 
la moitié d’un octant, l’octant avant-droit- 
supérieur, oti tous les indices sont positifs. 
La projection gnomonique est ici un carré 
coupé par une diagonale. C’est la partie 
située au-dessus de la diagonale qui est 
employée dans |’étude des zones et dans la 
recherche du groupe spatial. Comme le 
groupe trouvé imposera un changement 
d’orientation, la partie de la projection 
située au-dessous de la diagonale montre la 
projection gnomonique du cristal dans la 
nouvelle orientation. Pour cela, on n’a qu’a 
tourner la feuille de 45°, dans le sens con- 
traire 4 celui de la marche des aiguilles 
d’une montre. L’étude comparative des 
deux orientations met en évidence la dif- 
férence de grandeur des deux mailles, les 
changements d’indices des faces et la vari- 
ation du type des zones. 


DETERMINATION DU MODE DU RESEAU ET DE 
LA FACE UNITAIRE 


On détermine le mode du réseau en se 
basant sur l’étude des zones dont les faces 
ne sont perpendiculaires 4 aucun plan de 


symétrie. Dans la zone des faces (hkh) on 


TABLEAU 3.—ALPE Mussa, Prtmont (Facies PRISMATIQUE, ™ DOMINANT) 


Nombre de cristaux figurés: 36 
Nombre total de formes figurées: 20 
Nombre de formes par cristal: minimum, 2; maximum, 11 


Nombre de figures ot la forme occupe le rang suivant 


| 


Retire Formes Fré- | Rang 
Indices |quence| jer | ge | 3e | 4e | 5e 6e me | ge | ge 10° | 11¢ | 12° | y3e | Moyen 
m 110 36 30 3 3 a - ie 1.3 
a 010 34 5 20 8 a lye 1 ie a 2.2 
c 001 32 8 9 5 5 2 3 ae 3.8 
D 111 32 1 9 13 4 3 2 me ik 4.2 
s 131 29 1 2 5 8 3 5 3 2 5.6 
t 331 22 1 2 2 9 4 3 1 6.0 
0 011 16 4 6 3 cx 2 1 5.6 
i 132 15 1 2 5 4 3 eae 6.3 
ff 120 10 1 1 2 4 2 me i. ed one 3.5 
3 113 9 fe 3 a 4 1 1 8.7 
b 221 3 1 1 o. 1 73 
q 383 2 ay Ne 2 8.0 
y 118 2 ‘e we 1 1 9.0 
B 110 oS fe Si 1 Ly 9.0 
Z 121 2 = e 1 1 9.5 
y 470 1 a * oF 2.0 
¢ 350 1 ee au a 2.0 
a {1.1.20 on <. M, 1 9.0 
ri) 117 ae rN - 1 10.0 
3 135 te e 1 11.0 


Classement définitif: ma (c p)stotifdbal(yB)zWelasa. 


330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 11 


Fig. 1.—Différents facies de l’idocrase: prismatique allongé avec a (Vésuve) ou m 
(Piémont) dominant, pyramidal trapu (Tyrol) et tabulaire épais (Laurel, Argenteuil, 
Québec). 


Fig. 2.—Projection gnomonique de _ J idocrase (octant avant-droit- 
supérieur). Au-dessus de la diagonale, orientation C; en-dessous, orientation P. 


\S/] 3 ae 


Fig. 3.—Aspect C*** Fig. 4.—Aspect C4/acn Fig. 5.—Aspect P4/nne 


®-0-@ oe  --—— 


Nov. 15, 1942 


TREMBLAY: MORPHOLOGIE DE L’ IDOCRASE 


TABLEAU 4.—PFitTscH (TYROL) (FactES PYRAMIDAL) 


Nombre de cristaux figurés: 6 Nombre total de formes figurées: 16 
Nombre de formes par cristal: minimum, 7; maximum, 15 


Nombre de figures ot la forme occupe le rang suivant: 


331 


Lettre Honmcs Fréquence Bane 

Indices yer | Qe 3e 4e 5e 6° ve ge ge | 10° | 11¢ | 12 | 13¢ | 14¢ | 15¢ moyen 
p- 111 6 Slat lp ox | 2. 
m 110 6 1 B, iL Dealiene 7 
c 001 6 2 3 ae 1 4. 
a 132 6 1 2 iL 1 1 6. 
vo iS} « 5 aie 1 1 1 1 1 4, 
a 010 4 2 ibe 
s 131 5 1 Get eee yy) 1 1 the 
t 331 5 1 2, 1 il 9. 
f 120 4 1 1 2 a 4. 
0 011 3 1 1 1 Tee 
b 221 3 1 Bt 1 iL 9 
d 241 3 3 Ae 9 
U 021 3 sae 1 1 1 12 
BK 885 1 ie 7 
x 133 i 14. 
e 351 1 14 


SOOROOAWMORAUNAADRS 


Classement définitif: p mc (id a)s(tf)obduu (re). 


TABLEAU 5.—CLASSEMENT DES FORMES DANS LES DivERsES LOCALITES 
(47 FormMES—227 Fiagures—37 Loca.irsis) 


Localité Classement des formes Aer SBE es eb) 
1. Alpe Mussa (Piémont).............. W@(CM) 8SEOR7O OM GED) BC @) @ OGsccdcdcccsscevasaccce aXe, 20) BF 
Ds WERT »' S:0.8 6 Oe ae Ee ee ampcfot(sd) (thhzbd(yvée(rul)lrtwgvF a2 Y21i1l1Y3...| 35 30 4 18 
Sem AlUIE(SIDErie) i. so. jess ce eee CED) RCRONOSERINS RAUL OTOL nen eee oe et Pa aa oreo 7 gtk aE 
4. Monte Somma (Vésuve)............ macpfosribduhvayn(wt)iNdad(zéiBwn).......... 1: eer ei es a 7 
DE AELIAA toa (SUISSE) ara cie s 5 of el aedes cake 1 GEG) eGo OB PGW. O Doc ccctaAcvdacqccasnosscupDecor 7 Ue} 1G 4 1} 
(Gis, LETYETTOVONOE Sai, Oe Seen ONER eae LOMB (OFO) | SONS RIOIO) Oise Lorie BEAU eon SEG) ae A Seaton ce ete eo ee HLS vile “Sue 
Hee aledensusam(talie)y 5. os... sce: CACO Sa Dat at Ae (SP Oneal (CheVAN) We =e cawelersicee as Soeeeeks eee cirt7 8 Sas ea Eerie merce ec Lei 2e 5: x9 
8. Aberdeenshire (Ecosse)............. GO, NOOPESPIOOG WON W OE an cuobeedueaersecoococccooboceT 10h 5 10 
9. Autres localités (Norvége).......... ODOC) DE DESEO G @) Vooaccscoussccedssoucecgcsccceds S.atS= Ve ees 
IU), QTR. c00 92 maig aio ciols Oe ORicn Benito 6 IND (SEEXC) LRTI SHORT EN ee OR nee ee ee ee TE (eS Sy 
bette ha Gly rOl eis: 6 ais» sis dc diss woe aie DT) 6 CEG) 8 CP) OW GG @ ODescvvcccccascdncccocscccsuce Gag16) hee tS 
LPO aye (UNICT Arc) Ieee COON GEG) 4D SOO IPs CPR os Ls Do OSE oles OE ia: Re eee Gets = Gane 
13. Tennberget (Dalarne).............. TUCK ORE SHIR CIRC ars Ny etter atop Sece ene Nees ME Wciees: & Se RS oe Silane phe 
14. Monzoni (Val de Fassa) (Tyrol)..... (GRC EOnDAGES eee eee me ee or mio eiieiee: demersal Ser okay 4 PRO Gea 
15. Aarvold (Norvége)................. Du CHITUD (OOM) abuse iite sto iereaitenn sc gaa AR ca eB Et cheep foe Euan occ auece «gay coe A Ste, 276 
lGeevMiontr Albani (Iitalie)..0...0......0- (Ghee OD) ORO NS (ONS SOLE) ONC MOE eae CANES nina Pena rere oe ee Ae Se LS 
17. Nelle-Galles du Sud................ ANCE DESHER (CAO ORO RRED Sa OR A he ae Sees IR SES es torens 
Seer tn (a OTAOTL)) i.e Aveksisys 05 a) ocotere are es GNINECHETSNDNILHZ OMI! Oe OPN x roy ra feiressiisoS a ene: leer aP so) GMiaV Siiafle lap ala 6 ere arat case Sy 8) eo ES 
toe Cziklova (Honprie).:..,.>......5..- DETAR OHOUCH oe ee oe EAC A Tiaras Ge EL GR OICTOCTONGES PIS tins ES oye Eps eee: 
Avmcombpetobent, Aviciana (Piemont))..| mae pst tO 2 occ. net. c ee owe da oes sows cee deco cee ecu s- PGR TS ale 
*il, race! (SUC) ogee ccseaseddosuuce CE CRIN PEE for WS EN Pe CEN wl EBT Ie Rte CP NaS ine coe R eS dee Gee Aes Wig mee S- 
SO emOR MON] A TNL C iat vinch ay ctey-si otha hat blal'e uaye. elevate ag atl BT OMOEA Hl Boe bs Ak GIG eNO CRN Ear 8: ica cD eke RTE RES CRT See Me ie es Be 
23. Nombreuses localités............... Aa RGN URORS OMT Me Mey ee eA ede: OISTE OE Shae s. Sree Waren 2 PSs kere S 
Dame PINOT VEE) sis fics ake wales wes oa as CLEA) TOA GPO NCIS Rolo oD EO LOO ASIA TA TIE PODS 8 CIEE een ana ee ey ie eae? 
EMM EAU OTICED |. o's ove. iain silevsis sees olesecavere wlsel oo) on AUTOEDUCLOPLES RENO CE Tete I orate ad WIS, Slat gs eu Jd Bharae arene late 20 TS 
26: Hriedeberg (Silésie)......<.......0.0% TACHA) RDUSK (RMO) LOAN UDR IU ler teictetas Sieve wee wayne Sieve Sie mese orem Siete Sh 2 So 4s 20 
Premberedaz20) (Tyrol) s...). 02 ele we ee ns CE (GRFD)) VAD OOO (OED) ON CAR ae ec eae eS ree ee |} 2 15 10 18 
28. Vallée de Saas (Valais)............. FR Og OS CLOSE Ok SO HS EE Noe NES, Cae Pores | 2 4 
29. Gross-Venediger (Tyrol)............ 10: 1D. Chit OVO). GS Ciag sate BS CHS UNIS Oe TOO LOIS Sekic Skee tO 
BO sandtord, Me (U:S.A:)). 2.1 cc.0.s see TAKORCEIML Or DIUESTULE TUR cr oni See a ON RSs Nd WORE ere eS, we i ae 
SlemiaIspereu(suede)i a son dun aaeciono a as A ITUR DAT HORS HEN e PNR eee eR oe, Wiens EUR Cimento SPAT ERS SEIS iad Js 
BemeEUnAs ECON, BUNgO)no ce oue adec se TUPI ICH UO OE Ur ao cloee Se RHR orks coal Wl Goat SHOE WU FRAS heiarn ois Ee ae ame 
SoemCintrar(POrtugal) ss... ows eee ce (OO CPN. OS Saas GERI eo eS SIC ORE GINS Ge UR ee Ree To oy 
BoM anee CSOs (Groenland))< vo. <4 coke sc) cll) CnQLInMMD IO ets oe Ue Kc cle idk uC cle ge omnia CA Rte EN Rerd eee Sed 4i4G 
35. Gweedore in Donegal (Irlande)...... FON (DiT)Y Dison i Cg REEMA Os EAI OES Sah ee erereare fh le 
36. Amity (Orange City)............... TT DP Re eens ee MOR eae SEER nk w'se-0 ele 1 EW 
oi. aeaon 1 Fitape (Vosges)............«. TCH OAR FD OOS eS: BLS ONS Oe SIO. SHMUEL ER Sik SURI Uy SEE Cae ER Unar acs ia .G 
A: nombre de cristaux figurés pour la localité considérée. C: nombre minimum de formes figurées sur un cristal, 
B: nombre de formes figurées pour la localité considérée. D: nombre maximum de formes figurées sur un cristal. 


332 


observe (tableau 8): pszuy Aq. Le seg- 
ment arithmétique® donne s & la distance 3, 
z2a4/2,045, y 4 8/2 (op étant pris pour 
unité). A cause de la symétrie tétragonale 
holoédre, cette zone est la méme que 
celle des (hkk), qui contient les faces du 
segment harmonique®: x n w. La face x est 
i la distance 1/3, n 4 2/4, et w 4 3/7. On 
a évidemment affaire 4 une zone double 
avec dominante unitaire simple p. Cette 
zone ne suffit pas, a elle seule, pour déter- 
miner la mode du réseau. Elle élimine le 
mode primitif (P) et le mode 4 maille cen- 
trée (J), montrant qu’on est dans l’autre 
orientation. Reste 4 voir si le réseau est 4 
base centrée (C) ou a faces centrées (Ff). 
Les renseignements nécessaires seront 
fournis par l’étude d’une autre zone, dont 
le type sera différent dans les deux modes. 
L’équation de la zone cz s est k=3h. Toutes 
les faces de cette zone satisfont done au 


3 La terminologie employée ici est celle de la 
regle harmonique-arithmétique, due Aa Peacock 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


critére C=(h+k) pair, et la zone doit étre 
du type simple, avec (131) dominante, 
dans le cas d’un réseau C. Par contre, dans 
le cas d’un réseau F, la zone deviendrait 
double, avec la méme dominante. Or, la 
zone ¢ 7 s comprend les faces s 7 x a, qui 
sont respectivement aux distances 1, 1/2, 
1/3, 1/5 (tableau 7). C’est done une zone 
simple, et le réseau est C. On reléve une 
anomalie dans le manque de face 4 la dis- 
tance 1/4, mais o (4 la distance 1/5) n’est 
signalée que deux fois dans les figures de 
l’ Atlas. Les trois autres faces, beaucoup 
plus importantes, ne laissent aucun doute 
sur le type, simple, de cette zone (7 est 
nettement plus importante que x). Puisque 
la dominante s doit s’écrire (131), on en 
déduit que p est bien la face unitaire (111). 


DETERMINATION DU GROUPE SPATIAL 


Les zones dont les faces sont perpendicu- 
laires 4.un plan de symétrie, miroir ou plan 
avec glissement, serviront 4 déterminer le 


(1936). groupe spatial. Ce sont les zones des faces 
TABLEAU 6.—CLASSEMENT D£EFINITIF DES FORMES 
Formes 
Nombre de localités ot la forme occupe le rang suivant: 

Fré- Rang 
Let-| In- |quence mo- 
tre | dices | abso- | | | : becteal 7 

tas fo 28° 1418 16 ahs 9 | 10°) 11/12/13) 14©] 15°) 162/172 18° 19& 20& 21° 22° 23° 24¢ 25e aa eae i 
m\|110| 37 | 24] 40} 3] ..]. lee A Bal eet eth ol oe lp 95 arta [eee pect a ee 1.4 
arnOt0 | e864 st ist alee teal Seal sec el eal Sal aa a 2.0 
ce | 001 | 34 Toe 4 8) alte el Sal eae lS ll eice aloe. [eal Belo ee 3.4 
p | 111 | 33 Ries srO i Sle Sin ll eae eae Shea iccde Slescale eel au oh eae el 28 
s | 131 | 28 tie Bie 6) -2)= Seba al. all Sat pele Os abe ole |e 6.4 
f | 120] 27 AY 7 Al a OI RA Sl oat tl 2 fol Gl alteealhesall Slee) oe [eee |S oe 5.9 
t | 331 | 26 2 Wiese frae(\ioae ree tea feet dieeee wes Shas ys a aralbedl eh] Rothe Se 6.9 
o | O11 | 25 1. 2) 6) 28) alee 2) She a lies eed et sell ook orl oO alt ost 6.4 
¢ |\-192-] 23 AU eas Ue act) on et ae el q| oe alee | ae 8.3 
3 | 113 | 16 Ba es Ole aD 1 Pe Aseal eval ee tices hs | alae ae ee ee 8.3 
h | 130 | 13 Te 4 ET a es ees PS Oe ars fea Ire tae" Feed em a ets ee 7.9 
u | 021] 11 (ogee) Nake Us He ol Sal patna Seek Teed cele cote et bon ies 11.5 
2 | 121 | 10 | {,-3}-2) | lee reat Mg Pere aie eel PN eee mere 12.4 
b | 221 9 tht dil octal ers Nero (ears Oe on i ee A peop 11.2 
d | 241 8 | ght 2 ieet 1 13.0 
r | 112 6 Dike 2 Ral eae SK bl cad 10.6 
z | 133 6 Be bee eee ee oa | A Slush 1 15.3 
g | ii) 3 meh sien algo ected 13.2 


Classement définitif: m a (c p) sf (to)id hu(zb)drzv. 


A ces formes, il faut ajouter les suivantes, dont la fréquence absolue est inférieure A 5 et pour lesquelles la notion de rang moyen perd toute signifi- 


cation: 
Y 7] a n T v @ 


118 114 


(e q d) r u y ¢ 2N 
116 383 445 461 885 141 350 441 


Les formes entre parenthéses sont de méme importance. 


120) F122 4.03 012 377 #8 243 


A v e (o ) B E 


454 470° 351 135 117 1.1.10 032 
g F Ye li Le Ys 
5.20.2 7.13.1 481 8.10.5 571 5.19.2 


Nov. 15, 1942 


(hkO), (Okl) et (hhl). La zone des faces 
(Okl) est la méme que celle des faces 
(AOl), 4 cause de la symétrie tétragonale 
holoédre. 

(1) La zone mf des faces (hk0) contient 
cing faces qui ont été figurées: m fh W¢ (ta- 
bleau 7). Le segment harmonique, avec ces 
faces aux distances respectives 1, 1/2, 1/3, 
3/5, 4/7, indique une zone simple. Il a 
toutefois une anomalie dans le manque de 
faces aux distances 2/3 et 1/4, anomalie 
sans grand intérét vu la rareté des faces 
y et o. L’importance relative des formes 
m, f et h est trés bien marquée. 

(2) La zone des faces (Okl) comprend, en 


‘TREMBLAY: MORPHOLOGIE DE L’IDOCRASE 


ordre d’importance décroissante: 0 u z v &, 
plus deux faces connues, mais rares: A et 
X (tableau 7). Le segment arithmétique 
donne les faces o (011), u (021), w (031), 
£ (032) respectivement aux distances 1, 2, 
3, 3/2. Sur le segment harmonique, on 
trouve v (012) 4 la distance 1/2, X (013) 
& 1/3 et A (023) 4 2/3. C’est lA une zone 
stmple parfaite, avec dominante unitaire o 
(011). 

(3) Dans la zone des (hAl), on a les faces 
suivantes:ptdvbrynad BerXyu 2N (ta- 
bleau 8). Sur le segment arithmétique, on a, 
toujours en ordre d’importance décrois- 
sante, des faces aux distances suivantes (c¢ p 


TABLEAU 7.— DEVELOPPEMENT DES ZONES SIMPLES 


_ Distance au pédle Zone des faces Okl 


Zone des faces hkO Zone des faces h.3h_l 


I | Iie TET | Evel 1 | I | III | IV I | II | III | IV I | I | mt | Iv 
1/5 7135 | 
1/4 (134) 
8} X026 h260 2133 
2 v024 {240 1132 
4/7 W8.14.0 
3/5 ¢6.10.0 
2/3 A046 (460) 
1 0022 m220 8131 
3/2 £064 
By u042 
3 1062 
REMARQUE.—Les formes non observées ont leur symbole entre parenthéses. 
TABLEAU 8.—D£&EVELOPPEMENT DES ZONES DOUBLES 
Distance au pdle Zone des faces hhl Zone des faces hkh ou hkk 
I I III I | lI I II | Ill 
1/9 x119 
2/16 7y2.2.16 
I/e/ 6117 
2/12 €2.2.12 
1/5 115 
2/8 7228 
1/3 9113 2133 
St Woli 
2/4 7224 n244 
3/5 «335 (355) 
1 pill plll 
4/2 6442 2242 
7/3 
3 t331 s131 
11/3 | 
8/2 2N882 y282 
5 O551 v151 
12/2 Z2.12.2 
7 wl71 


REMARQUES.—Les formes non observées ont leur symbole entre parenthéses. Les faces O(551), (115), x(119) sont données 
comme rares dans l’Atlas; de méme que les faces Z(2.12.2) et w(171). 


304 


étant pris pour unité): p 41,43, b 4 4/2, 
045, ?N 48/2. Sur le segment harmonique, 
Vordre est le suivant: 3? 4 1/3, r 4 2/4; les 
autres faces sont trop rares pour mériter 
d’étre prises en considération. On voit 
clairement l’existence d’une zone double 
avec dominante unitaire simple p (111). 

Les tableaux 7 et 8 ont été dressés sur le 
modéle des tableaux que Donnay (1938b) 
a employés pour illustrer le développement 
théorique des zones. 

Dans un réseau a base centrée C, sans 
plans de symétrie avec glissement (Fig. 3), 
la zone des faces (hk0) serait du type 
double; elle devient szmple par l’effet d’un 
plan avec glissement a, perpendiculaire 4 
l’axe d’ordre 4. Dans le cas du réseau C, 
la zone des faces (Okl) serait semple avec 
dominante déplacée (021); la dominante, 
éloignée de (011) par le mode C du réseau, 
y est ramenée par un plan avec glissement 
c. Enfin, en position diagonale, la zone des 
faces (hhAl) serait simple dans le cas du 
seul réseau C; c’est un plan avec glissement 
n qui la transforme en zone double. On a 
done pour groupe spatial C4/acn, avec le 
rapport d’axes c:a=0.5372 (Fig. 4). 

D’aprés les conventions modernes, il con- 
vient d’orienter le cristal de fagon 4 le rap- 
porter a la maille la plus petite possible. 
Dans le cas présent, la maille (A base cen- 
trée) est une maille double; il suffit de 
tourner le cristal de 45° autour de l’axe 
vertical pour le rapporter 4 la maille simple. 
Dans cette nouvelle orientation (Fig. 5), 
le réseau est primitif et le groupe spatial se 
note P4/nnc. Le rapport d’axes devient 
c:a=0.7597. 

Ces résultats sont d’accord avec ceux 
que fournissent les rayons X (Strukturbe- 
richt). 


AVERTISSEMENT 


Jusqu’ici, j’ai employé les lettres de 
Goldschmidt pour désigner les formes dans 
orientation C (base centrée). Dans le 
reste du travail, ces lettres désigneront les 
mémes formes dans la nouvelle orientation, 
P. La matrice de transformation est la 
suivante: C>P=4 40/4 30/001. Les nou- 
veaux indices (HKL) figurent 4 cété des 
anciens dans le tableau 9. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 11 


TABLEAU 9.—TRANSFORMATION D’ INDICES | 


Indices premiers entre eux | Indices multiples 


£ s Lettre & = 
(hkl) (HKL) (hkl) (HKL) 
110 010 m 220 020 
010 110 a 020 110 
001 001 c 002 002 
111 011 p ib Gh 011 
131 121 s 131 iPAt 
120 130 ij 240 130 
331 031 t 331 031 
011 112 re) 022 112 
132 122 a 132 122 
113 013 ob 113 013 
130 120 h 260 240 
021 111 U 042 222 
221 021 b 442 042 
121 132 Zz 242 12, 
241 131 d 241 iSiil 
iy 012 rT 224 024 
133 123 x 133 123 
151 231 v 151 231 
118 018 Y 2.2.16 0.2.16 
114 014 7 228 028 
e200 0.1.20 a 2.2.40 0.2.40 
122 134 n 244 134 
031 332 rs 062 332 
012 114 v 024 114 
377 257 a) 377 257 
243 133 l 243 133 
454 198 A 8.10.8 198 
470 3.11.0 y 8.14.0 3.11.0 
351 141 e€ 351 141 
135 125 o 135 125 
117 017 6 117 017 
Us NO Os1e10 B 222220 0.2.20 
032 334 é 064 334 
116 016 € 2.2.12 Of2Az 
383 EyeslelenG ta] 6.16.6 Reilos 
445 045 oN 8.8.10 0.8.10 
461 151 1 461 151 
885 085 b 16.16.10 0.16.10 
141 352 y 282 352 
350 140 g 6.10.0 280 
441 041 2N 882 082 
5.20.2 15.25.4 g 10.40.4 15.25.4 
Gelso Boiler! F Talos Sei OoE 
481 261 Y2 481 261 
8.10.5 195 Li 8.10.5 195 
571 161 Le 571 161 
5.19.2 heel ise Y3 519 e2 11222, 


TOTAL INDICIEL 


Meen (1939) a observé, provenant de la 
région du Grand Lac des Esclaves, des 
cristaux ayant jusqu’a un pouce de long, 
de couleur brun-chocolat légérement ver- 
datre et de facies prismatique trapu; chaque 
spécimen montrant la base bien développée 
aux deux extrémités. I] signale que C. 
Gottfried (1930) a déterminé une maille 4 
base centrée. Il montre que le réseau P 
apporte une simplification notable des in- 


MN ine e 


Nov. 15, 1942 


dices. Pour 12 formes, le total indiciel 
(Ungemach, 1935) est 50 dans l’orientation 
C et 38 dans /’orientation P. Pour les 48 
formes figurées de l’espéce, je trouve les 
totaux indiciels suivants: 

(1) avec les indices de Miller premiers 
entre eux, 


dans l’orientation C': 536, 
dans l’orientation P:408; 


(2) avec les indices multiples, satisfai- 
sant aux critéres du groupe spatial, 


dans |’orientation C’:609, 
dans l’orientation P:507. 


PREDICTION DES DIMENSIONS ABSOLUES 
DE LA MAILLE _ 


La formule de Jidocrase est en- 
core imprécise. Strukturbericht (2: 127. 
1937) donne comme formule idéale: 


CaipMge2Al,8i9034(OH),4. La formule trouvée 
Meen est en accord avec celle 


par 
de Machatschki: X3sYosZ36(O, OH, F)1s0 
X=Ca(Na, K, Mn); Y=Al, Fe’”’, Fe”, 


Mg, Ti, Zn, Mn; Z=Si. 

Avec la formule proposée par Struktur- 
béricht, on trouve que Z, le nombre de 
molécules contenues dans la maille est au 
minimum de 2, en ce sens que la symétrie 
du groupe spatial peut étre satisfaite si 
Z=2. 


Si Z=2, on obtient pour le volume de la 
maille P: 
Vo=1380.07 AS. et prenant comme den- 
-sité moyenne 3.4, on a 
Gi 2. 20 A et Co= 9.27 A. 
Si Z=4, les résultats sont: Vo= 2760.14 AB 
y= WO. 37 A et 6n— ae 68 A. 
Les rayons X donnent: 
ay) = 15.63 A et co= 11.83 A, 
avec rapport d’axes Co: d)=0.757. 


Dans un cas, tel que celui de l’idocrase, 
ou la formule chimique est trés compliquée, 
on ne peut espérer prédire avec certitude 
les dimensions absolues de la maille. 


LOI DE BRAVAIS CLASSIQUE 


La loi de Bravais classique donne |’ordre 
d’importance des formes en partant du 
réseau, tandis que la loi généralisée con- 


_TREMBLAY: MORPHOLOGIE DE L’IDOCRASE 


SS 
~ 


2 = 


a 


= 


S =a 3 xs 
as el 


Gs Qo e 
Pz eee cals) ela Ss ss |e eee ells | ema eae 
> es 


essa | alba | 


4 
> 


Ss 


S 
S 


pe 
R 


a 


xe 
> 
=p) 


® 


® 
fa) 


jee as 
SUG my 
SoN 


es 


SS en 


Sy 
Sy 
SS 


° 
° 
° 


lo) 


na 
na 
na 


o 


3 

~ 
~ 
| 
- 


SS 
—— 
S 
—— 
~ 


lat 
~ 
~ 
lo 
~ 


a” . 


~ as 
> 


~ 
= 


cos etn i (ORE SS Pe ae a a a | ae 
i) 


dé- 
(1) Groupe P4/nne (loi 
(3) Réseau I (loi de 
Brayais cl: assique). Lire de bas en haut. 


Fig. Listes théoriques d’importance 


croissante des formes 
eénéral-Isée); (2) Réseau RP: 


336 


duit 4 cet ordre en partant du groupe spa- 
tial. La Fig. 6 a été construite 4 l’aide d’un 
abaque, analogue a celui de Mallard 
(1879, 1: p. 314), préparé par M. le Profes- 
seur Donnay. P 4/nnc est le groupe trouvé 
par la loi généralisée; P et I sont les deux 
modes possible du réseau. Si l’on ne con- 
naissait que la loi de Bravais classique, 
ordre observé d’importance relative des 
formes imposerait le réseau J. 

Sur la Fig. 6, on lira de bas en haut; le 
nombre qui suivra la forme est le numéro 
d’ordre observé tiré du tableau 6. Les 18 
premiéres formes de la liste théorique sont, 
dans le cas du réseau P: m(1), c(3), a(2), 
p(3), u(12), A(11), (18), s(5), r(16), o(7), 
(221) (non observée), f(6), ¢(7), d(15), 7(9), 
(230) (non observée), v(18), (032) (non 
observée), tandis que, dans le cas du réseau 
I, elles deviennent: a(2), p(3), m(1), s(5), 
c(3), 0(7), f(6), #(7), v(18), u(12), 3(10), 
Z(13), se(29) hay 2a e (oS) ara): 
(150) (non observée). 

On voit que les 8 premiéres formes de la 
liste J, ont un numéro d’ordre observé plus 
petit que 10; que les 5°, 6°, 7° formes de P 
ont les numéros 12, 11, 13 et que le n° 5 
viendrait aprés. En effet, la fréquence ab- 
solue de s(5) (tableau 6) est 28, tandis que 
les fréquences de u, h, b sont respective- 
ment 11, 13, 9. La forme s est done beau- 
coup plus importante que wu, h, b. Ceci est 
déja un argument en faveur du réseau J. 

Dans les formes subséquentes, le réseau 
P présente une anomalie en ce que la forme 
(221) qui arrive 11° dans l’ordre théorique, 
n’a jamais été observée. Or, dans la liste 
I, cette forme, qui doit obéir au critére 
d’extinction I (somme paire), se trouve 
rejetée en dehors du tableau, car en deve- 
nant (442) elle voit son importance diminuer 
de beaucoup. 

Dans la liste P, les 3 premiéres formes 
non observées sont les 11°, 16° et 18° de 
ordre théorique, tandis que dans la liste 
I ce sont les 18°, 20° et 22°. L’absence de 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 11 


ces formes dans J ne constitue qu’une 
légére anomalie, puisque leur rang les 
classe parmi les formes rares. Dans P, au 
contraire, les trois premiéres formes non 
observées viennent avant des formes im- 
portantes. 

Ces observations montrent que la loi de 
Bravais classique? ferait conclure & un 
réseau J. 


RESEAU SIMULE 


La loi généralisée a conduit au groupe 
P4/nnce et la loi de Bravais classique au 
réseau J. Or le groupe P4/nne et le réseau 
I ont les mémes extinctions sauf pour les 
faces (hkl). Le groupe P4/nnc n’impose 4 
celles-ci aucune restriction, tandis que le 
réseau I exige que la somme des indices 
soit paire. 

On a donc ici un trés beau cas de réseau 
stmulé. Ce cas est encore plus typique que 
celui de l’apophyllite (Donnay, 1937) dont 
le groupe spatial est P4/mnc et qui simule 
aussi le réseau J. 

Le groupe P4/mnc n’impose aucune con- 
dition aux faces (hkl) et (hk0). 

La figure 6 montre que les deux formes 
(hkl) les plus communes sont d(131) et 
7(122). Le critére I (somme paire) diminue 
de beaucoup l’importance de ces formes et 
les rejette en dehors du tableau, tandis que 
dans le cas du groupe P4/nne elles sont 
bien 4 leur place quant 4 l’importance ob- 
servée. De plus d et 2 sont plus importantes 
que v, premiére forme (hkl) qui apparaisse 
dans l’ordre théorique du réseau J. L’étude 
statistique, en effet, a montré que d et 72 
précédent v en ordre d’importance. 

Dans les résultats précédents, l’ordre 
relatif des formes dans chaque zone était 
bien marqué et a conduit sans difficulté au 
groupe spatial P4/nnc. Cependant l’ordre 
relatif de toutes les formes entre elles, 
présente plusieurs anomalies qui ont été 
indiquées. 

L’accord entre l’importance théorique 


* Mallard (1879, 1, p. 315) utilise l’orientation P et il a le bon rapport d’axes c:a=0.760. L’ordre qu’il 


a observé est le suivant: 


Lévy h} p m al a3 pll/3 hl Hl/2 ss h2 pil 
Miller 010 001 110 011 112 031 122 120 130 111 
Gdt. m c a p t t h f u 


Cet ordre différe un peu de celui du tableau 6, dans lequel a précéde c et f vient avant o. Le peu de 
formes observées ne justifie pas la conclusion de Mallard, qui a cru pouvoir en déduire un réseau P. 
Le réseau J s’accorderait d’ailleurs mieux que le réseau P avec ces données incompleétes. 


Nov. 15, 1942 


des formes et leur importance observée est 
nonobstant meilleur aux termes de la loi 
généralisée qu’a ceux de la loi classique. 


INDICES MOYENS 


La loi des indices moyens (Friedel, 1908), 
basée sur l’influence de la densité réticulaire, 
permet de prédire le rapport d’axes & partir 
des indices des formes connues. 

Cette loi tire sa justification de la loi de 
Bravais. Friedel (1908) en appliquant cette 
loi 4 une grande quantité de minéraux a 
montré que les résultats ne sont d’ailleurs 
qu’approximatifs. 

D’aprés la loi des indices moyens, on 
devrait avoir, dans le cas d’une espéce 
cristalline tétragonale, 

C30 — 221 > (hak), 
avec une approximation d’autant meilleure 
que le nombre de formes connues est plus 
erand. 

Dans le cas de l’idocrase, j’ai tenu compte 
des 47 formes figurées dans |’Afélas, ainsi 
que des 46 autres formes observées. 

Dans la premiére orientation, on trouve: 
(1) avec les indices de Miller premiers entre 
eux (réseau P), c:a=0.759; (2) avec les 
indices multiples exprimant la loi de Bra- 
vais généralisée (groupe P4/nnc), c:a= 
0.764. Dans la méme orientation, les in- 
dices multiples exprimant la loi de Bravais 


classique (réseau J) conduisent au rapport - 


c:a=0.712. Le rapport calculé est 0.7597. 

Dans la deuxiéme orientation, on trouve: 
(1) avec les indices premier entre eux (ré- 
seau C), c:a=0.585; (2) avec les indices 
multiples exprimant la loi généralisée 
(groupe C 4/acn), c:a=0.596. Les indices 
multiples exprimant la loi de Bravais clas- 
sique donnent, dans cette orientation (ré- 
seau /’), c:a=0.544. Le rapport calculé est 
0.5372. 

Tous ces résultats confirment la validité 
de la loi des indices moyens dans le cas de 
Vidocrase. On ne peut cependant en tirer 
aucune conclusion quant a Ja possibilité de 
généraliser cette loi en tenant compte de 
la symétrie du groupe spatial et en utilisant 
les indices multiples appropriés. 


REMERCIEMENTS 


Je remercie Monsieur le Professeur 


TREMBLAY: MORPHOLOGIE DE L’IDOCRASE 337 


J. D. H. Donnay pour les directives qu’il 
m’a données au cours de la préparation de 
ce travail et pour le soin qu’il a mis 4 
revoir mon manuscrit. Je dois 4 l’obligeance 
de Monsieur le Professeur C. Faessler les 
eristaux 4 facies tabulaire de Laurel. 


REFERENCES 


Donnay, J. D. H. Morphologie de V apophyl- 
lite. Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique (Cl. des 
Se) 233 (49/6 1987: 

Crystal morphology of zircon and ru- 

tile. Mém. Soc. Russe de Minér. (2)-67: 

31-46 (en anglais), 47-62 (en russe). 

1938a. 

Le développement des zones 

lines. Ann. Soc. Géol. 

B-260—287. 1938b. 

Crystal space-groups determined with- 

out x-rays (abstract). Amer. Min. 24: 


cristal- 
Belgique 61: 


184. 1939. 
— Analyse morphologique de la dan- 
burite. Trans. Soc. Roy. Canada (3), Sec- 


tion IV, 34: 33-43. 1940. 

Morphologie cristalline de la micro- 
lite. Mém. Soc. Roy. Canada (3), Sec- 
tion IV, 35: 51-56. (1941- 

Donnay, J. D. H., et Harker, Davin. 
Généralisation de la loi de Bravais. Compt. 
Rend. 204: 274-276. 1937a. 

A new law of crystal morphology ex- 

tending the Law of Bravais. Amer. Min. 

22: 446-467. 1937b. 

Nouvelles tables d’extinctions pour les 
230 groupes de recouvrements cristallo- 
graphiques. Nat. Can. 67: 33-69. 1940. 

FRIEDEL, G. Observations sur les caracté- 
ristiques moyennes des espéces cristallines. 
Bull. Soc. Frang. Min. 31: 5-40. 1908. 

GouLpscHMiIpT, Victor. Atlas der Krystall- 
formen 4: Heidelberg. 1918. 

GoTTFRIED, C. Die Mineralien der Adamel- 
logruppe. Chemie der Erde 5: 106-112. 
1930. 

Mauuarp, E. Traité de cristallographie, 1: 
Paris. 1879. 

Mergen, V. B. Vesuvianite from Great Slave 
Lake region, Canada. Univ. Toronto 
Studies, Geol. Ser., 42: Contrib. Can. 
Min., 69-74. 1939. 

Peacock, M. A. On normal triclinic face- 
symbols and the harmonic-arithmetic rule. 
Amer. Min. 22: 210. 1936. 

Taybtor, E. D. The morphology of colum- 


bite crystals. Amer. Min. 25: 123-138. 
1940a. 
Stephanite morphology. Amer. Min. 
25: 327-337. 1940b. 
UncemacH, H. Sur certains minéraux sul- 


fatés du Chilt. Bull. Soe. France. Minér. 
58: 97-221. 1935. 


338 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 11 


BIOPHYSICS.—Effect of nutrient cultures on the reaction of maize seedlings to 


light. 


Following the demonstration that cul- 
tures of nutrient salts increased the size of 
maize seedlings grown in the dark,? it be- 
came of interest to determine how the cul- 
tures affected the reaction of plants to brief 
periods of illumination. The present paper 
reports on a single experiment testing this 
point. 

The nutrient culture used was that given 
by Eaton’ at double his concentration and 
modified by increasing KH,PO, by a factor 
of 10. The control culture was grown with 
distilled water. 

The plantings were made in coarse, 
crushed quartz in 40 tin ointment cans 
covered with tin-sealed tubes. Each can, 
containing 600 grams of oven-dried quartz 
moistened with 120 cc of solution or dis- 
tilled water, was planted with 20 seeds of 
Funk Yellow Dent. Seed weights were 
recorded for each lot of 20 seeds. 

The cans were kept in a dark room where 
the air temperature ranged from 85° to 
86° F. Four days after planting, one-half 
the cans from each culture were chosen at 
random and arranged in a circle at such a 
distance from a 1,000-watt Mazda lamp as 
to give each can 100 foot-candles illumina- 
tion. A strong blast of air was blown just 
under the lamp at about 3 feet above the 
plants to prevent, so far as possible, a rise 
in air temperature. The plants were exposed 
to this illumination for 1 hour, after which 
they were again enclosed in tin tubes and 
left in the dark. During the light exposure 
the air temperature rose 2° F. Twenty-four 
hours later the experiment was terminated 
and the seedlings were measured. Lengths 
were recorded separately for mesocotyls 
and coleoptiles. No leaves had appeared at 
this date—five days after planting. These 
parts, together with the roots and seed 
residues, were washed free of the coarse 
quartz and oven dried at 100° C. The sey- 
eral seedling parts were weighed as products 
of single cans—not as individual plants. 

1 Received July 31, 1942. 


2 KEeMPTON, in press. Journ. Agr. Res 
8 Journ. Agr. Res. 53: 433-444. Re opem ler 1936. 


J. H. Kempton, Bureau of Plant Industry. 


The measures expressed as means of in- 
dividuals are given in Table 1 and the anal- 
yses of variance are shown in Table 2 
The reaction to light was actually and 
relatively much greater in the plants grown 
in the salt solution than in those grown in 
distilled water. This is shown by the length 
and weight of mesocotyl, as well as in weight 
of tops (Figs. 1 and 2A; 2B). The roots were 
not appreciably affected by the culture or 


by the light exposure given the tops (Fig. : 


B 


MESOCOTYL COLEOPTILE 


LENGTH (MM) 


N 
‘ 
‘ 
‘ 
/ 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
\ 
‘ 
‘N 
‘\ 
N 
\ 
N 


MMMMMMMMMMttb 


S ‘S 
er oe ' Ja 7) 
tency ee Ce 
Srf SS ‘ 
y ' 
1 Ou 1S) oO (te 
een a == ee oo 
ema & ye AE ay ' eee 
Le eS 
o fo fo} o} 
a a q <q 
a 2 a a Cnawe 
mz & ree = 
Sy ee Op isa 
= aw b a 
>) l= > = 
STR it tee => ¥. tase 
eo) = Or ys 
o a oD wa 


Fig. 1—Mean length (mm) of mesocotyl (A) 
and coleoptile (B) of maize seedlings grown in dis- 
tilled water and in nutrient solution. Solid bars 
represent seedlings always in the dark, hatched 
bars seedlings subjected to 100 foot- candle-hours 
of Mazda light four days after planting. 


Nov. 15, 1942 


2C). The result confirms previous experi- 
ments as to the lack of response of roots to 
culture solutions.” The exposure to 100 foot- 
candle-hours of Mazda increased the length 
of the coleoptile by a significant amount in 
the distilled water culture but only slightly 
in solution (Fig. 1B). 

In conformity with the increase in seed- 
ling weight, the seed residue shows less 
material remaining in the seeds planted in 
the salt solution than in those in distilled 
water (Fig. 3A). There was little difference 
_between the four treatments in the total 
amount of dry matter recovered and in the 
dry matter lost (Figs. 3B and 4B). 

The quantity of recovered dry matter 


KEMPTON: EFFECT OF NUTRIENT CULTURES 


339 


translocated is much greater in the seedlings 
grown in the salt solution than in those 
grown in distilled water. No such conclusion 
can be reached with respect to light, as the 
experiment was not capable of establishing 
differences in weight of less than 7 per cent. 
In the plants growing in the salt solutions, 
0.06 per cent less dry matter was trans- 
located in the seedlings exposed to 100 foot- 
candle-hour Mazda and in distilled water 
the light exposure apparently resulted in a 
4 per cent increase in dry matter trans- 
located. 

The analyses of variance show that the 
exposure to 100 foot-candle-hours Mazda il- 
lumination affects the weight of the meso- 


TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS EXPRESSED AS Mmans OF SINGLE SEEDS AND SEEDLING Parts WHEN 
GROWN IN THE INDICATED CULTURES IN TOTAL DARKNESS AND IN THE LIGHT SHOWN 


Nutrient solution 


Distilled water 


Standard 
Seed or seedling part error of 
100 FC UCT) LES : 
Dark hours Mazda Dark hours Mazda CHESTER GS 
Length (mm) 
Mesocotyl » 2 8 osc Se 134.85 100.32 68 .80 59 ak Beale 
Woleopiilemes. sc. 5 i.e. cee en 46.26 48.30 31.67 36.37 is Sik 
Weight (g) 
\WWGSOCC Le S65 rr 02509 .02047 .01618 .01494 .00075 
LOGS. 25: ee .02112 .02503 .01073 .01289 .00077 
LOOUS. 524 ae .02397 | .02464 02235 .02348 .00077 
SSGE! ESIGN aie ee a . 1859 . 1867 . 2073 .1950 .0056 
Total dry matter recovered...... .2561 . 2568 . 2566 . 2463 .0048 
Recovered dry matter translocated .07018 .07014 .04926 .05131 .00179 
Becduplambed Se .38145 .38159 .3190 .3102 .0056 
Hostmamyenmatter..... 0 2... ek .0584 .0591 .0624 .0639 .0015 
Per meter of mesocotyl length.... .1861 . 2047 . 2361 .2505 .0128 
TABLE 2.—ANALYSES OF VARIANCE BASED ON MEANS OF 20 SEEDLING 
GROUPS FOR THE SEED AND SEEDLING Parts SHOWN 
Mean squares 
De- Length Weight 
grees 
Sead of | Recovered 
free- Recovered) = dry i _, y__ | Per meter 
dom | Mesocotyl| Coleoptile | Mesocotyl| Tops? Roots Seed dry matter Seed | Lost dry of 
residue minttar ne planted | matter " mesocoty! 
located | | 
a Se 39 940.75 58.94 | .0000180 | .000040 | .000004 | .000179 | .000119 | .000116 | .0001S4 | .000024  . 0015415 
Culfare........ 1 |28,444.09¢) 1,757.48t| .0005220t) .001270}| .000020*| .002285t) .000145 | .003950t) .000010 | .000079 | .0229173t 
Lith aT 1 | 4,758.07t) 113.44] .0000860t) .000090+| .000008 | .000374 | .000229 | .000010 | .000162  .000005  .0027117 
Interaction. . 1 | 1,619.23+ 17.74 | .0000280t| .000010 | .000001 | .000158 | .000111 | .000011 | .000280 | .000038 | . 0000451 
PERO eee k<-k.. 36 51.88 11.39 | .0000028 | .000003 | .000003 | .000158 | .000115 | .000016 | 000187 | .000022 | .0009568 
1 Includes coleoptile, leaves, and stem. * P00; t P<.01. 


340 


cotyl and the tops but not the total amount 


of dry matter translocated. This is illus- © 


trated in Fig. 2A and B and Fig. 4A. Evi- 
dently even this brief period of low illumina- 
tion increases the dry matter in the 
coleoptile and leaves and reduces it in the 
mesocotyl by approximately an equal 
amount. The light, therefore, did not in- 
crease the speed with which dry matter was 
moved from the seed but determined its 
destination by initiating the development 
of leaves. In a sense, the speed with which 


0.027 
A B Cc 
0.026 — MESOCOTYL ROOTS 


+ 
oO 
ae) 
n 


0.025 }— 


0.024 | 


Pi 


NSN yj 

— 
0.023 eRe V-N- 
3 N NN 
\ \"\ 
0.022 | eee oN N \ 
can \ tt 
= 0,020 }— = -N \ \ 
g N \ \ X 
ooo | A UO 
as a || 
\ N N \ 
50/018 N N N N 
S N X 
> me ‘ \ i 
N N N \N 
0.016 \ N N N 
ah 
ois | fN N IN 
0.015 N N \ \ \ 
aN BN \N X 
0.013 N N N —~ N \ 
\NV BN JW HAA 
0.012 \- a \ 
NNN BN. NN VN 
0.011 \ \ \ \ \ \ 
0.010 LS N \_\ \__\ 
See eee ate = 


Fig. 2.—Mean weight (g) of mesocotyl (A), 
tops (B), and roots (C) of maize seedlings grown 
in distilled water and in nutrient solution. Solid 
bars represent seedlings always in the dark, 
hatched bars seedlings subjected to 100 foot- 
candle-hours of Mazda light four days after 
planting. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


0.29 


0.28 \—— Se 


RECOVERED 
DRY 
MATTER 


WEIGHT 
PER METER 
OF MESOCOTYL 


0.27 SEED 


RESIDUE 


0.26 
N 
0.25 N : 
i. N 
hit ‘ ‘ \ 
a 0.23 N N \N 
tt 
; tet 
xz 0.22 N N N 
tt 
N \ \N 
N N 
0.19 \ \- \ \ \ , 
N VX N AN N \N 
018 N \ = \ N — N \ 
WR ae 
o.7 fn AN 
\ \ee \ \ee \ \ 
\ \R \ \ X \ 
016 \ \- \ \ \ \ 
o1s| MINN NNN BN 
a2 68 < overs aoe = 


* Fig. 3—Mean weight (g) of seed residue (A), 
total dry matter recovered (B), and weight per 
meter of mesocotyl length (C) of maize seedlings 
grown in the distilled water and in nutrient solu- 
tion. Solid bars represent seedlings always in the 
dark, hatched bars seedlings subjected to 100 
foot-candle-hours of Mazda light four days after 
planting. 


the solutes travelled up the axis was in- 
creased by illumination, since more dry 
matter was moved into the leaves, but this 
was accomplished chiefly by stopping the 
elongation of the mesocotyl, thus reducing 
the distance from the seed to the leaves. 
Further, the checking of elongation of the 
mesocotyl resulted in this organ being 
heavier per unit length in the lighted series 
of both cultures, though not significantly so. 

Neither the culture nor the illumination 
affected the quantity of dry matter lost, 
although the unrecovered dry matter al- 
most equaled the amount translocated. 


Nov. 15, 1942 


There is a certain and here unknown loss 
cf weight from diffusion of soluble material 
into the culture solution and Fig. 4B shows, 
as would be expected, this factor to be 
slightly greater in distilled water than in 
the salt solution. Three other factors con- 
tributing to loss of dry matter are in the 
order of their importance, micro-organisms, 
oxidation and loss of energy in converting 
the stored dry matter into soluble forms and 
finally losses in handling the seedlings. In 
this experiment this last source of loss must 
have been inconsequential because the 
small size of the seedlings made their com- 
plete recovery more certain. 

The solution used in this experiment is 
more conducive to leaf development than 
to mesocotyl elongation, but it exerted a 


pronounced effect on the sensitivity of the © 


mesocotyl to light. The elongation of the 
mesocotyl presumably is controlled by 
growth substances released from the cole- 
optile, which are inactivated by light. It 
follows, therefore, that the resistance of 
these substances to light must be altered 
by the salts-in the solution or else their 
formation must be reduced. The latter as- 
sumption can hardly be urged in view of the 
very evident stimulation of elongation by 
the salts in the solution. 


BOTAN Y.— Three 


Maxon.) 


A study of Mexican Acanthaceae in the 
U.S. National Herbarium and the Dudley 
Herbarium of Stanford University, in con- 
nection with preparing a treatment of the 
family as it occurs in the Sonoran Desert 
region, has revealed three new. species. 
These are described herewith. One is from 
Baja California, another from Veracruz, 
and the third from the west-central portion 
of the republic. 


Buceragenia ruellioides Leonard, sp. nov. 


Herba, caulibus pubescentibus; petioli alati; 
lamina foliorum oblonga vel late elliptica, 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
ae omen Institution. Received July 16, 


LEONARD: NEW MEXICAN ACANTHACEAE 


new species of Acanthaceae from Mexico." 
Lronarp, U. 8. National Museum. 


341 


A 


RECOVERED 
ORY MATTER 
TRANSLOCATED 


0.06 


WEIGHT (GRAMS ) 
oO 
[@) 
(©) 


se \ 

0.03 | | N 
iit 

0.02 \ \ 
\ \ 

0.01 \ \ 

0.00 S N N 


Fig. 4.—Mean weight (g) of the recovered dry 
matter that had been translocated from the seed 
to the seedling (A) and dry matter lost (B) of 
maize seedlings grown in distilled water and in 
nutrient solution. Solid bars represent seedlings 
always in the dark, hatched bars seedlings sub- 
jected to 100 foot-candle-hours of Mazda light 
four days after planting. 


By KB. G: 
(Communicated by Wiiuiam R. 


breve acuminata vel acuta, basi angustata, 
parce puberula; flores solitarii vel fasciculati, 
bracteis foliaceis suffulti; bracteae floriferae 
lineari-lanceolatae, pubescentes, ciliatae; brac- 
teolae subulatae, puberulae; calyx puberulus, 
segmentis subulatis, ciliatis; corolla minuta, 
subregularis, lobis ovatis; stamina inclusa; 
capsulae glabrae; semina muricata. 

Herb; stem simple or probably branched, 40 
em high or more, the pubescence a mixture of 
minute curved hairs and larger spreading ones 
up to 1 mm long; petioles up to 3 em long, 
winged; leaf blades oblong to broadly elliptic, 
up to 12 em long and 5 em wide, short-acumi- 
nate to acute (the tip usually blunt), narrowed 
at base, the blade gradually long-decurrent, 
thin, rather veiny, inconspicuously and spar- 


342 


ingly puberulous, beset with a few additional 
scattered white hairs about 0.5 mm long; cysto- 
liths prevalent on the upper surface but in- 
conspicuous and delicate; flowers 1 to several, 
sessile or nearly so, borne in the axils of leaflike 
bracts, these usually 1 to 2 cm long and 0.5 to 
1 cm wide, the lowermost bracted clusters sub- 
tended by the leaves; bracts subtending the in- 
dividual flowers linear-lanceolate, 6 to 9 mm 
long, 1.5mm wide, sparingly pubescent, ciliate, 
the costa prominent; bractlets subulate, ciliate, 
puberulous; calyx 4 mm long, puberulous, 
deeply parted, the segments subulate, ciliate; 
corolla tubular, barely 3 mm long, the lobes 
ovate, about 0.5 mm long and broad, obtuse, 
the posterior ones sparingly bearded; stamens 
included, 1 mm long, the staminodes about half 
as long as the filaments of the fertile stamens; 
capsules 10 to 12 mm long (the solid basal por- 
tion about 5 mm long), glabrous, 2 to 4-seeded; 
seeds about 2 mm in diameter, brown, muricate. 

Type in the Dudley Herbarium of Stanford 
University, no. 184953, collected at Zacuapan, 
Veracruz, Mexico, in shady locality, October, 
1929, by C. A. Purpus (no. 14083). 

This species is well marked and easily dis- 
tinguished from other members of the genus by 
its leafy inflorescence. Because of its minute 
and inconspicuous bracted flower-clusters and 
a certain resemblance in the leaves, it is pos- 
sible to mistake it for cleistogamous plants of 
Ruellia strepens L. 


Justicia wigginsii Leonard, sp. nov. 


Frutex, caulibus pluribus, striatis, albo- 
puberulis, infra glabratis, griseis; petioli breves; 
lamina foliorum ovata, obovata, vel lanceolata, 
apice rotundata vel acuta, basi angustata, 
minute puberula; spicae secundae, laxae, 
glanduloso-puberulae; bracteae subcucullatae; 
bracteolae lanceolatae; calycis segmenta pube- 
rula, glanduloso-ciliolata, posticum minutum 
setaceum, altera lineari-lanceolata; corolla 
rubra, labio superiore erecto, apice bilobo, in- 
feriore trilobo, patulo, lobis oblongis, rotunda- 
tis; stamina exserta; capsulae parce glandu- 
loso-puberulae; semina valde tuberculata et 
minute papillosa. 

Shrubs; branches numerous, striate, closely 
white-puberulous, the older portions glabrate, 
gray; petioles slender, up to 5 mm long; leaf 
blades ovate, obovate, or lanceolate, up to 2 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


cm long and 1 cm wide, rounded to acute at 
apex, narrowed at base, inconspicuously pu- 
berulous; flowers borne in loose secund spikes, 
these puberulous, with glandular and eglandu- 
lar hairs intermixed; bracts in threes, glandu- 
lar-ciliate, the middle one 2.5 mm long, sub- 
cucullate, the lateral ones lanceolate, 3 mm 
long, about 0.75 mm wide near base; calyx 
deeply 5-parted, the posterior segment subu- 
late, about 3 mm long, the others linear- 
lanceolate, about 6mm long and 1.5 mm wide, 
rather firm, indistinctly striate-veined, puberu- 
lous and glandular-ciliate; corolla up to 3 em 
long, red, finely but sparingly pubescent, the 
tube about 1 cm long, somewhat saccate, the 
upper lip straight, erect, 2-lobed at apex, the 
lower lip somewhat spreading, 3-lobed, the 
lobes oblong, about 7 mm long, rounded at 
apex, the middle lobe about 4 mm wide at base, 
the lateral ones about 2 mm wide; stamens 
about as long as the upper lip, the anther cells 
unequal, one 2 mm long, the other 2.5 mm long, 
the lobes spreading at base; capsules 11 mm 
long, sparingly glandular-puberulous; seeds 
flattened, 2.56 mm broad, strongly tuberculate, 
minutely papillose. 

Type in the Dudley Herbarium of Stanford 
University, no. 263987, collected in a rocky 
wash 27.7 miles south of Pozo Aleman, Baja 
California, March 4, 1935, by Ira L. Wiggins 
(no. 7874). A specimen collected by Brandegee 
from cliffs at Comondu, Baja California, March 
21, 1889, without number, is also this species. 

Justicia wigginsti is a peculiar plant having 
the inflorescence of J. hians Brandeg. and the 
corolla of J. mexicana Rose, but differing from 
both in its irregular calyx. 


Jacobinia roseana Leonard, sp. nov. 


Frutex, caulibus subteretibus, glabris, graci- 
libus; petioli breves; lamina foliorum ovato- 
lanceolata vel ovata, acuminata, basi angus- 
tata in petiolum decurrens, supra glabra, 
subtus in axillis venarum parce barbata; flores 
plures, conferti, axillares; bracteae lineares, 
hirtellae, plus minusve ciliatae; bracteolae 
subulatae, minute hirtellae; calyx puberulus, 
segmentis lanceolatis, acuminatis; corolla rubra 
labio superiore apice minute bilobo, inferiore 
trilobo, lobis oblongis, rotundatis; stamina 
exserta; capsulae glabrae; semina rubra vel 
fusca, tuberculata. 


We y2- cote i 


Nov. 15, 1942 


Shrub up to 1 meter high or more; stems 
slender, subterete, glabrous or sparingly and 
minutely pubescent near the nodes; leaf blades 
ovate-lanceolate to ovate, up to 7 cm long and 
3.5 em wide, acuminate (the tip blunt), nar- 
rowed at base and decurrent (petiole up to 1 
em long), entire, glabrous above, beneath spar- 
ingly barbate in axils of veins; flowers borne in 
axillary and terminal clusters, often crowded 
and numerous; bracts linear, about 1 cm long 
and 1 mm wide, minutely and sparingly hirtel- 
lous, ciliolate, often beset with long scattered 
marginal hairs up to 1 mm long; bractlets subu- 
late, about 5 mm long, minutely hirtellous; 
calyx 4-5 mm long, the segments puberulous, 
lanceolate, 3.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, acumi- 
nate; corolla scarlet, puberulous without, 2.5 
em long, the tube 5 mm in diameter at mouth, 
the lips subequal, about 13 mm long, the pos- 
terior one minutely 2-lobed at apex, the an- 
terior one 3-cleft nearly to middle, the lobes 
oblong, rounded; stamens about equaling the 
upper lip, the anthers 2.5 mm long, the cells 
parallel, unequally attached to the connective; 


DRECHSLER: ZOOPHAGOUS SPECIES OF ACROSTALAGMUS 


343 


capsule 1 cm long and 5 mm in diameter, nar- 
rowed to a solid stipitate base 5mm long, gla- 
brous, 4-seeded; seeds reddish brown, slightly 
flattened, about 2.5 mm broad, tuberculate. 

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, No. 
208675, collected at Manzanillo, Colima, Mexi- 
co, December 1 to 31, 1890, by Edward Palmer 
(no. 946). Besides a specimen from the same 
locality (Ferris 6034), the following additional 
material has been examined: 


MIcHOACAN: 
15845, 16104. 

Moreuos: Xochitepec, Lyonnet 1173, 1515, 
2652. 

Mexico: Temascaltepec, Hinton 5190. 


Coalcoman, Hinton 12620, 


The present species is closely allied to J. 
mexicana but differs in its narrow bracts and 
bractlets, these definitely exceeding the calyx. 
On the basis of Palmer 946 it was described by 
Dr. J. N. Rose? long ago, but no species name 
was given it by him. The more ample recent 
material above cited agrees closely. 


2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1: 349. 1895. 


BOTAN Y.—Two zoophagous species of Acrostalagmus with multicellular Desmidi- 


ospora-like chlamydospores.' 
dustry. 


Considered collectively, the fungi that 
under terrestrial conditions attack actively 
motile eelworms after the usual manner of 
parasites, by invading them with germ tubes 
from affixed or ingested conidia, show more 
than an ordinary degree of morphological 
distinctiveness. The zoopagaceous form I 
described earlier (2) as Huryancale saccio- 
spora bears curiously appendaged conidia 
on lateral branches of bizarre outward 
shape. In the helicoid modification of their 
distal portions, as also in the close septation 
of these portions, and in the production on 
them, mostly laterally, of plural sessile 
conidia, the conidiophores of my Merista- 
crum asterospermum (3) embody features 
thoroughly alien to the more familiar in- 
sectivorous members of the Entomophthor- 
aceae. The*somewhat similar conidophores 
of the hyphomycetous parasite I named 
Meria coniospora (4), which in their trans- 
verse septation and in their production of 

1 Received August 8, 1942. 


CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant In- 


conidia on slender sterigmata arising singly 
from the delimited segments show curious 
analogy with promycelia of the rusts as well 
as with the basidia of Aurzcularia, appear to 
have no parallel among the Mucedinaceae 
except in Meria Laricis Vuillemin [= Hart:- 
giella Laricis (Hartig) Lindau], a fungus 
whose sporulation was held very unusual 
both by Vuillemin (8) and by Lindau (5). 
Harposporium anguillulae Lohde (6) as set 
forth by Zopf (9) offers marked individ- 
uality in its globose conidiiferous branches 
and curious sickle-shaped conidia. Globose 
conidiiferous branches and conidia of pecu- 
liar design likewise give distinctive char- 
acter to the three congeneric parasites which 
I presented as new species under the bi- 
nomials H. helicoides, H. oxrycoracum, and 
H. diceraeum (4). 

On the other hand no exceptional dis- 
tinctiveness attaches to the four nema- 
tode-destroying parasites I described as 
Acrostalagmus bactrosporus, A. obovatus, 


044 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 11 


Cephalosporium balanoides, and Spicaria 
coccospora (4). With respect to the mor- 
phology of their conidial apparatus these 
species show close correspondence with 
the rather numerous group of entomo- 
genous fungi that in large part have been 
subsumed under the same genera; the 
correspondence, indeed, appearing rather 
clearly presumptive of an intimate taxo- 
nomic relationship. Further evidence in 
favor of such a relationship is supplied by 
two similar hyphomycetous parasites that 
have come under my observation, one at- 
tacking eelworms, the other attacking 
rotifers. | 
The former parasite made its appearance 
in a maizemeal-agar plate culture that 
after being occupied by a species of 
Pythium had been further planted with a 
few pinches of leaf mold gathered in Arling- 
ton, Va., on January 7, 1941. A species of 
Bunonema introduced with the forest ref- 
use, and like other representatives of the 
genus feeding only on the surface of agar 
plates, had multiplied steadily during the 
first four weeks to attain a population of 
approximately 2000 individuals. Scattered 
specimens were then observed succumbing 
to fungus infection. Additional animals 
were found dead on successive days, until 
by the end of another week all active in- 
dividuals of the species were exterminated. 
Owing to optical difficulties it was not 
possible to observe the entrance of the 
fungus into the animal host, or to follow 
the progress of mycelial invasion. After an 
infected eelworm had died, however, and 
been largely expropriated of its globulose 
degenerating contents, the fully developed 
assimilative mycelium became plainly visi- 
ble. In many instances, a single filament, 
rather closely septate and bearing some 
few lateral branches, extended the entire 
length of the animal’s body (Fig. 1, A, B), 
while in other instances two main filaments 
could be recognized (Fig. 1, C). From this 
decidedly meager mycelium two or three 
branches were soon pushed through the 
host integument to develop externally as 
colorless fertile hyphae (Fig. 1, A, a; B, a, 
b). The fertile hyphae that came to project 
into the air by virtue of an erect or ascend- 


ing posture, as also the aerial terminations 
of similar hyphae procumbent in their 
proximal portions, often bore two, three, or 
four flask-shaped conidiiferous branches in 
verticellate arrangement at the distal end 
of one or more of their constituent segments 
(Fig. 1, A, b; C, a; D; E; F). Somewhat less 
often conidiiferous branches were borne 
singly on aerial portions of fertile hyphae 
(Fig. 1, C, a; D), while in procumbent por- 
tions they almost invariably arose singly 
and erect to present more nearly the ap- 
pearance of autonomous conidiophores (Fig. 
1, G). Regardless of posture and position, 
each flask-shaped branch produced at its 
tip usually from 5 to 15 small, hyaline, ir- 
regularly angular conidia (Fig. 1, H), which 
remained attached in a cohering cluster. © 
In addition to the conidial apparatus 
just described the fungus was occasionally 
found producing knots of yellowish-brown 
thick-walled cells within the agar culture 
medium underlying the body of a parasi- 
tized nematode. Some of these knots, or 
chlamydospores, if such they may be called, 
consisted of only three or four enlarged 
globose cells, which from their linear ar- 
rangement obviously represented distal 
segments of rather short hyphae that after 
emerging from the animal’s body had di- 
rected their growth downward into the 
subjacent culture medium (Fig. 1, C, b). In 
the larger specimens three or four cells 
were likewise often present in a single row, 
but here they merely formed a stalk on 
which was borne distally an expanded part 
composed of 10 to 15 cells in sarciniform 
arrangement—the whole structure usually 
having a flattened clavate shape (Fig. 1, 
B, e). The colored cells of the chlamydo- 
spores, unlike the colorless cells of the fertile 
hyphae, contained numerous small globules 
of apparently somewhat oily character. 
Development of submerged multicellular 
resting bodies supplementary to the pro- 
duction of hyaline aerial conidia on flask- 
shaped terminal or lateral branches has 
not been seen in any material of Acro- 


stalagmus bactrosporus, A. obovatus, Cephalo-- 


sporium balanoides, or Spicaria coccospora. 
Among the other hyphomycetes that I have 
observed attacking nematodes after the 


Noy. 15, 1942 DRECHSLER: ZOOPHAGOUS SPECIES OF ACROSTALAGMUS 345 


Peete 


. 


YA, ; EE 
eet py > . x 
oe . Nay ae > 
Sri - 4 
C tin, OR OR ess 
C Drechsler a, : aS See LITT sevenevS¥ePeCtnanenngandl® 
ef. TCOUUAAVODU RCs anny aeetersraceeeee™® aus 


Fig. 1.—Acrostalagmus goniodes, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; 
X1,000 throughout. A, Specimen of Bunonema sp. killed by the parasite; from the assimilative my- 
celium two branches, a and b, have been put forth externally; b has given rise to an erect conidiophore. 
B, Specimen of Bunonema sp. killed by fungus and almost depleted of its contents; the assimilative 
mycelium has put forth three external hyphae, a, b, c; the hypha c has given rise to an abortive chlamy- 
dospore, d, and to a well developed chlamydospore, e. C, Anterior portion of parasitized Bunonema 
host; from the assimilative mycelium an erect conidiophore, a, has grown out, together with a sub- 
merged branch, b, on which a small chlamydospore has been formed. D, An erect conidiophore. FE, F, 
Portions of ascending conidiophores. G, Prostrate hypha bearing two erect coniduferous branches. 
H, Conidia, showing variations in size and shape. 


346 


usual manner of parasites only Harpo- 
sporium anguillulae has been found produc- 
ing resting bodies to supplement its hyaline 
conidia, the resting bodies in this species 
being formed, however, within the animal 
host through modification mostly of inter- 
calary cells in the assimilative mycelium. 
Apart from the development of chlamydo- 
spores by the Bunonema parasite, produc- 
tion of submerged multicellular resting 
bodies was noted in a culture prepared early 
in December, 1932, for the purpose of ob- 
taining chytridiaceous fungi destructive to 
root-rotting species of Pythium. The culture 
in question was started by planting P. 
ulttmum Trow on maizemeal-agar in a Petri 
dish. Several days later it was further 
planted by adding a small quantity of pot- 
ting soil from a greenhouse in Washington, 
D. C., and, moreover, was flooded with 
about 1 cc of sterile water. A small species 
of rotifer, evidently introduced with the 
soil, soon began to multiply in the thin 
layer of free water. At first its population 
increased without hindrance, but after some 
weeks had elapsed periodic examinations 
never failed to show many specimens newly 
killed by a parasitic fungus. The same 
fungus later came to light as a parasite of 
small rotifers in a maizemeal-agar plate cul- 
ture that had been planted with a decaying 
watercress (Rorippa nasturtuum Rusby) leaf 
taken from a commercial watercress bed 
near Woodstock, Va., on May 138, 1938. 
Individual rotifers killed by the fungus 
were usually found each with its head and 
tail strongly retracted; its rounded body, 
often less than 75u in diameter, then show- 
ing little of the shape distinctive of living 
specimens (Fig. 2, A). The fleshy interior 
was permeated with a hyaline branching 
mycelium, composed of hyphae which at 
intervals were constricted in a manner 
somewhat suggestive of the haustorial fila- 
ments ascribed by Couch (1) to various 
species of Septobasidium, including, for 
example, his S. purpureuwm. The upper sur- 
face of the dead animal was usually over- 
grown abundantly with erect or ascending 
hyaline conidiophores whose axial filaments 
bore flask-shaped conidiiferous branches, 
mostly in whorls of three, immediately be- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


low the several septa dividing them trans- 
versely (Fig. 2, A, a, b, c). The oblong 
colorless conidia (Fig. 2, B) formed atthe 
tip of each flask-shaped branch, as well as 
at the tip of the tapering cell terminating 
each axial filament, remained attached in a 
cohering cluster. On the under side of the 
dead animal the assimilative mycelium 
would put forth into the agar substratum 
short filaments (Fig. 2, A, d) that some- 
times concluded their development by giv- 
ing rise terminally to a yellowish, thick- 
walled, globose structure either continuous. 
(Fig. 2, A, e) or uniseptate (Fig. 2, A, f). 
Usually, however, the short filaments pro- 
duced a much more distinctive structure 
consisting of 8 to 15 thick-walled, yellowish 
or brownish cells, filled with globuliferous 
contents and arranged, for the most part, 
in a single layer (Fig. 2, A, g-n). When 
viewed flatwise these structures in some in- 
stances presented a rather smoothly circular 
or smoothly elliptical peripheral outline, 
while in other instances the marginal one 
line was characteristically lobate. 

Despite their more pronounced differ- 
entiation it is believed that the submerged 
multicellular bodies produced abundantly 
by the rotifer parasite are truly homologous 
with the submerged multicellular chlamydo- 
spores of the Bunonema parasite. A con- 
vineing homology is likewise evident with 
respect to the more commonplace aerial 
conidial apparatus whereby the two fungi 
are readily recognized as species of Acro- 
stalagmus presumably related closely to the 
congeneric nematode-destroying forms, A. 
bactrosporus and A. obovatus, even though in 
the latter forms no accessory type of repro- 
duction has been observed. An association 
of two types of asexual reproduction cor- 
responding at least approximately to those 
here concerned was made known more than 
half a century ago by Thaxter (7) in the 
original descriptive account of his Desmidio- 
spora myrmecophila, a remarkable fungus he 
found growing out of a large ant on the 
under side of a rotting log in Connecticut. 
The hyaline septate mycelium wf this ento- 
mogenous form was set forth as giving 
rise at the apex of subulate basally inflated 
basidia to hyaline subfusiform microconidia 


Nov. 15, 1942 


12u long and 2 to 2.5u wide. Since the 
branches that Thaxter designated as basidia 
in accordance with an older usage are 
clearly equivalent to the phialides of more 
recent authors, the conidia produced on 
them offer obvious homology with the aerial 
conidia of both the Bunonema parasite and 
the rotifer parasite. Aside from the hyaline 
microconidia, Thaxter attributed to D. 
myrmecophia the production of curious 
macroconidia—terminal, flat, short-stalked, 
multicellular, thick-walled, reddish-brown 
or fawn-colored bodies, dichotomously lobed 
several times in succession, 12 to 14 thick, 
and measuring 68u (maximum 90y) pre- 
sumably along the median axis and 80yu 
(maximum 100z) in the greater dimension 
transverse to this axis. From Thaxter’s 
description and illustration it is evident 
that these macroconidia strikingly resemble 
the resting spores of the rotifer parasite in 
many respects, as, for example, in their 
terminal origin on rather short hyphal 
branches, in their brown coloration, in their 
unusual dimensional proportions, and in the 
flat, mostly uniplanar arrangement of their 
numerous thick-walled .component cells. 
Differences of detail are, to be sure, present 
in the much greater size and much more 
pronounced lobation of the macroconidia 
ascribed to D. myrmecophila. 

In considering the essential nature of the 
multicellular resting spores produced by 
the rotifer parasite it seems significant that 
although the animal host of this fungus has 
nearly always been found succumbing on 
the surface of agar plate cultures, the spores 
in question were always formed under the 
surface of the agar medium, while the asso- 
ciated reproductive apparatus referable to 
Acrostalagmus was always extended into 
the air. In view of these circumstances the 
multicellular spores must be regarded as 
having developed in submerged positions 
from normal preference rather than from 
constraint. Despite their distinctive mor- 
phology they would appear, therefore, to 
represent chlamydospores rather than co- 
nidia, and may appropriately be reckoned in 
the same category with the similarly yellow- 
ish or brownish, thick-walled, globuliferous 
chlamydospores of Harposporium anguillu- 


DRECHSLER: ZOOPHAGOUS SPECIES OF ACROSTALAGMUS 


347 


lae and Arthrobotrys oligospora Fres. If 
analogy is not misleading, the remarkable 
macroconidia of Desmidiospora myrmeco- 
phila may likewise be more nearly equiva- 
lent to chlamydospores than to true conidia. 
Since much porous absorbent material is 
often found on the under side of rotting 
logs, a habitat like that of Thaxter’s fungus 
might during dry periods permit aerial 
conidia to be formed in positions where 
during wet spells opportunity is afforded 
for the production of submerged reproduc- 
tive bodies. 

It is not evident at present that in the 
eroup of zoophagous fungi here concerned 
the production of chlamydospores, even of 
very distinctive chlamydospores, can be in- 
terpreted as an indication of taxonomic 
separateness. Accordingly the Bunonema 
parasite and the rotifer parasite are de- 
scribed as new members of the genus 
Acrostalagmus. 


Acrostalagmus goniodes,? sp. nov. 


Mycelium nutritum hyalinum, parve ramo- 
sum, septatum, intra vermiculos nematoideos 
viventes evolutum, ex hyphis filiformibus 
1.5-3u crassis constans. Hyphae fertiles extra 
animal emortuum evolutae, incoloratae, re- 
pentes vel ascendentes vel erectae, axe sim- 
plices vel parvulum ramosae, vulgo 50—500u 
longae, 1.2-2.5u crassae, in cellulis 7—18u 
longis consistentes, quarum quaedam 1-4 
ramulos conidiferos (phialas) ferunt; ramulis 
conidiferis saepe 2-4 verticellatis, lageniform- 
ibus, 10-20u longis, basi 1.2—2.3u erassis, 
quoque sursum in sterigma .5u crassum abe- 
unte et ex apice ejusdem 5-15 conidia deinceps 
gerente; conidiis cohaerentibus, hyalinis, ro- 
tunde polygoniis, plerumque 1.3—-2.lu diam. 
Chlamydosporae in materia subjacenti ori- 
undae, ex hyphis immersis leniter latescentes, 
flavidae vel fulvae, parte ulteriore sarcini- 
formes, omnino 12-30u longae, 6-15 latae, 
3-18 cellulis constantes. 

Vermiculos nematoideos speciei Bunone- 
matis enecans habitat in humo silvestri in 
Arlington, Virginia. 

Assimilative mycelium hyaline, somewhat 
branched, septate, growing within living 


2 ywriwdys, angular, having reference to the 


shape of the conidia. 


348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 11 


Secale — > 
0 “10 ‘20° 30 eo) 
a eS ee ee f 


Fig. 2.—Acrostalagmus tagenophorus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera 
lucida; X1,000 throughout. A, Specimen of rotifer killed by the fungus. Three conidiophores, a, b, c, — 
have been extended into the air; a and b are shown with conidial clusters attached, whereas c is shown 
in denuded condition. Into the underlying material have been extended eleven outgrowths, namely: 
a young hypha, d; two hyphae bearing poorly developed chlamydospores, e, f; eight hyphae bearing 
well developed chlamydospores, g—n, of which seven, g-m, are shown flatwise, whereas one, n, is shown 
edgewise. B, Conidia, showing variations in size and shape. 


ee 
re 


Nov. 15, 1942 


nematodes, and consisting of filamentous hy- 
phae 1.5 to 3u wide. Conidiophorous hyphae 
formed outside of the dead animal host, creep- 
ing or ascending or erect, colorless, their axial 
filaments simple or sparingly ramified, com- 
monly 50 to 500u long, 1.2 to 2.5u wide, and 
consisting of segments 7 to 18u long, of which 
some bear 1 to 4 conidiiferous branches 
(phialides); conidiiferous branches often ar- 
ranged verticellately, flask-shaped, 10 to 20u 
long, 1.2 to 2.3u wide at the base, each taper- 
ing distally into a sterigma .5u wide whereon 
5 to 15 conidia are formed one after another 
to cohere in a head; conidia colorless, rounded 
polyhedral, mostly 1.3 to 2.1u in diameter. 
Chlamydospores formed in the material under- 
lying animal host, each borne terminally on a 
submerged hypha, its stalk-like proximal part 
widening gradually into the sarciniform distal 
part, yellowish or yellowish brown, altogether 
usually 12 to 30y long, 6 to 15u wide, and com- 
posed of 3 to 18 thick-walled cells. 

Destroying nematodes belonging to a spe- 
cies of Bunonema it occurs in leaf mold in 
Arlington, Va. 


Acrostalagmus tagenophorus,’ sp. nov. 


Mycelium nutritum hyalinum, ramosum, 
septatum, intra viventia animalcula rotifera 
evolutum; hyphis hic illic constrictis, 1—4y 
crassis. Hyphae fertiles extra animal emor- 
tuum evolutae, erectae vel ascendentes, in- 
coloratae, axe simplices vel parce ramosae, 
vulgo 50-250 longae, magnam partem 1.8- 
2.5u crassae, in cellulis plerumque 15-30u 
longis constantes quae vulgo 3 (rarius 1 vel 
2) ramulos conidiferos (phialas) verticellatos 
sursum ferunt; ramulis conidiferis lageniform- 
ibus, plerumque 10—15u longis, basi 2.5-3.5u 
crassis, sursum in sterigma .5u crassum abeunt- 
ibus, 5-15 conidia deinceps gerentibus; conid- 
lis hyalinis, ellipsoideis vel rotunde oblongis, 
plerumque 3.5—4u longis, 2—2.5u erassis. Chlam- 
ydosporae in materia ambienti vel subjacenti 
immersae, ex hyphis fumadis 5—25u longis 2-3u 
crassis ortae, terminales, fulvae vel olivaceae, 
applanatae, subdisciformes vel margine ali- 
quid lobosae, vulgo ex 8-15 cellulis constant- 
es, plerumque medio 15—2Qu longae, 18—30u 
latae, 8-10u crassae. 

Animalia rotifera necans habitat in humo 


3 raynvov, pan for frying, having reference to 
the shape and attachment of the chlamydospores; 
and dopéw, to bear. 


DRECHSLER: ZOOPHAGOUS SPECIES OF ACROSTALAGMUS 


349 


pingui in Washington, D. C., et in foliis 
Rorippae nasturti putrescentibus prope Wood- 
stock, Va. 

Vegetative mycelium colorless, branched, 
septate, developing within living rotifers, con- 
sisting of hyphae 1 to 4u wide, which here and 
there are rather markedly constricted. Conidi- 
ophores rising erect or ascending from the dead 
animal host, colorless, their axial filaments 
simple or sparingly branched, commonly 50 to 
250u long, mostly 1.8 to 2.54 wide, composed 
of segments usually 15 to 30u long which at 
the distal end commonly bear 3 (less often 1 
or 2) conidiiferous branches (phialides) in ver- 
ticellate arrangement; conidiiferous branches 
flask-shaped, mostly 10 to 15y long, 2.5 to 
3.5u wide at the base, terminating in a sterig- 
ma .5u wide, on which 5 to 15 conidia are 
formed one after another to collect in a coher- 
ing head; conidia colorless, prolate ellipsoidal 
or rounded oblong, mostly 3.5 to 4u long and 
2 to 2.5u wide. Chlamydospores formed termi- 
nally on smoky hyphae often 5 to 25u long and 
2 to 3u wide, in positions under the surface of 
the material surrounding or underlying the 
dead animal host, flat disc-shaped or often with 
somewhat lobate margin, commonly consist- 
ing of 8 to 15 thick-walled cells, along the 
median axis measuring 15 to 20u, in the greater 
dimension transverse to this axis measuring 
18 to 30u, in thickness measuring § to 10u. 

Destroying rotifers in rich soil in Washing- 
ton, D. C., and in decaying leaves of Rorippa 
nasturtium near Woodstock, Va. 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Coucu, J. N. The genus Septobasidium: 
480 pp. Chapel Hill, N. C. 1988. 

2. DRECHSLER, C. Five new zoopagaceae de- 
structive to rhizopods and nematodes. My- 
cologia 31: 388-415. 1989. 


3. Three fungi destructive to free-living 
terricolous nematodes. Journ. Washing- 
ton Acad. Sci. 30: 240-254. 1940. 

4. Some hyphomycetes parasitic on 


free-living terricolous nematodes. Phyto- 
pathology 31: 773-802. 1941. 


Die Pilze Deutschlands, Oester- 


5. Linpav, G. 
reichs und der Schweiz. VIII. Abtetlung: 
Fungt wimperfectt: Hyphomycetes (erste 
Halfte). In Rabenhorst, L., Arypto- 
gamen-Flora, ed. 2, Bd. 1, Abt. 8: 852 


pp. Leipzig, 1904-1907. 
6. LonpE, G. Ueber einige neue parasitische 
Pilze. Tagebl. Versamml. deut. Naturf. 


Aertze 47: 203-206. 1874. 


350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


7. THAXTER, R. On certain new or perculiar 
North American Hyphomycetes. II. Helico- 
cephalum, Gonatorrhodiella, Desmidio- 
spora nov. genera and Everhartia ligna- 
tilis n. sp. Bot. Gaz. 16: 201-205. pl. 
19. 1891. 


ZOOLOGY.—Some new land shells from 


REHDER, U. 8. National Museum. 


The United States National Museum has 
received from time to time interesting col- 
lections of mollusks from Prof. Manuel 
Valerio, of San José, Costa Rica. Among 
these sendings several new species of land 
shells have turned up, which are herewith 
described. Similarly, the Museum has re- 
ceived a small but valuable collection of 
land shells from the Province of Chiriqui, 
Republic of Panama, from Mrs. Robert 
Adams Terry, among which are two forms 
that are diagnosed in this paper. 


Helicina terryae, n. sp. 
Figure 16 

Shell small, subglobose, conic, thin but solid. 
Spire flesh colored, last whorl pale yellow; 
sculpture when fresh of irregular, oblique, and 
subspiral grooves on a surface smooth except 
for obscure growth wrinkles. When worn the 
shell appears to be sculptured with fine, 
crowded, wavy riblets or wrinkles, which in 
fresh shells of this and other species are seen 
to be part of the shell structure, visible through 
the periostracal layer. Whorls 42, only very 
slightly convex, suture finely impressed. Aper- 
ture oblique, broadly semicircular. Lip thick- 
ened, strongly reflexed, broadest in the periph- 
eral region. Columella area thickened, finely 
granulose, the granulation extending more ob- 
scurely over the thin callus. No tooth at the 
base of the columella. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 539026, measures: 
Height, 8.2 mm; diameter, 9.8 mm, and was 
collected in Chiriqui Province, Republic of 
Panama. 

This little shell is named for the discoverer, 
Mrs. Robert Adams Terry. It resembles H. 
tenuis but is slightly more depressed and 
broader, with a broader aperture. The color is 
also quite distinctive. 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


ies Smithsonian Institution. Received July 31, 
942, 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


8. VuILLEMIN, P. Les Hypostomacees nouvelle 
famille de champignons parasites. Bull. 
Soc. Sci. Nancy (2) 14: 15-67. 1896. 

9. Zorr, W. Die Pilze. In Sehenkaen 
Handbuch der Botantk 4: 271-781. Bres- 
lau. 1890. 


Costa Rica and Panama.!. HaRAup A. 


Succinea haustrellum, n. sp. 
Figure 19 

Shell broadly ovate, thin, pale straw yellow 
in color. Whorls 3, weakly convex, last one 
very large; suture impressed; sculpture con- 
sisting of axial growth wrinkles. Aperture ovate, 
patulous, columella forms a straight line with 
the parietal wall. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536013, was col- 
lected at Pedernal, Guanacaste Province, Costa 
Rica, at an altitude of 200 meters. It measures: 
Height, 13.1 mm; breadth, 8 mm. 

A smaller paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 536014, is 
present, as well as two specimens, U.S.N.M. no. 
536012, from San José, Costa Rica. 

This species differs from the other Central 
American Succineas in having a shorter spire 
and larger aperture. The type has the edge of 
the outer lip somewhat broken. 


Spiraxis (Rectaxis) paulisculpta, n. sp. 
Figure 18 

Shell small, cylindric-turrite, glassy white to 
pale corneous, translucent, smooth, except for 
obscure irregular growth wrinkles. Whorls 8+, 
weakly convex, with a moderately deep, 
slightly overriding suture. Nuclear whorls not 
clearly demarcated from postnuclear whorls. 
First 2 nuclear whorls smooth, remaining 
whorls very gradually widening, sculptured 
with irregular growth wrinkles. Aperture 
ovate-lanceolate. Outer lip thin, simple, slightly 
arcuate, almost vertical; columella straight, 
slightly oblique. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536016, measures: 
Height, 4 mm; diameter, 1.2 mm, and was 
collected at Santa Maria, San José Province, 
Costa Rica, at an altitude of 1,550 meters. 


U.S.N.M. no. 536017 contains 10 specimens _ 


from the same locality. 

This species differs from all the mainland 
species of Spiraxis that I have noted by the 
weak development of sculpture on the whorls. 


{ 
. 2 
‘7 


Nov. 15, 1942 REHDER: NEW SHELLS FROM COSTA RICA AND PANAMA 351 


Streptostyla (Streptostyla) valerioi, n. sp. growth wrinkles. Nuclear whorls 22, rounded, 
Bicuresl = separated by a very fine impressed suture. 


Shell cylindric-ovate, golden-yellow when Postnuclear whorls 4, very slightly convex 
fresh, smooth except for very fine irregular with an irregular, threadlike subsutural white 


YYrfrv 
4/7 


Yy 


Figs. 1-19.—Land mollusks from Costa Rica and Panama. 1-3, Thysanophora costaricensts, Nn. Sp.; 
4-6, Leptarionta venusta venusta Gude; 7-9, Leptarionta venusta albata, n. subsp.; 10-12, Rotadiscus 
pilsbry1, n. sp.; 18-15, Systrophia (Systrophiella) costaricana, n. sp.; 16, Helicina terryae, n. sp.; 17, 
Streptostyla (Streptostyla) valerioi, n. sp.; 18, Spiraxis (Rectaxis) paulisculpta, n. sp.; 19, Succinea 
haustrellum, n. sp. 


352 


band; last whorl subeylindric; suture rather 
irregular, very shallow. Aperture lanceolate, 
slightly less than half the length of the whole 
shell; outer lip arched forward in the middle. 
Columella strongly turrite. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536020, measures: 
Height, 20.2 mm; diameter, 9.1 mm; length of 
aperture, 10.5 mm, and comes from Cervantes, 
Cartago Province, Costa Rica, 1,480 meters. 

U.S.N.M. no. 536021 contains a paratype 
from the same locality. Professor Valerio also 
sent two specimens from Tablazo, San José 
Province, Costa Rica (U.S.N.M. no. 5386022), 
collected at 1,800 meters, and two specimens 
from La Verbena, San José Province, Costa 
Rica (U.S.N.M. no. 536024), collected at 1,000 
meters. A specimen collected by Dr. W. M. 
Mann at Navarro, Cartago Province, Costa 
Rica (no. 365678) appears to belong here also. 

S. valerioi differs from other Streptostylas 
of Panama and Costa Rica in its cylindric 
shape and short aperture. 

Rotadiscus pilsbryi, n. sp. 
Figures 10-12 

Shell very small, discoid, horn colored, rather 
closely coiled, with flattened spire. The nucleus, 
of 12 whorls, is smooth, glassy, while the re- 
maining 3 whorls are sculptured with more or 
less equidistant axial ribs which have finer axial 
threads between them. Suture rather deep. 
Umbilicus rather broad, measuring about one- 
third of the diameter of the shell. Aperture 
crescentic; peristome simple, thin. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536018, measures: 
Height, 1 mm; greater diameter, 2.1 mm, and 
comes from Santa Maria, San José Province, 
Costa Rica, at an altitude of 1,550 meters. 

U.S.N.M. no. 536019 contains four speci- 
mens from the same place. 

From Rotadiscus hermanni Pfeiffer, Vera- 
cruz, Mexico, this species differs in being 
slightly larger and in having coarser sculpture, 
riblets being larger and more distantly spaced. 


Thysanophora costaricensis, n. sp. 
Figures 1-3 

Shell of medium size for the genus, moder- 
ately depressed, horn colored. Whorls 43, con- 
_ vex, somewhat flattened below the deeply im- 
pressed suture, last whorl descending slightly. 
Nuclear whorls 12, of which the first 3 whorl 
is smooth, the next whorl marked by evenly 
separated, retractive riblets. Postnuclear whorls 
marked by rather coarse, retractive, cuticular 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, No. 11 


riblets crossing the strong axial growth 
wrinkles. These retractive riblets are irregular 
and often interrupted, with comparatively 
wide interspaces. The umbilicus is deep and 
moderately large, contained about 4 times in 
the diameter of the shell; the walls of the 
umbilicus are sculptured with granules axially © 
arranged along the growth lines. Aperture al- 
most circular; lip simple, thin. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536009, measures: 
Height, 3.0 mm; diameter, 4.1 mm, and was 
collected at La Caja, near San José, San José 
Province, Costa Rica, at 1,000 meters. 

Six specimens from the same locality are con- 
tained in U.S.N.M. no. 536010 and several 
specimens were collected at San José, Costa 
Rica, U.S.N.M. no. 536011. 

This species resembles in shape TJ. balboa 
Pilsbry from Panama, which, however, is larger 
and has finer retractive riblets. 

Systrophia (Systrophiella) costaricana, n. sp. 
Figures 13-15 

Shell small, subdiscoid, spire slightly ele- 
vated, periphery rounded, thin, pale straw- 
yellow. Nuclear whorls almost 2, convex, 
smooth; postnuclear whorls 23, convex, smooth 
except for growth wrinkles; suture moderately 
deep. Umbilicus moderately narrow, measures 
less than one-third of the diameter of the shell. 
Aperture broadly lunate; peristome thin, simple. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536023, measures: 
Height, 3.7 mm; greater diameter, 7.7 mm, 
and was collected at Coto on the Golfo Dulce, 
Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica, at an alti- 
tude of 20 meters. 

This species is geographically close to S. (S.) 
zeteki Pilsbry, from Panama, but is smaller, 
comparatively higher, with a more elevated 
spire and a smaller umbilicus. It likewise lacks 
the spiral striae of that species. 


Leptarionta venusta albata, n. subsp. 
Figures 7-9 

Like the typical form but completely white, 
except for a small chestnut area around the 
umbilical region; apex slightly greenish yellow. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 536030, measures: 
Height, 14.2 mm, diameter, 20.4 mm, and was 
collected by Mrs. Terry in Chiriquf Province, — 
Panama. Two other specimens from the same ~ 
source are under U.S.N.M. no. 536031. 

A specimen with the typical coloration, also 
collected by Mrs. Terry in Chiriquf, is depicted 
in Figs. 4-6. 


PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES! 


‘Tan Acapemy (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): 
oS _ Thursday, November 19. Color blindness and its relation to the detection of camouflage. DEANE 
3B. Jupp. 


” Pumosorxtcat Society or WasHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.M.): 
Saturday, November 21. Nuclear moments. D. R. Inauis. 
Saturday, December 5. Annual meeting. Stellar explosions. Gorge Gamow. 


| ANTHROPOLOGICAL Society or WasuHineTOoN (U.S. National Museum, 8 p.M.): 

ss M2 Saar November 17. Anthropology and the Alaska-Canada Highway. Froeticnu G, 
ake AINEY. 

Tuesday, December 22. To be announced. 


ee: SocteTy oF WASHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.M.): 

_ Thursday, November 12. The specific action of proteolytic enzymes: Current problems and 
recent advances. Max BERGMANN. 

Thursday, December 10. Substitute fuels in a world at war. Gustav EGLorr. 


‘Enromotoerca Society or WASHINGTON CU S. National Museum, Room 43, 8 p.M.): 
- First Thursday of each month. 


_ Natronau Grocrapuic Sociery (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.)?: 

é Friday, November 20. Aleutians. Ben Hast. 

_ Friday, November 27. Navy. Capt. LELAND P. LovetTts. 
Friday, December 4. U.S. A. Francis R. Line. = 

_ Friday, December 11. England. Harvey KLEMMER. 

ior . Friday, December 18. Skt Troops-Parachute Troops. Mas. ALBERT JACKMAN and Mas, 
JOHN TAPpPIN. 

re eins, Sociery or WasHiIncTon (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8 P.m.): 

| ‘Tuesday, December 1. Two papers on Effects of light and temperature on the vitamin C 

content of plants. CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT, Mary EK. Re. 


nS he Hensawrnorocicar Society or WASHINGTON: 

* ile, Mi Pas atieg: 18, 5 p.M., at Zoological Division, Beltsville Research Center, Belts- 
ville 
_ Wednesday, December 9, 8 P.M., in Room 43, U.S. National Museum. 


3 Soctmry or AMERICAN BacTErio.Logists, Washington Branch (George Washington University 

§ School of Medicine, 1335 H Street, NW.., 8 p.M.): 

Tuesday, November 24. Summary of recent work in control of triple typhoid vaccine. Maj. 

} GrorGE F, Lurprop. 

Mechanism of bacterial species adaptation to high temperatures. R. R. SPENCER. 

The differentiation of human and chicken strains of Escherichia coli. J. M. Letse. 

Development of sulfonamide resistance (fastness) in Staphylococcus aureus correlated with 
greatly increased synthesis of p-aminobenzoic acid by the organisms. Lr. Maurice 
Lanpy, Lr. Con. Newron W. Larxum, EvizaBetH J. OswaLp, and FRANK 
STREIGHTOFF. 

Ammrican Soorery or E:ecrrica, Eneinerrs (Department of Commerce Auditorium, 8 P.M.): 

__ Wednesday, December 9. Joint meeting with American Society of Civil Engineers, American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers, and National Society of Professional Engineers. 
Conservation of material in the war effort. Brig. Gen. W. H. Harrison. 


1 Notices to be published in this space must reach G. A, Cooper, U. S. National Museum, not later than the 29th of the month 
_ preceding that of publication. 
_ * Lectures open only to members of the National Geographic Society who have subscribed to season tickets. 


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CONTENTS 


oF ae 
CHEMISTRY.—The third dissociation constant of phosphoric acid a n 
its variation with salt content. RocEr C. WELLS yee Sih. eee 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.—Morphologie de V'idocrase. Abbé oF -ARs | 
TREMBUAR CUS fio Pe ae Sea ie eee : 


Briopuysics.—Effect of nutrient cultures on the reaction of 
seedlings to light. J. H. Kempron.. 


Botany.—Three new species of Acanthaceae fron “Mexico. 2 
PPUNARDIKG esi a eee eS Ae 22 I Rae oa 


Botany.—Two zoophagous species of ee Me with oe 
cellular PES ee ena Hae De 
SUE Seals cost ces coves eo eee is ied ellen ets eee 


ZOoLoGy.—Some new land shells from Page Rica and Pan 
HaRALp A. geeemaicneee ory Rees ere Re 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


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o.  Von. 32 , DrEcEMBER 15, 1942 No. 12 


JOURNAL | 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


MOE. 32 


DECEMBER 15, 1942 


No. 12 


ASTROPHYSICS.—Concerning the origin of chemical elements: G. Gamow, 
The George Washington University. 


It is well known that the chemical anal- 
ysis of the universe indicates a striking 
uniformity in the distribution of various 
chemical elements. In fact, we know that 
the meteorites, which most probably repre- 
sent the fragments of some old broken-up 
planet, possess nearly the same proportions 
of various elements as the samples of ter- 
restrial material, and that the spectral an- 
alysis of our sun and other stars leads again 
to a very similar chemical constitution.’ 
It may be added that the recent investiga- 
tions of interstellar absorptions indicate 
that approximately the same chemical con- 
stitution should be also ascribed to the 
extremely rarified gaseous material filling 
up the interstellar space. 

Considering the known abundances of 
various elements from the point of view of 
possible nuclear transmutations, we should 
ask ourselves first of all whether these 
abundances are due to some nuclear proc- 
esses taking place at present in various parts 
of the universe, or whether the abundance- 
curve should be considered as a “‘frozen- 
distribution”? corresponding to some un- 
usual conditions that existed in the early 
creative stage of the universe? The recent 
study of the problem of stellar energy 


1 Received October 26, 1942. 

2 The only large discrepancy between the chem- 
ical constitution of stellar and of terrestrial ma- 
terial consists in comparatively large abundance 
of hydrogen and helium in stars (35 per cent H 
and at least a few percent of He) as compared with 
the earth (0.001 percent of H, and 0.000,000,000, 1 
percent of He). There is, however, no doubt that 
this large discrepancy in abundances is of purely 
secondary character and is entirely due to the 
fact that H and He, being the light gases, had 
much better chance to escape from the terrestrial 
atmosphere into the surrounding empty space. 


Ss 


oes 28 


sources shows quite definitely that some 
features of the abundance-curve are of 
more or less contemporary origin and can 
be understood on the basis of thermonuclear 
reactions taking place in the hot interior of 
stars. Thus, for example, we know that 
light elements lithium, beryllium, and boron 
are subject to rather rapid destructive reac- 
tions in the presence of hydrogen at the 
temperatures ranging from 5 to 15 million 
degrees. These thermonuclear reactions pro- 
ceed according to the equations: 

6.i+ 1 H—‘*He+?He 

7Li+!H—24He 

°*Be+'H—*Li++*He 

WB4+1A-4C+hy 

1B +1H>3*He 


and result in the complete destruction of the 
elements in question and the formation of 
the large amounts of thermonuclearly in- 
ert helium. It was suggested by Gamow 
and Teller? that these particular reactions 
represent the main source of energy in the 
early stages of stellar evolution (in the so- 
called red-giant-stars), and that entering 
the main sequence the star must have these 
three elements completely destroyed in its 
interior regions. Although in the outer 
layers of the star the temperature is not 
high enough to induce such reactions, a cer- 
tain amount of these elements must have 
been removed by diffusion from the stellar 
atmospheres, a fact that explains the anoma- 
lous drop in the corresponding region of the 
abundance-curve. In the next, main-se- 
quence stage of stellar evolution the tem- 


’G. Gamow and E. Tretier. Phys. Rev. 55: 
791. 1939. 


304 


perature in the interior rises up to 20 mil- 
lion degress, inducing thermonuclear reac- 
tions of the next two elements, carbon and 
nitrogen, which, according to Bethe,’ un- 
dergo the following transformations: 


2C+1A>BN +hy 
BN BC+ et 
BC+1HOUN +hv 
14N +1H 40 +hvy 
bO—15N + et 
1bN +1H>"C+4He 


We see from these formulae that carbon 
and nitrogen are not being completely de- 
stroyed by the reaction, but are constantly 
regenerated, thus serving only as some kind 
of catalysis for the transmutation of hydro- 
gen into helium. The above reactions, how- 
ever, serve to establish a definite balance 
between the relative abundances of ?C —8C 
and “N —}N isotopes. For the temperature 
and pressure existing in stellar interiors, 
the equilibrium-proportions of these iso- 
topes have been calculated by Bethe to be 
70:1 and 500:1, which is in fair agreement 
with the observed abundances. 

In spite of these successes in understand- 
ing the features of the abundance-curve for 
lightest elements, however, the situation 
becomes much more difficult in the case of 
heavier elements. In fact, there seems to be 
no doubt that the much higher tempera- 
tures, needed for the transmutation of 
heavier elements, are not to be found in 
stellar interiors or, for that matter, in any 
other part of the present state of the uni- 
verse.> Thus the only possible way to under- 
stand the origin of heavy, and particularly 
of radioactive elements lies in the assump- 
tion that in some previous stage of the de- 
velopment of our universe, physical condi- 
tions have been in general entirely different 
from what they are now, and that the tem- 
perature and density of matter then were, 
as a rule, much higher. Such a hypothesis 
finds strong support in the theory of ex- 


4H. Bertrue. Phys. Rev. 55: 434. 1939. 

5 An attempt to understand the building-up 
(Aufbau) process of heavy elements at the com- 
paratively low temperatures existing in stars was 
made by Weizsiker (Phys. Zeitschr. 39: 633. 
1938), but it turned out to be completely unsuc- 
cessful and has been entirely abandoned. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


panding universe, according to which the 
matter, which is at present distributed 
rather rarely threugh space, expanded from 
the original state of very high density and 
temperature. It is particularly interesting 
that, according to the measured rate of 
present expansion, these extraordinary 
physical conditions in space must have been 
existing only about 2 or 3 billion years ago, 
a period of time comparable with the life- 
period of the long-living radioactive ele- 
ments (thorium and uranium), which are 
still in existence. 

Considering the present abundance of 
elements as the result of these long-past 
conditions, one can follow two different — 
points of view: (1) That the abundance- 
curve corresponds to a thermodynamic 
equilibrium state at some very high density 
and temperature, which existed during a 
certain early expansion-stage of the uni- 
verse; and (2) that relative abundances of 
various elements are due to a non-equilib- 
rium breaking-up process of the original 
bulk of nuclear matter caused by a rapid 
expansion in the early evolutionary stages. 

A detailed study of the first possibility 
was carried out recently by Chandrasekhar 
and Henrich,§ who calculated the equilib- 
rium-numbers of various nuclei corre- 
sponding to conditions of extremely high 
densities and temperatures. In these calcu- 
lations, which extended over the first 20 
elements of the periodic system, the authors — 
took into account the exact values of the 
mass-defects of the nuclei in question with 
the interesting result that the theoretical 
abundance-curve repeats rather exactly all 
local irregularities of the empirical curve. 
It must be noticed, however, that this par- 
ticular result does not necessarily speak in 
favor of the thermodynamic-equilibrium 
hypothesis, since also in the case of a rapid 
breaking-up process more stable nuclei 
should have been produced in larger quanti- 
ties than the less stables ones. 

In respect to the general behavior of the 
abundance-curve, the results are consider- 
ably less satisfactory, which is owing ex- 
clusively to a very peculiar behavior of the 


6S. CHANDRASEKHAR and L. R. HEnrRIcH. 
Astr. Journ. 9: 288. 1942. 


Dec. 15, 1942 


empirical curve. In fact, the general habitus 
of this curve can be characterized as a rapid 
exponential decrease up to the middle of the 
periodic system, and an approximate con- 
stancy in the second half of it. (See figure.) 
This character of the exponential curve 
excludes any possibility of understanding 
the abundance of all elements as the result 
of some kind of equilibrium, since in choos- 
ing the temperature and density so as to fit 
the decreasing half of the curve (Chand- 
rasekhar and Henrich assume p= 10’gm/cm? 
and 7 =8.10°°C), one should necessarily ex- 
pect the continuation of such decrease also 
for the group of heavier elements. There 
also seems to be no physical possibility of 


lg (Abh) 


10 


1 


AS Ea Ee eee 


100 iL 


explaining the peculiarity of the empirical 
curve by any kind of “freezing up’ of 
heavier elements while the lighter ones are 
still being transformed. In fact, any such 
transformation should be necessarily con- 
nected with the emission of a large number 
of high-energy neutrons, which are bound 
to affect the relative number of heavier 
elements, and to cause the later part of the 
curve to drop down. 

We can try now to investigate the second 
possibility, and to see which kind of distri- 
bution could be obtained from the hy- 
pothesis of a rapid breaking up of the 
original superdense nuclear matter. We 
must remember that, according to our 
present knowledge of nuclear fission-proc- 
esses, all nuclei that are heavier than 
uranium would be immediately broken into 


~ 


GAMOW: THE ORIGIN OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS 395 


two or more approximately equal parts 
(slight deviation from equality of fission- 
fragments being due to the irregular char- 
acter of the mass-defect curve). If we as- 
sume for a moment that each unstable 
superheavy nucleus breaks up in only two 
approximately equal parts, the statistical 
result of such a breaking up process, will 
evidently correspond to an equal abundance 
of all elements belonging to the second half of 
the periodic system, and to a complete absence 
of all lighter elements. 

This gloomy picture may be improved, 
however, if we remember that: (1) Even in 
ordinary uranium-fission a number of free 
neutrons are being emitted in each breaking- 
up process, and this number most probably 
ancreases 1n the case of the more violent fission 
of superheavy nuclez. Neutrons produced 
this way will turn spontaneously into pro- 
tons, and will contribute to a larger abun- 
dance of hydrogen. (2) Although (in the 
known fission-processes of radioactive ele- 
ments), the nucleus always breaks in only 
two fragments, we may expect that for the 
heavier nucle the probability of triple and 
higher order splitting 1s considerably larger. 
Such multiple splitting of nuclei several 
times heavier than uranium will not much 
affect the equipartition in the second half 
of the periodic system, but will, on the other 
hand, produce a large number of lighter nu- 
clei. 

It seems, therefore, on the basis of the 
foregoing remarks, that this possibility is 
not entirely excluded, that the main fea- 
tures of the abundance curve may be ex- 
plained as the result of a complicated fission- 
process. In order to answer this question in 
a more definite way it will be necessary to 
study the stability of superheavy nuclei 
with respect to multiple-fission and to in- 
vestigate the statistical distribution of the 
fission-fragments in a successive breaking 
down process. The work in this direction is 
now in progress, and its results (if any) will 
be published later. 


356 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLe 32, No. 12 


PHYSICS.—Physical explanation and the domain of physical experience. R. B. 


Linpsay, Brown University. 


The prevalent interest of philosophers in 
physics and of physicists in philosophy is a 
sign of healthy progress in science, though 
some hard-boiled experimental physicists 
have expressed the opinion that much of it 
is merely an excuse for talking, which ends 
only in futility. However this may be, and 
however true it may be that philosophers 
have asked and will probably continue to 
ask many questions that physicists can not 
answer, it is also a fact that their observa- 
tions, even when irritating, serve a useful 
purpose if they foster a more careful exam- 
ination of what physicists mean by what 
they say. Consider, for example, the state- 
ment that physics is a ‘“‘vicious abstrac- 
tion.”’? This ought to be sufficient to start 
a train of thought or at any rate to throw 
a new light on the old question: What is 
physics? We may take it for granted that 
the author of the statement is not attribut- 
ing vice to physicists but is using the term 
“vicious”? in its purely technical sense of 
faulty or incorrect. The statement implies, 
therefore, that physicists are guilty not 
only of abstraction but abstraction of an 
essentially bad kind. 

It is perfectly clear to all physicists who 
have taken the trouble to think about the 
foundations of their science that physics 
deals with an abstraction from the totality 
of experience. Reading of the article just 
mentioned suggests that the inherent vi- 
ciousness lies in the fact that physicists are 
willing to work with only that kind of ex- 
perience which they can control with some 
precision in the laboratory. This they pro- 
ceed to isolate from all ‘‘foreign’’ influences 
and then to describe in terms of a language 
that is also specifically invented for this 
purpose and is quite different from that of 
everyday speech. If they achieve a measure 
of success in this description, it is only, to 
accept the view of the philosopher critic, 
because they have deliberately decided to 
forego any relation of the abstracted experi- 
ence to the rest of experience. 


1 Received September 30, 1942. 
2 Friss, H.S., Philosophy of Science, July 1939. 


(Communicated by R. J. Seeger.) 


It is probably unnecessary to analyze 
these strictures in detail. Most physicists 
will be likely to see in them only the dis- 
taste of a philosopher for anything less than 
the whole universe as a realm of discourse 
and the well-defined fear that if any part of 
experience is left out of consideration, the 
description of the rest is bound to be inade- 
quate. We may frankly admit that this 
situation has not seriously disturbed physi- 
cists in the past, but it serves once more to 
focus attention on the fundamental prob- 
lem of what physicists really do. 

The activity of the physicist naturally 
divides itself into two parts: (1) the ac- 
quisition of experience and (2) the descrip- 
tion of experience. Both processes involve 
abstraction. In the first the physicist ex- 
amines the world of experience and picks 
out those elements that possess interest and 
offer possibility of coherent description, 1.e., 
involve consistent routines. In no sense does 
he pretend to explain all the mysteries of 
nature: he is very ‘‘choosy”’ in his selection 
of material. This often irritates the philoso- 
pher and to some extent even the ordinary 
citizen, who is usually subject to the delu- 
sion that physicists understand everything 
that goes on in nature and is often sadly 
disillusioned when he asks a physicist about 
some problem only to be told that physics 
has not found it profitable to consider this 
particular group of sense impressions. Every 
now and then someone gets highly excited 
over the inability of physicists to give a 
clear-cut answer to a question like this: 
Does hot water freeze faster than cold 
water? There is no need to multiply ex- 
amples. We are here neglecting the fact 
that even if the physicist attempts an ex- 
planation of the phenomenon in question 
his language is commonly unintelligible to 
the layman. We are concerned rather with 
the physicist’s selection of data. It therefore 
seems worth while to make a few observa- 
tions on the element of abstraction in a 
physicist’s choice of the experience he 
wishes to describe. Its importance for the 
problem of physical explanation is obvious, 


Dec. 15, 1942 


since explanation inevitably depends on the 
character of the experience to be described. 
This at once suggests the question: Would 
not an enlargement of the domain of physi- 
cal experience lead to a valuable expansion 
of the concepts useful for physical descrip- 
tion? It is an alluring field for speculation. 
There is general recognition of the fact 
that it has proved extremely difiicult— 
some would say impossible—to describe in 
logically consistent fashion the phenomena 
we call atomic in terms of the concepts 
developed for the description of classical 
macroscopic phenomena. These concepts 
were, of course, constructed from the experi- 
ence they attempt to organize and sub- 
sume. It has frequently been pointed out 
that it is at best rather unreasonable to ex- 
pect them to prove convenient for the de- 
scription of new experience, without modifi- 
cation and amplification. At any rate, the 
fact remains that in the attempt to salvage 
the older concepts for use in describing 
newer phenomena physicists have been 
forced to strange devices, such as replacing 
Hamiltonian functions (which have a pre- 
cise meaning in the theory of classical me- 
chanics) by differential operators which 
have no physical meaning at all in classical 
mechanics. Much of the modern debate on 
the methodology of physics centers around 
the question whether this is the most ef- 
fective method of stimulating physical re- 
search and of producing the type of physical 
theory best suited to the organization of 
physical knowledge, what we may call in 
short the best kind of physical explanation. 
At the present time the question is being 
settled on a pragmatic basis: even if the 
elements of the modern theory are bizarre, 
they are justified by the experimental con- 
firmation of the predictions resulting from 
them. Logically no more can be demanded. 
Actually it may be doubted whether even 
theoretical physicists are entirely satisfied 
with the situation. Certainly many teachers 
of physics are puzzled and bewildered. 

To one who insists that for the successful 
development of physics we must not be con- 
tent to invent new concepts solely from our 
imagination without regard to experience 
but should attempt to enlarge the actual 


LINDSAY: THE DOMAIN OF PHYSICAL EXPERIENCE 357 


domain of that experience, the reply may 
be made that this is just what is really hap- 
pening all the time with the advancement 
of modern research. In nuclear physics, for 
example, an almost inexhaustible mine of 
new experience is being opened up. Will 
this not supply us with new concepts? It is 
true that the language of physics is being 
enriched by many new names and that we 
hear much of deuterons, neutrons, neu- 
trinos, anti-neutrinos, and mesotrons, but it 
is significant that these are still names of 
particles, i.e., elements characteristic of 
classical physics based on the macroscopic 
phenomena of motion. Physicists are still 
calling on the experience of classical physics 
to furnish the conceptual background of the 
new experience of recent physical discovery. 
We have grown so accustomed to the tradi- 
tional analysis of physical experience that it 
is difficult to think of a departure from it 
or even a generalization of it. It is conceiv- 
able, however, that a useful broadening of 
the realm of physical data would result 
from closer association between physicists 
and psychologists in the study of the sensa- 
tions. After all, these furnish ultimately all 
our physical experience. It would pay to 
investigate them rather more carefully than 
has been the habit of physicists in the past. 
Consider here the valuable work on audition 
started years ago by Helmholtz and con- 
tinued more recently by Harvey Fletcher 
and his colleagues at the Bell Telephone 
Laboratories; also the more recent work of 
Wever and Bray at Princeton and Stevens 
and Davis at Harvard. Intensive study of 
all the sense perceptions can hardly fail to 
suggest new ways of constructing physical 
concepts. One of the best auguries for the 
success of this cooperation of the physical 
and biological sciences is the increasing use 
of physical laboratory apparatus by psy- 
chologists and biologists. The progress of 
science may well be accelerated in this way 
even faster than by intense preoccupation 
with very highly specialized fields like cos- 
mic rays or nuclear physics, simply because 
that out of it there may come a new attitude 
toward the data of physics. 

We have all at some time or other been 
struck by the essential arbitrariness or con- 


358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ventionality of the methods of physical 
measurement. Thus in the construction of 
most scales the spaces between the marks 
are chosen equal. It seems a very natural 
thing to do, and yet how arbitrary it 
really is! In thermometry, for example, it 
amounts to a definition of temperature as a 
linear function of the length of a bar of 
metal or of a thread of mercury or of the 
pressure of a gas, etc. The procedure passes 
the pragmatic test in most cases, though 
there are certain instances where it leads to 
queer results; thus in acoustics the scale of 
absolute acoustic intensity fails entirely to 
agree with the scale of observed loudness, 
the relation being more like a logarithmic 
one. It is customary to treat the absolute 
scale as the fundamental one and to at- 
tribute the lack of agreement to the peculiar 
physiological behavior of the ear. When we 
consider that the physical theory of sound 
was originally based on auditory sensations, 
this appears as a somewhat curious circum- 
stance. It is left to the reader as a suggestion 
of: (1) the possibility of supplementing the 
conventional realm of physical data by a 
modification of measuring scales, and (2) 
the possibility that the suggestions of how 
this may be usefully accomplished may 
come from cooperative study in the border- 
line field of physics and psychology through 
a more searching study of sense-perceptions. 

The utility of these considerations for 
theoretical physics may be noted in the in- 
creasing interest in the part that the ob- 
server plays in physical theories. Classical 
theory treats the data of physics as inde- 
pendent of the observer and considers him 
a creature whose mistakes in making meas- 
urements can be largely ironed out by the 
expedient of many repetitions of the same 
measurement and the liberal use of an ar- 
bitrary theory of errors. The observer plays 
no role in classical physical theory except 
to invent the theory. Quantum mechanics 
and relativity have brought him back very 
decidedly into the picture. It would seem 
only reasonable to pay more attention to 
his actual raw experience. As an interesting 
commentary on the present situation a 
physicist who has had a great deal to do 
with re-emphasizing the importance of the 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


observer in physical theories, Niels Bohr, 
has been led to the enunciation of a princi- 
ple of limitation of human experience in the 
form of the so-called complementarity con- 
cept. Bohr apparently feels that physicists 
will forever be forced to think in terms of 
our intuitive notions of space and time. This 
implies his conviction that all physical ex- 
perience will be forced into these conven- 
tional categories. This limitation would 
seem to be unwarranted conservatism; cer- 
tainly it involves a lack of optimism with 
regard to the evolution of the human or- 
ganism. It would be remarkable if our de- 
scendants a thousand years from now were 
to consider experience wholly from the 
standpoint of our present knowledge and 
methods of gaining it. It is hard to believe 
that the so-called primitive intuitions of 
space and time on which all our physical 
experimentation is based have reached their 
final form. The human mind has proved it- 
self again and again very adaptable in 
adopting new points of view. Thus there was 
a time when the axioms and postulates of 
Euclidean geometry were considered to be 
a prior synthetic judgments imposed by 
necessity on the mind, so that without them 
no logical use of the space concept in science 
was possible. This attitude was shown to be 
illusory by the development of non-Eu- 
clidean geometry. The point may be made 
that this is of theoretical interest only and 
can have no influence on physical measure- 
ments. This not only begs the question at 
issue but is at variance with any reasonable 
interpretation of the history of physics, 
where it has been demonstrated many 
times that new methods of experimentation 
have developed from purely theoretical sug- 
gestions. There appears to be no funda- 
mental limitation to this process except 
through the adoption of a point of view 
which must be characterized as frankly 
metaphysical. 

What has just been said about space con- 
cepts may equally well apply to time. The 
theory of relativity has showed the theoreti- 


cal advantage of depriving the concept of | 


time of any preferred status and of putting 
it on the same logical basis as space. The 
objection may be made that this will have 


Dec. 15, 1942 


little effect on the way in which time enters 
into our actual measurements. This view is 
of questionable merit, for the so-called 
primitive notion of time may ultimately 
undergo considerable modification by the 
adoption of a new attitude toward its use 
in physics. In physical equations, time is 
only a convenient parameter for the com- 
parison of physical systems. Thus, instead 
of comparing two systems directly with 
each other and setting up a one-to-one cor- 
respondence between them, we prefer to 
introduce a third system called a clock and 
compare each system separately with this. 
It is a convenient though arbitrary pro- 
cedure. Possibly some day we shall recog- 
nize its arbitrariness more vividly and de- 
cide to do without it. In the meantime the 
public or social conception of time with 
which the conventional procedure is linked 
may and probably will undergo considerable 
change with the rapid increase in the speed 
of communication. Few will argue that the 
widespread use of radio is not going to alter 
the primitive conception of time among mil- 
lions of listeners. The ultimate effect of this 
on the interpretation of physical data may 
be very great. The science of mechanics, 
which now considers that it has solved every 
problem of motion when it has expressed 
the coordinates of every system in terms of 


DRAKE: NEW AUSTRALIAN TINGITIDAE 


359 


the arbitrary time parameter, would be- 
come a quite different discipline in which 
the setting up of direct relations among the 
coordinates of different systems would take 
the center of the stage. 

To sum up, the nature of physical ex- 
planation will undergo considerable modi- 
fication in the not very distant future, not 
merely through changes in the language 
used to describe physical experience, but 
also through an extension of the realm of 
this experience itself. At the same time, no 
matter how enlarged this realm may be- 
come, physics will continue to remain a 
‘vicious abstraction” to the philosopher 
critics, since there is no likelihood that 
physicists will ever include all experience 
in their data. The age-old problem of the 
most suitable character of physical con- 
cepts, 1.e., whether they should most ap- 
propriately be linked as closely as possible 
to actual experience or whether they should 
be constructed by the free use of the imagi- 
nation independently of their relation to 
experience, will never be solved because it 
is a question of taste. Nevertheless, with 
the broadening of the data new concepts 
will evolve and the nature of the abstraction 
which is physics will always be in continual 
flux like everything else pertaining to man. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—New Australian Tingitidae (Hemiptera). Cari J. DRAKE 


Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 


This paper contains the descriptions of 
three new genera, 11 new species, and one 
new variety of Tingitidae from Australia. 
The types of the new species are in my col- 
lection. 

Ulonemia concava, n. sp. 

Moderately large, elongate, brown, the para- 
nota lighter in color. Head with the three front 
spines short, brown, tuberclelike, the hind pair 
short, blunt, testaceous, appressed. Rostral 
channel narrow, open behind, the rostrum 
barely reaching to middle coxae, the laminae 
whitish testaceous. Antennae moderately long, 
moderately stout; segment I a little stouter and 
less than twice as long as II; III long, two and 
one-half times as long as IV, the latter slightly 

1 Received July 29, 1942. 


thickened. Eyes moderately large, black. Legs 
moderately long, brown. 

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, tri- 
carinate, the carinae distinct, not areolated, the 
lateral divaricating anteriorly; calli distinct, 
smooth; collar raised, areolated, not produced 
in front, the median portion slightly raised; 
paranota narrow, slightly reflexed, biseriate in 
front, very narrow, carinalike and nonreticu- 
lated behind. Elytra distinctly constricted be- 
hind the middle; costal area narrow, uniseriate, 
the areolae smaller at constriction; subcostal 
area biseriate; discoidal area bounded by 
sharply elevated nervures, narrowed at base 
and apex, widest near middle, there six areolae 
deep, the outer margin nearly straight. 

Length, 3.45 mm; width, 0.95 mm. 


360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Holotype (male) and paratype, Cedar Creek, 
Queensland. The paranota and constricted 
elytra separate it from its congeners. 


Ulonemia leai, n. sp. 


Moderately long, moderately broad, brown. 
Head brown, with five rather short, porrect, 
brown spines. Antennae brown, rather long, 
slender; segment I stouter, much stouter and 
twice as long as II; III nearly three times as 
long as IV, the latter mostly black-fuscous, 
moderately thickened. Rostrum extending 
slightly beyond mesosternum; laminae testa- 
ceous, slightly concave within on mesosternum. 

Pronotum convex above, pitted, sharply 
tricarinate; lateral carinae distinctly divaricat- 
ing anteriorly, indistinctly areolate; hood 
moderately large, strongly flattened above, not 
produced in front, very narrow and non- 
reticulated at humeral angles. Elytra broadest 
slightly beyond middle; costal area rather nar- 
row, uniseriate; subcostal area broader, bi- 
seriate; discoidal area sharply set off by 
raised nervure, narrowed at base and apex, 
widest at middle, there seven or eight areolae 
deep, the outer boundary slightly sinuate; 
sutural area slightly more widely reticulated 
posteriorly. Wings longer than abdomen, 
smoky in color. 

Length, 3.20 mm; width, 1.10 mm. 

Type (female), Corns District, collected by 
A. M. Lea (Hacker collection). This species is 
broader than U. concava and has a distinctly 
dorsally flattened hood. The character of the 
hood will also separate it from other members 
of the genus. 


Ulonemia decoris, n. sp. 


Very similar to U. concava in color and form, 
but with the hood larger and depressed above 
and much broader paranota. Paranota rather 
broad, strongly reflexed, nearly uniform in 
width and not narrowed at humeri, bi- tri- 
seriate. Hood moderately large, not projecting 
in front, strongly depressed. Rostrum reaching 
meso-metasternal suture. Pronotum, elytra, 
and color very similar to concava, including 
constricted costal area. Antennae moderately 
long, brown; segment I stouter and a little 
longer than II; III three times as long as IV. 
Spines on head short, blunt, brown. Wings 
longer than abdomen, brownish. 

Length, 3.40 mm; width, 1.00 mm. 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


Type (male) and allotype (female), Mount 
Glorious, Queensland. Paratype, 1 specimen 
taken with type; 6 specimens, Maleny, Queens- 
land, January 10, 1925; Cornbiey, South 
Australia, N. B. Tindale. 


Malandiola semota, n. sp. 


Moderately large, cinereotestaceous, with 
brownish areas. Head convex above, brown, 
the front and hind pairs of spines represented 
by small, testaceous tubercles, the median 
wanting. Eyes moderately large, black, trans- 


verse. Antenniferous tubercles thick, short, — 


testaceous. Antennae brownish, indistinctly 
pilose; segment I short, slightly stouter than 
II; III moderately long, nearly four times as 
long as IV, the latter short, thickened apically, 
mostly dark fuscous. Rostral channel deep, nar- 
row, open behind, the rostrum extending be- 
tween middle legs. 

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, tri- 
carinate; median carina distinct, slightly ele- 
vated on triangular process; lateral carinae 
distinct on triangular process, becoming obso- 
lete on disk, wanting in front; paranota very 
narrow, completely reflexed, carinalike at 
humeral angles. Collar, areolated, similar in 
form to stmilis Hacker, the median portion also 
extending triangularly posteriorly. Elytra with- 
out costal area, subcostal area triseriate; dis- 
coidal area large, widest at middle, the outer 
margin sinuate. 

Length, 3.10 mm; width, 1.10 mm. 

Type (male) and allotype (female), Murray 
Bridge, South Australia, H. Hacker. Paratype, 
14 specimens, taken with type; 12 specimens, 
Williamstown and Point Lincoln, South Aus- 
tralia, H. Hacker; 1 specimen, Kiata, Victoria, 
October 1929, F. E. Wilson. This species is dis- 
tinetly larger than M. similis Hacker and the 
lateral carinae are distinctly defined behind. In 
similis the lateral carinae are more or less obso- 
lete, and the male is usually much smaller than 
the female. Simplex Horvath is a shorter 
species, with shorter head and collar, and the 
pronotum is unicarinate. 


Codotingis, n. gen. 
Head short, with five spines. Eyes large, 


Rostral channel open behind, the rostrum long. | 


Bucculae closed in front. Orifice present. An- 
tennae slender, with segment I and II short; 
III longest, slenderest; IV fusiform, moderately 


Dec. 15, 1942 


long. Pronotum convex, pitted, tricarinate, 
moderately narrowed anteriorly; hood scarcely 
projecting in front, inflated, united beneath 
with median carina and extending posteriorly 
nearly to disk; paranota narrow, almost com- 
pletely reflexed, reticulated. Elytra divided 
into the usual areas, the discoidal area large, 
extending beyond the middle of elytra. Wings 
present. 

Type of genus, Codotingis recurva, n. sp. This 
genus belongs to the subfamily Tingitinae. It 
may be separated from Leptoypha Stal, 
Melandiola Horvath, and other allied genera by 
the hood. | 


Codotingis recurva, n. sp. 


Small, reddish brown, the hood and elytra 
lighter in color. Head reddish brown, the me- 
dian spine short, tuberclelike, the front and 
hind pairs slender, testaceous, appressed; eyes 
large, reddish. Antennae moderately long, 
slender, yellowish brown, the apical segment 
black; segment I short, stouter and less than 
twice as long as II; III slender, testaceous, 
three times as long as IV. Rostrum long, ex- 
tending almost to end of sulcus, the sulcus 
gradually widening posteriorly. 

Pronotum distinctly tricarinate, the lateral 
carinae long, thin, divaricating a little an- 
teriorly; median carina slightly higher than 
lateral; hood small, inflated, projecting pos- 
teriorly, the crest located behind; paranota 
very narrow, uniseriate, totally reflexed except 
opposite calli, there nearly vertical. Elytra 
broadest opposite apex of triangular process, 
somewhat narrowed apically, completely over- 
lapping and jointly rounded behind when at 
rest; costal area narrow, recurved, the outer 
margin not touching subcostal area; subcostal 
area wider, biseriate; discoidal area widest be- 
yond middle, there seven areolae deep, the 
outer margin faintly raised and strongly bowed; 
sutural areas more widely reticulated. 

Length, 2.65 mm; width, 1.20 mm. 

Type (female), Nanango District, Queens- 
land, November 1927, taken by H. Hacker. 


Callithrincus serratus Horvath 


Two specimens, male and female, National 
Park, Queensland, May, 1934, F. A. Perkins. 
The male is distinctly narrower than the 
female. The antennae are moderately long, 
slender, brown, the apical half of terminal seg- 


DRAKE: NEW AUSTRALIAN TINGITIDAE 


361 


ment black, thicker and hairy; segment I short, 
stouter and twice the length of II; III very 
slender, straight, three times as long as lV. The 
rostral channel is deep, narrow, entirely open 
behind, the sides foliaceous. and areolate; ros- 
trum very long, not quite reaching the end of 
the sulcus. The bucculae are broad, areolate, and 
closed in front. 


Callithrincus signatus, n. sp. 


Color, shape, and general appearance very 
similar to C. serratus Horvath, but separated 
from it by the triseriate costal area, median 
carina less foliaceous on disk, and the paranota 
much less turned up and less elevated within. 
Rostrum long, extending to end of sulcus. An- 
tennae brown, the distal half of last segment 
black: segment III very slender, three times as 
long as IV. Head with five stout, moderately 
long spines. Pronotum moderately convex, 
truncate in front, the erect protuberance at base 
of collar smaller than in serratus and the setose 
hairs on paranota fewer and shorter; median 
carina sharply arched but not strongly folia- 
ceous on disk, moderately elevated apically. 
Nervure separating subcostal and discoidal 
areas sinuate, the erect, setose hairs mostly 
wanting or greatly reduced. Costal area ir- 
regularly bi- triseriate, the outer margin spined 
as in serratus. Other characters very similar to 
serratus. 

Length, 2.95 mm; width, 1.25 mm. 

Type (male) and allotype (female), Mount 
Glorious, Queensland, September 26, 1928, H. 
Hacker. 


Inonemia, n. gen. 


Head not strongly produced in front, with 
two hind spines; clypeus prominent, ridge- 
like; eyes moderately large. Antenniferous tu- 
bercles short, stout; antennae moderately long, 
rather slender; segment I short, a little stouter 
and longer than II; III longest, straight; IV 
moderately long, scarcely thicker than III. 
Bucculae very broad, reticulated, closed in 
front. Rostrum extending to mesosternum; 
rostral channel rather broad, the laminae 
rather low, meeting behind. Legs short, the 
femora short. Orifice indistinct. Pronotum 
moderately convex, pitted, tricarinate, the 
lateral carinae long, strongly divaricating an- 
teriorly; calli present; collar raised, reticulated; 
hood absent, paranota expanded and reticu- 


362 


lated in front, wanting on posterial half. Elytra 
considerably wider than pronotum, divided into 
usual areas, the outer margin of costal area 
strongly, arcuately rounded at the base; wings 
present. ; 

Type of genus, Inonemia mussiva, Nn. sp. 
Allied to genera Neotingis Drake and Acysta 
Champion but easily distinguishable by its 
semilacy appearance, distinctly divaricating 
lateral carinae, short femora and paranota. 
The head is also a little longer and broader; the 
pronotum, paranota, and elytra are very simi- 
lar in texture and appearance. 


Inonemia mussiva, N. sp. 


Cinereotestaceous, with indistinct brownish 
areas. Head reddish brown; eyes reddish black; 
hind pair spines short, testaceous, appressed, 
not reaching middle of eyes. Antennae indis- 
tinctly pilose, testaceous, the tip of terminal 
segment black; segment II about twice as long 
as LV. Rostrum and laminae dark fuscous. Legs 
short, beset with short setae, testaceous, the 
femora short, rather stout, reddish brown. 

Pronotum coarsely pitted, truncate in front, 
a little darker in color than elytra; calli im- 
pressed, dark brown; carinae distinct, not folia- 
ceous; paranota short, projecting laterally, bi- 
serlate, not extending posteriorly beyond calli; 
hind triangular process large, more coarsely 
pitted. Elytra broad at base, about the width 
of costal area, wider than pronotum, widest 
near the basal third, thence narrowed pos- 
teriorly; costal area rather broad, mostly 
biseriate, the areolae not very large and nearly 
rounded; subcostal area long, rather narrow, 
triseriate in widest part; discoidal area large, 
extending considerably beyond middle, widest 
near middle, there six or seven areolae deep, 
the areolae small and rounded; sutural area 
large, areolae becoming a little larger distally. 

Length, 2.30 mm; width, 1.10 mm. 

Type (male) and allotype (female), Roma, 
Queensland, November 30, 1930, L. Franzen. 


Inonemia mussiva brevis, n. var. 


Very similar to J. mussiva n. sp. but with 
much shorter antennae, the entire antennae 
being shorter than the third antennal segment 
of mussiva. Antennae short, testaceous, the 
apical third or fourth black; segment I short, 
scarcely longer or thicker than IJ; III twice as 
long as IV. Other characters similar to musswa. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 32, No. 12 


Type (female), Roma, Queensland, Novem- 
ber 30, 1930, collected by L. Franzen. 


Engynoma, n. gen. 


Head short, convex above, with five slender 
spines. Eyes moderately large, transverse. Buc- 
culae broad, areolated, closed in front. Rostral 
channel rather deep, moderately wide, open 
behind, the laminae foliaceous. Antennae 
rather slender, moderately long; segments I 
and II short, moderately thickened; III long, 
slender; IV fusiform, moderately long. Prono- 
tum convex above, moderately narrowed an- 
teriorly, tricarinate; all carinae long; hood ab- 
sent; collar distinct, areolated, with two erect 
spines. Calli present; paranota narrow, linear, 
reflexed, areolated, with or without spines 
on margins; hind process long, triangular. 
Elytra longer than the abdomen, jointly over- 
lapping behind when at rest, with the usual 
areas sharply defined. Legs moderately long, 
slender. 

Type of genus, Engynoma (Perissonemia) 
tasmaniae Drake and Poor. Tingis spinicollis 
Horvath, T. angulata Hacker, and T. insularis 
Hacker also belong to this new genus. In these 
four species and the two new forms described 
below, there is an erect, slender, moderately 
long, sharp spine on each side of the median 
line (near the middle) of the collar. In spinz- 
collis, angulata, and insularis, the lateral mar- 
gins of the paranota are also armed. In im- 
maculata n. sp., deaba n. sp., and tasmaniae 
(Drake and Poor), the paranota are unarmed. 
The six known species are all rather similar in 
appearance and from the Australian region. 


Engynoma immaculata, n. sp. 


Elongate, narrow, testaceous; legs and an- 
tennae brownish, the tarsi and terminal seg- 
ment of antennae black. Head pale brown, 
with five long, slender, testaceous spines. Ros- 
trum brown, extending almost to middle of 
mesosternum, the laminae pale testaceous, not 
meeting behind. 

Pronotum moderately convex, finely pitted, 
carinae distinctly more foliaceous than in fas- 
maniae, uniseriate, the areolae broader; para- 
nota also distinctly broader, uniseriate, strongly | 
reflexed, uniseriate behind, biseriate in front, 
the outer row of areolae large, broader than 
long, rectangular; collar rather long, finely 
areolated, the two spines erect, slender, rather 


Dec. 15, 1942 


long. Elytra elongate, slightly constricted be- 
yond the middle, the margins subparallel; costal 
area slightly reflexed, rather narrow, mostly bi- 
seriate, the inner row of areolae very small and 
sometimes disappearing at the constriction; 
subcostal area a little broader, triseriate; 
boundaries separating subcostal, discoidal and 
sutural areas distinctly raised, finely areolated. 
Legs slender, pale brown, the tarsi black. 
Length, 3.00 mm; width, 0.80 mm. 
Holotype (male), Cedar Creek, Queensland, 
January 25, 1931, H. Hacker. This species is 
more elongate and has more foliaceous carinae 
and paranota than tasmaniae. It is not easily 
confused with other members of the genus. 


Engynoma deaba, n. sp. 


Moderately large, cinereotestaceous, with a 
few small, black-fuscous markings. Head dark 
brown, shiny, with five testaceous spines, the 
median porrect. Rostral channel narrow, deep, 
the laminae testaceous, foliaceous, not meeting 
behind; rostrum dark brown, reaching between 
middle legs. Antennae testaceous, indistinctly 
pilose; segment I short, slightly longer and 
stouter than II; III about two and one-half 
times as long as IV, the latter fusiform and 
mostly black. Eyes rather large, black. Legs 
testaceous, the tips of tibiae and tarsi dark 
fuscous. 

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, tri- 
carinate; carinae foliaceous, each uniseriate; the 
areolae moderately large, the lateral pair 
slightly diverging anteriorly, slightly concave 
within on disk; collar distinct, areolated, the 
two spines erect; paranota rather narrow, 
moderately reflexed, slightly wider opposite 
calli, uniseriate; triangular process with a 
transverse, black-fuscous band near the middle 
extending across costal and subcostal areas; 
boundaries separating subcostal, discoidal and 
sutural areas moderately elevated, finely areo- 
lated; costal area uniseriate, the areolae 
moderately large; subcostal area triseriate, the 
areolae small. 

Length, 3.20 mm; width, 1.10 mm, 

Holotype (female) and paratype, National 
Park, Queensland, December, 1933, H. Hacker. 
This insect is a little larger than angulata 
(Hacker), insularis (Hacker) and spinicollis 
(Horvath) and the lateral margins of the para- 
nota and elytra are without spines. 


DRAKE: NEW AUSTRALIAN TINGITIDAE 


363 


Furcilliger comptus, n. sp. 


Moderately large, obovate, brownish to yel- 
lowish brown, sometimes with a few small 


fuscous spots, armed with numerous slender 


spines, and rather densely clothed with fine, 
decumbent hairs. Head brownish, with five 
long, slender nearly erect, brown spines; eyes 
rather small, dark. Rostrum long, brownish, 
black at apex, extending almost to end of 
sulcus; laminae thick, high, finely hairy, not 
widely separated, entirely open behind. Buc- 
culae broad, V-like excavated in front, meeting 
at the base, produced downward at each end 
in front so as to form a small tooth. Legs 
moderately long, pale brown, beset with nu- 
merous, short, bristly hairs. Antennae moder- 
ately long, brownish; segments I and II thick, 
beset with bristly hairs, the latter shorter and 
obconical; III long, slender; IV absent. 

Pronotum rather strongly convex, clothed 
with numerous short hairs, tricarinate; lateral 
carinae strongly converging behind disk and 
then slightly converging anteriorly until they 
become contiguous with the sides of the median 
carina, terminating in front at base of 
hood, each finely areolated; median carina 
distinctly more elevated on disc, there arched: 
all carinae beset with slender spines; hood 
small, scarcely produced in front, highest near 
center, there with a forked spine. Paranota 
almost completely reflexed, beset with numer- 
ous sharp spines, the outer margin turned up so 
as to appear almost like lateral carinae. Tri- 
angular process rather large, hairy, areolate. 
Elytra clothed with fine hairs, with lateral 
margins and nervures separating areas beset 
with slender spines; costal area rather broad, 
with three, moderately large, confused rows of 
areolae, the areolae hyaline; subcostal area nar- 
rower, biseriate; discoidal area large, widest a 
little behind middle, the outer margin sinuate. 
Sides of thorax beset with fine bristly hairs. 
Venter brownish, with shorter bristly hairs. 
Wings smoky, nearly as long as elytra, the 
latter a little longer than abdomen. 

Length, 3.90 mm; width, 1.80—2.00 mm. 

Type (male), allotype (female), and 2 para- 
types, Imbil, Queensland, January, 1936, col- 
lected by A. R. B. Combs, on Gmeltna letch- 
hardtiit (family Verbenaceae). This species has 
differently formed paranota, carinae, and wider 
costal area than T. asperulus Horvath. It is 


364 


also clothed with hairs and armed with many 
more spines. There may be some question re- 
garding the generic position of comptus n. sp., 
but it seems advisable to place it in Furcilliger 
Horvath until the limits of the genus are more 
clearly defined. 

Leptopharsa enodata, n. sp. 

Head brown, convex above, with five moder- 
ately long spines, the three frontal spines 
testaceous and erect, the hind pair brownish 
and appressed. Bucculae broad, reticulated, 
contiguous at the base in front, the margins in 
front above the base angulately excavated so 
as to form a V-opening. Rostral channel wide, 
wider and concave within on mesosternum, the 
laminae rather low, testaceous, reticulated; ros- 
trum extending to middle of mesosternum. An- 
tennae very long, slender, testaceous, the apical 
segment mostly black; segment I very long, 
nearly four times as long as II, the latter short; 
III very long, slenderest, four times as long as 
IV; IV long, slightly thickened, about equal in 
length to I and II taken together. Body be- 
neath black. Legs testaceous, slender, the tarsi 
black. Eyes transverse, moderately large, black. 

Pronotum brown, rather strongly convex, 
pitted, reticulated behind, tricarinate; median 


ICHTHYOLOGY.—Seven new American fishes.’ 
(Communicated by ELMER Hiaerns.) 


Wildlife Service. 


This paper originated in and is part of 
the result of a study of material received 
from two sources: (1) Some species collected 
by the research vessel Atlantis in 1937 and 
kindly submitted to me for study by Dr. 
Albert E. Parr when he was director of the 
Bingham Oceanographic Foundation; (2) a 
part of the collection of fishes obtained by 
the research boat Pelican in connection 
with the shrimp investigation of the Fish 
and Wildlife Service, which came into my 
hands through the courtesy of my col- 
leagues in the service, Milton J. Lindner 
and Wiliam W. Anderson. Three unde- 
scribed species from the northern part of 
the Gulf of Mexico were found in those two 
collections. In attempting to distinguish 
properly Emblemaria piratula and deter- 


' Received July 18, 1942. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


carina mostly uniseriate, arched on disk, there 
bi- or triseriate; lateral carinae uniseriate, 
strongly constricted behind disk; hood rather 
small, inflated, scarcely produced forward, the 
crest about the center; paranota rather narrow, 
mostly biseriate; the outer margin broadly 
rounded. Elytra widest in front of middle, 
somewhat narrowed apically, slightly con- 
stricted behind middle, the outer margin finely 
serrate; costal area rather broad, irregularly 
triseriate; subcostal area more closely reticu- 
lated, quadriseriate; discoidal area narrowed at 
base and apex, extending beyond middle of 
elytra, widest beyond middle, there six areolae 
deep, the outer boundary sinuate. General 
color of reticulation brownish, somewhat varie- 
gated with dark brown or fuscous areas. 
Areolae largely hyaline. 

Length, 3.20 mm; width, 1.30 mm. 

Type (male), allotype (female), and 1 para- 
type, North Pine River, Queensland, Septem- 
ber 15, 1920, H. Hacker; 1 paratype, Conodale, 
Queensland, January 7, 1930, H. Hacker. This 
species is much slenderer than gracilis (Hacker) 
and has much narrower paranota, narrower 
costal area, and less foliaceous median carina. 
The reticulations are also a little thicker. 


Isaac GinsBuRG, Fish and 


mine its affinities, I discovered three un- 
described species of that genus in the Na- 
tional Museum, and mixed in with the 
Emblemarias one new goby. All these spe- 
cies are described herein. Two of the spe- 
cies are described from specimens obtained 
by the well-known Wilkes Expedition more 
than a hundred years ago. All the holo- 
types are in the U. S. National Museum. 
Paratypes of two species are deposited in 
the Bingham Collection. 


Bollmannia communis, n. sp. (Gobiidae) 


Soft dorsal and anal predominantly with 14 
rays, sometimes 13 or 15. (Out of 78 specimens 
in which the rays were counted in both fins, 
64 have the predominant counts; 2 have 13 
rays in both fins; the other 12 variants have 
only either fin with 13 or 15 rays while the 
other has 14.) Pectoral rays 21-23, the tip of 


Dec. 15, 1942 


the fin reaching a vertical variably placed be- 
tween the bases of the first to third dorsal ray. 
Approximately upper third of opercle almost 
entirely covered with two large scales. Cheek 
well scaled from about middle of eye backward, 
except a rather broad naked strip along its 
lower margin. Fourth or fifth spine the longest, 
tip of longest spine usually reaching, when 
stretched along the back, to base of fourth 
ray of second dorsal in large male, varying 
from base of third to seventh; to base of first 
or second ray in female. Posterior dorsal and 
anal rays of male reaching more or less beyond 
end of hypural, those of female about reaching 
there or slightly short. Tip of ventral fin about 
reaching anus, often slightly past anus in male 
or slightly short in female. As compared with 
all 11 species of Bollmannia now authentically 
known, the caudal is rather long, longer or as 
long as in most of them, but averaging shorter 
than in longipinnis; the head averages moder- 
ately long and the eye is medium to rather 
large. First dorsal with a posterior black spot; 
male with a broad, black or dusky band on the 
distal margin of the same fin: other fins shaded 
more or less with dusky or blackish; head and 
body usually without definite marking, body 
sometimes with a median row of five faint 
smudges. 

This species is described from 81 specimens, 
45-108 mm, obtained in the northern part of 
the Gulf of Mexico; 37 specimens obtained by 
the Atlantis in 1937 at 5 stations; 44 specimens 
obtained by the Pelican during 1938-39 at 16 
stations. The extremes of the geographic range 
of the samples studied are from off Padre 
Island, Tex., to off the Mississippi Delta; be- 
tween latitudes 26° 34’ and 29° 29’ and longi- 
tudes 88° 46’ and 96° 53’ 30’’. The extremes of 
the vertical range are 3.5 to 45 fathoms. This is 
evidently a common species in that region, and 
it is remarkable that it has remained undis- 
covered up till now. It is not that it has been 
masquerading under an alias. As far as I know, 
no specimens have ever been recorded under 
any name. It probably has a circumscribed 
geographic or vertical distribution. 

Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 119873: Pelican 
station 77-1; 28° 59’ N., 89° 29’ W.; 10 fathoms; 
male, total length 83 mm, standard length 
52.5 mm; caudal 59, ventral 30.5, pectoral 26.5 
depth 25, peduncle 12.5, head 29, postorbital, 


GINSBURG: SEVEN NEW AMERICAN FISHES 


365 


13.5, head depth 20.5, head width 17, maxillary 
13.5, snout 9, eye 8.5, antedorsal 34. 

This species is structurally nearest to BPoll- 
mania (sic) litura Ginsburg (Smithsonian 
Misc. Coll. 91 (20). 1935), from the coast of 
Haiti. It has the eye not so large as in litura 
(which has a very large eye, larger than in any 
known species of its genus); there are no inter- 
grades in this measurement among specimens 
of the two species so far measured. The second 
dorsal and anal counts are distinctly higher in 
communis, although there is some slight degree 
of intergradation. The head and postorbital 
average less in communis; but there is con- 
siderable intergradation in those measurements. 

Another congener that occupies adjacent 
waters, B. boqueronensits Evermann and Marsh, 
differs from communis in having a lengthwise 
row of scales along the lower margin of the 
cheek; a shorter head, there being no intergrades 
in the specimens measured; and fewer dorsal 
and anal rays but with a slight degree of 
intergradation. 

Recently Fowler described what he took to 
be a new species, Bollmannia jeannae (Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 93: 95, figs. 7-9. 
1941) from off Key West. I have not examined 
Fowler’s specimens, but judged by his descrip- 
tion and figure it is evident that they do not 
belong to the same species as communis. B. 
jeannae is probably based on specimens of 
Bollmannia boqueronensis; anyway his descrip- 
tion and figure do not prove that they differ 
from it. Fowler does compare his jeannae with 
boqueronensis and points out certain differ- 
ences, but they do not hold. The same differ- 
ences are apparent also when authentic speci- 
mens of boqueronensis are compared with the 
figure published by Evermann and Marsh. 
This is because that figure is not altogether 
accurate. But the supposed differences are 
seen to be nonexistent when correctly identi- 
fied specimens of boqueronensis are studied. 


Garmannia mediocricula, n. sp. (Gobiudae) 


Garmannia hemigymna Fowler (not Eigenmann 
and Eigenmann), Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 
82: 791. 1940 (Rio de Janeiro). 
D. VII; 12-13. A. 10. P. 20-21. 


Anterior scales, from near base of pectoral 
to under space between the two dorsals, In a 


366 


very narrow band of one row and a second in- 
complete row; thence scaled area broadening 
out in wedge-shaped manner to ends of vertical 
fins; caudal peduncle completely scaled. About 
34 scales in a complete longitudinal row. (Most 
scales in caudal row missing; but judged by 
traces of their impressions there were probably 
4.) First spine in male shorter than second. 
Head subterete. Maxillary in male ending ap- 
proximately under posterior margin of pupil. 
(The two specimens are now uniformly dark; 
possibly any color pattern originally present 
has faded by now.) 

Ventral 24.5, pectoral 24—-24.5, depth 20.5, 
peduncle 14.5, head 30.5-31, postorbital 18.5— 
19, head depth 16-17, head width 17, maxillary 
13.5, snout 7.5-8.5, eye 8.5—9.5, antedorsal 38. 

This species is described from two specimens, 
28-29 mm as now measured, the caudals 
frayed at the end, 23—23.8 in standard length; 
obtained by the Wilkes Expedition at Rio de 
Janeiro. The smaller specimen is designated the 
holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 119876. 

The extent of squamation of this species is 
rather intermediate between G. hildebrandi and 
G. paradoxa, from the Atlantic and Pacific 
coasts of Panama, respectively; but as shown 
by the lateral line organs medtocricula is nearer 
structurally to the Pacific paradozxa. Besides 
some differences in the details of the lateral 
line organs, mediocricula differs from paradoxa 
in having a subterete, instead of depressed, 
head, more pectoral rays and a more extensive 
squamation. Of its Atlantic coast congeners, 
mediocricula is probably nearest to G. spes; but 
no specimen of spes of adequate size is avail- 
ab'e for comparison. It differs widely from spes 
in the number of pectoral rays. 

While I have so far not examined the type of 
Gobius hemigymnus Eigenmann and Eigen- 
mann, their description differs so widely and 
in sO many important particulars from the 
two specimens here described that they cannot 
belong to that species as they were identified 
by Fowler. ‘‘Gobius’’ hemigymnus is probably a 
species of Risor. 


Lonchopisthus lindneri, n. sp. 
(Opisthognathidae) 


D. X-XI 18. A. IIT 16-17. P. 18-19. Caudal 
with 16 segmented rays. 
Gill rakers 18-22 on upper limb of first gill 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 32, NO. 12 


arch, 33-36 on lower limb; total number of gill 
rakers on first arch 51—55 (range of both sides 
of the three specimens studied). Scales in 59- 
60 oblique rows below lateral line and 25 rows 
behind lateral line, to base of caudal; 37-39 
scales in lateral line, ending under base of sixth 
soft ray. Scales present on antedorsal area to a 
vertical at a little dis'ance behind posterior 
margin of eye; present also on throat in front of 
ventral base, and on pectoral base; cheek nearly 
all scaled behind a vertical through posterior 
margin of eye; a patch of scales on upper an- 
terior part of the opercle in three or four length- 
wise rows and extending over about anterior 
half of opercle; the narrow space between lateral 
line and base of dorsal with a lengthwise row of 
embedded, sometimes partly with nonimbricate 
scales, the row sometimes partly interrupted. 
Maxillary ending on a vertical behind eye, at a 
distance a little less than diameter of pupil, its 
posterior edge well emarginate, with a large 
supplemental bone. Second soft ventral ray, 
from its outer margin, notably prolonged, 
reaching past origin of anal. Posterior edge of 
pectoral on a vertical approximately through 
base of tenth dorsal spine. Soft rays of dorsal 
and anal unbranched, except last three or four 
branched, the last one divided to its base. Teeth 
in a single row in each Jaw, of moderate size, 
none notably enlarged; no teeth on vomer. 
Head and body uniformly colored in one 
specimen, anterior part of body with a few 
very faint, light, narrow, diffuse cross bands 
against a darker background in two; vertical 
fins dusky, caudal darkest becoming black pos- 
teriorly; outer surface of lower lip with a black 
area at angle of mouth, wedge-shaped, taper- 
ing anteriorly towards upper margin of lip, 
extending about midway between angle of 
mouth and symphysis of jaw, sharply marked 
in two specimens, rather faint in one. 
Measurements of two specimens 96-105 mm, 
60.1-61.7 mm in standard length. Caudal 59- 
70.5, pectoral 23-24, depth 26.5-29, peduncle 
9-9.5, total length of head 30.5-32.5, length of 
head to tip of opercular spine 27.5-30, total 
length of postorbital 16—-18.5, head depth 23- 
23.5, head width 14-15.5, maxillary 17.5-18.5, 
snout 5—6, eye 10-11, antedorsal 31.5-32.5. 
This species is described from three speci- 
mens: Pelican station 112-4; off Padre Island, 
Tex.; 27° 13’ N., 96° 47’ W.; 33 fathoms; 64 


Dec. 15, 1942 


mm in standard length with a teratological 
jaw on one side and generally in poor condi- 
tion. Atlantis station 2840; off Isle Derniere, 
La.; 28° 19’ N., 90° 59’ W.; 31 fathoms; 61.7 
mm in standard length. Pelican station 112-3; 
off Padre Island; 27° 13.5’ N., 96° 40’ W.; 42 
fathoms; 60.1 mm in standard length. The 
species thus inhabits the same region, at the 
same depth, as Bollmannia communis. The 
latter two specimens were taken together with 
that species. The last specimen is designated 
as the holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 119874. The 


specimen obtained by the Atlantis is deposited - 


in the Bingham Collection. 

This species is nearest to L. micrognathus, a 
short account of which is given below for the 
purpose of comparison. It differs chiefly in 
having fewer gill rakers on the first gill arch. 
The cross-banded color pattern, judged by 
current descriptions of micrognathus, is ap- 
parently less distinct in lindnert. Judged by the 
specimens examined, it appears that lindneri 
may differ in the frequency distributions of 
some characters, namely, in averaging a lower 
scale count, a higher soft dorsal and pectoral 
count, a longer head, maxillary and antedorsal 
distance, and a larger eye, possibly also a longer 
caudal; but these can be determined only from 
much larger samples than those available. It 
may be of some significance that one of the 
three specimens of lindnerz has 10 dorsal spines, 
whereas micrognathus appears to have con- 
stantly 11. This species is named for Milton J. 
Lindner, of the Fish and Wildlife Service. 


Lonchopisthus micrognathus (Poey) 


WON 17-18. A. IIT 16=17. P. 18. 

The above counts are based on three speci- 
mens from Cuba which I had for comparison 
with the preceding species: Poey’s two types 
(U.S.N.M. no. 4785), 59-76 mm in standard 
length, now in bad condition; a small specimen 
24 mm in standard length (no. 82510). Gill 
rakers in the two larger specimens 22-24 on 
upper limb of first gill arch, 39-40 on lower 
limb, total count 62-63 (range of one side of 
each). Oblique rows of scales below lateral 
line about 62-74. Caudal broken in the larger 
specimen, probably entire or nearly so in the 
two smaller, 44.5-50.5. In the two larger 
specimens: head to tip of opercular spine 26- 
27.5, maxillary 16-17, eye 9-9.5, antedorsal 


“GINSBURG: SEVEN NEW AMERICAN FISHES 


367 


28.5-29.5. Longley (Carnegie Inst. Washing- 
ton Publ. 535: 244. 1941) states that all his 
Tortugas specimens of this species had 11 
dorsal spines, the same count as determined by 
me. 


Emblemaria signifer, n. sp. (Blenniidae) 


Emblemaria atlantica Fowler (not Jordan and 
Evermann), Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 82: 
796. 1940 (Rio de Janeiro). 


D. XX 12. A. II 20-21. P. 13. 

First dorsal spine notably longer than fol- 
lowing spines, in form of long filament, its tip 
reaching, when stretched along back, to base of 
tenth dorsal spine; second spine less than half 
length of the first; third spine subequal to sec- 
ond; fourth appreciably longer than preceding 
two; gradually increasing in length from fourth 
to eighth; eighth to eleventh subequal; thence 
gradually decreasing; last spine notably short, 
about half of first segmented ray; distal edge of 
dorsal thus with two well marked depressions, 
one behind first spine, the other between the 
two parts of the fin. Orbital cirrus very short, 
less than diameter of pupil, rather broad, un- 
branched, without fimbriae; narial cirrus 
slenderer and slightly longer. Maxillary reach- 
ing a vertical behind eye at a distance slightly 
over half its diameter in the larger specimen, 
not quite as far in smaller. Ventral apparently 
falling considerably short of anus (broken near 
its end). A few dark spots near base of dorsal 
distantly placed from one another, not alined 
in a regular row; anterior part of dorsal black 
basally, with a whitish margin; color evidently 
faded now and no other marks discernible. 

Measurements of holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 
119877, Rio de Janeiro, Wilkes Expedition: 
Total length 33 mm, standard length 27.8 mm, 
caudal 19.5, depth 18.5, peduncle 9, head 25.5, 
postorbital 15.5, maxillary 14.5, snout 7, eye 
7, antedorsal 19.5. This account is drawn from 
the holotype and one paratype, 27 mm 
(U.S.N.M. no. 83144), the two specimens orig- 
inally in the same lot. 

The specimens here described do not belong 
to EH. atlantica as they were identified by 
Fowler, but to a hitherto undescribed species. 
In fact, stgnefer is one of the more strongly 
marked species of its genus. The soft dorsal 
count is lower than in any species of Embdle- 
maria so far discovered; the spinous dorsal and 


368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


anal counts are lower than in most of them; 
the outline of the dorsal, especially the fila- 
mentous and very long first spine as compared 
with the following spines is different than in 
any of them. (The dorsal outline of guttata, the 
next species described, comes nearest to that 
of stgnifer, but the difference is still consider- 
able.) The latter character may possibly differ 
with age and sex. That remains to be de- 
termined. But it is very unlikely that such sex 
or age differences, if any, will be sufficiently 
pronounced to mask species differences. The 
combination of the above characters, together 
with the very short orbital cirrus, should make 
the identification of specimens of signifer an 
easy matter. 


Emblemaria guttata, n. sp. 


D. XR IATAS TT 232 Pads: 

First dorsal spine moderately longer than 
second, its tip reaching base of ninth dorsal 
spine; the spines gradually increasing in length 
from second to fourth, thence decreasing; last 
spine considerably shorter than first segmented 
ray; the distal dorsal edge thus with two moder- 
ate emarginations, one behind first spine and 
one between the two parts of the fin. Orbital 
cirrus slender, medium, somewhat less than 
eye diameter, branched at base; narial cirrus 
still shorter, likewise branched. Maxillary 
reaching a vertical past eye at a distance about 
equaling half its diameter. Ventral ending at a 
considerable distance before anus. 

An area on upper half of fish, under anterior 
part of dorsal, comprising posterior part of 
head and anterior part of body, irregularly 
beset with small dark spots; a median row of 
somewhat larger spots on body from base of 
pectoral backward, well marked on anterior 
part of body, faint or hardly perceptible on pos- 
terior part; anterior .part of dorsal, between 
third and seventh spines and centered along 
middle of fin, with a large very dark brown 
spot, elongate-elliptical with its long axis in a 
lengthwise direction, rather well marked off 
from surrounding pigment; basal area of fin 
below spot very light, distal area and that be- 
hind spot dark, but appreciably lighter than 
spot. 

Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 101999; Secas Isle, 
Panama; 12 fathoms; W. L. Schmitt; February 
5, 1935. Its measurements are as follows: Total 
length 36 mm, standard length 30.7 mm; 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


caudal 18, peduncle 9, head 29.5, postorbital 
16.5, maxillary 16.5, snout 6.5, eye 9, ante- 
dorsal 20. 

This species about agrees with E. nivipes 
Jordan and Gilbert, another species from 
Panama, in the number of dorsal and anal rays 
and in having a rather small, ramose orbital 
cirrus; it differs in the outline of the dorsal and 
in color. The dorsal outline of guttata resembles 
that of signifer described above from the At- 
lantic, but the two depressions in the fin are 
rather shallow, not so pronounced as in the 
latter. The rather profuse and fine spotting on 
part of the head and body is unlike the species 
of Emblemaria so far discovered, most of which 
have a diffuse and rather faint cross-banded 
color pattern. 


Emblemaria piratula Ginsburg and Reid, n. sp.” 


Suborbital very rough and bony at the sur- 
face, irregularly rugose and pitted, its distal 
margin somewhat roughly and irregularly 
crenate; anterior upper quadrant of orbital rim 
likewise bony and irregularly, rather rudi- 
mentarily tuberculate, but without definite, 
well-marked tubercles; two parallel ridges on 
upper aspect of snout presenting somewhat 
same appearance as orbital rim. Dorsal modally 
with 19 spines (in 9 specimens), sometimes with 
18 (in 1) or 20 (in 2); segmented rays usually 
14 (in 6) or 15 (in 5), sometimes 13 (in 1); total 
dorsal count 33 (in 7) or 34 (in 5). Anal with 
2 flexible spines, modally with 21 segmented 
rays (in 8), often with 20 (in 4). Pectoral rays 
typically 13 (in 9), sometimes 12 (in 1). An- 
terior part of dorsal high, the spines increasing 
in length from first to fourth or fifth; tip of 
fourth spine about reaching base of twelfth to 
fifteenth: fourth to sixth spines highest, sub- 
equal; thence decrease gradually in length; last 
spine subequal to first segmented ray, the two 
parts of the fin nearly altogether and smoothly 
continuous. Orbital cirrus well developed, 
rather stout, long, nearly reaching to dorsal 
origin or a little short (broken off in most speci- 
mens); simple narial cirrus less than eye 


2 After I had drawn up a preliminary account 
of this species based on the Pelican specimen, I 
went to compare it with material of its genus 
in the National Museum and found that Earl D. 
Reid had independently come to the conclusion 
that the Albatross specimens represented an un- 
described species. We therefore agreed to publish 
this species jointly.—I. G 


mv 


Dec. 15, 1942 


diameter. Maxillary reaching a vertical past 
eye at a distance about equalling diameter of 
pupil or not quite that far. Tip of ventral 
reaching anus or falling moderately short. Pos- 
terior margin of pectoral approximately on a 
vertical through anal origin. 

Color of comparatively recently preserved 
specimen: Anterior part of dorsal black with a 
subtriangular whitish area near base, the black 
color gradually fading out posteriorly; head 
and body dusky, nearly uniformly sprinkled 
with minute, nearly microscopic, dark dots, 
except light, pigmentless areas on upper pos- 
terior part of head, upper, anterior part of 
body, and along dorsal base; no other distinc- 
tive markings. The specimens collected in 1885 
have the color of the dorsal as described above, 
except that in some of them the black pigment 
is absent near the base of the fin; the head and 
body have now faded. 

Measurements of one paratype: Total length 
25 mm, standard length 21.4 mm; caudal 18, 
depth 17.5, peduncle 8.5, head 28, maxillary 
14, snout 6.5, eye 6.5. 

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 119875; Pelican 
Station 142-6; off St. Andrews Bay, Fla.; 
29° 56’ N., 86° 7.5’ W.; 18 fathoms; 22 mm. 
In addition, the National Museum has 11 
specimens, 22-27 mm, obtained by the Alba- 
tross in 1885 at three stations off the west coast 
of Florida, in 24-26 fathoms, as follows: Sta- 
tion 2406, 28° 46’ N., 84° 49’ W., 26 fathoms 
(U.S.N.M. no. 101091); station 2407, 28° 47’ 
30” N., 84° 37’ W., 24 fathoms (no. 101090); 
station 2374, 29° 11’ 30’ N., 85° 29’ W., 26 
fathoms (no. 101089). The above account of 
the species is drawn from these 11 paratypes 
and the holotype. One specimen, 20 mm, in no. 
101091 is in bad condition, and its identifica- 
tion not altogether certain. 

This is a well-marked species. The black an- 
terior dorsal with its well-marked white spot 
at the base is very distinctive and imaginatively 
suggests the pirate’s flag. The spinous dorsal 
and the anal counts average lower than in all 
species of Hmblemaria, except signifer. The 
rough, bony suborbital gives it a distinctive 
appearance. In other species of Hmblemaria the 
suborbital is also rough after the skin is re- 
moved; but in piratula it is so at the surface, 
and more decidedly so. This as well as the 
strong ridges on the snout apparently represent 
the initial stages in the development of the 


GINSBURG: SEVEN NEW AMERICAN FISHES 


369 


head armature as seen in the related genus 
Acanthemblemaria. 


Emblemaria piratica, n. sp. 


Dr exOe ts: Ay 24s io, 

Upper aspect of snout with two length- 
wise parallel rows of bony tubercles, one on 
each side of and near to midline, four tubercles 
in a row, one similar tubercle on midline be- 
tween the two rows, near their posterior end; 
upper anterior quadrant of orbital rim roughly 
tuberculate, but not with the rather clear-cut 
tubercles of snout; one tubercle slightly behind 
and below nostril; suborbital not bony nor 
rough at surface. First three spines very high, 
subequal, tip of third reaching to base of six- 
teenth dorsal spine; fourth to sixth spines con- 
siderably shorter than first three, and moder- 
ately shorter than following spines, the margin 
of the dorsal therefore forming a moderate de- 
pression behind anterior three spines; the spines 
from seventh backward gradually decreasing 
in length; the last spine but little shorter than 
first segmented ray, the two parts of the fin 
thus nearly continuous, forming one fin with 
but a slight depression between them. Orbital 
cirrus about half diameter of eye, very slender, 
not branched; narial cirrus similar, somewhat 
shorter. Maxillary reaching a vertical past eye, 
at a distance a little less than diameter of 
pupil. Tip of ventral falling only a little short 
of anus. 

Head and body a nearly uniform reddish 
brown; body with rather faint spots in a median 
row, the anterior ones very faint, the posterior 
ones somewhat better marked. The anterior 
and highest part of dorsal black; the more pos- 
terior part of spinous dorsal, from fifth spine 
backward, traversed by broad, oblique bands, 
running obliquely downward and backward, 
alternating black or dusky and light yellowish 
pigmentless; the soft dorsal dusky basally and 
distally, light and pigmentless along its middle 
part, lengthwise; anal with a broad blackish 
marginal area, more intensely pigmented an- 
teriorly than posteriorly, the basal part of fin 
dusky; ventral dark, nearly black; pectoral and 
caudal light. 

Holotype and only specimen studied: U.S. 
N.M. no. 101944; Seeas Isle, Panama, 12 
fathoms; W. L. Schmitt; February 5, 1985. 
Total length 28 mm, standard length 23.8 mm; 
caudal 18.5, depth 18.5, peduncle 7.5, head 28, 


370 


postorbital 16.5, maxillary 12.5, snout 6.5, eye 
8.5, antedorsal 19. 

The presence of distinct rather well de- 
veloped bony tubercles on the upper aspect of 
the snout sets off piratica from all its congeners 
now known. The other species of Emblemaria 
have bony ridges in the same location. In 


ZOOLOGY .—Further remarks on some Mexican Urosaurus.! 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


piratica these ridges have developed distinct 
tubercles. As noted under pzratula, here also 
this character evidently represents one of the 
first stages in the development of the armature 
of the head, which reaches a high degree in 
Acanthemblemaria. 


M. B. MirtrLeMan. 


(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) 


A short time ago I had occasion to dis- 
cuss Uta nelsont Schmidt in a review of the 
Mexican so-called Uta ornata complex. I in- 
dicated at the time (This JourNAL 31: 
72-73. 1941) that on the basis of the type 
alone this nominal form seemed distinct 
enough from bicarinata and anonymorpha 
but was probably best disposed of as a sub- 
species of bicarinata. More recently (Bull. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 91: 168. 1942), because 
no additional material had come to hand, I 
reiterated my former statement but in- 
cluded nelsoni as well as bicarinatus and 
anonymorphus in the redefined genus Uro- 
saurus. As matters stood, U. b. bicarinatus 
was thought to range not farther east than 
Acapuleo, Guerrero; U. 6. anonymorphus 
was known to occur from Tierra Colorada, 
Guerrero to Tonola, Chiapas; the unique 
type of U. b. nelsont was known from Cui- 
catlan, Oaxaca. 

Through the kindness of Dr. Edward H. 
Taylor I have had opportunity to examine, 
and report herewith, four Urosaurus from 
the type locality of nelsoni (EHT-HMS 
nos. 14054—57); in addition, Dr. Taylor has 
kindly lent me three Urosaurus from Totol- 
apan, Oaxaca, which is about midway be- 
tween Cuicatlan and the previously known 
range of anonymorphus. The seven speci- 
mens are exceedingly interesting, clarifying 
as they do the status of nelsoni and offering 
further information on the relationships and 
distribution of bzcarinatus and anonymor- 
phus. The apparent differences, which I 
previously reported as existing between 
nelsoni and the more southerly races bi- 
carinatus and anonymorphus, now appear 


1 Received October 10, 1942. 


to rest solely on the basis of individual vari- 
ation in the type specimen of nelsoni 
(U.S.N.M. no. 46836). With good series of 
anonymorphus and bicarinatus before me, as 
well as Dr. Taylor’s topotypes of nelsoni, I 
fail to note anything of a distinctive nature 
in the nelsoni that would serve to separate 
them from bicarznatus. The characters I 
heretofore considered diagnostic of nel- 
soni, as the immucronate ventrals, poor de- 
velopment of dorsolateral and lateral tu- 
bercles, smaller enlarged dorsals, and differ- 
ent proportions of the head, lack confirma- 
tion in these newly available individuals. In 
all the characters named, as well as others, 
I can not distinguish between nelsoni and 
bicarinatus. The Cuicatlan material (nel- 
soni) is fully as tuberculate, ventrals as 
mucronate, enlarged dorsals as big, and the 
head proportions are entirely within the 
range of variation exhibited by a good 
series of specimens from Cuernavaca, 
Morelos (bicarinatus). I must therefore re- 
gard nelsoni as a synonym of bicarinatus. 
The illusory distinction of the type speci- 
men reflects a common type of individual or 
local variation seen in all Urosauri, es- 
pecially in remote or end populations. 
The specimens from Totolapan, Oaxaca 
(EHT-HMS nos. 14051—53), are interest- 
ing variants of the anonymorphus type; 
superficially they are somewhat like inter- 
grades between this latter race and bizcar- 
natus, although immediately recognizable 
as being much closer to anonymorphus. I 
think that here we are dealing with another 
case of the recrudescence of parental char- 


acters, in relatively remote populations of a — 


derivative form, which occurs elsewhere in 
the Urosauri (cf. U. clarionensis and U. 


t 


3 


Dec. 15, 1942 


auriculatus). Actual intergradation between 
bicarinatus and anonymorphus takes place, 
so far as known, only in eastern Guerrero, 
in the vicinity of Acapulco. The race b7- 
carinatus largely follows the Rfo Balsas 
drainage in both the Upper and Lower 
Balsan biotic provinces (see Smith, Field 
Mus. Nat. Hist. Zool. Ser. 26: 15 et seq. 
1939), while anonymorphus is largely re- 
stricted to the: Tehuantepecan province, but 
extends westward to eastern Guerrero 
(Lower Balsan) and eastward to Chiapas 
(Tapachulan province). Thus, as now 
known, bicarinatus extends northward from 
Guerrero to Puebla, thence southeastward 
through northern Oaxaca to Cuicatlan. U. 
b. anonymorphus ranges from Tierra Col- 
orada, Guerrero, to Tonola, Chiapas; the 
most northerly record for the race is from 
Totolapan, Oaxaca. In Oaxaca, the ranges 
of bicarinatus and anonymorphus do not 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


371 


meet, for the Rio Balsas basin in the north 
and the Tehuantepec drainage of the south 
are separated by two great barriers: the 
high plains surrounding Oaxaca City and 
the range of mountains north of this city. 
The subspecies anonymorphus is now known 
from the following Oaxaca localities: Te- 
huantepec (type locality); Tuchitan; San 
Geronimo Ixtepec; Tres Cruces; Mount 
Guengola; Portillo los Nanches; San Bar- 
tolo; El Limén; Cajon de Piedra; Cerro 
Arenal; Mixtequilla; Salina Cruz; Huame- 
lula; Totolapan. It is known also from 
Tierra Colorada, Guerrero, and Tonola, 
Chiapas. - 

I am grateful to Dr. Edward H. Taylor 
for the opportunity to examine and publish 
information on lizards in his collection. Dr. 
Hobart M. Smith has kindly offered addi- 
tional information on the Mexican biotic 
provinces involved. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


NEW MEMBERS 


The following persons were recently elected 
nonresident members of the Academy: 

Brother LEon (JoSEPH SYLVESTRE SAUGET Y 
BaRBIER), professor of botany, Colegio de la 
Salle, Vedado, Havana, Cuba, in recognition of 
his contributions to botany, particularly his 
researches on the palms of Cuba. 

Jost ANTONIO BERNABE NOLLA, director of 
Insular Government Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, in recogni- 
tion of his outstanding work in agricultural 
science, especially in plant physiology with 
tobacco and in plant nutrition from the stand- 
point of Liebig’s law of the minimum. 


313TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 313th meeting of the Academy was held 
jointly with the Washington Branch of the 
Society of American Bacteriologists, in the 
assembly hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. 
on October 15, 1942, with President Curtis 
presiding. A. B. Crawrorp introduced the 
speaker. 

Stuart Mupp, professor of bacteriology in 
the School of Medicine at the University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., delivered an 
address entitled Structural differentiation within 
bacterial cell as shown by the electron microscope. 
Professor Mupp discussed the differentiation of 
bacterial capsule, protoplasmic membrane, and 
nuclear material, and pointed out certain im- 
plications regarding the rationale of the uses of 


vaccines and serums. The lecture was illus- 
trated with many electron micrographs. 

There were about 175 persons present. A 
social hour followed the meeting. 


377TH MEETING OF THE BOARD 
OF MANAGERS 


The 377th meeting of the Board of Managers 
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on 
October 19, 1942. The meeting was called to 
order at 8:00 p.m. by President Curtis, with 
21 persons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. 
D. Rossint, N. R. Smitu, W. W. Dreux, J. E. 
GraF, F. G. BricKweEpDB, H. B. Couns, JR., 
W. G. Brompacuer, E. P. Waker, A. H. 
CLARK, ALEXANDER WETMORE, J. B. REESIDE, 
Jr., J. E. McMurtrey, Jr., W. A. Dayton, 
F. B. SinsBEez, E. W. Price, L. W. Parr, C. L. 
GARNER, H. G. DorsEy, HERMAN STABLER, 
and, by invitation, J. R. SWALLEN. 

The minutes of the 376th meeting were read 
and approved. 

President announced the following appoint- 
ments: A. J. Lorxa, to be the Academy’s dele- 
gate at the inauguration on September 30, 1942, 
of Henry Noble Wright as president of the 
City College of the College of the City of New 
York; ATHERTON SEIDELL, to be chairman of 
the Committee on Meetings, in place of J. H. 
KeEmpTon, who resigned because of his appoint- 
ment to an assignment in South America. 

The Board authorized an additional allot- 
ment of $15 for the Committee on Meetings for 


ov2 


1942, with instructions to omit refreshments 
from the programs of the meetings for Novem- 
ber, December, and January. 

The Board instructed the President to ap- 
point a Committee to consider recommenda- 
tions regarding ways of increasing the income 
of the Academy. 

The Secretary reported the following in- 
formation regarding the membership: Accept- 
ances to membership, 14; qualifications for 
membership, 18; deaths, 4; retirements, 4; 
resignations, 2; status of membership as of 
October 17, 1942: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total 
Resident 437 33 3 0 473 
Nonresident ilsy/ 19 16 2 174 
Total 574 52 19 2 647 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


On recommendation of the Editors, the 
Board authorized the Editors to comply with 
the War Production Board’s Order No. 977 
regarding the turning in of all obsolete cuts for 
scrap metal (obsolete cuts being defined as all 
those for which request by the authors has not 
been made within 30 days after publication), 
and to charge authors for illustrations in excess 
of the equivalent in cost of one full-page line 
cut and for all unusual costs relating to foreign, 
mathematical, and tabular matter. 

The Secretary read to the Board some pro- 
posed changes in the Standing Rules, and was 
instructed to distribute copies of the proposed 
changes to the members of the Board for action 
at the next meeting. 

The meeting adjourned at 9:31 P.M. 

FREDERICK D. Rossint1, Secretary. 


Obituary 


Witi1am Epwarp Parker, Captain (Re- 
tired), United States Coast and Geodetic 
Survey, died on September 30, 1942, at his 
home in Fort Lauderdale, Fla., following a long 
illness. He was born at Newton, Mass. on 
March 21, 1876, son of William C. Parker and 
Emily A. (Goodwin) Parker. After graduation 
from the Newton High School, he entered 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 
which he graduated in 1899 with the degree of 
B.S. in Civil Engineering. He entered the 
field corps of the Coast and Geodetic Survey on 
February 18, 1901. 

His first assignment in this Service was on 
the old Hydrographer in 1901 on the Atlantic 
coast. From 1902 to 1905 he had served on the 
ships Patterson, Gedney, and Bache on assign- 
ments in Alaska, Puerto Rico, Panama, 
Florida, and off the New England coast. In 
1906 he went to the Philippine Islands where 
he served on the ship Fathomer for two years. 
After his tour of duty in the Philippines he 
again was assigned to duty in Alaska from 1909 
to 1910 on the ship Patterson. From 1911 to 
1914 he was engaged on coast pilot work and 
during the latter part of this period prepared 
plans for the construction of the ship Surveyor. 
He was assigned to Washington headquarters 
as chief of the Section of Vessels and Equip- 
ment from 1915 to 1918. In the World War he 
was transferred by executive order to the Navy, 
and from 1918 to 1919 served in the Compass 
Division of the Naval Observatory. 

After his return to the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey in 1919 after the war, Captain Parker 
performed his most outstanding work as chief 
of the Division of Hydrography and Topogra- 
phy (now Coastal Surveys), a major division of 
the Service. This division has direct charge of 
the ships of the Service and of all coastal sur- 
veys for chart construction. He served as chief 


for 12 years, 1919 to 1931. It was during this 
period that marked improvements and de- 
velopments were made in the technique and 
methods of hydrographic surveying. Captain 
Parker recognized the possibilities of echo 
sounding, which was developed about this 
time, in hydrographic surveying, and cooper- 
ated to the fullest extent with manufacturers 
of echo-sounding equipment. He arranged for 
the installation of one of the early fathometers 
on a Coast and Geodetic Survey ship on the 
Atlantic coast and encouraged the develop- 
ment and improvements in echo-sounding ap- 
paratus until finally the entire fleet of survey 
ships was fully equipped. 

Following this outstanding contribution to 
surveying, Captain Parker next became in- 
terested in a method for locating a surveying 
ship when out of sight of land, now known as 
radio acoustic ranging. By this method the 
ship is located by determining the elapsed time 
of transmission through the water to distant 
hydrophones of the sound from the explosion 
of a depth bomb at the ship. Using this method, 
he planned the survey of the entire area of 
George’s Bank in 1930 and carried this survey 
to a successful conclusion in 1931. While these 
methods naturally have now been improved 
and large areas surveyed since these early de- 
velopments, they were the foundation of the 
present surveying technique of the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, and have contributed in large 
part to the outstanding position of this Service 
among surveying organizations of the world. 

From April 1931 to the time of retirement 
from active service October 31, 1934, Captain 


Parker was in command of the ship Hydrog- — 


rapher (new), engaged on offshore surveys in 
the Gulf of Mexico. 
G. T. Rupe: 


j 
a 


INDEX TO VOLUME 32 


An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Anthropological Society of Washington. 91. 
Chemical Society of Washington. 92, 151. 
Geological Society of Washington. 277. 
Philosophical Society of Washington. 311. 
Washington Academy of Sciences. 


62, 84, 122, 273, 370. 


AUTHOR INDEX 


AuicaTa, JosEPpH E. Experimental transmission 
of endemic typhus fever by the sticktight 
flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea. 57. 

and Breaks, Vireinta. Incidence of 

leptospirosis among dogs in Honolulu as de- 

termined by serological agglutination tests. 


305. | 

Bauts, A. K. A erystalline sulphur-protein from 
wheat. 132. 

BaRNETTE, Duptey P. *Reproduction of charts 
and maps. 312. 


BartscuH, Pauu. New species of urocoptid land 
mollusks from Mexico. 187. 

BuakeE, S. F. New Asteraceae from northern 
Mexico collected by C. H. Muller. 146. 

BREAKS, VIRGINIA. See JosEPH KE. ALICATA. 
305. 

Brown, Rotanp W. A Miocene grapevine from 
the valley of Virgin Creek in northwestern 
Nevada. 287. 

BRUNAUER, STEPHEN. *The adsorption of gases 
and vapors on solids. 316. 

Burk, Dean. *Diet in experimental cancer. 317. 

CasH, Epitru K. See M. L. Lonman. 296. 

CaTTEwu, R.A. Andrew Stewart (obituary). 320. 

CrepERSTROM, D. J. *Progressive down-dip 
changes in composition in artesian waters 
from the Cretaceous rocks of Virginia. 280. 

Cuark, Austin H. Science and war. 33. 

and LockLEy, Gorpon J. Some echino- 
derms from northwestern Greenland. 250. 

CHapMAN, R. W. *The Laurel ‘‘pseudomigma- 
tite’? and its significance in petrogenesis. 
279. 

CHAPMAN, WiLBERT McLeEop. The osteology 
and relationships of the Argentinidae, a 
family of oceanic fishes. 104. 

Coox, O. F. A scientific approach to African 
colonization. 1. 

Cooper, G. Artuur. New genera of North 
American brachiopods. 228. 

Curtis, Harvey L. A review of the methods for 
the absolute determination of the ohm. 40. 

Davipson, Ross W. See M. L. Lonman. 296. 

Dr LavuBEnFELs, M. W. Porifera from Green- 
land and Baffinland collected by Capt. 
Robert A. Bartlett. 263. 

Demorest, Max. *Types of ice flow within 
glaciers. 282. 


3 


Land 


( 


Drake, Cart J. New Australian Tingitidae 
(Hemiptera). 359. 

DRECHSLER, CHARLES. Two zoophagous species 
of Acrostalagmus with multicellular Desmidio- 
spora-like chlamydospores. 343. 

Eaton, THEeopore H., Jr. Are ‘‘frontoparietal’’ 
bones in frogs actually frontals? 151. 
Earthworms of the Northeastern United 
States: A key, with distribution records. 

242. 

Ewan, JosepH. Linanthastrum, a new West 
American genus of Polemoniaceae. 138. 

FisHper, A. K. Clinton Hart Merriam (obitu- 


ary). 318. 

Fuint, RicHarp Foster. Atlantic coastal ‘‘ter- 
races.” 235. 

Foster, M. D. *Chemical composition of salty 


ground waters along the Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts. 282. 

Fox, Francis E. *Quartz resonators. 313. 

Gamow, G. Concerning the origin of chemical 
elements. 353. 

GARNER, CLEMENT L. Walter Ford Reynolds 
(obituary). 288. 

Gazin, C. Lewis. Fossil Mammalia from the 
Almy formation in western Wyoming. 217. 

GILBERT, Wm. J. See C. K. Tsmene. 291. 

GINSBURG, Isaac. Seven new American fishes. 
364. 

Harris, H. M. Notes on Harmostes, with de- 
scriptions of some new species (Hemiptera: 
Corizidae). 27. 

HensHaw, Pavuut 8S. *The biological action of 
high energy radiation. 315. 

Hess, W. C. See M. X. Sunitivan. 285. 

and Suuuivan, M. X. The determina- 
tion of the cystine content of various proteins 
by different hydrolytic agents, sulphuric, 
hydrochloric, hydriodic, and a mixture of 
hydrochloric and formic acids. 130. 

Hewes, Gorpon W. The Ainu double foreshaft 
toggle harpoon and western North America. 


*A new determination of the 
316. 
221. 


Hryi. PAu Re 
constant of gravitation. 

Cosmic emotion. 

HickMaAN, C. N. *Archery paradise, paradox, 
and paralysis. 314. 


374 


Howarp, H. W. See M. X. SuLiiIvan. 285. 
Hurt, Frank M. The genus Ferdinandea 
Rondani. 239. 


InsLEY, HERBERT. The electron microscope as 
a tool for the study of inorganic materials. 


315. 
IsBELL, Horace 8. Thomas Herbert Norton 
(obituary). 220. 


Jounson, D. P. *Calibration of mercurial and 
aneroid barometers. 317. 

Kempton, J. H. Effect of nutrient cultures on 
the reaction of maise seedlings to light. 

See also Lours R. MAXWELL. F 

Kester, T. L. *Genetic history of the pegma- 
tites and associated rocks of the Carolina tin 
belt. 278. 

KnecutTEeu, M. M. *Influence of topography on 
continental glaciation in north-central Mon- 
tana. 279. 

LAMBERT, WaLTER D. The distance between 
two widely separated points on the surface 
of the earth. 125. 

LEONARD, E. C. New tropical American Acan- 


- 


thaceae. 184. 
Three new species of Acanthaceae from 
Mexico. 341. 


Linpsay, R. B. Physical explanation and the 
domain of physical experience. 356. 

Lockey, Gorpon J. See Austin H. Cuark. 

Louman, M. L.; Casu, Epiru K.; and Davipson, 
Ross W. An undescribed Altropellis on 
cankered Pinus virginiana. 296. 

Loomis, H. F. Sinocybe, a new genus of colobog- 
nath millipeds from China. 270. 

Luces, Zoratpa. New grasses from Venezuela. 
ares 

MaxweELL, Louis R.; Kempton, J. H.; and Mos- 
LEY, VERNON. Effect of temperature and 
time on the X-ray sensitivity of maize seeds. 
18. 

McCuvrge, F. A. New bamboos from Venezuela 
and Colombia. 167. 

McComps, H. E. Geophysical measurements in 
the laboratory and in the field. 65. 

McKnieut, E. T. *Zoning of ore deposits in the 
Tri-State district. 282. 

Miser, H. D. *The Devonian system in Arkan- 
sas and Oklahoma. 277. 

MitreELMAN, M. B. Further remarks on some 
Mexican Urosaurus. 370. 

Mos.tey, VERNON. See LourisR. MaxweE.u. 18. 

Nutrine, P. G. A study of ionic adsorption in 
solutions of silica and alumina. 117. 

Rawpbon, Henry 8S. Edward Center Groesbeck 
(obituary). 284. 

REHDER, Harautp A. Some new land shells from 
Costa Rica and Panama. 350. 

REINHARD, EpwarpDG. Stereobalanus canadensis 


(Spengel), a little-known enteropneustan 
from the coast of Maine. 309. 

RicumMonp, W. E. *Application of X-ray 
methods to mineral-analysis. 280. 

Ross, C. P., and Yates, R.G. *Coso quicksilver 
district, Inyo County Calif. 280. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


Rupe, G.T. William Edward Parker (obituary), 
372. 

Scuuttz, LEonarD P. Notes on some. fishes 
from the Gulf of California, with the descrip- 
tion of a new genus and species of blennioid 
fish. 153. 

The first record of the ophichthyid eel 
Scytalichthys miurus (Jordan and Gilbert) 
from the Galapagos Islands, with notes on 
Mystriophis intertinctus (Richardson). 83. 

SETZLER, FrRanK M. Archeological accomplish- 
ments during the past decade in the United 
States. 253. 

SHALOWITzZ, AARON L. *The modern nautical 
chart—a scientific achievement. 312. 

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. A new species of 
Amphipoda from Uruguay and Brazil. 80. 

Sxuar, A. L. *The absorption spectra of some 
organic dyes. 318. 

Sooxne, A. M. *The molecular basis for the 
mechanical properties of acetaterayon. 315. 

Spicer, H.C. *Resistivity studies in the potash 
area of New Mexico. 278. 

Stone, Auan. New species of Anastrepha and 
notes on others (Diptera, Tephritidae). 298. 

Stross, G. W. *Structural interpretation of the 
Death Valley region by Levi Noble. 279. 

SULLIVAN, M. X. See W. C. Hess. 130. 

Suttivan, M. X.; Hess, W. C.; and Howarp, 
H. W. The behavior of cystine dimethyl- 
ester dihydrochloride and of cysteine mono- 
methylester monohydrochloride in the Sulli- 
van reaction for cysteine and cystine. 285. 

SwINGLE, WALTER T. Three new varieties and 
two new combinations in Citrus and related 
genera of the orange subfamily. 24. 

TaTE, VERNON D. *Microphotography. 312. 

TREMBLAY, J.-ARTHUR. Morphologie de l’ido- 
crase. 327. 

TsenG, C. K. Marine algae of Hong Kong, II: 
The genus Catenella. 142. 

and GILBERT, Wm. J. Onnewalgae ofthe 
genus Codium from the South China Sea. 291. 

WaLKER, EcBert H. Two new dwarf species of 
Rubus from western China and Tibet and 
their Asiatic relatives. 260. 

Wetts, R. C. *The relative abundance of nickel 
in the earth’s crust. 278. 

The third dissociation constant of phos- 
phoric acid and its variation with salt con- 
tent. 321. 

WENNER, FRANK. *The ABC’s of physical meas- 
urements. 314. 

WHEELER, Louis CUTTER. 
preoccupied. 237. 

Witson, CHARLES BraNncu. Description of a 
new genus and species of copepod parasitic in 
a shipworm. 60. 

Wooprine, W. P. *Ancient soil and ancient 
dune sand in the Santa Maria district, Cali- 
fornia. 281. 

Woo.tarp, Epgar W. Great astronomical trea- 
tises of the past. 189. 

Yates, R.G. See C. P. Ross. 280. 


Hugelia Bentham 


Dec. 15, 1942 


INDEX 


SUBJECT INDEX 


Anthropology. Archeological accomplishments 
during the past decade in the United 
States. Frank M. Serzuer. 253. 

The Ainu double foreshaft toggle harpoon 
and western North America. Gorpon W. 
HEwEs. 98. 

Astronomy. Great astronomical treatises of the 
past. Epaar W. Woo.rarp. 189. 
Astrophysics. Concerning the origin of chemical 

elements. G. Gamow. 353. 

Bacteriology. Incidence of leptospirosis among 
dogs in Honolulu as determined by sero- 
logical agglutination tests. JosepH LE. 
ALICATA and VIRGINIA BREAKS. 305. 

Ballistics. *Archery paradise, paradox, 
paralysis. C. N. Hickman. 314. 

Biophysics. Effect of nutrient cultures on the re- 
action of maize seedlings to light. J. H. 
KeEMPTON. 338. 

Effect of temperature and time on the X-ray 
sensitivity of maize seeds. Louis R. 
MaxweE.u, J. H. Kempton, and VERNON 
M. Mostey. 18. 

*The biological action of high energy radia- 
tion. Pau 8. HENsHAw. 315. 

Botany. An undescribed Atropellis on cankered 
Pinus virginiana. M. L. Lowman, Epitu 
K. Casu, and Ross W. Davipson. 296. 

Hugelia Bentham preoccupied. Louis Cur- 
TER WHEELER. 237. 

Innanthastrum, a new West American genus 
of Polemoniaceae. JosEPH Ewan. 188. 

Marine algae of Hong Kong, IJ: The genus 
Catenella. C.K. Tsena. 142. 

New Asteraceae from northern Mexico col- 
lected by C. H. Muller. S.F.Buaxe. 146. 

New bamboos from Venezuela and Colombia. 
KA. McCioure. 167. 


and 


New grasses from Venezuela. ZoORAIDA 
Liuces.. 157. 

New tropical American Acanthaceae. HE. C. 
LEONARD. 184. 


On new algae of the genus Codium from the 
South China Sea. C. K. Tseng and Wo. 
J: GILBERT. 291. 

Three new species of Acanthaceae from 
Mexico. E.C. Lronarp. 341. 

Three new varieties and two new combina- 
tions in Citrus and related genera of the 
orange subfamily. Watrrer T. SwINGLe. 
24. 

Two new dwarf species of Rubus from west- 
ern China and Tibet and their Asiatic 
relatives. Eapert H. Waker. 260. 

Two zoophagous species of Acrostalagmus 


with multicellular Desmidiospora-like 
chlamydospores. CHARLES DRECHSLER. 
343. 

Cartography. *Reproduction of charts and maps. 


Dubey P. BarNnetTTE. 312. 
*The modern nautical chart—a_ scientific 
achievement. AARON L. SHALOwIrTz. 312. 


Chemistry. A crystalline sulphur-protein from 
wheat. A. K. Batts. 182. 

A study of ionic adsorption in solutions of 
silica and alumina. P.G. Nutting. 117. 

The behavior of cystine dimethylester di- 
hydrochloride and of cysteine monomethyl- 
ester monohydrochloride in the Sullivan 
reaction for cysteine and cystine. M. X. 
SuLuIvaNn, W. C. Hess, and H. W. How- 
ARD. 285. 

The determination of the cystine content of 
various proteins by different hydrolytic 
agents, sulphuric, hydrochloric, hydriotic, 
and a mixture of hydrochloric and formic 
acids. W.C. Hess and M. X. SULLIVAN. 
130. 

The third dissociation constant of phosphoric 
acid and its variation with salt content. 
Rocrer ©: Wits. 321. 

Crystallography. Morphologie de Vidocrase. J.- 
ARTHUR TREMBLAY. 327. 

Entomology. New Australian Tingitidae (Hemip- 
tera). Cari J. Drake. 359. 

New species of Anastrepha and notes on oth- 
ers (Diptera, Tephritidae). ALAN STONE. 
298. 

Notes on Harmostes, with descriptions of 
some new species (Hemiptera: Corizidae). 
H. M. Harris. 27. 


The genus Ferdinandea Rondani. FRANK 
Me eum. | 239: 
Ethnology. A scientific approach to African 
colonization. ©. F. Coox. 1. 
General science. Cosmic emotion. Patt R. 
Jaboyar, = P77 
Science and war. Austin H. CiarKk. 33. 
Geochemistry. *Application of X-ray methods to 


mineral analysis. W.E.RicHMOND. 280. 

*Chemical composition of salty ground wa- 
ters along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 
M. D. Foster. 282. 

*Progressive down-dip changes in composi- 
tion in artesian waters from the Cretaceous 
rocks of Virginia. D. J. CEDERSTROM. 
280. 

Geodesy. The distance between two widely sepa- 
rated points on the surface of the earth. 
Water D. Lampert. 125. 

Geology. *Ancient soil and ancient dune sand in 
the Santa Maria district, California. 
W. P. Wooprine. 281. 


Atlantic coastal ‘‘terraces.’’ RicHAarpD Fos- 


TER FLINT. 235. 

*Coso quicksilver district, Inyo County, 
Cahf.. C: P: Ross and R..G. Yaerms. 
280. 


*Genetic history of the pegmatites and asso- 
ciated rocks of the Carolina tin belt. T. L. 
KESSLER. 278. 

*Influence of topography on continental 
glaciation in north-central Montana. M. 
M. KNEcHTEL. 279. 


376 


*Resistivity studies in the potash area of New 


Mexico. H.C. Spicer. 278. 
*Structural interpretation of the Death Val- 
ley region by Levi Noble. G. W. Stross. 
279. 
*The Devonian system in Arkansas and Okla- 
homa. Hi. D- Miser: 9277. 


*The Laurel ‘‘pseudomigmatite”’ and its sig- 
nificance in petrogenesis. R. W. CHap- 
MAN. 279. 

*The relative abundance of nickel in the 
earth’s crust. R.C. WELLS. 278. 

*Types of ice flow within glaciers. 
DEMOREST. 282. 

*Zoning of ore deposits in the Tri-State dis- 
trict. E. T. McKniaut. 282. 

Geophysics. Geophysical measurements in the 
laboratory and in the field. H. E. Mc- 
Comps. 65. 

Ichthyology. Notes on some fishes from the Gulf 
of California, with the description of a new 
genus and species of blennioid fish. L&ron- 
ARD P. Scuuttz. 153. 

Seven new American fishes. 
BURG. 364. 

The osteology and relationships of the Ar- 
gentinidae, a family of oceanic fishes. 
WiLBERT McLEop CHAPMAN. 104. 

The first record of the ophichthyid eel 
Scytalichthys miurus (Jordan and Gilbert) 
from the Galapagos Islands, with notes on 
Mystriophis <intertinctus (Richardson). 
LEonarD P. ScHuttz. 83. 

Medical entomology. Experimental transmission 
of endemic typhus fever by the sticktight 
flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea. JosEPu E. 
ALICATA. 57. 

Medicine. *Diet in experimental cancer. 
BURKS a7: 

New members of the Academy. 68, 276, 370. 

Obituaries. GROESBECK, EDWARD CENTER. 284. 
Just, ERNEST EverRETT. 124. 


Max 


Isaac GINs- 


DEAN 


MERRIAM, CLINTON Hart. 318. 
Norton, THOMAS HERBERT. 220. 
PARKER, WILLIAM Epwarp. 372. 
REYNOLDS, WALTER Forp. 283. 


STEWART, ANDREW. 320. 
Paleobotany. A Miocene grapevine from the val- 
ley of Virgin Creek in northwestern Ne- 
vada. Routanp W. Brown. 287. 
Paleontology. Fossil Mammalia from the Almy 
formation in western Wyoming. C. LEwIs 
GazIN. 217. 


New genera of North American brachiopods. 
G. ARTHUR COOPER. 


228. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 32, NO. 12 


Photography. *Microphotography. VERNON D. 
Tare. ~312: 
Physics. *A new determination of the constant 


of gravitation. Paunt R. Heyy. 316. 

A review of the methods for the absolute de- 
termination of the ohm. Harvey L. 
Curtis. 40. 

*Calibration of mercurial and aneroid barom- 
eters. D. P: Jonnson.- 347. 

Physical explanation and the domain of 
physical experience. R. B. Linpsay. 
356. 

*Quartz resonators. Francis E. Fox. 313. 

*The ABC’s of physical measurements. 
FRANK WENNER. 314. 

*The absorption spectra of some organic 
dyes. A. L. Sxuar. 318. 

*The adsorption of gases and vapors on 
solids. STEPHEN BRUNAUER. 316. 

*The electron microscope as a tool for the 
study of inorganic materials. HERBERT 
linnsimwenola: 

*The molecular 
properties of acetate rayon. 
SoOoKNE. 315. 

Zoology. A new species of Amphipoda from 
Uruguay and Brazil. CLARENCE R. SHOE- 
MAKER. 80. 

Are “‘frontoparietal’’ bones in frogs actually 
frontals? Turopore H. Eaton, Jr. 151. 

Description of a new genus and species of 
copepod parasitic in a shipworm. 
CHARLES BRANCH WILSON. 60. 

Earthworms of the Northeastern United 
States: A key, with distribution records. 
THEODORE H. Eaton, Jr. 242. 

Further remarks on some Mexican Uro- 
saurus. M.B. Mirtetman. 370. 

New species of urocoptid land mollusks from 
Mexico. Paut BartscH. 187. 

Porifera from Greenland and Baffinland col- 
lected by Capt. Robert A. Bartlett M. W. 
DE LAUBENFELS. 263. 

Sinocybe, a new genus of colobognath milli- 
peds from China. H.F. Loomis. 270. 
Some echinoderms from northwestern Green- 
land. Austin H. CiarKk and Gorpon J. 

Lockey. 250. 

Some new land shells from Costa Rica and 
Panama. Haraup A. REHDER. 350. 
Stereobalanus canadensis (Spengel), a little- 
known enteropneustan from the coast of 

Maine. Epwarp G. REINHARD. 309. 


basis for the mechanical 
ARNOLD M. 


Sais 


sees CR aa 


Fae 


CONTENTS 


Astrropuysics.—Concerning the origin of chemical elements. 


ences: RAB RINDSAN <0 25 hn Pear a tn eee ee 


EntomoLocy.—New Australian Tingitidae (Hemiptera). Cart 


a 


IcuTHYOLOGy.—Seven new American fishes. Isaac GINSBURG... .. 


ie ZooLtoey.—Further remarks on some Mexican Urosaurus. 
: MitTLEMAN. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMAN.). 


PROCEPDINGS > THE ACADEMY ..).2 05 nd pac. dedi oe tea 
OprruaRy: WILLIAM EDWARD PARKER...............000005 
INDEX TO VOLUME Sone pore ep ese eee 
: hie Jouhil s Indoxed fn tia Tniernational indey to Padediele s a 


wii 


3 9088 01303