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SYVWIlY

Daw a3

VOLUME 68
Number 1

J Our nal of the MARCH, 1978

WASHINGTON
ACADEMY., SCIENCES

Issued Quarterly
at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Features:

WALTERI FREEZEE: The First Trans-Atlantic Cable .................

SIMON W. STRAUSS: The General Linear, First-Order Ordinary Differential
ese MOU rte. Nel tacos ev oud gO Sone be eS nes os SRS 14

Research Reports:

RICHARD H. McCUEN: Design of Detention Structures for Controlling
Riot mem Ibnighway SUMACES:. 2222.22. 5.260.085 nee es see ea Mew ne oe 19
G. C. SMITH and R. B. EADS: Field Observations on the Cliff Swallow,
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota (Vieillot), and the Swallow Bug, Oeciacus
Pale EDITS MEA OANA Oe a) tcdsle cUNS te stays < a's! Ss annie sx pemdys Elele's Soe See al ee 23
RICHARD H. FOOTE: New Genera and Species of Neotropical Tephritidae
STS IGTERD 275.61 6 oR SR ae enema cn a

Academy Affairs:

KELSO B. MORRIS: The Awards Program of the Academy .............. 33
SCSI TISS TUE a Gian Sees Rae oS ae

New Affiliate
The Potomac Chapter, American Fisheries Society ................... 40

Obituary
LOTUS So GUS 87S AgSs ea eR a Se) ee ae ee eee... eee

Washington Academy of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Richard H. Foote

President-Elect
Mary H. Aldridge

Secretary
Kelso B. Morris

Treasurer
Alfred Weissler

Members at Large
George Abraham
Grover C. Sherlin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated
Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT
Elizabeth Ostaggi
ACADEMY OFFICE

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Telephone: (301) 530-1402

Founded in 1898

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca-
demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical
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{

i a Rs = en

i ae

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Binigsopnical Society Of Washinpton (2). 20.5.0). 0.66 oso ees ole ew ae eroues sein ue ele sees James F. Goff
| Pminnepologzical Society Of Washington .......06 uke cee wea ccs cess sun tmeaeeecnecr Jean K. Boek
eemricamuciciyrOl WaShingtONy 2.25.0 6 ac. oe bid alee od. 6 pias doveanls Eile ce «Bisa dic William R. Heyer
BMC MNEAIESNcIcty Ol WaShINStON | 22... fae coe bse vee bc pemelsnausaeevceuaeovanye David H. Freeman
mapoamolorical Society of Washington .......2 0.0.0. cee cb cane ev edecceeeers D. W. S. Sutherland
emer OORAP MIC: SOCICLY® 35.009. )e ce. ae susie sod w dlels cease snd Ads ale wise we ea dee ue cones T. Dale Stewart
eeeolorieasociety, of Washmegton: . 1... 2.06. flee oe kee eee tee eet eees Marian M. Schnepfe
memedesociety- othe Distmctof Columbia 2.2.2.6... ce ea hae els tose a ce cae wea sdesbneens Inactive
OT OPER Di, IB TIS IOIRCR TS TOLCTIS NG AA AIS 7 a oP A ae ae OE Sv amen Paul H. Oehser
Persmie wES@cietyrol WaShiNBfON 6 ssi wie els oles De cce el ebuedcuabacedbececcceeceaes Conrad B. Link
Pie Ome TCAMMEONCSUCTS. Gio. .c 8 suis siete eb Soe wh da wean cs cee bow eeeeed Thomas B. Glazebrook
asmmatanmnsociety Of BMpincers: so... 6 ie cc be cae ce cee ew oe deenes sed’ George Abraham
Pastituce on Hlectrical and Electronics Engineers -.........6/2...0. 0c et ee ee cee eeeees George Abraham
Pratcnieanisociecy of Mechanical EMGINEErs,..... ee ee eee tte vee cemeeeete Michael Chi
Meimimenolorical Society of Washington: VP. )o.25. 0 ce. ee ee ON ve dle we aes Robert S. Isenstein
eeincMcAnESOCICLY, TOL MICTODIOIOSY 3. ccs ss oes ee eet ee tee ce mem ence ce ece cabs Michael Pelzcar
Bacicnnemamentcan Military EMPIMCCLS « a ites sje psenis acs ssecs aa m,oisie siwierslevens,» Oe Gas aioe eee ees H. P. Demuth
BEMMchic HmOOGICtVAOl Civil PMOINEEIS 55 we eos We Pe le a be oie ws C8 oak Mee BERN Robert Sorenson
Bociciion Expenmental Biology and Médicine §.... 2.22.52. .2. cece eee ee tenes Donald Flick
ERIMCHIC AE SO CI IVI Tes ICCA Sealy c. gees ‘eilaia, 20s: Macspatananendtaed ose sane “eiacaeaprey abeaaredee wig ice sa ope. ePsuauace Glen W. Wensch
mitermational Association of Dental Reséarch .2.......0....... 0.2 cee ec eee William V. Loebenstein
wAmerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics .............0cccecccesevcceevees George J. Vila
Pecan VicteCOlOlOSICAl SOGICLY 5.5... iwee coe sesh a deen beak gene bade tae ce we eedede A. James Wagner
MIscelicmMeSOCIetyrOL VWaShiNetOMm ... 3 fo. cela se eke cea ees cee ewe woneds sree deers Robert J. Argauer
PRC OMSUICAMSOCICLV) OloAMENCA 5c. 5. 502s ce See ac abe case ngewe wot esweeeee de Delegate not appointed
Paine THM INC it SOCICUY, 2s aayecs tus sus oe Ee Ws 6 Gash wise e clk gue Oe Ga eie e wl don't a, oie sbetmie, apeeear ele Dick Duffey
RSH ROIBEOOG NECIMOLOSISES, 95. < gcse apse son 6 alos Siege Sis Wa tees Sgee nese see eee ee es as William Sulzbacher
“PREG (CSRAITING SICILY ie ee coe ORC mn eon ar Eee arene Inactive
BE eats RMN TAS OCIS BV ee ss ese Gros Sica cike leywieeshegane © o/ausieishs: +) dyaqejpgendeayauel@Rraosaun ote is Delegate not appointed
IMMMOLONG eH ISLORVNOL SCIONC Ss CIID) a.i.. sas iak seed 3 sadeere soled wage aks pane aeeveye ouevalaieoyere wie Mugen Inactive
Panenican Association Of Physics Feachers =...) .. os .vscie ieee Beda is sure olan s eevee hate 6 alee To be appointed
ManicaleSGctelyeOleAMeniGa tae 4. 4s: Rak RPh ss hi. oie Poa Soe. arindinweeh deve Lucy B. Hagan
minencan Society of Plant PhysiOlogistS.\) . 5.056. be ee ee See Walter Shropshire
Sashineton Operations Research Council i iaide. ol os OSA ee ee ee ln uate John G. Honig
ESOC TAS OCICLY Ole AMNCMICA . Sciat e rsh oe ee as oa OER Ne Sa BUM viet es, ota a ee eet San Inactive
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical
ACME SURG CUMMME TM CUNE CLSin, ein tosses ice is cotta: cot nec aiede a ee oe Stile aie fore neve wrei svnieyaustena ele Carl H. Cotterill
MeO EC ADIFONVASTRONOMELS icc ec: oiciact cove Sis see iage cL eR raw wise mie ees eles wwe me otal Benson J. Simon
MieGhemMAaliCal ASSOCIALIONUOL AMMETICA |.) cmd socks so ve tec are ne ee bole e, bee geges coe we oe eae ein Syere Patrick Hayes
Orel StILUte: Ofg CHEMISES A Ai 6 5 Se 6S. < Sie bo oh 6 wre budpag® san bow b+ Ryepvils oye B is Oye Boe epee Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.
eer ESVChOlOPICal ASSOCIATION: ind «cle 'ce os Mb S Gue Aa a homperet oped 6 wins unas os eb ae, lace Bola Spee. « John O’ Hare
mica asnineton Pant Nechnical Group ©... 2 2). sale iagl wep eels e)ote eels eainlale vines «oda s Paul G. Campbell
Senicnican Ehytopathological Society =... us. 6c. <2 se sib Shae ene bie ald eee oie) 4. Tom van der Zwet
Bowler ton General Systems Research! os. cio... adda cee hee elk Meet Ronald W. Manderscheid
BAM ACTORS: SOCICDY ere rk a ae ee one oa ee ON Ue DE ala wees Bewhth was H. McIlvaine Parsons
EMME CATIONS NEIMESESOCIELYN fot t in te ates tie aie fs etal s SES oa wy oN ale ee a ee as Wied Slaey No delegate

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978 1

FEATURES

The First Trans-Atlantic Cable

| Walter D. Freezee

12 Pershing Ave., Ridgewood, New Jersey

ABSTRACT

I The first trans-Atlantic cable was successfully laid in 1866. The cable itself and
| virtually all the equipment was designed from scratch, and a great deal of pioneering
q was done in many technical fields. Much of the development was a learn-by-doing
i process, but sound scientific principles were observed throughout. The article describes

! the progress of the project from beginning to completion. It includes as analysis of the
| conditions that led to the project and the developments that made it succeed after

| many attempts. The completed cable not only bound Britain and America in instant
| | communication — it furnished an indispensable foundation for the scientific development
|| of modern deep-sea cable construction and design.

Modern submarine telephone cables to-
_day connect important countries through-
/ out the world under wide oceans and seas
and enable persons to talk with each
other as easily as if they were in the same
town. One cable can carry as many as
1,840 two-way talking circuits, and a new
|, cable now planned will increase this to
4000.

The wonders of today’s submarine
cable accomplishments have been built
upon a long background of scientific
development dating back many years.
|! Many of the cable-laying and design tech-
‘niques go back to the early telegraph
> cables of over a century ago. One of those
that probably contributed more than any
other was the first Atlantic cable, finally
successfully laid in 1866.

SS 3

| Favorable Conditions of the Times

| The idea of spanning the Atlantic first
) developed into a practical application in
1854. Cyrus Field, a successful American

business man, was attracted to the idea

| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

through his chance acquaintance with a
venturesome but unsuccessful engineer,
Fredrick Gisborne. Gisborne had started,
but because of financial difficulties, failed
to complete a telegraph line through
Newfoundland which would connect
with existing lines to New York. Field
was looking for new ventures on which
to use his time and money, and it occurred
to him that the telegraph line should not
stop at Newfoundland but should con-
tinue across the Atlantic to Ireland, the
closest part of the British Isles.
Telegraph land lines had already been
built in great numbers on both sides of
the Atlantic, and connected most of the
large cities in Europe, Britain, and the
United States. Short submarine cables
had also been laid between England and
Ireland, across the English Channel, the
Mediterranean, and the Black Sea. How-
ever in each of these cases the waters’
were relatively shallow and distances
were short. Largely unexplored were
such basic considerations for a trans-
atlantic cable as the character of the

ocean bottom, the time delay, and reduc-
tion of signal strength in long distance
cable transmission, and the techniques
of laying cables at great ocean depths.

Field had been to England a few years
before and could see the need for better
communication between America and
Europe or England. He was impressed
with how little America knew about what
went on in the other two areas. There
were American reporters on the scene,
but their reports lost their vitality in trans-
mittal by boat. Business between the
areas was slow and handicapped for the
same reason.

Everywhere Field went he found a
spirit of optimism, progress, and inno-
vation. The railroads, telegraph, mills,
and foundries seemed far more advanced
than in America. Such geniuses as Farady
and Thomson were introducing Britain
to the Age of Electricity. New principles
of electricity, magnetism, and physics
were being discovered. New products
such as gutta percha were also being
developed. This material could be moulded
into various shapes and sizes such as
plastic dolls, caps for cabmen, handles
for surgical appliances, and tubes for
hearing devices.

Farady had found gutta percha to be
an effective insulation for telegraph wires
in cables, and it was starting to be used
for several short submarine cables in
England and Europe. It was water resist-
ant, durable, and pliable, and it could
be molded around the conductors in
liquid state. After cooling it became hard
but not brittle, and its insulation qualities
improved in the ocean depths.

Field returned to America with a firm
conviction of the need for improved com-
munication with England and Europe.
He could also see that England, with its
progress in manufacturing and business
management, would be the land to turn
to for help in any great project.

Exploring the Possibilities

After his meeting with Gisborne, Field
lost no time in exploring the feasibility
of an Atlantic cable. Lieut. Maury, head

of the U. S. National Observatory and a
leading authority on oceanography, ad-
vised Field that recent soundings indi-
cated that the ocean bottom of the route
between Newfoundland and Ireland was
primarily a plateau, deep enough to clear
iceburgs and ships, but shallow enough
to make a submarine cable feasible. Sam-
ples from the ocean floor indicated that
it was composed of soft microscopic
shells, with no sand or gravel to damage
a cable.

Professor Morse, a noted American
telegraph scientist and inventor, advised
Field that telegraph transmission through
a long cable such as the trans-Atlantic
was entirely feasible, and that commer-
cial service could be provided. Two years
later Morse proved this, in cooperation
with some English scientists, by sending
telegraph signals at commercial speeds
as fast as 270 per minute through a looped
cable network of over 2000 nautical miles
in length.

Financing the Project

With the encouraging reports from
Lieut. Maury and Prof. Morse, Field
secured the financial assistance of a ven-
turesome group of business associates,
that was needed to complete the project
started by Gisborne. A company was
organized and financed to construct the
telegraph line in Newfoundland, and thus
have a complete telegraph system from
New York to the American end of the
proposed Atlantic cable. This would cut
almost in half the boat time, and thus
materially improve communication until
the cable was finished.

The Newfoundland project included
500 miles of land line on poles, and 90
miles of submarine cable. Because of
the rugged terrain and bad weather, it
took two years to complete the extension
(in 1856). The first submarine cable was
lost in a storm due primarily to using a
sailing vessel to lay it. These experiences
proved that only a steamship should be
used in cable laying, and that much im-
provement was needed in cable laying
methods and machinery.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

The company that completed the New-
foundland project was also organized
to construct the Atlantic cable. However

upon completion of the former, it was
clear that the company did not have suf-
ficient money to construct the latter.
Since the Atlantic cable would terminate
in Britain, it was decided to try to raise
the needed money in that country. A new
company (Atlantic Telegraph) was there-
fore organized in England, and the initial
| capital of £350,000 (about $1,750,000)
was subscribed in that country. There
were a number of prominent English
scientists and business men who were
‘active or interested in telegraphy, and
most of this capital was furnished by
them. Several of these became officers
| in the new company and took an active
part in the Atlantic cable project. Finan-
_ cial assistance was also obtained from the
British and United States govenments on
' the basis that they would have prior rights
| to the use of the cable. The two govern-
| ments also agreed to provide the neces-
sary ships to lay the cable.
_ During the ten years that were required
| to bring the project to a successful con-
“clusion (1856-1866) the Atlantic Tele-
graph Company (or its successors) raised
| an additional £700,000 (about $3,500,000)
to finance a total of five major cable laying
expeditions. In spite of the apparent fail-
ures of the early expeditions, the optimis-
| tic faith of the company’s officers always
led them to approve the continuation of
the project, and even to furnish their own
'money to help in the financing. In the
final stages of the project the newly formed
t

Telegraph and Maintenance Company,
responsible for manufacturing and laying
the cable, showed such faith in the project
| that it agreed to accept no payment unless
the cable operated satisfactorily.

Developments Leading to Success

The same optimistic faith displayed by
the officers of the company was also
shown throughout the project by those
in charge of the cable construction. To
them the unsuccessful termination of
each expedition was not a failure but only
}

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

a temporary setback that would ultimately
lead to success. Something was learned
from each failure, and they could see the
progress that was being made each time.
They were confident that they could over-
come all difficulties, and they were able
to instill this same confidence into those
associated with the project.

There were many developments and
improvements during the period of ten
years construction. Different cables were
manufactured and laid, setbacks were
experienced, and changes were made to
correct troubles. During this period only
335 miles of cable were laid in 1857, and
341 miles were laid in the first expedition
of 1858 (fig. 9). Cable-laying was sus-
pended in each case because of cable
breakage, and because no equipment was
available to recover the end of the cable
from the ocean bottom.

In preparation for the second expedi-
tion of 1858, the cable payout machinery
was completely redesigned by William E.
Everett, Chief Engineer of the U. S.
Navy. This greatly reduced its size and
weight and simplified its construction.
Self-releasing brakes were provided,
which automatically released when the
cable tension reached an unsafe value.
Electrical testing and signal transmission
was also greatly improved by the inven-
tion of Prof. Thomson’s ‘‘marine’’ gal-
vanometer of extreme sensitivity. The
second expedition was an apparent suc-
cess as the entire cable of 2050 miles
was laid with only minor difficulties due
to several mysterious but temporary
electrical interruptions in the cable con-
tinuity. However, success was _ short
lived. Signals over the cable gradually
weakened, and they failed completely a
month after the cable had been completed.

Group Scientific Research

After the cable failure in 1858 there was
an extensive study made of the entire
cable project by a committee of experts
called the ‘‘Joint Scientific Committee.”
The committee analyzed all the difficulties
that had been experienced and made
recommendations for correcting them.

Fig. 1. Improved cable (cross section) used in
1865 and 1866 expeditions. Heavy shore end.

These included cable specifications,
cable manufacturing and laying, and
telegraph transmission arrangements.
A summary of its report, published in
1863, stated that the 1858 cable failure
was due to a number of causes which
could and should be corrected before
another attempt was made. These in-
cluded the following:

1. During storage the cable had not
been properly protected from the heat
of air and sun, and this had softened and
weakened the gutta percha insulation.
The committee recommended that the
cable be stored in water at all times during
manufacture, laying, and intermediate
operations.

2. In the early expeditions inadequate
stowage on ship allowed the cable to shift
during severe storms, so the cable was
badly tangled and twisted. This undoubt-
edly weakened the insulation and may
have caused some of the temporary inter-
ruptions. These failures were mainly due
to the use of ships not constructed for
cable laying. Such ships should be of
large capacity, very steady in rough seas,
and should have sufficient power to main-
tain constant speeds over the range of
4 to 6 knots in all kinds of weather.

3. A careful survey of the ocean bot-

tom along the cable route should be made
before laying the cable. Irregularities in
ocean bottom levels are more important
than actual depths in placing the cable so
as to provide proper slack. Complete
records of the survey would also facilitate
any future cable repairs.

4. The conductivity and insulation of
the cable conductors should be improved
by increasing the size of each strand from
No. 22 to No. 18 BWG, and the copper
purity should be maintained at no less
than 85%. Insulation should be of the
latest improved gutta percha, and should
be tested under the highest hydraulic
pressure attainable. Joints should be
tested separately, and should not show
a greater leakage than twice that of a cor-
responding length of core.

The committee concluded its report by |

Stating that a well insulated cable, prop-
erly protected, of suitable specific gravity,
made with care, properly tested under
water throughout the project, and laid
with the best machinery, could not only
be successfully installed, but should give
satisfactory service for many years.

The report was signed by the following
prominent telegraph engineers and scien-
tists: Douglas Galton, Cromwell F. Var-
ley, Charles Wheatstone, George Saward,
Latimer Clark, William Fairbairn, Edwin
Clark, and George P. Bidder.

The committee’s findings were rather
broad and required more specific develop-
ment and design. This work was carried
out under the direction of Charles T.
Bright, a prominent British telegraph
engineer, in collaboration with the com-
mittee. The result was a cable with three
times the copper cross section, tensile
strength, and weight. However because
of the increased diameter, its weight in
water was practically the same as the
previous cable.

Preparation for laying the improved
cable (figs. 1, 2) proceeded more care-
fully than in earlier expeditions, and it
was 1865 before all was ready. This time
the Great Eastern (figs. 3—5) a huge steam
ship, five times the size of any other ship
afloat, was used to lay the entire cable.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

The ship had the needed cable capacity
and power, and needed only the required
stowage and payout equipment. The
_cable-laying operation worked perfectly,
and over 1200 miles of cable were laid.
_ However, two serious cable defects were
experienced from bits of metal between
the conductor and the metal sheath. In
each case it was necessary to recover
several miles of cable (fig. 6) to find the
trouble, and the recovery operation was
| slow and cumbersome. In the second case
_the cable broke and sank (fig. 7), and the
grappling equipment was not strong enough
_ to raise the cable.

Final Success

_ In spite of another failure and the ap-
| parent loss of 1200 miles of cable, it was
felt that the 1865 expedition contained all
|| of the elements of success. The cable lay-
_ ing operations had worked perfectly, and
_it was only in the recovery operations
| where improvement was needed. To cor-
| rect this condition, both fore and aft re-
| covery gear was provided with more
| powerful steam engines. This would
_avoid moving the cable from stern to

Fig. 2. Improved cable used in 1865 and 1866
expeditions. The seven-strand copper core was
covered by four layers of gutta percha, wrapped
in tarred hemp, and protected by ten steel wires,
each wrapped in impregnated hemp.

bow when the recovery operation was
started. Improved grappling equipment
was also provided that was stronger and
more flexible.

Sufficient cable was manufactured at
Greenwich, England, and the Great
Eastern was fitted out for an 1866 expedi-
tion. With the improved equipment pro-
vided, one cable was laid the entire dis-
tance between Ireland and Newfoundland

Fig. 3. The Great Eastern, 1860 (courtesy Burndy Library).

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Fig. 5. Paying-out machinery, the Great Eastern (courtesy Burndy Library).

8 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Fig. 6. Searching for fault after recovery of cable from bed of the Atlantic, July 31, 1865 (courtesy
| Burndy, Library).

without difficulty. The end of the 1200-
mile cable laid in 1865 was then recovered,
after considerable difficulty due to bad
weather, and was extended the remaining
distance. Thus two working cables were
provided between Ireland and New-
foundland. |

After suitable testing the first cable was
placed in service, to be followed six weeks
later by the second cable. Both cables
carried increasing message loads, and the
‘benefits to trade and international rela-
| tions were soon apparent. Business and
) government problems were solved faster,
and people were kept better informed of
what was happening in the different coun-
| tries. Trading was based on sound infor-
‘mation, and much of the business insta-
bility between Europe and America was
corrected. The cable was also of great
| help in settling the differences between
the United States and Britain arising

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

from the latter’s help given to the South
during the Civil War.

Important Technological Problems Solved

A great deal of basic experimentation
and scientific planning went into prepa-
ration for the first cable expedition in
1857, and was continued during the life
of the project. This included experiments
in the fundamental laws of telegraph
transmission in long cables, determining
the electrical and mechanical require-
ments of the cable and terminal equip-
ment, electrical tests in manufacture and
laying of the cable, and cable laying meth-
ods and equipment. Laboratory facilities
were elementary and inadequate, and it
was frequently a learn-by-doing process.
In spite of these handicaps a remarkable
amount of progress was made.

The experiments in telegraph trans-

Fig. 7. Forward deck cleared for final attempt at grappling, Aug. 11, 1865.

mission conducted by Dr. E. O. W. White-
house, British scientist, indicated that
the telegraph signals would be consider-
ably retarded through a long cable such
as the Atlantic. The time lag between sig-
nals would thus seriously impair the read-
ability of the dots and dashes of the Morse
code. Although not completely under-
stood, it was realized that this retardation
was related to the capacity and inductance
of the cable and was proportional to the
cable length. The tests indicated that this
reduction in transmission speed and
received signal current was much closer
to a direct proportion to the cable length,
rather than to the square of their ratios
as was first believed (Table 1). The use
of reversed polarity signals reduced this
retardation, because they were opposite
to the charge and discharge currents.
It was also first thought that sending po-
tentials equivalent to about 2000 volts
were needed for satisfactory transmis-
sion. However, after the failure of the
1858 cable, further tests indicated that

this may have weakened the cable insula-
tion and that satisfactory transmission
was possible with much lower potentials.

As aresult of this fundamental research,
the terminal equipment was considerably
improved during the life of the project.
The polarized receiving relay, responding
to sending voltages of reversed polarity,
was later replaced by the more sensitive
‘‘marine’’ galvanometer, invented by
Prof. Thomson (later Lord Kelvin). This
greatly increased the speed of telegraph
reception and permitted reduced trans-
mitting voltages. The ‘‘marine”’ galva-
nometer (fig. 8) used a beam of light to
magnify the tiny movements of a mirror
suspended in the magnetic field of the
received signal current. The beam of light
was reflected on to a graduated screen
where the amplitude of the coded signals
could be read. Kelvin later improved
his galvanometer with the so-called ‘‘si-
phon recorder.’’ This automatically re-
corded the coded signals as an undulating
line on paper tape and thus eliminated

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

| Table 1.—Transmission Loss in Long 16-Gauge Gutta Percha-Insulated Cable
_ Conductors.

1. Transmission Time of the Signal

Test No. 1.—Direct Battery Supply

Transmit
Miles of Ratio of Time in Ratio of
Conductor Cum. Dist. Sec. Cum. Time
83 — 08 zat
166 z 14 ees
249 3 36 4.5
498 6 .79 9.87
1,020 {2 14D WES!
Test No. 2— Magneto Electric Supply
300 1 .06—.08 =
600 2 iG 38322-0600
900 3 EOS 301223733

| (Note No. 1—Magneto-electric supply provided through induction coils and alternate reversals of supply
polarity.)

Test No. 3—Effect of Increased Size of Conductors

Miles of Transmission Time (Sec.)
Each No. of Wires sa a a anc et ina
Conductor in Parallel Battery Mag. Elec.
166 1 16 .08
166 y 44 .09
166 3 28 .095
250 1 29 145
250 2 406 185

2. Reduction of Received Signal Current

7 Strength Ratio of
Miles of Ratio of of Current Rec’d
Conductor Cum. Dist. (grains) Current
0 = 25,000 —
200 os: 10,650 23
400 2.0 3,250 335
600 5 1,400 pes)

(Note No. 2—Measurements made with a so-called magneto electrometer, designed to measure the
» mechanical force of the signal exerted through an electromagnet.)

the need to read the signals as they were time. By use of the Wheatstone bridge
sent. Equipment was also later providedfor principle, the receiving relay was made
duplexing the telegraph circuit, whereby insensitive to transmitted signals but
two messages could be sent at the same __ sensitive to received signals.

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978 11

Se
jee
pe
eee Se
ey
es
c sera a
ie
}—— = — = = = "EL ae (5)
~ =. b
a
as
——s
Sas
=<
a
TSS
™”~

Fig. 8. Prof. Thomson’s marine galvanometer,
consisting of a very small magnet to which was
fastened a mirror. The magnet was suspended by
a silk filament within a coil through which the
signal current was passed. A light source from
lamp (a) passed through slot (b) and was reflected
from mirror (c) upon the scale (d).

As the project developed, complete
manufacturing specifications were needed
to make sure the cable was as perfect as
possible. Based on the research done by

the Joint Committee, the manufacturer,
under the direction of Mr. Bright,

EXPEDITION

1857

1858
(first)

1858
(second)

Niagara
(American)

Aug. 5 Niagara

ee 1,03 be
Trinity Bay, oP

Newfoundland

CABLE LAID BY DATES AND SHIPS

mid-Atlantic
-. June 26

255 mi. .

Great Eastern J
1865 [Ho
i 2 Geis Valentia,

Trinity Bay |
July 27 Great Eastern 1,852 mi. July 13
1866 I Valentia,
Sept. 7 Great Eastern Lifting Tesland
680 mi. Aug. 12 - Sept. 1

prepared specifications covering the im-
portant electrical and mechanical re-
quirements of the cable. Seven strands
of No. 18 BWG conductors were spe-
cified with a carefully controlled cop-
per content of at least 85%. Machines
for stranding the conductors and the appli-
cation of gutta percha by an extrusion
process had been developed earlier in the
project. During cable manufacture and
placing, electrical continuity, insulation,
and resistance were measured with the
cable immersed in water under pressure.
Mechanical breaking tests were also
made periodically to insure the proper
strength of the cable. An artificial line,
invented by C. F. Varley, was used in
preliminary cable design. The line was
composed of variable resistances, induc- |
tances, and condensers, and by its use _
the transmission characteristics of various
cable designs could be predicted.
Electrical insulation and continuity
tests for use during cable laying were
developed by Latimer Clark, noted Brit-

Niagara A
335 mi. Valentia,
Ireland

Agamemnon
(British)

June 27

June 29

July 29 Agamemnon Aug.5

Valentia,

102 Ics
Cong Ireland

Ireland

Fig. 9. Summary of five Atlantic cable expeditions, 1857-1866.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

ee en nn ES as

—_ . ; . — Saas =

ish telegraph engineer. These insured
that conductor troubles were detected
as soon as they developed. Charles Wheat-

stone invented a resistance bridge for

measuring the conductor resistance, and

Varley devised a method of using the
bridge to locate conductor troubles. This

avoided the effect of fault resistance,
thus improving the accuracy of trouble
location.

It was realized that improvement was
badly needed in cable laying and recovery

methods to avoid costly cable damage

that had been experienced. Therefore
Lord Kelvin made a scientific analysis

_ of the mechanical forces involved in these

operations and their application to the

‘method of operations. The analysis was

so complete and accurate that it is still
the standard mathematical treatise on the
subject. Kelvin showed that when a cable
is laid in deep water, at uniform speed,
on a level bottom, and without tension

|, at the bottom, it moves on an inclined

straight line from the water’s edge to the
ocean floor. Under these conditions the
cable tension at the ship during cable
laying is essentially equal to the weight
in water per unit length of cable multi-
plied by the depth of the water. The cable
should therefore be laid with just enough
slack to conform to the contour of the
ocean floor, so as to avoid residual bot-
tom tension during and after laying. In
cable recovery, a method of lifting the
cable from the ocean floor was described
using three ships. Each ship would raise
the cable only part way, and the tension
would always be less than the breaking
strength of the cable.

Kelvin’s methods were successfully
used in laying the 1865 and 1866 cables,
and recovery of the partially laid 1865
cable in 1866. Cable-laying and recovery
machinery was also developed, and many
improvements were made during the

project. These included the use of self-
releasing brakes, recovery machinery at
_the same location as the payout machinery,

and an electric log for automatically re-
cording the speed of the ship. The machin-
ery for cable laying and recovery was so

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

satisfactory that the design was used for
many years on other cable-laying projects.

Compared to modern day standards,
the methods and equipment used in the
first Atlantic cable seem rather elemen-
tary. However, the scientific knowledge
of submarine cable manufacture and
installation that was developed provided
a very important foundation for modern
day methods and equipment. Although
the knowledge was not as complete nor
were the phenomena as well understood
as they are today, what was available
was used in the scientific way. Develop-
ment was accelerated under the pressure
to complete the project, and failures did
occur. However it was recognized that
these were a part of the development
process, and were to be expected as steps
leading to ultimate success.

Bibliography —A List of Sources Consulted
by the Author

‘The Atlantic Telegraph— Present State and Prog-
ress of the Undertaking.’’ R. J. Mann, London,
1857.

‘‘Experimental Investigation of Laws Governing
Propagation of Electric Currents in Long Sub-
marine Cables.’’ Latimer Clark, London, 1861.

‘‘Report of Joint Committee to Inquire into the
Construction of Submarine Cables.’’ Board of
Trade, London, 1861-1863.

‘‘The Atlantic Telegraph’? W. H. Russell, Lon-
don, 1866.

‘‘The Forces Concerned in Laying and Lifting
Deep Sea Cables.’’ William Thomson (Lord
Kelvin), London, 1866.

‘‘The Atlantic Telegraph—Description of Laying
and Working of 1865-1866 Cables and Re-
covery of 1865 Cable.’’ Edward B. Bright,
London, 1867.

‘‘The Trans Atlantic Submarine Telegraph.”
George Saward, London, 1878.

‘‘One Hundred Years of Submarine Cables.”’
G. R. M. Garrat, His Majesty’s Stationery
Office, London, 1950.

‘‘Dynamics and Kinematics of Laying and Recov-
ery of Submarine Cables.’’ E. E. Zajac, Bell
System Technical Journal, Sept. 1957.

‘‘The Atlantic Cable.’’ Bern Debner,
Library, 1959.

‘*The Tooth of Time.’’ Jean Ford Brennan, D. Van
Nostrand Co., 1967.

‘‘Cyrus Field—Man of Two Worlds.’ Samuel
Carter III, Putnam & Sons, 1968.

Burndy

The General Linear, First-Order Ordinary

Differential Equation

Simon W. Strauss

Directorate of Science, Director of Science and Technology, HQ Air Force
Systems Command, Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland 20334.

ABSTRACT

A tersely annotated collection of references on types of approaches used in currently
available methods to solve the general linear, first-order ordinary differential equation is
presented, and another variant on a standard technique is described for obtaining the

general solution of this type of equation.

In applied mathematics, the most im-
portant and frequently occurring dif-
ferential equations are linear differential
equations (51). This class of equations
supplies some of the most frequently
used models in all branches of science.
Additionally, because any differential
equation is linear to a first-order approx-
imation, knowledge of the linear theory
(already satisfactorily developed) often
Suggests how one should study a non-
linear problem (11). The present paper is
concerned with a special type of linear
equation, namely, the general linear,
first-order ordinary differential equation.
This equation is written in standard
(normal) form as

— + Py=Q,

dx
where P and Q are continuous functions
of x over the intervals for which solu-
tions are sought. Although this is one of
the simplest types of differential equa-
tions, its practical importance stems from
its applicability to a wide variety of
problems (see, for example Betz, Bur-
cham and Ewing (6); Buck and Buck
(11); Spiegel (65); and Tenenbaum and
Pollard (67)). A number of standard
techniques and many variations thereof
is already available to solve the above
type of equation. The objectives of the
present paper are to (a) provide a tersely
annotated collection of references on

(1)

types of approaches used in currently
available methods to solve equation (1),
and (b) describe another variant on a ~
standard technique for obtaining the
general solution of equation (1). The sub-
stance of the present paper should be of
particular interest to the undergraduate
student encountering for the first time
the rudiments of elementary differential
equations in general and equation (1)
in particular.

Approaches to Existing Methods of Solution

Approaches used in existing tech-
niques to obtain the general solution of
equation (1) range from the very sim-
plistic to the more mathematically elegant
and include:

I. Simply stating the general solution
as a formula (17, 37)—a trivial case
indeed,

II. Direct application of a known posi-
tive integrating factor (2, 21, 23, 33, 38,
43, 50, 59, 65, 67), or a minor variation
thereof (5, 52, 54, 63, 66, 69),

III. Determination of an integrating
factor by considering the homogeneous
equation (also referred to as the reduced,
abridged, associated homogeneous, cor-
responding homogeneous, or related
homogeneous equation) and its solution
(7, 8, 16, 19, 30, 34, 35, 46, 47),

IV. Introduction of an unknown inte-
grating factor followed by the applica-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

tion of the necessary and sufficient
condition for exactness which enables the
determination of this factor (14, 26, 28,
62 357/41-,53, 60, 67),

V. A variation of IV which considers
equation (1) as a special case. of a cate-
gory of equations having an integrating
factor which is a function of one variable
only (6, 8, 26, 39, 40, 46, 65),

VI. Another variation of IV which is
based on the identification (by the per-
spicacious observer) of a_ potentially
integrable combination consisting of the
derivative of a product of the de-
pendent variable and an unknown but
determinable function of the independent
|. variable (an integrating factor) (3, 4, 9,
| 10,11, 13,24, 29, 31, 42, 55, 56, 64, 68, 70),

VII. An interesting variation of VI in
which the simultaneous consideration of
equation (1) and its adjoint equation leads
to a directly integrable differential equa-
tion which readily yields the desired
general solution (25),

VIII. The method of Lagrange (gen-
erally called the method of variation of
parameters or variation of constants) in
which the general solution of equation (1)
is obtained from the general solution of
the corresponding homogeneous equa-
tion by allowing the integration constant
to vary with the independent variable
(that is, by replacing the integration
constant in the solution of the homogene-
ous equation with an unknown but de-
terminable function of the independent
variable) (10, 12; 14, 15, 20, 26, 32, 40, 43,
44, 49, 57, 59), and

IX. A change in variable approach
which assumes the dependent variable
to be a product of 2 functions of the
independent variable (an assumption
possessing the advantage that one of
these 2 functions can be made to satisfy
' any convenient condition (58)) (22, 29,
— 44, 48, 50, 51, 57, 58, 61, 62). For a rather
unique change in variable approach (i.e.,
Z = Q/P — y) leading to a non-conven-
tional, but correct, expression for the
general solution of equation (1), see page

2 of the second entry in reference (20).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Another Variant On A Standard Technique

With the above information as a back-
drop, we are now ready to proceed with
the second objective of the present
paper. In order to perform certain oper-
ations in the technique to be described,
let us assume that the quotient Q(x)/y(x)
is continuous on the interval of inte-
gration and y + 0. Equation (1) can now
be rewritten in the form

d
oo ay [P x =a 0a)
y y
then integrated, and the result ex-
pressed as

ye! Pdx,—f(Qy)dx — K, (3)
where K is an integration constant. Ob-
viously, equation (3) does not yet con-
stitute a satisfactory solution because it
contains a factor having the dependent
variable, y, under an integral sign. Taking
into consideration properties of exponen-
tials suggests a way to complete the
solution.

Equation (3) is differentiated, yielding

d
e —f(Q/y)dx eter (ye! Pax)
dx

d
+ yelPdx a (e SQMdx) = 0. (4)

Rearranging terms and simplifying, we
obtain

ate (ye! Pax) = ye! Pdx ie | = dx.
dx AK,

With the conditions imposed above on
Q(x)/y(x) and y(x),

a a ee gle
dx J y(t) y(x)
and equation (5) becomes
be (ye! Pax) as Qe! Pax, (7)
dx

Direct integration of equation (7) gives
the general solution

y =e JPAxIC + fQelPXdx], (8)

where C is an integration constant. The
restriction y #0, which we had im-
posed in a previous section of this paper,
can now be removed since equation (8)
is valid for all y, C, P(x) and Q(x).

Concluding Remarks

Although the above derivation is a
variant on a standard technique, it has
the desirable feature of dealing with

equation (1) in its entirety without re-
sorting to homogeneous equations, un-
known integration factors, or changes in
variables. It is always instructive to
examine the solution process of funda-
mental equations from various perspec-
tives (as exemplified by the hundreds of
proofs of the well known Pythagorean
proposition (theorem) (36)) since this al-
lows one to obtain a greater insight and
understanding of fundamental concepts.

APPENDIX

(Consideration of a Nonlinear Differential Equation)

Phillips (page 64, reference (S0Q)) dis-
cusses a problem in mathematical biol-
ogy which gives rise to the differential
equation

d :
sabi + mx = Rx’, (9)
dt

with initial condition x =a at t = 0,
where x is the number of inhabitants
in a country who at the end of t years

have no ancestors in a specified group
(of inhabitants);

e—t/100
R= ————.
50(a + b)

where a and b are positive constants
(for additional details, see Phillips (50)).

Equation (9) is a nonlinear differential
equation (a special case of the so-called
Bernoulli equation). This type of equa-
tion is ordinarily solved by first reduc-
ing it to a linear differential equation
by a change of variable (see, for
example, Rainville and Bedient (53)).
We shall, however, solve equation (9)
by applying the technique used in the
present paper for the solution of equa-
tion (1). Equation (9) is rewritten in the
form

AEE al ai le acti ti ONG
»4

then integrated, and the result expressed as

xemte —JRxdt = M, (11)

where M is an integration constant. As in
the case of equation (3), equation (11)
does not yet constitute a satisfactory
solution because it contains the de-
pendent variable (x in the present case)
under an integral sign. Equation (11) is
differentiated, yielding

e J Rxdt d (xe™)

3
" neM a (eT/RXCh) aes)

Rearranging terms and simplifying, we
obtain

d d

~(xe™) = xem == ee 13

(xem) - | (13)
Since

. i R(z)x(z)dz = R(t)x(t), (14)

equation (13) becomes

ye (xem), = Rx2e™ = Rene m ean i>)
Replacing m and R with the values given,
equation (15) may be written in the di-
rectly integrable form
t/100 tt —t/50
d(ixet™) _ (Cae (16)
(xet/190)2 (a a2 b)
Integration of equation (16) followed by
evaluation of the integration constant

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

(using the given initial condition x = a
at t = 0) gives the desired solution
a(a + b)

x = ——__—__.. (17)
qe—t/100 4 pet/100

Additional cases of nonlinear differen-
tial equations will be investigated to de-
termine conditions under which the tech-
nique used in the present paper can be
extended to other differential equations
of the nonlinear-type.

References Cited

(1) Apostol, T. M. Calculus. Volume 1, Blaisdell
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(2) Bak, T. A., and J. Lichtenberg. Mathematics
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Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1967.

(3) Bajpai, A. C., I. M. Calus, and J. Hyslop.
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(4) Bateman, H. Differential Equations. Chelsea
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(5) Belman, R., and K. L. Cook. Modern Ele-
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(7) Birkhoff, G., and G. C. Rota. Ordinary Dif-
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(8) Boas, M. L. Mathematical Methods in the
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(10) Brookes, C. J., I. G. Betteley, and S. M.
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(12) Chisholm, J. S. R., and R. M. Morris.
Mathematical Methods in Physics. W. B.
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(14) Cohen, A. An Elementary Treatise on Dif-
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(15) Courant, R. Differential and Integral Cal-

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(16) Curle, N. Applied Differential Equations. Van
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(17) Daniels, F. Mathematical Preparation for
Physical Chemistry. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., New York, 1928.

(18) Davis, H. T. Introduction to Nonlinear Dif-
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Publications, Inc., New York, 1960.

(19) Dence, J. B. Mathematical Techniques in
Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
LOTS:

(20) Forsyth, A. R. A Treatise on Differential
Equations (6 Ed.). Macmillan and Co., Ltd.,
London, 1951; Solutions of the Examples in
a Treatise on Differential Equations, same
publisher and date.

(21) Gaskell, R. E. Engineering Mathematics. The
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(22) Granville, W. A., P. F. Smith, and W. R.
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(23) Greenspan, D. Theory and Solution of
Ordinary Differential Equations. The Mac-
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(24) Hildebrand, F. B. Advanced Calculus for
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(7th Ed.). Oliver and Boyd, London, 1956.

(27) Jeffrey, A. Mathematics for Engineers and
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(28) Kaplan, W. Ordinary Differential Equations.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

}

Richard H. McCuen

College Park 20742.

RESEARCH REPORTS

| Design of Detention Structures for Controlling
_ Runoff from Highway Surfaces

|| Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland,

ABSTRACT

Storm water runoff from highways and parking lots causes frequent localized flooding
in urban areas. Storm water detention provides a means of minimizing the hydrologic
impact of increased highway development and simultaneously reducing the total cost
of the drainage system. A hydrologic model was formulated to determine the volume of
storage that would be required to limit the peak rate of runoff from highways and parking
lots to the discharge that occurred prior to development. A design curve that relates the
area under development to the required volume of detention storage is presented for use

specifically with highways and parking lots.

In most metropolitan areas, streets and
parking lots may account for as much as
20% of the total area. Wallace (9) indi-

_ cated that in 1968, highways and parking

areas represented 17.22% of a 134-square-
mile (347 km?) watershed, which includes
part of Atlanta, Georgia; the correspond-
ing figure for 1949 was 8.62%. An exten-
sive land-use sampling analysis of a 132-
Square-mile (342 km?) watershed in sub-
urban Washington, D. C., showed that,

in 1971, 12.83% of the watershed was

paved in either streets or parking areas
(6). And for smaller subwatersheds in
urban areas the percentage may be sig-
nificantly greater. Furthermore, the area
paved in streets and parking lots may
represent over 50% of the total im-
pervious area.

In many urban areas the peak rate of
runoff may be 5 times greater than the
peak discharge on a natural nonurbanized
watershed having similar physiographic
characteristics (e.g., slope). To cope with
such increases in runoff rates, the size

and capacity of a storm drainage system

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

must be increased significantly. In many
areas a portion of the runoff from roof-
tops, both residential and commercial, is
not connected directly to the storm drain-
age system. Since streets and parking lots
account for a major portion of the im-
pervious area and are usually connected
directly to the drainage system, they may
be a primary source of increases in peak
rates of runoff. Stormwater runoff from
highways and parking areas entering
directly into small streams may be
responsible for increased erosion and
degradation of the quality of the water.
Many stormwater management prac-
tices have been suggested as alternatives
for minimizing the hydrologic impact of
continued urbanization. Various forms of
stormwater detention and/or retention
have proven to be both a practical and
economically efficient means of reducing
peak runoff rates, especially the frequent
storms of small volume and small return
periods. The objective of on-site storm-
water detention is to redistribute the
runoff with respect to time such that the

peak rates of runoff are below some
prescribed standard. The use of temporary
ponding in the Fort Campbell (Ky.) storm
drainage system reduced the total project
cost from an estimated $5,500,000 to
$2,000,000 (3). In addition to the cost of
the storm drainage system, stormwater
detention can reduce downstream flood-
ing and channel erosion, which may be a
primary cause of stream pollution.

Design of Detention Structures

The maximum allowable discharge rate
and the required volume of storage are
the primary variables considered in the
design of a detention structure. The
maximum allowable discharge rate is
usually set equal to the discharge rate
that would occur on the site prior to
development; a return period is usually
selected for the design storm. However,
in some instances, the maximum allow-
able discharge rate may depend on the
discharge capacity of downstream sewer
systems or the bankfull flow rate of re-
ceiving streams.

The time distribution of inflow and the
maximum allowable discharge rate is
necessary but not sufficient to determine
the required storage. The required stor-
age will also depend on the configuration
of the detention structure. The required
volume of storage will be equivalent to
the maximum difference between the
cumulative distribution of inflow and the
cumulative distribution of outflow when
the maximum allowable discharge is not
exceeded. The inflow to a detention
structure may be simulated by routing a
design hyetograph over the highway sur-
face or parking lot and through the
gutter/culvert system that connects the
paved surface to the detention structure.
The depth-discharge (or volume-dis-
charge) relationship of the detention
structure must be specified in order to
route the inflow distribution through the
detention structure.

Different design criteria exist for
designing detention structures. Design
curves may differ because of different
hydrologic criteria or because of differ-

ences in the models used in their deriva-
tion. A model used in the derivation of
detention structure design curves should
include the following components: (1) a
design hyetograph of some preselected
frequency and duration, (2) a routing
procedure to represent the effect of over-
land runoff and gutter flow on the design
storm, and (3) a stage-discharge relation-
ship, which is controlled by certain deten-
tion facility design parameters, for the
detention structure. The third component
is especially important if the required
volume of storage, and thus project cost,
is to be minimized. But many models do
not include this important component. In
some cases the maximum allowable dis-
charge may be determined from an
empirical prediction equation, such as the
rational method or the Burkli-Ziegler
formula.

In the past, design criteria have been
established for use in residential and
commercial areas. Such criteria assume
that the area under development is com-
posed of a variety of land uses, including
buildings, streets, and non-impervious
surfaces. As such the design criteria
may be inadequate for use with land uses
that are predominantly transportation
oriented. For areas that include only
small parcels of pervious surface, such
as a major highway and the adjoining
right-of-way, the time of concentration
will be much shorter than that of a
residential development that includes
large quantities of pervious surfaces.
Thus, the peak discharge from a highway
or parking lot after development will be
greater than that for a residential area,
and thus, a larger volume of detention
storage may be required.

The design of detention structures
requires the determination of the required
volume of storage and the maximum
allowable release rate. The maximum
allowable release rate was assumed
herein to be the peak discharge on a
natural watershed prior to development.
The rational method is used herein to
estimate the design peak discharge Q,.
An estimate of the time of concentration
of the watershed is required for estima-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

tion of Q, with the rational formula.
Estimates of the time of concentration
T. were computed using a method out-
lined by Kent (2). A runoff coefficient
of 0.2 was used for determining the peak
discharge for the natural watershed. The
area was varied over the range shown in
Fig. 1. Fig. 1 shows the resulting peak
discharge for an undeveloped drainage
area.

A design hyetograph having a duration
of 24 hours and a 10-year return period
was formulated. The total volume, in
inches, was determined from Weather
Bureau Technical Paper No. 40 (7). The
method by Kent (2), which was de-
scribed above, was also used to deter-
mine the time of concentration for the
developed drainage area. The 10-year
rainfall volume for a storm of duration
equal to the time of concentration was
then obtained from Technical Paper No.
40 (7); this volume was uniformly dis-
tributed at the center of the design
hyetograph over-a period of time equal
to the time of concentration. The volu-
metric difference between the 24-hour
storm and the storm of duration equal
to the time of concentration was dis-
tributed over the remainder of the 24-
hour period using a cumulative distribu-
tion graph.

A unit hydrograph approach was used
in the model to represent the effect of
overland flow routing. A unit hydrograph
was determined for the developed drain-
age area using a method outlined by
Viessman (8). The inflow hydrograph to
the detention structure was determined
using the convolution integral, which is
given in a generalized form by:

| X(7)h(t — 7)dr (1)

Where X(7) is the design hyetograph,
h(t — 7) is the 1-minute unit hydrograph,
and 7 is the variable of integration. The
discrete form of the above integral was
used with the computer program to deter-
mine the inflow hydrograph.

A mathematical model of a stormwater
detention facility (]) was used to deter-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

(=)

S10

¢2)

—_

io)

C-¢

(=)
0.1

0.1 10

AREA (ACRES)

Fig. 1. Allowable release rate.

mine the required storage. The model
requires values representing the length,
width, and side slope of the detention
basin, the diameter of the riser pipe, the
height of the top of the riser and bottom
of the spillway above the bottom of the
detention basin, and the cross sectional
properties of the emergency spillway.
The model also includes an option to
simulate the effect of holes in the riser;
if this option is selected, input variables
are required that describe the number of
holes, their diameter and the height of
each hole above the bottom of the deten-
tion structure.

The stage-discharge relationship of the
detention structure is represented by an
algorithm that describes flow through the
performations in the riser, flow through
the top of the riser, and flow through
the emergency spillway. If the option for
flow through holes in the riser is selected,
the flow rate through the holes is com-
puted by

Q; = 0.0436C,;N;D,?H,°° (2)
where Q, (cfs) is the flow through the
i set of holes, C is a discharge coefficient
for orifice flow, N; is the number of holes
in the i set, D, is the diameter (inches)
of the holes and H, is the effective head
(feet) of the holes.

STORAGE (10° CUBIC FEET)
(é*

Oo 5 15 20

10
AREA (ACRES)
Fig. 2. Required storage.

Flow over the top of the riser was
treated as flow over.a sharpcrested weir
having a length equal to the circum-
ference of the riser pipe. The outflow can
be computed by

Q a mC,D,H,*? (3)

where Q is the flow, cfs, C, is a discharge
coefficient, D, is the diameter of the riser,
in inches, and H, is the effective head, in
feet. If flow in the riser is controlled by
the pipe, the discharge from the pipe is
given by

Q = 0.44 D,7H,°*/

(1.5 + 3.8 L,/D,'33)°> (4)

where L, is the length of the pipe in feet.
Flow through the emergency spillway
is treated as flow over a broadcrested

welr:
OF Solel (5)

where Q is the flow in cfs, b is the
width, in feet, of the spillway and H is the
effective head, in feet. Thus, the total
flow is the sum of the orifice flow, flow
over the crest of the riser, and flow
through the emergency spillway.

The above procedure, which involved
the determination of an inflow hydrograph
and routing the hydrograph through
a detention structure, was used to

determine the detention storage re-
quired to maintain a flow that did not
exceed the flow prior to development.
The resulting storage requirements for
different areas of development are given
in Fig. 2. The relationships shown in
Figs. 1 and 2 are designed especially for
use with highways and parking lots.
Because highways and parking lots do not
usually include significant portions of
pervious surfaces, the required storage
indicated by Fig. 2 will be greater than
the storage required for other patterns of
land use that include significant amounts
of pervious surfaces.

Discussion and Conclusions

A mathematical model that includes
components representing overland runoff
from an impervious surface, such as a
parking lot or highway, and a detention
structure was used in formulating design
curves for determining the storage re-
quired to minimize the hydrologic impact
of highway development. In addition to
the reduction in flooding, detention struc-
tures will also have a positive effect on
water quality. If properly designed, a
detention basin can serve as a Settling
basin and thus serve to remove dust and
particulate matter that is suspended in the
runoff from the highway surface or sedi-
ment and/or decayed leaves that are in the
runoff originating from nght-of-way areas.
In many areas the poor quality of runoff
from highways and parking lots is respon-
sible for a reduction in the efficiency of
waste water treatment facilities and deg-
radation of water quality in receiving
streams.

In addition to reducing the problem of
localized flooding, the use of stormwater
detention as part of a drainage system
for highways should result in significant
reductions in the cost of drainage systems.
Leach and Kittle (3) and Poertner (/0)
demonstrated that detention storage can
result in significant reductions in the cost
of a storm drainage system. Rawls and
McCuen (//) provided an equation for
estimating the cost of detention storage
facilities.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978 |

References Cited

(1) Curtis, D. C. ‘‘A Mathematical Model of a
Storm Water Detention Structure.’’ Tech-
nical Report, Department of Civil Engineer-
ing. University of Maryland, 1974.

(2) Kent, K. M. ‘‘A Method for Estimating
Volume and Rate of Runoff in Small Water-
sheds.’’ Soil Conservation Service, SCS-
TP-149, 1968.

(3) Leach, L. G., and B. L. Kittle. ‘‘Hydraulic
Design of the Fort Campbell Storm Drainage
System.’’ Highway Research Record, No.
116, pp. 1-7, 1966.

(4) McCuen, R. H. ‘‘The Role of Sensitivity
Analysis in Hydrologic Modeling.”’ Journal
of Hydrology, Vol. 18, pp. 37—53, 1973.

(5) McCuen, R. H. “‘Urban Storm Water Deten-
tion: A Regional Approach.’’ Paper pre-
sented at the 55th Annual Meeting, Ameri-
can Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C.,
April 8—12, 1974.

(6) Ragan, R. M., and E. C. Rebuck. Resource
Identification Study for the Anacostia River
Basin. Vol. 1, Department of Civil Engineer-

ing, University of Maryland, College Park,
Maryland, 1973.

(7) U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather
Bureau. Rainfall Frequency Atlas of the
United States. Technical Paper No. 40,
May 1961.

(8) Viessman, W., Jr. ‘“‘Runoff Estimation for
Very Small Drainage Areas.’’ Water Re-
sources Research, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 87-93,
1968.

(9) Wallace, J. R. The Effects of Land Use
Change on the Hydrology of an Urban
Watershed. School of Civil Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta,
Georgia, 1971.

(J0) Poertner, H. G. ‘“‘Better Storm Drainage
Facilities — At Lower Cost.”’ Civil Engineer-
ing, pp. 67-70, Oct. 1973.

(J1) Rawls, W.J., and R. H. McCuen. *‘A Planning
Tool for Economic Evaluation of Alterna-
tives for Storm Drainage Facilities.’’ Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American Geophysical Union, Washington,
DiC -e 1977:

Field Observations on the Cliff Swallow, Petrochelidon
pytrhonota (Vieillot), and the Swallow Bug,

Oeciacus vicarius Horvath

G. C. Smith and R. B. Eads

Vector-Borne Diseases Division, Bureau of Laboratories, Center for Disease Control,
Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
P. O. Box 2087, Fort Collins, Colorado 80522

ABSTRACT

Observations are presented on the longevity of swallow bugs, Oeciacus vicarius
Horvath, in the prolonged absence of their normal hosts and on the parasites and predators
of these bugs. The use of the cliff swallow nests by other birds and mammals is discussed.

Studies on known and suspected vec-
tors and pathogens were initiated by
Vector-Borne Diseases Division person-
nel in the Colorado Counties of Morgan
and Logan in 1972 in connection with a
proposed impoundment of the South
Platte River. Of special interest has been
the report by Hayes et al. (1977) of the
recovery in 1973 of an alphavirus strain

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

serologically related to western encepha-
litis (WE). The virus was isolated from a
pool of the swallow bug (Oeciacus vi-
carius ) from an inactive house sparrow
(Passer domesticus) nest built inside a
cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota)
nest under Bijou Bridge, just outside Fort
Morgan, Morgan County, Colorado.
Hayes et al. (1977) recovered virus from

O. vicarius from several swallow nesting
sites around Fort Morgan each month
from May 1974 through February 1975,
and from nestling house sparrows and
cliff swallows during the summer months
of 1974. These findings suggested the
swallow bug as a possible overwintering
mechanism for WE virus.

Later studies have indicated that the
virus strains from the bugs, house spar-
row nestlings and cliff swallow nestlings
represent 2 viruses, | serologically related
to WE (tentatively named Fort Morgan
virus), and the other related to Venezuelan
equine encephalitis (VEE) (referred to as
Biou Bridge virus).

Investigations designed to clarify the
taxonomic status and natural history of
these viruses are continuing. Viral isola-
tions have been made more frequently
from nestling house sparrows than from
nestling cliff swallows, and antibodies to
the viruses are more prevalent in adult
house sparrows than in adult cliff swal-
lows. This presents a rather anomalous
situation. O. vicarius normally parasi-
tizes cliff swallows, although we have on
occasion found the species in considera-
ble numbers in barn swallow (Hirundo
rustica) and bank swallow (Riparia ri-
paria) nests. We know of no record of
this bug being recovered from house
Sparrow nests unassociated with cliff
swallow nests. If these are normal house
Sparrow viruses, vectors other than cimi-
cids would have to be involved when
the sparrows are not nesting within or
in the vicinity of swallow nests.

O. vicarius seems to be restricted to
only a portion of the extensive range of
the cliff swallow. It is widely distributed
in the United States, although to our
knowledge it has not been previously
reported from the southeastern region.
We have the species from cliff swallow
nests from the face of Hartwell Dam
located on the Savannah River in northern
Georgia, July 12, 1975, coll. T. Monath.
In spite of intensive efforts, Usinger
(1966) was unable to find O. vicarius in
the Southern Hemisphere where the cliff
swallows spend the winter.

In Colorado, cliff swallows commonly

use cliff faces, bridges, and culverts for
nesting, with buildings less frequently
selected as nesting sites. During our cimi-
cid bug collecting in Colorado, we have
found house sparrows nesting in cliff
swallow nests only under bridges and
culverts. There are records, however, in
the literature of house sparrows rearing
their young in cliff swallow nests on
buildings (Grinnell 1937, Herman 1935).
It would appear that cliff swallow nests
on cliff faces are not especially attrac-
tive nesting sites for house sparrows,
although on one occasion one of us (GS)
found house sparrow nests in such a situ-
ation in Bon Homme County, South
Dakota on June 21, 1977.

The life cycle of O. vicarius is adjusted
to long periods of fasting. In northern
Colorado, cliff swallows begin returning
in late April and early May and depart
in September. Thus, the swallows are
only in the area 5S months and considerably
less than half of this time is spent in the
nesting cycle, when adult and young birds
are in the nests for appreciable periods
of time. In this connection, cliff swallows
probably produce single annual broods,
with only an occasional second brood.
In contrast, the house sparrow rears
multibroods. The cliff swallows begin
nesting activities at widely spaced inter-
vals, with the consequence that in early
July the nests may contain all stages—
from eggs to almost fully feathered fledg-
lings.

Swallow bugs have been observed to
survive in the nest for 2 years in the ab-
sence of the swallows. A colony of cliff
swallows consisting of some 300 nests
under a concrete culvert in Lory State
Park, some 10 km west of Fort Collins,
Larimer County, Colorado, has been
under observation for several years.
These nests were occupied by cliff swal-
lows during the summer of 1975. The nests
were heavily infested with both nymphal
and adult bugs during the winter of 1975—
76. Winter-collected bugs fed readily in
the laboratory on adult pigeons, wet
chicks, mice and people, but laid negligi-
ble numbers of eggs, even when cold-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

treated in an attempt to break the ap-
parent diapause.

In the spring of 1976, the bugs were
observed massed just inside the nest
entrances, awaiting the return of the
swallows. Bugs collected at this time
were fed in the laboratory on wet chicks,
nestling house sparrows and adult cliff
sparrows. All O. vicarius females laid
numerous eggs, although more were pro-
duced from bugs fed on cliff swallows.

Swallows did not use the nests in the
Lory Park culvert during the summer of
1976. There have been reports of swal-
lows alternating the use of nesting sites
(Grinnell et al. 1930, Mayhew 1958).

{ Our observations, however, have been

that cliff swallows continue to use an
established nesting site each year, except
for some specific reason. In this case,
the small stream that usually provides
water through the culvert was dry, and
mud for nest repair and building was not
available.

Several collections made during the
winter of 1976-77 demonstrated the
continuing presence of live bugs in the
nests. In late April of 1977, bugs were
not present in sufficient numbers to mass
at the nest entrances as they had done
the previous spring. However, 25 live
nymphal and adult bugs were taken from
2 nests. A third swallow nest in which
a well-formed grass nest had been built
contained several hundred cimicids in all
Stages of development. It was evident
that a pair of birds other than swallows
had used the nest the previous summer,
providing an opportunity for the cimicids
to feed.

The swallows also passed up the Lory
Park nesting site during the summer of
1977, even though water ran through
the culvert in April and the first 2 weeks
in May. Thus, the cliff swallow bugs in
this colony sustained themselves in large
- numbers through the winter of 1975-76
and the summer of 1976 and in fair num-
bers during the winter of 1976-77 and
the summer of 1977, in the absence of
their regular hosts.

This is not to say that the bugs might
not have had an opportunity to take blood

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

meals. No house sparrows have been
observed in this nesting site during sum-
mer or winter. However, on May 12,
1977, we found a pair of western blue-
birds, Sialia mexicana, rearing a brood
of young within one of the swallow nests;
2 other swallow nests containing well
formed grass nests of the type constructed
by bluebirds were seen, but they con-
tained no eggs or young birds.

Considerable activity of other bird
species in cliff swallow nesting sites in
all seasons has been documented, espe-
cially in natural nesting sites on cliff
faces. Sooter et al. (1954) reported use
of cliff swallow nests as winter shelter in
Larimer County, Colorado, on cliff
faces by the black rosy finch (Leu-
costicte atrata), the gray-crowned rosy
finch (L. tephrocotis) and the canyon
wren (Catherpes mexicanus), and for
summer nesting by a pair of Say’s phoebe
(Sayornis saya). Bailey and Niedrach
(1965) indicate that both gray-crowned
and brown-capped rosy finches (L. aus-
tralis) were seen in numbers in and about
cliff swallow nests near Ault, Weld County,
Colorado, February 13, 1960.

We have observed 3 species of birds
nesting in association with 2 large cliff
swallow colonies on cliff faces in Eden
Valley, some 16 km west of Fort Collins,
Larimer County, Colorado. The swal-
lows did not return to nest repair and
building until the middle of May in 1977.
For several weeks prior to this, rock
doves (Columba livia) were nesting on
ledges in the immediate vicinity of the
swallow nests; starlings (Sturnus vul-
garis) were nesting in cracks and crevas-
ses in the rocks and 2 pair of canyon
wrens built grass nests within swallow
nests for rearing their young.

Of interest has been the comparatively
harmonious relationships which seem to
exist between cliff swallows and other
species of birds utilizing their nests. Win-
ter usage of the nests as shelter would
present no problems as the swallows are
not there. However, in the Fort Morgan
study area, house sparrows may occupy
one-half or more of the nests in a swallow
nesting site. This is a year-round occu-

pancy, with the nests also used for winter
shelter. The house sparrows have a brood
of young about ready to fly by the time
the swallows return from the south. When
the swallows reappear, they simply repair
old nests not being used by the sparrows
and build new ones sufficient for their
needs. The sparrows have not been ob-
served to interfere with the brooding
activities of the swallows. However, it
is entirely possible that they do evict the
swallows, because sparrow nestlings in
newly constructed nests have been com-
monly observed.

The use of cliff swallow nests by other
animal species is not confined to birds.
In August of 1975, 2 juvenile deer mice,
Peromyscus maniculatus, were discov-
ered in a grass nest within a cliff swallow
nest on a cliff face at the Weaver ranch
near Fort Collins, Colorado.

The mud nests are finite, being subject
to action of the elements when on exposed
cliff faces. Nests under bridges frequently
are loosened and fall as a result of continu-
ing traffic vibrations. Without annual re-
pair of old nests and the construction of
new ones by returning swallows, the
crumbling nests would, in a few years, be
unsuitable for use by other species of birds
either in the summer or winter. Conse-
quently, the long-term maintenance of
large populations of bugs depends on the
regular return of cliff swallows.

High population densities of the swal-
low bugs commonly encountered attest
to the fact that natural enemies exercise
little control of the species. Spiders are
commonly observed in and around the
nests, evidently preying on the bugs. No
systematic effort has been made as yet
to collect spiders from the nests for iden-
tification. The following have been taken
from cliff swallow nests in Larimer County,
Colorado, in 1976-77: Steatoda borealis ,
family Theridiidae; Herpyllus propinquus ,
family Gnaphosidae; Nuctenea sp. (juven-
iles), family Araneidae; Dictyna sp.
(females and juveniles), family Dic-
tynidae; and Mallos niveus, family Dic-
tynidae.

Four specimens of the masked bed bug

hunter (Reduvius personatus), 2 early
and 2 late instar nymphs, were discovered
in a cliff swallow nest September 27,
1976, in the Lory State Park nesting site
(Larimer County, Colorado). Two addi-
tional nymphs were taken from cliff swal-
low nests under a bridge June 6, 1977,
in Weld County, Colorado.

It seems unlikely that parasitic wasps
would overlook the concentrated mass
of swallow bugs. However, the only spe-
cies we have taken from the swallow
nests has been Nasonia vitripennis, a
parasite of the blow fly, Protocalliphora
hirundo, which attacks the nestling swal-
lows.

Acknowledgments

We thank Norman I. Platnick, Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History, for
determining the spiders; Jon L. Herring,
Systematic Entomology Laboratory, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, for identify-
ing the Reduvius; C. W. Sabrosky of
the same Laboratory for the blow fly
determination; and H. Evans, Colorado
State University Zoology and Entomology
Department, for specifically naming the
wasp.

References Cited

Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds
of Colorado. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist., Denver,
Colorado. 895 pp.

Grinnell, J., J. S. Dixon, and J. M. Linsdale. 1930.
Vertebrate natural history of a section of
northern California through the Lassen Peak
region. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 35: 1—594.

Grinnell, J. 1937. The swallows at the Life Sciences
building. Condor 39: 206-210.

Hayes, R. O., D. B. Francy, J. S. Lazuick, G. C.
Smith, and E. P. J. Gibbs. 1977. Cliff swallow
bug (Oeciacus vicarius Hovath) role in the
natural cycle of a western encephalitis-like
alphavirus. J. Med. Ent. 14(3): 257-262.

Herman, C. M. 1935. Bluebirds and English spar-
rows in a cliff swallow colony. Bird-Banding
6: 137.

Mayhew, W. W. 1958. The biology of the cliff
swallow in California. Condor 60: 7—37.
Sooter, C. A., E. E. Bennington, and L. B. Daniels.
1954. Multiple use of cliff swallow nests by

bird species. Condor 56: 309.

Usinger, R. L. 1966. Monograph of Cimicidae.
The Thomas Say Foundation. Vol. VII. En-
tomol. Soc. Amer. College Park, Md. 585 pp.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

New Genera and Species of Neotropical

Tephritidae (Diptera)

Richard H. Foote

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agric. Res. Serv., USDA (mail address:
%U.S. National Museum NHB 168, Washington, D. C. 20560).

ABSTRACT

The following Neotropical taxa in the dipterous family Tephritidae are described:
Lezca, n. gen., type-species L. tau, n. sp.; Laksyetsa, n. gen., type-species L. trinotata,
n. sp.; Caenoriata, n. gen., type-species Acrotaenia pertinax Bates; and Neotaracia,
n. gen., type-species Acrotaenia imox Bates. Comments on the relationships of these

taxa to others are presented.

The following taxa of Mexican and
Neotropical Tephritidae are described to
make the names available for inclusion in
a forthcoming key to the genera of
Tephritidae occurring south of Texas and
Florida.

Genus Lezca, new genus

Type-species. —Lezca tau Foote, new
species.

Diagnosis. —In lateral view, head higher than
long, frons and face meeting at an angle of about
135°; frons haired; 3 pairs lower fronto-orbitals; 2
pairs upper fronto-orbitals, ocellars poorly de-
veloped; face shining, spotted, with deep antennal
grooves and broadly rounded carina; antenna dis-
tinctly longer than face, 3rd segment quite narrow,
arista bare; 1 pair dorsocentrals, situated between
transverse lines through the anterior supra-alars and
postalars; acrostichals present; | pair anepisternals;
2 pair scutellars; wing hyaline with a prominent
transverse two-toned brown band and other dark
marks; vein r-m closer to vein dm-cu than length of
former; vein R2 + 3 slightly sinuate; vein R4 + 5
haired; posterior extension of basal cubital cell long.

Discussion. —The genus Lezca rather
closely resembles 3 other trypetine
genera—Cryptodacus Hendel (Hendel
1914a, b), Cryptoplagia Aczél (Aczél
1951), and Haywardina Aczél (Aczél
1951). These 4 distinctive Neotropical
genera feature a distally narrowed 2nd
cell C, at least 1 prominent dark trans-
verse band from the costa at or near the
stigma to the posterior wing margin that
may or may not cover both crossveins, a

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

dark area covering the basal cubital cell
and a region anterior to it, and usually an
apical infuscation. From closely related
genera, Lezca can be distinguished by the
features shown in Table 1. The wing
venation and pattern also afford dis-
tinguishing characters: veins r-m and
dm-cu in Cryptodacus and Cryptoplagia
are far removed from each other and are
covered by separate transverse brown
bands, while those of Lezca and Hay-
wardina are situated very close together
and are covered by a single brown band.
The latter 2 genera differ from each other
in that the transverse band of Hay-
wardina is very narrow, and a 2nd partial
transverse band is completely lacking.
All 4 of these genera belong to the tribe
Trypetini of the subfamily Trypetinae.

The name Lezca, gender hereby desig-
nated feminine, is an anagram of the name
Aczél. Martin L. Aczél labored effec-
tively to bring order out of chaos among
the Neotropical genera of the subfamily
Trypetinae.

Lezca tau, new species
(Figs? 1,274)"

Head (fig. 1).— About 1.3 times as high as long;
frons yellow, rather narrow, proportion of greatest
width to length from ptilinal fissure to anterior
corner of ocellar triangle 1.0:1.8, frontal setulae
very slender, short, sparse; ocellar triangle black,
ocellars only about as long as, but more slender
than, posterior upper fronto-orbitals; 3rd antennal
segment 4.5—5.0 times as long as greatest width,

Table I.— Comparison of taxonomic characters of trypetine genera.

Lezca Haywardina Cryptodacus Cryptoplagia

Face and frons mmeting in angle of 135° angle of 13S° curve curve
Face surface shining matte matte matte
Facial spots present absent absent absent
Facial carina present present absent absent
Apex 3rd antennal segment rounded pointed rounded pointed
Antenna longer than face yes no no no
Ocellar bristles short long long long
Gena 14 eye height yes shorter shorter shorter
Location of dorso-centrals between asa at asa at pa at asa

and pa
Vein r-m beyond mid beyond mid beyond mid discal at mid discal

discal cell discal cell cell cell
Vem) R25-3 straight sinuate straight straight
Vein R4 + 5 haired haired haired bare

slightly wider near apex than at base, base of arista
yellow, remainder black; face in profile slightly
swollen at middle, 1 pair large, rounded dark spots
near anterior oral margin, antennal grooves deep
along each side of rounded facial carina; gena with
elongated black spot immediately ventrad of eye,
postgenal setulae black; palpi expanded.
Thorax.—Scutum orange with a large black
inverted triangle between and touching humeri, its
apex extending posteriorly along 4 to 4 length of
scutum, or a longitudinal line in this position; a
rounded black spot at base of prescutellar bristle
and 2 narrower dark parallel postsutural fasciae, the
supra-alar bristle in the ectal fascia and the postalar
between them; a distinct median whitish triangle
occupying posterior half of scutum; scuto-scutellar
suture with a rather wide black band lying partly on
the scutum, partly along anterior margin of
scutellum, otherwise scutellum entirely light yellow;
postscutellum black to yellow with longitudinal
dark median line; humerus yellow; pleuron black
but for contrasting yellow markings as follows: a
wide band along dorsal margin of katepisternum;
a diamond-shaped area along pleural suture,
including wing base posteriorly, the top half of the
diamond extending dorsally to cover visible portion
of transverse suture; a small area surrounding base
of halter. Legs with basal % of fore femur
markedly expanded, setae in posteroventral row
slender, shorter than width of femur at insertions,
dorsal femoral setae scattered; basal half of mid
femur infuscated posteriorly and ventrally; mid
tibia yellow, lacking a row of outstanding setae;
basal % of hind femur darkly infuscated around
entire circumference; hind tibialess darkly but more
extensively infuscated, with a row of heavy antero-
dorsal setae, each about %4 as long as diameter of
tibia, extending full length of tibia. Wing (fig. 4)
rather narrow, about 7 mm long, proportion of width
to length 1.0:2.5; disk hyaline, with the following
dark areas: a triangular area in posterior 12 of cell M
extending posteriorly into basal part of CulA and

ending about 4 the distance between base and apex
of vein A; a wide brown fascia with narrow darker
borders extending from cell 1st C through cell 2nd
C, subcostal cell, bases of cells R1 and R3, apical 4
of cell R and extreme base of cell RS, through apical
Y of discal cell to hind margin; a much lighter brown
area at apices of cells R3 and RS, and a faint dark
area between the latter and the broad 2-toned brown
band; vein r-m at a definite angle to vein dm-cu,
these 2 veins much closer together along vein M
than length of vein r-m, both crossveins covered by
the dark brown margin of the wide transverse band;
posterior extension of basal cubital cell about 4
times as long as its width at base.

Abdomen (fig. 2).— Yellow, a broad brown band
covering all but extreme anterior and posterior
borders and a narrow central area of tergite III, and
2 narrower mesal bands separated by a yellow area
as wide as one of the bands, on each of the following
tergites; in addition, dark spots at the extreme
lateral margins of tergites IV and V and large paired
dark spots laterally on tergite VI and sternite VI in
the female; ovipositor sheath orange yellow, about
as long dorsally as tergite VI. Epandrium rounded
dorsally with rather long, thickly set setae;
surstyli long, slender, only very slightly curved;
glans nearly rectangular in outline, the basiphallus
relatively short.

Type-series.—Holotype female,
Cuernavaca, Mexico, 13-III-57, trampa
cebo, O. Hernandez, coll. (USNM Type
No. 75865); allotype male, same data;
paratype (head and abdomen missing),
same data, wing slide No. 15 (USNM).

The species is named for the unusual
dark ‘‘T’’-shaped mark on the abdominal
dorsum.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Genus Laksyetsa, new genus

Type-species. —Laksyetsa_trinotata

Foote, new species.

Diagnosis. —In profile, head higher than long,
frons and face meeting at an angle of about 120°;
face shining, rather deep grooves beneath antennae
but in no sense is a distinct carina present, spotted;
frons haired, wider than long; 3 pairs lower fronto-
orbitals, the anterior pair white; 2-3 pairs upper
fronto-orbitals, all white; postoculars mixed black
and white; parafrontal spot present; antenna as long
as face, 3rd segment triangular but not distinctly
pointed apically, arista bare; 1 pair dorsocentrals,
situated in a transverse line through supra-alars; 3
pairs anepisternals; 1 pair katepisternals; 2 pairs
anepimerals; 2 pairs scutellars, equal in length;
wing essentially dark with numerous light spots;
bulla present, vein R2 + 3 bent forward around it;

- vein r-m apicad of middle of discal cell; vein

R4 + 5 bare or haired only at base; posterior exten-
sion of basal cubital cell nearly 2 times as long as its
width at base.

Discussion. —This genus comes out in a key to
Neotropical genera now in preparation with Para-
cantha Coquillett and Neorhabdochaeta Malloch
in a unique group of genera within the tribe
Ditrichini having a number of characteristics in
common. The heads of species of all 3 genera are
quite similar in having a wide frons, large lunule,
antennae widely separated at their bases, notably
projecting oral margin, the face with a spotted,
shining surface, mixed black and white postoculars,
the anterior lower fronto-orbital light colored in
contrast to the 2 dark posterior pairs, the upper
fronto-orbitals all light colored or whitish, the
scutum beset with setulae such that 6-8 rounded
bare spots remain on the surface in barely dis-

tinguishable patterns, and the fore femora with

mixed dark and light bristles dorsally and ventrally.

From Paracantha and Neorhabdo-
chaeta, Laksyetsa may be distinguished
by the wing pattern, which does not
possess the characteristic dark rays from
the center of the disk to the anterior,
apical, and posterior margins, but is
mainly dark with numerous light spots. In
addition, the dorsocentrals of Laksyetsa
are closer to a transverse line through the
supra-alars than to the suture, and the
anterior upper fronto-orbitals are located
distinctly behind a transverse line through
the posterior lower fronto-orbitals.

The name Laksyetsa, gender hereby
designated feminine, is an anagram of the
name Steyskal. George C. Steyskal

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

originally pointed out that this genus had
never been described or named.

Laksyetsa trinotata Foote, new species
(Figs. 3, 5)

Head (fig. 3).—In profile, about 2.5 times as high
as long; frons about 2.4 times as wide as length from
anterior tip of ocellar triangle to ptilinal fissure;
setulae on surface extremely fine, lacking pigment;
upper fronto-orbitals well mesad of line through
lower fronto-orbitals, anterior upper fronto-orbital
distinctly posterior to a transverse line through
posterior lower fronto-orbitals; anterior pair of
lower fronto-orbitals white, about 0.5 times as long
as middle pair; ocellar triangle black; lunule with
an ‘‘M’’-shaped dark mark; face with 1 median
black spot at level of posterior margin of 3rd
antennal segment, another median spot at oral
margin, and larger paired spots immediately
anterior to anterior-most genal setulae; parafacial
spot small but distinctly bordered; postocular row
with 2-4 light colored setae among the black;
genal bristle and 2—4 bristles close to it all about
equal in size.

Thorax.—Brown, matte, with golden setulae
which are absent directly behind head between
humeri, in vicinity of visible parts of transverse
suture, and directly posterior to bases of acrostichals
on each side; 1 pair semicircular dark spots at
extreme posterior end of scutum, continuing across
scutoscutellar suture to cover basal corners of
scutellum; 1 pair large rounded dark spots at bases
of postalars; pleurae concolorous with scutum
except for an indistinctly bordered dark brown
stripe involving humerus and proceeding posteriorly
between notopleurals below and presutural and
postalar above, and a somewhat narrower dark
stripe along upper margin of katepisternum; center
of anepisternum and most of katespisternum suf-
fused with darker brown; postscutellum entirely
dark but with a pair of lateral, black bands when
viewed in incident light from behind. Legs
yellowish brown with darker brown markings in the
following areas: most of posterior margin of fore
femur but darker ventrally subapically and sub-
basally, fore tibia suffused with brown sub-
apically and subbasally, femora and tibiae of mid
and hind legs each with distinct black subbasal and
subapical black spots, especially ventrally on the
femora; posteroventral row of setae of fore femur
mixed black and white; S—6 setae in a posterior row
on hind tibia, rather slender, shorter than diameter
of tibia. Wing (fig. 5) 2.3 times as long as wide,
field dark brown to base but slightly lighter along
costa and in cell A, beset with numerous small
rounded light brown (rather than hyaline) spots
except in proximal posterior 4 of disk, where these
small spots lighten and coalesce to form a rather
broad, nearly hyaline area; vein dm-cu distinctly
bowed apically at middle.

~—~—\—-<-—-+ SEAL
Lit

A
moS& me

Figs. 1-3. Lezca tau: 1, side view of head, female; 2, abdominal tergum, ovpestiay sheath, ovipositor,
female. Laksyetsa trinotata: 3, side view of head, female.

Abdomen. — Abdominal terga entirely matte, in
female with paired median spots on tergites IV and
V, dark area about 2 times as large on tergite IV
as on tergite V; tergite VI entirely unspotted; in
male, tergite V mostly black, those spots on tergite
IV larger than in female. Ovipositor sheath as
long as tergites V and VI together, suffused with
brown, especially toward apex: epandrium with

long setae dorsally, surstyli short, truncated, the
prensisetae distinctly separated; glans with the
appearance of a transverse plate subapically.

Type-series. —Holotype, female, Llano
de las Flores, Oaxaca, Mexico, 24
November 1969, R. L. Hodgdon, flower

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

head of Dahlia tenuicaulis. Intercepted
Laredo, Tex. No. 000548, 69-24957
(USNM Type No. 75866) Allotype, male,
same data. Paratypes: 1 male, 2 (without
abdomens), same data, 1 female, 10 mi.
W. El Salto, Durango, Mexico, 9000’,
30 June 1964, W. R. M. Mason (Canadian
National Collection, Agriculture Canada).
The specimens from Oaxaca were found
in the flowers of Dahlia tenuicaulis
being sent to the United States for
propagation.

The species is named for the 3 dark
spots on the anterior oral margin.

Genus Caenoriata, new genus

Type-species.—Acrotaenia pertinax
Bates 1934: 12, fig. 3 (wing).

Diagnosis. —Frons bare; 3 pairs lower fronto-
orbitals; 2 pairs upper fronto-orbitals, both pairs
light-colored; all setae in postocular row con-
colorous light; face with broad, rounded carina; 2
pairs dorsocentrals, 1 pair anterior to transverse
suture; both pairs notopleurals unicolorous; 2 pairs
scutellars, posterior pair longer than 0.5 times
anterior; basal 0.6 of wing (fig. 6) almost entirely
dark with narrow dark rays radiating to anterior,
apical, and posterior margins from center of cell
R5; vein r-m apicad of middle of discal cell; vein
R2 + 3 rather sinuate; posterior extension of basal
cubital cell rather long; bulla absent.

Discussion.—The type-species,
Known only from Brazil, is the only
Known representative of the genus. For
comments on relationships with other
genera, see discussion section under the
following genus.

The name Caenoriata, hereby desig-
nated feminine in gender, is an anagram
of the generic name Acrotaenia.

Genus Neotaracia, new genus

Type-species.—Acrotaenia imox

Bates 1934: 11, fig. 2 (wing).

Diagnosis. —Frons bare, 3 pairs lower fronto-
orbitals; 2 pairs upper fronto-orbitals, only the
posterior pair light colored; all setae in postocular
row light colored; broad, rounded facial carina
present; 1 pair dorsocentrals, situated almost
directly in transverse suture; both pairs noto-
pleurals the same color; 2 pairs scutellars, posterior
pair less than 0.5 times length of anterior pair;
wing (fig. 7) mostly dark, cell R1 almost completely
and evenly dark save for a hyaline incision im-
mediately apicad of subcostal cell and one at

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Figs. 4-7, right wings. 4, Lezca tau; 5, Laksyetsa
trinotata; 6, Caenoriata pertinax (Bates); 7,
Neotaracia imox (Bates).

extreme apex descending into cell R2 + 3; vein
r-m at or very close to middle of discal cell; vein
R2 +3 nearly straight; posterior extension of
basal cubital cell quite short; bulla absent.

Discussion.—The type-species has
been recorded to date only from Trinidad,
Costa Rica, and Panama. The name
Neotaracia, gender hereby designated
feminine, is an anagram of the generic
name Acrotaenia.

Caenoriata and Neotaracia are closely
allied to Acrotaenia Loew and beiong,
with several other genera, to the tribe
Platensinini of the subfamily Tephritinae.
Table 2 sets forth the principal characters

Table I1.—Comparison of taxonomic characters of tephritine genera.

Acrotaenia

Color of postoculars mixed dark and

light
Frons bare or haired
Upper fronto-orbitals unicolorous
Facial carina absent
Dorsocentrals 1 pair

Posterior pair scutellars equal to anterior

Vein r-m beyond mid discal
cell
Vein R2 + 3 sinuate
Posterior extension of basal
cubital cell very short

distinguishing the 3 genera being con-
sidered here. Although the wings of all 3
are rather similar structurally, their wing
patterns differ markedly as shown in
figs. 6 and 7. The wing of neither of the
new genera possesses a) strongly empha-
sized bullae in the anterior basal quarter
of the wing disk, b) the numerous small
rounded hyaline spots in the basal half,
nor c) the transverse brown bands in the
apical third of the wing disk, all of which
are so characteristic of testudinea (Loew),
the type-species of Acrotaenia, and its
true congeners. Species of Acrotaenia
have been recorded from southern United
States, Mexico, Central America, Ba-
hamas, West Indies, Trinidad, and
Brazil (Foote 1967), and I have seen
additional specimens more recently from
Colombia and Surinam.

Acknowledgments

The assistance of George C. Steyskal,
my colleague in the Systematic Ento-

Caenoriata Neotaracia
all light all light
bare bare
unicolorous posterior pair light
present present
2 pairs 1 pair
longer than 0.5 shorter than 0.5
anterior anterior
beyond mid discal at mid discal cell
cell
straight straight
moderately long very short

mology Laboratory, in making prelim-
inary studies of some of the new taxa
described herein, is deeply appreciated.
He and F. L. Blanc, Sacramento, Cali-
fornia, critically and very effectively
reviewed the manuscript.

References Cited

Aczél, M. L. 1951. Géneros y especies neo-
tropicales de la tribus ‘‘Trypetini.’”’ II. Dos
géneros e una especie nuevos. Acta Zool.
Lilloana 12: 253-278, illus.

Bates, M. 1934. Notes on American Trypetidae
(Diptera). IV. Acrotaenia and similar genera.
Rev. Entomol. 4: 7-17, illus.

Foote, R. H. 1967. Fasc. 57, Family Tephritidae,
pp. 57.1-57.91, in Vanzolini, P. E., and N.
Papavero (eds.), A Catalog of the Diptera South
of the United States. Dep. Zool., Secr. Agr.,
Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Hendel, F. 1914a. Die Gattungen der Bohrfliegen.
(Analytische Ubersicht aller bisher bekannten
Gattungen der Tephritinae.). Wien. Entomol. Z.
33: 73-98.

. 1914b. Die Bohrfliegen Stidamerikas.

K. Zool. Anthrop.-Ethnogr. Mus. Abhandl. Ber.

(1912)14(3): 1-84, illus.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE AWARDS PROGRAM OF THE ACADEMY

Kelso B. Morris, General Chairman

The Annual Awards Dinner meeting of
the Academy was held on Thursday,
March 16, 1978 at the Indian Spring
Country Club. The general chairman, Dr.
Kelso B. Morris of the faculty at Howard
University, announced that four research

) scientists and three science teachers were

recipients of the Academy’s awards for
outstanding scientific achievement.

In the area of research, the persons
honored were the following: Dr. Robert
Hogan (for the Behavioral Sciences) of
the Johns Hopkins University; Dr. John
Kebabian (for Biological Sciences) of
National Institutes of Health; Dr. Tse-Fou
Zien (for Engineering Sciences) of the
Naval Surface Weapons Center; and Dr.
Sandra C. Greer (for Physical Sciences)
of the National Bureau of Standards. For
the Teaching of Science, a joint award
was presented to Dr. David S. Falk and
Dr. Marjorie H. Gardner, both at the
University of Maryland in the Physics
and Chemistry Departments, respec-
tively. The honoree for the Berenice G.
Lamberton Award for teaching of High
School Science was Mr. John Lieber-
mann, Jr., of the T. C. Williams High
School in Alexandria, Virginia.

Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Robert Hogan, Professor of Psy-
chology at the Johns Hopkins University,
was cited for ‘‘theoretical and empirical

_ work in the developmental process of

socialization.’”’ He was born in Los
Angeles, California. In 1960, he received
the A.B. degree from the University of
California at Los Angeles. His Ph.D.
degree was earned at the University of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Robert Hogan

California at Berkeley in 1967. After
completing all work for the Ph.D. degree,
he was appointed Assistant Professor of
Psychology at the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity and held that position for four years
(1967-71). He next advanced to the rank
of Associate Professor and held that posi-
tion until he was promoted in 1976 to his
present rank, Professor of Psychology.
He has more than forty publications at
the present time.

He holds memberships in the following
organizations: Eastern Psychological
Association; American Psychological
Association, and American Association
for the Advancement of Science. Honors
received by him are Summa Cum Laude
when the A.B. was conferred; Phi Beta
Kappa; and Fellow, Division 8, American
Psychological Association.

John Kebabian

Biological Sciences

Dr. John Kebabian, Experimental
Therapeutics Branch of the National
Institute of Neurological and Communi-
cative Disorders and Stroke, National
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Mary-
land, was cited for “‘outstanding demon-
stration of dopamine-sensitive adenylyl
cyclase in mammalians.’’ Dr. Kebabian
was born in New York City. His B.S.
degree was received from Yale College in
1968. At the graduate level, his M. Phil.
(1970) and Ph.D. (1973) degrees were
both earned at Yale University.

The honoree is a world recognized
authority on the mechanism by which
dopamine initiates its physiological
effects. Our present knowledge of the
biochemical events associated with
dopamine receptor activity in the striatum
is largely due to Dr. Kebabian’s efforts.

Engineering Sciences

Dr. Tse-Fou Zien, Research Aero-
space Engineer of the Mathematics and

Engineering Branch (NSWC) was cited
for ‘‘Significant contributions to the field
of fluid mechanics and heat transfer
through research and teaching that have
gained him national recognition.’’ He was
born in Shanghai, China. His B.S. degree
was received in June 1958 from National
Taiwan University. His M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees, respectively, were earned at
Brown University and California Insti-
tute of Technology.

Organizations in which he holds mem-
bership are American Institute of Aero-
nautics and Astronautics (Associate
Fellow); American Physical Society, and
Society of the Sigma Xi.

The current issue of ‘‘Oak Leaf,’ a
publication of the Naval Surface Weapons
Center at White Oak, Maryland, contains
a very enlightening article about Dr.
Zien and his researches. In the article,
Dr. Zien states that ‘‘heat transfer is
closely tied to fluid mechanics. It is
important to understand the heat transfer
phenomena in the optimal design of
vehicles.’’ In addition to his being a

Tse-Fou Zien

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

Biographee in the current issue of
‘‘Who’s Who in the East’’ (Marquis),
he received an outstanding performance
award with quality salary increase in 1974.

Physical Sciences

Dr. Sandra Greer, the honoree this
year in the Physical Sciences, is a
researcher in the Institute for Basic
Standards at National Bureau of Stand-
ards, Washington, D. C. She was cited for
‘‘her outstanding achievement as a re-
search scientist in devising a carrying out
experiments and applying new theories
so as to help produce a better under-
_ standing of the behavior of systems near
critical points.”’

Dr. Greer is a native of Greenville,
South Carolina. Her undergraduate de-
gree, B.S. (magna cum laude) was
received at Furman University in 1966.
Both her M.S. (1968) and Ph.D. (1969)
degrees, respectively, were earned at the
University of Chicago.

Organizations in which she holds mem-

Sandra Greer

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

bership are the following: AAAS; Ameri-
can Physical Society, and American
Chemical Society.

In her researches, she and her asso-
ciates recognize that critical points are
points of inherent instability. Such points
occur in diverse systems such as, for
example, pure fluids; fluid mixtures,
magnetic solids, and binary alloys. The
instabilities are sufficiently strong to
produce anomalous behavior over a
moderately large region around the
critical point for each kind of system.
This and the fact that critical points are
end points of loci of phase transitions
makes understanding the behavior of
systems near their critical points im-
portant both scientifically and _ tech-
nologically.

Teaching of Science
A Joint Award

The two recipients of this Award are
Dr. David S. Falk and Dr. Marjorie H.
Gardner, both at the University of
Maryland. Dr. Falk was cited for being an
innovative teacher and an able adminis-
trator of Physics Education.’’ For Dr.
Gardner, the citation was ‘‘for her great
local, national, and international impact
on chemistry teaching.”’

Dr. Marjorie H. Gardner was born in
Logan, Utah. Her B.S. in Political
Science/Chemistry was received from
Utah State University in 1946. Her M.A.
and Ph.D. degrees, both in Science
Education and Chemistry, were earned at
Ohio State University in 1958 and 1960,
respectively.

Her experience in higher education is
rather noteworthy. She joined the Uni-
versity of Maryland as an Assistant
Professor (Chemistry and Secondary
Education) in 1964. Today she is an
Associate Dean in the College of Educa-
tion and a Professor of Chemistry and
Secondary Education. Part of her experi-
ence involves participation in national
and international meetings.

Memberships in scientific organiza-
tions include the following: American
Association for the Advancement of

David Falk

Science; American Chemical Society;
American Educational Research Asso-
ciation; American Institute of Chemists;
and others.

The other co-winner of the Award,
Dr. David S. Falk, was born in New
York City. His B.S. degree was earned
at Cornell University in 1954. The M.A.
and Ph.D. degrees were both earned at
Harvard University in 1955 and 1959,
respectively.

Marjorie Gardner

He has been associated with the Uni-
versity of Maryland since 1961. Today,
he is Professor and Associate Chairman
of the Department of Physics and
Astronomy at the University of Maryland.

Professional and honorary member-
ships include Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Xi, and
the American Physical Society.

He is described by associates as an able
administrator of science teaching. As the
Department Associate Chairman for
Educational Affairs, he is responsible for
the total physics teaching program.

The Berenice G. Lamberton Award
Teaching of High School Science

Mr. John Liebermann, Jr. is a resident
of Fairfax, Virginia. As the recipient of
the Berenice G. Lamberton Award for
Teaching of High School Science, he was
cited for ‘‘inspiring students to excell in
science through effort and application by
the example he set for them in his teach-
ing and research.”’

He was born in Washington, D. C. His
B.S. degree in Chemistry was received
from George Mason University in 1969.
He is currently studying toward the Ph.D.
degree at American University. Organi-
zations in which he holds membership
are: NEA, VEA, EAA, and American
Chemical Society.

At the end of the presentation of the
Awardees, the General Chairman stated
that personal efforts were made by hima
few years ago to make certain that the
President, Deans and Department Heads
in science-related fields at the Johns
Hopkins University developed a greater
awareness of the Awards Program of the
Washington Academy of Sciences. It is
significant, therefore, that the awardee
this year in the Behavioral Sciences is
the first one from that institution. —
Kelso B. Morris.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS

Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited.
They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor by the 10th of
the month preceding the issue for which they are intended.

_ National Institutes of Health

Dr. Robert H. Purcell, head of the Viral
Hepatitis Section of the Laboratory of
Infectious Diseases, National Institute of
Allergy and Infectious Diseases, was
_ recently awarded the Gorgas Medal for
_ 1977 by the American Association of

Military Surgeons.

This medal is presented annually for
‘‘distinguished work in preventive medi-
cine’’ and Dr. Purcell was given the honor
for his outstanding contributions to the
development of methods for detecting
and preventing viral hepatitis.

Dr. Purcell has made many contribu-
tions to the study of viral hepatitis and
his accomplishments have made him an
internationally recognized authority.

His leadership of research teams
attacking the various aspects of this
major public health problem has led to the
development of prototype vaccines for
hepatitis B, and to visualization of the
virus causing hepatitis A—a first step
toward prevention.

Recently, Dr. Purcell and his colleagues
have presented evidence that in addition
to hepatitis B virus at least one other
hepatitis viral agent (non-A non-B) can be
transmitted by blood transfusions.

A graduate of Oklahoma State Uni-
versity in 1957, Dr. Purcell received his
M.S. degree in biochemistry from Baylor
University in 1960 and received his M.D.
degree in 1962 from Duke University.

Dr. Purcell came to NIAID in 1963.
Since 1967 he has headed the Institute’s
intramural hepatitis research program.

Dr. Robert J. Huebner has retired after
35 years with the U. S. Public Health
Service. He came to NIH in 1944 and
Studied infectious diseases until 1968,
when he became chief of the National
Cancer Institute Laboratory of RNA
Tumor Viruses.

Dr. Huebner will continue doing re-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

search at NCI as an expert consultant on
RNA tumor viruses and on immune
protection against cancer.

He entered the PHS in 1942 after re-
ceiving his M.D. degree from the St.
Louis University School of Medicine.
‘‘I wanted to go into endocrinology,’’ he
says, ‘‘but infectious disease was the only
field that was open.”’

While working for the National Insti-
tute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases,
Dr. Huebner’s experience ranged from
catching rats in Harlem to checking
household milk supplies in Los Angeles
to investigating Coxsackie virus in Texas.

Dr. Wallace Rowe, a co-worker at
NIAID, said that Dr. Huebner first
received distinction by investigating a
rickettsial outbreak in New York City.

‘In record time, Dr. Huebner had
identified the organism and the vector,”’
says Dr. Rowe. ‘‘He had solved the
whole problem in 2 months—and he was
basically a kid just starting out.”’

Then Dr. Huebner was off to Cali-
fornia to investigate a Q-fever epidemic
which was being spread in milk. Q-fever
is a respiratory infection caused by
another rickettsial microorganism.

He set up his lab in a garage and
hired young people living in the neighbor-
hood to take care of his experimental
animals.

In 1950, after 3 years and between
3,000 and 4,000 household visits, his
report that the disease was carried in
milk was released by the American
Medical Association.

‘‘When that hit the papers, there were
weeks that no milk could be sold. The
dairy industry didn’t even want me in the
state,’’ he recalls.

Dr. Huebner did extensive work with
Coxsackie A virus in Maryland, swab-
bing the throats of hundreds of school
children in the process. He also dis-
covered several viruses responsible for
herpangina.

Dr. Huebner also worked in Texas with
a disease called devil’s grip, distinguished
by chest pain and fever. He demonstrated
that devil’s grip is caused by the Cox-
sackie B3 virus.

In the late 1950’s, Dr. Huebner began
to work with polyoma viruses and other
tumor viruses in animals, and he de-
veloped a special procedure that enables
research to be done with tumor viruses
just as it is with other viruses.

He later discovered that adenoviruses
produced tumors in mice. Further study
showed that these tumors contained viral
proteins, which are the telltale signs of
virus infection in the cell.

However, subsequent studies he has
conducted have shown that there is no
relationship between adenoviruses and
human cancer.

In 1969, Dr. Huebner and Dr. George
Todaro of NCI introduced the viral
oncogene theory.

This theory incorporated the idea that
cancer viruses were genetically inherited
and yet could be dealt with as an in-
fectious disease, plus the idea that the key
determinant of cancer is in the genes.

It states that there are transforming
genes, or oncogenes, that exist in DNA
and viruses. These can transform the cell
from a normal state to a cancerous state
when a cellular mechanism is not in
control.

‘‘Dr. Huebner has a _ tremendous
breadth of interest and the ability to see
things that others just don’t see,’ Dr.
Todaro says. ‘‘His contribution to tumor
virology goes far beyond the oncogene
theory.

‘‘Some of his observations in the early
1960’s were key to the molecular biology
now being done; things that are now being
taken for granted.”’

Dr. Huebner is now trying to identify a
tumor antigen associated with many
types of cancer in man. Such an antigen
might lead to the development of tumor
vaccines in humans.

‘‘There are a lot of things still left to
do,’ he says. ‘‘One of these days I’ve got
to write a book. . . . It’s all kind of an
adventure.”’

NAVAL SHIP
R&D CENTER

Dr. Elizabeth H. Cuthill, the Numerical
Analysis Coordinator for the Computa-
tion, Mathematics, and Logistics Depart-
ment of the David W. Taylor Naval Ship
R&D Center (DINSRDC), Bethesda,
Maryland, recently received the David
W. Taylor Award for Scientific Achieve-
ment for the calendar year 1976.

Dr. Cuthill was recognized for her
valuable contributions in the develop-
ment and exploitation of mathematical
and computational techniques for signifi-
cant Navy applications. Her achieve-
ments date back to when she first joined
DTNSRDC in 1953 and include technical

leadership in the development of the |

Navy’s nuclear reactor codes, a field in
which she and her colleagues were
preeminent and internationally recog-
nized for their many accomplishments.
Upon completion of this effort, Dr.
Cuthill led the successful development
of the widely used General Bending
Response Codes which have received

Dr. Elizabeth H. Cuthill

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

wide acceptance and are in general use
throughout the nation. She was also the
leader within the Navy in promoting the

use of general purpose finite element

codes for structural analysis.

Dr. Cuthill’s personal technical con-
tributions include the development of
band width reduction techniques which

| reduced by half the time and cost of

structural analysis calculations. A leader
in exploiting the use of computers for
symbolic mathematics, she is presently

engaged in making this capability avail-

able to the entire Navy laboratory
community.
Captain Myron, V. Ricketts, USN,

| DTNSRDC Commander, presented the

Award to Dr. Cuthill, citing her ‘‘out-
standing personal contributions and tech-
nical leadership.’’ Reviewing her ac-
complishments Captain Ricketts praised
her ‘‘technical excellence and expertise
of the highest order, scientific pro-
ductivity addressed to Navy applications
of major significance, and an ability to
motivate and lead colleagues and sub-
ordinates.”’

The Award is named after Rear
Admiral David Watson Taylor, a naval
constructor with a brilliant reputation in
the field of naval engineering who was
the driving force behind the development
and adoption of modern experimental
techniques in ship and aircraft research.
Originally established by the Navy in
1961, this Award has been presented
annually since that time to the individual
scientist whose contributions were con-
sidered truly outstanding in the field of
research and development.

Dr. Cuthillis the author of many papers
on mathematical and computational tech-
niques and is a member of the following
societies and associations: Phi Beta
Kappa, Sigma Xi, the American Mathe-

matical Society, the Mathematical Asso-

ciation of America, the Society for In-

dustrial and Applied Mathematics, the

Association for Computing Machinery,
the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and the Washing-

|) ton Philosophical Society.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

RICE UNIVERSITY

Dr. Frederick D. Rossini, professor
emeritus of chemistry at Rice University
and an internationally recognized au-
thority on petroleum chemistry, received
the National Medal of Science from
President Carter at ceremonies in Wash-
ington, D. C., Tuesday, Nov. 22, 1977.
Dr. Rossini, 78, was honored for his
‘‘contributions to basic reference knowl-
edge in chemical thermodynamics.’’

The award—one of 15 made by Presi-
dent Carter—came to Dr. Rossini some
13 months after receiving the coveted
Carl Engler Medal from the German
Society for Petroleum and Coal Chem-
istry, Germany’s equivalent of the
American Petroleum Institute. It recog-
nized the Rice professor’s outstanding
contributions to Petroleum research over
the past several decades. Dr. Rossini is
one of the very few non-Germans to win
the Carl Engler Medal.

The National Medal of Science Dr.
Rossini received Tuesday from President
Carter was established in 1959 by the 86th
Congress. It is awarded to individuals
‘‘deserving special recognition by reason
of their outstanding contributions to
knowledge in the physical, biological,
mathematical, or engineering sciences.”’

Dr. Rossini, a native of Monongahela,
Pennsylvania, is a member of the
National Academy of Sciences and past
presidents of the London-based World
Petroleum Congress and of the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences. He is the
author of some 250 scientific articles and
11 books dealing mainly with thermo-
dynamics, thermochemistry, numerical
data for science and technology, and
the physical chemistry of petroleum and
hydrocarbons.

Dr. Rossini joined the Rice faculty in
1971 after a distinguished academic and
governmental career that began in 1923
as a laboratory assistant in physics at the
Carnegie Institute of Technology (now
Carnegie-Mellon University) and _ in-
cluded 22 years (1928-1950) with the
National Bureau of Standards in Wash-
ington, D. C.

NEW AFFILIATE

The Potomac Chapter of the American
Fisheries Society, organized as a local
chapter of the parent national society in
1976, is a new affiliate of the Academy.

Objectives: a.) To promote the conserva-
tion and effective management of fish,
other aquatic environment for the op-
timum benefit of the people of this
continent. b.) To advance the science,
technology, education, and practice of all
branches and disciplines related to the
conservation of aquatic resources. c.) To
encourage and recognize effective per-
formance in all aspects of the fisheries
profession. d.) To encourage and pro-
mote effective communications among
professional aquatic scientists, and be-
tween the profession and the public.

Members: The membership of the Chap-
ter shall be composed of those American
Fisheries Society members in good stand-
ing residing in Maryland, Virginia, Dis-
trict of Columbia, and Jefferson,

Berkeley, and Morgan Counties of West |
Va. who are listed on the Chapter |
membership roll by virtue of having paid |

established Chapter dues.

Meetings: The chapter shall hold at least |
one (1) meeting annually at a time and |
place designated by the Executive Com- |
mittee or its officially delegated alternate |

committee. The program and presenta-

tion of papers shall be the responsibility

of the Program Committee.

OBITUARY

Louis S. Jaffe, 63, professor of epi-
demiology and environmental health at
George Washington University’s medical
school, died July 24, 1977 after a heart
attack while vacationing in Israel. He
lived on Highland Drive in Silver Spring.

Jaffe was a pioneer in the development
of air quality criteria—the technical
documents which delineate the various
effects of specific air pollutants on man,
animals, vegetation and materials and
serve as the cornerstones of the national
air quality standards.

He joined the medical school staff in
1970 upon his retirement from the U. S.
Public Health Service. His last assign-
ment during his 31 years of government
service was as physical science adminis-
trator and special assistant to the director

of the air quality criteria and standards
development program.
A native of Newark, N. J., and a

graduate of Brooklyn College and Colum- |

bia University, Jaffe was elected a fellow
in the Washington Academy of Sciences
in 1974 in recognition of his contributions
to environmental medicine.

Jaffe was active in civic affairs and at
the time of his death was a vice president
of the National Capital Area of B’nai
B’rith Lodges. He was a past president of
the Cardoza and Montgomery Lodges.

He also served a two-year term as
president of the Woodside Park Civic
Association in Silver Spring and was a
former chairman of the Montgomery
County Civic Federation’s planning and
zoning committee. |

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 1, 1978

{

|
‘
|
:
t

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Instructions to Contributors

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AL MJSEUM LIBRARY
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(2a Cg 3

VOLUME 68
Number 2

| J our nal of the JUNE, 1978

WASHINGTON
ACADEMY .. SCIENCES

Issued Quarterly
at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Features:
RAYMOND J. SEEGER: On the Humanism of Science ..................

A. G. WHEELER, JR.: Mortimer Demarest Leonard, Entomologist:
Biographical Sketch and List of Publications.....................008-

Research Reports:

NORMAN LIN: Contributions to the Ecology of the Cicada Killer,
Sphecius speciosus (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae).......................

DORIS H. BLAKE: Colaspis quattuordecimpunctata costata Lefévre and
Its Close Relatives in Brazil (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) .............

Academy Affairs:

SCICMUStSHIMMMO SING WS: sie aides ioc a susie s/ecd alee aelays dsl hase be sia aw ded nee
Obituaries

SS CMMMICINE MIDS UNMET Is erties ete es ete tare ccs bl grduchbre cnchiearle dire. @ ola “ove Guede Beevers 91
MHEOROKE CG avONMSTaANG: aoc. ose G auw oui dinw Hae ¥ 30 aie pinta mide coer a oes ane

Washington Academp of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Mary H. Aldridge

President-Elect
Alfred Weissler

Secretary
James F. Goff

Treasurer
Nelson W. Rupp

Members at Large
Conrad B. Link
Elaine Shafrin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated
Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Elizabeth Ostaggi

ACADEMY OFFICE

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_ DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
| PEMoMcal SOcIety Of WaSRINGLON, 3.505. 66 6 s)s bss aie a a oe o's’ w se oe re a es a oe eae James F. Goff
PEReMOoric al SOCIety Of Washington: «.. . ......6.. sic 2 oa ss sc es Cee ne oo ee es oe Jean K. Boek
Pee TeNOMICLy Of VW aSMINGtON «2. occ 6 eco eb Noda Sa Sale gee wt ase ow cee een elem c William R. Heyer
DRC MEMPICtAOle WASHINEION) 225. 2 652.5 2266 oases Sac ac a a bance sb s Se tbees se beece David H. Freeman
Para AUS OCIELY OF Washington j: 22 22s es che cece cee c scar ceasneseos D. W. S. Sutherland
MINE AEE ApHIC SOCICLY. | 25. pc 5 aoc be code bac dd vee cid chews lecular lisavdes T. Dale Stewart
DEREUMPEEBESOCICLY OF WaASHINCTON 2.) . 6. oi ceeee cece ce ee ata wesc cewceadeaes Marian M. Schnepfe
Deemacicingorine District of Columbia no nn 660 So. oe ele ee ics Ge ee cee cece cseweeeceeees Inactive
_ Columbia SLE POG EL SOILS LSS et SR ee Paul H. Oehser
DEMS ESD CICHVEO! WASHINPLON «2.2045. 02s eee cc ewes cence cw cw ucreceeeentseaeie Conrad B. Link
Society of American Foresters ....... BN Ree ek cca oh tae Larter igh ied Thomas B. Glazebrook
PnEECrESOCICly Of ENPINEETS ... 5.1... ce ee ke eee ce neh eneteaneeueus George Abraham
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ............0.0..0 ccc ceeeeeeeeeeee George Abraham
Sememeanesocicty Of Mechanical Engineers ....... 06.6. ees cc cece eee ee eeeenteesbeeenes Michael Chi
Helminthological SacietyaGk Was minPtONel 5x. 0G oct oe ete Sad eae ane. Bee Robert S. Isenstein
memmearansocicry tor Microbiology .... 2-2... 6. ee deca eden e bases beecnecteueses Michael Pelzcar
Society Ma MeTICANE VINIPATY EMOIMEETS! . 2. oss vies. 6 os ore at gheial ces @ bie SHG bold e wet oleae eles H. P. Demuth
American SORIETS CH CIT BIT VS en Robert Sorenson
MMe vaor Experimental Biology and Medicine ..........0..0.0.cccccecscnsecaccecets Donald Flick
eR SEAGER VICES oc oe 2 oii on tik a as 2 oe oa a hn ee Gale os tines ss eee ores Glen W. Wensch
International pssoctation Of Dental Research . 222... 2.256663 sie esas sees owes William V. Loebenstein
| Pemeneam Mstitute of Aeronautics and Astromautics .............0.2 ccs ccsacccescnces George J. Vila
| American PLETED PTL IGALP SOS Ie yee a re Pn ee en gee a eer ne A. James Wagner
“Insecticide IMMA AS NMG OM ewe cy oro, ci5 Fs ees, sfoba cas. ola a woes aie whi’ snyoree « Sutecverse Sale seks Robert J. Argauer
Memeeeieesucicty of America ...............0--sscceenveuevensouse es dove: Delegate not appointed
| American PAE TIS OCICLYE Se ee eet. mee ts ce Ss cea ba el. Be eke Lee ek Dick Duffey
| RM ETO OUNCCIMIOIOLISES: ofits 5. 6S a's obs os dw nd oa late wide be od Gos ee we oe William Sulzbacher
| Vi erican PET AMH CES OCICI NEE eRe Bn eee MANS on sch eal ok MA EMEN GNU ois lols Lie aes ee Inactive
EMPMEMMCAIOSOCICEY® 5-05 5 sfc ie Eke be elkalba ee ccceeedeadacatecanes Delegate not appointed
MR EMMPEMIMAIS(ONY Ol SCIENCE CID) 25.06 ci oe ce kb chess ce nese leeaebectecebebohnaeeet cee Inactive
Pee ane association Of Physics Teachers. ...... 2.56.20 ee ese c ee cece nese ne esees To be appointed
| TED SDSS RY CLP EATEST ETE eR ee Lucy B. Hagan
| mem SOcicty. Of Plant PHYSIOIOZIStS: 2.25.5 5-606 eee ee ae et ce ect ene eewesese Walter Shropshire
| Seemann Operations Research COUNCI!) «2. <<. 65. 6 a0sspane Ka sas de oye 0 ede e nite ede nines John G. Honig
EME NOCICIN TORU ANICIIC A: e525. 51. « piyansus cle Goes mie svsinls 4 cho 4 ie’ epnscecainim ween deus d «ar, Sagres « Inactive
_ American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical
} Pee OIC UISE MEINE CESH NS. oo. 25): etek Seite bo Sees LTA. Pah. eee ies See GE. Carl H. Cotterill
PEER IEO ADILOVAC(EONOMENS *. 2. knees... cles so te NN TB be ba ies ale Benson J. Simon
1) Seem aericaleAssociation-of America. 2600... ac et te ll Sean ele ne eee es notte as Patrick Hayes
\ MIS HEIEC OKC HETINIS(S Sc ce OS Se ie aa OSs DSS Sel elele ce eee eek eee Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.
Meretoloricalt Association ©) le Le ee John O’ Hare
| See asaineton Paint Pechimical Group. ..... 2-06. cs cess ewe ese ew es cctereeseseees Paul G. Campbell
Me annehiyiopatholopical Society... ..... 6-5. eee n ee tec eee e eet eet seeetace ns Tom van der Zwet
| | Society MG ENCEAISVStCMS RESEALCM. oc 2). <5 och = Haus a ereters @ epee apo ecko oe Ronald W. Manderscheid
MELTS OSES OCLC (Ne aoe y fo oalat 05.0 ie ah, Sosy 2 late Mandi. 5, «oppo one Shag whe H. Mcllvaine Parsons
\ PEELS ICSE OCI CEM a Seco ons cats a5 vn ede. 8 + aleveinaers atl ele s Saka sige pps he eae No delegate

| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978 41

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|
| Raymond J. Seeger

| National Science Foundation (Retired).

' John Donne, the poetic Dean of St.
| Paul’s Cathedral (London), wrote in his
| ‘Devotions’? (1624), ‘‘No man is an
| island entire of itself.’’ We live in one
world; we all live in the same world.
There isn’t an old world and a new world,
) a white world and a black world, a man’s
| world and a woman’s world, a starry
) world above and a moral world within, a
| natural world and a supernatural world,
/ an objective world and an existential
| world, a world of science and a world of
' humanities. We all live in one world, the

a
pele)
=
@)
=
ie)
ak
Q.

Our experience, too, is one: we the
subject, the world the object. Years ago
when I was teaching a physics course, on
“Our Physical Heritage’ for non-science
students, I invited a professor of history
to lecture on the reciprocal influences of
history and science. ‘‘What,’’ he began,
“is history?’ ‘‘History,’’ he proclaimed,
“is the study of man and his environ-
ment!’’ I made a note of this; although
I had studied history all my life, no one
had ever bothered to define it for me.
| Later I asked a professor of philosophy
‘to discuss philosophical implications of
science. ‘‘ What is philosophy?’’ he asked
| thetorically. ‘‘The study of man and his
-environment!’’ he explained. For the
‘| moment I was nonplussed. The next year,
however, I introduced the course with a
‘| query, “‘What is physics?’’ ‘‘The study of

ann annaRamapRRaRRRE : =e = a

‘Given at colleges and universities under the
| NSF-funded Sigma Xi Bicentennial Lecture Pro-
| gram (1974-1977) on **Science and Society.”

| _J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

{ej
| oe

|On the Humanism of Science!

FEATURES

man and his environment!’ I joyfully
announced. I, too, had realized that we
are all studying the same thing, namely,
the universe with man at its focus—but
different aspects of it.

The English Augustan poet Alexander
Pope argued in his ‘“‘Essay on Man’’
(1737), ““The proper study of mankind is
man’’ — usually understood to advocate a
separation of man from his environment.
This poem, however, which deals pri-
marily with the justification of God’s
ways to man, connotes a quite different
discrimination as shown in the preceding
line: “‘Know then thyself, presume not
God to scan.’’ Ralph Waldo Emerson,
the American transcendentalist essayist,
also invoked the Delphic oracle in his
famous Phi Beta Kappa address (1837)
on ‘‘The American Scholar; ‘The
ancient precept, ‘Know thyself,’ and the
modern precept, ‘Study nature,’ become
at last one maxim.’’ Man is thus part and
partner in his changing environment—
what might properly be called human
ecology. The Greeks never separated
man from his environment. They looked
at nature and discovered it to be real
and interesting and comprehensible.
Greece itself contained both scientific
Ionia and humanistic Attica in continuous
communication. The word interesting, by
the way, comes from the Latin inter esse,
meaning to be among, viz., man and his
environment. One cannot conceive of a
man without an environment, and even
the women’s lib is loath to have an
environment without a man.

Nevertheless, we are wont to view our
experience in differently colored lights,
whether we look at a planet ora plant or a
person. We can distinguish three primary
cultural colors. There is sky blue signifying
our aesthetic enjoyment—‘‘how brief the
beauty of the moon!’ Grass green
symbolizes the nourishment of scientific
relatedness —how ‘‘the moon may draw
the sea!’ Earth red represents tech-
nological use—how ‘‘He appointed the
moon for certain seasons!’’ Possibly a
fourth light! an invisible aura— within the
red, beyond the violet—that intimates
mystically the unity of the universe!
This many colored rainbow shines upon
our everyday life. We need its integrated
light to insure the integrity of our personal
experience.

Our outlook, however, is colored by
our daily lookout through the tinted
education spectacles furnished each one
of us upon scholarly matriculation.
Everyone nowadays is familiar with the
two academic cultures publicized (1959,
1963) by Charles Percy Snow, the British
novelist. He himself is always careful to
indicate that these two cultures—so-
called humanities and science—are
strictly academic fields. He deplores the
gap between them and urges that it be
bridged (modern education is spuriously
measured at times by their very distance
apart). It is, indeed, remarkable that both
the ‘‘Civilisation”’ (1969) by the English
art connoisseur Kenneth McKenzie Clark
and the “‘Ascent of Man’’ (1971) by the
English humanist mathematician Jacob
Bronowski exhibit so little overlap, al-
though they are presumably describing
the same world. They reveal little evi-
dence of the underlap of their common
experience—a natural bridge. I must
confess, however, my own deeper anxiety
about the need to bridge a far greater gap,
namely, that between these very academic
cultures and the nonacademic—not our
concern here.

Victor Cousin, the French eclectic
philosopher, sounded a tocsin in his 1818
Sorbonne lectures: “‘L’art pour lart’’
(‘art for art’s sake’’). Some modern
scientists would counter with the slogan,

‘*Science for the sake of science.’’ More
basic, I believe, is, ‘‘Art and science
together for man!’’ We must comprehend
them. I am personally dissatisfied with
the academic compartmentalization of
ideas resulting so often from an adminis-
trative departmentalization of fields of
interest.

Like the pilgrim (1638) of the English
non-conformist preacher John Bunyan,
we are eager to set out on a quest for
ultimate truths. But like Alighieri Dante,
the Italian philosophic poet, “‘Midway
upon the journey of our life I found myself
in a dark wood where the right way was
lost’? (c. 1307). It was the Roman epic
poet Vergil who guided him through Hell,
where he accosted the Greek empirically

oriented philosopher Aristotle as “‘the. |

master of those who know.”’ Aristotle,
indeed, had begun his “‘metaphysics,”’
All men by their very nature feel the
urge to know’’—owing to an innate
curiosity about their awful environment.
Wondering Ionians sought eternal an-
swers to their perennial questions: where
am I? who am I? what will I be? This
perpetual quest is a unique human
activity. In his pursuit of it man has
become enchanted with his mysterious |
universe; he zealously searches for a
unifying pattern—not a crazy quilt of his |
own making. I do not fathom a recent |
pronouncement of Harvey Cox, that ,
apparently godless Harvard theologian:
‘Life is not an unfathomable mystery.
... We know there is no ordered |
universe awaiting the discovery of it by |
man. . . . The universe is a human in- |
vention.’’ Who would be so egotistical |
as to believe the universe to be man-made? |

I pity the modern Macbeths who regard |
life as ‘‘a tale told by an idiot, full of |
sound and fury, signifying nothing.” I |
pity modern dramatists—the Czech Karl |
Capek who would try to solve human }
problems with dehumanized robots |
(R. U. R. 1921); the German Friedrich |
Diirrenmatt who would have physicists
seek security in an insane asylum (1962). }
I pity modern novelists: the English }
George Orwell with his 1984 madmen
seemingly united in a meaningless brother- |

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978 |

| hood (1949); the English Aldous Huxley
seeking solace in his caricature of
| scientists as cringing creatures crawling
| blindlessly to escape his so-called ** Brave
| New World’’ (1932), only to become later
(1958) Buddhist addicts to painless
nihilism.

| In his perpetual quest for knowledge,
| on the contrary, man has found some
' comfort in science’s liberation from
cultural bondage of some of his attitudes
and thoughts. We shall now focus our
‘| attention on this humanistic science.
Confusion is rampant with respect to
| humanism in general and the humanities
| in particular. One speaks thoughtlessly of
literary humanists, scientific humanists,
| Christian humanists, et al. The term
| humanities, in turn, varies from college
to college (in their catalogues); it is
| actually defined in the final report (1964)
of the U. S. Commission of Humanities,
_viz., ““The humanities are the study of
|that which is most human... . The
body is usually taken to include the study
of history, the arts, religion, and phi-
_losophy.’’ No science? Jacques Maritain,
the French religious philosopher, whom
‘no one can accuse of being partial to
/ natural science, advocated in the Terry
}lectures (1943) on ‘‘Education at the
Crossroads,’ ‘‘Physics should be taught
and revered as a liberal art of the first
rank, like poetry.’’ We are liable to forget
that one of the nine muses was Urania
(astronomy). The Roman statesman Cas-
siadorus’ seven liberal arts comprised the
trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and the
quadrivium (astronomy, arithmetic,
‘geometry, music (then largely applied
'mathematics)). What happened over the
ages? Nevertheless, the liberal arts, in
principle, have always been for free men,
to set men free, free to drink hemlock or
, to die on a cross for the general welfare.
| In historical perspective we can see the
omnipresent role of science in the spread
of humanism.

What is humanism? We might seek its
origin in the Greek philosopher Socrates’
ethical concerns in the golden age of
antiquity or in the Renaissance’s emphasis
‘upon the dignity of an individual. It is

_| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978
la

amazing how often a _ representative
humanist is popularly selected to be a
non-scientist. My own preference would
be a person like the Italian genius
Leonardo da Vinci who doodled with art
alongside his engineering notes and with
engineering alongside the ones on art.
Another versatile person was the Italian
natural philosopher Galileo Galilei. In
later life he reminisced about his youthful
dream of becoming an artist (the Ameri-
can art critic Erwin Panofsky concluded
that he probably would have been suc-
cessful in this capacity). In the tradition
of his family (his father was a composer)
he himself played several musical instru-
ments. He boasted, when young, of
knowing by heart the entire ‘‘Orlando
Furioso”’ (1516) by the Italian poet
Lodovico Ariosto. His own writings in
the vernacular was an expression of his
overwhelming desire to impress his own
convictions on the common reader of his
day. That led to his celebrated social
controversy with the ruling Church; the
people understood him.

The popular formulation of humanism
is credited to the Roman dramatist
Publius Terentius Afer; in his comedy
‘‘Heauton Timoramenos’’ (168 B.C.,
‘*The Self-Tormentor’’) a retired farmer
justifies his own interest in the activities
of a neighbor’s son by the remark,
‘‘Homo sum: humani nihil a alienum
puto’’ (‘‘Iamaman: I consider nothing of
man alien to me’’). There are, however,
different levels of human interest, from
the star light of idealistic youth to the
earth dung of realistic babes. The intelli-
gent (Latin inter legere—to choose
between): person chooses between
possible courses of action; he dis-
criminates rather than behaving pro-
miscuously at random. The Greeks, for
example, chose the potential excellence
of the individual; for them humanism
meant man at his best.

In this spirit, we, too, might regard
humanistic science from purely classical
viewpoints: ‘‘the glory that was Greece
and the grandeur that was Rome,” the
grace that was Galilee. We must, how-
ever, be careful not to become mere

antiquarians; we must look also from a
modern point of view. For example, it
is not enough that we share Dante’s
feeling as he regarded the Ptolemaic
universe of his day; we must consider
how he might have felt in the Copernican
universe of today. Regardless of our
esteem for the classical vision (I myself
began college as a classics major) or of
our indebtedness to its later renascence
(I still admire Galileo) we must be sensi-
tive to the distinctive feature of our
current culture, its new dimension of
science and technology. To be sure, this
itself is actually an extension of man’s
propensities and interests and capabili-
ties. It is, therefore, surprising to find
so little regard for science in ‘‘Demo-
cratic Experience’’ (1975) by the Pulitzer
prize winning Librarian of Congress,
Daniel Joseph Boorstin.

There is, moreover, understandably
widespread popular confusion between
these two technical terms, science and
technology. They can be regarded actually
as the extremes of a whole spectrum;
scientific understanding per se and tech-
nological utilizing per se. The former
leads to intellectual abstractions, the
latter to social (including moral) applica-
tions. One cannot fix any artificial line of
demarcation which, at best, would shift
with dominant interest from time to time.
The picture is further complicated by
their continuous interactions. For ex-
ample, the amusing electric phenomena
of the early nineteenth century gave rise
to the engulfing electrical age at its close,
while the contemporary powerful steam
engine led inevitably to the fascinating
field of thermophysics.

It is helpful to distinguish three differ-
ent types of revolutions in this cultural
melée. First of all, there have been a
number of technological revolutions, all
of which have been concerned primarily
with sources of energy and power. (As
someone remarked, **The greatest inven-
tion in the nineteenth century was the
invention of invention.’’) One begins
naturally with man’s use of mechanical
energy, the energy of the wind and of the
wave, with manpower and horsepower.

Then came his employment of electrical
energy, which was succeeded by chemical
energy, and now by so-called atomic
energy. As each new form of energy has
come into prominence, new social (and
moral) problems have been encountered.

Strictly scientific revolutions, on the
contrary, have revolved about central
ideas. For example, in the time of Galileo
one might have properly inquired, ‘‘How
does a stone fall?’ ‘“‘Let us consult
Aristotle,’ would volunteer a classical
scholar. ‘‘Why not Thomas Aquinas?’’
would urge a Christian thinker. Galileo,
however, would probably ask, *‘Why not
observe it directly as it falls?’’ Such a
suggestion that one might obtain some
answers directly from nature itself was

truly revolutionary. In the nineteenth |

century some speculators were em-
boldened to seek answers to all man’s
questions in this manner (but not J).
Today there are some who claim that man
can obtain such answers solely by the
method of the physical sciences (but not
I). Even though we may be able prag-
matically to describe behavior sufficiently
for everyday use, we cannot necessarily
explain it to our complete satisfaction;
for example, the origin of matter and life,
of mind and spirit. With each scientific
revolution there are disclosed new in-
tellectual problems of a decidedly per-
sonal concern because of their philo-
sophical and religious implications.

The twentieth century ushered in a
third type of revolution, what might be
called scientific-technological. Certain
(not all) fields of science and of tech-
nology apparently converge with bene-
ficial interactions. Because one can de-
scribe certain phenomena scientifically,
one then finds that one can make tech-
nological predictions. Accordingly, or-
ganized research, jointly basic and ap-
plied, has become sponsored by industry
and by government and even by academia.
In such common ventures, however,
there is always a danger that one com-
ponent will completely overshadow the
other. In his ‘‘Grand Academy of Lagado
in Laputa’’ (1726) the Irish satirist
Jonathan Swift noted that while the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

dedicated projectors were trying to
understand phenomena (e.g., the extrac-
tion of sunbeams out of cucumbers),
‘‘the whole country lies miserably waste,
the houses in ruins and the people without
food or clothes.’’ Here was an extreme
prevalence of personal scientific interests
with dire social consequences. Nowadays
the opposite is increasingly true: an
anxious overemphasis upon harvesting
technological fruits is leading to a care-
less neglect of sowing scientific seeds, a
short-sighted search for social applica-
tions to the neglect of long-range basic
science (new wars are not won now with
old weapons). In life one must always
allow a margin for the unexpected, in
_ science for technology and in technology
for science.

Evidently a primary democratic need
today is understanding of science by the
public. We shall not be concerned here
with reasons for the widespread current
misunderstanding; to what extent it may
be due to the spreading habit of technical
jargon in all fields of human endeavor,
to what extent it is a consequence of ever
vacillating fashions of professional edu-
cationalists. Mommy consoles Johnny,
““You are having trouble with the new
mathematics? Don’t worry; Mommy had
trouble with the old mathematics. And
look how she turned out!’’ (When Johnny
did, he really became worried.) One time
when I passed out problems to my
sophomore Physics students, one of them
exclaimed, ‘‘Do you expect me to do
these? Who do you think Iam? Einstein?”’
I looked at him quizzically and replied,
‘‘No! Einstein wouldn’t be taking this
course the fourth time.’’ A Congressman
once illustrated the scientific method as
follows: Pluck the legs off a grasshopper,
one by one. In each case tell the grass-
hopper then to hop; he will do so until
all the legs have been removed. ‘‘Prov-
ing,’ said the Congressman, ‘‘by the
scientific method that when a grass-
hopper has lost all its legs it has lost also
its sense of hearing!’ Our modern culture
is permeated with such everyday mis-
understandings of science.

Evidently the public needs to improve

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

sophical and religious

its understanding of natural phenomena,
and, even more, the very understanding
of that understanding, viz., the develop-
ment of scientific thinking, including its
interactions with politics and economics,
with sociology and ethics, its philo-
implications.
Science, Iam convinced, can and must be
taught humanistically. After all, scien-
tists are people, human beings. They
are not the youthful (21) Mary Godwin
Shelley’s Frankenstein creating fantastic
monsters; they are not the fanciful
creatures lurking in the horror nightmares
of science-fiction writers. On the other
hand, one is well aware that even the
so-called humanities are not necessarily
taught humanistically.

What is science? Essentially it is not
such academic misrepresentations as the
following: ‘Information, please!’’ Or-
ganized common sense. Black magic
(‘Beyond me!’’) Black-box gadgetry.
Mysterious mathematics (with the im-
primatur Q.E.D.). Technically, it is not
primarily induction as popularized by the
English lawyer statesman Francis Bacon
(1620), or deduction as argued by the
French mathematical philosopher René
Descartes (1637), or puzzle solving as
advocated by the American historian of
science Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1962).
Each of these, to be sure, may be
involved in scientific reasoning, but none
of these is the fundamental criterion
which was characteristic of the experi-
ential work of Galileo.

What, then, is science? Obviously the
result of the so-called scientific method!
And this? Something used by a scientist!
It would appear that we are merely
begging the question. On the contrary,
we are emphasizing that the ‘‘what’’ of
science is dependent on ‘‘how’’ this is
reached, which is meaningless except in
terms of ‘‘who’’ does it. This point of
view can be illustrated with four essential
elements that are inherent in any ac-
cepted scientific method.

First of all, I—and you (the scientific
method is necessarily communal)—ex-
perience something, with nature as a
source (possibly indirect). (One should

preferably study nature—not science.
Note that mathematics per se is excluded
in this definition.) Out of our intellectual
curiosity we frame questions, selected,
but not necessarily answerable at the
time. In religious studies, for example,
typical questions were the following:
Why cannot an omnipotent God make a
triangular circle? How many angels can
be placed on the point of a needle? In
mathematics, why can’t I try to square a
circle if I wish to do so? Which is larger
V1 or V—1? In physics, what is the color
of that beautiful atom? Where is the
elusive electron inside it? Selective ques-
tions allow for even fewer possible
answers, obtained sometimes by pene-
trating insight, at other times through
mystifying intuition. What is truly em-
barrassing is to have irrelevant questions
reveal relevant answers, to find im-
pertinent questions lead to pertinent rela-
tions. One’s experience, to be -sure,
depends upon the questioner “‘who.”’
Secondly, I—and you—review these
findings somehow, with imagination as
inspiration—in the sense of the English
romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
i.e., definitely not imaginary or fanciful,
like a mermaid. An old lady once accosted
the English romantic painter Joseph
M. W. Turner, ‘“‘I’ve never seen a sunset
look like that!’’ He replied ‘‘Don’t you
wish you could?’ The French Fauvist
Georges Rouault was asked how he was
able to portray so brilliantly the glistening
white birches of spring. ‘‘By observing
the snow-clad fields of winter’’ was the
reply. As the English natural philosopher
Isaac Newton sat under an old apple tree,
an apple fell on his head. ‘‘What a lucky
day!’ he probably mused, ‘‘Suppose it
had been the moon!’ What a revolu-
tionary comparison, a moonlike apple
and an applelike moon! This was the first
time man conceived of a physical uni-
verse, where the gravity of the earth acts
on both moons and apples. Up to that
time, man had actually inhabited a
duoverse with the celestial heaven per-
fect and unchanging while in the terrestrial
region below it there was a perfect mess
ever changing. What a comprehensive

imagination—made possible by the in-
tellectual and emotional freedom of a
scientist ‘‘who.”’

The third element is your ability —and
mine—to deduce something else, with
reason as a guide. We insist upon logical
consistency with respect to man’s mind.
In this connection we note the role of
mathematics which may insure suffi-
ciency, but not necessity. Suppose, for
example, the price x of an apple is given
by the equation x? = 25. Is 5¢ the correct
answer? No! there are two answers; the
one we choose is determined by the
marketplace. Mathematics, you see, may
tell us about all possible worlds that fit
our stipulations. The actual world, how-
ever, can be determined only by some
experiential boundary condition.

The fourth element is that very
criterion: I—and you—check our con- —
clusions, with nature as a re-source. Our
speculations must be bound by our
experience. You may recall the antics
which the Greek giant Antaeus exhibited
when he was strangled mid-air by that
work-force of the Greek gods, Heracles.
The unforgettable trick was to keep
Antaeus’ feet from touching his mother
earth where his strength would always
be nourished upon contact. To me this is
a parable of science —not to mention art
and religion; one’s vital strength is con-
tinually renewed so long as there is direct
contact with experience, otherwise one
merely goes through antics, regardless of
how clever or complex.

The sequence of these four elements is
not significant, being dependent largely
upon the skill of the explorer. The
success iS a consequence mainly of the
properties of the materials themselves.
The whole process, however, is cumula-
tive—not so much like the smooth ascent
of a pyramid as the rough climbing a
mountain with its unexpected ups and
downs, going arounds, and occasional
lost direction amid engulfing fog.

In this concise review of what I call the
scientific method (in preference to
various incomplete statements which are
often popularly dubbed scientific methods)
we have ignored certain important tacit

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

assumptions. The most familiar one is the
seeming experiential unity of nature.
_ Nowadays we have become accustomed
| to the apparent uniformity of matter
whether it exists on the earth or on the
_ moon, whether on the planet Mars or on
evolving stars. More significant is the
assumption of human comprehensibility.
_ The German theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein is said to have remarked that
the one fact about the universe incom-
| prehensible to him is its evident com-
| prehensibility by man. Recently we have
become more and more aware of the
importance of a third requirement, viz.
social acceptability. This assumption
takes two prominent forms, viz., special
professional dominances and the general
cultural matrix.

Max Planck, the German theoretical
physicist, who conceived the quantum
theory, notes in his posthumous (1948)
‘Scientific Autobiography’: ‘‘A new
scientific truth does not triumph by con-
vincing its opponents and making them
see the light, but rather because its
Opponents eventually die, and a new
generation grows up that is familiar with
it.’ In this connection one recalls the
first presentation of the conservation of
energy to professional scientists. When
James Prescott Joule, the English experi-
mental physicist, presented a paper at the
1847 Oxford meeting of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science,
the chairman of the session insisted that
the Manchester brewer’s son be brief,
and allowed no time for any discussion.
Fortunately a young Scotch-Irish pro-
fessor of natural philosophy at the Uni-
versity of Glasgow, William Thomson
(later Baron Kelvin), academically ac-
ceptable, rose to call attention to this
epoch-making work that was about to be
by-passed. Almost a century later (1937)

| the English experimental physicist Ernest

Rutherford (Baron of Nelson) predicted

| the impracticability of atomic energy —

only eight years prior to awesome
Hiroshima. Senior scientists are wont to
re-view current developments in the per-
_ Spective of their own pioneering work —
) areactionary procedure.

| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

This retarding social behavior is even
more widespread with respect to the
current cultural matrix. If there had been
a Vatican Digest in 1616, it would
undoubtedly have presented Galileo’s
dilemma with respect to the Ptolemy-
Copernicus issue in the form of a do-it-
yourself analysis. Which is true: the
hypothesis of the Alexandrian Claudius
Ptolemy that all planets revolve about the
earth, or that of the Polish Nicholaus
Copernicus with the earth itself joining
the planets all moving about the sun?
What factors are critical in making such
a decision? First of all, I suppose, is the
requirement of agreement with observa-
tional data. In this case both hypotheses
could be regarded as satisfactory, al-
though the data themselves were wanting
in precision (the Ptolemaic theory how-
ever, had been useful for more than 1400
years). The Copernican theory, to be
sure, waS more mathematically elegant
than the Ptolemaic in the disuse of any
large epicycles (there were still 34 circles
in the Copernican theory in constrast
with more than 80 in the Ptolemaic).
Ptolemy’s view, however, was enshrined
in Dante’s ‘‘Divine Comedy,”’ an epitome
of the culture of the day, whereas
Copernicus’ radical conception would
have to be regarded as philosophically
wanting. What about usually reliable
common sense? Francis Bacon believed
that any ‘‘fool’’ could see the sun moving
across the sky. On the basis of these
considerations one would reasonably
favor overall the Ptolemaic hypothesis.
Such as the concensus of intellectual
opinion in Galileo’s day. Science is
evidently culture-bound; hence the in-
creasingly important new field, the
sociology of science.

We digress to discuss briefly several
fruitful by-products of the scientific
method that are noteworthy. First of all,
there are the observed facts. Despite the
German historian Leopold von Ranke’s
dictum to let facts speak for themselves
(‘‘wie es eigentlich gewesen’’ —‘‘how it
really was’’), they don’t! It is rather the
scientist who selects, questions, ob-
serves, describes, and infers with respect

to what, where, when, how, and how
much (measures always approximate).

These observed facts, in short, reveal °

man’s fingerprints, like the soil that clings
to a plucked root.

Science, moreover, is never merely a
loose-leaf notebook of recorded facts; it
at least has them classified. But the
Scientist again plays the chief role; he
himself identifies associates, idealizes,
and conceives. He transforms percepts
into concepts, both empirical and theo-
retical. For example, it is truly amazing
that there was not even a thermoscope
to detect temperature changes until the
advent of Galileo. Up to that time a thing
was regarded as having either heat or
cold. It was Galileo who viewed these
two conditions as being different states
on a single scale—thus leading to the
invention of a thermometer.

Even more significant is the first
theoretical concept ever formulated by
man. The story is a familiar one. Hieron
II, king of Syracuse (3rd century B.C.),
ordered his goldsmith to make a new
crown out of the royal gold. He was, how-
ever, suspicious of the goldsmith; he
wondered if the gold was in the com-
pleted crown or under the goldsmith’s
gown. He called upon his chief scientist
Archimedes (the first great mathematical
physicist) for advice. Archimedes’ cele-
brated bath in this connection was not an
uneventful occasion. In his life of
Marcellus the first-century Greek biog-
rapher Plutarch notes that this action was
community inspired every now and then.
In his Roman bath Archimedes was cer-
tainly not striving to be the best bathed
Syracusan. He was anxiously waiting for
the ordeal to be over. Meanwhile he
paddled playfully in the water and sud-
denly noted that just as much water
would overflow as he himself became
immersed. Rushing out down the street,
he shouted, ‘‘Eureka!’’ (“‘I have found
it’’). The townspeople were amazed—
not because he was naked (Greek runners
always ran naked), but because there was
no race. Out of this simple experience
Archimedes formulated the first theo-
retical concept in the history of mankind,

viz., specific gravity, which relates two
important factors, the weight of a body
and that of an equal volume of water. The
concept is just as valid and useful today
as when it was proposed more than 2000
years ago.

In addition to observed facts and
related factors, there is a third important
by-product, namely, a factitious theory.
The word theory itself comes from the
same Greek root as theatre; it signifies a
view. The scientist attempts finally to
relate all his findings in a single view, to
comprehend all the facts and factors. A
Scientist is thus a creative artist and
science a human artifact. To change the
metaphor, he is like an involved coach
with a game plan—not a neutral referee
judging the legality of each play. Max |
Born, the German theoretical physicist,
concludes the Appendix of his Wayne-
flete Lectures (1949) on ‘‘Natural Phi-
losophy of Cause and Chance’’ with his
conviction that ‘‘faith, imagination, and
intuition are decisive factors in the
progress of science as in any other human
activity.”’ Science in the making is
adventure-some (one can always expect
the unexpected), wonder-full, and joy-full.

What are the chief factors that deter-
mine the progress of science? Why does
it flourish here and now, but not there and
then? Why, for example, in colonial
England and France, but not in colonial
Spain? What are the essential develop-
mental conditions? We would all like to
optimize them. We will just mention two
important factors.

The progress of science depends in the
first place on the definability of phe-
nomena, which, in turn, is a function of
their complexity and of the inevitable
involvement of the observer. (Pure ob-
jectivity does not exist, although the
object aspect may be _ distinguishable.)
The second major factor is the repro-
ducibility of the phenomena, which is
dependent upon the multiplicity and
interrelatedness of their constituents,
e.g., the proverbial unpredictability of
weather is a notable illustration. The
rapid development of the physical sci-
ences in comparison with that of the life

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

| sciences and of the social sciences is
owing largely to their relative simplicity
—more so than to the interest of private
investigators or to the funds available
| from social agencies (usually in propor-
tion to the practicability expectation).
The progress of science is civilly LTD.
There are definite limitations to any
man’s dream that the scientific method
will achieve success at all times and all
places under all conditions. Blaise Pascal,
the French philosophical physicist, noted
| in his fragmentary ‘‘Pensées’’ that man
is seemingly suspended between the
| infinite and infinitesimal. Today man is
)) floundering between ignorance of the
) very large (e.g., nebulae receding with
| almost the speed of light away from us)
and ignorance of the very small (e.g., the
German theoretical physicist Werner
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle with
respect to precise knowledge simul-
taneously of the position and speed for an
elementary particle). A fog shrouds our
scientific venture as it moves forward.
Complete liberation seems more and
more doubtful as we find ourselves bound
/not only by our mental processes, but
also by our man-made instruments. As
an expanding ball of light spreads its
illumination, at the same time it reveals
proportionately more the immensity of
the surrounding darkness. This phe-
nomenon has become increasingly evi-
| dent in the well-developed physical
Sciences; one wonders how long it will
take the life sciences, basking currently
'in the glow of success through utilizing
| fruits of the physical sciences, to reach a
| similar apparent impasse.
| Let us now touch lightly upon some
} philosophical limitations—at least from
| | my own point of view. There are four
| primary scientific approaches to the basic
| problem of man and his environment,
| viz., the avenue of the physical sciences,
| that of the biological sciences, that of
| psychology, and that of the social
sciences. Each of these avenues is
| attendant with certain common ques-
) tions: Pilate’s, ‘‘What is truth?’’ Mac-
| beth’s, ‘‘is this a dagger?’ Hamlet’s,
| “To be or not to be!’’ The attempt to

SS aae is

answer these three questions on truth,
reality, and value is the philosophy of
science. Physics, for instance, pre-
supposes some metaphysics—not that
metaphysics is essentially a part of
physics, but rather it is part of the
scaffolding used in building the physics
edifice. In the twentieth century, ac-
cordingly, science has become more
philosophical and philosophy, in turn,
more science based.

What is true? This formulation of the
first question, more akin to Hebraic
verbal action than to the Greek nounal
abstraction of Pilate, is typical of a
behavioral approach. (The legal demand
to “‘tell the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth’? belongs to the
‘“theater of the absurd.’’ Who would claim
to know all the truth?) In science,
accordingly, one is content to insist only
that a statement be true to observation
and logic, and to hope that it may lead
to a greater comprehension of the known
and possibly to the unification of science
itself. A scientist never pretends to know
everything; on the other hand, he cannot
deny knowing something. An illustration
or two may serve to clarify how scientific
thinking has influenced philosophical
ideas.

Imagine a trailer with two newlywed
coeds inside. As she lights a candle in the
very middle of the trailer, she muses,
‘‘Have you ever had physics?’’ Chagrined
by the very thought — particularly on his
honeymoon—he grunts, ‘‘Yes.’’ She
then asks, ‘‘When I light this candle, will
the light reach the forward end first, or the
rear?’ His countenance beams; he
knows the answer, ‘‘It reaches both at the
same time.’’ You and I, however, stand-
ing outside, see that the trailer is moving.
Obviously, the light will reach the ap-
proaching rear end before it gets to the
receding front end. Which answer is
correct? Both! The theory of restricted
relativity is based on the experimental
fact that the speed of light is the same for
all observers, independent of any relative
motion of the observed and the observer.
If we are not positive about the simul-
taneity of such phenomena, how can we

be certain about basic concepts like space
and time? Our notion of these, indeed,
has had to be revised. The essence of
relativity, indeed, is not that phenomena
may be relative to the observer; rather,
that some (e.g., the speed of light) are
invariant to all observers. It is unfortunate,
therefore, that a popularizer like Joseph
Fletcher, the Cambridge (MA) secular
theologian, has made relativity per se the
corner stone of his so-called new mortality
with respect to old situation ethics. What
is requisite for relative mores are ethical
invariances—what used to be called
absolutes.

Another familiar misunderstanding
seems to be inherent in the popular notion
of atomic energy. (cf. Jacob Bronowski’s
comment (1973), ‘‘We should never have
turned mass into energy.’’) By the end of
the nineteenth century it had become
customary to regard the world as con-
taining electromagnetic radiation (light,
x-rays, et al.) coexistent with material
things. But how does radiation differ
essentially from matter? Both have
energy (E) and momentum. In addition,
however, matter has mass (M); does
radiation have mass also? Albert Einstein
concluded from basic physical laws that
radiation, as well as matter, has mass
given by the universal formula E = Mc?,
where c is the speed of light. Its mis-
interpretation consists in thinking of mass
transforming into energy, or vice versa.
Actually neither is true. Mass is always
conserved, and so is energy. The diffi-
culty, I believe, stems from our short-
hand way of speaking. We _ charac-
teristically associate inert matter with its
characteristic property mass and pene-
trating radiation with its dominant
characteristic energy. Hence when
matter is transformed into radiation, we
carelessly think of their associated
characteristics as being transformed.

Ever since the Ionian philosophers, the
nature of matter itself has intrigued think-
ing man. Immanuel Kant, the German
transcendental philosopher, first pointed
out the antimony lurking in matter; one
cannot conceive of its infinite division or
of its limited divisibility (cf. the Greek

radical concept of an atom). There was a
time when the story of the universe could
presumably be written with an alphabet
of 92 letters, which could be formed with
a single p e n (proton, electron, neutron).
Then a number of new elementary
particles were discovered: the positron,
neutron, meson, and so on. Each year the
situation became more and more puzzling
as the number of so-called elementary
particles increased to more than 200. In

view of their approximate similarity of

mass and electric charge, Werner Heisen-

berg proposed the possibility of these |
particles being merely different states of —
a single dynamical system—like the |

various energy levels of a single atom.

The second philosophical question is |
concerned with the reality of scientific. |
theory. One would certainly prefer a |
behavioral approach here, too; largely |
because of the linguistic confusion in- |
herent in the multiple usage of the word |
real. (The American experimental phys- |
icist Percy Williams Bridgman refused }
ever to use the word real.) For example, |
how does realism in art differ from that |
in philosophy? Or existence in religion |
from that in mathematics? Scientists, |
therefore, are wont to content themselves |

with a pragmatic use of the term. The

gravitational force field, for instance, is |
generally accepted as real because of its |
usefulness as aconcept. May there not be |;
other logics? Say, some kind of Aristo- |
telian potential reality, where a New- j
tonian material force and a Maxwellian |
force field may be regarded as different
manifestations of the same reality? |
Suffice it for the moment to comment that |
reality appears as a tantalizing multi- |
faced creature facing many different |
points of view. We shall not discuss it |
further here except to remind you of the |
confusion that arose in physics itself as to |
the basicity of particles and waves, both |
of which were unwarranted speculations |
with respect to experiential phenomena. |

The question of value presents an |
immediacy of practical concern. Here, |
too, a behavioral approach is desirable; '
for scientists do behave like human |

beings. Noting their failures they make

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978 |

V4
value judgements—zin terms not always
of scientific goals, but rather of pragmatic
| successes. They have generally been
| successful when they themselves have
| been truth-full and hope-full, as well as
cooperative, regardless of color or creed,
class or country. In so doing man has
found himself to be a partner in a creative
coordination like snowflakes that crystal-
lize out of chaotic vapor motion. Out of
the complexity emerges order, out of un-
certainty an apparent sense of direction.
Not that a scientist ever attains ultimate
truth—or even strives for it. Great
‘scientists like the English natural phi-
losophers Isaac Newton and Michael
Faraday have been sincerely humble.
Extrinsic values, however, are of
‘greater concern nowadays than these
‘intrinsic ones. For example, is science
\possibly evil? Some years ago I was in-
-vited to participate in a symposium on
‘Poetry and Science’’ sponsored by the
American Society of Aesthetics. Another
speaker was a poet-in-residence at a well
known college, the third was a phi-
losopher at a major university. The poet
began by addressing me, ‘‘I do not know
: you. I have nothing against you per-
|

sonally. Science, however, is essentially
evil!’ I was dumfounded by this novel
introduction to an academic discussion.
I had to lay aside my notes, which
jargued that science, dealing with the
}) whole universe, is probably more imagi-
}|native than poetry, restricted narrowly to
‘)man’s own feelings. I was forced, how-
ever, to tackle the problem at hand.
| Take a knife,’ I said, ‘‘Is it good or
j\bad?”’ In the hands of a benevolent
}) physician it can cut out a bad appendix;
|\in the hands of a predatory man it can
\stab a good heart. The knife itself is
‘‘/neither good nor bad, but it can be used
by its holder for either good or bad.
| Science, to be sure, in times of war can
‘}jand must help to produce longer spears,
‘/)sharper swords, and bigger bombs, but
'))that same science can enable the partially
}/blind to see better, the partially deaf
/\io hear more, the very lame to get about
from place to place. Science of itself is
t) Meither good nor bad; it is neutral. It can,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

however, be used by technological man
for good or for bad. The heart of the
war problem, for instance, has been, is
now, and ever will be the heart of man
himself.

Scientists, however, are people; their
personality has many aspects. As citizens,
for example, they cannot remain morally
neutral. Recently I had occasion to note
the Greeks whom Dante had assigned to
the first circle of Hell; among the chatting
throng was the mathematician Euclid, the
astronomer Ptolemy, and the physician
Galen. I was surprised, moreover, to
find the famous adventurer, wise Ulysses,
being tormented in the eighth circle for
his abandonment of his old father Laertes,
of his faithful wife Penelope, and of his
infant son discreet Telemachus; he was
pictured by the English poet Alfred
Tennyson as still setting out in his last
years *‘to follow knowledge like a sinking
star.’ Each individual, scientist or not,
must personally solve his own social
problems. He may appear vacillating like
Albert Einstein who, as a nationalist,
recommended the making of an atomic
bomb (potentially for war), and later, (as
a pacifist, deplored its actual use. Each
one of us has to decide for himself; and no
one knows just what he will do under
stringent circumstances. Each scientist,
however, should strive to tell just what he
truly knows and the limitations of that
very knowledge, beyond which he must
act on faith. It is impossible to quaran-
tine a scientist from the contagious ills
of society.

Intimately related to philosophical
beliefs are religious implications of
science. Man, of course, is intellectually
curious about his spatial environment and
is awfully inspired by its challenging
mystery. His personal concerns, how-
ever, are more apt to be confined to
earth, which moves like a life boat in
space with man himself seemingly the
captain, without chart or compass. In
addition to speculative philosophical
issues, there is also Everyman’s question
(cf. the popular 15th century morality
Dutch play ‘‘Everyman’’): ‘‘Alas,
whereto may I trust?’’ There is a vital

need for every man’s commitment to
some overwhelming pattern for his every-
day living.

Whereas science is neutral, scientists
themselves are people who have to
couple their scientific experience and
religious experience. They, too, may
behave like the prophet Elijah who heard
a still small voice, or like the patriarch
Job who discerned an act of God in a
whirlwind. Religious men of science have
subscribed to many different personal
beliefs. There have been Anglicans like
Clerk Maxwell and Isaac Newton; Con-
gregationalists like Josiah Willard Gibbs
and Robert Andrews Millikan; Friends
like John Dalton and Arthur Stanley
Eddington; Lutherans like Werner
Heisenberg, Hermann von Helmholtz,
and Max Planck; Presbyterians like
Arthur Holly Compton; Sandemanians
like Michael Faraday; Roman Catholics
like Galileo Galilei, Albertus Magnus,
Gregor Mendel, Blaise Pascal, and Louis
Pasteur; Unitarians like Benjamin Frank-
lin; et al. —to mention only a few about
whose lives I am somewhat familiar. (An
interesting study would be the reciprocal
influence of science and of religion.)

One wonders why there is a wide-
spread notion that there are apparent
conflicts between science and religion. In
the 18th century controversy was cer-
tainly focused on the physical sciences;
in the 19th century it was centered in the
biological and earth sciences; in the 20th
century it is apparent in psychology and
the social sciences. On college campuses
it still lurks often beneath a veneer of
academic sophistication. The laboratory
is frequently too narrow to permit a look
out upon the whole universe; the chapel
door (usually closed) may be too narrow
to let even God enter. The average per-
son, I suppose, does not have any problem
of science and religion. Here is a
scientist: he has had genuine scientific
experiences, he believes these experi-
ences to be true, he hopes truth is
single. If there is any apparent conflict
between science and religion, he chooses
science which he knows. Here is a man of
religion: he has had genuine religious

experiences, he believes these experi-
ences to be true, he hopes truth is
single. If there is any apparent conflict
between religion and science, he rejects
science which he does not understand. In
both cases it is not a matter of science
and religion, but rather of science or
religion.

There is naturally a desire by some for
simply a theoretical world of science
alone or for simply a theoretical world of
religion alone; occasionally one finds an
individual trying to straddle the two
worlds despite a wide gulf between them.
In my own judgement, however, conflicts
between science and religion are always

inevitable. Although each field deals with
a particular aspect of our one world, each —
is continually imperfect and incomplete; |
their overlap, therefore, is necessarily |
full of inconsistencies and lacunae. One |
would, nevertheless, hope that the con- |
flicts of a person at age sixty would not |
be the same as those of the same person |
at age sixteen; over the years there should |
have been both scientific and spiritual |

growth. ;

whole;

visualize a
times scientists

infinite series 1+4+%44+%4+...

one expects the ultimate sum to be 2,
although it will not ever be attained. Ina ;
similar manner, I believe, science in its |
successive approximations discloses the |

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978 |

)) ‘‘real’’ world of nature; it points to it
|) symbolically.

| Everyone has to make his own choice
| with respect to the philosophical and
| religious implications he discerns per-
) sonally in the world of phenomena. There
|) are three primary attitudes. First of all,
| there are those who boastfully claim
)) they do not know; they are called agnostics
| (or ignoramuses). (One wonders how
they themselves know that they don’t
know.) Their closed minds, however, do
|, not allow entrance into the storehouse
| of knowledge. Then there is a group of
persons who modestly admit they do not
| know, but . . . These are skeptics who
_ see the door ajar but hesitate to enter;
their mind is open, but empty. Still
|) others, admit that they do not know, but
} boldly enter and find out more and more.
|| These are men of faith; their open mind
| steadily approaches answers to the
| perennial questions: where am I? who am
| I? what will I be? Civilization has not
| been built by agnostics and skeptics, but
) by men of faith.

_ People differ, however, as to what they
|) put their faith in. Some have been thrilled
’ by the gay flowers about them by day and
| the bright stars above them at night. They
put their faith in the material environ-
ment to provide answers to the basic

i
=

| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

questions; they may be called materialists.
Others, however, have been entrapped in
floods or earthquakes, in hurricanes or
dust storms. They fear to put their trust
in impersonal matter. On the other hand,
they have been entranced by man’s music
and painting, by his writings and build-
ings. They put their faith in man; they
are atheistic humanists. Still others have
seen man’s inhumanity to man, in his city
slums about and in atomic bombs above.
They are compelled to look up for
salvation to some higher power, which
for want of a better name they call God;
they are theistic humanists. Religion then
becomes the binding together of the plane
of man and his environment and God.
One cannot prove that any of these
attitudes is true or false. I myself have
one life to live; Iam a theistic humanist.
I believe in the divine rights of man.

‘‘The world stands out on either side
No wider than the heart is wide;
Above the world is stretched the sky, —
No higher than the sky is high.
The heart can push the sea and land
Farther away on either hand;
The soul can split the sky in two,
And let the face of God shine through.
But East and West will pinch the heart
That cannot keep them pushed apart;
And he whose soul is flat—the sky
Will cave in on him by and by.’’

Edna St. Vincent Millay (‘‘Renascence’’)

Mortimer Demarest Leonard, Entomologist: Biographical
Sketch and List of Publications

A. G. Wheeler, Jr. (1)

Bureau of Plant Industry, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg 17120 :

Mortimer Demarest Leonard’s diverse
and unconventional career spanned more
than half a century, beginning as an under-
graduate in 1909 during the glory years
of entomology under J. H. Comstock at
Cornell University and officially closing
in 1961 near the end of an era of chlori-
nated hydrocarbon insecticides and during
the early days of integrated pest manage-
ment. He has been described as one of
the best-known members of his profes-
sion (2); the reasons for his extraordinary
visibility are many. Dr. Leonard’s career
took him into the study of insect systema-
tics, biology, and distribution in which
he edited the New York State list of in-
sects, revised the dipterous family Rhag-
ionidae, and published on immature
stages of Hemiptera and aphid distribu-
tion; into extension entomology where
he was a pioneer in establishing services
for fruit growers; and into industry where
he developed uses for numerous agricul-
tural insecticides as one of the first ento-
mologists to serve commercial interests.
He worked for industry in nearly all re-
gions of the country and abroad where
he collaborated with hundreds of state,
federal, and foreign workers. His out-
going personality and genuine interest
in others won friends wherever he went.

My first association with Dr. Leonard
came shortly after I began my graduate
work at Cornell in 1966. He promptly
identified a collection of aphids I had
made and urged me to do additional col-
lecting that might add data for the sec-
ond supplement to his list of the aphids
of New York State. Possibly because I
was associated with his beloved Cornell,
he took a special interest in my graduate
career, encouraging me throughout in

correspondence from 1967 to 1971. I met |
Dr. Leonard just once, at the 43rd An- |
nual Meeting, Eastern Branch, Entomo- |
logical Society of America at Philadelphia |
in October 1971, shortly after I had fin- |
ished my studies at Cornell. His encour- |
agement and continued interest in my |
work prompted me to assemble more |
biographical material than space per-’
mitted Louise Russell to present in her ©
excellent obituary written after Dr. Leon- |
ard’s death in August 1975 (Russell 1975). |
The preparation of this sketch and |
accompanying data was made easier for |
me because Dr. Leonard had maintained |
a partial list of his publications and had
listed the species named in his honor, |
scientific societies to which he belonged,
and the professional congresses he had |
attended. These personal items were |
given to Cornell University and were |
made available by L. L. Pechuman. I |
am also indebted to Donald D. Leonard, |
Mortimer’s younger brother and former |
raw silk and yarn broker in New York |
City, for answering many of my questions |
about Dr. Leonard in a series of letters |
to me from November 1976 to April 1978.
Much valuable information was available |
in letters by F. L. Campbell and J. S.
Wade in recommending Leonard for
membership in the prestigious Cosmos |
Club of Washington, D. C. C. P. Alexan- |
der provided details of his and Leonard’s |
student years at Cornell. These sources |
have enabled me to discuss fully Leon- §
ard’s fruitful career. I hope to avoid a |
mere sterile recording of his accomplish- |
ments but to capture some of his per- |
sonality. To this end, the narrative is q
somewhat informal and anecdotal; at ;
times I refer to Leonard affectionately |

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978 |

as ‘‘Mort’’ since this was how most of
his friends and colleagues knew him.

The Making of a Naturalist

M. D. Leonard, born on June 23, 1890,
grew up in the comfortable Brooklyn
home of his talented parents, Mortimer
Haight Leonard and Elizabeth Reid
Demarest. His father, whose ancestors
had come to New York City from Eng-
land in the 18th century (3), attended
family-interest businesses of banking and
insurance and was active in amateur
theatricals. His mother (Fig. 1), of Scotch-
French Huguenot ancestry (3), was a
well-known contralto soloist in New

York City churches and oratorio and
teacher and conductor of womens’ choral
societies (4).

City born and bred, young Mort at-
tended neighborhood schools at 81st and
91st streets. He was able to enjoy out-
door activities at his parents’ summer
home in Ridgewood, New Jersey, a coun-

try place with swimming holes, brooks,
and open fields where he collected butter-
flies and pointed out insects to his parents.
Mort worked in the garden and on the
one-acre grounds of their summer home.
Never a robust youth, he did not hold
any other jobs since his parents consi-
dered the physical work good for their
son. Mort’s father died in 1908 when Mort
was in high school and his brother Donald
was 12 years old. Mrs. Leonard was a
remarkably capable person who assumed
the duties of mother and father, including
buying and selling property and building
a permanent home in Ridgewood (4, 5).

In 1904 Leonard entered Chesire Aca-
demy near New Haven, Connecticut,
where he met Louis Dunham, a student
of nearly his own age who had a keen
interest in birds. Together they spent
much of their spare time in the nearby
woods and fields observing birdlife. Mort
soon learned ‘‘almost by heart and rather
effortlessly, the identifying characters of

Fig. 1. M. D. Leonard with his wife, Doris Gardner Pratt (left), and his mother, Elizabeth Reid
Demarest (right), ca. 1920. Courtesy of Donald D. Leonard

__ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

a great many of our Northeastern birds’’
(Leonard 1957).

Entomological Father. — After spend-
ing a year at Chesire, Leonard began
to commute from Ridgewood to New
York City’s De Witt Clinton High School,
at the time this country’s largest second-
ary school (ca. 2500 students) (6). Dr.
George Washington Hunter, author of
the most widely used textbook of high
school biology, was head of the biology
department; one of his staff members
was the well-known student of Hemiptera,
Harry G. Barber. By chance, Leonard
was assigned to Barber’s section of Bot-
any and with his previous fascination
with bird study, Mort showed an unusual
interest in the class and attracted his
teacher’s attention. The following year,
Mr. Barber asked that Leonard be placed
in his zoology class and obtained permis-
sion for Mort to share his lunch periods
with him. He told his student that ento-
mology was a legitimate profession, and
one spring Saturday he invited Mort to
collect insects with him near his Rosell,
N. J. home. Leonard described the im-
pact this trip had on his career:

I accepted at once, although I had not the slightest
idea of what doing so entailed. This experience
proved so fascinating that I decided then and there
—that I wanted, more than anything else, to be-
come an entomologist (Leonard 1957).

Noting Leonard’s continued enthu-
siasm for insect collecting, Mr. Barber
stressed that Cornell was the school to
attend if one really aspired to a career
in entomology. At Barber’s suggestion,
Mort’s family gave him a copy of A Man-
ual for the Study of Insects by Professor
Comstock and his wife Anna Botsford
Comstock at Christmas, 1908. Mr. Barber
then convinced the family that ento-
mology could be a reasonably lucrative
profession; they eventually consented
for Mort to attend Cornell (6).

Years later, Leonard gave credit to
Barber for charting the course of the
rest of his life, and he kept *‘in constant
touch with him until the very day of his
[Barber’s] death’? (Leonard and Sailer
1960: 127). Several reprints that Mort

sent to his esteemed friend and teacher
were fondly dedicated to his ‘‘Entomo-
logical Father.”’

Cornell, Comstock and Crosby

The Undergraduate Years.—Amidst
the bustling activity in J. H. Comstock’s
department, even Leonard’s first days on
campus proved exciting. On September
24, 1909, the freshman approached an-
other young student in the departmental
library, then housed in Roberts Hall,
asking: ‘‘Sir, could you tell me where I
could find a copy of Aldrich’s Catalogue
of North American Diptera?’’ (7). After
a moment, the surprised student told
Mort that he too had an interest in the
Diptera and had arrived in Ithaca only
the day before. Together the two fresh- ©
men located a copy of the Aldrich cata-
logue and marvelled over the fascinating
volume. The other young man was Charles
P. Alexander, destined to describe more
than 10,000 insect species and publish
more than 1,000 papers on crane flies
(Diptera: Tipulidae) in studies that con-
tinue today. Out of that chance meeting
evolved several joint projects and two
publications on crane flies during their
freshman and sophomore years and arose
a deep, life-long friendship.

Leonard’s formal introduction to en-
tomology was Professor Comstock’s gen-
eral lecture course. The textbook used
was the Manual with which Mort already
was well versed. Additional courses
under J. C. Bradley (Systematic Ento-
mology), G. W. Herrick (Economic En-
tomology), J. G. Needham (General
Biology), A. D. MacGillivray (Systema-
tic Entomology), and W. A. Riley (Medi-
cal Entomology and Parasitology) served
only to pique Leonard’s interest. He also
benefitted from courses under other of
Cornell’s famous zoologists: Ornithology
under A. A. Allen, Comparative Anatomy
of Vertebrates under H. D. Reed, and
Systematic Vertebrate Zoology under
A. H. Wright (6). Leonard also had the
opportunity of associating with students
who later achieved some distinction in
entomology: C. P. Alexander, R. N. Chap-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

man, H. Dietrich, A. E. Emerson, H. E.
Ewing, J. C. Faure, A. D. Funkhouser,
S. W. Frost, S. A. Graham, G. H. Griswold,
Rew... Harned, H. C. Huckett, H. B.
Hungerford, H. H. Knight, H. Morrison,
ee WW. Muesebeck,. E. M. Patch,-H:
Ruckes, R. C. Shannon, R. C. Smith,
J. D. Tothill, J. R. Traver, and others
I might have mentioned.

Cornell’s faculty shared a camaraderie
with their students, often entertaining
them in their homes. Sunday night open
house at the Comstock’s, which Mort
frequently attended, was a tradition.
Edith Patch (quoted in Mallis 1971) de-
scribed the student-faculty relationship:

My first impression of Entomological Cornell
was that it was sort of a family with the faculty
acting as older brothers to the graduate students
and everybody loving the Professor and Mrs. Com-
stock better than they did anybody else and that
Cornell was the friendliest group of people in the
world.

For such a distinguished group there
was, as Prof. Bradley noted, a surprising
lack of jealousy:

In those early days, our Department was small
enough so that the entire staff and graduate students
could be sort of like a family. We all know each
other well. . . . Inso far as I have known, there were
no jealousies—there was always harmony amongst
the members of the staff (8).

Louis Agassiz Fuertes, the great bird
artist, allowed Mort to accompany him
to his studio to watch him paint; (6) Pro-
fessor Bradley took Leonard with him to
a December 1911 meeting of the New
York Entomological Society. Mort also
was privileged to participate in the Cor-
nell Okefenokee Expedition as the first
group of naturalists to explore that great
southern Georgia swamp. Led by Brad-
ley, other members of the expedition
were C. R. Crosby (Cornell economic
entomologist), A. H. Wright, W. D. Funk-
houser (Headmaster of Ithaca’s Casca-
dilla Preparatory School and specialist on
the Membracidae), Lee Worsham (Geor-
gia State Entomologist), and Leonard’s
fellow classmate Sherman C. Bishop,

who later became State Zoologist of New

York. During late May to mid-July 1912,

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

2 Pa
£E My

Fig. 2. Mort at Gutland Vineyards, Patras,
Greece, Sept. 18, 1911. Courtesy of D. D. Leonard.

the group prepared hundreds of bird skins
and thousands of insects. Mort brought
back 5 closely pinned Schmitt boxes of
flies after identifying some of them during
a week’s stopover at the U. S. National
Museum in Washington (6). Van Duzee
(1915) named in Leonard’s honor a doli-
chopodid fly Mort had collected in the
swamp, the first named of many insects
bearing the specific name leonardi.

The love Mort had developed for insect
collecting as an undergraduate can be
shown by relating an incident that took
place on a Mediterranean trip (Fig. 2) he
made with his mother, his brother, and
a Greek friend during the summer of 1911
between his sophomore and junior years.
When the other members of the party
were sightseeing in Algiers, the Leonard
boys wandered off to collect insects in
the city square park. Mort became so
fascinated with collecting exotic species
that he and Donald overstayed their time.
A search party located them, but Mort

drew a sharp reprimand for delaying
departure of the Martha Washington (4).

An obvious enthusiasm and aptitude
for entomology brought Leonard into a
close relationship with the department
head, Prof. Comstock. When Leonard
reported for his first class in the fall term
of 1911, Dr. Riley informed him that the
Professor wanted to see him in his office.
Comstock had received a call from L. O.
Howard, Chief Entomologist of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture in Washington,
who explained that Col. Gorgas urgently
needed an entomologist to assist in malaria
control in order to protect those working
to build the Panama Canal. Anyone Com-
stock recommended could have the posi-
tion. The man Comstock chose was
Leonard, after first checking with Riley
to see whether Mort had satisfactorily
completed his Medical Entomology and
Parasitology course. Leonard considered
the offer overnight, then decided to de-
cline; he appreciated the compliment
to his ability, but he did not want any-
thing to interfere with his obtaining a
Cornell degree (6). At the completion
of the spring term in 1913, the University
awarded him a B.S. degree.

The Graduate Years.—At the urging
of some of his professors, Leonard de-
cided to stay at Cornell to pursue a Ph.D.
Although his research (a revision of the
dipterous family Rhagionidae of America
north of Mexico) was begun under
Professor Bradley and completed under
O. A. Johannsen, Mort’s graduate years
were influenced more by an economic
entomologist and spider taxonomist,
C. R. Crosby.

Late in 1913 Leonard found several
large notebooks in the Agriculture Li-
brary that contained clippings of short
articles written by Prof. Mark V. Slinger-
land, who had died in 1909 at the age of
45. Leonard showed his find to Crosby,
who then told Comstock about the dis-
covery. Comstock considered the clip-
pings to represent valuable information
on injurious insects of New York State,
and since Slingerland’s writings were
scattered in various popular magazines

and in newspapers, he suggested that if
Mort were interested in compiling them
for publication, he would furnish a photo-
graph of Slingerland and write an intro-
ductory biographical sketch (6). Thus,
Leonard published in 1914 ‘‘A Bibliog-
raphy of the Writings of Mark Vernon
Slingerland,’’ consisting of titles of more
than 800 articles published mainly in the
Rural New-Yorker. Apparently Crosby
and Leonard had hoped to complete and
publish an index to the Experiment Sta-
tion literature of entomology, a project
begun earlier by Prof. Slingerland. The
Comstock Memorial Library at Cornell
contains five bound volumes of Slinger-
land, Crosby, and Leonard’s ‘Index to
Experiment Station Literature, 1888 to
1913,’’ the first two volumes dated 1915,
the last three, 1916. For some reason
this extensive compilation was never
published.

Leonard further became involved in
the practical aspects of entomology when
he began to work with Crobsy to control
the tarnished plant bug as a pest of peach
nursery stock, part-time at first so he
could continue his graduate studies.
During the summers of 1913-15, he
worked at Chase Brothers Nursery, a
grower of fruit nursery stock and large
importer of plant material, at Honeoye
Falls, N. Y. In 1914 federal funds became
available for extension work, and Leon-
ard was appointed as assistant extension
entomologist under Crosby during 1915—
16. Together they described as new sev-
eral chalcidoid wasps that parasitized
economically important insects, published
various bulletins relating to control of
fruit pests, and their model bibliography
of the tarnished plant bug, which con-
tained 315 titles. Their joint publications
culminated in a 1918 book on vegetable
garden insects.

The teacher and student remained
close friends long after Mort left Cornell.
A series of letters from Crosby to Leon-
ard, written daily or every few days while
the professor was on an extended collect-
ing trip through the south and west, re-
veals the depth of their relationship. In
his first letter to Mort, dated February

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

22, 1936, and extracted by Osborn (1946),
Crosby wrote:

By this time you must realize that I am not merely
writing you letters but keeping a diary. I never
could keep a diary because I had no audience. By
doing it this way I may be able to keep a record
of the trip. I hope you find it of some interest.
In spite of the bad weather we are getting a lot
of stuff. Wish you were along.

Perhaps more important than the
Crosby-Leonard publications was the
method they helped devise for trans-
lating results of research work into prac-
tical use by farmers. With plant pathol-
ogists and other members of the Cornell
extension group, they developed a spray
service for the commercial fruit growers
of the state. Special assistants of the
New York State Food Supply Commis-
sion were placed in the field, beginning
in Monroe and Niagara counties in 1917,
to show the growers how and when to
apply various insecticides and fungicides.
This idea, soon copied by other states,
helped growers reduce their losses to
insects and disease and represented one
of this country’s first successful exten-
sion programs in entomology and plant
pathology (2).

Despite the considerable influence of
Prof. Crosby and the time-consuming
work on control of the tarnished plant
bug, Leonard must have initiated several
of his own projects. During 1915-16, he
managed to publish 4 papers containing
descriptions and illustrations of the im-
mature stages of plant bugs and leaf-
hoppers, some of the first North American
work on immatures of the Miridae and
Cicadellidae. Some of his illustrations
_ were used by Prof. Comstock in his 1918
treatise on the wings of insects. It was
in this period that Leonard become inter-
ested in the plan to publish a list of New
York State insects. J. C. Bradley was
named Editor-in-Chief; the leading spe-
cialists in the major groups of insects
were to serve as sub-editors.

Emergency extension work often took
Leonard away from campus during the
later years of his graduate studies. For
short periods he worked on control of
vegetable pests at Pennsylvania State

| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

College’s Erie County laboratory in 1918,
on truck crop insects on Long Island in
1919, and with Prof. Robert Matheson
of Cornell on the European corn borer
in Massachusetts in 1920. On October 28,
1918, shortly after he returned from his
stay in Pennsylvania, Mort married Doris
Gardner Pratt (Fig. 1), a former secre-
tary at Cornell and daughter of the pro-
duction manager of the Ithaca Journal.
Perhaps Crosby now thought his assist-
ant had prolonged his graduate work
long enough; he urged Leonard to com-
plete his dissertation so he would be
available to accept job offers (9). Leonard
was awarded his Ph.D. in February 1921.

Entomological Jack-of-All-Trades

Off the Beaten Path.—In late 1921
Bowker Chemical Co. of New York City
offered the new graduate the opportunity
to direct its field research in the eastern
states. To leave Cornell for industry was
a radical step since Leonard perhaps
was only the second well-trained member
of his profession to enter the commercial
field. Leonard credits Otto H. Swezey
with being the first graduate entomologist
to serve a profit-making organization
(Leonard 1958). The new job subjected
Leonard to ridicule from his colleagues
in official positions who made it known
that Mort had compromised his principles.
Years after his move to Bowker, he wrote:
‘‘Few but the older entomologists can
realize today the feeling which prevailed
in this matter 25 or 30 years ago’ (Leon-
ard 1946). So great could be the oppro-
brium that J. G. Sanders (first State En-
tomologist of Wisconsin and later director
of Pennsylvania’s Bureau of Plant Indus-
try), who joined the Sun Oil Co. in the
early 1920’s, felt compelled to respond
to his tormentors: “* . an economic
entomologist still retains his identity and
worth, irrespective of the source of his
remunerations ... .’’ (Sanders 1925).

As Bowker’s director of field research
Leonard was to determine new uses for
an old copper-arsenical compound that
had recently been modified. In coopera-
tion with land-grant colleges in several

eastern states he planned and carried
out experiments with the new material
on apples, potatoes, and other crops.
In April 1923 he left to re-enter official
entomology.

When New York’s State Entomologist
E. P. Felt was temporarily transferred
to the State Conservation Department,
Leonard was appointed Acting State
Entomologist. At this time the editorial
board of the New York Insect List was
revised and Leonard succeeded Bradley
as Editor. Among Mort’s other duties
in Albany was the investigation of the
~ state’s injurious and beneficial insects.
When Felt returned, Leonard was ap-
pointed and sent to Spain as special
investigator by the New York Fruit Ex-
change to determine the conditions sur-
rounding the USDA’s embargo against
Almeria grapes infested with Mediter-
ranean fruit fly.

Back to Cornell.—His assignment
in Spain completed, Leonard returned
to Cornell in December 1924 to see the
New York Insect List through to comple-
tion as its Editor-in-Chief. He also wrote
two fascicles for the List: Families Xylo-
phagidae, Coenomyiidae, and Rhagioni-
dae (Diptera) and (with A. B. Gahan and
Crosby) the Superfamily Chalcidoidea
(Hymenoptera). Mort truly delighted in
seeing the insect fauna of his home state
documented. In studies on chrysomelid
beetles under Prof. Matheson, T. L. Bis-
sell collected a rare species and recalls
Mort’s elation at having a new addition
to the List (10). All possible sources of
records were explored. As an example,
he spent considerable time rummaging
through W. T. Davis’ attic in search of
records of Long Island and Staten Island
insects (Abbott 1949). The project was
completed in 1925, but it was not until
1928 that the List was published as Cor-
nell Memoir 101. With its more than 16,000
insects and related arthropods, the List
remains as the most comprehensive work
on the insect fauna of any geographic
region in North America. More than 150
scientists had collaborated to do the col-
lecting and taxonomic study necessary
to complete the project.

Retreat from Blind Alleys.— Again
Leonard had to leave Ithaca; once again,
as F. L. Campbell aptly described (2),
he was forced off the beaten path to ex-
plore this way and that, often having to
retreat, never becoming entrenched in a
permanent position. During 1925—27
Leonard conducted field experiments
relating to control of citrus and vegetable
pests for the Florida Agricultural Supply
Co. of Orlando, a position similar to the
one he had held with Bowker Chemical.
For part of this period Leonard also
worked for the Wilson & Toomer Fer-
tilizer Co. of Jacksonville. In August
1927 he returned to Ithaca for a few
months as a special agent in the joint
Cornell-USDA campaign to clean up in-
festations of European corn borer.

The campaign completed, Leonard
returned to industry, this time as research
entomologist with Tobacco By-Products
and Chemical Corporation of Louisville,
Kentucky. He was stationed at Wenat-
chee, Washington, to test insecticides
for control of codling moth. In slightly
more than a year the experimental work
was completed; Mort soon was back to
official entomology.

Basic Biology Again.—In January
1930 Leonard became Chief of the Divi-
sion of Entomology at Puerto Rico’s
Insular Experiment Station at Rio Piedros
(Fig. 3). His duties were broad: to make
general insect surveys and to investigate
the control of insect pests of all crops
grown on the island. Here Leonard was
able to return to active publishing. He
had published his first paper as a sopho-
more at Cornell and by the time he re-
ceived his Ph.D. his scientific contribu-
tions numbered more than 30. But in
nearly a decade away from Ithaca, mainly
in industry, he had published fewer than
10 papers, most of those during his editor-
ship of the New York list of insects. At
the Insular Experiment Station he was
able to carry out basic life history stud-
ies similar to those he and Crosby had
conducted at Cornell. Leonard and his
co-workers studied the biology of the
lima bean pod borer, bean lace bug,
pink bollworm, cottony cushion scale,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

sugar cane borer, a lepidopterous leaf-
miner of cotton, a root weevil of cas-
sava, a coreid bug that injures citrus,
papaya fruit fly, as well as other species.
The annotated bibliography of Puerto
Rican entomology published by Leonard
(1933) lists 38 of his own titles, only 7 of
them with a co-author. With political
changes in the insular government in late
1932, Mort was left without a position.

After working for a month or so as a
consulting entomologist for United Chem-
ical and Exterminating Co. of New York
City, Leonard settled into relative secur-
ity as a research entomologist for the
John Powell Co. of New York. For 5-4
years he was stationed in Florida to con-
duct tests with pyrethrum and rotenone
in control of vegetable and other crop
pests.

His next three positions were short-
lived: entomologist in charge of Du Pont’s
pest control exhibit at the New York
World’s Fair (Feb. 1939-—Nov. 1940),
and entomologist with Angier Products
of Cambridge, Massachusetts (Dec.

Fig. 3. Mort in Puerto Rico, ca. 1930. Courtesy
of D. D. Leonard.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Fig. 4. Mort near his Dorchester House apart-
ment, spring 1948. Courtesy of D. D. Leonard.

1940—May 1941), and then with the Orange
Manufacturing Co., Orlando, Florida
(May—Oct. 1941). From December 1941
to late 1945 he served as business analyst
for the Office of Price Administration and
was in charge of price controls for insec-
ticides during World War II. His resi-
dence at Dorchester House, 2480 Six-
teenth Street NW (Fig. 4), about a mile
north of the White House, would be his
home for more than 30 years and would
become the site of many ‘‘yellow-pan”’
collections of aphids.

Looking for Security. — After the war
Leonard sought security with the U. S.
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-
tine, then under the direction of E. R.
Sasscer who had succeeded C. L. Mar-
latt. He was assigned to Sasscer to help
collect data on exotic insect pests, which
if introduced into the U. S., would prove
the greatest threat to our agriculture.
Sasscer intended for the Bureau to pub-
lish on all foreign insect pests that might
enter the country, a work that would

supersede the well-known manual pub-
lished by W. D. Pierce (1917). Leonard
helped prepare a draft of a manuscript
treating exotic pests of cruciferous crops
(11), but even this first part of the intended
series was never published. Funds for
the project had been depleted; Leonard
was dropped from the payroll in 1947.

As noted by Campbell: ‘‘It is a tribute
to his reputation and ability that at the
age of 57 he was promptly employed by
another insecticide manufacturer for de-
velopmental work (2).’’ In October 1948
Leonard joined the Julius Hyman Co. of
Denver, Colorado, to aid in developing
uses for new hydrocarbon insecticides in
the eastern states. Shell Chemical Co.
purchased Julius Hyman in 1952, acquir-
ing exclusive rights to the compounds
aldrin and dieldrin. In his position Leon-
ard cooperated with numerous workers
in state, federal, and foreign governments
and functioned as an ‘‘Entomological
Diplomat’’ in planning overseas uses for
his company’s insecticides and dealing
with various agencies such as the Foreign
Health Division of the U. S. Public Health
Service, the Institute of Inter-American
Affairs, and the Pan-American Sanitary
Bureau. As an example of his involve-
ment with foreign countries, he was in-
strumental in shipping to Egypt two air-
planes loaded with insecticides to combat
a locust plague. The promptness of his
and Shell’s action helped save most of
the cotton crop (12). Upon his retire-
ment in July 1961, Shell honored Dr.
Leonard ‘‘.. . for his integrity as a scientist
and for his many contributions to advance
the interests of entomology and his fellow
entomologists’’ (13).

Entomologist to the End

Aphids on a Rooftop—Leonard had
not yet developed an interest in aphids
when, on his return to Ithaca from the
1912 Okefenokee Expedition, he stopped
at Plummers Island, Maryland to collect
with H. S. Barber, W. L. McAtee, E. A.
Schwarz, and H. L. Viereck (Leonard
1966). We know, however, that by 1916
he had begun to collect aphids; he sent a

letter to Edith Patch informing her of a
collection he had made from golden seal.
Her reply of September 1, 1916, cited by
Mallis (1971) to capture the ‘‘flavor of
her personality,’’ was essentially a repri-
mand to Leonard for his careless packing
of the vials containing the specimens.
The zeal with which Mort later was to
pursue studies of aphid distribution was
the result of a reunion with Crosby dur-
ing a short vacation at Cornell in the fall
of 1932. At Crosby’s suggestion, Mort did
some collecting in the Ithaca area and
was impressed with the diversity of the
aphid fauna. The recently published work
on Illinois aphids (Hottes and Frison
1931) further stimulated Leonard’s inter-
est in the group. Separately and together
Crosby and Leonard collected aphids
until the Professor’s death in 1937 (Leon-
ard 1963). Mort published their new
records of New York species in a 1937
paper, the first of his more than 50 papers
on aphids.

Although he had begun to collect aphids
in the Washington area in 1945, it was
not until the mid-1950’s that he concen-
trated on the group. As consulting ento-
mologist with Shell Chemical Co., he had
time to operate a Moericke (‘‘yellow-
pan’’) trap on the roof of his 9-story apart-
ment building and accumulate records of
the local fauna. Every six months or so,
he and his wife Doris would visit her
niece (Mrs. David Winters) in Haddon-
field, N. J., and invariably Mort would
set up his trap in the Winters’ yard (14).
Some members of the prestigious Cos-
mos Club in Washington must have
looked askance when Mort collected
from plants in the club’s gardens. For
Mort there was always time for collecting:

If one keeps at it as he travels, a great deal of
valuable stuff can be gotten by dropping by for a
few minutes at a likely spot, or during noon hour
or after supper as well as on Sundays & occasional
holidays. Anyone who really wants to collect .. .
can find time even tho busy with other matters”’ (15).

Leonard constantly encouraged his
friends to collect aphids for him and, if
they neglected to send specimens, he
would remind them to be more diligent (9).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Roy Latham, a close friend and long-time
naturalist on Long Island, made numerous
collections of aphids from accurately
determined host plants; Prof. L. L. Pechu-
man collected two new species of New
York aphids and contributed many new
state records; and C. P. Alexander and
others also submitted numerous collec-
tions to Mort. It should be pointed out
that Leonard was not a taxonomic spe-
cialist in the Aphididae and did not de-
scribe new species as he had for the Dip-
tera and Hymenoptera earlier in his
career. He did make many of his own
identifications but usually submitted
specimens to specialists for verification
of his tentative determinations. Many
of the world’s aphid authorities were
called on for assistance: T. L. Bissell,
V.F. Eastop, M. E. MacGillivray, A. T.
Olive, J. O. Pepper, F. W. Quednau,
A. G. Robinson, L. M. Russell, C. F.
Smith, H. L. G. Stroyan, and A. N.
Tissot.

Through Mort’s own collecting and
his encouragement of others, our knowl-
edge of the aphid fauna of New York
is better known than that of any other
state, with some 462 species having been
recorded up to publication of his fourth
supplement in 1975. He also published
distribution records for the aphids of
Arizona, California, Connecticut, Dela-
ware, District of Columbia, Hawaii,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri,
New Jersey, Oregon, Texas, Vermont,
and Virginia, as well as Cyprus and New-
foundland.

The Last Years.—Mort remained
an active entomologist until his final
months; his ambition seldom waned.
Even in his later years he still had hopes
for finishing a supplement to his New
York Insect List (15); he still mentioned
the possibility of publishing sketches of
entomologists he felt had been neglected
(C. H. Hadley and J. G. Sanders for ex-
ample) (16); and he was still having aphids
sent to him. Less than a month before he
died, he turned over to Prof. Pechuman
the notes that were to comprise a fifth
supplement to his New York list of aphids

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

and asked him to oversee the typing of
the manuscript (17).

When Doris’ health began to fail, the
Leonards moved to a Cherry Hill, N. J.
nursing home in early August 1975. With
his own health also beginning to decline
and without the opportunity of daily tele-
phone chats with his Washington friends
and occasional visits to the Cosmos Club,
Mort may literally have died of a broken
heart. He died on August 26, 1975 and
was buried in the family plot in Ridge-
wood, N. J. Doris died soon after on
February 29, 1976.

Evaluation of a Career

Mortimer D. Leonard’s more than 170
publications in insect biology, distribu-
tion, and control; in extension work; and
on new uses of insecticides attest to a
long and diverse career. He had the op-
portunity to be part of the Comstock
years at Cornell and to associate with
some of the greatest scientists in his field
and to be active both in basic and applied
research in official and commercial posi-
tions. His outstanding achievement prob-
ably was overseeing the completion of
the New York State List of Insects. Such
an ambitious compiling of a state’s insect
fauna may never again be attempted. The
List is an invaluable reference for insect
distribution records and, ina lighter vein,
it inspired the long-running column *‘Au-
tographa OO”’ by the editor of the Bulletin
of the Entomological Society of America.
Mort delighted in the explanation of how
the name for the column (loosely ex-
pressed as ‘‘Oh! Oh! What have I writ-
ten’’!) was derived (with apology to gram-
marians) from the noctuid moth, Auto-
grapha oo, on page 627 of the List (18).

In economic entomology the develop-
ment and testing of new agricultural
insecticides was an outstanding contribu-
tion, although no single accomplishment
or publication commemorates his devel-
opmental work. F. L. Campbell credits
Mort with benefitting peoples the world
over:

There is no question... that the present
effectiveness of chemical control of insects can be

attributed to the effort over the years of Dr. Leon-
ard and men like him. To a considerable extent
credit for this great development in food production
should go to Dr. Leonard who has been a pioneer
and leader in this field (2).

According to Leonard’s own estimate,
40% of his time was spent in “‘official”’
entomology, 60% in ‘‘commercial’’ posi-
tions (Leonard 1957). He declined to
select either as the more enjoyable,
although he was justly proud of being
one of the first well-trained entomologists
to serve industry. He traced the develop-
ment of commercial entomology in the
United States (Leonard 1958) and, accord-
ing to one of Mort’s closest friends, the
preparation of the paper truly was a labor
of love (19).

But did Dr. Leonard fulfill the promise
he showed as a taxonomist and general
biologist during his student years at Cor-
nell? Would Prof. Comstock and _ his
friend and adviser Cyrus Crosby have
been pleased with their student’s accom-
plishments? Comstock might well have
been disappointed that Mort so soon
abandoned his life history and taxonomic
studies and only briefly returned to bio-
logical investigations. As a pioneer in
extension entomology, Crosby probably
would have been pleased to see Mort
develop new uses for agricultural chemi-
cals which resulted in improved public
health and increased food production
throughout much of the world. He cer-
tainly would have been pleased to see
Mort continue his studies on aphids.

In fairness to Leonard it should be
emphasized that his wanderings were
not intended, that a career characterized
by an absence of stepwise progression
was not planned (2). Sometimes he simply
was the victim of bad luck. At various
times political tampering (Puerto Rico),
business failure (Orange Manufacturing
Co.), and termination of funds (U. S.
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-
tine) cost him his position. In other cases
Mort’s own actions may have kept him
from securing permanency in a certain
job. One of Leonard’s. compelling desires
was to return to Cornell, and Prof. Crosby
indeed tried (unsuccessfully for reasons

not known) to obtain a permanent faculty
position for his friend (9).

For an entomologist as well known and
admired as Leonard was, one might ex-
pect him to have held office in the many
societies to which he belonged. His fre-
quent shifting of positions and the exten-
sive travel required by his developmental
work in industry probably prevented him
from holding office. In his later years he
enjoyed counting ballots for the Entomo-
logical Society of America at their head-
quarters in College Park, Maryland (20),
and he regularly attended meetings of the
Entomological Society of Washington. In
February 1975 he was elected to Honorary
Membership in the Washington society.

In an evaluation of Leonard’s work one
should not be too critical of a career so
diverse and fruitful. Earlier I referred
to him as an ‘‘entomological jack-of-all
trades,’ not disparagingly, but as a com-
pliment to his achievements in several
areas of his science. Perhaps his produc-
tivity (however that might be measured)
would not have been enhanced had he
remained at Cornell. Certainly he would
never have had the opportunity to make
such lasting contributions to world food
production. In the end, what others
thought of his productivity matters less
than how Mort viewed his life’s work.
Clearly he enjoyed it:

As I look back over the years, it seems to me
that being an entomologist has been a very reward-
ing way of life. I have travelled widely and met
hosts of interesting people, including many from
foreign lands, and I have made many valued friends.
I believe my activities have been of benefit to my
fellow man (Leonard 1957).

Mort Leonard the Man

Russell’s (1975) obituary of Dr. Leon-
ard provides good insight into his per-
sonality. She described him as ‘‘kind,
cordial, sociable, communicative, and
intensely interested in people and their
activities.”’ Mort seldom failed to add
a personal touch; nearly always he re-
membered his friends’ anniversaries and
birthdays (9). At the close of my graduate
work at Cornell, Dr. Leonard learned
that I had scheduled my “‘defense of the-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

sis’ exam and took time to send a letter
wishing me success.

When Mort’s father died, he became
and would remain a ‘‘tower of strength’’
(21) to his younger brother Donald and an
affectionate son to his mother. Although
he was seldom home after he enrolled
at Cheshire Academy, he helped his
mother when he could and did his best
to return for high days (the Leonard’s
were Episcopalian) and holidays (5).

At Cornell Mort enjoyed a social life
apart from activities associated with
the Entomology Department and lectures
and field trips of the Agassiz Club. He
was a member of Eleusis, a local fra-
ternity that was merged into the national
Theta Kappa Nu and then into Lambda
Chi Alpha. Mort was a great storyteller
and, like his father, had a flair for mimick-
ing a Jewish and a Spanish dialect. He
often was called on to entertain his fra-
ternity’s ‘‘rushees’’; he had some of his
mother’s musical ability and was a good
‘fiddler’? (21). In the Agriculture College
Mort was a member of the Violin Quar-
tet and the Mandolin Club. Sometimes he
made a small sum of money by playing at
local dances. Over the years he sang and
interpreted some of the humorous songs
that his Aunt Neil, his mother’s younger
sister, had handed down (22).

A write-up prepared for the 1913 Cor-
nell classbook vividly characterizes Mort
the student:

We call him ‘‘Bug’’ Leonard because of his
proclivities not because of his state of mind. Despite
his habitual church—deacon expression, Mort
can, on occasion, give a very correct imitation of
‘The Missing Link.’ He is perfectly at home with

his pipe and his ‘“‘bugs,’’ a master stuntster, and
a charter member of the Bachelors Club (23).

To really capture the flavor of Mort’s
personality, more should be said about
Cornell. When he finished his doctoral
work, Leonard probably wanted to re-
main on the Cornell staff. Despite the
disappointment of failure to land a perma-
nent position, Mort always cherished
memories of his years in Ithaca and rel-
ished the opportunity to visit with Cor-
nell alumni. In 1967 he donated to Cornell
his personal collection of aphids con-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

sisting of some 500 species and nearly
17,000 slides. Leonard’s collection,
together with the aphids assembled by
former Cornell entomologist Grace H.
Griswold, is known as the ‘‘Griswold-
Leonard Collection of Aphididae’’ (Pechu-
man 1969). Shortly before he died, Leon-
ard gave his books, reprints, reprint col-
lection, diplomas, and microscope to
the University (9).

Although not physically impressive
(he was 5'7” tall and weighed 125 lbs. as
a Cornell student) (23), Mort was a hand-
some man, bearing (some thought) a
resemblance to the actor Adolph Men-
jou. He was always well dressed, even
dapper (Fig. 4); above all, he was a gentle-
man.

Like many entomologists, Leonard
was not without his quirks. At times he
could be stubborn. In restaurants his
second cup of coffee had to be brought
in aclean cup (20), and on his 50th reunion
at Cornell he insisted on retracing his
original route to Ithaca. Since train serv-
ice was no longer available to Ithaca,
Prof. Pechuman met Mort at the railroad
station in Binghamton to take him and
Doris to his reunion (9).

In short, Mort Leonard was a convivial,
gregarious sort. Robert Hamman per-
haps said it best: ‘‘Mort never met a
stranger, only friends’’ (19).

The Writings of M. D. Leonard

(Authorship of publication is in the order given)

1912. Venational variation in Cladura (Tipulidae
Diptera). J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc. 20:36-39.
(C. P. Alexander and M. D. L.).

1912. A new Palaearctic Geranomyia (Tipulidae,
Diptera). Can. Entomol. 54: 205-207.
(C. P. Alexander and M. D. L.).

1913. Additions to the New Jersey Tipulidae (Dip-
tera), with the description of a new species.
Entomol. News 24: 247-249.

1914. An egg-parasite of the tarnished plant bug,
Lygus pratensis L. Can. Entomol. 56:
181-182. (C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

1914. The tarnished plant-bug. Cornell Univ.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 346, pp. 461-526.
(C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

1914. A bibliography of the writings of Professor
Mark Vernon Slingerland. Cornell Univ.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 348, pp. 621-651.

1914. The cabbage aphis. N. Y. State Coll. Agr.,

1S:

1915.

LOSE

LSS:

1915.

LOS:

1915:

19S:

LOIS:

1916.

Cornell. Unnumbered leaflet. 1 p. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

Insects injurious to the fruit of the apple.
N. Y. State Coll. Agr., Cornell Reading
Courses 4(84) Insect Series 1: 121-144
and supplement pp. 1-4. (C. R. Crosby
and M. D. L.).

The role of sucking insects in the dissemina-
tion of fire blight bacteria. Phytopathology
5: 117-123. (V. B. Stewart and M. D. L.).

Spray calendar prepared for the E. C. Brown
Co., of Rochester, N. Y. 16 p. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

The control of insect pests and plant dis-
eases (revised). Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp.
Stn. Bull. 283, pp. 463-500. (C. R. Crosby
and M. D. L.).

Further experiments in the control of the
tarnished plant-bug. J. Econ. Entomol.
8: 361-367.

The immature stages of the black apple
leafhopper ([diocerus provancheri Van
Duzee). J. Econ. Entomol. 8: 415-419.

The immature stages of Plagiognathus
politus Uhler and Campylomma verbasci
Herrick-Schaeffer (Capsidae, Hemiptera).
J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc. 23: 193-197.

A new species of Gonatocerus (Mymaridae)
parasitic on the eggs of a new species of
Idiocerus (Bythoscopidae) feeding on
poplar. J. Econ. Entomol. 8: 541-547.
(M. D. L. and C. R. Crosby).

How and when to spray (revised). D. B.
Smith, Utica, N. Y. 4 p. (C. R. Crosby
and M. D. L.).

Directions for use of insecticides. Insecti-
cide and Disinfectant Manufacturers
Assoc., Inc., N. Y. 36 p. (C. R. Crosby

~ andsM. Dy 22

The immature stages of Tropidosteptes
cardinalis Uhler (Capsidae, Hemiptera).
Psyche 23: 1-3.

The immature stages of two Hemiptera—
Empoasca obtusa Walsh (Typhlocybidae)
and Lopidea robiniae Uhler (Capsidae).
Entomol. News 27: 49-54.

Further studies in the role of insects in the
dissemination of fire blight bacteria. Phyto-
pathology 6: 152-158. (V. B. Stewart
and M. D. L.).

Suggestions to rosebush owners. Honeoye
Falls Times (N. Y.), June 1, 1916, 1 p.
Rose slugs discovered on bushes. Honeoye
Falls Times (N. Y.), June 8, 1916, 1 p.
Striped cucumber beetle. Honeoye Falls

dimes (Ns Y.); June15,; 1916, 1p:

A tachinid parasite reared from an adult
capsid (Dip., Hem.). Entomol. News 27:
236.

Grass insects. Pages 2745-2756 and clover
insects, Pages 2864-2874. In Grasses and
leguminous crops in New York State.
N. Y. State Dept. Agric. Bull. 87. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

1916.

1917:

1917.

1907:

1972

EDIT:

1917.

1918.

1919:

1920.

1922,

1922.

1923:

1924.

The part played by insects in the spread of
Bacillus amylovorus. Intl. Inst. Agric. Bur.
Agric. Intel. and Plant Dis. Mon. Bull.
7: 1198-1199. (V. B. Stewart and M. D. L.).

Rose insects and their control. Pages 57-67.
In The American Rose Annual, 1916. Am.
Rose Soc., Harrisburg, Pa. (C. R. Crosby
and M. D. L.).

Rose insects. Pages 3018-3019. In L. H.
Bailey, The standard cyclopedia of horti-
culture, Vol. S Macmillan Co., New York.
(C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

The farm bureau as an agency for demon-
strating the control of injurious insects.
J. Econ. Entomol. 10: 20-25. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

Controlling plant diseases and insect pests
by dusting. Field Illustrated, March,
pp. 193-195. (C. B. Savage and M. D. L.).

An egg parasite of the sumac flea-beetle
(Hym., Chalcid.). Entomol. News 28: 368.
(C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

The egg of Byturus unicolor Say. (Col.).
Entomol. News 28: 438. (C. R. Crosby
and M. D. L.).

Apple spray schedule. N. Y. State Coll. Agr.
1 p. card. (C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

Insects injurious to late cabbage. Proc. N. Y.
State Veg. Growers’ Assn. Tulley, N. Y.,
May 2, 2 p.

Grass and clover insects. Cornell Univ. Ext.
Bull. 20. 20 p.; reprint of same title pub-
lished as N. Y. Dept. Agric. Bull. 87,
1916. (C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

Manual of vegetable garden insects. Mac-
Millan Co., New York. 391 p. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

An injurious leaf-miner of the honeysuckle.
J. Econ. Entomol. 12: 389-392. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

A dipterous parasite of the parsnip webworm
(Depressaria heracliana Linn.). J. Econ.
Entomol. 13: 491-492.

Insects that hunt the rose. Pages 89-100.
In The American Rose Annual, 1922.
Am. Rose Soc., Harrisburg, Pa. (C. R.
Crosby and M. D. L.).

The Pyrox spray guide (revised). Bowker
Insecticide Co., New York. 32 p.

The immature stages of the catnip leaf-
hopper (Eupteryx mellissae Curtis).
J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc. 31: 181-184.
(M. D. L. and G. W. Barber).

The apple and thorn skeletonizer and its
control. Cornell Univ. Ext. Bull. 86. 7 p.
(E. P. Felt and M. D. L.).

The present status and distribution of the
apple and thorn skeletonizer (Hemerophila
pariana Clerck, Lepid.). 54th Ann. Rep.
Entomol. Soc. Ont. 1923: 18-20.

. Spray calendar (revised). E. C. Brown Co.,

Rochester, N. Y. 16 p. (C. R. Crosby and
Mead). «L.).

. Entomology. Pages 32-40. In 19th Rep.

. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

1925

1926.

1928.

- 1928.

1928.

1929.

1930.

1951

1931.

Dir. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Dept. N. Y.
St. Mus. Bull. 253.

Notes on the embargo of grapes from Almeria,
Spain, on account of the Mediterranean
fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied). J. Econ.
Entomol. 18: 257-265.

The spray service. Pages 87-90. In Proc.
70th Ann. Mtg. N. Y. State Hort. Soc.
Some profitable Florida crops. Wilson &
Toomer Fert. Co. and Fla. Agr. Supply,
Jacksonville & Orlando, Fla. 48 p. (M. D. L.

and B. F. Floyd) (revised 1927).

A list of the insects of New York, with a
list of spiders and certain other allied
groups. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Mem. 101. 1121 p. (M. D. L. Editor-in-
Chief).

Xylophagidae, p. 750; Coenomyiidae, p. 750;
Rhagionidae, Pages 758-760. In Cornell
Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem. 101.

Chalcidoidea. Pages 975-985. In Cornell
Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem. 101. (A. B.
Gahan, C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

The European corn borer clean-up cam-
paign in New York State 1927. J. Econ.
Entomol. 21: 778-783.

Observations on the oil-nicotine combina-
tion for the control of the codling moth
and other apple insects in the Pacific
Northwest. J. Econ. Entomol. 22: 72-78.
(F. B. Herbert and M. D. L.).

Further experiments with nicotine-oil for
the control of the codling moth in the
Pacific Northwest. J. Econ. Entomol. 23:
61-74.

An unrecorded food habit of the large tobacco
suck-fly in Porto Rico. J. Econ. Entomol.
23: 640-641.

A revision of the dipterous family Rhagioni-
dae (Leptidae) in the United States and
Canada. Amer. Entomol. Soc. Mem. 7:
1-181.

A new leaf-miner of cotton in Porto Rico
(Nepticula gossypii new species). J. Dept.
Agric. Porto Rico 14: 151-158. (W. T. M.
Forbes and M. D. L.).

A little-known root-weevil of cassava (Codo-
sternus sulcatulus Boheman). J. Dept.
Agric. Porto Rico 14: 159-165.

Plagas de insectos de la Cual Esta Libre la
Cana en Puerto Rico. Rev. de Agr. de
Puerto Rico. 15: 62—63, 93-94.

Recomendaciones para combatir las plagas
que afectan en Puerto Rico al cultivo del
algodon. El Mundo (San Juan). Oct. 14,
1930. pp. 3, 9, 11. (Reprinted in Rev. Agr.
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Entomology in Puerto Rico during the past
decade. J. Econ. Entomol. 24: 141-151.

The papaya fruit fly in Puerto Rico. J. Econ.
Entomol. 24: 331-332. (M. D. L. and F.
Sein, Jr.).

A bibliography of the banana root weevil.
J. Dept. Agric. Porto Rico 15: 147-176.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

19511.

1931.

19351-

1931.

LOSI:

1955:

19531.

1931.

1931:

1931.

eeu

19311.

1937.

193i.

1931.

LOS.

1931.

1952.

A preliminary report on the lima bean pod-
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Report of the Division of Entomology for the
fiscal year 1929-30. Pages 110-123. In
Ann. Rep. Ins. Exp. Stn. Dept. Agric. &
Labor Porto Rico.

The eggs of the lima bean pod borer in Puerto
Rico Maruca testulalis Geyer (Lepid.,
Pyralidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 24: 763.
(A. S. Mills and M. D. L.).

Leptoglossus gonagra Fab. injuring citrus
in Puerto Rico. J. Econ. Entomol. 24:
765-767.

Two new species of Symphoromyia (Rhag-
ionidae, Diptera) from the eastern United
States. Amer. Mus. Novitates 497: 1-2.

Some notes on my Revision of the Rhagioni-
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57: 321-323.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1930. Ins. Pest
Surv. Bull. 11: 33-37.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during
January and February 1931. Ins. Pest.
Surv. Bull. 11: 76-78.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during
April, 1931 "Ins. “Pest!” Surv “Bull. “14:
235-238.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during
May 1931. Ins. Pest. Surv. Bull. 11: 317-
319.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during
June 1931. Ins. Pest. Surv. Bull. 11: 409-
412.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during
July 1931. Ins. Pest. Surv. Bull. 11: 492-
494.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during
August, 1931. Ins. Pest Surv. Bull. 11:
574-577.

Insect conditions in Antigua, August 25-29,
1931. Ins. Pest Surv. Bull. 11: 577-579.
Insect conditions in Porto Rico during
September 1931. Ins. Pest Surv. Bull. 11:

642-645.

Notes from annual report on insect condi-
tions in Porto Rico July 1, 1930 to June 30,
1931. Ins. Pest. Surv. Bull. 11: 682-685.

Observations on the bean lace bug in Porto
Rico. J. Dept. Agric. Porto Rico. 15: 309-
323. (M. D. L. and A. S. Mills).

[Descriptions of two new species of Ptiolina
(Rhagionidae)]. Pages 250-251 In C. H.
Curran. Some new North American Dip-
tera. Can. Entomol. 63: 249-254.

Entomology at the Fourth Congress of the
International Society of Sugar Cane Tech-
nologists of Porto Rico. J. Econ. Entomol.
25¢ (732=7332" (CC. Es Pemberton and
M. D. L.). [publ. under same title in Ent.
News 43: 195-196].

1932:

1932.

1932:

1952"

1932.

1932;

1932.

19372.

1933%

11933:

1933;

1933.

1933:

11933:

1953)

19332

1934.

1936.

Thrips injury to citrus and rose in Puerto
Rico. J. Econ. Entomol. 25: 934-935.
Additional references to the bean lace bug.
J. Dept. Agric. Puerto Rico 16: 75-76.
An early quarantine in Puerto Rico. J. Econ.

Entomol. 25: 930-931.

The initiation of an insect pest survey in
Porto Rico. J. Dept. Agric. Puerto Rico
16: 59-64.

The pink bollworm of cotton in Porto Rico.
J. Dept. Agric. Puerto Rico 16: 65-73.
Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during the
fiscal year, July 1, 1930 thru June 30, 1931.
J. Dept. Agric. Puerto Rico 16: 121-144.

The cottony cushion-scale in Puerto Rico.
J. Econ. Entomol. 25: 1103-1107.

Insect conditions in Porto Rico October 1,
1931 to Jan. 31, 1932. Ins. Pest. Surv. Bull.
12: 36-38.

Insect conditions in Porto Rico during Feb-
ruary and March 1932. Ins. Pest Surv. Bull.
12: 121-123.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico during April
and May, 1932. Ins. Pest. Surv. Bull. 12:
185-186.

Insect conditions in Puerto Rico from Jan-
uary 1 to June 30, 1932. Ins. Pest Surv.
Bull. 12: 405-408.

Observations on some factors which may
affect the abundance of Diatraea sac-
charalis in Porto Rico. Proc. 4th Congr.
Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Techs. (Preprint
Bull. No. 92: 1—2).

Notes on the giant toad, Bufo marinus (L.),
in Puerto Rico. J. Econ. Entomol. 26:
67-71.

A braconid parasite of a coccinellid new
to Puerto Rico. J. Econ. Entomol. 26: 294.

Insects of coniferous evergreens. Pages
338—354 In L. H. Bailey, The cultivated
conifers in North America. Macmillan Co.,
New York. (C. R. Crosby and M. D. L.).

Pyrethrum as an insecticide. Valley Farmer
and South Texas Grower, March, 3 p.
(M. D. L. and A. Weed).

An annotated bibliography of Puerto Rican
entomology. J. Dept. Agric. Puerto Rico
17: 1-96.

Notes on insect conditions in Puerto Rico
for the fiscal year, July 1931 thru June
1932. J. Dept. Agric. Puerto Rico. 17:
97-137.

A summary of recent results with pyrethrum
as an agricultural dust. 8 p. John Powell
Co., New York. (A. Weed and M. D. L.).

Recent developments with pyrethrum and
derris. Fico News 1(11): 4.

Toxicity of rotenone powders. Soap 12(3).
1 p. (D. G. Hoyer and M. D. L.).

Pyrethrin content of pyrethrum flowers from
various sources. J. Econ. Entomol. 29:
605-606. (D. G. Hoyer and M. D. L.).

Additions to the New York State list of
aphids with notes on other New York

1936.
1939.

1940.
1944,
1946.

1947.

1956.
L957:

1958.

1959"
1959:

1960.

1961.

1962.

1963.

. Additional

species. J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc. 44: 177-
185.

El valor insecticida de la Rotonona y el
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Broadening the field of usefulness of applied
entomology. J. Econ. Entomol. 32: 229-234.

The modern chemical arsenal and what it
means in the fight against insects. Pests
(March). 2 p.

Wholesale prices of insecticides during
World Wars I and II. J. Econ. Entomol.
37: 854-855. (E. R. de Ong and M. D. L.).

Victor Irving Safro, 1888-1944. J. Econ.
Entomol. 38: 727-729.

The ‘‘Special Survey in the Vicinity of Ports
of Entry”’ as a contribution to “‘A List of
the Insects of New York.’’ J. N. Y. Ento-
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A preliminary list of the aphids of New Jer-
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How I became an entomologist. Nat. Agric.
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The development of commercial entomology .

in the United States. Proc. 10th Int. Congr.
Ent. 3: 99-106.

A preliminary list of the aphids of Missouri.
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A proposed list of the aphids of New York.
Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 54: 47—S0.

Harry Gardner Barber, 1871-1960. Proc.
Entomol. Soc. Wash. 62: 125-129.
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The aphids that feed on cacti. Bull. Brooklyn
Entomol. Soc. 55: 64—66.

Joseph Sanford Wade, 1880-1960. Proc.
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and W. H. Larrimer).

[Discussion of the case “‘Aphis Linnaeus,
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group name derived from it (Insecta,
Hemiptera) Z.N.(S) 881.’’] Bull. Zool.
Nomencl. 19: 196.

The distribution and habits of the mint aphid
Ovatus crataegarius (Walker) (Homptera:
Aphidae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 65S:
55-62.

records of Missouri aphids.

J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 36: 65-84.

. A list of the aphids of New York. Proc.

Rochester Acad. Sci. 10: 289-428.

. Additional records of New Jersey aphids.

J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc. 72: 79-101.

. Aphids on a rooftop. Proc. Entomol. Soc.

Wash. 66: 167-168.

. Aphids on a rooftop— 1963. Proc. Entomol.

Soc. Wash. 67: 253-254.

. Apreliminary list of Texas aphids. Fla. Ento-

mol. 48: 255—264. (M. D. L. and A. N.
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setts (Homoptera). Trans. Amer. Ento-
mol. Soc. 92: 29-66.

. Natural history of Plummers Island, Mary-

land. XIX. Annotated list of the aphids

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———

1966.
1966.

1966.
1967.
1967.
1967.
1967.
1968.
1968.

1968.

1969.

1969.
1970.

1970.

1970.
1970.

197 1.

(Homoptera: Aphididae). Proc. Biol. Soc.
Wash. 79: 117-126.

Further records of Missouri aphids. Proc.
Entomol. Soc. Wash. 68: 97-99.

Additions to the list of aphids of Massachu-
setts. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 68: 273.

An aphid with four cornicles (Homoptera:
Aphididae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash.
68: 320.

Macrosiphum rosae (Linnaeus) on Ilex.
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 69: 59.

The aphids or plant lice of Delaware (Homop-
tera: Aphididae). Univ. Del. Agric. Exp.
Stn. Tech. Bull. 363. 18 p. (M. D. L. and
P. P. Burbutis).

Further records of New Jersey aphids
(Homoptera: Aphididae). J. N. Y. Ento-
mol. Soc. 75: 77-92.

A list of the aphids of Cyprus (Homoptera:
Aphididae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash.
69: 259-266.

Further records of aphids from Plummers
Island, Md. (Homoptera: Aphididae).
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 70: 84. __

California aphids in the Cornell University
collection (Homoptera: Aphididae). Cor-
nell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem. 407. 31 p.

The greenbug in the Atlantic Coast States
(Schizaphis graminum (Rondani)) (Homop-
tera: Aphididae). USDA Coop. Econ. Ins.
Rep. 18: 930-938.

A supplement to a list of the aphids of New
York. Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci. 11:
257-361.

Aphid investigations at the Los Angeles
State and County Arboretum. Laska
Leaves 19: 29-31. (H. G. Walker, M. D. L.,
and L. Enari).

Selected regional lists of North American
aphids. USDA Coop. Econ. Ins. Rep. 19:
558-564.

Records of new or little-known aphids in
Massachusetts (Homoptera: Aphididae).
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 72: 201-202.

Host plants of Myzus persicae at the Los
Angeles State and County Arboretum,
Arcadia, California (Homoptera: Aphidi-
dae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 72:
294-312. (M. D. L., H. G. Walker, and
L. Enari).

A list of the aphids of District of Columbia,
Maryland and Virginia. Univ. Md. Agric.
Exp. Stn. MP 770. 129 p. (M. D. L. and
T. L. Bissell).

Early records of a few Connecticut aphids
(Homoptera: Aphididae). Proc. Entomol.
Soc. Wash. 72: 499.

Records of a few Vermont aphids (Homop-
tera: Aphididae). Proc. Entomol. Soc.
Wash. 72: 507.

Host plants of Aphis gossypii at the Los
Angeles State and County Arboretum,
Arcadia, California (Homoptera: Aphidi-
dae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 73:

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

1971.

19g.

1971.

1972:

1972.

1972:

1972

1973:

1974.

9-16. (M. D. L., H. G. Walker, and L.
Enari).

Host plants of three polyphagous and widely
distributed aphids in the Los Angeles
State and County Arboretum, Arcadia,
California (Homoptera: Aphididae). Proc.
Entomol. Soc. Wash. 73: 120-131.
(M. D. L., H. G. Walker, and L. Enari).

More records of New Jersey aphids (Homop-
tera: Aphididae). J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc.
79: 62-83.

Records of aphids collected in Newfound-
land (Homoptera: Aphididae). Proc. Ento-
mol. Soc. Wash. 73: 168-169.

Host plants of Toxoptera aurantii at the
Los Angeles State and County Arboretum,
Arcadia, California (Homoptera: Aphidi-

dae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 73:
324-326. (M. D. L., H. G. Walker and
L. Enari).

A second supplement to a list of the aphids
of New York (Homoptera: Aphididae).
Search (Agriculture); Cornell Univ. Agr.
Exp. Stn., Ithaca, N. Y. 1(12): 1-31.

Aphids in a yellow water-pan in Haddon-
field, New Jersey. Proc. Entomol. Soc.
Wash. 74: 26-31.

Host plants of aphids collected at the Los
Angeles State and County Arboretum dur-
ing 1966 and 1967 (Homoptera: Aphididae).
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 74: 95-120.
(M. D. L., H. G. Walker, and L. Enari).

Aphids of New Jersey, a few more records
(Homoptera: Aphididae). J. N. Y. Ento-
mol. Soc. 80: 182-194.

Corrections to the Cavariella slides in the
Cornell University collection (Homoptera:
Aphididae). Search (Agriculture); Cornell
Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn., Ithaca, N. Y. 2(18):
1-2.

Glutops singularis Burgess on Long Island,
N. Y. (Diptera: Pelecorhynchidae). Proc.
Entomol. Soc. Wash. 75: 149.

Aphids collected in the Los Angeles State
and County Arboretum (Homoptera:
Aphididae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash.
75: 209-212. (M. D. L. and H. G. Walker).

A third supplement to a list of aphids of New
York (Homoptera: Aphididae). Search
(Agriculture); Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp.
Stns aTthaca, N. Y. 3:8); 1-23.

Records of a few aphids in Hawaii. USDA
Coop. Econ. Ins. Rep. 23: 542.

Records of a few Virginia aphids (Homop-
tera: Aphididae). USDA Coop. Econ.
Ins. Rep. 23: 769-771.

A list of the aphids of Staten Island, New
York (Homoptera: Aphididae). USDA
Coop. Econ. Ins. Rep. 24: 12-18.

Aphids in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey
(Homoptera: Aphididae). USDA Coop.
Econ. Ins. Rep. 24: 530-534.

How international is ESA? Bull. Entomol.
Soc. Am. 20: 327.

1974. More records of Massachusetts aphids
(Homoptera: Aphididae). USDA Coop.
Econ. Ins. Rep. 24: 558-560.
Aphids collected in Arizona by S. M. Dohan-
ian (Homoptera: Aphididae). USDA
Coop. Econ. Ins. Rep. 24: 561-562.
A list of aphids of Oregon (Homoptera:
Aphididae). Ore. Dept. Agric., Salem.
116 p.
Records of a few Vermont aphids (Homoptera:
Aphididae). USDA Coop. Econ. Ins. Rep.
DAT.
Additional aphids collected in the Los Angeles
State and County Arboretum (Homoptera:
Aphididae). USDA Coop. Econ. Ins. Rep.
24: 778-779. (M. D. L. and H. G. Walker).
Senekerim Mardiros Dohanian, 1889-1972.
J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 64: 250-251.
1975. S. M. Dohanian (addendum). J. Wash. Acad.
Sci. 65: 48.

1975. A fourth supplement to a list of aphids of
New York. Search (Agriculture); Cornell
Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn., Ithaca, N. Y. 5(4):
1-11.

1974.

New Names Proposed by M. D. Leonard

Hemiptera-Homoptera

Cicadelloidea-Idioceridae
Idiocerus gemmisimulans Leonard & Crosby
1915, J. Econ. Entomol. 8:542 (a syn-
onym of J. decimaquartus (Schrank)).

Diptera
Tipulidae

Geranomyia bezzii Alexander & Leonard 1912,
Can. Entomol. 54:205.

Limnophila albipes Leonard 1913, Entomol.
News 24:248 (listed as an unplaced species of
Limnophila by Alexander 1965).

Limnophila nigripleura Alexander & Leonard
1914, in Alexander, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.
66:592 (a synonym of Pseudolimnophila con-
tempta (Osten Sacken)).

Xylophagidae

Rachicerus niger Leonard 1930, Mem. Amer.

Entomol. Soc. 7:13.
Xylomyidae

Xylomyia pallipes Loew var. flavomaculata
Leonard 1930, Mem. Am. Entomol. Soc. 7:43
(a synonym of Solva pallipes (Loew)).

Rhagionidae

Chrysopilus andersoni Leonard 1930, Mem. Am.
Entomol. Soc. 7:131.

Chrysopilus fasciatus var. infuscatus Leonard
1930, Mem. Am. Entomol. Soc. 7:141
(a subspecies of C. fasciatus (Say)).

Chrysopilus pilosus Leonard 1930, Mem. Am.
Entomol. Soc. 7:152.

Ptiolina alberta Leonard 1931, in Curran, Can.
Entomol. 63:250.

Ptiolina obsoleta Leonard 1931, in Curran, Can.
Entomol. 63:250.

Rhagio brunneipennis Leonard 1930, Mem. Am.
Entomol. Soc. 7:92.

Rhagio californicus Leonard 1930, Mem. Am.
Entomol. Soc. 7:93.

Rhagio concavus Leonard 1930, Mem. Am.
Entomol. Soc. 7:94 (a subspecies of R. maculi-
fer (Bigot)).

Rhagio costatus var. limbatus Leonard 1930,
Mem. Am. Entomol. Soc. 7:96. (a synonym
of R. costatus (Loew)).

Rhagio pollinosus Leonard 1930, Mem. Am.
Entomol. Soc. 7:116.

Symphoromyia algens Leonard 1931, Am. Mus.
Novitates 497:1.

Symphoromyia currani Leonard 1931, Am. Mus.
Novitates 497:2.

Hymenoptera

Mymaridae

Anagrus ovijentatus Crosby & Leonard 1914,
Can. Entomol. 46: 181 (now placed in the genus
Anaphes Haliday).

Gonatocerus ovicenatus Leonard & Crosby 1915,
J. Econ. Entomol. 8:545 (now placed in the
genus Lymaenon Haliday).

Eulophidae
- Tetrastichus ovipransus Crosby & Leonard 1917,
Entomol. News. 28:368.

Species Named in Honor of M. D. Leonard

Acarina .
Tarsonemidae
Hemitarsonemus leonardi Smiley 1967
Odonata

Gomphidae
Gomphus mortimer Needham 1943 (a synonym
of G. descriptus Banks)

Hemiptera-Homoptera
Aphididae
Calaphis leonardi Quednau 1971
Uroleucon leonardi (Olive 1965) (described in
Dactynotus)

Coleoptera

Mordellidae
Mordellistena leonardi Ray 1946

Diptera

Tipulidae
Rhabdomastix leonardi Alexander 1930
Shannonomyia leonardi Alexander 1932
Dolichopodidae ]
Condylostylus leonardi (Van Duzee 1915) (de-
scribed in Sciapus)

Tachinidae
Trochilodes leonardi (West 1925) (described in
Rhamphina)
Hymenoptera
Scelionidae
Trimorus leonardi Fouts 1948
Platygasteridae
Inostemma leonardi (Fouts 1925) (described in
Acerota)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

M. D. Leonard: Membership in Scientific Societies

American Association of Economic Ento-
mologists, Elected 1911

American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science

- Brooklyn Entomological Society, 1943

Entomological Society of America, 1910

Entomological Society of Japan, 1957

Entomological Society of Washington,
1921—E lected to Honorary Member-
ship, February 1975

Florida Entomological Society

New York Entomological Society, 1921

Sigma Xi, 1915

Texas Entomological Society, 1933
Washington Academy of Sciences, 1958

Acknowledgments

I am especially indebted to M. D.
Leonard’s younger brother, Donald D.
Leonard, now a resident of Spartan-
burg, S. C., who kindly answered my
numerous questions about Mort, sup-
plied all photographs used in this paper,
and read an early draft of the manu-
script. C. P. Alexander, Amherst,
Mass., and L. L. Pechuman, Depart-
ment of Entomology, Cornell Univer-
sity, supplied valuable information and
also reviewed the manuscript. I appre-
ciate permission to refer to conversa-
tions or correspondence with: T. L.
Bissell, Hyattsville, Md.; R. E. Ham-
man, Greensboro, N. C.; R. H. Nelson,
Mechanicsburg, Pa.; L. L. Pechuman;
P. M. Schroeder, USDA-APHIS,
Hyattsville, Md.; and Mrs. David Win-
ters, Haddonfield, N. J. My colleagues
at the Bureau of Plant Industry in the
Pennsylvania Department of Agricul-
ture, T. J. Henry and Karl Valley,
kindly criticized the manuscript.

References Cited

Abbott, M. 1949. The life of William T. Davis.
Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, N. Y. 321 p.

Hottes, F. C., and T. H. Frison. 1931. The plant
lice, or Aphiidae, of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist.
Surv. 19: 121-447.

Leonard, M. D. 1933. An annotated bibliography
of Puerto Rican entomology. J. Dept. Agric.
Puerto Rico 17: 1-96.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

1946. Victor Irving Safro, 1888-1944.
J. Econ. Entomol. 38: 727-729.

. 1957. How I became an entomologist.
Nat. Agric. Chem. Assoc. News 15(5): 12-13.

1958. The development of commercial
entomology in the United States. Proc. 10th Int.
Cong. Ent. 3: 99-106.

. 1963. A list of the aphids of New York.
Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci. 10: 289-428.

. 1966. Natural history of Plummers Island,
Maryland. XIX. Annotated list of the aphids
(Homoptera: Aphididae). Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
79: 117-126.

Leonard, M. D., and R. I. Sailer. 1960. Harry
Gardner Barber, 1871-1960. Proc. Entomol. Soc.
Wash. 62: 125-129.

Mallis, A. 1971. American entomologists. Rutgers
Univ. Press, New Brunswick, N. J. 549 p.

Osborn, H. 1946. Fragments of entomological
history, Part II. Publ. by the author, Columbus,
Ohio. 232 p.

Pechuman, L. L. 1969. Recent gifts to the Cornell
University Insect Collection. Entomol. News
80: 43.

Pierce, W. D. 1917. A manual of dangerous insects
likely to be introduced in the United States
through importations. USDA, Washington, D. C.
256 p.

Russell, L. M. 1975. Obituary, Mortimer D. Leon-
ard, 1890-1975. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash.
77: 505-507.

Sanders, J. G. 1925. Entomologists entering com-
mercial fields. J. Econ. Entomol. 18: 163 (Abstr.).

Van Duzee, M. C. 1915. Descriptions of three
new species of the dipterous genus Sciapus with

a key to the North American species. Entomol.
News 26: 17-26.

Footnotes

(1) Adjunct Assistant Professor of Entomology.
The Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, PA 16802.

(2) Letter dated May 31, 1952, from F. L. Campbell
to Committee on Admissions, Cosmos Club,
Washington, D. C.

(3) Letter dated February 27, 1978, from Donald
D. Leonard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(4) Letter dated January 27, 1977, from Donald
D. Leonard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(5) Letter dated January 18, 1978, from Donald
D. Leonard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(6) ‘““‘Why I Went to Cornell,’’ notes provided by
M. D. Leonard, March 29, 1975, in a letter to
E. H. Smith, Chairman, Department of Entomol-
ogy, Cornell University; on file in Comstock
Memorial Library, Cornell.

(7) Letter dated January 7, 1977, from Charles P.
Alexander to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(8) Interview with J. Chester Bradley, December
18, 1962, by Gould P. Colman, Archivist, De-
partment of Manuscripts and University Archives,

Cornell University; transcript on file in Com-
stock Memorial Library, Cornell.

(9) Personal communication with L. L. Pechuman,
Department of Entomology, Cornell University.

(10) Letter dated December 17, 1977, from T. L.
Bissell to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(11) Personal communication with P. M. Schroeder,
USDA-APHIS, PPQ, Hyattsville, Md.

(12) Letter dated April 17, 1978, from Donald D.
Leonard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(13) Shell Chemical Agricultural News, New York,
N. Y., August 1961.

(14) Letter dated January 13, 1978, from Mrs. David
Winters to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(15) Letter dated January 22, 1945, from M. D.
Leonard to L. L. Pechuman.

(16) Letter dated April 26, 1975, from M. D. Leon-
ard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(17) Letter dated July 30, 1975, from M. D. Leonard
to L. L. Pechuman.

(18) Personal communication with R. H. Nelson,
Mechanicsburg, Pa. (formerly Executive Secre-
tary, Entomological Society of America); see
‘‘Autographa OO,’ inside front cover, Bull.
Entomol. Soc. Am., Dec. 1968.

(19) Personal communication with Robert E. Ham-
man, Greensboro, N. C.

(20) Personal communication with R. H. Nelson,
Mechanicsburg, Pa.

(21) Letter dated December 1, 1976, from Donald
D. Leonard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(22) Letter dated January 7, 1977, from Donald
D. Leonard to A. G. Wheeler, Jr.

(23) From Alumni Office records, Cornell Univer-
sity, Ithaca, N. Y.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

RESEARCH REPORTS

Contributions to the Ecology of the Cicada Killer,
Sphecius speciosus (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)

Norman Lin

1487 East 37th St., Brooklyn, New York 11234

ABSTRACT

The cicada killer Sphecius speciosus (Drury) emergence hole was linked to the wasp
by a direct observation of an emergence. Wasps do not emerge via their burrows but
tunnel directly from their cells to the surface. The fixed order of first emergences in
the different populations appears related to the friableness of the soil. The harder the
soil the later the emergence season begins. Males begin emerging before females, although
there is considerable overlap. Males emerge from holes 10 mm and smaller and females
emerge from holes 12 mm and larger. Holes of 11 mm are about one-half male and
one-half female. The specific density or the total number of wasps over the tract inhabited
by Population 1 was taken daily. The sex ratio of Population | was highly male biased,
2:1 based on the specific density and 3:1 based on the total number of emergence holes.
Sphecius in the Brooklyn area apparently had no natural enemies, and wasps died of
old age. The female life span is approximately 30 days and the male life span is approxi-
mately 15 days.

Studies of four populations of the soli- emergence hole was definitely linked to

tary wasp Sphecius speciosus (Drury)
were conducted during the summer of
1956-1963. The populations were desig-
nated 1, 2, 3, and 4, inhabiting tracts on
opposite sides of 2 adjacent baseball dia-
monds in the Parade Grounds, a huge
sandlot ball field area in Brooklyn, New
York. Certain discrepancies uncovered
in the literature concerning various as-
_pects of the life history of the cicada killer
are now reviewed in the light of new evi-
dence.

Direct Observation of Emergence

The emergence hole was first described
by Dambach and Good (1943) as the exit
tunnel made by the young wasp in leaving
the nest. It was also described as being
nearly perpendicular to the surface. The

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

the wasp in 1958, when a direct observa-
tion of emergence was made in popula-
tion 1. On July 23, 1958, in the early after-
noon, the surface of the ground suddenly
broke in one spot, the wasp’s face was vis-
ible, and after a minute’s struggle the young
adult was on the surface. It was inactive
for 2 or 3 seconds and then flew off.

Description of the Emergence Hole

In hundreds of holes noted, nearly all
were perpendicular to the surface of the
ground. They are circular in shape, and
the 145 holes to appear in Population 1
(1958) ranged from 6—16 mm in diameter
at the surface with 10 mm being the mode
diameter (N = 40). In depth they varied
from 25 mm to 304 mm with more than
half falling in the 76—203 mm range. The

hole whose formation was observed was
88 mm deep and 10 mm in diameter.

Place of Emergence

Dambach and Good (1943) in their
description of the nest found the burrow
to be 30.4—45.7 cm in length from the
entrance to the terminus where the first
cell was excavated. A new cell was gen-
erally made immediately in front of the
one just completed. As many as 4 have
been found in one series. After a cell or
series of cells is completely provisioned,
a new lateral off the main tunnel is exca-
vated, and the process is repeated.

Riley (1893) stated that the young wasp
in leaving the nest passes through the
burrow made by the female the year
before. Considerable evidence to the
contrary indicates that each wasp tunnels
independently to the surface from its
cell. The basis of this conclusion lies
in the following evidence:

1. Of a total of 145 emergence holes to
appear in Population 1 in 1958, all but 7
were more than 15.2 cm from a wire fence
whose lower rim runs the length of the
tract. Yet of the estimated 159 burrows
dug in Population 1 in 1957, all but 13
had their entrance within 15.2 cm of the
fence, and the bulk of these were against
it. The same general picture was noticed
from 1956-1963. The burrows were dug
along the fence near the edge of the tract
while the wasps emerged further out on
the tract.

2. In Population 1| (1958) almost half of
the emergence holes (44%) appeared
within 3 days of another hole located
not more than 35.6 cm away. Often holes
appeared within centimeters of one
another.

3. The emergence holes come to the
surface of the ground vertically, while
the burrow entrances are inclined at
angles of about 45°.

4. In many years there was a much
larger number of holes than of nests dug
the previous year. For example, in Popu-
lation 1 in 1960, there were 125 nests,
yet these nests produced 939 emergence
holes in 1961.

The different locations of the emer-
gence holes and burrows are clearly ex-
pected if the wasps tunnel directly from
their cells to the surface, since the cells
as indicated are a distance from the en-
trance burrow.

The appearance of clusters of emer-
gence holes is also to be expected if
wasps from the same nest emerge about
the same time from separate tunnels,
and if, as according to Dambach and
Good (1943), cells are made in series.
The vertical emergence hole need hardly
be pointed out as obviously distinct from
the comparatively gently sloping entrance
of the nest burrow.

Variations in the Emergence Period

In 1957 in Population 1 the date of first
emergence was June 30, and the date of
first emergence of Population 2 was July 1.
In 1958 in Populations 1, 2, 3, and 4, the
dates of first emergence were July 15,
July 24, July 31, and August 7, respec-
tively. In 1958 in Populations 1, 2, 3, and
4, the dates of last emergence were Sep-
tember 1, September 1, September 1, and
August 14, respectively.

Seasonal fluctuations in the date of
earliest emergence in a specific popula-
tion can be quite large, with a difference
of 23 days recorded between the first
emergences in Population 2 during the
years 1957 and 1958. When computed for
different populations (1 and 4), a differ-
ence as great as 38 days was obtained
between 2 generations (1957-1958).
Climatic conditions are not entirely re-
sponsible for this fluctuation, since pop-
ulations in the same field (1 and 4) under
identical weather conditions can differ
as much as 23 days in their date of first
emergence during the same season (1958).
This is hardly surprising, since a differ-
ence as great as 48 days was recorded
between the first and last emergence hole
to appear in a single population (Popula-
tion 1, 1958). The friableness of the soil
in Population 1 and its greater hardness
in other populations probably explain the
nearly fixed order of first emergences
among the populations (see Lin 1966 and

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Lin (personal communication) in Evans,
1966).

Dambach and Good (1943) (in comput-
ing the life span) considered the mean
first date of adult life as July 1. By this
they probably meant the date over a period
of years which averaged the greatest
number of emergences. This is apparently
completely invalid for the Parade Ground
populations during the summers 1957-
1958, as the dates of first and last emer-
gences show. In all cases there was only
1 emergence hole for a given population
on the dates of first and of last emergence.

Emergence Time in Relation To Sex

Considerable evidence indicates that
the males generally emerge earlier than
the females, although there is much over-
lapping. As is well known, the female is
usually larger than the male (Riley, 1893;
Dow, 1942). Accordingly, the diameter
of the emergence hole seems to provide
a good index of the sex of the emerged
individuals. As indicated, emergence
holes varied from 6—16 mm in diameter
(Population 1, 1958). It was subsequently
found (1958-1967) that males emerge
from holes 10 mm and smaller, and fe-
males emerge from holes 12 mm and
larger. Holes of 11 mm are about one-
half male and one-half female. On July 27
(Population 1, 1958) the first nest appeared.
Only | hole which had yet appeared was
as large as 12 mm, further supporting the
view that holes 12 mm and larger were
formed by females.

Evidence of the relationship between
the size of the emergence hole and the
sex of the wasp is further shown in the
following account. Of a total of 66 emer-
gence holes appearing before July 28
(Population 1, 1958), none was larger
than 12 mm. On that date, 1 appeared
which was 14mm. On July 29, 2 appeared
which were 13 and 14 mm, and for the
first time 2 females were seen. One very
huge one, by far the largest wasp seen
this season, was resting on a fence rail-
ing in section 39, the same 3-m quadrat
in which the 14 mm hole was located,
while another very large female and a

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

De} WwW bh
[e) [e) {e)

NUMBER OF EMERGENCE HOLES

WiS-T/25 1/29-8/4, 85-8 /ii

DATE

T22-7/28 8/i2- 8/18 8/19- 8/25 8/2-9/

Fig. 1.—Evidence of earlier male and later
female emergence is shown by the generally earlier
appearance of “‘male’’ holes (clear bars) and later
appearance of ‘‘female’’ holes (shaded bars).

male were flying around in copulo. Such
a simultaneous appearance of large holes
and large wasps on the same tract cer-
tainly suggests that the relationship is
not fortuitous and that the appearance
of large holes provides an excellent indi-
cation of the emergence of female wasps.

Fig. 1 plots the weekly total of male
emergence holes against female emer-
gence holes (Population 1, 1958) begin-
ning on July 15, the date of first emer-
gence. It is evident that the male holes
are more common, accelerate faster,
peak and decline earlier than the female
holes. While the male holes are on the
decline during the week beginning July
29, the female holes are in the peak stage.
During the following week the decline of
male holes was very sharp while the fe-
male holes were still near their peak. On
July 25, 1957 (Population 1), when the
emergence holes were well into the de-
cline, 10 of the total of 14 were 12 mm or
larger. What the graph does not show is
the earlier appearance of the male holes.
The first male hole appeared on July 15
and the first female hole on July 20. In
that period before July 20, 11 male holes
appeared.

Of the total 145 emergence holes to
appear in Population 1 in 1958, 35 were
not included in the graph for various
reasons such as not having been meas-
ured because of their inaccessibility or

WW.

Table 1.—Specific density or the number of wasps present at a given time on the tract inhabitated by
Population 1 in 1958. Every other date was deliberately omitted in the interests of condensing the table.

Specific Number of Number of
Date Time density females males Number unknown
7/20 0910 1 0 1 0
7/22 1803-2045 1 0 1 0
7/24 0737-0858 3 0 3 0
7/26 1520-1915 1 0 0 1
7/28 1340-1530 4 0 3 1
7/30 0821-1045 B) 0 6) 2
8/1 1045-1105 9 0 4 =)
8/3 1045-1215 9 lie 3 =)
8/5 0845-1008 16 1 1 14
8/7 1130-1145 9 {3 2 y |
8/9 1355-1410 2 i 1 1
8/11 1015—1050 6 Ze 2 4
8/13 1000-1150 8 i? 0. 8
8/15 0947-1430 D 1 3 3
8/17 1845-2020 1 1 0 0
8/19 1as2 1 1 0 0
8/21 0950-1010 3 is |e ps
8/23 1004-1140 3 2 0 1
8/25 1115-1130 0 0 0 0
8/27 1745-2003 3 3 0 0
8/29 1540-1700 3 3 0 0
8/31 1820 1 1 0 0
9/2 1630-1930 1 1 0 0
9/4 0800-0847 0 0 0 0
9/6 1905-1955 1 1 0 0
9/8 1040-1100 0 0 0 0
9/10 1745-1830 0 0 0 0
9/15 1820-1905 0 0 0 0

@ = new nest or nests.
> = found dying.
© = paralyzed cicada.

having been damaged. During the first
and sixth weeks only 1 11-mm hole ap-
peared, and it was not counted as either
male or female.

Daily sexing of living wasps, primarily
on the basis of behavioral differences
between the sexes, gives evidence in
complete accord with that derived from
the emergence holes. In the examination
on 5 different dates (between July 30,
1958 and August 15, 1958) of the sex of
wasps engaging in territorial behavior,
without exception all were males (see
Lin, 1963). In territorial behavior, the
male defends a small area, about 2.5 m?,
against intruding males and conspicuous
insects. These are chased from the area
while the male continually returns to a
usually localized spot (generally an emer-
gence hole) within the territory. Terri-

torial behavior thus becomes a means for
recognizing the male. The female is like-
wise recognized by behavior such as the
manner of flight, leaving or entering the
nest, digging, or carrying a cicada to
the nest.

Specific Density

Table 1 contains an exact, or nearly
exact, determination of the specific den-
sity (total number of wasps over or on
the tract inhabitated by Population 1,
1958) at any one point during the time
listed. The specific density was deter-
mined by total counts repeated several
times after which the same sum was
usually obtained. It is the large size of
the wasp and its tendency for localiza-
tion, whether the male around his terri-
tory or the female around her nest, which

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

makes this most accurate of methods
possible. On some occasions when the
number of wasps was greatest, the high-
est count with certainty that no wasp had
been counted twice was taken as the
density. The vertical bars on the fence
broke the tract up into 51 3-m sections
for a total of 153 m.

During most determinations of the
specific density, a number of wasps com-
pletely at random (dependent on chance
opportunity) were sexed, usually by
behavioral determinations; sometimes by
anatomical means consisting of body
segment counts while in the field. As
Table 1 shows, in complete agreement
with the evidence from the emergence
holes, the males appeared earlier, peaked
earlier and declined earlier than the fe-
males. In Population 1 (1957) the first
male was recorded on July 3 and the last
on July 25. The first female was recorded
on July 14 and the last on Aug. 27. In
Population 3 (1958) the first male was
recorded on Aug. 4 and the last on Aug.
23. The first female was recorded on
Aug. 9 and the last on Sept. 3. Fig. 2,
based upon data from Table 1 (including
the data omitted to condense the table),
with the exclusion of indirect signs, shows
the weekly sex ratio for Population 1
in 1958. It is readily seen that numbers
of males are on the decline before the
females reach their peak. The males then
disappear entirely while the females are
still present. This graph bears a striking
resemblance in the relative number of
males to females for any week to that of
the relative number of male to female
emergence holes the week before, as
shown in Fig. 1. In later years it was
found that the females rejoin the society
about a week after emergence, and males
spend considerably more time in their
territories after about a week after emer-
gence. During the week July 15—21, only
male emergence holes appeared, with one
exception. In the week beginning July 20
only males were observed. In the week
of July 22-28 there was an increase of
female and male holes and in the follow-
ing week the number of females relative

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

to males was about what might be antic-
ipated from the emergence holes. To
give a final instance, in the week of Au-
gust 5-11, the male holes had greatly
declined so that the numbers of male
holes and female holes were almost equal.
The situation was almost the same for
the relative numbers of males and females
for the following week. This similarity
between the graphs has a basis if males
emerge predominately from holes 10 mm
and smaller while females emerge from
those which are 12 mm and larger. This
similarity is also based on the extensive
marking data of later years showing that
wasps habitat imprint to the tract from
which they emerged. The inevitable con-
clusion is that females were seen later in
the season because they generally emerged
later. Also, as will be shown, the female
life span is approximately double the
male life span.

The Sex Ratio

Dambach and Good (1943) in their
review of the sex ratio gave the following
account. “‘Of 25 adults emerging from
stored larval cases, 15 were males and
10 were females. Seven collected in Musk-
higum County were females, and of speci-
mens at Ohio State University and Ohio
State Museum, 29 were males and 37
were females. Denton (1931) obtained 13
females and 7 males from a group of 20
he collected from a colony on August 2,
1930 at Robbinville, North Carolina.
These collections totaling 128 specimens
indicate a sex ratio of 70 females to 48
males or 59.3% females to 40.7% males.”’
Only their data obtained from stored
larval cases can be considered reliable.
Dow (1942) likewise obtained a male
biased ratio from adults (6 females and
12 males) reared from 18 stored cocoons
he collected.

Dambach and Good’s (1943) method
in determining the sex ratio is invalidated
by their method of adding together the
total males and females caught by dif-
ferent observers from completely unre-
lated populations. They failed to take into
consideration such factors as the differ-

NUMBER OF WASPS

Fig. 2.—The weekly sex ratio (males clear bars,
females shaded bars) based only upon the number
of wasps sexed in determinations of the specific
density, shows considerable fluctuation. Absolute
numbers between any 2 weeks should not be com-
pared, since more determinations of specific density
were made in some weeks than in others.

ences in the time of emergence between
the sexes, the longer active season of
females, and the tendency of females to
be present on the tracts the entire day,
while the males seldom remain past the
morning. To illustrate the former, if, as
shown in Fig. 2 using Dambach and Good’s
method, collecting was done in Popula-
tion | between July 20 and July 26, the
conclusion arrived at would be a popu-
lation of 100% males. Conversely, if
collections were made between August
24 and September 6, the conclusion would
be a population consisting of 100% fe-
males.

Lin and Michener (1972) state, ‘‘it
seems that the evolution of the sex ratio
depends more on the natural history of
the species’’ in reference to male hap-
loidy. According to White (1954) the
entire order of Hymenoptera with the
exception of a few species show haploid
parthenogenesis. White states, “‘It is
characteristic of groups with haploid
males that the sex ratio fluctuates rather
widely from species to species and from
strain to strain within the species, and
also to some extent with various environ-
mental factors, showing no particular
tendency to conform to any fixed percen-
tage of males’’. Consequently the sex

ratio becomes meaningful only in terms
of the population and even here seasonal
fluctuations are likely to be considerable,
so that separate determinations should
be made for each season.

In Population 1 (1958), 139 wasps were
sexed during daily determinations of the
specific density. A total of 121 wasps
were not sexed although their behavior
strongly suggested males. Only the wasps
themselves, living or dead, were used
in determining the sex ratio, since indi-
rect evidence like new nests or paralyzed
cicadas would obviously distort the pic-
ture in favor of the female. Fig. 2 plots
the weekly sex ratio, which is seen to
vary considerably. By taking the sum
total for all the weeks of the season, a
seasonal ratio of 91 adult males to 48 adult
females (65% males to 35% females) in
the Population 1 area (1958) is obtained.
The high male frequency suggests pos-
sibly the easier recognition of the male
behaviorly rather than so great a number
of males. This possibility has been consi-
dered, and it appears that this conclusion
would be unwarranted. |

Of the 110 emergence holes Fig. 1
(Population 1, 1958) the ratio of male holes
to female holes was 83 to 27 or 3:1. In
1959 the ratio was 132 to 22 or 6:1, in
1960, 137 to 45 or 3:1; in 1961, 630 to 212
or 3:1; in 1962, 596 to 235 or 2.5:1; and in
1963 293:to SSion ieee

Adult Longevity and Mortality

Dambach and Good (1943) consider
July 1 and September | as the mean first
and last dates of adult life and thus ap-
proximate the life span of the adult to
be 65 days.

In 1956-58 dead and dying wasps were
found on the tracts between August 3 and
31. The dead wasps were in most cases
in perfect condition. Though wasps were
usually present in considerable numbers
before August, out of a total of 20 dead
or dying, none was found in July. There
was in these cases no evidence of preda-
tion though on the other hand the good
condition of the dead wasps, the wasps
found dying from no apparent outside

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Table 2.—Adult S. speciosus longevity table.

First emergence

Year Location hole
1957 Population 1 6/30
1957 Population 1 6/30
1957 Population 1 6/30
1957 Population 1 6/30
1957 Population | 6/30
1958 Population 1 7/15
1958 Population 1 TINS
1958 Population 3 TEM
1958 Population 3 7/31
1958 Population 3 7/31
1958 Population 3 7/31
1958 Population 1 WLS
1958 Population 1 aS
1958 Population 1 TINS
1958 Population 4 8/7
1958 Population 1 Sy
1958 Population 3 7/31
1958 Population 1 7/15
1958 Population 3 7/31
1958 Population 2 7/24

4 found dying.

causes, and the period in which dead
wasps were found, make it highly im-
probable that death (at least in most
cases) was due to anything other than
old age. No natural predators of the adult
cicada killer have been observed in Brook-
lyn during the period of study.

In 1957 the first emergence hole on the
tract inhabitated by Population 1 ap-
peared June 30. The last dead wasp on
this tract was found on August 14, thus
no wasp was older than 45 days. In 1958,
the first emergence hole on the tract in-
habited by Populations 1, 2, 3, and 4 ap-
peared respectively July 15, 24, 31, and
August 7. Table 2 gives the maximum
age of wasps found on each tract.

In 1958 in Populations 1—4, 32% or
more of the emergences took place on or
after August 1. It is these later emergences
which probably account for wasps seen
in late August or September. Dambach
and Good (1943) were probably unaware
of these later emergences (since mark-
ing the emergence holes appears neces-
sary), and attributed all wasps of the
season to emergences in early July.

Table 2 reveals a pattern with 3 excep-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Maximum age

Dead wasp of wasp
found Sem (for population)
8/4 g 35 days
8/7 2 38 days
8/8 eS 39 days
8/9 2 40 days
8/14 2 45 days
8/3 va 19 days
8/10 3 26 days
8/11 63 11 days
8/12 3 12 days
8/13 3 13 days
8/14 ? 14 days
8/16 & 32 days
8/18 & 34 days
8/19 ? 35 days
8/19 ? 12 days
8/20 2 36 days
8/23 ? 23 days
8/23 ? 39 days
8/24 ? 24 days
8/31 2 38 days

tions in which the maximum age of fe-
males dying were in their 30’s. Males
of which there were only 4 with 1 excep-
tion of 26 days, were 11, 12 and 13 days
of age. In later years, a number of males
and females were captured and marked
on emergence and followed daily for
their entire lives. This highly precise
data indicates that Table 2 is roughly
correct. Males live about a maximum of
15 days and females live a maximum of
about 30—33 days.

Acknowledgments

I am indebted to Dr. Charles D. Mich-
ener and Dr. Howard E. Evans for con-
structive criticism of this paper.

References Cited

Dambach, C. A., and E. G. Good. 1943. Life history
and habits of the cicada killer in Ohio. Ohio
J. Sci. 43(1): 32-41, 6 fig.

Denton, S. B. 1931. Habits of cicada killer. Bull.
Brook. Entomol. Soc. 26: 35.

Dow, Richard. 1942. The relation of the prey of
Sphecius speciosus to the size and sex of the
adult wasp. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 35(3):
310-317, 4 fig.

Evans, H. E. 1966. The Comparative Ethology and
Evolution of the Sand Wasps. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.

Lin, N. 1963. Territorial behavior in the cicada
killer wasp Sphecius speciosus (Drury) (Hy-
menoptera: Sphecidae). Behaviour 20: 115-133.

. 1966. Weather and the natural regulation
of three populations of the cicada killer wasp,

Sphecius speciosus. Amer. Zool. 6(3): abstract
208.

Riley, C. V. 1893. The larger digger wasp. Insect
Life 4: 248-252.

White, M. J. D. 1954. Animal Cytology and Evolu-
tion. Cambridge University Press, pp. 326-338.

Lin, N., and C. D. Michener. 1972. Evolution
of sociality in insects. Quart. Rev. Biol. 47(2):
131-159.

Colaspis quattuordecimcostata Lefevre and Its Close

Relatives in Brazil

Doris H. Blake

Research Associate, U. S. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D. C.

ABSTRACT

Colaspis quattuordecimcostata Lefévre is redescribed from the type specimen, and
nine additional Brazilian species of Colaspis are described and figured.

In my studies of the Chrysomelidae I
have had difficulty in establishing the true
identity of the species from Brazil de-
scribed by Lefévre in 1887 as Colaspis
quattuordecimcostata. My study of Lefé-
vre’s type was made possible by Nicole
Berti, who sent the holotype from the
Natural History Museum in Paris for my
examination. There are 9 closely related
new species of Colaspis, all from Brazil,
which I am describing in this paper.

Colaspis quattuordecimcostata Lefévre
(Fig. 1)

Colaspis 14-costata Lefévre, 1887. Ann. Soc. Ent.
France, 1887, p. 144-45.

Length 11 mm. Width 4.3 mm.
Oblong oval, shining black with mostly black
antennae.

Head black with fine punctures, interocular space

half width of head, a medium depression down

front, labrum dark brown, antennae with only joints
2 and 3 pale. Prothorax twice as broad as long,
margin with tooth below middle, disc with mod-
erately dense punctures. Scutellum shining black.

Elytra a little more than 3 times as long as pro-
thorax and wider, punctures in geminate rows
except near suture where in single row and near
the apex of second row, with well marked costae.
Body beneath with blue-green lustre. Legs black,
hind tibiae short and almost the same length as
other tibiae.

Holotype. —Female, Natural History
Museum, Paris (from which I borrowed
the type specimen and made a drawing).

Type-locality. —Brazil.

Remarks. —The most striking charac-
ter in this species is the very short hind
tibiae.

Colaspis paracostata, n. sp.
(Fig. 2)

Length 8 mm. Width 4 mm.

Elongate oblong oval, shining black with dark
blue-black head and prothorax.

Head with dense fine punctures, labrum brown.
Interocular space a little more than half width of
head, antennae with only third joint pale. Pro-
thorax approximately twice as wide as long, margin
with tooth below middle, disc sparsely punctate.
Elytra more than 3 times as long as prothorax

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

—_——_ -*-

and wider. Elytra with geminate punctures except
near suture and at apex of next row with costae
between rows. Body beneath shining blue-black.
Prosternum with few punctures. Legs all black.

Holotype —Female, USNM Type No.
75744.

Type-locality. —Brazil.

Remarks.—This species so closely
resembles C. guattuordecimcostata that
I am naming it C. paracostata n. sp. It
differs in having longer hind tibiae.

Colaspis braxatibiae , n. sp.
(Fig. 3)

Length 8 mm. Width 4 mm.

Very elongate oblong oval, black all over, an-
tennae black.

Head densely punctate with a depression down
front, interocular space half width of head, anten-
nae all black. Prothorax with margin having tooth
below middle, disc with dense punctures, prothorax
not twice as wide as long. Scutellum black. Elytra
more than 3 times as long as prothorax and wider,
so densely punctate that arrangement of punctures
is not clear, but with tendency to be geminate,
costae fairly well marked. Hind tibiae short. Pro-
sternum with punctures.

Holotype. —Female, USNM Type

No. 75745. .
Type-locality. —Curraliahe, Minas
Gerais, Brazil.
Remarks. —This species has unusually
long elytra and short hind tibiae.

Colaspis corumbensis, n. sp.
(Fig. 4)

Length 8 mm. Width 4 mm.

Elongate oblong oval, black with green lustre.
Antennae with four basal joints pale.

Head small, interocular space less than half
width of head, head rather sparsely punctate,
antennae with seven apical joints dark. Prothorax
approximately twice as wide as long, margin with
tooth below middle, disc densely punctate. Scutel-
lum black. Elytra more than 3 times as long as
prothorax, and wider, with more or less geminate
punctures when they are not in single lines sep-
arated by costae. Hind tibiae rather short for so
long a body, and with green lustre.

Holotype.—Male, USNM Type No.
75747. One paratype.

Type-locality. —Corumba,
Grosso, Brazil.

Remarks. —The unusually small head
and interocular space are noticeable for

Mato

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

so large a beetle. The aedeagus has a long
narrow tip.

Colaspis ekraspedona, n. sp.
(Fig. 5)

Length 7.5 mm. Width 3.5 mm.

Oblong oval, shining black, antennae and legs
black.

Head with interocular space more than half
width of head, densely and finely punctate. Anten-
nae all black. Prothorax with margin with tooth,
disc very densely punctate. Elytra not 3 times as
long as prothorax and somewhat wider, densely
punctate, punctures in geminate rows except near
suture, with costae near punctures. Body beneath
with dense punctures on prosternum, dark brown,
legs dark brown.

Holotype. —Male, USNM type No.
75748.

Type-locality. —Lombory, Minas
Gerais, Brazil, collected by J. Halix in
November.

Remarks. —The aedeagus of this spe-
cies has an unusually broad tip and as a
whole is longer than usual. The beetle
itself is densely punctate.

Colaspis lampomela, n. sp.
(Fig. 6)

Length 7 mm. Width. 3.5 mm.

Elongate oblong oval, shining black with mostly
black antennae, black legs, ventral surface very
dark green.

Head with interocular space more than half
width of head, finely and densely punctate, anten-
nae with only joint 2 entirely pale, joints 1, 3, 5, and
6 partly pale, remainder black. Prothorax twice
as wide as long, margin with tooth below middle,
disc sparsely punctate with median elevations
about punctures. Scutellum shining black. Elytra
more than 3 times as long as prothorax and a little
wider, densely punctate with geminate punctures
except near suture and near apex, with costae
between. Prosternum rather sparsely punctate.
Ventral surface greenish black. Legs dark brown,
nearly black.

Holotype.—Female, USNM Type
No. 75749.

Type-locality. —Corotuba, Brazil.
Collected Feb. 19, 1947. From Monros
collection.

Remarks.—Unfortunately the only
specimen is a female. However, this spe-
cies differs from all the others described
here in having few punctures on the pro-

thorax.

Figs. 1-10 (left to right, top to bottom), species of Colaspis. Fig. 1, Colaspis quattuordecimcostata
Lefévre; fig. 2, C. paracostata Blake, n. sp.; fig. 3, C. braxatibiae Blake, n. sp.; fig. 4, C. corumbensis
Blake, n. sp.; fig. 5, C. ekraspedona Blake, n. sp.; fig. 6, C. lampomela Blake, n. sp.; fig. 7, C. flavantenna
Blake, n. sp.; fig. 8, C. purpurala Blake, n. sp.; fig. 9, C. manausa Blake, n. sp.; fig. 10, C. juxaoculus

Blake, n. sp.

Colaspis flavantenna, n. sp.
(Fig. 7)

Length 10.5 mm. Width 5.0 mm.

Elongate oblong oval, dark brown, almost black,
shining with a green lustre. Scutellum shining
margins, legs dark brown, antennae pale.

Head with interocular space half width of head,
densely punctate, antennae all pale. Prothorax

twice as wide as long with margin having tooth
below middle, disc rather irregularly punctate,
shining with a green lustre. Scutellum shining
with a dark green lustre. Elytra a little more than
3 times as long as prothorax and somewhat wider,
punctures mostly in geminate rows except near
suture and apex, where they occur in single or
sometimes alternate rows, costae between very
conspicuous. Body beneath shining dark blue-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

green, prosternum punctate. Legs with femora
dark above and all dark near tip, tibiae all dark.
Aedeagus long and broad with tip very broad, and
widening somewhat behind tip.

Holotype.—Male, USNM Type No.
75751. One female paratype.

Type-locality. —not given (from Bow-
ditch collection).

Remarks.—This species is very like
C. quattuordecimcostata but larger, with
a larger head and longer hind tibiae. No
locality is given, but the fact that it resem-
bles so many of the group leads me to
believe that it, too, may have been col-
lected in Brazil. It is the only one of the
group with yellow antennae, which dis-

_ tinguishes it from the rest of the species.
In addition, the aedeagus has an unusu-
ally broad tip.

Colaspis purpurala, n. sp.
(Fig. 8)

Length 9 mm. Width 4.5 mm.

Very elongate oblong oval, black, elytra with
a rosy lustre and sides with a green lustre, anten-
nae all black.

Head with interocular space half width of head,
a median depression down front, finely and densely
punctate, antennae all black. Prothorax approxi-
mately twice as wide as long, margin with tooth
below middle, disc densely punctate. Scutellum
black. Elytra nearly 4 times as long as prothorax
with geminate punctation becoming alternate and
then in single row below middle, costae promi-
nent. Body beneath blue green. Prosternum with
few punctures. Legs long and black.

USNM Type

Holotype. — Female,
INO: 75752.

Type-locality.—Not given.
Bowditch collection).

Remarks .— A member of the quattuor-
decimcostata group with unusually long
elytra. It resembles C. brachytibiae,
except that the legs are much longer. The
Specimen on the pin bears the name ‘‘pur-
' purala,’ a name I cannot find in any
' catalogue.

(from

Colaspis manausa, Nn. sp.
(Fig. 9)

Length 10.5 mm. Width 5.7 mm.
Elongate oblong oval, black shining with a green

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

lustre in the light, undersurface dark green, anten-
nae with first 2 joints and up to the tip of third
joint pale, joint 4 all dark, remainder missing.

Head densely and finely punctate, a median
depression down front, interocular space less than
half width of head, labrum dark. Prothorax nearly
twice as wide as long, margin with prominent tooth
below middle, disc irregularly punctate with many
bare spaces. Scutellum shining black. Elytra not
3 times as long as prothorax and wider, with punc-
tures somewhat irregular but tending to be gemi-
nate, becoming single near suture and apex, costae
between prominent. Body beneath dark green,
prosternum with deep punctures. Femora near body
dark green, becoming dark brown before end,
tibiae dark brown, almost black.

Holotype.— Female,
No. 75753.

Type locality. —Manaus, Brazil.

Remarks. —This species appears black
except in bright light, where it has a green
lustre all over body. The interocular
space is less than half the width of the
head, in this feature resembling C. corom-
bensis which is unusual in this group. It
is also like C. flavantenna except that the
antennae are not completely pale.

USNM Type

Colaspis juxaoculus, n. sp.
(Fig. 10)

Length 11 mm. Width 4.6 mm.

Elongate oblong oval, shining black.

Head with interocular space half width of head,
densely punctate, antennae with first joint dark
from above, joints 2 and 3 pale, remainder missing.
Prothorax twice as wide as long with margin having
a tooth below middle, disc densely punctate. Scutel-
lum shining black. Elytra more than 3 times as long
as prothorax and wider, with geminate punctures
except near suture and apex of next row, where
punctures are in single line. Legs and ventral sur-
face black, mesosternum without punctures.

Holotype.—Female, USNM Type No.
75754.

Type locality. —Brazil.

Remarks. —This beetle bears the label
‘‘Colaspis 14-costata Lefévre,’’ and it is
very close to Lefévre’s species, with the
difference that the hind tibiae of C. quat-
tuordecimcostata are very short and the
hind tibiae of C. juxaoculus are much
longer than those of the former.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS

Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited.
They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three
months preceding the issue for which they are intended.

NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

Dr. Isabella Karle has been elected to
the National Academy of Sciences (NAS).
She is the only female physical chemist
in the Academy. Her husband, Dr.
Jerome Karle, also a physical chemist at
NRL, was elected to the Academy two
years ago. The Karles are one of the few
husband-wife teams elected to the
Academy.

The National Academy of Sciences, a
private organization of eminent scientists
and engineers dedicated to the ‘‘further-
ance of science and its use for the general

welfare,’’ was established in 1863 by a

Congressional Act of Incorporation
signed by President Lincoln. The
Academy is frequently called upon to
act as an official adviser to the Federal

Jerome and Isabella Karle

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

government in matters of science or
technology.

Mrs. Karle, a native of Detroit, Michi-
gan, joined the NRL staff in 1946 and
holds BS and MS degrees in Chemistry
and a PhD in Physical Chemistry, all from
the University of Michigan. She heads
NRL’s X-ray Analysis Section in the
Laboratory for Structure of Matter. Ever
since Mrs. Karle developed the.symbolic
addition method of determining molecular

_ structures directly from x-ray diffraction

experiments 15 years ago, she has con-
tinued to make significant contributions

in crystallography by her analyses of

important materials particularly of in-

_ terest in organic and biological chemistry.
_ Mrs. Karle has gained world-wide recog-
_ nition for her work in this field.

Dr. Jerome Karle, Chief Scientist of

_NRL’s Laboratory for Structure of

Matter, was elected to the Academy in
1976, at which time he was also named
recipient of the 1976 Captain Robert
Dexter Conrad Award for Scientific
Achievement, the highest recognition the
Navy can bestow on any of its scientists
engaged in Naval R & D.

Mrs. Karle has been active in teaching,
training many postdoctoral students in
new analytical techniques. She and her
husband are members of several scientific
associations, including the American
Chemical Society, the American Physical
Society, the American Crystallographic
Association, the Biophysical Society and
the Washington Academy of Sciences.

The Karles live in Falls Church, Va.
They have three daughters, Madeleine,
Jean and Louise. Madeleine is a graduate
of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute &
State University. Jean, Louise and
Louise’s husband, Jonathan Hanson,
have earned PhDs in Chemistry.

Drs. Ming-Chang Lin and George Sigel,
Jr. are the 1978 recipients of the Pure
Science and Applied Science awards
from the Naval Research Laboratory’s
Chapter of Sigma Xi, the Scientific
Research Society of North America.

Each year the NRL chapter presents
awards to two outstanding NRL scientists
who have made distinguished contribu-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Ming-Chang Lin

tions to pure science and applied science
while conducting research at the Labora-
tory. These awards are in keeping with
the objective of the chapter, which is to
encourage investigation in pure and
applied science, and to promote the spirit
of scientific research at NRL.

Lin was cited for his discovery of the
first chemical Transverse Electric-dis-
charge Atmospheric (TEA) laser and its
application to chemical systems. He is
also noted for his discovery of numerous
new chemical laser reactions, for his
pioneering research in laser-accelerated
chemical reactions and ‘‘for furthering
our knowledge of chemical reaction
mechanisms.”’

Sigel was recognized for providing new
insights concerning the optical properties
of oxide glasses, their atomic defect
structures and their response to ionizing
radiation, and for applying this knowl-
edge to the selection and development of
radiation resistant optical fibers for
military data links.

Lin, a research chemist, joined the

George Sigel, Jr.

NRL staff in 1970. He received his BS
from Taiwan National Normal University
in 1959 and his PhD degree from the
University of Ottawa, Canada, in 1965.
He has authored or co-authored over 140
technical papers and scientific presenta-
tions in the area of chemical kinetics
and lasers. He is a member of several
technical societies and organizations and
was the recipient of the 1975 Hillebrand
Prize from the American Chemical So-
ciety of Washington, D. C., and the 1976
Physical Sciences Award of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences. He lives
with his wife, Judy, and their three
children, Karen, 11, Ellena, 7, and Linus,
10, in Oxon Hill, Md.

Sigel, who is aresearch physicist, came
to NRL in 1966, working in the areas of
glassy materials and radiation damage in
glasses. He received his BS in physics
from St. Joseph’s College in Philadelphia,
Pa. and his MS and PhD degrees in
physics from Georgetown University in
Washington, D. C. He is a member of
the American Physical Society and the
American Ceramic Society and has
served as the Chairman of the Tri-
Service Working Group on Radiation
Effects in Optical Fibers. He has authored
or co-authored over 50 technical papers
in the area of glasses. Sigel lives with

his wife, Jean, and their two children,
Bobby, 9, and Laura, 7, in Great
Falls, Va.

Dr. Theodore A. Jacobs, former Super-
intendent of the Optical Sciences Divi-
sion at the Naval Research Laboratory,
has been appointed an Associate Deputy
Assistant Secretary of the Navy in the
Office of Research and Advanced Tech-
nology. Prior to his employment at NRL
in 1976, Dr. Jacobs had served in high
level positions for the TRW Corporation,
Aerospace Corporation, California In-
stitute of Technology, Rocketdyne Divi-
sion of North American Aviation and
Douglas Aircraft Company. He was a
research associate and lecturer in me-
chanical engineering at the University of

Southern California in the late 1950s. Dr. ~

Jacobs has held formal Defense Depart-
ment appointments to the Army Missile
Command Scientific Advisory Group,
Defense Intelligence Agency Scientific
Advisory Committee, and the Chief of
Naval Operations. A native of Atlanta,
Georgia, Dr. Jacobs holds an A.B. degree
in chemistry from Emory University in
Georgia, an M.S. in mechanical engineer-

Theodore A. Jacobs

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

ing from the University of Southern
California and a Ph.D. in engineering

} and chemistry from the California In-

stitute of Technology. He is a member
of numerous professional and scientific

| societies, and holds one U. S. patent and

has another pending.
In a change of command ceremonies

| held at the Naval Research Laboratory,

Navy Captain Edward E. (Buzz) Henifin
became the new NRL Commanding
Officer on July 31, 1978. He relieved

_ Captain Lionel M. Noel, who is retiring

from the Navy. Captain Noel has been
Commanding Officer of NRL since June,
1976. Prior to his new assignment, Capt.

-Henifin served as Deputy Director of

Navy Technology.

Capt. Henifin was born in Madison,
South Dakota, August 23rd, 1931. He was
graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy
and commissioned an Ensign in June
1954. He served aboard the USS THE
SULLIVANS (DD-537) before volunteer-
ing for submarine duty. Following duty
aboard HARDHEAD and BARBEL,
Captain Henifin attended post-graduate
school at the University of Washington,
receiving a BA in Physical Oceanography
in 1962. He then served aboard the USS
ALBACORE (AGSS-569) in’ various
Capacities including Executive Officer.
During this tour in 1963, Captain Henifin,
on an additional duty assignment, par-
ticipated in the search for the USS
THRESHER. His next assignments were
as Officer in Charge of the BATHY-
SCAPH TRIESTE II and then Command-
ing Officer USS POMFRET (SS-391),
followed by an extended tour in the
Deep Submergence Program Coordi-
nators Office. In 1975 Captain Henifin
reported to the Naval Material Command
Headquarters and served as the Deputy
Director of Navy Laboratories. He
moved to the Deputy Director of Navy
Technology billet in February of 1977.

Captain Henifin is a designated Deep
Submergence Vehicle Operator and a
designated subspecialist in Oceanog-
raphy. He was awarded the Navy
Achievement Medal for his performance

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

Edward E. Henefin

aboard TRIESTE II and the Meri-
torious Service Medal for the planning
of and participation in deep submergence
operations in 1971. Additionally, he is
authorized to wear the Navy Unit
Commendation Ribbon for participation
in the THRESHER search, and in the
Palomares bomb search in 1966.

Captain Henifin is married to the
former Elisabeth Phillips of Drexel Hill,
Pennsylvania. The Henifins have three
children, Ann, David and Edward, and
reside in Alexandria, Virginia.

Dr. Richard Tousey, a space scientist
at the Naval Research Laboratory since
1941 and the physicist credited with
pioneering NRL’s rocket spectroscopy
research, was honored with a seminar
on solar radiation prior to his official
retirement from the Laboratory on June
30. He is widely recognized throughout
the scientific community for his out-
standing leadership in solar spectroscopy
investigations and was the principal
investigator for four successful solar
experiments carried out by astronauts
aboard the Skylab space station in
1973-74. Dr. Tousey’s experiments
aboard Skylab provided a wealth of new

Richard Tousey

data on the physics of the sun, and color
enhanced photos of solar activity taken
by his instruments have been appearing
in scientific journals and popular
astronomy magazines throughout the
world ever since.

The retiring NRL scientist received his
doctorate in physics from Harvard in
1933, and from 1935 until his employ-
ment at NRL in 1941, he was a research
instructor at Tufts University, . . . the
school that granted him an honorary
D.Sc. degree in 1961.

Appropriately enough, Dr. Tousey
began his Navy career at NRL by
initiating a program of upper atmosphere
research to investigate the brightness of
the sky and the visibility of the stars
from aircraft in the daytime. In addition,
Dr. Tousey headed the investigations into
the fields of vision and atmospheric
optics during World War II and received
the Meritorious Civilian Service Award
in 1945 for the design and development
of a reflector gun sight for the Navy. In
1946 he began a series of experiments
from high-altitude probes using captured
German rockets with his spectrograph
instrumentation aboard them. This en-
abled him to obtain the first detailed

record of the sun’s radiation in the far .—

ultraviolet region and extreme short
wavelengths that are otherwise hidden to
an observer because of the absorption
of the atmosphere.

His upper atmospheric research from
rockets resulted in the first extension of
the solar spectrum into the ultraviolet,
high resolution solar extreme ultraviolet
spectra, the discovery of many emission
lines in the ultraviolet spectrum of the
sun, the determination of the profile of the
Lyman alpha line of hydrogen, and the
direct measurement of the altitude of
several night airglow emissions. During
the late 1950’s, Dr. Tousey also directed
an NRL program of research on the
visibility of earth satellites and was a

member of the Science Program Com- -

mittee of Project Vanguard. (Inciden-
tally, the Navy’s Vanguard satellite
launched in 1958 is still traveling in space
and is now the oldest man-made satellite
in orbit. It is expected to be in orbit
for about 400 years.)

Among his awards are the 1959 Progress
Medal of the Photographic Society of
America, the Frederick Ives Medal of the
Optical Society of America for 1960,
the Prix Ancel of the Societe Francaise
de Photographie in 1962, the Draper
Medal for investigations in astronomical
physics and the NASA Medal for Excep-
tional Scientific Achievement.

Dr. Tousey is a member of many
professional associations, including the
National Academy of Sciences and the
International Academy of Astronautics;
and he is a fellow of the American
Physical Society, the Optical Society of
America, and the American Geophysical
Union. His publications include some
200 papers.

Lendell E. Steele, associate super-
intendent of the Materials Science and
Technology Division and head of the
Thermostructural Materials Branch, has
been named a recipient of the Award of
Merit by the American Society for Test-
ing and Materials (ASTM). Steele re-
ceived the award from ASTM President
William A. McAdams during ceremonies

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, No. 2, 1978

hosted by ASTM Standing Committee
on Standards in Boston on 30 June 1978.
| Steele was cited for ‘‘distinguished
| service rendered in encouraging the
transfer of research results to technology,

furthering ASTM Committee E-10 on
Nuclear Technologies and Applications
goals and redirecting E-10 activities to a
broader nuclear area, and leadership of
the Committee on Standards.’’

OBITUARIES

Samuel B. Detwiler, Jr.

Samuel Bertolet Detwiler, Jr., a retired
| research administrator, U. S. Depart-
| ment of Agriculture, died in the Sleepy
' Hollow Nursing Home, Fairfax, after a
' long illness following a heart attack
| in 1973. He lived on Walter Reed Drive
- in Arlington.

Born in Wabasha, Minn. in 1909, son of
Samuel B. and Kate E. Detwiler, he
attended public schools in Arlington, the
old Western High School in Georgetown,
and received a BS degree in chemistry
in 1934 from the George Washington
University while working as a laboratory
assistant at the National Bureau of
Standards, then located at Connecticut
Avenue and Van Ness Street. He was
awarded an MA degree in organic
chemistry by the University of Illinois
in 1941. He served as research chemist
at the USDA Regional Soybean Industrial
Products Laboratory in Urbana, IIl.,
where his work helped lay the ground-
work for the emergence of the soybean
as the primary source of vegetable oil
for shortenings and margarine in the
United States. The Urbana laboratory
was the prototype for a number of larger
USDA laboratories, later established,
dedicated to discovering new and wider
uses for U. S. farm products. In 1944
he returned to the Washington area proj-
ect officer of the Bureau of Agricultural
and Industrial Chemistry, USDA, and
became Assistant to the Administrator of
the Agricultural Research Service in
1958, a position he held until his retire-
ment in 1972. In the latter capacity he
was intimately involved in the direction

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

of agricultural research in foreign uni-
versities supported by proceeds from the
sale of surplus U. S. agricultural com-
modities abroad. His official travels took
him to most of the countries of Western
Europe, Israel, and India. During the past
several years he served as research
associate with the Federation of Ameri-
can Societies for Experimental Biology,
Bethesda. He was author of many
scientific articles on chemistry and
research administration.

He was manager, councilor, treasurer,
and secretary of the Chemical Society
of Washington and editor of its publica-
tion, the Capital Chemist. Mr. Detwiler
received the Honor Scroll of the Ameri-
can Institute of Chemists and the Public
Service Award of the Chemical Society of
Washington. He was a member of the
American Chemical Society, the Ameri-
can Institute of Chemists, the American
Oil Chemists’ Society, Alpha Chi Sigma,
Phi Sigma Kappa, Omicron Delta Kappa,
and the Cosmos Club. He was life
member of the Hugenot Society of Penn-
sylvania. Among his many interests,
any of which could have become a second
vocation, were photography, military
history, music, genealogy, mathematics,
firearms, farming, and boating.

For a number of years Mr. Detwiler
was a Fellow of the Washington Academy
of Sciences. As editor of the Academy
Journal in the recent past, he abundantly
demonstrated his love and regard for his
fellow scientists by the meticulous atten-
tion he devoted to promoting that activity.
He also served in a number of offices in
the Academy during his association with
that organization.

Theodor C. von Brand

Dr. Theodor C. von Brand, 78, a
retired physiologist and parasitologist
for the National Institutes of Health
and a former president of the American
Society of Parasitologists, died on July
18, 1978 in Suburban Hospital after a
heart attack. Von Brand was head of the
physiology and biochemistry section of
the parasitic diseases laboratory of the
National Institute of Allergy and Infec-
tious Diseases from 1947 until he retired
from NIH in 1969. He was known inter-
nationally for his work in invertebrate
physiology and biochemistry.

He was amember of many professional
organizations and was on the expert
advisory panel on parasitic diseases of
the World Health Organization. At his
retirement he was presented the Superior
Service Honor Award of the Department
of Health, Education and Welfare for
‘‘meritorious research on the chemical
composition and metabolism of para-
Sites.”

Dr. von Brand was a true pioneer in the

field of parasite physiology and bio-
chemistry. It can be said with justifica-
tion that he single-handedly through his

research and scholarship founded and |
developed this area of parasitology in this |

country. His intellect, immense scholar- |
ship and productivity enabled him to be- |
come the author of more than 200 papers ©

and 6 textbooks.

Although he was _

mandatorily retired at age 70 from the |

NIH in 1969, he continued to be active

until the end. His latest textbook will be |

published this autumn.

A native of Ortenberg,
von Brand received a Ph.D. in zoology
from the University of Munich and a

Germany, |

M.D. from the University of Erlangen. |

After immigrating to the United States —
in 1936 he was a research fellow at Johns
Hopkins University’s school of hygiene. —
He also taught at Barat College in —

Illinois and at Catholic University before ©

joining the NIH staff in 1946.

He leaves his wife, Margarethe, at the
home on Hempstead Avenue in Bethesda;
a son, Theodor P., of Bethesda; a sister
and three grandchildren.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 2, 1978

er OP er Be oh,

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Washington Academy of Sciences
9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda)
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and additional mailing offices.

VOLUME 68
Number 3

| Journal of the SEPTEMBER, 1978

Issued Quarterly
at Washington, D.C.

Directory Issue

CONTENTS

Directory, 1978:

Mitceminpol Whe ACAGEMY 2366220. 6 sce eee oe hee se co ewe

Alphabetical MSU Pw ee ysis a dk i eo a aa ena seemes

Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Mary H. Aldridge

President-Elect
Alfred Weissler

Secretary
James F. Goff

Treasurer
Nelson W. Rupp

Members at Large
Conrad B. Link
Elaine Shafrin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated
Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Elizabeth Ostaggi

ACADEMY OFFICE

9650 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD. 20014
Telephone: (301) 530-1402

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical
reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings
of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana-
gers; and other items of interest to Academy members.
The Journal appears four times a year (March, June,
September, and December)—the September issue
contains a directory of the Academy membership.

Subscription Rates

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ceive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions are
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following rates:

U.S. and Canada....... $17.00
FP OLEIRM sew din covese.oe ae os 18.50
Single Copy Price ...... 6.00

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976)
is $7.50.

Back Issues

Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bot-
tom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols. 1-13
(1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings
and Vols. 1—40 of the Journal Journal: Back issues,
volumes, and sets (Vols. 1-62, 1911-1972) and all cur-
rent issues.

Claims for Missing Numbers

Claims will not be allowed if received more than 60
days after date of mailing plus time normally required
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lowed because of failure to notify the Academy of a
change in address.

Change of Address

Address changes should be sent promptly to the Acad-
emy office. Such notification should show both old
and new addresses and zip number.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Eimmsemsnical-SOcCIeLY OF WaSMINGION) 55/0). .0006 ln ee e as os See esc e eae wee eae ee wee ole James F. Goff
PMMTMreOrical SOCIELY Ol WaSMiMetON: 605 00) 4g .ecoe ete ts ee ae vis eevee dee eee ne wees Jean K. Boek
Sue TE SCICEVEOL NVASHINGLOM: «252: she) oi5. es) Reeso ia ce 5265 yegeh oe idaci ith loys a leds ny AiaeelS doak woe William R. Heyer
Bema cicty Ob) Washington! ".7...\22). 24... ole ae be ee ee Res Delegate not appointed
Pac SOCIcIY Of Washington .:..5 5s 2 icc cae seals t fede wt le ween s Oe Maynard Ramsay
Se ASR PRAT Ce SOUL CO a osc Blois as Shey ashes tet mx akon a celia, a aseinue revere, = OMe, ease tare wee © T. Dale Stewart
Pe eie AS GCICly Ol WasmingtOM in)Pesh oie oe ee ec bede edad oe ate ceca Delegate not appointed
mete mcieiycor the Disthict of Columbia. 5... 6.22). oe cic oa snc ole ge ede ee cae decd ucwewe ees Inactive
7 LER TTS, SUAS ICIRIGALIS OTTER ea enone et Paul H. Oehser
PLM OMLILIN OM NV ASHINGLON 2... a. fe nears ceo ok fee ata e ble as bese ate se as Conrad B. Link
ee aH TECH AM) MOLCSLCES | 05 oagsjnie s)sco. sie asad doe coe ew elare oe salt oe eae ee ea Thomas B. Glazebrook
ae OCICINGOU FNPITCCES. soccisa. is = 2 ectysu AG aus aoe jets SM Annus Baye WEIS a a2 Bel arne oe George Abraham
Mamecmaricctticaland Electronics’ Engineers... 05. 26s se0 . ed Pek a a George Abraham
Pmcneamoucicty Of Mechanical ENQINEErs .... oso. ek ee dc obs t ce evoke ee weasceaene Michael Chi
a PeminenOlOPical Society Of Washington -. 2... i.e ce nese eee caw ea set ees Robert S. Isenstein
eee SIC IR Ols MICTOULOIONY, 2 Me. eee edn a a6 een sie viele no dale G oo ele g-ehbie cs Siadeerdls Michael Pelzcar
Paine Mei winetican Military ENGINEERS 9... 6... e ck cae eee eee en neeweneceeees H. P. Demuth
4 SLE GED SOCE Cel Cia a) SN i0oT (ce) nei ee Robert Sorenson
MmEmemmonexpenmental Biology and Medicine... 2.0.2.2. le et ee eee ene Donald Flick
Pe MESO IC I Om NMCIAIS (265 Ute EME as ai. as he a ede aaa ee aha we se Glen W. Wensch
armavienal Association of Dental Research ... 2.20.22. ee ce ee eee William V. Loebenstein
minvenean Institute of Acronautics and Astronautics .............060.c0 ces eeceeecsaes George J. Vila
PEAS SIC OL OIG PICA SOCICLY fay oiayc)- Is So ce ee eases bas bed eee see neeee A. James Wagner
PP IAC SOCICIYIOl WASHINGTON (0... on2 ce hate kl asa se sate ca seta te se dea bas Robert J. Argauer
PESEE AES OCICIN OL AMONCA Ye i einpn ME 5 acini © ahapeyeiZya se mae Be eoielel bie e eeheads 5 Delegate not appointed
ee ee ABC ATES OIE LY P58), 2 SP ye Ne eae a ease eke is ALS 6 oad edness ela Sa auelo Dick Duffey
NCCES OM NC CHOI OPISES ip aci02 a s-seNepeens oie, so eas 6 olefe ee Yew eae need be ame e eo William Sulzbacher
cae IO CECE SOCICUY, gt A TA,...0k RENE MIN. A sas at. Ps Een i LI Re Inactive
LE PLSD G EGIL GAL SVC SL SY aa aes Sit en rer ae ee oe aie eee bd David R. Flinn
et POI ELI STOTV OLS SCICMCE HO MED) ice cou iaieaci bd be! c3e o0o avalon Sle we aw eaten WS oe se we a bee oo reve ae Inactive
Phe Ane ASSOCIALION OF PHYSICS LCACNEDS —2 222 cb eecds ec ce ccs cede ceed epee cesacees To be appointed
(LL BELL SCVGr Sty LAITY S LEY C7 Ip Ree ores, TET eer Re Te eo Lucy B. Hagan
Pemeniean SoOciciy Or Liant Physiologists 45 sik Disc. od Plea aialeanie dae depen eyes + Walter Shropshire
Beene On Operations KeEScarch COUNCH ieee) 2 fos Bt sso 4 Bee eee eee nes teeelone eis ime John G. Honig
PEER ME SOREL VEO NINCIICAL To gyro ane sacs cstiaye eo c= ne, 3. 6de SeBtysgcKe oie eS oie Soe a wien bo, fa)iel ines lae Inactive
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical
ee UN MITRE IST CET. Sig eee a 1h, ols Seu A eyes: Said Se Seeiatta Sod SA Gy opie Sco 'e ew agony es Gus H. Goudarzi
SMITA AIOMAGITONOMELS: Falennd.os. SP eiolits s Mowea dhe ew ekumber Reltawws . te abt Benson J. Simon
Sraucinaticd Association Of Amenca 6. 5 tiiin . ales OOR n Pn F Patrick Hayes
EIS ETI CUOLACHEMMSES 50 Sie ona caso ake, sos as occu sinus 30 210 +) ein, oie a 0/8 ® tyne es Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.
SEC HOLGSICAl-ASSOCIATION ... Se cabteaaier. ek: Hokie bce oe cone bed eee seers mbien John O’ Hare
Pee asnincon bam Dechmical Group) c.0 bos 6 Uk eee et oe he we bldre eit be ne we stew Paul G. Campbell
Pemeican PAytopathological SOCICEY=0..G... Gaicrab < fs. 2 seveswmats Smmrttaponisy. oie Sl a bh Tom van der Zwet
mere tor General Systems Research ™...22. 6600) 0.. be. fe die lo Ronald W. Manderscheid
7 REESE TRPSIOTRS) SYOCTE I pine IGS 65 eee EIR AG co ene a Ane H. McIlvaine Parsons
Sees HIN EISHEHIESISOCICLY. 2.) Aeeitiny: bos a Se eels das dle « 4 ceria) oNasinte ws Sapte te ate 2 Irwin M. Alperin

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978 93

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P : e

THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1978

Foreword

The present, 53rd issue of the Academy’s direc-
tory is again this year issued as part of the September
number of the Journal. As in previous years, the
alphabetical listing is based on a postcard question-
naire sent to the Academy membership. Members
were asked to update the data concerning address

and membership in affiliated societies by June 30,
1978. In cases in which cards were not received by
that date, the address appears as it was used during
1978, and the remaining data were taken from the
directory for 1977. Corrections should be called to
the attention of the Academy office.

Code for Affiliated Societies, and Society Officers

1 The Philosophical Society of Washington (1898)

President: George T. Armstrong, 1401 Dale Dr.,
Vice-President:

Secretary:

Delegate: James F. Goff, 3405 34th Pl.,

2 Anthropological Society of Washington (1898)

President:

20016

President-elect:
Secretary:
Delegate:

VA 22201

3 Biological Society of Washington (1898)

Ruth Lardman, Dept. of Anthropology, American Univ.,

Silver Spring, MD 20910

William G. Maisch, 205 Yockum Parkway, Alexandria, VA 22034
Lowell D. Ballard, 722 S. Colonial, Sterling, VA 22170

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016

Washington, D.C.

Marie Bourglaise, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20014
Mary F. Gallager, Montgomery College, Rockville, MD 20853
Jean K. Boek, National Graduate Univ.,

1101 N. Highland St., Arlington,

W. Duane Hope, Dept. of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of

Natural History, Smithsonian Institutions, Washington, D.C. 20560

President: Richard S. Cawan
Vice-President: Clyde F. E. Roper
Secretary:
Delegate:

William R. Heyer, Amphibian & Reptiles, Nat. History Bice Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

4 Chemical Society of Washington (1898)

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary Cheryl Marks, 6004 Balsam Dr.,
Delegate: Not appointed

5 Entomological Society of Washington (1898)
President:
Vice-President:

ton, D.C.
Secretary:

Douglas W. S. Sutherland, 125 Lakeside Dr.,
Donald R. Davis, Dept. of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution, Washing-
20560

Donald R. Whitehead, Rm. W-605, U.S. National Museum of Natural

David H. Freeman, Univ. of Md., College Park, MD 20742
Walter Benson, FDA-HFD 420, 200 C St. S.W., Washington, D.C. 20204

McLean, VA 22101

Greenbelt, MD 20770

History, Washington, D.C. 20560

Delegate:

6 National Geographic Society (1898)
President:
Chairman:
Secretary:
Delegate:

Maynard J. Ramsay, 3806 Viser Court, Bowie, MD 20715

Robert E. Doyle, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
Melvin M. Payne, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
Owen R. Anderson, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
T. Dale Stewart, Smithsonian Institution, Museum of Natural History,

Washington, D.C. 20560

7 Geological Society of Washington (1898)
President:

Vice-President:

Francis R. Boyd, Jr.,
Lab., 2801 Upton St.,
J. Thomas Dutro, U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Paleontology and

Carnegie Institution of Washington, Geophysical
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008

Stratigraphy, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary:

Delegate: Not appointed

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

William E. Davies, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston VA 22092, Mail Stop 973

Medical Society of the District of Columbia (1898)

President: William S. McCune
President-elect: Frank S. Bacon
Secretary: Thomas Sadler
Delegate: Not appointed
Columbia Historical Society (1899)
President: Wilcomb E. Washburn, Amer. Studies, S.I., Washington, D.C. 20560
Vice-President: William H. Press, 1511 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005
Secretary: Marcellina Hummer, 2006 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009
Delegate: Paul H. Oehser, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
Botanical Society of Washington (1902)
President: Robert L. Boher, Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of Md., College Park, MD
20742
Vice-President: Richard S. Cowan, Dept. of Botany, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. 20560
Secretary: James J. White, Dept. of Botany, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. 20560
Delegate: Conrad B. Link, Univ. of Md., Dept. of Horticulture, College Park, MD 20742
Society of American Foresters, Washington, Section (1904)
President: Thomas B. Glazebrook, 7809 Bristow Dr., Annandale, VA 22003
President-elect: Arthur H. Smith, 3301 Wessynton Way, Alexandria, VA 22309
Secretary: George Cheek, American Forest Institute, 1619 Mass. Ave., N.W., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20036
Delegate: T. B. Glazebrook

Washington Society of Engineers (1907)
President: Jeffrey H. Rumbaugh, Potomac Electric Power Co., 1900 Pennsylvania
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20068
Vice-President: Guy H. Hammer, Washington Hospital Dr., Washington, D.C. 20010

Secretary: Charles E. Remington, 2005 Columbia Pike, Arlington, VA 22204

Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Washington Section (1912)

Chairman: Horst W. A. Gerlach 4521 Cheltenham Dr., Bethesda, MD 20014

Vice-Chairman: G. David Crandell, 12214 Old Colony Dr., Upper Marlboro, MD 20870

Secretary: Richard J. Bache, 10400 Burnt Ember Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20903

Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington Section (1923)
Chairman: Robert L. Hershey, 1255 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Apt. 433, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20036
Vice-Chairman: Ron Niebo, 8587 Brae Brook Dr., Lanham, MD 20801
Secretary: Markley An, 8800 Fox Hill Trail, Potomac, MD 20854
Delegate: Michael Chi, 2721 N. 24th St., Arlington, VA 22207

Helminthological Society of Washington (1923)
President: Harley G. Sheffield, Lab. of Parasitic Diseases, NIH, NOAID, Bldg. 5,
‘ Bethesda, MD 20014
Vice-President: Ronald Fayer, SEA, USDA, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705

Secretary: J. Ralph Lichtenfels, Animal Parasitology Inst., SEA, BARC-East, Belts-
ville, MD 20705 ;

Delegate: Robert S. Isenstein, FSQS, USDA, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705

American Society for Microbiology, Washington Branch (1923)

President: June A. Bradlaw, Food & Drug Adm., Genetic Toxicology Branch,
HFF-156, Washington, D.C. 20204

Vice-President: Irvin C. Mohler, The George Washington University School of Medicine,
Dept. of Medical & Public Affairs, Washington, D.C. 20037

Secretary: Phyllis D. Kind, The George Washington University School of Medicine,
Dept. of Microbiology, Washington, D.C. 20037

Delegate: Michael J. Pelczar, Jr., Vice President for Graduate Studies & Research,

University of Md., College Park, MD 20742

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

Society of American Military Engineers, Washington Post (1927)

President: Col. Edwin P. Geesey, DAEN-FEZ-B, Washington, D.C. 20314
Vice-President: R.Adm. H. R. Lippold, NOAA, Washington, D.C. 20233
Secretary: William I. Jacob, DAEN-FER-P, Washington, D.C. 20314
Delegate: Hal P. Demuth, 4025 Pine Brook Rd., Alexandria, VA 22310

American Society of Civil Engineers, National Capital Section (1942)
President: James W. Harland, 1511 K St., N.W., Suite 337, Washington, D.C. 20005
Vice-President: Norman L. Cooper, Dept. of Transportation, 400 7th St., Rm. 9422, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20590

Secretary: Robert Efimba, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Howard University, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20059
Delegate: Robert Sorenson, Coastal Engineering Research Ctr., Kingman Bldg.,

Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060
Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, D.C. Section (1952)

President: Arthur Wykes, Natl. Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20014

President-elect: Elise A. Brown, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20014

Secretary: William Von Arsdel, Food & Drug Adm., Bureau of Drugs, Rockville,
MD 20850

Delegate: Donald F. Flick, 930 19th St., So., Arlington, VA 22202

American Society for Metals, Washington Chapter (1953)
Chairman: Klaus M. Zwilsky, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 20545
Vice-Chairman: Alan H. Rosenstein, Air Force Office of Scientific Res., 1400 Wilson Blvd.,
Arlington, VA 22209

Secretary: Joseph Malz, NASA, Code RWM, Washington, D.C. 20546
Delegate: Glen W. Wensch, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 20545
International Association for Dental Research, Washington Section (1953)
President: John D. Termine, Natl. Institute of Dental Research, Bethesda, MD 20014
Vice-President: William R. Cotton, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD 20014
Secretary: Stanley Vermilyea, Walter Reed Army Inst. of Res., Washington, D.C.
20012
Delegate: William V. Loebenstein, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Capital Section (1953)
Chairman: Robert O. Bartlett, 18333 Duchess Dr., Olney, MD 20832
Vice-Chairman: George J. Vila, General Dynamics, 1025 Conn. Ave., N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20036
Secretary: Richard Hallion, 1003 Montrose Lane, Laurel, MD 20810
Delegate: George J. Vila

American Meteorological Society, D.C. Chapter (1954)
Chairman: Celso Barrientos, Natl. Weather Serv. W427, 821 Gramax Bldg., 8060
13th St., Silver Spring, MD 20910
Vice-Chairman: June Bacon-Bercey, Rm. 1310 Gramax Bldg., W 116X2, Silver Spring,

MD 20233
Secretary: David H. George, Rm. 1424, Gramax Bldg., Silver Spring, MD 20233
Delegate: A. James Wagner, National Weather Service, World Weather Bldg., 5200

Auth Rd., Washington, D.C. 20233
Insecticide Society of Washington (1959)

Chairman: Neal O. Morgan, USDA, ARS, Bldg. 476, Rm. 100, BARC-East, Beltsville,
MD 20705

Chairman-elect: Jack R. Plimmer, USDA, ARS, Bldg. 306, Rm. 313, BARC-East, Beltsville,
MD 20705

Secretary: John Neal, ARS, ARC, Bldg. 467, Beltsville, MD 20705

Delegate: Robert Argauer, ARS, ARC, Bldg. 309, Beltsville, MD 20705

Acoustical Society of America (1959)

Chairman: John A. Molino, Sound Section, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234

Vice-Chairman: Charles T. Molloy, 2400 Claremont Dr., Falls Church, VA 22043

Secretary: William K. Blake, Naval Ship R & D Ctr., Bethesda, MD 20034

Delegate: None appointed

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978 ae

American Nuclear Society, Washington Section (1960)

President: Arthur Randal, Am. Nuclear Energy Council, 1750 K St., N.W., Washing-
ton, D.C. 20006

Vice-President: S. Bassett, NUS Corp., Rockville, MD 20852

Secretary: Ray Durante, Westinghouse Electric, 1801 K St., N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20006

Delegate: Dick Duffy, Nuclear Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, MD 20742

Institute of Food Technologists, Washington Section (1961)

Chairman: Tannous Khalil, Giant Foods, Inc., Landover, MD 20785

Vice-Chairman: Florian C. Majorack, Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C.

Secretary: Glenn V. Brauner, National Canners Assoc., Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: William Sulzbacher, 8527 Clarkson Dr., Fulton, MD 20759

American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Washington Section (1962)
Chairman: W. T. Bakker, General Refractories Co., P.O. Box 1673, MD 21203
Chairman-elect: L. Biller, Glidden-Dirkee Div., SCM Corp., 3901 Hawkins Point Rd.,
Baltimore, MD 21226
Secretary: Edwin E. Childs, J. E. Baker Co., 232 E. Market St., York, PA 17405
Delegate: None appointed

Electrochemical Society, National Capital Section (1963)
Chairman: David R. Flinn, Bureau of Mines, College Park Research Center, College
Park, MD 20740
Vice-Chairman: John R. Ambrose, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 223, Rm. B254,
Washington, D.C. 20234

Secretary: George Marinenko, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 222, Rm. A217,
Washington, D.C. 20234
Delegate: David R. Flinn
Washington History of Science Club (1965)
Chairman: Richard G. Hewlett, Atomic Energy Comm.
Vice-Chairman: Deborah Warner, Smithsonian Institution
Secretary: Dean C. Allard
Delegate: None appointed
American Association of Physics Teachers, Chesapeake Section (1965)
President: William Logan, D.C. Teachers College, 2565 Georgia Ave., Washington,
D.C. 20001
Vice-President: Eugenie V. Mielczarek, George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr., Fairfax,
VA 22030
Secretary: John B. Newman, Towson State College, Towson, MD 21204
Delegate: None appointed
Optical Society of America, National Capital Section (1966)
President: Mark Daehler, Naval Research Laboratory, Code 7122.2, Washington, D.C.
20375

Vice-President: George J. Simonis, Harry Diamond Laboratory, Branch 32, 2800 Powder
Mill Rd., Adelphi, MD 20783

Secretary: Martin J. Koomen, Naval Research Laboratory, Code 7141, Washington,
D.C.226375
Delegate: Lucy B. Hagan, National Bureau of Standards, Rm. B360, Physics,

Washington, D.C. 20234
American Society of Plant Physiologists, Washington Section (1966)

President: Anne H. Datko, NIMH Bldg. 32A, Rm. 101, Bethesda, MD 20014

Vice-President: Werner J. Meudt, USDA, ARS Bldg. 50, Beltsville, MD 20705

Secretary: Charles F. Cleland, Radiation Biology Lab., 12441 Parklawn Dr., Rock-
ville, MD 20852

Delegate: W. Shropshire, Jr., Smithsonian Institution, 12441 Parklawn Dr., Rockville,
MD 20852

Washington Operations Research Council (1966)

President: Charles Tiplitz, 8809 Bells Mills Rd., Potomac, MD 20854

Vice-President: Thomas Sicilia, 113 N. Oakland St., Arlington, VA 22212

Secretary: James Boisseau .

Delegate: John G. Honig, 7701 Glenmore Spring Way, Bethesda, MD 20034

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

Instrument Society of America, Washington Section (1967)

President: Francis C. Quinn
President-elect: John I. Peterson
Secretary: Frank L. Carou
Delegate: None appointed
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical & Petroleum Engineers (1968)
Chairman: Garrett R. Hyde, 6027 Springhill Dr., Greenbelt, MD 20770
Vice-Chairman: John A. Patterson, 7705 Hamilton Spring Rd., Bethesda, MD 20034
Secretary: John H. DeYoung, Jr., 12677 Magna Carta Rd., Herndon, VA 22070
Delegate: Gus H. Goudarzi, 658 Pemberton Court, Herndon, VA 22070
National Capital Astronomers (1969)
President: James Trexler, 5609 Otlarow St., Oxon Hill, MD 20021
Vice-President: Daniel G. Lewis, 11201 Farmland Dr., Rockville, MD 20852
Secretary: William R. Winkler, 15804 Pinecroft Lane, Bowie, MD 20716
Delegate: Benson J. Simon, 8704 Royal Ridge Lane, Laurel, MD 20811
Maryland-District of Columbia and Virginia Section of Mathematical Assoc. of America (1971)
Chairman: Orville Thomas, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD 21401
Chairman-elect: John Smith, 1837 Negel Ct., Vienna, VA 22180
Secretary: Reuben Drake, 3701 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008
Delegate: Patrick Hayes, 950 25th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037
D.C. Institute of Chemists (1973)
President: Kelso B. Morris, 1448 Leegate Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20012
President-elect: Leo Schubert, 8521 Beech Tree Rd., Bethesda, MD 20034
Secretary: Fred D. Ordway, 2816 Fall Jax Dr., Falls Church, VA 22042
Delegate: Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr., 1703 Mark Lane, Rockville, MD 20852
The D.C. Psychological Association (1975)
President: John F. Borriello, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Overholser Division, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20032
President-elect Eugene Stammeyer, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Overholser Division,
Washington, D.C. 20032
Secretary: Sylvia M. Tetrault, Howard Univ. College of Medicine, Washington, D.C.
20059
Delegate: John J. O’Hare, Office of Naval Research, 800 N. Quincy St., Arlington,
VA 22217
The Washington Paint Technical Group (1976)
President: Maurice S. Moen, Sherwin Williams Co.
Vice-President: Robert F. Brady, Jr., GSA
Secretary: Mildred A. Post, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 226, Rm. B-348,
Washington, D.C. 20234
Delegate: Paul G. Campbell, National Bureau of Standards, B-348 Br., Washington,
D.C. 20234
Potomac Division, American Phytopathological Society (1977)
President: C. W. Roane, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and

State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
Vice-President: J. R. Stavely, Tobacco Laboratory, USDA, Agric. Research Center,
Beltsville, MD 20705

Secretary: L. D. Moore, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and
State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
Delegate: T. van der Zwet, Fruit Laboratory, USDA, Agric. Research Center,

Beltsville, MD 20705
Metropolitan Washington Chapter of the Society for General Systems Research (1977)

Chairman: Ronald W. Manderscheid, 6 Monument Ct., Rockville, MD 20850
Secretary: Helen G. Tibbitts, 4105 Montpelier Rd., Rockville, MD 20853
Delegate: Ronald W. Manderscheid, 6 Monument Ct., Rockville, MD 20850
Potomac Chapter, Human Factors Society (1977)
President: M. Dean Havron, 6222 Edgewater Dr., Falls Church, VA 22041
Vice-President: Michael L. Fineberg, 10707 Huntley Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20902
Secretary: Erwin W. Bedarf, 12901 Livingston Rd., Oxon Hill, MD 20022
Delegate: H. Mcllvaine Parsons, 4701 Willard Ave., Chevy Chase, MD 20015

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978 99

45 Potomac Chapter, American Fisheries Society (1978)
President: Worrall R. Carter, III, Maryland Fisheries Admin., P.O. Box 68, Wye
Mills, MD 21679
President-elect: Galen L. Buterbaugh, Dep. Assoc. Director, Fish., U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, U.S. Dept. Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240

Secretary: Norville S. Prosser, Sport Fishing Institute, 608 13th St., N.W., Suite 801,
Washington, D.C. 20005
Delegate: Irwin M. Alperin, Exec. Director, Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Comm.,

1717 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036

100 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

aide

Alphabetical List of Members

M = Member; F = Fellow; E = Emeritus member; L = Life Fellow. Numbers in parentheses refer to
numerical code in foregoing list of affiliated societies.

ABDULNUR, SUHEIL F., Ph.D., Chemistry Dept.
The American University, Washington, D.C.
20016 (F)

ABELSON, PHILIP H., Ph.D., Editor SCIENCE
Magazine, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1550 Mass. Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 (F-1, 4, 7, 16)

ABRAHAM, GEORGE, M.S., Ph.D., 3107 West-
over Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 (F-1,
Gmi2. 13,25, 31, 32)

ACHTER, M. R., Code 6416, U.S. Naval Research
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-20, 36)
ADAMS, CAROLINE L., 242 North Granada St.,

Arlington, Va. 22203 (E-10)

ADLER, SANFORD C., 14238 Briarwood Terr.,
Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-1)

ADLER, VICTOR E., 8540 Pineway Ct., Laurel,
Md. 20810 (F-5, 24)

AFFRONTI, LEWIS, Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology,
George Washington Univ. Sch. of Med., 2300
Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037
(F-16, 19)

AHEARN, ARTHUR J., Ph.D., 9621 East Bexhill
Dr., Box 294, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-16)

AKERS, ROBERT P., Ph.D., 9912 Silverbrook Dr.,
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-6)

ALBUS, JAMES S., 4515 Saul Rd., Kensington,
Md. 20014 (F)

ALDRICH, JOHN W., Ph.D., 6324 Lakeview Dr.,
Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F)

ALDRIDGE, MARY H., Ph.D., Dept. of Chemistry,
American University, Washington, D.C. 20016
(F-4)

ALEXANDER, ALLEN L., Ph.D., 4216 Sleepy
Hollow Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 (E-4)

ALEXANDER, BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Pres., Chicago
State Univ., 95th St. at King Dr. Chicago Ill.
(F)

ALGERMISSEN, S. T., 5079 Holmes PI., Boulder,
Colo. 80303 (F)

ALLEN, ANTON M., D.V.M., Ph.D., 11718 Lake-
way Dr., Manassas, Va. 22110 (F)

ALLEN, FRANCES J., Ph.D. 7507 23rd Ave.,
Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F)45

ALLEN, WILLIAM G., P.E., B.S., 8306 Custer
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-14)

ALTER, HARVEY, Ph.D., Nat. Center for
Resource Recovery, Inc., 1211 Connecticut

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (F-4)

ANDERSON, JOHN D., Jr., Ph.D., Dept. Aerospace
Eng., Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.
20742 (F-6, 22)

ANDERSON, MYRON S., Ph.D., 1433 Manchester
Lane, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (E-4)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

ANDERSON, WENDELL L., Rural Rt. 4, Box 4172,
La Plata, Md. 20646 (F-4)

ANDREWS, JOHN S., Sc.D., 10314 Naglee Rd.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (E-15)

ANDRUS, EDWARD D., BS., 1600 Rhode Island
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (M-7, 25)

APOSTOLOU, Mrs. GEORGIA L., B.A. 1001
Rockville Pike, #424, Rockville, Md. 20852
(M-4)

APSTEIN, MAURICE, Ph.D., 4611 Maple Ave.,
Bethesda, Md., 20014 (F-1, 6, 13)

ARGAUER, ROBERT J., Ph.D., 4208 Everett St.,
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-24)

ARMSTRONG, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 1401 Dale Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 4)

ARONSON, C. J., 3401 Oberon St., Kensington,
Md. 20910 (E-1, 32)

ARSEM, COLLINS, 10821 Admirals Way,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-1, 6, 13)

ARVESON, PAUL T., Code 1926, Naval Ship R&D
Ctr., Bethesda, Md. 20034

ASLAKSON, CARL I., 5707 Wilson Lane, Be-
thesda, Md. 20014 (E)

ASTIN, ALLEN V., Ph.D., 5008 Battery Lane,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-1, 13, 22, 35)

AXILROD, BENJAMIN M., Ph.D., 9915 Marquette
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1)

AYENSU, EDWARD, Ph.D., 9200 Wilmett Ct.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-3, 10)

BAILEY, R. CLIFTON, Ph.D., 6507 Divine St.,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

BAKER, ARTHUR A., Ph.D., 5201 Westwood Dr.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-7)

BAKER, LOUIS C.W., Ph.D., Dept of Chemistry,
Georgetown University, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20007 (F-4)

BALLARD, LOWELL D., 722 So. Colonial, Ster-
ling, Va. 22170 (F-1, 6, 13, 32)

BARBOUR, LARRY L., 19309 Poinsetta Court,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (M)

BARBROW, LOUIS E., Natl. Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 13, 32)

BARGER, GERALD L., Ph.D., Rt. 4, Box 165AC,
Columbia, Mo. 65201 (F-23)

BEACH, LOUIS A., Ph.D., 1200 Waynewood
Blvd., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-1, 6)

BECKER, EDWIN D., Ph.D., Inst. Arthritis & Meta-
bolic Dis., Bldg. 2 Rm. 122, National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4)

BECKETT, CHARLES W., 5624 Madison St.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 4)

101

BECKMANN, ROBERT B., Ph.D., Dept of Chem.
Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md.
20742 (F-4)

BElJ, HILDING, K., 69 Morningside Dr., Laconia,
NH 03246 (L-1)

BEKKEDAHL, NORMAN, Ph.D., 405 N. Ocean
Bivd., Apt. 1001, Pompano Beach, Fla.
33062 (E)

BELSHEIM, ROBERT, Ph.D., 2475 Virginia Ave.
#514, Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-1, 12, 14,
25)

BENDER, MAURICE, Ph.D., 16518 N.E. 2nd. PI.,
Bellevue, Wa. 98008

BENESCH, WILLIAM, Inst. for Molecular Physics,
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742
(F-1, 32)

BENJAMIN, C. R., Ph.D., IPD/SEA, USDA, Rm.
459, Federal Bg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782
(F-6, 10, 42)

BENNETT, BRADLEY F., 3301 Macomb St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1, 20)

BENNETT, JOHN A., 7405 Denton Rd., Bethesda
Md. 20014 (F, 20)

BENNETT, MARTIN TOSCAN, Ch.E., 3700 Mt.
Vernon Ave., Rm. 605, Alexandria, Va. 22305
(F-4, 6)

BENNETT, WILLARD H., Box 5342, North
Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, N.C. 27607 (E)

BENSON, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 618 Constitution
Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002 (M-32, 44)

BERGMANN, OTTO, Ph.D., Dept. Physics,
George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C.
20052 (F-1)

BERMAN, ALAN, Ph.D., 9304 Maybrook PI.,
Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F-25)

BERNETT, MARIANNE K., Code 6170, Naval Res.
Lab., Washington D.C. 20375 (M-4)

BERNSTEIN, BERNARD, M.S., 7420 West-
lake Terr., #608, Bethesda, Md. 20034
(M-25)

BERNTON, HARRY S., 4000 Cathedral Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F 3-8)

BESTUL, ALDEN B., 9400 Overlea Ave., Rock-
ville, Md. 20850 (F-1, 6)

BICKLEY, WILLIAM E., Ph.D., P.O. Box 20840,
Riverdale, Md. 20840 (F-5, 24)

BIRD, H. R., Animal Science Bg., Univ. of Wis-
consin, Madison, Wisc. 53706 (F)

BIRKS, L. S., Code 6680, U.S. Naval Research
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

BLAKE, DORIS H., A.M., 3416 Glebe Rd., North
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-5)

BLANK, CHARLES A., Ph.D., 5110 Sideburn Rd.,
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (M-4, 39)

BLOCK, STANLEY, Ph.D., National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4)
BLONG, CLAIR K., Ph.D., 10603 Tenbrook Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M)

BLUNT, ROBERT F., 5411 Moorland Lane,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

BOEK, JEAN K., Ph.D., Natl. Graduate Univ., 1101
North Highland St., Arlington, Va. 22201 (F-2)

BOGLE, ROBERT W., Apt. 1433, 3001 Veagly
Terr., Washinton, D.C. 20008 (F)

102

BONDELID, ROLLON O., Ph.D., Code 6640, Naval
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

BORGESEN, KENNETH G., M.A., 3212 Chillum
Rd. #302, Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822 (M)

BOTBOL, J. M., 2301 November Lane, Reston,
Va. 22901 (F)

BOWLES, R. E., Ph.D., 2105 Sondra Ct., Silver
Spring, Md. 20904 (F-6, 14, 22, 35)

BOWMAN, THOMAS E., Ph.D., Dept. Invert.

Zoology, Smithsonian Inst., Washington,
D.C. 20560 (F-3)
BOZEMAN, F. MARILYN, Div. Virol., Bur.

Biologics, FDA, 8800 Rockville Pike, Rock-
ville, Md. 20014 (E-16, 19)

BRADY, ROBERT F., Jr., Ph.D., 706 Hope Lane,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 41)

BRANCATO, E. L., M.S., Code 4004, U.S. Naval
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-6,
13)

BRANDEWIE, DONALD F., 6811 Field Master Dr.,
Springfield Va. 22153 (F)

BRAUER, G. M., Dental Research & Medical
Materials, A-123 Polymer, Natl. Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 21)

BREGER, IRVING A., Ph.D., 212 Hillsboro Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 6, 7, 39)

BREIT, GREGORY, Ph.D., 73 Allenhurst Rd.,
Buffalo, N.Y. 14214 (E-13)

BRENNER, ABNER, Ph.D., 7204 Pomander Lane,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 29)

BRICKWEDDE, F. G., 104 Davey Lab., Dept. of
Physics, Pennsylvania State Univ., University
Park, Pa. 16802 (L-1)

BRIER, GLENN W., A.M., Dept. Atmosph. Sci.,
Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins, Colo.
80523 (F-6, 23)

BROADHURST, MARTIN G., B322, Bldg. 224,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F)

BROMBACHER, W. G., 17 Pine Run Community,
Doylestown, Pa. 18901 (E-1)

BROWN, ELISE A. B., Ph.D., 6811 Nesbitt Place,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-4, 19)

BROWN, RUSSELL G., Ph.D., Dept. of Botany,
Univ. of Maryland College Park, Md. (F)
BROWN, THOMAS, McP., 2465 Army-Navy

Dr., Arlington, Va. 22206 (F-8, 16)

BRUCK, STEPHEN D., Ph.D., 1113 Pipestem PI.,
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 6, 39)

BURAS, EDMUND M., Jr., M.S., Gillette Research
Inst., 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md.
20850 (F-4, 6, 39)

BURGER, ROBERT J., (COL. M.S.) 953 Lynch Dr.,
Arnold, Md. 21012 (F-6, 22)

BURGERS, J. M., Prof. D.Sc., 3450 Toledo Terr.,
Apt. 517, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-1)

BURK, DEAN, Ph.D., 4719 44th St.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-4, 19, 33)

BURNETT, H. C., Metallurgy Division, Natl.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234 (F)

BYERLY, PERRY, Ph.D., 5340 Broadway Terr.,
#401, Oakland, Calif. 94618 (F)

BYERLY, T. C., Ph.D., 6-J Ridge Rd., Greenbelt,
Md. 20770 (F-6, 19)

N.W.,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

CAHNMAN, HUGO N., 125-10 Queens Blvd.,
Kew Gardens, N.Y. 11415 (M)

CALDWELL, FRANK R., 4821 47th St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 6)

CALDWELL, JOSEPH M., 2732 N. Kensington St.,
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-18)

CAMPAGNONE, ALFRED F., P.E., 9321 Warfield
Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

CAMPBELL, LOWELL E., B.S., 10100 Riggs Rd.,
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-12, 13)

CAMPBELL, PAUL G., Ph.D., 3106 Kingtree St.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 41)

CANNON, E. W., Ph.D., 5 Vassar Cir., Glen Echo,
Md. 20768 (F-1, 6)

CANTELO, WILLIAM W., Ph.D., 11702 Wayneridge
St., Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-6, 24)

CARNS, HARRY R., Bg. 001, Agr. Res. Cent. (W.),
USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-33)

CARROLL, Miss KAREN E., M.S., 815 18th St.,
#504, Arlington, Va. 22202 (M)

CARROLL, WILLIAM R., 4802 Broad Brook Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

CARTER, HUGH, 2039 New Hampshire Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (E)

CASH, EDITH K., 505 Clubhouse Rd., Bingham-
ton, N.Y. 13903 (E-10)

CASSEL, JAMES M., Ph.D., 12205 Sunnyview Dr.,
Germantown, Md. 20767 (F-4, 21)

CHAPLIN, HARVEY P., Jr., 1561 Forest Villa
Lane, McLean, Va. 22101 (F-22)
CHAPLINE, W. R., 4225 43rd St.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-6, 10, 11)

CHEEK, CONRAD H., Ph.D., Code 8330,
U.S. Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375
(F-4)

CHERTOK, BENSON T., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics,
American Univ., Wash. D.C. 20016 (M-1)
CHEZEM, CURTIS G., Ph.D., % Waterman, Inc.,

P.O. Box 11133, Amarillo, Tx. 79111 (F)

CHI, MICHAEL, Sc.D., Civil Engr. Dept., Catholic
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20064 (F-14)

CHOPER, JORDAN J., 121 Northway, Greenbelt,
Md. 20770 (M)

CHRISTIANSEN, MERYL N., Ph.D., Chief Plant
Stress Lab. USDA ARS, Beltsville, Md.
20705 (F-6, 33)

CHURCH, LLOYD E., D. D. S., Ph.D., 8218 Wis-
consin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 9,
19, 21)

CLAIRE, CHARLES N., 4403 14th St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-1, 12)

CLARK, FRANCIS E., ARS Research Lab., P.O.
Box E, Ft. Collins, Colo. 80521 (F)

CLARK, GEORGE E., Jr., 4022 North Stafford
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

CLARK, JOAN ROBINSON, Ph.D., U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park,
Calif. 94025 (F-7)

CLEEK, GIVEN W., 5512N. 24th St., Arlington, Va.
22205 (M-4, 6, 28, 32)

CLEMENT, J. REID, Jr., 3410 Weltham St.,
Suitland, Md. 20023 (F)

N.W.,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

CLEVEN, GALE W., Ph.D., RD. 4, Box 334B,
Lewistown, Pa. 17044 (F-1)

COATES, JOSEPH F., Off. of Tech Assessment
U.S. Congress Wash. D.C. 20510 (F-1, 2, 4)

COHN, ROBERT, M.D., 7221 Pyle Road, Be-
thesda, Md. 20034 (F-1)

COLE, KENNETH S., Ph.D., 2404 Loring St.,
San Diego, Ca. 92109 (F-1)

COLE, RALPH I., M.S., 3431 Blair Rd., Falls
Church, Va. 22041 (F-12, 13, 22)

COLLINS, HENRY B., Dept. Anthropology,
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560
(E-2)

COLWELL, R. R., Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology,
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742
(F-6, 16)

COMPTON, W. DALE, Ford Motor Co., P.O.
Box 1603, Dearborn, Mich. 48121 (F)

CONGER, PAUL S., M.S., Dept. of Botany, U.S.
National Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E)

CONNORS, PHILIP I|., Central New England Col-
lege, 768 Main St., Worcester, Ma. 01608
(F-6, 31)

COOK, RICHARD K., Ph.D., 8517 Milford Ave.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 25)

COONS, GEORGE H., Ph.D., % Dr. J. E. Dees,
413 Carolina Circle, Durham, N.C. 27707
(E-42)

COOPER, KENNETH W., Ph.D., Dept. Biol., Univ.
of California, Riverside, Cal. 92521 (F-5)
CORLISS, EDITH L. R., Mrs., 2955 Albemarle

St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-13, 25)

CORLISS, JOHN O., Ph.D., 9512 E. Stanhope
Rd., Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-6)

CORNFIELD, JEROME, G.W.V. Biostat-Ctr., 7979
Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014
(F)

COSTRELL, LOUIS, Chief 535. 02, Natl. Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)
COTTERILL, CARL H., M.S., U.S. Bureau of Mines
2401, E. St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20241

(F-36)

COYLE, THOMAS D., National Bureau of Stand-
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

CRAFTON, PAUL A., P.O. Box 454, Rockville,
Md. 20850 (F)

CRAGOE, CARL S., 6206 Singleton Place,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1)

CRANE, LANGDON T., Jr., 7103 Oakridge Ave.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6)

CREITZ, E. CARROLL, 10145 Cedar Lane, Ken-
sington, Md. 20795 (E-32)

CREVELING, CYRUS R., Ph.D., 4516 Amherst
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F 4-19)

CROSSETTE, GEORGE, 4217 Glenrose St., Ken-
sington, Md. 20795 (M-6, 17)

CULBERT, DOROTHY K., 812 A St., S.E., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20003 (M-6)

CULLINAN, FRANK P., 4402 Beechwood Rad.,
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-10, 13)

CULVER, WILLIAM H., Ph.D., Optelecom, Inc.,
2841 Chesapeake St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20008 (M-1, 32)

CURRAN, HAROLD R., Ph.D., 3431 N. Randolph
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-16)

103

CURRIE, CHARLES L., S.J., President, Wheeling
College, Wheeling, W.Va. 26003 (F)

CURTIS, ROGER, W., Ph.D., 6308 Valley Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

CURTISS, LEON F., 1690 Bayshore Drive, Eng-
lewood, Fla. 33533 (E-1)

CUTHILL, JOHN R., Ph.D., 12700 River Rad.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-20, 36)

CUTKOSKY, ROBERT D., 19150 Roman Way,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-13)

DARRACOTT, HALVOR T., M.S., 3325 Mansfield
Rd., Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F-13, 34, 38)

DAVIS, CHARLES M., Jr., Ph.D., 8458 Portland
Pl., McLean, Va. 22101 (M-1, 6, 25)

DAVIS, MARION MACLEAN, Ph.D., Apt. 100,
Crosslands, Kennett Square, Pa. 19348
(L-4, 6)

DAVIS, R. F., Ph.D., Chairman, Dept. of Dairy
Science, Univ. of Maryland, College Park,
Md. 20742 (F)

DAVISSON, JAMES W., Ph.D., 400 Cedar Ridge
Dr., Oxon Hill, Md. 20021 (E-1)

DAWSON, ROY C., Ph.D., 7002 Chansory Lane,
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-16)

DAWSON, VICTOR C. D., 9406 Curran Rd., Silver
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-6, 14)

DEAL, GEORGE E., D.B.A., 6245 Park Road,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-34)

DE BERRY, MARIAN B., 3608 17th St., N.E.,
Washington, D.C. 20018 (M)

DEDRICK, R. L., Bldg. 13, Rm. 3W13, NIH,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1)

DE VOE, JAMES R., 17708 Parkridge Dr., Gai-
thersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 6)

DE WIT, ROLAND, Metallurgy Division, Natl.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234 (F-1, 6, 36)

DELANEY, WAYNE R., The Wyoming Apts., 111,
2022 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20009 (M-6, 9, 32)

DEMUTH, HAL P., MSEE, 4025 Pinebrook Rd.,
Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-13, 17)

DENNIS, BERNARD K., 915 Country Club Dr.,
Vienna, Va. 22180 (F)

DERKSEN, WILLARD L., 11235 Oak Leaf Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M)

DESLATTES, RICHARD D., Jr., 610 Aster Blvd.,
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

DEVIN, CHARLES, Ph.D., 629 Blossom Dr.,
Rockville, Md. 20850 (M-25, 31)

DI MARZIO, E. A., 14205 Parkvale Rd., Rockville,
Md. 20853 (F)

DICKSON, GEORGE, MA, 52 Orchard Way North,
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-6, 21)

DIEHL, WILLIAM W., Ph.D., 200 Maple Ave., Falls
Church, Va. 22046 (E-10)

DIGGES, THOMAS G., 3900 N. Albemarle St.,
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-20)

104

DIMOCK, DAVID A., 4800 Barwyn House Rad.,
#114, College Park, Md. 20740 (M-13)

DIXON, PEGGY A., Ph.D., 422 Hillsboro Dr., Silver
Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

DOCTOR NORMAN, B.S., 3814 Littleton St.,
Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-13)

DOFT, FLOYD S., Ph.D., 6416 Garnett Drive, Ken-
wood, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 19)

DONALDSON, JOHANNA B., Mrs., 3020 North
Edison St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

DONNERT, HERMANN J., Ph.D., RFD 4, Box 136,
Terra Heights, Manhattan Ks. 66502 (F)

DONOVICK, RICHARD, Ph.D., 16405 Alden Ave.,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-6, 16, 19)

DOUGLAS, CHARLES A., Ph.D., 7315 Delfield St.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6, 32)

DOUGLAS, THOMAS B., Ph.D., 3031 Sedgwick
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4)

DRAEGER, R. HAROLD, M.D., 1201 N. 4th Ave.,
Tucson, Ariz. 85705 (E-32)

DRECHSLER, CHARLES, Ph.D., 6915 Oakridge
Rd., University Park (Hyattsville), Md. 20782
(E-6, 10)

DUBEY, SATYA D., Ph.D., 7712 Groton Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

DUERKSEN, J. A., B.A., 3134 Monroe St., N.E.
Washington, D.C. 20018 (E-1, 6, 38)

DUFFEY, DICK, Ph.D., Nuclear Engineering,
Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742
(F-1, 26)

DUNKUM, WILLIAM W., M.S., 3503 Old Dominion
Bivd., Alexandria, Va. 22305 (F-31)

DU PONT, JOHN ELEUTHERE, P.O. Box 358,
Newtown Square, Pa. 19073 (M)

DUPRE, ELSIE, Mrs., Code 5536A, Optical Sci.
Div., Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390
(F-32)

DURIE, EDYTHE G., 5011 Larno Dr., Alexandria,
Va. 22310 (F)

DURRANI, S. H., Sc.D., 17513 Lafayette Dr.,
Olney, Md. 20832 (F-13, 22)

DYKE, E. D., 173 Northdown Rd., Margate, Kent,
England (M)

EDDY, BERNICE E., Ph.D., 6722 Selkirk Ct.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-6, 16)

EGOLF, DONALD R., 3600 Cambridge Court,
Upper Marlboro, Md. 20870 (F-10)

EISENBERG, PHILLIP, C.E., 6402 Tulsa Lane,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (M-6, 14, 22, 25)

EISENHART, CHURCHILL, Ph.D., Met B-268,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F-1, 38)

EL-BISI, HAMED M., Ph.D., 135 Forest Rd., Millis,
Ma. 02054 (M-16)

ELLINGER, GEORGE A., 739 Kelly Dr., York, Pa.
17404 (E-6)

ELLIOTT, F. E., 7507 Grange Hall Dr., Oxon Hill,
Md. 20022 (E)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

EMERSON, K. C., Ph.D., 2704 Kensington St.,
- Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-3, 5, 6)

EMERSON, W. B., 415 Aspen St., N.W., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20012 (E)

ENNIS, W. B., Jr., Ph.D., Agricultural Res. Ctr.
U. of Florida, 3205 S.W. 70th Ave., Ft. Lauder-
dale, Fl. 33314 (F-6)

ERNST, JOHN A., NOAA/NESS WWB, S3X1 Room
810-G, Washington, D.C. 20233 (M-22, 23)
ETZEL, HOWARD W., Ph.D., 7304 Riverhill Rd.,

Oxon Hill, Md. 20021 (F-6)

EWERS, JOHN C., 4432 26th Rd., N, Arlington,

Va. 22207 (F-2, 6)

FAHEY, JOSEPH J., U.S. Geological Survey,
Washington, D.C. 20242 (E-4, 6, 7)

FARROW, RICHARD P., 2911 Northwood Dr.,
Alameda, Ca. 94501 (F-4, 6, 27)

FATTAH, JERRY, 3451 S. Wakefield St., Arling-
ton, Va. 22206 (M-4, 39)

FAULKNER, JOSEPH A., 1007 Sligo Creek Pky.,
Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (F-6)

FAUST, GEORGE T., Ph.D., P.O. Box 411,
Basking Ridge, NJ 07920 (E-7, 28)

FAUST, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 5907 Walnut St.,
Temple Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 6)

FEARN, JAMES E., Ph.D., Materials and Com-
posites Sect., Natl. Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6, 9)

FELDMAN, SAMUEL, NKF Engr. Associates,
Inc., 8720 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, Md.
20910 (M-6, 25)

FELSHER, MURRAY, Ph.D., NASA Code ERS-2,
Wash. D.C. 20546 (M-1, 7)

FERRELL, RICHARD A., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics,
University of Maryland, College Park, Md.
20742 (F-6, 31)

FIFE, EARLH., Jr., M.S., Box 122, Royal Oak, Md.
21662 (E-6, 16, 19)

FILIPESCU, NICOLAE, M.D., Ph.D., 4836 S. 7th
St., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-4)

FINN, EDWARD J., Ph.D., 4211 Oakridge La.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6, 31)

FISHER, JOEL L., 5602 Asbury Ct., Alexandria,
Va. 22313 (M)

FISHMAN, PETER H., Ph.D., 3333 University
Blvd. West, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F)

FLETCHER, DONALD G., Natl. Bureau of Stand-
ards, Rm. A102, Bldg. 231-IND, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (M-4)

FLICK, DONALD F., 930 19th St. So., Arlington,
Va. 22202 (F-4, 19, 39)

FLINN, DAVID R., 8104 Bernard Dr., Ft. Washing-
ton, Md. 20022 (F-4, 29)

FLORIN, ROLAND E., Ph.D., Sci. & Stds. Div.,
B-318, National Bureau of Standards, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

FLYNN, DANIEL R., Ph.D., 17500 Ira Court,
Derwood, Md. 20855 (F-4)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

FLYNN, JOSEPH H., Ph.D., 5309 Iroquois Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F-4)

FOCKLER, HERBERT, M.A. MSLS., 10710 Lorain
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M-22, 43)
FONER, S. N., Applied Physics Lab., The Johns
Hopkins University, 11100 Johns Hopkins

Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (F-1)

FOOTE, RICHARD H., Sc.D., 8807 Victoria Road,
Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-5, 6)

FORZIATI, ALPHONSE F., Ph.D., 15525 Prince
Frederick Way, Silver Spring, Md. 20906
(F-1, 4, 29)

FORZIATI, FLORENCE H., Ph.D., 15525 Prince
Frederick Way, Silver Spring, Md., 20906
(F-4)

FOSTER, AUREL O., 4613 Drexel Rd., College
Park, Md. 20740 (E-15, 24)

FOURNIER, ROBERT O., 108 Paloma Rad., Por-
tola Valley, Calif. 94025 (F-6, 7)

FOWLER, EUGENE, Int. Atomic Energy Agency,
Kartner Ring 11, A-1011, Vienna, Austria
(M-26)

FOWLER, WALTER B., M.A., Code 683, Goddard
Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. 20771
(M-32)

FOX, DAVID W., The Johns Hopkins Univ.,
Applied Physics Lab., Laurel, Md. 20810 (F)

FOX, WILLIAM B., 1813 Edgehill Dr., Alexandria,
Va. 22307 (F-4)

FRANKLIN, PHILIP J., 5907 Massachusetts Ave.
Extended, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-4, 13,
39)

FRANZ, GERALD J., M.S., Box 695, Bayview,
Id. 83803 (F-5, 25)

FREDERIKSE, H. P. R., Ph.D., 9625 Dewmar
Lane, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F)

FREEMAN, ANDREW F., 5012 N. 33rd. St., Arling-
ton, Va. 22207 (M)

FRENKIEL, FRANCOIS N., Code 1802.2, Naval
Ship Res. & Develop. Ctr., Bethesda, Md.
20084 (F-1, 22, 23)

FRIEDMAN, MOSHE, 4511 Yuma St., Washing-
ington, D.C. 20016 (F)

FRIESS, S.L., Ph.D., Environmental Biosciences
Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst. NNMC, Bethesda,
Md. 20014 (F-4)

FRUSH, HARRIET L., 4912 New Hampshire Ave.,
N.W., Apt. 104, Washington, D.C. 20011
(F-4, 6)

FULLMER, IRVIN H., Lakeview Terrace, P.O. Box
100, Altoona, Fla. 32702 (E-1, 6, 14)

FURUKAWA, GEORGE T., Ph.D. National Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1,
4, 6)

GAFAFER, WILLIAM M., 133 Cunningham Dr.,
New Smyrna Beach, Fla. 32069 (E)

GAGE, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 2146 Florida Ave., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2)

105

GALLER, SIDNEY, 6242 Woodcrest Ave., Balti-
more, Md. 21209 (F)

GALTSOFF, PAUL S., Ph.D., 15 Jacque Loeb
Rd., Woods Hole, Mass. 02543 (E)

GANT, JAMES Q., Jr., M.D., 4349 Klingle St., N.W.
Wash. D.C. 20016 (M)

GARDNER, MARJORIE H., Ph.D., 7720 Hanover
Parkway, Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (F)

GARNER, C. L., The Garfield, 5410 Connecticut
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 4,
25 lee 16)

GARVIN, DAVID, Ph.D., 18700 Walker's Choice
Rd., Apt. 519, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4)

GUANAURD, GUILLERMO C., Ph.D., 4807 Macon
Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (M-1, 6, 25)

GHAFFARI, ABOLGHASSEN, Ph.D., D.Sc., 5420
Goldsboro Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (L-1,
38)

GHOSE, RABINDRA N., Ph.D., LL.B., 8167 Mul-
holland Terr., Los Angeles Hill, Calif. 90046
(F-13, 22)

GIACCHETTI, ATHOS, Dept. Sci. Affairs, OAS,
1735 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006
(M-32)

GIBSON, JOHN E., Box 96, Gibson, N.C. 28343
(E)

GIBSON, KASSON S., 4817 Cumberland St.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

GINTHER, ROBERT J., Code 5585, U.S. Naval
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-28, 29)

GIST, LEWIS A., Ph.D., Science Manpower
Improvement, National Science Foundation,
Washington, D.C. 20550 (F-4, 39)

GIWER, MATTHIAS M., 3922 Millcreek Dr.,
Annandale, Va. 22003 (M)

GLADSTONE, VIC S., Ph.D., 8200 Andes Ct.,
Baltimore, Md. 21208 (M-6, 25)

GLASGOW, Augustus R., Jr., Ph.D., 4116 Hamil-
ton St., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-4, 6)

GLAZEBROOK, THOMAS B., 7809 Bristow Dr.,
Annandale, Va. 22003 (F-11)

GLICKSMAN, MARTIN E., Ph.D., Materials Engr.
Dept., Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst., Troy, N.Y.
12181 (F-20, 36)

GLUCKSTERN, ROBERT L., Ph.D., Chancellor
Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742 (F-31)

GODFREY, THEODORE B., 7508 Old Chester
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

GOFF, JAMES F., Ph.D., 3405 34th Pl., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1)

GOLDBERG, MICHAEL, 5823 Potomac Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 38)

GOLDBERG, ROBERT N., Ph.D., 19610 Brassie
Pl., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-39)

GOLDMAN, ALAN J., Ph.D., Applied Math. Div.
Inst. for Basic Standards, Natl. Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-34, 38)

GOLDSMITH, HERBERT, 238 Congressional
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M-32, 35)

GOLUMBIC, CALVIN, 6000 Highboro Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

GONET, FRANK, 4007 N. Woodstock St., Arling-
ton, Va. 22207 (F-4, 39)

106

GOODE, ROBERT J., B.S., Performance Metals
Br., Code 6380, Metallurgy Div., U.S.N.R.L.,
Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-6, 20)

GORDH, GORDON, Systematic Entomology Lab.
11B111, U.S. National Museum, Washington,
D.C. (M)

GORDON RUTH E., Ph.D., Waksman Inst. of
Microbiology, Rutgers Univer., P.O. Box
759, Piscataway, N.J. 08854 (F-16)

GRAHN, Mrs. ANN, M.A., 849 So. La Grange Rad.,
La Grange, III. 60525 (M)

GRAMANN, RICHARD H., 1613 Rosemont CT,
McLean, Va. 22101 (M)

GRAY, ALFRED, Dept. Math., Univ. of Maryland,
College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

GRAY, IRVING, Ph.D., Georgetown Univ., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20057 (F-19)

GREENOUGH, M. L., M.S., Greenough Data
Assoc., 616 Aster Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850
(F)

GREENSPAN, MARTIN, B.S., 12 Granville Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 25)

GREER, SANDRA, Ph.D., 11402 Stonewood Lane,
Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-1, 4)

GRISAMORE, NELSON T., Nat. Acad. Sci., 2101
Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20418 (F)

GRISCOM, DAVID L., Ph.D., Material Sci. Div.,
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375
(F-6, 28)

GROSSLING, BERNARDO F., Rm. 4B102, USGS
Nat. Ctr., 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston,
Va. 22092 (F-7)

GUILD, PHILIP W., Ph.D., 3609 Raymond St.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (M-7, 36)

GURNEY, ASHLEY B., Ph.D., Systematic Ento-
mology Laboratory, USDA, % U.S. National
Museum, NHB-105, Washington, D.C. 20560
(F-3, 5, 6)

GUTTMAN, CHARLES M., 9510 Fern Hollow Way,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4)

HACSKAYLO, EDWARD, Ph.D., Agr. Res. Ctr.,
West, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-6, 10, 11, 33)

HAENNI, EDWARD O., Ph.D., 7907 Glenbrook
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4, 39)

HAGAN, LUCY B., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. Stds., Rm.
B360, Bg. 221, Washington, D.C. 20234 (M-4,
32)

HAINES, KENNETH A., M.S., ARS, 3542 N. Dela-
ware St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-5, 24)

HALL, E. RAYMOND, Ph.D., Museum of Natural
History, Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.
66044 (E-3, 6)

HALL, STANLEY A., M.S., 9109 No. Branch Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4, 24)

HALL, WAYNE C., Ph.D., 557 Lindley Dr.,
Lawrence, Kans. 66044 (E-6, 13)

HALLER, WOLFGANG, Ph.D., National Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

HAMBLETON, EDSON J., 5140 Worthington Dr.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 6)

HAMER, WALTER J., Ph.D., 3028 Dogwood St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-4, 13, 29, 39)

HAMMER, GUYS, II, 8902 Ewing Dr., Bethesda,
Md. 20034 (M-12, 13)

HAMPP, EDWARD G., D.D.S., National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-21)

HAND, CADET H., Jr., Bodega Marine Lab.,
Bodega Bay, Calif. 94923 (F-6)

HANIG, JOSEPH P., Ph.D., 822 Eden Court,
Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-4, 19)

HANSEN, LOUIS S., D.D.S., School of Dentistry,
San Francisco, Med. Center, Univ. of Calif.,
San Francisco, Calif. 94122 (F-21)

HANSEN, MORRIS, H., M.A., Westat Research,
Inc., 11600 Nebel St., Rockville, Md. 20852
(F)

HARDENBURG, ROBERT E., Ph.D., Agr. Mktg.
Inst., Agr. Res. Ctr., (W), Beltsville, Md. 20705
(F-6)

HARR, JAMES W., M.A.,
Lanham, Md. 20801 (M-6)

HARRINGTON, FRANCIS D., Ph.D., 4600 Ocean
Beach Blvd., #204, Cocoa Beach, Fla.
32931 (F)

HARRINGTON, M. C., Ph.D., 4545 Connecticut
Ave., N.W., Apt. 334, Washington, D.C. 20008
(E-1, 32)

HARRIS, FOREST K., Ph.D., National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

HARRIS, MILTON, Ph.D., 3300 Whitehaven St.,
N.W., Suite 500, Washington, D.C. 20007 (F)

HARRISON, W. N., 3734 Windom PI., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 6, 25)

HARTLEY, JANET W., Ph.D., National Inst. of
Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National In-
stitutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

HARTMANN, GREGORY K., Ph.D.,10701 Keswick
St., Garrett Park, Md. 20766 (F-1, 25)

HARTZLER, MARY P., 3326 Hartwell Ct., Falls
Church, Va. 22042 (M-6)

HASKINS, C. P., Ph.D., 2100 M St., N.W., Suite
600 Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

HAS, GEORG H., 7728 Lee Avenue, Alexandria,
Va. 22308 (F-32)

HAUPTMAN, HERBERT, Ph.D., Med. Fndn. of
Buffalo, 73 High St., Buffalo, N.Y. 14203
(F-1, 6, 38)

HAYDEN, GEORGE A., 1312 Juniper St. N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20012 (M)

HAYES, PATRICK, Ph.D., 950 25th St., Apt. 707,
Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-38)

HEADLEY, ANNE R., Ph.D., Ms., 2500 Virginia
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

HEIFFER, M. H., Whitehall, #701, 4977 Battery
La., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-6, 19)

HEINRICH, KURT F., 804 Blossom Dr., Woodley
Gardens, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

HEINS, CONRAD P., Ph.D., Civil Engr. Dept.,
Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742
(F-6, 18)

HENDERSON, E. P., Div. of Meteorites, U.S. Na-
tional Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-7)

9503 Nordic Dr.,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

HENDRICKSON, WAYNE A., M.D., Ph.D., Lab. for
the Structure of Matter, Naval Res. Lab.
Code 6030, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

HENNEBERRY, THOMAS J., 1409 E. North
Share, Temple, Ariz. 85282 (F)

HENRY, WARREN E., Ph.D., Howard Univ.,
P.O. Box 761, Washington, D.C. 20059 (F-1, 31)

HENVIS, BERTHA W., Code 5277, Naval Res.
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M-32)

HERBERMAN, RONALD B., 8528 Atwell Rd.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F)

HERMACH, FRANCIS L., 2415 Eccleston St.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 13, 25)

HERMAN, ROBERT, Ph.D., Traffic Sci. Dept.,
General Motors Res. Lab., 12 Mi & Mound
Rds., Warren, Mich. 48090 (F-1)

HERSCHMAN, HARRY K., 4701 Willard Ave.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

HERSEY, JOHN B., 923 Harriman St., Great Falls,
Va. 22066 (M-25)

HERSEY, MAYO D., M.A., Div. of Engineering,
Brown Univ., Providence, R.!. 02912 (E-1)
HERZFELD, KARL F., Dept. of Physics, Catholic
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20017 (E-1, 25)
HESS, WALTER, C., 3607 Chesapeake St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-4, 6, 19, 21)
HEWSTON, ELIZABETH, Felicity Cove, Shady

Side, Md. 20867 (F-39)

HEYDEN,. FR. FRANCIS, Ph.D., Manila Observa-
tory, P.O. Box 1231, Manila, Philippines D-404
(E-32)

HEYER, W. R., Ph.D., Amphibians & Reptiles,
Natural History Bldg., Smithsonian Inst.,
Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3)

HIATT, CASPAR W., Ph.D., Univ. of Texas Health
Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San
Antonio, Texas 78284 (F)

HICKLEY, THOMAS J., 626 Binnacle Dr., Naples,
Fla. 33940 (F-13)

HICKOX, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 9310 Allwood Ct.,
Alexandria, Va. 22309 (E-6, 14, 18)

HILDEBRAND, EARL M., 11092 Timberline Dr.,
Sun City, Ariz. 85351 (E-10, 16, 33, 42)

HILL, FREEMAN K., Ph.D., 12408 Hall’s Shop Rd.,
Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-1, 6, 22)

HILLABRANT, WALTER, Ph.D., Dept. Psychol-
ogy, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20059
(M-40)

HILSENRATH, JOSEPH, 9603 Brunett Ave., Silver
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 38)

HOBBS, ROBERT B., 7715 Old Chester Rad.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 4, 39)

HOFFMANN, C. H., Ph.D., 6906 40th Ave., Univer-
sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-5, 11, 24)

HOGAN, ROBERT, Dept. of Psychology, the
Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. 21218 (F)

HOGE, HAROLD J., Ph.D., 5 Rice Spring Lane,
Wayland, Me. 01778 (F-1)

HOLLIES, NORMAN R. S., Gillette Research
Institute, 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md.
20850 (F-4)

HOLMGREN, HARRY D., Ph.D., 3044-3 R St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (F-1)

107

HONIG, JOHN G., Office, Dep. Chief of Staff
for Res., Dev. and Acquis., Army, The Penta-
gon, Washington, D.C. 20310 (F-34)

HOOD, KENNETH J., 2000 Huntington Ave.,
#1118, Alexandria, Va. 22303 (M-6, 33)

HOPP, HENRY, Ph.D., 6604 Michaels Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-11)

HOPP, THEODORE H., 2800 Powder Mill Rd.,
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (M-6, 13)

HOPPS, HOPE E., Mrs., 1762 Overlook Dr., Silver
Spring, Md. 20903 (F-16, 19)

HORNSTEIN, IRWIN, Ph.D., 5920 Bryn Mawr Rad.,
College Park, Md. 20740 (F-4, 6, 27)

HOROWITZ, E., Asst. Deputy Director, Institute
for Materials Res., National Bureau of Stand-
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

HORTON, BILLY M., 14250 Larchmere Bivd.,
Shaker Heights, Ohio 44120 (F-1, 6, 13)
HOWARD, JAMES H., Ph.D., 3822 Albemarle St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

HUANG, KUN-YEN, M.D., Ph.D., 1445 Laurel
Hill Rd., Vienna, Va. 22180 (F-16)

HUBBARD, DONALD, Ph.D., 4807 Chevy Chase

_ Dr., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6)

HUBERT, LESTER F., 4704 Mangum Rad., College
Park, Md. 20740 (F-23) |

HUDSON, COLIN M., Ph.D., Product Planning
Dept., Deere & Co., John Deere Rd., Mocine,
Il. 61265 (F-6, 17, 22)

HUDSON, GEORGE E., Ph.D., Code WR 4, Naval
Surface Weapons Ctr., White Oak, Silver
Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 6)

HUDSON, RALPH P., Ph.D., National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1)
HUGH, RUDOLPH, Ph.D., George Washington
Univ. Sch. of Med., Dept. of Microbiology,
2300 Eye St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037

(F-16, 19)

HUNT, W. HAWARD, B.A., 11712 Roby Ave.,
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-6)

HUNTER, RICHARD S., 9529 Lee Highway,
Fairfax, Va. 22031 (F-6, 27, 32)

HUNTER, WILLIAM R., M.S., Code 7143, U.S.
Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375
(F-1, 6, 32)

HURDLE, BURTON G., 6222 Berkeley Rd., Alex-
andria, Va. 22307 (F-25)

HURTT, WOODLAND, Ph.D., ARS-USDA, P.O.
Box 1209, Frederick, Md. 21701 (M-33)

HUTTON, GEORGE L., 809 Avondale Dr., W.
Lafayette, Ind. 47906 (F)

INSLEY, HERBERT, Ph.D., 5 Graund Place,
Albany, N.Y. 12205 (E-1, 7)

IRVING, GEORGE W., Jr., Ph.D., 4836 Langdrum
Lane, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 27, 39)

IRWIN, GEORGE R., Ph.D., 7306 Edmonston Rd.,
College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1, 6)

ISBELL, H. S., 4704 Blagden Ave.,
Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4)

N.W.,

108

ISENSTEIN, Robert S., FSQS, Bldg. 318-C, Barc-

East, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-6, 15)

JACKSON, H. H. T., Ph.D., 122 Pinecrest Rd.,
Durham, N.C. (E-3)

JACKSON, PATRICIA C., B.S., Ms., Plant Stress
Lab. Plant Physiology Inst., Agr. Res. Ctr.
(W), ARS, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-4, 6, 33)

JACOBS, WOODROW C., Ph.D., 6309 Bradley
Bivd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-23)

JACOBSON, MARTIN, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Agr. Res. Center (E) Beltsville, Md. 20705
(F-4, 7, 24)

JACOX, MARILYN E., Ph.D., National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4)
JAMES, MAURICE T., Ph.D., Dept. of Ento-
mology, Washington State University, Pull-

man, Washington 99164 (E-5)

JANI, LORRAINE L., 430 M St., S. W. Apt. #N800,
Washington, D.C. 20024 (M)

JAROSEWICH, EUGENE, NMNH, Smithsonian
Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 (M-4)

JEN, C. K., Applied Physics Lab., John Hopkins
Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (E)

JENSON, ARTHUR S., Ph.D., Westinghouse
Defense & Electronic Systems Ctr., Box 1521,
Baltimore, Md. 21203 (F-13, 31, 32)

JESSUP, R. S., 7001 W. Greenvale Pkwy., Chevy
Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6)

JOHANNESEN, ROLF B., Ph.D., National Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

JOHNSON, CHARLES, Ph.D., Inst. for Fluid Dy-
namics & App. Math. Univ. of Md., College
Park, Md. 20850 (F)

JOHNSON, DANIEL P., Ph.D., Rt. 1, Box 156,
Bonita, La. 71223 (E-1, 22, 35)

JOHNSON, KEITH C., 4422 Davenport St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

JOHNSON, PHILLIS T., Ph.D., Nat. Marine
Fisheries Serv., Oxford Lab., Oxford, Md.
21654 (F-5, 6)

JOHNSTON, FRANCIS E., Ph.D., 307 W. Mont-
gomery Ave., Rockville, Md. 20850 (E-1)
JONES, HENRY A., 1115 South 7th St., El Centro,

Calif. 92243 (E)

JONES, HOWARD S., 6200 Sligo Mill Rd., N.E.,
Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-6, 13)

JONG, SHUNG-CHANG, Ph.D., Amer. Type Cul-
ture Collection, 12301 Parkland Dr., Rock-
ville, Md. 20852 (F-16, 42)

JORDAN, GARY BLAKE, Ph.D., 1012 Olmo Ct.,
San Jose, Calif. 95129 (M-6, 13, 22)

JUDD, NEIL M., % C. A. McCary, 5311 Acacia
Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-2, 6)

KABLER, MILTON N., Ph.D., 3109 Cunningham
Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

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KAISER, HANS E., 433 South West Dr., Silver
Spring, Md. 20901 (M-6)

KARR, PHILIP R., 5507 Calle de Arboles, Tor-
rance, Calif. 90505 (F-13)

KARRER, ANNIE M. H., Ph.D., Port Republic,
Md. 20676 (E-6)

KAUFMAN, H. P., M.P.L., Box 1135, Fedhaven,
Fla. 33854 (F-12)

KEARNEY, PHILIP C., Ph.D., 13021 Blairmore St.,
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-4)

KEBABIAN, JOHN, Ph.D., 12408 Village Sq. Terr.
#402, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F)

KEGELES, GERSON, RFD 2, Stafford Springs,
Conn. 06076 (F)

KENNARD, RALPH B., Ph.D., Apt., 1207 Ross-
moor Tower I, Leisure World, Laguna Hills,
Calif. 92653 (E-1, 6, 32)

KESSLER, KARL G., Ph.D., B164 Physics, Natl.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234
(F-1, 6, 32)

KEULEGAN, GARBIS H., Ph.D., 215 Buena Vista

Dr., Vicksburg, Miss. 39180 (F-1, 6)

KLEBANOFF, PHILIP S., Fluid Dynamics Sect.,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F-1, 22)

KLINGSBERG, CYRUS, Adams House, #1010, 118
Monroe St., Rockville, Md. 20850

KLUTE, CHARLES H., Ph.D., Apt. 118, 4545 Con-
necticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008
(F-1, 4, 39)

KNOBLOCK, EDWARD C., RD 4, Box 332;
Mt. Airy, Md. 21771 (F-4, 19)

KNOWLTON, KATHRYN, Ph.D., Apt. 837, 2122
Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20008 (F-4)

KNOX, ARTHUR S., M.A., M.Ed., 2006 Columbia
Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-6, 7)

KNUTSON, LLOYD V., Ph.D., Insect Introduction
Inst., USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-5)

KRUGER, JEROME, Ph.D., Rm B254, Materials
Bldg., Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29, 36)

KURTZ, FLOYD E., 8005 Custer Rd., Bethesda,
Md. 20014 (E-4)

KUSHNER, LAWRENCE M., Ph.D., Consumer
Product Safety Commission, Washington,
D.C. 20207 (F-4)

LABENZ, PAUL J., P.O. Box 30198, Bethesda,
Md. 20014

LADO, ROBERT, Ph.D., Georgetown Univ., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20007 (F)

LAKI, KOLOMAN, Ph.D., Bldg. 4, Natl. Inst. of
Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

LANDSBERG, H. E., 5116 Yorkville Rd., Temple
Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 23)

LANG, MARTHA E. C., B.S., Connecticut Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-6, 7)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

LANGFORD, GEORGE S., Ph.D., 4606 Hartwick
Rd., College Park, Md. 20740 (E-5, 24)

LAPHAM, EVAN G., 2242 S.E. 28th St., Cape
Coral, Fla. 33904 (E)

LASHOF, THEODORE W., 10125 Ashburton
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

LAWSON, ROGER H., 4912 Ridge View Lane,
Bowie, Md. 20715 (F-6, 42)

LEACHMAN, ROBERT B., 5330 Wapakoneta Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F-1, 26)

LE CLERG, ERWIN L., 14620 Deerhurst Terrace,
Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E-10, 42)

LEE, RICHARD H., RD 2, Box 143E, Lewes, Del.
19958 (E)

LEIBOWITZ, JACK R., 12608 Davan Dr., Silver
Spring, Md. 20904 (F)

LEINER, ALAN L., 580 Arastradero Rd., #804,
Palo Alto, Calif. 94306 (F)

LEJINS, PETER P., Univ. of Maryland, Inst.
Crim. Justice and Criminology, College Park,
Md. 20742 (F-10)

LENTZ, PAUL LEWIS, Ph.D., 5 Orange Ct.,
Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (F-6, 10)

LESSOFF, HOWARD, Code 5220, Naval Res. Lab.,
Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-34)

LEVY, SAMUEL, 2279 Preisman Dr., Schenec-
tady, N.Y. 12309 (E)

LIDDEL, URNER, 2939 Van Ness St. N.W., Apt.
1135, Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1)

LIEBLEIN, JULIUS, 1621 E. Jefferson St., Rock-
ville, Md. 20852 (E-34)

LIN, MING CHANG, Ph.D., 9513 Fort Foote Rad.,
Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (F-4, 32)

LINDQUIST, A. W., Rt. 1, Box 36, Lindsberg,
Kansas 67456 (E)

LINDSEY, IRVING, M.A., 202 E. Alexandria Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22301 (E)

LING, LEE, 1608 Belvoir Dr., Los Altos, Calif.
94022 (E)

LINK, CONRAD B., Dept. of Horticulture, Univ.
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-6,
10)

LINNENBOM, VICTOR J., Ph.D., Code 8300,.
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390
(F-4)

LITTLE, ELBERT L., Jr., Ph.D., 924 20th St.,
S. Arlington, Va. 22202 (F-10, 11)

LOCKARD, J. DAVID, Ph.D., Botany Dept., Univ.
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-33)

LOEBENSTEIN, WILLIAM V., Ph.D., 8501 Sun-
dale Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 21)

LONG, B. J. B., Mrs., 416 Riverbend Rd., Oxon
Hill, Md. 20022 (M)

LORING, BLAKE M., Sc.D., Rt. 2, Laconia, N.H.
03246 (F-6, 20, 36)

LUSTIG, ERNEST, Ph.D., Ges Biotechnol Forsch
Mascheroder Weg 1, 3300 Braunschweig 66,
W. Germany (F-4)

LYNCH, Mrs. THOMAS J., 1062 Harriman St.,
Great Falls, Va. 22066 (M)

LYONS, JOHN W., Rte. 4, Box 261, Mount Airy,
Md. 21771 (F-4)

109

MA, TE-HSIU, Dept. of Biological Science, West-
ern Illinois Univ., Macomb, Ill. 61455 (F-10, 19)

MADDEN, ROBERT P., A251 Physics Bldg., Natl.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234 (F-32)

MAENGWYN-DAVIES, G. D., Ph.D., 15205 Totten-
ham Terr., Silver Spring, Md. 20206 (F-19)

MAGIN, GEORGE B., Jr., General Delivery,
Bakerton, W.Va. 25410 (F-6, 7, 26)

MAHAN, A. I., Ph. D., 10 Millgrove Place, Ednor,
Md. 20904 (E-1, 32)

MAIENTHAL, MILLARD, 10116 Bevern Lane,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-4)

MANDEL, JOHN, Ph.D., B356 Chem. Bg., Natl.
Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234
(Fad)

MANDERSCHEID, RONALD W., Ph.D., 6 Monu-
ment Ct., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-43)

MANGUS, JOHN D., 6019 Berwyn Rd., College
Park, Md. 20740 (F)

MANNING, JOHN R., Ph.D., Metallurgy Div.,
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234 (F-20)

MARCHELLO, JOSEPH M., Ph.D., 506 West 11th
St., Rella, Md. 65401 (F)

MARCUS, MARVIN, Ph.D., Dept. Math., Univ. of
California, Santa Barbara, Calif. 93106
(F-6, 38)

MARGOSHES, MARVIN, Ph.D., 69 Midland Ave.,
Tarrytown, N.Y. 10591 (F)

MARTIN, JOHN H., Ph.D., 124 N.W. 7th St., Apt.
303, Corvallis, Oregon 97330 (E-6)

MARTIN, ROBERT H., 2257 N. Nottingham St.,
Arlington, Va. 22205 (M-23)

MARTON, L., Ph.D., Editorial Office, 4515 Lin-
nean Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-
1, 13, 30, 31)

MARVIN, ROBERT S., 11700 Stony Creek Rad.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (E-1, 4, 6)

MARYOTT, ARTHUR A., 4404 Maple Ave.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-4, 6)

MASON, HENRY LEA, Sc.D., 7008 Meadow Lane,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 14, 35)

MASSEY, JOE T., Ph.D., 10111 Parkwood Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 13)

MATLACK, MARION, Ph.D., 2700 N. 25th St.,
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-4, 6)

MAXWELL, LOUIS R., Ph.D., 3506 Leland St.,
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1)

MAY, DONALD C., Jr., Ph.D., 5931 Oakdale Rd.,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

MAY, IRVING, M.S., U.S. Geological Survey,
National Ctr. 912, Reston, Va. 22092 (F-4, 6, 7)

MAYOR, JOHN R., Asst. Provost for Res.,
1120H, Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.
20742 (F)

MC BRIDE, GORDON W., Ch.E., 3323 Stuyvesant
Pl. N.W., Chevy Chase, D.C. 20015 (E-4)

MC CAMY, CALVIN S., M.S., 54 All Angels Hill
Rd., Wappingers Falls, N.Y. 12590 (F-32)

110

MC CULLOUGH, JAMES M., Ph.D., 6209 Apache
St., Springfield, Va. 22150 (M)

MC CULLOUGH, N. B., Ph.D., M.D., Dept. of
Microbiology & Public Health, Michigan State
Univ., East Lansing, Mich. 48823 (F-6, 8)

MC ELHINNEY, JOHN, Ph.D., 11601 Stephen Rad.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-1, 13, 26)

MC KELVEY, VINCENT E., Ph.D., 6601 Broxburn
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7)

MC KENZIE, LAWSON W., A.M., 806 Madison
Bldg., 111 Arlington Blvd., ‘Arlington, Va.
22209 (F-1)

MC NESBY, JAMES R., Dept. of Chemistry,
Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742 (F-1, 4)

MC PHEE, HUGH C., 3450 Toledo Terrace, Apt.
425, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6)

MC PHERSON, ARCHIBALD T., Ph.D., 403
Russell Ave., Apt. 804, Gaithersburg, Md.
20760 (L-1, 4, 6, 27)

MEADE, BUFORD K., 5516 Bradley Blvd., aes
andria, Va. 22311 (F-17)

MEARS, FLORENCE, M., Ph.D., 8004 hatipden
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E)

MEARS, THOMAS W., B.S., 2809 Hathaway Ter-
race, Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-1, 4, 6)

MEBS, RUSSELL W., Ph.D., 6620 32nd St., N.,
Arlington, Va. 22213 (F-12, 20)

MELMED, ALLAN J., 732 Tiffany Court, Gaithers-
burg, Md. 20760 (F)

MENDELSOHN, MARK B., Psychology Dept.,
George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr.,
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-40)

MENIS, OSCAR, Analytical Chem. Div.,
Bureau of Standards, Washington,
20234 (F)

MENZER, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 7203 Wells Pkwy.,
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-4, 24)

MERRIAM, CARROLL F., Prospect Harbor,
Maine 04669 (F-14)

MESSINA, CARLA G., M.S., 9916 Montauk Ave.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

MEYERHOFF, HOWARD A., Ph.D., 3625 S. Flor-
ence PI., Tulsa, Okla. 74105 (F-6, 7)

MEYERSON, MELVIN R., Ph.D., 611. Golds-
borough Dr., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-20)

MICHAELIS, ROBERT E., National Bureau of
Standards, Chemistry Bldg., Rm. B314,
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-20)

MIDDLETON, H. E., Ph.D., 3600 Grove Ave.,
Richmond, Va. 23221 (E)

MILLAR, DAVID B., NMRI, NNMC, Stop 36,

Biochemistry Div., Washington, D.C. 20014

(F) |

MILLER, CARL F., M.A., P.O. Box 127, Gretna, Va.
24557 (E-2, 6)

MILLER, J. CHARLES, Ph.D., 10600 Eastborne
Ave., Apt. 7, W. Los Angeles, California 90024
(E-7, 36)

MILLER, PAUL R., Ph.D., 207 S. Pebble Beach
Blvd., Sun City Ctr., Fla. 33570 (E-10, 42)
MILLER, RALPH L., Ph.D., 5215 Abington Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-7)

MILLER, W. ROBERT, Mrs., 11632 Deborah Dr.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-6)

Natl.
D.C.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

MILLER, ROMAN R., 1232 Pinecrest Circle, Silver
Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 6, 28)

MILLIKEN, LEWIS T., SRL, 6501 Lafayette Ave.,
Riverdale, Md. 20840 (M-1, 4, 6, 7)

MITCHELL, J. MURRAY, Jr., Ph.D., 1106 Dog-
wood Dr., McLean, Va. 22101 (F-6, 23)

MITTLEMAN, DON, Ph.D., 80 Parkwood Lane,
Oberlin, Ohio 44074 (F-1)

MIZELL, LOUIS R., 108 Sharon Lane, Greenlawn,
N.Y. 11740 (F)

MOLINO, JOHN A., Ph.D., Sound Bldg., Nat.
Bureau Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234
(M-25)

MOLLARI, MARIO, 4527 45th St., N.W., Washing-
ton, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 15)

MOORE, GEORGE A., Ph.D., 1108 Agnew Dr.,
Rockville, Md. 20851 (F-6, 20, 29, 36)

MORRIS, J. A., 23-E Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, Md.
20770 (M-6, 15, 16)

MORRIS, JOSEPH BURTON, Ph.D., Chemistry
Dept. Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20059
(F-4)

MORRIS, KELSO B., 1448 Leegate Rd., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20012 (F-4, 39)

MORRISS, DONALD J., 102 Baldwin Ct., Pt. Char-
lotte, Fla. 33950 (E-11)

MOSTOFI, F. K., M.D., Armed Forces Inst. of
Pathology, Washington, D.C. 20306 (F)

MOUNTAIN, RAYMOND D., B216 Physics Bldg.,
Nat. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234 (F)

MUEHLHAUSE, C. O., Ph.D., 9105 Seven Locks
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 26)

MUESEBECK, CARL F. W., U.S. Natl. Museum
of Nat. Hist., Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-3, 5)

MULLIGAN, JAMES H., Ph.D., 12121 Sky Lane,
Santa Ana, Calif. 92705 (F-12, 13, 38)

MURDOCH, WALLACE P., Ph.D., Rt. 2, Gettys-
burg, Pa. 17325 (F-5, 6, 24)

MURRAY, THOMAS H., 2915 27th St., N. Arling-
ton, Va. 22207 (M)

MURRAY, WILLIAM S., 1281 Bartonshire Way,
Potomac Woods, Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-5)

MYERS, RALPH D., Physics Dept., Univ. of Mary-
land, College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1)

NAESER, CHARLES R., Ph.D., 6654 Van Winkle
Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22044 (E-4, 7, 39)
NAMIAS, JEROME, Sc.D., 2251 Sverdrup Hall,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La
Jolla, Calif. 92093 (F-23)

NELSON, R. H., 7309 Finns Lane, Lanham, Md.
20801 (E-5, 6, 24)

NEPOMUCENE, SR. ST. JOHN, Villa Julie, Valley
Rd., Stevenson, Md. 21153 (E-4)

NEUENDORFFER, J. A., 911 Allison St., Alex-
andria, Va. 22302 (F-6, 34)

NEUSCHEL, SHERMAN K., 7501 Democracy
Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

NEWMAN, MORRIS, Dept. of Mathematics, Univ.
of Calif., Santa Barbara, Calif. 93106 (F)
NICKERSON, DOROTHY, 4800 Fillmore Ave., Apt.

450, Alexandria, Va. 22311 (E-6, 32)
NIKIFOROFF, C. C., 4309 Van Buren St., Univer-
sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)
NOFFSINGER, TERRELL L., 9623 Sutherland
Rd., Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-6, 23)
NORRIS, KARL H., 11204 Montgomery Rad.,
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-27)
NOYES, HOWARD E., Ph.D., 4807 Aspen Hill
Rd., Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-6, 16)

O’BRIEN, JOHN A., Ph.D., Dept. of Biology,
Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C.
20064 (E-10)

OEHSER, PAUL H., 9012 Old Dominion Dr.,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1, 3, 9, 30)

O’CONNOR, JAMES V., 10108 Haywood Cir.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (M-6, 7)

O’HARE, JOHN, Ph.D., 301 G St. S.W., Washing-
ton, D.C. 20024 (F-40, 44)

O’HERN, ELIZABETH M., Ph.D., 633 G St., S.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20024 (M-16)

O'KEEFE, JOHN A., Code 681, Goddard Space
Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (F-1, 6)
OKABE, HIDEO, Ph.D., Rm. A-243, Bg. 222, Natl.
Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234

(F-4)

OLIPHANT, MALCOLM W., Ph.D., 1606 Ulupii
St., Kailua, Hi. 96734 (F)

ORDWAY, FRED, Ph.D., 5205 Elsmere Ave.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4, 6, 28, 39)

ORLIN, HYMAN, Ph.D., Natl. Academy of Sci-
ences, 2101 Constitution Ave N.W., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20418 (F-17)

OSER, HANS J., Ph.D., 8810 Quiet Stream Ct.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-6)

OTA, HAJIME, M.S., 5708 64th Ave., E. Riverdale,
Md. 20840 (F-12)

OWENS, JAMES P., M.A., 14528 Bauer Dr., Rock-
ville, Md. 20853 (F-7)

PAFFENBARGER, GEORGE C., D.D.S., ADA
Health Foundation Res. Unit, Natl. Bur. of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-21)

PARKER, KENNETH W., 6014 Kirby Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-3, 10, 11)

PARKER, ROBERT:-L., Ph.D., Metallurgy Div.,
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234 (F)

PARMAN, GEORGE K., 8054 Fairfax Rd., Alex-
andria, Va. 22308 (F-4, 27)

PARRY-HILL, JEAN, Ms., 3803 Military Rd.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (M)

111

PARSONS, HENRY JR., Ph.D., Institute for Be-
havioral Research, 2429 Linden Lane, Silver
Spring, Md. 20910 (F)

PATRICK, ROBERT L., Ph.D., 6 Don Mills Court,
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

PAYNE, FAITH N., 1745 Hobart St. N.W., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20009 (M-7)

PELCZAR, MICHAEL J., 4318 Clagett Pineway,
University Park, Md. 20782 (F-16)

PEROS, THEODORE P., Ph.D., Dept of Chem-
istry, George Washington Univ., Washington,
D.C. 20006 (F-1, 4, 39)

PHAIR, GEORGE, Ph.D., 14700 River Rad.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-7)

PHILLIPS, Mrs. M. LINDEMAN, M.S., 2510
Virginia Ave., N.W., #507N, Washington, D.C.
20037 (F-1, 6, 13, 25)

PIKL, JOSEF, 211 Dickinson Rd., Glassboro, N.J.
08028 (E)

PITTMAN, MARGARET, Ph.D., 3133 Connecticut
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E)

PLAIT, ALAN O., M.S., 5402 Yorkshire St.,
Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-13)

POLACHEK, HARRY, 11801 Rockville Pike
Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (E)

POOS, F. W., Ph.D., 5100 Fillmore. Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22311 (E-5, 6)

POLLACK, Mrs. FLORA G., Mycology Lab., Rm.
11 North Bldg., Beltsville Ars. Ctr. W. Belts-
ville, Md. 20705 (F-10)

PONNAMPERUMA, CYRIL, Ph.D., Lab. of Chemi-
cal Evolution, U. of Maryland Dept. of Chem.,
College Park, Md. 20742 (F-4, 7)

POWERS, KENDALL, Ph.D., 6311 Alcott Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 15)

PRESLEY, JOHN T., 3811 Courtney Circle,
Bryan, Tx. 77801 (E)

PRESTON, MALCOLM S., 10 Kilkea Ct., Balti-
more, Md. 21236 (M)

PRINZ, DIANNE K., Ph.D., Code 7121.5, Naval
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M-32)
PRO, MAYNARD J., 7904 Falstaff Rd., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F-26)

PRYOR, C. NICHOLAS, Ph.D., Naval Underwater
Systems Ctr., Newport, RI. 02840 (F-137)
PUGH, MARION S., Mrs., Little Fiddlers’ Green,

Round Hill, Va. 22141 (M)

PURCELL, ROBERT H., 17517 White Grounds
Rd., Boyds, Md. 20720 (F-6, 16)

PYKE, THOMAS N., Jr., M.S., Techn. Bg. A231,
Nat. Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234
(F-6, 13)

RABINOW, JACOB, E. E., 6920 Selkirk Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 13)

RADER, CHARLES A., Gillette Res. Inst., 1413
Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4, 39)

RADO, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 818 Carrie Court,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1)

112

RAINWATER, H. IVAN, 2805 Liberty Pl., Bowie,
Md. 20715 (E-5, 6, 24)

RAMIREZ-FRANKLIN, LOUISE, 2501 N. Florida
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (M)

RAMSAY, MAYNARD, Ph.D., 3806 Viser Ct.,
Bowie, Md. 20715 (F-5, 24)

RANEY, WILLIAM P., Ph.D., NASA, Code E, 600
Independence Ave., S. W., Washington, D. C.
20546 (M-6, 25)

RAUSCH, ROBERT, Div. of Animal Medicine,
SB-42, School of Medicine, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (F3-15,)

RAVITSKY, CHARLES, M.S., 1505 Drexel St.,
Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (E-32)

READING, O. S., 6 N. Howells Point Rd., Bellport
Suffolk County, New York, N.Y. 11713 (E-1)

REAM, DONALD F., Holavallagata 9, Reykjavik,
Iceland (F)

RECHCIGL, MILOSLAV, Jr., Ph.D., 1703 Mark
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-4, 19, 27, 39)

REED, WILLIAM D., 3609 Military Rd., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-5, 6)

REGGIA, FRANK, MSEE, 5227 N. Garden Lane, -

Roanoke, Va. 24019 (F-6, 12, 13)

REHDER, HARALD A., Ph.D., 5620 Oden Rad.,
Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F-3, 6)

REINER, ALVIN, B.S., 11243 Bybee St., Silver
Spring, Md. 20902 (M-6, 12, 13, 22)

REINHART, FRANK W., D.Sc., 9918 Sutherland
Rd., Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 6)

REINHART, FRED M., M.S., 210 Grand Ave.,
Apt. 1, Ojai, Ca. 93023 (F-6, 20)

REMMERS, GENE M., 7322 Craftown Rad., Fairfax
Station, Va. 22039 (M)

REYNOLDS, ORR E., Ph.D., Amer. Physiol. Soc.,
9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

RHODES, IDA, Mrs., 6676 Georgia Ave., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20012 (E)

RHYNE, JAMES J., Ph.D., 15012 Butterchurn La.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F)

RICE, FREDERICK A., 8005 Carita Court,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4, 6, 16, 19)

RIOCH, DAVID MckK., M.D., 2429 Linden Lane,
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-3, 6)

RITT, P. E., Ph.D., GTE Labs., Inc., 40 Sylvan
Rd., Waltham, Mass. 02154 (F-6, 13, 23, 29)

RIVLIN, RONALD S., Ctr. for Application of
Math, 203 E. Packer Ave., Bethlehem, Pa.
18015 (F)

ROBBINS, MARY LOUISE, Ph.D., George Wash-
ington Univ. Med. Ctr., 2300 Eye St. N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 16, 19)

ROBERTS, ELLIOT B., 4500 Wetherill
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 6, 18)

ROBERTS, RICHARD B., Ph.D., Dept. Terrestrial
Mag., 5241 Broad Branch Rd., N.W., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20015 (E)

ROBERTS, RICHARD C., 5170 Phantom Court,
Columbia, Md. 21044 (F-6, 38)

ROBERTSON, A. F., Ph.D., 4228 Butterworth PI.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

ROBERTSON, RANDAL M., Ph.D., 1404 Highland
Circle, S.E., Blacksburg, Va. 24060 (E-6)

Rd.,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

ROCK, GEORGE D., Ph.D., The Kennedy Warren,
3133 Conn. Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20008 (E)

RODNEY, WILLIAM S., 8112 Whites Ford Way,
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-1, 32)

RODRIGUEZ, RAUL, 254 Tous Sato, Baldrich,
Hato Rey, PR. 00918 (F-17)

ROLLER, PAUL S., 1440 N St., N.W., Apt. 1011,
Washington, D.C. 20005 (E)

ROSADO JOHN A., 10519 Edgemont Dr., Adelphi,
Md. 20783 (F-13)

ROSE, WILLIAM K., Ph.D., 10916 Picasso Ln.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F)

ROSENBLATT, DAVID, 2939 Van Ness St., N.W.,
Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1)

ROSENBLATT, JOAN R., 2939 Van Ness St.,
N.W., Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1)

ROSENTHAL, JENNY E., 7124 Strathmore St.,
Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F-13, 32)

- ROSENTHAL, SANFORD M., Bldg. 4, Rm. 122,
National Insts. of Health, Bethesda, Md.
20014 (E)

ROSS, FRANKLIN, Off. of Asst. Secy. of the Air
Force, The Pentagon, Rm. 4E973, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20330 (F-22)

ROSS, SHERMAN, 2131 N.E. 58 Court, Fort
Lauderdale, Fl. 33308 (F-40)

ROSSINI, FREDERICK D., Ph.D., 19715 Green-
side Terr., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-1)
ROTH, FRANK L., M.Sc., 200 E. 22nd St., #33

Roswell, NM. 88201 (E-6)

ROTH, ROBERT S., Solid State Chem. Sect.,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F)

ROTKIN, ISRAEL, M.A., 11504 Regnid Dr.,
Wheaton, Md. 20902 (F-1, 13, 34)

RUBIN, MORTON J., M.Sc., World Meterol. Org.,
Casa Postale #5, CH-1211, Geneva 20,
Switzerland (F-23)

RUDOLPH, MICHAEL, 4521 Bennion Rad., Silver
Spring, Md. 20906 (M)

RUPP, N. W., D.D.S., American Dental Assoc.,
Research Division, Rm. A157, Bldg. 224,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F-21)

RUSSELL, LOUISE M., M.S., Bg. 004, Agr. Res.
Center (West), USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705
(F-5, 6)

RYERSON, KNOWLES A., M.S., Dean Emeritus,
15 Arlmonte Dr., Berkeley, Calif. 94707 (E-6, 11)

SAALFIELD, FRED E., Naval Res. Lab., Code
6100, Washington, D.C. 20375

SAENZ, ALBERT W., Ph.D., Radiation Techn.
Div., Naval Research Laboratory, Code
6603S, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

SAGER, MARTHA C., Ph.D., Briarcliff Rd.,
Arnold, Md. 21012 (F)

SAILER, R. |., Ph.D., 3847 S.W. 6TH PI., Gaines-
ville, Fla. 32607 (F-5, 6)

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

SALISBURY, LLOYD L., 10138 Crestwood Rad.,
Kensington, Md. 20795 (M)

SALLET, DIRSE W., Ph.D., 12440 Old Fletcher-
town Rd., Bowie, Md. 20715 (M-1, 14)

SARIMENTO, RAFAEL, Ph.D., % UNDP, Lagos,
Nigeria, Box 20, Grand Central Post Office,
New York, N.Y. 10017 (F-4, 5, 24, 39)

SASMOR, ROBERT M., 4408 N. 20th Rd. Arling-
ton, Va. 22207 (F)

SAULMON, E. E., 202 North Edgewood St.,
Arlington, Va. 22201 (M)

SAVILLE, THORNDIKE, Jr., M.S., 5601 Albia Rd.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-6, 18)

SAYLOR, CHARLES P., Ph.D.,10001 Riggs Rd.,
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-1, 4, 32)

SCHALK, JAMES M., Ph.D., U.S. Vegetable
Lab., Highway 17 South, P.O. Box 3107,
Charleston, S.C. 29407 (F)

SCHECHTER, MILTON S., 10909 Hannes Court,
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (E-4, 24)

SCHINDLER, ALBERT I., Sc.D., Code 6000, U.S.
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375
(F-1)

SCHLAIN, DAVID, Ph.D., P.O. Box 348, College
Park, Md. 20740 (F-4, 20, 29, 36)

SCHMIDT, CLAUDE H., Ph.D., 1827 No. 3rd St.,
Fargo, No. Dak. 58102 (F-5)

SCHNEIDER, SIDNEY, 239 N. Granada St.,
Arlington, Va. 22203 (E)

SCHNEPFE, MARIAN M., Ph.D., Potomac Towers
Apts. 640, 2001 North Adams St., Arlington,
Va. 22201 (F-4, 7)

SCHOENEMAN, ROBERT LEE, 9602 Ponca PI.,
Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (F)

SCHOOLEY, ALLEN H., 6113 Cloud Dr., Spring-
field, Va. 22150 (F-6, 13, 23)

SCHOOLEY, JAMES F., 13700 Darnestown Rad.,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-35)

SCHUBAUER, G. B., Ph.D., 5609 Gloster Rad.,
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 22)

SCHULMAN, FRED, Ph.D., 11115 Markwood Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4)

SCHULMAN, JAMES H., Ph.D., U.S. Off. Naval
Res., Code 102, 800 N. Quincy St., Arlington,
Va. 22217 (F-1, 4, 6, 32)

SCHWARTZ, ANTHONY M., Ph.D., 2260 Glen-
more Terr., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4, 39)
SCHWARTZ, MANUEL, 321-322 Med. Arts Bg.,

Baltimore, Md. 21201 (M)

SCOTT, DAVID B., D.D.S., 15C-1, 2 North Dr.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-6, 21)

SEABORG, GLENN T., Ph.D., Lawrence Berkeley
Lab., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif.
94720 (F-26)

SEEGER, RAYMOND J., Ph.D., 4507 Wetherill
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20016 (E-1, 6, 30, 31)
SEITZ, FREDERICK, Rockefeller University, New

York, N.Y. 10021 (F-36)

SERVICE, JERRY H., Ph.D., Cascade Manor, 65
W. 30th Ave., Eugene, Oreg. 97405 (E)

SHAFRIN, ELAINE G., M.S., Apt. N-702, 800 4th
St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024 (F-4)

SHAPIRA, NORMAN, 86 Oakwood Dr., Dunkirk,
Md. 20754 (M)

113

SHAPIRO, GUSTAVE, B.S., 3704 Munsey St.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (F-13)

SHELTON, EMMA, National Cancer Institute,
Bldg. 37, Rm. 4C-06, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

SHEPARD, HAROLD H., Ph.D., 2701 S. June St.,
Arlington, Va. 22202 (E-5)

SHERESHEFSKY, J. LEON, Ph.D., 9023 Jones
Mill Rd., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4)
SHERLIN, GROVER C., 4024 Hamilton St.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (L-1, 6, 13, 31)

SHMUKLER, LEON, 817 Valley Forge Towers,
1000 Valley Forge Circle, King of Prussia, Pa.
19404 (F)

SHNEIDEROV, A. J., M.M.E., 1673 Columbia Rd.,
N.W.,#309, Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-1, 22)

SHOTLAND, EDWIN, 418 E. Indian Spring Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M-1)

SHROPSHIRE, W., Jr., Ph.D., Radiation Bio. Lab.,
12441 Parklawn Dr., Rockville, Md. 20852
(F-6, 10, 33)

SHUBIN, LESTER D., Proj. Mgr. for Standards,
NILECJ/LEAA, U.S. Dept. Justice, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20531 (F-4)

SIEGLER, EDOUARD HORACE, Ph.D., 201 Tulip
Ave., Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (E-5, 24)
SILVER, DAVID M., Ph.D., Applied Physics Lab.,
Johns Hopkins Univ., Laurel, Md. 20810

(M-4, 6)

SIMHA, ROBERT, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve
Univ., Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F)

SIMMONS, LANSING G., 3800 N. Fairfax Dr.,
Villa 809, Arlington, Va. 22203 (F-18)

SIMON, BENSON J., M.B.A., 8704 Royal Ridge
Lane, Laurel, Md. 20811 (M-37)

SITTERLY, CHARLOTTE M., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy-
wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016
(E-1, 6, 32)

SLACK, LEWIS, 27 Meadow Bank Rd., Old Green-
wich, Conn. 06870 (F)

SLAWSKY, MILTON M., Ph.D., 8803 Lanier Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E-6, 22, 31)

SLAWSKY, ZAKA I., Ph.D., 9813 Belhaven Rad.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

SLEEMAN, H. KENNETH, Ph.D., Div. Biochem.
WRAIR. Washington, D.C. 20012 (F)

SLOCUM, GLENN G., 4204 Dresden St., Ken-
sington, Md. 20795 (E-16, 27)

SMILEY, ROBERT L., 1444 Primrose Rd., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20012 (M-5)

SMITH, BLANCHARD DRAKE, M.S., 5265 Port
Royal Road, Springfield, Va. 22151

SMITH, DAYNA, 1745 Pimmit Dr., Falls Church,
Va. 22043 (M)

SMITH, FLOYD F., Ph.D., 9022 Fairview Rad.,

_ Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E-5, 24, 42)

SMITH, FRANCIS A., Ph.D., 1023 55th Ave.,
South, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33705 (E-6)

SMITH, ROBERT C., Jr., %Versar, Inc., 6621
Electronic Dr., Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-4, 22)

SNAVELY, BENJAMIN L., Ph.D., 721 Springloch
Rd., Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-25, 32)

SNAY, HANS G., Ph.D., 17613 Treelawn Dr.,
Ashton, Md. 20702 (F-6, 7)

114

SNOW, C. EDWIN, 12715 Layhill Rd., Silver
Spring, Md. 20906 (M-32)

SNYDER, HERBERT H., Ph.D., RFD. A-1, Box 7,
Cobden, IL. 62920 (F)

SOKOL, PHILLIP E., Ph.D., 4704 Flower
Valley Dr., Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-4, 6, 39)

SOKOLOVE, FRANK L., 3015 Graham Rad., Falls
Church, Va. 22042 (M)

SOLOMON, EDWIN M., 5225 Pooks Hill Rd.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (M-4)

SOMERS, IRA I., 1511 Woodacre Dr., McLean,
Va. 22101 (M-4, 6, 27)

SOMMER, HELMUT, 9502 Hollins Ct., Bethesda,
Md. 20034 (F-1, 13)

SORROWS, H. E., Ph.D., 8820 Maxwell Dr.,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-6, 13)

SPALDING, DONALD H., Ph.D., 17500 S.W. 89th
Ct., Miami, Fla. 33157 (F-6, 10)

SPECHT, HEINZ, Ph.D., 311 Oakridge Dr.,
Schenectady, N.Y. 12306 (E-1, 6)

SPENCER, LEWIS V., Box 206, Gaithersburg,
Md. 20760 (F)

SPERLING, FREDERICK, 1131 University Blvd., ~
W., #1807, Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-19)

SPIES, JOSEPH R., 507 N. Monroe St., Arlington,
Va. 22201 (F-4, 6, 19)

SPOONER, CHARLES S., Jr., M.F., 346 Spring-
vale Rd., Great Falls, Va. 22066 (F-1, 13, 25)

SPRAGUE, G. F., Ph.D., Dept. Agronomy, Univ. of
Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 61801 (E-33)

ST. GEORGE, R. A., 3305 Powder Mill Rd.,
Adelphi Station, Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F-3,
5, 11, 24)

STAIR, RALPH, 1686 Joplin St. S., Salem, Ore.
97302 (E-6)

STAKMAN, E. C., Univ. of Minnesota, Inst. of
Agric., St. Paul, Minn. 55108 (E)

STAUSS, HENRY E., Ph.D., 8005 Washington
Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-20)

STEARN, JOSEPH L., 3511 Inverrary Dr., #108,
Lauderville, Fl. 33319 (E)

STEELE, LENDELL E., 7624 Highland St.,
Springfield, Va. 22150 (F-20, 26)

STEERE, RUSSELL L., Ph.D., 6207 Carrollton
Ter., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-6, 10, 16, 42)

STEGUN, IRENE A., National Bureau of Stand-
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

STEIDLE, WALTER E., 2439 Flint Hill Rd., Vienna,
Va. 22180 (F)

STEINER, ROBERT F., Ph.D., 2609 Turf Valley
Rd., Ellicott City, Md. 21043 (F-4)

STEINHARDT, JACINTO, Ph.D., Georgetown
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20057 (F-4)

STEPHENS, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 4301 39th St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 32)

STERN, KURT H., Ph.D., Naval Res. Lab., Code
6130, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-4, 29)

STEVENS, RUSSELL B., Ph.D., Div. of Biological
Sciences, N.R.C., 2101 Constitution Ave.,
Washington, D.C. 20418 (F-10, 42)

STEVENSON, JOHN A., 3256 Brandy Ct., Falls
Church, Va. 22042 (E-6, 10)

STEWART, KENNETH R., 12907 Crookston La.,
#16, Rockville, Md. 20851 (M-25)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

\ ke

STEWART, T. DALE, M.D., 1191 Crest Lane,
McLean, Va. 22101 (E-2, 6)

ST. GEORGE, R. A. (Mr.), 3305 Powder Mill Rd.,
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (E)

STIEF, LOUIS J., Ph.D., Code 691, NASA God-

dard Space Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20771
(F-4)

STIEHLER, ROBERT D., Ph.D., 3234 Quesada
St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-1, 4,
14, 39)

STILL, JOSEPH W., M.D., M.P.H., 1408 Edge-
cliff Lane, Pasadena, Calif. 91107 (E)

STIMSON, H. F., 2920 Brandywine St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1, 6)

_ STOETZEL, MANYAB., Ph.D., 2600 Millvale Ave.,

North Forestville, Md. 20028 (F-5)
STRAUSS, SIMON W., Ph.D., 4506 Cedell PI.,
Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-4)

_ STRIMPLE, HARRELL, L., Dept. of Geology, The

Univ. of lowa, lowa City, IA. 52242 (F)

~ STUART, NEIL W., Ph.D., 1341 Chilton Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20904 (F-10, 33)
SULZBACHER, WILLIAM L., 8527 Clarkson Dr.,
Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-16, 27)

SUTHERLAND, DOUGLAS, W. S., Ph.D., 125
Lakeside Dr., Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (M)
SWICK, CLARENCE H., 5514 Brenner St., Capitol

Heights, Md. 20027 (F-1, 6, 7)

SWINGLE, CHARLES F., Ph.D., 431 Humboldt
St., Manhattan, Kans. 66502 (E-10, 11, 33)
SYKES, ALAN O., 304 Mashie Dr., S.E., Vienna,

Va. 22180 (M-25)

TALBERT, PRESTON T., Ph.D., Dept. of Chem.,
Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20059 (F-4,
39) ;

TALBOTT, F. LEO, R.D. #4, Bethlehem, Pa.
18015 (F-1, 6)

TASAKI, ICHIJI, M.D., Ph.D., Lab. of Neuro-
biology, Natl. Inst. of Mental Health,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

TATE, DOUGLAS R., B.A., 11415 Farmland Dr.,
Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-1)

TAYLOR, ALBERT L., 2620 14th Dr., Gainesville,
Fl. 32608 (E-15)

TAYLOR, B.N., Ph.D., Bg. 220, Rm. B258, Nat.

Bureau Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234
(F-6, 13)

TAYLOR, JOHN K., Ph.D., Chemistry Bldg., Rm.
B-326, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29)

. TAYLOR, LAURISTON S., 7407 Denton Ra.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E)

_ TCHEN, CHAN-MOU, City College of New York,

Mechanical Engr. Dept., New York, N.Y.
10031 (F)

TEAL, GORDON K., Ph.D., 5222 Park Lane,
Dallas, Tex. 75220 (F-13, 29)

TEITLER, S., Code 4105, Naval Res. Lab.,
Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

TERMAN, MAURICE J., U.S. Geological Survey,
National Ctr. (917), Reston, Va. 22092
(M-6-7)

THEUS, RICHARD B., 8612 Van Buren Dr., Oxon
Hill, Md. 20022 (F)

THOMPSON, F. CHRISTIAN, 4255 S. 35th St.,
Arlington, Va. 22206 (F-3, 5)

THURMAN-SCHWARTZWELDER, E. B., 3443
Esplanade Ave., Apt. 210, New Orleans, La.
70119 (E-5, 6)

TILDEN, EVELYN B., Ph.D., 12101 Lomas Blvd.,
N.E., Box 24 Albuquerque, NM 87112 (E).
TITUS, HARRY W., 7 Lakeview Ave., Andover,

N.J. 07821 (E-6)

TODD, MARGARET RUTH, Miss, P.O. Box 687,
Vineyard Haven, Mass. 02568 (F-7)

TOLHURST, GILBERT, Ph.D., 714.N.E. 12th Ave.,
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TOUSEY, RICHARD, Ph.D., Code 7140, Naval
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TREADWELL, CARLETON R., Ph.D., Dept. of
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TRENT, EVAN M., Mrs., P.O. Box 1425, Front
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TRUEBLOOD, EMILY E., Ph.D., 7100 Armat
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(F-6, 10, 42)

115

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Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20006
(F)

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116

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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

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WOMACK, MADELYN, Ph.D., 11511 Highview
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WOOD, LAWRENCE A., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of

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WOOD, MARSHALL K., M.P.H., P.O. Box 27,
Castine, Me. 04421 (F)

WOOD, REUBEN E., 3120 N. Pershing Dr.,

| Arlington, Va. 22201 (F-4, 29)

WORKMAN, WILLIAM G., M.D., 5221 42nd St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-6, 8)

WULF, OLIVER R., Noyes Lab. of Chem. Phys.,

Calif. Inst. of Tech., Pasadena, Calif. 91125

(E)

YAO, AUGUSTINE Y. M., Ph.D., 4434 Brocton
Rd., Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (M-23)

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 3, 1978

YAPLEE, BENJAMIN S., 8 Crest View Ct., Rock-
ville, Md. 20854 (F-13)

YODER, HATTEN S., Jr., Geophysical Lab., 2801
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(F-4, 7)

YOLKEN, H. T., 8205 Bondage Dr., Laytonsville,
Md. 20760 (F-29)

YOUNG, DAVID A., Jr., Ph.D., 612 Buck Jones
Rd., Raleigh, N.C. 27606 (F-5)

YOUNG, M. WHARTON, 3230 Park PI., Washing-
ton, D.C. 20010 (E)

ZELENY, LAWRENCE, Ph.D., 4312 Van Buren
St., University Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782
(E-6)

ZIEN, TSE-FOU, Ph.D., Naval Surface Weapons
Ctr., White Oak, Silver Spring, Md. 20910
(F-6, 22)

ZIES, EMANUEL G., 3803 Blackthorne St., Chevy
Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 7)

ZOCH, RICHMOND T., 12605 Westover Court,
Upper Marlboro, Md. 20870 (F)

ZON, GERALD, Dept. Chemistry, Catholic Univ.
of America, Washington, D.C. 20064 (M)
ZWEMER, RAYMOND L., Ph.D., 3600 Chorley
Woods Way, Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E)

117

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VOLUME 68
Number 4

Jour nal of the DECEMBER, 1978

WASHINGTON
ACADEMY-.- SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly
at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS
Features:
ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON: The Golden Age of Nutrition............ 121
OSCAR W. ALBRECHT: What Price Should Society Pay for Conservation?.... 129

Research Reports:

RICHARD H. McCUEN, ROBERT L. POWELL, and FRED W. DEW:
A Programming Approach to Planning For Agricultural Resource
Allocation and Inngation System Design..:..:...2....2.+..2-.4060n0e0 133

GEORGE R. ZUG and RONALD ALTIG: Anuran Locomotion— Structure
and Finetion:, ihe Jumping Forces of Frogs ....:.:....-.s.0808--++-- 144

ROBERT A. WHARTON and PAUL M. MARSH: New World Opiinae
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Parasitic on Tephritidae (Diptera) ......... 147

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Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978 119

FEATURES

The Golden Age of Nutrition

Archibald T. McPherson

403 Russell Ave. #804, Gaithersburg, MD 20760

ABSTRACT

Within recent years science, engineering, and technology have reached a stage at
which one can see the possibility of producing food in any desired quantity by total
synthesis from abundant raw materials. Food supplementing and eventually
superseding food from agriculture can be provided for everyone on the earth.
Beginnings have been made by the synthetic production of vitamins, amino acids,
fats, and carbohydrates. The following actions are proposed: (1) preparation, by a
select interdisciplinary group, of a comprehensive program for research, development,
and production; (2) endorsement of the program by the scientific community; (3)
consideration of the program by the World Food Council, and recommendation by
the Council to the United Nations Development Program; (4) financing by the UNDP;
(5) establishment of an agency for synthetic foods; (6) coordination of synthetic and
agricultural production. The vicious circle of poverty and malnutrition is now a major
handicap to vast numbers of people in the developing countries. This circle can be
broken by a massive infusion of food. The cost of the food would be offset, in the long
range, by the increased gross national product which would result from increased
productivity and a higher standard of living.

This paper is a sequel to ‘‘Chemistry,
Food, and Civilization,’ an address
before the Washington Academy of
Sciences by the author as retiring Presi-
dent on February 19, 1959 (McPherson,
1960). Publication of this address and
citations in the literature led to a succes-
sion of requests for talks, papers, and
participation in symposiums that has
continued almost to the present. This
paper is intended as a concluding state-
ment by the author.

The attention to the address is in no

way due to its originality or novelty.

Indeed the basic idea of the production
of human food by direct synthesis was
presented by the celebrated German
chemist, Emil Fischer (1906), in an ad-

dress before the Royal Prussian Academy

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

of Sciences. Even at that time the idea
was so widely current that it had been
ridiculed in cartoons. But what was once
speculation has been brought within the
range of practicality by signal advances
in science, engineering, and technology
within the past 70 years. We can now
clearly foresee the possibility of develop-
ing a new source of food for man that
will transcend the limitations that are im-
posed on agricultural production by
rainfall, soil, climate, and the availability
of arable land.

Golden Ages

Many accounts of golden ages in the
long distant past have come down to us
in legends. History records a number of
golden ages such as the Golden Age of

121

Pericles. Such golden ages, whether of
history or legend, were usually of short
duration; indeed, they may have been
scarcely recognized as golden during the
time they occurred.

The Golden Age of Nutrition, in con-
trast, lies in the future, and will be con-
tinuing rather than ephemeral. Whereas
the golden ages of the past resulted from
‘some fortuitous or unusual combination
of circumstances, the Golden Age of Nu-
trition will not be heaven-sent, but will
come only through the concerted action
and sustained efforts of men and na-
tions. |

What, then, is this new Golden Age to
be? What is needed to bring it in? How
may it be recognized when it shall have
been attained? The ancients pictured
this age as a time of abundance of milk
and honey—two basic nutrients that
were usually scarce and always highly
prized. A familiar hymn pictures future
life in ‘‘Jerusalem the golden, with milk
and honey blest! .. .”’

The Golden Age that we are speaking
about will be realized when there will
be enough food and correct food for every-
one on earth. The food will not only be
sufficient in quantity and optimal in nu-
tritional value, but it will also appeal to
the taste and afford pleasure in eating.
The end sought is to assure that each
child that is born will grow and develop
to the maximum of his or her full
physical, emotional, and mental capacity.

At the present juncture in human
affairs the Golden Age of Nutrition may
seem very remote because of the gloomy
prospect that the population of the earth
may far outrun the food supply before
the increase in population can be brought
under control. The recent biennial
survey by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (1978) supports this fore-
cast. In two years the world population
has increased by 2%, whereas the food
supply has gone up by only 1.5%, even
though weather has been generally
favorable and vigorous efforts have been
made to increase the output of agri-
culture. Furthermore, much of the in-

122

crease has been attained in countries that
need it least. But even if food production
could be brought into step with the in-
crease in population, it would serve only
to maintain the unhappy status quo of
hunger and malnutrition of nearly half
of the people of the earth.

Looking ahead, and considering only
agriculture, many can foresee only a
long, slow, and painful period of adjust-
ment of population to food supply,
marked by small gains here, disastrous
famines there, and the tragic failure of
millions of children to attain normal
growth and development. A few indi-
viduals, however, can see the present
dismal outlook as a stimulus to go to the
next stage beyond agriculture and pro-

duce man-made food by methods that |

have proven so successful in forestalling
shortages of fiber, rubber, plastics,
detergents, pharmaceuticals, and many
other products that were formerly
derived wholly from agriculture. The
development of synthesis as a major
source of food can, and ultimately will,
usher in a new era in human affairs
as significant as was the development of
agriculture 10,000 years ago.

Food Through the Ages

The advancement of man over the
past two million or so years has been
closely associated with successive stages
in the increase or the improvement of
food supply. The discovery and use of
tools for obtaining food marked the
transition from anthropoid to man. The
prehuman diet had consisted principally
of fruit, tender shoots and leaves, grubs,
insects, and very occasional small ani-
mals. It was greatly enriched by game,
fish, nuts, and seeds that were obtained
or utilized by the aid of tools. Man
became omnivorous and was able to find
subsistence over a much wider area.
Then came the discovery of fire which
further increased his range. His diet was
greatly improved by the roasting or
cooking of food, and many plants and
roots that are toxic when eaten raw
became safe and palatable on cooking.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

The advent of agriculture about
10,000 years ago marked what was
probably the greatest single advance in
human affairs. The simultaneous do-
mestication of sheep and goats and the

cultivation of the wild grain, emmer,

came about in the Fertile Crescent lying
to the east, north, and west of the Tigris-
Euphrates Valley. This made possible
settled abode in village-farming com-
munities such as Jarmo and Jericho.
Similar developments occurred else-

where in the world at about the same

time, all possibly resulting from popula-
tion pressure (Cohen, 1977). The simul-

taneous domestication of animals and
| grain met two essential needs. Animals

in the herd and grain in storage assured

_ a supply of food in winter, and the milk

and meat were especially important for

the survival and normal growth of

children in the critical period after
weaning. 7

In the historically brief span of a few
thousand years after the domestication
of animals and plants came the discovery
of irrigation. Irrigation made possible
the development of cities by the produc-
tion of a large quantity of food within an
area from which it could be transported
readily to a center of population. Thus
great cities arose in the valleys of the
Tigris-Euphrates, the Nile, and the
Indus. In these cities many facets of our
civilization today had their beginning.

Factors Foreshadowing Man-Made Food

During the past 5,000 years agriculture
and cities supported by agriculture have
spread over the earth. As has already
been mentioned agriculture is approach-
ing its practical limits. We shall here
sketch briefly some of the factors that
are setting the stage for the transition
from agriculture to synthesis as a major
source of food. It is not anticipated that
synthetic production will quickly or com-
pletely supersede agriculture. Rather,
each will produce those items that it can
make most efficiently. Indeed, the hunt-
ing, the gathering of wild plants, and
especially the fishing of the pre-agricul-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

tural era are still practiced today, though
with the use of more sophisticated tools.

Knowledge of Nutrition.—Basic to
man-made food is the identification of the
essential nutrients in food and the de-
termination of the role of each in the
growth and maintenance of the human
body. It is only within very recent years
that all (so we think) of the essential
vitamins and trace elements have been
clearly identified. Much current research
is concerned with determining the
optimal amounts of each nutrient and
interactions among the nutrients. The
validity of present knowledge has been
demonstrated by feeding tests with ani-
mals and human subjects, using com-
pletely synthetic diets. In one experiment
lasting 19 weeks, 15 subjects (men in
good health) showed a definite improve-
ment in nutrition over that at the
beginning of the experiment (Winitz,
1965).

Synthetic Organic Chemistry.—The
knowledge of chemistry is now such that
it is possible to make nearly any desired
substance, starting with the elements or
with any conveniently available raw
material containing the elements. The
synthesis of large and complex molecules
may be a long and difficult task, but if
the demand for a substance is sufficiently
great the synthesis can be accomplished
and practical means of production can
be found. This has been illustrated many
times by the transition of a substance
from a laboratory curiosity to a com-
mercial product within a year or two.

Chemical Engineering .—Correspond-
ing advances have been made in chem-
ical engineering. The control of processes
in the factory is such that it is often
possible to obtain a purer product there
than in the laboratory. Automation and
control by computers now may enable an
entire manufacturing process to be con-
trolled by one person at a console. Even
30 years ago the capability of industry
for speedily accomplishing a large and
difficult task was illustrated by the

123

production of synthetic rubber in World
War II. In 1939 not a single pound of
general purpose synthetic rubber was
produced in the United States; in 1943
the output was over 400,000 tons.

Food Technology.—A few synthetic
nutrients such as sugars and certain fats
and oils might be used directly in the
diet in the pure state. Most nutrients,
however, would require admixture with
other nutrients and with flavors, colors,
and other ingredients, also synthetic, so
as accurately to simulate familiar foods
of plant or animal origin. The food
processing industry has been reasonably
successful in making simulated milk,
meat, and other food products from
products of vegetable origin. Given pro-
teins, flavors, and colors identical to
those of animal origin, it should experi-
ence no major difficulty in making food
products identical to customary foods,
except in origin.

Present Status of Essential Nutrients

The essential nutrients are now at
widely different stages of development,
ranging from vitamins which are now
in commercial production in most in-
dustrialized countries, to polypeptides
and proteins, only a few of which have
been made in the laboratory.

Vitamins.—The synthetic production
of vitamins has been commercially suc-
cessful inasmuch as vitamins are products
that can be made in relatively small quan-
tity to command a high unit price. Pure
vitamins range from about $8.00 per kilo-
gram for ascorbic acid to $8.00 per gram
for vitamin B,, or cyclocobalamin. Even
at these prices the recommended daily
allowance of cyclocobalamin costs only
about one-onehundredth as much as
that of ascorbic acid. Over the twenty-
year period from 1945 to 1965 the price
of ascorbic acid decreased from about
$11.00 per pound to $2.00 or $.44 per
kg. as production increased propor-
tionately. The increase in price since
1965 reflects the current inflation.

124

Minerals.—Minerals in the amounts
required for human nutrition present
no problems from the standpoint of
availability or price. Some elements,
particularly iron, are absorbed by the
body at different rates, depending on
the particular compound in which they
are provided. Certain vitamins and min-
erals are required by law to be added to
cereal and other processed foods to
compensate for losses in processing.

Fats.—Fats were made in quantity
for human consumption in Germany
under emergency conditions in World
War II. The initial raw materials were
coke, air, and water, use being made of
the Fischer-Tropsch reaction. Production
was not continued after the war because
the price was not competitive with that
of natural fats and oils. Fatty acids are
said to be made synthetically now for
industrial applications in eastern Euro-
pean countries in order to save the
limited supply of natural fats for human
consumption. Saturated fatty acids can
be made readily by the catalytic oxida-
tion of the corresponding hydrocarbons
by oxygen of the air; conversion of fatty
acids to fats is readily accomplished by
combination with glycerol, also made
from petroleum. The production of
the polyunsaturated fats that are re-
garded as the more desirable for human
nutrition is less direct and may require
further research and development.

Fats are scarce and relatively expen-
sive in some of the developing countries;
as a consequence in some places special
measures are required to keep motor oil
from being used as an adulterant or
otherwise mistakenly consumed for
food. Thus, fats should be marked for
early consideration in any program for
the synthetic production of food.

Carbohydrates.—Extensive research
has been conducted by the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration on the
production of carbohydrates and other
sources of energy from respired carbon
dioxide and water on space flights of
long duration. An essential requirement

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

= ee ee

ES ie i

is that the equipment be capable of
operating within the narrow confines of
a space vehicle. One of the more feasible
processes is for the production of glycerol
which is suitable as a source of energy
and acceptable in the diet in any pro-
portion.

When not limited by the constraints
of space travel, an immediately prac-
tical method of making carbohydrates
is by the hydrolysis of cellulose, the
most abundant of all natural products.
Over many years studies have been made
of the acid hydrolysis of cellulose, but
no means have been found that have
proved commercially practical. Now,

however, enzymatic hydrolysis for the

production of glucose from waste paper
has been carried to a promising pilot
plant stage. Although the present objec-
tive is to make alcohol from the glucose,
the glucose could be used for food or it
could be converted to starch, also for
food.

Non-Natural High Energy Foods.—
1,3-butanediol and other substances that
do not occur in nature have been shown
to be readily used by the body as a source
of energy and to be acceptable from the
standpoint of taste when incorporated
in the diet.

Amino Acids.—The 24 amino acids
that constitute proteins have all been
made by synthesis and are commercially
available in lots of at least one kilo-
gram. Glutamic acid is widely used as a
condiment in the form of monosodium
glutamate. Principal interest from the
standpoint of nutrition, however, is in
the nine so called ‘‘essential’’ amino acids
that must be supplied in the diet since
the body cannot synthesize them. Pro-
teins of animal origin contain the essen-
tial amino acids in approximately the
proportion required by the body, but
plant proteins are virtually all deficient
in one or more of the essential amino
acids. In the use of plant proteins for
food or as feed for animals the efficiency
of the protein for growth or maintenance
may be markedly increased by the addi-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

tion of the limiting amino acids; the
amounts required are only a few tenths
of a per cent. Methionine and its
hydroxy-analog are manufactured in
car-load quantities for supplementing
the protein of soybean meal used
for the feeding of poultry and swine.
Lysine is likewise used as a supplement
to cereal grains; the addition of 0.375%
to wheat is said to double the protein
efficiency of bread. Threonine and
tryptophan are also used as supplements
in cereal grains.

A major problem with synthetic amino
acids lies in the fact that chemical syn-
theses produce equal amounts of the
dextro- and the laevo- form whereas the
body utilizes only the laevo. With
methionine and phenylalanine the body
is able to convert the dextro- to the
laevo- form, but with other amino acids
the dextro- form can be used, if at all,
only as a source of energy. Means are
available for separating the isomers and
for converting the dextro- to the desired
laevo- form but the difficulty and cost of
the additional steps seems to have limited
their use. At present it seems more
practical to make lysine by a fermenta-
tion process that yields only the laevo-
form.

Present market prices of methionine
and lysine are respectively, $2.20 and
$3.59 per kilogram, whereas other
amino acids are priced in the order of
$100 per kilogram. The latter prices
indicate that the demand has not been
sufficient to warrant the development of
simpler methods of synthesis or the use
of large scale production methods.

Polypeptides and Proteins.—Two
methods of synthesis have been employed
in the laboratory. In one method,
amino acid groups are added, one at a
time, to a terminal amino acid group
until the long chain polypeptide or
protein molecule has been built up. (By
convention, one hundred amino acids
groups mark the dividing line between
polypeptides and proteins.) In another
method, a number of sub-groups are

125

built up and are then linked together
to make the desired large molecule.
Neither method seems practical for use
in manufacture. An alternative method
would be to make polymers or multi-
polymers of amino acids by conventional
methods of polymer science and to em-
ploy them as food in mixtures that would
provide the optimal amino acid pattern.
The major problem in implementing
this plan would be the production of
polymers that would be broken down on
digestion to yield the constituent in just
the same way as natural proteins.

A possibility for long range research
is suggested by current studies of the
origin of life on the earth. Proteinoids
made up of amino acids are readily
produced in a single stage from simple
substances such as nitrogen, methane,
water, and hydrogen cyanide. Modern
knowledge of reaction mechanisms and
thermodynamics might show the way to
the production of proteins in a single-
stage process from abundant simple
substances.

Raw Materials for Synthesis

In the chemical industry today most
syntheses employ liquid or gaseous
petroleum to provide the carbon chain
of the desired product and also to serve
as a source of process energy. Petroleum,
however, is not essential as shown by the
Fischer-Tropsch employed in Germany
during World War IJ. This process
produced airplane fuel, fats, rubber,
and many other products from coke,
water, and air. Thus, coal, wood char-
coal, or carbon from other sources could
be used instead of petroleum and, as
mentioned in a previous section, car-
bohydrates, starch, and other food prod-
ucts could be made from cellulose, the
most abundant of all natural products.

Even if petroleum should be used, the
amount required would be much less
than that now used for fuel. The annual
consumption of petroleum is equivalent
to 35.1 x 10! Cal, whereas all the food
in the world provides only 3.6 x 10!
Cal, or only about one-tenth as much.

126

Furthermore, even this consumption
would be offset by the use of petroleum
in modern agriculture as fuel for farm
machinery and for the production of
fertilizer and for other purposes. In
some situations today the energy con-
sumed may even be greater than the
energy content of the food grown.

Nitrogen in the form of ammonia is
used both as fertilizer and for the
synthesis of amino acids and proteins.
Most of the current production of
ammonia is from nitrogen of the air,
natural gas, and water, though some is
made with the use of coal or liquid
petroleum instead of natural gas. Look-
ing to possible future dependence on the
biomass as a renewable source of both
materials and energy, methane pro-
duced by fermentation could be used
instead of natural gas for the production
of ammonia.

When ammonia is used for the syn-
thesis of amino acids and polypeptides
and protein there is no significant loss
of material, whereas when ammonia is
applied to the soil as fertilizer only
a small fraction of the nitrogen is
returned as food at the end of the food
chain. The author estimated that for the
year 1969 in the United States the
amount was 15.6% (McPherson, 1972).
The recovery of other elements was even
less—8.7% for potassium and 5.5% for
phosphorus. Thus synthetic production
has a conspicuous advantage over agri-
culture in the saving of materials and
the energy consumed in their produc-
tion.

Accomplishing the Production of Food
by Synthesis

The production of food by synthesis
on a scale commensurate with world
needs can be foreseen as inevitable at
some time in the future. The under-
taking, as now visualized, is too complex
and too difficult to be done by industry.
It can be seen as best accomplished by
a unified, massive operation, in three
stages. The first stage would be the
preparation of a comprehensive pro-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

gram. The second would be the approval
of the program by leading men and
organizations of the world’s scientific
community. With their approval, the
third stage would be consideration of
the proposed program by political
leaders who would be in a position to
determine to support the program with
the provision of manpower, funds, and
priorities on a continuing basis. They
would provide for the manufacture, dis-
tribution, and utilization of the products.

Planning the Program.—The prepara-
tion of an adequate program will, in
itself, be an undertaking of the first
magnitude, inasmuch as it will require
_ the coordinated effort of persons drawn
from a number of disciplines including
nutrition, chemistry, engineering, poly-
mer science, physiology, food technology,
and social and political sciences. For-
tunately, there is a small prototype of
just such an operation. A summer work-
shop on synthetic carbohydrate was
conducted at Stanford University in the
summer of 1972 under the joint spon-
sorship of the University and the
National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration (Berman and Murashige,
1973). The participants in this study
were 18 young faculty members drawn
from universities throughout the United
States. The study dealt in detail with
possible processes, yields, costs, and
social and economic implications. Taking
India as an example, the study showed
that it would be possible to produce
starch from sugarcane bagasse at a com-
petitive price.

The study here contemplated would
require a larger number of participants
working together for a longer period of
time. It is suggested that the participants
be drawn from their positions in uni-
Versities, industry, and government on
special leave for an academic year. A
supporting staff, organized well in ad-
vance, would be required to draft pro-
cedures and make necessary prepara-
tions. The cost might be of the order of
one or two million dollars. In order to
get started some person of vision and

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

initiative must provide the spark and
motivate a university or other organiza-
tion to assume leadership of the plan-
ning operation and to secure, from
whatever source possible, the necessary
funds.

Endorsement by the Scientific Com-
munity. —The preparation of the program
would necessarily involve frequent com-
munication between the participants
and a wide range of individuals and
organizations both in the United States
and abroad. There would probably be
occasions in which committees or task
forces would be set up to deal with par-
ticular questions or problems. Thus,
scientists and others concerned with
world food supply would have consider-
able knowledge of the proposed program
in advance of its publication. With the
release and wide dissemination of the
proposed program the stage would be
set to seek endorsement by cognizant
scientific societies and other organiza-
tions, and, with endorsement, presenta-
tion of the program at the international
level.

Implementation by International Ac-
tion. —The World Food Council is the or-
ganization to which the proposed pro-
gram should be addressed. The Council
has been called by United Nations
Secretary General Waldheim, “‘the high-
est political body in the world which
deals exclusively with food problems.’’
The Council is not an operating agency.
Rather, it is concerned with stating
global objectives, outlining the measures
needed to attain them, and mobilizing
political and financial support.

The organization to which the Council
would logically turn for support of the
program would be the United Nations
Development Program. It is a financing,
programming, and monitoring agency,
funded by voluntary contributions from
governments. Agriculture, as might be
expected, is the largest single component
of its program with an expenditure of
$623 million in 1976. The UNDP
projects are usually actually administered

127

by other agencies such as the Food and
Agriculture Organization. The synthetic
production of food, however, differs so
greatly from any activity now in progress
that a wholly new organization would be
required for its effective conduct. The
new organization would, however, work
closely with FAO so as to coordinate,
insofar as possible, the output of man-
made food with deficits in agricultural
production. The aim would be to main-
tain the total amount of food produced
by agriculture and by synthesis at a level
determined by the World Food Council.

The new agency would engage in two
important activities in addition to the
production of essential nutrients and
other constituents of natural food prod-
ucts. One activity would be food process-
ing in which these various constituents
would be combined so as to duplicate
the composition and properties of a wide
variety of conventional foods. A second
activity would be distribution of food
with particular concern for the poor and
the underprivileged.

Poverty, Malnutrition, and Food

Vast numbers of people in the de-
veloping countries are caught in the
vicious circle of poverty and malnutrition.
Because they are poor, they cannot get
adequate food. Lacking food, they are
malnourished and lack vitality and
energy. Lacking energy, their work out-
put is low. With low output, they remain
in poverty.

The vicious circle can be broken by
a massive infusion of food—more
calories and more protein for men and
women, and especially for children. A
continuing supply of more and better
food should result in an almost immedi-

128

ate gain in productivity and, in the long
range, the increase in productivity
would lead to a higher standard of
living. There is ample evidence of the
relation between the number of calories
in the diet and the useful work ac-
complished, but the time scale of the
effect of increments of food on the
standard of living is less well defined but
equally certain in the long range.

Only with the production of man-
made food would it be possible to raise
the diet of a country or a region from a
near starvation or bare subsistence level
up to an optimal level in one major
operation and to maintain the diet at that
level without regard to variations in
agricultural production. The cost of the
operation will be large. It should not be
regarded as a humanitarian activity but
rather as an investment to be repaid in
the long range by a large gain in the
gross national product.

References Cited

Berman, G. A., and Murashige, K. H. (Eds.).
1973. Synthetic Carbohydrate. An Aid to Nu-
trition in the Future. NASA Contract NGR-
05-020-409. School of Engineering, Stanford

University.
Cohen, M. N. 1977. The Food Crisis in Pre-
history. Overpopulation and the Origins of

Agriculture. Yale Univ. Press.

Fischer, Emil. 1906. The chemistry of proteins
and their relation to biology. Sitzber. Preuss.
Akad. Wiss. 35. (1907).

Food and Agriculture Organization (Rome). 1978.
Press Release 77/119. C/22.

McPherson, A. T. 1959. Food, chemistry, and
civilization. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 50: 1-14 (1960).

. 1972. Synthetic foods: their present and
potential contribution to the world food supply.
Indian J. Nutr. Dietet. 9: 285-309.

Winitz, Milton, et al. 1965. The use of chemically de-
fined diets in metabolic studies. Nature 205:
741-743.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

What Price Should Society Pay for Conservation?

Oscar W. Albrecht

Senior Economist, Processing Branch, Solid & Hazardous Waste Research
Division, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268

ABSTRACT

Numerous external forces can cause divergencies between the socially optimal prices
and the prices that prevail in the market place. If prevailing market prices fail to reflect
conservation values at their true values, the prices are suboptimal from the viewpoint of
future generations and government intervention may be warranted. The real problem is in
estimating the value of conservation from every vantage point in time.

Much has been said in recent years
about the urgent need to conserve our
material resources through conservation
and recycling. Expressing the value of
conservation in monetary terms, how-
ever, is extremely difficult. Market
prices provide an indication of increasing
scarcity but whether current and fore-
seeable market prices adequately reflect

| the value of conservation from a long-run

perspective continues to be an issue.

This issue involves the economic well-
being of future generations. Decision-
makers must decide whether our natural
resources, especially the nonrenewable
resources, are being developed and con-
sumed too rapidly and if so, what policies
are needed to encourage conservation
and recycling. A review of the historical
concern over conservation sheds little
light on the problem. The major point to
be emphasized in this discussion is that
there is great difficulty involved in placing
a value on conservation, when viewed
from different points in time.

The Conservation Movement

The virtues of conservation were ex-

pounded centuries ago by well known
| economists such as Malthus and Ricardo

' Adapted from the EPA report entitled ‘*‘Evalua-
tion of Economic Benefits of Resource Conserva-
tion’”’ by Robert C. Anderson, Environmental Law

| Institute (EPA Grant No. R-803880.01-1).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

(1, 2). These writers expressed grave
concern over what they considered the
exploitation of natural resources result-
ing from rapid population growth. Later,
an organized group known as the Con-
servation Movement asserted that natural
resources prices were too low and were
being wastefully exploited and nearing
exhaustion. They maintained that ulti-
mately this would result in depriving
future generations of their rightful share
of the earth’s finite resources. As
examples of waste they pointed to the
flaring of natural gas from oil wells and
flooding of inactive mines when useful
ores remained. Their views were shared
by others in the past, and still are today
by many advocates of conservation.

The historical predictions of early
exhaustion, however, generally turned
out to be erroneous. For one reason,
subsequent discoveries of additional
deposits added to the existing reserves
on which the gloomy predictions were
based. And probably more important,
the predictions usually failed to recog-
nize that the demands were sensitive to
rising prices, and that technological
change and substitution also respond to
rising prices.

Market Allocation of Resources

Whether a free and competitive market
allocates exhaustible resources in a
socially optimal fashion is crucial to the

129

Table 1.—Impact of selected tax provisions on
market prices (in percent).

Federal State
tax depletion severance
Mineral allowance taxes
Pig iron = 5 =)
Copper =i +1.5
Lead —3 +1
Aluminum —2 +0.2

4 (For detailed information on the methodology
used in estimating these impacts, see the recent
EPA report, ‘““The Impact of the Tax Code on Re-
source Recovery’’ [EPA-600/2-76-009]).

question of whether new policies are
needed for conservation and recycling.
The traditional Pareto Optimal test re-
quires that a reallocation is desirable as
long as the change benefits someone
without adversely affecting someone
else. This criterion, however, relates to a
single point in time, while the problem of
valuing conservation extends over many
generations. The basic question is whether
resources are worth more, less, or the
same to succeeding generations as to the
present generation?

It may be assumed that in the long run,
prices of extractive resources will in-
crease despite technological improve-
ments because increased inputs of labor
and capital are needed per unit of extrac-
tive output. This is because in a competi-
tive market the high grade and readily
available ores are usually extracted first,
followed by extraction of the lower-grade
and more costly deposits. Extractors of
high-cost ores cannot compete as long as
the low-cost, readily obtainable deposits
exist.

The availability of some minerals, how-
ever, changes very little when extraction
shifts to a lower grade of ore, and this
makes for a relatively inelastic supply
curve for such minerals. For other
minerals, rising prices provide an incen-
tive to mine a lower grade which is
relatively plentiful. The Taconite ores are
an example. These ores are about 27
percent ferrous, or 3.4 times the average

130

of the earth’s crust. If prices rose suffi-
ciently, the entire earth’s crust could
conceivably become a potential supply of
iron ore. Another example is the bauxite
ores presently mined which contain about
2.2 times the average for the earth’s
crust. The relative abundance of these
low-grade ores, referred to as ‘““‘backstop
technology,”’ places an upper limit on the
price of a resource whenever there exists
an abundant though more expensive
substitute.

Rising prices stimulate research for
new ore deposits and also induce tech-
nological changes. This can result in
greater output per unit of production
input. The introduction of electric fur-
naces using practically 100 percent scrap

resulted from the increased scarcity and |

rising costs of virgin iron ores and the
readily available ferrous scrap. And the
substitution of steel for iron greatly
increased the strength to weight ratio,
resulting in increased output of consumer
goods per unit of iron ore input. Thus,
the market pricing system permits prices
to rise when scarcities loom, and the
increased prices serve to constrain re-
source exploitation and excessive waste.

The Effects of Biased Market Prices

While a free and competitive market
system may allocate resources in a
socially optimal fashion, various external
forces may tend to bias the optimal
prices and cause distortions in alloca-
tions. These external forces include those
of taxation, monopolies, externalities,
and uncertainties. The extractive sector,
for example, is affected by provisions in
various tax laws, including depletion
allowances, exploration and develop-
ment expenses, severance taxes, and
property and capital gains taxes. Their
influence on prices can cause production
to be either above or below the optimal
rate. When prices are biased below the
optimal, consumption and consequently
extraction are above the optimal and vice
versa. The estimated effect of the federal
depletion allowance and state severance

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

taxes on market prices for several
minerals is indicated in Table 1.

Monopolistic ownership of natural re-
sources can also bias the rate of extrac-
tions. Hotelling suggested that monopo-
lists tend to delay production, thereby
serving the interests of conservation
groups (3). Taking the opposite view,
Sweeney and Lewis believed that pat-
terns of demand growth configurations
might lead a monopolist to extract at a
faster rate than he would under competi-
tive ownership (4, 5).

The effects of uncertainty on produc-
tion decisions are generally assumed to
cause an acceleration in the rate of
extraction. The uncertainty may be with
regard to tenure or ownership, future
technology and costs, future taxes or
royalty payments. It is generally assumed
that resource owners tend to be risk
adverse. The conditions in politically
unstable countries often make for uncer-
tain tenure of ownership. Uncertainty
may tend to discourage exploration,
thus resulting in smaller known reserves
and consequently higher prices. And
when prices are above the true marginal
cost of extraction, production is below
the socially optimal rate (i.e., the rate
which would maximize the present value
of producer’s and consumer’s surpluses).

Market biases due to externalities is an
area of concern to both resource and
environmental economists. One example
of a pecuniary type of externality is in
the field of exploration, where the in-
formation generated upon the discovery
of an important deposit often conveys
valuable information to others searching
for deposits. The traditional market
mechanism generally fails to compensate
those making the initial discovery; in this
respect it also discourages expenditures
for exploration. Another kind of ex-
ternality is that associated with the
wastes from mining, smelting, and re-
fining activities. When such wastes im-
pose costs on others instead of being
internalized and reflected in the costs and
prices, then social costs exceed private

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

costs, and the quantity of output exceeds
that which is socially optimal.

The Perspective of Conservation from the Future
Generation’s Vantage Point

As resources become more scarce and
additional inputs of factors of reproduc-
tion are required per unit of output,
prices tend to rise; thus providing market
incentives for conservation, recycling,
improved technology, and substitution.
Given that these adjustments occur, the
question that remains is whether prevail-
ing market prices are sufficient indicators
of the value of conservation from the
perspective of future generations. The
question is, ‘‘Do prevailing market prices
correctly bring forth the rate of extrac-
tion based on the resource values as
perceived by our children, grandchildren,
great grandchildren, and generations yet
unborn?’’ This is the long-run perspec-
tive of the value of conservation! If
present prices do not perform this func-
tion, our present society is not conserving
or recycling at the rate that is socially
optimal. If the present rate of resource
extraction and use is excessive from the
long-run perspective, it means a lower
standard of living for generations to

Benefits

to ty Time

Fig. 1. Time profile of expected benefits

and costs.

131

come. On the other hand, if conservation
and recycling activities were carried to
the extreme, as some now propose, the
future might reveal that the present
generations sacrificed unnecessarily, opt-
ing for themselves lower living standards
in exchange for relatively higher living
standards for future generations.

Summary

The problem in estimating the value of
conservation arises in valuing resources
from every vantage point in time. Com-
petitive market prices, even in the ab-
sence of external biases, may not cor-
rectly determine resource use on the
basis of what the future holds for genera-
tions concerning resource scarcities. Our
present conservation goals and objec-
tives must therefore rely heavily on our
perception of the needs of future genera-
tions, admitting that we have inadequate
information on which to base decisions.
In prioritizing government projects, it is

132

a common practice to discount future
costs and benefits to arrive at a present
value estimate. A discount rate has the
effect of emphasizing the present, and
discounting the future. The long-standing
debate over rates and the appropriateness
of discounting the effects on future
generations is likely to continue for some
time to come.

References

(1) Malthus, T. An Essay on Population. Ward
Lock and Co., London, England, 1826.

(2) Ricardo, D. Principles of Political Economy.
Longmans, Green, and Co., Ltd. New York,
New York, 1929.

(3) Hotelling, H. The Economics of Exhaustible
Resources. Journal of Political Economy, 39
(2):137-—175, 1931.

(4) Sweeney, J. Economics of Depletable Re-
sources: Market Forces and Intertemporal
Bias. Review of Economic Studies, 44 (1):
125—141, 1977.

(5) Lewis, T. Monopoly Exploitation of an
Exhaustible Resource. Journal of Environ-
mental Economics and Management, 3 (3):
198-204, 1976.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

RESEARCH REPORTS

A Programming Approach to Planning
for Agricultural Resource Allocation

and Irrigation System Design’

Richard H. McCuen, Robert L. Powell, and Fred W. Dew

Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland,
College Park, MD 20742; Civil Engineer, Greenhorne & O’ Mara, Inc., 6715 Kenilworth
Avenue, Riverdale, MD 20840; and Civil Engineer, United States Navy; respectively.

ABSTRACT

With the increasing demand for food, regional growth may depend on the
development of marginal lands for the purpose of increasing agricultural output. Linear
programming can be effectively used in the initial planning and design of agricultural
systems. Case studies are used to demonstrate the use of linear programming in selecting
crops to yield the maximum profit, allocating land under conditions of constraints in
water supply, and determining the optimum design of the necessary irrigation systems.
The effect of crop rotation on the system design is also demonstrated. Post-optimal
analyses are performed to determine the relative importance of the design variables
on the optimum solution, the stability of the optimum solution and the relative impact

of data error.

In planning for engineering systems
and before an optimum design. can be
determined, it is necessary to specify
many system characteristics, including
physical characteristics of the site and its
environment. It is also necessary to
specify any physical, legal, or monetary
constraints that the optimum design
must satisfy. And finally, an optimality
criterion must be formulated for choos-
ing between alternate system designs.
However, even after the optimum con-
figuration has been determined, the
engineer should subject a proposed de-
sign to a complete post-optimal analysis.

' The contents of this paper do not necessarily
represent the views of the U. S. Navy or any
affiliation thereof.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Such an analysis is necessary to test the
stability of the optimum design to error
or variation in either the system con-
straints, the criterion used to test for
optimality, or estimates of the system
characteristics. Furthermore, a _ post-
optimal analysis may also be useful for
determining the relative importance of
the design variables.

With the growing demand for food,
one system of particular interest is the
development of marginal lands for the
purpose of increasing crop output. And
in many areas, especially those in arid
and semi-arid regions, the availability of
water is an important constraint on the
feasibility of reclaiming marginal lands
for crop production. In such cases, the
proper selection of crops, the allocation

133

of land parcels, and the installation of
properly designed irrigation systems
are three factors that may decide the
profits obtained from farming these
marginal lands.

Pipe networks are designed for use in
water supply systems, in agricultural
irrigation systems, and for transporting
petroleum products. The use of linear
programming as a planning tool for
determining the optimum configuration
of water distribution systems has pre-
viously been documented (Simonds and
Kinney, 1972; Hoppe and Viessman,
1972). The objective of this paper is to
demonstrate that the linear program-
ming model has application in the
analysis of agricultural systems. A meth-
odology is outlined for sequentially
determining the optimum distribution
of land use and the water distribution
system required to meet irrigation de-
mands. Hypothetical case studies are
used to demonstrate the proposed meth-
odology. A methodology is then pre-
sented in which the optimum design is
subjected to sensitivity analyses to de-
termine the relative importance of key
factors.

Model Formulation

Land Use Allocation.—To determine
the optimum allocation of land use, a
measure of optimality must be selected.
For this case study, the expected return
from the irrigation project was selected
as a means of comparing alternatives in
land use allocation. To determine the
optimum allocation of land use, the
following mathematical objective func-
tion was selected:

Maximize R = 5 r,a, wherea, =O (1)
i=1

where R is the total expected return
from the development, r; is the expected
return from i land use classification (in
dollars per unit area of land), and a; is
the optimum area allocated for land use
classification i.

The objective function that is used to
determine the optimum allocation of

134

land use is subject to several constraints.
First, the sum of the parcels of land
allocated to different land use must equal
the total area subject to development.
This constraint can be represented in the
linear programming model as:

Yas (2)

where A is the total area under de-
velopment. Second, there may be a max-
imum amount of water W (volume/day)
that is available for the irrigation de-
mand of the proposed project. In agri-
cultural planning, forecasts of the water
yield during the growing season may be
available during the spring measurement
of snow water content in the mountain-
ous parts of major watersheds (McCuen,
1977; Soil Conservation Service, 1972).
These forecasts may be used to quantify
W but because the forecasts may be in
error, a proposed plan should be evalu-
ated as to its sensitivity to error in the
forecast of W. Mathematically, the water-
availability constraint is:

S wiaj = W (3)
i=1

where w, is the water requirement for
land use classification 1 (volume/area-
day). The amount of land devoted to
each land use classification can then be
determined for given values of r,, Ww,
W and A. After the m areas (a;) are
determined, the expected return R can
be determined from the linear objective
function of equation 1.

Pipe Network Design.—The objective
function used to determine the optimum
pipe distribution is the minimization of
the installation costs:

m
Minimize P = YS c,x; where x;=0 (4)
i=1
where P is the total minimum installa-
tion cost of the distribution system ($),
c; is the unit cost per foot for installation
of a pipe ($/foot), x; is the optimum
length of pipe (feet) in reach j, and n is
the total number of pipe segments.
The cost of the pipe c, is a function

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

of pipe diameter, and the size of the
pipe depends on the water requirements
of the crop in subarea a;. Thus, the
optimization process must be executed
sequentially; that is, the optimum sub-
areas a; allocated to a specific crop must
be determined before the water require-
ments can be determined. And after
determining the proper pipe network
design, it is necessary to check the op-
timum allocation of land use for crops.
However, in evaluating planning al-
ternatives, it will usually not be necessary
to make changes to the allocation of
land use.

The objective function for the pipe
distribution system is also subject to
several constraints. Since a reach may
include pipes of different diameters, the
total length of pipes of different di-
ameters in a reach must equal the total
length of the reach; thus, the objective
function, Equation 4, is subject to the
constraint:

k
xe, — 3, yl 2s. (5)
i=1

where x; is the optimum length of pipe of
segment i in reach j, L, is the total length
of pipe in reach j, k is the total number
of segments in reach j, and u is the num-
ber of reaches.

The head loss in the pipe distribution
system is also important in determining
the optimum pipe distribution system.
The objective function is also subject to
the following head loss constraint:

SS eal (6)
=1

where sg; is the friction loss (ft/ft) associ-
ated with pipe diameter d,, and H is the
elevation head (ft) measured from the
discharge point to source elevation head.
The friction loss s; can be determined
from Scobey’s formula (Littleton, 1953):

S; = KV ids (7)

where K, is a constant having a value
of 0.40 for welded steel irrigation pipe.
The velocity V; (ft/sec) is determined
from the equation:

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Vi = Q)/(0.78d;”) (8)

where Q, is the flow in pipe segment j
(ft?/sec), and is determined from the
equation:

Q; = k,wia; (9)

where k, is a conversion factor (acre-ft/
day to ft?/sec).

Case Study

The above objective functions and
constraint equations were applied to a
10 acre (40470 m?) plot subject to con-
tinuous cropping practices (Figure 1).
The water source was capable of sup-
plying 0.150 acre-feet/day (185 m?/day).
The values in Table 1 show the expected
return from four crops and their water
requirements. The expected return
values are used to formulate the follow-
ing objective function:

Maximize R = 500a, + 400a,

+ 300a; + 450a, (10)
The area constraints are:
a, +a, +a, +a, =10 (11)
a, + a=) (12)
a5 sdge = 2 (13)

The water requirements of the four
crops are used to formulate the follow-
ing additional constraint equation:

0.0175a, + 0.0112a, + 0.0140a;
+ 0.008a, = 0.150 (14)

—

Fig. 1. Plot characteristics, continuous cropping.

135

Table 1.—Crop data for continuous and rotation cropping practices.

Continuous Cropping

Crop Corn

Expected Return ($/acre) 500

Expected Return ($/m?) .124

Water Demand (=) .0175
da

Water Demand (m?/day) 26

Rotational Cropping

Crop Corn

Expected Return ($/acre) 500

Expected Return ($/m?) .124

Water Demand (= .0175
day

Water Demand (m?/day) 21.6

The simplex method was used to solve
the linear programming problem. The
optimum land use allocation for the
four crops was determined to be a,
= 7.368 acres (29818 m”), a. = a; = 0,
a, = 2.632 acres (10652 m?), and the
expected return was R = $4868.40. By
planting 7.368 acres of corn and 2.632
acres of wheat a maximum return of
$4868.40 will be achieved; such a land
use allocation will require 0.150 acre-ft/
day (185 m?/day) of water, which is the
maximum yield of the water source.
Having determined the areas used for
the different crops the optimum con-
figuration of the pipe distribution sys-
tem can be determined. The proposed
water distribution system is shown in
Figure 1. Since wheat has a lower water
demand than corn, the 2.632 acre
(10652 m?) plot devoted to wheat is
placed at the end of the pipe distribution
network. The physical characteristics of
the plot and the water demand for each
subarea are given in Table 2. The
physical characteristics of the pipe net-
work system and the unknowns are

Beans Potatoes Wheat
400 300 450
.099 074 111
.0112 .0140 .0080
13.8 173 9.87
Wheat Clover
450 150
Fit .037
.0080 .0100
9.87 133

given in Table 3. The friction slopes s;
were computed from equation 10. The
pipe cost C, data includes purchase and
installation per linear foot of pipe and
was taken from Building Construction
Cost Data (Means, 1973).

To determine the unknown lengths of
pipe, the data from Table 3 was used to
formulate the objective function:

Minimize P = 3.25X, + 4.10X, |

+: 5, 22X, +, 1.75 Xa epee

+ 2.50X, + 3.25X, + 1.75Xg

+ 2.50X%5 +. 2.50 X49, +32

Because the total lengths of pipe of
different diameters in each reach must
equal the reach length, the objective
function, equation 15, is subject to the
constraints:

The objective function is also subject to the following head loss constraints:

0.01554X, + 0.00380X, + 0.00052X; + 0.03168X,) + 0.00434X,, = 25

136

X, +X, + XK, =300 (16)
MS, Se ee = 330 (17)
ee > € = 200 (18)
Xe APG ='330 (19)
Said Ne = 220 (20)

(21)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

_ 0.01554X, + 0.00380X, + 0.00052X, + 0.10438X, + 0.00350X,
+ 0.03168X,, + 0.00434X,, = 30 (22)
0.01554X, + 0.00380X, + 0.00052X, + 0.02938X, + 0.00403X, = 25 (23)
0.01554X, + 0.00380X, + 0.00052X, + 0.08117X, + 0.00272X,
+ 0.02938X, + 0.00403X, = 30 (24)

The above linear programming model
was solved using the simplex method and
provided the optimum pipe lengths
shown in Table 4. A minimum cost of
$3314.90 was determined for the objec-
tive function of Equation 15.

Maximize R = 500 4
The Effect of Crop Rotation. — The ob- See 500a; + 450a, + et .
jective functions and constraints defined . |
_ by equations 1—9 were also applied to subject to the following area constraints:

values in Table 1 show the expected
annual return for each crop and the
corresponding daily water requirements.
From this data the following objective
function was formulated:

the same 10-acre plot shown in Figure 1 eae a 10 (26)

for a crop rotation system. Rotation se-

quencing for the system was based on a. + as =D (27)

standard agricultural practices using one n = 4 (28)
i >

year of corn, followed by one year of
wheat, and then one year of clover. The The objective function is also subject to

Table 2.—Plot characteristics: Continuous cropping.

Water demand Pipe flow Pipe

Area —— — length Elevation
Sub _ (m?/sec Pipe (m3/sec (ee
area (acres) (m7?) Crop (cfs) 107?) segment (cfs) 10-3) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)
1 2.632 10652 wheat 0212 .60 Bl .0212 .60 330 ~=s:101 700" 2103
2 3.000 12141 corm .0530 1.50 B2 .0742 2.10 200 61 7D 1229
3 1.368 5536 corn .0242 .69 B3 .0242 .69 330 ~=—s:101 gO, ies
4 3.000 12141 corn .0530 1.50 B4 .0772 2.18 200 61 ASL 229
R .1510 4.28 300 91 100 30.5

Table 3.—Pipe system data, continuous cropping.

Diameter Friction
Pipe Pipe a Cost Cost slope
reach segment (inches) (cm) ($/ft) ($/m) (ft/ft)
R XG 3 7.62 35) 10.66 .01554
xs 4 10.16 4.10 13.45 .00380
X3 6 15.24 5122 1718 .00052
f Bl X, 1 2.54 Le 5.74 .08117
Xs 2 5.08 2.50 8.20 .00272
Xe Zz 5.08 2.50 8.20 .02938
x g) 7.62 525 10.66 .00403
B3 x 1 2.54 aS 5.74 .10438
<< 2 5.08 2.50 8.20 .00350
B4 Xe 2 5.08 2.50 8.20 .03 168
a 3 7.62 395 10.66 00434

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978 137

the following water demand constraints:

0.0175a, + 0.0080a, + 0.0010a; = 0.15
0.0080a, + 0.0100a, + 0.0175a; = 0.15
0.0100a, + 0.0175a, + 0.0100a; = 0.15

Using the simplex method the optimum
land use allocation was determined to be
a, = 5.0 acres (20235 m?), a, = 3.0 acres
(12141 m?), and a; = 2.0 acres (8094 m7).
The expected return for this allocation
is $4150.00 for the first year. The water
demand is 0.132 acre-ft/day (163 m?/
day), which is less than the maximum
yield of the water source. The total re-
turn for the three year rotation cycle is
1000, regardless of the initial land
allocation.

After determining the optimum land
allocation, the optimum pipe distribution
system, as shown in Figure 2, can be
determined. Since the irrigation system

(29)
(30)
(31)

must supply the water demands for all
three years of the rotation cycle the water
demand for each year of the cycle must be
used for the determination of the opti-
mum pipe system. The physical charac-
teristics and water demands for the plot
and pipe system are given in Table 5.
Physical characteristics of the pipe
system are given in Table 6. The pipe cost
C; includes purchase and installation and
was taken from Building Construction
Cost Data (Means, 1973).

Determination of the optimum pipe
lengths in the system were based on min-
imizing the construction cost given by the
following objective function:

Minimize P = 3.25X, + 4.10X, + 5.22X, + 1.75X, + 2.50X; + 2.50X,

+. 3.25Xq..4- 1.73Xg. 44 2.50X, se. 2: SOXG eee

(32)

Using the reach lengths shown in Table 2 the objective function is subject to the

following length constraints:

Xr XE 00

Ones &
Me MK:
Ky ce,
EO

Table 4.—Optimum pipe network design, con-
tinuous cropping.

Pipe length

Pipe Pipe
reach segment (ft) (m)
R xe 300.0 91.4
Bl x; 236.6 Ieee
Xe 93.4 28.5
B2 Xe 200.0 61.0
B3 xe 176.9 53.9
xe L581 46.7
Xa6 200.0 61.0
138

(33)
= 330 (34)
= 200 (35)
= 330 (36)
= 200 (37)

Fig. 2. Plot characteristics, rotational cropping.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

The objective function is also subject to the following head loss constraints for the
three-year rotation cycle:

| 0.01221X, + 0.00298X, + 0.00041X, + 0.01107X, + 0.00152X, = 25 (38)
0.01221X, + 0.00298X, + 0.00041X,; + 0.07405X, + 0.00248X,

+ 0.01108X, + 0.00152X, = 30 (39)

0.01221X, + 0.00298X, + 0.00041X; + 0.04116X,, + 0.00564X%,, = 25 (40)
0.01221X, + 0.00298X,; + 0.00041X, + 0.21272X, + 0.00712X,

+ 0.04116X,,) + 0.00564X%,, = 30 (41)

- 0.00791X, + 0.00193X, + 0.00026X, + 0.02312X, + 0.00317X, = 25 (42)
0.00791X, + 0.00193X, + 0.00026X, + 0.21272X, + 0.00712X,

+ 0.02312X, + 0.00317X, = 30 (43)

0.00791 X, + 0.00193X, + 0.00026X,; + 0.00926X,,) + 0.00127X,, = 25 (44)
0.00791X, + 0.00193X, + 0.00026X, + 0.04869X, + 0.00163X,

+ 0.00926X,, + 0.00127X,, = 30 (45)

0.01004X, + 0.00245X, + 0.00034X,; + 0.02602X, + 0.00357X, = 25 (46)
0.01004X, + 0.00245X, + 0.00034X,; + 0.04869X, + 0.00163X;,

+ 0.02602X, + 0.00357X, = 30 (47)

0.01004X, + 0.00245X, + 0.00034X; + 0.01409X,, + 0.00193X,, = 25 (48)
0.01004X, + 0.00245X, + 0.00034X; + 0.07405X, + 0.00248X,

+ 0.01409X,, + 0.00193X,, = 30 (49)

The above linear programming model
was solved to yield the pipe sizes shown a cost of $3492.20 for the pipe distribu-
in Table 7. The objective function yielded tion system. This system was designed to

Table 5.—Plot characteristics —rotational cropping.

Water demand Pipe flow Pipe
Rota- Area —— Pipe SS length Elevation
tion Sub — (m3/sec seg- (m?/sec
year area (acres) (m?) Crop (cfs) 10-3) ment (cfs) 10-%) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)
1 1 2 8094 clover 0.0202 0.57 Bl 0.0202 0.57 330 = 101 70) 3213
2 3 12141 wheat 0.0242 0.68 B2 0.0444 1.26 200 61 15) 2259
3 2 8094 corm 0.0352 1.00 B3 0.0352 1.00 330 = 101 10) 213
4 3 12141 com 0.0534 esi B4 0.0886 PyS il 200 61 75) 4 22:9
R 0.1330 Sei 300 91 100 30.5
2 1 72 8094 corn 0.0352 1.00 Bl 0.0352 1.00 330 = 101 TO 23
D 3 12141 clover 0.0302 0.86 B2 0.0654 1.85 200 61 ey 22S)
3 2 8094 wheat -0.0162 0.46 B3 0.0162 0.46 330 = 101 TO ee2leS
4 3 12141 wheat 0.0242 0.68 B4 0.0404 1.14 200 61 (ky 22S?
R 0.1058 3.00 300 91 100 30.5
3 1 2 8094 wheat 0.0162 0.46 Bl 0.0162 0.46 33001 Te es
71 3 12141 com 0.0534 1.51 B2 0.0696 1.97 200 61 ie 7229
3 D 8094 clover 0.0202 0.57 B3 0.0202 0.57 330 ~=s:'101 70 1 2ae3
4 3 12141 clover 0.0302 0.86 B4 0.0504 1.43 200 61 JD F22E9
R 0.1200 3.40 300 91 100 =30.5

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978 139

Table 6.—Pipe system data—rotational cropping.

Pipe diameter

Pipe
segment

Pipe

reach (inches)

R Xy 3

Xz 4

X3 6

Bl X4 1

x 2

B2 X, 2

Xz 3

B3 Xz l

x 2

B4 X40 Z

meet the irrigation needs of the study plot
for the three-year rotation cycle.

Post Optimal Analysis

In reference to a post optimal analysis,
Dantzig (1963) stated, ‘‘In many applica-
tions, the information thus obtained is
as valuable as the specification of the
optimum solution itself’’. Most post
optimum analyses involve the derivation

140

(cm)

1.62

10.16

15.24

2.54

5.08

7.62

2.54

5.08

762

Pipe cost
Friction slope
(ft/ft or m/m)

($/ft) ($/m)

BE) 10.66 0.01221
0.00791

0.01004

0.00298
0.00193
0.00245

0.00041
0.00026
0.00034

4.10 13.45

22 17.13

1.75 5.74 0.07405
0.21272

0.04869

0.00248
0.00712
0.00163

8.20

8.20 0.01108
0.02312

0.02602

0.00151
0.00317
0.00357

3225 10.66

1.75 5.74 0.21272
0.04869

0.07405

0.00713
0.00163
0.00248

2.50 8.20

0.04116
0.00926
0.01409

0.00564
0.00127
0.00193

20) 8.20

3:25 10.66

of sensitivity estimates. Sensitivity can
be expressed in either absolute or relative
form (McCuen, 1972). Absolute sensi-
tivity, $,, is defined as the rate of change
of output 0 with respect to change in in-
put or a system characteristic P:

AO
AP

However, since the magnitude of an

S$, = (50)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

_ different system characteristics.

Par

absolute sensitivity estimate is a func-
tion of the units of both the output and
system characteristics, absolute sensi-

_ tivity estimates cannot be used for making

comparisons of the relative importance of
The
relative sensitivity is not a function of the
units of measurement and thus, it is
frequently used to compare the relative
importance of the input and system
characteristics. The relative sensitivity
R, is defined as the percentage change
AO in the system output O that results
from a one percent change in a system
characteristic or input:

B= (5 )/(F)

where AP is the change in an input or
system characteristic P.

The optimum land use distribution was
subjected to sensitivity analyses. Spe-
cifically, analyses were performed to
determine the sensitivity of the optimum
land use distribution and profit to changes
in water requirements of and profit from
the crops in the optimum solutions. The
results are shown in Tables 8 and 9. The
profit is comparatively sensitive to
changes in the profit from the crops,
especially the profit in corn. For the con-
tinuous cropping system, a 10% change in
the profit from corn and wheat will cause
a 7.6 percent and 2.4 percent change in

Table 7. Optimum pipe network design, rotation
cropping.

Pipe length

Pipe Pipe
reach segment (ft) (m)
R KG 300.0 91.4
Bl XG 100.5 30.6
X; 229.5 70.0
B2 Xe 200.0 61.0
B3 Xz 76.6 785-5}
Xo 253.4 Wil
B4 Sp 200.0 61.0

total profit, respectively. Error or changes
in the water requirements of corn and
wheat produce a relatively smaller change
in profit. A 10 percent change in water
requirements of corn and wheat cause
changes of 1.5 and 0.2 percent, respec-
tively, in the total profit. For the rota-
tional cropping system a 10 percent
change in the profit from corn, wheat
and clover produced a change of 4.6, 4.1
and 1.4 percent, respectively, in the total
profit for the three year rotation period.
The maximum sensitivity during any of
the three years to changes in crop profits
is dependent on the relative size of the
expected profit for each crop and the re-
spective area under cultivation. Changes
in the water demand had no effect on
the optimum solutions since the max-
imum demand at the optimum solution is
less than the available supply. A 12 per-
cent reduction in the available water

Table 8.—Sensitivity analyses land use allocation—continuous cropping.

Change Rela-
Area in corn Area in wheat in tive
Se Profit, profit, sensi-
Problem (acres) (m?) (acres) (m7?) $ $ tivity
Optimum solution 7.368 29820 2.632 10650 4868.40 _— —
cost coefficient for corn changed
from $500 to $490 7.368 29820 2.632 10650 4794.70 —73.70 755
cost coefficient for wheat changed
from $450 to $440 7.368 29820 2.632 10650 4842.10 — 26.30 241
water requirements of corn changed
from 0.0175 to 0.0170 acre-feet/day
(70.82 to 68.80 m*/day) 7.778 31480 DDD 8990 4888.90 20.50 145
water requirements of wheat changed
from 0.008 to 0.0075 acre-feet/day
(32.37 to 30.35 m3/day) 7.500 30350 2.500 10120 4875.00 6.60 —.021
J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978 141

Table 9.—Sensitivity analyses pipe network design—continuous cropping.

Length of
pipe segment

(3")
(1")
(2")
(2")
(1")
Xg (2")
X19 (2")

X,
X4
X;
Xs,
Xs

Total cost of pipe
network

Change in total cost

Relative sensitivity

* Optimum
solution
feet meters
300 91.4
237 202
93 28.3
200 61.0
UF) 53.9
153 46.6
200 61.C
$3314.90

Head reduced

by one foot
(0.305 m)
feet meters
300 91.4
224 68.3
106 32.3
200 61.0
167 50.9
163 49.7
200 61.0
$3331.90
$17.00
—0.141

Cost of pipe

increased increased
by 5% by 10%
feet meters feet meters
300 91.4 300 91.4
237 9/9) 202 61.6
93 28.3 128 39.0
200 61.0 200 61.0
177, 53.9 150 CRY /
153 46.6 180 54.9
200 61.0 200 61.0
$3484.10 $3361.20
$169.20 $46.30
1.02 0.140

Friction slope

supply could be absorbed without chang-
ing the optimum land use allocation. The
results of the post optimal analyses
suggest that the profit from the invest-
ment is more dependent on small changes

in profit from the individual crops than
in small fluctuations in water require-
ments. When the cost of pipe is increased
by 5 percent the cost coefficients of equa-
tion 18 must change. For the continuous

Table 10.—Sensitivity analysis land use allocation—rotational cropping.

Area
Rela-
Rota- Corn Wheat Clover Change tive
tion in sensi-
Problems year (acres) (m?) (acres) (m*) (acres) (m7?) Profit profit tivity
Optimum solution 1] 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 $4150.00 _ —
2 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 $3700.00 _— —
3 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 $3150.00
SY = $11000.00
Cost coefficient for corn changed 1 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 $4100.00 $—50.00 .602
from $500 to $490 2 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 $3680.00 $—20.00 .270
3 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 $3120.00 $—30.00 .476
¥ = $10900.00 $—100.00 455
Cost coefficient for wheat changed 1 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 $4120.00 $—30.00 B325
from $450 to $440 2 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 $3650.00 $—50.00 .608
3 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 $3130.00 $—20.00 .286
¥ = $10900.00 $—100.00 .409
Cost coefficient for clover changed 1 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 $4130.00 $—20.00 .072
from $150 to $140 2 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 3.0 12141 $3670.00 $—30.00 Se
3 3.0 12141 2.0 8094 5.0 20235 $3100.00 $—50.00 .238
¥ = $10900.00 $—100.00 136
Water requirement corn changed
from 0.0175 to 0.0180 ac-ft/day
(70.82 to 72.84 m3/day) No change in optimum solution $0.00 0.000
Water req. wheat changed from
0.009 to 0.0085 ac/ft/day (32.37
to 34.40 m%/day) No change in optimum solution $0.00 0.000
Water req. clover changed from
0.0100 to 0.0105 ac-ft/day (40.47
to 42.49 m°/day) No change in optimum solution $0.00 0.000

142

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Table 11.—Sensitivity analysis pipe network design—rotational cropping.

Head
reduced Cost of pipe Friction type
Optimum by one foot increased increased
solution (.305 meters) by 5% by 10%
Length of —
pipe segment (ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)
ee) 300 91.4 300 91.4 300 91.4 300 91.4
i (1”) 100 30.5 96 29.3 100 30.5 87 26.5
xe (2") 230 70.1 234 71.3 230 70-1 243 74.1
Me (2") 200 61.0 200 61.0 200 61.0 200 61.0
ea Gl”) Tal 23.5 72 21.9 Te 23-5 63 1922
Pina (2,,.) 233 Tal 258 78.6 253 Ihiled | 267 81.4
Keg (2) 200 61.0 200 61.0 200 61.0 200 61.0
Total cost of pipe
network $3492.20 $3499.50 $3670.90 $3512.10
Change in total cost 7.30 $178.70 19.90
Relative sensitivity 2057: 1.02 .057

cropping system, this produced a relative
change in the total cost of 1.02; that is,
a 10 percent change in the cost of pipe
will result in a 10.2 percent change in total
project cost. A change of 10 percent in
either the total head or the friction slope
produces a change of approximately 1.4
percent in total cost.

For the rotational cropping system an
increase in pipe cost again produced a
relative sensitivity of 1.02. Changes in the
total head or friction slope yielded a
relative sensitivity of 0.057. Thus, the
optimum solution is much more sensitive
to changes in pipe cost than either error
or changes in source elevation, head, or
the friction slope (see Tables 10 and 11).

Conclusions

Linear programming can be employed
effectively in the initial planning and
design phases of agricultural systems.
The linear programming model can pro-
vide reasonable estimates of land use
distribution and pipe network designs.
Depending on the project objectives, a
more complex objective function and
additional constraint equations may be
introduced to reflect additional factors
such as the rental cost of the land,
machinery costs, and labor requirements.
The linear programming model can also

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

be used to optimize regional land use
allocation as well as small scale develop-
ment.

A post optimal analysis that includes
a sensitivity study can provide valuable
information about the stability of the
optimum solution. A sensitivity analysis
can be used to study the effect of uncer-
tainty in measured quantities (McCuen,
1974). The requirements to thoroughly
examine fluctuations in the water supply
was demonstrated herein. Thus, it is
necessary to have a reliable and suf-
ficient quantity of hydrologic data.

Notation

= jth structural coefficient for ith
constraint equation

total project area

area of ith parcel of land

ith stipulation in linear program-
ming model

weighting (cost) coefficient for the
ith decision variable

unit cost per foot of pipe for in-
stallation of pipe of diameter d;
diameter of pipe segment j
empirical coefficient in Scobey’s
formula

number of pipe segments in reach j
conversion factor (acre feet/day to
cubic feet/second)

Ai;
A
aj
bj
C;

A Ae 2
|

~
Ko)

143

H = elevation head measured from the
water source to the point of dis-
charge

L,; = total length of pipe in reach j

m = number of land use classifications

n =total number of pipe segments
from water source to outlet

Oo = output of the system

P = optimum total installation cost of
the pipe network

Q, = flow in pipe reach j

I; = expected return from i™ parcel of
land

R =total expected return from the
project

R, = relative sensitivity

S,; = friction loss associated with pipe
diameter d,; of segment j

u = total number of pipe reaches

V; = velocity of water in pipe of diam-
eter d, in segment j

WwW; = water requirements for ith parcel
of land

W = total water demand for project

optimum length of pipe iin areach

$, = absolute sensitivity

ae
T

References Cited

Dantzig, G. B. 1963. Linear Programming and
Extensions. Princeton University Press, Prince-
ton, N. J., 625 pp.

Hoppel, S. K., and W. Viessman. 1972. A linear
analysis of a water supply system. Water Re-
sources Bulletin 8(2): 304-10.

Littleton, C. T. 1953. Industrial Piping. McGraw-
Hill Book Co.

McCuen, R. H. 1973a. The role of sensitivity
analysis in hydrologic modeling. Journal of
Hydrology 18: 37-53.

. 1973b. Component sensitivity: A tool for

the analysis of complex water resource sys-

tems. Water Resources Research 9(1): 243-6.

. 1977. Application of Statistical Methods
for Water Supply Forecasting on the Sevier
River, Utah. Technical Report, Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Maryland,
College Park, Md.

Means, R. S. 1973. Building Construction Cost
Data, 1973. Construction Consultants and Pub-
lishers, 31st Edition.

Simond, R. A., and L. A. Kinney. 1972. Application
of Operation Research Methods for USBR Pipe
Distribution Systems. Paper presented at ASCE
National Water Resources Engineering Meeting,
Atlanta, Ga.

Soil Conservation Service. 1972. Snow Survey and
Water Supply Forecasting. Section 22, SCS
National Engineering Handbook, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

Anuran Locomotion —Structure and Function:

The Jumping Forces of Frogs

George R. Zug and Ronald Altig

Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, DC 20560, and Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi
State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762 respectively.

The flight of a jumping frog has
been frequently compared to the trajec-
tory of a missile or projectile (Gray,
1953; Gans and Rosenberg, 1966; Calow
and Alexander, 1973). As such, the gen-
eral ballistic equation and its related
equations with minor modifications have
been accepted as adequate mathematical
descriptors of a frog’s jump. To date,
these equations have been examined

144

only by using a single value of terminal
velocity at liftoff or distance jumped
(Gray, 1968; Calow and Alexander,
1973). Our goal has been to record the
maximum force at liftoff in a variety of
frog species in order to determine if
our measure of force and the general
ballistic equation or a modification
thereof provide a reasonable estimate of
terminal velocity and distance jumped.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Materials and Methods

Adult males of 10 species of frogs
(scientific names and sample sizes listed
in Table 1) were collected in Oktibbeha
and Hancock Counties, Mississippi, dur-
ing the spring of 1975. The weight
(nearest 0.1 g), snout-vent length, and
right hindlimb length (nearest 0.1 mm)
were recorded for each frog immedi-
ately following its jumping test. In most
cases, the frogs were tested within 24
hr of capture.

The force platform was a water-filled
tambor constructed from a plastic funnel
(64 mm mouth diameter) covered by a
thin plastic diaphragm. The tambor
was connected via Tygon tubing through
a Strathmore pressure transducer to a
Beckman Dynagraph. The tambor was
calibrated by placing metal balance
weights on the diaphragm. The resulting
Dynagraph records provide a summa-
tion of the forces applied during
jumping and the duration of these forces.

For the tests, the tambor diaphragm
was covered with moist absorbent paper
in order to provide sufficient friction to
enable the frog to jump normally. The
frog was placed on the diaphragm with
its hindfeet in the center, thus permitting
maximum downward displacement of
the diaphragm. Each frog was tested
once.

Results and Discussion

The initial data are summarized in
Table 1. Since the samples were restricted
to adult males, variations in the length
measurements of each species are low
(coefficients of variation, 5—8). In con-
trast, weight variation is higher (cv,
10—35), and the force and its duration
are even higher (cv, 15—5S0 and 20-85,
respectively). A portion of variation in
the latter 2 parameters undoubtedly
results from the design of the force plat-

form and experimental procedure; how-

ever, consecutive leaps of a frog are
seldom equidistant (Zug, 1978). Thus,
the jumping distances of a single frog or
a sample of equal-sized frogs will show
considerable variation as will also the
force and duration that are responsible
for propelling the frog forward.

The naturalness of the force data may
be evaluated by using these data to
estimate the terminal velocities prior to
liftoff and the distances traveled (Table
2). In most cases, these estimates differ
only slightly from actual jumping dis-
tances, i.e., distances from Zug (1978).
The estimated velocities and distances,
hence the forces, are lower than ‘‘normal’’
for Hyla chrysoscelis, H. gratiosa, and
Pseudacris triseriata. Presumably, the indi-
viduals of these species were not jumping
normally, because the similarity of actual

Table 1.—A summary of the jumping tests. The first number in each column is the mean, the second the

standard deviation.

Snout-vent Hindlimb Body Duration
length length weight Force of force
N (mm) (mm) (g) (g) (sec)
Hylidae
Acris gryllus 4 Der ee 1 ay AVG = 13 FORE 332 G32 .054 + .047
Hyla avivoca 23 3482.1 3323 + 345 DES 4 P1.4°3320 (030 017
H. chrysoscelis 5) AAD 3.0 612 = 4.9 G4 = 14 12.9 + 320 .027 + .011
H. cinerea 8 5.622: 2-8 86.3 + 5.8 Seats hey 2:5 i RR Sa .058 + .034
H. crucifer 3 30.8 + 1.4 47.0 + 5.1 1:8 EFS 9.1 + 1.4 .035 + .008
H. femoralis 3 524 = 08 Ay .4 = 2.0 DOSE 60 ee eae: 1042-2018
H. gratiosa 3) 65.2 = 4.0 ot 1 + 33 114 42 222 ba .066 + .034
Pseudacris nigrita 1 28.0 41.1 1.0 3.2 .027
P. triseriata 1 37 45.0 1.8 2.8 .037
Microhylidae
Gastrophryne
carolinensis 1 29.5 36 eal | ral 6.0 0.047
145

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Table 2.—A comparison of estimated jumping distances to actual jumping distances (from Appendix,

Table B in Zug, 1978).

Estimated Estimated
Velocity Distance Mean
Taxon (cm/sec) (cm) Distance Difference

A. gryllus 223.9 SZ 47.4 3.8
H. avivoca 218.3 48.6
H. chrysoscelis Ss 24.7 44.6 —19.9
H. cinerea 207.0 43.7 49.7 —6.0
H. crucifer 215-8 47.5 50.5 —3.0
H. femoralis 187.5 So9 39.5 —3.6
H. gratiosa 186.5 35.5 47.0 S158)
P. nigrita 160.6 26.3 26.5 =)
P. triseriata LIZ. 14.0 44.3 —30.3
G. carolinensis 136.2 18.9 roel —0.2

@ Velocities were calculated from Gray’s (1968) force equation F = (WV?) =~ (2 gs); W, body weight;
g, gravity; s, hindlimb length. The estimated distances were calculated from the ballistic equation (Gans
and Rosenberg, 1966), D = (V” sin 26) + g; the angle was assumed to be 45°. Note that a deviation from
45° will decrease jumping distance but not significantly so until about +10°.

and estimated distances for the other
species indicate that the force platform
and experimental procedure were pro-
viding an accurate measure of the forces
applied during natural jumping.

We must emphasize that the close
similarity between the estimated and
observed jumping distances derives only
from Gray’s and Gans’ equations (see
legend of Table 2). The equations V
=s +t and D= V? = ¢ (where V°is
average velocity during propulsive phase
of jump; s, distance during propulsion
or hindlimb length; t, time or duration
of force; D, distance jumped) greatly
underestimate velocity and jumping
distance. An overestimate of velocity and
jumping distance was obtained from the
equations A = Fg + W,V =A ~=t,and
D = (V2 = g) sin 20.

Table 3.—A linear correlation coefficient matrix
comparing five jumping parameters in A. gryllus,
H. cinerea, H. crucifer, H. femoralis, P. nigrita, and
G. carolinensis.

BW F Dut Die AL

Body weight 1:00: ~ 0962 0:55. 0.22 07932
Force 00) 0°43 .0.47 "942
Duration 100% O40" 0:37
Distance (estim.) 1.00 0.35

Hindlimb length 1.00

a A significant correlation at 0.05 level.

146

An interspecific comparison of several
jumping parameters (Table 3) shows
significant positive correlations between
force (Y) and body weight (X), force
(Y) and hindlimb length (X), and body
weight (Y) and hindlimb length (X).
More force is required to propel a
heavier frog; more force is produced by
longer hindlimbs; and as a frog becomes
larger, its body weight and hindlimb
length increase. Although these correla-
tions would be expected in an intra-
specific comparison, they might not
occur in an interspecific comparison,
which includes frog species with dif-
ferent jumping behaviors and abilities.
We suspect our results obtain from the
preponderance of hylid species in the
sample, because they are similar in
behavior and ability. The low correla-
tions between jumping distance and
force or hindlimb length are surprising;
force and hindlimb length are strongly
correlated and are used to estimate the
jumping distance, hence jumping dis-
tance would also be assumed to show a
high correlation to both of them.

Gans and Rosenberg (1966) proposed
that the force of a jump was proportional
to 7/6 power of body weight in Bufo
marinus. Although our data show a sig-
nificant correlation between force and
weight (Table 3: Y = 3.47 + 2.19X; Y

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

= 4.69X°* r= 0:90; Y, force; X, body
weight), they are not suitable for testing
this relationship, because bufonids are
weak jumpers and our sample is dom-
inated by strong jumpers. We do, how-
ever, wish to correct the typographical
error in Gans’ and Rosenberg’s deriva-
tion, because F7M~? ~ M!? becomes F?
~ M7® or F ~ M”” and not F ~ M’“*.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Drs. S. Emerson,
C. Gans, W. R. Heyer, and J. Mosimann
for their comments on the manuscript.

References Cited

Calow, L. J., and R. McN. Alexander. 1973. A
mechanical analysis of a hind leg of a frog
(Rana temporaria). J. Zool., London 171: 293-
321.

Gans, C., and H. I. Rosenberg. 1966. Numerical
analysis of frog jumping. Herpetologica 22(3):
209-213.

Gray, J. 1953. How Animals Move. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge. 144 pp.

. 1968. Animal Locomotion. Weidenfeld
and Nicolson, London. 479 pp.

Zug, G. R. 1978. Anuran locomotion-structure
and function 2: Jumping performance of semi-
aquatic, terrestrial, and arboreal frogs. Smiths.
Contrib. Zool. (276): 1-31.

New World Opiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
Parasitic on Tephritidae (Diptera)

Robert A. Wharton! and Paul M. Marsh

Star Route, Somerset, California 95684; and Systematic Entomology Laboratory,
U. §. Department of Agriculture, % U.S. National Museum, Washington,

D. C. 20560, respectively

ABSTRACT

A key is presented for the New World species of Opiinae that have been recorded as
parasites of Tephritidae, including species introduced and established in the New World.
A brief discussion is given for each species including distribution, hosts, biological
references, and distinguishing characteristics. One new species is described, Biosteres
sublaevis, n. sp., and the following new synonymies are indicated: Biosteres tryoni
(=Parasteres acidusae), Doryctobracon (=Parachasma), D. crawfordi (=D. conjugens),
Opius anastrepha (=O. argentina and O. mombinpraeoptantis), O. bellus (=O. gomesi
and QO. turicai), O. canaliculatus (=O. lectus and O. lectoides), and O. frequens

(=O. glasgowi).

A large number of opiine braconids
has been described from the New World.
Although nothing is known concerning
the biology of the majority of these, 39
species have been reared from various

’ Work on this paper done while senior author
was ona temporary assignment with the Systematic
Entomology Laboratory, USDA. Present address:
Namib Desert Research Station, Walvis Bay,
South West Africa 9190.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

members of the dipterous family Tephri-
tidae. This paper is an aid to the identifica-
tion of these species and brings some of
the literature pertaining to them together
in one place. A key is presented to 39
species followed by a brief discussion of
each species including distribution, host
records, biological references, and dis-
tinguishing characteristics. Tobias (1977)
has discussed the European species of
Opius parasitic on fruit flies.

147

We have included here only those
species for which there is reliable in-
formation concerning their hosts, either
from the literature or from labels on
specimens in the National Insect Collec-
tion in Washington. We have discussed
briefly a few species that have been
introduced but not established in the New
World but these are not included in the
key. A few synonymies will affect names
of parasites, some of which are being
actively studied at the present: Parasteres
Fischer is returned to Biosteres Foerster
and P. acidusae Fischer is synonymized
with B. tryoni (Cameron); Parachasma
Fischer is synonymized with Dorycto-
bracon Enderlein; D. areolatus (Szep-
ligeti) replaces Parachasma cereum
(Gahan); D. conjugens Enderlein is
synonymized with D. crawfordi (Viereck);
Bracanastrepha argentina Bréthes and
Opius mombinpraeoptantis Fischer are
synonymized with O. anastrephae Vi-
ereck; O. gomesi Costa Lima and O.
turicai Blanchard are synonymized with
O. bellus Gahan; O. lectus Gahan and
O. lectoides Gahan are synonymized
with O. canaliculatus Gahan; and O.
glasgowi Fischer is synonymized with
O. frequens Fischer. One new species
is described from Texas.

The tephritid hosts and their Opiinae
parasites are summarized in the list that
follows.

Anastrepha sp.
Doryctobracon capsicola (Muesebeck)
Doryctobracon tucumanus (Turica &
Mallo)
Opius hirtus Fischer
Anastrepha benjamini Costa Lima
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Anastrepha consobrina (Loew)
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann)
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)

Doryctobracon brasiliensis (Szépli-
geti) |

Doryctobracon fluminensis (Costa
Lima)

Doryctobracon zeteki (Muesebeck)
Opius anastrephae Viereck

148

Opius bellus Gahan
Anastrepha interrupta Stone
Doryctobracon anastrephilus (Marsh)
Anastrepha ludens (Loew)
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck)
Anastrepha montei Costa Lima
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Opius bellus Gahan
Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart)
Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Opius anastrephae Viereck
Opius bellus Gahan
Anastrepha pickeli Costa Lima
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Anastrepha rheediae Stone
Opius vierecki Gahan
Anastrepha serpentina (Wiedemann)
Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)
Doryctobracon auripennis
(Muesebeck)
Doryctobracon trinidadensis (Gahan)
Opius bellus Gahan
Anastrepha striata Schiner
Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck)
Doryctobracon trinidadensis (Gahan)
Doryctobracon zeteki (Muesebeck)
Opius vierecki Gahan
Anastrepha suspensa (Loew)
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Doryctobracon anastrephilus (Marsh)
Opius anastrephae Viereck
Opius concolor Szépligeti
Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann)
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Biosteres oophilus (Fullaway)
Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Opius bellus Gahan
Dacus ciliatus Loew*
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett**
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus curvipennis (Froggatt)**
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus dorsalis Hendel***
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Dacus frauenfeldi Schiner*
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus incisus Walker*
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Dacus latifrons (Hendel)*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus limbifer (Bezzi)*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus nubilus Hendel*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus passiflorae (Froggatt)*

Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Dacus pedestris (Bezzi)*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus psidii (Froggatt)*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Dacus tryoni (Froggatt)*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead

Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Dacus xanthodes (Broun)*

Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Dacus zonatus (Saunders)*

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Eutreta xanthochaeta Aldrich

Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Gerrhoceras sp.

Opius tafivallensis Fischer
Myoleja limata (Coquillett)

Biosteres melleus (Gahan)

Opius aciurae Fischer
Procecidochares utilis Stone

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
~ Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Rhagoletis basiola (Osten Sacken)

Opius baldufi Muesebeck

Opius rosicola Muesebeck
Rhagoletis berberis Curran

Opius downesi Gahan
Rhagoletis boycei Cresson

Biosteres juglandis (Muesebeck)
Rhagoletis cingulata (Loew)

Biosteres melleus (Gahan)

Diachasma ferrugineum (Gahan)

Opius frequens Fischer
Rhagoletis indifferens Curran

Diachasma muliebre (Muesebeck)

Opius rosicola Muesebeck
Rhagoletis completa Cresson

Biosteres sublaevis Wharton

Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Rhagoletis cornivora Bush

Opius canaliculatus Gahan
Rhagoletis fausta (Osten Sacken)

Diachasma ferrugineum (Gahan)

Opius canaliculatus Gahan

Opius frequens Fischer

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Rhagoletis juglandis Cresson

Biosteres juglandis (Muesebeck)
Rhagoletis mendax Curran

Biosteres melleus (Gahan)

Opius canaliculatus Gahan
Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh)

Biosteres melleus (Gahan)

Diachasma alloeum (Muesebeck)

Diachasma ferrugineum (Gahan)

Opius canaliculatus Gahan

Opius downesi Gahan

Opius richmondi Gahan
Rhagoletis suavis (Loew)

Biosteres melleus Gahan
Rhagoletis tabellaria (Fitch)

Opius canaliculatus Gahan

Opius downesi Gahan

Opius juniperi Fischer

Opius tabellariae Fischer
Rhagoletis zephyria Snow

Opius canaliculatus Gahan
Tomoplagia sp.

Opius itatiayensis Costa Lima
Tomoplagia rudolphi (Lutz & Costa

Lima)

Opius tomoplagiae Costa Lima
Toxotrypana curvicauda Gerstacker

Doryctobracon toxotrypanae

(Muesebeck)

Zonosemata electa (Say)

Biosteres sanguineus (Ashmead)
Zonosemata vittigera (Coquillett)

Biosteres sanguineus (Ashmead)

* Not known to occur in the New World.

** Trapped in California on a few occasions,
but extensive surveys showed no subsequent
infestations.

*** Established in California on several separate
occasions but successfully eradicated each time.

The key to species that follows is
aimed at the non-specialist in braconid
taxonomy, for whom some terms may be
unfamiliar. Some of these terms are de-
fined below.

Malar space. The space between the
eye and base of mandible.

Mesonotal midpit. A pit on the
mesonotum just in front of the prescutellar
furrow (see below), sometimes repre-
sented only by a small circular shallow

149

pit, other times by an extended tear-
drop-shaped depression.

Notauli. Two furrows on the mes-
onotum extending posteriorly from the
anterior lateral corners and meeting at the
prescutellar furrow. They are usually
smooth but sometimes have cross carinae
at regular intervals appearing to be a row
of pits, in which case they are termed
crenulate. They are synonymous with
parapsidal furrows of older descriptions.

Occipital carina. A carina or ridge that
goes around the back of the head sep-
arating the occiput from the temples and
vertex.

Prescutellar furrow. A transverse fur-
row in front of the scutellum separating
it from the mesonotal lobes; usually with

distinct cross carinae dividing it into sec-
tions.

Propodeum. The last segment of the
thorax, actually the morphological first
abdominal segment fused with the thorax.

Sternaulus. A groove on the lower part
of the mesopleuron extending from the
middle coxa forward usually to the mid-
dle of the pleuron. It can be either
smooth or crenulate (see notauli for
definition of crenulate).

Wing venation. See Fig. 1 for explana-
tion of terms.

As is the case with most braconids,
males not associated with females are
difficult to identify. Therefore, the key
that follows is based mainly on the fe-
males.

Key to the New World Opiinae Reared from Tephritidae

1. Second radial segment of fore wing longer than first intercubitus (fig. 1,
R1, 11); postnervellus of hind wing (see fig. 5, Pn) usually absent or only

*weakly indicated? 0. Poo rs. ic owadeow oe eee, Oe 2
Second radial segment equal to or shorter than first intercubitus (fig. 5);
postnervellus present, often strongly pigmented ...................... 19
2(1). Second abdominal tergite always and base of third often distinctly striate;
lower. border, of mandible.notched ... 6 0:...:«+. 2.222 12. oehtee eee I
Abdomen unsculptured beyond first tergite; lower border of mandible
SVGMILY" CURVE wos sss cris uga es Sar sie, cig ovate atresia, cee a ke aa eee 4
3(2). Ovipositor about as long as first abdominal tergite; first tergite usually
TUSWIOSE OF PrANUIAE L75... cus ee Oca ee ee Opius baldufi Muesebeck
Ovipositor at least as long as abdomen beyond first tergite; first tergite
USUallysStiate we Ts ee saad, SS ee Opius downesi Gahan
4(2). Recurrent vein of fore wing entering first cubital cell (fig. 6) ............. 5
Recurrent vein entering second cubital cell (as in fig. 5), very rarely in-
terstitial: with mtercubitus (as in figs: 1,°4)"....-.....22. 0. ...¢0 oOo 8
5(4). Propodeum with well developed longitudinal median carina; third segment
of discoidal vein of fore wing (D3) absent or nearly so (fig. 2, 3) ....... 6
Propodeum without carinae; third segment of discoidal vein present and
welldevelopedi(tig. Orissa. o>. ere Opius tafivallensis Fischer
6(5). Stigma of fore wing nearly linear (fig. 3), about 9 times longer than
WS: Sgt ARE: BOE A Ge en any Bd coh ceca Opius hirtus Fischer
Stigma broad (fig. 2), roughly 4 times longer than wide ................. 7
7(6). Opening present between mandibles and clypeus when mandibles closed;
Siro ma Velo ich saci cas coburn. 6-00 SERS ere oe Opius concolor Szépligeti
Opening absent between mandibles and clypeus when mandibles closed;
Stigma Drown. : Pie Meee fe oie: vis ee Oe a ene eee Opius bellus Gahan
3(4): Occipital’canmiaaOSent,.. . sco acucws Vale ae lees Senoiou ce oc ee ee ee 9
Occipital carma ‘present and'well’developed 22.2 23-9%:2-40-2+4-. =. = nee 13
96)" Mesonotal*midpit absent ~2) 3.5. .5.-05:. 02h ccee ee Opius bucki Costa Lima
Mesonotal midpit present and nearly always deep ..................005- 10
10(9). Eye small, at most 2.5 times longer than malar space; width of clypeus less
than’ 2:5 times height Gigs! 14:06). .... cine CE Re, eee 11
Eye larger, usually at least 3 times longer than malar space; width of clypeus
more, thane? 7 SstiMES Mea Mbp pars cress stereo cya ee eee eee ne ee 12

150 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

11(10).

12(10).

13(8).

14(13).

15(14).

16(13).

17(16).

18(16).

1900):

20(19).

21(20).

22(21).

23(22).

24(22).

25(24).

Propodeum distinctly areolate; facial carina present between antennae but

\ HCE ua |: ge ey ae EA ee Pe me PP Opius tomoplagiae Costa Lima
Propodeum with only a pair of short carinae at apex; facial carina strong,

nearly spinose, between antennae........... Opius itatiayensis Costa Lima
Eyes large, strongly bulging in dorsal view (fig. 9), more than 4 times longer

PA ATCSN PLES gc... 55 a2 Ne RRs St eet Opius vierecki Gahan
Eyes moderately sized, not strongly bulging in dorsal view (fig. 10), less

than 3.5 times longer than temples ........... Opius anastrephae (Viereck)
Ovipositor extending beyond apex of abdomen by distance equal to or shorter

thanshinstwabdominal terete tin + < cc fw oka ws adie os 2 MS See 14
Ovipositor extending beyond apex of abdomen by distance greater than first

STG Me Roc ra weg os te et Jone atelier, col 16

Carinae on first abdominal tergite weak or absent; propodeum weakly riigose
medially; temples as seen from above bulging slightly beyond margin

CN eR ert oa eri Ns ort chic obHete a <6: oe RR Opius juniperi Fischer
Carinae on first tergite strong; propodeum strongly rugose; temples sloping
inward not bulsing beyond eye Mareinm. ........6...s.0.20..0+000eeee- 15

Mesopleuron always marked with black, propodeum usually black or dark
BROWN ers soot pee ee cs el as da a 3 3c Opius canaliculatus Gahan

Mesopleuron honey yellow, propodeum usually honey brown ...........
NS aa te So Shove (le Saks BeyoR eGR Opius acicurae Fischer

Dark colored species, most of thorax and abdomen dark brown or black.. 17
Light colored species, body entirely orange, rarely propodeum brown .... 18

Prescutellar furrow divided into two distinct pits by strong central carina;
second radial segment of fore wing not more than 3 times longer than
second intercubitus; abdominal tergites 2 and 3 usually black..........

DS Sipe he sd te ee cre eae ais east Opius frequens Fischer

Prescutellar furrow not divided into two pits, all carinae of equal size;
second radial segment about 4 times longer than second intercubitus;
feRneites rand: J VElOW. ses ote oe aoe be he eee Opius tabellariae Fischer

Ovipositor not longer than one-half abdomen; body length 4-5 mm ......

Joe hel Shai See Node tee ia ae ore ek Pe eh ei ise Opius rosicola Muesebeck
Ovipositor about as long as abdomen; body length 2-3 mm .............

St cee ea be oe se aE Be i Sea A ele alg Opius richmondi Gahan

Opening present between mandibles and clypeus when mandibles closed;

apical margin of clypeus concave, truncate, or sinuous (figs. 11, 13).... 20
Opening absent between mandibles and clypeus when mandibles closed;
apicalamareim ol-clypeus convex (fig. 12) 5. 2.0.2. te. bs eee ote ose oe 33

Apical margin of clypeus sinuous (fig. 13); recurrent vein entering first cubital
cell, sometimes nearly interstitial with intercubitus; occipital carina
FI SCI basen ‘coe. pct BER oe colic cat OER Oe CE PRG, ce eM MR yt Are ee Se 21
Apical margin of clypeus concave to truncate (fig. 11); recurrent vein
entering second cubital cell; occipital carina well developed, at least at

LORGSTRCU PE SN Mee tL iste le, SAO NN Ce REEL Soi, Selene a Abe sa sies 31
Propodeum areolate (fig. 8); head of most species yellow or orange, some-

times black dorsally but at least lower face yellow ................... 22
Propodeum bearing only a pair of short apical carinae (fig. 7), never areolate;

MeAMaeAEKUOROMNTE TOOIAGK (sie a. 2 sees sa wx) 2 cies oo dce' « we ea oat ee Bytes © 28
Fore winessyellowswith black apical borders/.% 22.0 st ots sl 23
Fore wings predominately concolorous, hyaline to infuscated............ 24

Head and hind femur largely black; first abdominal tergite roughly 1.2 (2)
and 1.5(d) times longer than apical width . .. Doryctobracon zeteki (Muesebeck)
Head and hind femur yellow or yellow orange; first tergite 1.0(¢) and 1.2(d)
times longer than apical width ..... Doryctobracon auripennis (Muesebeck)

Fore and middle tibiae and femora dark brown to black, at least in part.... 25
Fore and middle tibiae and femora yellow or yellow orange ............. 26

Ovipositor slightly but distinctly shorter than body; stigma without black
DOereer erro oie ba oe «Se Bee NER Doryctobracon anastrephilus (Marsh)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

151

Ovipositor slightly but distinctly longer than body; stigma with black
DORE T Berets eicy sito as cake Doryctobracon tucumanus (Turica & Mallo)

26(24). Wings hyaline or nearly so; posterior femur yellow.....................
E MATS ee SEAR Geet SR. Mb ish, See Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti)

Wings infuscated except for a small light patch beyond stigma; posterior
femur dark pdt Least Ml! Pant ; ..+ <iscca ey eet arene ees aa oa aoe ee 27

27(26). ‘Apical abdominal tergites. of female yellow -.....2...: .. eos ees eae ee
NS So. Sor BOI. thpanee Doryctobracon capsicola (Muesebeck)

Apical abdominaltereites: of female:dark/ i 7200). eee SS eee
Ee ee ee ee ee Doryctobracon fluminensis (Costa Lima)

280 a Sugmaiwellow ses. ee Bete 4 AE Doryctobracon brasiliensis (Szépligeti)
Shipma bro win seis s SE SONGS. Ws Si ON a BR ae 23

29(28). Head and thorax black, abdomen yellow; clypeus strongly sinuous.......
shea SER a Ns ae as See Bas Doryctobracon toxotrypanae (Muesebeck)

Head often dark brown, thorax and abdomen orange; clypeus usually not
aS) SCROMETY GSINU@US, V0 2 eles 2s eh se bau beeen aoe de oa ee 30

30(29). Frons with dense area of hair directly behind antennae .................
A Re ar RAD oC tape a Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck)

31(20). First abdominal tergite smooth apically, median pair of carinae absent
POSTERIORI « trey ante cece ee take Diachasma muliebre (Muesebeck)
First tergite rugose apically, median pair of carinae strong throughout .... 32

32(31). Antennae usually 38—42 segmented; ovipositor subequal to length of body...
no Peal! Watt eee Aad, Beh ae Se Diachasma ferrugineum (Gahan)

Antennae usually 43—47 segmented; ovipositor much longer than body ...
sigh ee ea. aS. aeteer as Slee Diachasma alloeum (Muesebeck)

33(19). ‘Second abdominal tergite fieavily striate: 0.222502. . 25 0 oP eee 34
Second abdomimal terpite smooth, or nearly So... :. 5.25.2 2.0... eee 37
34(33). Notauli distinct and deeply impressed throughout their length ........... 35
Notauli absent posteriorly, not reaching mesonotal midpit............... 36

35(34). Thorax and abdomen dark brown; notauli crenulate ....................
2 ja 0 ys RSME Ge cue ec OA an atk SA hare a Biosteres oophilus (Fullaway)

36(34). Second cubital cell of fore wing large, third radial segment less than 3.5 times

lengthiof Second SCOMEeNE s.. @ -.6.5 <ce5)-,¢is cei xe Biosteres melleus (Gahan)
Second cubital cell small; third radial segment more than 4.2 times longer
than. second seoment-(fig-: 5) 2. cae. «tac Biosteres sublaevis Wharton, n. sp.

37(33)... Wing, hyaline; hind femur yellow to yellow orange... .... .. >. .2. s5cn0 see
Ses ceanctaad Sie MORSA CCS WM cos eae i aie aR REE eee REE Biosteres juglandis (Muesebeck)
Wing membrane distinctly infuscated; hind femur dark brown ........... 38

38(37). Abdominal tergites largely dark brown to black; ovipositor about 1.5 times
longer than thorax plus abdomen; fore and middle femora yellow ......

ROSA eestor AO ADGA APOE REN Ba oA OSS Lea Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)
Abdominal tergites orange; ovipositor subequal to length of thorax plus
abdomen; fore and middle femora dark brown ................0e0000:

LE ioe Se SEE Sy ee SEIS, Pee oe ne, Se eee Biosteres sanguineus (Ashmead)

In the discussion below, the distribu- Genus Biosteres Foerster

tion, hosts, and most significant litera- p;,. ,eres Foerster. 1862:259.
ture references are given foreach species. Zetetes Foerster, 1862:258.
Many distribution records and literature — Chilotrichia Foerster, 1862:258.
references pertaining to areas outside the ey tg Hee roel Rite
New World have been omitted for some Adu suRET CORE SL.

: : Opiellus Ashmead, 1900:368.
of the introduced species, but they canbe —Cejjestella Cameron, 1903:343.

found in Fischer (1971). Diachasmimorpha Viereck 1913:641.

152 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Figs. 1-6. Wings: 1, Opius rosicola Muesebeck; 2, O. bellus Gahan; 3, O. hirtus Fischer; 4, O. anastrephae
(Viereck); 5, Biosteres sublaevis Wharton, n. sp.; 6, O. tafivallensis Fischer. Figs. 7-8. Propodeum: 7,
Doryctobracon trinidadensis (Gahan); 8, D. anastrephilum (Marsh). Figs. 9-10. Head, dorsal view: 9,
O. vierecki Gahan; 9, O. anastrephae. Abbreviations: Cul, Cu2, Cu3 = Ist, 2nd, and 3rd cubital cells;
D3 = 3rd segment of discoideus; I1, I2 = 1st and 2nd intercubiti; Pn = postnervellus; Rl, R2, R3 = Ist,
2nd, and 3rd segments of radius; Rec = recurrent vein; Rn = radiellen vein.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978 153

Figs. 11—16. Lower portion of face, anterior view: 11, Diachasma muliebre (Muesebeck); 12, Biosteres
melleus (Gahan); 13, Doryctobracon anastrephilum (Marsh); 14, Opius itatiayensis Costa Lima; 15, O.
vierecki Gahan; 16, O. tomoplagiae Costa Lima.

Biosteres (Parasteres) Fischer, 1967:3. New syn-
onymy.

Fischer (1967) originally described
Parasteres as a subgenus of Biosteres and
later (Fischer 1971) gave it full generic
status. Still later (Fischer 1973) separated
it from Biosteres by placing Parasteres
in a different tribe, the Desmiostomatini,
which he characterized as having the
occipital carina completely absent. This
seems to be an unnatural arrangement,
however, as the occipital carina is vari-
ously reduced in both Biosteres and
Opius of the tribe Opiini. The relative
development of the occipital carina
appears to be an attribute of species or
possibly subgenera rather than a generic

154

or tribal characteristic. And in at least
one species, the development of such a
carina is intraspecifically variable. Vari-
ables involving the shape of the mandi-
bles and clypeus and the presence,
absence, and relative lengths of various
wing veins, are much more significant
and useful for discriminating higher cate-
gories. And even these characters are
insufficient in themselves and are best
used in combination for the accurate
characterization of genera in the Opiinae.
Fischer’s Opiini and Desmiostomatini
need to be reassessed to determine the
true cross-tribal relationships of the in-
cluded genera. Tobias (1977) has rejected
the generic separation of Biosteres,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Diachasma, and Opius, retaining them as
subgenera of Opius. We have seen the
male holotype of the type-species of
Parasteres, and it agrees well with the
genus Biosteres. Further it is conspecific
with B. tryoni.

The genus Biosteres is characterized
as follows: second cubital cell short,
second radial segment usually shorter
than first intercubitus; post-nervellus
well developed; clypeus large, opening
between clypeus and mandibles absent
when mandibles closed.

Biosteres juglandis (Muesebeck)
Opius juglandis Muesebeck, 1961:57.

Distribution. — Arizona, New Mexico;
laboratory reared in California.

Hosts.—Rhagoletis boycei, R. jug-
landis.

Biosteres juglandis differs from its
close relatives in the longicaudatus com-
plex by the absence of well-developed
sculpture on the second abdominal tergite.
Some sculpture is discernible on a few
specimens but this is always limited to the
base of the tergite. The biology of this
species has recently been studied by
Buckingham (1975).

Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead
Biosteres longicaudatus Ashmead, 1905:970.

Distribution. —First described from
the Philippines; also collected in Costa
Rica and Mexico. Released and success-
fully established in Hawaii and recently
in southern Florida (Baranowski 1974)
and Trinidad (Bennett et al. 1977).

Hosts.—Anastrepha suspensa, Cera-
titis capitata, Dacus ciliatus (?), D.
cucurbitae, D. curvipennis, D. dorsalis,
D. frauenfeldi, D. incisus, D. latifrons,
D. limbifer, D. nubilus, D. pedestris,
D. psidii, D. tryoni, D. zonatus, Proce-
cidochares utilis.

Additional references.— Ashley et al.
1977(1976) (adult emergence); Beardsley
1961 (status of varieties and forms);
Fullaway 1951, 1953 (discussion and
description of new varieties); Greany,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Allen et al. 1977 (laboratory rearing);
Greany, Ashley et al. 1976 (detailed life
history and rearing techniques from
laboratory cultures in Florida); Greany,
Tumlinson et al. 1977 (host finding);
Lawrence et al., 1976 (effect of host age
on development); Lawrence et al. 1978
(oviposition behavior); van den Bosch et
al. 1951 (one of numerous status reports
following introduction into Hawaii).

A large amount of additional literature
is available concerning the introduction,
mass rearing, and use of longicaudatus
for biological control of fruit flies in
Hawaii and other regions of the World.

Biosteres longicaudatus is similar to
both melleus and sublaevis. Populations
of longicaudatus introduced into the New
World differ from these two species in
the possession of distinctly lighter basal
flagellomeres. It should be noted, how-
ever, that some of the described vari-
eties of longicaudatus do have a com-
pletely dark flagellum. In addition to
characters mentioned in the key, speci-
mens of longicaudatus often have a dark
apical or subapical band on the abdomen,
and the posterior ocelli are more widely
spaced than in melleus and sublaevis.
Another distinguishing character for
longicaudatus is the distinctive kink near
the tip of the ovipositor.

The status of the numerous varieties
belonging to the longicaudatus complex
needs to be examined in much more
detail. The mass rearing and introduction
of large numbers of these varieties into
the same habitats has undoubtedly
altered some of the physiological (and
perhaps morphological) barriers which
may still persist in the Oriental Region.

Biosteres melleus (Gahan)

Opius melleus Gahan, 1915:73
Biosteres rhagoletis Richmond, 1915:294.

Distribution. —Minnesota and Nova
Scotia south to Florida.

Hosts. —Rhagoletis cingulata, R. men-
dax, R. pomonella, R. suavis, Myoleja
limata? (numerous specimens from Flor-
ida have been reared from J/ex spp.,

155

and M. limata is the only tephritid known
from this host plant (Wasbauer 1972)).

Additional references.—Lathrop and
Nickels 1932; Lathrop and Newton 1933
(detailed biology on the blueberry maggot,
includes essential details of all earlier
reports).

This species is most closely related to
sublaevis n. sp. It differs primarily in
the configuration of the second cubital
cell. In addition, the sternaulus is
strongly crenulate in melleus but nearly
smooth in sublaevis. Specimens of mel-
leus from Florida, although reared from a
different host and unrelated host plant,
appear essentially identical to those
reared from Rhagoletis mendax and R.
pomonella in Maine. There are some
slight differences in the shape of the
second cubital cell. Because of the un-
usual host, some doubt must be attached
to the Florida material until further
biological information can be obtained.
Biosteres melleus differs from the species
of Opius attacking R. pomonella, R.
mendax, and R. cingulata by lacking
an opening between the clypeus and man-
dibles, the strigose tergite two, and the
shorter second radial segment.

Biosteres oophilus (Fullaway)
Opius oophilus Fullaway, 1951:248

This Oriental species has been reared
in the laboratory in Costa Rica on Cera-
titis capitata and is included here in the
event that it becomes established. It can
be distinguished from all New World
species on tephritids by the -crenulate
notauli.

Biosteres sanguineus (Ashmead)
Phaedrotoma (?) sanguineus Ashmead, 1889(1888):
655.
Distribution.—Maryland to Florida
and west to Missouri and Arizona

Hosts.—Zonosemata electa, Z. vitti-
gera.

Additional references. —Ashmead 1892
(brief note on host association with
the weed Solanum carolinense); Cazier
1962 (brief note on biology).

156

This species is characterized by the |
dark wings, dark legs, and completely
orange body in both sexes. In addition,
it has a shorter ovipositor and a much
more robust appearance than other
species of Biosteres. Other than the brief
notes by Ashmead and Cazier, nothing
is known about the biology of sanguineus.

Biosteres sublaevis Wharton, new species?
(Fig. 5)

Head. —1.67—1.80 (M = 1.74, H = 1.76)? times
broader than long, 1.20-—1.34(M = 1.24, H = 1.21)
times broader than mesonotum; eyes slightly
bulging beyond temples in dorsal view, eyes
roughly twice as long as temples. Temples,
occiput and frons (laterally) moderately densely
hairy; eyes bare. Occipital carina strong to mid
eye height; face distinctly hair-punctured, slightly
protruding medially, usually with weak median
carina above middle. Face nearly twice wider than
high; clypeus roughly three times wider than high.
Lower border of clypeus evenly convex; opening
almost completely absent between clypeus and
mandibles when mandibles closed. Mandible
roughly 1.8 times broader at base than at apex,
upper and lower borders gradually diverging at
apex, more strongly diverging over basal third;
upper tooth larger, extending distinctly distad of
lower. Malar space % to 4 eye height, roughly 0.7
times basal width of mandible. Distance between
antennal bases about equal to distance between
antennae and eyes; antenna roughly 1.5 times
longer than body, 41-45 segmented. Maxillary
palps distinctly longer than head.

Thorax. —1.24—1.36(M = 1.30, H = 1.26) times
longer than high; 1.32—1.41 (M = 1.34, H = 1.32)
times higher than wide. Mesonotum strongly
declivous anteriorly; densely hairy and weakly
ptuctured throughout, hairs longer, more erect, and
less dense posteriorly and on scutellum; notauli
very deep, but short, very weakly impressed to
absent beyond anterior-lateral corners; mesonotal
midpit deep, tear-drop shaped. Prescutellar groove
3 to 4 times broader than long, with well-developed
midridge and distinct lateral ridges of varying
strength. Apical half of propodeum strongly
declivous; propodeum rugulose, sparsely hairy
throughout; median areola occasionally discernible.
Metapleuron and mesopleural disc sparsely hairy
centrally; hairs on mesopleuron shorter and more
numerous than on metapleuron. Sternaulus dis-
tinctly impressed, but nearly unsculptured. Hind
femur nearly 3.5 times longer than mid-width.

Wings (fig. 5).—stigma broad, discrete, 2.65—3.30
(M = 3.06, H = 2.67) times longer than broad; first

2 The description of this new species is to be
credited solely to R. A. Wharton.
3M = median, H = holotype.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

C—O

segment of radius short, arising from near middle of
stigma, 1% to /s length of second segment, third
segment 4.20—5.50 (M = 4.96, H = 4.21) times
longer than second segment and ending before wing
tip; first intercubitus 1.32-1.73 (M = 1.46, H
= 1.52) times longer than second segment of radius,
roughly 1.65 times longer than second intercubitus;
recurrent vein postfurcal by 3 to 7/s its own length,
0.51-0.59 (M = 0.56, H = 0.51) times length of
first segment of discoideus; nervellus postfurcal by
about its own length; subdiscoideus arising from
well below middle of closed brachial cell; first
mediellan segment roughly 1.3 times longer than
second; postnervellus long, nearly reaching wing
margin, weakly sclerotized posteriorly.

Abdomen.—petiole 1.10-1.25 (M = 1.16, H
= 1.13) times longer than apical width; apex nearly
twice wider than base; surface striate and bicarinate,
the carinae often weak and _ indistinguishable
beyond middle, especially in smaller specimens.
Tergite 2 densely striate medially, smooth laterally;
gaster smooth beyond tergite 2. Ovipositor sheath
densely hairy, with at least 5 rows of moderately
long hairs; ovipositor more than twice length of
thorax.

Color. —orange; ovipositor sheaths, mandibular
teeth, flagellum, pedicel, and scape (dorsally) dark
brown; hind tibiae dorsally and most of hind tarsi
often lighter brown; wings hyaline, veins dark
brown.

Length. —2.2-—3.5 mm.

Holotype.—female; Texas, Jefferson Davis
County, Davis Mountains, August 1974, ex.
Rhagoletis completa, S. Berlocher. Deposited in
USNM.

Paratypes.—7 22,346, same data as holotype.
Deposited in USNM and personal collection of K.
Hagen, University of California, Berkeley.

This species is closely related to melleus,
particularly the Florida populations of that species
(see discussion above), but differs primarily in the
possession of a distinctly shorter second radial
segment. In addition, the sternaulus is much more
deeply impressed and sculptured in melleus than
in sublaevis. B. sublaevis is also similar to B.
giffardii (Silvestri) and B. carinatus Szépligeti
but differs in having more extensive abdominal
sculpture and a broader stigma. It differs from
longicaudatus primarily in having much weaker
notauli. One of the specimens from the type locality
appears to be deformed. The striations on tergite
2 are very weak although still extending to the
apex of the segment.

The specimens of the type-series were made
available by Dr. K. Hagen, University of California,
Berkeley, who originally suggested that they might
represent a new species.

Biosteres tryoni (Cameron)

Opius tryoni Cameron 1911:343.
Biosteres (Parasteres) acidusae Fischer, 1967:3.
New Synonymy.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Distribution. —Originally described
from Australia; introduced into Cali-
fornia (Boyce 1934), Puerto Rico (Bart-
lett 1941), and Hawaii (Pemberton and
Willard 1918b); not recovered in Cali-
fornia.

Hosts.—Anastrepha obliqua, Ceratitis
capitata, Dacus dorsalis, D. passiflorae,
D. tryoni, D. xanthodes, Eutreta xan-
thochaeta, Procecidochares utilis, Rha-
goletis completa.

Additional references. —Pemberton and
Willard 1918a (competition with Opius
humilis); Pemberton and Willard 1918b
(life history as Diachasma tryoni); Bart-
lett 1941 (rearing, release, recovery, and
then apparent loss in Puerto Rico).
Further information on this species can
be found in the numerous accounts of the
rearing, release, and status of fruit fly
parasites for attempts at biological con-
trol especially in Hawaii.

This species is characterized by the
poorly developed to absent occipital
carina. It is similar to the Australian
deeralensis in this regard but is otherwise
unrelated due to strong differences in the
shape of the clypeus. The clypeus is
weakly indented as seen from below in
tryoni, similar to longicaudatus, but
tryoni is easily separated from the other
Biosteres species included here by the
color pattern of darkened wings and dark
abdomen in both sexes.

B. acidusae was described from a
single male taken in Puerto Rico by K. A.
Bartlett (Fischer, 1967). It agrees in all
respects with other Puerto Rican material
collected by Bartlett in the same year and
from the same host following the in-
troduction and establishment of tryoni.

Genus Diachasma Foerster

Diachasma Foerster, 1862:259.
Bathystomus Foerster, 1862:235.
Atoreuteus Foerster, 1862:241.

Like Biosteres and Doryctobracon,
Diachasma is characterized by the
short second cubital cell and the presence
of a postnervellus in the hind wing.
Diachasma differs from Biosteres by

157

the presence of a broad opening between
the clypeus and mandibles, and from
Doryctobracon by the shorter more
evenly margined clypeus and the well-
developed occipital carina.

Diachasma alloeum (Muesebeck)
Opius alloeus Muesebeck, 1956:101.
Distribution. —Ontario to New Bruns-
wick; Connecticut, Florida, Maine, New
York, Pennsylvania.
Host.—Rhagoletis pomonella.

Additional references. —Boush and
Baerwald 1967 (courtship behavior, evi-

dence for a sex pheromone); Cameron.

and Morrison 1977 (mortality factor of
R. pomonella); Rivard 1967 (distribution
and rearing records).

This species has been bred from R.
pomonella in all of the above areas. As
Muesebeck (1956) has noted, this species
is closely related to ferrugineum, but
alloeum has a distinctly longer ovipositor
and is a somewhat larger species. The
metapleuron is also usually more heavily
sculptured.

Diachasma ferrugineum (Gahan)
Opius ferrugineus Gahan, 1915:75.

Distribution. —Northeastern United
States and eastern Canada; Florida, Cali-
fornia (?).

Hosts.—Rhagoletis cingulata, R.
fausta, R. pomonella.

Additional references. —Harper 1962,
1963 (release, recovery, and successful
establishment in California); Fleschner
1963 (record of release in California
against R. cingulata); Porter 1928 (dis-
cussion of reasons for low percentage of
parasitism on P. pomonella). Other refer-
ences listed in Fischer (1971) are limited
to rearing records. Apparently ferru-
gineum attacks R. pomonella only rarely.

Harper (1962) and Fleschner (1963)
indicate that ferrigineum was released in
California and Harper (1963) stated that
it was recovered, but we have not seen
any specimens from California to sub-
Stantiate that fact. Parasites recovered

158

from release sites of ferrugineum in
California are apparently all muliebre.

Muesebeck (1956) separated muliebre
from eastern ferrugineum on the basis
of a minor, but apparently constant
difference in sculpture of the first ab-
dominal tergite, that of muliebre being
smooth apically. The two species also
have differing biologies, muliebre being
parthenogenetic and ferrugineum being
bisexual. Further biological studies are
needed to determine if the two species
are indeed distinct.

Diachasma muliebre (Muesebeck)
(Fig. 11)

Opius muliebris Muesebeck, 1956:100.

Distribution.— Washington to Cali-
fornia.

Host.—Rhagoletis indifferens.

See the discussion under ferrugineum
for relationships of muliebre and fer-
rugineum.

Genus Doryctobracon Enderlein

Doryctobracon Enderlein, 1920(1918): 144.
Parachasma Fischer, 1967:7.

Fischer (1967) proposed the name
Parachasma for this distinctive group
but apparently overlooked Enderlein’s
Doryctobracon since it was not originally
placed in the Opiinae. Fischer (1973)
later recognized Doryctobracon in a
generic key implying, but not directly
stating, that Parachasma was a synonym.
The synonymy and new combinations
were later published in Fischer (1977).

Members of this genus are probably all
parasites of Tephritidae. Species are
quite closely related and separated pri-
marily by color differences (Fischer
1964b, 1965b, 1967) but need to be more
carefully examined with respect to bi-
ology and intraspecific variations to
determine their exact identities.

Doryctobracon is characterized by the
distinctive shape of the clypeus (fig. 13),
the short second cubital cell, strong post-
nervellus, recurrent vein entering first
cubital cell, and the absence of an
occipital carina.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Doryctobracon anastrephilus (Marsh)
(Figs. 8, 13)

Parachasma anastrephilum Marsh, 1970:31.

Distribution. —Southern Florida.
Host.—Anastrepha interrupta, A. sus-
pensa.

This species is characterized by the
complete propodeal areola, dark legs,
and relatively short ovipositor. Nothing
is known about its biology other than
the host rearing listed.

Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti),
new combination

Biosteres areolatus Szépligeti, 1911:286.

Opius cereus Gahan, 1919:169. New synonymy.

Opius saopaulensis Fischer, 1961:290. New syn-
onymy. Unnecessary new name for areolatus
Szépligeti 1911.
Distribution. — Argentina, Brazil,

Mexico, Panama, Trinidad, Venezuela;

Florida, recently introduced and estab-

lished.

Hosts.—Anastrepha benjamini, A.
consobrina, A. fraterculus, A. ludens,
A. montei, A. obliqua, A. pickeli, A.
serpentina.

Additional references.— Baranowski
and Swanson 1970, 1971 (release and
recovery in Florida, as cereum); Clausen,
Clancy, and Clock 1965 (unsuccessful
attempts against Hawaiian fruit flies due
to specificity on Anastrepha, as cereum);
Plummer, McPhail, and Monk 1941 (host
records, aS cereum).

The type of areolatus agrees very well
with specimens of cereus from Brazil;
the clypeus is slightly less sinuate, but
we feel they are definitely the same
species. Fischer (1967) places this species
in Diachasma. The clypeus on the type is
not very sinuate, but there is no occipital
carina and the recurrent vein is antefurcal,
placing areolatus in Doryctobracon.

Little information has been published
on the biology of this species despite the
numerous introductions (as Dorycto-
bracon cereus). It is readily distinguished
by the relative hyalinity of the wings and
appears to be quite close to anastrephilus ,
but the legs are predominately yellow
rather than black.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978 ©

Doryctobracon auripennis (Muesebeck)
Opius auripennis Muesebeck, 1958:453.

Distribution. —Panama.
Host.—Anastrepha serpentina.

This species is quite similar to zeteki
but differs in having both head and hind
femora yellow or yellow orange instead
of predominately dark brown to black.
The only biological information is the
host record above.

Doryctobracon brasiliensis (Szépligeti)

Biosteres brasiliensis Szépligeti, 1911:285.

Coeloides anastrephae Bréthes, 1924:7.

Opius (Diachasma) brasilianus Fischer, 1963:392.
Unnecessary new name for brasiliensis Szép-
ligeti 1911.

Distribution. — Argentina, Brazil.
Host.—Anastrepha fraterculus.

Additional references.—Costa Lima
1937 (host and distributional records).

The only biological information avail-
able for brasiliensis is the host record
listed. This species is easily distinguished
by the brightly colored stigma of the fore
wing. The few individuals available for
study indicate that the body is usually
dark but variable in color.

Costa Lima (1937) synonymized
anastrephae with Biosteres brasiliensis
Szépligeti 1902. This should be 1911,
since Szépligeti described Opius brasi-
liensis in 1902 which is definitely not the
same as Biosteres brasiliensis. We have
seen the types of Biosteres brasiliensis
and Coeloides anastrephae, and they are
definitely the same species.

Doryctobracon capsicola (Muesebeck)
Opius capsicola Muesebeck, 1958:450.

Distribution. — Panama.

Host.—Anastrepha sp. in Manihot
esculenta seed capsules.

The only biological information is that
listed above taken from the specimen
labels. This species is nearly identical
with fluminensis, but the vertex is darker
and the apical abdominal tergites lighter
in the female of capsicola. These two
species differ from other Doryctobracon

159

with a complete propodeal areola by the
color of the legs and fore wings.

Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck)

Diachasma crawfordi Viereck, 1911:181.
Doryctobracon conjugens Enderlein, 1920(1918):
144. New synonymy.
Distribution. —Central America, Co-
lombia, Ecuador.

Hosts.—Anastrepha ludens, A. striata.

Additional references. —Baker et al.
1944 (summary and interpretations of
previous biological accounts); Crawford
1927 (host records); Darby 1933, Darby
and Kapp 1934 (importance of tempera-
ture and humidity in development com-
pared to A. ludens); Keilin and Picado
1913 (description of larvae and adults, as
species of Diachasma); Keilin and Picado
1920 (rearing techniques); McPhail and
Bliss (parasitism on A. ludens); Plum-
mer, McPhail, and Monk 1941 (host
records). Several other workers have
discussed the unsuccessful attempts to
introduce this species into other areas.

We have seen the type of conjugens
and it is identical with that of crawfordi.
This species is characterized by reduced
propodeal sculpture, uniformly dark
wings, and orange body. It is similar to
trinidadensis in coloration but has a more
extensively punctate and densely hairy
frons.

Doryctobracon fluminensis (Costa Lima)
Opius fluminensis Costa Lima, 1938:69.

Distribution. — Brazil, Venezuela.

Host.—Anastrepha fraterculus.

This species is very similar to capsicola
but the apical abdominal segments are
darker and the vertex lighter in the
females of fluminensis. The only biological
information known is the host record
listed.

Doryctobracon toxotrypanae (Muesebeck)
Opius toxotrypanae Muesebeck, 1958:451.
Distribution. —Costa Rica, Mexico.
Host.—Toxotrypana curvicauda.

No additional information is avail-
able concerning this species. It is very
similar to crawfordi but has a darker

160

thorax. The extent of the dark markings
on the thorax is sometimes variable, and
the two species, which are sympatric
over part of their ranges, are best sep-
arated by their host preferences.

Doryctobracon trinidadensis (Gahan)
(Fig. 7)
Opius trinidadensis Gahan, 1919:168.
Distribution. —Trinidad.

Hosts.—Anastrepha serpentina, A.
striata.

There is no information about this
species other than the rearing records
mentioned by Gahan (1919). It is very

_ similar to crawfordi but is distinguished

by smooth and hairless frons behind the
antennae.

Doryctobracon tucumanus (Turica and Mallo),
new combination

Opius tucumanus Turica and Mallo, 1961:149. —
Distribution. — Argentina.
Host.—Anastrepha sp. on “‘ubajay.”’

Additional references. —Blanchard 1966
(redescription, as new species, listed as
common in Loreto); Hayward 1941,
1943 (rearing and releases in Tucuman
against unnamed fruit flies).

Almost nothing has been published on
the biology of this species. It is similar
in coloration and propodeal sculpture to
anastrephilus but has a distinctly longer
ovipositor.

Doryctobracon zeteki (Muesebeck)
Opius zeteki Muesebeck, 1958:454.

Distribution. —Panama.

Hosts.—Anastrepha fraterculus, A.
striata.

The only biological information known
about zeteki is the host records men-
tioned. This species is similar to auripen-
nis but has a darker head and darker
femora.

Genus Opius Wesmael
Opius Wesmael, 1835:115.
At least 21 synonyms are associated
with Opius, and we are not listing them

here. The complete list of synonyms can
be found in Fischer 1971.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Most of the New World Opius species
reared from tephritids have the post-
nervellus of the hind wing lacking or
weakly developed. Otherwise, the genus
contains a number of distinct mor-
phological groups. The differences be-
tween these groups appear to be as great
as those separating some of the other
genera discussed above. In fact, Fischer
(1973, 1977) has resurrected Bracana-
strepha Bréthes for those species lacking
an occipital carina and having an open-
ing between the clypeus and mandibles.
This genus, whose type-species is the
same as Opius anastrephae Viereck (see
below), has not been further charac-
terized or discussed, however, and it
seems premature to split off some of the
species discussed below before the genus
Opius has been adequately studied as a

whole and the relationships of the various

included groups are sufficiently under-
stood.

The members of Fischer’s truncatus-
group subgroup II (Fischer 1964:271)
appear to form a distinct morphological
unit and all are probably parasites of
the Tephritidae. Most are separable only
with difficulty and even then only on the
basis of slight differences in color and
Ovipositor length. Unassociated males
are extremely difficult to identify. Some
of the species are undoubtedly synonyms,
but more work is needed on intraspe-
cific variation and host preferences be-
fore such synonymies can be resolved.
Differences in biology and _ internal
anatomy may eventually prove of more
importance than color and ovipositor
length in separating these species.

Opius aciurae Fischer
Opius aciurae Fischer, 1964a:272.
Distribution. — Florida.
Host.—Myoleja limata on Ilex spp.

Almost nothing is known concerning
this species. It is nearly identical to
canaliculatus except for the lighter colora-
tion. The difference in host range
appears sufficient in itself to separate
the two species.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

Opius anastrephae Viereck
(Figs. 4, 10)

Opius anastrephae Viereck, 1913:563.

Bracanastrepha argentina Bréthes, 1924:8. New
synonymy.

Opius mombinpraeoptantis Fischer, 1966:116. New
synonymy.

Distribution. — Argentina, Brazil, Cen-
tral America, West Indies; Florida.

Hosts.—Anastrepha fraterculus, A.
obliqua, A. suspensa.

Additional references. —Clausen,
Clancy, and Chock 1965 (introduction
attempts, host records, limitations in
biological control); Gowdy 1925, Plank
1938, 1939, Bartlett 1941 (host records
and rates of parasitism).

We have compared the types of
argentina and mombinpraeoptantis with
that of anastrephae and they are iden-
tical, apparently representing a color
variable species. It can be distinguished
by the absence of an occipital carina,
large eyes, short malar space, and
temples not bulging. This species was
introduced into Hawaii and apparently
into the continental U. S. but not estab-
lished. The Florida record indicated
above is based on specimens in the Na-
tional Collection reared at Key Biscayne
from A. suspensa.

Opius baldufi Muesebeck
Opius baldufi Muesebeck, 1949:256.

Distribution. —Illinois, Michigan,

Minnesota, Wisconsin.

Host.—Rhagoletis basiola (Muese-
beck’s original description states host as
R. alternata, which is a misidentification
of basiola).

Additional references. —Balduf 1958
(effect of parasites on host size), 1959
(detailed life history).

This species belongs to the mor-
phologically distinct ochrogaster group
(Fischer 1964a:350) which differ from
other species discussed here by the shape
of the mandibles which bear a distinct
notch on their lower edge. O. baldufi is
similar to downesi but has a somewhat
shorter ovipositor.

161

Opius bellus Gahan
(Fig. 2)

Opius hellus Gahan, 1930:1.

Opius gomesi Costa Lima, 1938:71. New synonymy.

Opius turicai Blanchard, 1966:24. New synonymy.
Distribution. — Argentina, Belize, Bra-

zil, Costa Rica, Panama, Trinidad, Vene-

Zuela.

Hosts.—Anastrepha fraterculus, A.
montei, A. obliqua, A. serpentina, Cera-
titis capitata.

Additional references. —Bartlett 1941
(record of laboratory rearing in Puerto
Rico and unsuccessful establishment);
Costa Lima 1937, 1938 (host records);
Guagliumi 1963 (host records). |

Despite a widespread distribution,
very little seems to have been pub-
lished concerning this species. It is
characterized by the antefurcal recur-
rent vein, broad stigma, complete ab-
sence of notauli, absence or near absence
of sternaulus, and absence of the third
discoidal segment of the fore wing.

Both gomesi and turicai were described
as being quite close to bellus but differing
in the color of the mesonotum. Gahan,
in his original description of bellus,
mentioned the color variation in this
species, but this fact was apparently
overlooked in the description of gomesi
and turicai as new species. We have not
been able to see the types of gomesi and
turicai and the synonymy is based on the
original descriptions.

Opius bucki Costa Lima
Opius bucki Costa Lima, 1938:71.

Distribution. — Brazil.

Host.—Unknown species of Tephri-
tidae.

Nothing is known concerning this
species other than the reference by
Costa Lima. This species is charac-
terized by the absence of both an oc-
cipital carina and a mesonotal midpit
and by the presence of a postfurcal
recurrent vein and a broad stigma. It
does not appear to be similar to any of
the other species treated here. The lower
face appears unusually elongate because
the eyes are fairly small.

162

Opius canaliculatus Gahan

Opius canaliculatus Gahan, 1915:80.
Opius lectus Gahan, 1919:167. New synonymy.
Opius lectoides Gahan, 1930:2. New synonymy.

Distribution. — Quebec south to Mary-
land, west to Oregon; Florida.

Hosts.—Rhagoletis cornivora, R.
fausta, R. mendax, R. pomonella, R.
tabellariae, R. zephyria.

Additional references. —Cameron and
Morrison 1977 (mortality factor of R.
pomonella); Middlekauff 1941 (rearing
records); Rivard 1967 (rearing and emerg-
ence records). All references are to
lectus.

We have been unable to adequately
distinguish between canaliculatus, lectus,
and lectoides on morphological grounds.
Foote and Blanc (1963) have discussed
the relationships between the two main
host species of Rhagoletis, pomonella
and zephyria, but there does not seem to
be any differences in the parasites. We
have seen four specimens from Florida
reared from R. cornivora and they also
are identical to canaliculatus.

This species is very similar to acicurae
and differs primarily in its darker
coloration and host range.

Opius concolor Szépligeti

Opius concolor Szépligeti, 1910:244.
Opius fuscitarsus Szépligeti, 1913:605.
Opius perproximus Silvestri, 1914:103.
Opius siculus Monastero, 1931:195.

This Mediterranean species is being
studied in Florida and has been success-
fully reared for several generations on
Anastrepha suspensa (Baranowski, pers.
comm.). It is included here in the likely
event that it will be established. It is
similar to bellus but is distinguished by
its yellow stigma and the opening be-
tween clypeus and mandibles when the
mandibles are closed.

Opius downesi Gahan

Opius downesi Gahan, 1919:164.
Opius (Opius) berberidis Fischer, 1964a:358.

Distribution. —British Columbia,
Michigan, New Brunswick, New York,
Ontario, Washington. Probably widely

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

distributed across northern U. S. and
southern Canada.

Hosts.—-—Rhagoletis berberis, R. pom-
onella, R. tabellaria.

Almost nothing is known concerning
this species. Downes (1919) mentioned
it as a parasite of R. pomonella; the
other records are based on reared speci-
mens in the National Collection. This
species is characterized by the unusual
mandible and wing venation as in baldufi
but differs from baldufi in the possession
of a slightly longer ovipositor.

Opius frequens Fischer
Opius (Opius) frequens Fischer, 1964a:279.
Opius (Opius) glasgowi Fischer, 1964a:286. New
synonymy.
Distribution.—Maine west to Wash-
ington and Oregon.

Hosts.—Rhagoletis cingulata, R.
fausta.

Aside from rearing records based on
label information, nothing appears to be
known about this species.

O. glasgowi is based on a male speci-
men which differs from typical female
frequens specimens only in its slightly
lighter coloration. A female from the
same series as the male type of glasgowi,
found in the National Collection, is
identical to specimens from the type
series of frequens in both coloration and
sculpture. This species is characterized
and separated from other members of the
nearctic truncatus-group as follows: dark
body, weakly infuscated wings, and
moderately long ovipositor. It most
closely resembles the slightly lighter
colored tabellariae but is distinguished
by the length of the second intercubitus
and the strong central carina in the
prescutellar furrow.

Opius hirtus Fischer
(Fig. 3)
Opius (Opius) hirtus Fischer, 1963:376.

Distribution. —Costa Rica, Dominican
Republic.

Host.—Anastrepha sp.

The host record above is from label
information on a single specimen reared

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

from guava in Costa Rica. This species
is readily recognized by the narrowly
elongate stigma, antefurcal recurrent
vein, lack of an opening between clypeus
and mandibles, unsculptured meson-
otum, and weak radiellan vein of hind
wing. It is perhaps closest to tafivallensis ,
but the later is black and white and hirtus
is orange.

Opius itatiayensis Costa Lima
(Fig. 14)

Opius itatiayensis Costa Lima, 1937:24 (in key);
1938:70 (description).
Distribution. — Brazil.

Host.—Tephritidae, possibly Tomo-
plagia (Costa Lima, 1937:23).

The only biological information on
itatiayensis is the brief note by Costa
Lima mentioned above. This species is
separated from the other Opius species
lacking an occipital carina by the rela-
tively small eyes, postfurcal recurrent
vein, and moderately sized clypeus. It is
similar to tomoplagiae but has a strong
facial carina and a more weakly sculp-
tured propodeum.

Opius juniperi Fischer
Opius (Opius) juniperi Fischer, 1964a:288.
Distribution. — Arizona.
Host.—Possibly Rhagoletis tabellaria

The holotype and one paratype were
reared from juniper berries in associa-
tion with the above tephritid. Fischer
also listed a specimen from Manitoba,
but, since we have not seen this specimen
and the wide range of localities seems too
great, we have not included this record
in the distribution. This species is sep-
arated from other Nearctic members of
the truncatus-group by the near absence
of sculpture on the petiole, the greatly
reduced sculpture of the propodeum,
and the bulging eyes.

Opius richmondi Gahan
Opius richmondi Gahan, 1919:165.
Distribution. —Maine, Minnesota.
Host. —Rhagoletis pomonella.

Additional references. —WLathrop and
Nickels 1932 (rearing record).

163

Very little is known concerning this
species. It is readily distinguished from
other nearctic members of the truncatus-
group by the much longer ovipositor,
the petiolar carinae which usually extend
to the apex as well-developed ridges,
and the orange body.

Opius rosicola Muesebeck
(Fig. 1)
Opius rosicola Muesebeck, 1949:254.

Distribution. —California, Illinois,
Minnesota, Oregon, Saskatchewan, Wash-
ington, Wisconsin.

Hosts.—Rhagoletis basiola, R. in-
differens.

Additional references.—Balduf 1958
(effect of parasite on host size), 1959
(detailed life history).

The material from western U. S. was
reared from the cherry fruit fly in Prunus
emarginatus but appears to be identical
to the type material reared from rose
hips. The biology of this species is
apparently identical to that of baldufi
despite strong morphological differences.

O. rosicola is similar to the other
nearctic members of the truncatus-group
with moderately long ovipositor but
differs in the lighter coloration, the nearly
hyaline wings, and the weak carinae on
the petiole.

Opius tabellariae Fischer

Opius (Opius) tabellariae Fischer, 1964a:305.
Distribution. — Minnesota, New York.
Host.—Rhagoletis tabellaria.

The only biological information known
is the host record listed above. This
species is similar to frequens but differs in
its shorter second intercubital vein and
the prescutellar furrow not having a
strong central dividing carina.

Opius tafivallensis Fischer
(Fig. 6)

Opius tafivallensis Fischer, 1968:69.
Distribution. — Argentina, Peru.
Host.—Gerrhoceras sp.

The above host record is from labels on
three specimens collected in San Mateo,
Peru. This species is quite different from
all other opiines discussed here because

164

of its black and white color. In addition, it
has the petiole and propodeum unsculp-
tured with the mesonotum and meso-
pleuron nearly so, the petiole narrowly
elongate, the propodeum densely cov-
ered with long hairs, the postnervellus
and third discoidal segments well-devel-
oped, the recurrent vein entering first
cubital cell, and the stigma narrow.
Opius tomoplagiae Costa Lima
(Fig. 16)
Opius tomoplagiae Costa Lima, 1937:24 (in key);
1938:69 (description).
Distribution. — Brazil.
Host.—Tomoplagia rudolphi.

This distinctive species is similar to
itatiayensis but differs by its distinctly
areolated propodeum and weak facial
carina. The only biological information is
the host record mentioned by Costa Lima
(1937).

Opius vierecki Gahan
(Figs. 9, 15)
Opius vierecki Gahan, 1915:76.

Distribution. —Mexico, Panama.

Hosts.—Anastrepha rheediae, A.
striata.

Viereck stated in the original descrip-
tion that the type was ‘“‘probably’’ reared
from A. striata. The National Collection
contains a specimen reared from A.
rheediae. This species belongs to the neo-
tropical complex of Anastrepha parasites
which lack an occipital carina. It differs
from other members of this group in
having greatly enlarged eyes.

Other Species Not Included in Key

Biosteres fullawayi (Silvestri): Intro-
duced into Puerto Rico but apparently
not established.

Opius fletcheri Silvestri: Introduced
into Puerto Rico but not established.

Opius humilis Silvestri: Introduced into
California and Puerto Rico but ap-
parently not established.

Opius macrocerus Thompson: Occurs in
Europe, Japan, and is recorded from
Michigan; a parasite of Agromyzidae
but Fischer (1964c:9) lists it also as
attacking Trypeta sp. which needs to be
confirmed; apparently not related to any

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 68, NO. 4, 1978

species discussed in the present paper
and the tephritid host is suspect.

Acknowledgments

Several institutions have aided this
study by loaning types in their posses-
sion: Museo Argentino de Ciencas
Natureles, Buenos Aires (Bréthes types);
Hungarian Natural History Museum,
Budapest (Szépligeti types); Polish Acad-
emy of Sciences, Warsaw (Enderlein
types). The illustrations were made
by Ellen Paige, to whom we are
grateful. Use of the scanning electron
microscope was supported in part by the
Electron Microscope Central Facility,
University of Maryland, College Park.
Many helpful suggestions and comments
were made by R. M. Baranowski, Uni-
versity of Florida, Homestead; F. D.
Bennett, CIBC, Trinidad; and R. H.
Foote, Systematic Entomology Labora-
tory, USDA.

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Willard, H. F., and A. C. Mason. 1937. Parasitiza-
tion of the Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii,
1914-33. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 439, 17 pp.

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CONTENTS

Features:

RUSSELL W. PETERSON: Science and Society ...........5..........5.
WILLIAM V. LOEBENSTEIN: How to Balance Chemical Equations.......

Research Reports:

PAUL M. MARSH: Descriptions of New Braconidae (Hymenoptera)
Parasitic on the Tomato Tuberworm and on Related Lepidoptera from
Centratjand SouthvAmMertCa .sscics4 9 oaccic dae cule Gere ae os wos cet vedios

W. RONALD HEYER and RONALD I. CROMBIE: Natural History Notes
on Craspedoglossa petropolitana (Amphibia: Salientia, Leptodactylidae). . .

RICHARD H. McCUEN: Accuracy of Land-Use Sampling Methods.......

C. P. HEINS, J. P. TANG, J. C. S. YANG, AND D. W. CALDWELL:
BridgeuRespouse and Damage .:< 2.56.26 cde eee de eee eee ee lee ee

Academy Affairs:

SCICMUSESEEIMUME EI NEMISE@ tat: hee cde caine waa stick Ws sit. Guise einen ear ek chaps
ING ae HOM Greater eer oh. csr ahs sors AySie, sive Soin, « oF OE Mist wiw Sima euene ees Sie eullels 40
Minutes; Board Of Managers. 6s... c.c sc eee seta sb awield ws yee ee ewe ee ces 41
Annual Report of the Treasurer, 1978 2... ccc cee eee eee ne eee

Washington Academy of Sciences

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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Emlesophical: Society Of Washington 52 0.!si06 6 ocesc sca vos ese 2+ SRE eee nee oe ee James F. Goff
Eaarepolovical Society Of Washington... . 2... 66.00 esses oe seeks oh eee ees cae Jean K. Boek
Baneried Society Ol WaSninBtOM 2.4 526 os ciecaae ones wees a hee eee eeeemee dave. William R. Heyer
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Paronioopical Society.of Washingion .... 2... 6.062. c6.e sec tc ewes es cece ceewaes Douglas Sutherland
BEMEAG GCOPTADIMC SOCIGIY) 2120) fi elaw Svea slabs ena AS ne teed seb oe 0 lg albucle's wae 6 T. Dale Stewart
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PAM ALBANS (OTICAl GS OCICBY c250 5h ee cinin ines cicies ence elbow seb es beds vee ded wtedldee eds Paul H. Oehser
UP ESS2L SUIT OEE IVI YS (0) 0 Ree Conrad B. Link
ee eee MCHC AN IM OLCSUCIS: fi...) 2.5 o's oon see pe bik ce we bn dle Sab we eee senses Thomas B. Glazebrook
emi nNemMESOCICiY OF MAPINCETS) (27). 6:0). /50) Fie ak 2a se ol nice de Dale be Me bate es George Abraham
Hastiote of Plectrical and Electronics Enginéers .............2000sc0008eccerecees George Abraham
Pancnicanesociety, of Mechanical Engineers 23.6.2 252.2 22 A. See ee ks ce cece cease Michael Chi
He mimnthological Society of Washington ........ 2... .0. 05.2 c eee e cto eseweons Robert S. Isenstein
Paucucanesociety for Microbiology ..2. 2.22... 6.ce cc cee ee cee esos bcp ctcbeneccs Michael Pelzcar
Perio ee tmHencan Military ENGINEErS: 6.052... a eee we ee he eet ee Mote eevee H. P. Demuth
Panne PRES OCIC CV Ole CIVIl ENEIMECTS — .s ciclo seis cic es.s cle ss ea eee 5,5 30s eb ae wee dale 6 Robert Sorenson
sacicty tor Experimental Biology and Medicine .............5 2.0620 cccee ence enecnes Donald Flick
4 EVER S20 SOSeGy TOE WY GE Cites oc ene ear Glen W. Wensch
intemational Association of Dental Research ........ 22.022... ncssee neces William V. Loebenstein
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ........2.5...00.000c eee cecenees George J. Vila
PemicmediMElTCOLOlOPICAlSOCIELY i.e. Seist oielk)s «ste siete s FoR E RR ION ald we tace ee A. James Wagner
eS eMIRIGe IOCICLY Ol WASHINGTON: 5.10580 Se cles os eee See etele « Glace «ha ayelei Robert J. Argauer
PPE TESOCICUVEOLATNETICA Onih on fics feces sob ble a daeloantie . Doak led Delegate not appointed
Pee AECL C AT SOCICL VET Etta t todas. fats tea es 6. alate er eek Re tae Ekle Seen wae 4 Dick Duffey
Mistinite OrmbOod TeChnOlopistS 5) 52... ck ce betwee b ene utceteweeteees William Sulzbacher
6 SHEEIC ENE, CSIR ITE) SOT EIR het ear ERR ERC AC eA een Hangar Inactive
2 SSIPaS NS TaOall SOS LST ha See on SI nea NPs Oi DN ee eRe David R. Flinn
PeMAeTONerISTOny OF SCIENCE CID) <n seis soc cee ols che weg oie ode bg be tac bteshaaine eclnaests Inactive
PmtemMean Association On Physics Teachers .... a2. cee. see esis s veg bod ces eee cee To be appointed
rite AESOCICIN AOI AMCHICA: Fee). fo. sig aie, «. « sue ovaxtyc bo Sus touelay's e'exensuodese ays biepbpc avs this eye afelee one Lucy B. Hagan
manenican) Society Of Plant PhySiOlOpistS. . ...........csemeties 6 Bis cleus ssi a eleiele» tres Walter Shropshire
iasmneton Operations Research Council 932. ..c. . «cscs stele e(es FPalel so Ra oe ks John G. Honig
Mesitmeme SOC IY Ol AMeNGaL \oiae)., 180 Jel. oe. olde. DAORMAR. JAKE. Saeko. JOE . SE. Inactive
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

ARUBLe Olen PINECCLSMets.2 2 ot Sars Naot rG an Gye eee ble See wo bee olan Carl H. Cotterill
Scanlon ADIL ONVASTEONOMENS I aoc ek eh os ha be 2 os wk eo eee Die wees kb whe Siew islene ow bows Benson J. Simon
RrariematicalvASSOCIAUION Of AMELICA 05.02 obs ws es eee ce ewe eekccasancencteswocss Patrick Hayes
ememltiStitUteTOCNGINISIS Cs ete ne ha dae oe os os Mee aie ea he ke sae aes we ee Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.
MO BESNCHOlOPICAlASSOCIAMON Wee 6. <5 roo 4 cio cicle ble So's 24 2:6 Sw chelate ord Boye oe eye's wb a oo Oi Seah or John O’ Hare
Seem asmnpton Paint Hechiical (Group: .. .iccec cis os 2 as wecee shh ee ee cee nee eng Paul G. Campbell
Pacn can LAY LOPAtnOlOPICal SOGICtYs cs.) veoidis.o 6 acces « «s+ S ileum syeepeibenreyare + exe orsue te eset e's Tom van der Zwet
Bacietyator General Systems Research. 5 <.:..:5 bjcse's «fe nperens + 2 ose ofan eb ve ere wi Ronald W. Manderscheid
SAME DABELACTORS WSOCICEY, Hos fie teiren fos oe ui cis) + dvace cierto 6 Gi « baal ~ le SapereyR bie achat H. McIlvaine Parsons
Pettis ARIST HIESE SOCIETY PU Fn hpi cia crs Sow o Saati ast lla's Gomees Meche etl Irwin M. Alperin

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979 1

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Science and Society!

Russell W. Peterson

FEATURES

Director, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Washington, D. C.20510

*“Mankind,’’ T. S. Eliot once re-

-marked, ‘“‘cannot bear very much reality.”

I imagine most Americans must feel
they've had about as much reality as
they can handle over the last 10 to 15
years.

For a time, in the mid-60’s, it seemed
as if there was almost nothing we didn’t
have the know-how and the where-
withall to do. We had, we believed,
nearly succeeded in perfecting a per-
petual growth machine—an economy
whose enormous productive power we
had, at long last, learned how to man-
age and manipulate. The learned and
the popular journals alike were busily
Sketching glowing scenarios for the
soaring 70’s and dazzling visions of
what life would be like in the year
2000.

We have since suffered through a
series of seismic shocks that seems to
have left us unsteady and unsure. In
the wake of the Vietnam War, of the
environmental, the energy and the eco-
nomic crises— which I believe are simply
different aspects of the same crisis—

we seem no longer certain of where we

are and where we’re going.

I think, in fact, that we have reached
a watershed in American society, that
we are now in a period of transition

' Address presented to the Academy at its
meeting on January 30, 1979.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

toward a future that, in ways we only
dimly understand, must be built on far
different assumptions than those that
have sustained us for more than two
centuries.

I believe also that, despite the pain
and the anguish we are going through,
this transition period offers us enor-
mous opportunities—if we have the
courage to take advantage of them—
for turning our tremendous scientific
and technological resources toward the
creation of a genuinely strong and
stable society whose distinguishing char-
acteristic is the high quality of life it
offers to all its citizens.

The progress and prosperity we have
achieved in this country, and the
great technological advances we have
made, have all been based on the as-
sumption that, in this vast and richest
of lands, we would never run out of
room or of resources and that we could,
therefore, be free and easy with both.
And if, for a time, we ran into some
obstacle or another, we could either
move on or, if things really got bad
and there was no way out, we could
count on technology—like the seventh
cavalry—to come to the rescue.

Throughout most of our history, we
have, so to speak, lived off the fat of
the land. There is no longer that much
fat left. For, while we have plenty of
resources left, they are becoming in-

creasingly expensive—especially that
vital resource, energy.

Our entire economy, and the vast
technological structure that helps sus-
tain it, were built on the assumption
that cheap energy was going to be
abundantly available.

We are lately learning that there is, in
fact, no such thing as a free lunch,
even in a country as lavishly endowed
as we are, and that the days of cheap
energy are Over.

As a result, a good deal of modern
technology —designed, as it is, to make
lavish use of energy and other resources
—1is no longer modern, or is becoming
increasingly less so. We can no longer
seek to secure real economic growth on
the assumption that waste makes wealth,
for it is the waste of increasingly ex-
pensive energy and other resources that
lies at the root of much of our economic
difficulties.

The task before us, then, is to act
now, while we have the time.

Nor can we continue to act on the
basis of old habits and approaches.
For as our energy and other crises
are demonstrating, we cannot act simply
on the basis of narrow and near-term
concerns. The really serious concerns
before us are not the immediate and
isolated ones, but the interrelated and
long-term ones. The long-term has, in
fact, become the short-term. The world
of the year 2000 is already well ‘‘within
the pipeline’ — we are shaping it by what
we do and fail to do today..

It is true that we have been able to
muddle through in most cases, but this
is a luxury which we are no longer able
to afford. The pace of technical develop-
ments, the fact that we are approach-
ing real limits of both our natural
resources and the capacity of our en-
vironment to absorb the abuse we are
inflicting on it, and the staggering scale
and power of the technologies we are
now able to master, have forced us out
of an age of innocence in resolving
technical problems. Our planning simply
must mature if we are to survive.

One can suppose that the govern-
ment would be able to take a longer
view on the issues, but inertia and
lack of imagination in government can
be part of the problem. It has been
said that there is only one thing more
certain than change, and that is resistance
to change. We are being carried into
the future by the momentum of the
status quo.

Take this example. Our inability to
deal adequately with energy problems
results in part from the assumption on
the part of both the Federal govern-
ment and major electric utilities that
the solution to the problem will be more
of the enormous centralized generating
facilities which are providing an increas-
ing share of our electric power. Once —
this assumption was made, it was largely
self perpetuating. The enormous Federal
investments in developing, commercial-
izing, fueling, insuring, protecting and
providing waste disposal for nuclear
facilities have greatly accelerated the
development of this technology with
respect to possible competitors. The
clear and continuing Federal commit-
ment to the development of new cen-
tralized facilities has given the cen-
tralized technologies prestige which
discouraged private investment in al-
ternatives. The subsidies for this ap-
proach have had the effect of creating
a large constituency of scientists, en-
gineers, and investors which has de-
veloped its own political momentum.
Federal bureaucracies have mushroomed
with an institutional interest in proving
the wisdom of decisions they have
made. Moreover, the size and complexity
of new centralized plants mean that
investors must be convinced to commit
over a billion dollars to facilities which
may not begin providing useful power
for over a decade. These investors
must somehow be assured that energy
growth rates and consumption patterns
will be maintained at predictable levels
during the expected life of the plant.
The need to protect these investments
by assuring this demand could severely

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

constrain our ability to make energy
policy in the future.

One of the casualties of the assump-
tion that energy will always be best
provided by centralized facilities is an
inability to think clearly about the ad-
vantages of solar energy and energy
conservation technologies. Both of these
technologies work best when an attempt
is made to match the energy resources
to the immediate requirements of the
buildings or industrial facilities served;
they can be built quickly, usually as a
part of the building served, and can be
changed quickly to meet new energy
needs. The implementation of these
technologies will not require any pro-
found reshaping of industrial, financial,

or governmental institutions since they

can be built, financed, insured, and
maintained by the kinds of organiza-
tions now providing similar services for
heating and air conditioning equipment,
for example. The technology is of a
scale that permits concepts to be de-
veloped and brought to the market by
many different kinds of organizations.
Competition in these technologies is
feverish and probably always will be.
Since the small technologies do not fit
neatly into the competition for new cen-
tralized generating facilities, we have
never developed a coherent plan for
promoting them and have never funded
them as serious long-term solutions to
the energy problem. Supporting the de-
centralized technologies will not be
easy and will require an unprecedented
amount of imagination, flexibility, and
restraint on the part of policy makers.
But what would happen if the Federal
government made a commitment to the
development of small, renewable energy
sources equivalent to the commitment
we made to develop fission reactors two
decades ago?

The advantages of the enormous en-
ergy resource which these solar and
conservation technologies represent can
only be properly understood if social
and environmental issues are considered
along with the technical ones. It will,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

however, probably be easier to resolve
the technical questions associated with
the development of new energy tech-
nologies than it will be to understand
the ways in which they can be integrated
into a society we would like to per-
petuate. This difficulty must not deter us,
since, unless we are careful, we may find
ourselves in a position where we must
adjust our society and institutions to fit
the technologies which we develop in-
stead of the other way around.

As this discussion has suggested, the
task for science and technology is far
different, but surely no less challenging,
than it was in days when energy and
other resources were plentiful and
cheap. We must increasingly design,
develop, and deploy a finer-tuned tech-
nology that—unlike much of the so-
called advanced technology we have
in place—makes the most, and wastes
least, of our exhaustible and increas-
ingly expensive resources and makes
possible our growing reliance on re-
newable resources.

The task for all of us is to create
the kind of climate in which that kind
of scientific effort and technological
development can flourish.

This is far from a simple task, be-
cause old habits die exceedingly hard.

Scientists, engineers, innovators face
a special challenge in trying to create
this new kind of climate. For while
they have much to contribute, they often
find it hard to get the attention of the
top decision-makers. Nearly all decision-
makers are oriented toward the near
term. They are besieged by a multitude
of urgent problems. Tomorrow’s prob-
lems can wait. But the scientists’ busi-
ness is with tomorrow. And it’s in-
creasingly urgent that they get to see
the boss today. With today’s trends
in the world leading to catastrophe,
the decision-makers better get close to
the practitioners of change.

At the same time it would do well for
scientists to establish the habit of
stepping back occasionally from the
immediate task to reflect on what kind of

a world he or she wants for his or her
children or grandchildren and consider
whether the work he or she is doing
is leading in the right direction. If not,
the scientist should have the courage to
alter his course, even if it means some
near-term personal sacrifice. It requires
courage to speak and act effectively
against the status quo. But educators
and scientists can bring about the essen-
tial changes. We should pursue re-
sponsible, professional goals, but at the
same time we need to work toward
worldwide goals. We need to become
generalists. Traditionally, scientists have
broken their endeavors down into spe-
cific disciplines for their own con-
venience, and hence have perceived
reality from many different perspectives.
Such specialization has been necessary
for scientific and technological advance;
and we have learned much and learned
it quickly by breaking phenomena down
into various compartments and studying
them from the standpoints of biology,
physics, chemistry, and so forth. But
we must remember that our world does
not exist in compartments; it comes in
single interrelated communities, each
part of which affects other parts.

The distinguished scientist, Lewis
Thomas, has observed that: ‘“‘The men
who run the affairs of nations today
are, by and large, our practical men.
They have been taught that the world is
an arrangement of adversary systems,
that force is what counts, aggression
is what drives us at the core, only the
fittest survive, and only might can make
more might.’ In fact, however, we are,
so far as we know, the only species
on this Earth that believes or behaves
this way. Instead, Thomas says, ‘‘Most
of the associations between the living
things we know about are essentially
cooperative ones. . . When they have
the look of adversaries, it is usually
a standoff relation, with one party
issuing signals, warnings, flagging the
other off. ‘““We do not,’’ he concludes,

‘‘have solitary beings. Every creature is,
in some sense, connected to and depend-
ent on the rest.”’

We cannot afford the same old atomis-
tic, accidental approach that is, in my
judgment, responsible for many of the
problems we face today. Nor can we
let ourselves be drawn into that increas-
ingly centralized approach that some ad-
vocate and many fear we are inevitably
heading for.

What we need, I believe, is an ap-
proach which fully recognizes and re-
flects the fundamental interdependence
of individuals, institutions, nations at the
same time that it nurtures and draws
on the rich diversity of outlook and
activity that characterizes not only our
society, but all life. We need, especially
among the leaders in every field of hu-
man endeavor, an approach I call
‘holistic pluralism’’—an approach in
which each individual, institution, na-
tion takes the larger, longer view into
account as each pursues its own par-
ticular interests and goals. It is, in my
view, only through such an approach
that, in such an incredibly and in-
creasingly interdependent world, we can
realistically expect to serve our own
self-interests.

We have, I think, reached that point
in human history where, for our own
survival, let alone for our continued
success, we can no longer ignore, as we
all too often have during our relatively
brief duration here on Earth, the essen-
tial community of interest among humans
everywhere and between humans and
the Earth they inhabit.

We have, I earnestly hope, come in-
creasingly to understand and to appre-
ciate the simple and surpassing idea that
T. S. Eliot once expressed in these
lines:

We shall not cease from exploration;
And the end of our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started
And know the place for the first time.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

—

How to Balance Chemical Equations

- William V. Loebenstein, Ph.D.

_ 8501 Sundale Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

ABSTRACT

It is shown that an algebraic method may always be used to balance chemical equa-
tions. The method is equally applicable to REDOX reactions, complex organic reactions,
ionic reactions, etc. It is not necessary to determine the oxidation numbers of the elements
which comprise the various molecules, nor is there any advantage to be gained by
doing so. In rare instances more than one ‘‘correct’’ solution can be found for the
balanced equation. When this occurs, the method reveaAls the fact that it is the result of
independent chemical processes taking place simultaneously.

The balancing of chemical equations is
a task usually confronted for the first time
by students in high school or by fresh-
men in college. They start with the
simplest of equations and are taught to
balance by “‘inspection.’’ As they appear
to gain confidence, the equations grow in
complexity until it becomes obvious that
something more dependable than a
method of inspection is required to com-
plete the process. Before his initial en-
thusiasm gives way to total frustration,
the student is introduced to REDOX
equations, oxidation numbers, valences,
electron transfer, etc., along with that
method of equation balancing suggested
by R. J. Carney in 1928.1 This is ex-
plained in different ways depending upon
the textbook used, but essentially it boils
down to the fact that the total increase
in oxidation number (loss of electrons)
must exactly balance the total decrease
in oxidation number (gain of electrons).
Many of the student’s problems are
solved, but not all. He has difficulty with
valences in such substances as tetra-
thionates, peroxides, etc., while the
method is entirely inapplicable in many
organic reactions.

I have used a method for balancing
chemical equations successfully for more
than 40 years. Although I am not aware
of it having been published previously,
the concept is so simple that it is dif-

~ ficult to believe that it wasn’t discovered

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

independently many times before. I shall
refer to it simply as the algebraic method
and show by several examples how it may
be applied successfully in balancing any
chemical equation, without exception.

The method requires no prior knowl-
edge of valence or oxidation state. An
algebraic symbol, say, x, is arbitrarily
assigned as the coefficient of the most
complicated compound on either side of
the equation (i.e., the compound with the
greatest number of different atoms). The
equation is then balanced in terms of x
as far as one can proceed. In some in-
stances the entire equation can be
balanced in this manner and it only re-
mains to assign a small integer for the
value of x in order to complete the
problem. This can be illustrated by the
REDOX equation involving an iodide and
an iodate:

The coefficient x is assigned to KIOs.
Since all of the oxygen on the left side
of the equation appears in the KIOs;,
there are 3x atoms total. These are found
only in the H,O on the right hand side
so 3x becomes the coefficient of this
molecule. The partially balanced equa-
tion now may be written:

x 3X
KIO, + KI + HCl = KCl + H,O + I,

This now determines the coefficient of

the HCl because hydrogen is found no-
where else on the left hand side and also
appears only combined in the H,O on the
right side. There are 6x atoms of hy-
drogen altogether (two for each molecule
of H,O). Therefore 6x becomes the coef-
ficient of HCl. By the same reasoning
applied to the Cl atoms, 6x becomes the
coefficient of KCI. At this point the equa-
tion becomes:

x 6x 6x 3x
KIO, + KI + HCl = KCl + H,O + I,

In order to obtain a balance for the K
atoms, it is necessary to affix 5x as the
coefficient of the KI because 1x K atoms
already appear in the KIO;. The iodine
balance is all that remains. There are 6x
atoms on the left hand side (x + 5x) and
since it all appears with 2 atoms to the
molecule in the I,, the coefficient of that
molecule would have to be 3x. Now the
smallest value of x to give integer values
to each of the coefficients would be x = 1
and the balanced equation becomes:

KIO, + 5KI + 6HCl = 6KCI + 3H,O + 31,

A second example of this first type is
found in the equation:

K,Cr,O; + KI + H,SO,
= K,SO, ae Cr.(SO4)3 “fe H,O “Tr lB

Let x be the coefficient of the K,Cr,O,.
Then, by virtue of the Cr atom, there will
also be x molecules of Cr.(SO,)3. Now
since the oxygen which is combined with
the S in the SO, remains intact, the
only other oxygen appears in the K,Cr,O,
on the left hand side of the equation
and in the H,O molecule on the might.
There are, consequently, 7x molecules of
H,O. The other coefficients are found
as follows:

H — H.SO,:(7x)
S>'KSO2 (x — 3x ="4x)
K —> KI:(x2 — 2x,— 6x)
I > 1,:(6x = 2 = 3x)
Now all of the coefficients are accounted

for and again the simplest solution results

by letting x = 1. The balanced equation
becomes:

K,Cr,O, + 6KI + 7H,SO, = 4K,SO,
+ Cr.(SO,4)3 + 7H,O + 31,

As a final illustration of this first type,
consider the reaction between lead chro-
mate and potassium iodide:

PbCrO, + KI + HCl
= PbCl, + KCI + CrCl, + H,O + I,

Let x be the coefficient of PbCrO,. The
following sequence shows the order in
which each succeeding coefficient may be
found along with its value (in terms of x):

Pb — PbCl,:(x)
Cr — CrCl,:(x)
O — H,0:(4x)
H — HCI1:(8x)
Cl —> KCI:(8x — 2% = 33% ss)
K — KI:(3x)
I> 1,:3x + 2 = @r)x)

It can be seen that the smallest integer
values for all of the coefficients are ob-
tained by letting x = 2. The balanced
equation, therefore, is

2PbCrO, + 6KI + 16HCI = 2PbCl,
+ 6KCI + 2CrCl,; + 8H,O + 31,

The examples illustrated so far repre-
sent a minority group where one un-
known, x, was sufficient to balance the
equation. In the great majority of cases,
this cannot be done. For this second type,
therefore, one proceeds as follows:

Choose an unknown coefficient, x, as |
before and continue until all possibilities |
have been exhausted. Then choose a .
second coefficient, y, and continue until |

every other remaining molecule has its

coefficient determined in terms of x and/ |

or y. Next, determine the ratio of x to
y. The simplest integer values of x and y
which satisfy that ratio and result in in-
teger values for the coefficients will give
the correct solution. As a first illustration

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

of this type, consider the (unbalanced)
equation:

V,.0O, + KMnO, + H,SO,
= VO; ote K,SO, sf MnSO, ain H,O

Let x be the coefficient of K,SO, then
proceed as usual:

K — KMn0O,:(2x)

Mn — MnSO,:(2x)
S — H,SO,:(2x + x = 3x)
H — H,0:(3x)

This is as far as one can go using x,
alone, and the equation has coefficients
_ for every molecule except V,O, on the left
and VO, on the right. Let V.O; be given
the coefficient y, then:

V — V202:(y)

completes the coefficients, symbolically.
The result is:

y DX Be
V0, + KMnO, + H,.SO,

y x 2X 3x
= VO; = K,SO, ats MnSO, te H,O

It can be verified that all atoms have
been used with the exception of the oxy-
gen. The oxygen balance is given by:

Wolo = Sy + 4x + 8x +-3x

5x = 3y
N t3
Von 3

Therefore, x = 3 and y = 5 may be sub-
stituted back to satisfy the coefficients of
the balanced equation:

5V,O, + 6KMnO, + 9H,SO,
= 5V.O; + 3K,SO, + 6MnSO, + 9H,O

A second example of this type is il-
lustrated by the potassium dichromate
oxidation of ferrous chloride:

K,Cr,O, + FeCl, + HCl
= FeCl, + KCl + CrCl, + H,O
Let x equal the coefficient of K,Cr,O,.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Then, continuing,
Ke KCl)
Cr — CrCl,:(2x)
O — H,O:(7x)
H — HC1:(14x)

Next, let y = coefficient of the FeCl,,
then:
Fe => FeC:@)

The only element that has not been used
yet in this example is the chlorine. There-
fore, it is called upon to furnish the x/y
relationship. The Cl balance is:

Dy Ma Sy x, 16x
1

Thus, x = 1 and y = 6 leads to:
K,Cr,O, + 6FeCl, + 14HCl
= 6FeCla+ 2K El 2CrCle +, 7H-O

In some cases it may be found neces-
sary to introduce the second variable so
early that some of the coefficients be-
come sums or differences involving both
variables. An illustration of this is given
next:

Mn(NO;). + NaBiO; + HNO;

= NaNO, + Bi(NO;)3; + H,O + HMnO,

Let x = coefficient of Mn(NO;).. Then
Mn — HMn0O,:(x)

Since no other coefficient can be deter-
mined in terms of x alone, the second
variable must be assigned at this time. Let
y = coefficient of Bi(NOs3)s3.

Bi — NaBiO,:(y)
Na — NaNoO:;:(y)
N — HNO3:(y + 3y — 2x = 4y — 2x)
O — H,0:(6x + 3y + 12y — 6x
— 3y — 9y — 4x = 3y — 4x)

The equation with symbolic coefficients

is therefore given by:

(4y — 2x)

5,8 y
Mn(NO;). + NaBiO,; + HNO;

y y
— NaNO, a Bi(NO3)s

Giy"= 4x) x
H,O0O + HMn0O,

The hydrogen balance supplies the rela-
tionship between x and y:

Avis 2K= Gy) POXGh x

5x = 2y
Be) Ret 2
y 5

It follows that the simplest sequence of
integer numerical coefficients is:

2. 3, 416,'S, 3) 7, and 24 respectively:

Ionic equations are accommodated
with equal facility as illustrated by the
next example:

H,O + As,S3; + NO,7?
= AsO, ? + SO,-? + NO + Ht
Let x = coefficient of As,Ss.
As — AsO,73:(2x)
S > SO,7?:3x)
Let y = coefficient of H,O.
H — H*1:(2y)

Now the partially balanced equation
looks like this:

¥ x
H,O + As,S; + NO,7!

pap a5 2y
= AsO,? + SO, ? + NO + H?*}

The coefficient of the NO, ! can now be
obtained from the charge balance:

32xy °26%)-—" Kay) ='2(6x = y)

which also becomes the coefficient of the
NO by virtue of the nitrogen content. It
may be verified from the oxygen balance
that x = 3 and y = 4. Consequently, the
sequence of coefficients that comprise

the balanced equation is:
4, 3, 28, 6, 9, 28, and 8, respectively.

For the final example in this category
an organic reaction will be used which
does not adapt itself readily to the oxida-
tion number (or valence change) method
currently taught in secondary schools.
This reaction involves the preparation of
azoxybenzene from nitrobenzene:

C,H;NO, + CH;0Na
= C,.H,)N,.0 + HCOONa + H,O

Let x = coefficient of C,.H,)>N,O.
N — C,H;NO,:(2x)
Let y = coefficient of CH,ONa.

Na — HCOONa:(y)
O — H,0:(4x + y —~ x —2y = 3% —y)
Finally, the hydrogen balance yields:
10x + 3y = 10x +) 4 Oe eee

and the balanced equation may be written
by substitution:

4C,H;NO, + 3CH;0Na
= 2C,.H,)N.0 + 3HCOONa + 3H,O

A third classification of equations is
that for which an infinite number of *‘cor-
rect’’ solutions exists. Typical of this
group are certain reactions involving hy-
drogen peroxide as one of the reactants.
The first illustration is the following re-
action involving auric chloride:

AuCl, + H,O, + NaOH
= NaCl + H,O + O, + Au

One may proceed as usual by letting x
= coefficient of AuCl,, then:

Au — Au:(x)
Cl — NaCl:(3x)
Na — NaOH:(3x)

Now assign y = coefficient of H,Ox.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

me Pe am ~ ele

H — H,O:(2y + 3x)/2
O—0,:(2y + 3x) — Qy + 3x)/2] + 2
= 2Qy + 3x)/4

While this appears to be straightforward,
careful examination will disclose that all
of the atoms have been used to obtain
the coefficients, leaving none for deter-
mining a unique ratio of x to y. There-
fore, no such relationship exists! Conse-
quently, any combination which gives
non-reducible integer values for the co-
efficients while satisfying the functional
requirements must be as acceptable as
any other:

4 y 25s
AuCl, + H,O, + NaOH

3x Qy st 3x2
= NaCl + ” H,0

(2y + 3x)/4 XG
=- O, + Au

It is interesting that in some of the older
chemical handbooks? the above reaction
is given corresponding to x = 2, y = 3
while a simpler solution would be satis-
fied byx = 2,y = 1. The chemical reason
why these different combinations (as well
as many others) are all consistent is that
independent processes with one or more
molecules common to each process can
take place simultaneously. In the present
example, part of the HO, is used to
reduce the auric chloride to metallic gold
as shown here:

2AuCl, + H,O, + 6NaOH
= 6NaCl + 4H,O + 20, + 2Au

while, at the same time and quite inde-
pendently, any number of molecules may
undergo spontaneous decomposition ac-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

cording to:
2H,0, = 2H,O at O,

When these two reactions are added to-
gether, the result corresponds to x = 2,
y = 3. It may come somewhat as a shock,
however, that the same equation whose
sequence of coefficients is:

6, 17.18; 18; 2654356

corresponding to x = 6, y = 17 is also
equally valid!

As a second example of this type, I
submit the well known reaction of potas-
sium permanganate with hydrogen perox-
ide in the presence of sulfuric acid:

ag yy, 2y
H,O, + KMnO, + H,SO,

y y
Coa syi2 Oe Sy ia
+ H,O O,

The symbolic coefficients appearing
above the corresponding molecules can
easily be verified by means of the method
described. The sequence of coefficients:

12. 4.52) 2,4, 3

while simpler, is no more “‘correct’’ than,
say, the sequence:

12. 24. 12... 12, 26, 09
or even the sequence:
12, 20.540°5720; 20.42, 3).

References Cited

(1) Carney, R. J.: Outline of the Methods of Quali-
tative Analysis, 13th Ed. Copyright by George
Wahr, Publisher, Ann Arbor, Mich. (1928).

(2) See, for example, Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 17th Ed., Chemical Rubber Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio (1932), p. 1421.

RESEARCH REPORTS

Descriptions of New Braconidae (Hymenoptera) Parasitic
on the Potato Tuberworm and on Related Lepidoptera
from Central and South America

Paul M. Marsh

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, SEA, U. §. Department of Agriculture,
% U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560.

ABSTRACT

Six new species of braconids are described: Orgilus jennieae and Chelonus kellieae
from Costa Rica which are being reared in California for possible release against the
potato tuberworm; Chelonus johni, Apanteles oatmani, Bracon lucileae, and Mirax
malcolmi from Colombia, parasites of Scrobipalpula sp. Orgulis parcus Turner, pre-
viously released into California, is diagnosed and compared to O. jennieae.

Descriptions of the following new
species of Braconidae are being provided
at the request of E. R. Oatman, Univer-
sity of California, Riverside. Two of these
species, Orgilus jennieae n. sp. and
Chelonus kellieae n. sp. from Costa Rica,
are being studied and reared for release
against the potato tuberworm, Phthori-
maea operculella (Zeller), in Southern
California. The other 4 species were
collected by Dr. Oatman and colleagues
during searches in Colombia for para-
sites of the potato tuberworm and the
tomato pinworm, Keiferia lycopersicella
(Walshingham). Colonies were not ob-
tained for any of these 4 parasites, but
they are described at this time in the
event they are collected again for future
study.

Orgilus jennieae Marsh, new species

Female. Length of body, 3.5—4.0 mm; ovi-
positor, 2.5—3.0 mm. Color: head including an-
tennae, thorax and abdomen black; fore and middle

legs with coxa light brown, first trochanter
black, second trochanter light brown, femur
light brown, black dorsally, tibia light brown
but sometimes black on apical 14, tarsus black;
hind leg with coxa black basally and light
brown apically, first trochanter black, second
trochanter brown, femur brown ventrally, black
dorsally and laterally, tibia brown on basal %,
black on apical 4, tarsus black; tegula and wing
base black, wing uniformily lightly infumated.
Head: in dorsal view 1.5 times broader than long,
face about 1.25 times as broad as eye height,
clypeus strongly convex; frons smooth and polished
except for hair pits; ocellocular distance about
twice diameter of lateral ocellus; antenna 29
segmented, segments in apical 4 about as long as
broad. Thorax: mesonotal lobes smooth and
polished except for numerous hair pits, notauli
deep and strongly crenulate, scutellar disc smooth
and shining, prescutellar furrow deep and with
numerous low carinae; propleuron strongly rugose,
granular along dorsal edge; mesopleuron smooth
and polished, hairless above sternaulus, sternaulus
arched and strongly crenulate; propodeum rugose,
longitudinal carinae at posterior margin strong,
spiracles set into shallow circular impression,
sides of propodeum rugose ventrally, granular
dorsally. Abdomen: first tergite about 1.5 times
longer than apical width, rugulopunctate, smooth

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

at extreme base, basal longitudinal keels well
developed; second tergite about 1.3 times as long
as broad at base, finely granular medially,
smooth and polished along apical and lateral
edges; second suture fine but distinct; remainder
of terga smooth and polished; ovipositor about
as long as abdomen plus % thorax. Wings
(fig. 4): radial cell along wing margin as long as
stigma; second segment of radius at a slight
angle with intercubitus; stub of third segment of
cubitus slightly longer than second segment;
nervulus nearly interstitial with basal vein, only
slightly postfurcal; hind wing 4.5 times as long as
greatest width; second segment of mediella slightly
longer than nervellus. Legs: hind coxa granular,
rugulose dorsally at base; hind femur 4 times
as long as wide; inner spur of hind tibia more
than % as long as basitarsus; tarsal claws simple.

Male. Essentially as in female; apical antennal
segments longer than broad.

Holotype.—Female, Cartago, Costa
Rica, Central America, IV-24-73, E. R.
Oatman collector, ex. Phthorimaea oper-
culella on potato. Deposited in the U. S.
National Museum (USNM).

Paratypes.—18 22, 20466, same
data as holotype; 4 22,4 34, Cartago,
Costa Rica, [V-25-73, E. R. Oatman, ex.
Gelechiid on potato; 3 29°, 3 66, Car-
tago, Costa Rica, IV-19-73, coll. Oat-
man, ex potato tuberworm. Deposited
in USNM and the University of Cali-
fornia, Riverside (UCR).

This species is similar to the Nearctic
Orgilus ferus Muesebeck but differs by
the legs being brown or black, the

Figs. 1-7. Wing venation: 1, Mirax malcolmi, n. sp.; 2, Apanteles oatmani, n. sp.; 3, Bracon lucileae,
| n. sp.; 4, Orgilus jennieae, n. sp.; 5, O. parcus Turner; 6, Chelonus (Microchelonus) kellieae, n. sp.;

: 7, C. (M.) johni, n. sp.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979 13

antennae black, and the radius being
angled with the intercubitus. The legs of
ferus are testaceus and the radius is ona
straight line with the intercubitus. This
species is named for my wife, Jennie
Suderman Marsh.

Orgilus parcus Turner

Orgilus parcus Turner, 1922. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (Ser. 9) 10: 276.

Diagnosis. —Length of body, 3.5-—4.0 mm;
ovipositor, 2.5—3.5 mm. Color: head, thorax, and
abdomen black, basal flagellomeres dark brown,
apex of fore femur, fore tibia and tarsus brown,
middle tibia and tarsus dark brown, wings uni-
formly lightly infumated. Face coarsely punctate
and shining, temples and vertex smooth and shin-
ing, frons weakly rugose; mesonotum coarsely
punctate and shining; abdominal terga one and two
completely rugose, third tergite weakly rugose
medially at base; ovipositor as long as abdomen
plus 2 thorax; second segment of radius slightly
angled with intercubitus, nervulus only slightly
postfurcal, hind wing (fig. 5) about 6 times as
long as wide.

Type locality. —Mossel Bay, Cape

Province, South Africa.

This species is similar to the Nearctic
Orgilus arcticus Muesebeck but is easily
distinguished by the smooth and shining
temples and vertex, and the wing vena-
tion, particularly the angle of the radius
and intercubitus (they are on a straight
line in arcticus) and the nervulus being
postfurcal by about 3 its length. It is
also similar to O. jennieae described
above but differs in its black legs,
narrower hind wing, and more strongly
sculptured second abdominal tergite.

Orgilus parcus was introduced from
South Africa and released in 1968 at
Moreno Valley, Riverside County, Cali-
fornia, against the potato tuberworm. It
was colonized but apparently not estab-
lished (E. R. Oatman, pres. comm.).
Further surveys in this area for potato
tuberworm parasites are being made and
this species is included here in the event
it does become established.

Chelonus (Microchelonus) kellieae Marsh,
new species

Female. Length of body, 3.0 mm. Color:
entire body black except for scape, pedicle, base

of first flagellomere, apex of fore femur, fore
tibia, fore basitarsus, base and apex of middle
femur, middle tibia, middle basitarsus, base and
apex of hind femur, and basal % of hind tibia
which are honey yellow. Head: slightly wider
than long; face granular and dull, clypeus weakly
granular and shining, frons rugose, a definite
carinate ridge between antennae extending half
way down face, vertex rugulostriate, temples
finely striate, malar space about equal to length
of first flagellomere, antenna 16 segmented, short,
not extending beyond propodeum, flagellomeres
12-15 as wide as long, level of lower eye
margins slightly above dorsal margin of clypeus.
Thorax: mesonotum rugose, somewhat areolate
where notauli meet before prescutellar furrow,
mesonotal lobes granular, mesopleuron rugose,
areolate; propodeum rugose, caudal margin defined
by transverse ridge, outer pair of projections
large and distinct, inner pair weak. Abdomen:
carapace rugose basally, rugulose apically, basal
carinae short but distinct, apex of ventral open-
ing reaching about to apex of carapace. Wings
(fig. 6): stigma about as long as wide, radial
cell along wing margin half as long as stigma,
first and second segments of radius about equal
in length.

Male. Essentially as in female; opening at apex
of carapace (fig. 8) somewhat flattened heart-
shaped, about 2.5 times wider than high, center
tubercle with scattered short hair, carapace formed
into a low rounded tubercle below this apical
opening. .

Holotype.—Female, Cartago, Costa

Rica, April 1973, coll. E. R. Oatman.
Deposited in USNM.

Paratypes.—17 2°, 20466, same
data as holotype; 5 22,8 66, Cartago,
Costa Rica, 4-25-73, E. R. Oatman, ex
Gelechiid on potato. Deposited in USNM
and UCR.

This species is similar to the Nearctic
Chelonus (Microchelonus) cosmopteridis
McComb, both species having striate
temples, but kellieae differs from cos-
mopteridis by having a shorter radial
cell which is half as long as stigma,
and shorter apical flagellomeres which
are as wide as long. It does not appear
to be similar to any of the described
Neotropical species. This species is
named for my daughter, Kellie Lyneé
Marsh.

Chelonus (Microchelonus) johni Marsh,
new species

Female. Length of body, 3 mm. Color: black
except scape, apex of fore femur, fore tibia, fore

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Figs. 8—9. Opening at apex of male carapace, Chelonus (Microchelonus) species: 8, kellieae, n. sp.;
9, johni, n. sp.

basitarsus, apex of middle femur, middle tibia,
middle tarsus, basal % of hind tibia, and hind
basitarsus which are honey yellow. Head: wider
than long, entirely striate, clypeus granular and
shining medially; malar space slightly longer
than first flagellomere; antenna 16 segmented,
short, not quite reaching base of propodeum,
flagellomeres 10-15 as wide as long; level of
lower eye margins slightly above dorsal margin of
clypeus. Thorax: mesonotum rugose, strongly areo-
lated where notauli meet, along notauli, and
along median line of middle mesonotal lobe;
mesopleuron strongly rugose and areolate; propo-
deum rugose, caudal margin defined by strong
transverse ridge, both pair of projections strong.
Abdomen: carapace strongly rugose and areolate,
particularly at base, basal carinae strong and
reaching to basal 4 of carapace; apex of ventral
opening reaching almost to apex of carapace.
Wings (fig. 7): stigma twice as long as wide;
radial cell along wing margin %4 as long as stigma;
first and second segments of radius about equal
in length.

Male. Essentially as in female; opening at apex
of carapace (fig. 9) evenly oval, about 1.5
times wider than high, inner tubercle with scattered
long hair.

Holotype.—Female, Palmira, Colom-
bia, So. America, 5-8-73, coll. E. R. Oat-
man, gelechiid on Solanum sp. Deposited
in USNM.

Paratypes.—4 22,5 36, same data
as holotype; 1 2, 1 6, Palmira, Colom-
bia, 9-15-75, A. Saldarriaga, ex. Scrobi-
palpula sp. on Solanum saponaceum.
Deposited in USNM and UCR.

This species is similar to Chelonus
(Microchelonus) kellieae but is dis-
tinguished by the longer radial cell which
is 3%4 as long as stigma, and the stronger

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

sculpturing on the mesonotum and head.
It is named for my father-in-law, Mr.
John H. Suderman.

Apanteles oatmani Marsh, new species

Female. Length of body, 2.5 mm; ovipositor,
1 mm. Color: black except palpi, apical 74 of fore
femur, fore tibia, fore tarsus, apex of middle
femur, middle tibia, middle tarsus, hind trochanter
2, and basal % of hind tibia which are honey
yellow; stigma brown and margined on all sides
by darker brown. Head: distinctly punctate,
densely covered with short white hair; malar space
shorter than clypeus; face only slightly narrower
at clypeus than at antennae, at its narrowest
part equal to eye height; antenna about equal to
body length. Thorax: mesonotum distinctly punc-
tate, punctures dense along course of notauli
and somewhat rugose posteriorly, densely covered
with short white hair; disc of scutellum flat,
shining, slightly punctate, polished area on lateral
face of scutellum semicircular; propodeum rugose,
central areola strongly margined by carinae,
occasionally open at base, costulae absent; meso-
and metapleuron smooth and shining. Wings (fig.
2): stigma broad, about 2.5 times as long as
broad; metacarpus longer than stigma; radius
longer and slightly narrower than intercubitus;
nervellus of hind wing slightly curved toward
wing base, vanal lobe straight or slightly convex
and without fringe of hair. Legs: inner spur of
hind tibia considerably longer than outer and as
long as % hind basitarsus. Abdomen: first tergite
slightly longer than apical width, sides parallel
or very slightly bulging medially, base and apex
of equal width, strongly rugose, occasionally
a slight median depression indicated at apex; second
tergite extremely short, about 5.5—6.0 times as
wide as long, rugose, suture between second and
third terga strongly crenulate; hypopygium acute
and extending beyond apex of abdomen; ovi-
positor about as long as hind tibia, slightly
evenly curved downward.

Male. Essentially as in female except antenna
longer and legs darker.

Holotype.— Female. Palmira, Colom-
bia, Sept. 15, 1975, A. Saldarriaga V..,
ex. Scrobipalpula sp. on Solanum sapo-
naceum. Deposited in USNM.

Paratypes.—7 22,4646, same data
as holotype. Deposited in USNM and
UCR.

This species is distinguished by its very
short second abdominal tergite which
is about 6 times as wide as long. It
appears to be similar to the Neotropical
Apanteles bruchi Blanchard but differs
by the black tegula and rugose second
abdominal tergite. This species is named
for Earl R. Oatman.

Bracon lucileae Marsh, new species

Female. Length of body, 2.0-3.0 mm; ovi-
positor, 0.50—1.25 mm. Color: entirely honey
yellow except antenna, ocellar triangle, and ovi-
positor sheaths which are black, and apical seg-
ments of fore and middle tarsi, apex of hind
tibia, and entire hind tarsus which are brown;
wings lightly infuscated on basal half, veins
brown, stigma light brown, transparent and edged
with dark brown. Head: entirely smooth and
polished; eyes large and bulging well beyond
temples which are strongly receding; malar space
about 4% eye height and with a distinct smooth
groove extending from base of eye to base of
mandible; transverse diameter of circular mouth
opening nearly as long as distance from opening
to eye; antenna 26—29 segmented. Thorax: smooth
and polished; notauli weakly indicated at least
anteriorly and thickly hairy; sternaulus absent;
propodeum without any indication of median
carina, with a smooth oblique groove under
each spiracle. Abdomen: entirely smooth and
polished; first tergite about 1.25 times longer
than apical width, central and oblique furrows
smooth; suture between second and third terga
smooth and slightly arched medially; ovipositor
about % as long as abdomen. Wings (fig. 3):
second segment of radius nearly 3 times as long
as first. Legs: tarsal claws with large basal
tooth.

Male. Essentially as in female; length of body,
1.5-2.5 mm; antenna 25-30 segmented; apical
abdominal segments sometimes marked with black.

Holotype.—Female. Palmira, Colom-
bia, Sept. 15, 1975, A. Saldarriaga V.
collector, ex. Scrobipalpula sp. on

Solanum saponaceum. Deposited in
USNM.

Paratypes.—6 22,4646, same data
as holotype. Deposited in USNM and
UCR.

This species is similar to the Nearctic
Bracon psilicorsi Viereck but is dis-
tinguished by its entirely yellow body,
lack of oblique furrows on second ab-
dominal tergite, and strongly receding
temples. It is also similar to B. vul-
pinus Szépligeti from Brazil but differs
by the entirely smooth second abdominal
tergite. This species is named for my
mother, Lucile Garges Marsh.

Mirax malcolmi Marsh, new species

Female. Length of body, 2.0—2.5 mm; ovi-
positor, 0.5 mm. Color: face and temples honey
yellow, vertex brown, occiput black, antenna
black, palpi whitish, thorax black, abdomen
black beyond second segment, median plate of
first tergite honey yellow, median plate of second
tergite brown, lateral parts of second tergite
black, membranous areas of first and second
tergites whitish-yellow, ovipositor sheaths black;
wings lightly infumated, stigma black, tegula and
wing base honey yellow; legs yellow, apical tarsal
segments brown. Head: face lightly punctate,
vertex and temples more strongly punctate; ver-
tex with a weak polished groove extending from
median ocellus to occiput; frons with a slight
raised ridge extending between antennae a short
distance down face; temples about as wide as
eyes and not receding behind eyes, bulging
slightly; antenna 14 segmented, first and second
flagellomeres about equal in length. Thorax:
mesonotum and scutellum mostly smooth with
only scattered punctures; notauli deeply impressed
anteriorly, absent posteriorly; mesopleuron smooth
and polished, sternaulus represented by a wide,
shallow, rugulose impression; propodeum coarsely
rugose with strong median carina; metapleuron
and sides of propodeum smooth. Abdomen: plate
of first tergite smooth, very narrow on basal 2,
suddenly widening near apex and then narrowing at
apex (i.e., Somewhat spoon-shaped); second tergite
mostly membranous, median plate smooth, narrow
at base, gradually widening to apex and then
extending across entire apex of tergite; remainder
of tergites smooth; ovipositor about as long as
hind basitarsus. Wings (fig. 1): cubitus weak or
absent at base so first cubital and first discoidal
cells are not completely separated; radius almost
completely absent.

Male. Essentially as in female.

Holotype.—Female, Palmira, Colom-
bia, Sept. 15, 1975, A. Saldarriaga V.
collector, ex. Scrobipalpula sp. on

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Solanum saponaceum. Deposited in the
USNM.

Paratypes.—6 22,6646, same data
as holotype. Deposited in the USNM and
UCR.

This species is easily distinguished
from the only other described Neotropi-

cal species, Mirax brasiliensis Brues
and M. insularis Muesebeck, by its
dark thorax. In North America it is
similar to M. lithocolletidis Ashmead but
is distinguished by its darker color and
more coarsely rugose propodeum. This
Species is named for my father, Mal-
colm B. Marsh.

Natural History Notes on Craspedoglossa stejnegeri
and Thoropa petropolitana (Amphibia: Salientia,

Leptodactylidae)

W. Ronald Heyer and Ronald I. Crombie

Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, Natural History Building,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560.

ABSTRACT

Larvae are described for the first time for the burrowing leptodactylid frog,
Craspedoglossa stejnegeri. The terrestrial larvae resemble those of Zachaenus-_parvulus
in several distinctive features. Territoriality is described for the first time for any
frog in SE Brazil; male Thoropa petropolitana defend calling sites and egg clutches.

During the month of December 1977,
we obtained some natural history ob-
servations on previously unreported life
history parameters for Craspedoglossa
Stejnegeri and Thoropa petropolitana.
Our observations were made near the city
of Teresépolis in the State of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. Specimens are in the
collections of the Museu de Zoologia da
Universidade de Sao Paulo and the
National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, D. C.

Craspedoglossa stejnegeri

We obtained a series of 29 juvenile
and adult C. stejnegeri from burrows
in hillsides or under logs. During the
day, specimens were found in the burrow

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

systems under logs. At night, the frogs
were near the mouths of the burrows.
In six cases, Craspedoglossa and micro-
hylids (a single species, as yet uniden-
tified) shared the same burrows; four of
the burrows contained one microhylid
and one C. stejnegeri, two burrows,
two microhylids and one C. stejnegeri.
On the morning of 10 December, the
second author found a female C. stej-
negeri with 40 larvae on her back under
a 15 cm. diameter log beside a stream.
The female sat in a depression below the
level of the surrounding soil. Egg cap-
sules were next to the female and one
egg had been parasitized. The egg cap-
sules were in a bead-like string. The lar-
vae were very light in color, the yellow
yolk being the most striking feature.

Fig. 1. Lateral view and mouthparts of larva of Craspedoglossa stejnegeri.

Thirty-eight of the larvae are stage 31
(Gosner, 1960), two are stage 30. Abun-
dant yolk stores at this stage are ob-
vious (Fig. 1). The oral disk is distinc-
tive in having only two papillae at the
lateral margins (Fig. 1). The denticles
are not well developed and not clearly
visible in all specimens at low magnifica-
tion. At high magnification, the follow-
ing tooth row formula is characteristic:
2-2/1;1. The larvae lack a spiracle, the
anus iS median and usually bifid. Of 10
larvae measured, the head-body length/
total length average is 0.30; the longest
larva is 25.2 mm total length. _

The larvae of C. stejnegeri share the
following distinctive features with the
larvae of Zachaenus parvulus as de-
scribed by Lutz (1944): No spiracle;
general shape of oral disk (Lutz’s figures
appear almost identical to the mouth-
parts of Fig. 1); and peculiar bilobed
anal tube (see Figure 16 in Lutz, 1944,
for a comparable view of the condition
in the series of C. stejnegeri at hand).
The larvae differ in tooth row formulae,
the tooth row formula for Z. parvulus
is 1-1/1 (Lutz, 1944). Lutz describes
the upper and lower lips of the disk
being connected by 2 or 3 large papillae
(as in C. stejnegeri), but that the lower
lip has shorter, continuous papillae. The
lower part of the disk in C. stejnegeri
is emarginate (Fig. 1). Lutz gives the
maximum length of Z. parvulus larvae
as 19 mm.

The distinctive larvae of Craspedo-
glossa stejnegeri and Z. parvulus sug-
gest close relationship, supporting Lynch’s

(1971) synonymization of these two gen-
era. The distinctive adult morphologies
argue for generic recognition, however
(Heyer, 1975). The close similarities of
larval morphologies indicate that the
larvae of C. stejnegeri are terrestrial
larvae, completing metamorphosis on the
nutrients from the large yolk stores.

Lutz (1944) found a Z. parvulus egg
mass which contained 30 eggs; no adult
was in attendance. We found one egg
mass of 12 eggs of Z. parvulus with an
attendant female. It is difficult to imagine
a larger clutch size for Zachaenus
parvulus than what we found, owing
to the large eggs and small size of adult
females. Lutz may have uncovered a
communal nesting site. The eggs of
Zachaenus are in a clump, not a
string as in Craspedoglossa.

Thoropa petropolitana

Our observations extend the informa-
tion provided by Bokermann (1965), who
discussed the general ecology of adults
and larvae and described the larval
morphology and mating call of Thoropa
petropolitana. Most of our observations
were made on a road cut rock wall
with a high population density of T7.
petropolitana.

On the night of 4 December, the
second author found an amplectant
pair (axillary amplexus) in the final
process of egg laying. Most of the eggs
had been deposited in the character-
istic circular mass when discovered.
The following sequence was observed

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

to be the same for deposition of 3
eggs. The male called sporadically
(1-3 times), then squeezed the female
2—3 times. The female extruded a single
egg. The male then pushed the egg onto
the substrate (a vertical bare rock sur-
face, surrounded by rock covered with
algal and moss slime) with his right hind
foot. The female rotated counterclock-
wise 5°, and the process was repeated.
After the last egg was deposited, the
male dismounted and moved about 30
mm from the clutch facing it, calling
emphatically. The female straddled the
circular clutch and sat on top of the
clutch with her nose buried in moss. The
total clutch was 16 eggs.

We checked the egg clutch almost
daily, and at every observation period
but 2, we found the male in attendance.
One time when we did not see the male,
he was attendant 15 minutes later when
we rechecked the clutch. The embryos
were at least at the neurula stage on
the 4th day and several had died. On the
6th day, tails and movement were evi-
dent. On the 9th day, only eight em-
bryos were still alive, the rest were
dead. A small hydrophilid water beetle
(Oocyclus sp.) was in the midst of the
egg clutch, where it had apparently
eaten its way in. We prodded the beetle.
When the beetle moved, the male Thoropa
reacted in the jerky motions which terri-
torial males perform. The frog advanced
on the beetle, bumped it with his chin,
put his front foot on it, moved past it,
and tried to dislodge it with a kick of
his hind foot. The frog made no attempt
to eat the beetle. On the 10th day, two
larvae had hatched and were still on the
jelly. On the 11th day, all but one larva
had hatched; all larvae remained on or
around the jelly. On the 12th day, all
larvae had hatched; two were on the edge
of the jelly, the others were gone. The
male was absent. On the 13th day, no
larvae were around the jelly; the male sat
facing the jelly 10 cm away.

We found no males defending more
than one clutch of eggs. Male T. petro-
politana are territorial. Males defend

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

calling sites and egg clutches from other
males. One natural agonistic encounter
was observed. The resident male gave
what we interpret to be a territorial
call (a creaking, attenuated note in
contrast to the short chirps we interpret
as the advertising call), then grabbed
the face to face interloping male around
the neck and wrestled. The resident re-
leased the invader and gave a territorial
call followed by 5-6 rapid advertising
calls. The invader remained flat on the
substrate. The resident turned back
towards his calling site, and the invader
quickly left with two long hops.

We experimentally introduced males
into the territories of other males, who
were defending either calling sites or egg
clutches. In all cases, the resident male
called and postured toward the invading
male. In one instance, calling and pos-
turing was adequate to drive off the
invader. In all others, physical contact,
either wrestling or kicking, occurred.
The adpression of the invader to the
substrate was a common response. The
defended territories are small. We found
several instances of males calling 20 cm
apart with no interference.

As Wells (1977) recently summarized,
‘‘Attachment to a fixed site will be ad-
vantageous if this gives the occupant
exclusive or priority access to resources
in short supply.’’ We suggest that the
resource in short supply for T. petro-
politana is the egg deposition site for
the following 2 reasons: (1) The males
defend the site against other males only.
When males are attending egg clutches,
they do not remove spoiled eggs or clean
the clutch of predatory insects. The
clutch is defended only in terms of other
T. petropolitana. (2) We discovered only
one site where 7. petropolitana was ina
natural habitat—a waterfall. In contrast
to the road cut, the population density
of T. petropolitana here was very low.
Our impression was that there were few
protected but open rock surfaces with a
film of water flowing over that were
suitable for T. petropolitana egg deposi-
tion sites. The males of Thoropa miliaris

do not attend egg clutches, and we saw
no instances of territorial behavior
in J. miliaris. Eggs of T. miliaris
occur in much more exposed and hori-
zontal situations than those of 7. petro-
politana, suggesting that the egg deposi-
tion sites of JZ. miliaris are not as
limited aresource as forT. petropolitana.

In his recent review, Wells (1977)
listed 2 species each of Leptodactylus
and Eleutherodactylus as the only
Neotropical leptodactylids for which ter-
ritorial behavior had been reported. The
occurrence of territoriality in the dis-
tantly related Thoropa _ petropolitana
suggests that territoriality in leptodactylid
frogs may be much more common than
previously thought.

We thank Maria Christina Duchéne
and Francisca Carolina do Val for
assistance in the field. Paul Spangler iden-
tified the water beetle. Frances McCul-
lough drew the figure. This is a contribu-
tion to the research project, ‘‘Evolu-
tionary zoogeography of the Atlantic
forest system of Brasil: The anuran

example,’’ supported jointly by the
Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de
Sao Paulo and the Smithsonian Insti-
tution’s Amazon Ecosystem Research
Program.

Literature Cited

Bokermann, W. C. A. 1965. Notas sobre as
espécies de Thoropa Fitzinger (Amphibia, Lepto-
dactylidae). An. Acad. Brasil. Cienc. 37: 525-
537.

Gosner, K. L. 1960. A simplified table for staging
anuran embryos and larvae with notes on
identification. Herpetologica 16: 183—190.

Heyer, W. R. 1975. A preliminary analysis of
the intergeneric relationships of the frog family
Leptodactylidae. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool.
199: 1-55.

Lutz, B. 1944. Biologia e taxonomia de Zachaenus
parvulus. Bol. Mus. Nac., Rio de Janeiro,
Zool. 17: 1-66.

Lynch, J. D. 1971. Evolutionary relationships,
osteology, and zoogeography of leptodactyloid
frogs. Univ. Kansas Mus. Natur. Hist., Misc.
Publ. 53: 1-238.

Wells, K. D. 1977. The social behaviour of anuran
amphibians. Anim. Behav. 25: 666-693.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Accuracy of Land-Use Sampling Methods

Richard H. McCuen

Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland,

College Park, Maryland 20742

ABSTRACT

Estimates of land-use proportions are required for many engineering planning and
design models, as well as some environmental impact statements. Four methods are
commonly used to estimate the proportion of various land uses in a study area: 1) planim-
etering of aerial photographs, 2) land-use sampling with aerial photographs, 3) predic-
tion using regionalized relationships that require estimates of demographic character-
istics, and 4) a weighted mean of the materials associated with each land-use classifica-
tion. Because the methods give different answers, it is important to know the accuracy
of each estimate. While planimetering and sampling provide almost exact estimates, the
empirical estimation techniques are only accurate within 10% of the true value. Remote
sensing techniques appear to provide an alternative method that should provide a high

degree of accuracy.

Over the past few decades the propor-
tion of the U. S. population that resides
in urban/suburban areas has increased
significantly (10). One result of this
pattern of urban development has been
noticeable changes in land uses, espe-
cially increased concentrations of im-
perviousness. Recognizing the physical
significance of increases in impervious-
ness on the stormwater runoff process,
hydrologists have used the percentage of
impervious area aS a measure of ur-
banization. This has led to attempts to
relate the percentage of impervious area
with peak discharge and other flood
characteristics (11, 15). Such relation-
ships can be used by planners to ex-
amine the hydrologic impact of proposed
developments (12) or the effect on flood
characteristics of continued urbanization
with time (20).

Recognizing the impact of urbaniza-
tion on runoff characteristics of a water-
shed, hydrologists have used the per-
centage of imperviousness as a parameter
in hydrologic models (4, 15). The percent-
age of impervious area has been shown
to be just as important as other water-
shed and climatic characteristics (15).
Due to the relative importance of the
percentage of imperviousness, accurate

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

predictions of the hydrologic response of
an urban watershed require accurate
estimates of the impervious area.

The percentage of impervious area in a
watershed can be estimated using any of
the following 4 methods: 1) planimeter-
ing of aerial photographs, 2) land use
sampling with aerial photographs, 3)
prediction using empirical relationships
having demographic characteristics as
predictor variables, and 4) a weighted
mean of the average percentage of im-
pervious area associated with each land-
use classification. While the first 2 meth-
ods require aerial photographs, methods
3 and 4 make use of regionalized in-
formation and readily available census
tract information. While the regionalized
estimation techniques are less costly,
the method selected for any one site will
depend on both accuracy and cost
considerations.

The objective of this paper is to
evaluate and compare the accuracy of
these 4 methods of estimating the im-
pervious area. The accuracy levels are
also applicable to other land use types.

Planimetering

The most accurate estimates could be
obtained by planimetering from aerial

photographs. Planimetering of areas
should provide almost exact values,
with the accuracy of an estimate de-
pendent upon the resolution of the aerial
photograph and the availability of ground
truth information. Requirements for
ground truth depend on the relative
importance of the land use in the study
area. For larger areas and where there
is little spatial homogeneity, such as in
urban and suburban areas, planimetering
may require an excessive amount of
time, technical capability, ground truth
verification, and cost. And Stafford, et al.
(16) made the following important con-
clusion:

The use of a planimeter to measure parcels of
land in each land use class on aerial photo-
graphs may produce area measurements with higher
accuracy than are actually required when the
accuracy of other elements of the procedure are
examined. Consequently, the use of a land use
sampling approach rather than making area meas-
urements with a planimeter is a reasonable modi-
fication to the procedure described herein which
can significantly reduce the time and labor re-
quired to obtain data on the distribution of land
use from aerial photographs.

Land-Use Sampling

The land use sampling approach may
be a reasonable alternative for estimating
percentages of different land uses, in-
cluding the proportion of impervious
area. The sampling approach has been
used in hydrologic analyses (11, 20) and in
resource identification studies (14).

When sample size is the factor that
controls accuracy, a confidence interval
can be used to indicate the accuracy of
land-use proportion that is estimated by
land-use sampling. For large samples,
such that the sampling distribution of the
proportion is approximately normal, the
100(1 — a)% 2-sided confidence limits
for a proportion P are given approxi-
mately by:

N _2
IN: + Z* 2N
LC Se he
Sigh Baha, | (1)
N 4N?
22

where WN is the sample size, Z is the
standardized normal variate that cuts off
the upper a/2 proportion, and a is the
level of significance. Large samples can
be expected when using methods of auto-
matic classification by remote sensing
and equation 1 reduces to (19):

| ween iia 2
N

Either equation 1 or 2 can be used to
determine an interval about an observed
land-use proportion and determine the
probability that the true land-use pro-
portion lies within this range.

Equations 1 and 2 can also be used to
estimate the sample size required to
provide a specified degree of accuracy.
A proportion of 0.5 is the most critical
proportion and thus has the widest con-
fidence interval. For a proportion of 0.5
and a degree of confidence of 99%,
equation 2 indicates that a sample size of
16,577 would be required to provide an
estimate of a proportion within 1% of the
true value. For a proportion of 0.25,
which is similar to the proportion of
impervious area in a suburban area, the
required sample size would be 12,433.
Ragan (14) used a sample size of over
94,000 to estimate the proportion of
the land use in 10 mutually excusive
categories.

(2)

Prediction Using Demographic Characteristics

But both the planimetering and sam-
pling methods assume that aerial photo-
graphs are available. For many water-
sheds current aerial photographs may not
be available. And for many planning —
problems only the spatial extent of
future trends in urbanization is known.
Thus, the planimetering and land-use
sampling techniques are not always
applicable.

When planimetering or land-use sam-
pling are not applicable or the re-
sources required to use these methods
are not available, it may be possible
to estimate imperviousness and other
land-use characteristics using empirical

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

prediction equations having demographic
characteristics, such as population and
housing densities, as predictor variables
(8, 9, 18). Estimates of demographic
characteristics, which can be used for
prediction, may be available from past
census summaries or planning projec-
tions of future development.

The standard error of estimate of the
prediction equations can be used to
indicate the accuracy of land-use es-
timates. The prediction equation ap-
proach may provide estimates of im-
perviousness and other land-use charac-
teristics that are within 10% of the true
value. Graham (9) reported a standard
error of estimate of 11.8% of impervious-
ness when using housing density as the
predictor variable. Gluck (8) reported a
standard error of estimate of 6.3% of
imperviousness when using the popula-
tion density and the distance from the
central business district as predictor
variables.

Land-Use Class Averaging

Aerial photographs for planimetering
and land-use sampling and estimates
of demographic characteristics for use
with prediction equations are often not
available or require too much effort for
evaluating many different planning al-
ternatives. Furthermore, planning pro-
jections often include estimates of spe-
cific land uses without distinguishing
between the proportion of pervious and
impervious surface cover. Specifically,
specifying the percentage of residential
land use does not provide the informa-
tion needed for many planning models.

When gross areas devoted to specific
land uses are available, a means of
transforming these estimates to im-
pervious area estimates is required. In
such cases, a second empirical method
of estimating imperviousness may be a
feasible alternative. An estimate of the
imperviousness of a study area can be
obtained using a weighted mean of the
average impervious area associated with
each land use in the study area; the
estimate can be obtained from:

Aa Sy LP. (3)
j=1

where J; is the average percentage of
impervious area associated with land-use
classification j, P; is the fraction of the
study area devoted to land use j, n is the
number of different land-use categories
in the study area, and JA is the estimated
percentage of impervious area in the
study area.

Stankowski (18) provided low, inter-
mediate and high estimates of impervious
land area for 6 land-use categories; these
values are reproduced in Table 1. These
estimates were based on general field
observations and studies by Carter (3),
Felton and Lull (7), Antoine (2), and
Stall, Terstriep, and Huff (17). However,
the separation of land-use categories in
Table 1 may not be sufficiently disag-
gregated for some hydrologic planning
and design activities.

To provide impervious area estimates
that can be used in many research
activities, a land-use classification sys-
tem, Table 2, that was proposed (1) for
use with remote sensor data was adopted

Table 1.—Impervious Land Area Within Land-Use Categories.

Land-use category

Single-family residential
Multiple-family residential
Commercial

Industrial

Public and quasi-public
Conservational, recreational and open

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Impervious land area (percentage)

Low Intermediate High

12 ZS 40
60 70 80
80 90 100
40 70 95
50 60 70

0 0 0

01.

02.

03.

04.

0S.

06.

07.

08.
09.

Level I

Urban and
Built-up
Land

Agricultural
Land

Range Land

Forest Land

Water

Nonforested
Wetland

Barren
Land

Tundra

Permanent
Snow and
Icefields

Table 2. —Land-Use Classification System.

Level II

. Residential

. Commercial and services
. Industrial

. Extractive

. Transportation, Com-

munications and Utilities

. Institutional
. Strip and Clustered

Settlement

. Mixed
. Open and Other

. Cropland and Pasture
. Orchards, Groves, Bush

Fruits, Vineyards, and
Horticultural Areas

. Feeding Operations
. Other

. Grass

. Savannas

. Chaparral

. Desert Shrub

. Deciduous
. Evergreen (Coniferous

and other)

. Mixed

. Streams and Waterways
. Lakes

. Reservoirs

. Bays and Estuaries

. Other

. Vegetated
. Bare

. Salt Flats

. Beaches

. Sand and Other Beaches
. Bare Exposed Rock

. Other

. Tundra

. Permanent Snow and

Icefields

herein, with 1 modification and several
deletions. The structure of the classifica-
tion system provides for 2 levels of
classification, but can be refined further.
A detailed description of each category
was provided by Anderson, et al. (1).

In the study reported herein, land-use
classification 01.01, residential, was fur-
ther separated into three categories:

01. Recent residential,
02. Older residential,
03. Multiple-family housing.

This refinement of the classification sys-
tem was necessary because of the wide
differences in impervious area within the
residential category and the importance
of residential areas in determining the
degree of imperviousness in a watershed.
Older residential housing consists of
those areas developed prior to the early
1950’s. In addition to having a different
average percentage of imperviousness,
older residential housing has different
visual characteristics on aerial photo-
graphs when compared with recent resi-
dential areas.

The average percentage of impervious
area for 13 land-use categories were
derived herein. An aerial photograph at
a scale of 1:24000 was obtained from a
U2 flight (60,000 ft or 18,300 m) for an
area of approximately 830 km?. The
averages were obtained by planimetering
the percent of impervious area for a
number of parcels of land in each
land-use category. The parcels ranged
in total area from approximately 0.01
km? to 0.4 km?. Using these impervious
area averages and a weighting function
such as equation 3, urban planners may
obtain estimates of impervious area as
input to hydrologic models.

Several Level I and Level II cate-
gories were omitted in this study either
because they are not associated with
impervious areas (e.g., 05. Water), or
because data were not available from
the aerial photographs (e.g., 07.02.
Beaches). For the remaining land-use
categories, average impervious area
estimates were obtained as previously
discussed and are given in Table 3.

Impervious area estimates were ob-
tained for 3 residential land-use cate-
gories. Mean values of 24.4% and 22.6%
were computed for recent and older
single-family residential housing, respec-
tively. Standard deviations of approxi-
mately 9% of imperviousness were
determined herein for these forms of
residential housing. The standard devia-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

tion provides a measure of the ac-
curacy of an estimated value when
additional information is not available.
The computed mean values and ranges
for single-family residential housing were
in close agreement with the values re-
ported by Stankowski (18).

For many urban watersheds single-
family residential land use represents a
significant portion of the total water-
shed. For such cases, the observed varia-
tion in imperviousness of 9% may have
a significant effect on the accuracy of

17.62 + e(4:10-6.30L)
i=

24.50 — 9.167L

14 93 ak e (4-28—6.41L)

IA =
22.71 — 10.40L

When the average lot size is also avail-
able to the planner, equation 4 and 5
should provide more accurate estimates
of imperviousness than the averages
given in Table 3. For lot sizes less
than 0.2 acres (809 m?’) the average
impervious area for older residential is
greater than for recent residential; this
reflects the high percentage of im-

Table 3.—Impervious Area Estimates.

impervious area estimates computed us-
ing equation 3. The accuracy of estimates
can be improved by using additional
information to estimate the impervious
area associated with single-family resi-
dential land use.

Carter (3) observed that the percentage
of impervious area in residential areas
decreased with increases in lot size. To
test this observation, relationships were
derived relating impervious area JA to
lot size L. Equations 4 and 5 are for
recent and older residential housing,
respectively:

0 =L < 0.6 acres
0.6 < L = 1.8 acres

(4)

0 = L = 0.6 acres

(5)
0.6 < L = 1.8 acres

perviousness for row houses in urban
areas. For lot sizes greater than 0.2
acres (809 m7?) the impervious area for
recent residential was slightly higher;
this results from the higher proportion
of parking areas, patios, and swimming
pools included with recent residential
housing.

Impervious area

Sample Standard
Land use category Size Mean Low High deviation
01. Urban and Built-up Land
01. Residential
01. Recent residential oi, 24.4 9.7 62.1 8.6
02. Older residential 28 22.6 8.1 58.8 8.9
03. Multiple-family residential 13 80.4 67.3 90.6 5.8
02. Commercial and services 1 93.6 85.4 100.0 4.4
03. Industrial 5 TAS 63.8 81.5 dl
04. Extractive y Tei 67.2 82.0 7.8
05. Transportation, Communications
and Utilities 31 8557 0.0 78.3 213
06. Institutional 1a, 26.4 8.3 54.5 137
07. Strip and Clustered Settlement 8 84.3 71.6 91.9 6.1
09. Open and Other 11 2.8 0.0 9.4 les,
02. Agricultural Land
01. Cropland and Pasture 13 0.8 0.0 5:2 0.6
02. Orchards, Groves, etc. 2 1.1
04. Forest Land 7 0.4 0.0 Pay 0.7
J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979 25

Multiple-family residential housing has
a mean impervious area and a standard
deviation of 80.4 and 5.8%, respectively.
This mean is approximately 10% higher
than that reported by Stankowski (18).
There are 2 points that must be con-
sidered when assessing the significance
of this difference. First, the degree of
imperviousness will depend on the
delineation of the boundary of the hous-
ing development. Quite often, new
multiple-family housing developments
are adjacent to cleared land and the
degree of imperviousness will depend on
the amount of cleared land included as
part of the open space for the develop-
ment. Since most of the developments
examined in this study were adjacent
to commercial or transportation land
uses it was not difficult to delineate
the boundaries. Second, housing de-
velopments located in metropolitan areas
are often developed more intensively
than those in suburban areas. Since
most of the housing developments
analyzed herein were in the Washing-
ton, D. C. Metropolitan area, the higher
percentage should have been expected.
In this study the sites within the
delineated area had a mean percentage
of imperviousness that was approxi-
mately 5% greater than the sites located
in suburban areas. A significant relation-
ship was not observed between percent
impervious area and developed area for
multiple-family residential developments.

Twelve commercial and service de-
velopments were analyzed with a mean
imperviousness of 93.6%; Stankowski
(18) reported an intermediate value of
90%. For many newer commercial de-
velopments it is difficult to delineate
the boundary and this affects the com-
puted percentages. And the intensity of
land use appeared to decrease as the
distance from the central business district
increased. This observation is in agree-
ment with the prediction equation re-
ported by Gluck (8).

From 5 industrial sites, a mean im-
perviousness of 71.9% was computed;
this was in good agreement with the
mean of 70% reported by Stankowski

(18). A standard deviation of 7.7% was
observed. This variation should not
have a significant effect on the com-
puted impervious area of an urban water-
shed unless the proportion of industrial
land use is high.

Estimating statistical characteristics
for the land-use classification 01-05
(Transportation, Communications and
Utilities) is somewhat complicated be-
cause of the diversity in land use within
this level II category. Specifically, in
this study some rights-of-way for trans-
mission lines had impervious areas of
zero % while some urban highway
areas were almost completely imper-
vious. Furthermore, highway interchanges
ranged in imperviousness from 23.9% to
57.7%, with a mean and standard de-
viation of 40.5% and 12.2%, respec-
tively. However, there was a noticeable
tendency for interchanges having a
smaller total area to be more intensively
developed, i.e., a higher percentage of
impervious area. The percentage of im-
pervious area for highways depends
primarily on the size of the right-of-way.
In the central business district trans-
portation routes are almost completely
impervious while in rural and agricul-
tural areas the percentage may have a
mean of approximately 20%. Airports,
which are also included in category
01-05, ranged in imperviousness from
20 to 35%, with the smaller airports
more intensively developed. Rights-of-
way for transmission lines were charac-.
terized by small levels of impervious-
ness (0% to 4%), although at sites
where transmission equipment shelters
are located the percentage of imper-
viousness may be as high as 20%. In
summary, due to the large variation in
both imperviousness and spectral signa-
tures within the 01-05 land-use cate-
gory, it should be separated either by
forming 2 or more level II categories
or at level III.

Mean percentages of impervious area
for other land-use categories were also
determined by planimetering and are
reported in Table 3.

When using average values such as

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

i a

those from Table 3, the resulting ac-
curacy will depend in part on the dis-
ageregation of the land-use classifica-
tion system. The system of classification
used herein provided average impervi-
ous area estimates for 13 land uses
associated with urban and suburban
areas. Furthermore, relationships, equa-
tions 4 and 5, were provided that relate
impervious area and residential lot size.
These relationships are especially im-
portant because residential land use is
often the primary land use in the water-
shed and thus the equations may result
in increased accuracy in impervious area
estimates for single-family residential
land use.

To provide a test of the accuracy of
the average values given in Table 3, these
values were used to estimate the per-
centage of imperviousness of the Ana-
costia Watershed. A land-use sampling
approach indicated that the watershed
was 23.51% impervious (14). Areas of
7 land uses were planimetered herein
from a land-use map provided as part of
the same study (13). The land-use maps
did not provide sufficient detail to eval-
uate different materials (i.e., concrete,
grass, trees) so it was not possible to
directly evaluate imperviousness. Thus,
the land-use averaging technique was
appropriate. The areas planimetered
from the land-use map were weighted
by the impervious area estimates of
Table 3 to compute a weighted mean
percentage of imperviousness. The com-
putations shown in Table 4 indicate
an estimate of 25.49%, which is a
reasonable approximation to the value
of 23.51% obtained by a land-use
sampling survey. A higher degree of
accuracy may have been realized if the
same land-use categories shown in Table
3 had been used in developing the
land-use map.

Discussion and Conclusions

In comparing the accuracy of the
different methods of estimating imper-
viousness it is evident that the empirical
approaches may provide estimates of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Table 4.—Estimated Impervious Area for the
Anacostia Watershed.

Average
imper- Frac-
vious tion of Weighted
area total value
Land use (%)* area** (%)
Residential
single-family 23.5 sail [Sts
multiple-family 80.4 .050 4.02
Commercial 93.6 .031 2.90
Industrial 71.9 .044 3.16
Institutional 26.4 .044 1.16
Federal 3.0 AWS 0.35
Open-space 2.8 141 59
1.000 25.49

* Obtained from Table 3.
** Planimetered from land use map in refer-
ere NE

imperviousness that are within 10% of
the true value. Planimetering and land-
use sampling should provide almost exact
estimates. The test case reported herein
suggests that the method of averages
may provide estimates that are just as
accurate as those obtained using pre-
diction equations with demographic char-
acteristics as predictor variables. While
the method of averages certainly requires
less input, the prediction equation has
the advantage of being able to show di-
rectly the effect of changes in demo-
graphic characteristics. However, for
many planning problems, the method
of averages of equation 3 may be pre-
ferred due to the minimal amount of
computational effort required and the
reasonably accurate estimates provided.

Recent advances in technology include
the development of remote sensoring
equipment that is capable of collecting
and storing large quantities of data
on the reflective and emissive properties
of a watershed. The Landsat Multispec-
tral Scanner System (MSS) is currently
being used to acquire vast amounts
of data that can be used to compile
land-use maps (5, 6). Dornbach and
McKain (5) concluded that most of the
Level I and II categories of Table 2
could be detected using Landsat data and
spectral pattern recognition techniques.

If remote sensing data is to be useful
in urban hydrologic modeling, a means of
converting land use estimates to param-
eters needed for hydrologic models must
be provided. The values reported in
Table 3 provide the means of trans-
forming land-use estimates obtained from
Landsat to impervious area estimates.
Thus, automatic computer-aided machine
classification can be used to identify
generalized land-use proportions. Com-
bining these with mean impervious area
proportions will provide accurate es-
timates of imperviousness at a mini-
mum cost.

References

1. Anderson, J. R., E. E. Hardy, and J. T.
Roach, *‘A Land-Use Classification System for
Use With Remote-Sensor Data,’’ U. S. Geol.
Survey Circ. 671, pp. 1—16, 1972.

2. Antoine, L. H., ‘“‘Drainage and Best Use
of Urban Land,’’ Public Works, Vol. 95, pp.
80-90, 1964.

3. Carter, R. W., ‘‘Magnitude and Frequency
of Floods in Suburban Areas,’’ U. S. Geol.
Survey Prof. Paper 424-B, pp. B9-B11, 1961.

4. Crawford, N. H., and R. K. Linsley, Digital
Simulation in Hydrology: Stanford Watershed
Model IV, Tech. Report No. 39, Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering, Stanford Uni-
versity, California, July 1966.

5. Dornbach, J. E., and G. E. McKain, The
Utility of ERTS-1 Data for Applications in
Land Use Classification, paper presented at
the Third Earth Resources Technology Satel-
lite-1 Symposium, December 10-14, 1973.

6. Ealy, C. G., R. M. Ragan and R. H. McCuen,
Resource Identification Studies on Urban
Watersheds Using the Anacostia River Basin
as an Example, Report No. NSG 5017,
Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Maryland, 1975.

7. Felton, P. N., and H. W. Lull, ‘“‘Suburban
Hydrology Can Improve Watershed Condi-
tions,’ Public Works, Vol. 94, pp. 93-94,
1963.

8. Gluck, W. R., and R. H. McCuen, ‘‘Esti-
mating Land Use Characteristics for Hydro-
logic Models,’’ Water Resources Research,
(in press), 1975.

10.

Ile

19.

20.

. Graham, P. H., L. S. Costello, and H. J.

Melton, ‘‘Estimation of Imperviousness and
Specific Curb Length for Forecasting Storm-
water Quality and Quantity,’ J. Water Pollu-
tion Control Federation, Vol. 46, No. 4,
pp. 717-725, 1974.

Landsberg, H. H., L. L. Fischman, and J. L.
Fischer, Resources in America’s Future,
Patterns of Requirements and Availabilities,
1960-2000, The Johns Hopkins Press, Balti-
more, Md., 1963.

Martens, L. A., Flood Inundation and Ef-
fects of Urbanization in Metropolitan Char-
lotte, North Carolina, U. S. Geol. Survey
Water Supply Paper 1591-C, pp. C-1-C-60,
1968.

. McCuen, R. H., and H. W. Piper, “‘Hydro-

logic Impact of Planned Unit Developments,”’
J. Urban Planning and Development, ASCE.
Vol. 101 (UP1), pp. 93-102, May, 1975.

. Ragan, R. M., Resource Identification Study

for the Anacostia River Basin, Vol. 5, Dept.
Civil Engineering, University of Maryland,
College Park, Maryland, 1974.

. Ragan, R. M., and E. C. Rebuck, Resource

Identification Study for the Anacostia River
Basin, Vol. 1, Dept. Civil Engineering, Univ.
of Maryland, College Park, Md., 1974.

. Sarma, P. B., J. W. Delleur, and A. R.

Rao, A Program in Urban Hydrology, Part
II, Purdue Univ. Water Resources Center,
Lafayette, Indiana, Technical Report No. 9,
1969.

. Stafford, D. B., J. T. Ligon, and M. E.

Nettles, ‘‘Use of Aerial Photographs to
Measure Land Use Changes,’ presented at
the ASCE National Meeting on Water Re-
sources Engineering, Los Angeles, Calif.,
1974.

. Stall, J. B., M. L. Terstriep, and F. A. Huff,

‘‘Some Effects of Urbanization on Floods,’’
ASCE National Meeting On Water Resources
Engineering, Memphis, Tenn., 1970.

. Stankowski, S. J. ‘‘Population Density as an

Indirect Indicator of Urban and Suburban
Land-Surface Modifications,’’ U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey Prof. Paper 800-B, pp. B-219-B224,
1972.

United States Dept. of Commerce, Experi-
mental Statistics (M. G. Natrella, ed.), Na-
tional Bureau of Standards Handbook 91,
GPO, Washington, D. C., 1963.

Wallace, J. R., The Effects of Land Use
Change on the Hydrology of an Urban Water-
shed, School of Civil Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. 1971.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Bridge Response and Damage

C. P. Heins, J. P. Tang, J. C. S. Yang, and D. W. Caldwell

Professor, Civil Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md.; Professor,
Civil Engineering, National Central Univ., Taiwan, Republic of China; Professor,
Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md.; and
Graduate Student, Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Maryland,

College Park, Md., respectively.

ABSTRACT

As part of a NSF cooperative program between the University of Maryland and
National Central University, Taiwan, and the R.O.C. National Science Council, the
live load response of various bridges throughout Taiwan were to be studied. The study
included in part; 1) the examination of the response of a welded plate girder highway
bridge when subjected to random truck loadings and the measurement of induced
stresses and traffic patterns, 2) the evaluation of the damping ratio and fundamental
frequency of (14) pedestrian bridges using various analytical methods when examining
the experimental data. The results from these tests and the analytical correlations are

presented herein.

Plate Girder Bridge Test
1) Test Results

Field Studies.—As described previ-
ously part of the cooperative study in-
volved examination of the response of a
A36 steel bridge located in Taipei,
Taiwan, shown in Figs. 1 and 2. This
structure consists of 5 welded steel
composite plate girders, spaced at 3120
mm, of variable cross section, as shown
in Fig. 3. The flange plates had variable
widths and depth, which were built
welded at the junction of the change.
The main structure, of the Taipei Bridge,

Fig. 1. Taipei bridge—elevation.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

consists of these plate girders, compris-
ing 5 spans @62.3 meters long as shown
in Fig. 1. The bridge was designed using
the 1961 AASHTO design code, using
A36 steel.

In order to evaluate the response of
this bridge when subjected to random
traffic loading, a series of strain gages
was attached to the lower flange of 2
outside girders, on the second interior
girder span. These strain gages were
monitored during random traffic.

Stress Distribution.— During the pas-
sage of traffic, a continuous 24-hour-
strain recording was made from 4 strain

Fig. 2. Taipei bridge—bottom flanges.

5@ 62.30 M

Approach
San-Chung

Sy i i

4@ 3120 MM

Test Span

Approach

Taipei

Ul =/17

Elevation

Test

x Girder

Section

Fig. 3. Bridge details.

gages. These gages were located on the
bottom flange of the outside of a 52-m
girder and a 62-m girder, as shown in
Fig. 4. The resulting strip chart re-
cordings, taken from 3 AM (8/12/77) to

Test Span 2
Top Flange

Bottom Flange

Fig. 4. Gage locations.

24.60 M | 6.15 M
Taipei San-Chung
Approach Approach
30

3 AM (8/13/77), were subsequently re-
duced in the form of number of occur-
rences during a time interval at a given
stress range.

The resulting time-frequency data have

Test Span 1

Top Flange
fe Flange _____}

1F2 "1F1

Bottom Flange

ea
S
ay

24.60 M | 3.075 M |
Taipei San-Chung
Approach Approach

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Table 1.— Gage 1F1 Time-—Frequency Data.

Sige pe Oe a ee

3-4 AM 21 4 0 0 0
4—5 27 1 0 0 0
5-6 50 5 0 0 0
6-7 rs) ih 0 0 1
7-8 156 6 0 0 0
8-9 116 10 1 0 0
9-10 114 5 1 0 0
10-11 102 15 0 0
11-12 100 18 4 0 0
12-1 80 19 1 0 0
1-2 81 6 1 1 0
2-3 123 10 0 0 0
3-4 117 12 1 0 0
4-5 115 16 pe 0. 0
5-6 131 8 0 0 1
6-7 128 11 0 0 0
7-8 96 if 1 0 0
8-9 95 6 1 0 0
9-10 106 2 0 0 0
10-11 66 3 0 0 0
11-12 Sy 8 0 0 0
12-1 a2 v 0 0 0
1-2 30 8 0 0 0
2-3 35 3 l 0 0

been reduced and are given in Tables 1
through 4. These data have been reduced
in the form of percentages, for each 12
hour period, as given in Table 5S.

Table 2. —Gage 2F1 Time—Frequency Data.

Hour 1 ksi 2 ksi 3 ksi
3-4 AM 32 1
4-5 20 1
5-6 45
6=7 75
(=o 78 5
8-9 162 11
9-10 157
10-11 142 4
11-12 144 15 3
= 100 DA 2
12 126 7
2-3 112 12
4 120 9
a5 136 5 p)
5-6 132 9 2
6-7 129 10
7-8 94 5)
8-9 123 5
9-10 122 5
10-11 101 3
12 57 4
12-1 48 1
2 SZ 1
23 56 1

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Table 3.—Gage 2F3 Time-—Frequency Data.

Hour 1 ksi 2 ksi 3 ksi

3-4 AM 14 I
4-5 7

5-6 8

6-7 11 1
7-8 7)

8-9 84

9-10 64 Il
10-11 ay)

11-12 54

12-1 del

1-2 7a 1
2-3 30

3-4 Si

4—5 40 1
5-6 35 2
6-7 3 10
7-8 15 1
8-9 22

9-10 26

10-11 Da

11-12 15

12-1 8

1-2 13

2-3 13

Vehicle Distribution.—In addition to
recording continuous strains (stresses),
vehicle types and frequencies were also
recorded. The trucks were classified

Table 4.— Gage 1F2 Time—Frequency Data.

Hour 1 ksi 2 ksi 3 ksi

—
E
—
_—
N
\O
~—
—

1-2 136

—
N
| |
—
N
S
\O
Nr We hNO he

= O ONAN N WW
—
BSN
nN

—
me YN
eel
nN —
N
=

Table 5.—Summary —Time-Frequency Data

(percentage).
1 2 3 4 5

Hour ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi Gage
3am/3pm «89:9 (OF 0:8 Of O21 1F1
3pm/3am 91.0 8.4 54.0 1F1
3am/3pm = 93.6 6.0 4 0 0 2F1
3pm/3am 95.7 4.0 3a 0 0 2F1
3am/3pm_—séSO9#99.. 1 a Pia 0 2F3
3pm/3am =98.6 «61.4 (0 0 0 2F3
3am/3pm = 97.6 2.3 is 10 0 1F2
3pm/3am_—=—s: 99.5 5 0 0 0 1F2

as types 2D, 3, and 2S2, as shown in
Fig. 5. Also recorded were the fre-
quencies of buses, pick-ups, and taxi/
sedans. The results of this data, in terms
of frequency versus truck type for 3
twelve-hour periods, are given in Figs.
6, 7, and 8.

2) Comparison of Results

Vehicle Data.—As explained in the
previous section, some vehicle data were
collected during the field testing of the
Taipei Bridge. These data consisted of
vehicle types (Figures 6, 7, and 8) and
frequencies. Examination of these data,
during the entire test period, indicates
that the trucks have the following fre-
quency distribution;

Type Frequency (%)
2D 61
3 23
282 16

i as Type 3
ea ie |
oO O =f OO al Type 2S2
Fig. 5. Truck types.
32

6AM - 6 PM (12 HRS)

% Vehicles
i)
°
<2
1

H init

282 3 2D Bus Pickup Sedan

6PM - 6 AM (12 HRS)

% Vehicles

282 3 2D Bus Pickup Sedan

6AM - 6 AM (24 HRS)

% Vehicles

0 282 3 2D Bus Pickup Sedan

Figs. 6—8 (top to bottom). Percentage distribution
of vehicle types at various time periods.

These percentages exclude the influence
of buses, pick-ups and sedans given in
Figs. 6, 7, and 8.

Examination of data collected through-
out the USA (1-16) results in vehicle
distribution as given in Table 6. Com-
parisons between the results given in
Table 6 and those obtained during the
Taipei Bridge show similarities for the
metropolitan area. In order to relate the
results between the 2 countries, truck
types 2S-1 and 3S-2 have been ex-
cluded from the USA data. Although
vehicle weights and distributions which
traversed the Taipei Bridges were not

Table 6.—Average Distribution of Trucks by
Type.

Truck Metro-
type politan Urban Rural
2D 51 30 40
3 33 f/ 12
25-2 16 63 48

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Table 7.— Truck Characteristics from Various Countries.

Percent
Truck gross axle load % Truck
Truck weight (kips) distribution type Traffic
classi- (% of distribution data
fication Mean Maximum gross weight) (population) Country ()

2D 14 50 25=75 35 USA e
= 24,32 30-70 — India ‘
a=: 22 36-64 56 Belgium -
a 31,38 — 80 France 2
= 40 50-50 — Canada
— 38 32-68 59 Belgium :
= a2 50-50 — France

3 35 80 25—37.5—37.5 23 USA e
== 50 20—40-—40 = India ce
— 36 25=38—37 7 Belgium i
— 52 — 4.4 France ig
— 60 33-33-33 — Canada
= 2 24-38-38 6 Belgium -
= 60 20-40-40 — France

2S2 41 100 10—40-—25-25 11 USA S
— 60 16—30—27-27 — India i:
= 56 14-—29-29-28 30 Belgium x
= 70 — 10.6 France a
= 146 12-—34-—20-34 — Sweden
== 100 20-—40-—20-20 — Canada
= 76 13-35-—26-—26 27 Belgium a

* Data observed from typical traffic, otherwise data is suggested design loading.

obtained, results from other countries
have been collected as given in Table 7
and are given herein for reference.

Stress Data.—The induced girder
Stresses, obtained on the Taipei Bridge,
are listed in detail in Tables 1 through
4 and are summarized in Table 5. These
Stresses are given as stress ranges,
which are important in establishing

/ 7

Fig. 9. Pedestrian bridge —tests.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

fatigue damage and bridge life. The
establishment of fatigue design criteria
requires traffic patterns and relationships
between the induced stresses and those
vehicle types which induce the par-
ticular stress. Such a technique has
successfully been employed (16) for
bridges in the USA.

Examination of the resulting stress
data, given in Table 5, indicates that

Fig. 10. Pedestrian bridge.

338

Table 8. Empirical Damping Ratio of P.C. Bridge.

Auto
Correlation

Random
Decrement

Free
Vibration

Bridge Name Spectrum

Analysis

Remark

Chung-Li
Taipei Station(A)

Taipei Station(B)

Taipei Station(C)
Nan Ching West Rd. (A) 0.015

Nan Ching West Rd. (B) 0.019

7a
*

“I

Chung Hsing Bridge 0.051

oem Hua Chung Bridge

Chung Cheng Bridge

10 Pai Ling Bridge pe

in-Lin
11 Chung Cheng Bridge

a
Ww
*

Sung Chiang Bridge

Nan Men Market

14* Sung Chiang Rd.

* Pedestrian Bridge

** Overhanged-Simple Supported

90% or more of the stress range has time. Such trends are similar to those
a magnitude of 1 ksi or less. In fact, observed in the USA for this type of
the maximum observed stress was only _ structural detail (cover plate), and indi-
5 ksi and occurs only 0.10% of the cates a long fatigue life.

Table 9. Fundamental Frequency of P.C. Bridge, Cycles Per Sec.

Auto

Free Random A
Correlation

Theoretical

Vibration | Decrement i Values

Function

25.6

* Pedestrian Bridge

** Overhanged-Simple Supported

34 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Pedestrian Bridge Test
1) Test Results

The induced dynamic responses of 14
pedestrian crossing bridges located
throughout Taipei, Taiwan have been ob-
tained by using accelerometers which
were located at various locations on
the bridges. A typical bridge of this
type is shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The
induced vibrations on the bridges were
instituted by human motions across the
structure. The resulting vibration records
were then obtained, using a strip chart
recorder. From such data the damping
ratio and fundamental frequency have
been computed, as given in Tables 8
and 9.

2) Comparison Between Theory and
Tests

Theory.—Various methods can be
employed in obtaining the structural
damping and free vibration of struc-
tures, when subjected to applied forces.

One such method in use is the spectral
power density, where damping is meas-
ured by the half power point band width
(17, 18). This method, however, has
large measurement variances, especially
when the band width is small and when
the system is nonlinear.

Another method, auto-correlation (17,
18), involves use of the Logarithmic
Decrement. This method is sensitive to
the intensity of the random input and
cannot be utilized for nonlinear systems.

A new method, designated Random
Decrement (19, 20) has recently been
formulated and considers the random
excitation of a bridge when only re-
sponse data is available. The applica-
tion of this method, in addition to those
described above, has been employed in
analyzing the 14 bridges. The results of
each are given in Tables 8 and 9.

Acknowledgment

The work performed under this study
was supported by National Science
Foundation Grant 14750, AO1, under the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

direction of Dr. Allen Holt. Their sup-
port and interest is gratefully appreciated.

References Cited

1. T. R. Douglas, ‘‘Fatigue of Bridges Under
Repeated Highway Loadings,’’ Dept. No. 54,
Civil Engineering Dept., University of Ala-
bama, April 1971.

2. D. G. Bowers, ‘‘Loading History Span No. 10
Yellow Mill Pond Bridge I-95, Bridgeport
Connecticut,’’ Department of Transportation,
State of Connecticut, May 1972.

3. P. Christiano, L. E. Goodman, C. N. Sun,
‘Bridge Stress Range History and Diaphragm
Stiffening Investigation,’ Civil Engineering
Dept., University of Minnesota, April 1970.

4. C. P. Heins, A. D. Sartwell, ‘‘Tabulation
of 24 Hour Dynamic Strain Data on Four
Simple Span Girder-Slab Bridge Structures,”’
Report No. 29, Department of Civil En-
gineering, University of Maryland, June 1969.

5. A. D. Sartwell, C. P. Heins, ‘‘Tabulation of
Dynamic Strain Data on a Girder Slab
Bridge Structure During Seven Continuous
Days,’ Report No. 31, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Maryland, Sep-
tember 1969.

6. A. D. Sartwell, C. P. Heins, ‘‘Tabulation of
Dynamic Strain Data on a Three Span
Continuous Bridge Structure,’’ Report No. 33,
Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Maryland, November 1969.

7. C. F. Galambos, C. P. Heins, ‘‘Loading
History of A Highway Bridge—Comparison
of Stress Range Histograms,’’ Public Roads
Journal, Vol. 36, No. 9, August 1971.

8. R. D. Desrosiers, ‘‘The Development of a
Technique for Determining the Magnitude and
Frequency of Truck Loadings on Bridges,”’
Report No. 12, Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, University of Maryland, April 1969.

9. G. R. Cudneg, ‘‘The Effects of Loadings on
Bridge Life,’’ Department of State High-
ways, State of Michigan, September 1967.

10. W. T. McKeel, C. F. Maddox, H. L. Kinnier,
C. F. Galambos, ‘‘A Loading History Study
of Two Highway Bridges in Virginia,’ Vir-
ginia Highway Research Council, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, December 1971.

11. J. W. Fisher e¢ al., ‘‘Effect of Weldments on
the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams,’’> NCHRP
Report No. 102, HRB Washington, D. C.,
1970.

12. R. L. Khosa, C. P. Heins, ‘“‘Study of Truck
Weights, and the Corresponding Induced
Bridge Girder Stresses,’’ Report No. 40, Civil
Engineering Dept., University of Maryland,
February 1971.

13. M.S. Miner, ‘‘Cumulative Damage in Fatigue,”’
Journal Applied Mechanics, Vol. 12, No. 1,
September 1945.

14. S. R. Swanson, ‘‘Random Load Fatigue Test-
ing: A State of The Art Survey,’ Materials

16.

Researchand Standards, Vol. 8, No.4, ASTM,
Phila., Pa., April 1968.

R. Forbes, C. P. Heins, ‘‘Analysis Charts for
Use in Issuing Vehicle Permits’? Report No.
49, Department of Civil Engineering, Uni-
versity of Maryland, June 1973.

C. P. Heins, C. F. Galambos, “‘Fatigue Analy-
sis of Bridge Structures Due to Daily Traffic,”’
Highway Research Record No. 507, Highway
Research Board, June 1974.

Sparks, P. R. and Crist, R. A., ‘‘Deter-
mination of the Response of Tall Buildings
to Wind Loading.’’ Presented and Published
at the ASCE/EMD Specialty Conference,
University of CA, Los Angeles, March 1976.

18.

19:

R. A. Crist, Marshall, R. C. and Laursen,
H. I., ‘‘Electro-Optical Deflection Measuring
Device.’’ NBS Technical Note 873.

H. A. Cole, Jr., ‘‘On-the-line Analysis of Ran-
dom Vibrations.’’ AIAA Paper No. 68-288,
presented at the AIAA/ASME Ninth Struc-
tures, Structural Dynamics and Materials
Conference, Palm Springs, CA., 1968.

20. J. C. S. Yang, D. W. Caldwell, ‘“The Meas-

urement of Damping and the Detection of
Damages in Structures by the Random Decre-
ment Technique.’’ Presented and published at
the 46th Shock and Vibration Symposium
and Bulletin, San Diego, CA., November,
1975.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS

NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH

Dr. Alfred D. Steinberg, senior investi-
gator with the Arthritis and Rheumatism
Branch of the National Institute of
Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive
Diseases, is the 1978 recipient of the
Award in Biological Sciences of the
Washington Academy of Sciences.

The award was presented at the
organization’s annual awards dinner held
in Bethesda on Mar. 15.

Dr. Steinberg, an immunologist, was
recognized for his investigations of the
pathogenesis and treatment of systemic
lupus erythematosus (SLE), a serious
connective tissue disease that primarily
affects women of childbearing age. At
present, the cause of SLE is unknown.

In the course of his basic research, Dr.
Steinberg and his colleagues have studied
both humans with SLE as well as New
Zealand mice that serve as an animal
model for SLE.

Dr. Steinberg was the first to show that
nucleic acids were antigens, and he de-
veloped radioimmunoassays for measure-
ment of antibodies to nucleic acids. He
has contributed to understanding of im-
mune regulation and its derangement in
SLE; genetic factors associated with
autoimmunity; and the role of sex
hormones in the expression of auto-
immunity.

Recent studies suggest that spon-
taneously produced antilymphocyte anti-
bodies play an important role in the
immune abnormalities observed in both
SLE mouse models and humans with
SLE. In addition to basic studies, Dr.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

Steinberg has carried out evaluations of
newer therapeutic modalities in mice and
has initiated clinical studies in SLE
patients in an attempt to improve treat-
ment of SLE.

In 1974, Dr. Steinberg received the
Philip Hench Award of the Association of
Military Surgeons for his outstanding
contributions in the field of rheumatology
and arthritis.

Dr. Steinberg graduated from Prince-
ton University and from Harvard Medical
School. He joined the intramural re-
search program of NIAMDD in 1968 as a
clinical associate.

Dr. Steinberg is an associate editor of
the Journal of Immunology, and is on the
editorial board of the Journal of Immuno-
pharmacology. He is a fellow of the
American College of Physicians and
serves as the NIH coordinator for the
Medical Student Immunology Program.

NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

Dr. Dennis Papadopoulos, a consultant
in plasma physics at the Naval Research
Laboratory, is the winner of the 1978
Washington Academy of Sciences Award
for scientific achievement in the physical
sciences. Papadopoulos was cited for his
‘‘scientific achievements and leadership
in plasma physics.”’

The award was presented at the awards
dinner (March 15) at the Kenwood
Country Club in Bethesda, Md. in
conjunction with the commemoration of
the 100th anniversary of Albert Einstein’s
birth.

Dennis Papadopoulos

A graduate of the University of Athens
(Greece), Papadopoulos received his MS
in nuclear engineering from the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology and his
PhD in physics from the University of
Maryland. He joined the NRL staff in
1969 as a research physicist and was
appointed senior consultant to the Plasma
Dynamics Branch in 1973. In 1975 he was
appointed to his present position. |

At the request of the Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Energy for Energy
Technology, Papadopoulos is presently
serving as Science Advisor to the
Director of the Applied Physics Division
of the Office of Fusion Energy.

Papadopoulos’ research interests cover
a wide range of scientific projects from
Space physics and communications to
magnetic and laser fusion.

The renowned scientist was the re-
cipient of NRL’s E. O. Hulburt Award
for Science in 1977 for his outstanding
achievements in the field of plasma
physics.

Papadopoulos is the author of more
than 70 publications and has presented
over 30 technical papers at international
scientific meetings. He also has served on

many National Aeronautics and Space
Administration and Department of Energy
advisory panels.

A native of Larissa, Greece, Papa-
dopoulos is married to the former
Susan Tepper, an attorney with the Na-
tional Labor Relations Board. They live
in Washington, D.C.

Dr. Jay Boris, Head of the Laboratory
for Computational Physics at the Naval
Research Laboratory, has won the 1978
Washington Academy of Sciences Award
for scientific achievement in mathematics
and computer sciences. ,

The award was presented at the awards
dinner (March 15) at the Kenwood
Country Club in Bethesda, Md. in
conjunction with the commemoration of
the 100th anniversary of Albert Einstein’s
birth.

Boris was cited for his ‘‘outstanding
contributions in computational physics
and numerical analysis.’

Boris received his BA in physics in
1964, and his MA and PhD degrees in
astrophysical sciences in 1966 and 1968

Jay Boris

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

from Princeton University. Throughout
his academic years, his work was recog-
nized by numerous honors and awards.

_In addition to being his class vale-

dictorian in high school and an Honorary
National Merit Scholar and member of
the High School National Honor Society,
Boris won the Kusaka Memorial Physics

Prize and was graduated Magna Cum

Laude. He is also a member of Phi Beta
Kappa and Sigma Xi honorary societies.
Boris joined the NRL staff in 1970 as a

| senior research physicist in the Plasma

Physics Division where he was respon-

|| sible for the development of computa-

tional capabilities within the division.

| These include the development of large

computer simulation models for non-
linear plasma physics, fluid mechanics,
magnetohydrodynamics, chemically re-
active flows and computational physics.
Much of his present work includes con-
sulting on plasma, fluid and computa-

- tional physics projects for NRL, the

Navy, DOD and the Department of
Energy.

Last year, Boris was named to a Chair
of Science, the most enduring recognition
of scientific excellence established at
NRL. Chair of Science holders are
selected by the Laboratory for unique
and sustained research accomplishments
leading to international reputations as
founders of or acknowledged leaders ina
field of basic or applied science.

The NRL physicist has authored many
technical papers. He received the Navy
Superior Civilian Service Award in 1975,
and the Arthur S. Flemming Award in
1976, for his development of new com-
putational techniques for the numerical
simulation of ionospheric and atmos-
pheric phenomena associated with
natural and man-made disturbances.

Boris lives with his wife, Elizabeth,
and their sons, David and Paul, in Falls

~ Church, Virginia.

Dr. Wayne A. Hendrickson, a_bio-
physicist at the Naval Research Labora-
tory, is one of the ten recipients
of the Arthur S. Flemming Award, in

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

ceremonies held at the Capital Hilton
hotel.

The Flemming Award is granted
annually by the Downtown Chapter of
the District of Columbia Junior Chamber
of Commerce to the ten young men and
women in the federal service who have
performed unusual and outstanding work
of distinct benefit to the government.

Dr. Hendrickson was recognized for
his advancement of NRL’s structural
research program on complex biological
molecules of great molecular weight that
are of significance in the medical field.
In particular, he has worked out the
atomic arrangements in several oxygen
carrying protein molecules.

Through Dr. Hendrickson’s develop-
ment of experimental and computational
models of the proteins, a deeper insight
has been gained into the way in which
these giant molecules work. Scientists
also hope to use his models of the crucial
oxygen-binding sites in blood proteins as
a kind of blueprint for synthesizing small
molecules that can mimic the natural
products. Such synthetic substitutes
could eventually be used as blood supple-
ments for treating severely anemic pa-
tients or in heart-lung machines during
surgery.

Dr. Hendrickson also collaborates with
his colleagues at NRL and with outside
research laboratories and universities ina
variety of computational projects to de-
rive accurate atomic pictures for large
biological molecules from the x-ray
scattering by crystals of these molecules.

In addition to his involvement in the
scientific community, Dr. Hendrickson
participates in a number of activities
dedicated to the improvement of the
health and social welfare of the people
throughout the world.

A native of Spring Valley, Wisconsin,
Dr. Hendrickson obtained his BA degree
at the University of Wisconsin at River
Falls in 1963 and his PhD in biophysics
at Johns Hopkins University in 1968,
where he remained as a research asso-
ciate until 1969.

In 1969 he joined the Naval Research

Laboratory as a Postdoctoral Research
Associate of the National Research
Council, and in 1971 was hired by the
Laboratory in his present position.

Dr. Hendrickson won the Washington
Academy of Sciences Award in Bio-

logical Sciences for 1975 and the Navy
Meritorious Civilian Service Award for
1978. He and his wife, Gerry, and their
two children, Helen Margaret and Inga
Marie, live on Capitol Hill in Wash-
ington, D.C.

NEW FELLOWS

Suheil F. Abdulnur, Senior Research
Scientist, Chemistry Dept., American
Univ. In recognition of his contributions
in the field of theoretical chemistry,
particularly his work in elucidating the
theoretical principles underlying the
mutagenic and carcinogenic phenomena.
Sponsors: Mary Aldridge, Leo Schubert.

Cyrus R. Creveling, Chemist, Lab.
Chem NIAMDD, NIH. In recognition of
his contribution to neuropharmacology
and in particular his researches on the
biosynthetic and degradative pathways
for biogenic amines; the synthesis and
mechanisms of action of the specific
neurotoxic amines, 6-hydroxydopamine
and 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine; and the
development of methodology for the
measurement of hormonally sensitive
adenylate cyclase systems in prepara-
tions of rodent cortex. Sponsors: Mary
Louise Robbins, Carleton Treadwell.

Elise A. Brandenburger Brown, Re-
search Pharmacologist, Section on Ex-
perimental Therapeutics, NIH. In recog-
nition of her contributions to the science
of pharmacology and in particular, for
comparative metabolic studies. Spon-

sors: Charles Naeser, Theodore P.
Perror.
Joseph P. Hanig, Pharmacologist,

FDA. In recognition of his contribution
to pharmacology, and in particular his
research on the enhancement of blood-
brain barrier permeability to catechola-
mines, and the neurotoxicology of hexa-
chlorophene and lindane. Sponsors:

Mary Louise Robbins, Carleton Tread-
well.

Martha C. Sager, Professor of Biology
& Director of Environmental Systems

Management Program, American Uni- —

versity. In recognition of her contribu-
tions to increasing public knowledge of
water pollution control technology
through some 50 lectures throughout the
U. S., and for her contribution to inter-
national understanding and cooperation
in environmental resource planning man-
agement through her direction and par-
ticipation in symposia in both Europe
and South America. Sponsors: Mary H.
Aldridge, Leo Schubert.

Guillermo C. Gaunaurd, Research
Physicist, Naval Surface Weapons Ctr.,
Silver Spring, Md. In recognition of his
work in Acoustics, particularly for his
contribution to the development of the
theory of resonant scattering and its
applications to sound-absorbers for
coated underwater structures. Sponsors:
George E. Hudson, Victor C. D. Dawson.

Doris E. Hadary, Professor of Chem-
istry, American Univ. In recognition of
her contribution to the development of a
program for the teaching of art and
science to blind, deaf and emotionally
disturbed children in a mainstream
setting. Sponsors: Mary Aldridge,
Martha C. Sager.

Nina M. Roscher, Professor of Chem-
istry, American Univ. In recognition of
her contributions to scholarship, to

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

/) teaching, to administration, and to the

| promotion of women in science. Spon-
| sors: Mary Aldridge, Martha Sager.

Alayne A. Adams, Research chemist,
U. S. Army Mobility Equipment R&D
Command, Fort Belvoir, Va. In recogni-

tion of her work in electrochemistry,
particularly for the role of organic
superacid electrolytes on the mechanism
and kinetics of reactions on electro-
catalysts and their applications in fuel
cell energy conversion devices. Spon-
sors: Kurt H. Stern, Mary Aldridge.

MINUTES —BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 634th Meeting was called to order
by President Aldridge on Jan. 10, 1979 in
the Beaumont Conference Room at

) FASEB at 8:00 p.m.

1. Minutes: The previous minutes should
have been numbered 633rd. The minutes
were accepted as corrected.

2. Treasurer's Report: There was no
report. The treasurer’s report will be
given at the next meeting.

3. Membership Committee: Two nomi-
nees for fellowship: Dr. Doris E. Hadary,
American University, and Dr. Nina M.
Roscher, American University, were
accepted unanimously.

4. Program Committee: Assistance was
requested for Comsat visit arrangements.
Guy Hammer volunteered.

There was a general discussion of the
attendance. The norm is 30—50 attendees
with an occasional 100. The point was
stressed that a central location, a definite
time, and a published program would help
increase attendance.

The program serves to attract delegates

and to give coherence to the Board.
G. Abraham suggested we should work
more closely with the affiliates by holding
joint meetings.
5. New Business: Meaning of Academy:
There was a short discussion of the mean-
ing of the Academy. Rita Colwell sug-
gested that the Academy promotes dis-
cussion, thought, and exchange of ideas.
She felt that there should be only two
meetings a year on some chosen subject
and perhaps 2 symposia. There was some
discussion on behalf of more general
interest subjects.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

6. Board of Managers Meetings: Jean
Boek brought up a discussion of the
frequency of Board of Managers meet-
ings. There was a general discussion in
which it was argued that we did not want
too many meetings but yet enough to
preserve a member’s sense of continuity
even though he might be occasionally
absent. She moved to amend the Bylaws
as follows:

It is mandatory that business meetings
of the Board of Managers be held in
October, February, and May, and at
times not in conjunction with a program
meeting. Three other business meetings
will be called by the President to be
held immediately preceding program
meetings at some time during the annual
session.

The motion was seconded by G. Vila.
The motion carried with one dissenting
vote.

Agenda: The agenda at each business
meeting should consist of:

Minutes of preceding meeting.

Reports

Old Business

New Business.

Reorganization: G. Abraham _sug-
gested that the Bylaws be changed so
that the President be a _ well-known
person assisted by a presiding executive
officer. This proposal will be discussed
in February.

Plans and Goals Committee: A Com-
mittee was appointed to consist of:
A. Forziati, G. Irving, K. Stern, G. Vila,
A. Weissler, and H. Alter.

Other Academies: G. Sherlin will sum-

marize the activities of the other 50
academies in the U. S.

Sub-Divisions of the Academy: The
sub-divisions will be discussed at the
next meeting.

The 635th Meeting was called to order
by President Aldridge on Feb. 28, 1979
at 8:00 p.m.

1. Minutes of Last Meeting:

The motion to specify the number and
type of meetings of the Board of
Managers should have been given as an
amendment to the Standing Rules rather
than to the By-laws. |

A Plans and Goals Committee was
recommended rather than appointed. A.
Weissler was designated chairman.

The minutes were accepted as cor-
rected.

2. Announcements:

There were no announcements.
3. Report of the Secretary:

It requested that the Agenda of the
meetings of the Board of Managers
follow the format given in the Standing
Rules.

It is requested that copies of the
correspondence of all committees be sent
to the two secretaries and the President
for their records and information.

4. Report of the Treasurer:

The Treasurer was not present. A sheet

tabulating receipts and expenses was

For Behavioral Sciences:

Dinner/Beer:
dinner/beer at the program meetings will
be discussed at the next meeting.

The meeting was adjourned at 10:15
p.m.—James F. Goff, Secretary.

forwarded. This sheet has been filed in a

file labeled Treasurers Reports.

Alter commented that this sheet does
not show our assets. Weissler said that he
was uncertain as to the disposition to the
Academy’s securities account. The pro-
cedures stipulated in Article IV, Section
5 of the By-laws which require both the
President and Treasurer to jointly assign
and endorse financial papers have not
been followed.

Honig recommended that the Execu-
tive Committee meet with the Treasurer
to prepare a definitive report. The Board
concurred. The Executive Committee
will consist of: President: Aldridge;
President-elect: Weissler; Secretary:
Goff; Treasurer: Rupp; Appointed: J.
O’Hare, J. Wagner and M. Townsend.

The Treasurer’s Report was not ac-
cepted.

5. Reports of Standing Committees:
Executive: No report. :
Membership: Dr. Alayne A. Adams

was proposed for fellowship and un-

animously accepted.

Scientific Achievement: The awards
for 1978 are as follows:

Stephen M. Kerst, Catholic Univ. of America

For his creative and illuminating research on the role
of visual imagery in human memory.

For Biological Sciences:

Alfred D. Steinberg, National Institutes of Health

For concepts of the pathogenesis and treatment of
systemic lupus erythematosus.

For Engineering Sciences:

Robert E. Berger, National Bureau of Standards

For development of improved test methods to reduce
head and eye injuries.

For Mathematics &
Computer Sciences:

Jay B. Boris, Naval Research Lab.
For outstanding contributions in computational physics

and numerical analysis.

For Physical Sciences:

Konstantinos Papadopoulos, Naval Research Lab.

For scientific achievements and leadership in plasma

physics.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

The advisability of ~

|| The Leo Schubert Award
| for teaching of College
| Science

For Teaching of Science:

Milton M. and Zaka I. Slawsky, Univ. of Md.

For pioneering work in the development of a highly
successful physics tutoring program and for
demonstrating an innovative approach to the

involvement of retired scientists in the teaching of

physics.
The Berenice G. Lamberton

_ Award for teaching of
High School Science

Ronald R. Myers, T. C. Williams High School,
Alexandria, Va.
For excellence in motivating and teaching ordinary

students to do extraordinary work in chemistry.

Ronald J. Smetanick, Thomas S. Wootton High
School, Rockville, Md.
For an outstanding teacher and humanitarian.

_ These awards will be presented at the
next meeting in the form of citations
_but no speeches.

Encouragement of Science Talent: E.
Shafrin reported that the Berenice G.
Lamberton Science Fair Award recipient

_ has been selected. The school will receive

a plaque and the student a medallion. It
_ was suggested that the student be givena
plaque in the future.

It was moved that the WAS continue to
sponsor the dinner for the Joint Board
on Science and Engineering/Jr. Academy
of Sciences. The motion carried.

6. Reports of Special Committees:

Committee on Election: The Tellers’
Report was given and is on file under
special committees. Elections: the fol-
lowing were elected for 1979-80:

President-
elect:

Secretary:
Treasurer:

Marjorie R. Townsend
James F. Goff
Nelson W. Rupp

Managers-
at-Large: John J. O’Hare

Michael J. Pelczar, Jr.

7. Report of the Editor:

There was no report.

8. Report of the Archivist:

There was no report.

9. Report from the JBSEE:

There was no report.

10. Unfinished Business:

Reorganization (G. Abraham) no dis-
cussion.

Other Academies (G. Sherlin) no
report.

Sub-divisions of the Academy, no
discussion.

Dinner/Beer, no discussion.

11. New Business:

Office Secretary, Ms. Ostaggi should
attend meetings. The meeting was ad-
journed at 10:55 p.m.—James F. Goff,
Secretary

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER, 1978

Receipts and Income

Dues (Members and Fellows) ’78 & °79

~ Journal

Subscriptions

Sale of Reprints (Reimbursements from authors)

Sale of Back Issues
Page Charges ($25 per pg.)
Investment Income

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

$13,760.50

5,011.25
1,566.00

220.34
2,500.00
4,819.20

Reimbursements
JBSEE (includes quarterly service charge & payment for services)
Dinners (reimbursed by members, monthly, awards and annual)
Grants-in-Aid (Summer Science at AU)

Miscellaneous

Loan
Misc.

Total

Checking Acct. bal. beg. ’78

Total for ’78

Expenses and Disbursements

Journal

Publishing cost including mailing
Reprints (reimbursed by authors)
Honorarium to Editor
Operating Expenses
Rent (Jan. thru Dec.)
Telephone
Supplies
FASEB Misc.
Salary
FICA
Personnel benefits
Meetings
Arrangements (includes print, mail, computer, Xerox, Zip Codes,
Board, Committees, & Gen. Office)
Reimbursable Items
Dinners (reimbursable by members)
Services ordered by JBSEE
Grants-in-Aid (Summer Science at AU)
Miscellaneous
Encouragement of Science Talent, Jr. Acad. ’77 & ’78
Contribution (memory of Mr. Detwiler)
Loan
Misc.

Total for ’78

824.74
1,652.70
360.00

4,000.00
35.42

$34,750.15
3,425.89

$38,176.04

$ 6,540.29
621.11
1,000.00

2,021.28
218.39
24.77
147.62
12,087.47
743.29
1,503.25

eee 180 oe}

2,078.80

$34,617.15

44 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 1, 1979

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VOLUME 69
Number 2

~ Journal of the ie

WASHINGTON
ACADEMY ., SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly
at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Guest Editorial
GEORGE W. IRVING, JR.: Samuel B. Detwiler, Jr., Editor, 1960-1969 ... 47

Feature:

HERBERT UBERALL, F. J. KELLY, and A. W. SANEZ: Neutrino Beams:
A New. Concept in TelecOmMUNICALIONS.... 2.000... . oases ee we dates 3

Research Reports:

KENNETH N. DERUCHER, DAVID E. HORMBY, and MARTIN A.
MANMER: Poriland-Pozzolan Cement... 50. i665. ett aaa ctw eee ee

EDSON J. HAMBLETON: The Status of Rhizoecus amorphophalli Betram,
a Little-Known Oriental Mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) ......

W. RONALD HEYER: Annual Variation in Larval Amphibian Populations |
UMMM aM CMIPHAKe ME ONG. oa ia. ¢ eae eee & oe beet me Gate alm eRe ele meen

Academy Affairs:

The Awards Program of the Academy—Annual Awards Dinner Meeting,
RPE OR MIR Omer a ees eS a cs oe bd oa hen Ge ne we ae ae aie

Washington Academy of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

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Alfred Weissler

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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Hiiasopnical SOciebyiOL WaShiNBtOM . 66.25... e ce ans bee ee ce as eo lc ad Moe uieiheecd ce cen James F. Goff
mma polovical Society Of Washington 2... ).. 6... cc eas bbc due ese nea peins obacne Jean K. Boek
PAM OSIe AE SOCICLY OF WaASMINPLOM oie. cele tgs cb da eldi dina denis a bp ae dies bee dhe es William R. Heyer
ironmMedUSOcicty, OF WASMINGLOM 9)... 65. ced c oc cpm cs sbeemeecvaeetwveedecaueke JoAnne Jackson
Emromolepical Society of Washington ............0 00. c eee eee ce een cneee Douglas Sutherland
aM COPTADMIC SOCICLY) aouac'e hiad be eed vse Ss ms ae plate ae bed cues oainewlelwlo elds T. Dale Stewart
Pampa SOCIetyOf Washington © 26.6). es ede ve cee ct ea Gee a en wen sewes Marian M. Schnepfe
Mmeaemsoaciety of the District of Columbia. .....006 036. cle hace cae ee eee e ceeele ede den Inactive
PRteCR EN ELS (ORICA SOCIEUY 6 cet Were tua: dig waa Reve «3 impeessaie 8 a dvelerepaoa. sia) 4iead o:ana,e dee. vynumse ares Paul H. Oehser
eeMme te SOCICTY, Of. WaASMIMBCOM) 6 5,6 nye a)s ce oe eyayies sia tpat ave, siiele go ee ee winiei'e bllere: aigiecd Bieta Bee Conrad B. Link
Sanrom ete AIMeriCan FOLEStErs! ae 2. dis Ws ate diate ala ud nls eda eal e sles baie wells orale) evs Thomas B. Glazebrook
PMeOM SOCICIY Of EMPINEEDS 1s... Weis dc ce cas cc eee b ee nee eeeeeus George Abraham
inmsemute of Blectrical and Electromics Engineers .. 21. .... 004 .0.004 bec be ee ences George Abraham
Panencanmoociery Of Mechanical Engineers 2.2... 00.0 cla ee ee cee ew cnewecae Michael Chi
Helminthological Society of Washington ............0. 0000 cube ccc cw ccc aneeeees Robert S. Isenstein
Porcicaneoocieny for MicrObIOIOSY: fo... ee ee eles hoc ae eb taee ae vwaen Michael Pelzcar
PacicmuGrmAmentcan Military PMGINCETS ..... 06.0060 6004 be cic eae nese gee ener ewe sens H. P. Demuth
PanehieanesOciety Of Civil EMGINCElS 1... 666. a kee ee ce sb es eee weet eneeees Robert Sorenson
Society fon Experimental Biology and Medicine ............. 002.0060 cecceneerveccecs Donald Flick
PME AMES OCIS PaO VICTAIS Hae cle ays 22/20 /5).'o)a ov wie) ae Gilese, oc 4%: Bye oie lala cdllana-cyera: la oiled 6 lots Glen W. Wensch
International Association of Dental Research ............ 0... cece eee eee William V. Loebenstein
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics .......... 0.0.00 cece eee ee cence George J. Vila
Pee AT eteOrolopical’ SOCIELY) ) Ha)... sissies wind ood bb Wldw oh aha Waldo sb Eee ele sulées A. James Wagner
MiseciCIMeRSOGIeLy Ol WaASMINOSTON Sic b i. da cies ile ceded odasesueneducusdabcecues Robert J. Argauer
Meousimical Society Of AMenIGa! 22. i). eb elke bee e bebe coed cakes Delegate not appointed
ASTUBIMLGZ)E: UNV UCI SATPUS TOC (GNI MINA an PL Dick Duffey
Mister ormeOOd HECHNOlOPIStS 2.2 s el ac ee ec ce eee bd eee tee lees William Sulzbacher
American Ceramic SIO STINT iste sein nh del aeh aaa aR na ei tans ABARAT eM tre aay hdl Alt Oe RUE He TA Inactive
PAR eene ne nNC An SOCIOL a etn ye Gee ers sndho bag Ge ciulens eo lade aide soniye VG are ea eee aa ed Alayne A. Adams
ee eM OCON eISTOLY iOl SCIENCE CLUB (ea sic nse a, <, s.r e ange o, s seeganascallsior 4 o/s )biS aaa tye) aye ae sale, wlmiairelle ever Inactive
mamenican Association of Physics Teachers .....,....: 0000 000s0afneveesnceunneneveuncs Peggy A. Dixon
PP pinAESOCIE ROLE AMCGIC Al capers le Gyateics sicus Aeen guts uaboemtuers. Gelitabe avira dk ly al @dere.elavara asehabur-dleys Lucy B. Hagan
Aiiencan society. of Plant) Physiologists)... 06 sc.4 se bieys cle adie ed ole ole ee ee owls ale Walter Shropshire
Pvashimoetony Operations) Research Council ios oe ics lec ee wclecn nba ae ceed eles. John G. Honig
PUSH SOC EUNEOUAMOlIC A Wiel seks) o/c) d sia iy qoncle leueheeelducdere tele We SAILS AIR a bene Inactive
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical
AUcdee mOLeUMsENESINEETS Mme. Pe le MOLE be ee eee Seb bts Carl H. Cotterill
Pion @ApitOlASITOMOMEES Fos o cb k cc dees cd esas resets eun was aeeaecnes ae Benson J. Simon
eelathematical Association Of AMEerCa ... 0.0... eee ce eee ee anew wane es emacs Patrick Hayes
IMO MIS CITUILE Oi CG NEMISES, cc Me kaiic soy. cise 4s. oe a yw vince o Madimie ie Rsode @ nye Bins s Bad eee is Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.
ER SV CNOLO SICAL VA SSOCLALTOIN sataisiale u's soos. as) ew ace» elaeig lore iouern Si@be, ails le pieia edlehe ayduel @Redmusye tia) sigue John O’ Hare
Mic aVashineton Paint Technical Group...) ..6. 2c. 0c cad babe t eee vec ewes wees Paul G. Campbell
minehican PuytOpal nological: SOCIELY | voc...) koe es eb eae ne ae ks cone dane ale alma oe Tom van der Zwet
Seciety for GeneralSystems Research .......2..02.0eeccneere cee eteweres Ronald W. Manderscheid
MeCAL ARES TOUS) SOCESDY a. 0 oy ate etnies. cies o's Vic's 6 ' dae heath avasme'nle s ¥ooa a'e sie lentils H. Mcllvaine Parsons
POMC MCANMISMETICSHSOCICLY Geli is osicieldi eislt ais a cceulslas s Wels dled wie inl ele cimee/a@ielale eles Irwin M. Alperin

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979 45 |

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GUEST EDITORIAL

Samuel B. Detwiler, Jr.

Editor, 1960-1969

A tribute to the late Sam Detwiler for his services to the Academy is a
tribute as well to all, like him, who devote themselves to learned society
tasks where the main reward is the strange satisfaction that comes from
doing them. But for Sam it would have been stranger still if he had not
been in the vanguard of volunteers.

Sam believed in making full use of the days’ hours. He finished high
school in three years, elected to work full-time in Government labora-
tories while earning his B.S. in chemistry in evening school at The
George Washington University, and managed to complete his Master’s
in organic chemistry at the University of Illinois while employed at the
U.S. Regional Soybean Industrial Products Laboratory then in Urbana.
Sandwiched in were active, continuing and often leadership roles in
GW’s glee club, its student newspaper and dramatics group, a profes-
sional and a social fraternity, as well as such frivolous indulgences as
tennis, canoeing, and automobile trips just for the adventure of it. It’s
no wonder that these habits persisted post-graduation and on his return
to the Washington area. Despite an important and demanding career in
research administration in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, he held
a number of offices in the Academy, the Chemical Society of Washing-
ton, and Alpha Chi Sigma’s professional chapter and edited their jour-
nals. He was active in the American Oil Chemists’ Society, the Ameri-
can Institute of Chemists, and the Cosmos Club, and still found time to
pursue his hobbies of military history, boating, photography, music,
mathematics, firearms, farming and genealogy.

To each of these tasks he brought manifold skills, a great diversity of
knowledge, stoutness and earnestness, meticulous attention to accu-
racy and detail, and a knack for making other dedicated people enjoy
working with him. He established standards of excellence for the Acad-
emy’s Journal that have persisted, making it an effective medium for
scientific communication and a publication of which members can be
proud.

Emerson, in his essay on self-reliance, called an institution the length-
ened shadow of one man. While the institution we call the Journal of
the Washington Academy of Sciences has not been, of course, the work
of one man alone, we can be grateful that the shadow Editor Sam Det-
wiler cast was a long one.

This issue of the Academy’s Journal is dedicated to him with the
deepest respect and gratitude.

—George W. Irving, Jr.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

FEATURE

Neutrino Beams: A New Concept in Telecommunications

Herbert Uberall

Catholic University, Washington, D. C. 20064 (Consultant, Naval Research

Laboratory, Washington, D. C. 20375)

F. J. Kelly and A. W. Saenz

Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D. C. 20375

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the potential use of high-energy neutrino beams for telecommuni-
cation purposes—a new concept in telecommunications advanced recently. The present
possibilities and future requirements of beam production, as well as possible schemes for
signal reception, are outlined. The proposed system is not meant to replace present means
of communication, but to fulfill special needs for which conventional telecommunication

systems may prove unsuited.

Communication methods in current
use are based on the propagation of acous-
tic and electromagnetic signals. The bulk
of telecommunications is achieved by
electromagnetic waves, including wire-
guided and optical signals. Radio waves
attain global distances by reflection from
the ionosphere. Microwaves, like optical
signals, only permit point-to-point com-
munications along the line of sight, but
can be made to reach larger distances by
the use of relay stations, including
satellite transmitters. However, they can
be obstructed by physical barriers and
almost none of the wave-borne signals is
capable of penetrating matter to any
appreciable degree, except for blue-green
laser light and extremely-low-frequency
electromagnetic waves which can pene-
trate the upper ocean depths. This latter
fact is used, e.g., in the Navy’s Project

Seafarer, where communications with
submerged submarines are attempted by
means of 40 Hz ELF electromagnetic
waves. (Acoustic and seismic waves also
penetrate the ocean and the earth at low
frequencies, but have relatively small
speeds.)

Radio communications are susceptible
to jamming and other types of interfer-
ence, such as atmospheric noise, solar
flare activity, and high-altitude nuclear
explosions. In addition, wave-borne sig-
nals are often prone to interception by
others besides the intended recipient, due
to their wide-ranging nature.

Particle Communications

The use of particle beams for purpose
of point-to-point telecommunications
would constitute a step forward com-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

parable to that from wire-guided to
wireless telegraphy following the work of
Hertz and Marconi in the 1880s and
1890s, insofar as it introduces the
application of a new basic principle. It is,
however, neither expected nor envisaged
to replace conventional telecommunica-
tions systems, but may complement these
by fulfilling certain specialized needs of
communication in which it would be
superior to present systems.

Telecommunication by means of ele-
mentary particle beams is necessarily
restricted to beams of stable or suffi-
ciently long-lived particles. Four types of
stable elementary particles are known:
photons, electrons, neutrinos and pro-
tons.

The electromagnetic waves employed
in telecommunication can be viewed, of
course, as coherent assemblies of photons
with wavelengths in the radio, micro-
wave, or optical regions. Photon beams
of shorter wavelength, say x-ray photons,
are strongly absorbed by matter and
hence are less suitable for long-range
communication. Electrons also have rela-
tively short ranges in matter, even if their
initial energies are in the GeV region [1
GeV (gigaelectron volt) = 10° eV (elec-
tron volts)], so that they too are less suit-
able. Besides interacting electromag-
netically with matter as do photons and
electrons, proton beams are depleted to
such an extent by nuclear scattering proc-
esses in their passage through matter
that they are not used for telecom-
munication.

Before discussing the long-distance
communication potentialities of neu-
trinos, we consider those of the muon,
the only unstable particle whose lifetime
(~2 x 10° sec for muons at rest) is suf-
ficiently long to make it a realistic can-
didate as a long-distance communication
carrier as proposed by Arnold (1). Since
the muon is about 207 times heavier than
the electron, its electromagnetic inter-
action with matter is greatly reduced and,
unlike the proton, it has no strong inter-
actions with matter. It can be shown from
these facts that the useful communication

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

range of a muon beam of tens of GeV
energy is primarily determined by its de-
cay rate in flight, provided that its path
traverses mainly the rarified air of the
upper atmosphere. Thus, a 100 GeV
muon beam could be used to com-
municate over 1,000 km under favorable
circumstances by exploiting the earth’s
magnetic field to curve the beam into
such a path. At this energy, the radius of
curvature of the muon beam produced by
the field would be approximately equal to
the earth’s radius. Hence, 1,000 km is a
rough upper limit for global-type muon
telecommunication (without relays). Be-
sides this drawback, muons directed
through the atmosphere would constitute
a radiation hazard, as would x-ray, elec-
tron, and proton beams. However,
muons could furnish an alternative to
microwave point-to-point communica-
tions which would function even in the
presence of moderate physical barriers
(a 10, 20 or 50-GeV muon penetrates a
depth of 50, 100 or 250 m of water, re-
spectively, and hence muon beams could
be sent into the ocean from a satellite for
communication purposes).

Neutrino Communications

There remains to discuss neutrino
beams as candidates for global telecom-
munications (neutrinos and antineutrinos
of both electron and muon type will
be called ‘‘neutrinos’’ here). Neutrinos
were postulated to explain ordinary nu-
clear beta decay by Pauli in 1933 and
then by Fermi in 1934. Their existence
was proved experimentally by Reines
and Cowan in 1956. Neutrinos have no
charge and zero or extremely small mass,
and therefore travel at exactly or es-
sentially the speed of light for the neu-
trino energies of interest here. They in-
teract so weakly with matter that up to
energies of <10* GeV neutrino beams
traversing the entire earth were predicted
by Volkova and Zatsepin (2) to suffer
negligible attenuation. Accordingly, neu-
trino beams of the kind mentioned below
could provide almost instantaneous,

Table 1.— Parameters of Existing and Future High-Energy Proton Accelerators and of Their Neutrino
Beams. ‘‘Tevatron’’ Designates the Energy-Doubled FNAL Accelerator, and the Last Column Refers

to a5 TeV Accelerator.

Present accelerators

FNAL CERN
E, (rev) 0.4 0.4
ppp 25x10" 10%
E, (GeV) 5-50 5-50

(20) (20)
3, (mrad) 3 3

direct-line communication to any point
on or below the surface of the earth, in-
cluding locations that are inaccessible by
any other means of telecommunications.

The largest single difficulty of such a
communications scheme is caused by the
property of neutrinos that gives them
their extreme penetrating power: their
weak interaction with matter. This prop-
erty will render their reception difficult,
so that for effective communications
massive neutrino detectors will be neces-
Sary as well as intense, and hence well-
collimated, neutrino beams. Narrowly
collimated beams restrict one to point-to-
point communications, but these could be
made to possess a high degree of privacy
and absence of message interception.
Two further desirable properties of neu-
trinos for communication are the impos-
sibility of blocking their propagation (in
contrast to electromagnetic waves) and
the fact that they do not constitute an
environmental hazard (in contrast to
muons).

The possibility of neutrino commu-
nication was briefly mentioned by Arnold
(1) and was quantitatively analyzed in an
earlier paper of Saenz et al. (3). Kotzer
and his associates (4) are now considering
an experiment for detecting neutrinos at
large distances from an accelerator
source.

In the following, we shall describe
briefly present and future prospects of
neutrino communications as_ regards
available neutrino sources, suitable de-
tector arrangements, expected and re-
quired signal reception or counting rates,

Future accelerators

Tevatron Serpukhov VBA
l 2-5 =10
5x 1028 ~108

10-80 40-120

(35) (80?)

1 0.2

and possible information content of the
messages to be transmitted.

Neutrino Sources.—Since according
to the experiments of Barish et al. (5),
the interaction cross section of muon
neutrinos v, (the type most copiously
produced by high-energy accelerators) in
the reaction by which they are mainly
detected,

Vy +n— yp + hadrons (1)
(n = neutron, wo=muon, hadrons
= strongly interacting particles), in-

creases linearly with neutrino energy up
to the highest measured energies of 200
GeV, the use of neutrinos with maximum
obtainable energies is preferable for tele-
communications purposes. Hence it is
desirable to employ as neutrino sources
accelerators such as the existing proton
synchrotrons at the Fermi National Ac-
celerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia,
Ill., and at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland.
Both of these produce proton beams of
400 GeV energy. As described e.g. by
Wilson (6), the energy of the FNAL ac-
celerator is to be raised to 1000 GeV = 1
TeV (Tera-electron volt) by 1980 and it
will then be called the Tevatron. Designs
for a 2—5 TeV accelerator are underway
at Serpukhov, USSR, and the possibili-
ties of a very big accelerator (VBA) of 10
TeV have been explored as described
e.g. by Adams (7).

Table I shows the relevant parameters
of these accelerators, the first row giving
the proton energy E,. The existing ac-
celerators are located in a ring-shaped

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

tunnel, with a ring radius of 1 km, and a
tunnel diameter of 3 m. (This installation
could easily be hardened.) At FNAL, the
circulating proton beam is extracted once
every eight seconds in a 20 usec pulse of
intensity ~2 x 10!° ppp (protons per
pulse), which is directed into a metal
target where it produces 7 and K mesons,
as well as other hadrons. The mesons, fo-
cused in a magnetic horn, decay mainly
into muons and neutrinos while passing
through a 400 m tunnel. The muons are
absorbed by a | km earth shield and in this
way an essentially pure neutrino beam is
obtained. Its full opening angle is #,
= 3mrad. The energy E, of these neu-
trinos is concentrated in an interval of 5—
50 GeV, with a maximum located at ~20
GeV, the total flux being about 10?° neu-
trinos per pulse. Figure 1 shows schemat-
ically how such an accelerator could be
used for neutrino telecommunications,
with the dacay tunnel aimed in the desired
direction for point-to-point communica-
tions, and Fig. 2 depicts the neutrino
beam’s traversal of the earth and recep-
tion by the detector. Note that with 0,
= 3 mrad, the beam diameter is ~38 km
on the opposite side of the globe.

Neutrino Detectors.—The neutrino
message may be received by a detector
sensitive to the reaction Eq. (1). As men-
tioned, massive targets are required for
obtaining reasonable counting rates.
With the possible exception of scintilla-
tion detectors, the best detection scheme

BEAM EXTRACTION
STATION

MAIN ACCELERATOR
RING

BEAM BENDING
MAGNETS

FOCUSING HORN
AND TARGET

jl _v BEAM TRAVELING
jl! THROUGH THE EARTH

Fig. 1. Scheme for generating a neutrino beam for
telecommunication.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

TRANSMITTER
(ACCELERATOR)

NEUTRINO BEAM TRAVELING
THROUGH THE EARTH

SUBMERGED OR
BURIED DETECTOR

Fig. 2. Neutrino telecommunication with a sub-
merged or buried detector.

for neutrinos in the energy range con-
sidered appears to be one proposed a
number of years ago by the late C. L.
Cowan and one of the present authors (8).
This method consists in using a very large
(10° tons or more) body of water (in the
ocean, a deep lake, or a flooded mine) as
the target as well as the detector. The
muons produced in Eq. (1) which on the
average carry off half of the original neu-
trino energy, propagate a mean distance
of 50 m in the water (see above), emitting
all along their path a cone of blue-green
Cerenkov light of forward-opening angle
41°, at a rate of 200 or more photons per
cm path length (Fig. 3). This light in turn
propagates over a length of about 20 m in
clear water, and can be trapped in a sys-
tem of light collectors (e.g., lucite plates
or rods) with attached photomultipliers
which register the light flash of the muon.

Because of the limitation imposed by
the short absorption length of visible light
in water, we envisage a large cubic array
of detector modules (Fig. 4), spaced 20 m
apart from each other and perhaps con-
sisting each of a 1 m? horizontal lucite
plate with one (pressurized) photomulti-
plier attached to its upper face. [Note
that as described in workshop pro-
ceedings edited by Roberts (9), an anal-
ogous detector array has also been pro-
posed for project DUMAND (deep un-
derwater muon and neutrino detection),
designed to detect cosmic neutrinos]. In
Ref. (3), it was estimated that such a de-
tection scheme would have a muon de-
tection efficiency of close to 100%. The
effective target volume of the detector is
larger than that of the array, because a

OCEAN SURFACE
a

PHOTOMULTIPLIER

CERENKOV PHOTON
MUON
HADRON JET

ACCELERATOR
NEUTRINO

Fig. 3. Cerenkov neutrino detector.

muon produced by reaction Eq. (1) can
travel a significant distance in water from
its point of origin to where it can be de-
tected by the array.

Counting Rates and Background—
For a muon beam from the present
FNAL accelerator, Ref. (3) gives event
rates of 25 counts/hr with an 80-module
(10° tons of water) array at a distance of
10° km from the source, or with an 11,400-
module array (10° tons) at 10* km (which
is roughly the diameter of the earth). For
the Tevatron case, the latter rate was
stated to increase to 2,500 counts/hr, see
Saenz et al. (3), but more careful estimates
based on calculated neutrino flux dis-
tributions as quoted by Lach (6) raise this
to ~10* counts/hr. Such a rate would be
quite sufficient for practical neutrino
communication, but could be further in-
creased (or the detector size decreased)
by additional improvements in the neu-
trino beam quality. (Note that acceler-
ators specifically designed for neutrino
communications should, by definition,
produce neutrino beams that are better
suited to this purpose than those of the
general purpose research accelerators
such as FNAL). Such improvements
could be obtained by increasing the pri-
mary proton beam intensity, better beam
collimation (which is automatic with higher
proton energies), and a longer decay tun-
nel (factor 3 improvement by extending
the tunnel from 400 m to 2 km). For ex-
ample, we estimate that for an accelerator
such as in the last column of Table I, with
E, = 5TeV, 2 X 10% ppp, 3, = 0.2 mrad,
and a 2-km decay tunnel, even a small

(10° ton) detector array would lead to as
many as 3 x 10* events/hr at a distance of
10* km (where the 1.5-km diameter neu-
trino beam would still illuminate the
detector array of about 100 m linear di-
mension).

Background to the signals is provided
mainly by sunlight, Cerenkov light from
cosmic-ray muons, and bioluminescence.
Flashes of the latter origin typically last
for milliseconds, and can thus be dis-
criminated against the nanosecond Ceren-
kov flashes from the muons produced in
the reaction of Eq. (1). On the basis of
data got by Higashi and by Oster and
Clarke (10), we estimated that for 10+
signal counts/hr immersion depths of
300—400 m and 600-700 m would provide
adequate shielding depths against cosmic

ray muons and sunlight in the ocean, -

respectively (of course, sunlight could be
eliminated by enclosures). With higher
counting rates, the immersion depths
could be correspondingly reduced.

Communications Considerations. —
Although neutrinos are unique in their
penetrating ability, the concepts that
govern pulsed neutrino beam communi-
cations are not much different from those
governing pulsed laser beam modulation,
as discussed by Gagliardi or by Bar
David (11). This technique for transfer-
ring information consists in placing a
pulsed signal into one of a large possible

| COSMIC RAY MUON

Tew oe

r = x
MUON FROM
ACCELERATOR
NEUTRINO

DETECTOR
MODULE

Fig. 4. Cerenkov neutrino detection array.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

een BEAM | ACCELERATION | BEAM |
RCYCL. INJEC- PERIOD EXIT

TION

Pee aeme (etd TE, eel gl tie ae eee 2
0 | 2 3 ot 5 6 |

8 SECONDS

——______——-2!5: 32768 INTERVAL§ ——————————~

3x10 SEC INTERVAL

x=NOISE EVENTS

o=SIGNAL EVENTS

7 SEC : 8 SEC

0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
000000000000000!
OOOO0OOOI! I IIIIIIO
OO0ODITIIOOOOIIIIO
OOlLIOOIOOIIOOIIO
Ol0iO0!tIO10101010

= MESSAGE SENT

biol sf
bocbetf
ltl
ed |
Fatal
It
lat
LP > tSBITS
el
ee
Locbiyt
lI
palit
Ol!
1 Ol

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0
0

Breen te Pe oe pe SSS

(5 UNIT TTY CODE)

Fig. 5. Pulse position modulation: The upper portion of the figure shows the synchrotron repetition period
for the systems described in the text. First there is a 6-second initial period in which the ring magnet is re-
turned from its highest field to its initial field condition. Then the protons are injected into the synchrotron
over the period of a second. The protons are accelerated to their maximum energy during the following 5.4
seconds. During some short interval between the seventh and eighth seconds the ejection of the proton
beam from the synchrotron by the use of a ‘‘kicker’’ magnet causes neutrino events in the corresponding time
interval at the detector, thereby transmitting the three letters THB in international telegraphic code.

sequence of time intervals. To show how
a neutrino beam communications system
could use pulse position modulation,
assume that a transmitting accelerator
and a receiving array have been con-
structed such that 104 neutrino events per
hour (22 events per eight second cycle)
may be reliably observed in the detector.
Assume that the synchrotron trans-
mitter of one km radius requires seven
seconds to bring a proton beam to its
maximum energy [see, e.g., Sanford

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

(12)]. It will then take ~2 x 10° sec for
the entire circulating beam to emerge from
the accelerator ring after an internal mag-
netic field ‘‘kicker’’ is triggered.
Assume that the transmitter and re-
ceiver have synchronized clocks and that
the receiver takes into account the prop-
agation delay between the triggering of
the kicker and the receipt of a neutrino
pulse. After each seven second accelera-
tion period (see Fig. 5) the transmitter
is prepared to send its message. The next

second may be divided into 32768 (=2!°)
equal intervals of time, each of duration
3.05 x 10°> seconds. A unique 15-bit
binary message may be associated with
each time interval as shown in Fig. 5. The
time at which the kicker is triggered is
selected according to the binary message
to be sent. After the triggering event
the neutrinos are generated and travel
through the earth with the speed of light
to the receiving array. There the neutrino
pulse causes about 22 events to occur in
the array during the 2 x 10™° sec interval
corresponding to the proton beam spill
time. Clocks and counter electronics are
arranged to decode the observed time of
occurrence of these events and hence to
reconstruct the 15-bit binary message.
The system would then operate at a com-
munication rate of ~1.9 bits/sec of fifteen
bits per eight seconds.

It should not prove difficult to con-
struct and deploy a receiving array in
which false neutrino pulse events are un-
likely to arise spontaneously from the
background noise. Using a simple de-
tection algorithm which interprets the
presence of eight or more events within
the detector array during a 3 x 10°° sec
interval as a valid neutrino signal, the
probability of message error will be less
than 10~? if the average single neutrino-
like (false) event rate is less than 0.4
events per 3 x 10°° sec interval or 1.3
x 10* events/sec. For the above men-
tioned example of a 10° ton water detector
at 10* km from the neutrino source, the
latter rate could be achieved by im-
mersion to 300 m or more, assuming that
cosmic-ray muons furnish the only signif-
icant background, i.e., assuming that
sunlight has been excluded by suitably
covering the detector.

Conclusions

Telecommunication over global dis-
tances by means of neutrino beams is
proposed as an alternative to the con-
ventional electromagnetic-wave com-
munication methods. Assuming the use
of suitable underwater Cerenkov de-
tectors, neutrino telecommunication is

shown to approach feasibility if presently
existing high-energy proton accelerators
are employed as neutrino sources, and to
be definitely feasible with the advent of
higher-energy accelerators which are al-
ready in the design stage. Special ad-
vantages of this type of communications
as compared to other types are that they
could be made essentially safe from jam-
ming and disruption as well as to furnish
a high degree of privacy. The method
may prove useful as a low-data link to
buried or submerged receivers with
which communications might otherwise
be difficult.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank D. W. Pad-
gett for bringing the concept of neutrino
communication to their attention. We
also thank H. Beck, R. Arnold, J. A.
Murray, R. H. Bassel, M. Hass, N. See-
man, M. M. Shapiro, and W. W. Zachary
for useful conversations.

References Cited

(1) R. C. Arnold, Science 177, 163 (1972).

(2) L. V. Volkova and G. T. Zatsepin, Bull.
Acad. Sci. USSR, Phys. Ser. 38, 151 (1974).

(3) A. W. Sdenz, H. Uberall, F. J. Kelly, D. W.
Padgett, and N. Seeman, Science 198, 295
(1977).

(4) J. Albers and P. Kotzer, Bull. Amer. Phys.
Soc. 24, 24 (1979).

(5) B. C. Barish et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 39,
1595 (1977).

(6) R. R. Wilson, Physics Today 30, 23 (1977);
J. Lach, ed. 1976 Summer Study, Fermi
National Acceller Laboratory, Batavia, IIl.

(7) See, e.g., J. B. Adams, in CERN Annual
Report, 1976; L. Camilleri, CERN Report
76-12, June 1976.

(8) C. L. Cowan, H. Uberall, and C. P. Wang,
Nuovo Cimento A 44, 526 (1966).

(9) A. Roberts, ed., Proceedings of the 1976
DUMAND Summer Workshop, Fermi Na-
tional Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Ill.

(10) S. Higashi et al., Nuovo Cimento A43, 334
(1966); R. H. Oster and G. L. Clarke, J. Opt.
Soc. Am. 25, 84 (1935).

(11) Robert M. Gagliardi and S. Karp, IEEE
Transactions on Communications Technology,
COM-17, 208, (1969); I. Bar David, IEEE
Transactions on Information Theory, IT-15,
31 (1969).

(12) James, R. Sanford, ‘‘The Fermi National
Accelerator Laboratory’? Ann. Rev. Nucl.
Sci. 26, 151 (1976).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Portland Pozzolan Cement

Kenneth N. Derucher

RESEARCH REPORTS

Principal, Civil Design and Technology Corp., 3107 Teal Lane, Bowie,

Maryland 20715;

David E. Hormby and Martin A. Mayer

Research Assistants, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742

ABSTRACT

The research described herein is concerned with evaluating the effect of Portland-
Pozzolan cement (American Society for Testing and Materials Designation Type 1P) as it
was used for structural concrete. The use of Portland-Pozzolan cements for structural
concrete has been limited due to inadequate knowledge of their performance characteris-
tics. These performance characteristics include rate of strength development, workability,
resistance to freezing and thawing, and salt scaling. This research hopes to add to the
literature by indicating that Portland-Pozzolan cement may be used successfully for

structural concrete.

In view of the world need to conserve
natural resources, to utilize waste prod-
ucts, and to prepare for possible problems
in the supply of Portland cements,
blended cements will, at least partially,
be substituted for Portland cements.
Blended cements are used extensively in
many countries and are increasing rapidly
each year in all types of construction.
Their use for structural concrete has been
limited due to inadequate knowledge of
their performance characteristics. These
performance characteristics include rate
of strength development, workability, re-
sistance to freezing and thawing, and salt
scaling. Knowledge of the factors affect-
ing the performance of blended cements
and methods of characterization of
blended cements are needed to facilitate

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

their acceptance for use in structural
concrete without compromise on quality.
A blended cement is a cement in which
a pozzolan (usually fly ash) is pre-blended
or interground with the cement. This type
of cement, Portland-Pozzolan, is desig-
nated by the American Society for Test-
ing and Materials (ASTM) as Type 1P.
The Portland-Pozzolan mixtures pres-
ently in use, in limited amounts, are not
the stoichiometry optima for the chemical
reactions which take place. The replace-
ment of cement by fly ash, on an equal
weight basis, varies from 0 to 30%. If the
composition of the Portland-Pozzolan
blend is balanced so that the potential
stoichiometry of the reaction is satisfied,
the engineering performance of the
hardened mass may be improved.

Table 1.—Compressive Strength (7 Days).

Compression results (7 days)

Blended cement Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average

Cement Flyash PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa
100 0 2128) 15-35 22570) VSS 2300) hey 92 2265 15.61
95 5 1650/5 E137 1685 11.58 1637 7 es lG570 ell 4 1
90 10 1578 10.87 1575 10.82 1556 VRlOy72 LSTO AO 82
85 15 1821 12.54 1811 12.48 1890 = 13.02 1841 12.68
80 20 1785 12330 7ST > eles 1801 12.41 1791 12.34
Ts aps 755 12.09 1767 12a L737 eon 1753 12.08
70 30 1665 11.47 1665 11.47 1670 47 Mest 1667 =11.48

With prospects for higher coal use in
the future (due to the recent energy crisis)
the use of waste material such as fly ash
from coal burning will be extremely im-
portant. In the 30 years since the end of
World War II, an estimated 350 million
tons of fly ash have been produced in the
United States alone, with an additional
650 million tons worldwide, of which only
about 20% has been utilized. By the year
1980, utility coal consumption will ap-
proach 550 million tons, with resulting
ash production of over 55 million tons
annually in the United States. It is ap-
parent that continued effort is desirable
to develop new fly ash outlets and expand
existing ones.

Fly ash as an additive in Portland ce-
ment concrete has proved satisfactory
and gained wide acceptance among en-
gineers. Data on the performance charac-
teristics of fly ash as an additive is

Table 2.—Compressive Strength (14 Days).

enormous (1-15). The data on the op-
timization and performance characteris-
tics of blended cements (Type 1P) is mini-
mal. Additional data is needed such that
blended cements may become as readily
acceptable as the Portland cement-fly ash
additive types.

In order to provide solutions to these
problems, the following areas were
studied:

1. The optimization of the Portland-
Pozzolan blend (Type 1P) by balanc-
ing the stoichiometry of the reaction.

2. The determination of the factors af-
fecting the performance of concretes
made from mixtures of the Portland-
Pozzolan blend (Type 1P), in relation
to the needs of structural concrete.
Performance characteristics con-
sidered include rate of strength devel-
opment, workability, resistance to
freezing and thawing, and salt scaling.

Compression results (14 days)

Blended cement Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average
Cement Flyash PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa
100 0 ZNO Ge Os0i 2700 ~=s-: 118..61 2695 18.60 2702 =: 18.63
95 5) 2100 14.47 2098 =: 14.50 20 ata 54 2103" ) 14450
90 10 1887 13.00 1928 =13.30 1S75' 0 12295 1897 13.08
85 15 2690 = 18.53 2715 = 18.60 2720 ~=—- 18.74 2IOSA re tS.62
80 20 2400 16.54 2395 16.54 2387 ~=16.47 2394 16.52
15) 25 25505) liGel9 2347 = 16.19 23702 ¢aG. 35 2356 §=6:16..24
70 30 2057 ~=—s- 14.19 2065 14.26 2047 = 14.12 2056 = 14.19
56

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

— ——

—_ —— =

Table 3.—Compressive Strength (28 Days).

Compression results (28 days)

Blended cement Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average

Cement Flyash PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa
100 0 3041 20.97 S1Dey 2143 3041 20.95 3065" WIE
95 5 2300 8=15.86 2285) © 15.74 23105 15:92 2298 15.84
90 10 212204 14:63 2192 15.09 2051 14.12 2122 yel4eot
85 15 3112e% 21-46 31830) 21:91 3147 21.70 3147 #82169
80 20 2678 18.46 ZI Soar el 902 28291" 19550 2765. #21899
Ts) DS 2600 817.91 2758 19.02 DISSE 19:02 2705: #518265
70 30 2334 16.09 25460" 17.57 25468). 17:57 2475 17.08

Experimental Design

A total of 168 standard size cylinders
(63) and beams (105) was made and cured
in accordance with ASTM C 192-69;
Making and Curing Test Specimens in
the Laboratory. All concrete was ap-
proximately 3000 Ibs/in.? (20 MPa) struc-
tural concrete. Except for the Portland
cement-fly ash ratio, all other factors re-
mained the same in the concrete mix
design. The fly ash (of a type which met
ASTM standards) was interground with
Type 1 Portland cement and replaced the
cement in increments of 5% by weight
from zero to 30% for a total of 7 mixtures.
A series of 4 tests was performed on the
concrete cylinders and beams as follows:

1. ASTM C39: Test for Compressive
Strength of Concrete Cylinders

2. ASTM C78: Test for Flexural
Strength of Concrete

3. ASTM C290: Test for Resistance of
Concrete Specimens to Rapid Freez-
ing and Thawing in Water

4. Resistance to Salt Scaling: Details of
this test will be presented further on in
the article.

In test series one, 3 concrete cylinders
of each mix proportion were tested in
compression at 7, 14, and 28 days for a
total of 63 specimens. In test series two,
3 concrete beams of each mix proportion
were tested in flexure at 7, 14, and 28
days for a total of 63 specimens. Test
series three consisted of testing 3 con-
crete beams of each mix proportion for
a total of 21 specimens in a standard
freezing and thawing apparatus. The
temperature in a 4-hour period will vary
from a minus 10°F (—23°C) to a positive
40°F (4.4°C) such that six (6) cycles a day
would be accomplished. The final test

Table 4. — Flexural Strength (7 Days).

Flexure (7 days)

Blended cement Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average

Cement Flyash PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa
100 0 584 4.02 587 4.04 593 4.07 588 4.05
35 5 397 2.74 395 Die, 390 2.69 394 OG (|

90 10 367 D3 371 2.56 363 2.50 367 2.93

85 15 395 Pas pe 400 2.76 408 2.81 401 2.76

80 20 384 2.65 397 2.74 410 2.82 397 2.74

iD ZS 349 2.40 354 2.44 350 2.41 35] 2.42

70 30 300 2.07 301 2.07 302 2.07 301 2.07

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979 57

Table 5.—Flexural Strength (14 Days).

Flexure (14 days)

Blended cement Specimen | Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average
Cement Flyash PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa
100 0 698 4.81 699 4.82 676 4.66 691 4.75
95 5 624 4.30 633 4.36 633 4.36 630 4.34
90 10 605 4.17 612 4.22 613 4.22 610 4.20
85 15 694 4.78 671 4.62 699 4.82 688 4.74
80 20 513 3)y9)5) 524 3.61 583 4.02 540 Biz
is) 25 499 3.44 517 3.56 526 3.62 514 3.54
70 30 487 3.36 503 3.47 489 3537 493 3.40

series, resistance to salt scaling was per-
formed as follows:

The top surface of 3 concrete beams for each mix
proportion for a total of 21 specimens was
covered with 4 in. (6.4 mm) water in the standard
freezing and thawing apparatus. Once the water
had frozen and the thawing cycle began, flake
calcium chloride was applied to the ice in an
amount equivalent to 2.4 pounds/yard? (1.3 kg/m?)
of surface area (which simulates actual con-
ditions).

The beams were subjected to this pro-
cedure daily. Visual examinations were
made at regular periods and numerical
ratings assigned.

Results

The results of the above-mentioned 4
tests are shown in tabular and/or graphi-
cal form. Tables 1-3 are the results of
the Compressive Strength of Concrete
Cylinders (ASTM C39: Tests for Com-
pressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders)

Table 6.—Flexural Strength (28 Days).

after curing for 7, 14, and 28 days. Tables
4-6 are the results of the Flexural
Strength of Concrete Beams (ASTM
C78: Tests for Flexural Strength of Con-
crete) after curing for 7, 14, and 28 days.
Figures 1 and 2 show a graphical result of
both the compression and flexural results.

It becomes obvious that, in the early
stages of development, concrete made
without fly ash (Type 1) surpasses that
made with fly ash (Type 1P). However, at
14 days, concrete made with Type | ce-
ment and Type 1P cement (85% cement
and 15% fly ash) showed relatively the
same strength. Further, at 28 days, con-
crete made with Type 1P cement (85%
cement and 15% fly ash) surpassed
strength-wise concrete made with Type 1
cement.

Similar results were obtained for the
Flexural Strength of Concrete Beams
tested at 7, 14, and 28 days.

The results of test for Freezing and

Flexure (28 days)

Blended cement Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average

Cement Flyash PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa PSI MPa
100 0 797 5.49 804 S5))| 850 5.86 817 5.65
95 5 761 5.24 745 5.15 744 5.10 750 5.17

90 10 atS 4.93 740 5.10 744 5.10 FIC) 5.05

85 15 834 SA) 823 5.67 812 5.58 823 5.66

80 20 657 4.53 682 4.70 686 4.73 675 4.69

75 25 597 4.11 601 4.13 602 4.13 600 4.13

70 30 529 3.64 538 S72 552 3.67 533 3.65

58 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

4000

3000
Qe eee daysmcurdne

ae 4 day se curine

2000

SS 7 days curing

Compression (PSI)

% Fly Ash

Eig., 1.
results.

Comparison of compressive strength

Thawing of Concrete Beams (ASTM
C290: Test for Resistance of Concrete
Specimens to Rapid Freezing and Thaw-
ing in Water) are shown in Tables 7, 8,
and 9, which show the Young’s Modulus
of Elasticity in the transverse and longi-
tudinal direction and the dynamic modu-
lus of rigidity. Again in reviewing these

=> 28 days curing

= 14 days curing

Flexure (PSI)
eal
Oo
lo)

7 days curing

i@ 18 20 25. x0

% Fly Ash

Fig. 2. Comparison of flexural strength results.

results, concrete made with Type 1 ce-
ment and Type 1P cement (85% cement
and 15% fly ash) showed relatively the
Same capacity and/or requirements.

In the final test, Resistance to Salt
Scaling, the concrete made with Type 1
cement and Type 1P cement (85% cement
and 15% fly ash) proved to be of satis-

Table 7.—Dynamic Young’s Modulus, Transverse (Ibs/in? x 10°).

Blended cement

Cement Flyash Zero cycles 30 cycles 60 cycles 90 cycles 120 cycles
100 0 6.13 2.26 159 0.92 —
100 0 6.17 127 0.95 0.63 —
100 0 6.69 0.69 0.51 0.42 —

5 5 6.88 0.90 0.68 0.47 —
95 5 6.92 0.46 0.23 0.54 —
95 5 Gkly 0.77 0.50 0.51 —
90 10 6.29 tJ) 0.88 — —
90 10 6.85 1.78 0.83 — —
90 10 6.67 — — — —
85 15 6.41 3.76 2.20 0.64 0.39
85 IS 6.71 3.99 21 0.67 0.08
85 15 7.10 4.89 2.81 — _
80 20 6.66 0.96 0.70 0.46 —
80 20 6.56 1.07 0.54 — _
80 20 6.47 1.09 0.61 — —
15 7s) 6.32 0.65 0.39 0.13 —
Ws 25 a/9 0.65 0.33 — a
75 25 4.82 0.67 0.39 — _
70 30 5.82 0.30 0.15 0.14 —
70 30 5.89 0.71 0.43 — —-
70 30 6.03 0.71 0.45 —
J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979 59

Table 8.—Dynamic Young’s Modulus, Longitudinal (Ibs/in? x 10°).

Blended cement

Cement Flyash Zero cycles 30 cycles 60 cycles 90 cycles 120 cycles
100 0 0.94 0.36 0.10 0.12 =
100 0 0.96 0.33 0.11 0.11 =
100 0 0.98 0.20 0.09 0.12 =

95 5 1.01 0.28 0.17 0.05 ==
95 5 0.99 0.37 0.23 0.05 —
95 5 1.00 0.63 0.32 0.06 —
90 10 1.00 ih? 0.17 — =
90 10 0.97 0.40 0.23 — —
90 10 0.98 — — — =
85 15 0.95 0.58 0.45 0.31 0.62
85 15 0.96 0.64 0.49 0.38 0.61
85 15 0.98 0.77 0.58 — —
80 20 0.91 0.27 0.32 0.36 —
80 20 0.90 0.22 0.25 — —
80 20 0.91 0.19 0.10 — —
75 25 0.86 0.21 0.13 0.05 —
i: 25 0.88 0.23 O12 — —
75 25 0.93 0.25 0.12 — —
70 30 0.85 0.11 0.06 0.06 —
70 30 0.86 0.12 0.08 —_ —
70 30 0.88 0.13 0.10 — —

Table 9.—Dynamic Modulus, of Rigidity (Ibs/in? < 10°).

Blended cement

Cement Flyash Zero cycles 30 cycles 60 cycles 90 cycles 120 cycles

100 0 2.64 0.47 0.43 0.34 —

100 0 2.64 0.49 0.37 0.21 —
100 0 2.65 0.53 0.44 0.21 —

95 5 2.85 0.16 0.10 0.05 —

95 5 2.86 0: 1655 0.12 0.03 —

95 5 2.84 0.16 0.13 0.08 —

90 10 2.58 0.32 0.20 = —

90 10 2.68 0.31 0.14 — —

90 10 2.78 = — — —

85 15 2.60 0.71 0.47 0.39 0.31

85 1) 2.65 0.95 0.49 0.49 0.35

85 15 2.70 0.80 0.48 — —

80 20 2.65 0.35 0.21 0.07 —

80 20 2.56 0.39 0.20 — —

80 20 2.61 0.38 0.21 — —

75 25 2.53 0.16 0.10 0.03 —

qe) 25 295 0.13 0.07 — —

75 25 2.58 0.13 0.08 — —

70 30 2.45 0.03 0.02 0.01 zh
70 30 2.46 0.05 0.03 — — :
70 30 2.47 0.03 0.01 — — |

|
|
60 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Table 10.—Results of Deicer Scaling Tests.

Blended cement

——— Zero 30
Cement Flyash cycles cycles
100 0 0 1
100 0 0 1
100 0 0 1
95 5 0 1
95 5 0 2

bs 5 0

90 10 0 2
90 10 0 72
90 10 0 2
85 15 0

85 15 0

80 20 0 2
80 20 0 1
80 20 0 1
75 O55 0 2
TS 25 0 D
75 25 0 2
70 30 0 2
70 30 0 2
70 30 0 1

Where: caling

Slight Scaling

Slight to Moderate Scaling
Moderate Scaling
Moderate to Severe Scaling
Severe Scaling

Liat eat eee

aA PWN K oO

factory performance when compared as
shown in Table 10.

Conclusions

1. The Pozzolan fly ash proved to be a
satisfactory cement replacement as a
Type 1P cement (85% cement and 15%
fly ash).

2. Type 1P cement (85% cement and 15%
fly ash) can be used successfully in
place of Type 1 provided that the con-
crete is allowed to cure at least 14
days.

3. No difference in workability was
noticed in acomparison of all batches.

4. Type 1P cement (85% cement and 15%
fly ash) was the only mix design por-
tion that proved satisfactory. Any
lesser or greater portion of fly ash
would have additional results.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

60
cycles

NW WwW NWN

NN Ww Wn Ww NM Ww Ne

Scale rating

90 120 150 200
cycles cycles cycles cycles
1 1 1 1

2 Z
1 1 1 1
3 4 5 is
4 5 6 —
3 3 4 —
4 5 5 —
4 5 5 —
3 4 » —
De 2 Z 2
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4 5 5 _
3 4 5 —
3 4 6) at
4 5 5 —
3 4 5 a
4 5) 5 —
4 5 5) —
3 4 5 ae
2 3 4 —

References Cited

. Davis, R. E., R. W. Carlson, J. W. Kelly, and

H. E. Davis. ‘‘Properties of Cements and Con-
cretes Containing Fly Ash,’’ Proceedings, Am.
Concrete Inst., Vol. 33, p. 577, May—June,
1937.

. Davis, R. E., H. E. Davis, and J. W. Kelly.

Weathering Resistance of Concrete Containing
Fly Ash Cements,’’ Proceedings Am. Con-
crete Inst., Vol. 37, p. 281, January 1, 1941.

. H. A. Frederick. ‘‘Application of Fly Ash for

Lean Concrete Mixes,’ Proceedings, Am.
Soc. for Testing Mats., Vol. 44, p. 810, 1944.

. Grieb, W. E., and D. O. Woolf. ‘‘Concrete

Containing Fly Ash as a Replacement for Port-
land Blast-Furnace Slag Cement,’’ Proceed-
ings, Am. Soc. for Testing Mats., Vol. 61, p.
1143, 1961.

. T. D. Larson. ‘‘Air Entrainment and Durability

Aspects of Fly Ash Concrete,’ Proceedings,
Am. Soc. for Testing Mats., Vol. 64, p. 866,
1964.

. Pasko, T. J., and T. D. Larson. ‘‘Some Statis-

tical Analyses of the Strength and Durability of

Fly Ash Concretes,’’ Am. Soc. for Testing
Mats., Vol. 62, p. 1054, 1962.

7. Timms, A. G., and W. E. Grieb. “‘Use of Fly
Ash in Concrete,’’ Proceedings, Am. Soc. for
Testing Mats., Vol. 56, p. 1139, 1956.

8. Klieger, P., and W. F. Perenchio. “‘Laboratory
Studies of Blended Cements, Portland-
Pozzolan Cements,’’ Portland Cement Associ-
ation Bulletin RDO13, 1973.

9. Minnick, L. John. ‘“‘Corson Company Re-
searches Fly Ash Lightweight Aggregate,”’
Rock Products, Sept. 1964, pp. 74-77.

10. ‘‘Enercon Ltd. Develops Fly Ash Process for
Concrete Industry,’’ Concrete Products, Feb.
1969, pp. 46-49.

11. ACI Committee 213, ‘‘Guide for Structural

Lightweight Aggregate Concrete,’ ACI Jour-
nal, Aug. 1967, Proceedings, Vol. 64, No. 8,
pp. 433-469.

12. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Require-
ments for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-63),
Detroit, American Concrete Inst. 1963.

13. 1968 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 10, Con-
crete & Mineral Aggregates, Phila., Am. Soc.
for Testing & Materials, 1968.

14. ACI Comm. 213, ‘‘Guide for Struc. Light-
weight Aggregate Concrete,’’ ACI Journal,
Aug. 1967, Proceedings, V. 64, No. 8, pp.
433-469.

15. Pearson, A. S. ‘‘Lightweight Aggregate from
Fly Ash,”’ Civil Engineering, Sept. 1964, Vol.
43, No. 9, pp. 51-53.

The Status of Rhizoecus amorphophalli Betram, a Little-
Known Oriental Mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

Edson J. Hambleton

Cooperating Scientist, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBUI, Agricultural
Research, Sci. & Educ. Admin., USDA. Mail address: 5140 Worthington Dr.,

Washington, D. C. 20016.

ABSTRACT

~ Rhizoecus amorphophalli Betram, originally described from Java, is widely distributed
in the Pacific area. Comparison of the types with material from Hawaii, India and the
Philippines reveals no morphological differences. Rhizoecus advenus Beardsley from
Hawaii and Micronesia is considered a junior synonym of Rhizoecus amorphophalli. The
latter is redescribed, illustrated, and a lectotype designated.

Betram (1940) described Rhizoecus
amorphophalli from Java. In 1946, I
transferred the species to Ripersiella
Tinsley, a genus later synonymized with
Rhizoecus (Hambleton, 1974). No further
mention was made of R. amorphophalli
until Beardsley (1966) compared it with
Rhizoecus advenus Beardsley from
Hawaii and Micronesia, indicating that
they may eventually be synonyms.

A comparison of 5 paratypes of R.
advenus with the syntypes of R. amor-
Phophalli reveals no major diagnostic
differences in their morphology. The
minor differences in the size of cerores

and number of multilocular disk pores
that were noted are normal variations in
a species. Specimens from India and the
Philippines were identical with the syn-
types of R. amorphophalli, except for
size. According to Beardsley (op cit.),
R. advenus possesses a single circulus on
abdominal segment IV and occasionally
has a small circulus on segment V. Of 31
specimens examined during this study, 24
possessed 2 circuli. Invariably the cir-
culus on segment V is smaller. For these
reasons, R. advenus is here considered a
junior synonym of R. amorphophalli.
This species is widely distributed in the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

_——e

Figs. 1-8. Rhizoecus amorphophalli, female, 1, terminal segments of antenna; 2, rostrum; 3, cephalic
plate; 4, tubular duct; 5, tritubular ceroris; 6, anal ring, right half; 7, circulus; 8, hind claw.

Oriental Region and probably was trans-
ported by man on roots and tubers of
various economically important food
plants.

Rhizoecus amorphophalli Betram
Figs. 1-8

Rhizoecus amorphophalli Betram, 1940:267.
Ripersiella amorphophalli: Hambleton, 1946:61.
Rhizoecus advenus Beardsley, 1966:468. New
synonymy.

Adult female: Broadly ovate. Length, 1.48-—1.73
mm; width, 0.73—0.93 mm. Antennae 6-segmented,
broadly separated, average length of segments in
microns: I, 33; II, 23; III, 33; IV, 18; V, 17: VI, 42;
apical segment about twice as long as wide, with 3
moderately stout sensory setae and 1 spinelike
sensory seta; segment V with | short, small sensory
seta. Interantennal space equal to combined length
of segments IV-VI. Eyes small, pigmented, about

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

10 in diameter. Rostrum of medium size, 63 long,
50u wide; rostral loop extending to or slightly be-
yond 2nd coxae. Cephalic plate irregularly tri-
angulate, 20u long, 30u wide, with 3 prominent
body setae on its periphery. Dorsal ostioles strongly
sclerotized.

Legs smali, average length of segments of hind
pair in microns: Trochanter, 40; femur, 91; tibia, 81;
tarsus, 53; claw, 17; claw digitules elongate, dilated
at extremities, extending beyond claws.

Normally with 2 stout, truncate, strongly sclero-
tized circuli, the larger on abdominal segment IV
averaging about 20 long, 30u wide, one on segment
V smaller, sometimes absent, averaging 15 long,
21 wide, both prominently reticulated. Anal lobes
weakly developed, unsclerotized, with 3 elongate
setae, longest about 60u long, trilocular pores
usually crowded at their bases. Anal ring small, 35
in diameter, its setae 50—58y long; outer portion of
anal ring with 12—14 elongate oval to sinuate cells,
with spicules; inner portion of ring with 10 much
larger, irregularly shaped cells adjacent to a series of

globular, darkened cells. Tritubular cerores of 2
sizes, their ducts short, stout, bifurcate at bases,
maximum length about 7u, evenly distributed,
varying between 117-140, larger size more abun-
dant dorsally, smaller size occurring on both sur-
faces. Multilocular disk pores confined to venter of
abdominal segments VII-IX, 13-23 borne trans-
versly along posterior margin of segment VII,
27-42 occurring on VIII and IX. Tubular ducts
elongate, with broadly rounded sclerotized bases,
length about 6y, widely distributed on both surfaces
over entire body; more common ventrally, 5—7 per
segment. Trilocular pores almost circular in outline,
more abundant dorsally, sparse around legs and
intersegmentally. Body setae variable in size,
longest on venter about 25y, shorter and finer on
dorsum, about 15y long.

Lectotype female —From 3 syntypes
on slide No. 1, remounted in 1978, I des-
ignate the adult female on the extreme
right as lectotype. The slide labeled as
follows: ‘‘Amorphophalus I °38, Bogar.
leg. Bot. A. P. L., CCV 1290, Rhizoecus
amorphophalli det. Betram’’ is to be de-
posited in the Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bogar. Paralectotypes: 10 on 3
slides taken with lectotype, and 8 newly
mounted females from original preserved
type material, 6 in Rijksmuseum van
Natuurlijkke Historie, Leiden, Nether-
lands and 2 in U. S. National Museum,
Washington, D. C.

Specimens Examined. —In addition to
the type material from Bogar, the fol-
lowing specimens were examined: 5 para-
types of Rhizoecus advenus Beardsley,
Honolulu, Hawaii, 27-VIII-1959, J. W.
Beardsley, 2 2 2, intercepted at Washing-
ton, D. C. from Java, 6-III-1925, W. V.

Reed 9 2 2 intercepted at Los Angeles,
Calif., 30-V-1973 from the Philippines,
J. R. Davidson, 6 ° 2 intercepted at New
York from India, 29-VI-1976, D. Fem-
iano.

Host Plants.—Amorphophallus vari-
abilis, Colocasia esculenta (Araceae),
Cordyline terminalis (Agavaceae), Cur-
cuma longa, Kaempferia galanga (Zingi-
beraceae).

Distribution.—Caroline Island (Truk),
Hawaii, India, Java, Philippines.

Acknowledgments

I am very grateful to Dr. P .H. van
Doesburg, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke
Historie, Leiden, and Dr. J. G. Betram,
Deventer, Netherlands, for their as-
sistance in securing and making available
the type specimens of Rhizoecus amor-
phophalli. I thank Richard Wilkey, Ar-
thropod Slide Mounts, Bluffton, Indiana
for remounting the type material.

References Cited

Beardsley, J. W. 1966. Insects of Micronesia.
Homoptera: Coccoidea. Jn Insects of Micronesia.
Bernice P. Bishop Museum 6(7): 377-562.

Betram, J. G. 1940. A new Rhizoecus species.
Treubia 17(4): 267-270.

Hambleton, E. J. 1946. Studies of hypogeic mealy-
bugs. Rev. de Ent. (Rio de Janeiro) 17(1—2):
1-77.

. 1974. Three new species of Rhizoecus

(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) from New Zea-

land, with notes and redescription of others. New

Zealand Jour. Zool. 1(2): 147-158.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Annual Variation in Larval Amphibian Populations

Within a Temperate Pond

W. Ronald Heyer

Reptiles and Amphibians, National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560

ABSTRACT

This study reports the results of a four year monitoring program of larval amphibians
from a single pond located in the eastern United States. Striking year to year population
variation occurred in terms of (1) population size, (2) larval recruitment, and (3) habitat
use. The present data base precludes isolation of cause and effect relationships in the
population dynamics of larval populations. Any given kind of larval amphibian population
variation is the simultaneous interactive result of several causes.

Basic to an understanding of the func-
tioning and dynamics of amphibian com-
munities is a knowledge of the kinds and
intensities of year-to-year variation in
larval populations. Surprisingly, little
basic information is available for larval
amphibian communities. Most studies of
variations in amphibian life history pat-
terns have focused on the adult phase,
treating the larval phase as a kind of
‘“black box.’’ The number of quantitative
studies analyzing larval population dy-
namics at the community level can be
counted on the fingers of one hand. The
most important of these studies is from a
two-species amphibian community in
British Columbia, Canada (Calef, 1973).
The present study was undertaken with
the purpose of gathering basic informa-
tion on year-to-year variability in larval
populations from a diverse temperate
amphibian community.

The results of a four-year monitoring
program of larval amphibians from a
single pond located in the coastal plains
of Maryland are reported herein. The
study site is a large pond which rarely
dries up completely. Data from the first
two years have been analyzed previously
with respect to habitat partitioning
(Heyer, 1976). The patterns of larval oc-
currence of growth stages and micro-
habitat overlap are similar for all years of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

the study and are not dealt with further
(see Heyer, 1976, for first two year’s
results).

Methods and Materials

Minimum and maximum daily tem-
peratures and daily rainfall were taken
from records kept by the Environmental
Sciences Program of the Smithsonian
Institution at the Chesapeake Bay Center
for Environmental Studies, near Edge-
water, Anne Arundel County, Maryland.
Pond water temperatures were recorded
when weekly samples of larval am-
phibians were taken through the spring,
terminating at the end of June for four
successive years. Three dipnet sweeps
were taken each week during the sam-
pling period: a surface, midwater, and
bottom sample. The pond, together with
details on how the sweeps were taken and
the disposition of the larval samples
through identification, are described else-
where (Heyer, 1976). The basic data set
analyzed herein consists of the numbers
of larvae of the species taken in each
sweep sample each week. The raw data
comprise an adjunct appendix which is
available from the author on request.
This data set is supplemented with field
notes recorded each week during the
sampling period.

JAN

FEB MAR
yy

255

204

TEMPERATURE
°

PR MAY JUN
e

155 i
bo)

b
RAINFALL

. MACULATUM

. OPACUM

. CRUCIFER

. CHRYSOSCELIS
. CLAMITANS
PALUSTRIS

. SYLVATICA
AMERICANUS

DDDUDIID>>Y

Fig. 1. Climatic and larval occurrence patterns for the first 180 days of 1974. Rainfall incm, maximum and
minimum temperatures in degrees Celsius. Solid circles equal surface water temperatures taken in shade
and sun, afternoon readings. If only a single water temperature, sky was overcast. Dark horizontal bars
equal presence of free swimming larvae captured in nets. Presence of A. opacum assumed from 1 January
to first sampling date. Open circles equal presence of eggs, hatchlings, or Gosner (1960) stage 25 or 26 tad-
poles and represent larval recruitment (data not gathered for salamanders).

Results of the four-year study differ

slightly from results of the previous two-

year study (Heyer, 1976) for three rea-
sons. The first is that Rana palustris
larvae were not identified until the third
year’s sample was being processed. In
the previous report, the Rana clamitans
samples contained Rana palustris. The
earlier collections were re-examined and
identifications were corrected for the
present study. Second, a single sample of
296 Bufo americanus larvae which had
just hatched from their egg string was in-
cluded in the previous analysis. These are
excluded from this study as they repre-
sent data on egg placement rather than
larval habitat use. Third, Acris crepitans
was not analyzed as the species was taken
rarely in the pond (data are included in the
total numbers of larvae category as used
in the niche breadth measures, however).

Results and Analyses

Climate, Larval Occurrence, and Num-
bers of Individuals. — Figures 1-4 show

the relationship of the climate param-
eters of temperature and rainfall with
occurrence of eggs, recently hatched
larvae and older larvae. Recently hatched
larvae (Gosner, 1960, stages 25—26) are
included to provide information on pop-
ulation recruitment.

The numbers of larvae sampled each
year are presented in Table 1. Because
sampling techniques were the same over
the four-year period, the numbers of
larvae sampled reflect changes in popu-
lation size over the four years.

It is clear that several biotic and abiotic
factors varied during the four-year study.
There was considerable variation in the
intensity of winter cold conditions, in the
timing and intensity of warming trends in
the spring, and in the amount and distri-
bution of rainfall. The time that larval
populations were in the pond varied from
year to year, as did the length of the larval
recruitment period for those species with
a long breeding season (e.g., Hyla cru-
cifer), and the total larval biomass.

Particular weather patterns unques-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

JAN FE

APR

JUN

i ge hie, yl if

RAINFALL

Rs =A MACUL ATUM
A. OPACUM
a ee ee ee ee ee =] CRUCIFER
ee =H CHRYSOSCELIS
R. CLAMITANS
ee ees «= RO OPALUSTRIS
CO C0 EE EE R. SYLVATICA
(ork. enn aa) B. AMERICANUS

Fig. 2. Climatic and larval occurrence patterns for the first 180 days of 1975. Legend as for Fig. 1 except
water temperatures taken in morning; presence of A. opacum and R. clamitans assumed from 1 January to

first sampling period.

tionably account for two instances of
larval dynamics. The extremely cold
winter of 1977 killed all overwintering
Ambystoma opacum larvae and greatly
reduced the population of overwintering
Rana clamitans larvae. Keith Berven
(pers. comm.) found many Rana clami-
tans larvae trapped in ice on the pond in

the early spring of 1977. Other weather
patterns may account for variations in
other larval populations (e.g., Rana syl-
vatica), but other relationships are not as
clear or obvious as those discussed for
Ambystoma opacum and Rana clami-
tans. Certain other probable cause-and-
effect relationships are discussed below.

JAN FEB MAR PR MAY JUN
oni || hae ry ny T1r°
30 i f 1 l
25 A evs fe
e
moe PRU om
ie : : fs
< 15 @ 4 z
ie § <
a 10 5a
=
WW
FEF 5 6
Ny
a) De en Sa eae a ea A. MACULATUM
A. OPACUM
fo) ae Ee BT H. CRUCIFER
a H. CHRYSOSCELIS
R. CLAMITANS
OE aR a R. PALUSTRIS
oO © ©) aD R. SYLVATICA
[ioe Ne ad eS B. AMERICANUS

Fig. 3. Climatic and larval occurrence patterns for the first 180 days of 1976. Legend as for Fig. 2.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

FEB MAR

JAN
1

= N
Nn o

TEMPERATURE
°

aia | nae i
My ita

b
RAINFALL

MACULATUM
OPACUM
CRUCIFER
CHRYSOSCELIS
CLAMITANS
PALUSTRIS
SYLVATICA
AMERICANUS

ona rriIpPp>

Fig. 4. Climatic and larval occurrence patterns for the first 180 days of 1977. Legend as for Fig. 2 except
rainfall for first five days of April combined; presence of R. clamitans assumed from 1 January to first

sampling date.

Habitat Use.-Larval Distribution in
Sweep Types.—Individual species of
larvae are not equally distributed among
sweep types (Table 2). The three sweep
types sampled different microhabitats
within the pond. The unequal distribution
of larvae among sweep types reflects
habitat partitioning by the larvae (also see
Heyer, 1976).

Microhabitat Breadth.— Another mode
of habitat utilization concerns distribu-
tion across all microhabitants in the
pond. The basic information statistic
commonly used to compare species use

Table 1.—Numbers of Larvae Sampled.

1974 1975 1976 1977
A. maculatum Ag. 134 80 20
A. opacum 12 4 10 0
H. chrysoscelis 26 26 Z 21
H. crucifer 634 1884 1295 754
R. clamitans 12 58 60 20
R. palustris Z 107 488 SF
R. sylvatica eM 79 5 0
B. americanus 0 480 345 86
Totals 884 2790 2285 1284
68

of a habitat is the formula for niche
breadth:

B; a DuDiane

where B; is habitat breadth and p,, is the
proportion of occurrence of species j in
sweep i (modified from Levins, 1968).

The habitat breadths calculated from
the summarized sweep data of Table 2 are
presented in Table 3. The resultant
values (Table 3) give an overview of how
the three microhabitats (three sweep
types) were used from year to year by the
entire species assemblage. Most of the
species used little of the sampled habitat,
but a few species used much of the sam-
pled habitat. Considerable year to year
variation occurs among the three sweep
types.

In summary, three kinds of year to
year larval populational variation ac-
count for the variation discussed and
documented above. These, ranked in
what are believed to be the decreasing
order of importance are:

1) Population size. Variation in the
number of larvae of each species from
year to year.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

2) Larval recruitment. Variation in the
time at which hatchlings are incorporated
into the populations, as well as how many
times they are incorporated each year.

Table 3.—Habitat Breadths, Based on Summed

Sweep-Type Occurrences.

1974 1975 1976 1977
A. maculatum 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
A. opacum 0.01 0.01 0.01 0
H. chrysoscelis 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
H. crucifer 1.14 1.50 0.98 0.87
R. clamitans 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
R. palustris 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.76
R. sylvatica 0.64 0.01 0.01 0
B. americanus 0 0.14 0.16 0.06

3) Habitat use. The differential utiliza-
Table 2.—Total Numbers of Larvae Sampled by
Sweep Type.
S M B xe
A. maculatum
1974 11 2 4 7.88*
1975 59 28 47 10.94**
1976 48 a7 5 34.68%***
1977 14 3 7 Ua
A. opacum
1974 6 3 3 —
1975 0 1 3 ==
1976 2 6 2 =
1977 0 0 0 —
H. crucifer
1974 530 46 58 72 leer
1975 891 566 427 180.60***
1976 1001 136 158 1126.92***
1977 642 40 We 912.90***
H. chrysoscelis
1974 6 17 3 12545" %
1975 3 12 11 5.62
1976 1 1 0 —
1977 20 1 0 86295en
R. clamitans
1974 3 | 8 —
1975 11 10 37 24.24***
1976 24 12 24 4.80
1977 8 4 8 1.60
R. palustris
1974 0 1 1 —
1975 0 63 44 58.56***
1976 | abet 258 ipa V Ie DNS
1977 82S Ierrnoa: 112.08***
R. sylvatica
1974 eo BO 54 121.00***
1975 6 34 39 24.03***
1976 Dy 2 1 —
1977 0 0 0 —
B. americanus
1974 0 0 0 —
1975 4 433 43 703 .46***
1976 Les 20M S7 190.82***
1977 6 60 20 54.79"**

* = Significant at 5% level, ** at 1% level, *** at
0.1% level. S = surface sweep, M = midwater
sweep, B = bottom sweep. X? testing hypothesis

S:M:B.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

tion of microhabitats by each species
from year to year.

Interactions among these three kinds
of variation produce the results seen in
year-to-year variation of habitat breadths
(Table 3).

Discussion

Two observations that contributed to
the observed variation are difficult to ex-
plain. The first is the collection of Bufo
americanus larvae as they were hatching
in 1974, but the lack of subsequent larval
captures of this species for 1974. The
second is the absence of Rana sylvatica
larvae in the 1977 samples, despite the
fact that Rana sylvatica was known to
breed that year, the egg masses were as
abundant as in previous years, and the
eggs hatched. There were no obvious in-
stances of greater egg mortality in 1977
than observed in other years, nor were
predators observed at the egg masses. A
possible explanation is that the 1977
larvae were killed by heat. The tempera-
ture of 30 March was unseasonably warm
(Figure 4), and the hatchling larvae have
an upper thermal temperature tolerance
of about 35°C (Zweifel, 1977). On 30
March, the hatchlings likely were still
congregated around the egg masses. The
eggs were laid in shallow water exposed
to direct sunlight, a situation where water
temperature sometimes exceeds the max-
imum air temperature (as in Figure 1).
Unfortunately, no temperature readings
of the water were taken at the egg mass
site on 30 March nor is the degree of

larval dispersal known, so this explana-
tion must remain speculative.

The remainder of this discussion
focuses on the year-to-year larval varia-
tion, the probable sources of the varia-
tion, and the interactions between kind
and source of variation. The purpose of
the discussion is an attempt to under-
Stand what annual variation means in the
larval amphibian community studied. Al-
though discussion centers upon the study
community itself, much of the interpreta-
tion should be valid for larval amphibian
communities in general. Data from this
study are integrated with results from
other studies. In attempting to present a
complete discussion, some assumptions
are made where no data are available;
such assumptions lack literature cita-
tions.

Three major modes of year-to-year
larval population variation are docu-
mented above: population size, recruit-
ment, and habitat use. Larval recruitment
reflects the interaction of three com-
ponents: (1) egg deposition, that is, when
and how often the adults deposit egg
masses; (2) egg and embryonic mortality;
and (3) embryonic development, that is,
the amount of time involved from egg
deposition to hatching into a free swim-
ming larva. For purposes of discussion,
these three components are treated sepa-
rately. Two other expressions of larval
variation not examined in this study, but
potentially important are: the time from
hatching to metamorphosis, and the size
of larvae at metamorphosis. These seven
kinds of variation are likely the most im-
portant affecting the larval community
under study. The relative importance of
these kinds of variation are thought to be:
(1) population size (egg number), (2) egg
deposition, (3) egg and embryonic mor-
tality, (4) embryonic development, (5)
size at metamorphosis, (6) time from
hatching to metamorphosis, and (7)
habitat use.

The major sources of year to year lar-
val population variation are (no ranking
order intended):

1) Physical-climatic factors. The inter-

action of rainfall, temperature, and
photoperiod likely are sufficient de-
scriptors.

2) Number and breeding pattern of
adults. More variation would be expected
in non-territorial species (e.g., Ayla
crucifer) than in territorial species (e.g.,
Rana clamitans). More variation would
be expected in species with a prolonged
breeding season (e.g., Ayla crucifer)
than in species with a single egg depo-
sition pattern (e.g., Rana sylvatica).

3) Food resources. The two species of
salamanders probably feed on the same
kind of food, aquatic invertebrates and
tadpoles. The six species of tadpoles are
all scraping and chewing feeders and
likely feed on detritus, algae, epifauna,
and plankton. Previous studies suggest
larvae with similar mouthparts would be
feeding on these kinds of food (e.g.,
Heyer, 1973), but no feeding data were
gathered in this study.

4) Predators. Potential predators of
salamander larvae in the study pond in-
clude other salamander larvae and
aquatic insects. Tadpole predators in-
clude salamander larvae and aquatic in-
sects. No quantitative data on predation
were obtained in this study.

5) Intra-specific and 6) inter-specific
competition among larvae. No direct
data for these interactions were taken in
this study.

Neither the expressions of variation
nor their sources are independent factors.
As one example, habitat use is probably
density-dependent, i.e., correlated with
population size. Similarly, the number of
breeding adults and predators un-
doubtedly are influenced strongly by
physical-climatic factors.

The most important observation to be
made is that each causal factor finds ex-
pression in more than one kind of varia-
tion, and conversely, that each mode of
variation, save one, has more than one
cause (Table 4). The one exceptional
mode is variation in embryonic develop-
ment. This is largely influenced by
physical climatic factors, ignoring genetic
variation in developmental time. Genetic

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Table 4.—Sources of Variation Affecting Various Parameters in Larval Amphibian Populations.

Intra- Inter-
Physical- # & breeding specific specific
climatic pattern Food re- Pred- compe- compe-
Parameter factors of adults sources ators tition tition
1. Population size E x (x) x (x) (x)
2. Egg deposition x x
3. Egg and embryonic mortality x x
4. Embryonic development x
5. Metamorphic size x x x x
6. Time from hatching to
metamorphosis x x x x
7. Habitat use E x x x x

E = Cause and effect documented in this study, x = cause and effect documented or presumed from
other studies, (xX) cause and effect presumed to be of minor importance.

variation, while evolutionarily important,
should not be an important factor over
ecological time as considered in this
study. The amount of yolk stores also
affects developmental time. Variation in
yolk stores within eggs of each of the
study pond species is not known, but
probably would add only a day or two
of variance at most in hatching time as
all study pond species have relatively
little yolk in each egg. Other possible
causes of variation in embryonic develop-
ment time, such as oxygen concentration,
although probably not important for the
study pond populations, could be im-
portant at other sites. Causal factors are
now discussed in terms of the modes of
variation they produce, with documenta-
tion from this and other studies.

The only source of variation that
affects all parameters considered here is
the category ‘‘physical-climatic’’ factors.
This study documents the apparent effect
of a severe winter on populations of Am-
bystoma opacum and Rana clamitans.
Another common physical-climatic fac-
tor affecting population dynamics is the
drying up of temporary ponds (Heyer,
1973; Wiest, 1974). Physical-climatic
factors are very important in determining
when eggs are deposited. The most
thorough analysis of this phenomenon is
Savage’s (1961) study of variation in egg
deposition dates in the frog Rana tem-
poraria. Savage (1961) found that aspects
of temperature, rainfall, photoperiod,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

altitude, longitude, and latitude could be
used to build a multiple correlation co-
efficient mathematical model that ac-
counted for 50% (r”) of the total variance
of observed spawn dates for Rana tem-
poraria. Because of the immense volume
of data required to perform an adequate
analysis of this sort, it is unlikely that
Savage’s study will ever be repeated for
another amphibian species. Egg mortality
due to heavy rains, ponds drying or freez-
ing is well known (e.g., Heyer, 1973), as
is the relationship between temperature
and variation in embryonic development
time (e.g., Lillie and Knowlton, 1897;
Moore, 1939). The present study demon-
strates that a harsh winter can affect
habitat use by removing one species from
the habitat. Temperature also is known to
affect the time from hatching to meta-
morphosis as well as size at metamor-
phosis (e.g., Herreid and Kinney, 1967).

The number of breeding adults deter-
mines the maximum number of larvae in
the pond. The number of breeding adults
also might affect variation in timing of
egg deposition, especially in species
with extended breeding seasons. If adult
population densities are high, eggs should
be laid on more days than if adult popula-
tion densities are low.

Food resources could be so limiting
that some individuals actually died from
starvation, thereby affecting variation in
population size. This is probably a rare
situation, as most temporary ponds likely

have a flush of energy input with a result-
ant algal bloom that is cropped by the
tadpoles. Distribution of food resources
could affect habitat use if the food re-
sources were patchily distributed. Food
resources affect the time from hatching to
metamorphosis as starved tadpoles con-
tinue to live but do not grow (e.g., Calef,
1973). Food resources also affect the size
of the larvae at metamorphosis.

Predators have a direct effect qn larval
population size due to feeding on eggs
and free swimming larvae (e.g., Brockel-
man, 1969; Calef, 1973). Predators also
could have an effect on habitat parti-
tioning, if predators occurred more fre-
quently in some microhabitats and not in
others. At the study pond odonate naiads
were present in the microhabitats sam-
pled by the surface and bottom sweeps,
but not in the midwater sweep micro-
habitat. Inferential support for predators
having an effect on larval amphibian
habitat use is found in Heyer, McDiar-
mid, and Weigmann (1975) and Heyer
(1976).

Intraspecific competition can have an
effect on population size in the case of
cannibalism resulting from competition
for food, a possible explanation for the
documented cases of cannibalism in
Scaphiopus (Bragg, 1964). The results of
intraspecific competition are not usually
this drastic, however. Experimental
studies have demonstrated the effects of
intraspecific competition on time from
hatching to metamorphosis (e.g., Brock-
elman, 1969). As intraspecific com-
petition has been demonstrated in experi-
mental studies, it is reasonable to assume
that competition occurring at high den-
sities would result in the utilization of
suboptical habitat by some members of
the population. Intraspecific interactions
can have a positive or negative effect on
size at metamorphosis (e.g., Wassersug,
1973).

The role of interspecific competition is
much better understood for salamanders
(e.g., Wilbur, 1972) than for tadpoles
(e.g., DeBenedictus, 1974). Experi-
mental studies have shown the effects of

interspecific competition on time from
hatching to metamorphosis and size at
metamorphosis (e.g., Wilbur, 1972).
Interspecific competition, if occurring in
nature, would be expected to have an
effect on habitat use. :

The between-year variability outlined
above is similar to the variability ob-
served between ponds within a year
(Heyer, 1973). Different ponds in a given
geographic area have different physical
environmental regimes, numbers of
breeding adults, food resources, and
predators. Because larval population
sizes are different from pond to pond,
larval competitive interactions among
ponds would be expected to differ.
Adults of a given amphibian species may
be confronted by a variety of breeding
ponds which differ extensively in their
Suitability for breeding and for larval
growth. The results of this study indicate
that the same sort of marked variability
is observed in a single pond over time:
this pattern of extreme between-pond and
between-year variability puts certain
constraints on life history parameters of
the amphibians using the environments.
Because the larval habitat is unpredict-
able, a given adult has a better chance of
maintaining its genes in the gene pool if
it places its eggs in more than one pond or
in the same pond for more than one year.
The variability demonstrated in this
study contrasts with Calef’s (1973) study
of a two-species permanent pond system
in British Columbia, where he found very
little variability over a two year period. I
believe the British Columbia system is a
special ecological situation and the sys-
tem examined in this study is more typical
of larval population dynamics.

The major point of this discussion is
that it is virtually impossible to isolate
individual cause-and-effect relationships
in the population dynamics of naturally
occurring larval amphibian populations.
For example, variability in size at meta-
morphosis may reflect the interaction of
physical-climatic factors, food resources,
and intra- and interspecific competition.
An experimental study isolating any one

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

of these sources of variation could dem-
onstrate variation in size at metamor-
phosis. Thus, a study which examined
competition would demonstrate that
competition could explain variation oc-
curring in nature but would not predict
whether competition was the only source
of larval metamorphic size variation in
nature, nor that it was the critical source
of variation. A case in point is the attempt
to explain the variation seen in larval
populations of Rana palustris and R.
sylvatica in the present study. Population
sizes of both species were very different
from year to year, as was habitat use.
Assuming that food resource and preda-
tor levels were equivalent over the four
years (assumptions needed for simpli-
fication to focus on the possible effects of
competition, but may in fact not be equiv-
alent), yearly variation in larval popula-
tions can be explained in three ways. The
first is to invoke interspecific competition.
The data in Tables 1 and 3 indicate a
trend where the first year is dominated
by R. sylvatica larvae, the third and
fourth years are dominated by R. palus-
tris larvae. This could be interpreted as a
replacement of one species by the other
over time as the result of interspecific
competition. However, an equally plau-
sible explanation would be that the varia-
tion in population size was due to physi-
cal-climatic differences from year to year.
Whatever climatic conditions are optimal
for R. sylvatica larvae are suboptimal for
R. palustris larvae, and vice versa. Thus,
1974 had climatic conditions optimal for
R. sylvatica survival and poor for R.
palustris survival; 1976 and 1977 had
climatic conditions optimal for R. palus-
tris survival and poor for R. sylvatica
survival; 1975 had intermediate climatic
conditions for both. The fact that about as
many R. sylvatica eggs were laid and
hatched in 1977 as in 1974, lends some
support to this explanation. Yet a third
plausible explanation would consider the
combined effects of climate and com-
petition whereby competitive ability de-
pends on physical conditions. It is im-
possible to conclusively isolate the factors

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

of cause and effect of larval popula-
tion variation in this case, given the data
available. Similarly, I think it is impos-
sible to isolate the cause and effect of
larval population variation in most, if not
all, naturally occurring larval popula-
tions, given our present data base.

Conclusions

The larval phase is one part of the
amphibian life cycle where the effects of
natural selection likely are the greatest.
Therefore, it is necessary to understand
the kinds and sources of larval population
variation in naturally occurring situations
to fully understand the amphibian life
cycle. The kinds of larval population
variations encountered in nature cannot
be demonstrated to have simple cause-
and-effect relationships. Rather, a given
kind of variation is the simultaneous in-
teractive result of several causes.

Experimental studies on larval popula-
tions that demonstrate the cause and
effect of certain kinds of variation cannot
be extrapolated convincingly of field con-
ditions. Experimental studies do lead toa
greater understanding of larval popula-
tion dynamics in nature, however. The
experimental manipulation of larval am-
phibians in a field setting introduced by
Brockelman (1969) has been followed by
a series of studies, several of which are
ongoing, examining the effects of food
resources, predation, and intra- and inter-
specific competition on larval population
variation. There is much to be learned
from these types of studies, but at our
present state of knowledge, we already
know more about how larval amphibians
live in field pens than in naturally occur-
ring ponds. One of the goals of larval
amphibian studies should be to gather
basic data on densities and occurrences
of larvae in naturally occurring ponds, so
that experimental results can be inter-
preted with greater meaning.

Acknowledgments

Elena, Laura, and Miriam Heyer
worked with me in the field over the entire

study. Miriam Heyer helped process the
larvae in the laboratory. Without their
willingness to share their Saturdays with
me collecting larvae, the project would
not have been undertaken.

David L. Correll, James F. Lynch, and
Francis Williamson, of the Smithsonian
Institution’s Chesapeake Bay Center for
Environmental Studies, facilitated our
work at the study site.

James F. Lynch and Roy W. McDiar-
mid, National Fish and Wildlife Labora-
tory, Smithsonian Institution, have help-
fully criticized the manuscript.

References Cited

Bragg, A. N. 1964. Further study of predation and
cannibalism in spadefoot todpoles. Herpeto-
logica 20: 12-24.

Brockelman, W. Y. 1969. An analysis of density
effects and predation in Bufo americanus tad-
poles. Ecology 50: 632-644.

Calef, G. W. 1973. Natural mortality of tadpoles
in a population of Rana aurora. Ecology 54:
741-758.

DeBenedictus, P. A. 1974. Interspecific competition
between tadpoles of Rana pipiens and Rana
sylvatica: An experimental field study. Ecol.
Monogr. 44: 129-151.

Gosner, K. L. 1960. A simplified table for staging
anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identi-
fication. Herpetologica 16: 183-190.

Herreid, C. F., II, and S. Kinney. 1967. Tempera-

ture and development of the wood frog, Rana
sylvatica, in Alaska. Ecology 48: 579-590.

Heyer, W. R. 1973. Ecological interactions of frog
larvae at a seasonal tropical location in Thailand.
J. Herpetology 7: 337-361.

. 1976. Studies in larval amphibian habitat
partitioning. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 242:
1-27.

Heyer, W. R., R. W. McDiarmid, and D. L. Weig-
mann. 1975. Tadpoles, predation and pond
habitats in the tropics. Biotropica 7: 100-111.

Levins, R. 1968. Evolution in changing environ-
ments: Some theoretical explorations. Monogr.
Pop. Biol. 2: 1-120.

Lillie, F. R., and F. P. Knowlton. 1897. On the effect
of temperature on the development of animals.
Zool. Bull. 1: 179-193.

Moore, J. A. 1939. Temperature tolerance and rates
of development in the eggs of amphibia. Ecology
20: 459-478.

Savage, R. M. 1961. The ecology and life history of
the common frog (Rana temporaria temporaria).
Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London. 221 pp.

Wassersug, R. J. 1973. Aspects of social behavior
in anuran larvae. Pages 273-297 in: Evolution-
ary biology of the anurans: Contemporary re-
search on major problems (J. L. Vial, ed.). Univ.
Missouri Press, Columbia. 470 pp.

Wiest, J. A., Jr. 1974. Anuran succession at tem-
porary ponds in a Post Oak savannah region of
Texas. M. Sc. Thesis, Texas A & M University,
177 pp.

Wilbur, H. M. 1972. Competition, predation, and
the structure of the Amystoma-Rana sylvatica
community. Ecology 53: 3-21.

Zweifel, R. G. 1977. Upper thermal tolerances of
anuran embryos in relation to stage of develop-
ment and breeding habits. Amer. Mus. Novitates
2617: 1-21.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE AWARDS PROGRAM OF THE ACADEMY

Irving Gray

General Chairman

The Annual Awards Dinner meeting of
the Academy which commemorated the
100th anniversary of Albert Einstein’s
birth was held March 15, 1979, at the
Kenwood Country Club. Five awards
were made for distinctive contributions
to research and two joint awards were
made for science teaching.

This year the award for Teaching of
College Science was named in honor of
Dr. Leo Schubert, former Chairman of
the Department of Chemistry, American
University. Dr. Schubert’s untimely
death in June, 1978, caused a severe loss
both personal and professional to many
individuals throughout the nation in the
field of chemistry and science education.
His work with young people in science
was a major contribution to the growth of
many scientific careers. His warm per-
sonality and his insights into the positive
development of science teaching, his
guidance, counsel, and friendship will be
sorely missed.

The scientists honored in research
were: Behavioral Sciences, Stephen M.
Kerst, Ph.D., Catholic University of
America; Biological Sciences, Alfred D.
Steinberg, M.D., National Institutes of
Health; Engineering Sciences, Robert E.
Berger, Ph.D., National Bureau of
_ Standards; Mathematics and Computer
- Sciences, Jay P. Boris, Ph.D., Naval
_ Research Laboratory; Physical Sciences,
Konstantinos Papadopoulos, Ph.D.,
_ Naval Research Laboratory.

The scientists honored in teaching
were: Leo Schubert Award in College

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Teaching, Milton M. Slawsky, Ph.D.,
and Zaka I. Slawsky, Ph.D. (joint
award), University of Maryland; Bernice
G. Lamberton Award in High School
Teaching, Ronald R. Myers, T. C. Wil-
liams High School and Ronald J. Smeta-
nick, Thomas S. Wooton High School
(joint award).

Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Stephen M. Kerst is Assistant
Professor of Educational Psychology in

Stephen M. Kerst

Alfred D. Steinberg

the School of Education of The Catholic
University of America. Born in Cham-
paign, Illinois, Dr. Kerst had all of his
college education at the University of
Wisconsin, receiving his Ph.D. in Educa-
tional Psychology in 1974. He is a mem-
ber of several learned societies including
The Psychonomic Society, Eastern
Psychological Association, American
Educational Research Association,
American Psychological Association and
others. Dr. Kerst was cited for **creative
memory.’

Biological Sciences

Dr. Alfred D. Steinberg is Senior
Investigator, Arthritis and Rheumatism
Branch, National Institute of Arthritis,
Metabolism and Digestive Disorders of
the National Institutes of Health. Born in
New York City, Dr. Steinberg received
his A.B. from Princeton University in
1962 and his M.D. from Harvard Medical
School, cum laude. He has membership
in several learned societies among which
are: American College of Physicians
(Fellow), American Society for Clinical
Investigation, American Association of
Immunologists, and several others. Dr.
Steinberg was cited for ‘‘concepts of the
pathogenesis and treatment of systemic
lupus erythromytosis.’’

Robert E. Berger

Engineering Sciences

Dr. Robert E. Berger is Mechanical
Engineer, National Bureau of Standards.
Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Dr. Berger
received his B.S. in Engineering from
Case Western Reserve University in 1968
and his Ph.D. in Fluid Mechanics from
Johns Hopkins University in 1973. He is
a member of the American Society for
Testing Materials, the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, as well as other
learned societies. Dr. Berger was cited
for ‘‘development of improved test
methods to reduce head and eye injuries.’’

Mathematics and Computer Sciences

Dr. Jay P. Boris occupies the Chair of
Science in Computational Physics and is
Chief Scientist, Laboratory of Computa-
tional Physics, National Bureau of Stand-
ards. Born in Buffalo, New York, Dr.
Boris received his college education at
Princeton University, obtaining his Ph.D.
in 1968. He is a member of The Applied
Physics Society, Sigma Xi, Phi Beta
Kappa, and others. He received the Re-
search Publication Award in 1972 and

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Jay P. Boris

1973, as well as other performance
awards including The Arthur S. Fleming
Award in 1976. Dr. Boris was cited for
‘outstanding contributions in computa-
tional physics and numerical analysis.’’

Physical Sciences

Dr. Konstantinos Papadopoulos is

Division Consultant and Professor in

Konstantinos Papadopoulis

‘J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

Physics Department, University of
Maryland, and The Naval Research
Laboratory. Born in Larissa, Greece, he
received his B.Sc. in physics from the
University of Athens in 1960, his M.Sc.
in nuclear engineering from the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology in
1965 and Ph.D. in physics from the Uni-
versity of Maryland. He is a member
of several learned societies including:
Fellow of American Physical Society,
American Geophysical Union, Full
Member of Sigma Xi. He was the re-
cipient of the E. O. Hulbert and Navy
Meritorious Awards. Dr. Papadopoulos
was cited not only for a wide range of
contributions to physical and geophysical
phenomena, but particularly for his lead-
ership in theoretical and computational
plasma physics.

Teaching of College Science—
Leo Schubert Award

Dr. Zaka I. Slawsky was Chief of
Physics Research at the Naval Ordnance
Laboratory and Professor of Physics
(P.T.) at the University of Maryland
until his retirement in 1975. Born in
Brooklyn, New York, Dr. Slawsky re-
ceived a B.S. degree from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1933, an M.S.

Zaka I. Slawsky

from California Institute of Technology
in 1935 and Ph.D. from the University
of Michigan in 1938, all in Physics. He
is a member of many learned societies
including The Philosophical Society and
a Fellow of the American Physical
Society and Washington Academy of
Sciences. Dr. Slawsky was cited (with
Dr. Milton M. Slawsky) for *‘Pioneering
work in the development of a highly
successful physics tutoring program and
for demonstrating an innovative ap-
proach to the involvement of retired
scientists in the teaching of physics.”’
Dr. Milton M. Slawsky was Director
of Physics, Air Force Office of Scientific
Research, until his retirement in 1974. He
is visiting lecturer in physics at the Uni-
versity of Maryland. Born in Brooklyn,
New York, he received a B.S. degree
from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in
1933, an M.S. from California Institute of
Technology in 1935, and Ph.D. from the
University of Michigan in 1938, all in
physics. Dr. Slawsky is a Fellow of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, the
American Physical Society, and other
learned societies. He was cited (with Dr.
Zaka I. Slawsky) for ““pioneering work
in the development of a highly successful
physics tutoring program and for demon-

Ronald R. Myers

Strating an innovative approach to the
involvement of retired scientists in the
teaching of physics.”’

Teaching of High School Science

Mr. Ronald R. Myers is teacher of
Chemistry at the T. C. Williams High
School in Alexandria, Virginia. Born in
Fostoria, Ohio, Mr. Myers received his
B.S. and M.S. at Bowling Green State
University, finishing in 1974. He at-
tended N.S.F. institutes in physics in
1974 and 1975 and is currently a candidate
for a Ph.D. at American University. He
is amember of several societies including
the American Chemical Society and
American Association of Physics Teach-
ers. He received a grant from the latter
organization for an innovative teaching
project and the Merck Award in Chemistry
while at Bowling Green State University.
Mr. Myers was cited for “excellence in
teaching and motivating ordinary students
to do extraordinary work in chemistry.’’

Mr. Ronald J. Smetanick is teacher of
Biology at the Thomas S. Wooton High
School in Rockville, Maryland. Born in
Tarentum, Pa., Smetanick received a

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

B.S. in Biology from Clarion State Uni-
versity in 1963 and a M.S. in Secondary
Education from the University of Mary-
land in 1970. He has had a distinguished
_ career at both the Junior High and High
~ School levels, making a significant impact
in student relations. Mr. Smetanick was
cited as being ‘‘an outstanding teacher
and humanitarian.’’

The chairmen of the several subcom-
mittees that carried out the difficult job of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 2, 1979

making the individual selections are
acknowledged with sincere thanks:

Dr. Sherman Ross, Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Lewis Affronti, Biological Sciences

Dr. Joan Rosenblatt, Mathematics and
Computer Sciences

Dr. Conrad H. Cheek, Physical Sciences

Dr. Joseph B. Morris, Teaching of
Science. —IJrving Gray, Ph.D.

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DOL AA KY

DaAWAs

: VOLUME 69
Number 3

Jour nal of the September, 1979

WASHINGTON
ACADEMY -.. SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly
at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Albert Einstein’s 100th Birthday:
OTTO BERGMANN: Theoretical General Relativity —1979...............

RAYMOND J. SEEGER: Einstein’s Philosophy of Physics ...............

STEPHEN G. BRUSH: Einstein and Indeterminism......................

HARRY POLACHEK: Einstein and Religion ..... «0.0... .2-06005.-50+00%

WALTER G. BERL: Albert Einstein—A Moral Visionary in a Distraught

cece e se ee eee ee ee ee ww

Directory and Alphabetical List of Members, 1979..................

Bylaws — Washington Academy of Sciences .........................

Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Alfred Weissler

President-Elect
Marjorie R. Townsend

Secretary
James F. Goff

Treasurer
Nelson W. Rupp

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Conrad B. Link
Elaine Shafrin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated
Societies (see facing page)

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Richard H. Foote

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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Emasopmical Society Of Washington. 2... ic. 62.2. ee ce ke es bes wae else ee cies cdma James F. Goff
Prunporosical Society Of Washington . . 2... 6c cc. ee ea ding coe a scaly Sule dies ce Jean K. Boek
ea IBSOCICUN Ol) WASMINGLON! 3. 2Se oak aaaie a owe ee uel sien nad wtedineces ee William R. Heyer
PeeEOCICLY Ol WaShINPtOM) ...°. 2 Fado eck siacdes oe a we ale de a eles sno 0b )0 wee uss didele a Jo-Anne Jackson
Penaia lent SOCICLY Of WaSMINStON © 21...) 6 cases ces ons ea a els 6 cides cinley ou de ss ewes Donald R. Davis
eT RTA INCAS OCIEEW) 1652 core se syn le ese ahelboa ka wid «Rial Gb wale ere Oerelylaiche @ a aulwelend le T. Dale Stewart
ermecieni society OF WaShINStON) ... oi ea pec ee ee eee eee bee de cvmenenes Delegate not appointed
Mem aeSocicry or the District of Columbia -)...5.0. 90.5.0 6 de cc ca cen stan eaves biceeeee Inactive
IESE MEETS FOC SOCICLY . sc205 rer cares aie esis @ weiatlowls Dauateta ea senile ub wel asm scaewlalees Paul H. Oehser
Bepeeeseciciy OF WaShiINStON 2.66 keke e bee enc bees elc eee daeuswesne Conrad B. Link
aan BUMMER AT TL OLCSECES alo i 2 ase «ofc do Sic abe dinate Se Ae Meee bg AO oa aE AES tp elemee ba No delegate
Rete TIO CIC Ol PM OINECENS, 20h. p5 o\a'eee ies) 0 c)a/Sioenn orale, « 6 3 ap eepevannpsyighe aE aa diauelaase.s George Abraham
iasamicver Electrical and Electronics EMQimeers, ... 2.0.0 s2 parece eye a ne ee eee George Abraham
Pememeaneseciery of Mechanical ENPinee,rs, :.... 2.6.02. esse due de caine oi eee ln ee eee babe ees Michael Chi
Peonmnmnsloricalssociety Of WashiNStOn oq <5... ays oe oes eaeiete aa sis nein Bere meee Robert S. Isenstein
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Paecmaenamerncan Military Engineers.) .u..o.. 02,06. 226 ek a a ce eee ee dee H. P. Demuth
PEMA OOCICLY OF CIVIP EMPINCEIS 2.655.652 00s e oes dees bee deteewcestaerecesas Robert Sorenson
MOcierviOr Experimental Biology and Medicine ... 02.65.00 0+. c sees as twee es een Cyrus R. Creveling
PORE AMESOCICEY NON WICtAIS. va qeesai.c.6.0 o> Sol Ge egn vaca cea Mua tb belo sane as Charles G. Interrante
mmncican Association OF Dental Research cr. 5.56 sé neko Sind bye eee sc efeye ae ase Donald W. Turner
American Institute of Acronautics and Astronautics: . .... 2. .fle cess cde nc cle ee em ee George J. Vila
PRimchic At VICLCOLOlOSIGAl SOCICLY ic), «ky sinus acs epalds acne ye ofagiaje o's led Wim dialed bleays ses 6 dg A. James Wagner
Mee CCMA CMSOICICEY Gl VV ASMINGTOM © 2) 5) 6:.ylo-ceeieceyssevese wore yo,8 2b toilet a oe 00k ow edie’ ao aE Jack R. Plimmer
EGOUISINER SYOTOTEN IO a0 115) (Ce ee eee Delegate not appointed
Perea TIC IC ATE SOCIOL Ye) Aarts Gre Mae a's iiadiatievaserbiss <<a. sued ao 4's winiee oop wo. age wud ably bm adm ol aye Dick Duffey
JLSTULIS GH lFereal Tiere ain fo! ko) 1) oe ee William Sulzbacher
Eset AE MEOD CT TTENUEE NOCECHY A Che Perris co ictatc s (osc s\lbisite 0 super Meauevinrtts let «cyiel ea lath: alvw ayetencvetinay 2) svebe iayantueleys foe Inactive
ESE ODE PETES, SO ETE ON EA or ae ee ee Alayne Adams
Pease OneEAIS TORY OM OCICNCE CUD es... 5... os 2 PR RRS RO O, Ca las eaias be eas Inactive
Pemchicait ssOciauon Of PMYSICS Feachers . 5.3366 h iar ea Ps A Peggy A. Dixon
MSHI IESOCIOIV AO AIMICKICE,, /cigiitrs: 6 faiigs oa rs ck a ne tes oa As SASS de eae Cee ea George J. Simonis
PMnEmeAaneSOGICtY OL blant PMySiGlOgistS ”. 0.20.26 050.0 .s eee ce soba es hee ee eee’ Walter Shropshire
aSmnetOnLOUCLALOnS NeESCAnCH COUNCI! 5 occ se cee bees ce eter cee tees e sce ecne John G. Honig
AL SUTPUNRT SIN SOVIETS SATO TANTS) BG gee A a aE Inactive
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical
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mietonall Capitol AStOnOMerS: b.fic 06... ee ee ee Bit corer pA SoD oa ee Cone Benson J. Simon
WIE IIALICAleASSOCIAMONUOL AMMEEICA sc: .. .claele sacle wiabie be wd dave aeeee eee beens vue bls Patrick Hayes
eS MINS GLUES TO ls @INEMIESUS facie Wey cera alee s. eis vets aime wie ub & Wim. cia wig ele wales es Sle dese @ Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr.
Wee D.C. Psychological Association ........2. 1... e eee eee eee e tee e ete e eee nes John O’Hare
ney asnineton: Paint echnical Groups i... 6. 6k doen h de ee eee Hoda ss eeiealee oe Paul G. Campbell
Pane nCAl EMyVtOpAtnOlOPical SOCICLY 6.06.2. 5 s+ s+ 0 Ruidls elope jnilcl vi waieeyere Gade pies # siete Tom van der Zwet
eaciety tor General: Systems Research... o. .c ais. wale Mee ale fle won deve oe ale sears Ronald W. Manderscheid
RSME A MEA CLORSES OCLC LY, 20h cate te coins Ce) Siw. ts. oh. 301 a a ols Wh Lane ate BEA aie eS Blade bie lp tlhe H. Mcllvaine Parsons
RE HICAT HISMETMES SOCICLY Vth e sie iid wicie nS oad see dle le wo ed ene alin dose eens aes Irwin M. Alperin

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979 81

A BIRTHDAY COMMEMORATION

This issue of the Academy’ Journal is devoted, in part, to the com-
memoration of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Albert Einstein.

Three papers bearing upon this commemoration were presented at
the 584th meeting of the Academy on March 15, 1979 at the Kenwood
Country Club in Bethesda, Maryland. Two of those papers, by Drs.
Otto Bergmann and Steven Brush, are among those you will find
published in this issue of the Journal. The third presentation at that
meeting was by Dr. Carroll Alley, ‘Experimental General Relativity —
1979°’, but a manuscript was not received for publication in this
collection.

The remaining articles presented here were delivered at a subsequent
meeting of the Academy on May 17, 1979, also at Kenwood.

Richard H. Foote
Editor

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

EINSTEIN

Theoretical General Relativity —1979

Otto Bergmann

Department of Physics, The George Washington University, Washington, D.C. 20052

The physical idea of the general theory
of relativity can perhaps be explained
with a story of historical possibilities.
We know that Eratosthenes of Cyrene
determined the radius of the earth in the
third century B.C. It is quite possible that

|| a qualitative theory of surfaces could

have been developed at that time, a
theory which we owe to C. F. Gauss.
Considering the highly speculative nature
of ancient science, one can easily imagine
that some philosopher proposed the idea
that the curvature at any point of the sur-
face of the earth may not be fixed for all
times, but that it may change with the in-
tensity of the sunlight or the temperature
of the fire deep underneath the point on
the earth. This is an absurd view but it
does illustrate the physical idea of general
relativity without the need to visualize a
four-dimensional space-time continuum.

Einstein’s general relativity general-
izes the flat space-time continuum, de-
scribed by the invariant four-distance
between neighbouring events

is)? — c*(dt)?,— (dx)? — (dy)? — (dz)
T7 Sedx°dx? (1)

_ to a curved space-time continuum

(ds)? = guedx°dx® (2)

(summation over all indices occurring
twice!)

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

WEN KO SC bX eK (KV KOE — nial
the meaning of §,, can be seen from (1).
Although (2) cannot be reduced to (1) in
general, we may introduce local co-
ordinates which reduce to (1) at one
space-time point. In local Riemannian co-
ordinates, (2) can be expanded

Sap — Sas ar YAR ynpnX*x* sie, +e (3)

where R,,g, 1S the curvature tensor,
which is restricted by the field equations

RK os. a YagapR — =KW ap (4)

where T,, is the energy-momentum ten-
sor, which includes all the contributions
in energy and momentum which may be
present at the point except gravitational
energy. The derivation of (4) does not
make use of the flat space-time metric
(1), but an alternative derivation of Ein-
stein’s equation (4) starts from a field
equation in flat space-time

’e a
Ox%ax®

and leads to (4) on the grounds that the
energy-momentum tensor in (5) should
include the contribution from the gravita-
tional field. The latter is quadratic in
the derivatives of g,, and one obtains
in fact Einstein’s equation (4).'
Returning to (2), we make two observa-
tions. First, A. Z. Petrov in 1954 gave a
classification of the curvature tensor

ee sais iy (5)

Rygxx In empty space, i.e. with Ty, = 0
in (4), which became most valuable in the
study of gravitational radiation. Secondly,
it is easy to derive from (3) the equa-
tion of geodesic deviation which makes
the curvature tensor directly measurable.
The equation was known to C. G. J.
Jacobi for surfaces and was generalized
by T. Levi-Civita.

For many years after the formulation
of general relativity, only two exact and
physically important solutions were
known. The Schwarzschild solution de-
scribes a single mass point without in-
ternal structure and the theoretical study
of the three early experimental tests were
made with the help of this solution. The
Reissner-Nordstrom solution includes a
net electrical charge with the mass. Since
then many new exact solutions have been
found, the most important being the Kerr
solution.” It describes a spinning mass
particle and is important because the final
state of a collapsing star will in general
have a finite angular momentum. Many
other exact solutions have been found,
but their physical significance is not al-
ways transparent. The modern theory of
gravitational collapse belongs to astro-
physics and depends as much on elemen-
tary particle physics as on gravitation.
This is true even of cosmology, whose
greatest triumph recently has been the
experimental support of the big-bang
theory on the early universe by the dis-
covery of the black-body radiation cor-
responding to a temperature of 3°K. It
should perhaps be said in this connection
that we now have a fairly complete
relativistic kinetic theory with a relativis-
tic Boltzmann equation.?

The classical theory of general rela-
tivity is a theory of gravitation, but the
gravitational interaction between ele-
mentary particles is rather weak com-
pared to the electric and nuclear inter-
action, and it is therefore hardly surpris-
ing that the unification of gravitation with
other interactions has not progressed as
much as the study of gravitation for
macroscopic bodies. We can have com-
plete confidence in the latter—radical

modifications are either not attractive or
have no experimental support— but there
is still much room for speculations on the
atomic level. We will mention here briefly
the Yang-Mills formalism, which plays an
important role in elementary-particle
physics; it could be considered an off-
spring of the general theory of relativity.
According to W. Heisenberg, the proton
and the neutron should be considered as
two members of one family, the nucleon-
family. Yang and Mills insisted that the
mathematical distinction between these
two particles should be left to the choice
of a local observer and should not be pre-
determined for the whole universe. If the
index A = | or 2 distinguishes between
proton and neutron, Yang and Mills
demanded that a theory involving a

field Ww, should be invariant under trans- -

formations
Wa'(X) = Sa?(x)Wp(x) (6)

and this gives rise to covariant deriva-
tions with intrinsic affine connections
I,” and then also to a curvature in the
intrinsic space. Similar concepts have ap-
peared even before Yang and Mills in the
theory of spinors in curved space-time. It
is amusing that these theories are linked,

formally at least, to the theory of rela- —

tivity through the principle of general co-

variance, which is often considered as the
least physical cornerstone of the classical
theory of relativity, and sometimes even
just as a necessary evil. —

The aim of fundamental physics is a |

unified field theory, which in some way
can describe the many particle varieties

and their interactions. The only way this |
can be done at present is by introducing |

many fields and quantize these fields. The
Unified Field theory which Einstein

developed in the last years of his life con- |
tains too few degrees of freedom and its |
quantization would be next to impossible. |

Unfortunately the attempts to unify the

general relativity and quantum theory of |
elementary particles do not take into ac- |

count the intuitive meaning of the con-
cepts employed by the classical theory of

relativity: length and time intervals,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

curvature and parallel transfer. We may
hope for another Albert Einstein to bring
clarity and beauty back into physics.

References

1. W. Thirring, Annals of Physics 16, 96 (1962).
2. See for instance: R. Adler, M. Bazin and M.
Schiffer, Introduction to General Relativity, at

McGraw Hill, New York (1965); Charles W.
Misner, Kip S. Thorne and John A. Wheeler,
Gravitation, W. H. Freeman & Co., San Fran-
cisco (1970); S. W. Hawking and G. F. R.
Ellis, The Large Scale Structure of Space-
Time , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
(1973).

3. Steven Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology,
John Wiley (1972); John M. Stewart, Lecture
Notes in Physics #10, Springer Verlag (1971).

Einstein’s Philosophy of Physics

| Raymond J. Seeger

National Science Foundation; retired

‘‘One of the greatest achievements in
the history of human thought’’ was the
comment of the physicist Sir Joseph J.
Thomson, PRS, when he announced the
experimental comfirmation of Einstein’s
general theory of relativity at a meeting
of the Royal Society on Nov. 6, 1919.
He added, ‘‘I have to confess that no
one has yet succeeeded in stating in
clear language what the theory of Ein-
stein really is’ —a typical remark of that
time. Cornelius Lanczos, sometime re-
search assistant of Einstein, claimed in
his “‘Albert Einstein and the Cosmic
World Order’’ (1965), ‘‘He [Einstein]
considered himself more a philosopher
than a professional physicist.’ Strictly
a natural philosopher, truly a genuine
amateur! He was, indeed, distinguished
by his interest in a broad domain of physics,
in contrast with modern theoreticians.

The evolution of philosophical ideas, to
be sure, is often guided by the develop-
ment of physical theories. Einstein, for
instance, came into contact with prob-
lems formerly regarded as the pre-
rogatives of professional philosophers,
namely, the nature of space and time.
His own approach, a combination of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

" ie

mathematical insight and observed data,
was quite remote from that of the ivory
tower philosopher, but it involved more
implicit philosophy than many an ex-
plicitly philosophical system owing to
his own broad view.

The German theoretical physicist Max
Planck, a sponsor of Einstein for the
Prussian Academy of Science, noted that
two conflicting philosophies of science
have cited Einstein’s writings in their
support, namely, the positivistic and the
metaphysical. In this connection it is
interesting to peruse “‘Albert Einstein:
Philosopher-Scientist’’ (ed. P. A. Schilpp,
1949). In the article ‘‘Einstein, Mach,
and Logical Positivism’’ the theoretical
physicist Philipp Frank, who knew Ein-
stein from 1910 and succeeded him two
years later at the German University of
Prague, concluded that there is not ‘‘any
essential divergence between Einstein
and 20th-century logical empiricism.’’ In
his concluding comments Einstein made
no remark about this article, whereas he
particularly noted with respect to the one
on ‘‘Einstein’s Theory of Knowledge”’
that ‘‘the American physicist Victor Len-
zen constructs a synoptic total picture in

which what is missing in the utterances
is carefully and with delicacy of feeling
supplied. Everything said there appears
to me convincing and correct.’’ The basis
of my own comments here is primarily
Einstein’s Herbert Spencer Lecture ‘‘On
the Method of Theoretical Physics’’ (Ox-
ford, 1933), which Frank has called ‘‘the
finest formulation of his [Einstein] views
on the nature of physical theory.’’ It is
truly amazing how Einstein’s logical
analysis of relativity at age 54 coincided
with his interpretation of it at 26.

Einstein always acknowledged his in-
debtedness to the Austrian physicist
Ernst Mach, first rector of the German
University of Prague, whom he did not
actually meet until the Vienna Congress
in 1913. In his 1916 obituary Einstein
gratefully stated, ‘‘I can say with cer-
tainty the study of Mach and Hume has
been directly and indirectly a great help
in my work.’’ Einstein, I believe, was the
true heir of Mach’s physical ideas. Let us
see in what way.

The 19th-century philosophy of phys-
ics was still embroiled in Pilate’s peren-
nial question, ‘‘What is truth?’’ Is there
scientific truth as opposed to philosoph-
ical truth? You may recall Adam’s at-
tempt in ‘‘Paradise Lost’’ to learn from
the archangel Raphael whether the
Copernican planetary system or the
Ptolemaic one is true. The politic reply
was to leave such matters to God above,
an admonition ignored later by the ag-
gressive Galileo. In the 19th century for
a physical phenomenon to be scien-
tifically true meant for it to have a satis-
factory mechanical analogue as in the
case of sound, heat, and light. This view
peaked in popularity about 1870. Gustav
Kirchhoff, the Heidelberg physicist, as-
serted in his ‘‘Mechanics’’ (1874) that its
purpose was ‘‘to describe completely and
as simply as possible motions occurring
in nature.’ Two years earlier Mach had
prescribed logical economy of thought
and simplicity for all science. But a new
day was heralded in 1889 by the Bonn
professor of Physics Heinrich R. Hertz,
who preferred to take Maxwell’s equa-

tions for directly describing electromag-
netic phenomena.

Mach’s own attitude went back to the
French philosopher Auguste Comte who
argued in 1830 that any scientific theory
should be judged with respect to its repre-
sentation of positive experience— subse-

quently called positivism. In 1883 Mach

himself urged that only statements lead-
ing to observable phenomena should be
used—a positivistic criterion. On this
basis he opposed any vacuous notion
such as Newton’s idea of absolute space.
He insisted that terrestrial motions in
space should be viewed relative to the
‘‘fixed’’ stars. Einstein saw these ma-
terial bodies distorting the space about
them and thus determining the paths of
freely moving objects there, i.e., general

relativity—a wholly new idea in the .

history of thought.

Pursuing the critical outlook of Mach
and the Scottish philosopher David
Hume, he analyzed the concept of simul-
taneity, which is simple enough when two
events occur at the same place, but not
so obvious when they are separated by a
great distance accessible only by light
travelling with its finite speed. Percy W.
Bridgman, the Harvard experimental-
ist, regarded Einstein’s conception of
simultaneity as the best illustration of
operationalism.

In Mach’s phenomenological physics
processes were to be described by con-
cepts derived inductively or intuitively
from sensory experiences. Einstein,
however, did not agree with his view of
general laws of physics as mere sum-
maries of experiential results, or simple
abstractions from them, such as white-
ness from white objects, i.e., in the spirit
of Newton’s ‘“‘non fingo hypotheses’’ —
typical of 19th-century scientific doctrine,
e.g., the English physicist John Tyndall
(Mach himself did allow a small gap).

Einstein was indebted also to the
French mathematical physicist Henri
Poincaré, whom he did not actually meet
until the 1911 Solvay Conference in Brus-
sels. In this connection let us glance back
at 18th-century rationalism. In 1748

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Hume questioned causality being neces-
sarily inherent in successive events.
Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher,
argued in 1781 that phenomena per se are
insufficient for describing phenomena;
some reason has to be injected into the
description, but not without limit—crea-
tivity is bounded by certain necessary
thought conditions. Such was Euclidean
geometry, a thought mold, an a priori
requisite. The production, however, of
consistent non-Euclidean geometries in-
dependently by the Russian mathema-
tician Nicholaus I. Lobachevski and
the Hungarian mathematician Wolfgang
Bolyai soon liberated the human mind
in this regard.

In 1912 Poincaré insisted that ‘‘the
general properties of science are not
statements about reality, but arbitrary
statements how words such as straight
lines, force, energy are to be employed
in properties of geometry, mechanics,
and physics;’’ they are “‘free creations of
the mind,’ agreements among people for
expediency, mere conventions, hence the
designation of this as conventionalism.
Einstein, for instance, considered in-
tegers to be an invention of man for
simplifying his experience. He regarded
the approximate success of both New-
ton’s law of gravitation and his own as
indicative of their fictitious character. In
the Spencer lecture he confessed, ‘‘I am
convinced that we can discover by means
of purely mathematical constructions the
concepts and the laws connecting them
with each other, which furnish the key to
the understanding of natural phenomena.”’
General relativity, in his opinion, il-
lustrates the incorrectness of the proposi-
tion that scientific concepts are neces-
sarily derived from experience.

These two points of view, Mach’s
and Poincaré’s, represent opposite ex-
tremes of the positivism movement—
Mach emphasising the empirical founda-
tion and Poincaré the logical consistency
of the superstructure. In the late 1920’s

_ the Vienna circle (Morris Schick, Rudolf

Carnap, Otto Neurath, et al.) combined
them to form logical positivism— happily

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

renamed logical empiricism by the
American philosopher Charles Morris.
Inasmuch as Hume is sometimes re-
garded as its father and Poincaré as its
godfather, let us examine Einstein’s own
relation to this doctrine.

Einstein considered it an oversimpli-
fication that every statement of physical
science should be translatable word for
word into observable facts. He preferred
to replace this positivistic criterion witha
much broader one, viz., that one can
use ‘‘any symbols or words possible in
the formulation of the principles, pro-
vided that statements about observable
quantities can be equally derived from
them.’’ In the Spencer lecture he stated,
‘*The structure of the world of reason, the
empirical contents, and their relations
must find their representation in the con-
clusions of the theory.’ (Einstein him-
self had a remarkable faculty of deduc-
ing all possible logical consequences from
his own fundamental principles.) Einstein
did not at all agree with the French
philosopher René Descartes’ dictum that
thinking per se can reveal a knowledge
of the world of experiences, he felt that
the latter itself serves as a necessary
boundary condition, that physical con-
tent is a prerequisite to any mathematical
formulation. In his 1921 lecture at Prince-
ton University he warned that ‘‘the uni-
verse of ideas is just as little independent
of the nature of our experience as clothes
are of the form of the human body.”’

Einstein placed emphasis not only on
testing observation but also on simplify-
ing theory, (Simplicity itself, to be sure,
is not a simple concept.) In 1902 he had
simplified the Boltzmann theory for
random motion (Gibbs’ method being un-
known to him at the time); he applied it
three years later to explain quantitatively
Brownian motions. In his Oxford lecture
he concluded, ‘‘It is the grand object of
all theory to make these irreducible
elements simple and as few in number
as possible without having to renounce
the adequate representation of any
empirical content whatever.’ A long
chain of mathematical and _ linguistic

arguments may result; the length, I
believe is usually proportional to the
simplicity of the structure. Neverthe-
less, one is always amazed at the power
of abstract thinking.

These two major emphases of Einstein,
particularly after 1920, appear to be in
keeping with Frank’s own conclusion
(1947) that ‘‘Einstein speaks almost in
line with logical empiricism in his ‘Re-
marks on Bertrand Russell’s Theory of
Knowledge’ [1944]”’

But not quite! Einstein’s passionate
quest for reality, I believe, led him far
beyond logical empiricism.

Einstein, you see, believed in nature.
In the first place, he looked upon nature
as real. In 1931 he said, ‘‘The belief in
an external world independent of the
percipient subject is the foundation of all
science.’ ‘‘I cannot conceive of a
genuine scientist without that profound
faith.”’ Secondly, he considered nature
rational. In his 1936 lecture ‘‘On Physical
Reality’’ he confessed, ‘‘The most in-
comprehensible thing about the world is
that it is comprehensible.’’ The freedom
of thought (within limits) he regarded as
one of Kant’s great discoveries in ap-
proaching nature, that it is “‘possible to
get away from the individual observer
and sublimate it into something universal,
‘public,’ and ‘real.’ ’’ For Einstein, the
primacy was neither theory nor experi-
ment, but rather the all-embodying law-
fulness which manifests itself in the uni-
verse — hence his own humility. (It seems
to me that Robert Berks’ large figure of
Einstein looking down casually at the
small constellations at his feet is hardly
in keeping with his character; a humble
Einstein would have been gazing up in
rapturous admiration at the overpower-
ing, wonder-full universe.)

Nature, in the third place, is a riddle
that man can solve to some extent. Ein-
stein had a passion to understand it; he
would not be content merely to describe
it somehow, with his deep artistic feel-
ing (cf. his love of music) he sought the
underlying harmony of the universe,

the luring music of the spheres. Walter
Nernst, the German chemist, saw in the
young Einstein the model for the young
Kepler in ‘“‘The Redemption of Tycho
Brahe’’ by Max Brod, a Prague associate
of Einstein. He believed profoundly that
‘‘behind the tireless effort of the investi-
gator lurks a stronger, more mysterious
drive; it is existence and reality that one
wishes to comprehend.’ In 1929 he
combined the gravitational field with the
electromagnetic field to form a unified
field theory—unfortunately inaccessible
to experimental check in its four-dimen-
sional expression.

The starting point for any pilgrim’s
progress toward understanding the uni-
verse must be reality itself, i.e., physical
reality in Einstein’s view, which exists
only with respect to those characters
manifest in observable experimental
results. Geometry, for example, is a
description of physical reality. Einstein
regarded a physical field as the most
profound and fruitful conception of
reality since Newton; he had pictures of
the English Michael Faraday and Clerk
Maxwell hanging in his study both in
Berlin and in Princeton. (Relativity, in-
deed, reveals connections between de-
scriptions of one and the same reality;
it by no means implies an abandon-
ment of truth, i.e., relativism.)

The struggling pilgrim, however, is
not without a road guide. Einstein was
convinced that ‘‘since sense perception
informs us only indirectly of the world of
physical reality, it is only by speculation
that it can become comprehensible to
us.’’ His intuition, he believed, would
lead him to penetrate the depth of reality
by means of mathematical ideals. Ein-
stein’s law of gravitation, for instance,
resulted from his search for the simplest
covariant law for a space-time Rieman-
nian matrix. (The very intensity, indeed,
of his investigation gave an impression of
a somewhat metaphysical quest.) Some
specially illuminated road, he believed,
would lead ultimately to the real explana-
tion; there would be revealed the magic

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

words ‘“‘Open Sesame’’ to uncover the
universe’s secret. At Oxford he insisted,
‘‘In my opinion there is the correct path,
and . . . itis in our power to find it. Our
experience to date justifies us in feeling
sure that in nature is centralized the idea
of mathematical simplicity. ...In a
certain sense I hold it to be true that pure
thought is competent to comprehend the
real as the ancients dreamed.’ Else-
where he noted, ‘‘The function is not that
of a novelist [fancy free—in Coleridge’s
sense], but that of a person who solves
a crossword puzzle. Any word can be
proposed in the solution, but there is
only one that fits the puzzle in all its
parts.’’ There is an answer to the riddle.
In the mathematics common room of Fine
Hall, Princeton University, above the
fireplace, is an inscription ascribed to
Einstein: ‘‘Raffiniert ist der Herr Gott,

Einstein and Indeterminism

Stephen G. Brush

aber boschaft ist Er nicht.’’ (God is cun-
ning, but He is not mischievous.)

About all his physics appears an aura
of religion. At Oxford Einstein admitted
to ‘‘something ineffable about the real,
something occasionally described as
mysterious and awe-inspiring.’’ He saw
in “‘the fact that the method turns out to
be true in the empirical sense’’ ‘‘a prop-
erty of our world, an empirical fact, a
hard fact.’’ He had a mystical feeling
toward the harmony of universal law. As
Frank observed, ‘‘The possibility of
mathematical physics, if we put it per-
functorily, is almost identical with reli-
gion.’ In his opinion Einstein’s self-
designated cosmic religion was essen-
tially a “‘belief in the possibility of a
symbolic system of great beauty and con-
ceptual simplicity from which all facts
can be logically derived.’’

Department of History and Institute for Physical Science and Technology,

University of Maryland, College Park

The current celebrations of Albert
Einstein’s 100th birthday have now
reached a level of intensity which is high
enough to bring back from the grave, if
not Einstein himself, at least a couple
of his colleagues, if you believe the report
which appeared in the March 12, 1979 is-
sue of the Chronicle of Higher Education:

They were all gathered back at Albert Ein-
stein’s old stomping grounds at the Institute
for Advanced Study last week. J. Robert
Oppenheimer, the ‘‘father of the atomic
-bomb.’’ John Wheeler, the man who coined the
name “black hole.’’ John von Neumann,
formulator of the game theory.’

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Although Wheeler was certainly alive and
well when he lectured at the Smithsonian
recently, I don’t think anyone has seen
Oppenheimer or von Neumann for at
least a decade.”

Tonight I want to talk about another
ghost: the philosophical position which
Einstein defended throughout most of
his life, but which is now generally
thought to be dead. I realize that a suc-
cessful revival of this position would be
almost as great a miracle as reviving
Oppenheimer and von Neumann, but I
think it is appropriate when we celebrate
a great man like Einstein to discuss his

defeats as well as his victories. Others
will tell you all you want to know about
the theory of relativity and the other
discoveries which constitute Einstein’s
permanent contribution to modern physi-
cal science. But you may occasionally
hear them mention, somewhat apolo-
getically, the embarrassing fact that
Einstein would not accept the funda-
mental validity of quantum mechanics
as acomplete description of nature on the
atomic level. As Max Born wrote in 1949,
many physicists regarded this fact ‘‘as a
tragedy —for him, as he gropes his way in
loneliness, and for us who miss our leader
and standard-bearer.’’?

What was Einstein’s objection to
quantum mechanics? First of all I must
emphasize that it was much more than the
well-known statement, “‘God does not
play dice.’ Indeed the announced title of
my talk is perhaps a little misleading in
this respect. Several months ago I agreed
that I would speak to this group in Washing-
ton on March 14, on the topic ‘‘Einstein
and Indeterminism.’’ If you believe in the
principle of indeterminism you should not
be surprised to find that I am now speak-
ing in a Slightly different place at a slightly
different time ona slightly different topic.
But the deviation itself, in accordance
with the indeterminacy principle, is based
on the quantum. What Einstein disliked
about quantum theory was not simply
that it postulated an inherent randomness
in nature, but that it denied the existence
of a real world independent of our ob-
servations of it. He felt that Niels Bohr
and Werner Heisenberg had gone too far
along the road of positivism and idealism,
by denying reality not only to entities that
can’t be observed, but also to those that
aren't observed in a particular experi-
ment. He could not accept the proposi-
tion that the existence of a particular
property of the electron, such as its posi-
tion or momentum, depends on the fact
that we choose to measure it; or, as Bohr
expressed it, that reality belongs to the
observation, not to the property.

Einstein is often regarded as the
founder of theories which provide no

comprehensible explanation of reality but
which must nevertheless be accepted
since they have been confirmed by
experiment. A prime example of this
‘‘Einstein mystique’’ is the statement
that only 12 people in the world can
understand the theory of relativity. As an
historian of science I am sometimes
asked by colleagues, and even by com-
plete strangers, to verify or give the
source of Einstein quotations and anec-
dotes. Usually I am unable to do so, but
in this case I think I have found something
very close to the original source. In an
article in the New York Times , November
10, 1919, after stating that Einstein is
‘‘about 50 years of age’’ (exaggerating
only by 10 years) the reporter says:

When he offered his last important work to
the publishers he warned them there were not
more than twelve persons in the whole world
who would understand it, but the publishers
took the risk.? :

So apparently we must blame Einstein
himself for starting this myth. But it was
eagerly accepted and popularized by the
press, and provides a convenient excuse
for anyone who doesn’t want to make the
effort to understand relativity theory.
But Einstein suffered from a more in-
sidious form of mystification. For many
years his example was invoked in support
of logical positivism or empiricism; it
was claimed that relativity theory had
been invented in order to explain the
failure to observe any motion of the earth
through ‘‘absolute space”’ or ‘‘ether’’ as
in the Michelson-Morley experiment.
Einstein was depicted as a follower of
Ernst Mach, and he was praised for hav-
ing abstained from using any theoretical
concepts that could not be defined by
measurements. The logical positivists
used Einstein as an ally in their efforts
to show that science should not attempt
to find out what the world is really like,
but must be content with systematizing
and predicting the results of experiments.
Einstein’s friend and biographer Philipp
Frank, one of those responsible for
promoting this view of Einstein, was

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

at least honest enough to record his own
surprise when he learned, in 1929, that
Einstein was opposed to positivism.°®

Another colleague who was surprised
to learn that he had misunderstood Ein-
Stein’s attitude was Werner Heisenberg.
When Einstein in 1926 questioned the
notion that “‘none but observable mag-
nitudes must go into a physical theory,”’
Heisenberg replied: ‘‘Isn’t that precisely
what you have done with relativity. .. .
After all, you did stress the fact that it is
impermissible to speak of absolute time,
simply because absolute time cannot be
observed; that only clock readings, be it
in the moving reference system or the
system at rest, are relevant to the deter-
mination of time.’’ Heisenberg reports
Einstein’s unsettling rejoinder: ‘‘Pos-
sibly I did use this kind of reasoning,”
Einstein admitted, ‘“but it is nonsense all
the same ... on principle it is quite
wrong to try founding a theory on ob-
servable magnitudes alone. In reality the
very opposite happens. It is the theory
which decides what we can observe.’’®

Recent historical work, especially by
Gerald Holton, has shown that Einstein
turned away from Mach’s empiricist
philosophy toward a realist view of na-
ture, and that his earliest work on rela-
tivity was not undertaken in response
to the Michelson-Morley experiment.’
Hence the positivists should not be al-
lowed to cite Einstein in support of their
doctrines. But my primary concern here
is with the much more direct attack which
Einstein launched against positivism in
the realm of atomic physics.

In the great trilogy of 1905, Einstein’s
paper on Brownian movement is gener-
ally considered the least revolutionary.
It acquires significance only if one
realizes that at the end of the 19th century
it was fashionable among the more
philosophically sophisticated scientists
to deny the existence of atoms, or rather
to proclaim that the atomic hypothesis
was useless and even harmful because
atoms had not been directly observed.
Ernst Mach, Wilhelm Ostwald and their
followers were the precursors of the 20th-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

century logical positivists, insisting that
scientific theories only describe rather
than explain the phenomena of nature,
and that concepts not directly based on
observation are meaningless. I do not
mean to imply that a majority of scientists
actually accepted this view, but it was
certainly quite influential and led some of
the atomists, such as Ludwig Boltzmann,
to feel that their approach was in danger
of being abandoned.®

At this point, around 1902, Einstein en-
tered the picture. Here is his own account:

Not acquainted with the earlier investigations
of Boltzmann and Gibbs, which had appeared
earlier and actually exhausted the subject,
I developed the statistical mechanics and the
molecular-kinetic theory of thermodynamics
which was based on the former. My major
aim in this was to find facts which would
guarantee as much as possible the existence
of atoms of definite finite size. In the midst
of this I discovered that, according to atomistic
theory, there would have to be a movement
of suspended microscopic particles open to
observation, without knowing that observa-
tions concerning the Brownian motion were
already long familiar. . . . The agreement of
these considerations with experience together
with Planck’s determination of the true
molecular size from the law of radiation (for
high temperatures) convinced the sceptics,
who were quite numerous at that time (Ost-
wald, Mach) of the reality of atoms. The
antipathy of these scholars towards atomic
theory can indubitably be traced back to their
positivistic philosophical attitude. This is an
interesting example of the fact that even
scholars of audacious spirit and fine instinct
can be obstructed in the interpretation of
facts by philosophical prejudices. The prejudice—
which has by no means died out in the meantime—
consists in the faith that facts by themselves can
and should yield scientific knowledge without free
conceptual construction. Such a misconception is
possible only because one does not easily become
aware of the free choice of such concepts, which,
through verification and long usage, appear to be
immediately connected with the empirical ma-
terial.°

It was the French physical chemist
Jean Perrin (1870-1942) who accom-
plished the experimental confirmation of
Einstein’s formulae for Brownian mo-
tion, and with the help of these and other
results finally established the atomic
structure of matter.'° While no one

doubted the reality of atoms after Mach’s
death in 1916, positivism reared its head
again in the 1920s with the development
of quantum mechanics; the question now
became: do instantaneous properties of
subatomic particles (e.g. the position and
momentum of the electron) have a
real existence?

Before examining Einstein’s answer to
that question, I must make two remarks
about Einstein’s role in the development
of quantum theory.

First, while it is generally acknowledged
that Einstein’s 1905 paper on the photo-
electric effect was a major advance be-
yond Planck’s formulation of quantum
theory, the importance of Einstein’s
work has been enhanced by Thomas
Kuhn’s recent arguments that Planck did
not actually propose a quantum hypothe-
sis in 1900. Kuhn claims that Planck used
his constant A only to define intervals
of energy for the purpose of combina-
torial calculations, and that the notion of
a discontinuity in allowed values of
energy originated with Einstein (rein-
forced by Paul Ehrenfest).'! Thus a case
can be made that Einstein is the founder
of both relativity and quantum theory.

Second, the idea of indeterminism did
not suddenly enter atomic physics with
the quantum formulations of Heisenberg
and Born in 1926-27, but emerged
gradually from debates on irreversibility
going back to the 19th century.’ Ein-
stein himself was largely responsible for
promoting indeterminism in the first
quarter of the 20th century. Brownian
movement, thanks to Einstein’s success-
ful theoretical explanation of it, could
be cited as visible evidence of the ef-
fects of random atomic motions. Rela-
tivity theory challenged Newtonian ideas
of space and time, and Heisenberg him-
self, in his 1927 announcement of the In-
determinacy Principle, compared the
impossibility of talking about the simul-
taneity of distant events with the impos-
sibility of talking about the precise posi-
tion and momentum of a particle. But it
was Einstein’s quantum theory which, ac-
cording to Max Born and others, showed

that atomic radiation must be treated as
arandom process, although Einstein him-
self considered it a ‘‘weakness of the
theory . . . that it leaves the duration
and direction of the elementary processes
to! “chance...” 742

The first evidence of Einstein’s strong
opposition to indeterminism (aside from
his remark in the 1916 paper quoted
above) is found in a letter to Max Born,
29 April 1924, about the Bohr-Kramers-
Slater paper in which strict energy con-
servation in atomic processes was re-
placed by a probabilistic hypothesis:

Bohr’s opinion about radiation is of great
interest. But I should not want to be forced into
abandoning strict causality without defending
it more strongly than I have so far. I find
the idea quite intolerable that an electron ex-
posed to radiation should choose of its own
free will, not only its moment to jump off, but
also its direction. In that case, I would rather
be a cobbler, or even an employee in a gaming-
house, than a physicist.!®

Einstein’s verdict on the work of Heisen-
berg and Schrodinger was expressed in
another letter to Born, 4 December 1926:

Quantum mechanics is certainly imposing. But
an inner voice tells me that it is not yet the
real thing. The theory says a lot, but does
not really bring us any closer to the secret of
the ‘old one.’ I, at any rate, am convinced that
He is not playing at dice.’

In October 1927, at the Solvay Con-
gress in Brussels, Bohr presented his
theory of complementarity, the nucleus
of the ‘‘Copenhagen Interpretation of
Quantum Mechanics.’ The famous
Bohr-Einstein debate began at this meet-
ing. Einstein attempted to disprove the
Indeterminacy Principle with a series of
thought-experiments, but Bohr was able
to refute each one, in some cases by in-
voking relativity theory. As a result of
these discussions Einstein was forced to
accept the Heisenberg principle, but he
still rejected Bohr’s claim that quantum
mechanics tells us all we can expect to
know about nature. Bohr succeeded in
showing that the Copenhagen interpreta-
tion is logically selfconsistent and that
quantum mechanics accounts for the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

experimental facts— but only at the cost
of abandoning the idea that a particle
has definite properties independent of
our observations. For Einstein that was
clearly unsatisfactory and so he concen-
trated on showing that quantum me-
chanics is an ‘“‘incomplete theory’’ that
fails to account for every element of
reality.

Einstein’s objection that quantum
mechanics is incomplete was most
sharply articulated in a 1935 paper pub-
lished with two younger physicists, Boris
Podolsky and Nathan Rosen. They began
by defining reality (perhaps the first time
this had ever been done in a scien-
tific journal?):

If, without in any way disturbing a system, we
can predict with certainty . . . the value of a
physical quantity, then there exists an element
of physical reality corresponding to this physi-
cal quantity.'®

Note that Einstein is not disputing the
19th-century positivist claim that reality
must not be attributed to a quantity
which cannot be determined by observa-
tion. But he refused to follow Bohr in his
claim that reality may not be attributed to
a quantity unless it actually is deter-
mined by observation.

Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen con-
sidered two systems (which might be sim-
ply two electrons) which interact for a
short time and then remain completely
separated so that neither one can pos-
sibly influence the other. One can then
measure the momentum of system I and,
since the total momentum is assumed to
be known, one has thereby determined
by subtraction the momentum of system
II—with complete certainty. Alterna-
tively one could have chosen to meas-
ure the position of I and, by a similar
line of argument, the position of II would
be exactly determined. By hypothesis
neither measurement could have any
direct effect on II. Thus, they argue, II
must actually have had those particular
values of position and momentum,
whether or not the measurements were
made on system I. But this conclusion

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

contradicts the Indeterminacy Principle,
and there is no solution of the Schro-
dinger wave equation corresponding to
definite values of both position and mo-
mentum. Hence quantum mechanics fails
to give a complete description of reality.

In his reply Bohr protested that the
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen criterion for
reality is ‘‘ambiguous.’’ By this he meant
that one cannot talk about the ‘‘reality”’
of system II apart from the experiment
on system I; even though there is no
direct interaction by which the measure-
ment on I might influence the state of II,
they are bound together by the very fact
that one is trying to get information about
II by observing I. Thus the Einstein-
Podolsky-Rosen argument only illus-
trates a characteristic feature of quan-
tum mechanics, and in particular shows
how it involves a new conception of
physical reality—a conception which,
Bohr claimed, had already been intro-
duced by Einstein’s general theory of
relativity.”

Bohr and Einstein agreed that their dis-
agreement was essentially philosophical.
Einstein had maintained the realist posi-
tion but had stripped it of all reference
to unobservable quantities, in deference
to the acknowledged success of quantum
mechanics; he insisted only that if a quan-
tity can be measured with certainty, then
it must be real. Bohr chose to defend
an extreme instrumentalist position: a
quantity is not real just because it can
be measured, it is also necessary that
it is measured. Or rather, reality cannot
be attributed to the quantity itself in
any case, but only to the measurement of
the quantity.

Erwin Schrodinger then entered the
debate on the side of Einstein, with his
famous ‘‘cat paradox.’’ A cat is placed
in a chamber with a radioactive sample
and a Geiger counter connected to an
electrical device that will kill the cat with
probability 12 in a certain time interval.
At the end of the experiment the cat is
represented, according to quantum
mechanics, by a wave function which is
the sum of functions corresponding to the

cat alive and dead. According to the
Copenhagen interpretation (if one is
willing to apply it to macroscopic ob-
jects as well as to atomic particles) the
cat is neither alive nor dead but in some
intermediate state—until we open the
chamber and look at it. At the instant
when we observe the cat, its wave func-
tion ‘“‘collapses’’ and it becomes either
alive or dead.'®

The cat paradox makes rather more
vividly the same point that Einstein had
been pressing against Bohr since 1927:
however accurate quantum mechanics
may be in predicting the results of ex-
periments, it fails to give an acceptable
description of reality, i.e. of the external
world independent of the observer.
Bohr’s reply boiled down to the claim
that one simply cannot expect quantum
mechanics to give such a description be-
cause there is none. The tragedy of Ein-
stein was that he failed to find a replace-
ment for quantum mechanics that would
satisfy his personal criteria. By general
agreement he ‘‘lost’’ the debate with
Bohr; yet anyone who believes that the
physical world exists independently of
his or her own observation of it must
hesitate just a bit before applauding
the victor.'9

Notes

1. Anne C. Roark, ‘‘Notes on. . . Einstein,”’
Chronicle of Higher Education, March 12,
1979) psi2.

2. J. Robert Oppenheimer died 18 February 1967;
John von Neumann died 8 February 1957.

3. Max Born, ‘‘Einstein’s Statistical Theories,”’
in Albert Einstein Philosopher-Scientist, ed.
P. A. Schilpp (New York: Library of Living
Philosophers, 1949), pp. 163-177 (quotation
from pp. 163-64).

4. **Lights all askew in the heavens,’ New York
Times, November 10, 1919, reprinted in
Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. Walter
Sullivan (New York: Arno Press, 1976), p. 8.

5. Philipp Frank, Einstein, His Life and Times
(New York: Knopf, 1947), p. 215. Cf. his
Modern Science and its Philosophy (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1941), pp. 30-57.

10.

12:

14.

[S:
16.

19.

. Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Beyond (New

York: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 63.

. Gerald Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific

Thought, Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973). See
also E. Zahar, ‘‘Mach, Einstein and the Rise of
Modern Science,’ British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science, 28 (1977): 195-213.

. See e.g. Boltzmann’s foreword to Part II (1898)

of his Lectures on Gas Theory, trans. S. G.
Brush, (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1964) pp. 215-216.

. Albert Einstein, ‘‘Autobiographical Notes,’’ in

Albert Einstein Philosopher-Scientist,ed. P. A.
Schilpp (New York: Library of Living
Philosophers, 1949), pp. 1—95 (quotation from
pp. 47, 49). For the history of Brownian motion
and details of Einstein’s theory, see S. G.
Brush, The Kind of Motion We Call Heat
(New York: American Elsevier, 1976), Chap-
ter XV.

See Mary Jo Nye, Molecular Reality: A Per-
spective on the Scientific Work of Jean Perrin
(New York: American Elsevier, 1972).
Thomas S. Kuhn, Black-Body Theory and the
Quantum Discontinuity, 1894-1912 (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1978).

S. G. Brush, ‘“‘Irreversibility and Indeter-
minism: Fourier to Heisenberg,’’ Journal of the
History of Ideas, 37 (1976): 603-630.

Quoted from the translation of Einstein’s 1916
paper in B. L. van der Waerden, Source
of Quantum Mechanics (Amsterdam: North-
Holland, 1967), p. 76. For additional references
see Brush, op. cit. (note 12).

The Born-Einstein letters, trans. Irene Born
(New York: Walker, 1971), p. 82.

Ibid ais We

A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, *‘Can
Quantum-Mechanical Description of Reality be
considered complete?’’ Physical Review, series
2, 47 (1935): 777-780.

Bohr’s reply is reprinted with the Einstein-
Podolsky-Rosen paper in Physical Reality, ed.
S. Toulmin (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
See also Bohr’s article ‘‘Discussion with Ein-
stein on epistemological problems in atomic
physics,’ pp. 199-241 in the Schilpp book
cited in note 3.

. E. Schrodinger, ‘‘Die gegenwartige Situation in

der Quantenmechanik,’’ Naturwissenschaften
23 (1935): 807-812. _

For a survey of recent developments see B.
d’Espagnat, “‘The Quantum Theory and
Reality,’ Scientific American, 241, no. 5
(November 1979): 158—181 and references on
page 206; A. Shimony, ‘‘Metaphysical Problems
in the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics,”’
International Philosophical Quarterly, 18
(1878): 3-17.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Einstein and Religion

Harry Polachek

U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C.

When I mentioned to some of my col-
leagues that I was planning to give a talk
about Einstein’s views on religion, I was
greeted with considerable skepticism and
many a raised eyebrow. ‘‘Einstein was a
great scientist, but he was not a theolo-
gian—of what significance are his
opinions about religion?’ ‘‘He did not
concern himself with theological ques-
tions.’’ “‘He did not write or publish
much about his religious views.’’ These
were some of the comments I received

from my more outspoken friends. Some

considered a discussion on my part about
Einstein and Religion as a trivial or even
frivolous undertaking.

In answer to these doubts, I would
like to point out two well known facts.
First, Moses did not complete a full four-
year course at an accredited theological
Seminary—nor did Buddha or Moham-
med or Jesus Christ. Secondly, in his
book, Ideas and Opinions, Einstein de-
votes 18 full pages to the subject of
religion. His famous paper on the special
theory of relativity, published in 1905 in
the Annalen der Physik, which shook the
foundations of classical physics and
ushered in a new era in modern science,
was only a few pages longer. It could be
safely assumed that Einstein did not de-
vote 18 pages of his writings to a subject
of this importance without giving this
matter prolonged and serious study.

Before discussing Einstein’s ideas on
religion, we will briefly review what is
known about his religious background
and upbringing. As is well known, Ein-
stein was born of Jewish parents at Ulm,
a medium size city in Bavaria. His Jewish
ancestors, both maternal and paternal,
lived for many generations in south-
western Germany in a region known as

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Swabia. Although his parents generally
adhered to Jewish traditions, they were in
Einstein’s own words, ‘‘entirely ir-
religious.’’ In spite of his parents’ attitude
toward religion, Einstein states in his
autobiographical remarks (Albert Ein-
stein: Philosopher, Scientist; Edited by
Paul Arthur Schilpp, 1970, p. 3’ that he
was deeply religious until he reached the
age of twelve.

Here we should insert the following in-
formation concerning Einstein’s early
schooling. At the time of Einstein’s child-
hood, the elementary schools in Germany
were run under religious auspices. How-
ever, instead of sending young Einstein
to a Jewish religious school, his parents
sent him to a Catholic school. The
reasons for that decision are not known,
but Philipp Frank, who knew Einstein
intimately since the year 1910, states in
his book Einstein, His Life and Times (p.
9), that his parents “‘were not sufficiently
interested in a Jewish education to send
their children to a Jewish school since
there was none near their home and it
would have been expensive. His parents
may even have felt that by sending their
boy to a Catholic school he would come
into more intimate contact with non-
Jewish children.’’ Einstein was the only
Jewish child in his class, but according to
Frank, Einstein had no recollection of
having any objection to his participation
as a Jewish pupil in a Catholic religious
school. On the contrary, he seems to have
derived a great deal of pleasure from this
experience. Einstein left elementary
school at the age of ten to enter Luitpold
Gymnasium in Munich.

When he turned twelve, a drastic
change took place in young Einstein’s
attitude toward traditional religion. Just

as he had acquired strong religious feel-
ings as a child on his own—his parents
being entirely indifferent to religion—
he also developed a strong contrary
opinion when he reached the age of
twelve. He recalls (Schilpp, p. 3):

“Through reading of popular scientific
books, I soon reached the conviction that
much in the stories of the Bible could
not be true. The consequence was a posi-
tively fanatic (orgy of) freethinking
coupled with the impression that youth
is intentionally being deceived by the
State through lies; it was a crushing im-
pression: J).

Through most of his formative years
Einstein was largely oblivious to religion,
being much too preoccupied with other
activities such as his scientific studies,
his problems connected with making it
through the school system, and later with
earning a livelihood.

An interesting incident occurred during
the process of Einstein’s appointment to
the German University in Prague in the
fall of 1910, which sheds some light on
his attitude toward religion during his
earlier adult years. It pertains to Ein-
stein’s religious affiliation. At that time
appointments to the German University
were made by the emperor of Austria
upon recommendation from the uni-
versity faculty. Franz Josef, who was
then emperor of Austria, held strong
religious convictions and would not ap-
point anyone to teach at the university
who did not belong to a recognized
church. During that period Einstein did
not consider himself as affiliated with any
religious denomination, and if required to
State his religion in connection with an
application for office would normally
have given the response: none, to any
question about his religious affiliation.
It should be noted that Einstein was
at that time married to Mileva Maritsch,
a Classmate of his at the Swiss Federal
Polytechnic School in Zurich, who was of
the Greek Orthodox religion. He had no
qualms about marrying outside his faith,
or having his children, whom he loved
dearly, brought up by their mother in the
Greek Orthodox faith. When Einstein

learned about Emperor Franz Josef’s
requirement he simply stated his religion
in his application for appointment as
‘*Mosaic,’’ which was the customary
nomenclature then used in Austria to
designate a member of the Jewish faith.

I would like to recount one more
incident bearing on Einstein’s reli-
gious views, which took place about 20
years later.

On April 7, 1929, Einstein’s theory of
relativity was mercilessly denounced by
Cardinal O’Connell of Boston as atheis-
tic. Delivering a major address in Boston
to the members of the Catholic Clubs of
America of the New England area, he
warned his audience against professor
Einstein’s theory of relativity as ‘“‘be-
fogged speculation producing universal

doubt about God and His creation’’ and -

as ‘‘cloaking the ghastly apparition of
atheism’? (New York Times, 25 April,
1929, p. 60).

When he read about this vehement and,
what he believed to be, unjustified attack
upon Albert Einstein and his theories by
a fellow clergyman, Rabbi Herbert S.
Goldstein of the Institutional Synagogue
at 37 W. 116th Street in New York City
was outraged. He immediately sat down
and dispatched a telegram—not to
Cardinal O’ Connell in Boston, but to Pro-
fessor Einstein, who was at that time in
Dusseldorf, Germany. The telegram con-
tained five little words; namely, *‘Do you
believe in God?’’ This was rather a de-
meaning question to pose to any self-
respecting individual in a telegram, but
especially to a world renowned scientist
of Einstein’s stature.

Einstein had several options open. He
could have just ignored so disrespect-
ful and foolhardy a question emanating
from a recognized religious leader in
America. Or better still, he could have
replied with five little words of his own—
rather four little words and a blank, viz:
‘‘Mind your own business.’’

Einstein chose neither of these two ap-
proaches. He was apparently not at all
offended by the boldness of the Rabbi’s
question—and within a few days Rabbi
Goldstein received a substantive reply in

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

NE le AY ae

a telegram from Albert Einstein at his
home in New York. Einstein’s tele-
gram read:

‘Ich glaube an Spinozas Gott der Sich
in gesetzlicher Harmonie des seienden
offenbart, nicht an Gott der Sich mit
Schicksalen und Handlungen der Men-
schen abgibt.’’

Which translated from good emperor’s
German to good king’s English means:

‘“‘T believe in Spinoza’s God who re-
veals Himself in the orderly harmony of
what exists, not in a God who concerns

in Himself with the fates and actions of

human beings.”’

Einstein’s reply to Rabbi Goldstein
summarizes in one sentence one of
the basic tenets which forms the founda-
tion of his religious doctrine. He de-
scribes these views in greater detail in
several articles which he published and in
talks to religious groups which he de-
livered during his lifetime.

Einstein was awed and enthralled by
the majesty and harmony of the universe
and the laws of nature which govern the
cosmos. “‘The most incomprehensible
thing about the world is that it is com-
prehensible,’’ he used to say (Albert
Einstein and the Cosmic World Order,
Cornelius Lanczos, 1965, p. 112). On the
one hand, we look at the great complexity
of the world we live in, beginning with
elementary particles and fundamental
forces, progressing through the simple
atomic and molecular structures of
matter to the more complex molecules,
the amino acids, DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and organic materials, then to liv-
ing self-reproducing organisms, plants
and animals, and finally to the develop-
ment of thinking, intelligent and cultured
human beings. On the other hand, we wit-
ness the discovery of universal, compre-
hensive, all-embracing, yet simple laws
which precisely govern the behavior of
natural phenomena at all levels of mag-
nitude and complexity, from the minutest
elementary particles to the largest
galaxies; from the simplest elementary
forces to the most complex forms of
human behavior. It is this superior uni-
versal power which governs the cosmos

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

and which may be entirely beyond the
feeble grasp of the human mind which
Einstein calls God. This God, as Einstein
conceives Him, is the God of all exist-
ence, who governs all phenomena and
actions in the universe. But he is not a
personal God, who punishes and rewards
human actions or who concerns himself
with the daily lives of human beings.

We quote a few representative state-
ments from Einstein’s writings or public
discussions on this subject. Einstein
writes (Universal Jewish Encyclopedia,
Vol. IV, 1941, pp. 32-33):

‘*My religion consists of a humble ad-
miration of the inimitable superior spirit
who reveals himself in the slight details
we are able to perceive with our frail and
feeble mind. Ethics are a more important
matter for us, not God. That deeply emo-
tional conviction of the presence of a
superior reasoning power, which is re-
vealed in the incomprehensible universe,
forms my idea of God; in the conventional
manner of expression it could therefore
be designated as pantheistic.”’

In “‘The World As I See It’ (1929,
p. 242) Einstein expresses these thoughts
in the following words:

‘‘The most beautiful thing we can ex-
perience is the mysterious. It is the
fundamental emotion which stands at the
source of true art and true science. He to
whom this emotion is a stranger, who can
no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt
in awe, is as good as dead: his eyes are
closed. This insight into the mystery of
life, coupled though it be with fear, has
also given rise to religion. To know that
what is impenetrable to us really exists,
manifests itself as the highest wisdom
and the most radiant beauty which our
dull faculties can comprehend only in
their most primitive forms—this knowl-
edge, this feeling, is at the center of true
religiousness. In this sense, and in this
sense alone, I belong in the ranks of
devoutly religious men.’’

And again, on page 267 (Ibid.):

‘*But the scientist is possessed by the
sense of universal causation. The future
to him is every whit as necessary and
determined as the past. There is nothing

divine about morality, it is purely a
human affair. His religious feeling takes
the form of rapturous amazement at the
harmony of natural law, which reveals an
intelligence of such superiority that, com-
pared with it, all the systematic thinking
and acting of human beings is an utterly
insignificant reflection.”’

Einstein was a humanitarian. He was,
as a person, kind, gentle and humble. He
was a leader in the movement for pacifism
and disarmament. Insofar as time al-
lowed, he aided many charitable en-
deavors. He despised authoritarianism
and militarism. He fought for the under-
dog and the oppressed. He decried the in-
nate human desires for wealth, honor and
power. Among the ethical virtues upon
which Einstein placed an especially high
value was the goal to achieve individual
freedom. He stressed this on many occa-
sions. On the other hand, we have al-
ready noted in two of Einstein’s quota-
tions his belief that morality or ethics is
not a standard of conduct which is
established by a divine being, but in his
words is ‘‘purely a human affair.’’ In view
of this belief, how then does Einstein
justify the necessity for human beings to
conduct themselves in accordance witha
code of ethics and morality?

His justification is based on two
premises: 1) that none of us have achieved
the high level of culture and material
well-being we now enjoy on our own, but
are indebted to others now living, or to
past generations for this progress, and 2)
that by providing freedom to individuals
to conduct their lives in accordance with
their own inclinations, society stands to
gain greatly from the important advances
which some of these individuals will
achieve, which they would not have been
able to accomplish if forced to exist in a
regimented environment.

Let us read the basis for the first of
these justifications as expressed in Ein-
stein’s words (Forum and Century, Vol.
84, pp. 193-194; reprinted in Einstein,
Ideas and Opinions, 1954, p. 8):

‘“How strange is the lot of us mortals!
Each of us is here for a brief sojourn; for

what purpose he knows not, though he
sometimes thinks he senses it. But with-
out deeper reflection one knows from
daily life that one exists for other people
—first of all for those upon whose smiles
and well-being our own happiness is
wholly dependent, and then for the many,
unknown to us, to whose destinies we are
bound by the ties of sympathy. A hundred
times every day I remind myself that my
inner and outer life are based on the
labors of other men, living and dead, and
that I must exert myself in order to give
in the same measure as I have received
and am still receiving.’

Einstein expressed opinions on a
number of other questions pertaining to
religion. In the remaining time I would
like to touch upon some of these. The
most important subject among these is,
no doubt, the perennial strife which
existed throughout the centuries between
science and religion. Einstein addressed
this subject on a number of occasions.
On November 9, 1930 the New York
Times featured an article in its Sunday
Magazine section, written expressly for
the newspaper by Albert Einstein and en-
titled ‘‘Religion and Science.’’ On May
19, 1939 Einstein gave an address at the
Princeton Theological Seminary on
‘*Science and Religion’’ and in 1940 he
participated in a symposium entitled
‘*The Conference on Science, Philosophy
and Religion in Their Relation to the
Democratic Way of Life’’ (published in
New York, 1941).

Einstein attempted to reconcile the
conflict between science and religion. His
main thesis was that there is no valid
reason for this conflict to exist between
these two important fields of human en-
deavor, since their purposes and methods
do not overlap but are separate and com-
plementary. In his view knowledge or
science can teach us only what is or
how facts are related to each other. The
purpose of religion, on the other hand,
is to determine what should be, espe-
cially what should be the goal of hu-
man aspirations.

In his address to the Conference on

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

alll

Science, Philosophy and Religion in
Their Relation to the Democratic Way of
Life (reprinted, Einstein, Ideas and
Opinions, p. 45) Einstein states these
views very clearly: |

‘*For science can only ascertain what
is, but not what should be, and outside
of its domain value judgements of all
kinds remain necessary. Religion, on the
other hand, deals only with evaluations
of human thought and action: it cannot
justifiably speak of facts and relationships
between facts. According to this inter-
pretation the well-known conflicts be-
tween religion and science in the past
must all be ascribed to a misapprehen-
sion of the situation which has been
ascribed.”’

Of special interest is also Einstein’s
views on the theological and philosophi-
cal question of free will. Einstein did not
believe that a human being is endowed
with the capacity to exercise free will. He
quoted Schopenhauer in this regard who
said, ‘‘a man can do what he wants,
but he cannot want what he wants.’’

Einstein also showed a religious-like
devotion for such human goals and en-
deavors as Goodness, Truth, Beauty,
Fellowship, Art, Research and Music.
He writes (Einstein, The World As I See
Meeps) 239):

‘*The ideals which have lighted me on
my way and time after time given me new
courage to face life cheerfully have been
Truth, Goodness and Beauty. Without
the sense of fellowship with men of like
mind, of preoccupation with the objec-
tive, the eternally unattainable in the field
of art and scientific research, life would
have seemed to me empty. The ordinary
objects of human endeavor—property,
outward success, luxury—have always
seemed to me contemptible.”’

Finally, I would like to describe Ein-
stein’s attitude toward the traditional reli-
gions. As we have noted, he did not
believe in a God who punishes the wicked
or rewards the righteous; nor did he
believe in a God who concerns himself
with the daily activities of men. He
definitely did not believe the bible stories

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

and at one time, at age twelve, he casti-
gated them as intentional lies and decep-
tions. What, then, were his views con-
cerning the older religions in adult life?

Einstein actually showed a high regard
for the contributions made by the major
religions. In his writings he tended to
emphasize the positive contributions
made by these religions and to overlook
the grief, misery, torture and deaths
which have resulted from the great con-
flicts that have occurred due to religious
rivalry. Although he certainly was op-
posed to the practice of religious rituals
and customs, he believed that there was a
useful purpose in some of these in the
educational processes. He gave high
praise to the part played by the traditional
religions and their leaders in bringing to
the human race the ideals of morality and
ethical behavior. We quote from his ad-
dress at the Princeton Theological
Seminary (reprinted, Einstein, Ideas and
Opinions, p. 43):

‘‘The highest principles for our aspira-
tions and judgements are given to us in
the Jewish-Christian religious tradition.
It is a very high goal which, with our
weak powers, we can reach only very in-
adequately, but which gives a sure founda-
tion to our aspirations and valuations.”’

In the New York Times article he states
(reprinted, Einstein, Ideas and Opinions,
pa):

‘‘The Jewish scriptures admirably il-
lustrate the development from the reli-
gion of fear to moral religion, a develop-
ment continued in the New Testament.
The religions of all civilized peoples,
especially the peoples of the Orient, are
primarily moral religions.’

Now, what more precisely were Ein-
stein’s views concerning the contribu-
tions of the Jews to morality? He states
these most succinctly in his Credo as a
Jew, republished in the Universal Jewish
Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, 1941, pp. 32-33:
(See also Einstein, the World As I See
12 19333-p. 143.)

‘‘The striving after knowledge for its
own Sake, the love of justice verging on
fanaticism, and the quest for personal

independence —these are the motivating
traditions of the Jewish people which
cause me to regard my adherence thereto
as a gift of destiny. Those who rage
today against the ideals of reason and
of individual freedom, and seek to impose
an insensate state slavery by means of
brutal force, rightly see in us their ir-
reconcilable opponents. History has im-
posed upon us a Severe struggle. But as
long aS we remain devoted servants of
truth, justice and freedom, we shall not
only continue to exist as the oldest of all
living peoples, but we shall also, as
hitherto, create, through productive ef-
fort, values which shall contribute to the
ennobling of mankind.”’

One of my former schoolmates, Rabbi
Morris Gordon (Congregation Har
Shalom), has recently told me an interest-
ing private story about Einstein, which
sheds additional light on his sentimental
attachment to traditional Jewish cus-
toms. It was told to him by a young
woman he knows very well, who lived,
when she was a child, with her family in
Princeton in close proximity to Einstein’s
residence. This young woman, by the
way, iS now a prominent mathematician
in her own right and teaches mathematics
at the University of California.

Occasionally, on Saturdays, the Jewish
Sabbath, Einstein used to invite all the
children in the neighborhood to his house
for an Oneg Shabbat (Sabbath celebra-
tion). He used to given them refresh-
ments, play his violin and tell them

100

stories, often about the children in Israel
(then Palestine) whom he visited, and
who were working hard helping their
parents to build a new homeland for the
Jews. He used to tell them that on the
Sabbath he did not like to do everyday
work, even research in mathematics or
physics, but he liked to engage in more
pleasant activities such as playing
the violin.

On Passover eve he would sometimes
gather the children in his house for a
Passover mini-Seder. Einstein was a
lover of freedom, and Passover is the
holiday of freedom, which commemor-
ates the deliverance of the Israelites from
slavery to freedom. Einstein would talk
to the children about freedom, and he
would point out to them that freedom can-
not be won once and for all (as by the
exodus of the Israelites from Egypt),
but must be regained over and over again
by every generation. He drew an analogy
with a beautiful statue which was erected
long long ago in the desert, and he would
ask the children what would happen to
the statue after a number of years. They
would reply that it would be covered with
sand before too long and would lose its
beauty. And he would point out that in
order to regain its original beauty the sand
would have to be carefully and pain-
stakingly removed every ten or twenty
years, and the statue would have to be
refurbished so that it could glisten again
in its full beauty. The same principle
applies to the attainment of freedom.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Albert Einstein—A Moral Visionary ina Distraught World

Walter G. Berl

Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Md.

Toward the end of January 1933, after
an indecisive election that gave no clear
majority to any of the numerous contend-
ing political parties, Hindenburg, Presi-
dent of the embattled German Republic,
turned over the office of Chancellor to
Adolph Hitler. This limited transfer of
power was quickly followed by a fire of
suspicious origin in the Reichstag Build-
ing. It provided the excuse for the arrest
of members of the opposition parties, and
opened the door for the absolute rule of
the German Nazi party.

Within six years these events led to
World War II and to convulsions that
even today remain to be resolved. They
also, at the time, confronted many
people, especially those of Jewish an-
cestry with decisions of crucial im-
portance. Among those affected were
thousands of scientists.

By April of 1933, many extreme Nazi
policies were put into effect, such as the
abrupt retirement or removal from office
of all Jewish state employees. When the
likely consequences of this decision were
brought to the attention of Hitler, he said:

Our national policies will not be revoked or
modified, even for scientists. If the dismissal
of Jewish scientists means the annihilation of
contemporary German science, then we shall
do without science for.a few years.!

dann arbeiten wir eben einmal 100 Jahre ohne
Physik und Chemie? (Then we shall do without
physics and chemistry for 100 years).

A person’s response to cataclysmic
events uncovers the deepest wellsprings
of beliefs and attitudes. Three well-
known German-Jewish scientists were
among the thousands who were trapped
by events into formulating their re-
sponses. They were born less than ten
years and less than a few hundred miles

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

apart. All three had received Nobel
awards for their outstanding contribu-
tions within a few years of each other.
They were neighbors in Berlin just prior
to and during World War I. Each was the
head of newly established Kaiser-Wil-
helm Institutes for Chemistry, Physical
Chemistry and for Physics. They knew
each other well. They were Fritz Haber,
the brilliant physical chemist and creator
of the synthetic ammonia industry;
Richard Willstatter, the most creative
organic chemist of his day; and Al-
bert Einstein.

With such similar backgrounds one
would surmise that their responses to the
threats of 1933 would have been similar.
But no. Haber, whose most deep-seated
passion was a fanatical attachment to
his country, was dead of a broken heart
in less than a year.? Willstatter remained
a virtual prisoner in Germany for five
tortured years. At last, on reaching
Switzerland and safety, he said:

I hear that many, who after overcoming much
fear and many hazards, on leaving Germany
and crossing the frontier, would wave their
hats with joy. I want to weep.*

What a contrast with Einstein! He was,
in the winter of 1932, visiting the Cali-
fornia Institute of Technology where he
had been spending half a year for the past
two years with R. A. Millikan and E. D.
Hubbell. He was about to return to
his Institute in Berlin in late March. But
before leaving Pasadena he gave an inter-
view to a reporter of the New. York
World Telegram and said, in tones ring-
ing clear to this day:

As long as I have any choice in the matter

I shall live only in a country where civil liber-

ties, tolerance and equality of all citizens
before the law prevail. Civil liberty implies

101

freedom to express one’s political convictions
in speech and in wniting: tolerance implies
respect for the convictions of others: whatever
they may be. These conditions do not exist in
Germany at the present time.® (1933)

and added a statement that, even today,
has few adherents:

For an internationally minded man, citizenship
of a specific country is not important. Hu-
manity is more important than national citizen-
ship.® (1933)

Citizenship As A Political Statement

How can one summarize the social
views of this extraordinary person which
molded his entire personality and formed
his most fundamental beliefs? I will make
this attempt with a few happenings that,
like well-matched pearls, form a beautiful
strand. The veritable flood of books and
of reminiscences, the collections of let-
ters and the massive archival material
of speeches, statements and interviewing
help to explain apparent paradoxes and
curious twists that were difficult to com-
prehend when viewed in isolation.

Although Einstein never wrote an auto-
biography that touched on much more
than his love for physics,’ he frequently
and with great candor expressed his
thoughts about matters that affected
him deeply:

My passionate sense of social justice and

social responsibility has always contrasted

oddly with my pronounced lack of need for
direct contact with other human beings and
human communities. I am truly a ‘lone
traveler’ and have never belonged to my

country, my home, my friends or even my im-

mediate family with my whole heart. In the

face of all these ties I have never lost a sense of

distance and a need for solitude—feelings
that increase with the years.®

He craved solitude and yet became the
most public of men; he disliked war and
yet rallied the world in a war against
Nazi tyranny; he wanted world rule and
threw his efforts into the creation of
Israel; he was appalled by the misuse of
science and yet had a share in the un-
leashing of the most destructive weapons
that technological man was able to design.

102

His most characteristic pattern was
that of a stubborn fighter. Once involved
in a struggle that touched his sense of
values, he would pursue the matter dog-
gedly, privately in days when no one yet
listened, or before the world when the
tools of public discourse became avail-
able to him.

Let us survey the unusual events con-
nected with his citizenship. As a young
student in Munich he chafed under the
strict German school system:

The teachers in the elementary school ap-

peared to me like sergeants and the pe
teachers like lieutenants.

His parents, having moved to Italy to
recoup a foundering business, had left
Albert in Munich to complete his pre-
college studies. After suffering for half
a year in solitude disliking the drill-
field atmosphere of learning by rote while
all the time teaching himself calculus and
geometry, he so upset the teaching staff
that he had no difficulty being released
prematurely from school at the age of fif-
teen, with a physician’s certificate that a
nervous condition made a trip to Italy to
rejoin his parents desirable both for him
and the school’s staff.

Ronald W. Clark, with the help of a
German historian of science, spent much
effort to document the subsequent
events.? The sixteen-year old Albert
pleaded with his father that he should
help him to renounce his German citizen-
ship. These laborious efforts bore fruit
and in 1896 the Wirttenberg authorities
formally ended his German citizenship.
He was left without nationality papers as
he moved to Switzerland to continue with
his studies of Physics at the Eidgenoes-
sische Technische Hochschule in Zurich
and was granted Swiss citizenship in
1901. By then, he had completed his
academic studies, in less than brilliant
fashion, as far as the outside world could
see. Eligible for Swiss military service,
he was promptly rejected because of flat
feet and varicose veins.

In a peaceful and seemingly stable
Europe this unusual political statement

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

and change of national allegiance would
have served for a lifetime. Eleven years
of intense and productive scholarship fol-
lowed. To be sure, family problems had
to be overcome but the world seemed at
peace. Only the controversies that
swirled about fundamental issues in
Physics needed his attention.

Then came the year 1912. The most
prestigious offer to accept the Director-
ship of the new Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute
fir Physik in Berlin and, as an addi-
tional honor, membership in the Preus-
sische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
brought with it an automatic conferral of
Prussian (and, therefore, German)
citizenship. Since a Kaiser-Wilhelm In-
stitute director was a German civil
servant (even though most of the funds
for the setting up of the organization and
paying for the building of the structures
came from private donors, many of them
Jewish) there was some doubt whether
that position, indeed, required German
citizenship. This issue was never formally
resolved. Einstein continued as a Swiss
citizen and retained his Swiss passport.
The German authorities were apparently
satisfied that the automatic acquisition of
Prussian citizenship satisfied their needs.

Within a year World War I broke out.
Belgium was invaded. Belgian citizens
were apprehended, accused of sabotage
and shot, often as hostages. The world
was appalled. To counteract this wave of
condemnation, a Manifesto was _ pub-
lished and signed by nearly one hundred
of Germany’s best known intellectuals.'°
Einstein refused to sign.

When the war ended in defeat for the
Germans, with the monarchy overthrown
and a republic based on democratic prin-
ciples established in Weimar for the first
time in Germany’s history, Einstein
formally threw in his lot with the new
government. He requested the civil rights
of a German citizen as a symbolic act of
support for the new regime. Luckily, it
was not necessary to relinquish his Swiss
citizenship or passport, acquired 20
years earlier.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

He said later that this act of solidarity
was one of the big mistakes of his life,
comparable only to the introduction of an
unnecessary constant into his cosmo-
logical equation which led to the conclu-
sion that the universe was ‘‘stationary”’
rather than ‘‘expanding’’; and the writing
of two letters to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt in 1939 and 1940, urging the de-
velopment of nuclear weapons against
the Germans and Japanese.

At first only one small diplomatic in-
cident arose. When in 1922 he was
awarded the Nobel prize for his work on
the Photo-electric Effect and was unable
to attend the Stockholm ceremonies, a
question arose as to which ambassador,
the German or the Swiss, should stand in
for him to receive the award. It was
finally resolved that the German ambas-
sador was to receive the medal in Sweden
and that the Swiss ambassador in Berlin
was to hand it to Einstein. In the records
of the Nobel Foundation Einstein is listed
as a German.

In 1933 this tortuous citizenship prob-
lem was finally resolved. When the con-
sequences of Hitler’s access to power be-
came clear, a break with everything that
tied Einstein to Germany was inevitable.
Having said publicly that ‘‘I am not going
home’’!! the decision was made to return
from the USA on the planned date but to
disembark in Antwerp, go to Brussels,
hand over the German passport, there-
with surrendering his German civil rights
and, after leaving the German embassy,
never to set foot on German soil again.

The break with the country that had
disappointed him twice, as a youth and,
again, in middle age, was irreparable.
Until his death, some twenty years later,
he would not join any German society or
accept any German awards. He replied to
an inquiry from Otto Hahn whether he
would accept a Foreign Membership of
the Max Planck Gesellschaft, the descend-
ent of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft:

It pains me that I must say “‘No”’ to you, one
of the few men who remained decent and did
what they could during those evil years: but I

103

cannot do otherwise. The crime of the Germans
is truly the most abominable ever to be
recorded in the history of the so-called
civilized nations.!? (1949)

Arguments for Peace and World Government

There was in Einstein a stubborness
about fundamental moral issues that
served him as a compass throughout his
life. He hated killing. He found wars ab-
horrent. While his Kaiser Wilhelm In-
stitute colleagues Haber and Willstatter
eagerly signed up for war service, Ein-
stein, in the very center of Prussianism,
helped to prepare an antiwar Manifesto.'®
Forty years later, one week before his
death, he joined Lord Russell in a ring-
ing declaration to contain the nuclear
arms race with the Soviet Union, to re-
think once again the horrors of a nuclear
war and to lay down a foundation on
which to build peace. And three days
later, working on a statement to celebrate
the anniversary of Israel’s independence,
he said:

And the big problem of our time is the division
of mankind into two camps... .a power
conflict between East and West, although the
world being round, it is not clear what pre-
cisely is meant by the term ‘East’ and ‘West’.

. . political passions, once they have been
fanned into flame, exact their victims. . . ."*
(1955)

But he was confounded by events
where absolute and extreme moral or
political judgments cannot stand inviolate
forever. When he saw that a country like
Germany, by a deliberate policy of
violence and war, might overwhelm all
the values that were dear to him and to
subjugate anyone standing in its way, he
cast aside his pacifism and his refusal for
self-defense and protection:

Were I a Belgian, I should not, in the present
circumstances, refuse military service: rather,
I should enter such service cheerfully in the
belief that I would thereby be helping to save
European civilization.!° (1933)

He was pleading for a political system
in which the anarchy among nation states
would be replaced by a world order of
new institutions with sufficient powers

104

so that disputes could be settled by a
superior authority:

I believe the condition in which the world
finds itself today makes it not only a matter of
idealism but one of direct necessity to create
unity and intellectual co-operation among na-
tions. Those of us who are alive to these
needs must stop thinking in terms of ‘‘What
should be done for our country?’’. Rather, we
should ask: ‘‘What must our country do to
lay the groundwork for a larger world com-
munity?’’ For without that greater community
no single country will long endure.'® (1922)

The destructive tools made available
by technology gave added urgency to
his pleas:

In my opinion the only salvation for civiliza-
tion and the human race lies in the creation of
a world government, with security of nations
founded upon law. As long as sovereign states
continue to have separate armaments and
armament secrets, new world wars will be in-
evitable.'* (1945)

There can be no doubt that world law is
bound to come soon, whether by coercion or
peaceful agreement. No other defense exists
against the modern methods of mass destruc-
tion. Should man misuse science and en-
gineering in the service of selfish passions, our
civilization is doomed. The nation-state is no
longer capable of adequately protecting its
citizens: to increase the military strength of a
nation no longer guarantees its security.'®
(1947)

The Chain of Events to Popular Fame

What made it possible for Einstein,
whose deepest instincts were to be left
alone, to command so much public recog-
nition? How could a man, whose profes-
sional contributions required insights that
few people can put forth, become a
household word as a symbol of scientific
wisdom, an oracle of man’s future?
There were no passionate public debates
about his work as there were with Darwin
about the Descent of Man that threatened
the comfortable belief of man’s special
place in the universe. There was no public
taking of sides as with Freud’s reap-
praisal of dimly recognized dark and
threatening forces behind man’s _ be-
havior that challenged long-held views of
morals and standards. What special cir-
cumstances prevailed to direct the flash
of public recognition onto this man?

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

The clues to this extraordinary de-
velopment were buried in the silver grains
of half a dozen photographic plates that
were brought back in May 1919 from a
solar eclipse that swept across northern
Brazil and the small island of Principe
off the coast of Africa. By a freak of ac-
cident, this eclipse occurred against a
stellar background in which an unusually
large number of bright stars were posi-
tioned near the sun’s rim. Einstein had
predicted three years earlier that the
image of the stars whose light needed to
pass near the sun’s rim would be dis-
placed by a small amount (1.76” of arc, or
less depending on the distance), less than
¥000 of an inch for the closest encounters,
as compared to their normal position in
the sky when there was no massive body
interacting with the path of the light.

Late in 1915 and early in 1916, in the
middle of the war, Einstein had published
his climatic paper that linked gravity with
the space-time relations that he had ex-
amined 10 years earlier in his Special
Relativity Theory. His new General
Relativity Theory led him to make three
predictions. It gave a new value to the al-
ready well-known abnormality in the mo-
tion of Mercury around the sun, a value
in much closer agreement than anything
calculable from Newtonian assumptions.
He predicted a small change in the fre-
quency of light due to gravitational ef-
fects, a prediction that proved difficult
to detect but was finally observed by
watching a companion star of Sirius.

The third prediction of the bending of
light, however, was more easily meas-
ured’? and, in fact, could have been seen
at previous solar eclipses if someone had
gone to the trouble of setting up an ex-
periment that would have concentrated
on this effect. However, in the absence
of a compelling theoretical guide, the de-
termination of such a small deflection
would have been an effort beyond any-
thing an astronomer would be expected
to perform.

Einstein’s predictions were the result
of a conceptual picture that looked for
scientific truths in the opposite way—
a deductive way—from the more com-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

mon inductive way where many observa-
tions are combined to give rise to a
general law which, in turn, may predict
further unexpected events. Mendele’ev
did it with his Periodic Table of chemical
elements which, when properly arranged
in a systematic way, pointed out where
to look for missing structures.”° Not so
with Einstein’s approach. His con-
structs owed nothing to specific observa-
tions. Rather, he began with general
propositions from which particular meas-
urable results might be deduced.

How was the prediction of the bending
of light confirmed? The events culminat-
ing in the momentous joint meeting of
the British Royal Society, meeting with
the Royal Astronomical Society in
November 1919, read as if they had been
thought up by a skilled dramatist. Ima-
gine the setting for the announcement —
Burlington House, the home of the Royal
Society of which Newton was a founding
member more than 200 years ago and
whose portrait hung prominently in the
auditorium. The devastating war between
England and Germany had ended less
than a year before and while there was no
peace as yet, the terrible carnage of World
War I was, at last, over.

The meeting had no intentions of re-
newing contacts broken by the war, or to
reestablish the severed threads between
the separated scientific communities. The
sole objective of the meeting was to
present and to discuss a formal report
by the Astronomer Royal and his as-
sociates on:

‘‘A determination of the deflection of light by
the sun’s gravitational field from observations
made at the total solar eclipse of May 29,
1919724

a venture that had been jointly organized
by the two societies two years earlier.
Sir J. J. Thompson, President of the
Royal Society, known for his work on the
electron, was in the chair. Frank Dyson,
the Astronomer Royal, who had pointed
out the unusually favorable circum-
stances of this particular eclipse,” and
Sir Arthur Eddington of Cambridge
University, the leader of one of the two

105

expeditions, spoke to a hushed audience.
As Alfred North Whitehead recalled later:

It was my good fortune to be present at the
meeting of the Royal Society in London when
the Astronomer Royal for England announced
that the photographic plates of the famous
eclipse, as measured by his colleagues in
Greenwich Observatory, had verified the pre-
diction of Einstein that rays of light are bent
as they pass in the neighborhood of the sun.

The whole atmosphere of tense interest was
exactly that of the Greek drama: we were the
chorus commenting on the decree of destiny
as disclosed in the development of a supreme
incident. There was dramatic quality in the
very Staging: the traditional ceremonial, and in
the background the picture of Newton to
remind us that the greatest of scientific
generalizations was now, after more than
two centuries, to receive its first modifica-
tion. Nor was the personal interest wanting:
a great adventure in thought had at length come
safe to shore.”®

The two expeditions had nearly failed.
Eddington’s expeditions to the island of
Principe came back with 18 photographs
of the eclipse. Sixteen of them were use-
less because of a thin cloud cover and
only two showed images of the very
brightest stars nearest to the sun. At
Sobral in Brazil the clouds lifted one
minute prior to totality but all 18 pic-
tures taken with an astrographic tele-
scope that depended ona mirror to deflect
light into the instrument, were hope-
lessly blurred. Luckily, a second tele-
scope, borrowed from an Irish astronomer-
priest, provided seven acceptable pictures.

Despite these near disasters the meas-
urements could leave no doubt. Dyson’s
report said that the greatest weight should
be attached to the results from Sobral
(1.94"). The Principe observations gave
deflections of 1.61”, but with a large prob-
able error. Both pointed clearly toward the
predicted 1.75” of Einstein’s theory.

At the meeting Dyson and Eddington
stated most emphatically that the crucial
test of Einstein’s theory had been a suc-
cess. Thompson, calling for a general
discussion added:

If it is sustained that Einstein’s reasoning holds
good then it is the result of one of the highest
achievements of human thought.”4

106

There was a spirited debate. Could
other explanations suffice? One speaker,
pointing to Newton’s portrait said: ‘‘We
owe it to that great man to proceed very
carefully’’ But there was no holding back
now, no waiting for the next eclipse in
1922 in Australia which confirmed the
results without doubt.”° The next day, the
London Times carried a banner headline
story and an editorial

REVOLUTION IN SCIENCE
NEW THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE
NEWTONIAN IDEAS OVERTHROWN
The Fabric of the Universe”®

The unsigned author of this beautifully
and accurately presented story quotes
Thompson as saying:

‘‘They had just listened to ‘one of the most

momentous, if not the most momentous pro-
nouncement of human thought.’ ’*7

With such a send-off the press had no
need to invent more drama than was there
in fact. An English expedition, making its
preparations in the middle of a terrible
war, had confirmed predictions of an in-
dividual living in the land of the enemy,
and formulating a view of space, time and
gravitation that differed from the com-
mon sense view of Newton. |

Like a spark in a room filled with com-
bustibles the news story burned a spot in
men’s minds at a time when despair with
man’s behavior had all but triumphed.
Einstein’s prediction, skillfully con-
firmed by the British astronomers,
dramatically presented to the scientific
world, and so responsibly reported to the
world at large, came at a time when its
emotional impact was profoundly mov-
ing. It uncovered a person who, through
the strength of his character and the mes-
sages of his humane outlook, would sus-
tain this attention throughout his life.

‘“‘This I Believe’’

Just prior to his journey to Pasadena in
1932, without knowing that the political
developments would forestall a return to
his home and to the country of his birth

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

forever, Einstein made a radio recording
for the German public of his most deeply
held views. It came too late to influence
the events that were about to descend on
the world. But as the beliefs of a thought-
ful person, it will be read after the rant-
ings of those then in power have long
been forgotten:

It is a special gift of grace to join those who have
the opportunity and who are able to dedicate
their best efforts to the study and exploration
of objective, timeless topics. I am happy and
grateful that I shared in this gift. It made me
independent of the personal fate and actions
of my fellow men, even though this indepen-

dence should not blind one to the obligations
that bind us irrevocably to the past, the present
and future of humanity.

Our situation on this earth is a curious one.
Each one of us arrives here for a short stay,
involuntarily and unbidden, not knowing for
what reason and for what purpose. In our daily
lives we feel that we are here for the sake of
others, those whom we love and many others
whose fate is intertwined with ours.

I am often saddened by the thought of how
much of my life is based on the labor of others
and I know how much I owe them.

I do not believe in free will. Schopenhauer’s
saying that ‘“‘A man can do what he wants,
but he cannot will what he wants’’ accompany
me in all situations. It excuses the behavior of
people even when they hurt me. This recogni-
tion of the absence of free will protects me
from taking myself and my fellow men too
seriously as acting and as judging individuals,
and it keeps me from losing my sense of humor.

I never sought wealth and luxury and have, in
fact, a good deal of contempt for them. My
passion for social justice has brought me into
conflict with people, as has my antipathy to any
bonds and dependencies that are not absolutely
essential. I admire the individual and inexpres-
sibly dislike force and discrimination. These
feelings have made me a dedicated pacifist and
an opponent of militarism. I reject nationalism
even in the guise of patriotism.

Privileges based on position or property ap-
pear to me unjust and corrupting, as is an ex-
cessive personality cult. I acknowledge the
ideal of democracy, even as I recognize the dis-
advantages of democratic governments. Social
equality and economic protection of the in-
dividual appear to me important goals of the
social compact.

In daily life I am a ‘loner’ but the aware-
ness of being part of the invisible company

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

who strive for beauty and justice leaves me no
time to feel lonely.

The most beautiful and profound thrill that
man can experience is the feeling of mystery.
It forms the basis of religions and provides
the deepest nourishment for art and for
science. He who does not experience it appears
to me not dead but blind. To be aware that
beyond the accessible there is hidden an un-
reachable experience whose beauty and
majesty touches us only indirectly and in pale
reflection—that is true religion. In this sense
I am a believer. It is enough for me to ap-
proach these secrets with wonder and to at-
tempt to formulate a concise picture in my
mind of the majestic structure of the universe.8
(1932)

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Ms. Brenda G. Corbin

who made the splendid collection of the
Naval Observatory Library available for
research and study.

References

. Quoted in C. Weiner, ‘‘A New Site for the

Seminar: The Refugees and American Physics
in the Thirties’? Perspectives in American
History, Vol. II, 1968, p. 205.

. R. Willstatter, Aus Meinem Leben, p. 274. (con-

versation with A. Hitler related by Carl Bosch).

. The Haber Memorial Lecture by J. E. Coates,

J. Chem: Soce.(1939), p:- 1671.

. R. Willstatter, ibid., p. 413.
. Interview by Evelyn Seeley, New York World

Telegram, March 11, 1933.

. Ibid.
. ‘Autobiographical Notes’ in P. A. Schilpp

(Ed.), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist,
Vol. I, The Library of Living Philosophers
(1949).

. A. Einstein, The World as I See It, New York

(1934), p. 239.

. Ronald W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times,

World Publishing Company (1971).

. ‘‘Manifesto to the Civilized World’’, October

1914, (signed by Ernst Hackel, Wilhelm
Rontgen, Paul Ehrlich, Engelhart Humper-
dinck, Max Reinhart and others). Excerpts in
Ref. 12, pp. 3-4.

. Ref. 5.
. O. Nathan and H. Norden (Eds.), Einstein on

Peace, Schocken Books (1969), p. 577.

. ‘‘Manifesto to Europeans’’, reprinted in Ref.
12, p. 4ff.
a Refa12, pae3s9:

. Ref. 12, p. 229 (letter to Alfred Nahon, July

207193535):

. Ref. 12, p. 51 (Meeting of German Peace

Congress, Berlin 1923).

107

17. Ref. 12, p. 336, (Interview in New York Times,
September 15, 1945).

18. Ref. 12, p. 407 (May 1947).

19. W. de Sitter, ‘‘On Einstein’s Theory of Gravi-
tation and Its Astronomical Consequences’’,
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 76, 717 (1916) (‘The difference could
probably very well be measured’).

20. D. Mendele’ev, The Principles of Chemistry,
Vol. II, London (1891). (‘When, in 1871, I
wrote a paper on the application of the
periodic law to the determination of yet un-
discovered elements, I did not think I should
live to see the verification of the consequences
of the law, but such was to be the case. Three
elements were described—and now, after the
lapse of twenty years, I have had the great
pleasure of seeing them discovered and named
after those great countries where the rare
minerals containing them are found, where they
were discovered—Gallia, Scandinavia and
Germany’).

21. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 220 A, 291 (1919).

Einstein in the U. S. Navy

Stephen Brunauer

Clarkson College, Potsdam, N. Y. 13676

The figure of Albert Einstein has fas-
cinated his contemporaries; he was not
only the greatest scientist of our age, but
also the best-loved and most admired
man among all scientists. Because of his
stupendous contributions to science, one
of which resulted in the atomic age, his
name became known, through news-
papers, magazines, radio and television,
not only to the educated laymen, but also
to those who had less education than the
present audience; and even those who
know the name of no other scientist know
the name of Einstein.

Several biographies of Einstein were
published, which dealt with almost every
aspect of his life, but one aspect of his life
—in my opinion an important aspect—
was not discussed in any of them but one,

108

22. F. W. Dyson, ‘‘On the Opportunity Offered
by the Eclipse of 1919, May 29, of Verify-
ing Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation’’, Monthly
Notice of the Royal Astronomical Society 77,
445 (1917).

23. Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the
Modern World, The MacMillan Company
G1925): p.nhd;

24. The Observatory, ‘‘Joint Eclipse Meeting of the
Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical
Society’’, 42, 389 (1919).

25. W. W. Campbell and K. Trummpler, *‘Ob-
servations on the Deflection of Light in Pas-
sing Through the Sun’s Gravitational Field
Made During the Total Solar Eclipse of
September 21, 1922’, Lick Observatory Bul-
letin Number 346 (1923).

26. The (London) Times, November 7, 1919.
27. Ibid.

28. F. Herneck, ‘‘Albert Einstein’s gesprochenes
Glaubensbekenntnis’’, Naturwissenschaften
(1966), p. 198.

and in that only very briefly and to some
extent misleadingly. This aspect is the
story of how Einstein, a lifelong pacifist,
helped during World War II to fight the
Nazis through his work for the U. S. Navy.

The best and most complete biography
of Einstein was written by Ronald W.
Clark, with the title Einstein, the Life
and Times, and it was published by the
World Publishing Company in 1971.
Clark devoted less than two pages in his
63 1-page book to Einstein’s work for the
Navy Bureau of Ordnance, and even that
is partly erroneous, based on George
Gamow’s book My World Line. This is
not Clark’s fault; he wrote what scant
information he received, and apparently
no one referred him to the person who
could have given him both more and more

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

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accurate information, namely, to me. At
the time Mr. Clark wrote his book, I was
a professor in the Department of Chemistry
at Clarkson College of Technology.

First I have to tell you the background
of how Einstein and I became acquainted.
At the time of Pearl Harbor, I was a re-
search chemist in the U. S. Department
of Agriculture. Soon after that, I applied
for a commission in the Navy. After a
long drawn-out fight with the Navy,
which included one rejection, I won the
fight, and received my commission as a
full lieutenant (equivalent to a captain
in the Army) on September 2, 1942.
After that it took more than a month until
I located a billet in the Bureau of Ord-
nance and was called in for active duty.

Mr. Clark, following Gamow’s book,
wrote about the ‘‘Division of High Ex-
plosives’? in the Bureau of Ordnance,
but there was no such thing. The Bureau
had a “‘Research and Development Divi-
sion (Re),’’ the division had a section
called ‘‘Ammunition and Explosives
(Re2)’’, and the section had a subsec-
tion called ‘‘High Explosives and Propel-
lants (Re2c).’’ I was assigned to Re2c.
It had two other reserve officers in it
when I joined, and we divided the work
among ourselves. One became head of
propellant research, I became head of
high explosives research, and the third,
who was a lieutenant j.g., became my
assistant and deputy. I was, on the basis
of my broad experience in the field, ex-
cellently qualified for my assignment. I
knew the names of two high explosives:
TNT and dynamite. With that knowl-
edge, I became head of high explosives
research and development for the world’s
largest Navy!

But I was young and learned fast;
furthermore, the staff kept on growing as
the war progressed. I acquired two
groups of civilian scientists; one headed
by one of the speakers at this meeting,
Raymond J. Seeger; another of tonight’s
speakers, Harry Polachek, was in this
group; the other group was headed by
Gregory Hartmann, who eventually be-
came Technical Director of the post-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

war Naval Ordnance Laboratory at
White Oak. I also had a few officers.
Besides the people directly under me, I
had very many other scientists working
for us indirectly. The great majority of
the civilian scientists doing war research
was organized into the National Defense
Research Committee (NDRC), which had
two divisions doing research on high ex-
plosives: Division 2, headed by Professor
E. Bright Wilson of Harvard University,
which worked on underwater explosives
in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and
Division 8, headed by Professor George
Kistiakovsky, also of Harvard, which
worked on explosives in air in Bruceton,
Pennsylvania. This is a long introduction
to my meeting Einstein, but I believe it
was necessary to see the set-up to under-
Stand better what I will say from this
point on.

The top people of the Army, Navy and
the two civilian divisions had occasional
joint conferences to discuss their re-
search on high explosives. At one such
conference, the name of Einstein was
mentioned by somebody. That gave me
an idea. I asked the Army people whether
Einstein was working for them. The
answer was no. Then I asked the civilians
whether Einstein was working for them,
and the answer again was no. Why?
‘‘Oh, he is a pacifist,’’ was the answer,
‘‘furthermore, he is not interested in any-
thing practical. He is only interested in
working on his unified field theory.”’ I
was not satisfied with these answers.
Like those who gave the answers, I was
ignorant of the fact that Einstein had
changed his pacifist views publicly since
Hitler’s ascension to power; nor did I
know that Einstein was interested in
practical things. The first biography of
Einstein, that of Philipp Frank, was to ap-
pear only four years later. Nevertheless,
I felt that Einstein could not be a pacifist
in a war with Hitler, nor did I believe that
he would be unwilling to contribute his ef-
forts to this war. So I decided that I would
try to get Einstein for the Navy.

In the second week of May, 1943, I
wrote a letter to Einstein, asking his

109

permission to visit him in Princeton. The
gracious consent came by return mail.
The visit took place on May 16. After
the pleasant preliminaries, I asked Ein-
stein whether he would be willing to be-
come a consultant for the Navy in general,
and for me, in the field of high explo-
sives research, in particular. Einstein was
tremendously pleased about the offer,
and very happily gave his consent. He
felt very bad about being neglected. He
had not been approached by anyone to
do any war work since the United States
entered the war. He said to me, “*People
think that I am interested only in theory,
and not in anything practical. This is not
true. I was working in the Patent Office
in Zurich, and I participated in the de-
velopment of many inventions. The gyro-
scope too.’ I said, ‘‘That’s fine. You are
hired.’’ We both laughed, and agreed that
Einstein would talk the details over with
Dr. Frank Aydelotte, the Director of the
Institute for Advanced Study, where Ein-
stein was employed.

Already on the next day, both Einstein
and Aydelotte wrote separate letters to
me, and it is worth quoting both letters in
full. Both letters came on the stationery
of the Institute. The following was Ein-
stein’s letter:

May 17, 1943
Dear Lieutenant Brunauer:

I have your kind letter of May 13 and
have discussed with Dr. Aydelotte, Director
of the Institute for Advanced Study, the mat-
ter of my cooperation with the Research and
Development Division of the Navy. Dr.
Aydelotte approved heartily of my participat-
ing in your research operations. He and I both
feel that the individual contract would be most
suitable, and I agree fully with the arrange-
ments outlined in the enclosed letter from
Dr. Aydelotte.

I very much enjoyed your visit and look
forward with great satisfaction to this asso-
ciation with you in research on Navy prob-
lems. I shall expect to receive from you in
due course the contract and information about
the work which you wish me to undertake, and
I hope that I shall be able to make some use-
ful contribution.

In this connection, I should like to raise one
question: Would it in any way interfere with
my usefulness to the Navy if I should spend
a part of the summer in a cottage at Lake

110

Saranac? I do not know whether it will be
possible for me to take a holiday away from
Princeton in any case, and certainly if my use-
fulness to the Navy would be increased by re-
maining in Princeton I should be most happy
to do so. If, however, it would be equally
convenient for you, I think I could probably
work to better advantage in the more agree-
able climate of Lake Saranac during the hot
months of summer.

Yours very sincerely,
(signed) A. Einstein

How clear from this letter is Einstein’s
joy over the fact that he was finally drawn
into the war research! ‘‘I very much
enjoyed your visit and look forward with
great satisfaction to this association with
you in research on Navy problems.” I
think it is obvious that I enjoyed the
visit at least as much as he. This was
my first opportunity to meet the man
whom I considered one of the two great-
est scientists of all times (the other was
Newton). And how clearly the letter
shows Einstein’s humility, asking the
permission of a simple Navy lieutenant
to spend the summer at Lake Saranac.
I am sure that Einstein couldn’t know at
that time that I was a scientist, my field
being very far from Einstein’s interests.
He could have written simply that during
the summer he may be reached at Lake
Saranac, but no—he asked the permis-
sion of the Navy lieutenant. Naturally he
received it from me, but he didn’t use
it. He stayed at Princeton. The letter of
Dr. Aydelotte is also interesting and I
quote that also in full.

May 17, 1943

Dear Lieutenant Brunauer:

Professor Einstein has told me of his con-
versation with you and showed me your
gracious letter of May 13th suggesting arrange-
ments under which he may be of assistance to
the Navy for theoretical research on explo-
sives and explosions.

In talking over the matter with Professor
Einstein he and I have both come to the
conclusion that probably the best arrangement
would be for the Navy to make an individual
contract with him on the basis of $25 per day,
Professor Einstein to let you know at intervals
the amount of time he has actually spent on
Navy problems. I think it is important to leave

in the arrangements for an assistant in case a
great deal of routine work should be neces-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

=~ —_

sary, although Professor Einstein cannot tell at
this time whether or not he will need the
services of an assistant.

I take the liberty of writing to you simply to
say that the Institute for Advanced Study
cordially approves of this arrangement with
Professor Einstein and looks forward with
pride to having him undertake this service
for the Navy.

Believe me,

Yours very sincerely,
(signed) Frank Aydelotte, Director

This gracious letter shows that Dr.
Aydelotte was doubly happy about my of-
fer: for the sake of Einstein and for the
sake of himself and the Institute. The
most amusing part of the letter for us
today is the consultant fee of $25 per
day for the world’s greatest scientist.
It was a ridiculously small fee even at
that time. As to the assistant mentioned
in the letter, it was never needed because
no routine work was ever assigned to
Professor Einstein.

The originals of the two letters are in
the Navy or in the Archives, but I had
photocopies made of them, and had them
framed. This is the only thing I had ona
wall of my office, wherever I worked, and
one of the greatest joys in my life has been
that I was able to make Einstein happy.
And so I became, using some exaggera-
tion suggested by a friend, Einstein’s
‘‘boss’’ for three years.

The news of my successful visit spread
like wildfire in the Bureau of Ordnance.
Officers, from ensigns to admirals, came
to me with the question, ‘‘Is it true that
Professor Einstein is working for us?’’
When they found out that it was true, it
settled the matter of the outcome of the
war in their minds. The U. S. Navy and
Einstein were an unbeatable combination.

Einstein’s security clearance was ob-
tained very quickly, and the contract was
signed on May 31. Soon after that, I made
my second trip to Einstein, taking to him
for consideration one of the toughest
problems that puzzled us at that time. The
problem was whether the detonation of a
torpedo should be initiated in the front or
in the rear. The three most important

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

characteristics of the shock wave pro-
duced in a detonation are the peak pres-
sure, the impulse or momentum of the
shock wave, which includes the duration
of the shock, and the energy released in
the explosion. If in a torpedo the detona-
tion of the high explosive is initiated at
the forward end, one obtains the highest
peak pressure. If the detonation is ini-
tiated in the rear end, one obtains the
highest momentum. The energy de-
veloped is the same, regardless where the
explosion is initiated. So the ques-
tion was which of the three main char-
acteristics causes the most damage. If it
is the peak pressure, the explosion should
be initiated at the front end of the tor-
pedo; if it is momentum, it should be
initiated at the rear end, and if it is the
energy, the location of the initiation does
not make any difference.

Einstein was thinking about the prob-
lem for about ten minutes, and finally
chose momentum and gave the reasons.
But a few days later I received a letter
from him telling me that he gave much
further thought to the matter, and changed
his conclusion. He decided that the
energy developed in the explosion was
the most important factor, and gave his
reasons. Very expensive experiments
performed much later showed that he was
right. Of course this subject was highly
confidential during the war, but I hope
that now—thirty-five years later—it
is declassified.

This is a good example of the prob-
lems we took to Einstein, and this one
example should suffice. He always gave
very careful thought to the problems we
took to him and always came up with a
reasonable answer. I alluded to some mis-
leading statements in Clark’s excellent
book. These he took from George Gamow.
Gamow, a brilliant theoretical physicist,
was also one of my consultants during
the Second World War. According to
Gamow’s story, he was the Navy’s liai-
son man with Einstein; he took the re-
search we did to Einstein, who listened
with interest and praised the work. The
implication is that Einstein only “‘lis-

111

tened,’’ but made no contribution, and
this is false. Less important is the im-
plication that he was the only contact
with Einstein. He claimed that he visited
Einstein every two weeks, which is not
true; I visited Einstein about once in
two months and that was more fre-
quent than Gamow’s visits. Raymond
Seeger and many others also utilized
Einstein’s services.

I mention here two men. A young man,
who worked on torpedoes in the old
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, asked my
permission to consult Einstein about his
research. Naturally, I gave my permis-
sion. My co-workers and I considered
this young man very brilliant, but we did
not suspect that he would be the first man,
and to date the only one, to receive two
Nobel Prizes in the same subject, phys-
ics. His name is John Bardeen. Another
man was Henry Eyring, who is one of the
greatest physical chemists of the country
and the world. Eyring was then a profes-
sor at Princeton University, but he had
never met Einstein. He and his brilliant
group of young coworkers worked on a
high explosives project for us. I intro-
duced Henry to Einstein, and our walk
in Einstein’s garden became one of the
great experiences of Eyring’s life.

If I were asked to state what specific
contributions were made by Einstein to
our high explosives research, I would
have to say this. New and more effec-
tive high explosives were developed dur-
ing the war, and they were used by the
Navy and the Army (which then included
the Air Force) against Germany, Japan
and their allies. (I found out later that at
least the underwater explosives, possibly
others, were also used in the Korean and
the Vietnam War.) But these develop-
ments were the results of the efforts of
large groups of people, including Ein-
stein. It is impossible to assess the
contributions of the individuals within
the groups. The new developments re-
sulted from team work, and Einstein was
a member of the team—three of tonight’s
speakers were members of the team. But
it is easy to assess the value of a dif-

112

ferent type of contribution of Einstein—
his contribution to morale. It was up-
lifting to know that ‘‘Einstein was one
of us.”’

I learned from Clark’s book that in
July 1943, i.e., soon after Einstein joined
the Navy, he wrote to his friend Bucky,
‘*So long as the war lasts and I work
for the Navy, I do not wish to begin any-
thing else.’’ But we were unable to
supply him with enough work to occupy
him full time. Whenever I visited him, I
found that the tall and long blackboard
in his study was filled from the left to
right end, and from top to bottom, with
long, complicated equations, written
with neat, small-sized symbols—ob-
viously work on the unified field theory.
Nor were my bimonthly or more or less
frequent visits spent on business alone.
After the business came the conversa-
tion. We talked about the progress of the
war, about interesting items in the news,
about history, philosophy, about per-
sonal experiences, and about a great
variety of other things. Einstein had a
wonderful sense of humor; he loved to
make witty remarks and tell humorous
anecdotes. He laughed heartily at his
own jokes and also at mine. His well-
known wisecrack, “‘I amin the Navy, but
I was not required to get a Navy hair-
cut,’’ was born in one of our conversa-
tions. I am very sorry now that I did not
make detailed notes after each trip to
Einstein. But that was the busiest time of
my life; I worked seven days a week and
twelve hours or more every day, as
did many others. During three and a half
years, we had three days off, the three
Christmas days.

The great mathematician G. H. Hardy
called Einstein ‘‘good, gentle, and wise,”’
and it would be difficult to find better ad-
jectives for him than these. But I would
add one more, ‘‘humble.’’ You could see
that in his letter to me, which I read to
you, but that is only one example. In all
my visits, I received the impression of
a genuinely humble person. On one oc-
casion, he gave me one of his books as
a present. It was The Meaning of Rela-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

tivity. On the empty page under the cover
he wrote in his beautiful, small, clear
letters only this much: A. Einstein, and
under it the year, 1945. I was disappointed
that he did not write more, but I attribute
it to his humility, to his great modesty.
C. P. Snow visited Einstein only once
in his life, in the summer of 1937. He
wrote a long essay about his visit. He
found Einstein a sad man and a pes-
simist. During the eight hours they spent
together, he heard Einstein’s famous
laughter only once. Einstein had good
reasons to be pessimistic then; that was
the time of the rapid rise of Hitler, and
the western powers did nothing about it.
But since Snow’s essay appeared twelve
years after Einstein’s death, it created the
impression that Einstein was always like
that. This is not so. During my visits,
while the war lasted, Einstein was gay
and ebullient; in those visits he laughed
heartily and often. He had good reasons
for that too; we were on the way to
eradicating Hitler and his Nazi system,
and Eintein was—by his work in the
Navy—one of the eradicators.
Although Einstein’s third and last con-
tract as ‘‘Consultant for Research on Ex-
plosives’’ ran from July 1, 1945 (before
the end of the war) to June 30, 1946 (nine
months after the end of the war), there
was no need to consult him after the end
of the war. Hiroshima shook up many
people, and Einstein more than any-
one else. I visited him twice after the
war; last time in April 1946. Einstein’s
mood changed—he was worried about
the fate of mankind. I expressed the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

deep gratitude of the Navy, the Bureau of
Ordnance, and especially of my own for
the privilege of working with him, and he
in turn thanked me for getting him into the
war research, which gave him great satis-
faction. When we said goodbye to each
other, I was deeply moved, and perhaps
he was moved too.

That was the last time I saw him. Our
paths diverged after that. Our aim was
the same: the prevention of a third world
war, but our paths were different. I
stayed in the Navy for four and a half
more years to build up a new organiza-
tion for high explosives research and
development. Einstein’s path was com-
plete disarmament and the establishment
of a world government, and he exerted
all his energy, all his effort, and all his
influence to achieve those ideals. As we
know, he failed. I believe that Einstein
knew that his efforts were doomed to
failure; he was a prophet way ahead of
his time. But the “‘conscience of the
world,’’ as Einstein was called, could not
but fight to the end for what he believed,
however hopeless the fight was.

This is the story of Einstein in the Navy
in a nutshell. It is incomplete for two
reasons: I myself could have said more
if the time allotted to my talk had been
longer. What is more important, doubt-
less others could add their experiences to
mine. Some day a more complete story
will emerge about this important part of
Einstein’s life. But even this short history
is far more complete than anything you
can find in print to date. Thank you for
your attention.

113

DIRECTORY

THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1979

Foreword

The present, 54th issue of the Academy’s direc- and membership in affiliated societies by June 30,
tory is again this year issued as part of the September 1979. In cases in which cards were not received by
number of the Journal. As in previous years, the that date, the address appears as it was used during
alphabetical listing is based on a postcard question- 1979, and the remaining data were taken from the
naire sent to the Academy membership. Members __ directory for 1978. Corrections should be called to
were asked to update the data concerning address ___ the attention of the Academy office.

Code for Affiliated Societies, and Society Officers

1 The Philosophical Society of Washington (1898)

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary:
Delegate:

George T. Armstrong, 1401 Dale Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20910
William G. Maisch, 205 Yockum Parkway, Alexandria, VA 22034
Lowell D. Ballard, 722 S. Colonial, Sterling, VA 22170

James F. Goff, 3405 34th Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016

2 Anthropological Society of Washington (1898)

President:

- President-elect:

Secretary:
Delegate:

Marie J. Bourgeois, Rsch. Trng. Sec., Div. Nursing, BHM, HSA, HEW,
3700 East West Hwy., Hyattsville, MD 20782

Michael Kenny, Dept. of Anthro., Catholic University, Washington, D.C.
20017

John L. Landgraf, 2423 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037

Jean K. Boek, National Graduate Univ., 1101 N. Highland St., Arlington,
VA 22201

3 Biological Society of Washington (1898)

President:
Vice-President:
Secretary:
Treasurer:

Delegate:

Oliver S. Flint, Jr., Curator, Dept. of Ptasnbloneke Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C. 20560

Richard Banks, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish & Wildlife Div., Bird &
Mammal Labs., Washington, D.C. 20240

Michael A. Bogan, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish & Wildlife Div., Bird &
Mammal Labs., Washington, D.C. 20240

David L. Pawson, Curator, Dept. of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

William R. Heyer, Amphibian & Reptiles, Nat. History Bldg., Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C: 20560

4 Chemical Society of Washington (1898)

114

President:
President-elect:
Secretary:

Delegate:

Dr. Walter Benson, FDA, HFD 420, 200 C St. S.W., Washington, D.C.
20204

Dr. George Mushrush, Chem. Dept. George Mason Univ., 4400 University
Dr., Fairfax, VA 22030

Dr. Jo-Anne Jackson, Natl. Bureau of Stds., Bg. 223, Rm. A329,
Washington, D.C. 20234

Dr. Barbara Howell, Natl. Bureau of Stds., Bg. 222, Rm. A367, Washington,
D.C. 20234

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Entomological Society of Washington (1898)
President: Donald R. Davis, Dept. of Entomology, NHB 105, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. 20560
Vice-President: T. J. Spilman, Dept. of Entomology, NHB 169, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Wayne N. Mathis, Dept. of Entomology, NHB 169, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. 20560

Delegate: Donald R. Davis, see above

National Geographic Society (1898)

President: Robert E. Doyle, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
Chairman: Melvin M. Payne, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
Secretary: Owen R. Anderson, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036
Delegate: T. Dale Stewart, Smithsonian Institution, Museum of Natural History,

Washington, D.C. 20560

Geological Society of Washington (1898)
President: Francis R. Boyd, Jr., Carnegie Institution of Washington, Geophysical
Lab., 2801 Upton St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008
Vice-President: J. Thomas Dutro, U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Paleontology and
Stratigraphy, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560
Secretary: William E. Davies, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092, Mail Stop 973
Delegate: Not appointed

Medical Society of the District of Columbia (1898)

President: William S. McCune
President-elect: Frank S. Bacon
Secretary: Thomas Sadler
Delegate: Not appointed

Columbia Historical Society (1899)

President: Wilcomb E. Washburn, Amer. Studies, S.I., Washington, D.C. 20560
Vice-President: William H. Press, 1511 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005

Secretary: Marcellina Hummer, 2006 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009
Delegate: Paul H. Oehser, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036

Botanical Society of Washington (1902)
President: Dr. Kittie Parker, Dept. of Biology, George Washington University, 2029 G
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20052
Vice-President: Dr. Ted Bradley, Dept. of Botany, George Mason University, 4400
University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030

Secretary: Mrs. Antoinette Frederic, Dept. of Botany, Howard University, 2401
6th St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20059
Delegate: Conrad B. Link, Univ. of Md., Dept. of Horticulture, College Park, MD 20742
11 Society of American Foresters, Washington, Section (1904)
Chairman: Dr. Richard T. Marks, Rt. 2, Box 29, Warrenton, VA 22186
Chairman-elect: Jay McConnel, 4324 Ashford La., Fairfax, VA 22032
Secretary: Charles Newlon, 13106 Poplar Tree Rd., Fairfax, VA 22030
Delegate: Boyd Post
12 Washington Society of Engineers (1907)
President: Jeffrey H. Rumbaugh, Potomac Electric Power Co., 1900 Pennsylvania
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20068
Vice-President: Guy H. Hammer, Washington Hospital Dr., Washington, D.C. 20010
Secretary: Charles E. Remington, 2005 Columbia Pike, Arlington, VA 22204
Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020
13 Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Washington Section (1912)
Chairman: C. David Crandall, 12214 Old Colony Drive, Upper Marlboro, MD 20870
Vice-Chairman: Dr. Sajjad H. Durrani, 17513 Lafayette Dr., Olney, MD 20832
Secretary: Dr. Gideon Kantor, 10702 Kenilworth Ave., Garrett Park, MD 20766
Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020
J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979 115

14 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington Section (1923)

Chairman: John Ritzmann, Washington Gas Light Co., 6801 Industrial Dr., Springfield,
VA 22151

Vice-Chairman: Markley Au, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Fuel Cycle Division,
Washington, D.C. 20555

Secretary: John Fairbanks, Naval Ship Engineering Center, Crystal Plaza, Arling-
ton, VA 22207

Delegate: Michael Chi, 2721 N. 24th St., Arlington, VA 22207

15 Helminthological Society of Washington (1923)
President: J. Ralph Lichtenfels, Animal Parasitology Inst., SEA, BARC-East,
Beltsville, MD 20705
Vice-President: Nancy Pacheco, Naval Medical Research Inst., Bethesda, MD 20014

Corresponding
Secretary/
Treasurer: Sherman Hendricks, Gettysburg College, Dept. of Biology, Gettysburg, PA
Recording 17325
Secretary: Milford Lunde, Lab. of Parasitic Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20014
Delegate: Robert S. Isenstein, FSQS, USDA, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705
16 American Society for Microbiology, Washington Branch (1923)
President: Frank Hetrick, Dept. of Microbiology, Univ. of Md., College Park, MD 20742
Vice-President: Dr. George Royal, Dept. of Microbiology, Howard Univ., Washington,
D.C. 20059
Secretary: Dr. Thomas Elliott, 126 Moore Ave., Vienna, VA 22180
Delegate: None Appointed
17 Society of American Military Engineers, Washington Post (1927)
President: Col. Edwin P. Geesey, DAEN-FEZ-B, Washington, D.C. 20314
Vice-President: R.Adm. H. R. Lippold, NOAA, Washington, D.C. 20233
Secretary: William I. Jacob, DAEN-FER-P, Washington, D.C. 20314
Delegate: Hal P. Demuth, 4025 Pine Brook Rd., Alexandria, VA 22310

18 American Society of Civil Engineers, National Capital Section (1942)
President: James W. Harland, 1511 K St., N.W., Suite 337, Washington, D.C. 20005
Vice-President: Norman L. Cooper, Dept. of Transportation, 400 7th St., Rm. 9422, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20590

Secretary: Robert Efimba, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Howard University, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20059
Delegate: Robert Sorenson, Coastal Engineering Research Ctr., Kingman Bldg.,

Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060
19 Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, D.C. Section (1952)

President: Elise A. Brown, USDA, Washington, D.C. 20750
Vice-President: Ariel Hollinshead, G. W. Univ., Warwick Cancer Clinic, Washington, D.C.
20052
Recording
Secretary: Jocelyn Stewart, Food & Drug Adm., Rockville, MD 20204
Corresponding
Secretary: William Von Arsdel, Food & Drug Adm., Bureau of Drugs, Rockville, MD
20204
Treasurer: Margaret Davison, Dept. of Defense, Defense Fuel Supplies, Washing-
ton, D.C.
President Emeritus: Arthur Wykes, Natl. Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20014
Delegate: Cyrus R. Creveling, NIAID, Washington, D.C.
20 American Society for Metals, Washington Chapter (1953)
Chairman: Charles N. Scott, Southern Railway System, P.O. Box 233, Alexandria,
VA 22313

Vice-Chairman: Dr. Anna C. Fraker, B118 Materials Bldg. (564), Natl. Bureau of Stds.,
Washington, D.C. 20234

Secretary: Joseph R. Crisci, David Taylor NSRDC, Code 282, Annapolis, MD 21402

Treasurer: James R. Ward, V-S-E, Inc., 2550 Huntington Avenue, Alexandria, VA
22303

Delegate: Dr. Charles G. Interrante, B120 Materials Bldg. (562), Natl. Bureau of

Stds., Washington, D.C. 20234

116 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

21 American Association for Dental Research, Washington Section (1953)

President: John D. Termine, Natl. Institute of Dental Research, Bethesda, MD 20014

Vice-President: William R. Cotton, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD 20014

Secretary: Stanley Vermilyea, Walter Reed Army Inst. of Res., Washington, D.C.
20012

Delegate: William V. Loebenstein, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
20234

22 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Capital Section (1953)

Chairman: George J. Vila, General Dynamics, 1745 Jefferson Davis Hwy., Suite 1000,
Arlington, VA 22202

Vice-Chairman: Dr. Richard Hallion, Smithsonian Institution, National Air & Space Mus.,
7th & Independence Ave., Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Dr. Frederick L. Schuyler, Department of Energy, MS C-448, Washington,

_ D.C. 20545
Delegate: George J. Vila, General Dynamics, 1743 Jefferson Davis Hwy., Arlington, VA
23 American Meteorological Society, D.C. Chapter (1954)

Chairman: Dr. John A. Leese, NOAA/NESS, Room 3308 FB 4 S1X1, Washington,

D.C. 20233

Vice-Chairman: Mr. Edward M. Carlstead, NOAA/NWS/NMC, Room 410 WWB W33,
Washington, D.C. 20233

Corresponding
Secretary: Capt. Donald G. Buchanan, DOD Weather Liaison Officer, DET 1,
AFGWC, Washington, D.C. 20330
Delegate: Mr. A. James Wagner, NOAA/NWS/NMC, Room 604 WWB W335,

Washington, D.C. 20233

24 Insecticide Society of Washington (1959)
Chairman: William E. Bickley, American Mosquito Control Association, P.O. Box 75,
Riverdale, MD 20840
Chairman-elect: William Hollis, National Agricultural Chemicals Association, 1155 15th St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005

Secretary: Judd O. Nelson, Dept. of Entomology, University of Maryland, College
Park, MD 20742
Delegate: Jack R. Plimmer, USDA, SEA, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center,

Beltsville, MD 20705

25 Acoustical Society of America (1959)

Chairman: John A. Molino, Sound Section, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234

Vice-Chairman: Charles T. Molloy, 2400 Claremont Dr., Falls Church, VA 22043
Secretary: William K. Blake, Naval Ship R & D Ctr., Bethesda, MD 20034
Delegate: None appointed

26 American Nuclear Society, Washington Section (1960)
President: Arthur Randal, Am. Nuclear Energy Council, 1750 K St., N.W., Washing-
ton, D.C. 20006
Vice-President: S. Bassett, NUS Corp., Rockville, MD 20852

Secretary: Ray Durante, Westinghouse Electric, 1801 K St., N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20006

Delegate: Dick Duffy, Nuclear Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, MD 20742

27 Institute of Food Technologists, Washington Section (1961)

President: Mahlon Burnette III, Grocery Manufacturers of America, 1010 Wisconsin
Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007

Secretary: Allen Matthys, National Assn. of Food Processors

Treasurer: Katherine Albert

Delegate: William Sulzbacher, 8527 Clarkson Dr., Fulton, MD 20759

28 American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Washington Section (1962)
Chairman: W. T. Bakker, General Refractories Co., P.O. Box 1673, MD 21203
Chairman-elect: L. Biller, Glidden-Dirkee Div., SCM Corp., 3901 Hawkins Point Rd.,
Baltimore, MD 21226
Secretary: Edwin E. Childs, J. E. Baker Co., 232 E. Market St., York, PA 17405
Delegate: None appointed

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979 117

118

Secretary: George Marinenko, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 222, Rm. A217,
Washington, D.C. 20234
Delegate: David R. Flinn, see above
Washington History of Science Club (1965)
Chairman: Richard G. Hewlett, Atomic Energy Comm.
Vice-Chairman: Deborah Warner, Smithsonian Institution
Secretary: Dean C. Allard
Delegate: None appointed
American Association of Physics Teachers, Chesapeake Section (1965)
President: Morton Rubin, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Vice-President: Eugenie V. Mielczarek, George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr., Fairfax,
VA 22030
Secretary: Roberta Stoney, Langley High School
Delegate: Peggy A. Dixon, Montgomery College, Takoma Park Campus

Optical Society of America, National Capital Section (1966)
President: George J. Simonis, Harry Diamond Laboratory, Code 320, 2800 Powder
Mill Road, Adelphi, MD 20783
Vice-President: Carl H. Mikeman, Night Vision and Electro-Optics Lab., DELNV-VI,
Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060
Secretary: Martin J. Koomen, NRL Code 7171, Washington, D.C. 20375
Delegate: Dr. George Simonis

American Society of Plant Physiologists, Washington Section (1966)
Chairman: Werner J. Meudt, USDA, ARS Bldg. 50, Beltsville, MD 20705
Vice-Chairman: Charles F. Cleland, Radiation Biology Lab., 12441 Parklawn Dr.,
Rockville, MD 20852

Secretary: William VanDerWoude, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Seed
Research Lab., Bldg. 049, Beltsville, MD 20705
Delegate: W. Shropshire, Jr., Smithsonian Inst., 12441 Parklawn Drive, Rockville,
MD 20852
Washington Operations Research Council (1966)
President: G. Thomas Sicilia, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (MRA & L)
(RR) Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 20301
Vice-President: Gary Sorrell, Management Consulting and Research Inc., 5203 Leesburg
Pike, #608 Falls Church, VA 22041
Secretary: Donald J. Gantzer, Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. 20545
Treasurer: James Dwyer, Office of the Secretary of Defense (MRA & L)
Delegate: John G. Honig, 7701 Glenmore Spring Way, Bethesda, MD 20034
Instrument Society of America, Washington Section (1967)
President: Francis C. Quinn
President-elect: John I. Peterson
Secretary: Frank L. Carou
Delegate: None appointed
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical & Petroleum Engineers (1968)
Chairman: Garrett R. Hyde, 6027 Springhill Dr., Greenbelt, MD 20770
Vice-Chairman: John A. Patterson, 7705 Hamilton Spring Rd., Bethesda, MD 20034
Secretary: John H. DeYoung, Jr., 12677 Magna Carta Rd., Herndon, VA 22070
Delegate: Gus H. Goudarzi, 658 Pemberton Court, Herndon, VA 22070
National Capital Astronomers (1969)
President: Mary Ellen Simon, 8704 Royal Ridge Lane, Laurel, MD 20811
Vice-President: Wolfgang Schubert, 7906 Gosport Lane, Springfield, VA 22151
Secretary: Sharon Edmonds, 11322 Cherry Hill Road, Beltsville, MD 20705
Delegate: Benson J. Simon, 8704 Royal Ridge Lane, Laurel, MD 20811

J- WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

38 Maryland-District of Columbia and Virginia Section of Mathematical Assoc. of America (1971)

Chairman: John Smith, 1837 Negel Ct., Vienna, VA 22180
Vice-Chairman: Howard Penn, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD 21402
Secretary: John Hanson, James Madison Univ., Harrisonburg, VA 22801
Vice Chairman/
Delegate: Patrick Hayes, 950 25th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037
39 D.C. Institute of Chemists (1973)
President: Dr. Nina M. Roscher, American University, Dept. of Chemistry, Washing-

| ton, D.C. 20016
President-elect: Dr. Robert L. Patrick, Gillette Research Inst., 1413 Research Blvd.,
Rockville, MD 20850

Secretary/
Treasurer: Ms. Carolyn E. Damon, 3100 S. Manchester St., Apt. 540, Falls Church,
_ VA 22044
Delegate: _ Dr. Miloslav Rechcigl, Agency for International Development, Washington,
D.C. 20523
Alternate
Delegate: Edmund M. Buras, Jr., Gillette Research Institute, 1413 Research Blvd.,

Rockville, MD 20850
40 The D.C. Psychological Association (1975)

President: John F. Borriello, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Overholser Division, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20032

President-elect: Eugene Stammeyer, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Overholser Division,
Washington, D.C. 20032

Secretary: Sylvia M. Tetrault, Howard Univ. College of Medicine, Washington, D.C.
20059

Delegate: John J. O’Hare, Office of Naval Research, 800 N. Quincy St., Arlington,
VA 22217

41 The Washington Paint Technical Group (1976)
President: Robert F. Brady, Jr., GSA
Vice-President: Mildred A. Post, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 226, Rm. B-348,
Washington, D.C. 20234

Secretary: William Allanach, International Paint, Harve de Grace, MD
Delegate: Paul G. Campbell, National Bureau of Standards, B-348, Br., Washington,
D.C. 20234

42 Potomac Division, American Phytopathological Society (1977)
President: J. R. Stavely, Tobacco Laboratory, USDA, Agric. Research Center,
Beltsville, MD 20705
Vice-President: C.R. Curtis, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,

VA 24061
Secretary/
Treasurer: L. D. Moore, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,
VA 24061
Delegate: T. van der Zwet, Fruit Laboratory, USDA, Agric. Research Center,

Beltsville, MD 20705
43 Metropolitan Washington Chapter of the Society for General Systems Research (1977)

Vice-President: Dr. E. Ralph Dusek, Army Research Institute, 5001 Eisenhower Ave.,
Alexandria, VA 22333

Secretary: Mr. Gerald S. Malecki, Office of Naval Research, 800 N. Quincy St.,
Arlington, VA 22217
Delegate: Dr. H. Mcllvaine Parsons, Institute for Behavioral Research, 2429 Linden

Lane, Silver Spring, MD 20910

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979 119

45 Potomac Chapter, American Fisheries Society (1978)

President: Galen Buterbaugh, 8708 Higdon Drive, Vienna, VA 22180

President-elect: Norville Prosser, 511 Shaw Drive, Spotsylvania, VA 22553

Secretary: Stephanie Story, 6538 Lee Valley Drive, #101, Springfield, VA 22150

Delegate: Irwin Alperin, ASMFC, 1717 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20236

120 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

Alphabetical List of Members

M = Member; F = Fellow; E = Emeritus member; L = Life Fellow. Numbers in parentheses refer to
numerical code in foregoing list of affiliated societies.

ABDULNUR, SUHEIL F., Ph.D., Chemistry Dept.
The American University, Washington, D.C.
20016 (F-4)

ABELSON, PHILIP H., Ph.D., Editor SCIENCE
Magazine, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1550 Mass. Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 (F-1, 4, 7, 16)

ABRAHAM, GEORGE, M.S., Ph.D., 3107 West-
over Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 (F-1,
GeiZ 013, 31532)

ACHTER, M. R., 417 5th St., S.E., Washington,
D.C. 20003 (F-20, 36)

ADAMS, ALAYNE A., Ph.D., 8206 Lake Park
Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F)

ADAMS, CAROLINE L., 242 North Granada St.,
Arlington, Va. 22203 (E-10)

ADLER, SANFORD C., 14238 Briarwood Terr.,
Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-1)

ADLER, VICTOR E., 8540 Pineway Ct., Laurel,
Md. 20810 (F-5, 24)

AFFRONTI, LEWIS, Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology,
George Washington Univ. Sch. of Med., 2300
Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037
(F-16)

AHEARN, ARTHUR J., Ph.D., 9621 East Bexhill
Dr., Box 294, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-16)

AKERS, ROBERT P., Ph.D., 9912 Silverbrook Dr.,
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-6)

ALBUS, JAMES S., 4515 Saul Rd., Kensington,
Md. 20795 (F)

ALDRICH, JOHN W., Ph.D., 6324 Lakeview Dr.,
Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F)

ALDRIDGE, MARY H., Ph.D., 2930 45th St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-4)

ALEXANDER, ALLEN L., Ph.D., 4216 Sleepy
Hollow Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 (E-4)

ALEXANDER, BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Pres., Chicago
State Univ., 95th St. at King Dr. Chicago Ill.
(F)

ALGERMISSEN, S. T., 5079 Holmes PI., Boulder,
Colo. 80303 (F)

ALLEN, ANTON M., D.V.M., Ph.D., 11718 Lake-
way Dr., Manassas, Va. 22110 (F)

ALLEN, J. FRANCES, Ph.D. 7507 23rd Ave.,
Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F-45)

ALLEN, WILLIAM G., P.E., B.S., 8306 Custer
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-14)

ALTER, HARVEY, Ph.D., Nat. Center for
Resource Recovery, Inc., 1211 Connecticut
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (F-4)

ANDERSON, JOHN D., Jr., Ph.D., Dept. Aerospace
Eng., Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.
20742 (F-6, 22)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 69, NO. 3, 1979

ANDERSON, MYRONS., Ph.D., 1433 Manchester
Lane, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (E-4)

ANDERSON, WENDELLL., Rural Rt. 4, Box 4172,
La Plata, Md. 20646 (F-4)

ANDREWS, JOHN S., Sc.D., 10314 Naglee Rd.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (E-15)

ANDRUS, EDWARD D., B.S., 1600 Rhode Island
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (M-7, 25)

APOSTOLOU, Mrs. GEORGIA L., B.A. 1001
Rockville Pike, #424, Rockville, Md. 20852
(M-4)

APSTEIN, MAURICE, Ph.D., 4611 Maple Ave.,
Bethesda, Md., 20014 (F-1, 6, 13)

ARGAUER, ROBERT J., Ph.D., 4208 Everett St.,
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-24)

ARMSTRONG, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 1401 Dale Dr.,
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 4)

ARONSON, C. J., 3401 Oberon St., Kensington,
Md. 20975 (E-1, 32)

ARSEM, COLLINS, 10821 Admirals Way,
Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-1, 6, 13)

ARVESON, PAUL T., Code 1926, Naval Ship R&D
Ctr., Bethesda, Md. 20034

ASCIONE, RICHARD, Ph.D., National Cancer
Institute, National Institutes of Health, Be-
thesda, Md. 20014 (M)

ASLAKSON, CARL I., 5707 Wilson Lane, Be-
thesda, Md. 20014 (E)

ASTIN, ALLEN V., Ph.D., 5008 Battery Lane,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-1, 13, 22, 35)

AXILROD, BENJAMIN M., Ph.D., 9915 Marquette
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1)

AYENSU, EDWARD, Ph.D., 9200 Wilmett Ct.,
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-3, 10)

BAILEY, R. CLIFTON, Ph.D., 6507 Divine St.,
McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

BAKER, ARTHUR A., Ph.D., 5201 Westwood Dr.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-7)

BAKER, LOUIS C.W., Ph.D., Dept of Chemistry,
Georgetown University, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20057 (F-4)

BALLARD, LOWELL D., 722 So. Colonial, Ster-
ling, Va. 22170 (F-1, 13, 32)

BARBOUR, LARRY L., 19309 Poinsetta Court,
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (M)

BARBROW, LOUIS E., Natl. Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 13, 32)

BARGER, GERALD L., Ph.D., Rt. 4, Box 165AC,
Columbia, Mo. 65201 (F-23)

BEACH, LOUIS A., Ph.D., 1200 Waynewood
Bivd., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-1, 6)

121

BECKER, EDWIN D., Ph.D., Inst. Arthritis & Meta-

bolic Dis., Bldg. 2 Rm. 122, National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4)

BECKETT, CHARLES W., 5624 Madison St.,
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 4)

BECKMANN, ROBERT B., Ph.D., Dept. of Chem.
Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md.
20742 (F-4)

BElJ, K. H., 69 Morningside Dr.,
N.H. 03246 (L-1)

BEKKEDAHL, NORMAN, Ph.D., 405 N. Ocean
Blvd., Apt. 1001, Pompano Beach, Fla.
33062 (E-4, 6)

BELSHEIM, ROBERT, Ph.D., 2475 Virginia Ave.,
N.W., #514, Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-1, 12,
14, 25)

BENDER, MAURICE, Ph.D., 16518 N.E. 2nd. PI.,
Bellevue, Wa. 98008

BENESCH, WILLIAM, Inst. for Molecular Physics,
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742
(F-1, 32)

BENJAMIN, C. R., Ph.D., IPD/SEA, USDA, Rm.
459, Federal Bg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782
(F-6, 10)

BENNETT, BRADLEY F., 3301 Macomb St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1, 20)

BENNETT, JOHN A., 7405 Denton Rd., Bethesda,
Md. 20014 (F, 20)

BENNETT, MARTIN TOSCAN, Ch.E., 3700 Mt.
Vernon Ave., Rm. 605, Alexandria, Va. 22305
(F-4, 6)

BENNETT, WILLARD H., Box 5342, North
Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, N.C. 27607 (E)

BENSON, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 618 Constitution
Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002 (M-34,
40, 44)

BERGER, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 10313 Twinedew
PI., Columbia, Md. 21044 (F)

BERGMANN, OTTO, Ph.D., Dept. Physics,
George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C.
20052 (F-1)

BERMAN, ALAN, Ph.D., 9304 Maybrook PI.,
Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F-25)

BERNETT, MARIANNE K., Code 6170, Naval Res.
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M-4)