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JOTJENAL

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(jf0unbjeb 1834.)

Vol. XLIIL— Ybab 1880.

LONDON:
KDWABD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

1880.

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/StO, <L.(/i^<iO^^ /^^^, c^^-//.

^^>? i^^ 'fff / H'/y.

NOTICE.

The CJouncil of the Statistical Society wish it to be understood,
that, while they consider it their duty to adopt every means within
their power to test the facts inserted in this Joumaly they do not
hold themselves responsible for their accuracy, which must rest
upon the authority of the several Contributors.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

HIS BOTAL HIGHNESS THE PBINCE OF WALES, KG.

COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.— 1880-81.

{having filled the

Thb Bight Hovottbablb Thb Eabl of

SHAPTBSBirBY, K.G., D.C.L.
Thb Bight Honoubablb Thb Eabl op

Habeowby, K.G., D.C.L.
Thb Bight Honoubablb Thb Lobd

Otbrstonb, M.A., F.B.a.S.
The Bight Honoubablb The Eabl of

Dbbby, D.C.L., F.B.a.
Thb Bight Hokoitbablb Thb Lobd

Houghton, D.C.L., F.B.S.

Office of Fresiden^).

William Nbwmaboh, Esq., F.B.S., F.I.A.

(Corr. Member Inst, of France).
WiLUAM Fabb, Esq., M.D., C.B., D.O.L.,

F.B.S. (Corr. Member Inst, of France).
William A. Guy, Esq., M.B., F.B:C.P.,

F.B.S.
James Heywood, Esq., F.B.S., F.G.S.
The Bight Honoubablb Gbobgb Shaw

Lbfbybb, M.P.
Thomas Bbassby, Esq., M.P.

JAMES CAIBD, ESQ., C.B., F.B.S.

Hyde Claeke, F.H.S. I Peoe. W. S. Jevons, LL.D., F.B.S.

Fbedbbice Hendbiks. I Fbedebio John Mouat, M.D.

James Heywood, Esq., M.A., F.B.S. | Sib John Lubbock, Babt., M.P., F.B.S.
William Kewmaboh, Esq., F.B.S.

Bichabd Biddulfh Mabtin, M.P.

Coundt

Abthub H. Bailey, F.I.A.

T. Gbaham Balfoub, M.D., F.B.S*.

A. E. Bateman.

a. Phillifs Bbvan, F.a.S.

Stbfhen Boubne.

Edwabd William Bbabbooe, F.S.A.

Sib Geobge Campbell, E.C.S.I., M.P.

J. Oldfield Chadwick, F.B.G.S.

Hammond Chubb, B.A.

Hyde_Clabke, F.H.S.

Lionel L. Cohen.

Majob Patbioe Gt. Cbaigie.

JULAND DaNYBBS.

Bobebt Giffen.
Fbedebick Hbndbiks.

Noel A. Humfhbeyb.

Pbof. W. S. Jevons, LL.D., F.B.S.

Bobebt Lawson.

Pbofessob Leone Leyi, LL.D.

Sib John Lubbock, Babt., M.P., F.HS.

John B. Mabtin, M.A.

Bichabd Biddulfh Mabtin, M.P.

Fbedebio John Mouat, M.D., F.B.C.S.

Fbancis G. p. Neison.

Bobebt Hogabth Pattbbson.

Henby D. Poohin.

Fbedebick Pubdy.

Sib Bawson W. Bawson, C.B., K.C.M.G.

CoBNELius Walfobd, F.I.A.

Thomas A. Wblton.

Hammokd Chubb. | Bobebt Giffen.

John B. Mabtin.

Jfottiun g^ttxttsqn*
Fbedebio J. Mouat.

I Bobebt Giffen.

Joseph Whittall.

3Bail&mf. -MBseBS. Dbummond and Co., Chasing Csosb, S.W., London.

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^. '^

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CONTENTS.

Vol. XLIIL— Year 1880.

March, 1880.

PAGE

Is the Value of Money Bising in England and throughout the
World ? With Bemarks on the Effect of the Fluctuating
Conditions of Trade upon the Value of Money. By R H.

Pattjerson, Esq. 1—26

Discussion on Mr. Patterson's Paper 27 — 34

The Strikes of the Past Ten Years. By Geobob Philups

Bkvah, Esq., F.G.S 35—64

Discussion on Mr. Bevan's Paper 55 — 64

On Certain Changes in the English Bates of Mortality. By

Thoicas a. Welton, Esq. 65—83

Discussion on Mr. Welton's Paper 84 — 94

Miscbllakea: —

I. — Financial and Commercial History of 1879 95— 109

n. — ^Fires in the Metropolis during 1879, and the Fire

Brigade 109—114

in.— English Literature in 1879 114—116

IV.— German Literature of 1878 and 1879 116, 117

V. — ^Emigration and Immigration in the Year 1879 117 — 123

VI. — ^Bates of Life Insurance Premiums 123 — 134

Vll. — ^Beport of a Committee with reference to the Census of

1881 . 134—139

VUL— Notes on Economical and Statistical Works 139—143

IX.— Notes on some of the Additions to the Library 143 — 147

X. — ^Additions to the Library during the Quarter. 147 — 158

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vi CONTENTS, VOL. XLIIT, YKAR 1880.

PAQC

Periodical Returns : —

Registrar-General's Report, and Meteorolo^cal Table for
England and Wales for the Year ending 1879. — ^The same
for Scotland. — Births, Deaths, and Marriages of the United
Ejugdom. — Foreign and Colonial Produce Exported, 1878-74.
— Trade of the United Kingdom, 1879-78-77. — Imports and
Exports. — Shipping. — Gold and Silver Bullion and Specie.
Average Prices of Com in England and Wales. — Bank of
England Returns. — Revenue Returns. — The London Clear-
ances and Country Bank (Note) Circulation in United
Kingdom. — Foreign Exchanges 159—182

.June, 1880.

On the Education and Training of the Children of the Poor.

By Frederic J. Mouat, M.D., F.RC.S 183- 243

Discussion on Dr. Mouat's Paper 244 — 260

Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses. By Surgeon-General T.

Graham Balfour, M.D., F.RS 251—271

Discussion on Surgeon-General Balfour's Paper 271 — 274

Ten Years' Statistics of British Agriculture, 1870-79. By
Captain Patrick Georob Craigie, Secretaiy of the Central
Chamber of Agriculture * 275—312

On the Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, and Price of
Wheat, over the Harvest- Years 1852-53 to 1879-80, inclu-
sive. By J. B. Lawes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., and J.
H. Gilbert, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S 313-331

Discussion on the two Papers by Captain Craigie, and by

Lawes and Gilbert 332—340

Miscellanea : —

I. — General Results of the Commercial and Financial Histoiy

of the Year 1879 341—355

II. — ^The Movement of the Population in Russia during the

Four Years 1867-70 356—364

III.— Lloyd's Statistics of Marine Casualties for the Year 1879 366 — 379

IV.— An Iron Trade Chart for the past Fifty Years 380, 381

v.— Notes on Economical and Statistical Works 382—388

VI. — ^Notes on some of the Additions to the Library 388—393

VII.— A Quarterly List of the Additions to the Library 393—404

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OONTBUTS, VOL. XLIII, TEAR 1880. vil

September, 1880.

TACE

Report of the Council to the Forty-Sixth Anniversary Meeting

of the Statistical Society 405- -416

Proceedings of the Forty-Sixth Anniversary Meeting 417 — 422

A Survey of Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction Oflfences in
England and Wales, from 1857 to 1876, in Quinquennial
Periods, and in 1877 and 1878. By Professor Leone
Levi, F.S.A., LL.D., &c 423—456

Discussion on Professor Leone Levi's Paper 456 — 461

On the Increase of Population in England and Wales. By R.

Price Williams, M. Inst. C.E 462—496

Discussion on Mr. R. Price Williams's Paper 497 — 608

Mortality in Remote Comers of the World. By Harald

Westbroaard, of Copenhagen 509 — 520

Miscellanea : —

I.— Ten Years' Railway Statistics 521—531

II. — Notes on Economical and Statistical Works 531 — 547

III. — Notes on some Additions to the Library 547, 548

IV. — list of Additions to the Library 548 — 558

December, 1880.

The Inaugural Address of Jakes Caird, Esq., C.B., F.RS.,
President of the Statistical Society, delivered on Tuesday,
the 16th of November, 1880 559—572

Proceedings on the 16th November, 1880 572

Note on the Tenth Census of the United States of America.
By F. J. MouAT, M.D., F.R.C.S., Vice-President and
Foreign Secretary 573—602

Discussion on Dr. Mouat's Paper 602 — 604

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Vlii C0NTBKT8, VOL. XLIU, YEAR 1880.

PAOB

^' The Oriental Plague in its Social, Economical, Political, and
" Intamational Belations, special Bef erence being made to
" the Labours of John Howard on the subject." A Prize
Essay. By Hrnrt Percy Potter, Esq., RRCS., to
whom the Howard Medal of 1880 was awarded 606—642

Miscellanea : —

I.— Agricultural Eetums for the Year 1880 643—664

II.— The Com Crops of 1880 664—670

III.— Ten Years' Eesults of the London School Board 670—682

rV.— The Annual Local Taxation Betums of 1878-79 683—687

v.— Ten Years' Telegraphy 687—690

VI.— The Population of the Earth 690—697

VII.— Statistics of Australasian Colonies 698, 699

VIII.— Agricultural Diatress and Bills of Sale 700—705

IX. — Notes on Economical and Statistical Works 705 — 709

X. — ^Notes on some Additions to the Library 709 — 711

XI.— List of Additions to the Library 711—720

Index to vol. xliii (1880) 721—743

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(Corrected to 31st December, 1880.)

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(Founded 1834,)
SOMERSST HOUSE TERRACE (King's College Entrance),

STRAND, W.C, LONDON.

PAas

Council and Officers 2

Objects of the Society 8

Calendar for Session 1880-81 4

Programme of the Session 1880-81 5 "

Howard Medal of 1881, Subject of Essay for. . 6

List of the former Patron and Presidents. ... 7

Do. Fellows • 8

Do. Honorary Members 43

Index to Rui.es 48

Rules of the Society 49

Regulations of the Library 53

Donors to the Library during the Year 1880. . 54

Cost of Back Nos. of Journal (if not out of Print). 60

Odd Numbers, Parts and Volumes wanting in

THE Library 61

Form of Bequest 62

LONDON :

PBIKTBD POB THB BOOIETT,

BY HABBISON AND SONS, 45 and 46, ST. MARTIN'S LANE,
IPrmttrs in ®rbimarg ia $tr Pajtstg.

1881,

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PBINCE OF WALES, K.Q.
COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.— 1880-8L

QMving fitted the Office of Preeident),

Thb Bight HoirorBABLE Ths Babl of

Shaftbsbttbt, K.G-., D.C.L.
Thb Bight Honoxtbablb Thb Eabl op

Habeowbt, K.a., D.O.L.
Thb Bight Honoubablb Thb Lobd

OvBESTONB, M.A., F.B.a.S.
Thb Bight Honottbablb The Eibl of

Dbbby, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Thb Bight Honoubablb Thb Lobd

Hovghtok, D.O.L., F.B.S.

William Newmabch, Esq., F.B.S., F.IJL.

(Corr. Member Inst, of France).
William Fabb, Esq., M.D., C.B., D.O.L.,

F.E.S. (Corr. Member Inst, of France.)
WiLLLiM A. auT, Esq., M.B., F.B.C.P.,

F.B.S.
James Hetwood, Esq., F.B.S., F.G.S.
The Bight Honoubable Qbobgb Shaw

Lefevbe, M.P.
Thomas Bbasset, Esq., M.P.

JAMES OAIBD, ESQ., C.B., F.B.S.

Hyde Clabkb, F.H.S. | Peof. W. S. Jevoits, LL.D., F.B.S.

Fbedebiok Hbkdbiks. I Fbbdbbio John Mouat, M.D.

Jambs Hbtwoop, Esq., M.A., F.B.S. | Sib John Lxtbboos, Babt., M.P., •F.B.S.
William Newmabch, Esq., F.B.S.

ZxtKiuxtx.
Biohabd BiDDtrLPH Mabtik, M.P.

€ottndl.

Abthitb H. Bailey, F.I.A.

T. asAHAM Balfoitb, M.D., F.B.S.

A. E. Batemin.

G. Phillifs Bevan, F.G.S.

Stephen BouBim.

Edwabd William Bbabbook, F.S.A.

Sib Geobgb Campbell, E.O.S.L, M.P.

J. Oldfield Ohadwick, F.B.G.S.

Hammond Chitbb, B.A.

Hyde Clabkb, F.H.S.

Lionel L. Cohen.

Majob Patbick G-. Cbaigib.

Juland Dantebs.

BOBEBT GiFFBN.

Fbedbbiok Hbndbizb.

Noel A. Hitmphbbys.

Peof. W. S. Jbyons, LL.D., P.BJ3.

Bobebt Lawson.

Pbofbssob Leone Lbti, LL.D.

SiB John Litbbook, Baet., M.P., F.B.S.

John B. Mabtin, M.A.

Biohabd Biddulfh Mabtin, M.P.

Fbedeeio John Mouat, M.D., F.B.C.S.

Feanois G. p. Neison.

Bobebt Hogabth Pattebsok.

Henby D. Pochin.

Fbedebiok Pttbdy.

Sib Bawson W. Bawson, C.B., E.C.M.G.

CoBNELius Walfobd, F.I.A.

Thomas A Wklton.

^ttxttnxiti.

Hammond Chtbb. | Bobbbt Giffbn.

John B. Mabtin.

Jfaxtisn gptattxxui.
Fbbdbbio J. Movat.

etsitax Of t^t SmxntO.

Bobebt Giffen.

Joseph Whittall.
JBan&n3f*^MBSSBS. Dbfmkond aiitd Co., Chabing Cboss, S.W., London.

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3
AN OUTUNB OF

THE OBJECTS OF THE STATISTICAI SOCIETT.

Thb Statistical Society of London was founded, in pursuance of
a reoommendation of the British Association for the Advancement
of Scienoe, on the 15th of March, 1834 ; its object being, the careful
collection, arrangement, discussion and publication, of facts bearing
on and illustrating ihe complex relations of modem society
in its social, economical, and political aspects,-— especially facts
which can be stated numerically and arranged in tables ; — and also,
to form a Statistical Library as rapidly as its funds would permit.

The Soci6tv from its inception has steadily progressed. It now
possesses a valuable Library and a Reading Koom ; ordinary meet-
mgs are held monthly from November to June, which are well
attended, and cultivate among its Fellows an active spirit of inves-
tigation : the papers read before the Society are, with an abstract
of the discussions thereon, published in its Journal^ which now
consists of 43 annual volumes, and forms of itself a valuable library
of reference.

The Society has originated and statistically conducted many
spedal inquiries on subjects of economic or sodal interest, of which
the results have been published in the Journal or issued separately ;
the latest instance being the institution of the ^^ Howard Med^ ''
Prize Essay.

To enable the Society to extend its sphere of useful activity, and
accomplish in a yet greater degree the various ends indicated, an
increase in its numbers and revenue is desirable. With the desired
increase in the number of Fellows, the Society will be enabled to
publish standard works on Economic Science and Statistics,
especially such as are out of print or scarce, and also greatly extend
its collection of Foreign works. Such a well-arranged Library for
reference, as would result, does not at present exist m England, and
is obviously a great desideratum.

The Society is cosmopolitan, and consists of Fellows and
Honorary Members, forming together a body, at the present time,
of between eight and nine hundred Members.

The Annual Subscription to the Society is Two Guineas^ and
at present there is no entrance fee. Fellows may, on joining the
Society, or afterwards, compound for all future Annual Subscriptions
by a payment of Twenty Guineas.

The Fellows of the Society receive gratuitously a copy of each
part of the Journal as published Quarterly, and have the privilege
of purchasing back numbers at a reduced rate. The Library
(reference and circulating), and the Reading Room, are open d^y,
for the convenience of Members.

Nomination Forms and any further information will be fur-
nished, on application to the Assistant Secretary.

B 2

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CALENDAR FOR SESSION 1880-81.

fii

1880

1881

NOV.

MAY

...

»4

...

24
31

DEC.

*. .

• . .

JUNE

...

1881

...

JAN.

...

JULY

...

»7

...

FEB.

...

AUG.

...

•..

...

MAR.

...

SEP.

. ..

.. .

'23

...

APR.

OCT.

...

.. .

24
31

The Ordinanr Meetings of the Society, at which Papers are read and discassed, are
marked in the Calendar above by Black Figures.

TA^ Chair will be taken at 7*45 /.«., precisely.

Visitors may attend the Ordinary Meetings on the introduction of a Fellow.

THE ANNIVERSART MBETINO

Will be held on the 28th June, 1881, at 4 p.m.

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MONTHLY meetings-Session 1880-81.

HELD ON THE

Third Tubsdat m the MoNtHs op Noyembbe — June.

{Bxoeptimg April)

Tuesday, Nov. 16.

„ Dec 21,

„ Jan. 18.

Feb. 15.

Tuesday, March 15.

„ April 12.

May 17.

„ Judo 21.

The Council have reason to expect that in the course
of the Session the foUovnng Papers will, among others,
be communicated to the Society : —

The PBEsmEMT's Inaugural Address. By James Caibd, Esq.,
C.B.,F.R.S. ^

** Note on the Tenth Census of the United States of America .V
By Dr. F. J. Mouat, F.R.C.S.

" The Growth of the Human Body." By J. T. Danson, Esq.

" The Methods of Electing Representatives." By Hbnbt R.
Droop, Esq.

" The Influence of Expenditure on Intoxicating Liquors on the
Trade and Conmierce of the Country." By Wm. Hotle, Esq.

"The Question of the Reduction of the Present Postal Tele-
graph Tariff." By R- Price Williams, Esq., C.E.

" The Method of Statistics." By Wtnnard Hooper, Esq.

" The Comparative Taxation of the Principal European Countries."
By Robert Oiffen, Esq.

"The Relative Mortality of Large and Small Hospitals; their
advantages and disadvantages considered." By H. C. Bur-
DKTT, E^.

" The History and Statistics of the Irish Incumbered Estates
Court, with Suggestions for a Tribimal with similar Juris-
diction in England." By R. Denny Urun, Esq. (lately
Examiner under "The Landed Estates Act — Ireland ).

" On the Development of the Hill Regions of India." By Hyde
Clarke, Esq.

"A Statistical Chronology of the Plagues and Pestilences of the
World." By C. Walford, Esq., F.SA.

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HOWARD MEDAL.

The following is the title of the Eseay to which the Medal will
be awarded in November, 1881. The Essays to be sent in on or
before SOth June, 1881.

^^ On the Jcdl Fever , from the earliest Black Assize to the last
'' recorded outbreak in recent times f

The Council have decided to grant the sum of £20 to the writer
who may gain the *' Howard Meikl" in November, 1881.

(The Medal is of bronze^ having on one side a portrait of John
Howard^ on the other a wheatsheaf with suitable inscription.)

The following are the principal conditions : —

Each Essay to bear a motto, and be accompanied by a sealed
letter, marked with the like motto, and containing the name and
address of the author ; such letter not to be opened, except in the
case of the successful Essay.

No Essay to exceed in length 150 pages (8vo.) of the Journal of
the Statistical Society.

The Council shall, if they see fit, cause the successful Essay, or
an abridgment thereof, to be read at a Meeting of the Statistical
Society ; and shall have the right of publishing the Essay in their
Journal one month before its appearance in any separate indepen-
dent form ; this right of publication to continue till three months
after the award of the Prize.

The President shall place the Medal in the hands of the suc-
cessful Candidate, at the conclusion of his Annual Address, at the
ordinary Meeting in November, when he shall also re-announce the
subject of the Prize Essay for the following year.

Competition for this Medal shall not be limited to the Fellows
of the Statistical Society, but shall be open to any competitor,
providing the Essay be written in the English language.

The Council shall not award the Prize, except to the author of
an Essay, in their opinion, of a sufficient standc^d of merit; no
Essay shall be deemed to be of sufficient merit that does not set
forth the facts with which it deals, in part, at least, in the language
of figures and tables ; and distinct references should be miule to
such authorities as may be quoted or referred to.

Further particulars or explanations may be obtained from the
Assistant Secretary, at the Office of the Society, King's College
Entrance, Strand, London, W.C.

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LIST OP THE FORMER

OF THl

STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

From Us Foundation, on I5ih March, 1834.

patron.

1840-61 — 'H3S KoTAL Highness The Pbincb Consort, K.G,

1834-36
1836-38
1838-40
1840-42

1842-43
1843-45

1845-47
1847-49
1849-51
1851-53
1853-55
1855-57
1857-59

1859-61

1861-63

1863-65
1865-67
1867-69
1869-71
1871-73
1873-75
1875-77
1877-79
1879-80

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, F.RS.

Sir Charles LemoD, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., LL.D.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Viscount Sandon, M.P.
(now Earl of Harrowby.)

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, E.G., F.R^.

The Right Hon. the Viscount Ashley, M.P,
(now Earl of Shaftesbury.)

The Right Hon. the Lord Monteagle.

The Right Hon. the Earl Mtzwilliam, F.RA

The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrowby,

The Right Hon. the Lord Overstone.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam, K.G., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Stanley, M.P.
(now Earl of Derby.)

The Right Hon. the Lord John Russell, M.P., F.R.S.
(afterwards Earl Russell.)

The Right Hon. Sir J. S. Pakington, Bart., M.P., G.C.B.
(afterwards Lord Hampton.)

Colonel W. H. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Houghton.

The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., D.C.L.

W. Newmarch, Esq., F.R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst, of France.

WiUiam Farr, Esq., M.D., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

WiDiam A. Guy, Esq., M.B., F.R.S.

James Heywood, Esq., Mji., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The Right Hon. George Shaw Lefevre, M.P.

Thomas Brassey, Esq., M J*.

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LIST OF FELLOWS.

Tho*e marked thui * have compounded for their Annual SubecnpiUme.
The namee rfMembere rf Council ure printed in Small Capitals.

Tmt of
Election.

1878

1876
1870
1862
1869
1879
1867
1873
1880
1876
1879
1841
1876
1847
1872
1876
1876

Abdiir Eabman, Moulvie Syud, F.E.C.S. (BarrUter-at'Laiojy

42, Talfollah-lane, Calcutta, India,
Abrahams, Israel, F.KG-.S.,

56, Bussell-square, W,0.
Absolon, Eugene,

12, Wellingtan'Square, Kina^s-road, Chehea, S.W.
Acland, Henry Wentworth, M.D., F.E.S.,

Oxford,
Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P., F.E.S.,

Sprt/doncote, Exeter ; and AthentBum Club, S, W
Adam, Eobert {City Chamberlain),

City Chambers, Edinburgh,
Addison, John,

6, Delahay'Street, Great Oeorye-street, 8,W,
♦Airlie, The Eight Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,

36, Chesham-place, S.W.
Aitchison, David,

5, Fembridge-square, W,
Aitchison, William John,

2, Princes-street, E.C,
Akers-Douglas, Aretas, M.P., J.P.,

ChiUton Fark, Maidstone, Kent,
Aldam, "William, F.E.8.,

Frichley Hall, Doncaster,
Aldwinckle, Thomas Williams,

7, Fast India-avenue, LeadenhalUstreet, F,C,
Alexander, George William,

The Willows, Church-street, Stoke Newington, N,
Alexander, Eobert Henry,

24, Lomhard-street, F,C,
Allen, John T. E.,

North Bailey, Durham,
Allen, Joseph,

8t, Mldred's House, FouUry, KC,

Digitized by

Google

Tmvoi

1877

1878
1878
1871
1871
1834
1872
1871
1870
1871

1872
1872
1875
1879
1855
1858
1879
1878
1879
1848
1873
1865

LIST OP FELLOWS.

Allen, Joseph, ( West Riding ChambenY

21, Jraterhouse-ttreetf Jffalifaa, Yorkshire,
Anderson, A. E.,

131, Mount Pleasant^ Idverpool.
Anderson, Edward C, M.A., M.D.,

TotD-Law, Darlington.
Anderson, Sir James, E.E.G.S., F.G.S.,

66, Old Broad-street, E.G.
Angus, B. 6.,

Montreal, Canada.
♦AnseD, Charles, F.E.S.,

92, Cheapside, U.O.
♦Archibalcl, "William Frederick A., M.A,

3, AmershamrToad, Putney, S. W,
Atkinson, George "W.,

1, Begent-street, Bamsley,
Averj, Thomas,

Church-road, JEdghaston, Birmingham. .
Axon, William E. A.,

Bank Cottage, Patricroft, Manchester,

•Babbage, Major-General Henry P.,

d)ainton House, Bromley, Kent.
'Backhouse, Edmund,

Middleton Lodge, Richmond, York. ; Reform Club, S. W.
Baddelej, Samuel,

JPreeland^s-road, Bromley, Kent.
Baden- Powell, George S., M.A., F.RA.S.,

8, St. George^ solace, Hyde Park Corner, S. W,
Bailit, Abthub Htjtchesok, F.I.A.,

7, Royal Exchange, E,C.
Baines, Sir Edward,

St, Ann's'hill, Burley, Leeds.
Baker, W. Mills,

Stoke Bishop, near Bristol.
Balfour, Arthur James, M.P.,

4, Carlton -gardens, S. W.
Balfour, Cecil Charles,

7, Park-square, Regenfs-park, N.W.
Balfour, General Sir George, M.P., D.L., K.C.B.,

6, Cleveland-gardens, Bayswater, W.
Balfour, Jabez Spencer, M.P.,

20, Budge-row, Cannon-street, E.C.
Balfoub, Thomas Gbaham, M.D., F.R.S.,

Ooombe Lodge, Wimbledon Park, S.W.

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10 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tear of
Klection.

1879

18l>9

1877
1873
1880
1878
1878
1879
1872
1836
1873
1877
1877
1876
1877
1873
1871
1877
1875
1878
1876
1880
1863
1872
1879

Bamber, Edward Fisher, C.B.,

67, 8hqft68hufy»road, Ravenseourt-parky W.
BamptoD, James,

13, St, JameM^B-tquare^ SL W,
Barbour, William B.,

196, Haverstock'Ull, N.W.
Barham, Francis F.,

Bank of England, Birmingham.
*Baring, Thomas Charles, M.P.,

Hiah Beach, Loughton,
Barr, John Colemant L.R.C. P.,

Oranmore Villas^ AldershoL
Barry, Francis Tress,

St, Leonard* 8'hill, Wind$or.
Barry, Frederick "W., M.D. {Sanitary Oommisnoner)^

Nicosea, Cyprus,
♦Bass, Michael Arthur, M.P.,

IQl, Eaton-square, S, W,; Bangemore, Burton-on-Trenf.
Bass, Michael Thomas, M.P.,

101, Eaton^square, S,W.; Bangemorey Burton-on-JVenU
Bate, George,

10, City-road^ E,0.
Bateman, a. £.,

1, Whitehall S.IF.

Battye, Eichard Fawcett, M.R C.P.,

123, St, George' s-roady S,W.
Baxter, Bobert,

6 and 6, Victoria^reeiy Westminster, 8.W.
Bayfield, Arthur,

32, Temple-row, Birmingham.
♦Baynes, Alfred Henry, F.R.G.S.,

19, Gastle-street, Holhom, E.C.
♦Baynes, William Wilberforce, F.I.A.,
32, Moorgate-street, E,0,
Beadel, William J.,

Springfield Lyons, Chelmsford,
♦Beardsall, Francis E. M.,

64, Cross-street, Manchester,
*Beauchamp, The Eight Hon. Earl,

13, Belgrave-square, S. W,
♦Beaufort, William Morris, F.E.A.S., F.B.G.S., &c.,
18, Piccadilly, W.
Beddell, Charles,

5, Lothbury, E.C,
Beddoe, John, B.A., M.D., F.E.S.,

2, Lansdowne-place, Clifton,
•Bedford, His Grace, the Duke of,

Wohum Abbey, Oakley, Bedford.
Beggs, Thomas,

Razeldene, Shortlands, Kent,

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Google

YmtoT

SlMCloil.

1880

1878
1856
1879
1875
1869
1879
1866
1877
1877
1873
1860
1877
1880
1879
1879
1875
1871
1877
1860
1876
1879
1880
1874
1876

LI8T OF #£LLOW8. ] 1

Bell, Isaac Lowthian, J. P^

Rounton Orange^ Nbrthallerton^ Yorky N.R.
Bellew, The Bight Hon. Lord,

Barmeathy Dunleer, Ireland,
•Bereaford-Hope, The Eight Hon. A. J., M.P., D.C.L.,

1, Connaught-placey W.
Bb^ait, Geobgb Phillips, F.G.S.,

ZTplandSf Richmond, Surrey,
Beyan, Thomas,

Sione Fork, near Dartford, Kent
•Beyerley, Henry,

27, Theatre-road, Oaleutta.
♦Bickford-Smith, W., J.P., D.L., Ac,

Trevamo^ HeUton, Cornwall,
Bik^las, D^m6triu8,

Athene, Greece,
Bishop, Gborge Houlton, M.B.O.S.,

Wesihoume Gheen, Harrow road, W,
Boddj, Evan Marlett, L.E.C.P., {Lifford Home, Dart/brd),

111, CambervoeUrroad, SJS,
Bogie, James,

5, Spenee-^ireet, Newington, EdinbwrgK
Bohn, Henry George, F.B.A.S., F.L.S.,

18, Henrietta^reet, Covent Oarden^ W,0,; Twickenham.
Bolam, Harry Oeorge,

IMle Ingettre, Stafford,
Bolton, Joseph C, M.P.,

Oarhrookf Larhert, StirUngehire,
Borchardt, Louis, M.D.,

Swinton House, FalUmfield^ Maneheefer,
Bordman, Thomas Joseph Clarence Linden,

Victoria House, Trinity-street, Southtoark, U,0,
Borthwick, The Eight Hon. Lord,

Ravenstone, Whithorn, N.B,
BoTTBurE, Stephen,

H,M, Oustom House, JE, tt ; Ahherleg, Wallington, Surrey,
Boutcher, Emanuel,

12, Oarford^square, Hyde Park, W,
BoTill, William John, Q.C.,

32, James^treet, Buckingham-gate, S, W,
Bowen, Horace George,

Bank of England^ BurHngton-gardens, W,
Bowley, Edwin,

Burnt Ash'hill, Lee, Kent.
Bowser, Wilfred Arthur,

72, Bishopsgate-street Within, E,C,,
Bbabbook, Edwabd William, F.S.A., M.E.S.L.,

28, JUngdon-street, S.W.
Braby, James, J. P.,

Maybanks, Rudgwick, Susses,

Digitized by

Google

12 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

TMTOf

BiMtloa

1874
1855
1873
1864
1876
1874
1878
1872
1876
1876
1865
1880
1878
1872
1874
1877
1880

1880
1857

1880
1879
1874

1877

Bramley-Moore, John, D.L.,

GerrartPs-cro8$^ Bucks,
Brand, The Eight Hon. Henry Bouverie William, M.P.,

Speaker' 8 Court, House of Commons^ 8. W,
BsASBET, Thomas, M.P., {Honorary Vice-President),

4, Great Q^orge-street, 8. W.; and 24, Fark-lane^ W.
•Braye, The Eight tiLon. the Lord,

40, Lovoer Grosvenor-street ; Stanford HaU^ Bugbv.
Brodhurst, Bernard Edward, F.E.C.S.,

20, Grosvenor-street, Grosvenor-square, W.
Broom, Andrew,

104, Grove»lane, Camberwell.
Brown, Alexander Hargreavee, M.P.,

12, Grosvenor-gardens, 8.W.
Brown, James Bryce, F.E.(i.S.,

90, Cannon-street, E.C; and Bromley, Kent.
Browne, Thomas Gillespie C, F.I.A.,

11, Lombard-street, E.C,
Bruton, Leonard,

8t, Stephen's Buildings, Bristol.
Bunce, John Thackray,

Longworth, Priory'road, Edgbasion, Birmingham.
Burdett, Henry Charles, .

Seamen's Hospital Greenwich, S.E.
*Bnrdett-CouttB, The Eight Hon. the Baroness,

1, Siration-street, W.; and Molly Lodge, Highgate, N.
Bums, The Eev. Dawson, M.A.,

52, Parliament-street, 8. W.
Burr, William,

42, Poultry, E.C.
Burrell, Alexander.

Burt, Frederick, F.E.G.S.,

Woodstock, Crouch End, N.

Caine, William S.,M.P.,

1, Ihe Terrace, Clapham Common, S.W.
Caibd, Jamks, C.B., F.E.S., (President),

8, Queen' s-gate-gardens. South Kensington, S.W.; and
Cassencary, Creetoum, N.B.
Caird, Eobert Henryson,

6, Petersham^terrace, S.W,
Campbell, Lord Colin, M.P.,

Argyll Lodge, Kensington, W., and Inverary Castle.
Campbell, Sib Geobgb, K.C.S.I., M.P.,D.C.L.,

13, ComwalUaardens, South Kensington, 8. W.
Campbell, George Lamb,

Market'Street, Wigan.

Digitized by

Google

T«tf of
Blsotton.

1879

1862
1872
1871
1876
1877
1848
1878
1880
1858
1834
1869
1876
1880
1873
1863
1851
1877
1853
1862
1869
1877
1849
1856
1871

LIST OF FELLOWS. 13

Campbell-Colauhoun, Eev. John Erskme,

Chartwell, Weeterham^ KmU.
Cape, George A.,

8, Old Jewry, E.O.
♦Carillon, J. Wilson, P.S.A., F.B.G.S.,

Wbrmhill, Buxton.
Camac, Harry Rivett-,

Oaleutta, Bengal, India.
Carphin, James Bhind, C. A..,

187, Oearge-gtreet, Edinburgh.
Carter, E. Harold,

33, Waterloo-ttreet, Birmingham.
Carter, John Bonham,

25, Ashley-place, Vtotoria-Btreet, S.W.
♦Casley, Eeginald Kennedy, M.D.,

ITbrthgat&street, Ipsvnch.
Castle, Eobert,

18, Merton^treet, Oxford.
Chadwiek, David,

The Boplars, Heme Rill^ Bulvoich, S.K
Chadwiek, Edwin, C.B.,

Bark OoUage, East Sheen, Mortlake, S. W.
Chadwiok, John Oldfield, F.E.G.S.,

2, Moorgatestreet, E.G.
Challen, George Caleb,

St. Mildred's House, Boultry, E.O.
♦Chamberlain, The Eight Honourable Joseph, M.P.,
72, Brince's Gate, S.W.
Charlesworth, Frederic,

Widmore, Bromk^, Kent.
Charlton, W. H.,

Hesleyside, near Hexham, Northumberland^
♦Cheshire, Edward,

3, Vanbrugh Bark, Blackheath, S.E.
Child, Eobert Carlyle,

Chisholm, David, F.LA.,

64, Brinces-street, Edinburgh.
Christie, Chancellor Eichard Copley, M.A.

2, St, James' s-square, Manchester.
Chxtbb, Hammond, B.A., (Secretary),

Bickley, Kent.
Clapham, Crochley, L.E.C.P.,

Muriel House, Beak Hill, Sydenham, S.E.
Clark, Gordon Wyatt,

Mickleham Hall, near Dorking, Surrey.
Clark, Sir John Forbes, Bart.,

TiUvpronie, Tarland, Aberdeen.
Clarke, Ebenezer, jun.,

52, Cannon-street, E.G.

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14 STATISTICAL 80CIETT :

Tew of
Electloo,

1880

1877
1876
1856
1869
1850
1858
1877
1873
1877
1888
1859
1879
1874
1877
1874
1867
1878
1879
1879
1874
1879
1843
1874
1873

Clarke, Frederick Nevill,

Eccleshoume^ Thicket-raad, Upper Norwood, S,I!.
♦Clarke, Henry, L.B.aP.,

H.M, Prison, Wakefield, Torks.
Clarke, Henry Harcourt Hyde,

32, St. Oeorge'8'8^re, 8.W.
♦Clabke, Htdb, (Vtce-Fresident),

32, 8t, Qeorge's-square, S.W.
Clegbom, John,

3, Spriruji-gardens, 8. W.
♦Clevelana, His Grace the Duke of, K.G^

17, St. Jamee's^quare, S. W.
Clirehugh, William Palin, F.I.A.,

158, LeadenhalUtreet, E.G.
Cobb, B. Francis,

79, Oomhill, E.O.
Cockle, Captain George, F.RG.S.,

9, Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, S. W.
Cohen, Lionel Louis,

9, Ryde Fark-Terraoe, W.
Colebrooke, Sir Thomas Edward, Bart., M.P,,

14, South-street, W.
Coles, John, F.I.A.,

39, Throgmorton-street, E.O.
CoUinga, Jesse, M.P., J. P., Ac.

TheWoodlands, H eUington-road,Edghaston, Birmingham.
Collins, Eugene, M.P.,

38, Forehester-terrace, Syde Fork, W.
Collins, J. Wright, J.P. {Golonial Ih-easurer),

Stanley, Falkland Islands.
CoUinson, John, F.B.G.S.,

13, Falace-gate, W.
Colman, Jeremiah James, M.P.,

Carrow House, Norunch.
Colomb, Captain J.C.R., E.M.A., J.P.,

Ihronrnquinnae, Kenmare, Kerry.
Cooke, H. Bibton,

27, Fenchureh'Streety E.G.
Cooke, Isaac B.,

19, Froum^s-huildings, Liverpool.
•Cookson, Faithful, F.B.G.S.,

35, Grand Farade, Brighton.
Cooper, William John,

7, Westminster-chambers, Vtctoria-street, 8.W.
♦Copperthwaite, William Charles,

New Malton, Yorkshire.
Corbett, John,

6a, Waterloo-place, Fall Mall, 8.W.
Cork, Nathaniel, F.K.G.S.,

89, Lombard-street, E.G.

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Tear of
Btectton

1878

1862
1873
1880
1880
1874
1870
1872
1878
1878
1879
1880
1876
1878
1877
1876
1879
1876
1879
1848
1873

1860
1880
1880

LIST OF FELLOWS. 15

Comish, Waiiam Eobert, r.E.C.S. {Surgeon Major)^

Sanitary Chmmistioner, Madras,
Courtney, Leonard Henry, M.A., M.P.,

15, Quemi Anne* 9 Oate, Westminster, S, W.
Cowper, The Hon. Henry Frederick, M.P.,

4, St. Jameses-square, S. W.
Cox, William John,

53, Arthur-road, Homsey-road, N,
Craig, William Young, M.P.,

JPalace Chambers, St. Stephen% Westminster, S, W.
Cbaigib, Ma job Pateick G-soboe, (21, Arundel-^treet, W.C),

Hartley House, Lower Heath, Hampstead, N. W.
Craik, George Lillie,

29, Bedford-street, Strand, W.O.
Crellin, Philip,

83, Ohancen/'lane, W.O.
Crowd son, Ernest,

6, Norfolk-street, Manchester.
Crickmay, Herbert John,

Bank of England, E.G.
Crisford, George S., F.I.A.,

West of England Insurance Company, Exeter.
*Crompton-Eobert8, Charles H.

16, Belgrave-square, S. W.
Crosse, John Burton St. Croix, r.E.C.S.,

Boyal Military Asylum, Chelsea, S. W.
Grossman, James H., J.P.,

Union Club, Trafalgar-square, S, W.
Crothers, Eobert, M.D., M.E.C.P.,

2, Warrior-square-terrace, St. Leonard^ s-on^Sem.
Crowe, William Eussell,

Stanly House, Carshalton, Swrrey^
Cunningham, Charles L., M.E.C.S., &c.

Cunningham, David, C.E.,

Works' Office, Harbour-chambers, Dundee.
Curtis, Eobert Leabon,

15 and 16, Blonifield-street, E.C.
Cutcliffe, George, F.I.A.,

13, St. James' S'Square, S.W.
Czamikow, C»sar,

Mitcham, Surrey.

DalyeU, The Hon. Eobert Anstruther, C.S.I.,
India OJice, Westminster, S. W.

Danson. John Towne,

Woodland Crag, Orasmere.

Danyers, Frederick Charles,

India Office, Westminster, S.W.

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16 STATISTICAL SOCI&TT :

Tear of
K«cilon.

1878

1869
1874
1878
1855
1878
1876
1880
1879
1878
1877
1873
1873
1855

1877
1877
1866
1873
1876
1877
1875
1878
1875
1872

Daitviebs, Juland,

India Office, WeitmntUr, S.W.
Dayies, James Mair,

65, West Begentstreety Glasgow.
Davies, William Henry,

61, TregwUer-roady S.W.
Dayis, James,

82, VillierS'Street, Oharing-eross, S.W,
•Dawbarn, William,

Elmswood Hall, Aighwrih^ Liverpool.
Dawson, James Thomas,

79, Comhill, JE.O.
Day, William Ansell,

Lyndhurst House, Hendon, N.W.
Debenham, Frank,

26, Upper Hamilton-plaee, St. John's Wood, N.W.
*De Fenieres, The Baron Va Bois, M.P., J.P.

Bag*S'hill House, Cheltenham.
Delahunty, James,

2, Satile-row, W.
Deloitte, William Welch,

4, Lothburg, E.O.
Dent, Clinton Thomas, F.E.C.S.

29, Chesham-street, S.W.
Dent, Edward,

Femacres, Fulmer^ near Slough, Bucks.
*Debbt, The Right Honourable the Eabl of, P.O., F.E.S.,
(Honorarg Vice-President)^

23, St. James'S'Sguare; and Knowsley,Frescot, Lancashire.
Dever, Henry,

4, Lothburg, E.C.
De Worms, Baron Henry, M.P., F.R.A.S.,

J? 2, Albany, Ficcadillg, W.
♦Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P., LL.M.,

76, Sloane^treet, S. W.
Dixon, George,

The Dales, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Dowden, Major Thomas Freeman, li.E.,

71, Old Broad Street, E.C.
Downs, Henry,

Manor House, Basingstoke.
Doxsey, Kev. Isaac,

The Orove, Oamberwell, S.E.
Doyle, Patrick, C. E.,

O'Brien Villa, 21, North-road, Entally, Calcutta.
Drimmie, David,

41, Lower Sackville-street, Dublin.
Droop, Henry Bichmond,

la, New-square, Lincoln' s-inn, W.O.

Digitized by

Google

TMTOf

KleeUon.

1878

1875
1870
1878
1875

1836
1869
1876
1880
1872
1874
1842
1877
1873
1873
1877
1879
1880
1862
1875
1834

LIST OP FELLOWS, l7

Duignan, William Henry,

Walsall, Staffordshire.
Dun, John,

Parr^s Banking Company , Limited^ Warrington,
Duncan, James,

9, Mincing-lane, B.C.
♦Dunraven, The Right Hon. Earl of, K.P.,

Kenry House, Putney Vale, 8, W.
Dyer, Sir Swinnerton Halliday, Bart., J. P.,

Westcrojt, Cholham, Woking Station, Surrey.

Edmonds, Thomas Bowe, B.A.,

72, Portsdoum-road, Maida-vale, W.
Edmonds, William,

Annesley Rouse, Southsea.
Edwards, Samuel,

4, Eliot Park, Lewisham, S.K
Egerton, Honourable Wilbraham, M.P ,

23, Rutland Gate, S.W.
Elliot, Sir George, Bart.,

Park-street, Park-lane, W.
Elliot, Eobert, M.D., F.E.C.P.,

35, Lowther- street, Carlisle.
Elliott, John Hawkins,

4, Martin' s-lane, E.C.
Ellis, Arthur,

11, Park-villas, Crouch-end, N.
Elsey, John Green, J.P.,

Morant House, Addison-road, Kensington, W.
Emanuel, Lewis,

36, Pinshury-circus, E.C
Emmott, W. T.,

Newfield Rouse, near Lymm, Cheshire.
Evans, Henry J ones, J.P.,

Brecon Old Bank, Cardiff,
Evans, Henry Russell, (Mayor of JVewport),

Newport, Monmouth.
Evens, John Henry,

Ericht Lodge, Dulwich, S.E.
Everett, The Hon. H. Sidney, M.A.,

United States Legation, 4, Alsenstrasse, Berlin.
Eversley, The Right Honourable Viscount, D.C.L., LL.D.,

114, Eaton-square, S.W,; and Winohjield, Hants.

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STATISTIC Ali SOCIETY:

Tear of

Election.

1875

1874
1839

1868
1878
1878
1876
1864
1874
1877
1880
1834
1880
1880
1873
1876
1879
1878
J 875
1841
1871
1880
1877

Faraday, Frederick J.,

17, Brazenose-sireet, Manchester.
Farmer, James,

6, Pordietter-gate, Hyde Park, W.
Fabe, William, M.D., C.B., D.C.L., F.E.S.,
{Honorary Vice-Fresiden t) ,

78, Portsdown-road, Maida Vale, W.
Farrell, John Douglas,

Bank of England, West Branch, Bwrlington-garden*, W,
Farren, George, M.I.C.E.,

Carnarvon,
Farrer, Thomas Henry,

Board of Trade, Whitehall, 8. W.
Feamside, Henry, M3., F.E.C.P.,

49, Leinster-gardens, Bayswater^ W,
Fellows, Frank P.,

8, The Oreen, Hampstead, N. W.
Ferguson, A.M.,

" Ceylon Observer^* Office, Colombo, Ceylon,
Ferrier, John,

Bosslyn House, New Bamet, Herts,
Finch, George Henry, M.P.,

Burley-on^thc'liill, Oakham.
Finch, John,

Heathside, Tunhridge Wells.
Finlaison, Alexander John, F.I.A.,

19, Old Jewry, JE.C.
Finlay, George,

London and N. Western Bailway, Huston Station, N. W.
Fisher, Henry,

66, New Broad-street, E.C.
Fitz George, Owen,

86, Cornhill, E.C.
Fitzwilliams, Edward Crompton Lloyd,

Adpar Hill, Newcastle Emlyn, Carmarthen, 8. Wales.
Follett, Charles John, M.A., B.C.L.,

H.M. Custom House, E.C.
Fordham, Edward King, J. P.,

The Bury, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.
Fortescue, The Eight Honourable Earl,
Castle Hill, South Molton, Devon.
Forwood, William Bower,

Bamlet, Blundellsands, Liverpool.
Fowell- Watts, Philip Henry, M.A., LL.D.,

73, Cohestone-cresoent, West Hackney, E.
*Fowler, Alderman Eobert Nicholas, M.P.,

50, Cumhilly E.C. ; and Elm Orove, Corsham^ Wilts.

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Google

YMTOt

E]»ctUm.

1868

1878
1879
1878

1876
1876

1878

1879
1852
1873
1860
1878
1878
1879
1872
1880
1874
1877
1872
1874
1871
1867

LIST OF FELLOWS. 19

Fowler, William, M.P.,

33, Comhill, E.O.
Foxwell, Herbert S., M.A.,

St, John^a College^ Cambridge.
Francis, George Edward,

Staunton Goleford, Qloucestershire,
Frankland, Frederick William,

Registrar' GeneraVs Office, Wellington, New Zealand,
♦Freeland, Humphrey William, J. P.,

Athemffum Club, S. W, ; emd Chichester,
Freeman, Joseph,

Burwood Lodge, West Brixton, S. W.
Freeman, T. Kyffin,

Hampton-on-Sea, Heme Bag,
Fuller, W. Palmer,

50, Oresham-street, E.G.

Gairdner, Charles,

Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire,
G^worthy, Edwin Henry, J.P., F.I.A.,

18, Upper Wimpole-street, W.
•Galton, Capt. Douglas, R.E., C.B., F.R.S.,

12, Chester-street, Grosvenor-place, S, W,
Galton, Francis, F.RS., F.fi.G.J?.,

42, Rutland-gate, S.W.
Gardiner, Clement,

11, Small-street, Bristol,
Gkurdiner, Henry J.,

Hurst mectd, Eltham, Kent.
♦Gassiot, John Peter, J. P.,

The Culvers, Carshalton, Surrey,
Gastrell, Major- General J. E.,

7, Lansdowne-road^ Wimbledon, S. W.
•Gates, John B., jun., A.C.A.,

99, Gresham-street, E,C.
Gatliff, Charles,

8, MnsburV'Circus, E.G.
Gawith, Kichara Jackson, M.R.C.S.,

23, Westboume-paric'terrace, Faddinglon, W.
Gibb, Thomas Ecclesion,

16, Lady Margaret-road, N, W,
Gibbs, Alban George Henry,

82, PoHland'place, W.
Gibbs, George Sleight,

Darlington,
GiPPEN, RoBEBT, {Secretary and Editor oj the Journal),

4t4i, JPembroke-road, Kensington^ W,

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20 STATISTICAL SOCIEXr :

Tear of
Election.

1877

1878
1860
1877
1877
1880
1868
1855
1873
1853
1876
1879
1876
1847
1878
1877
1868
1875
1860
1878
1877
1889

1880

Gilbert, William H. Sainsbury,

9, Old Jewry, E.G.
*Glanville, S. Gbring,

238, Lewisham Highroad, 8.E,
Glover, John,

22, Great St. Helen's, BUhopsgaUstreet, E.C.
Goddard, Frederick Robertson,

19, Victoria-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Good, Alfred, (7, Poultry, E.O.),

91, Highbury Hill, i\r.
Goodhart, Charles E.,

Langley-park, Beckenham, Kent,
Goschen, The Kight Hon. George Joachim, M. P.,

69, Portland-place, W.
*Go88et, John Jackson,

Thames Ditton, Surrey.
Goulj, Edward Jamep,

Bullion Office, Bank of England, E.C.
Gover, William Sutton, E.I. A.,

4, Queen-street'place, Southwark Bridge, E.C.
Grahame, James, C A.,

12, St. Vincent'place Glasgow.
Grant, Daniel, M.P.,

12, Cleveland-gardens, Bayswater, W.
Granville, Joseph Mortimer, M.D., F.G.S., Ac,

18, Welbeek-street, Cavendish-square, W.
Gray, Thomas,

84, Fenchwrch-street, E.C.
Green, Thomas Bowden, M.A., F.E.S.L., F.E.H.S., Ac,

7, New-road, Oxford.
Greene, William Thomas, M.A.. M.D..

Moira House, Peckham Rye, S.E.
Griffith, Edward Clifton,

31, St, James' s-square, S.W.
Gunn, Arthur,

Metropolitan Board of Works, Spring- gardens ^ S.W.
Gurnev, Daniel,

fiorth Runcton, near King's Lynn, Norfolk*
Guthrie, Charles,

London Chartered Bank of Australia, Melbourne, Victoria.
Gutteridge, Richard Sandon, M.D.,

58, Brook-street, Ghosvrnor-square, W.
Gut, William Augustus, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.,
{Honorary Vice-President),

12, Gordon-street, Gordon-square, W.C,
•Gwjnne, J. Eglinton A., J.P., F.S.A.,

97, Harley-st., W. ; Folkington Manor, Polegaie, Sussex.

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Tmt of
KUctlon.

1878

1876
1876
1869
1878
1873
1879
1873
1869
1879
1876
1887
1879
1861
1876
1871
1877
1877
1878
1868
1879
1834

1870
1880

LIST OP FELLOWS. 21

♦Haggard, Frederick T.,

JEltham Oourt-road, Sltham, Kent,
HaU, Edward Algernon,

131, TiccadHly, W.
Hall, Edward Hepple,

73, Elm-park, Brixton-hill, S.W.
Hall, James Macalester,

IRllean House, Tayinlocm, Jrgyleshire,
Hallett, T.G.P., M.A.,

Claverton Lodge, Bath,
Hamilton, Lord George Francis, M.P.,

17, Montagtfstreet, Porttnan-squarey W,
Hamilton, Bowfand,

Oriental Club, Hanover -square, W.
Hanbury, Robert William,

liam Hall, Ashbourne, Derbyshire.
Hancock, "William,

33, Comhill,JS.O.
Hancock, William Neilson, LL.D., M.E.I. A.,

64, Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.
Hankej, Ernest Alers,

Mmhyrst, BickUu-park, Kent,
♦Hankey, John Alexander, J. P.,

JBalcombe-place, Oucl^ld, Sussex,
Hankey, Thomson,

69, Portland-place, W.
Hannjngton, Major-General John Caulfield, F.I. A.,

India Office, Westminster^ S. W.
Hansard, Luke,

68, Lombard-street^ E.O.
Harcourt, Eight Hon. Sir William Vernon, Q.C., M.P.,

7, Grqfion-street, Bond-street, W.
Harding, Charles, M.R.S.L., F.E.G.S.,

7, Bank Buildinas, E.C.
Harold, Frederick Eicnard,

12, Landseer-roadj Upper Holloway, N,
Harper, W. P.,

Harris, David,

Caroline Bark, Oranton, Edinburgh,
Harris, Frederick,

62, Qracechurch-street, E.G.
Habeowbt, The Right Hon. the Eabl op, K.G., D.C.L.,
{Honorary Vice-President),

39, Ghosvenor-square, W.
Hartley, Fountain John,

Gloucester House, 97, Gazenove-road, Upper Clapton, ^
Hastings, George Woodyatt, M.P.,

Barnard* s-green House, Great Malvern,

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22 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tear of
Eleoti<m.

1876 Hawkins, Alfred Templeton, F.R.G.S.,

35, Spring-gardens, Charing-crott^ 8, W.

1879 Hawksley, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S., Ac,

30, Great Oeorge-street^ WestmiMter, 8, W.
1873 Haj, James Lamb ^pier,

1880 Hazell, Walter,

Ibirham House, Hamsetf'lane, N.

1877 Hedley, Thomas Fenwick,

12, Park-place, West, Sunderland.
1870 Hefford, George V.,

Rtighy.
1860 Helder, Stewart, F.I. A.,

2, Broad Sanctuary^ R W»
1865 Hendriks, Augustus, F.I. A.,

7, Comhill, JE.C.
1855 *Hendbik8, Fbkderick, (Vtce-President),
1, King William'Street, E,0.

1858 Herapath, Spencer, F.G.S.,

18, Upper Phillimare^ardens, W,

1877 'Herbage, William,

London Sf South Western Bank, 7, Ibnckurch'Street, U.O.
1834 •Hbtwoop, James, M.A., F.E.S., F.G.S.,
(Honorary Vice-President and Trustee) ,

^QfPalace-gardens, Kensington, W,; Athenaum ClubJS. W.

1869 Hickson, Joseph, J. P.,

Montreal, Canada.
1875 Higham, Charles Daniel, F.I.A.,

3, Princes-street, Bank, E.O.

1878 HiU, Frederick Morlej,

22, Bichmond-road, Bamshury, JV.

1873 Hime, Capt. H. W. L., E.A.,

Ske^eld.

1859 Hincks, His Excellency, Sir Francis,

Montreal, Canada.

1879 Hoare, Hamilton Noel,

37, Fleet-street, B.C.

1870 *Hoare, Henry,

Staplehurst, Kent.
1834 •Hodge, William Barwick, F.I.A.,

5, Whitehall, S.W.
1877 Holden, Isaac,

64, Cross-street, Manchester.
1877 Holmes, Eichard Henry,

Elswick-villa, Bye Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1880 Holms, John, M.P.,

16, Cornwall-gardens, Queen Gate, S.W.

1874 Hood, Charles, F.E.S., F.E.A.S.,

10, Zeinster-gardens, Hyde-park, W.

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LIST OF FELLOWS. 23

Y««rof
Bicctlon.

1871 Hooper, Augus Cameron,

Montreal^ Canada,
1874 Hooper, George D.,

Belmont Lodge^ Oxford-road, Chtswick, W.

1879 Hooper, George Norgate,

Elmleighy Hayne-roadj Beckenham^ Kent,
1878 Hooper, Wynnard,

2, P^mhroJce-gardens, Kensington, W.

1855 HouGHTOK, The Kight Hon. Lobd, D.C.L. F.E.S.,
{Honorary Vice- President),

Mryston Hall, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire,

1876 Hojle, William,

Claremont, Tottington, near Bury, Lancaster,

1872 Hubbard, Egerton J.,

4, 8t, Helenas-place, Bishopsgate-street, JE,0,
1853 ♦Hubbard, The Eight Hon. John Gellibrand, M.P.,

Bank of England, E,C,
1864 Hudson, Thomas,

Argos Villa, St, Andrew^ s Fork, Bristol,

1880 Hnggard, Wm. E., M.A., M.D., M.E.C.P. Lond.,
Stissex House, Hammersmith, W,

1871 Hughes, Albert William, P.E.G.S.,
Dharvar, So, Mahratta Country, Bombay Fresidency,

1878 Hughes, John,

3, West'Street, Finsbury-circus, E,C,

1872 Humphreys, George, M.A., F.I.A.,
79, Fall Mall, S,W.

1874 HuMPHEETs, Noel AiiGkrnobt,

General Register Office, Somerset House, W,C,

1873 Hunt, Sir Henry Arthur, C.B.,
64, JSccleston-square, S. W,

1857 Hurst, George,

King*s Brook House, St. Mary's, Bedford,

1877 Huskinson, Thomas,
Fpperstone Manor, Nottingham,

1879 Hyde, Major-General Henry, E.E.,
Ifhdia Officcy Westminster, S, W.

1866
1869
1874

Ince, Henry Bret, Q.C.,

18, Oidrsquare, IdncoWs-inn, W,C.
Ingall, Samuel, F.E.G.S.,

Kent-end, Forest-hill, Kent, S.E,
*Ingall, William Thomas Eitzherbert Mackenzie,

50, Threadneedle-street, E.G.

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24 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Y««rof
Eleotlon.

1869 *Ingli8, Cornelius, M.D.,

Athenaum Olub, 8.W.
1839 Irving, John,

94, Eaton^lace, S.W,
1878 Isaacs, Michal Babe),

35, Leinster'SqtMtrSy Bayawater, W .
1864 *Ivey, George Pearse,

Tyle Morris, Briton Ferry,

1880 ♦Jackson, William Lavies, M.P.,

Ghapelallerton, Leeds.
1879 Jamieson, George Auldjo,

58, Melville-street, Edinburgh.
1872 Janson, Frederick Halsey, F.L.S.,

41, Finshury-circus, E,C., and Oak Bank, Chislehurst.

1878 Jeans, James Stephen,

7, Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, S. W.
1851 *Jellicoe, Charles, F.I.A.,

12, Cavendish-place, W.

1879 Jephson, Henry L. {Chief Secretary's Office),

Dublin Castle, Ireland.
1864 *Jetons, Peofessob W. Stanley, M.A., LL.D., F.ILS.,
( Vice-Fresident) ,

The Chesnuts, Branch-hill, Hampstead Heath, If. W*

1871 Johnson, Edmund,

1, Castle-street, Solhom, E.G.

1880 Johnson, Walter,

Rounton Grange, Northallerton.

1872 Johnston, Francis J.,

Lamas, Ohislehurst.
1878 'Johnstone, E.,

45, Fleet-street, E.G.
1878 Jones, Henry E. Bence,

1, Whitehall, 8.W.
1874 Jones, Herbert,

15, Montpelier-row, Blackheath, 8.E.
1880 Jones, Robert H.,

The Briars, Crystal Falace Fork, Sydenham.
1877 Jones, Theodore Brooke,

1, Finsbury-eircus, E.G. ; Oeorgeville, Harrogate, Torks.

1873 Jones, Sir Willoughby, Bart., M.A,,
Granmer Hall, Fakenham, Norfolk.

1858 Jourdan, Francis,

Avenue House, Hampstead, N. W.

1877 Karuth, Frank 0.,

Oakhurst, Beckenham, Kent.

Digitized by

Google

TMTOf

EtoeU<Mi.

1873
1877
1874
1867
1878
1873
1878
1868
1878
1874
1852
1878
1879
1872
1865
1878
1860

1880
1877
1875

1874
1878
1874

LIST OF FELLOWS. 25

Kaj, Dtmcan James,

60, Queen' s-gaie, S.W.
Kealj, James WiUiam,

26, Moorgate-streety E,0.
KeUy, Charles, M.D.,

Worthing, Sussex,
KeDy, Edward Eobert, A.M.,

51, Great Queen-streety Lincoln' i-inn^fields, W.C,
Kelsej, Joseph Francis,

Oovemment Statisticum, Mauritius,
Kemp, Samuel,

Oriel House, Bath,
Kennedy, J. Murray,

New University Club, St, James' s-streety S. W,
Kennedy, Peter,

13, Oomwall'terrace, Begenfs-park, N. W,
Kennedy, Thomas,

11, Old Jewry-chambers, E,0.
Kennelly, Dayid Joseph, F.R.G.S., F.RA.S.,

Devonshire Club, St, James's, 8, W,
Kimberley, The Eight Honourable the Earl of, M.A., P.C ,

35, Lowndes-square^ S. W,
King-Harman, Edward Bobert,

BocJcingham, Boyle, Ireland.
Kirkwood, Anderson, LL.D.,

Melville-terrace, Stirling, N,B,
Knight, John Peake,

London, Brighton, Sf S. Coast Bail,, London Bridge, B.C.
Kuhner, Henry, {cjo Messrs. Kiihner, Hendschel & Co.),

145, Cannon-street, E,C,,
^Kusaka, Yoshio,

62, Bogarth-road, Kensington, S.W.
Kyshe, John Benjamin,

Begistrar General, Mauritius,

Lamprey, Joshua Henry,

17, St, Anne's-park, Wandsworth, S.W,
Lane, Cecil N.,

King's Bromley Manor, Lichfield.
Lane, Thomas,

Bercy Cottage^ Eastbowme.
Lang, George Murray, E.N.,

18, Cheyne-walk, Chelsea, S.W.
Law, The Right Hon. Hugh, M.P.,

9, Mtzwilliam-sqttare, Dublin.
Lawes, John Bennett, LL.D., P.R.S., F.C.S ,
Bothamsted^ark, St. Albans.

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26 STATISTICAL 80CIETT:

Tear or
BlMtloa'

1877 Lawrance, Henry,

58, Eusfon-^guare, N, W.

1878 Lawrence, Alexander M.,

17, Thurlow-road, Hampstead, N. W.
1873 Lawrie, James, F.R.G.S.,

Kelvin House, Quadrant-road, Highbury^ N.
1873 Lawson, Kobebt, {Inspector- General of Army Hospitals),

20, Lansdowne-road, Notiing-hill, W.
1873 Lea, Thomas, M.P.,

14, Mvaston-plaoe, Queen*s-gate, S. W.
1880 Lee, Lionel Frederic, (jOeylon Civil Service),

cjo H, Austin Lee, Foreign Office, Douming-street, 8. W.

1879 *Leete, Joseph,

36,St,Marg'at'hill, E,C. (Eversden, 8. Norwood Park.)
1877 Lepetrb, The Eight Honourable Gteoeob Shaw, M.F.,
{Honorary Vice-Fresident), 18, Brganston-sguare^ W.

1877 •Ijeggatt, Daniel, LL.D.,

6^ Raymond-buildings, Oray's'inn, W.C.

1880 Leighton, Stanley, M.P.,

Sweeney Hall, Oswestry, Salop,

1878 Leslie, Francis Seymour,

1851 Levi, Peofessoe LEomB, LL.D., F.S.A.,
5, Crown Office-row, Temple, E,CL

1879 Levison, David,

2, Boyal Exchange-buildings, E.C,
1867 Lewis, Charles Edward, M.P.,

8, Old Jewry, E.G.
1877 Lewis, John,

1, Temple-row West, Birmingham^
1862 Lewis, Eobert,

1, Bartholomew-lane, E,C.

1877 Ligertwood, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.S.,

Eoyal Hospital, Chelsea, 8.W,
1845 •Lister, William,

1834 Lloyd, John Horatio,

100, Lancaster-gate, Hyde-park^ W,

1878 Lloyd, Thomas,

4, Huddlestone-road, TufnelUpark, N,

1879 Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S.,

Myvod House, Wood-green, Wednssbury,
1876 Lord, James, F.S.A.,

1, Whitehall-gardens, S,W.
1876 •Lomie, John Guthrie,

Eosemount, Kirkcaldy ; Bimam House^ JPer/hshire,

1879 Loyegrove, Mrs.,

28, Bark-street, Grosvenor-square, W,

1880 Lovegroye, Joseph,

28, Park-street, Grosvenor-square, W,

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LIST OF FELLOWS. 27

Toffof
Bleetkm.

1834 Lovelace, The Eight Honourable the Earl of, F.R.S.,

East Horaley Farky Bipley, Swrrey.
1880 Lovelj, William, E.N.,

Avenue House, Hammersmith, 8, W.
1879 Lowndes, William Layton, J.P., D.L.,

Linley Hall, Broseley, Shropshire,
1875 Loyd, William Jones, J.P.,

16, Ghosvenor-place, 8,W„ and Langleyhury, Watford,
1865 Lubbock, Sib John, Babt., M.P., F.E.8., {Trustee),

High Elms, Famhorough, Kent,
1878 Lucaa, Thomas, J.P.,

6, Chreat Oeorge-street, Westminster, S.W.

1878 Lusk, Sir Andrew, Bart., M.P. J.P.,

16, Hgde-park'Street, W.

1879 LyaU, J. Watson,

1875 Mabson, Bichard Sous,
Ilford, Essex.

1878 ♦Macandrew, William, J.P..

Westvoood, near Colchester,
1873 McArthur, Alexander, M.P.,

Baleigh Hall, Brixton, S.W.
1873 McArthur, The Eight Honourable William, M.P., Lord
Mayor of London,

1, Choydyr Houses, Brixton Bise, &W.

1879 MacCarthy, Eev. E. F. M., M.A.,

47, Hagley^road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1878 McCheane, Eobert,

90, Balace-gardenS'terraee, W,

1879 McCheane, Eobert, junr.,

90, BaLace-gardenS'terroiCe, W,

1867 M'Clean, Frank,

23, Great George-streetf Westminster, 8. W.
1873 McDermott, Edward,

Hill Side, Orove-park, CamherwM, S.E,

1868 ^Macdonald, James,

17, BusselUsquare, W,C,

1872 Macdonell, John, (3, Elm-court, Temple, E. C),

The Myrtles, Beckenham, Kent,

1873 *McEwen, Laurence T. {ejo E, A, McLean),

8, Old Jewry, E.O,
1873 McGarel-Hogg, Colonel Sir James, Bart , M,P.,

17, Ghrosvenor-gardens, 8, W.
1856 MacGUlivray, Donald, FJ.A.,

54, Moorgate-street, E.O.
1879 Maclver, David, M.P.,

34, Zancaster-gate, W,

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28 STATISTICAL SOCIETY I

Tear or
Election.

1876

1878
1870
1876
1874
1863
1876
1880
1871
1879
1878
1877
1875
1860
1880
1865
1873
1874
1877
1872
1876
1879
1875
1878

McKenna, Sir Joseph N., M.P.,
1, Fen-^'Wem-road, 8.W.
McKewan, William,

21, Lombard-streety E.G.
Maclagan, David,

22, George^treety Edinburgh.
♦McLean, Robert Allan, F.R.G.8.,

8, Old Jewry, E,C.
Maeleod, The Bight Hon. Sir John Macpherson, K.O.S.I.,

1, Stanhopesireety Hyde Fork, W,
♦Maclure, J. W., J.P., &c.,

CarUon Club; The Home, Whalley Range, Manchester,
Macpherson, Hugh Martin, r.R.C.S., (Inspector- General),

14, St, James' 8'Square, 8. W,
Maddison, Edward C, ^

31, Lombard-street, E.C,
Malgarini, Frederick Lewis, F.E.S.E.,

Man, Edward Garnet (Barrister-at'Law),

4, Lamb-buildings, Temple, E.O., and Sangoon.
Manuel, B. A., (Rangoon),

cjo Messrs, Tnibner and Oo,^ Ludgate-hill, E.O.
♦Maple, John Blundell,

8, Clarence'terrace, Begenfs-park, N,W,
Marsh, Alfred,

85, Gracechurch-street, E,C,
Marsh, Matthew Henry,

Bamridge, near Andover, Hants.
*Marshall, A.,

31, Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
Martin, Frederick,

22, Lady Margaret-road, N.W.
Martin, Henry,

National Bank of India, 39a, Threadneedle-street, E.G.
•Mabtin, John Biddulph, M.A., F.Z.S., (Secretary),

6b, The Albany, Piecadilly, W.
Martin, Josiah, F.l.A.,

32, New Bridge- street, E.G.
•Maetik, ErcHAED BrDBULPH, M.P., (Treasurer),

Chislehurst,
Martin, Thomas Jaques,

Colonial Life Assurance Company, Melbourne, Victoria,
Martin, Waldyve A. Hamilton,

14, Manson-place, QueerC s-gate, S, W.
•Mathers, John Shackleton,

Hanover House, Leeds, Yorkshire,
Maughan, Joseph Henry, A.I.S.,

9, New-street, Great Grimsby,
1870 I Maxse, Bear- Admiral Frederick A.,

Herm House, Upperton-road, Eastbourne.

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LIST OF FELLOWS. 29

Tear of
BIcctUm.

1874 Maj, Frank,

Bank of England^ Threadneedle-street^ E.O.
1853 •Meikle, James, F.I.A.,

6, St, Andrew" 8-square, Edinburgh.
1878 Meldon, Charles Henry, M.P., Q.C., LL.D.,

107, Jermyn-street^ S. W,
1880 Menzies, R. Stewart,

Hallyhurtony Coupar- Angus y N.B,

1878 Merrick, iJfred Benjamin,

6, Cotham-parade^ Bristol,
1861 Messent, John, F.I.A.,

429, West Strand, W,C,
1877 Metcalfe, Eichard,

Grdefenherg Some, New Bamet, Herts,
1877 Michael, William H.,

38, Farliament'Street, 8, W.

1875 Mildmay, Henry Bingham, J P.,

8, Bishopsgate-street Within, E,C,

1873 Millar, William Henry,

Cleveland Lodge, New Park-road, Brixton-hill, S. W.

1877 Miller, Robert Ferguson,

Bamsden-square, Barrow-in-Furness,

1879 MiUer, William,

55, Lancaster-gate^ W. (67, Queen Victoria-street, E O )

1878 Mills, Sir Charles Henry, Bart., M.P.,

Camelford House, Bark-lane, W,
1878 Mitchell, James, J.PT,

33, Ennismore-gardens, S.W,

1874 *Mocatta, Frederick D,, F.R.G.S.,

9, Oonnaught'place, W.

1878 Moffat, Robert J.,

The Chesnuts, Great Shelford, Cambridgeshire,

1879 Moore, Alfred, C.E.,

5, Clarence- street, Manchester,
1874 Moore, Charles Rendall,

67, Montvelier-road, Beckham, S, E,

1877 Moore, Edward,

3, Crosby-square, E,C,

1878 *Moore, John Byers Gunning,

Loymowit, Cookstown, Ireland.
1874 Moore, Sandford, M.B.,

South Camp, Aldershot.

1880 More, Robert Jasper,

Linley Hall^ Bishcmscastle, Salop.
1872 Morgan, Octavius Vaughan, J.P.,

13, Boltons, South Kensington, S.W.
1878 •Morley, Samuel, M.P.,

18, Wood-street, E.C; 34, Qrosvenor-street, W.
1874 *Morri8, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.,

13, Somers-place, Hyde-park- square, W.

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30 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tcwof
ElsctioD.

1877 Mort, William,
\, Stanley-cretceni, Nbtting-hill^ W.

1873 Morton, James,

Balclutha, Oreenock, N,B,
1847 •MouAT, Fbbdbeio J., M.D., F.B.C.S., {Fiee- President and
Foreign Secretary)^

12, Durham-mllas, Kensington, W.
L857 Mount-Temple, The Eight Hon. Baron,

15, Great Stanhope-street, W,

1878 Muir, Hugh Brown,
26, Old Broad^street, RC,

1880 MulhaU, Michael G.,

Grasslands, Balcomhe^ near Hagwctrd^s Heathy Sussex.

1877 Mullen, Eobert Gordon,
Fairviewy Wtdmore-roadj Bromley, Kent.

1878 ♦Mundella, The Eight Hon. Anthony John, M.P.,

16, Elvaston-place, Queens-gate, S,W.

1878 Murray, Adam,
104, King'Streetf Manchester.

1879 Murray, James Charles,
Calcutta,

1879 Nalder, Francis Henry,

Mndem Lodge^ Spring-grove, Isleworth,
1865 Nasmith, David,

4, Garden^eourt, Temple, E,0,

1878 Nathan, Henry,
1 1 0, Portsdown-road, Maida-vale, i\r.

1879 Neil, William M.,
64, Segmour^street, Portman-sq^uare, W.

1854 NeUd, Alfred,

Magfield, Manchester,
Neison, Fbajtcis G. p.,

93, Adelaide-road, South Hampstead, N.W,
1879 Nepean, Evan Colville,

War Office, Pall Mall, S.W,
1877 Nevill, Charles Henry,

11, Queen Victoria-street, E,C.
1862 Newbatt, Benjamin, F.I.A., F.fi.G.S.,

13, St. Jameses-square, S, W,
1879 Newdegate, Charles Newdigate, M.P., D.C.L.,

27, LowndeS'Street, Belgrave-square, S, W.
1877 Newington, Samuel, M.A.,

Ticehu^st, Sussex,
1847 •Nbwmaboh, William, F.E.S., F.I.A.,

{Trustee and Honorary Vice-President),

Beech Hokne, Nighfingale-lane, Clapham-eommon, S. W.

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Tear of
SleeCioD.

1869

1878
1878
1878
1858
1877
1871
1870
1834
1877
1878
1878

1880
1880
1862
1878
1878
1876
1877
1874

1834

LIST OF FELLOWS. 31

Newmarch, William T., A.A., Oxon,

67, Lombard-street, B,C.
Newport, Henry E., *

1, Whitehall, S.W.
Newton, John,

Ash Lea, Croydon-road, Penge, 8,E
Nicholson, J. S.,

Trinity College, Cambridge,
Nightingale, Miss Florence,

10, South-street, Park-lane, W.
Nix, Samuel Dyer,

3, King-street, Cheapside, E,C,
♦Noble, Benjamin,

j^orth'Eastern Bank, Neweastle-on-Tyne,
Noble, John,

45, Momington-road, Regent* s-park^ N, W,
Norman, George Warde, J. P.,

Bromley, Kent,
Norman, General, Sir Henry Wylie, K.C.B.,

27, Lexham-gardens, Cromwell-road, W,
Nopthbrook, The Eight Hon. the Earl of, G.C.S.I., D.C.L.,

4, Hamilton-place, Piccadilly, W,
Notthaftt, Theodor,

cjo Discount Bank, St, Petersburg,

Oakeshott, George Alfred,

Secretary's Office, General Post Office, E,0.
♦Oelsner, Isidor,

JELighfield, Westwood-park, Eorest-hill, S,E,
Ogboume, Charles Henry,

29, Dalhousie-square, Calcutta.
O'Hagan, The Eight Hon. Lord,

19, Chesham-place, S, W.
Oppenheim, Henry,

17, Park-lane, Piccadilly, W,
Orange, William, M.D.,

Broadmoor, Wokingham, Berks,
Ormond, Eichard,

Belgrave-terrace, Newcastle-on'Tyne,
OveraU, M illiam Henry, F.S.A.,

Librarian, Guildhall, E.O, {Bepresetiting the Library
Committee oj the Corporation of the City of London.)
•OvEBSTONE, The Eight IIoi^oufiABLB Lobd, F.B.G.S.
{Honorary Vice-President),

2, Carlton-gardens, S. W

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32 STATISTICAL SOCIETY

Tear of
Kleotion.

J 866

1879

1878
1880
1878
1879
1869
1877
1878
1879
1877
1878
1876
1857
1880
1876
1878
1880
1871
1874,
1874
1879
1877
1885
1859

•Palgrave, Robert Harry Inglis, J.P.,

11, Britannia-terrace, Or eat Yarmouth^ Norfolk.
Palmer, George, M.P., {The Acacia*^ Reading),

68, Qro8venor-9treet^ W.
Park, David Francis, C.A., F.F.A., A.I.A.,

17, Change alley ^ Cornhill, E.G,
Parkin, William {Temple Club, London),

Wegiboume-road, Shejield.
^BTTj^ Thomas,

Chajlton-place, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Partridge, Henry Francis, L.D.S., &c.,

Sussex House^ Sussex-place, South Kensington, S, W.
Pattsrson, Eobebt Hooabth,

22, Wingate-road, Hammersmith, Wi
Paul, Henry Moncreiff,

12, Lansdowne-crescent, dotting Hill, W.
Paulin, David,

31, StaJbrd'Street, Edinburgh,
Payn, Howard,

21, Oilbert -street, Chrosvenor -square, W.
Payne, William Percy,

136, Mansfield-road, Nottingham,
Pearce, Charles William,

Devon House, Acre-lane, S,W,
Pearson, Edwin Jamei»,

Board of Trade, Whitehall, S.JF.
•Pearson, Professor C. H. {cjo John Pearson, Q.C.),

75, Ojislow-square, S,W.
*Pease, Joseph Whitwell, M.P.,

24, Kensington-palace-gardens, W,
♦Peek, Sir Henry William, Bart., M.P.,
Wimbledon House, S.W.
Pellereau, His Honour, Etienne,

Fuisne Judge of H.M, Supreme Court, Mauritius.
Pender, John, M.P.,

18, Arlington-street, S.W,
Pennington, Frederick, M.P.,

17, Hyde Park-terrace, W.
Pepys, The Hon. George,

Phene, John Samuel, F.E.G.S., F.S.A., Ac,
5, Carlton-terrace, Oakley-street, S. W,

Philips, Herbert,

85, Church-street, Manchester.

Phillipps, Henry Matthews,
41, Seething-lane, E.C,
♦Phillips, Sir George Eichard, Bart.,

22, Hill-street, Berkeley-square, W.
Phillips, Henry James,

4, Ludgate-hill, EM.

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Tear of
EleetioiL

1877
1878
1871
1873

1878

•

1838
1879
1861
1809
1874
1879
I860
1879
1871
1877
1877
1867
1877
1849
1879
1874
1871

1837

LIST OF FELLOWS* 33

PhUlips, John Walter, M.B., L.R.C.S,,

30, Stanley 'Street i Jf est Melbourne^ Victoria,
Phipps, Pickering,

6, Collingtree Grange, Northampton.
♦Pickering, John, F.E.G.S., F.S,A.,

The Abnallsj Mount Freston, Leeds.
Pickstone, William,

Maesmynan Mall, Holywell.
*Piin, Joseph Todhunter,

Oreenbank, Monkstovm, County Dublin.
•Pinckard, George Henry, J.P., F.I. A.,

12, Orove-road, St. John's-tcood, N. W.
Pixley, Francis William,

Road Club, 4, Fork-place^ St, Jameses, S. TJ .
Plowden, W. Chicele (Commissioner 1st Division),
Meeruth District, Mussoorie, N.W.F,, India,

POCHDT, HeKBT DaVJS,

Bodnant Hall, Conway.
Ponsonby, The Hon. Frederick George Brabazon, M.A.,

3, Mownt'Street, Orosvenar-sguare, W.
Poole, William,

Newton Avenue, Longsight, Manchester.
Potter, Edmund, F.R.S.,

64, Queen's-gate, South Kensington, S. W.
♦Powell, Francis Sharp, F.E.G.S., ( Horton Old Hall, Bradford),

1, Cambridge-square, Hyde Park, W,
Power, Edward,

16, South welUgardens, Kensington, W.
Prance, Eeginald Heber,

JPrognal, Hampstead, N. W.
Praschkauer, Maximilian,

Swiss Cottage, Heme Hill, S.E.
♦Pratt, Robert Lindsay,

80, Bondgate, Darlington.
Preen, Harvey Edward,

Kidderminster.
Presant, John,

13, St. James^S'Sgtuire, S. W.
Price, James, F.R.G.S.,

63, Bedcliffe-gardens, South Kensington, W.
Price, John Charles,

Compton Cottage, Maryon-road, Old Charlton, Kent, S.E.
Puleston, John Henry, M.P.,

2, Bank-buildings, E.C.; Westminster Palace Hotel,
S.W.

•PUBDT, FeEDEBICK,

35, Victoria-road, Kensington, W,

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34 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

KIcction.

1879

1874

1872

1858
1877
1864
1860
1874
1879
1880
1865
1859
1878
1874
1877
1870
1835

1880
1875
1856
1867
1862

Quail, Jesse,

60, White Rock-streety Liverpool, E,
Quain, Eichard, M.D., F.R.S., F.B.C.P.,

67, Rarley-street, W.

*Rabino, Joseph,* (car^ of Baron J, Vitta),

8, Bue JLqfont, Lyons,
•Radstock, The Eight Honourable Lord,

Uast Sheen^ MortlaJce, S. W,
Raikes, Captain George Alfred, F.S.A., F.E. His. Soc,
63, Belsize-parkf Hampstead^ N. W.
•Ealeigh, Samuel,

9, St, Andrew-square y Edinburgh,
Eamsay, Alexander Gillespie, F.I.A.,

Canada Life Assurance, Hamilton, Oanada West,
Eamsden, Sir James, of Barrow, D.L.,

Fumess Abbey, Lancashire.
Eanken, "William Bajne,

37, Stanhope-gardens, Queen^s Oate, 8.W.
Eankin, James, M.P.,

35, Ennismore-gardens, Princess Oate, S, W,
EatclifF, Colonel Charles, J.P.,

Athenamm Club, S,W,; and Wyddrington, Birmingham,
Eathbone, P. H.,

Oreenbank Cottage, Liverpool.
Eathbone, William,

18, Prince' s-gar dens. Prince' s-gate, S. W,
*Eaven8tein, Ernest George, F.E.G.S.,

10, Lorn-road, Brixton, S, W,
*Eawlins, Thomas,

45, King William'Street, E.O.
Eawlinson, Eobert, C.B.,

11, Boltons, West Brompton, S.W,

Eawson, Sie Eawson W.,C.B.,K.C.M.G.,(c/o Jff.G^. Bawson.
Esq,,

2, Gillingham'Street, Ecclest on-square^ S, W.)
Eeaddy, George,

Belvedere Cottage, Eastdoum-park, Lewisham, S.E.
Eecord, John,

23, Kenninghall-road, Clapton, E.
Eedgrave, Alexander, C.B.,

Factory Inspectors* Office, Whitehall, S,W.
Eeid, Herbert Llojd,

4, GlebC'Villas, Mitcham.
Eeynolds, Frederick,

cjo London Institution, Mnsbury Circus^ E,C,

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Tear of
Election.

1879

1876

1878
1879
1873
1880
1868
1880
1880
1873
1834
1880
1865
1878
1879
1878
1874

1873
1875
1876
1868
1860
1877

LIST OP FELLOWS. 35

Bhodes, John G.,

Oakdene, JBeckenham, Keni.
Rice, Thomas Fitzroj,

Horseheads^ New Torh, U.S.A.
Eichards, George, L.E.C.P., Edin.,

Mervyn LodgCy Ashjlelda, Boss, Herefordshire,
Bichardson, George Gibson, J.P.,

Oak Lawn, Meigats.
Eipon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., F.B.S, Ac,,

1, Oarlton^gardens, S, W.
Eoberts, A. 7.,

49, Bow-lane, Cheapside, B.C.
Bobinson, Sir William Bose, K.C.S.J.,

50, Noffolk-square, Hyde-park, W.
♦Ronald, Byron L.,

14, Tipper Phillimore-gardens, W.
Bonald, Robert Bruce,

29, Femhridge'Square, W.
♦Bosebery, The Right Hon. the Earl of,

107, Biccadilly, W.
•Boss, David, of Bladensburg,

Bostrevor, Co. Down, Ireland,
Both, Henry Ling,

Foulden, Mackay, Queensland.
Buck, George T.,

The Hawthorns, Dorville'road, Lee, 8.E.
Bumley, George Chisnall,

Lawn Cottage, Shepherd's Bush Oreen, W.
Buntz, John,

Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington, N.
BusselK Bichard F.,

8, John-street, Adelphi, W.C.
Butherford, Cliarles,

29, St. Swithin's'lane, B.C.

♦Salisbury, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, P.C, 1\B.S.,

20, Arlington-street, W.
♦Salomons, Sir David Lionel, Bart., J. P.,

Broom-hill, Timbridge Wells.
Salt, Thomas,

Weeping Cross, Stafford.
Samuelson, Bernhard, M.P.,

56, Princess-gate, Hyde-park, S. W»
Sargant, William Lucus,

Bdgbaston, Birmingham.
Saunders, Charles Edward, M.D.,

21, Lower Seymour-street, Bortman-square, W.

D 2

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36 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tear of
Bleotlon.

1874,

1852
1879
1869

1877
1877
1880
1878
1875
1880
1869
1873
1841

1879
1871

1878
1850
1878
1877
1869
1878
1874
1871
1878

Saunders, Francis,

6, Limet-grove^ Iiewisham, 8.E.
Saunders, James Ebenezer, jun., F.O.S.

9, FiTtsburf/'Circus, E.G.
Saunders, William,

Motmt VieWy Streatham^ 8,W
Sayle, PhUip, F.R.H.S.,

4, St. PauVs Church-yard, E.G.
Scbiff, Charles

86, Sac1cmUe'9treety Ficcadilly, TV*
Schneidau, Charles John,

6, Wesiwick-gardeng, West Kensington-park, W,
Schreiber, Charles, M.P.,

Langham Howe, 11, Portland-place, W.
Scott, Arthur J.,

22, Grafion-street, New Bond-street, W,
Scott, Sir Edward Henry, Bart., J.P.,

27, Grosffenor-square, W.
*Seeley, Charles, jun., M.P.,

Sherwood Lodge, Nottingham,
Seyd, Ernest,

38, Lombard-streety E,G.
Seyd, Richard,

38, Lombard-street, E,G,
Shaftesbuet, The Eight Hon. the Eaql of, KG.,
{Honorary Vice-President),

24, Grosvenor-square, W,
Shepbeard, Wallwjm Poyer B., M.A.,

24, Gld Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.
Sidgwick, Henry,

Trinity College, Cambridge.
Simmonds, G. H.,

1, Whitehall, S.W.
Singer, Charles Douglas,

9, The Terrace, Upper Clapton, E.
Slaughter, Mihill,

42, Binfield-road, Glapham, 8.W.
Sloley, Robert Hugb.

121, Bishopsgate-sfreet Within, E.G.
Smee, Alfred Hutcheson, M.R.C.S.,

7, Finsbury-circus, E,G.

♦Smitb, Charles, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,

Barrow-in-Furness.
Smitb, Edward,

St. Mildred's House, Poultry, E.G.
Smitb, E. Cozens,

1, Old Broad-street, E.G.
•Smith, George, LL.D , CLE.,

Serampore House, Napier-road, Edinburgh.

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Te*r of
Sleotion.

1880

1877
1878
1880
1877
1879
1878
1867
1878
1855
1877
1873
1867
1876
1874
1856
1872
1880
1856
1877
1877
1880
1877
1880
1877

LIST OF FELLOWS. 37

Smith, Thomas Sherwood,

21, Bichmond-terracey Clifton,
Smith, Howard S.,

37, Bennetts Sill, Birmingham.
Smith, JameB,

South Indian Bailway, Negapatam, Madras,
Smith, Jervoise,

1, Lombard^reet, E,G,
Smith, John,

8, Old Jewry, E,0,
Smith, J. Fisher,

76, Cheapside, JS,G.
Smith, Col. John Thomas, RE., F.R.S., F.I.A.,

10, Gledhow Gardens, Wetherhy-road, 8. Kensington, S. W,
♦Smith, The Eight Honourable William Henry, M.P.,

Admiralty, Whitehall, 8.W.
Souter, John Clement, M.D., F.C.S.,

Sowraj, John Eussell,

Office of Woods, 1, WhitehalUplace, 8.W.
Spalding, Samuel,

8&uth Darenth, Kent,
Spence, John Berger,

81, Lombard-street, E.O,
*Spencer, Robert James,

High-street, Portsmouth,
Spensley, Howard,

Thatched House Club, 8t, James' s-street, 8, W.
Spicer, James, J. P.,

Harts, Woodford, Essex,
♦Sprague, Thomas Bond, M.A., F.I.A.,

26, 8t, Andrew^quare, Edinburgh.
Spriggs, Joseph,

Dale Cottage, Foston^ near Market Harbro*,
Stofford, Sir Edward William, K.C.M.G.,

48, Stanhope- gardens, S.W.
•Stainton, Henry Tibbats,

Mountsfield, Lewisham, 8,E.
Stanford, Edward,

55, Charing Cross, 8. W,
Staples, Sir Nathaniel Alexander, Bart.,

lAssan, Cookstown, Tyrone, Ireland.
Stark, James,

17, King's Arms-yard, E.C,
Startin, James, M.RC.S.,

17, Sackville-street, W.
Stephens, William Davies,

4, Ahbotsford-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Stone, William A.,

^0,Cannon'Street, E.G.; West Hill Lodge, Dartford, Kent.

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38 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tcftrof
Election.

1855

1865
1872

1880
1878
1880

1873
1859
1880

1877
1873
X838
1880
1878
1879
1879
1878
1878
1864.
1868
1871
1877
1879

♦Stott, John, F.I.A.,

12, EnseX'Villas, Kensington^ W.
Strachan, Thomas Young, F.I. A.,

18, Orainger-itreet West, I^etocastle-on-l^e,
Sfcrachey, General Richard, R.E., C.S.I., F.li.S.,

India Office, Westminster, 8,W.
Strutt, Hon. Frederick,

Milford House, near Derby.
Stubbiris, Thomas K.,

Market-street, Bradford, YorJcs,
♦Summers, William, M.P. {Sunyside^ Ashtonr under- Ijyne)^

12, St, James' S'place, 8.W.

Tait, Lawson, F.E.C.S.,

7, Qreat Charles-street^ Birmingham.
♦Tait, Patrick Macnaghten,

39, Belsize Bark, N,W.; and Oriental Club, W,
Taylor, George,

17, Abchurchrlane, E.C.
Taylor, John E.,

12, Queen's Qate-gardens, South Kensington, S.W.
Taylor, Peter Alfred, M.P.,

22, Ashleu'place, Westminster^ S* W.
•Taylor, General Pringle, K.H.,

Temple, Sir Richard, Bart., G.C.S.I., D.C.L., &c,

Athenaum Club, Ball Mall, S.W.
Thomas, Rev. R. D.,

Thomas, William Angell,

King's College, Strand, W.C.
Thomas, W. Cave,

53, W elbeck-street. Cavendish-square ^ W.
Thompson, Alfred Boyle, M.R.C.P.,

18, SeneanfS'inn, Temple, E.G.
Thompson, Captain C. Halford, (late R.At),

9, ColUton-crescent, Exeter.
♦Thompson, Henry Yates,

26a, Bryanston-square, W.
Thomson, James,

35, McholaS'laney E.C.
Thomson, Thomas D.,

57, Moorgate-street, E.C
Tiddy, Samuel Vesey,

110, Cannon-street, E.C,
Tipping, William,

Oak field House, Ashton-undet -Lyne .

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Digitized by ^

LIST OF FELLOWS. 39

Tear of
■lectloiL

1855 Tomline, Colonel George,

1, Carlton House-terrace, 8, W,
1843 Tottie, John William,

Coniston Hall, Bell Bush, Leeds,
1868 *Treatt, Frank Burford,

Immigration Office, Sydney, N.S. Wales,
1868 Tiitton, Joseph Herbert,

54, Lombard-street, E,C.
1880 Tupp, Alfred Cotterill, {Indian Civil Service),

Accountant' General, Madras.
1878 Tumbull, Alexander,

118, Belsize-f ark-gardens, N* W,
1867 Turner, Thomas,

Ashley House, JSingsdown, Bristol,
1878 Turton, William Woolley,

The Hollies, Bichley, Kent.
1880 Twist, John Charles,

78, Union-road, Hurst Brook, Ashton-under-Lyne,
1841 Tyndall, William Henry,

92| Cheapside, E,C.

1873 Underdown, Bobert George,

London-road Bailway Station, Manchester,
1877 •Urlin, Eichard Denny,

22, Stafford-terrace, Fhillimore-gardens, W.

1842 Valpy, Eichard,

6, Butland^ate, S. W.
1868 Vanderbyl, Philip,

51, Borchester-terrace, W.
1880 Van de Linde, Gerard, A.C.A.,

12, Lawrence Bountney-lane, Cannon-street, E,C.
1874 Vian, William John,

64, ComhUl, B.C.

1876 Vigers, Eobert,
4, Frederick* s-plaee. Old Jewry ^ E.C,

1877 Vine, John Eichard Somers,
46, St. BauVs-road, Camden-square, JVi TV.

1878 Vivian, Major Quintus, D.L., F.E.G.S.,
17, Ohesham-street, S,Tr.

1861 WaddeU, James,

1, Queen Vtctoria-street, E,0.
1878 Waddy, Henry Edward, L.E.O.P., M.E.C.S ,

2, Clarence-street, Oloucester.

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40 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tear of
EiectiMi.

1877

1857
1871
1877
1868
1880
1876
1877
1850
1879
1873
1865
1878
1874
1873
1865
1865
1873
1869
1873
1879
1873
1879
1855
1873

Wakeford, Henry,

Home Office, Whitehall, 8.W.
♦Waltokd, Coenelius, F.I.A.,

86, BeUize-park-gardeTis, N. W.
♦Walker, B. Bailey,

The Grove, Didshury, Manchester.
Wallington, Charles,

51, Moorgate-atreety E,C,
Wallis, Charles, J.,

62, Doughty-street, W.C.
Wallis, E. White, F.M.S.,

1, Springfield-road, 8L John's Wood, N.W.
Walter, Arthur Fraser,

15, Queen's GatC'terrace, 8.W,
Walter, Captain Edward,

Oommissionaires* Office ^ 419, Strand, W.O.
Walter, John, M.P.,

40, Upper Grosvenor-street, W.
Wansey, Arthur H.,

Sambourne, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
Waring, Charles,

19b, Grosvenor-square, S, W,
Waterhouso, Edwin, B.A.,

44, Gresham-street, E.C,
Watherston, Edward J.,

12, Pall Mall East, S. W.
Watson, James, P.E.G.S.,

24, Endsleigh'Street, Tavistock-square, W,C
Watson, J. Forbes, M.A., M.D., LL.D.

India Museum, South Kensington, W.
Watson, William West,

City Chamberlain, Glasgow,
Webster, Alphonsus,

44, Mecklenhurg^qu(tre, W.C,
Webster, James Hume,

14, Chapel-street, Park'lane, W.
Weguelin, Christopher,

57i Old Broad-street, E.C.
Weguelin, Thomas Matthias,

14, Devonshire-street, Portland-place, W.
Weir, William,

38, South Audley-street, W.
♦Welby, Eeginald Earle, C.B.,

The Treasury, Whitehall, 8,W.
Welch, John Kemp, J.P.,

Clock House, Clapham-common, S. W.
Weldon, James Walton,

1, St, James^ s-square, 8, W,
Wellington, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.. «fec., &<•.,

Apsley Rouse, Piccadilly y W,

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Tear of
Bleetion.

1873

1865
1879
1876
1879
1878
1859
1876
1868
1863
1879
1871
1878
1873
1879
1878
1875
1860
1879
1880
1864
1870
1876
1877
1875

LIST OP FELLOWS. 41

WeUfl, W. Lewis,

66, Old Broad-street, 11,0,
Welton, Thomas Abebobombie, (5, Moorgate-street, E.C,)y

6, Offerton-Toad, Glapham, S.W.
Wenley, Jaraes Adams,

Bank of Scotland, Bank-street, Edinburgh,
Westgarth, WillUm,

28, ComhiU, E,C.
•Westlake, John, Q.C., LL.D.,

16, Oxford-square, W.
Wharton, James,

10, Buckland-crescent, Belsize-park, N. W.
Whitbread, Samuel, M.P.,

10, Ennismore-gardens, Frinees-gate, 8. W,
Whitcher, John, Jr^ F.I. A.,

81, King WiUiam-street, E.C.
White, James,

8, Thurloe-square, South Kensington, S. W.
White, Leedham,

44, Onsloto-gardens, S.W.; 85, Qracechurch-street, E.C,
White, Eobert Owen, J.P.,

The Briorg, Lewishatn, S.E.
White, William,

70, Lombard-street, E,0,
Whiteford, William,

8, Temple-gardens, E,0.
Whitehead, Jeflfery,

39, Throgmorton^street, E,C.
Whitwill, Mark, J.P.,

Bedland House, Durdham^park, Bristol
WUcox, William, L.ELC.P. (Edin.), M.R.C.S.,

Hollg House, North Walsham, Norfolk.
Wilkinson, Thomas Bead,

Manchester and Salford Bank, Manchester.
Willans, John Wrigley,

2, Headinglg-terrace, Leeds.
Williams, Edwardf,

Cleveland Lodge, Middlesborough.
Williams, Colonel E. C. J., K.E^ C.i.E.,

India Office, Whitehall.
Williains, Frederick fiessant,

2, Ludgate Hill, E.C.
Williams, H. E.,

3, Lime-street, E.C, ; and Oak Lodge, Highgatr, N.
Williams, John Worthey,

5, Marlborough-road, Upper Holloway, N.
Williams, Eichard Price,

38, Barlianumt-street, S.W.
Wilson, Edwards D. J., M.A.,

Airlie House, The Orove, Oamberwell, 8.E.

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42 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Tear of
BI«ction.

1874

1878
1872
1868
1877
1873
1838
1874
1878
1880
1877
1838

1872
1879
1879
1877
1849

*Wil8on, Bobert Porter,

5, Oumberland'terraee^ Bej^enfs-park, K.W,
Wilton, Francis, M.ILC.S.,

TicehurH, Sussex,
•Winch, William R.,

North Mymms Park, Hatfield, Herts.
Wood, H. W. I. (Calcutta),

Care of Messrs. Bichardson^ 13, Fall Mall, 8.W.
Woodrow, T. J.,

Great Eastern Railway, Liverpool-street, E^C.
Woods, Henry,

Warnford Fork, Bish^'s Waltham, Hants.
Woolhouse, Wesley Stoker Barker, F.R.A.S.,

Alwyne Lodge, Alwyne^oad, Canonbury, Ifn
Woolner, Thomas, R. A.,

29, Welbeck'Street, Cavendish^quare, W.
.Worsfold, Rev. J. N., M.A.,

Haddlesey Beetory, near Selby, Yorkshire,
Wren, Walter,

7, FounS'Square, W.
Wright, George,

9, Craif S'Cowrt, Charing Cross, 8.W.
»Wyatt-EdgeU, Rev. Edgell,

40, Lovoer Orosvenor-street, W.; Stwrfbrd Hail, Bugby.

Yeatman, Morgan,

Shawfield, Bromley, Kent.
Teats, John, LL.D.,

7, Beaufort-square, Chepstow.
Tee, Tung,

49, Fortland-place, W.
*Toull, John GHbson,

Jesmonds-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne^
•Toung, Charles Baring,

12, Hyde-park Terrace, W.

%* The Executive Committee request that any inaccuracy m
the foregoing list may he pointed out to the AssiSTAin? Secbbtabt
and that all changes of address may he notified to him, so that delay
in forwarding communications and the publications of the Society ma^
be avoided.

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LIST OF HONORABT MEMBBB8. 43

HONORART MEMBERS.

fflS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G.,
Honorary President,

EUROPE.

%mimi anJr pungarjj.

■naapert M. CHARLES KELETI, Chrf du Bureau Ro^al

HonffrotM, de StatiMiique, Cotueiller Miniti&iel,
▼l€BBm DR. HUGO FRANZ BRACHELLI, Chef du Bureau

de StatUtique au Minisihre de Commerce,
„ S. E. M. le BARON de CZ(£RNIG, Corueiiier i$Uime

aciuel de S. M. Imp, et Royal,
, PROFESSOR F». XAVIER tou NEUMANN-

SPALLART, D.C.L., Frofettor of Political

Economy and Statistics, Agricultural College,

University of Vienna; Imperial Councilor;

Member of the Imperial Staiistical Commission ;

Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of

Paris and of the Cobden Club.
„ M. MAX WIRTH, Aneiem Chrf du Bureau de la

Statistique, Suisse.

§elgmm.

Bratselfl ^ SIR HENRY PAGE TURNER BARRON, Bart.,

Secretary qf Legation, British Embassy,

„ ._ M. XAVIER HEUSCHLING, Chef de Division au

Minisihre de VlntMeur du Royaume de Belgique,
S^cr/taire de la Commission Cenirale de Statistique,

„ M. le DR. E. JANSSENS, Servi<;e d' Hygiene, In-

specteur du SantS de la Ville de Bruxelles,
Membre SSerStaire de la Commission Provinciale,
et de la Commission LoctUe de Statistique h
Bruxelles.

M. VICTOR MISSON, Ancien President de la Cour

dee Comptee de Belgique, Sfc,

^trtmwck.

CmwtnUmmtn .... PROFESSOR FALBE HANSEN, Prqfessor of
Political Economy and Staiistits in the University of
Copenhiigen,
^ .^ DR. SCHLEISNER* Medical Officer qf HeaUh.

^xixntt.

Pmris... M. le Dr. JACQUES BERTILLON, Prqfesseur de

DAnographie k VEcole d* Anthropologic ; Chef de
la Statistique Municipale de Paris; Laur^t de
I* Academe des Sciences, ^c, 8fc.

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44 STATISTICAL SOCIETY:

Parts M.MAURICE BLOCK.

, M. le Dr. ARTHUR CHERVIN, Member of the

Statistical Society of Paris; General Secretary
of the International Congrett of Demography.

„ M, MXXIMIM DELOCHE. Membre de Vlnttitut,

Directeur de la Statietique Q-en^cde de la France,

„ M. JOSEPH GARNIER. Membre de VinaiittU, Prih-

feneur d* Economic Politique a Vicole dee Ponts et
Chauit/es, JUdaeteur en ehe/du Journal dee SeonO'
mistet,

, M. CLEMENT JUGLAR. Prerident Sortant de la

Social/ de Statistique de Paris,

, M. ALFRED ljEGOYT,AncienIHreeteur de U Sta*

tietique G^h&ale,

„ M. E. LEVASSEUR, Membre de rinaUiut, Prq/emeur

au Collige de France,

„ M.DE VkVilEV, Membre de I' Imtitui.AneienD^^i,

S^fnateur^ et Miniatre,

», M. LE PLAY, Ancien S6tateur,

., M. le PRESIDENT DE LA SOClfiTfi DE

STATISTIQUE DB PARIS.

„ THE HON. M. jfiAN BAPTISTE LfiON SAY,

President qf the Senate qfthe Republic qf France,

Bmrarim DR. GEORGE MAYR, Formerly Director qf the

Royal Bureau qf Statistics; Ministerialrath und
Universitats Prqfessor,

„ DR. G. CHARLES LEOPOLD SEUFPERT, Chirf

Inspector and Director qf the Royal Custom House
at Simbach,

BerUn DR. CHARLES BECKER, Geheimer olerregier-

unysrath. Director desKaiserU: StatistischenAmts.

„ DR. ERNEST ENGEL. Director qfthe Royal Statis-
tical Office qf Prussia,

WtmnHtart THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATISTICAL

SOCIETY OF FRANKFURT.

(Srtai Britain anir Jnlanb.

Dnblln THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATISTICAL AND

SOCIAL ENQUIRY SOCIETY OF IRELAND.

■mnelietter THE PRESIDENT OF THE MANCHESTER

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(Srwct.

Athens A. MANSOLAS, Chrf de Division, Directeur du

Bureau de Statistique HelUnique,

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LIST OF HONOBAST MEMBERS.

Italg.

Genoa PROFESSORE 6RR0LAM0 BOCCARDO, Senator

of the Kingdom of Italy; Knight of Civil
Merity ^c, ^c.

Padorm 8IGNOR EMILIO MORPURGO, Professore

Ordinario di Statistica nella JR. Univeraitd di
Padova; Membro della CHunta Centrale di Sta-
titticay <f*c.

FaTla SIGNOR LUIGI C08SA, Professeur Ordinaire

d'Bconomie Politique d V UniversitS de Pavia ;
Docteur en Droit; OJicier de VOrdre de la
Couronne d'Jtalief <{•<?., ^c,

Kone PROFESSORE LUIGI BODIO, Direeteur de la

Statietique G6i&ale ePIialie.

PROFESSORE CESARE CONTINI, Membre de la

Soci^U Staiistique de Paris, Grand Chevalier
de VOrdre de Sa MajeetS le Eoi d'ltalie,

SIGNOR CESARE CORRENTI, Membre de la

Chambre det DiputU ; Vice-Preeident de la Com-
mission Centrale de Statistique.

MESSEDAGLIA. SIGNOR ANGELO, Professore di

Statistica nellu* University di Soma. {Member
of the Italian Parliament.)

ILMARCHESE AWOCATO ERMENEGILDO DE

CINQUE QUINTILI, S^critaire Giniral de la
Commission des HCpitaux JRomains,

TuHn PROFESSORE GIOVANNI FLECHIA. Prisidentde

la FaculU de Philosophie et Prqfesseur tt VVnt-
versiU de Turin,

Tenlce SIGNOR FRANCESCO FERRARA,/)^imM am PflWe-

menty Direeteur del*Ecole Sup6rieure de Commerce'

fortu0al.

l^Ubon M. A. J. D'AYILA, Ministre d'Btat honoraire, Con-

seilleur d*Etat, et Diput6 des Cortis.

^ttssin.

SC Petcrtbnrff HIS EXCELLENCY M. SEMENOW, Direeteur
du Comity Central de Statistique, Conseiller d'£lat
actuel,

M. le DR. J. B. VERNADSKI, ConseUler d*Etnt
actuel, EX'professeur,

„ M. A. VESSELOVSKY, Secretaire du Cbmiti Sci^

entifique du Ministers Imperial des Finances.

Madrid

SENOR DON JOSfi MAGAZ Y JAIME.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY;

SfetiTien anir llortoag.

CkrUtlmnlA PROFESSOR T. H. ASCHEHOU6. Membre de

VA99embUe Nationals de la Norveffe.

,, M. A. N. KIAER. Chtf du Bureau de Statittiqut au

Minitthre de rintSrieur, Membre de la Soeiite
Royaie det Sciencet,

StoekholM M. le DR. FREDERIK THEODOR BERG. Ancien

Ch^ du Bureau Central de StatUtique de la Su^de,

„ M. EDWARD SCHEUTZ, IngSnieur ChiL

OeneTm M. MALLET.

Constantinople. HIS EXCELLENCY AHMED VEFYK PASHA.
Honorary Member of the StatUtieal Society qfParie.

PhlUppopoUB .... THOMAS MICHELL. Esq., C.B., F.R.G.S.

AMERICA.

•ttmwm .

gomittion of Cmtaira.

. JOHN LANGTON E«a., Auditor-General,
EDWARD YOUNG, Esq., formerly Chief of the
Bureau of Statistice, United States of America^
noWf Secretary of the Board of Custom* of
Canada.

Albany. W.Y THE HON. WILLIAM BARNES, Counsellor -at-

haw {Ex 'Superintendent qf the Insurance Depart'
meut),

Dorchester. Xass. DR. EDWARD JARVIS, A.M., President of the
American Statistical Association, Boston,

New Harcn, Conn. FRANCIS A. WALKER, Esq., M.A., Prqfessoro/
Political Economy, Vale College,

Norwleh, Conn. THE HON. DAVID A. WELLS, President of the
American Association for the Promotion of Social
Science^ Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France.

Tannton. Siass. JOHN E. SANFORD. Esq., Speaker of the House
of Representatives. Insurance Commissioner.

Washington .... THE HON. CHARLES F. CONANT. Assistant
Secretary to the Treasury of the United States.

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LIST OP HONORARY MEMBBBS. 47

AUSTRALASIA.
|i;tto Smrf^ Malts,

Sydney EDWARD GRANT WARD, Esa., Reffiitrar- General,

WelliniTtoii JAMES HECTOR, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.

BHsHane HENRY JORDAN, Eso., Reffieirar- General.

S^ont\i Australia,

A4elml4e » JOSIAH BOOTHBY, Esa., C.M.6., Under Secretary

and Government Statist of South Australia.

Casmania,

HoUmrt T«wii .... E. SWARBRECK HALL, Eso., M.R.C.S.

„ .... EDWIN CRADOCK NOWELL, Esq.,

Government Statistician.

■elUoiirne HENRY HEYLYN HAYTER, Esq.,

Government Statist.

WILLIAM HENRY ARCHER, Esq., F.I.A.,

F.L.S., &c

NoTB. — ^The Executive Committee request that any in-
accuracies in the foregoing List of Honorary Members
may be pointed out, and that all changes of address may be
notified to the Secretary, so that delay in forwarding com-
munications and the publications of the Society may be
avoided.

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INDEX TO RULES.

BULS

1. The Objects of the Societj.

2. Society to consiat of Fellows and Honorary Members.

3. No. of Fellows unlimited ; Hon. Members not to exceed 70.

4. Fellows — Candidates to be proposed by two or more Fellows.

5. Do. to be elected by Ballot.

6. Do. on Admission may attach F.S.S. to their Names.

7. Honorary Members, Proposed by Council ; Elected by Ballot.

8. Fellows, to pay an Annual Subscription or a Composition.

9. Do. how disqualified. Written notice of withdrawal required.
10. Do. and Honorary Members, Expulsion of.

] 1. Trustees. Property of Society, to be vested in Tfiree.

12, President, Council, and Officers, Number and Particulars of.

- . ' > Do. do. do. Election and Qualifications of.

16. Do. do. do. Extraordinary Vacancies of.

16. Committees, may be appointed by Council.

17. Meetings, Ordinary and Anniversary, when to be held.

18. Ordinary Meetings, Business of. Strangers may be introduced.

19. Anniversary Meetings, Business of.

20. Special General Meetings may be called.

21. Auditors, Appointment and Duties of.

22. President, Duties of. To have a Casting Vote.
28. Treasurer, Duties of, subject to the Council.

24. Secretaries, Duties of.

25. Vice-Presidents, Powers of.

26. Council, Duties of, in Publishing Papers and Expending Funds.

27. ) Do. Powers of, to frame Regulations not inconsiatent

28. j with these Rules.

29. Do. to publish a Journal of the Transactions of the Society'.

30. Right of Property reserved in all Communications received.

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RULES OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

Obfettt of the Society,

1. Thx Statistical Society waf eeta-
bliflhed to collect, arrange, digest, and
publish facts illostrating the condition
and prospects of society, in its material,
social and moral relations. These facts
are for the most part arranged in
tabular forms, and in accordance with
the principles of the nnmerical method.

The Society not only collects new
materials, but condenses, arranges, and
publishes those already existing, whether
unpublished or published in diffuse and
expensive forms, in the English or in
any foreign language.

The Society likewise promotes the
<Uscussion of legislative and other pub-
lic measures from the statistical point
of view. These discussions form portions
of the Transadaons of the Society.

ConstUuticn of the Society,

2. The Society consists of Fellows and
Honorary Members, elected in the man-
ner laid down in the following rules.

Nwnber of Fellowe and Honorary
Members*
8. The number of Fellows shall be
unlimited. Foreigners or British sub-
jects of distinction residing abroad may
be admitted as Honorary Members : of
whom the number shall not be more
than seventy at any one time.

Proposal of Fellows,

4. Every Candidate for admission as
a Fellow of the Society, shall be pro-
posed by two or more Fellowo, who,
shall certify from their personal know-
ledge of him or of his works, that he is
a fit person to be admitted a Fellow
of the Statistical Society. Every such
certificate having been read and approved
at a Meeting of the Council, shall be
suspended in the meeting-room of the
Society until the following Ordinary
Meeting, at which the vote shall bo
taken upon it.

Election of Fellows,

5. In the election of Fellows, the
votes shall be taken by ballot. No
person shall be admitted unless at least
sixteen Fellows vote, and unless he have
in his favour three-fourths of the Fellows
voting.

Admission of Fellows,

6. Every Fellow elect shall appear
for his admission on or before the third
Ordinary Meeting of the Society after
his election, or within such time as shall
be granted by the Council.

The manner of admission shall be
thus: —

Inmiediately after the reading of the
minutes, the Fellow elect, having first
paid his subscription i(x the current
year or his composition, shall ngn the
obligation contained in the Fellowship-
book, to the effect following : —

" We, who have underwritten out
" names, do hereby undertake, each for
« himself, that we will endeavour to
" further the good of the Statistical
*' Sodety for improving Statistical
" Knowledge, and the ends for which
<' the same has been founded; that
** we will be present at the Meet-
*' ings of the Sodety as often as con-
" veniently we can, and that we will
*' keep and Ailfil the Rules and Orders
*• of this Society : provided that when-
" soever any one of us shall make known,
*' by writing under his hand, to the
** President for the time being, that he
" denres to withdraw from the Sodety,
*< he shall be free thenceforward from
" this obligation.*'

Whereon the President, taking him
by the hand, shall say, — ** By the autho'
'* rity and in th^ tame of the Statis'
" tical Society I ao aOm^ you a
•* Fellow thereof,"

Upon their admisraon Fellows shall
have the right of attaching to their
names the letters F.S.S.

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RULES OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

Admission of Honorary Members.

7. There shall be Two Meetmgi in
the year, on such days as shall be here*
after fixed by the Ooondl, at which
Monorcuy Members ma,y be elected.

No Honorary Member can be recom-
mended for election but by the Coundl.
Any Member of the Oomidl may pro-
pose a Foreigner or British subject of
distinction residing abroad at any Meet-
ing of the Council, delivering at the
same time a written statement of the
qnalifications, offices held by, and pab-
lished works of the person proposed;
and ten days' notice at least shall be
given to every Member of the Council,
of the day on which the Council will
vote by bfdlot on the question whether
they will recommend the person pro-
posed. No such recommendation to the
Society shall be adopted unless at least
three-fourths of the votes are in favour
thereof.

Notice of the recommendation shall
be given from the chair at the Meeting
of the Society next preceding that at
which the vote shall be taken thereon.
No person shall be elected an Honorary
Member unless sixteen Fellows vote and
three-fourths of the Fellows voting be
in his fiivonr.

The Council shall have power to elect
as Honorary Members, the President for
the time being of the Statistical Sodetiee
of Dublin, Manchester, and Paris, and
the President of any other Statistical
Society at home or abroad.

Payments by Fellows,

8. Every Fellow of the Society shall pay
a yearly subscription of Tu^o Guineas,
or may at any time compound for his
future yearly payments by paying at
once the sum of Twenty Ouineas.*

Defaulters, — Withdrawal of
Fellows.

9. All yearly payments are due in
advance on the 1st of January, and if
any Fellow of the Society have not paid
lus subscription before tiie Ist of July,
he shall be applied to in writing by the
Secretaries, and if the same be not paid
before the 1st of January of the second
year, a written application shall again

* Cheques staoold be made payable to
Drommood and Co. "

be made by the Secretaries, and the
Fellow in arrear shall cease to receive
the Society's publications, and shall not
be entitled to any of the privileges of
the Society until sudi arrears are paid ;
and if the subscription be not dis-
charged before the 1st of February of
the second year, the name of the Fdlow
thus in arrear shall be exhibited as a
defaulter on a card suspended in the
meeting-rooms ; and if, at the next
Anniversary Meeting, the amount still
remain unpaid, the defaulter shall be
announced to be no longer a Fellow of
the Sodety, the reason for the same
being at the same time assigned. No
Fellow of the Sodety can withdraw his
name from the Sodety's books, unless
all arrears be paid ; and no resignation
will be deemed valid unless a written
notice thereof be communicated to the
Secretaries. No Fellow shall be entiUed
to vote at any Meeting of the Sodety
until he shall have paid his subscription
for the current year.

Expulsion of Fellows.

10. If any Fellow of the Sodety, or
any Honorary Member, shall so demean
himself that it would be for the dis-
honour of the Sodety that he lonser
continue to be a Fellow or Member
thereof, the Council shall take the
matter into consideration ; and if the
minority of the Members of the Coundl
present at some Meeting (of which and
of the matter in hand such Fellow or
Member, and every Member of the
Council, shall have due notice) shall
dedde by ballot to recommend that such
Fdlow or Member be expelled from the
Sodety, the President shall at the next
Ordinary Meeting announce to the
Sodety the recommendation of the
Coundl, and at the following Meeting
the question shall be dedded by ballot,
and if at least three-fourths of the
number voting are in favour of the
expulsion, the President shall forthwith
cancel the name in the Fellowship-book,
and shall say, —

*' By the authority and in the name
" of the Statistical Sodety, I do declare
" that A. B. (naming him) is no longer
" a FeUow (or Honorary Meml^)
" thereof."

*Tfae Statistical Society," and croited "UeMn.

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BULES OF THE 8TAT1BTICAL SOCIETY.

And raeh Fellow or Honoraiy Mem-
ber, shall therenpon oease to.be of tbe
Society.

Drustees.

11. The property of the Sodety shall
be vested in three TVwteee, chosen by
the Fellows. The Trostees are eli^ble
to any other offices in the Society.

Prmidmt^ Council^ and Qfieers*

12. The Council shall, independent
of the Honorary Yice-PresidentB, con-
sist of thirty-one Members, of whom one
shall be the Prendent, and four be nomi-
nated Vice-Presidents. The Council
shall be elected as hereafter provided.
Any five of the Council shall be a
quorum. From the Council shall be
chosen a Treaeurer, three Seeretariee,
and a Foreign Secretary, who may be
one of the Secretaries. Six Fellows, at
leiist, who were not of the Council of the
previous year, shall be annually elected.

Election of President and Officers.

13. The President shall be chosen
yearly by the Fellows. The same person
shall not be eli^ble more than two
years in suooession.

The fbrmer Presidents who are oon-
tinuing Fellows of the Society shall be
Honorary Vioe-Presidents ; four Vlce-
Preddents shall be yearly chosen from
the Council by the Prendent.

Any Honoraiy Vice-President may
take part in the deliberations of the
Council on expressing a wish to that
effect : and when attending the Meetings
of the Council, shall exercise all the
rights and powers of a Member of the
ConnciL

The Treasurer and Secretaries shall
be chosen yearly by the Fellows from
the Council.

Election of CounciL

14k The Council shall, previously to
the Anniversary Meeting, nominate, by
ballot, the FeUowe whom they reoom-
mmut to be the next President and
Council of the Sodety. They shall also
recommend ibr election a Treasurer and
Secretaries (in ao(X»dance with Bule
12), Kotioe shall be sent to every
Fellow whose reddence is known to be
withm the limits of the metropolitan
post, at least a fortnight before the

Anniversary Meeting,, of the names of
Fellows recommended by the Council.

Extraordinary Vacandet.

15. On Knj extraordinary fxicaney ot
the Office of the President, or other
Officer of the Sodety, or in the Council,
the Secretaries shall summon the
Council with as little delay as posdble
and a majority of the Coundl, thereupon
meeting in their usual place, shall, by
ballot, and by a majority of those pre-
sent, choose a new Preddent, or other
Officer of the Sodety, or Member of the
Council, to be so until the next Anni-
versary Meeting.

Committees.

16. The Coundl shall have power to
appoint CommiHees ef Fellows and
abo an Executive Committee of their
own body. The Committees shall report
their proceedings to the Coundl. No
report shall be communicated to the
Society which is not approved by the
CouncdL

Meetings Ordinary and Anniversary,

17. The Ordinary Meetings oi the
Sodety shall be monthly, or oftencr,
during the Sesdon, which shall be from
the 1st of November to the 1st of July,
both indudve, on such days and at
such hours as the Council shall declare.
The Anniversary Meeting shall be hdd
on such day in June of each year as
shall be appointed by the Council for
the time being.

Business of Ordinary Meetings.

18. The business of the Ordinary
Meetings shall be to admit Fellows, to
read and hear reports, letters, and
papers on subjects interesting to the
Sodety. NotUng relating to the rules
or management of the Society shall be
(Uscussed at the Ordinary Meetings,
except that the Auditor^ Report sluill
be recdved at the Ordinary Meeting in
February, and that the Minutes of the
Anniversary Meeting, and of every
Special General Meeting, shaU be con-
firmed at tiie next Ordinary Meeting
after the day of such Anniversary or
Special Qeneral Meeting. Strangers
may be introduced to tho Ordinary

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RULES OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

Meetings, by any Fellow, with the leave
of the Prendent, Vice - Preaident, or
other Fellow presiding at the Meeting.

Business of Anniversofy MeeUng.

19. The business of the Anniversary
Meeting shall be to elect the Officers of
the Society, and to discuss questions on
its rules and management. No FeUows
or Honorary Members shall be propooea
or admitted at the Anniversary Meeting.
No Fellow shall moot any question on
the rules or management of the Society
at the Anniversary Meeting, unless after
three weeW notice thereof given to the
Council, but amendments to any motion
may be brought forward without notice,
so that they relate to the same subject
of motion. The Council shall give
fourteen days' notice to every Fellow of
all questions of which such notice shall
have been given to them.

Special General Meetings,

20. The Council may, at any time,
call a Special Chnerdl Meeting of the
Society when it appears to them neces-
sary. Any ten Fellows may require a
Spedal General Meeting to be called, by
notice in writing signed by them, deli-
vered to one of the Secretaries at an
Ordinary Meeting, specifying the ques-
tions to be moved. Tlie Council shall,
withm one week of such notice, appoint
a day for such Special General Meeting,
and shall g^ve one week's notice of every
Special General Meeting, and of the
questions to be moved, to every Fellow
within the limits of tlie metropolitan
post, whose residence is known. No
business shall be brought forward at any
Special General Meeting other than that
specified in the notice for the same.

Auditors,

21. At i\ie first Ordinary Meeting
of each year, the Fellows shall choose
two Auditors, not of the Council, who,
with one of the Council, chosen by the
Council, shall audit the Treasurer's
accounts, and report thereon to the
Society, which report shall be presented
at the Ordinary Meeting in February.
The Auditors shall be empowered to
examme into the particulars of all
expenditure of the funds of the Society

where they shall see occasion, and may
report the^ opinion upon any part of it.

Duties of the President.

22. The President shall preside at all
Meetings of the Society, Council, and
Committees, which he doall attend, and
in case of an equality of votes, shall
have a second or casting vote. He shall
sign alldiplomasof admission of Honoraiy
Members. He shall admit and expel
Fellows and Honorary Members, accord-
ing to the rules of the Sodety.

Duties of the Treasurer.

28. The Treasurer shall receive all
moneys due to, and pay all moneys doe
from, the Sodety, and shall keep an
account of his receipts and payments.
No sum exceeding Ten Pounds shall be
paid but by order of the Coundl, except-
ing always any lawfVil demand tor rates
or taxes. He shall invest the moneys
of the Sodety in such manner as the
Council shall fh>m time to time direct.

Duties of the Secretaries.

24. The Secretaries shall, under the
control of the Council, conduct the cor-
respondence of the Sodety ; they or one
of them shall attend all Meetings of the
Sodety and Coundl, and shall have the
care of duly recording the Minutes
of the Proceedings. They shall issoe
the requisite notices, and read such
papers to the Sodety as the Council
may direct.

Powers of the Vice-Presidents.

25. A Vice -President, whether
Honorary or nominated, in the chair,
shall act with the power of the Pre-
sident, in presiding and voting at any
Meeting of the Society or Council, and
in admitting Fellows; but no Vice-
President shall be empowered to sign
diplomas of admission of Honorary Mem-
bears, or to expel Fellows. In the
absence of the President and Vice-Pre-
sidents, any Fellow of the Society may
be called upon, by the Fellows then
present, to preside at an Ordinary Meet-
ing. The Fellow so presiding may
admit Fellows, but shall not be em-
powered to act otherwise as resident,
or Vice-President.

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RULES) OF TUfi STATISXiCAL 80ClETr.

Powers of the CounciL

26. The Council shall have control
over the papers and funds of the So-
ciety, and may, as they shall see fit,
<fireot the publication of papers and
the expenditure of the funds, so, that
they shall not at any time contract
engagements on the part of the Sodety
beyond the amount of the balance that
would be at that time in the Treasurer's
hands, if all pre-existing debts and
liabilities had been satisfied.

27. The Council shall be empowered
at any time to frame SeguU^iom not
inconsistent with these rules, which
shall be, and remain in force until the
next Anniversary Meeting at which
they shall be either affirmed or annulled ;
but no Council shall have power to
renew Regulations which have once

been disapproved at an Anniversary
Meeting.

28. Ko Dividend, Gift, Division, or
Bonus in money shall be made by the
Society, unto or between any of the
Fellows or Members, except as herein-
after provided.

29. The Council shall publish a
Journal of the Transactions of the
Society, and such other Statistical Pub-
lications, as they may determine upon,
and may from time to time pay such
sums to Editors and their assistants,
whether Fellows of the Society or not^
as may be deemed advisable.

SO. All communications to the Sode^
are the property of the Society, unless
the Council allow the right of property
to be specially reserved by the Con-
tributors.

REGUUTIONS OF THE LIBRARY.

1. The Library is open daily from 10 a.m. till 5 p.m., except on
Saturdays, when it closes at 2 p.m. ; and it is entirely closed during
the month of September.

2. Members of the Society are permitted to take out Books on
making personal application, or by letter addressed to the Librarian.

3. Members are not to have more than two works at a time, nor
keep any books longer than a month.

4. Scientific Journals and Periodicals are not circulated until the
volumes are completed and bound.

5. GydopflBdias and works of reference are not curculated.

6. Any Member damaging a book, either replaces the work, or
pays a fine equivalent to its value.

7. Books taken from the shelves for reference, are not to be
replaced, but must be laid on the Library table.

8. The Secretary shall report to the Council any infrmgement
of these regulations.

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DONORS TO THE LIBRARY.

DxmiKG XHB Ykae 1880.

Foreign Covnfries.

Ai^ntine

Confedera-

Italy.

The States of—

tion.

Japan.

Austria and Hungary

Netherlands, The.

Iowa.

Bavaria.

Prussia.

Kansas.

Belgium.

Eoumania.

Massachusetts.

China.

Bussia.

Michigan.

Denmark.

Saxony.

New York.

Egypt.

Sweden and Norway.

Ohia

France.

The United States of

Fenusylvaftia.

America.

Rhode Island.

Greece.

Indiany

ITruguay.

Wisconsin.

Colonial^ and other Fossesstons,

Bengal.

Jamaica.

Queensland.

Canada.

Mauritius.

South Australia.

Cape of Good Hope.

New South Wales.

Tasmania.

India (British).

New Zealand.

Victoria.

Public Departments.

The Admiralty.

Army Medical Department.

Board of Trade.

Convict Prisons, Directors of.

Factories, Inspectors of.

Fire Brigade, Metropolitan.

Friendly Societies, Registrar of.

Home Office

India Office.

Local Government Board.

The Naval Medical Department
„ Museum of Practical Geology.
„ Police, Dublin Metropolitan.
„ Police, London Metropolitan.
„ Post Office.
„ Begistrar-G^neral of England.

„ „ Ireland.

„ „ „ Scotland.

„ Tithe CommissionerB.
M Warden of Standards.

Abdur Rahman, Syud, Esq.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phi-
ladelphia, U. S. A.

Actuaries, The Institute of, London,

Adelaide Philosophical Society.

Agriculture, Central Chamber of.

Allen, Messrs. W. H. & Co., London.

American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Boston.

American Geographical Society of
New York.

American Philosophical Society of

Philadelphia.
American Statistioal Associationy

Boston, Mass.
Amici, F. Bey, Egypt
Annand, W., Esq., London.
Ansell, C, Esq., junr.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
„ „ Japan.

Astor Library, New York U. S. A.

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DONORS TO THB LIBBABT.

During the Year 1880 — CoiUinued.

Athenffium, The Editor of.
Atkinson, E., Esq., Boston, U.S.A.
Austrian Central Statistical Com-

miBsion.
Austrian Consul-General, London.

Bain, A. Bryce, Esq.

Baker, Dr. H. B., Lansing, U.S.A.

Bankers' Institute, London.
„ Magazine, London.
„ „ New York.

Bany, Dr. F. W., Cyprus.

Bavaria^ Eojal Bureau of Statistics.

Beddoe, Dr. J., F.RS., Bristol

Behm, Herr G., Berlin.

Belgiiun, Academy, Boyal.
„ Minister of Interior.

Berg, Dr. F. T., Stockholm.

Berlin, Statistical Bureau of.

Bevan, G. P., Esq., London.

Bik61as, D., Esq., Athens.

Birch, J. W., Esq., London.

Birmingham Free Public Libraries.

Blackley, Rev. W. L., London.

Boccardo, Professor G., Italy.

Boddy, E. M., Esq., F.RC.s!, F.S.S.

BOckh, Herr, Berlin.

Bodio, Professor Luigi, Borne.

BOhmert, Dr. V., Dresden.
Boothby, J., Esq., C.M.G., South

Australia.
Boflchkemper, G., Esq., Holland.
Bourne, Stephen, Esq., F.S.S.
Bowditch, H. J., Esq., Boston.
Brachelli, Dr. H. F., Vienna.
Braasey, T., M,P.
British Association, The.
Brown, Sevellor A, Esq., Washing-
ton, P.S.A.
Bruton, Leonard, Esq., Bristol.
Budapest, Chamber of Conmierce.

„ Statistical Bureau.
Buenos Ayres, Statistic^ Bureau of.
Bunso Kurd, Mr., Japan,
^u^eau des Longitudes, Paris.

Cape of (Jood Hope, The Colonial
Secretary of.

Capital and Labour, The Editor of.

Centennial Commission, 1876,U.S.A.

Chambers of Commerce, The Asso-
ciated.

Chervin, Dr. A., of Paris.

China, The Inspector-General of
Chinese Maritime Customs.

Civil Engineers, Institution of.

Cobden Club, the Committee of.

Collins, J. Wright, Esq., J.P., Falk-
land Islands.

Commercial World, The Editor of.

Coni, Dr. E. R, Buenos Ayres.

Cornish, Surgeon-Major W. R,
F.RC.a, &c

Courtney, J. M., Esq., Canada.

Craigie, Maj(»* P. G., London.

Danvers, Juland, Esq., London.

Deloche, M., Paris.

Denmark, Statistical Bureau of.

„ Political Economy Soc
Dent, W. T., Esq., Yoj*.
Dillon, M., Esq., Lcmdon.
Dodge, J. R Esq., Washington.
Doyle, Patrick, Esq., C.E.
Dublin, Chief Com. of Police.
Du Cane, Colonel E. F, C.B.
Dun, John, Esq., F.S.S.
Duncan, W. J., Esq., Edinburgh.
Durham University College of Medi-
cine.

East India Association, London.
Eccentric Club, Author of the.
Economist, The Editor of.
Economiste Fran^ais, The Editoi of.
Edinburgh, The City Chamberlain.

„ Boyal Society of.

EgyP*> Ministry of tl^e Interior.
Ellison & Co., MessrsL, UverpooL
Engel, Dr. Ernest, Berlin.

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DONOB8 TO THE LIBRAUT.

During the Year ISSO^ContinuecL

Fearer, John, Esq., Liverpool
Ficker, Dr. Adolf, Vienna.
Finance Chronicle, The Editor of.
Fleming, William, Esq.
Foville, M. A. de, Paris.
France, H. £. Minister of Agricul-
ture and Commerce.
France, H. E. Minister of Finance.
., „ Justice.

Public
Instruction.
Public
Works.
Frankfort-on-M., G^graphical and
Statistical Soc.
„ Medical Society.

Frankland, F. W., Esq., N. Zealand.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Friendly Societies, The Registrar of.

Germany, Imperial Statistical Office.
German Consul-C^eral, London.
Giflfen, Robert, Esq., F.S.S.
Glasgow, Philosophical Society of.

„ Sanitary Department.

„ Unemployed Relief Fund
Committee.

„ United Trades' Council.
Guy, Dr. W. A,, F.RS., &c

Hall, E. Swarbreck, Esq., M.R.C.S.,
Tasmania.

Hamburg, Chamber of Conmierce.
„ Sanitary Bureau of.
„ Statistical Bureau of.

Hancock, Dr. W. N., Dublin.

Harrison & Sons, Messrs., London.

Hart, R, Esq., Shanghai

Hayter, H. H., Esq., Melbourne.

Hector, James, Esq., M.D., Wel-
lington.

Hedley, F. T., Esq., F.S.S.

Henry, James, The Trustees of.

Hill, Chas. S., Esq., Washington.

HiU, Sir Rowland, his Family.

Historic Society of Lancashire and

Cheshire.
Howard Association, London.
Hoyle, William, Esq.
Hubbe-Schleiden, D. J. W., Ham-

bui^.
Hungary, Ministry for Religion and
Education.
„ Statistical Bureau of.

Illinois, Bureau of Statistics.
India, The Superintendent of the

Government Printing of.
Indiana, Department of Statistics

and Geology.
Ingall, W. T. F. M., Esq., F.S.a
Insurance Gazette, The Editor of.
„ Record, The Editor of.
„ World, The Editor of.
Investors' Monthly Manual, The

Editor of.
Ireland, Statistical and Social

Inquiry Society of.
Iron and Coal Trades' Review, Tlie

Editor of.
Italian Legation, London, The.
Italy, Director General of Statistics.

„ Hygienic Society, Milan.

Jamaica, The Registrar-General
Janssens, Dr. E., Brussels.
Japan, Statistical Office, Tokio.
Jarvis, Dr. E., Dorchester, Mass.
Jenkins, F. L, Esq., Brooklyn, New

York.
Jevons, Prof. W. Stanley, F.RS.
Johnston, Messrs. W. and A. K

London.
Jordan, Henry, Esq., Brisbane.
Jourdan, Miss Beatrice A., London.

Keleti, Chas., Esq., Budapest.
Kelly, Dr., Worthing.
Kennedy, J. C. G., Esq., Washing-
ton. U.S.A.

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DONOB8 TO THE LIBRABY.

During the Year 1880 — Continued,

King's College, London.
Knox, John Jay, Esq., Washington.
Koroei, Joseph, Budapest.
Kyshe, J. B., Esq., Mauritius.

Labourers' Friend, The Editor of.
Labouring Classes, Society for Im-
proving the.
Layton, Messrs. C. and E., London.
Levaaseur, M. E., Paris.
Lisboa, Geographical Society of.
Liverpool, Lit and Phil. Society.
Lloyds, The Committee of.
Local Taxation Committee.
London Hospital, The Secretary.
Longman and Co., Messrs., London.
Lovely, William, Esq., RN., London.
Ludlow, N. M., Esq., London.

Machinery Market, Editor of.
Macmillan and Co., Messrs., London.
Madrid, Geographical Society of.
„ Listitute of Geography and
Statistics.
Mallet, Sir Louis.

Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society.
„ Public Free Libraries.
„ Statistical Society.
Maasachusetts^ Board of Health,
Lunacy, and
Charity.
„ Bureau of Statistics

of Labor.
Mauritius, Governor-General of.
„ Editor of Almanac and
Colonial Begister of.
Mayr, Dr. George, Munich.
Mechanical Engineers, Listitu-

tion of.
Medical Herald, Louisville, U.aA.,

The Editor of.
Mercator, Ernst, Esq., Frankfort
Moldenhawer, J. Esq.
Morselli, Prof. E., Italy.

Moss, Messrs. J., and Co.
Mosser, Francois, Esq.
Mouat, Dr. F. J., F.RC.S.
Mulhall, M. G., Esq., London.

Nanson, Prof. E. J., Melbourne.

National Union of Elementary
Teachers.

Nature, The Editor of, London.

Nelson, F. G. P., Esq., London.

New York, Trustees of the Cooper
Union.

Netherlands Consul at Liverpool.
„ Legation, London.

„ Minister of the Interior.

„ Statistical Society of.

Neumann-Spallart, Dr. Fr. Xav.,
Vienna.

Newcome, F. N., Esq.

NewSouth Wales, Agent-Generalfor
n Registrar-General.

New York State Library.

New Zealand, Registrar-General

Nimmo, Joseph, Esq., junr., Wash-
ington.

Noble, B., Esq., London.

Novellis, Signer A.

Norway, Central Statistical Bureau.

Nowell, E. C, Esq., Tasmania.

Ohio, Secretary of State.

Paris, Statistical Society of.
Parker, J., Esq., Worcester.
Perozzo, Luigi, Esq., Rome.
Petersen, Aleksis, Esq. Copenhagen.
Portugal, Consul - General for,

London.
Poznanski, Joseph.
Praagh, W. van, Esq.
Prague, Statistical Commission of.
Prinsep, C. C, Esq., London.
Prussia, Royal Statistical Bureau of.
Purdy, F., Esq., F.S.S., London.

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DONORS TO THE UBRART.

During the Year 1880 — Continued.

Queensland, Begistrar-General of.

Baikes, Captain G. A.
BailwajB, Society for the Admini-
stration of German.
Bavenstein, E. G., Esq., London.
Redgrave, A. Esq., a B., F.S.S.
Beeve, Dr. J. T. Madison, Wisconsin.
Beid, G. H., Esq., Sydney.
Beid, H. L., Esq.
Beview, The Editor of.
B6yue Bibliographique Unirerselle,

The Eiitor of, Paris.
B^Yue Geographiqne Internationale,

The Editor of, Paris.
Bivista Enropea, The Editor of.
Bobinson, Sir W. R
Borne, Giunta Centrale de Statistdca.
Both, H. L., Esq., Brisbane.
Boumania, Central Statistical Office.
Boyal Agricnltoral Society.

„ Asiatic Society.

„ „ „ Bombay Branch.
„ „ North China „

„ Colonial Institute.

„ Geographical Society.

„ Institution.

„ Irish Academy.

„ Med. and Chirurgical Socwty.

„ Society.

„ United Service Institotiou.
Bussell, Dr. J. B., Glasgow.
Bussia, Imp. Geographical Society.

St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London.
St. Thomas's Hospital, London.
San Francisco, Mercantile Library

Association.
Saxony, Boyal Statistical Bureau of.
School Board for London.
Semenow, H. E., Mons. P. de.
Shaw, Capt E. M., C3., London.
Slaughter, Mihill, Esq., F.S.S.
Smith, Dr. George, Edinburgh.
Smith, Colonel J. T., London.

Smithsonian Institution, U. S. A.
Snow, Dr. E. M., U.S. A
Social Science Association.
Sonnenschein, W. Swan, Esq.
South Australia, Agent General for.

„ „ Chief Secretary of.

South Australian Institute.
Stark, W. E., Esq., London.
Statist, The Editor of.
Sterne, Simon, Esq., London.
Stott, John, Esq., London.
Street Bros., Messrs., London.
Surveyors, The Institution of.
Sutton, E., Esq., London.
Sweden, Central Statistical Bureau.
Sweet, E. F., Esq.
Switzerland, Federal Statistical

Bureau.

Tasmania, The Government Statist
„ The Begistrar-G^eral of.
„ Boyal Society of.

Tayler, Mrs. N., F.S.8.

Textile Manufacturer, Editor of.

Thubron, Bobert, Esq.

Torenos, The Count of, Spain.

Trtibner & Co., Messrs., London.

Tupp, A. C, Esq., Madras.

Tyne Improvement Commissioners.

United States, Agric. Department
^ „ Bureau of Statistics.

,y ,y Commr.of Education.
„ „ Con^tr. of Currency.

„ „ Kaval Observatory.
„ yy Surgeon -General of
the Marine Hospital
Service.
„ „ Treasury,SeG, of the.

Universal Engineer, Editor of,
University College, London.
Uruguay, The DirectoratorGeiieral
of Statistics.

Yaillant, M., Montevideo.
Van den Berg, N. P., Esq.

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DONORS TO THE LIBRARY.

During the Tear 1S80— Continued.

Van Senten, H. S., Esq., Liverpool.
Yarrentrapp, Dr. G., MunicL
Vess^lovaky, A., Esq., St. Peters-
burg.
Victoria, Agent-Qeneral for, London.

„ Chief Secretary.

„ Govemment Statist.

„ Minister of Mines.

„ Eegistrar-General of.

„ Boyal Society of.
Vine, J. R Somers, Esq., F.S.S.

Wagner, Prof. H.
Walker, Prof. F. A.
Walras, L6on, Esq.

Wandsworth District Board of
Works.

Watson, W. W., Esq., Glasgow.

Weeks, J. D., Esq., U. S. A.

Wells, The Hon. David A., U. S. A

Western, The Editor of, St Louis,
U.S. A.

Westgarth, W., Esq., London.

Westminster Free Public Libraries.

White, William, Esq.

Williams, R Price, Esq., London.

Wilson, Effingham, Esq.

Wolverhampton Chamber of Com-
merce.

Wright, C. D., Esq., Boston, Mass.

Reprinted from the Journal of the Statistical Society for 1851, Prioe 1«.,
with a Preface and Notes.

STATISTICS

OT THE

FARM SCHOOL SYSTEM

OT THE

CONTINENT,

AND OF ITS APPLICABILITT TO THE

PREYENTIYE AND REFORMATORY EDUCATION

PAUPER AND CRIMINAL CHILDREN IN ENGLAND.
By the latb JOSEPH FLETCHER, Esq.,

BAftUSTSE^AT-LAW, HOROmAKT SSCRRAKT.

LONDON: E. STANFORD, S6, CHABING CROSS, S.W.

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JOURNAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

COST OP A COMPLETE SET (if not out of print).
1838-80. (43 Vols., unbound.)

Vol. 1. (1838.) 9 Numbcrt at U. 6rf -

Vol. II. (1839.) 3 Numbers at 1«. 6<i. and 3 Paru at 2«. ^d -

Vols. Ill— XI. (1840-48.) 9 vols. 10« 4

Vol. XII. (1849.) Including a double number -

Vols. XIII— XIX. (1850-56.) 7 fols. at 10# 3

Vol. XX. (1857.) -

Vol. XXI. (1858.) « -

Vol XXII. (1859.) '

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Vols. XXIV— XXV. (1861-62.) 2 vols, at 15# 1

Vols. XXVI— XXVII. (1863-64.) 2 vols, at 14# 1

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Vol. XXX. (1867.) -

Vol. XXXI. (1868.) -

Vol. XXXII. (1869.) -

Vol. XXXIII. (1870.) ..«

Vol. XXXIV. (1871.)

Vol XXXV. (1872.)

Vol. XXXVI. (1873.)

Vol. XXXVII. (1874.)

VoLXXXVin. (1875.)

Vol. XXXIX (1876.)

Vol. XL. (1877.)

Vol. XLI. (1878.)

Vol. XLII. (1879.)

VoLXLin. (1880.)

General Analytical Indexes:—

To the First Fifteen Volumes (1838-62) - 3 6

„ Ten Volumes (1853-62) - 3 6

a863.72) '36

i:80 15 6

«.

Copies of any number of the Journal (if not out of print), can
be obtained of the publisher, E. Stanford, 55, Charing Gross,
London, S.W.

Members only^ can obtain sets or single copies of any number of
the Jowmalj at the Society's Booms, King*B College Entrance,
Strand, W.C., London.

By a resolution of the Council, dated 12th May, 1854, the price
of back numbers of the Journal of the Society, charged to Members,
was raised from one-half to three-fifths of the publishing price.

NoTC. — One or two numbers of the Journal are now oat of print.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY'S LIBRARY.

The following is a List of some of the Odd Volumes, Numbers,
or Parts, &c., wanting to complete Sets :

DonaHon* of any portion thereof will be acceptable, and will be acknowledged
by the Society, [Dates and Numbers in all cases are inolusiye.]

Association of the Chambebs of Commerce of the United

Kingdom, Annual Reports of. 2, 3, and 6. (1862-63, and

1866.)
Athen-bum. The first seven volumes. 1827-34.
Bankers' Magazine. New York. Series 3, Vol. ii, No. 7 (1868) ;

Vol. V, No. 2 (1870) ; Vol. vii, Nos. 5 and 7 (1872), and Vol. viii,

No. 6 (1873).
Census op Berab. 1872.
Census of Coorg. 1872.
Central Chamber of Agriculture, Annual Reports, Nos. 1 and 2,

for (1866-67).

COMPTB Q^N^RAL DE L' ADMINISTRATION DB LA JUSTICB CiVlLE ET
COMMERCIALE EN FRANCE PENDANT LES AnN^ES 1862, 1872, et

1873.

COMPTR Q^N^RAL DB l' ADMINISTRATION. DE LA JUSTICE CrIMINELLE

EN France pendant lbs Annbes 1862, 1872, et 1873.
Economist. The first three volumes. 1843-45.
EcoNOMiSTB FRAN9AIS, Ann6e 6, Nos. 51 and 52, and Analytical Table

of Contents of Vol. ii (1878); Ann6e 7, Vol. i, and Nos. 1—50

of Vol. ii (1879); Ann6e 8, the Analytical Table of Contents to

Vol. i (1880).
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. (New York.) Vols, i to xii, and

XV to xxvi.
Investors' Monthly Manual. First three volumes. 1871-73.
Labourer's Friend. Nos. 230 (1869) and 231 (1870).
Liverpool Literart and Philosophical Society, Proceedings of.

Nos. 1—5, 1844-45 to 1848-49.
Manchester Statistical Society. Transactions for 1854-55.
BivisTA Europea, Rivista Internazionalb. New series. Vols, i

to iii, and Fasc. 1 of Vol. iv (1877).
Royal Society, London. Indexes to the Philosophical Transac-
tions. 4to. Parts I, II, and III.
Royal Society, London. Catalogue of Scientific Papers. Vols.

i to viii. 4to.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings of. Vols, i and ii.
Royal Society of VicrroRU, Transactions of. Vol. v.
Royal Asutic Society, Journal. Vol. xiv (1853-54).
Staatkundig en Staathuishoudkundig Jaarboekjb voor 1849.

(First year.)
SuRTEES Society. Vols, i to xxv, xxvii to xxzii, and xxxiv.
Tableaux Q^n^raux du Commerce de la Francb, <fec., pendant les

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JOURNAL

OV THX

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(jfMnirA 1834.)

Vol. XLIIL— Part I.
MARCH. 1880.

LONDON:
EDWABD STANFORD, 66, OHAEING CttOSS, S.W.

1880.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

HIS BOTAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.a.

COUNCIL AND 0 F F I C E R S.— 1879-80.

(havmff fitted the Office qf PreeidenC).

The Bight Honoitbablb The Easl op

Shaptbbbubt, K.Q-., D.C.L.
The Bight HoKOxmABLB The Eabl of

Habeowbt, K.G., D.O.L.
The Bight Honovbable The Lobd

Ovbestoke, M.A., F.B.a.8.
The Bight Hoeottbablb Tee Sabl or

Debbt, D.C.L., F.B.S.
The Bight Honoubable The Lobd

Hampton, M.A., a.C.B., D.C.L.

LOKD

The Bight Hovottbable The

Houghton, D.O.L., F.B.S.
William Newmaboh, Bsq., F.B.8., F.I.A.

(Corr. Member Inst, of France).
Wm. Fabb, Esq., M.D., C.B., D.C.L.,

F.BS. (Corr. Member Inst, of France).
William A. Gut, Esq., M.B., FJLC.P.,

F.B.S.
Jambs Hetwood, Esq., M.A., F.Bil.,

F.a.8., Ac.

Geobgb Shaw-Lbfeybe, Esq., M.P.

THOMAS BBASSEY, ESQ., M.P.

F. J. Mouat, M.D., F.B.C.S. I Fbedeeick Pubdt.

A. J. Mundblla, M.P. I Six B. W. Bawson, C.B., E.C.M.a.

Jambs Hetwood, Esq., M.A., F.B.S. | Sib John Lubbook, Babt., H.P., F.B.S.
William Newmaboh, Esq., F.B.S.

Cmo^ttrfr*

BlOHABD BiDDULFH MaBTIN, M.A.

CounciL

Majob-G-enbbal H. p. Babbage.

Abthub H. Bailet, F.I.A.

T. asAHAM Balfoub, M.D., F.B.S.

A. E. Batbman.

Stephen Boubne.

Edwabd William Bbabbooe, F.S.A.

James Caibd, C.B., F.B.S.

J. Oldfibld Chadwick, F.B.Q-.S.

Hammond Chubb, B.A.

Htdb Olabke.

Lionel L. Cohen.

Captain Patbice G. Cbaigib.

JULAND DANYBBS.

Bobebt Giffen.
Fbbdebick Hbndbiks.

Henbt Jeula, F.BG.S.

Peof. W. S. Jetons, M. a., LL.D., F.B.S.

Fbanois Joubdan.

Pbofbssob Leone Leti, LL.D.

John B. Mabtin, M.A.

BlOHABD BiDDULPH MaBTIN, M.A.

Fbedbbio John Mouat, M.D. F.B.C.S.
Anthont J. Mundblla, M.P.
Fbanois Q-. P. Nbison.
Bobebt Hogabth Fattebson.
Fbbdbbioe Pubdt.

Ebnbst Geobgb Batenbtbin, F.B.G.S.
6iB Bawson W. Bawson, O.B., KO.M.G.
Ebnebt Sbtd.

COBNBLIUS WaLFOBD, F.LA.

tttxttaxiti.

Hammond Chubb. | Bobebt Giffen.
Pbofbssob W. Stanlbt Jeyons.
dToretsn ibeoretarv. I editor of t^f SounuiL

Fbedbbio J. Mouat, M.D. | Bobebt Giffbn.

Mtfittatit ttvcttBXfii.

Joseph Whittall.

Kxnftant,— Messes. Dbummond and Co., Chabikg Cboss, S.W., London.
2

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Vol. XLm.] [Part L

JOUBNAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOGIETT,

MABGH, 1880.

h the Value of Monet Risikq in England and throughout the
World? With Remarks on the Effect of the Fluctuating
Conditions of Trade u^on the Value of Monet. By R. H.
Patterson, Esq.

[Read before the StatUtiod Society, 16th December, 1S79.]
CONTENTS :

PAGE

I.— Money and Prices in Great

Britiun 8

II . — Money and Prices in India . 5

111.— The Produce of the Mines.. 9

IV.— Effects of the State of Trade

on the Value of Money .... 9

PAGK

V. — Production and Employ-
ment of the Precious

Metals 13

VI. — Summary and Conclusion 16

VII.— The Subject at Home 18

VIIL— Recent Growth of the

Note Circulation 19

IX.— Rise of the Bank Rate .... 20

In more than one part of the " Wealth of Nations," Adam Smith
refers to the prevalent opinion in his time, that the value of the
precious metals was still falling ; whereas he explicitly states as his
own opinion, or rather as a fact demonstrated by the state of prices,
that for three-quarters of a century previous — viz., from the closing
years of the seventeenth century down to the time when he wrote
— ^there had been a slight but distinctly perceptible rise in the
value of money. The popular opinion thus referred to was
perfectly natural. Money had fallen immensely in value during the
century and a half subsequent to the dii^covery of America with its
mines of the precious metals ; and as the produce of the mines in
the eighteenth century was very much larger than it had ever
been before, it was only natural to believe that the fall in the value
of the precious metals was stiD in progress. Ordinary observers
overlooked the fact, pointed out by Adam Smith, that the require-
ments for money had contemporaneously increased vastly ; indeed
to such an extent that the increased produce of the mines was
inadequate to fully meet the increased requirements for it.

An analogous or parallel state of public opinion has prevailed
in connection with the peerlessly rich new mines of America and

TOL. XLIU. PAST I. B

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2 Patterson — h the Value of Money Bidng [Mar;

Australia. In 1873 — ^wliich is our starting-point in this inquiry —
prices were very high, and people were still believing in, or expecting
a continuous fall in the value of money. Although the gold-mines
had declined from their maximum production, little attention was
given to that circumstance ; moreover, the annual yield of gold
was still more than double what it was in 1848; and also, the
comparative falling off in the produce of gold was compensated in
amount by the increased supply of silver from the new Nevada
mines. This was the state of matters in 1873.

Soon afterwards, a great fall began in the value of silver com-
pared with gold; and as no one then thought that gold was
becoming scarce and rising in value, the change in the value of
silver appeared to be a veritable depreciation of that metal — ^a fall
not merely relatively to gold, but also to labour and commodities
in general. The House of Commons, when appointing the Select
Committee of 1876, adopted the prevalent opinion ; and the Com-
mittee in their Report proceeded upon the same view of the matter,
although some of the evidence then adduced pointed to a different
conclusion. On the other hand, the Commission simultaneously
appointed by the Congress of the United States, reported in the
clearest and most confident terms that there had been no fall in the
value of silver, except as compared with gold, and that the value
of gold had risen : in their own words, " Since 1873, the purchasing
" power of gold has risen in all countries, and the purchasing power
" of silver has fallen in none." The report of the American Com-
mission failed to attract attention in this country : moreover, as
the United States are interested in upholding the value of silver,
for the sake of the splendid Nevada mines, the opinion of the
American Commission was open to the suspicion that " the wish
" was father to the thought."

Recently, however, it has become acknowledged in this country
that the view taken by the American Commission is not altogether
baseless, and that the *' depreciation " of silver may really be due,
to some extent at least, to a rise in the value of gold. To determine
correctly any substantial change in the value of the precious metals
compared with other commodities, is one of the most difficult of
inquiries. It can only be done by reviewing Prices over* a long
period of years, and by taking into account a variety of causes of a
most complicated kind, operating upon the production and supply
of commodities, as well as the fiuctuations in the condition or
** spirit " of trade. It is only in part that I here attempt such a
task : I shall hardly go beyond the broad facts of the last half-dozen
years. I shall venture, however, to lay before you some considera-
tions relative to the important questions. Whether the cause of the
altered value of money is to be found in the Supply or in the

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1880.] in England cmd throughout the World ? 3

Demand — ^whether tlie rise is owing to the diminished yield of the
gold-mines, or to the depression of trade, — and how far the rise is
likely to be permanent. But the first point is, How does the
value of money stand, both in this oonntry and in India, or throngh-
ont the world at large ; and in what degree have gold and silver
respectively been affected in valae, both towards general com-
modities and towards one another P

[In this opening portion of the Paper, 1872-73 is the most
snitablerperiod to start from, because that was prior to the recent
change in the relative value of gold and silver ; so that, by con-
sidering the subsequent events,, we can see what have been the
causes of that change, and the true character of the so-called
** depreciation" of silver. On the other hand, the year 1873 was
almost as exceptional as regards its high prices as the present* year
is for low prices ; and in the portion of this Paper which relates to
the value of Money generally,, it will be seen that I do not rely in
any way upon the contrast of prices exhibited in those particular
years.]

I. — Jlfoncy amd Friee^ in Great Britain,

To begin with our own country and currency. That prices
have ferilen — i.e., that money has risen in value — in this country
since 1873 is a fact too obvious to be questioned; but, as will
become apparent in the sequel, it is highly important to observe
what is the extent to which this change has occurred. A change
in the value of money must be ascertained, primarily, by reference
to the state of prices — ^in other words, the value of general com-
modities as measured in money.

There are ^veral Tables of Prices available to determine this
point, for all of which the community is indebted to members of
this Society. There is, first, the table regularly compiled for, and
published for many years past hj the *' Economist," and which
includes all the chief articles of merchandise. There is also a table
compiled by Mr. Arthur Ellis, editor of the " Statist," from 1869
to the first quarter of 1878, which gives the prices of the raw
materials of British manufactures, and which may be said to
represhit our Imports ; and thirdly, there is a table compiled during
the present year by Mr. GKffen, for the Board of T^tule, which
relates to our Exports — to the articles of merchandise produced
in and exported from this country. Taking these two latter tables
together, they pretty nearly correspond in character to the single
" Economist *' table. The " Economist " table, however, is the only
one which has been brought down to the beginning of the present
year; and the said table shows a fall of prices since 1873 equal to
24I per cent. Thus, be the cause what it may, assuming the

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4 Pattemoit — It tJie Value of Money Biting [Mw.

correctness of this carefully compiled table, the purchasing power
of our British currency — in other words, of Ck>ld — ^has risen folly
34 per cent, since 1873.

Next, let us see how Silver stands in this country, and in
Europe and America generally. The g^ld-price of an ounce of
silver during the twenty years ending with 1850 (when the produce
of the new gold-mines first began to reach the markets of the world)
averaged as near -as may be ^^\d. ; during the next twenty years it
stood above this old level,4n some years being (ttd, ; but it returned
to its old level in 1872, and throughout 1873 the average price of
the ounce of silver was $g\d, -[I may remark in passing that
although, in common with others, I regard the rise in the price of
silver as due to the increased production of gold, I do so only
partially; for I believe that an equal factor in the case was the
extraordinary demand for silver for the Bast.*] In 1876, under
the influence of Panic, the price of silver fell to 45. the ounce.
Since that time, the value of silver has stood at what appears to be
its normal or natural level under the new circumstances (namely,
the widespread demonetisation of that metal, Ac.), — the present
price per ounce being about 5 1^. -.f a fall of ^d. per ounce, or
about 13^ per cent., compared with its gold-price in 1872, in
which year the gold-price of silver rwas exactly the same as used
to prevail previous to 1850.

Taking these facts as they- stand, and putting them together,
they go to show that the common idea, and the one universally
held in this country in 1876 — namely, that there has been an
absolute depreciation of silver — is wrong. The fall in the value
of silver compared to gold is 1 1 per cent, less than the rise in the
value of gold compared with general commodities. In other words,
the purchasing power of silver, or its value in general commodities,
has not fallen at all. On the contrary, in this country it has risen
(judging from the *' Economist's " Table of Prices) 11 percent;

* Silver, which stood at its Old average price of s$\d. in 1848, thereafter
began to rise, and in 1852-55 it stood at 6ii<{. As this was before the setting in
of the great expansion of the trade with India, the rise most be attributed to
the great increase in the supply of gold. But thereafter, although the g^ld mines
had reached their maximum of production, the price of sUver continued to rise,
until it stood at 62'Xd, in 1859; and it remained above its old price (S9\d.) until
after 1872. From these Acts I infer that the latter part of the rise in the price
of silver (viz., from 61kd, to 6%^gd,) was owing to the great demand and drain
of silver to the East which commenced in 1856, or a little earlier, and that after
that year this great drain for the East was the sole cause of the enhanced price of
silver.

t These figures represent the state of matters in September last, when this
paper was written. Since then, the value of silver has somewhat risen ; but I
have not thought it necessary to alter the figures, because the change is slight, and
also because, even were it greater than it is, it would not affect the argument or
exposition.

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1880.] in England and throughout the World ? 5

while gold has risen fully 13 per cent, more, — or in all 24^ per cent,
at the beginning of the present year.

II. — Money and Prices in India,

Snch is the present valae of the two metals in* this country,
where gold is the standard- money, and more or less* in other
countries of the Western world. Let us next see how the case
stands in the East, where silver constitutes the whole currency and
sole legal measure of value. Unfortunately there are no scientifi-
cally prepared tables of prices for India similar to those which I
have quoted for our own country. Before referring to such data as
we possess, let me first look at the case from a general' point of
view. The mass ol silver poured* into India during the trwenty
years subsequent to 1855 has been literally prodigious ; the nett
additian made to tiie stock of silver in India during the period
having been about 160 millions sterling. Nevertheless, in the
opinion of the highest authorities, India in 1876 was still inade-
quately supplied with currency. The new supply of specie did not
stagnate and become plethoric in the towns and industrial centres,
but was drained off to provide currency in the interior of the
country — in the districts where Barter had previously existed, but
where both Labour and Production were* becoming developed by
the large influx of British capital — by the new radlSvays, and by
the quickening of industry which so remarkably characterised
those twenty years. More currency was needed in India owing to
more Employment and higher wages, and also by the gradual
displacement of Barter ; while more silver, whether in coin or in
ornaments, was needed to store the small but increasing reserve-
wealth of the peasantry and shopkeepers. In 1863 the Governor
of Bombay wrote as- follows : — " Great quantities of silver are
'* absorbed in remoter parta of the country, and go to furnish a
*' currency where no general medium of exchange existed before ;
'* rupees are now to be found in hundreds of small bazaars where
" all Trdtte used to be conducted in barter." And in 1876, when
giving evidence before the Select Committee on the depreciation
of silver. Colonel Hyde, director of the Calcutta Mint, spoke con-
fidently as to the insufficient amount of currency in India, and the
capacity of that counta*y to absorb more silver into circulation, —
adding that " the progress of the currency in India will be very
'* slow, but I think it will be sure." More silver is needed to dis-
place barter in the outlying districts, as well as to meet the growing
requirements of trade and of Government and personal expenditure
in the more advanced districts where silver-money is already in
use.

Thos, vast as has been the quantity of silver poured into India,

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6 Patteeson — h (he Value of Money Bidng [Mar.

there are general and d priori gpronnds for donbting, whether there
has, or coald have been, any redundancy and fall in the value
of the silver currency of that country. But let us see what is the
evidence of Prices upon this point. In 1876 Mr. R. W. Crawford
ntated before the Silver Committee that " Prices have fallen very
** much in India ; " and he referred to a staple quality of cotton
■fhich had fallen since 1872-3 from 6\d. the pound to 4^. — a &11
of one- third, or 33 per cent. — and to saltpetre, which had fallen
from 305. the cwt. to barely I7«., a fall of fully 43 per cent. Cotton
and saltpetre are staple exports of India, and doubtless are as
good single commodities as can be quoted in a question of prices,
— especially since rice and grain have been abnormally affected in
price of late years by the severe Famines ; nevertheless, important
commercial articles as cotton and saltpetre are, taken alone they
are quite unreliable as indications of a general change of prices.
Subsequently to 1876, the Government of India has published
a List of Prices of a tolerably complete character; but they
are mere lists, not scientifically treated statistics like the Tables
which have emanated from members of this Society, and which
tell their own tale on the face of them. Perhaps Mr. Giffen or
Mr. Ellis, or some other member of this Society — perhaps
Mr. Newmarch himself, our greatest authority on the subject — may
have analysed those Indian lists of prices, and will give the results
in a better manner than I am prepared to do. As is well known,
there may be a change in the prices of one set of commo-
dities— Fay in the exports — while a different state of matters
prevails in another class — say of domestic production and consump-
tion. The Government of India, referring to those lists of prices
and also to its general information, simply maintains that there
has been vo rise of prices in India, and that the rupee still buys as
much goods or labour as before ; for this is sufficient for the
purpose which the Government had in view in its Memorandum,
viz., to show that there has been no absolute depreciation of silver,
but merely in relation to gold. The Bombay Chamber of Commerce
states the same fact. In 1877, when the price of silver was lower
than now, the Bombay Chamber of Commerce reported that " the
"purchasing power of the rupee in respect of ordinary articles of con-
'* sumption, such as the food of the people, remains undiminished."
— Parliamentary Paper, 11th August, 1877.

But I think somewhat more than this may be said. The general
opinion or knowledge of merchants connected with the Indian trade
certainly seems to be that, on the whole, prices have fallen in India
since 1873, about which time the change began in the relative value
of the two precious metals. I think it will be acknowledged that
if silver has risen in purchasing power in a country like England,

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1880.] in England a/nd throughcmt the World ? 7

where silver is not Money, ccBteris paribiis, silver will rise in value in
a country where it is Money, and also the sole currency, — especially
in a country where, as in India, that currency is to some extent
inadequate. This, however, is assuming that Ihe conditions of the
two countries in other respects are similar, which cannot be said
correctly of India and England at present. Undoubtedly both of
them are alike in this important respect, that Trade is not prosper-
ing as it used to do ; but in India the commercial depression has
not been so severe as in England. Indeed, even if the commercial
depression were equally severe in both countries, it would produce
a much lesser effect upon a country like India, whose wealth is
mainly agricultural and dependent upon its internal Trade, than
upon England, which is more than any other country dependent upon
its manufactures and Foreign commerce. In India it may be said
that Trade, as represented by the Exports and Imports, has simply
ceased to progress, whereas in England it has greatly lost ground.
And, as I shall refer to by-and-bye, this difference in commercial
condition may produce a very considerable difference in the state of
Prices. Nevertheless, so far as I can venture an opinion, I should
say that prices have fallen somewhat in India ; in other words, the
value of silver, measured in general commodities, has risen : — and
if Uiis change has occurred to the extent of lo per cent., the state
of matters as regards the purchasing power of silver would (accord-
ing to the " Economist's'' Table of Prices) be the same in India as
in England. But, as already said, the value of silver might be con-
siderably different in India from what it is here ; because the value of
that metal will naturally (that is, if all other circumstances bo equal)
stand somewhat higher in a country where it is the sole currency
than in another where it is not money at all. In the course of time,
no doubt, such a difference would disappear by the effects of diffu-
sion and equalisation, but it may be expected to exist at present, or
at any time when changes are actually in progress. Hence, were
the state of trade or national prosperity identical in the two
countries, I should expect that, if silver haa risen lo per cent, in
parchasing power in this country, it would have risen somewhat
more in the bazaars of India. On the other hand, the depression
of trade being greater in this country than in India, will (as I shall
explain by-and-bye) tend to produce a different and counteracting
i*e8ult.

I have taken England, a gold country, and India, a silver
country, and such is the respective value of the precious metals
in these two countries as shown by the State of Prices. So
judged, there has undoubtedly been a rise in the value of Money
during the last half-dozen years. As regards the simple matter
of fact, no one can question that this is so. But the important

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8 Pattibson — Is the Value of Money Bvting [Mar.

qaestion is, Is thia change dne (so to speak) to Money, or to a
transient condition of Trade P The state of Prices does not of
itself show to what canse or causes the present change in the value
of the precious metals is owing, or whether or not the change
is substantial, or likely to be permanent, and not merely the
transient result of a fluctuating Trade. Before this learned
Society, I need not enumerate the manifold causes which may
produce a change of prices, totally irrespective of the Supply of
Money or the precious metals. There are constaot improve-
ments in manufacture, improvements in the production of raw
material, and various other causes, which tend to lower prices —
in other words, to raise the purchasing power of money. For
example, while writing this Paper (in September), I found the
following statement in a leading journal of New York, which is
also worth quoting as showing the recent low state of prices in the
United States : — " The purchasing power of the dollar has
'* greatly increased. The mass of our population who labour
" do not receive so high wages as in former .years. Bents, pro-
" visions, breadstuffs, and clothing are cheaper than ever known
" before." But this low state of prices would be exceedingly mis-
leading, were it taken as showing that there has been a correspond-
ing rise in the value of money attributable to an inadequate supply
of the precious metals; for, besides the important effect of the
resumption of specie payments (albeit it was r^ly completed nearly
a year and a halt ago), the low price of provisions of all kinds has
bc^n largely dae to the fine harvest in the United States, and the
vast expansion of agricultural production during the present year.
In fact, Prices, although the primary and most important exponent
of a change in the value of the precious metals, are quite unreliable
for showing the cause of the change, — ^whether it is in the Demand
or in the Supply of Money, or as to whether the change is likely
to be ephemeral or permanent.

I shall only offer one remark upon this subject. During the
last thirty years, Prices have been chiefly influenced by two wholly
distinct, and in their operation conflicting, factors. The steam-
engine has been employed to annihilate Distance, and cheapen
conveyance ; and in this way steam-locomotion, both by land and
sea, has caused Prices to rise in remote places, and to fall in the
great towns, and in countries which are the hearts of Commerce.
On the other hand, the new gold-mines have tended to raise Prices
chiefly in the hearts of Commerce. As these and other factors
operate more or less together, there is usually a tide-like change in
Prices ; indeed, even the same cause or factor may produce high-
water in some places and low- water in others.

The State of Prices, then, being of itself so unreliable, or so

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] 880.] »» England and throughoiU the World ? 9

limited in its significance, let ns look at some matters which Ho
behind prices. The two great factors which lie behind are, iho
Produce of the Mines, and the State of Trade,

III. — The Produce of the Mines,

The total production of the precious metals when the new gold
mines were at their best, viz., in 1852-60, was 56 millions sterling
annuallj. At present it appears to be almost the same. Bat there
has been a great change in the character of the supply. In 1852-60,
the annual produce of gold averaged nearly 28 millions, and of
silver a trifle over 8 millions. Of late years the supply of gold has
averaged about 19! millions, and of silver about 15 millions.
Thus, if the Double Standard of gold and silver conjointly gene-
rally prevailed, no effect at all upon Prices could be produced by the
present state of the annual supply of the precious metals. But
in countries under a single gold standard. Money ought to be rising
in value ; and in countries under a single silver standard, Money
ought to be falling in value. Nevertheless, as has been seen, silver
still maintains its old purchasing power in India, or indeed has
risen in value, while in England the purchasing power of silver has
likewise risen ; and gold in both countries has risen still more.

rV. — Effects of the State of Trade on the Value of Money.

But now we come to another factor which lies behind Prices,
and it is a most important one ~ namely, the State of Trade : using
this term as synonymous with the material prosperity of a country.
A Depression of Trade always, as a matter of fact, produces a fall
of Prices; in other words, a rise in the value of Money. For
example, referring to the " Economist's " Table of Prices, we find
that after the Crisis of 1857 prices fell 1 5^ per cent. ; after the Crisis
of 1866, 25 per cent.; and under the recent Depression of Trade,
prices at the beginning of the present year stood upwards of 2 4, per
cent, below the level in 1873. Mr. Jevons's carefully prepared
table is not brought down to the present time, but it shows the fall
of prices during the depression of trade which followed the Crisis
of 1857 to have been io| per cent., and during the depression
which followed the Crisis of 1866, 8 per cent. And here I must
remark that the great diversity between the level of prices shown
in these two tables — viz., the "Economist's " and Mr. Jevons*s — is a
striking warning against dogmatism. Both of these tables are care-
fully compiled by able men, practised in this kind of work, yet the one
table in some cases shows a chauge of prices twice as great as in the
other. Thus in what appears, and indeed is, the surest and most
computable of the factors which indicate the value of the precious
metals — namely, the statistical department, or the state of prices —

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10 Patterson — Is the Value of Money Bismg [Mar.

we find a stiikiiig discrepancy, which makes it impossible to attain to
anything like accuracy of detaiL We can say that prices have risen
or fallen (in other words, that the value of money has changed) so
much according to this or that Table, but it seems hopeless at
present to reach anything like perfect accuracy.*

All evidence, however, concurs in demonstrating that money irises
in value when Trade is depressed, and that is, when the extent of
monetary transactions is less than usual. Prom one point of vie-w,
and the one which used to be regarded as paramount, thia state of
matters is very puzsling. During each of those above-mentioned
periods of depressed Trade — in 1857 and 1866 — there was no fedl-
ing off or change of any kind in the annual supply of the precious
metals; and at the same time there was much less Trade or reqtLire-
ment for money. Upon these grounds Prices ought to rise in a
period of depression ; yet, as we know, they do not. At such times
the amount of Money in the banks is unusually large, and the banks
are quite ready to part with it on unusually cheap terms. Money,
in fact, is superabundant: nevertheless Prices stand unusually
low. On the face of it this is a strange anomaly, and certainly
it destroys a good many Theories which used to be current. The
explanation appears to be, that in those cases of commercial collapse
or depression there is a great loss of Wealth in the community.
People have not so much wealth to spend. Money may be plentiful,
but people cannot employ it plentifully. With less wealth, people
have less command over money ; they have not their former power
of employing it. In other words, perhaps, it may be said that in
bad times, people, having less wealth or property, cannot afford to
employ or keep in circulation so much of it as usual in the shape
of Money. They cannot afford to spend so much or to pay the old
prices, whether for labour or goods. Merchants must trade, in
order to maintain their commercial connections; manufacturers
must continue their production, or else lose the interest on their
costly factories and plant; and coal and ironmasters must keep
their mines or furnaces in operation, or else have to incur a large
expenditure in putting them at work again. Hence traders of all
kinds will submit to very low prices rather than not trade at all.

* The Fall of Prices owing to the several Depressions of Trade since 1850.
is stated as follows : — (1) in the " Economist's *' Table ; (2) by the same Table as
corrected by Mr. Bourne; and (3) bj Mr. Jevons:—

1857-59, " Economist," 15*4 per cent. ; Bourne, i5'7 ; Jevons, io'6.
'66-71, „ 27 » » 1638 » 7-8.

'73-79, „ 246 „ ^ „ 253 „ —

Mr. Jevons finds the effects of the Crisis of 1866 exhausted during the
following year ; Mr. Bourne continues the Fall of Prices to the end of 1869 ; and
the ** Economist " down to 1871. — See also Appendix B.

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1880.] m Englamd and throughotit the World ? 11

All classes, in short, in bad times, produce, trade, or spend upon
lower terms ; and thus, with diminished profits and less wealth,
there are lower wages and lower prices. In other words, the
purchasing power of money is greater than usual. At the same
time, although Money }my% more than usual, yet its value on loan
is less, because people in trade — the great borrowing or discounting
class — can hardly find profitable use even for the money which is at
their own command. The actual amount of Reserve-wealth or
Loanable Capital may be reduced, but the demand for it is reduced
very much more — the result being a low Bank-rate.

I may illustrate the effects of a Depression of Trade upon the
value of Money in this way : — As is well known, Money always
" goes ftirther," or buys more, in a poor country than in a rich one ;
and, under a Depression of Trade, a country becomes, comparatively
to its former self, a poor one. Hence the purchasing-power of.
Money increases. Thus far the case may be plain ; but, on the
other hand, the Rate of Discount or the Bank-rate becomes low, —
which is the very opposite of what ordinarily prevails in a poor
country. This anomaly may perhaps be explained by the fact that
in a reallj or permanently poor country, the purchasing-power of
money is high, because the nation has not been able to afford to
provide itself with an adequate amount of money, — which can only
be done by converting into money (i.e., the precious metals) a
portion of the other and spare wealth or property of the country.
But in a rich country which becomes temporarily poor, through a
depression of trade, an adequate supply of money is already in
existence ; and accordingly, when not employed or in circulation,
it accumulates in the banks, and thereby facilitates the making of
loans, — that is, produces a low Bank-rate.

I may offer one more remark upon the effects of the condition
of trade upon the value of Money. That more Trade requires more
Money is a traism, — albeit it was the neglect of this consideration
which mainly occasioned the memorable mistakes as to the Future
of Money committed by nearly all our leading authorities in 1860,
and for a good many years thereafter, — the only correct appreciation
of the effects of the new gold mines which I can find being that
made, with marvellous sagacity, by Messrs. Tooke and Newmarch
in the concluding volumes of the "History of Prices." It may
be said generally, that in any particular country and stage of its
economical development, any given amount of Trade will require
a similar amount of Money to carry it on. But this is merely a
starting point — a general proposition which does not help much
under the variations which one meets in actual circumstances.
The amount of Money required at any given time, even in the
same country, does not depend merely upon the amount of Trade-

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12 Patteeson — Is the Value of Money Einng {^hUtr.

transactions, bnt also npon the spirit and conditions under w^Hich
that amount of Trade is carried on. When Trade is progressive
and prosperous, more Monej is required than when the aame
amount of transactions is being carried on under a stationary or
falling Trade. For example, say that the Exports and Imports of
a country (which ronghlj represent the state of Trade) amount
to 400 millions : the amount of Money required to carry on that
amount of business will be larger when Trade rises to that pointy
than when we come back to that point owing to a decline of
Trade. Although the number of exchanges or business-transactions
be the same, Trade is rising and prosperous in the former case, and
depressed in the latter. And when Trade is prosperous. Prices are
high, requiring more currency to carry on the same amount of
business ; and when Trade is depressed, Prices are low, so that less
currency is required.

From these and other considerations, it is obvious that at a
time like the present , when a severe commercial depression pre-
vails, any reasoning or any statement of £Etcts relative to tlie
Value of Money would be utterly misleading, unless the effects of
this Depression be taken into account. First, as to gold and silver
separately. Let us suppose that but for this commercial depres-
sion, Prices would have remained as they were in 1873. In sucli a
case the import or significance of the change which since then has
occurred in the relative value of gold and silver would be greatly
altered. If gold stood simply at its old value (i.e., had not risen),
then the recent change in the gold-price of silver would shew a
real depreciation. On the other hand, as prices stand, gold lias
risen so much compared with general commodities that the decline
of silver relative to gold is not a depreciation at all, but merely a
lesser rise in its value as measured by commodities. Both gold and
silver have risen in purchasing power (t.c. relative to general com-
modi ties), but silver has not risen so much as gold has done ; that
is all. But how the case between the two metals will stand when
the Depression comes to an end, remains to be seen.

Secondly, a depression of trade in each country where it prevails
exerts a similar masking effect as regards money as a whole —
whether it be gold and silver conjointly, or gold alone, or silver
alone : it masks or temporarily obscures the normal and ordinary,
or what may be called the natural, value of money. The present
depression of trade is an exceptional condition of affairs, and exerts
an exceptional influence upon the value of money — an influence
which must cease when the depression has ceased.

But when the depression is over, there will come into play not
one single and easily computable influence, but two absolutely
conflicting influences. When the depression is over, Trade of

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1880.] in England and throughout the World ? 13

course will expand; and this increase of trade, with its concomitant
increase of monetary transactions, will increase the requirement
for money ; therefore it will tend to radse the valne of money : in
other words, if this particnlar agency stood alone, there would be
low prices. On the other hand, profits will increase, the old losses
will be repaired; the national wealth will augment. Wages also will
increase ; and both employers and employed having more to spend
will spend more, and with more profusion or less niggardly; the
money in bank will be called into circulation, and prices vnU rise.
In fact, with prosperous trade, wages rise along with profits ; and a
rise of prices is the invariable concomitant. Another usual result
of such circumstances is a high Bank-rate. Thus, there will be
cheap money as regards prices, but dear money as regards money
on loan : — ^another of those anomalies and apparent contradictions
which have to be taken into account, yet which have often been
overlooked by authorities in forecasting the yalue of money.

Thus the various effects of Trade and of Demand upon the
value of money are really of the most complex character. In
former times, and at least as late as 1858, when M, Chevalier
published, and Mr. Cobden translated, his well known book on
"The Coming Fall in the Value of Gold," — a book which even
so thoroughly practical a man as Mr. Cobden endorsed and com-
mended wamingly to the English public, yet which proved entirely
wrong, — a very simple sum in proportion was thonght enough to
forecast the value of money. " Here," it was said, speaking of
the new gold-mines, "is a prodigious increase in the quantity of
" money; therefore the value of Money must fall, and Prices rise
" in proportion." Since that time the world has received many
instructive lessons from Experience, and we now know how to
avoid some of the errors formerly made ; nevertheless the subject
is still so highly complicated that any one may shrink from the
task of actual prediction.

V. — Production and Employment of the Precums Metals.

I may venture, however, in addition to what has been already
said, to speak with some confidence upon two points. These points
relate to the effects of the actual Production and Employment of
the precious metals. The future supply of gold and silver from
the earth is too conjectural a matter to be dealt with here. New
and rich mines will doubtless be discovered, but no man can say
where, or what is much more important, when ; and even as regards
the existing mines, we can only afl&rm that they are not likely to
be soon exhausted. But although only conjectures could be
offered as to the future Production of the precious metals, we can

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14 Patterson — h the Value of Money Rising [Mar.

speak pretty safely as to the Employment of the present produce,
— the use which is made of it by nations or their (Governments.

It is needless to say that the recent widespread demonetisation
of silver mnst greatly tend to reduce the value of that metal. The
chief and paramount requirement both for gold and silver now-a-
days is as money ; consequently the chief and paramount source or
element of their value arises from the fact that they are money.
The common saying that gold owes its value as Money simply to
its natural pBeciousness as a commodity, I hold to be exceedingly
incorrect. As money, gold acquires a legal value, besides its ordinary
value as merchandise. Demonetise both gold and silver — as it is
quite conceivable may be the fate of those metab ultimately in the
remote future — and the value of those metals would at once be
immensely reduced, it may be to a half, or even a quarter of the
value which they at present possess as the costly counters which
nations have agreed to trade with and accept as a measure of
value. Already, in the most advanced countries, gold and silver
might be, and to a large extent are, dispensed with in domestic
cvrculation. Even now, specie is indispensable only in international
payments — or rather, for a small part of them, viz., the ** balance ; "
and if the nations come to suffer severely from changes in the
relative value of the two metals — ^the depreciation of one and the
appreciation of the other, — they will be tempted to see whether
such fitful measures of value cannot be still further supplanted by
other means of exchange, even in international transactions.

Needless though it be to say that silver must fall in value from
the recent work of legislative Demonetisation, it is highly important
to bear in mind a corollary, and necessary sequence, of this change.
The Demonetisation of silver carries with it an inevitable rise in
the value of gold. The amount of silver demonetised must be
replaced by, and cause to be absorbed in new transactions, an
equal amount of gold. If there were a great plethora of gold, such
a change might be advantageous, and could not be embarrassing.
But there is no such plethora of gold ; and the amount of this
metal required to take the place of the demonetised silver, must
inevitably produce a scarcity of gold — dear M&ney, in this and
every other country which has adopted a single gold standard.
The amount of gold required for this new use must be very large,
and each year in the future will make the amount larger. If the
world had remained as it was in 1870, the seven millions a-year
of new silver from the Nevada Mines would have been readily
absorbed ; indeed such a sum would hardly have done more than
annually replace the mass of lost and worn-out silver tbroughont
the world. But since 1872, besides the collapse of Trade, several
of the leading Governments of the West have followed the example

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1880.] ifh EngloMd and throughout the World / 15

of England in adopting a single gold standard ; while France and
the other States of the Latin Union have stopped the coinage of
silver. Thus a vast amount of silver-money has been actually
demonetised, while, almost throughout the whole Western world,
the entire replacement of the worn metallic currency or coinage,
and also all the additions to it, must henceforth be made in gold.
And it will hardly be questioned that these requisite additions will
be of no small amount.

A scarcity of gold, under snch circumstances, is inevitable.
Indeed the leading merchants and bankers of the City of London,
a few months ago addressed a memorial to the Prime Minister,
complaining that metallic money is growing scarce. The event is
commonly spoken of as if it were a visitation of Providence, — a
thing as much beyond man's power of prevention as the bad
seasons with which we have recently been afflicted ; and yet this
scarcity of metallic money is entirely of man's making. The demo-
netising of silver is a destrv^ciion of a large part of the wcrrld's
cu/rrency, wilfdlly produced, — a measure voluntarily adopted by
Parliaments or enacted by Governments. Legislation creates this
difficulty, and legislation could remedy it.

The common and strongest arguments in &vour of a single
gold standard are, firstly, that gold is best suited for wealthy
countries where large payments are common. But even in England,
as we all know, no large payments are made in coin at all ; and as
regards international payments, it costs no more to send silver than
to send gold, because the cost of conveyance is not reckoned by the
weight of the bullion but by its value. The other and more
important argument in favour of a single standard (but one which
be it noted, is as much in favour of silver as of gold), is, that a
standard which rests upon the two metals is doubly unstable,
because liable to a double set of fluctuations. I venture to say,
there could not be a greater mistake than this. If the two bases
were things wholly different and independent, the argument would
be correct; but it is wholly incorrect when the two things are
mutually interchangeable — when they can be used for the same
purpose. No one will say that a man can stand better upon one leg
than on two! I have never heard any sane man complain of
having two legs because thereby he has to support himself upon
" a double set of fluctuations." Or put the case in another way : —
Would any one think of maintaining that the cost ^ food fluc-
tuates more when men can live both upon animal and vegetable
food than if, with both kinds of sustenanoe within reach, they
chose to live upon bread or butcher's meat separately ? If either of
these two kinds of food be in such abundance that people can
wholly do without the other, then undoubtedly the people may

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16 Pattbbson — Is the Value of Money Rising [Mar.

indulge their preference, and live upon that one kind of food alone.
But if, as is actually the case, there is no such superabundance of
food, people would be foolish indeed if they were to create an arti-
ficial famine, and starvation for themselves, by refusing to treat as
food what 18 food. In like manner, it seems to me that for Gt)Tem-
ments or Legislatures to forbid the use of silver as Money at a
time like the present, when metallic money is growing scarce, is
as extraordinary an aberration as legislative wisdom could possibly
exhibit.

To prevent misapprehension, I may state, or rather repeat, that
I am not opposed to a single gold-standard, whether in a particular
country or all over the world, provided the supply of that metal be
suflQcient to maintain such a monetary system stably; but I am
opposed to the demonetisation of silver at a time when the supply
of gold is not sufficient to meet the new and large requirements for
it so created — ^that is, to take the place of the demonetised silver.

VI. — Summary omd Conclusion,

Summing up the remarks which I have had the honour to
submit, I would say that under the present remarkable Depression
of Trade, the State of Prices cannot be accepted as a proof of
what (from the imperfections of language) may be called the natural
value of Money. At no particular time can Prices of themselves
be relied upon to show whether the supply of the precious metals,
as money, is redundant or scarce ; and at the present time Prices are
so abnormally afEected by the State of Trade that they are still
less reliable than usual for such a purpose. But we may safely
reckon that ere long Trade will resume its progress and expansion,
although not probably at the marvellous rate which the present
generation have witnessed ; that wealth also will augment, and that
the requirement for money or the precious metals will become greater
than it is at present.

Also, if we look at the production of the precious metals,
especially the decline of the gold-mines, together with the wide-
spread demonetisation of silver, I think that (wholly irrespective
of the evidence of Prices) it can hardly be questioned that Money
must be already growing scarce in countries which have a single
gold currency, and that this scarcity will inevitably become greater
and severe.

The effects of the fluctuating conditions of Trade upon the value
of Money, are the most interesting, and, owing to their frequent
occurrence, perhaps the most important, and certainly they are the
most intricate and difficult to explain. But they are only a
transient element in the present question ; and if we would see
what substantial change is in progress in the value of Money, we

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1880.] in Englcmd cmd throughout the World ? 17

must look to the more permanent element, namely, the Supply of
the Precious Metals, and our employment of them as Money. The
use of Money throughout the world is always extending with the
spread of civilisatiou, growth of population, and increase of Trade ;
and whenever the produce of the mines seriously declines, the
probability is that a scarcity of Money is impending. Upon this
matter I venture to state my conclusions as follows : —

(1). As r^ards the value of Money in India. No one alleges
that the Indian currency was in excess, or in any way depreciated,
prior to 1873, i.e., just before the change began in the relative value
of gold and silver. Well then, since 1872, the annual supply or
influx of silver iuto India, has been only one-fourth what it used to
be during the seventeen years previously.* Accordingly, coderis
parihusj a rise in the value of Money in India would be natural ;
and certainly it is inconceivable that there should have been a fall,
or depreciation. Moreover, if there were a Fall or Depreciation,
the rupee would lose a portion of its purchasing power, and hence
a larger quantity of silver must be required than before, — whereas,
as just shown, there has been a great decrease in the supply of
silver in India. Mr. Bagehot has justly remarked that the Indian
metaUic currency is so large that a depreciation of merely 2 per
cent, would require a great addition to the stock of silver.
Whereas, I repeat, there has been a great reduction in tlie annual
supply since 1872, when the change began in the value of silver
compared with gold.

(2). Next, as to the value of Money in the gold-countries, or in
England and the countries of the Western world generally. Since
1872, the supply of gold from the Mines has continued to decline,
although only slightly, and at present the supply is nearly 30 per
cent, less than it was between 1851 and 1860. At the same time,
since 1872, the extensive Demonetisation of Silver has created a
proportionate increase of the requirements for Gold. Hence, as the
gold-supply has somewhat decreased sinQe 1872, while the require-
ments for gold have been greatly augmented, the tendency of these
circumstances must certainly be to raise the value of Money in
those countries where gold is the sole or chief currency.

(3). tJpon these grounds (apart altogether from the evidence
of Prices) it certainly appears that the value of Money is rising

* During the seventoen years ending on Slat March, 1872, the nett imports
of the precious metals, or the increase of gold and silver in India amount^ to
236! millions sterling, or at the rate of 13*9 millions a-yoar : of which amount
154} millions were silver, giving an annual average of 9*1 millions of that metal.
During the next four years — during which period the Fall of Silver relatively to
gold occurred, and reached its maximum — the nett imports of silver into India
amounted to 913531584^ i or at the rate of 2 J millions a-year, or little more than a
quarter of the previous rate of supply. — See Appendix A.

VOL. XLUI. PAST I. C

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18 Patterson — Is the Vcdtte of Money Rising [Mari

throagboTit the world, both in the East and in the West, — the rise
being greatest in gold, the metal most in nse among the chief
trading nations of the world.

(4). I see mach groand for believing that, bnt for the wide
demonetisation of silver in the Western world, the fall in the valne
of that metal relatively to gold wonld at most have been slight
and transient. The Dse of silver-money, especially in the East, is
so extensive as to require a large amount of that metal for the mere
maintenance of those silver currencies, as well as for the additions
which are naturally required, owing to the growth of trade. In
1878, the expenditure of British capital for the railways in India
had come to an end ; and, owing to the world-wide Depression of
Trade, the foreign trade of India became, not retrogressive, but
stationary. And under these circumslances silver, which had
previously risen in value compared with gold, returned to its old
and traditional price in gold. But thereupon the work of demone-
tising silver commenced in Europe, and the gold-price of silver has
fallen greatly. Bnt for this arbitrary change (viz., the demonetisa-
tion), I think any change in the value of silver relatively to gold,
would have been slight, and transient. Since the world proved able
to absorb some 20 millions of new gold annually, is it not probable
(to say the least) that now, when the gold-supply has diminished
to the extent of 8 millions sterling, the world would have been
able to absorb the 7 millions of new silver from Nevada ? In fact,
but for the demonetisation of silver, would not the recent deficit
of gold have been just compensated by the increase of silver, —
thereby preventing that ** scarcity of metallic money ** whioh the
leading merchants and bankers of the City of London now deplore
in their Memorial to the Prime Minister.

When one of the metals which constitute Money is becoming
scarce, it is a strange procedure to demonetise the otiier.

VII. — The Subject at Home.

Passing from this broad, if not world-wide view of the question
as to the present and prospective Value of Money, I shall conclude
by coming to the state of matters at home. Gold is the single
money of this country, and it is gold that is becoming scarce ; and
I shall briefly call attention to one part of our Monetary System
through which a scarcity will first make itself embarrassingly
manifest.

It is some ten years since, in a discussion in this Society upon
an able paper read by Mr. Chubb, I drew attention to the matter
of which I shall now treat more fally, and which in the interval
has acquired additional importance, namely, — the steady increase of
tbe note-circulation of the Bank of England pf late years, and

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1880.] m Etiglcmd and ihroughout ihe World ? 19

which seems bonnd to go on, — requiring a larger and larger amount
of gold to be locked up in the Bonk in oonnectioa with its note
issues.

VIIL — ISiecemt Groitd% of the Hote-^Ctrctilh^ion,

For twenty years after 1844^ the Bioik's note-tissues remained
stationary in STerage amount, or indeed averaged somewhat less
than at the time whem> the Bank Act was pegged. At first sight
this circumstance appears somewhat surprising,, because during
those twenty years the trade of the -country had expanded vastly ;
more Trade requires more currency, or else an* improvement in the
methods of economising it. The new gold-mines of California
and Australia enabled additions to be made year by year to our
stock of ^ small money,! ''the gold coins in permanent circulation,
and these annuaT additions,, in the aggregate,, have amounted to a
very large sam ; but, simultaneously,, ouriappliancefr for economising
money increased in a still more remarkable and important manner.
The employment of bank cheques in payments between individuals
became general, and by-and-bye universal. Thereafter the "clearing
'' system ** established a similar economy of money between the
Banks, — the system being gradually extended until it was made
complete (in its present form) by the Bank of England joining
the Clearing House in 1864. This sums up the monetary
economies effected during these twenty years, and since then no
new economy of the currency has oome into operation. Con-
sequently the currency itself has had to be increased, in order to
meet the requirements of our expanding trade. As Mr. Newmarch
has recently shown in a valuable article in the " Banking Magazine "
an important cause of this rise in the amouBit of the Bank of
England's note-issues is the large number of new banking offices
(chiefly branches), which have been opened of late years ; each of
whichy ef ceuise; has to keep in< hMid some amount of notes, as
the basis of its operations.*

* Mr. Newmarch sbowi that dnrmg the laat tweutj years (since 1858) the
number of banking offices, taking banks and brancbea together, in the Metropolis,
haa increased from 84 to ii i, or nearly threefold; in the Wast of England the
increase has been from 1,212 to 2,195, or 8ii per cent.;, in Scotland from 609 to
950, or 56 per cent.; and in Ireland from 187 to 4*1,. or 113 per cent. For the
whole of the United Kingdom, Mr. Newmarch states that there has been an
increase of banking offices to the namher of 1,546, or abo«t 77 per cent. Each of
these new offices, of course, requires a certain amoant in cai^ (notes and coin) in
hand to carry on its business; and Mr. Newmarch says, " If we assume that the
" new bank-offices keep on the arerage no larger a sum than 3,oooZ. in Bank of
** England notes, this will account for 4*74 millions sterling out of the total
'* increase [in the Bank of England's note circulation] of 6*60 milliona—- leaving an
" unascertained margin of only 1*86 mUlions — a sum most probably all absorbed
" in the larger bank-note reserves kept by the older bank-offices." — •* Bunker's
<« Magaime/' October, 1879.

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20 Patterson — la the Value of Money Einng [Mar.

The following statistics show the extent of the change as
regards the note- circulation of the Bank of England. On the
passing of the Bank Act in 1844 the note issnes of the Bank
amounted to 21,200,000/., and, as already said, they remained a
little below this amount on the average of the subsequent twenty
years; that is, down to 1864. After that time the Bank's note
circulation began steadily to increase, and during the last twelve
months the increase has proceeded with unprecedented rapidity,
doubtless owing, in great part, to the shaking of bank credit
generally, by the scand^ous and disastrous collapse of the City of
Glasgow Bank and others. Although the banking panic has quite
passed away, I think that the addition which it has occasioned in
the note issues of the Bank of England as it now stands, and when
trade revives, is likely to ' be permanent. ' The following figures
show the average note-circulation of the Bank of England since
1844, and the great expansion which it has undergone since
1864:—

^ote Circulation of the Bank of England*

1844 to 1864 20,500,000

*66. 6th July to 25th October 21,950,000

*71. 5th „ „ 25th „ 25,800,000

*72. 3rd „ „ 25th September 2(>,6oo,ooo

*73. 2nd „ „ 15th October .26^125,000

'78. 8rd April „ Hth August 27,900,000

*79. Ut January to'SOth September 29,244,000

Here it appears that, apart &om the events of the last twelve
months, the Bank's note circulation since 1864 had increased by
more than 7 millions ; and at present, or rather, taking the avei'age
since the commencement of the present year, the increase has been
8| millions since 1864, — and this despite an almost unprecedented
depression of Trade, and consequent diminution .of the ordinary
requirement for bank-notes.

IX. — Rise of the Bank^McUe.

The effects of this change are of a serious character as regards
the value of money in this country, especially when we consider the
decline of the gold-mines and the new requirements for gold pro-
duced by the demonetisation of silver. As is well known, the Bank
Act requires that for the portion of the Bank's note circulation in
excess of 1 5 millions an equal amount of specie (three-fourths of
which must be gold) shall be kept locked up in the Issue Depart-
ment. Accordingly nearly 9 millions of specie have thus to be
kept locked up more than was necessary in 1864 a^d previously ; and
the total amoant of specie thus immobilised in connection with tJje

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1880.]

in England and throughout the World ?

Bank's note circnlation is now upwards of 14 millions, — an amount
twice as great as the eniire stock of coin and bullion which used to
be held by the Bank previous to»1842.

The effects of tl»is change have t6ld seriously upon the Bank-rate,
or the value of money on loan. When the Bank-rate rises to 5 per
cent., money on loan begins to become dear; and the following
tables show the stock of coin and bullion held by the Bank on the
several occasions when the bank-rate was^fixed at this point (viz.,
5 per cent.) in two periods: first, between 1844 and 1864; and
secondly, since 1864 to the present date : —

1847.
'47.
'63.
'54.
'56.
'66.
'66.
'6a
'60.

8th April

23rd December ....
20th September....

8rd August

27th September....

29th May

Ist October

14th January

12th April

1844-64 : Ftve-per Cent'
£
9,236/)oo
11,609,000
15,066,000
ii,594iOoo
12,368,000
10,766,000

IO,2i7,000

13,746,000
13,890,000

1860. 13th November.... 1 2,536,000

'60. 28th „ .... 12,419,00c

'61. 11th April.... 11,520,000

'61. Ist August- 14,482,000

'68. 28th January; .... 12,737,000

'63. 2iid Neyember .... 13,300,000

15)183,496,000

Average 12,233,000

Since 1864 the corresponding statistics have been asfollows :

1870.
'71.
'72.
'72.
'73.
'73.
'78.
'78.

27th July 19,252,000

7th October 19,500,000

2nd „ 21,156,000

11th Decembw .... 23,244,000

14th May ^,166,000

9th July 22,374,000

Ist October 21,^32,000

4th December .... 21,667,000

1865-79 : Five per Cent,
£

1874. 16th November .... 20,201,000

'75. 7th January 22,085,000

'76. 6th „ 21,215,000

'77. 11th October 22,788,000

'78. 12th August 21,683,000

'78. 2l8t November .... 26,333,000

Average 21,735,000

) Thus, during the last nine years, the Bank-rate has been fixed
at 5 per cent, when the stock of specie has averaged 24 1 millions,
as against 12} millions in the previous time,*— the 5 per cent,
point being now reached while there are 9I millions more specie in
the Bank than used to be the case during the twenty years after
1844 In truth, owing to the increase oi the note-circulation, the
Bank is in no better position now with 22 millions of specie, than it
used to be up to 1864 with only 12 millions.

The statistics above given show that the connection between
the increase of the Note-circulation since 1864 and the rise of the
Bank-rate (relatively to the stock of gold) is perfect, — the Circula-
tion having increased g\ millions, and the Bate standing at 5 pei

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22 Patterson — Is the Value of Money Rising [Mar.

oent. when the stock of coin and bullion is 9I' millions more than
in 1864 and previoaslj.

In giving these figures I have taken the averages, — a procedure
which makes the extent of the change appear considerably less than
it really is ; for, as the figures show, the amount of gold in Bank
requisite to maintain % 5 per cent, rate of discount is upwards of
a 6 millions ; or twice as large as was thought or found requisite
in 1864, and nearly three times as large as in 1844. In relation
to the stock of gold in the Bank, the rate of discount has been
rising throughout the entire period. Indeed it is a point worthy
of notice that even during the twenty years ending with 1864, —
during which period, as already shown, there was no increase of
the Bank's note-circulation, — the Bank-rate was considerably raised
relative to the amount of gold in the Bank. And this leads me to
observe that the policy or system of the Court of Directors may
and does exert a great influence upon the Bank-rate, irrespective
both of the stock of gold and ihe amount of the note-circulation.
For rather more than twen^ years past, the policy of the
Directors has tended towards quicker and greater elevations of the
Bank-rate, compared with the available stock of gold, than had
been customary before, and for some years immediately subsequent
to, the passing of the Act of 1844, — the chief causes of the
change being the ignoring of any difference between Home and
Foreign drains of gold ; these were treated entirely alike, — a pro-
cedure which I ventured to object to in two Papers which I had
the honour to read before this Society in 1870 and 1871.* The
worst and only serious form of a Home Drain is that which occurs
during a Commercial or Banking Crisis ; and such drains always
end, after a month or two, by creating a plethora of gold in the
Bank. A year ago, however, during the Banking Crisis, the Bank
Directors very considerably altered their practice, and the change
which they then made was not only highly beneficial to the com-
munity, but, as seems to me, perfectly correct in principle.

Both the Act of 1819, and the Act of 1844 recognised bi-
metallism— both gold and silver — as the basis of the note-circula-
tion of the Bank of England. For a good many years after 1844,
the Bank used to keep a portion of the specie in the Issue Depart-
ment in the form of silver ; but some years after the gold-discoverios,
when silver rose above its old value, the Bank, very naturally,
preferred to keep its locked-up specie entirely in the cheaper metal,
gold. At any time the Bank can recur to its old practice, by
keeping one-fourth part (about 3^ millions) of this specie in silver :

• " On Our Home Monetary Drains, and the Crisis of 1866 (1870)." «* On the
^ Rate of Interest, and the Effects of a High Bank-rate daring Commercial
" and Monetary Crises (1871)."

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1880.] in England and ihroughotd the World ? 23

but, even if this be done, we shi^ll still be in a much worse position
tkan in 1864, because, as already shown, the increase in the note-
circulation requires some 13 millions more specie to be kept looked
op, or immobilised in the Issne Department.

While the note-circulation of the Bank of England has thus
been increasing, and to all appearances is bound to increase, I need
hardly say that there is another increasing requirement for gold
at home — ^viz., the annual absorption of gold coin into the cir-
culation of this country. In 1867, when preparing my book
on "the Science of Finance," I obtained statistics from the Mint,
which showed that this annual absorption of gold, during the
twenty-two years ending with 1865, averaged fully 4^ millions,
exclusive of silver coin.* This absorption, which is necessary
owing to the want of small notes, proceeds very irregularly, — ^being
largest, of course, when trade is brisk and prosperous ; and it was
exceptionally large in 1853, when the total net issue of coin from
the Mint amounted to nearly 12 millions, — a considerable portion of
which sum was taken abroad by emigrants, and to supply metallic
money for Australia and California, before mints were established
in those countries. What the present rate of absorption of gold
into our currency is at present, I have not inquired ; but if , as is
probable, under ordinary circumstanoes of trade, it amounts to
about 5,000,000/., we have here — ^in the mere requirement for small
change at home — a source of annual absorption equal of itself to
one-fourth of the present supply of gold from the mines. This
requirement for gold, then, must be taken into account, in consider-
ing the Future of Money, along with the increase in the note- circu-
lation of the Bank of England, which necessitates a corresponding
addition to the stock of coin and bullion immobilised in the Issue
Department of the Bank.

Such, then, is the joint in our harness through which the scarcity
of gold will first, and most obviously, make itself felt.

I had intended' to include in this Paper the suggestion of
some remedial measures for the scarcity of gold which appeals
to be impending, or to some extent is already existing. If it bo

• The total amount of gold and silver coined at the 'I «o ,, ^--

Mint between 1848 and 1866 was J '"»n9»4*7

The amount of light gold and silver ooin withdrawn \ 1% Acq 08

from circulutioD during the same period was j * ^ *

Net issue of ooin from Mint 109,489,119

or at the average rate of 4, 7 60*400/. a-year.

The total net issue of gold coin during these twenty- three years was
103,807,138/., or on the average rather more than 4i miUbns a-year. The
statistics are given in full iu " The Science of Finance/' p. 677.

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Pattebsoh — Is ike Value of Money Biting

[Mar.

the pleagnre of the Society I Bh»Il be hi^j to treat of these
matters on another occasion. For the present, it is enongh to
submit to joa the &cts and amsiderations abeadj stated as to iiie
present value of money, and the probability, as I think the cer-
tainty, that the leading oonntrtes of the world— at least if the
demonetisation of silver be adhered to — are about to encounter a
period of Dear Money, and a reversal of the monetary circum-
tftanoes which so happily set in thirty years ago.

Appkkdee a.

Absorption of Silver in Indian

Table showing the Kett ImporU or Absorption tf Silvmb, in India^ 1851-75 ;
together with the Contemporaneous Produce of the Silver Mines. The
Figures represent the Annual Average for Quinquennial Periods^ in
Millions Sterling,

8iin»h»

Inermsed Mtofftwm

laporUorSUTcr.

of Silver ui Iii<iia.
Muked PlM or Minus

•ad

•coordinc u it

Price of Sflver,

tke Avenge

rrodactaoaorSihtr.

Escceds or faUs fthort
of the

perOmnee.

after 18»S.

of surer.

Nett

Imports.

iBcrme.

UercMe.

d. d.

1851-65

2-6

—

8-14

—

61 to6U

'56-60

IO-03

7-43

814

None

+ 7*43

61A..62Vy

'61-65

997

7-87

9*^3

1*40

+ 5*88

60H„61t^

'66-70

9*43

6-83

lO'il

207

+ 4-76

6U ,.60t^

'71-75

3 -05

•45

13 94

5*80

-5'35

601 „56i

The total Surplus Imports of Silver into India daring these
twenty-one years subsequent to March, 1855, amounted to 164
millions sterling. The total Produce of the Silver Mines during
the same years amounted to 220 millions, of which amount 50
millions came from the new Mines,

The Indian Trade-Balances, cmd How they were Settled,

The aggregate Trade-balances (or excess of exports of mer-
chandise over imports) in favour of India during the official years
1855-56 to 1877-78 amounted to 455 millions. Of this vast amount
276 millions were paid in specie imported into India, and 148

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1880.] in England amd throughout the World ? 25

millions by " Conncil Drafts," or bills drawn by onr Government
upon the Government of India. This leaves a balance of 31
millions nnaccoanted for, bnt which doubtless was settled by
'* private remittances," — i.e., bills drawn upon the Indian banks by
Englishmen resident in India (chiefly for the support of their
iamilies in England), and payable in England.

The aggregate Trade-balance in favoui* of India during the
twenty-nine years subsequent to 1848 amounted to 511 millions
sterling ; the entire production of gold and silver during the same
period was, as nearly as can be computed, 940 millions — of whicb
amount (taking the production at the beginning of 1848 at
16 millions) 464 millions was the produce of the old mines, — leaving
476 millions as the produce of the new mines since 1848. Thus it
appears that, but for the Council Drafts and private remittances
from India, the Indian Trade would have absorbed 35 millions rrvore
than the entire new stock of gold and sUvei' — i.e., the entire produce
of the gold and silver mines discovered since the beginning of
1848.

These statistics are taken, chiefly, from various documents
printed in the Appendix to the Report of the Select Committee of
the House of Commons on the Silver Question in 1876.

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26 Patteeson — la the Value of Money Eisvi%g in England ? [Mar.
Appendix B,--Prices and the Bank-Rate,

Tables of Prices. 1

Yew.

BMk- ^_,_,,_ ,__,_

Tew.

Economist.

Bourne.

Jevons.

Bate.

i:«ouuMO ATvuia.

1845...

g>f"5

|j3i

Railway Mania

1845

'46...

:i ' "^

'46

*47....

^ LI22

Irish Famine. Panic and Com-
mercial CnsiB

'47

'48....

106

•48

'49....

lOO

'49

I860....

« ^

1 r

-^ lOI

■ir^t

Average price of Consols 96I

1850

'61...

^104* ^

103« |2

P' 103

1*18

'51

'62...

X07 #

114 •

>• 1 101

(2 u

C<»)solflieaehed io»,aTeraged 99I

'52

'58...

116 ^

'53

'54...

'130"^

■^

'54

1855..
'56...

-a

A
^

1.
1

»a5
129

■a,

Russian War. Loan of 16
millions

1855
'56

'57....

136* k

140* ^

.132

.64

Severe Commercial Crisis

'57

'58....

119 #

123 «

118"

•68

'59...

ti5^

118^

120

'69

1860...

122'*

123

124

Financial depression in India

1860

'61...

124

123

American Civil War began

•61

'62...

131

125

124

Cotton Famine

•62

'63...

158^

144"]

'*3

'63

'64...

172

151

122

M rn

•64

1865..

162

• a

138

'*' ^

■M\

Inflation of Joint stock enterprise

1865

"Financial A Commercial Crisis.

'66....

162^

141^

128»S

•

J Fall of Overend and Gurney's.
1 Bimk-rate 10 per cent, for

'66

three months

'67....

137

128

118

•67

'68....

122/

122

120

|l2i

'68

'69....

121

118^

119

'69

1870....

122/

119

1870

'71....

118

Trade proceeds " by leaps and
. bounds." Bubble Companies

•71

'72...

129

133

•a Mi

and Foreign Loan Mama

•72

'78t

134

142

Semi-Crisis in November

'73*

'74...

131

186

•74

1875...

126

130

^ Collapse of Foreign Loans
Bad harvests and Depression

1875

'76...

1^3

123

Low2f

'76

of Trade begin

'77....

113 i'

126

•77

1878....

1161I

118T^

Banking Ciisis. Fall of City
of Glasgow Bank

1878

'79t

Jan. 101 J ^

loej^

1 -

J Harvest equal to only half acrop

•79f

t As above shown, tbe TabuUr nurol>er which the " Economist " employs to represent the stnte of prices in 187S m 134.
and for JanoHry, IB.V, the Tabular number is loi, — the difference in figures being 33. But thi» is not a fall of 33 pm- cemi^
as one of the speakers in the debate inadvertently assumed, bat a fall of 24^ per cent., as stated iu the Paper.

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1880.] • 27

Discussion on Ms. Pattibson's Papeb.

Mb. Gohbn said that Mr. Patterson had left little for anybody else
to say on the subject. There were two points, on both of which
the dednctions were strongly in unison with these at which
Mr. Patterson has arrived, to whicli he had, however, not alluded
in his paper. They were, firstly, the change from paper currency
to gold currency in the United States of America ; and the slow
oontraction in a similar direction which was going on in Europe ;
and secondly, the very large works to which France had committed
herself during the next decennial period. With respect to the first
point, the initial effect of the introduction of paper currencies in
many of the great countries of the world which enjoyed a large
metallic medium, was to set freo a very large amount of gold and
silver. In the United States for the last eight or twelve years,
there had been a very large amount of created money, as it were,
which was accepted by the country itself, in lieu of metallic medium.
In the very first year in which the greenback currency was no
longer compulsory, its place had to be taken by a very large amount
of metal, thereby increasing the absorption and consequent deamess
of the latter. In Europe this was aJso going on. For example,
in Austria and Italy there were similar causes at work in the same
direction, to a less extent ; and although the absorption of silver
was undoubted, such had been the depreciation of silver, from its
demonetisation elnewhere, that its value fell too far, as compared
with the bank note ; and the two Governments, especially that of
Austria, took advantage of that circumstance, to reduce the amount
of paper currency. Then there was also France itself, which now
had made the bank note convertible, and although previously
practically convertible, it was not legally convertible up to the
commencement of last year. France now had to maintain a large
circulation of gold. Therefore, as to the first point, all these
countries were operating in the same direction, and the writer of
the paper had not specially alluded to these circumstances, possibly
considering them as natural causes. Then as to the second point,
experience showed that one of the great factors in the price of
money was the value of labour. There was an immense absorption
of money created by any large scheme of public works, producing
apparent prosperity which was really only fictitious, because, when
great public works were in progress, the prices of commodities
rose at the same time, and necessitated a larger individual expen-
diture of money. The French legislature has sanctioned a scheme
by which an expenditure of 132,000,000/. sterling would be made in
the next ten years. It had authorised the creation of debt, the
annual issue of which was to be regulated by the ChamberH, but
which would amount to at least 12,000,000/. sterling per annum for
the next ten years. Besides this French scheme, large public works
had been undertaken elsewhere, and the effect of them had already

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28 Discusdon [Mar.

l)een shown in the enhanced value of commodities. America, and
each of our colonies, were engaged in works which, although highly
productive, must tend to the absorption of metals for the purpose
of paying the workmen who were engaged in their construction.
The world was now in a stage of constructive work larger than it
had attempted for sometime past. This small island had made
railways at a rapid rate, and its wealth was so large that it was
enabled to do so in advance of other countries. But there was now
a concurrent desire for railway making in all parts of the world.
GiM^ntic railways were being made from the extreme west of Russia
in Europe, to the extreme east of Russia in Asia ; and experience
would show that unless there was some new secret source of wealth
to be discovered, the value of gold must gradually appreciate from
this cause alone, if from no other. These considerations were of
importance to the artisan and to the trader. It was not a misfor-
tune that there should be a period of moderately dear money ; but
it was a misfortune when jerks in trade were produced by commit-
ments to gigantic enterprises, which required longer periods for
their dcTelopment than the impatience of some countries was pre-
pared to afEord.

Mr. Hbnby Hoabe thought that although it was not difficult to
arrive at a general notion of figures and statistics, there was
nothing so vague as the knowledge about the value of monev and
the value of gold. Everyone admitted that the value of gold was
dependent upon the quantity of goods that people would give for
it, and as this naturally varied from time to time, it must de|iend
upon the amount of supply and demand. The amount of gold had
been estimated to be about 1,200 million pounds ; and the amount
of gold that had been transplaced and had been taken from the
general stock and brought into new quarters was something like
200 millions. At the time of the German war, the French Govern-
ment had borrowed 60 millions from the Bank of France, and he
believed that the greater part of that was in gold. The amount of
gold absorbed in Germany was something like 60 millions, and
there had been a similar amount absorbed in the United States,
therefore under those three heads there was in round numbers
about 180 millions, the whole of which had been taken from the
general stock of gold and put in circulation into new quarters,
replacing paper money in France, replacing silver and paper money
in Germany, and replacing paper money in the United States. He
thought a good deal more wanted to be worked out in relation to
the difference between gold, as money, and paper money and bank
balances. In a time of great trade, a large number of bills were
current, and these would produce, for the time, the same effect as a
large quantity of gold. He thought the natural contraction of the
currency in times of depression would in a great measure account
for the low prices then ruling.

Mr. BoTTRNK thought that Mr. Patterson failed, as he himself
seemed disposed to admit, to make out that the rise shown by the
alteration of prices really substantiated any increase in the value of

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1880.] on Mr. Patterson's Paper. 29

money ; for this reason principally, that if the alteration in prices
had resulted from an alteration in the real yalne of the money by
which those prices were estimated, there would have been some-
thing like regularity and fixity in their relations. The point on
which he wished to touch was this : that there was no irregularity
in the changes in prices at all comparable or at all equivalent k>
the changes in the quantity of gold in existence at the time, or the
amount of gold produced. Now, it would be expected that if it was
an alteration in the value of gold itself that effected a change in
prices, the various articles would follow the same rule. Mr. Patterson
had alluded to prices in India, and spoke of two articles selected
by Mr. Crawford; but these in themselves, although they were
individually fitting articles to be chosen as examples, were not
sufficient to regulate the whole comparison. He agreed with
Mr. Patterson in that opinion, for he (Mr. Bourne) had himself
attempted to draw a comparison of prices in India, and found it was
utterly impossible. The cotton at one time showed a rise, and wheat
at another, and the various causes operated to produce a difference
in price utterly irrespective of the quantity of gold in circulation or
the value of silver. He therefore inferred that the change had been
in the prices of the goods themselves, and not in the gold by which
they were represented. This would make all the difference in their
calculations^ and he thought such would be fully made out on an
examination of the case. Again, Mr. Patterson had spoken of
silver as though it had absolutely risen in value in our own
country ; but he (Mr. Bourne) rather thought that the figures to
which Mr. Patterson had referred, did not support the conclusion
to which he had arrived, and he was not able to reconcile these with
the present state of prices. The '^Economist " said that the value
of silver as compared with gold was 1 1 per cent, less than the value
of gold compared with other commodities. At the present time he
thought it was 22 per cent. In 1873 the " Economist " prices were
134 and, in 1879, loi, which made a difference of 33 per cent, in
prices; at the same time -there was 13 per cent, only in silver;
therefore the difference was t2 instead of 11. He thought
Mr. Patterson had<made his calculations last year, and that they
were not in accordance with the present state of things. Recently
there was an undoubted rise in prices, which seemed to impugn the
conclusion at which Mr. Patterson had arrived. The inflation of
1873 was one which could not possibly last, and he thought it was
hardly fair to take those prices as a test, and to compare them with
the prices of the present time, when they wanted to judge of the
value of money. Allusion was made to the variations in the prices
as shown by the " Economist " and himself. He (Mr. Bourne) had
ventured to alter those of the " Economist," because the selected
articles embraced four descriptions of cotton, and thus the great
fluctuations in the price of the raw material affected the general
results fourfold. In like manner he thought his friend Mr. Giffen,
in his paper on the " Prices of Exports,*' bad selected a year in
which the coal famine had abnormally raised all articles into which
the price of coal entered, and thus vitiated the comparison between
that year and 1877. Mr. Patterson bad spoken of the falling off in

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30 Diteuisicn [Mar.

India. Now it seemed to bim that tbat depended very mnch upon
the state of her export trade. In 1873 the surplns of India's
exports over her imports was 3 1 millions, and in 1876 only 19 millions,
making a difference of 12 millions; that bad to be supplied by
silver, and which would account for the falling off of the quantity
of silver in India. Again, precious metals were not like articles c^
consumption, which went on importing at the same rate. Tbe
importations were expected to be regulated by the trade. He took
it that the real necessity for the use of gold in settling intemationml
balances, did not so much depend upon the aggregate amount of
trade, as upon the balances of trade that bad to be settled. Talcing
the case of America and England at the present moment, there
could be no doubt that if our transactiona with America were settled
by the agency of circulating medium, we should be denuded of ^old
in a very short time, because America was taking from us 60 millions
or 70 millions worth of goods more than we were taking from her,
the reason being that the balances were settled by the use of securities
of various kinds which one nation parted with and another nation
took, instead of being taken by means of gold. There was no don^bt
that at the present moment Ama*ica was settling her balance "vritii
us by the purchase from us of the securities we held formerly in
her country, and hence the extreme difference had not been made
manifest, because it had been quietly going on in that way. Bnt^
again, they coald scarcely conceive 01 a metalHe scarcity at the
present moment. There was no want of it experienced in this
country nor in America. The great extension of banking facilities
in this country, the use of cheques, the ease with which securities
were transferred from one counts'y to another, seemed aHl to supply
the place of a metallic medium.

Mr. GiFPEN remarked as to what Mr. Bourne bad said with
reference to there being no deficiency of metallic money at the
present time, that this was no answer to the statement tbat a
deficiency of metallic money had caused an unusual fall of prices ;
the fall having taken place, money was again abundant for the
moment : but only for idie moxient. To compare the present time
with 1873 merely was a very insufficient process. The only way in
which any profitable result could be arrived at, was to take as many
cycles of prosperity and adversity as was possible, and to compare
the prices of one prosperous period with those of another pros-
perous period, and also to compare the prices of one depressed
period with those of another. If that were done and it was found
that at one period of prosperity the aggregate level of prices did
not rise quite so high as in the previous period of prosperity, or
rose highei*, then at the next period of depression it was found that
the fall was to a much lower level on the average than in the
previous period of depression, or to not quite so low a level, he
thought that from these facts there would be an indication of the
genei-al rise or fall of prices ; and that general rise or fall of
prices was only another way of stating that there was a deprecia-
tion or appreciation of the standard money in which the prices
were expressed. This very point was dwelt upon a great deal in

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1880.] on Mr. Patterson's Paper. 31

a famoTis book of Mr. Jevons, in whicli he showed that a ^eat
fall in gold took place between 1848 and 1860. He proved that
the averags lerei in prices was higher in 1860 than it was in 1848,
and it was found that a sovereigpi did not go so far at one period
as at another. This was what was meant by a general rise of
prices. Since then there was an indication that there had been a
movement in the opposite direction. Comparing one prosperous
period with another, and comparing a depressed period with a
depressed period, it was fonnd that a sovereign now went farther
than it did some ten years ago. He thonght that was only an
indication; bat it was no sufficient answer to say that at a par-
ticular moment money seemed to be abundant, and there was
plenty of money in the banks. He thonght also there had been
a gi'eat deal of evidence to show that there was now a scarcity
of bullion for all the wants of the world. The recent stringency
in the United States was an unmistakable proof. The United
States had lately wanted metal very much^ and he should say
that very nearly i6 millions sterling from the 1st of August last
had been shipped from England and France to the United States
[Mr. Lionel Cohen — 19 millions], and part of that money had actu-
ally been nsed in the United States, and in a quarter where scarcity
of money would show itself most, namely, in the reserve of the
banks. The New York banks alone held 7 millions or 8 millions
sterling more than in August last. Although then quite lately
the sarplns in the Bank of England and the Bank of France seemed
to be so enormous, it had gone away quickly, and both these banks
had raised their rates. Mr. Bourne had repeated the challenge to
some of his (Mr. Giffen's) figures, but nothing he had said affected
the comparison he had made between 1873 and 1877 in point of
fact. Taking a certain group of articles, and taking the average
prices of those articles in 1873, and comparing them with the actual
prices in 1877, would be a good comparison as far as it went. In
fact it would be found that the average price of these articles in
1877 was very ifauch less than that of 1873, and any diminution of
the decline in these two dates must be a decline in price only. It
might be true that the figures in 1873 were abnormal ; but that
did not affect the correctness of the actual comparison in the two
years. Referring to Mr. Patterson's paper, he should like to make
a small correction as to what Mr. Patterson had sa^d regarding the
annual consumption of gold in the coinage of this country at the
present time. He did not think it was necessary for Mr. Patterson's
argument to put it so strongly, but he thought that Mr. Patterson
had a good deal overstated what the consumption really was.
Mr. Patterson had put it at between 4 or 5 millions. Some years ago
it might have reached that sum, and he believed it did reach it, but
during the last ten years the consumption of gold in the United
Kingdom for the coinage had not been so much as 4 or 5 milHons.
So ^r as he could make out, the proper figure of the consumption
of gold in the coinage would not exceed about 2 millions per annum
during the last ten years. The sum was rather a difficult one to
do, because one would have to take the actual coinage, which
during the last ten years had been about 47 millions sterling, and

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32 Discussion [Mar.

to dednct from that the light coin -withdrawn, and that had heen
melted and re-coined. That would bring it to 3 5 or 36 millions ;
and after that, there had to be deducted the excess of the exports
of British gold coined over the imports. There was a constant
movement going on, and the net export of coin in this way could
not be put in the last ten years at less than 1 5 millions sterling, and
that would bring the consumption at home to about 20 millions
sterling, or 2 millions a-year. In addition, however, a large export
of coin took place in the pockets of travellers, and that would reduce
the estimate of coin going into circulation in this country still more.
Another comparatively small point seemed to be in regard to what
Mr. Patterson said about India. He (Mr. GKfEen) did not think it
was quite fair to take the last few years, and compare them with
the seventeen years previous, for the reason that those seventeen
years included a most extraordinary time, the time of the cotton
famine, in which the consumption of silver in India was on a
most abnormal scale. The silver then went to India in enormous
quantities for special purposes, and was absorbed in a special way.
It appeared to him, as far as the average consumption of silver in
India was concerned, if the time say before 1850 was compared with
the present time, it would be found that there had been an enor-
mous increase in the import trade in India. He was also inclined
to think that in some parts of India, there had been a considerable
rise in prices, in consequence of the enormous absorption of silver
in the seven years ending about 1870. Certainly in some parts of
the Bombay presidency there had been such a rise in prices as he
had hardly known of anywhere. The particulars of it were to be
found in some official papers published a good many years ago,
showing that enormous changes had taken place in India in con-
sequence of the absorption of silver owing to the cotton &mine.
What he wished to say generally about Mr. Pattersou^s paper was,
that he believed there were indications of a gold scarcity which
it was very difficult to estimate at the present moment, because so
little time had elapsed to show the actual reduction in the range of
prices at the present time compared with what it was ten, twelve, or
twenty years ago. It took a long time to show these things statis-
tically. There had been since 1860 a lower range of prices all
round, and it seemed to indicate a state of things that might be
called a gold scarcity, which might be expected to go on. He thought
Mr. Cohen had explained very well how we would be affected by
the demands of the United States. Taking all these things into
consideration, and also the fact that we were in a present state of
depression, we might look forward for the next few years to high
rates of discount, and as a consequence of that, eventually a fall of
prices. He should like to dissent from the apparent impression
given by Mr. Patterson's paper, that he held opinions in favour of
bi-metallism. It seemed to him that to condemn the general
demonetisation of silver as unwise, was really a very different thing
from approving of bi-metallism, and Mr. Patterson had apparently
confounded the two things.

Mr. BouBNA said he did not for one moment impugn Mr.

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1880.] on Mr. PaUersan^s Paper. 33

Giffen's calcnlations, he simply said he did not think the variation
of the prices in two such years at all went to establish the fact
that there had been any dilEerence in the value of the money.

Mr. Walfobd said he conld not help feeling that while the
paper was a nataral efEort to eliminate a ilieory ont of the question
of the rise in value of money or the decrease in money, the author
had not taken into account sufficiently accidental circumstances,
such as the question of supply as regulated by good or bad
harvests, which in his judgment regulated the question of prices
much more than the actual supply of currency. There was only a
small portion of the currency in use in the case of international
exchange for commodities. There was another point which
affected the question very much, and that was legislative inter-
ference. In some coantries the customs on imports had to be paid
in gold, some in silver, and some in other ways ; and there seemed
to be always a legislative interference going on which would affect
the bullion requirements in those countries. In the United States,
during his recent visit of some months, he observed that the people,
having got used to paper money, would not voluntarily use
bullion ; but the Gk)vemment were forcing the use of gold and
diver by withdrawing the paper. It could not be said that the
bullion now flowing over to America was in the natural course of
events. The abundant harvests there, and the deficient ones in
Europe, had caused a very large amount of money to go. This
circumstance fitted in with the policy of the Government there at
the moment. Bullion after all was only one, and a smaU, element in
the mercantile transactions of the world, and a temporary neces-
sity for it in any one locality caused fluctuations. Bank notes
must always be an important medium in home dealings ; and Bank
of England notes were every year becoming a more extended
medium of exchange in different parts of the world. They were
all indebted to Mr. Patterson for a very able paper.

The President (Thomas Brasaey, M.P.) said he could not claim
to be in any sense an authority on the complex and important
question that had been brought under their notice in Mr. Patter-
son's able paper. It was a valuable contribution to the Journal
of the Society, and he was sure they were all very much in-
debted to Mr. Patterson for the labour he had bestowed upon
it. Having had a good deal to do with commercial matters, he
(the President) had many reasons for appreciating Mr. Patterson's
difficulty in satisfactorily determining the appreciation or depre-
ciation in prices. Mr. Patterson had drawn an inference with
reference to the valae of gold from a comparison of prices at
the present time with those current in the year 1873. That was
rather too short a period to justify any generalisation. If, how-
ever, exception were taken to the policy of our Government in
selecting gold as the standard, a policy which had been framed
-with the idea of using that metal which was most likely to be the
best in point of value, the fluctaations of prices as detailed in the
appendix to Mr. Patterson's paper, showed that that policy on the

TOL. XLin. PART I. D

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aJp

34 Discussion on Mr. FcMersoifCs Paper, [Mar.

whole was justified by experience. It had been said that prioes had
fallen very sensibly since 1873. Were they to trace that faD in
prices entirely or mainly to the appreciation of gold ? On that
point he would venture to say, as a commercial man, that prices
had fallen from causes with which the question of gold had not
any direct relation. Certainly prices had fallen, in part because
producers and manufacturers had been obliged to forego the profits
they were realising in 1873, and also because the labouring class
had been obliged to submit to a veiy considerable reduction of
wages. It was a question, therefore, whether this fiuctuation in
prices was not as much a depreciation in profit and wages as
^preciation in gold. Looking along the columns compiled by the
" Economist " and Mr. Bourne, he would venture to say that the
value of gold would, on the whole, appear to have been remarkably
steady. Mr. Gifien had said that prosperous years must be compared
with prosperous years, and unprosperous years with unprosperous
years. There was a remarkable recurrence of the same average of
prices at different periods in the period embraced in the table. For
instance, the figure 1 18 appeared in the tables of prices in 1878, in
1871, in 1869, in 1859, and again in 1853. So, too, in regwxl to
the bank rate, the same figures were found occurring from time to
time over a long period of years. In view of these facts, he ven-
tured to say that on the whole the policy of the Government in
adopting gold as the standard had been justified by experience. It
was known that in India another metal had been adopted as the
standard, and in India there had been a serious fall in the value of
silver. That had recently been the subject of an elaborate parlia-
mentary inquiry. The value of silver in India had been very
seriously impaired by the policy unfortunately adopted in Germany
of the demonetisation of silver. That policy had thrown a large
amount of silver on the market, and had affected prejudicially the
value of silver in India. Something had been said in regard to
what seemed to be a waste of money when the wages rose unduly.
He should be very sorry to advocate an undue rise of wages ; but
he thought they had heard a good deal of late with reference to the
impaired activity of trade in the home market, and its depressing
effect upon our manufactures generally. This, he thought, was
very certain, that the distribution of money in the form of wages
did cause a demand for commodities, and it was equally certain that
serious reductions in wages pi^ejudicially affected the home market
and our trade generally. He was sure he was doing what all
present would desire, when he expressed to Mr. Patterson their
acknowledgments for the great services which he had, not for the
first time, rendered for the Statistical Society, in preparing such an
able paper upon so difficult and important a subject.

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1880.] 36

The Stbikbs of the Past Tin Yeaes.
By Q. Phillips Bbvan, F.S.S., P.G.S.

[Read before the Statistical Society, 20th Jaimaiy, 1880.]

I APPBOAGH the subject of my paper this eyening with the greatest
diffidence, and a strong distmst in my own powers to deal with it as
it shonld be dealt with. The subject itself is not a grateful one ;
and I am sure that all who have paid any attention to the labour
question, will join with me in the appreciation of the difficulties with
which it is surrounded, and in a very decided feeling of dissatis&c-
tion at the results of our inquiries into the particular branch of trade
disputes. Indeed, at the very outset, the thought naturally occurs,
cui bono ? For what object are we examining the strikes of the
past decade ? What can be the good of raking up quarrels which
should never have been begun, and that should be consigned to
limbo as soon as finished ; and why should we seek to disinter the
chronicles of disputes which have passed into the regions of history P
To this not unreasonable question I would reply, that it would be
well for this country if strikes had become a matter of history,
instead of being episodes of the present time, so constant as to be
the rule and not the exception. Striking has become a disease, and
a very grave disease, in the body social, a remedy for which has
long occupied the attention of learned sociologists and legislators,
but which as yet shows no sign of having run its course. I think
therefore that it is not only useful, but necessary, for all who are
interested in the proceedings of capital and labour (and who are not,
directly or indirectly?), to examine and diagnose this great evil
in all its bearings, as it is only by so doing that we can arrive at any
hope of alleviation. For myself, I do not believe in any speedy
cure by legislative measures or any one course of action. What
I have endeavoured to do in this short paper, is to bring together as
many cases of strikes as I have been able to collect, that have
happened within the last ten years, as a text upon which the
opinions and discussions of this Society may be founded. It is, I
have reason to think, the first time that this subject has been'
brought before the Statistical Society: and although many a
pleasanter one could have been selected, not one could be discussed
which is of more vital importance to the country. I am happy to
know that it will be discussed by an assembly which is so eminently
calculated to do so judicially and distwjBsionately, free from the

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36 Bevan— On the Strikes of the Pad Ten Tears. [Mar.

bias with which the employer naturally views the question, or from
the intemperate spirit which so often characterises the disputants on
the other side. I feel sadly conscious that my investigations have
been most imperfect : for I have met with more difficulties than
I expected in the way of procuring information. Strikes, numerous
as they are, have been so imperfectly chronicled, even in those
journals and publications which profess to devote most attention to
industrial matters, that the labour of getting at the simple ^t of
their occurrence has been very considerable, and in a vast number of
oases I have only been able to state that such and such a strike did
take place, without any further information. Even this bald state-
ment, however, is not without its uses, for it has enabled me to make
an aggregate of the number of labour disputes, which may perhaps
startle those who have engaged in them, if they ever do happen
to reflect upon the enormous hindrance to labour and trade that
these quarrels represent. The causes of strikes are so few, that it
becomes monotonous to read them : nor is it perhaps very essential
to our subject to know what is the reason of each strike, as long as
the strike takes place. But the points of information which are
most lacking, and the absence of which I very much regret, are the
results. There is an especial difficulty about getting at the results of
the termination of a strike, unless it happens to be one on a very
large scale, so large as to be chronicled from day to day in the
public papers : the reason being, that whether masters or men
are victorious, neither side are anxious to trumpet forth the fact,
but prefer to let the whole quarrel glide into obscurity without
enlightening the outside world as to its specific features. I have
however been able in a great number of cases, the majority indeed,
to ascertain pretty correctly the duration of the strike, a very
important fact when we try to arrive at any calculation as to the
cost of a strike to the country. In the case of very large and
important strikes, we are often informed as to the probable loss
sustained, sometimes stated, as it were, ex cathedrd, in the report of
a trade society, bat more frequently the result of a simple guess,
which as often as not is exceedingly wild and vague. Supposing it
were possible to arrive at an accurate conclusion as to the loss in
wages of the aggregate strikes, which seems to me to be scarcely
feasible, considering the lack of data, I fear that the figures, gigantio
as they would be, would have no appreciable effect in checking
the recurrence of strikes ; for the moment that a fresh casus belli
arises, all prudence seems to be flung to the wind. The losses, the
miseries, the starvation, the debt, the destruction to trade, which
have occurred on previous occasions, are forgotten in the bitterness
of fighting ; and it is only the sober few, whose age and ex-
perience remind them sadly of the past, that hold up their hands

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1880.] Bbvan— On the Strikes of the Past Ten Tears. 37

for peace, and council a more pradont policy. This is supposing
the quarrel to be a bond fide one, and not a question of deliberate
war carried by the trade societies into the enemies' ground. It is
much to be feared that an ofEensive campaign of this kind has not
unfrequently been commenced and persisted in as part of a deter-
mined scheme, against which the feelings of the majority of work-
men, who have to contribute to the strike fund, would decidedly
pronounce, if full opportunity and free licence of opinion were
allowed. K however the statements made by Mr. George Howell in
" Eraser's Magazine " for December last are correct, it appears that
strikes are frequently carried on because it pays the strikers to do
so ; and if undertaken in this way as an investment, I confess that
1 do not see much hopes of any solution of the difficulty.

The following table shows the number of strikes that have taken
place during the last ten years, as far as I have been able to obtain
the facts, to amount in the aggregate to 2,3 52^ viz. : —

1870 30

'71 98

'72 343

'78 365

'74 286

1875 245

'76 229

'77 180

'78 268

*79 (to let December) 308

The numbers of 1870 and 1871 are out of all proportion to those
of succeeding years, and the only way in which I can account for
it, is the fact that a great epidemic of strikes broke out at the end
of the latter year — an epidemic which has unfortunately become
chronic, and seems, if anything, to grow in intensiiy. It may be, too,
that public attention was not so much directed to these questions
as it has been of late years ; so that many disputes might have
taken place, which were not chronicled in the local papers. The
causes of strikes are monotonously due to either demands for advance
of wages and resistance to a reduction, or, what seems to be the
same thing, an increase or a decrease of working hours. The great
number of strikes that took place in 1872-73, which have not
been equalled either before or since, happened at a time when, as
we all remember, industry was at its highest. Labour was in
extreme demand ; there was a great inflation of prices, which culmi-
nated about 1874 ; and as a matter of wage, men could get pretty
well what they liked to ask within fairly reasonable limits ; some-
times, indeed, the limit might well have been pronounced extrava-
gant ; still they were not satisfied ; and though the generality of them
were earning more money than they had ever earned before, they
determined to work the question in another way, and demand a
reduction of working hours — a reduction which in the main was
universally complied with, though not until after many disastrous

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38 BiVAK— 0» the Strikes of ihe Past Ten Tears. [Mar.

qoarrelfl. At the present time we see the oonverse of ihia state of
things. Times are bad — ^worse almost than we have ever known
them — and although the inevitable decline of wages which has taken
place during the increasing depression of trade has provoked manj
strikes, the men have been obliged to bow to the necessities of the
occasion, and have not been able to carry on their resistance wiih.
the same pertinacity which they could afEord to exercise in brisk
seasons. The masters have seized their opportunity, and done in
1879 exactly what the men did in 1872-73, viz., made an effort to
win back the extra hour which they then conceded. This is partly
the explanation of the large number of strikes in 1879.

Looking through the detailed list of later quarrels, I find that
amongst the extraneous causes are — alterations of old rules in fac-
tories and workshops; piecework; refusal of the men to allow
women to participate in their employment (as in the case of the
Nottingham hosiers in 1871) ; dismissal of workmen; insubordina-
tion (as in the case of the gas- stokers at Beckton in 1872, when
they nearly succeeded in plunging London into darkness); the
importation of foreign labour (as in the case of the experimentiJ
beetroot sugar nuiking at Lavenham, in Suffolk, in 1873) ; the
introduction of juvenile labour ; legislative interference (as in the
case of the chain cable makers of Newcastle, who struck in 1873
because the Act required a chain of stronger straining power than
they had been in the habit of making) ; an increased speed of loom
(as in the case of the carpet weavers at Elderslie in 1874) ; disUke
to check weighmen (as in the case of the Tyldesley and the Bamsley
colliers in 1876, the Ryhope colliers in 1877, and the Wigan
colliers in 1879) ; the introduction of labour saving machinery (as
in the case of the bootmakers of Leeds in 1876) ; disapproval of an
arbitration award (as in the case of the Ashton towel weavers, and
the Middlesbrough ironworkers in 1878); the Manvers Main
colliers who struck against Mr. Mundella's arbitration ; the colliers
at Dodsworth, in 1877 ; the Northumberland colliers, in the same
year, who declined to accede to Mr. Herschel's arbitration; the
painters at Preston, and the Wolverhampton joiners. Colliers have
also struck against the use of a more stringent safety lamp (as in
the case of the Carlton Main and Rawmarsh colliers, in 1878) ; and
there have been strikes also against the employment of non-
unionists (as in the case of the Padiham building operatives) ;
against riddling in collieries (as in the case of the Kippax oollieries,
1878). These are amongst the minor causes that have produced
quarrels, the great majority being, as before stated, against a reduc-
tion or for an advance of wage. The persistence with which large
bodies of men have fought a hopeless battle is worthy of the highest
praise, were the energy a bit better directed. The Manchester

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1880.] Beyah— On ihe StHhes of ike Past IW YewB.

joiners, in 1878, fonght for a whole year for an increase of wages;
and at the end of that time, those who did not find their places
filled up, were glad to get back at less than the original terms ;
while in the. same year the Dundee slaters disputed unsuccessfully
for two months for an extra halfpenny per hour, and the Gorton
Main colliers stuck out for many weeks against what amounted to
five-eighths of a penny.

Let us now examme how many trades have struck in the last
ten years, and which are the industries that seem most open to this
course of proceeding. I have drawn up two tables on this subject —
the first rather more in detail, and the second dealing with the
trades in groups. The subdivisions of labour are so numerous in
the present day, that I have been obliged to comprise a good many
classes under one head. Under that of the iron trade, for instance,
are included not only the workmen in an iron or steel establishment,
such as furnace men, pnddlers, rollers, hammerers, &c., but also
blacksmiths, moulders, foundrymen, and other subsidiary classes of
operatives. Under the heading of engineers are comprised fitters,
mechanics, and engine tenters; while under that of the cotton
trades are winders, piecers, self-acting minders, strippers, grinders,
spinners, weavers, &>q. The result of the list shows that iii
trades are implicated in these disputes. Of course, as might be
expected, the staple industries exhibit the largest number of strikes ;
but it is encouraging to find how few of the trades do strike in
comparison with those who do not. Even some of those who figure
in our list might almost be eliminated, as far as the number and
duration of their strikes go ; for, what we may call the striking
trades are limited to some forty or so. Taking the last census
tables of the industrial population as a general guide to the number
of trades, we find that they are set down at 187, and it is perhaps
a source of congratulation to observe the small proportion of indus-
trial combatants, although the fighting instinct in this proportion
is a matter of regret.

Table XL

Tr.de.

70.

71.

72.

78.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

Tbtal.

Agricultural labourers...

Anchor makers

Ail<f Tnakers

3
10

7
1

4
8

3
1

2
2

8
1

1
1

t
I

Bakers

1
I

Beetsugar makers

Bobbin makers

Boilermakers

Bookbinders

Brass and copper 1
workers j

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40 Bevan — On the Strikes of the Fast Ten Years,

Table Ti—Contd,

[Mar.

T^e.

70.

71.

72.

78.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

Total.

SnavAn ...•.••—

I
I

1
4

2
15

1
5

5
5

10
2

I
6
1
6
3

I
4

I
6

1
I
2

3
I

»5

6
2
4

27
1

5
46

11
2

5
6
6

16
3

1
12

1
1

19
1

2
lO

6
3

2
5

15
1

I
10

1
2

25
2

10
2

16
3

8
3
3

1
5

I
I

20
I

2
4

2
6

8
8

8
25

1
9

1
6

3
I

2
H

I
3

2
6

1
3

5
2

13
10

20
2

Brick and tUe makers ....
Srickbftt makers

15
I

Bricklftvors

Bnuliinakera

Building operatiTee

Butchers

Cabinet makers andl

polishers J

Carpenters and joiners
Cametmakers ,T--t"-

187
6

Carriage and waggon 1

builders J

Caseraakers -

CausewaT layers

1
1

Cement makers... .--^--

Chain makers

Chemical operatires

China-clay diggers

Cloth and wool opera- 1

tires J

Colliers

37
314

Combmakers

Confectioners

Coopers and packing!

case makers J

Corkcutters

Cotton hands

120

Cutlers and tool makers
Distillers

Dock labourers

Drivers and carmen

Dyers and printers

£lectroDlat>erB

14
I

Engineers and fitters ....
Farriers

96
4

Fender and fireiron

makers

Fisbermen

2
2

Flax, linen, and jutel
haiids J

Floor clotb and mati
makers J

Fustian cutters..... rr-

4
I

Gttrdeners

Ghaswork men

Glass makers

Gun makers

TTfirdware makers......

Hatters

Hinfl^ makers „r..,r r

Horseshoe makers

Hosiery hands

1
14

Indiarubber workers ....
Iron workers

I
127

Tiftce hands , r..„.

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1880.] Bevan— On ths Stakes of the Past Ten Tears.
Table II— Cbn^.

Trade,

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

Total.

Labourers (general)

Lath splitters

Leather workers and!

tanners J

Lockmakers

1
1

4
8

1
2

6
3

1
1

I
3

7
3

3
3

2
2
I

8
6

3
8

2
20

I
I

16
1
3

4
10

6
6

1
6

2
2

1
1

I
i8

2
2

2
lO

3
5
I

I
I
8

1
II

2
1

I
2
I

1
2
2

2
8
5

3
8

1
4
1

1
14

6
1

1
1

X
I
2

4
3

I
I
5

2
I
I

1
6

1
9

4
2

1
I

6
3

4
5

3
2

13
6

1
8

5
I

Maltsters

Masons

151

I
7

Military clothing makers
Millers

Miners (metallic)

Kail and chain makers
Navvies

Needle makers

Nut and bolt makers ....

Offif^if^lA ,,,

10
4

Painters

57
I

Paupers

Paviors

Pipe and tube makers ....
Plasterers

6
39

Plumbers ..«

Porters

28
8

Potters

Printers and compositors
Professionals

24
I

Ouarrvroen ,....

Bail way and telegraph \

employes J

Ropemakers

Saddlers and harness!

makers J

Sailors

Snilmakers ..„

100

Sawyers and wood 1

cutters

Shipbuilders

Shopkeepers

Shoe and bootmakers ....
Silk hands

82
9

Skinners

Slaters

Rprinfir makera

Stone cutters and V

polishers J

Tailors

8
72

Tinplate workers

Tobacco pipe makers ....
Tobacco spmners

Trunk makers

Wheelwrights

Whitesmiths

Wire workers

Zinc workers

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42 BEVks—On ihe Strikes of the Pad Ten Years. [Mar.

In this somewhat long list the colliers figure in a rather unen-
viahle manner for 314, which, while we bear in mind that they
form a very large body of workmen, amounting to 500,cxx) in ronnd
numbers, is out of proportion to the strikes in other trades. While
dispassionately searching for and reviewing the causes that lead to
so many coal mining disputes, one cannot but be struck with the
fact, that colliers, more than any other class of workmen, appear to
live in a chronic state of excitement as to the wages question, and
that there seems to be a perpetual distrust between the employed
and employers. I simply state the circumstances as I find them
recorded in the public papers, which anybody can read for them-
selves ; and these records are of a continuous succession of restless
advice and inflammatory speeches, made by those who assume the
control of the colliers' policy in Great Britain. As to whether the
colliers are to be envied or pitied for thus being drilled into a
perpetual state of industrial warfare, I offer no opinion, my wish,
as far as possible, in this paper, is to try and get at facts and figures.
Grouping the subdivisions into more compact bodies, we find the
following results as to the industries engaged in strikes : —

Table III.

Building trades 598

Metal trades 390

Colliers and miners 339

Textile trades 277

Clothing trades 163

Ships and shipping 140

Potterj and glass trades 63

Wood trades 63

Stone trades (not masons) 54

Food and drink trades 39

Carrying trades 35

Carnage building trades 33

Leather trades (not shoes) 28

Fibre trades 2X

Agricidtural trades 18

The building trades, which head this list with the formidable
number of 598, are composed of a good many sections, which have
separate organisations and interests, and yet which seem to follow,
as by an irrepressible impulse, the infectious habit of striking.
They comprise masons, carpenters and joiners, slaters, bricklayers,
plasterers, plumbers, builders' labourers, with certain minor occu-
pations ; and it is not unnatural to find all these branches in an
unsettled state under certain conditions of trade. The carpenters
and joiners have the proud distinction of being the most restless,
there having been 187 strikes under this head; and next to them
come the masons, with 151. There are several reasons which may

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1880.] Bevan— On the Strikes of the Fast Ten Tea/rs. 43

account for the building trades striking so often: — 1st. It is a
class of industry which feels almost instantaneously the ups and
downs of trade depression or revival. 2nd. The employers are, as
a rule, men of but moderate means, and in a great many cases
men who have emerged more or less recently from the ranks of the
employed. Capital being short, and speculative building being rife,
it is not a matter of surprise that extreme cutting should be prac-
tised in the matter of wages, and that disputes should frequently
happen between two classes of men so little divided from each other
by position. Of course there are giants in the building trade, as in
all others; to them these remarks will not apply; but the great
majority of building strikes have happened amongst the rank and
file of employers ; and this fact will also seem as a reason why, as
a rule, the building strikes are not only soon settled, but also much
more frequently in favour of the men than in other trades. 3rd. The
inequality of wages may be also a reason as to the frequency of
these disputes. At the time of the Manchester joiners* strike, in
1877, they were paid 8|d per hour, whereas in Liverpool the
wages at the same time were 8 jd, at Bradford 8c?., at Lincoln 7f tf.,
at Lancaster 7c?., at Cambridge 6|c?., at Gloucester 6rf., at Win-
chester 5^c?., at Frome 4|c?. The amount of labour being the same,
and the prices of living being so little different in all these towns,
it is a natural feeling that the lower- waged should seek to be on a
little better level with the higher- waged. The next point of interest,
though we cannot call it one of very much importance, is as to the
localities in which strikes abound. It is to be expected that the
greatest number of strikes would be found in the largest industrial
centres ; and this is true to a great extent, though at the same time
some industrial towns with large populations are much freer from
strikes than others, proving that certain trades which afiect those
towns are not so much given to strikes. But throughout England
and Scotland the value of the special industry figures is a good
deal detracted from by the perpetual recurrence of the building
strikes, which may happen in a little town like Margate just as they
do in Glasgow or London. I will first of all give a sort of strike
chart by ooxmties, taking Scotland, Ireland, and Wales each as
one.

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44 Bevan— On the Strikes of the Past Ten Yewrs,

Table IV.

[Mar.

Scotland

Yorkshire

Lancashire

Northumberland

South Wales

Durham

Staffordshire

Ireland

Middlesex

Warwickshire

Gloucestershire ....

North Wales

Monmouthshire ....

Cumberland

Nottinghamshire

Derbyshire

Chesliire

Worcestershire ....

Deronshire

Leicestershire

Kent

Cambridgeshire ....

Suffolk

Northamptonshire

Lirerpool

Norfolk

Hampshire

Salop

Westmoreland ....

Sussex

Essex

473
388
149

138

135

131

65
58
5*
51
40

33
32
30
2%
zS
24
M.
23
20

>9
II
II
10

4
4
3

Character of Trades.

y Coal, iron, textiles, shipping

> Coal, iron, shipping

Coal, iron, hardwares, pottery

Linen, shipping

Metal, wood, decorative trades

Coal

Shipping, agriculture

Coal, iron, mining

K Coal, iron, shipping

Y Coal, textiles

Shipping, agriculture
Coal, iron
Mining, shipping
Coal, textiles

V Agriculture

Agriculture, textiles
Mining, leather
Iron, agriculture
Agriculture

„ shipping

„ mining

Mining
Agriculture

The most noteworthy feature in the foregoing list is the extra-
ordinary prevalence of strikes in Scotland, which, with the excep-
tions of the counties of Lanark, Roxburgh, Ayr, Forfar, and Fife,
has no industrial population to compare with those of the same
character in England. A large proportion of the Scotch strikes
are in the coal mining, and I must confess that I cannot dissociate
these particular strikes from the policy of the individuals to whom
I have alluded before, who claim to direct this organisation, and
whose particular aim it seems to be is to prevent any possibility of
unanimity or friendly feeling growing up between masters and men.
At the same time, I cannot find that the same important influence
exists in the case of other Scotch strikes, and am quite unable to
give any reason for their frequency. It would be tedious to detail
every place in which a strike has occurred during the ten years,
and I content myself therefore with specifying the principal ones.

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1880.] Beyajs— On the Strikes of the Past Ten Tears.

Table V.

85
73
66

63
56
48
46
45
44
43
4^
36
36
30
30
29
29
28
z8

27
26
26
24
H
11
22
21
21
19
19
19
18

17
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
14
14
U
13
13

13
13
12
II
10
10
10

Character of Trtdet.

fl-Wgow

Shipping, textiles, railway works, chemicals
Iron 60ft] plnth Hat

Leeds

Sheffield

Edinburgh and Leith

Newcastle

Iiondon .,„

Coal, iron, glass, cutlery

Shipping, milling, printing

1, coal, iron, glass, chemicals
„ general industries

Co&l iron liriAn

Bamsley

Dundee

Shipping, linen, and jute

Coal, iron

Cotton, silk, coal, iron, engineering

n coal, engineering
Shipping, coal, glass
H&rdw&ntH imn

Merthyr

Manchester

Bolton

Sunderland

Birmingham

Bradford

Stuff and worsted

The Tyne

Shipping, coal, glass, chemicals
Lace, silk, coal
Shipping, engineering

„ iron, jute
Cotton, engineering
Coal iron nflilfi

Nntitingham

Liyerpool

Barrow

Oldhf^Tn

Dudley

Huddersfield

Woollens

Bristol

Shipping, coal, leather
Linens, shipping
Coal, shippmg
Cotton

Belfast

Shields

Blackburn

Middlesbrough

Derby

Iron, shipping, engineering
WoolI«nfl

Forest of Dean

Iron, coal

Ashton

Cotton

Dublin

Shipping, general trades
Iron, coiJ, hardwares
Coal iron

WoWerhampton

'Rnthflrhi^m ,

Ghreenock

Shipping, sugar refining
Cotton

Preston

Hartlepool

• Shipping, iron

Textiles, coal, iron
Shipping, engineering
Pottery, coal, iron
Shipping, quarries, woollens
Mining, iron
G-eneral

Stockton

"Wigan

HuU

Potteries

Aberdeen

Clereland

York

Perth

Dyeing, woollens
Cotton aoaI

Bunbury

Alloa

Glass, pottery, linen
Shipping, engineering
Hats and cape, cotton
Shipping, iron, coal, tinphite
Hosiery, coal

Woollftna

Birkenhead

Carlisle

Cardiff

Leicester

Dumfries

Hali&x

Cloth womf»d

Whitehaven

Shipping, mininpr, coal

„ quames
Copper, iron, coal

Plymouth

Neath

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46 BByAH— On ihe Strikes of the Pcut Ten Tears. [Mar.

In addition to this list, there are 87 towns which haye ex-
perienced strikes varying from i to 9, of which there is no occasion
to give anjr detailed account. The next point to which I would
briefly direct attention, is the duration of time which these 2,352
strikes have lasted. Although in nearly half of them I have been
able to ascertain the time which was wasted, in the remaining
portion, viz., 1,256, there is nothing to guide us, so that I think we
are warranted in giving each of them a duration of one week only.
Some may have lasted more, and some less, but in the latter case we
are quite safe in assuming that the work of that week was first
broken into and destroyed. The following table gives the time each
year spent in strikes : —

Table VI.

Weeki.

1870 68

*71 279

'72 988

'73 1,093

'74 „ 81a

'76 684

'76 95a

'77 759

'78 1,621

'79 (up to Ist December) 1,774

Total 9.027 weeks or 54,162 working days.

The durations of strikes are frequently of very considerable
length, and one can only account for them either by supposing that
the strike allowance is of so comfortable a nature, that the striker
really does not care whether he works or not, or that the object to
be gained is considered to be sufficiently valuable to repay the
great sacrifice of time and money. The following are some of the
principal durations of strikes since 1870 : —

Table VII.

TnulM.

Weeks.

Yean.

Heywood

28
27
5i
40

57
20

1872

Wolyerhampton

Manchester

'77
'77

Carpenters and joiners .... i

Dunfermline

•78

Hartlepool

'78

Shields

'78

Merthyr

'74

Blanafon

'76

Tailors <

AUam^aam

'76

'78

Bradford

Dock labourers

Shields

'73

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1880.] Bevan— On the Strikes of the Fast Ten Yecen.
Table VTl—€orUd.

Trades.

Colfien

Iron workers ..

Ship buflden ..
Okas workers..

ICasons

Spring makers ^

Tin piste workers

Sngineers \

Baihimy men

Tobacco spinners

Flnmbers ^ «...

Compositors

Towns.

South Wales

Burnley

Dronfield

Pembrokeshire ..

Kinneil

Church Lane ..
Bianyers Main ..

Wishaw

Middlesbrough..

Parkgate

Abeidare

Bradford

Q-laagow

Dumbarton

Buncom

Glasgow

Sunderland

Glasgow

Alloa

London

Newcastle

Kirkcaldy

Wigan

Bamsley

Sheffield

Edinburgh

Newcastb

Asbton

Belfast

TafP Vale

Newcastle

Nottingham

Darlington

Dublin «

Weeks.

iS
36
28
26
36
26
20
29
22
26
3<5
20
28
26

^3
26

33
56
33
H
36
30
31
28

33
21
22
26
25

38
37
31

Years.

1875
76
77
76
78
78
78
78
73
75
79
79
70
76
76
77
76
76
78
77
78
78
'79
79
75
79
71
79
'79
76
79
78
76
78

The two next points to be examined are nnf ortnnately the most
disappointing in the whole inqniry, viz., the nnmbers engaged in
tiiese strikes, and the results of the strikes. It is obvions that
unless we can form some approximate idea of the numbers of men
who are idle in ^srj particular dispute, we can give a very poor
estimate as to the amount of money lost, and the same may be said
as to the results. Those results which I have been able to collect
are, on the face of them, unfavourable to the strikers; but in
taking this view, we must not forget that many a successful strike
entails far greater advantages than the mere fact of the strike
ehows, as a small section of a trade may fight a battle for the whole
trade, and by winning it obtain very considerable pecuniary results
extending over a long period. The number of strikes of which I
have been able to ascertain any results for certain are ridiculously
few, and bear no reasonable proportion to the bulk of the disputes.
Such as they are, however, I give them.

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48 Bbyan— On the Strikes of the Pad Ten Years.

Table VIIL

[Mar.

Number
of Strikes.

Lost

Won.

Aeoonnted for.

Unknown.

1870

'79

343

365

286

H5
229
180
268
308

1
5
6

28
24
15
43
72

8
10

No
No
17
15

details
detoils
9
16
10
15
20

II
26
22

49
55
3i
61

19
72
321
365
286
196
174
148
207
213

Total....

a»35a

189

351

2,001

Meagre and almost useless as this list is for dedncing facts
from, it shows nevertheless that of the results really known, the
balance is very considerably against the strikers, and also, that
there is an increasing tendency to compromise, which is so far a
hopeful sign, which may soon lead to an agreement before the battle
has commenced. The cases in which the numbers actually engaged
are given are also, I regret to say, very few, though perhaps they
are sufficiently definite for us to form some idea of what those
particular strikes cost in actual loss of wages. The following
table is one of 1 10 strikes in which the numbers engaged and the
duration are based on reliable facts. I have estimated the loss on
wages as the daily loss of 4s. for five days in the week, and consider-
ing that in the ten years we have had the maximum and the minimum
of wages, and considering also that men, women, and children are
all implicated in the strikes, I do not think that I have placed the
average wage too high.

Table IX.

Dtte.

Trmde.

Locality.

Dnration

in
Weekt.

Numbers.

LOM.

1870

Naflers

Netberton

600
3,000

600
1,500
1,400

200

400
1,500

500

240
2,000

160

6CQ

Cotton operatives

Ck)llier8

Wigan

3,000
600

Vron

Miners

Cleveland

3,000
800

Joiners

G-laegow

Waggon builders

ColHers

Saltley

Hanley

400
9,000

500

240

2,000

*71

Shoemakers

Rotherbam

Cotton spinners

Perth

Pottery pressers

Colliers

Stoke

Butterley

Railway men

L. Y. B

160

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1880.] BEVAN—On ths Strikes of the Past Ten Years.

Dite.

LocalHy.

Duration

Knmben.

T^eeks.

200

3,000

500

9,000

35,000

1,600

18,000

11-

700

1,700

SOO

200

400

700

1,700

600

2,500

5,000

100

1,300

600

IJ.

10,000

600

800

• 2

400

2,000

500

400

2,000

700

70,000

500

1,500

1,000

600

200

300

1,700

300,000

700

1,200

350

2,000

250

160

2,000

700

1,700

1,000

2,000

700

300

Loss.

1871
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'71
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'7a
'72
72:
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'73
'73
'78
'78
'73
'73
'76

. '77
•78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78
'78

Telegnph derks^

Engineers

Glass workers

Engineers

Cotton hands

Nut and bolt makers
CoUiers

j> •

Iron workers

Colliers

Joiners

Bakers

Saucer makers

Hosiers

Linen weayers

Printers

Engineers

Moulders

Carters

Steamboat men

Railway men

Dock labourers

Building operatiyes ...

Shoemakers

Engineers

Bailwaj men

Colliers

Engineer» «

»i

Colliers

Miners

Colliers

Linen hands

Colliers

Iron workers

Plasterers

Joiners

Masons

Cotton hftnds

Colliers

Manchester ....
Sunderland ....
>i

Newcastle"

Oldham

Smethwick

South Wales....
Forest of Bean

Leeds

Sheffield

Darwen

London

Longton

Nottingham ....

Banbury

Edinburgh

Sheffield

Xeighlej

Liyerpool

M. 8. L. R

G-lasgow.

Hull

London

Norwich

Birkenhead- ....

L. N. W.

Ryhope

Q-lasgow

N. B. R

South Wales ....

Cleveland

South Wales ....

Bed worth

Bamslej

Wishaw.

Clarence

Leeds

Southampton >

London

Lancaster

Macclesfield....

Glasgow

Aldwark

Bestwood

Park Gate

Rawmarsh

Unstone-

Leeds ^

DenabyMain....
Chadderton ....
Manyers Main

Kippax

Rosa

Thorp Chiwber
Wednesbury ....

200
9,000

500
180,000

35»ooo

60,000

216,000

7,700

1,700

300

400

3,600

9,8 DO

18,700

4,200

I,200

10,000

5>ooo

100

1,300

600

1 20,000

600

4,800

800

2,000

500

400

2,000

700

770,000

1,000

37,500

10,000

600

200

300

56,100

2,700,000

2,100

2,400

350
18,000

250

3i75o

160

22,000

7,000

1,700

26,000

2,000

700

300

VOL. XLIII. PART I.

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50 Bbvan— On ihe Strikes of the Fast Ten Tears.

Table JX^C(mtd.

[Mar.

Date.

Tnde.

LoMOity.

Duration

in
Weeks.

Nnmbera.

1878
78
78
78

• 78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
'78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
79
79
79
79
'79
79
79
79
79
79
79
79
'79
'79
'79
'79

Collien

Moulders
Joiners ...

Nailers

Navvies

Painters

Plumbers

Railway men..

Silk hands

Tailors

Cotton hands..

Waggon builders

»>

Building operatives .

Chemical workers..

Flax hands

Colliers

Masons

Joiners

Ship builders..

Harrington

Eddlewood

Seaham

Rother Vale

Pemberton

Bristol

Stourport

Spon Lane

Boroughbridge .

Bolton

Aberdeen

Staffordshire

Hartlepool

Liverpool

Edinburgh

N. B. R

Macclesfield

Bradford

Macclesfield

Oldham

Leiffh

Todmorden

Bristol

Radcliffe

Rhodes

Glasgow

Daubhill

Oldham

Carlisle

Ashton

Macclesfield

Stockport

Gorton

Liverpool

Manchester

Wigan

Northallerton ..

Widnes

Porfer

Aberdare

Tyldesley

Bristol

Tyne

1
1
I
I

9
>5

4
5
4
I
6

5
1

2
1

.22

5
7

2
2

4
13

2
I

17
4
I
I
8

577

200

800

150

800

500

200

760

120

200

500

25,000

400

1,600

200

900

4,000

200

1,600

5,000

500

150

2,000

150

400

1,000

10,000

600

5,000

1,000

400

1,500

500

1,000

500

400

6,000

1,000

2,000

1,200

1,000

8,000

200
300

300

500
6,000

400
3,000

120
3,200

500
250,000

400

16,000

1,800

I3»500
4,000
4,000
6,400

25,000
2,800

«5o

12,000

10,000

150

800

1,000

40,000

600

25,000

7,000

800

3,000

2,000

i3»ooo

10,000

400

85,000

4,000

2,200

1,200

8,000

2,000

24,000

— 4,468,950

To this sum we may add a few totals of well-known strikes,
which I have taken at the time from the public papers, viz., the
engineers* strike of London during 1879, which is said to have cost
28,875/.; *^® Clyde shipbuilders' strike of 1877, which cost 300,000/. ;
the Longton colliers* strike of 1878, which cost 30,000/. ; and the
Durham miners' strike of 1879, on which 240,000/. is said to have

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1880.] Bevan— On the Strikes of the Past Ten Tears, 51

been lost, sweUing the total amount to 5,067,825/. This being the
.snm lost in 1 1 4 strikes, what are we to say for the losses on the
remaining 2,238 ? As we have no figures to go upon, it is impos-
sible to form even an estimate, though the sum must clearly be a
very enormous one. Mr. Howell, to whose recent paper in " Eraser's
'* Magazine " 1 have already alluded, puts as an asset in favour of
the men on strike a sum averaging about los, per week, which they
received as strike pay, and this of course would amount to many
thousands to be put to their credit. But I fail to see by whab right
he can call this sum in any degree a set-off, or even partial set-off, to
the losers, except indeed that portion of the strike fund which may
have been contributed by other sections of trades or the public
for the maintenance of the men on strike. Unless 1 am wrong in
my conjectures, the strike fund has been contributed to the trade
society by the men themselves, and the payment to them of so
much when on strike, is really only giving them back their own
money, which, were there no strikes, would be accumulating, to be
spent in what we may hope would be a more profitable manner.
Mr. Howell seems to be right, in my opinion, in putting forward a
statement, that many a strike, though resulting in the expenditure
of a large sum of money at the time, has resulted also in the gain
of a more or less permanent advantage to the great body of the
trade. I think, however, that he has cousiderably exaggerated both
the permanence and the amount of these benefits, even when the
strikes have been successful ; but my own observations find this to
be so seldom the case comparatively, that 1 cannot help thinking
the many losers far outbalance the few gainers.

Whatever these losses or gains may be, we must remember that
they are, after all, only those of the employed, and that in calcu-
lating or considering the results of strikes to the country, the
employed only form one part of the social economy. Who is to
gauge the individual losses to the masters ? To estimate these
would be impossible, for very few employers would care, perhaps,
to make the amount of their losses known, even if they could esti-
mate them themselves, which would not be an easy task, and espe-
cially during prolonged strikes. There are doubtless many cases in
which employers, and particularly those who have not much capital,
might welcome, or at all events not disapprove of, a strike, as being
the means of relieving them from a losing contract, or freeing them
from the obligation of paying higher wages than they can afford.
It is better, they may say, to keep the works idle, than make a loss
on each day's production. On the other hand, idleness of a mill,
factory, ironwork, or colliery, means not only unprofitable capital for
the time, but a very serious depreciation of plant and machinery; not
to mention the chances (and very probable ones) that the customers

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52 Bbvan — On the Strikes of the Past Ten Years, [Mar.

will go elsewhere for what they want, and will perhaps never return.
Let US think, too, of the deterioration of house property in all neigh-
bourhoods which have been the subject of a great strike ; of the
dwellings uncared for and left without tenants; of the rents unpaid;
of the shopbills in arrear ; of the tradesmen left with heavy legacies of
debt ; of the accumulating poor rates ; of the deteriorated physique ;
the illness, and the consequently lessened labour value of the work-
men, and their wives and families. "Sot must we omit to take cog-
nizance of the cases in which a whole industry has been driven
away to more kindly localities. Trade is, after all, but a tender
plant, which will not survive many rude shocks ; and nrore than one
instance has happened, in which it has been completely scared away
from the neighbourhood. The Thames shipbuilding at Mill wall is
a well known instance of this, the still idle yards standing even
now as a monument of the perversity and folly of those who once
gained their livelihood in them, while Sheffield, Dundee, and other
industrial towns can bear witness to similar occurrences, where
capital and machinery have been transplanted to foreign countries,
in which labour was more pliable than at home. I believe that if all
these results could be put into figures, they would double and treble
the actual losses of wages, though it is impossible to do more than
allude to them in this general manner.

Whatever the figures that I have been able to bring forward
this evening may be worth, they at all events show what a terrible
cancer we have got in the midst of our industrial body, and should
make all earnest and thinking men set vigorously to work to see
what can be done to lessening the evil. Strikes have been discussed,
and remedies proposed to any amount within the last few years,
but we seem to get no nearer the solution of the difficulty. I may
perhaps be permitted to add my contribution to the subject, feeling
that, at all events, its importance warrants any suggestions. Many
people have a firm belief in arbitration as the best settlement of the
vexed question. I confess that, looking back on the results of arbi-
tration, I do not share in that belief, but think that the success of
arbitration is far too doubtful to seek the remedy in that direction.
Arbitration has been treated in so fast and loose a way, and has been
so often played with, that it has lost all its dignity and respect.
Striking has been made a business of by the workman, and it has
become an institution in the country. I would make also the treat-
ment of strikes an institution, so that those who commence the
quarrel should know what they would have to expect. It would not
be amiss perhaps to glance at our neighbours in France and Belgium,
and see what results their Conseils des Prtid^hommes have pro-
duced. I find that in France, previous to the Franco- German war,
the number of cases that came before these tribunals were very

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1880.] Bbvan— On the Strikes of the Fast Ten Years,

large, viz., 43,807 in 1860, and 45,001 in 1868. After the war they
decreased, being 29,913 in 1873; and since that year they have
gradually increased to 31,244 in 1874, 33,907 in 1875, 34,774 in
1876, and 35,046 in 1877.

Of this number, 25,834 cases were heard before the councils in
private, and a reconciliation was effected in 18,415 cases, or 71 per
cent. 7,419 could not be conciliated, and were remitted for hearing
by the General Council, while 9,076 quarrels were settled outside the
court. As to the causes of dispute, 21,368 or 61 per cent, were
relative to wagetf, 4,733 ^^ '4 P^r cent, to dismissals, and 1,795 ^'^
5 per cent, to apprenticeship cases. These councils, it must be
remembered, not only settle disputes between the masters and the
men, but also between the men themselves. In Belgium we find
the results of their operations as follows : —

Table X

1862
'63
'64
*65
*66
'67
*68
'69
'70
'71
'72
'73
'74
•75
'76
'77

Caaea Heard.

2,761

3»3i7
3,38*
2,999
3»234
3»494
3,323
3,536
3,36«
3,330
3,5*<5
3,638
4.158
3,8*3
3,854

Cases Conciliated.

2,345
2,552
2.759
2,712
2,425
2,535
2,646
2,474
2,687
2,517
2,492
2,701
2,815
2,750
2,738
2,866

Cases Heard before

the
Geoeral CoonciL

179
aoo

2ZI

419
403
452
581
543
579
426

497

594
580
578
267
305

Cases Settled

between
the Parties.

201
207
214
326
840
381
251
291
242
392
304
224
220
494
432
656

These results in both countries appear to me to be exceedingly
satisfactory, and I should wish nothing better than to see the
establishment of similar legalised institutions in this country.
Twelve council boards might be appointed for the various industrial
centres, viz. : —

1. Lancashire, Oheehire, and Cnmberland.

2. Yorkshire.

3. Nortliomberland and Durham.

4. Staffordshire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire.

5. Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, and Derbyshire.

6. North Wales and Shropshire.

7. South Wales and Monmoathshire.

8. Somersetshire and South West of England.

9. London and home counties.

10. Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, and South West of Scotland.

11. Fifeshire, Forfarshire, and East of Scotland.

12. Ulster.

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54 Sevan — On the Strikes of the Past Ten Tears. [Mar.

Each board should be composed of an eqnal number, say ten
each, of employers and employed, so that the varions staple
indnstries might be fairly represented, each member being regularly
elected, like the School Board members, for a term of years, say
three or five. The expenses of the board, which would only sit
as often as required, might be met by a scale of fees, based upon
the amount in dispute. My own belief is, that, if a wages quarrel
arose in the district, which could not be settled amicably at first
hand between the parties, and that if this dispute was obliged to
come before the board for hearing, each party to contribute before-
hand a sum in proportion to the amount in question, a great many
disputes would be nipped in the bud. To strike costs nothing in
the way of preliminary expenses, but when a certain round sum
had to be paid down before the necessary hearing could be
obtained, it might, and I think would, considerably modify the
state of alFairs. A superior board of appeal should be constituted
for the whole kingdom, consisting of twenty-four members, one
employer and one employed out of each district board. The
decisions of the boards, not being self-constituted or voluntary,
would carry legal weight with them, and should be enforced just
in the same way as the orders of a magistrate or judge. I believe
that under some such arrangement as this, a vast number of disputes
would never come to the stage of publicity at all — and that the
great majority of those that did come for hearing would be settled
by the board, the very composition of which could not fail to inspire
confidence in the minds of the disputants. Of course, circumstances
might arise, in which a body of men might decline to abide by the
decision of the district board, and even of the after decision of the
superior board. In that case, the strikers would be in the position
of men who had simply outlawed themselves by not obeying the
laws of the country, and should be dealt with, if necessary, as such.
I say, if necessary, for this reason : a disputant or a body of dis-
putants would probably not go on with their work (although they
might do so) until the .case was fairly settled by the superior
court. If decided in a way by which they declined to abide, their
only alternative would be to leave their work and let the masters
fill up their places ss best they could, without attempt at
interference or molestation of any kind. The least approach to
this, either by moral suasion or physical force, should be most
striugontly punished. Some plan such as this appears to me the
most likely to work with reasonable smoothness ; at all events, I
offer it for what it is worth. Unsatisfactory in many ways bs are
my data, I think they are full enough to show the gravity of the
complaint, and that the subject is one which may well invite the
discussion of the Statistical Society.

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1880.] 65

Discussion on Mb. G. P. Bevan's Papbb.

Thb Chaibmak (Sir Bawson W. Bawson), in mviting discussion on
the paper, said that paiticnlar attention ought to he devoted to
the suggestion of the author as to the Gonseile des Prud*hommes,
There was no donht that if there were constituted bodies to arbi-
trate in these matters, their decision, coming from a body not
appointed for a special case, but a permanent body, consequently
likely to be disinterested, and numerically stronger than one or two
or even three arbitrators, would be likely to influence both the con-
testing parties more than the decision of arbitrators had hitherto
done. That was the practical point of Mr. Sevan's paper; but
mpon the other points, which the author had not been able fully to
elucidate, some gentlemen present might be able to supply interest-
ing and useful information.

Mr. Theo Wood Bukning, Secretary of the Northumberland
and Durham Coal Owners' Associations, said that having been asked
to attend the meeting to hear the paper read on the striken of the
last ten years, he had accepted the invitation with pleasure, as
having b^n actively engaged in some of the largest of them, he had
gained considerable expenenoe in these matters.

Before making any remarks upon the general questions of
strikes, he desired to point out an important error in the paper.
The miners of Northumberland did not strike against Mr. Herschell's
award, but, on the contrary, both the owners and men of Northum-
berland and Durham had at all times loyally accepted all awards
made by umpires. He also deprecated the tone of some parts of
the paper, for all such expressions as *' the owners seized their
opportunity," were improper. In discussing matters of this kind,
any slighting remarks, whether from the one side or the other, did
an immense amount of injury to the efforts of those who were
loyally attempting to promote friendly relations between capital
and labour.

He further stated that the experience gained in his connection
with trades unions, of upwards of thirteen years, had resulted in
his becoming convinced that men of all classes have pretty much
the same passions, and have a pretty equal percentage of reasonable
and unreasonable men amongst them ; and that they all have the
same common lever by which they can be moved, namely, ** seli
interest ;" and the reason that self interest does not operate in pre-
venting strikes is that each party is unable to measure and allow
for the interests of the other.

This became very apparent during a strike that took place in
1866, at a shipyard on tne Tyne, where the men were actually on
strike because they wanted to work a certain supposed &wer
number of hours toan was the custom, whilst in fact they were
actually working fewer hours than they were asking for. The men

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56 Diicuasion [Mar.

wanled to work nine hours a day, while through men being off
work on Mondays and other times, for their own pleasure, the
average number of hours worked per man was only about eight and
a half.

It is evident Tiere the owners might reasonablv have said that
if they were guaranteed nine hours a day, it would be worth their
while to close every day after that number of hours had been
worked, and this seemed so reasonable, that the wonder is that both
sides did not see -it, and mutually help each other in carrying it
out ; and it immediately occurred to him (Mr. Bunning), that if the
owners and the men formed separate organisations to meet together
and discuss their several necessities, that half of the difficulties con-
nected with the relationship between capital and labour would be
at an end.

He did not think, from the nature of things, that strikes would
ever cease, bat he did think that the number of them could be
much diminished, and those that must take place reduced to ques-
tions which scarcely any other means could determine.

It might as well be said that domestic quaii^ls would cease, or
that merchants could be compelled, by awards or acts of parlia-
ment, to continue to sell their goods to any given man at a loss.
There must be abselute freedom and perfect equality between the
contracting parties, and the bond that keeps them together must be
mutual self interest. These remarks apply equally to capital and
labour, the relations between which being precisely those between
two merchants, the one selling and the other buying.

It has been premised that all classes of men have much about
the same average of good and bad amongst them ; but to compose
this general average, there must be some who are more or less
difficult to deal with, and strikes veiy often occur through men who
have no grievance with their own employers, going out on strike
out of sympathy for others who have left work en account of a
quarrel started through the unreasonableness of other owners.
This class of strike could be prevented by the formation of large
associations of masters and men, where the average intelligence of
the two bodies would have more chance of being developed and of
directing the councils of all, so that there would be less difference
between badly managed places, and so that an insubordinate work-
man would be more under the control of the better informed of his
class.

The immediate effect of this arrangement is no doubt to drag
down the best managed concerns somewhat, and to prevent work-
men from individually bettering their condition, but in the end
these defects will, if not disappear entirely, at least be considerably
modified; besides, these large associations give stability to all
arrangements mutually agreed upon, create precedent, and afford
ample opportunity for each side ascertaining the wants and feelings
of the other.

There are two great dangers however which beset these
associations from the commencement of their existence : the one is
that, formed as they are at first for the protection of the interest of
their members, they are made use of by outsiders for political

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1880.] an Mr. Q. P. B&uan^s Paper. 67

pnrposes; and the second is, that thej offer a convenient opportunity
for advertising nostrums in the shape of political economy warranted
to cure everything; but these dangers rectify themselves in the
end, and the latter especially will die out from the very folly of
the various panacesd suggested.

It must not be for one moment supposed that it is intended that
these remarks should apply to one side only, for they are equally
applicable to both, and are made with the belief that there is the
most absolute equality in the average good sense of all ; and this,
combined with mutual self interest, renders a joint discussion
amongst all parties concerned the best means of solving difficulties.

To make these meetings successful, each side must be treated
as perfectly on the same footing; there must be the most rigid
politeness and cordiality observed, and there should be a total
absence of all patronising lessons in morality on the one side, and
of begging appeals to benevoleeoe on the other.

Now it has pleased some to advert to the north as a country
where disputes are frequent, and where there is an absolute igno-
rance of all political economy, and a total absence of all sympathy
between the masters and the men.

His (Mr. Bunning's) experience was precisely the contrary ; and
he thought there was no district in Great Britain where more had
been done to bring men and masters on one common platform of
mutual interest than in Newcastle. In that town has been inaugu-
rated the most important ameliorations in the relations between
capital and labour, the most striking of which may be summed up
as the joint committee, and the sliding scale : institutions which
are rapidly becoming extended over England*

It is not averred that either of these institutions is perfect, or
that they will become perfect, but it is fearlessly asserted that no two
arrangements have done more to open the eyes of both sides to their
mutual necessities ; for instance, before the adoption of the sliding
scale, could any miner be got to believe, that while coal was selling
for 2 5«. a ton in London, and 15s. in some of the local depdts, the
coal owner was only getting 4*. ^d, a ton over an output of 26
million tons in the counties of Northumberland and Durham ? but
this has now become an acknowledged fact ; the working of the
sliding scale has thus done more to give the men an insight into
the necessities of the owners, than worlds of political economy.
Arbitration may also be said to be a child of the north; but it is
one which certainly has not developed itself so rapidly, or done so
much good, as the joint committee, and the reascm is this : the
umpire must of necessity be a man who has no direct interest at
stake ; but this does not necessarily prevent his having a personal
bias, while it precludes him from having the least technical know-
ledge of the interests he is called upon -to decide. The umpire may
have a pet idea like restriction to advertise; he may have a
peculiar training, which may cause him to exclude a certain class
of evidence ; he may have aU, or a certain number of defects ; but
he never can have a perfect knowledge of the absolute wants of
both sides, and this often causes mischievous awards. The men
themselves are annoyed when a blundering verdict gives them all

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58 Discwsion [Mar.

their own way, foreseeing tliat the necessities of the case would
soon assert themselves, and that arbitration would be swept away
when the dam was let loose, and a struggle for existence com-
menced. Mistakes such as these can be cited, in which awards
have screened men from a small reduction, at a period when a
small reduction might have saved a trade from dire loss, and
caused the men to have to submit to a reduction of over 20 per
cent, a few months afler.

His opinion was, that arbitration in its present form, where the
arbitrator has full power to decide on matters deeply affecting the
interests of largo districts, was a great mistake; but combined with
a committee of both the interested parties, who have already made
concessions to each other, and narrowed the issue, it may be
conducive of much good.

In conclusion, it will have been observed that the gist of all these
remarks is to endeavour to prove the necessity of bringing masters
and men to discuss their interests together, with a view of letting
each know the necessities of the other; that the parties should meet
and talk matters over with a view of narrowing the questions in
dispute, leaving not the whole question, but the question so
narrowed, to the umpire ; in this way the umpire could not make
any very improper award.

This is precisely the construction of the joint committee, where
the two sides meet and discuss before the chairman their several
cases, when it often happens that an arrangement is come to without
having recourse to an umpire.

Mr. Alsaqer Hill said he rather agreed with the last speaker,
that any strong language made use of in a matter of this sort was
highly inexpedient. He submitted that the whole of Mr. Bevan's
facts seemed to indicate that the phenomena of strikes were
more of a " measly," than of a " cancerous " description. These
phenomena of strikes were simply the result of the higher organi-
sation of labour, bringing those diseases more rapidly to a head.
Mr. Bevan himself had admitted that the net result of strikes had
been, on the whole, satisfactory to the body of workmen of this
country, in bringing about compromises in matters of dispute. He
thought he was right in saying that the average condition of the
industrial classes in England was never higher than it was at
present, and even taking the international view, he did not think
there was any part of the world in which a man could secure better
reward for his labour than in England. As far as the building
operatives were concerned, they came naturally to the front, and
after them, the colliers. The latter class worked under more
difficult conditions than almost any other class of men, and had less
leisure than those who generally worked during the day time. He
did not think, therefore, that any great value was to be laid on his
friend's calculations with regard to any particular class of people on
strike. Mr. Bevan seemed to have forgotten that it was only
recently that the industrial classes of this country had had time to
organise. The question was entirely one of general economic policy,
and the main difficulty at present was the want of economic know-

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1880.] on Mr, G. P. BevoAi's Paper. 59

ledge on the part of those who constitnted the indastrial classes.
The number of strikes allnded to by Mr. Bevan had, in a great
measure, resulted from a mere matter of organisation, because the
leaders of these organised strikes were able to insist npon having
that haggling in the market which, Mr. Bevan had said, lay at the
root of the whole question. Mr. Bevan had shown that a large
body of the most educated portion of the indastrial classes in the
north of England and in Scotland, had come to the conclusion that
these particular contests were in their interest. He had in his
possession the last report of the Glasgow Trades Council, which
showed that the secretary was only paid loL a-year. Mr. Brassey
some time ago expressed an , opinion that the great body of the
people who formed the industrial classes, had not seen their way to
pay their own servants properly. So long as the secretary of such
a body as the Trades Council of Glasgow was paid only loL a-year,
80 long it would be found that the more ignorant section, like
colliers, would fight when they did not get what they thought were
the market wages.

Mr. Howell said he had come rather to be a listener than a
speaker. He felt with Mr. Bevan, that the more that was known
about those subjects the better. He thought, however, that
Mr. Bevan ought to be a little more careful in some of his facts.
Mr. Bevan had asserted that strikes drove from the Thames the
ship building industry. He (Mr. Howell) thought if there was any
one thing that was proved to be wrong, it was that statement.
Mr. Samuda, who was an authority on t£is subject, gave what he
( Mr. Howell) should have thought a quietus to that statement, and
Mr. Brassey had entered into statistics upon it, and it was well
known to every trades unionist in London, that other causes had
operated to drive the ship building from the Thames. There was
one thing referred to by Mr. Bunning, namely, the difference of
language used by speakers regarding tbe masters and the men. No
one could find fault with the tone of Mr. Bevan's paper, but he
(Mr. Howell) wished to note the difference with which he spoke of
one very simple fact. He said, " I am happy to know that it will
be discussed by an assembly which is so eminently calculated to do
so judicially and dispassionately, free from the bias with which the
employer naturally views the question, or from the intemperate
spirit which so often characterises the disputants on the other side."
He did not think it was intended by Mr. Bevan to say anything
unkind with regard to the men, bat he could assure him that all
the "intemperance*' did not belong to the workmen. He was
speaking to a very large employer in the building trade a few days
ago, who was chairman of the association in the district, and who
had suffered from strikes. Refening to several strikes that had
taken place recently, he said, " Are the men always in the wrong ? "
" Oh, no," he said, " my greatest difficulty is to keep some of the
masters back. They woidd be getting up a strike every week if it
was not for other employers that restrained them." That was to
say, that there were intemperate spirits among the masters as well
as among the men. If Mr. Bevan thought that he (Mr. Howell)
wished to encourage strikes by the facts he brought out in " Fraser's

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60 Discussion [Mar.

Magazine," the conclnsion was a wrong one. He wanted to show
that certain results followed from certain courses, and until it was
known whether these results did or did not follow, they would not
feel safe ground. He (Mr. Howell) did not intend to say that
strikes were carried on because it paid the strikers to do so. What
he endeavoured to convey was, that in the long run, having no
other course open to them by which to adjust wages, strikes
ultimately paid the men ; and, moreover, that it was often the only
way they had open to them to get out of the difficulty. The men
were not always to be blamed for causing a strike. If the master
attempted a reduction, and the men struck against this reduction,
the one who was originally the cause «f the quarrel seemed to be
in the wrong, unless circumstances showed that he was justified in
taking that step. Although it was stated that a certain course of
action would pay, that did not prove that the action was right.
Any one who had read the report on loan mongering with foreign
States, could not but say that it paid somebody to enter very
largely into that basiness. He did not say that strikers were to be
brought to that level; but he did say that, having no other
recognised means of adjusting their differences, they had found in
the long run that this would pay them. Mr. Hill had taken
exception to the calculation that he (Mr. Howell) had made with
regard to the io«. per week that a man received in the form of pay.
He did not think it oould be said that a man paid himself his strike
wages, any more than it could be said of a man in an insurance
society that he paid for the rebuilding of a house that had been
burned down. He paid into a society, a first class benefit society,
which gave him certain advantages. In reality they paid for a
great number of benefits, and it happened, perhaps, that once in a
life time he was thrown out on strike and got a great deal of strike
payment. In those great labour battles a very small proportion of
the men fight the battle for the entire class. If lo or even 20 per
cent, of a trade fought the battle for the whole number, that class
must be benefited by that struggle, and the loss to the entire body
woald be very small indeed. Supposing >h a certain district 200
men struck for two months, and received 2«. per week advance, that
was a small number of men; but if those 2CX5 men fought the
battle, and gained it, for say, I,CX50 men in the district, and
prevented the repetition of a similar straggle, this would do good.
With regard to arbitration, he believed in an attempt to conciliate
difEerences between masters and men in the first instance, and if no
snch attempt were made, he thought it would be doing a wrong
both politically and socially. The issues -ought to be narrowed
down as far as possible, and then submitted to arbitration, or failing
this, to an umpire. He did not think that the number of cases in
which the men and masters had repudiated the award when given,
ought to lead them to despair of the remedy of arbitration. He
thought employers ought to be the first to welcome it, because as a
class they were more intelligent than the employed, and able to take
a broader view of the thing. The onus ought to be thrown upon
the men if they were stupid enough to refuse to submit to
arbitration. It had been the worst feature in the arbitration
question, that most of the strikes were those that had taken place

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1880.] on Mr. (?. P. Severn's Taper. 61

on tbe most trivial subjects. He could only hope, in conclusion, that
the discussion on the paper, and on others of the same kind carried
on elsewhere, would lead to justice being done on both sides.

Mr. Nbwmarch was glad to see there Mr. Gfeorge Howell, who
as parliamentaiy secretary of the trades union societies, had
acquired a high reputation. Mr. Howell had written several books
and articles of great merit, all or most of which Mr. Newmarch had
read with interest and profit. Mr. Howell's article in " Fraser's
Magazine,'* for December last, was temperate and very ingenious,
but the premises were assumed with considerable freedom, and
there was good reason to doubt whether, as Mr. Howell represents,
the strikes of very small numbers of men had procured solid
benefits for the great and large number? he set out in his tables.
The legislation of the last few years had entirely abrogated the
repressive features of the old combination laws, and the law had
now most properly left both masters and men to form any combina-
tion they pleased, so long as absolute freedom on the part of each
individual is not impaired. In the case of trades union societies,
the legislature, by means of an Act, which Mr. Howell had a leading
band in procuring, has gratnted to trade societies a degree of
license very hard to defend : inasmuch as such societies are per-
mitted to mix in the same fund, contributions received by them
for pxirely life insurance, annuity, and sick purposes, and contri-
butions received for strike and trade purposes ; and the courts of
law are forbidden to give any remedy to contributors unable to
procure the fulfilment bv any such society of its life insurance,
annuity^ or sick obligations. The grievances arising out of this
extravagant liberiy are by no means speculative, as was shown in
the painful case of the South Yorkshire Miners' Fund two or three
years ago, in which some hundreds of claimants, rendered widows
and orphans by a colliery accident, could not get either money or
redress. Mr. Newmatcb had never heard any reason even decently
tenable advanced in favour of the confusion of contributions, and
denial of legal remedies, to which he had referred, and until this
scandal be removed, the trades unions will most properly be open
to severe criticism.

Trade contentionff, like all contentions between buyers and
sellers, were inevitable, and in themselves wholesome. But con-
tentions about wages were more intrinsically difficult than bargain-
ings about goods. Hence it was matter of real congratulation to
both men and masters, that latterly the subject had been treated in
many cases by both sides with eminent moderation, intelligence, and
care. Both sides seem to be now sensible that whether it is a
strike or an arbitration, there is, and must be, unrepresented at it,
that important third party — ^the public — and the willingness or
unwillingness of tbe public to pay higher prices, which in reality
controls both wage payers and wage receivers. It may be assumed
that tbe bad days of trades unions were over. We cannot suppose
the encouragement by respectable men of violence or intimidation ;
but even greater order and peacefulness cannot remove from trades
unions their fundamental defect, viz., that in their essence they
seek to place checks and difficulties in the way of superior skill.

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62 Diacussicyii [Mar.

intelligence and industry, for the benefit or supposed benefit of the
men who are inferior in all or most of the qualities which enable
men to raise themselves in the world. With the growth of educa-
tion it is inevitable, taking human nature as it i^, that the
superior, active, ambitious working men, will more and more
refuse to be put under disabilities for the supposed benefit of their
inferior comnules and competitors.

Mr. Sevan's paper was a veir intelligent and praiseworthy
attempt to collect and classify the racts of a very difficult subject.

Mr. Walpord thought the international aspect of the question
ought not to be lost sight of, because there could be no doubt that
during the continuance of strikes in the last ten years, our inter-
national interests had been suffering. A large proportion of certain
branches of trade had gone from this to other countries, and would
no doubt continue to do so if the strikes continued. Belgium had
been considerably benefited in this way; and still more so the
United States, who had supplanted our cutlery over the entire
continent of America, was usurping our former supremacy in plated
wares, and also seriously threatening our iron industries generally.
He could give further instances of it if it were necessary to do so.

Mr. Philip Vanderbyl said the author of the paper had
omitted to give a definition of the term strike.

If the refusal of a clerk to perform his duties without increase
of salary, or the objection of a merchant to sell his goods below a
certain price, were to be considered as strikes — as suggested by
two of the speakers — it is clear that the tabular statements of the
author would have to be greatly altered, in fact it would be
impossible to consider the subject statistically.

In his (Mr. Vanderbyrs) opinion, a stnke might be defined as the
refusal of a number of persons to perform certain customary work
or duties, not only to the disadvantage of the employer, but also to
the injury of the general community.

In referring to the causes of strikes, the author had omitted one
which he (Mr. Vanderbyl) thought very important, viz.. the stupid
desire of workmen to be placed on an equal footing with regard to
pay, and although certain men were infinitely superior to others,
they insisted that the inferior workmen should be paid the same as
the best men. If the employer were allowed to classify his men,
and pay according to merit, it would not only be a great advantage
to the intelligent workmen, but would tend to prevent strikes.

The Chairman thought the idea of a strike was shown in
Table IX. In upwards of a hundred cases the minimum number
was 1 50 men.

Sir Edmund Beckett, Q.C, thought that the only thing that
would put an end to strikes was that those who conducted them,
should be made to understand, bettor than they do yet, whether
they were really injurious or not. Mr. Howell, and those whom he
led, were in the habit of coming to very rough and ready con-
clusions about cause and effect in a manner perfectly illogical.
They continually said that the condition of the working man was

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1880.] on Mr. 0, P. Sevan's Paper. 63

improved, and then jumped to the conclnsion that that mnst be due
to strikes, whereas it might just as well be in spite of strikes. The
condition of everj class has improved, of those which strike, quite
as much as of those which do not. The condition of school boys and
domestic servants has improved immensely, and he did not know
that strikes could be credited with doing any great benefit to either
of them. That sort of reasoning is mere begging of the very
question in dispute. Then Mr. Howell assumed that because
strikes are most numerous in the north, and because intelligence
chiefly lived in the north (which compliment he [Sir E. Beckett]
gladly accepted), therefore strikes must be right. But this summary
kind of logic is not altogether convincing. Mr. Howell might
perhaps reflect with advantage that great labouring masses are
vastly more numerous in the north than the south. Another still
more amazing fallacy which Mr. Howell persisted in, was that those
who strike, being only a small proportion of the whole number of
workmen, and spending only the money they already have, was
analogous to an insurance company against fire. A more unlike
analogy was never put forward. People do not make fires on
purpose, as they do strikes. The loss by fire is inevitable, what is
called in law, the act of God, and the object of insurance is to
distribute that inevitable loss over as many people as possible.
But a strike first wilfully makes a universal loss of all the labonr
and its produce to everybody, and then consumes all the savings
of the working class alone to maintain it as long as possible. So
long as Mr. Howell deludes his followers with reasoning of that
kind, the visions of working men having learnt more wisdom than
before these bad times, are altogether Imseless ; and he was sprry
to say he could see no evidence that they had yet learnt anything.

So far as he had heard this eyening, no notice seemed to have
been taken that mere striking for money was not by any means the
most important part of what is called the labour question. At a
meeting of the Architects' Institute, two years ago, Mr. Lucas, the
great builder, said, " I pay for labour half as much again as I did
some yeara ago, and I do not get half as much done, in other
words, the same amount of work costs three times as much as
it did. I conld stand paying more, if I could get the work done ;'*
and many other employers o(f all kinds say the same. Until
Mr. Howell, and those whom he leads, learn that all the riches the
world enjoys come from two things, namely, from the earth itself,
and the labour spent upon it, all their other reasoning would be in
vain, and only lead to mischief. With regard to the present
prospects of trade, although it was a dangerous thing to connect
causes and efiects, he was struck with the fact that immediately
there was a good harvest in America, trade began to revive here
in consequence of increased demands from America. The fiinda-
mental thing was to get as much work out of the earth as the world
could do without doing itself any harm, i.e., working too hard for
health ; and the question of how much was to be paid for it, was a
minor one, though of course all important in competition. B;ef erring
to trade outrages, it was obviously the spirit of unionism that
caused them. Every man who destroys another's tools, or breaks
his head, because he disobeys nnion rules, or works for lower wages

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64 Discussion on Mr, 0. P. Bevcm^s Paper, [Mar.

than are resolved on, is ipso facto the agent of unionism, whether
he has had any special orders from a nnion council or not ; and it
is mere absurdity to deny them, when we are reading them con-
tinually in the newspapers, which of course only record a very small
proportion of what really happen.

It was very easy for Mr. Howell to say that Mr. Brassey, or
somebody else, has proved that strikes had nothing to do with the
driving away of shipbuilding from the Thames. That is a very
common desire of reasoners on many subjects who have awkward
facts to deal with, or arguments that they cannot answer, viz., to
say that somebody else has answered them completely. Nobody
who is versed in the ways of controversy, accepts statements of that
kind, except as proving that the man who makes them, really
cannot answer the arguments himself. Has Mr. Howell forgotten
that Messrs. Bums of Glasgow wrote to the " Times " two years ago,
that they were getting carpentry for their ships from Japan ? The
union orators and reasoners never seemed to take any account of
foreign competition, aided by English strikes, carrying off whole
trades, except, indeed, when they try to get up grand international
unions for universal strikes.

Mr. PocHiN said that the constant differences that arose between
masters and men, were very deeply to be regretted. The effect was
very injurious to all the interests concerned. Arbitration as at
present conducted, was very unsatisfactory, as it had no settled basis
on which to act. Arbitrators and umpires in nearly all cases had
confined themselves to an inquiry as to the amount of wages the
masters could afford to pay on the one hand, and the men afford to
work for on the other hand ; that, he thought, could never be a
satisfactory basis. He knew a case where one company was working
six collieries ; in some of those collieries the coal was very good,
commanding a high price in the market, and was easily raised ; in
the other collieries, the coal was inferior, and commanded a far less
price in the market, and the raising was attended with many mining
difficulties. Arbitration, on the terms on which it was usually
conducted, would, under those circumstances, decree, that two
colliers, working at less than a mile distant from each other, should
have different rates of wages, for precisely the same amount of
work. Until wages were settled purely on the question of supply
and demand, and without combinations of workmen on one side,
and masters on the other, he did not think that the three great
interests concerned would have reason to be satisfied with the
results. These three interests being the masters, the workmen,
and the public.

Mr. Bevan, in reply, disclaimed having used intemperance of
language in treating the subject. Mr. Howell had spoken of the
violence of masters, and the intemperate spirit of the employed.
He (Mr. Bevan) thought the one was as bad as the other. To
discuss the question with bias, would be as bad as to discuss it with
temper. The evil was a terrible one. It was no use discussing
what caused it, but they ought to seek to remedy it.

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1880.] 65

On Certain Changes in the English Rates of Mortality.
By Thomas A. Welton, Esq.

[Read before the Statiitical Society, I7th February, 1880.]

CONTENTS :

FAGS

fL — Introductory ^ 66

II.— The Extent of the Changee

in Mortality 69

FAGS

III. — ^The Canses of the Increased
MortaKty amongst Males
Aged 36-66 7»

I. — Introdudory.

The leading fact in relaMon to the statistics of mortality is the
reguloflrity which underlies every variation of death-rate^ whether
snch variation be found to exist on a comparison of statistics of
several localities, or of the same locality at different periods and
nnder dissimilar conditions ; whether the reason of snch variation
be traceable to the inflnence of particular occupations npon
mortality, to the results of migrations (in search of employment,
of education, of amusement, or of renewed health), to the unequal
stamina of different races of men, to the circumstances respectively
affecting the two sexes, or to some alteration in the habits of the
people.

The essential nature of this regularity consists in the graduation
of the series of death-rates at the several periods of life, beginning
with heavy losses in the earliest years, descending rapidly to a
minimum, and thenceforward progressively increasing until the end
of life. The exact place of the minimum may fluctuate, and the
increase afterwards may not proceed by similar steps ; the absolute
rates at all periods of life may be strongly contrasted, but the
general likeness of the series remains. We may say with truth
that a resemblance exists between curves representing mortality at
successive ages, even greater than that which unites in one category
every right-angled triangle ; for the sides of such a triangle may be
of any length, but there are limits beyond which the variations of
death-rates do not appear to go.

Whilst regularity of type is the leading feature of the curves
resulting from different series of death-rates, variability of detail is
the next. When once the mind has grasped the idea of regularity
of general character, nothing more remains to be learned in that
direction ; but as variations in the amount of losses by death are
material and frequent, they afford infinite matter for study, and
observers are led to think rather too much of momentary changes

VOL. XLIII. PART I. P

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Wblton — On Certain Oha/nges

[Mar.

and contrasts, and too little of the substantial similarity and
constancy which nnderlies them all.

I am far from regretting that this is so, for whilst the losses by
death are so frequently excessive, it is well to instil the lesson that
rates of mortality a/re changeable, and may conseqnently be modified
by the endeavours of mankind. The more thoroughly people
appreciate this fact, the greater the probability that they will exert
themselves in order to reduce the ravages of preventable disease
and death.

On the other hand, it is fit that from time to time the data for
long periods should be examined, and the stability or changefulness
of the phenomena considered. Tendencies may thus be discovered
which, from the slowness of their operation, might produce, in any
short period of time, effects so slight as to be overshadowed by those
resulting from transient causes of disturbance, but which, being
persistent, would in a series of years bring about changes of an un-
mistakeable character.

The English returns were comparatively imperfect until the
system of registration had been some years in existence ; and the
population tables classifying the inhabitants of this country
according to their ages were prior to 1851 very far from being
reliable. I am therefore of opinion that it will be better to restrict
our comparisons to the thirty years extending from 18^6 to 1875,
instead of commencing with 1838, the first year of registration.

According to the tables of annual d^ath-rates given by the
Registrar-General (Nos. 28 and 25, in his thirty-eighUi report), the
mortality of both sexes at ages 5 — 25* has been continuonsly
reduced with hardly an interruption, during twenty-five years,
thus: —

Meaa Death-RatM per i,ooo Uving.

Males.

Femelee.

Age 6—10.

AgeUK-U.

Age 16-26.

Age 6-10.

Age 10-16.

Agel6-Siw

Arerage 1846-60

„ '61-56

'56-60

„ '61-66

'66-70

„ '71-76

9-6
8-8
8-3
8-5
7'9
7'»

5-4
5-2
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-0

8-6
8-1
7*4
7*5
71
6-9

9*3

8-5
8-3
8-z

7-4
6-6

5-7
6-8
4-9
4-8
4-3
4-0

8-9
8-5
7-8
7-6
7-1
6-7

Abatement equal to 1
(per cent.) J

* The mortality tabulated at ages 0 — 6 has diminished thus >— amongst males
from 74*1 per i,ooo in 1846-60, to 70*0 per 1,000 in 1871-75 : — amongst femakt.

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1880.]

in the English Bates of Mortality.

At ages 35 — 75 the rates of mortality amongst males, after
being somewhat diminished, have become higher than thej were
in 1846-50:—

Mean Death-RatM per i,ooo Uring, amongrt Males.

Age 86-46.

Age 46-56.

Age 66-66.

Age 66-76.

ATenige 1846-50

'61-55

'66-60

»3*4
iz-9
IV4

19-4
18-6
171

33*4
31.5
30*0

68*9
66-8
66*2

Abatement equal tol
(percent.) j

Arerage 1861-65

'66-70

„ '71-76

»3'4
13-6
14*3

18-8
19-6
201

3^6
33'5
34*8

66-6
68-2
69-6

Later increase equal!
to (per cent.) J

Increase on the whole 1
period (per cent.) J

The increase in male mortality wonld appear in a stronger light,
were the years omitted in which epidemics occnrred. Thns taking
that year of each qninqnenninm in which the average mortality
was lowest, we have the following death-rates at the ages men-
tioned, viz. : —

Mean Beath-Bates per i,ooo Uring, amongat Malea.

Age 86-45.

Age 46-65.

Age 66-76.

Tear 1860 Gowest in 1846-60)....

II-6
12-4
11*9

17-2
17-9
16-4

29-8

30*3
28*8

62-8
640
61-6

Abatement equal to (per cent.)

8»

Tear 1862 (lowest in 1860-66)....
„ '67 ( „ '66-70)....
„ '78 ( „ '71-75)....

12-7

13*5
13-6

181
191
19-5

31*3
33*5
34*o

62-6
68*6
70-4

Later increase equal to (perl
cent.) J

Increase on the whole period 1
(per cent.) j

• Increase.

ftom 63*9 per 1,000 in 1846-60, to 6o** per 1,000 in 1871-75. The rates in
1841-45 were lower than any since shown, but the earlier records at this period
of life were no doubt imperiect in comparison with more recent returns.

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Wilton — On Oertam Changes

[Mar.

The average mortality amongst females at the ages 85 to 75
appears to have been as nnder, viz. : —

AgcS6-«.

Age46-(S.

Age 66-61.

Age 66—75.

Ayerage 1846-60

•51-56

*66-60

13*5

12-4

ir6

16-7
16-6
14-7

29*4
27-8

27-1

63-3
690
54-9

Abatement equal to\
(per cent.) J

Ayerage 1861-66

^ • '66-70

'71-76

IZ'O
12*0

16-4
16-8
15-8

28-0

28*0

28-9

57-9
69-4
61-2

Later increase equal 1
to (per cent.) J

showing, upon the whole, a reduction, in spite of recent increase ;
but on comparing the most favourable years, as in the case of males,
a tendency towards increased death-rates from age 45 upwards is
observable : —

Mean Deatb-Ratet per i,ooo Liring, amongit Femilet.

Age 86—46.

Age 46-66.

Age 66— <6.

Age 66-76.

Tear 1850 Oowett in 1846-60) ..
„ '51 ( „ '61-65)....
„ '56 ( „ '66-60)....

11*7
11-9
ll'3

14-7
15-2
140

z6'l
26-8
251

57-3
68-6
51-2

Abatement equal to (per cent.)

Tear 1862 aoweetinl861.65)....
„ '67 r „ '66-70)....
„ '78 ( „ '71-76)....

11-8
11-9
"6

14-7
15-6
16-6

26-7
27-6
28-4

67-2
69-6
61-8

Later increase equal to (per cent.)

On the whole then the tables show that the striking abatement
in mortality at ages 5 — 25 has been attended with an aggravation of
the loss by death at higher ages, putting aside epidemic years, and
tbat such aggravation has been far more considerable amongst
males than amongst females. Every circumstance which will help
us to measure the extent, and to understand the causes, of such a
deterioration in the vitality of males, demands attention.

I shall proceed before the close of this paper, to point out the
apparent causes, as sbown in the Registrar GeDeraVs tables, leaving
to others to determine how these have been brought into operation.

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1880.] in ihe EngUeh Bates of Mortality. 69

U.—The Extent of the Cha/nges in Mortality,

The tables in the Registrar- General's thirty-eighth re|)ort,
from which the abov*e ratios were extracted, are nse^l enough for
ordinary purposes; bnt when we have to*grapp]e with qnestioos of
serious import, in order to appreciate which small and gradual but
cumulative changes have to be measured, it is right that every
correction which the figures need should be borne in mind.

I have arrived at the conclusions (1st) that the census returns
as to ages require to be amended; (2nd) that the approximate
proportions of births which annually escape registration are
discoverable ; and (3rd) that the net results of migrations into and
from the country may also be measured.

By the help then of such transpositions of the numbers stated to
exist at difEerent ages as appear to me to be necessary, I proceed to
show what I believe to be an approximately true national table of
mortality for 1856-60, when the upward movement seems not to
have commenced; and also a similar table representing the experience
of the years 1871-75, when such movement had attained a consider-
able if not alarming development.* l^hese two tables, for males
and females respectively, and showing the excess of either sex
surviving at different periods of life in a stationary population solely
recruited by births, are here contrasted with Dr. Farr's English Life
Table No. 3.

* Besides correcting the retomi of population hy ages in conformity with the
suggestions contained in my paper " On the Inaccuracies which probably exist in
" the Census Returns of Ages," printed in the ** Transactions of the Historic
** Society of Liverpool," tor 1875-76, vol. iv, which will be found in the Library of
the Statistical Society, I have allowed for unregistered births in conformity with
the percentages mentioned in the same paper; and then having, by means of
estimates, apportioned the recorded deaths under the quinquennial periods in
which the persons dying were horn, I have arrived by way of ditferenoe at the
probable loss or gain resulting from migrations at each age in the intervals
between the censuses, and have obtained sets of ratios showing the proportionate
losses by death out of the population existing at each age, in 1841, 1846, 1851,
1856, 1861, 1866, and 1871, during the five years next succeeding each of those
years. Each set of ratios so obtained is immediately convertible into a table of
mortality (column P^ according to Dr. Parr's notation), capable of direct com-
parison with the English Life Table No. 3, because based on an equal number of
•apposed annual births.

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Wblton— On Certain Ghanges

[Mar.

England

I and Wales. Population resnlting firom a Tbonaand

Survirora (Experience of 1866-«0).

SuiriTon (Experience

Age.

Male.

FemiOe.

Females.

Male.

Female.

ExceM.

Deficiency.

0— 6 ....

2026-254

1999-406

26-849

»030-349

2005-758

6—10 ....

1823*021

1803*464

^9'557

—

1848*430

1835*665

10-15 ....

1769*607

1749*360

20-247

—

i8oi*iio

1791*242

15—20 ....

1724*129

1701*429

22*700

—

1760*946

1750*043

20—26 ....

1659*129

1634-392

^4*737

— *.

1699-490

1688*967

26—30 ....

1586*128

1659-864

26*264

—

1623-863

1617-187

30—36 ....

J5I5-387

1484*211

3i'n6

—

1 543 '807

1541*987

35—40 ...

H37'345

1407*626

29-719

H53'34i

1462-112

40—45 ....

i353'i6o

1327*111

26*149

—

1350*299

1376*578

46—50 ....

»^59'o73

1246*495

I3'578

—

1 241 -060

1284*761

60—56 ....

1152*430

1157*812

6*382

1119*189

1189*946

65—60 ....

1025*893

1057*893

32000

984*550

1079*162

60-66 ..

884*115

933*590

—

49-475

827-71*

945-671

66—70 ....

709*768

772*453

—

62-685

644-954

769-966

70—76 ....

5i3'30^

577*409

—

64*103

448*566

566*926

76-80 ....

309*728

367*752

68-024

264-475

356199

Using the fignres in Dr. Fair's Life Table as a convenient
standard of comparison, we find the excess or defect of survivors
(per cent.), according to the other tables to be —

Amongit SnrrivwB Aged

0-35

35-56

55-80

All ages up to 80

Experience 18Stf-(M).

Males.

1*4 more
31 „
6*1 „
2-6 „

Females.

I -4 more

3*3 >i
8*1 „
3*o „

Experience 1871-7&.

Males.

3*1 more
2-4 „

2-31688

2*1 more

Females.

3-9 more
6-8 „
8*4 »
5'4 i»

The period of years which elapses before the persons who are
bom are reduced to half their original number, is, according to the
above tables, as under : —

By Dr. Fanr's

Table.

Bt Experience
of 1856-60.

Bt Experience
of lSl-76.

Males

44*4

46*4

2*0

46-6

48-9

2-4

45-8

50*9

5'i

Females

Thus the probable lifetime of female infants seems now to exceed

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1880.]

in the English Bates of Mortaiiiy.

ABulBirtlu

: 511*745 little uid 4S8'255 Female.

r 1871-7S).

Sorrif on (by Dr. fWr*! life Table Vo. 8).

Males ooopved witli

Maleo compared with

Age.

yemairt.

Femalea.

Male.

Female.

EXCCM.

Sefldencj.

'Rxceat.

Deficiency.

24-596

2015-886

1988-830

27-556

0- 5

12-765

—

1801*316

1783-240

18-076

—

6—10

9-868

—

174^*507

1723-706

18-801

—

10—16

10-903

—

1696-773

1676-461

21-312

—

15—30

io*5*3

—

1632-979

1609-814

23-165

—

2a-26

6-676

—

1560-236

1634-785

25-451

26—30

1'820

—

1483-840

1456076

27-764

—

30—35

—

8-771

1402-868

1374-392

28-476

36—40

—

26-279

1315-244

1289-612

25-632

40—46

—

43-701

1218-321

1201-075

17-246

..-.

46—60

—

70-767

1 108-460

1107-736

0-725

—

50-65

—

94-612

981-337

999-667

18-330

56—60

—

117-959

834-862

866-700

—

31-838

60—65

—

126-012

664-601

706-898

42-297

65—70

—

118-860

475*223

628-015

—

47-792

70-75

91-724

288-993

333-526

44-533

75—80

the duration of tHat of males bj perhaps five years, against a
difference of little more than two jears according to earlier data.

This great change might seem to arise rather from increased
mortalit7 amongst males than from diminished female death-rates.
For example, those surviving to be counted at ages 60 — 66 were by
table resulting from

Experience of 1856-60 Males 884115 Females 983-590
'71-75 „ 827-712 „ 945-671

Fewer 56403

More 12-081

It should, however, be remarked, that 1856-60 was an excep-
tionally healthy quinquennium ; and if we base our comparison
upon Dr. Farr's Life Table, as representing the average of a greater
number of years, we find that the figures for 1871-75 show but a
small reduction iu the number of males attaining the age 60 — 65,
against a very considerable augmentation in the number of surviving
females at that period of life. There has apparently been an increase
of male mortality at the higher ages, sufficient to counterbalance the
improTement in early life, fmd even after a time to turn it into a
loss; whilst among females, a more than proportionate improvement
in early life has been followed by a condition of things at the higher
ages which leaves the gain practically undiminished.

Digitized by

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Welww — On Certain Ghangea

[Mar.

Males.

Females.

A««i.

Eneliih
No. 3.

TiWe
for 1871-75.

Difference
percent.

EnriiBh

li/eTeble

No. 8.

table
for 1871-75.

Difference
percent.

80-35

45—60
60-65
75—80

1483*840

I2l8'321

834*862
288*993

1543-807

1241*060

827-712

264*475

+ 4-0
+ 1*9
- 0*9

-8*5

1456*076

1201*075

866*700

333*526

1541*987

12^4-761

945-671

356199

+ 5*9
-»- 7*0

+ 9*1

+ 6-8

I have endeavoured to dear np still further the question as to
how the average mortality of the English people has varied since
1841, by constructing a series of life tables on the principles which
guided me in preparing the tables already given for 1856-60 and
1871-75. By that means the following results have been reached,
viz. : —

Sttrrhrore Aged 30-86.

Aged 45—50.

Aged 60— 65.

Ezperienee
of

Males.

Pemalea.

Males

ia
Excess.

Males.

Females.

MalM

More or

Less.

Males.

females.

FeoMles

in
Excess.

1841-45 ....
'4^50 ....
'51-55 ....
'56-60 ....

1861-66 ....
'66-70 ...
71-75 ....

Averages^

1841-60 ....

*61-75 ....

1525*674
H55*492
H75*754
1515*387

1493*194
1512*780

1543-807

1493*077
1516*593

1491*276
1126-174
1451-982
1484*211

1474*474
1501-741
1541-987

1468-411
1606-067

34*398
29*318
23*772
31*176

18-720

11*039

1*820

29-666
10-526

1264*691
1179*817
1211*694

1259*073

1224*212

1227833
1241-060

1228*819
1231*035

1243-227
1163*474
1201*721
1245-495

1229*989
1251-530
1284-761

1213-479
1255-427

+ 21*464
+ 16*343
+ 9*973
+ 13*578

- 5*777
-23*697
-43*701

+ 15*340
-M392

906-245
809*585
837*633
884*115

835*077
832*590
827*712

859*394
831793

938136
847168
886-911
933-590

910*842
923*688
946*671

901*451
926-734

31*891
37*583
49*278
49*475

75*765
91*098

117*959

42*057
94*941

The average figures which result from grouping the ratios for
1841 to 1860, and for 1861 to 1875, show an improvement, both
absolute and comparative, in the vitality of females ; and the series
of quinquennial figures shows that this alteration in the relative
mortality of the sexes not only continued in progress from the
earliest to the latest date, with hardly any interruption, but waa
accelerated during the last fifteen years. Although in 1841-45 the
average rates of mortality were much lower, and in 1846-50 they
were much higher than the ordinary level, the tables for these two
periods were alike in one respect, viz., in showing a smaller excess
of female survivors at age 60 — 65 than in any later quinquen-
nium.

Begarding the matter from another point of view, we perceivei

Digitized by

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1880.] in (he English Bates of Mortality/. 73

that in 1871-75 the male mortality after age 30 was so high as to
reduce

iS43'8o7 aged 30—35,

to 827712 aged 60 — 65, only 53*6 per cent, surviving.

Even in 1846-50, when the cholera epidemic so materially
affected the average result, such a loss was not experienced ; for

1 45 5*492 aged 30— 35,

became 809' 58 5 aged 60 — 65, fully 55*6 per ceni. surviving.

Consequently the male mortality dunng the latest quinqueii-
nium at ages 30 — 60 was higher than in any of the other six similar
periods.

The variations in the risk of death at several periods of life,
which are summed up in the life tables already given, may be
better seen in the following table, which shows the proportional
loss by deaths occurring in the five years next succeeding the attain-
ment of the age mentioned in the first column : —

Digitized by

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Welton — On Certain Ohcmget

[Mar.

Deaths

per 1,000 in the Next Fire Years.

Age at

Commenco-

** EngUih
life Tabl^ ^n > "

Experience, 1841^.

Experience. 184«-60.

Experience, 1851-66.

ment

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Birth* ....

212-2

i85*5

1961

16/3

208-2

180-6

213-4

185*5

0— 6....

106-4

103-1

99-9

95-8

112-1

107*3

103-8

98-9

5—10....

82-6

33'4

81-7

31-4

83-5

33'»

82-1

317

10—16....

26-2

28*0

26-8

298

29-2

31*7

27-7

29*6

15—20....

87-6

39*a

40-8

4^-8

48-5

46-1

41-9

43*:»

20-25....

44-5

46-6

44-2

47*9

50-1

52-0

46-9

49*7

25—80....

49-0

51-3

46-7

50-4

50-9

56-6

48-5

51*5

30-85....

64-6

56-1

52-9

55*3

581

59*9

58-6

56*1

85—40....

62-5

6i-7

60-6

58-1

66-9

66-3

68-1

59*9

40—45....

73-7

68-7

68-8

63-1

77-7

70*6

740

67-3

46—50....

90-2

77'7

82-5

69-3

91-8

78-2

91-0

73*4

50—66....

114-7

97*6

102-6

85-1

1160

95*5

112-4

91-9

66—60....

148-8

133*0

129-7

H3*8

145-8

126-7

143-2

122-9

60-65...

208-9

184-4

184-7

165-3

208-5

181-5

200-0

176-8

65—70....

2850

260*1

264-9

241-2

2860

262-2

2861

^59*5

70—75....

891-9

36z-3

880-8

344' 1

406-2

369-1

406-7

374*2

* The ratios in this line show that out of 1,000 births occurring in five suocessire jears prior
year are exposed to five years* risk, those at the very end of the last year are exposed to no risk.

The regularity of the several sets of ratios shown in the above
table cannot escape notice; it remains to be seen what are the
changes which they indicate to be in progress, and are snch changes
subject to any nniform laws ? Other tables must be employed to
assist us in placing the matter in a sufficiently clear light. Thus : —

Digitized by

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1880.]

in the EnglUh Bates of Mortality.

Deaths per 1,000 in

the Next Ktc Years.

Experience, 1856^.

Experience. 18«1^.

Experience, 1866.70.

Experience, 1871-76.

Age at
Commence-
ment.

Males.

Femalet.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

208-1

i8ro

2121

1 84- a

213-3

185-8

206-6

178-4

Birth*

100-3

98*0

106-7

ioi'6

97-8

93a

89-6

84-8

0—6

29-3

30*0

29-2

18-9

27-0

26-0

25-6

24-2

5—10

26-7

27-4

25-6

271

237

246

22-3

23-0

10—16

37-7

39*4

38-6

39*5

360

37-0

34-9

34*9

16—20

440

45-6

43-8

44-8

44-0

43*4

44-5

42-5

20—26

44-6

48-5

47-8

49*3

48-6

48-0

49-3

46-5

25—30

61-6

51-6

64-6

54-1

57-6

53-a

58-6

51-8

30-36

68-6

57-2

64-8

66-5

59-a

70-9

58-5

36—40

69-6

61-5

72-7

64-1

77-4

64-4

80-9

66*7

40—45

84-7

70-4

91-1

71-0

91-5

73*5

98-2

73-8

45—50

109-8

86-3

116-7

9i'7

119-3

895

120-3

93-1

60—56

138-2

117-5

151-3

122-4

152*6

125-1

1693

123.7

56—60

197-2

172-6

201-3

176-2

211-6

175*6

220-8

185-8

60—66

276-8

25*'5

287-0

256-8

2880

257-1

304-6

263.7

65—70

896-6

3^3-1

399-2

362-5

412-8

369-7

410-4

371-7

70-76

to a 06118118 taken at the end of the period so many die. Those bom at the beginning of the first
because they are immediately coimted as liying at the age 0 — 6.

Digitized by

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Weltok — On Gertwin Ohanges

[Mar.

Age at
Commence-

The Male Death-Rate in the lait Table being
Atsumed Equal to i,ooo, the Female Death-Rate was Lees* by

In Thirty Years

the Female Drath-Rate

badUius

become relatively

ment of
Fire Tears.

Experi-
ence,
1841.45.

Experi.

ence,

1846.»0.

fixperi-

ence,

1861-56.

Experi.

ence,

I806-6O.

Experi-

ence,

1861-66.

Experi-
ence,
1866-70.

Experi-
ence,
1871-76.

Less.

More.

Birth

0— 5 ....

6—10 ....
10—16 ....

137

9
+ 11Z

138

+ 86

131

+ 69

130
23

+ 24
+ 66

13*

+ 63

129
47
87

+ 38

136
54

55
+ 31

13
46
81

Aggregate
r^ios....

} "

117

118

176

214

—

15—20 ....
20-25 ...
25-30 ....
80—35 ....

+ 62
+ 84
+ 79
+ 45

+ 60
+ 38
+ 112
+ 81

+ 31
+ 60
+ 62
+ 47

+ 45
+ 36
+ 87
+ 2

+ a6

+ 23

+ 31

+ 28
14
10
77

116

62
129
136
161

—

Aggregate
ratios....

1+270
J

+ 241

+ 200

+ 170

+ 71

218

—

85—40 ....
40—45 ....
45—50 ....
80—55 ....

160

171

148

177

5t
91

193
182

22
116
169
214

I to
118
221

207

110
168
197
241

175
176
248
226

»34

100

—

Aggregate
ratios....

1 448

426

617

621

666

716

826

—

65—60 ....
60—65 ....
6&-70 ....
70—76 ....

'i3

105

128

108

142

116

150
125

88
85

191

125

105

180
170
107
104

224
159

134
94

lOI

54
45

ratios....

1 412

410

428

448

618

661

611

—

* Where the female death-rate was greater instead of lets^ an affirmative sign ( + ) is used.

These ratios possess a great deal of regnlarity, whether we
regard them in one way or another, and they show once more, that
for some reason^ operating over the whole period^ male mortality, at
ages 5 to 70, has diminished by a less amount, or has increased to
a greater extent, than that of females. In 1841-45 the mortality of
females exceeded that of males at the five ages from 10 to 35 ; in
1871-75 there was no sncli excess save at the age 10 to 15.

At the ages 15 — 35 it is specially to be remarked that, not-
withstanding the dangers of maternity, female mortality now com-
pares favourably with that amongst males. At ages 25 — 35 the
male death-rates were hardly lower in 1871-75 than in 1846-50 ; at
the same ages, female death-rates were in 1871-75 about 16 per cent,
lower than in 1846-50.

Digitized by

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.1880.]

in the English Batiks of Mortality,

Next, let US compare the absolute ratios contained in the
preceding table for either sex, thus : —

Total Chances

Utest Ratios a871-76)

Changes in

. " .

compnred with

Age at
Conunene*-

Female Death-Rates.

in Thirty Years nrom
1841-46 to 1871-75.

those derived from the
English Life Table No. 3.

■lentttf

VlfeTcan.

Between

1841-45 HDd

1866.00 and

1841-46 and

1856-CO aud

Males.

Vemales.

Males.

Females.

1866-flO.

1871-75.

186«.60.

1871-76.

Birth

+ I20

- 1-6

+ 11-7

- 2-6

+ 10-4

+ 9*1

- 5-7

- 7'i

0— 5...

+ 04

-10-7

+ 2*2

-13-2

-10-8

— 11*0

-16-8

-18-3

6—10...

- **4

- 3-7

- 1*4

- 6-8

- 61

- 7'2

- 70

- 9-2

10-15...

— ri

- 3-4

- i*4

- 4-4

- 4-5

- 6-8

- 3-9

- 5'o

15—20...

- 2-6

- 2-8

- 3*4

- 4-6

- 6-4

- 7-9

- 2-7

- 4*3

20—25...

— 0'2

+ 0-5

- 2*3

- 31

+ 0-3

- 5'4

—

- 4*1

25—30...

— 2*1

+ 4-7

- 19

- 20

+ 2-6

- 3*9

+ 0-3

- 4-8

80-^..

- 1*4

+ 71

- 3*7

+ 0-2

+ 6-7

- 3*5

+ 40

- 4*3

35-40...

— 21

+ 12-4

- 0-9

+ 1-8

+ 10-3

+ 0-4

+ 8-4

- 3*a

40--45....

+ f3

+ 11-8

- 1-6

+ 6-2

+ 12-6

+ 3-6

+ 7-2

— 20

45—50....

+ 2*2

+ 18-5

+ VI

+ 3 4

-H6-7

+ 4*5

+ 8-0

- 3*9

60-65..^

+ 7*2

+ 10-5

+ 1*2

+ 6-8

+ 17-7

+ 8*0

+ 5-6

- 4*5

65—60...

+ 8*5

+ 211

+ 37

+ 6-2

+ 296

+ 9*9

+ 100

- 9*3

00—65...

+ 12-5

+ 23-6

+ 7'3

+ 13-2

+ 861

+ 20*5

+ 16-9

+ 1-4

66—70...

+ 11-9

+ 27-7

+ 11*3

-Hll-2

+ 39-6

+ 22-5

+ 19-6

+ 3-6

70-76....

+ i6*3

+ 18-8

-I-190

+ 8-6

+ 301

+ 27*6

+ 18-5

+ 9*4

This table again shows that there has been more regularity than
could have been expected in the changes of mortality ratios which
have taken place. In the fifteen years between 1841-45 and 1856-50
both sexes experienced an unfavourable change* in the earliest
period of infancy, then an improvement extending to about 40 or
45 years of age, and at higher ages, a deterioration in vitality. In
the second period of equal duration, there was a yet greater improve-
ment in the period of youth, but after 25 the ratios for males
showed very unfavourably, and after 35 there was a sensible increase
in female mortality.

The sum of the changes within the two periods exhibits a
striking improvement in the mortality of both sexes, after earliest
infancy up to age 20 ; this continued fifteen years later in life for
women ; after which both sexes, especially males, showed enhanced
death-rates.

On being compared with the English Life Table No. 3, the latest
set of ratios would indicate that female vitality at every age up to
60 has improved, but that male inhabitants of this country aged 25

* This unfavourable feature is probably illusory ; if tbe record of infantile
deaths had been as complete in 1841*45 as in 1856-60, very likely appearances
would have pointed the other way.

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Wblton — On Certain Changes

[Mar.

and upwards are now subject to rates of mortality exceeding those
shown in that table.

III. — The Ca/uses of the Increased Mortality amongst Males
Aged 35—66.

The deaths occurring amongst males aged 35 — 65 appear to have
been due to the undermentioned causes in the proportions indicated
at the periods mentioned : —

Annual Male Death-Bates per 1,000 Liring.

CftlMCS.

Age86-«.

AgeiS— 65.

Age (l-6(.

1861-eO.

1861-70.

1875.

1861.60.

1861-70.

1876.

1861-60.

1861-70.

1876.

Zymotic diseasee ....

v6o
0-I7

0*12
4-01

ri8

I'OO

0*89
o'a9

0-55

1-38
0-20

010

417
1-34

1-23

i-72

0-91

0-41
1-31
069

1-41
0-25

0-08
4-41
^•55
1-59
2-52

I*OI

0-52
1*39
0-37

2-07

0-42
0-13

3-83
1-99

1-90

3-09

1-66

0-47
1*37
i'03

1-69
0-54

Oil

3-86
2-24

219

8-50

1-71

0*66
1-65
1-11

1*5^
0*70

0-07

3-85
*'45
2-61

4-78

1-82

0-87
1-63
0*70

0-93
0-14

3*33
4*10

4*13

6-62

3'03

0-94
V6i
2*90

2-54
1-21

0^14

3-80
4-66

4-68

7-69

3*06

1*28
1-89
2-76

2*31

1-62

Scrofula, tabes 1
mesenterica J

PhthiBiB

Diaease of brain

Heart diBease audi
dropsy J

Disease of lungs

Disease of stomach \
and liver

o-o8

3*33

5'57

5*40
10*32
3'*o

Disease of kidneys....

Violent deaths

Other causes

f77
2-o8

2'00

All causes

12-48

13-46

15-10

ir9^

19-16

21*00

30-85

38-00

37-6S

At these ages, the zymotic diseases, or those specially consequent
on bad sanitary conditions, such as fevers, small pox, cholera, and
diarrhoea, seem collectively less fatal than they were, but local
diseases, of the lungs, heart, brain, and kidneys, and also cancer,
appear to be more destructive.

The causes of death at several ages are not shown in the
Registrar-General's Reports except for the whole country and for
London, save in the supplementary tables for 1851-60 and 1861-70.
These supplementary tables enable us to present the following
comparisons : —

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

tn the English Bates of MortaMty.

yeTomu^ —

london (diviiion) »...»..„...

iTerpod

fancbester

timiingham

ieeds ^

(hdBdd ^.^

fottiiigliam

Jriatel

luU

rhePotteriee ^.

fewcast]6-oii-Tjiie

[ieicester....^

V^dTerbampton ....

Dir. 11. South Eastern ...
» UL Sooth Midland...

» IV. Eastern

» V. South Wertcra...

Bertof Dir. VL W. Mdhid.

Vn. N.lidlnd.

„ VIIL N. Wstm.

n 12L xonL

ti X. Northern
Dir. XL Wales, Ac

England and Wales

Annma Mortality per i,ooo Males Aged S5— M.

Diaease

of
Longa.

1861.60.

1861-70.

1-98
3-10

3*14
1-91

^7
0*97

V78
1*37
1-41

*"35

i-a7
113
i*oz

1-28
I'OO

170

VZ2
0*92
VZ2

VS2

218
3-53
3-66
211
2-93
300

1-30
1-89
1-62
3-68
203
1-66
1-92

1-38
118
103
1-39
1-32
112
2-09
1-53
lU
1-41

1-72

Heart Disease

and

Dropsy.

•51-60.

i'3a
1*46

1*21

1-19
I -09

0*87
114

I'12

i*03
1*09
I'll

ro5
0-85
0*72
0-86

0'92
0'82
I*02
0*84

0*99
0*70

'61-70.

1-64
2-06
1-47
1-36
1-62
1-68

118
1-30
1-61
1-36
2-44
1-93
116

1-38
0-96
0-86
108
105
0^90
119
111
1-20
0-92

1-23

Disease of
Brain.

'61-60.

•26

•43
0-94

078

•06

0-99

0*80

ri8

'61-70.

1-56
1-43
1-96
1-44
115
1-29

1*28
1-73
1-42
108
1-28
1-74
0-73

1-44
1-67
1-09
1-31
1-34
0*94
1-38
1-25
105
101

1-34

Diaeaaeof
Kidneys.

61-60.

044
0*37

0'42

0-42

o*35
o'27

018
044
0*30

0*21
0-44

o'43
0*34

0-3 a
0*26
0*26
0*26

0'22
0-23
0-25

0-23

0-25

o'i8

0*29

•61-70.

0-62
0-67
0-50
0*40
0-48
0-31

0-35
0-64
0-37
0-33
0-49
0-53
0-49

0*46
0-36
0-36
0-48
0-34
0-30
0-29
0-31
0-25
0*32

0-41

Cancer.

•61-60.

0-24

0-23

0'2I

0-25

0-23

0*14

0*10
0*38

0*20

0-15

0*29
0-I7

0*I2

0*19
0*19

0-13

o*i6

014

o'i3
0-13
0*14
o-i8
0-I3

0*17

•61-70.

0-29
0-23
0-24
0-22
0-29
010

0*23
0-34
018
0-06
0-34
014
0-23

019
0-23
017
0-21
018
017
016
017
017
0-20

0-20

• The serend towns sre represented in this table by groups of registration districts : for
unple, Manchester, by the districts of Manchester, Chorlton, and Salford ; Bristol, by those
Bristol and Clifton.

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Wbmon — 0» Certain Ohanget

[Mar.

Large Toione —

London (diyision)

Liverpool

Manohester

Birmingham

Leeds

Sheffield ., ,

Nottingham ^

Bristol

Hull

The Potteries

Newcastle-on-Tyne

Leicester

Wolrerhampton _

Rural Divisions —

Dir. II. South Eastern

„ III. South Midland

„ rV. Eastern

„ V. South Western

RestofDiv. VL W.Mdlnd
VII. N. „
VIII. N. Wstm

„ IX. York

„ X. Northern
Div. XL Wales, &c

England and Wales

Annval MortaUty per l.pOO Males Aged 4S~6S.

Disease

of
Luugs.

18514K). 1861-70,

4*55
6*37
7"37
4*6o

5-58

^'59
4*a6

7-78
4*05
3-50
4*43

2*09
2*or
1-83

2-56
1-44

187
3*77
i'62
2*10
1*43

3*09

4*84
8-22
8-45
4-93
6-22
6-72

2*44
8*98
3-33
8-51
4-08
3*99
4-48

2-30
216
1-97
2-42
2-81
213
4-64
3-28
2 27
2-77

3-50

Heart Disease

sud

Dropsj.

'61-«0.

a'45
2-62

»*54
a'47

2*22

rSi
218
a-44
242

3 44
220
2*84

1-85
1-62
1-26

1-57
194

1-65
1*98
1-70

2*lO
126

i"90

•61-70.

2-73
307
2-40
2-58
308
2-82

207
2-30
2-76
2-64
392
312
2-84

209
1-87
1-60
1-91
204
1-85
2-31
214
2-24
1-63

219

Disease of
Brain.

'51.60.

2-68

i'50
2*89
2-71
217
2*09

2-03

»'45
i'47
rs6
2-77
246

2*o8
1*90
»*54
1*73
1-90

^•50
1*98

1-82

r8o
I 28

'61-70.

199

2-90
2-60
322
2-60
2-80
2-56

2-32

2-88
2-40
2-63
292
2-66
1-62

2-21
2-31
1-71
1-99
2-80
1-64
2-28
2-18
202
1-48

2-24

Disease of
Kidneys.

&1-60.

o-8i
0*6 1
0*62
0-86

045

0*40
0*81
0-41

0-53
0-78
0-45

o'52
o'43
044

0*40
0-38
035
039
0*30
0-28

*61.70.

107
0-91
0-91
0-86
0-92
0-64

0-63
100
0-70
0-52
0-66
0-53
0'63

0-78
0-58
0-54
0-56
0-59
0-60
0-55
0-50
0-42
0-47

Cancer.

'61-60. 'ei-TO.

047 0-66 0*42

o*6i
0-44
0-50
0*62
0*46
0-47

0-27
o'6i
0*46

o"33
0-66
o*6o
0*30

0-38
0-51
o*34
0*40

o*35
0-31
o*33
0*40

o*39
o'38

0-82
0*70
0-68
0-51
0-65
0*40

0*53
0*56
0-37
0-54
0*89
0*93
0*66

0*53
0-60
0*42
0*56
0-43
(0*44
0-42
0-42
0*46
0*48

0-54

The€ie last tables are cnrions, as showing the unequal fatality of
certain diseases in different places. Lang disease, which was least
fatal in the eastern counties, was most so in Liverpool, Manchester,
and the Staffordshire Potteries, where the mortality from idiis cause
was almost fourfold.

The wide diffusioii of the increase m mortality from each of the
five causes mentioned in these tables is yet more noticeable. Out
of II 5 cases in the first table (age 35 — 45) only 1 1 showed any
decrease in the rate of mortality, and 4 a stationary death-rate,
the rest indicating increase more or less considerable. The other
table, out of a like number, showed 1$ instances of decreased
mortality, and i of a stationary rate.

The cases where the increase in the rate of mortality exceeded
10 per cent, were naturally much fewer than those where there was
merely some amount of increase, small or great. It is interesting

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1880.] in the BngUsh Bates of Mortality. 81

to consider what were the places where such marked increase of
fatality from the undermentioned classes of disease was observed ^-^

Disease of lungs, at age 35 — 45, in London, Liverpool, Man-
chester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Nottingham, the
Potteries, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Leicester; also Bura]
Divisions YII (North Midland), VIII (North Western),

IX (York) and X (Northern).

At age 45 — 55, in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and
Leicester ; also in Rural Divisions U (South Eastern),
VI (West Midland), VII (North Midland), VIII (North
Western), IX (York), and XI (Wales).

Heart disease and dropsy, at age 35—45, in London, Liverpool,
Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Nottingham,
Bristol, the Potteries, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Leicester;
also in every one of the rural divisions.

At age 45 — 55, in London, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield,
Nottingham, Hull, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Leicester; also
in all the rural divisions except VI (West Midland), and

X (Northern) ►

Disease of brain, at age 35 — 45, in Manchester and Sheffield,
and in all the rural divisions except X (Northern Counties).
At age 45 — 55, in Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, Notting-
ham, and Bristol, and in all the rural divisions except II
(South Western), and VII (North Midland).

We are obliged to conclude, that of these three classes of
disease the only one the f ataUty by which was peculiarly increased
in the manufoGtwrvng digtriots as distinguished from the rest of the
country, was that of diseases of the lungs; the other two classes
were much more fatal in the later period, whether in the agri-
cultural divisions or in the more densely peopled divisions to the
north and west. Disease of the kidneys and cancer also show a
seriously increased rate of fatality, extending to the non-manu-
facturing divisions.

We find then that the mortality amongst males at ages 35 — 65
Has been increasing, not only in the large towns and manufacturing
districts, but also elsewhere ; and we observe that this increase has
not been largely due to epidemic disease, to consumption, or to
diseases of the stomach and liver, but to other causes which have
been specified. It remains to be seen whether the increased
mortality from the causes in question has been steadily augmenting,
or has been subject to much fluctuation.

The following table of annual death-rates amongst males, for
England and Wales, will supply an answer to that question : —

VOL. XLIII. PART I. 0

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

Welton — On Certain Oluxngea

[Mar.

Yw.

DiBeaM of Longt.

Heart Disease and
Dropay.

Disease of Brain.

Disease of Kidneys.

Cancer.

46—65.

86—46.

46-65.

S6--A6.

46—56.

36-46.

46—66.

J6— 46.

46—66.

1851 ....

1*50

8-01

0*98

1-80

114

1-88

0*21

0-36

0*15

0*85

*62 ....

'35

2-77

0-97

1-87

1*13

1-90

0*15

0-41

0-17

0-44

'58 . ...

i-6o

3*34

0-98

1-99

I'20

1-97

0-2a

0-47

0-17

0*42

'54 ....

1-42

2-85

1*03

1-93

ri4

1-95

0*29

0-48

o-i8

0*43

'56 ....

1-76

3-68

0-97

1-90

1-15

208

0*30

0^49

021

0*88

1856 ....

1*37

2-73

0-94

1-74

i'i5

1-92

0*29

0-50

o\6

0*44

'57....

J '47

2-90

o'95

1-82

ri4

200

0^31

0-50

o-i8

0-40

'58 ....

1-58

3-25

vol

1-97

1*^3

208

0-32

0-51

o-i8

0-40

'59 ....

I'fz

3-20

IIO

1-97

1-20

20a

o'34

0-53

o-i8

0-47

'60....

1*75

3-45

rii

210

1-38

2-21

o'34

0-50

0*19

0*60

1861 ....

1-66

8-27

I'lO

1-98

1-23

207

o*35

0-57

0*19

0*52

'62 ....

1-58

8-80

119

206

123

215

0*31

0-58

0-20

0-47

'63 ....

i'59

809

113

203

1*33

218

0*37

0-64

0'20

0*51

'64....

»'93

392

1-27

2-22

1-40

2-28

0-41

0-69

0*19

056

'65 ...

1-71

8-59

i'27

2-46

1-41

2-34

041

0-65

0'20

0*61

1866 ....

1*70

3-64

1-29

2-22

J*33

2^0

0*46

0-68

0*21

0*62

'67 ....

1-78

3-59

vxs

2-28

i*3i

2-29

0*44

067

0-2I

0*57

'68 ....

1*59

318

1*21

216

1*33

2-3e

0*43

0-70

0'19

0-55

'69...

182

8-72

i'3i

2-32

1-42

2-29

o'44

0-70

023

0-58

'70....

1-91

3-88

1*34

2-26

1-46

281

0*44

0-73

024

0*62

1871 ....

1-78

8-83

1-42

2-36

1-42

2-85

048

0-74

0-23

0*60

'72 ....

1*74

3-39

144

2-42

1-42

282

0-50

0-78

0*20

0*67

'73 ....

2*03

894

1*5-

2-83

»*47

239

0-48

0-86

0-22

068

74....

2*21

4-45

1*53

2-43

1-46

2-50

o'<;o

0-81

0*22

066

'75 ....

2*52

4-78

1*59

2-61

^'5S

2-45

0-52

0-87

0-25

0-70

To get rid of exceptional years, let us compare the medium and
minimum ratios in each period of five jrears ; thns : —

Period.

Disease of Longs

Heart Disease
and Dropsy.

Disease of Brain.

Disease of
Kidoeys.

Cancer.

86—46.

46—66.

86—46.

46—66.

86-46.

46—66.

36—46.

46-66.

46— M.

Medium Batio9^
1851-56

1*50
»*5»
1-66
1-78
2-03

301
3-20
8-30
8-64
8*94

0-98
i'o6
1*19
1*29
1*5*

1-90
1-97
206
2-26
2-42

1-14
1*20
1*33
1*33
1-46

1*95
206
218
2-30
2-39

0*28
0-32
0-37
0-44
0-50

0*47
0-60
064
0*70
0-81

0-17
0*18

0'20
0*2I
0*22

0*42

'56-60

0*44

*61-65

0-61

'66-70

0*57

'71-75

0*67

Increase per cent

Mininmm Ratios —
1851-65

^'3S

1*37
1*58

»'59
1*74

2-77
2*78
809
818
8-39

o*97
0*94

1*10
1*21
1*42

1-80
1*74
1-98
215
2-33

1*13
1-14

1**3
1*3*

1*42

1-88
1-92
2*07
2*29
232

0*21

0*29
0-31
0-43
0-48

0-35
0-50
0*57
067
0-74

o'lS
o*i6
0*19
0*19
0*20

0-35

'66-60

0*40

'61-65

0*47

'66-70

0-52
0*60

'71-76

Increase per cent

129

111

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1880.] in the English Bates of Mortality. 83

This table demonstrates, I think, that the increased mortaliiy \j
each of the five specified causes was no mere accident, bnt arose
from some condition of things which if not altered may admit of
further increase in the fainre, to an extent which we cannot
measure.

Summary.

1. I find that whilst both sexes, especiially females,^ have ex-
perienced a diminished mortality during many years pasi at, ages
under 25 ; there has been an increased death-rate amongst males
at the ages from 35 upwards, if not commencing earlier, which has
raised male mortality at those ages, not only far above the standard
of 1866-60, but even higher than the unfavourable rates which
prevailed in 1846-50. A similar tendency to increase is observable
in female death-rates at ages 45 upwards, but it is much less power-
ful than that affecting male rates.

2. It appears that in consequence of these changes the proba*
bility ef attaining a high age has diminished in the case of males,
but has increased in the case of females, so that the tendency
towards an excess of female population arising is stronger than it
was. A National Life Table based on recent data, would conse-
quently deviate considerably from Dr. Farr** English Life Table,
No. 3.

3. The chaises in question seem to have progressed step by
step without much interruption, at all events siace 1856-60.

4. The particular diseases to which the increased numbeifs of
male deaths at ages 35 — 65 were attributed in^ the Registrar
Oenerars Tables, appear to have been mainfy lung disease (bron-
chitis^ pneumonia, &c.), heart disease, dropsy, brain disease, disease
of the kidneySy and cancer. The ordinary fatality resulting from
these diseases in medium or &vourable years is shown to have risen,
considerably.

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81 [Mar.

Discasiioif on Me. Wblton's Papbr.

The Chiieman (Sir Rawson W. Rawson), after alluding to the
importance of the paper, said that there conld be little or no doubt as
to the facts contained in it. With regard to the calculations and
deductions Mr. Welton had drawn from them, there were some
gentlemen present who would be able to speak with greater know-
ledge than he (the Chairman) was able to do. Having had the
paper in his hands the previous daj, it appeared to him so important
that he took the trouble to look into it for the purpose of bringing
before the meeting a fdw features which Mr. Welton had not
drawn out, and which he would suggest should be drawn out before
the paper was published in the Journal. He would suggest
that the author should give the proportions in several cases. In
the first table he showed that the death-rates amongst males
and females from the ages of 5 to 25 had been gradually increas-
ing from the quinquennium of 1846-50 to that of 1871-75; but
the mere figures did not show the proportions. The author
stated casually they were about 2{ per cent., and so it was;
. but it would be very important to draw these out exactly,
and so with regard to many of the others. There was
one point in the paper which was very tantalising to him.
Mr. Welton said, " I have arrived at the conclusions (lat) that
the census returns as to ages require to be amended ; (2nd) that
the approximate proportions of births which annually escape
registration are discoverable, and (3rd) that the net results of
migrations into and from the country may also be measured," It
would have been a great boon if the author had given the informa-
tion which enabled him to state positively those three conclasions.
He would also suggest to Mr. Welton if he would, at the end of
his paper, summarise the chief facts and deductions, which, being
spr^kd between the different tables, would have to be sought out,
and require a care which many persons actively engaged would not
be able to give. In the first table, the chief facts with regard to
the mean death-rates per i,ooo living seemed to be these.
Between the two dates which he took as his extremes, 1846-50 and
1871-75, there had been a uniform increased vitality amongst males
and females, and he observed that it had only been checked in one
quinquennium, and that only amongst the males, namely, in
1861-65. There was a moderate check in this period, curiously
enough, occurring amongst the males, but not occurring amongst
the females. That was the first fact— that the vitality of young
people seemed, during the thirty years from 1846 to 1875, to have
increased about one-fourth. Amongst males of the age of from
5 to 10 there were exactly 25 per cent. ; between 10 and 15, 25*9;
between 15 and 25, 19* 7. Then amongst the females, in the first
period it was 29 per cent., being 4 per cent, more than amongst the
males ; in the second period it was 29*8, and in the third period -

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1880.] Discussion on Mr. Welton'g Pcvper. 8S»

247. No mention was made, howerrer, of children nnder the age
of 5. Although it might not accord with the facts whicli
Mr. Welton had brought out in this taHe, it would be desiraHe to
note in connection with them wha* the change was with regard tO'
the younger ones. As far as he could make out, there had been an
increased mortality ; but as the information was not shown in the
same form, he had not been arble exactly to draw that out. Theii
came the really important fact in the paper, that the vitality of the
men of middle age — the staple of our population — ^was on the
decrease, the cause of which ought to be looked into. The second
table showed this very interesting, but very sad statement, that
between the age9 of 35 and 75 for the first three quinquenniums,
there was a gradual improvement. Then there came a change,
and each succeeding quinquennium up to the present time showed
a falling off to the prejudice of the population. Mr. Welton had
brought forward four periods in regard to age : from 35 to 45,
45 to 55, 55 to 65, and 65 to 75. Between the first quinquennium
and the third there was a diminution of mortality for those several
ages respectively in favour of our population of 7 per cent., 12 per
cent., 10 per cent., and 4 per cent. Then the tide turned, and
there was a corresponding increase of mortality up to the quin-
quennium ending in 1875 of 15 per cent., 17 per cent.^ 16 per cent.,
and 5 per cent., all to the bad ; and comparing the first with the
last quinquennium, there was a disadvantage represented by nearly
7 per cent., nearly 4 per cent., 4 per cent,, saad i per cent. Those
were the ratios of increased mortality between the* years 1846-50
and the quinquennium 1871-75, In that way he should like the
several tables to be examined, because the mind could then grasp
the changes that had occurred. (Mr. Welton said it would be very
easy to do so, but he was anxious not to overload the paper.) The
Chairman said the next point of interest which occurred to him
was the difference brought out between Dr. Farr*8 table and the
experiences of 1856-60 and 1871-75. He was not competent to
judge of Mr. Welton' s method ; but supposing that Dr. Farr*s table
was recognised as accurate, and that Mr. Welton had adopted the
same method, there would be the following interesting results. It
was clear, from the figure as they stood, that Dr. Farr's table
corresponded very closely with the experiences of 1856-60, but
that, as regards females, it differed materially from those of the
later period. Taking the whole of the males and females at the
different periods of life, which was the only way of obtaining
an average, adding them up and comparing them, he found the
following results : — that in 1856-60 the value of male life at all
ages by the tables, as compared with Dr. Farr's tables, was 2J
(2*6) per cent, in excess of Dr. Farr; while among females it
was just 3 per cent. ; but in 1871-75 it had fallen among males
to 2 per cent, below Dr. Farr's table, while among females the
excess had increased to 5*4 per cent. These changes, however,
varied very much at different times of life. Up to the age of 35
the variations amongst the males from Dr. Farr's tables were
+ 1 '45 and -|- 3' i per cent, at the two periods selected by Mr. Welton.
Then from 35 to 55 the differences were + 3'i3 and -f 2*37; but

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St DiseuBsum [Mar.

from 55 io 80 tk«re was an iRcrease of 6*i in the first qnrnqnennimn,
amd a decrease of 2't m the second, showing that the advantage
which the males had m that period from 55 to 80 over Dr. Farr's
tables of 6 per cent», had «tterly disappeared, and had become a
decrease of 2^5 per cent. With regard to the females, it stood
thus : np to 85 they had the advantage in the first period (1856-60)
of 1*34; in 1871-75, 3-95, being an increase of threefold in the
latter. In the second period of life, 35 to 55, it was 3*31 in
1856-60 ; and 6*83 in 18/1'75, being an increase of donble in the
latt^. Beyond the age of 55 in the first period it was 8*1 ; and in
the second period 8*31 ; which changes, he thought, afforded
saffieient evidence that it became very necessary from time to
time to examine life tables, and adapt them to circnmstances.
Always pvoviding that the methods adopted by Mr. Welton in
his paper were reliable, there was nothing to find fanlt with
in his dednctions from the &cts on which his calculations are
founded. One other point he desired to refer to, was the very
remarkable change in the prospect in the life of women during
the period of child-bearing. It would be seen that between
the ^es of 15 and 35 during the first quinquennium of 1841-45,
there was an excess in the death-rate of females above that
of males amounting to 270 in 4,000. In the next quinquen-
nium it had decreased to 241 ; in the next to 200; in the
next to 170; in the next to 71. In the sixth quinqaenninm
the mortality was 73 less amongst the females than amongst the
males ; and in the last, viz., between 1871-75, the mortality was
218 less; so that whereas forty years ago the mortality amongst
females at the age of child-bearing was 270 more in 4,000, or
nearly 7 per cent*, in 1871-75 it was 218, or nearly cj per cenL
less, a change atnouoting to 12 per cent. Such a fact, if on exami-
nation it should prove to be accurate, led to the inference that
there had been •some very great change for the better in the treat-
ment of women <luring that critical period. True (as Mr. Welton
here interposed) the difference may have been caused in a con-
siderable measure by an increase in the mortality of males. The
males were dying in so much greater proportion than formerly that
it affected the ratio of male and female ; bat he had little doubt
that improved methods of treatment had beneficially affected the
value of female life at this stage of it. Qe had made a calculation
in reference to the last table. Mr. Welton considered that diseases
of the lungs, brain, kidneys, heart, and cancer were the five that
had most increased among males at the ages from 35 to 55 during
the period named. He (the Chairman) made out that such
increased mortality, as shown by Mr. Welton, caused by disease of
the lungs during that period was 10 per cent. ; by heart disease
and dropsy 7 J per cent. ; by disease of the brain nearly 7 per cent. ;
by disease of the kidneys 6|, and by cancer 16^ per cent. He
hoped some of those present would be able to give reasons for the
peculiar increase of these diseases, and also for the increase of
mortality amongst males at this period of life. Coming from
abroad, he might be ignorant of the real state of things ; but it
appeared to him that it might be accounted for in some measure in

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1880.] an Mr. WeUon's Pa/per. 87

this way. There had been an improvement in the earlier stages of
life, from 5 to 26, but there had been a marvellous increase of
mortality amongst males between the ages of 35 and 75. It
occurred to him that the improved vitality which seemed to occur
at earlier stages might be accounted for, first, by the introduction
of improved sanitary measures, of schooling, and of legislation
regulating the employment of young people, all tending to the
improvement t>f their condition; and, secondly, by the improve-
ment in the rates of wages, which had benefited the families, the
wives, and the children, more than the adult males themselves.
There had also, in later years, been an increase in the wages earned
by the children themselves, which enabled them to live better than
formerly. But with the increase of wages beginning at the period
of 1861-65, there had been an increased activity — perhaps excessive
exertion — on the part of the labouring population, also excessive
living, which had led to dissipation and weakened physical powers,
which was now telling upon them at an advanced period of life.
It struck him that this might be a partial explanation of otte cause
of this very remarkable change. Whether or not that was a
possible cause, Mr. Welton'« facts oouM not be put forward in too
powerful a light.

Mr. A. H, Bailey (President of the Institute of Actuaries) said
that while appreciating highly the pains and research Mr. Welton
had bestowed on the subject, he was quite unable to accept the
conclusious at which he had arrived, as he did not think the data
employed werotkvailable for the solution of the questionB the author
had been investigating. In order to determine rate** of mortality,
two things were necessary : first, accurate information of the number
of deaths in any country or district in a year or any definite period
of time; and secondly, the number of living population at the
periods in which those deaths had arisen. He did not think it
could be doubted that in this country the deafths were accurately
registerod, and that the censuses iskea at intervals of ten years
gave as Bocurate enumerations of the living as could be attained in
any similar large operation. By observing the increase in the
rates of population, there could be determined within a reasonable
margin of error the numbers living in intervening years. By these
data the annual mortality of the country as a whole could be ob-
tained with considerable accuracy. Some time ago, in making
some investigations for another purpose, he wished to know,
amongst other things, what had been the changes in the English
rate of mortality. Discarding the first two or three years of regis-
tration, he thought it advisable to divide the subsequent period into
intervals of ten years: 1840-50, 1850-60, 1860-70, and the result
was that there had been no change whatever in each of those ten
years in the general mortality of England. Since 1870 he was
aware there had been some improvement, but they had not got to
the end of another ten years. This result was in accordance with a
multitude of other observations that had been made, and went to
show that it was a mistake to suppose that there had been any
material change in the rate of mortality in this country, a notion

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88 Discussion [Mar.

whicli arose from some inaccurate obseryations made last centurj
in the number of deaths alone. For Mr. Welton's purpose it was
not only necessary to know the whole number of deaths, but also
the number of deaths at particular ages. Whilst he (Mr. Bailey)
willingly admitted that the number of deaths was accurately regis-
tered, he could state, from the certificates passing through his
hands, that the ages at death were very far from being accurate.
It was even more difficult to ascertain the ages of the living popula-
tion in the intervals between the censuses. Emigration was a dis-
turbing element ; there were far more male than female emigrants,
and far more amongst the younger than the elder portion of the
population. Emigration did not follow any law, and therefore
taking any such estimates as these to ascertain the rate of mortality
at particular ages would produce results which would, he believed,
be altogther at variance with the facts. He should say, therefore,
that those rates of mortality Mr. Welton had brought out were not
to be depended upon at all. It would stagger those who had expe-
rience of insurance societies to be told that in 1846-50 the death-
rate among females between the ages of 15 and 25 was 8*9 per 1,000,
and that m 1871-75 it waa 67. This was at variance with other
observations, and this sort of result ran through the whole of
Mr. Welton's calculations. Therefore, although he had listened to
the deductions of the chairman, he doubted the premises. Of course
there were variations in the rate of mortality in particular years,
but he thought the changes were small when a long period of time
was taken into acoount. As to the very interesting part of the
paper referring to diseases, there were others who could more com-
petently deal with it than himself. There were, no doubt, particular
diseases that had altogether disappeai»ed. They never heard of the
plague now, and the ravages of small pox were less than they
were two generations ago ; but other diseases seem to have taken
their place. (The Chairman having pointed out that according to
Mr. Welton the zymotic diseases bad decreased 23 per cent.)
Mr. Bailey said it would be interesting to know whether other
diseases, such as diseases of particular organs, had increased.

The Bev. I. Doxsey said he was sorry that he had not known
the subject of the paper, because he would have brought with him
some calculations he ha4 made from the registrar-generars reports
on this very question; but the general conclusions at which he
arrived were to some extent in harmony with those at which
Mr. Welton had arrived. There had been an obvious improvement
in the death-rate from 5 years of age to 45 among females, but only
to 25 among males, above which it had increased in every decen-
nium. He thought there were certain facts in regard to our manu-
facturing life that were perhaps unfavourable to the prolonged life
of children. It was well known that when women worked in fac-
tories, infant children did not get the attention they required, and
it was a remarkable fact, that while an increase of about 5 per 1,000
had taken place in children under 5 years of age, there was no
perceptible difEerenoe between the male and female children in
regard to increase. These facts might tend to show that the weaker

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1880.] on Mr. Wdton's Paper. 89

children were cut off in the earlier periods of life; and in harmony
with the law that had been called " the survival of the fittest," the
children that had escaped the discipline of early life might be those
born stronger, and therefore that might in some measure accoont
for the improvement of the death-rate at the ages to which the
Chairman and Mr. Welton had referred. From a valuable paper by
ja medical gentleman, to whom the Howard Medal had been awarded,
he (Mr. Doxsey) had come to the conclusion that there had been a
similar increase in the death-rates in hospitals in the later periods,
as compared with the earlier ones, and the death-rate had increased
more among the males than among the females. This was in
perfect harmony with the law laid down in the paper. He thought
there could be no doubt that as there had been only a slight increase
in the death-rate among females between 45 and 65, but in the male
death-rate at all ages above 25, that therefore there must be some
cause or causes operating among males which did not affect females.
The search for these causes seemed to be the object of all statistical
inquiry on the subject ; but what those causes were he did not pre-
tend to say. He did not think it arose oaly from the increase of
drinking, which in later years had taken place more among females
than males, and yet the death-rate among males had increased
faster than the death-rate among females. He did not believe that
the working classes worked harder now than they did forty years
ago. Perhaps they drank harder, and that might partly account
for the increased death-rate. Another cause might be the vast
increase in the use of tobacco among boys. He should be thankful
to know the relative proportions of male and female deaths from
those diseases that had so much increased, and which would account
for the greater ratio of increase of the death-rate among males than
females. He believed that in the registrar-general's report, to which
he had referred, they were all put together. If the registrar-
general's report were compared with the essay on the increase of the
dea£h-rate in hospitals, there could be no doubt of the general prin-
ciple laid down in the paper, that the death-rate was increasing to
some extent, and that the increase was principally among the male
population firom 25 years of age to the later periods of life. The
only other increase was amongst children under 5 years of age, and
that was equal in both sexes.

Mr. Cornelius Walfoed said he had hoped that the scope of
the discussion would have taken the turn of seeing how far the
results given in the paper harmonised with any facts which conld
be brought to bear by way of solution of them. It seemed to him
the broad fact stated in the paper was that the death-rate up to the
age of 25 had lessened on the whole, and that beyond those ages it
had much increased, more particularly amongst males. If so, there
must be some reasons for it, but he had heard none stated in the
course of the discussion. He thought that the increased mortality
under 5 years of age was generally believed to result from more
complete registration at those young ages. His own belief, how-
ever, was that the actual deaths under 5 years of age had been
less rather than more of late years, and that this resulted from

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90 Discussion [ICar.

improved medical scienoe, which kept children alive until they
arrived at the age of puberty, when they died. "While, therefore,
it changed the figures, it did not do any permanent good to
mankind. Another circumstance which very much affected the
ages in the direction indicated by Mr. Welton, was the emigration
of young, active, strong men at the ages^of from 15 to 25. Thia
would seem to him to leave a weakened population at ages beyond,
and that weakened population would show a larger mortality than
if the more vital portion of the population had remained, but this
was no new feature. The present generation had not been distinct
from the preceding generation in *that respect, and therefore
although it had some weight, it by no means accounted for the pecu-
liarity mentioned in the paper. One had also to look how far the
habits of the people or the customs of trade had affected the
vitality. He thought that the drinking customs of the country had
a great deal to do with it. These ciistoms had resulted from the
increase of wages that had taken place in the preseat generation,
and the death results from drinking habits were coincident with
the period Mr. Welton had alluded to. Assuming the drinking
theory to be true, he thought it applied much more to the males
than the females. Another circumstance to be taken into account
WB/a the adulteration of food which had been carried on to a much
larger extent before the Adulteration Acts were passed. That,
however, would apply as much to the females as the males, because
although females did not drink so much as the males, tbey probably
ate a little more. That case of adulteration would not meet
Mr. Welton's theory at alL He confessed that, after a consider-
ation of all the points, there was nothing in itself, singly or in
combination, which could account for this state of things, and he
had come to the conclusion that there was something or other
Mr. Welton had failed to discover which would go to show that his
facts were reliable, unless indeed the drinking theory was held
sufficient to account for it all.

Mr. N. A. Humphries, after alluding to the value of the paper,
said that during the past thirty-eight years there had been a continual
increase in the mortality of males at all ages. In equal numbers
living, the relative mortality of males from 1841-50 was 107 to
each 100 deaths of females; in the next ten years it was 108 ; in
the next ten years it was 1 1 1 ; and in the last seven years of the
current decade it had increased to 113 to 100. With regard to the
particular ages at which the increase had occurred, he thought
Mr. Welton had brought a great many facts together which might
probably be made very great use of. The second speaker had
expressed a decided opinion that there was no change in the general
death-rate ; it was a fact that the mortality remained nearly
stationary during the three decades 1841 to 1850, 1851 to 1860,
and from 1861 to 1870 ; but taking into account the vast increase
of aggregation in towns, the fact that mortality was stationary was
in itself evidence of good sanitary work. There must have been
some counteracting influence at work which kept it stationary.
Looking at the present decade, of which only nine years had

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1880.] on Mr. WeltorCa Paper. 91

passed, a vast improyemeiit was observable. In 1872-75 the
Public Health Acts were passed, and a new era of sanitation was
thereby introduced into England. The registrar- general in his
last quarterly report, pointed oat that 1 50,000 persons had survived
during the last nine years who would have died if the mortality
had been the same as it was during the preceding thirty years. The
excessive increase of mortality amongst males was very striking.
The diseases which caused this increase appear to be the very
diseases which are often induced by intemperate habits. He
personally thanked Mr. Welton for the trouble he had taken with
his paper, which was one of the most useful of its kind that the
Society had ever had before it. (The Chairman having asked
Mr. Humphries whether, from his experience in the regictrar-
general's oflSce, he saw any ground of fallacy in the principal
point brought out in the paper, that there was increased mortality
amongst males and not amongst females between the ages of 35
and 65), Mr. Humphries said that the fact was beyond all dispute.

Me. Philip Vandesbyl expressed his regret that the author did
not conclude his paper with a summary statement of the results
proved by the numerous tables. In the table enumerating the
causes of increased mentality anoongst males from 35 — 65 the author
did not show how the diseases named had affected females, or the
different percentages of increased mortality from certain diseases.
He believed that the imcreased use of machinery and the more dan-
gerous occupations of men would partly account for the increased
mortality amongst males. With regard to the improved death-rate
among females, he thought that was to be acooumted for, not only
by the improved medical skill, but more especially by the use of
chloroform. As to the causes of death amongst females, it was an
extraordinary fact, that on account of the male infant's head being
on an average only half -an inch larger in circumference than that
of a female, if all the births in Great Britain during one year were
females, 5,000 lives of mothers would be saved in that time. This
was calculated by the late Sir James Simpson, of Edinburgh, who
first used chloroform as an anaesthetic. It had been often said that
we could prove anything by statistics, but he did not consider that
the Society was established £or such a purpose, and certainly the
author of the paper did not exhibit any tendency to prove any pre-
conceived ideas.

Mr. H. MoNCEEiFP Paul said that the author, in his paper, had
stated that " On the whole, then, the tables show that the striking
abatement in mortality at ages from 5 to 25 has been attended with
an aggravation of the loss by death at higher ages, putting aside
epidemic years, and that such aggravation has been far more con-
siderable amongst males than amongst females. Every circum-
stance which will help us to measure the extent and to understand
the causes of this deterioration in the vitality of males demands our
attention.*' Although the author had said " every circumstance,*'
he (Mr. Paul) did not see in the paper any single instance given
except the reference in the tables to certain diseases. On looking

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{>2 Discussion [Mar.

to these tables, it wonld be seen at once that tbese were brain and
heart diseases, from which deaths at the " higher ages *' of males
had, in the later periods nnder comparison sensibly increased. He
referred more particularly to the last table. It wonld be seen also
that these diseases were due to certain causes. Allusion had been
made by a previous speaker to the shortening of working hours,
but attention had not been drawn to the compression of work.
There was too much of that in the present day, and the consequent
strain really affected the vital powers, as did also the excitement
arising out of constant railway travelling and the Using the tele-
graph system, with all their concomitant evils. If these questions
were looked at more carefully, results would be found quite in
keeping with the deductions drawn by the author.

Mr. BouBifE thought that more importance ought to be attached
to Mr. Welton's statistics with regard to specific ages, than pro-
bably Mr. Bailey wonld seem to accord them. There was no doubt
whatever that sanitary measures and medical skill had done much
to preserve younger as well as older life ; but as far as middle age
was concerned, it was quite true that the mode of life in the present
day had very much to do with increased mortality at the period
when life ought to be the strongest and most vigorous, and that it

r rated much more unfavourably upon males than upon females,
doubt drinking was a very important element in the matter. As
a temperance reformer, however, it wa» a source of great gratifica-
tion to him that there was a very great diminution in the consump-
tion of alcohol among the mass of the population, as evidenced by
the failure of the revenue. He would ask Mr. Welton if it had
ever occurred to him to compare the deaths which took place with
the marriage rates. The age at which men married had been very
much extended, whereas females were now married rather earlier
than formerly. This, he thought, arose very much out of habits
and practices which tended most materially to affect the health of
the males. In support of this proposition, he cited the opinions
expressed by Mr. Ansell, the well-known actuary, in a book pub-
lished by him some years ago on the sta,tistics of families in the
higher and professional classes. He (Mr. Bourne) had taken three
periods of three years each. In the first of those periods the
number of marriages among the population was i in 123 ; in the
second, i in 121; and in the third i in 117; showing that the
number of marriages in proportion to the population was increasing.
Mr. Bourne then adduced some figures to show that while the age
of matrimony was deferred in the males, it was not in the females,
and that seemed to point to habits of life which would deteriorate
the vital power of young men, and to account for the increased
number of deaths amongst them more than amongst females. The
increase of wages was also another cause ; but he took it that it was
more favourable to females than to males. It was true that the
males were subjected to a strain of increased hurry and increased
strain upon their health, arising partly from labour, but he believed
in a far greater degree to the pursuit of pleasure and a deteriora-
tion in their habits and practices. With regard to females, the

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1880.] on Mr. Welton'a Paper. 93

effect of easier circumstances had been to lessen the amount of
labour they had to perform, and to put them in more comfortable
homes, surrounded by more comfortable circumstances ; therefore
it might be expected that female life would be prolonged, and the
death-rate improved with regard to them to a greater extent than
males. So far the inference to be drawn from that woold bear
but the conclusions demonstrated by Mr. Welton's figures. He
(Mr. Bourne) believed in the fitness of our organisation and the
exercise of our powers in obedience to natural laws ; therefore that
the true happiness and welfare of any community very much
depended upon the fulfilling of the divine command: ''Increase
and multiply and replenish the earth."

Dr. C. E. Sauvdbss said he concurred entirely with the remarks
of Mr. Bourne. He pointed out that it was acKnowledged in our
lunatic asylums that many cases of general paralysis of the insane,
and of degenerative diseoises of the nervous centres, were due to
sexual excesses.

The Chaibman then laid before the meeting, in connection with
the remarks of the last speaker, a statement as to the rate of
increase in the diiferent kinos of diseases, for the purpose of guiding
any farther discussion that might take pkce on the paper. He
stated that, according to the table at the commencement of the
third section of Mr. Wei ton's paper, the increase in the annual
death-rates among males between the ages of 85 and 65 in the year
1875, as compared with the average of 1851-60 (the value of the
comparison bBing diminished by the contrast of a single year with
an average of five years) was as follows: from diseases of the
kidneys, 86 per cent. ; cancer, 69 per cent. ; lung diseases, 37 ; heart
disease and dropsy, 36*5 ; brain diseases, 3 1 ; diseases of the stomach
and liver, 8 ; phthisis, only 3*5 per cent. ; while from scrofulous
diseases there was a decrease of 41 per cent., and from zymotic
diseases a decrease of 23 per cent. The average increase from all
causes was 22 per cent.

Mr. Lawsok thought that the remarks as to the increase of
diseases ought to be received with a certain amount of caution,
because in the periods to which the paper referred there had been a
considerable alteration in the nomenclature of diseases, and also a
great improvement in the means of distinguishing them. Several
speakers had remarked that the diseases amongst men had increased
as compared with women, but the reports of the registrar-general
show that among male children under 1 year of age, there was a
decidedly greater mortality from all the ordinary children's diseases,
except whooping cough, than amongst females. In the service to
whicn he belongs there was a benefit society. In connection with
it an inquiry was made some years ago, and it was found that the
mortality amongst the single men was about twice as great as it
was amongst those who were married. This fact was borne out by
an examination made by the registrar-general for Scotland about
twelve years ago. As to the causes of the higher mortality among

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94 Discussion tm i£r, WeltorCs Taper, [Mar.

nnmarTied men, no doubt they lived more freely in every way, and
that told upon their health. Greater indulgence, consequent on the
increased wages of late years, produced a gouty disposition, to
which much of the increased mortality from bronchitis seems
attributable.

Mr. Rowland Hamilton pointed out that a large proportion of
the males of mairrying age who were in feeble health, remained
unmarried, while- the whole death-rate, so to speak, of these was
added to the class of bachelors, which would very materially alter
the conclusion come to by a previous speaker.

Mr. Welton, in reply, thanked the Chairman for the analysis
he had made of the paper. In regard to Mr.. Kailey's oteer-
vations, he said that no one could impeach the accuracy of his
(Mr. Welton's) figures without impeaching the registrar-general's
reports, from which they had been taken. Speaking of the causes
of disease, he thought that drink was one of the most patent in
bringing about a state of things conducive to bronchitis. Hard
work ami excitement at the present time no doubt told' upen many
men, more particularly the middle class. The tabfe- showed that
the increane in the number of deaths by accident was a mere
fraction to that occasioned by disease. He believed that in sub-
stance the registrar-generaFs tables were correct. In answer to
the supposition of the Chairman, that the methods adopted by him
(Mr. Welton) were similar to* those of Dr. Farr, he might say that
he had followed a process which was perhaps more simple than
that adopted by Dr; Farr, in framing his life table, but whatever
method was employed, he believed the results arrived at could not>
vary much &om those shown in the paper..

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1880.]

MISCELLANEA.

CONTENTS :

PAGB

I.. — Financial and Commercial

History of 1879 96

ir. — Fires in the Metropolis

dnring the Year 1879 .... 109*

III. — Biiglish Literatwe in the

Year 1879 ^ _... 114

IV.— German Literatore of 1878

and 1879 ^ 11«

V. — Emigrntion and Immigra-
tion in the Year 1879 ..« 117

PAGB

VI. — Rates of Life Insurance

Preminms « 123

VII. — Report of a Committee on

the Census of 1881 134

VIII. — Notes on Economical and

Stattistical Works 189

IX.— Kotes on some of the

Additions to the Library 148
X.— A list of the Additions to

the Library ^ 147

I. — Financicd and Oommercial History of 1879.

The following introduction by Mr. R. GifFen is taken from the
Supplement to the Statist of ^Ist ef January, 1880 r —

The Trade Revival — The Harvest Failure and other Events — The Rise
in Silver — The Drain of Gold to America — Scientific Improve*
menk — The Prospect of 1880.

*' Financially and commercially, 1879 has been a most remarkable
year. Commencing amid the shadows cast by the great City of
Glasgow Bank disaster in the autumn of 1878, with credit at the
lowest ebb, with all kinds of quack remedies for depressed trade
gainm^ attention from a suffering community, it promised during the
earlier months to be one of the most memorable years of depres-
sion on lecord. Credit was so slow in recovering that, even after
the turn ©f the half-year, there were fears of new commercial failures
on a great scale, while the harvest prospects became gloomier and
gloomier as the season advanced. There were signs, even in the
early summer, that the current apprehensions expressed were exag-
gerated, and this journal was honourably distinguished among its
contemporaries by dwelling on the facts and their extreme srgnifi-
cance ; but they were quite insufficient to alter the general feeling
of gloom. Late in autumn Mr. Chamberlain, at Glasgow, and
other authorities, were still looking forward to a winter of continued
depression and suffering, and ridiculing the very notion of a turn in
business affairs being in prospect, much less actually in progress.
But with the autumn, in spite of the harvest proving one of the
worst on record, the wheat crop being almost a total failure,
the long delayed reaction came. One of the earliest promises of
improvement had been the demand from the United States for
various articles of manufacture, particularly for iron manufac-
tures, and in September the orders were on such a scale as to
precipitate a great rise in pig iron and other products of the iron
and coal trades. Attention once excited, the movement was
extremely rapid, orders pouring in for shipbuilding and other

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96 Mtscellamsa. [Mar.

requirements, and speculators, as usual, joining in the game. In
another month the movement was found to have extended itself
to the other metal trades ; to the various raw materials of our
textile and other industries, including * chemicals ; ' to numerous
articles of general consumption, such as tea, sugar, butter, and
cheese, as well as grain, all determined more or less hj harvest
failures, but assisted somewhat by the general reaction which had
set in. The commercial improvement was also accompanied by a
great rise on the Stock Exchange, especially in English railway
shares, where improvement was stimulated by the actual increase
in railway traffic incidental to the trade revival. In the end^
before the year was out, it was found that the reaction in business
had been one of the most wonderful on record, the recovery
from the lowest summer price in iron and many other articles being
extreme, and the animation in almost all the heavy trades being in
singular contrast to the stagnation at the beginning of the year. In
the result, then, 1879 is distinguished by its having witnessed the
commencement of a trade revival unusual for its suddenness and
distinctness, although for a long period during its progress the
anticipation was that it would be a year of stagnation and disaster,
and there was much, not only in the extreme discredit and dis-
organisation of business which existed, but in the actual out-turn of
the harvest itself, to justify the anticipation.

" A great economic movement like this would have been enough
to distinguish any year, but 1879 has also witnessed other economic
changes and events of importance. The miseries caused by the
unlimited liability of shareholders in the disastrous case of the City
of Glasgow Bank led to the passage of an Act for enabling
unlimited banks to become limited ; under which Act many of our
most important banking institutions, including the London and
"Westminster, London and County, and National Provincial Banks,
have already limited the liability of their shareholders, have begun
to record the word 'limited* after their names, and to admit the
audit of their accounts as prescribed by the Act. When one thinks
of the objections to the word * limited * which formerly prevailed, so
considerable a change in the banking world in a single year becomes
every way remarkable. The harvest failure, to which reference has
already been made, was also of singular importance, both from its
magnitude and the new conditions of business it illustrated, in-
cluding the receipt in Europe of unprecedented quantities of
American wheat at comparatively moderate prices. That in a
year when the English wheat harvest, upon the lowest acreage on
record, yielded a result less than the average, variously estimated at
from 30 to 50 per cent., the average price of wheat should still
be far indeed from famine prices, is extremely noteworthy, while
attention has been forcibly drawn to it by the coincidence of a
trade revival with the depression in agi-iculture itself Another
noteworthy circumstance of the year has been a recovery in the
Indian trade, due evidently in part to the material progress of the
Indian people, which becomes manifest in a non-famine year, and
in part, as we believe, to the final destruction in 1878 of the bad
financing which has been the bane of this trade for years. Partly,

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1880.] Financial and Qommercial History of 1879. 97

too, as a consequence of this Indian trade reyiyal, there has been a
recovery in the price of silver in 1879, which occurred very oppor-
tunely to confirm the refusal by the Government of Colonel Smith's
strange proposal for meeting the evils inflicted on India through the
fall in silver by a restriction of the rupee coinage, and to put an end
to fresh propositions for a bi-metallic conference and other bi-
metallic projects, which made a noise when trade was dull. Among
other economic events of interest, there have also been the improve-
ment in Egyptian affairs through the deposition of the late Khedive,
and the appointment of English and French controllers, whereby
the extension of the evils of the defaults on foreign loans has been
prevented ; the success of the Chilians in their war against Peru,
which has improved Peruvian as well as Chilian finance, because
the guano and nitrate deposits of Peru have passed into the hands
of a comparatively honest Government ; the improvements in the
manufacture of steel and increased use of steel as a substitute for
iron ; and other changes. Last of all, as affecting directly the
money market, and with it the general economic movement, we
have to record as one of the leading events of 1879 the occurrence of
a great drain of gold to the United States, the obvious result of the
conjunction of great prosperity there with the resumption of specie
payments; the demand for more currency, due to prosperity,
necessarily taking the shape of a demand for gold. All these events
combine to make the year 1879 of singular interest, not only to the
business man, who wishes to find in the records of the past and the
present a guide to the conditions of business in the immediate
I oture, but to the student of economics, who finds in the events of
the year new illustrations of old problems, as well as suggestions of
new ones.

"We may be expected to add, perhaps, that events in the
political world have also had an important economic bearing ; that
the finance of the Zulu and Afghan wars is a serious matter ; that
the deficits of the Chancellor of the Exchequer are alarming, and so
forth. But we perceive no necessity for mixing up politics with
business. Without depreciating the importance of such financial
questions in their own place, we can easily recognise that any out-
lay on Zulu or Afghan wars which has occurred is immaterial in a
business view — that business will ebb and flow pretty much the
same whether we have little wars or not ; one of the worst dangers
of these wars in a political view arising perhaps from the circum-
stance that they are wars 'with limited liability' and of little
economic importance. There is one set of political events, however,
which may become economically of great importance, perhaps not
so much to this country as to the other nations of Europe generally.
We refer to the alliances and negociationa in progress, or alleged to
be in progress, between Austria and Germany on the one side, and
Russia, France, and Italy on the other. Gtx>d city authorities
hold that in all probability another war is brewing in Eastern
Europe, which may become a general European war. Such an
event would have effects of first-rate consequence in the economic
order, and the share of 1879 in preparing them cannot be over-
looked.

VOL. XLIU. PABT I. ]

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Miscellanea.

[Mar.

" The Trade Revival.

" Dealinpf in their order with the events thus ennmerated, we
begin with the * Trade Revival.' As regards the description of the
event we have very little to add to the brief sketch already given.
There were signs of it, as we have said, as long ago as the begin-
ning of last summer, the Statist of 24th May last having an article
openly headed * Trade Revival.* Chief of these signs was the
increased purchasing on American account ; bnt there were also signs
of betterness in the Indian trade, and the general tone was a little
more cheerful, although there was still much talk of discredit. All
this, however, did not prevent the reaction, which became marked
in September, having a sudden and even startling character ; so much
so that the share of speculators in it was denounced with no litfcle
indignation. But denunciation had no effect in stopping the move-
ment. First in the iron trade, as the American demand was felt,
there was a great outburst of speculation, Scotch pig iron jumping
up from about 45s. to 67*. in a few weeks, and remaining not far
under 605., although it was only towards the end of the year that
the extreme price touched in the first burst of speculation was
again reached and exceeded. Then came a burst in tin, copper, and
the metal trades generally, followed in October and November by
great excitement in Mincing Lane, both in raw materials and
articles of general consumption. All the while there was an
equally striking and rapid advance on the Stock Exchange, the
revival of trade coming at a time when hope had been almost
extinct, and when no possibility of improvement had been discounted.
When the speculators began to operate, therefore, there was no
stock, as the phrase is, and prices were accordingly bid up by * leaps
and bounds.' Whatever the cause, there can be no doubt of the
suddenness and magnitude of the rise of prices — ^which is fully
indicated, we may add, by the tables in the appendix to this history,
showing the monthly prices of the leading wholesale commodities,
as well as the prices at different dates throughout the year of the
leading Stock Exchange securities.

"Without repeating the figures in detail, we may refer the
reader to these tables, noting only one or two conspicuous changes.
Thus, the prices of metals per ton at the end of each month in the
second half of the year were as follows : —

Scotch

SUiTs.

Sheets,

Copper,

Le«d,

Tin,

Tin Plates,

I.e.

CharcoaL

Pig Iron.

Bar Iron.

Single.

ChiUBars.

Sheet.

Straits.

#. d.

£ 8. d.

£ ».d.

£ s.d.

£ *. d.

July

40 8

6 12 6

8 5 -

53 --

14 - -

64 7 6

23 10 -

August ....

43 li

6 12 6

8 - -

54 7 6

'4 15 -

68 15 -

24 10 -

September

55 -

6 15 -

8 - -

57 7 6

>5 15 -

73 6 -

25 JO -

October....

5^ 6

7 6-

95-

65 5 -

17 15 -

93 6 0

28 - -

November

58 7i 7 7 6

9 5-

66 2 6

17 17 6

92 5 0

28 - -

December

67 3 ' 8 6 -

9 15 -

66 --

19 10 -

90 17 6

30 - -

" Thns, in almost every case, after all the intermediate flnctua-
tions of speculation, the price at the end of the year is higher than

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1880.]

Financial and Oammereial History of 1879.

in any previons month, and the rise is generally from 25 to 50 per
cent. Since the beginning of the present year there has been
another move npwards, which renders all the stronger the evidence
of the prices alone as to the steady demand in the trade. Specu-
lation is quite incapable of bringing about so steady and proloneed
a change. Similar tables could be made up for other commodities,
though the change in iron and metals happens to be most striking.
*' As regards the Stock Exchange, the conspicuous rise has been
in English railways, of which the following will give an idea : —

97th Jine,
187».

PriM,

30th December,

187».

Riie.

Caledoniaa «

Oreat Western

^1
95t

117

132*

105i
112i

186i

149

1281

148

i6|

London, Brighton, and South 1

Coast ord J

London and North Western Kailway

8i
6i

North Eastern

«5l

** Here, again, it may be remarked that the advance has been
snstaiued, and far more than sustained, during the present year.
Speculation alone, without any solid support by real holders and
investors, is incapable of any such feats.

*' There being no question, then, of a reaction in trade of great
magnitude having occurred, we may confine ourselves to inquiring
what has been its real extent and causes; Snrpnsii^ as the state-
ment may seem after some of the discussion wkich took place when
the speculation was going on, we are inclined to say that the
improvement is very nearly universal among the industries of the
United Kingdom. The agricultural industry is a conspicuous
exception, though perhaps, as we shall see, the agricultural depres-
sion has been itself exaggerated ; but with that exception there is
improvement almost everywhere. In proof the reader can only be
referred to the tables of prices already cited, and the trade circulars
quoted in the appendix. When we find leading firms in a wide
variety of trades and manufactures all reporting improvement, and
all speaking hopefully of the future, it is impossible to suppose that
they are all writing under a delusion. Look only at the list of
trades as to which this cheerful report of rising prices and increas-
ing employment for capital and labour ss made . —

Iron and ooal trades.

Shipbniildmg.

Shipping.

Cotton.

Woollen.

Linen.

Leather.

Colonial produce (tea, sngar,

dyestnfis, Ac).
Chemicals.
Metals generaUj.

''Admitting the magnitude of the agricultural industry, and
that the great building trades are also rather dull, it is plain that
in the above large groups an immense mass of the capital and
labour of the country is employed. The iron and coal trades alone

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100 MUceUanea, [Mar.

come next in importance to the agricnltaral industry; and with
the textile industries all improving, as well as the yarions metal
mannfactnres and ' chemicals,* what the statement implies is, that
the metropolis, Yorkshire, Lancashire, Durham, Northumberland, a
large part of South Wales, Cornwall, the manufactaring districts
of Scotland, and Ulster, have their chief industries in a prosperous
and improving condition. In other words, the bulk of the country
has become more active than it was, so that, allowing for the agri*
caltural depression and the dulness in the building trades, the
gains exceed the losses. As in such matters it is the strongest that
wins, the fact that so much trade is better makes it likely that the
prosperous industries to some extent are drawing the unprosperous
after them — that depression in agriculture, for instance, is less
than it would otherwise have been, because of the reaction around
it, and will probably be less enduring.

** This last remark brings us to the question of the cause of the
great movement. Unless an intelligible explanation can be given
of it, accounting for the facts, it will be impossible to give any
reason for anticipating its continuance or stoppage. It will be all
a mystery, even to the business men whose sound instincts enable
them to make a profit of tiie events. But we believe it is possible
to give an explanation, especially as some reasons for anticipating
a revival were given in the Statist before the event took place. It
is easy to prophesy after the event and invent ex post facto expla-
nations, but not so easy to give the explanations first. This is,
however, what the Statist has done in the present case. In the
issue for 21 st June last we read : —

"*It remains to be seen whether the complete trade revival
which we are all expecting will come in time to prevent another
semi-crisis. It seems to be an even chance, it may be admitted,
that the revival will come in time. There are many fitvoutable
symptoms, of which the prosperity of the labouring classes, includ-
ing the agricultural labourers, notwithstanding the bad times for
&rmers and landowners, is one of the most important.'

" Under the date of 28th June, we read : —

*** As the summer passes, the question of the harvest prospects
becomes more and more alarming. It is all but certain that a good
harvest, or even a harvest slightly under the average, would revive
trade, and, as a natural consequence, send up the prices of stocks
and shares and investment property of almost every description.
Things have been so bad, and prices have got so adjusted to the
badness, that even something not so good as the average might have
this effect. But the chances seem all against us, and we may have
to m&^e up our minds to another disappointing year.

'** Still it is possible that the general causes tending to improve
trade in England may be so strong that even an untoward harvest
event will not wholly neutralise them. The conjunction of low
prices of agricultural produce with bad seasons is so unusual that
it is diffiotdt to predict what the general effect on trade wUl even-
tually be. At first, while there have been other causes of general
depression at work, the conjunction seems wholly unfavourable. It
specially depresses the ogiicaltaral intercut, and adds to the general

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1880.] Financial a/nd Oommerdal Eidmj of 1879. 101

gloom. Bni cheap food is the main qnestion after all, and probably
it will be found, after a time, that while good or bad harvests at
home are. make- weights in the general account of prosperity, or the
reverse, tiiey are not all important. This appeared to be the case
in years of activity like 1871, 1872, and 1873, when the harvests
were under the average, and the same result may again be
witnessed. It is certainly a most interesting economic problem
whether trade can revive without a good harvest, and the autumn
of 1879 may perhaps be destined to famish a solution.'

" Under the dates 12th and 19th July and 2nd August we have
remarks to the same effect, coupled with the notice of an opposite
opinion its then prevalent on the Stock Exchange. Finally, on
9th August, we read : —

***The question of revival, though connected with, is not exclu-
sively dependent on what the harvest at home may be. Just in
proportion to our increasing dependence on foreign food supplies
will be our independence of home harvests for the adversity or
prosperity of our aggregate trade. Good harvests abroad, increas-
ing the surplus which foreigners setid us, will increase pro tanto the
purchasing power of our foreign customers. The purchases
foreigners make will accordingly affect our home trade, as the
purchases of our agricultural classes at home will affect it.'

"There is much more to the same effect, but the above will
give an idea that trade revival was anticipated on account of the
general cheapness that prevailed, and the fact that some of our
important foreign customers were profiting by a good harvest. In
other words, all the conditions of revival were present, except a
good home harvest, and as that element was believed to be less
important than it had been, the conclusion was reached that a bad
harvest would not prevent revival. This conclusion may now be
considered a settled one. There could hardly have been a worse
season than last year's, yet trade revives. Coupled with the
similar independence of trade on good harvests, shown in former
years, this last event has the effect of a crucial test. We mu^ not,
of course, rush to the conclusion that the old economists and statis-
ticians were wrong in dwelling on the connection between harvests
and trade, or that good and bad harvests are now of no consequence.
On the contrary, the old authorities, men like Quetelet, Tooke, and
others were demonstrably right. In the circumstances of most
countries, even including England, a good or bad home harvest
used to be all-important for trade. The agricultural interest was
relatively far more important than it is now, while the price of
food depended on the home harvest because only a relatively small
supply was obtained from abroad. All that has happened is that
English circumstances are changed. England has become a country
where the agricultural population is only about a tenth of the
whole, while the price of food is not regulated by the home
harvest but by the foreign. It is the circumstances which have
changed and not the teaching of economists. And good harvests
at home still remain important on account of the great importance
of the agricultural interests. A tenth part is undoubtedly a large
section of the people, while probably, in ordinary years, their net

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102 MisceUamea, [Mar.

wages and profits, inclnding rent, exceed a tenth part of the
national income. The prosperity or adversity of such a class must
always be a material factor in a question of general trade prosperity
or the reverse.

** But what, it may be asked, are the usual causes of a revival
in trade which the occurrence of a bad harvest at home has not
been powerful enough to neutralise ? It is easy to say that cheap
food, and cheapness generally, tend to produce revival, but in what
way ? To this, also, an answer can easily be given. The general
efEect of years of depression is to check production. In the course
of time, most articles come to be sold for a season at prices which
are below the average necessary to maintain the production. The
actual falling off of consumption in many directions may really be
very little, but a slight excess of supply is enough to produce a
great fall in the market. Production is consequently checked at
the very time cheapness enables annuitants and capitalists to save
more than in busier times, and when the reduced wages of the
labouring classes may even go &rther than the higher wages of the
busy seasons. At a point which it would be impossible to deter-
mine beforehand, since no one can tell what the minimiun consump-
tion will be even in the worst depression, and it is probable that
the minimum changes with the circumstances of each case ; still at
some point the production is suddenly found to be below what current
consumption requires, and then the turn in the opposite direction
comes. The movement is usually determined by some special or
accidental event, as by a very good harvest or by such a demand as
has lately come to us from the United States ; but, once started, it
acquires a momentum wholly out of proportion to the apparent
occasion. The truth is, the occasion is not the cause. The real
causes lie deep in the whole circumstances of the depression itself,
with its low prices tempting consumption on the one side, and the
generally diminished or stationary production on the other. The
production falling short of the minimum consumption, the moment
this fact appears there must be a rise all round, and an immediate
impetus in all directions to new production, which, of course,
immediately increases the general consuming power. The impetus
apparently gains energy and volume from the general desire of
retailers and other intermediaries to increase their stocks, which
had fallen below the average, while the mere feeling that things
are going to be better helps to make them better.

'* In some such way we should explain the usual causes of a
trade revival, and while there can be no doubt in the present case
of the extreme lowness of prices which had been brought about,
the subject indeed of general lamentation a year ago, there seems
equally little doubt of the general check to production we have
referred to. As this last point is comparatively new, we may give
a few illustrations. Thus in the iron trade we find that the pro-
duction in the United Kingdom, which had been stationary for
several years, must have tended to be much lower in the early part
of 1879, since the total for that year, notwithstanding all the
activity of the last three months of the year, is still below the
average. The figures are : —

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1880.] Finandal and ConmercM History of 1879. 103

1871 « 6,627,000

*72 6,742,000

'73 6,566,000

'74 5»99i»ooo

'75 6,365,000

'76 6,555,000

'77 6,608,000

'78 6,381,000

'79 (estimntec^) 6,200,000

'* The total for 1879 is onlj estunated, bnt the estimate is that
of Messrs. Fallows and Co., of Liverpool, who are usually not wide
of the mark, the margin for error being also rery small. The figures
tell their own tale. Production, it is clear, most hare sank to a
very low ebb at the beginning of last year, as for the whole year it
is still more than 10 per cent, less than the average of 1872-73,
and considerably less than the average of years like 1876-77, which
were undoubtedly years of depression. With population steadily
increasing all the while, it is easv to see that production must have
fallen under actual wants. It is on a production thus arranged
that an extra demand suddenly falls.

" In cotton we have very similar figures. The deliveries of raw
cotton to all Europe, according to Messrs. Ellison's circular,
amounted to 2,136,866,000 pounds in 1878-79; but the total as
long ago as 1870-71 was 2,161,724,000 pounds, and this has been
exceeded in several years in the interval. In Great Britain alone
the deliveries were 1,110,212,000 pounds in 1878-79, which is
absolutely a lower figure than in any of the previous eight seasons.
With all the inflation that may have characterised the ti*ade
formerly, these figures still show a pause in production which is
most serious, allowing for the increase of population in the
interval.

"As regards wool, we have also similar fibres. Messrs.
Helmuth Schwartze and Co. give the following in one of their
tables : —

ToUl Wool left
for Home Consumption.

> of 1870-74 339,ooo,coo Iba.

'75 351,000,000 „

'76....„ 369,000,000 „

*77 373,000,000 „

*78 352,000,000 „

*79 319,000,000 „

'* These figures seem even more striking to us than those of
iron and cotton. The pause in production must have been serious
at the last.

'' Shipping, the produce trades, hides, and other trades supply
other illustrations. It would be needless to multiply instances,
while we do not sav the experience is uniform ; there being cases,
like tea, where an increasing supply, until the very last year, seems
hardly to have overtaken consumption, and a very slight reduction

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104 MisceUanea, [Mar.

in the supply has led to a great rise in price. Still it is remarkable
to notice in so many of the trade circnlars the references to a
diminished production of the raw material as having come to a
climax in 1879. The conclusion seems inevitable. The long period
of low prices seems at last to have been as effectual in checking
production on the one side, as in sustaining and stimulating demand
on the other. Now the situation becomes more normal. The
demand becomes the more active as it cannot be readily supplied,
and the power of consumption increases with the increase of pro-
duction itself.

** Such is the rationale of the trade revival as it appears to our
mind ; and from which we draw the conclusion that the bad harvest
of last season ought not to have prevented it, as it has not, in fact,
prevented it. Why should it have had any such effect? It
weakens, no doubt, the purchasing power of the agricultural classes,
but most other classes of the community have been enriched, and
the extra demand is principally, after all, for the requirements of
a minimum consumption. To some extent, also, the feeling of
improvement is unconnected with any great improvement in reality ;
it is small changes in production and consumption, which produce
all these effects; people are thankful for small mercies. In the
foreign export trade, for instance, an increase of 5 per cent.,
which seems very probable in 1880, and which will delight all
exporters, will still only raise the total value to the level of 1876,
which shows a great decline as compared with 1873. But because
the figures increase, everybody rejoices, although the country may
be no better off, or not much better off, than in 1876. As econo-
mists view it, there was little cause to be dissatisfied with the latter
year, but the point of view of business men and of economists is
not precisely the same.

" The Harvest Failure and Other Events.

"There remain to be noticed the other important economic
events of the year which we have already mentioned. Some of
them, however, we propose to pass over without farther notice, as
not relatively important to the immediate development of business,
always the main topic in such a review as this, however important
they may be in themselves. The change of unlimited banks into
limited is an event of this sort. Eventually the transformation
may have far-reaching consequences, changing the curreirts of
investment, through banking shares becoming more attractive than
they were, and stimulating the growth of banking and joint stock
enterprise ; but as regards the next few years, there will not be
much difference. The development of business will be much what
it would have been in any case. For a similar reason we pass 6ver,
also, the changes in Egypt and South America. It is an important
matter within a certain sphere that something has been done which
will improve the finances of Egypt and of the South American
Republics, and the moral effect, by giving confidence to investors,
may even be greater than the material effect ; but relatively to the
main influences which affect the movements of English trade, it can
hardly be said that continued disorganisation in Egypt and, Peru

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1880.] Financial and Commercial History of 1879. 105

would have mattered much. The p^reat current wonld have swept
on its course, and these eddies would have been hardly noticeable,
just as their contributions to the main current will now be relatively
inconsiderable. It is impossible, however, to class such an event
as the harvest failure, as altogether secondary in its influence, and
it appears to demand a few more words of notice.

** There can be no doubt as regards the com crops that last
season was one of the worst on record. After the harvest each
succeeding estimate of the yield of the wheat crop, appeared to be
worse than its predecessor, and these low estimates have been fully
confirmed by the remarkable falling off in the quantities brought
to market. The reduction of yield must have been at least 30 per
cent, below the average, as estimated in an elaborate article in the
Times^ quoted in the Statist of 8th November last, and even the
estimate of 50 per cent, below the average hardly seems too high.
The barley harvest has also been most deficient, the result being
peculiarly disastrous to the excise revenue. In minor crops, such
as hops, there has been quite as serious failure. The season has
also been far from favourable to green crops and live stock, the last
agricultural returns showing only a slight increase in cattle, and a
decrease in sheep and pigs, while the prices of meat have been most
unfavourable to producers as compared with recent years. Coming
after previous bad seasons, such an account is disastrous, and there
is little cause for wonder at agricultural complaints or the ap-
pointment of a royal commission to inquire into the depression of
agriculture. A little consideration would seem to show, however,
that there are not a few qualifications to the opinion that agriculture
is altogether ruined, and to the farther opinion as to this depression
making a recovery in the home trade impossible. The figures of
the live stock are still very large, and at least show little decline
compared with what they were several years ago, although good
agricultural authorities hold that the tendency of the conversion
of arable into pasture land, is to reduce the stock, while making
the business more profitable to those engaged. At the same time
though the price of meat has fallen as compared with a few years
back, there nas been since last summer a great recovery in the
prices of butter and cheese, so that all the events of the agricultural
year have not been unfavourable to the agricultural interest. We
may feel quite certain that while we hear complaints on all sides,
farmers and landlords throughout the country are not suffering
equally, and that the results of the year have been more tolerable
to many than at first sight appears^ Taking this into account, and
dealing with the effects of the harvest on industry generally, we
see at once why the bad result of the Jiarvest should not affect the
general trade revival. The agricultural industry, after all, is onlv
about a tenth of the whole industry of the country ; and although
the net income from it, received as rent, wages, and profits, may
usually be more than a tenth, we doubt if it very much exceeds
that proportion. But say it is a sixth parfc, we should still only
have a net income from agriculture of about 200 million pounds a
year (taking the whole income of the country as nearly 1,200
million pounds). This 200 million pounds again may be assumed

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106 MisceUanea, [Mar.

to be equally divided between labourers, farmers, and landlords ;
but the labourers we know have hardly suffered ; and assuming
that the farmers all round have only made half their profits, and
that landlords have bad to give up 20 per cent, of their rents, we
should arrive at a net reduction of about 50 million pounds in the
usual return to agricultural industry. Wo should doubt if the net
reduction is as great as this, while those concerned have gained like
the rest of the community in the general cheapness ; but even a
reduction of 50 million pounds is not a large amount if the rest of
the country is prosperous as it is beginning to be. It is not 5 per
cent, of the aggregate income of the country. This is why the
bad harvest has so little general effect. The agricultural industry,
though large, is far from all-important. The other influences are
stronger, and the country, as a whole, gains more by cheap food
than it loses by a bad harvest.

" The Rise in Silver.

" Another of the secondary events to which we must give a few
additional words of notice is the rise in silver. The advance has
been from about 496?. at the beginning of the year, to between 52^!.
and 53(/., the main cause undoubtedly being the improvement of
the Indian trade, although the temporary suspension of the sales
of German silver, the diminution of American production, and
other causes have contributed. There seems little doubt also that
a farther improvement will take place, the Indian trade keeping
good, and private capital again seeking an outlet in India. We are
a long way from the alarms which were very prevalent a year ago,
and which made it very difficult to preach patience. The event is
a most important one economicallv. A rising exchange helps to
make Indian trade better, and tne fact of recovery proves once
more that the despairing and pessimist view as to the fature price
of silver is not at any rate to bo realised at once — that there will be
many ups-and-downs in the process, and ample time for the neces-
sary adjustments to be made by the countries whose currencies are
affected. The rejection in the early part of the year of Colonel
Smith's proposal to restrict the rupee coinage, as well as the failure
of the officious proposals of the German and American Govern-
ments for a new bi -metallic conference, were happily confirmed, or
rendered more easy, by the course of the silver market. The world
has thus been spared the loss and misery of great currency changes,
which could have had no other than a disturbing effect on trade
and commerce generally.

** In connection with this silver question we think it deserving
of note here that the directors of the Bank of England have been
induced by the course of the discussion to reprint Lord Liverpool's
famous book on * The Coins of the Realm.' The publication, it
may be hoped, will settle the bi-metallic controversy for many a
day to come.

" Another special event to notice is

" The Drain of Gold to ^America,
" This haa been very fully described in the Statist, from time to

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1880.] Fincmdal a/nd Oommercial History of 1879. 107

time, and its bearings discnssed. The broad fact is, that between
1st Angnst and the end of the year, about i6 millions of gold were
shipped from England and France to the United States ; and that
this was mainly dne to the increasing currency requirements of the
United States consequent on their good trade. The like require-
ments in former years had no such effect, because the American
currency, until 1st January, 1879, was inconvertible paper. But
since the resumption of specie payments on the latter date, the
currency has become gold or based upon gold, and hence when
trade expands and wages rise there, America, though a gold-
producing country, is also able to take gold from her neighbours.
The amount abstracted is a large one, and would probably not have
been parted with so easily but for the great ease of money on this
side ; still there can be no doubt that in ordinary years America
will absorb gold largely, especiaUy as it appears that the paper
currency is wholly inelastic, the greenbacks bemg strictly limited in
quantity, and the conditions of the note circulation being such as to
make the business unprofitable to the national banks. These points
have been very fully explained in the Statist^ the most recent
article having appeu^ in the issue of 3rd January, to which
reference may here be made.

^^ Scientific Improvements,

" Another point to which attention may be drawn is the great
economy effected in production during the years of depression.
One of the beneficial results of such a period is the stimulus it
gives to invention and labour-saving appliances, and such a stimulus
has been given of late years. Gfreat improvements, in particular,
have been made in the processes for making steel, and in the use of
steel as a substitute for iron, a source of large economies, for
instance, in the permanent way expenses of railways. Gfreat
improvements have also been made in blast furnaces, the capacity
of a single furnace being increased and the cost of production
diminished. There is a similar economy in shipping, the tendency
to increase being in large steamers, which cost little more in fuel
and wages than smaller vessels, although their capacity is much
greater. It would be out of place to go minutely into such ques-
tions here. It is important, however, to remember that the machine
of production at the present moment is far more efficient than it was
several years ago. The same labour will produce greater results,
and a great increase of prodaction, or saving in the hours of labour,
will be possible.

"TAePro«pec< 0/1880.

** We come, then, to the prospect for the current year, on which,
however, we need say little. A review like what has been written,
in conjunction, at l^ist, with the numerous trade circulars quoted,
tells its own tale. If we have brought out clearly the nature of the
past year's events and of the present situation, the inferences
should follow of themselves. All the facts and deductions point to
a continuance of the improvement which has begun. The facts —
that so many trades are better, that a stimulus is given to pro-

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108 MiscelUmea^ [Mar,

dxLction in all directions, that the harvest failnre is really not of a
kind to affect prejudicially the general movement, as it has not, in
fact, prevented a start upwards, and that specially the improvement
in India and America continues to affect us most favourably — all
point to the one conclusion that the revival of trade is strong and
genuine, and must be upheld by the causes which have set it in
motion : for how long a period it is impossible to say beforehand,
but probably for no inconsiderable time. The orders booked in
almost every trade, it is believed, will carry us a great way through
the present year. We may also believe, according to past experience,
that such a movement once started will go on augmenting, will
extend from one trade to another, and will be strengthened by
incessant action and reaction. No one in sach a matter should be
over confident, knowing what a part is played by the unforeseen in
haman affairs ; but the present is a time for hope, and a cheerful
feeling is no unimportant factor in producing the good trade that
is hoped for. The revival has given confidence, and enriched the
leading capitalists and speculators — the people who direct pro-
duction. Such a stimulus once given will last a long time.

" It is objected that the rise of prices is an adverse influence to
prosperity ; that the working classes have their purchasing power
diminished by the rise in tea, sugar, and other articles of general
consumption. Bat to this the answer is, that a rise of prices is the
essential part of a trade revival, and in its earlier stages does not
prevent the continuance of improvement. The fuller employment
appears to compensate, and more than compensate, the consumer
for the rise in prices by which production is stimulated. After-
wards, when prices rise still higher, the effect is different, consump-
tion being checked, and production being rendered unprofitable,
but we are yet a long way from such a period. Prices have risen,
but not as yet to a very high level.

" Apprehensions are also expressed respecting the state of the
money market, and the political complications in the east of
Europe, But while fully believing that money is likely to be
dearer, especially if trade goes on improving, we do not think the
improvement in trade will itself be arrested. Experience has often
shown that moderately high rates for money and good trade are
quite compatible. We should doubt also whether the actual out-
break of war in the east of Europe, though it might check some
speculation, would have very much influence in the commercial
world. Even during the Franco- German war of 1870-71, our trade
kept steadily improving, the chief economic effect of that war in its
early stage being a brief disturbance of th^ money market. We
see no reason why new continental wars, if their duration is
equally brief, should have any greater effect. Of course, if they are
protracted, the result would be different. Two or three years hence
they might be found to assist in the descent from a period of
prosperity and inflation to one of adversity and contraction. But
for the present year there would be little perceptible evil, as regards
our economic development, even in the outbreak of a great conti-
nental war. We come back to the conclusion, then, that the trade
prospect of the year is a cheerful one, and that there is little to

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1880.] The Fires of Lothdon and the Fire Brigade. 109

obscure the prospect — that the hopes generally indulged in have a
very solid foundation. Barring accidents, the year 1880 should be
quite as prosperous as 1870, when trade started into life after
another great depression."

The Financial and Commercial History, 1879, with Appendix —
to which the foregoing introduction belongs — is arranged under
the following heads, viz. : —

Trade in 1879—Foreign Trade in 1879— TAe Harvest of 1879.

Appendix.

Bxtraota from. Trade Oiroulars.

A. — Iron, Coal, Chemicals, Ac. —

Iron — Goal — Engineering — Ohemicdls.

B. — Raw Materials —

Cotton— WooI^-Flax—SUk.

C. — Produce —

Mindng Lane Markets — Coffee — Sugar — Tea — Canned Ooods
and Freserved Provision Trade — Wine and Spirits — Oil and
Seed Trade — Tallow — Wood and Tirnber — Hides^ Tanning
Materials, ^c. — Drugs^ 8fc»

D. — ^Miscellaneous —

Qold and Silver — The Oerma/n Bourses — Freights — FaH/u^es.

Index to Tables.
Bank Returns —

Bank of Fnglamd — Bank of France — Bank of Oermamy — BoAhk
of Austria — Bank of the Netherlands — Associated New York
Banks — San)ings Banks.

Clearikg House Returns —

London Bankers' Clearing Returns — Settlings on the 4ith of the
Month.

Stock Exchange Settling Days — Foreign Market Rates of Discount
'-Exchanges and Bullion — Public Revenues — Stock Exchange
Securities — Traffic Returns — Pauperism — Prices of Wholesale
Commodities — ^Allotments of Indian Council Bills in 1879 —
Supply, Stock, and Prices of Wholesale Commodities — Statistics
of Failures.

II. — The Fires of London during the Tear 1879, and the Metropolitan

Fire Brigade.

The following particulars are taken from Captain Shaw's
Annual Report for 1879, to the Metropolitan Board of Works, in
continuation of similar notices for previous years : —

" The number of caUs for fires, or supposed fires, received during
the year has been 1,949. Of these 116 were false alarms, 1 1 5 proved

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110

MuceUcmea.

[Mar.

to be only chimney alarms, and 1,718 were calls for fires, of wluch
159 resnlted in serious damage, and 1,559 in slight damage.

" These figures refer only to the regular cidls for fires, or sup-
posed fires, involving the turning out of firemen, fire engines, fire
escapes, horses, and coachmen; they do not include trifling damages
by fires which were not sufficiently important to require the
attendance of firemen ; neither do they include the ordinary calls
for chimneys on fire, which are separately accounted for further on.

"The fires of 1879, compared with those of 1878, show an
increase of 59; and compa^d with the average of the last ten
years, there is an increase of 85.

"The proportion of serious to slight losses — 159 to 1,559 — ^is
most favourable, and notwithstanding several exceptional periods,
as, for instance, the year 1872, 1 think 1 am justified in saying that
the value of property destroyed by fire in London has been less in
1879, than in anv other year since the formation of the brigade.

" The following table gives it both in actual numbers and per-
centages : —

Tear.

Number of Firci.

Percentage.

Seriooi.

Slight.

TotaL

Seriooi.

9Ug1it.

Total.

1866

'67

'68

'69

'71

'72

'73

'76

'79....„..

3^6
H5
-35
199
276
207
120
166
I £4
>63
166

170
159

1,012
1,152
1,488
1,373
1,670
1,636
1,374
1,382
1,419
1,866
1,466
1,874
1,489
1,559

I1338
i»397
1,668

1,842
M94
1,548
«,573
1,5*9
1,632

',533
1,659
1,718

25
18

H
13
H
II

8
11
10
II
II
10
10

75
82
86
87
86
89
92
89
90
89
89
90
90
91

100
100
100
100
100
100
too
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

" The number of fires in the metropolis in which life hafi been
seriously endangered during the year 1879 has been 96 ; and the
number of these in which life has been lost has been 27.

" The number of persons seriously endangered by fire has been
I 6a, of whom 132 were saved, and 32 lost their lives. Of the 32
lost, 15 were taken out alive, but died afterwards in hospitals or
elsewhere, and 17 were suffocated or burned to death.

*'The number of calls for chinmeys has been 4,169. Of these
1,375 proved to be false alarms, and 2,794 were for chimneys on
fire. In these cases there was no attendance of engines, but only
of firemen with handpumps.

*' The nximber of journeys made by the fire engines of the 52 land
stations has been 22,184, and the total distance run has been 50,491
miles.

" The quantity of water nsed for extinguishing fires in the
metropolis during the year has been 16,122,128 gallons — ^in round

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1880.] The Fires of London.and the Fire Brigade. Ill

numbeTS a Kttle more than i6 million gallons, or about 72,000 tons.
Of this quantity, about 32,000 tons, or a little more than two-fifths
of the whole, were taken from the river, canals, and docks, and the
remainder from the street pipes.

** During the year there have been 9 cases of short supply of
water, 33 of late attendance of turncocks, and 18 of no attendance,
making altogether 60 cases in which the water arrangements were
unsatisfactory.

*' The strength of the brigade at present is as follows : —

52 Umd fire engine station
1 moyable land station.
113 fire escape stations.
4 fioating „

3 large land steam fire engines.
34 small „

12 seven-inch manual fire engines.
64 siz-ioch „

37 nnder six-inch „

130 fire escapes and long tcallng ladders.
3 fioating steam fire engines.
I steam tng.
17 hose carts.
15 Tans.

3 barges.
57 telegraph lines.
106 miles of telegraph lines.

452 firemen, including chief officer, superintendents, and all
ranks.

" The number of firemen employed on the several watches kept
up throughout the metropolis is at present 104 by day and 188 by
night, making a total of 292 in every twenty-four hours ; the
remaining men are available for general work at fires.

" Our list of wounds and other injuries for 1879 is, unfortunately,
very large, but this will always be the case as long as the men work
with zeal and energy.

" There have been during the year 297 cases of ordinary illness,
and 69 injuries, making a total of 366 cases, of which many were
very serious."

From the tables appended to the report the following particulars
are obtained : —

(a) The fires classified according to occupations, arranged in the
order of frequency of occurrence ; to which are added, for the pur-
pose of comparison, the corresponding figures for the three previous
years: —

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112

Miscellanea.

[Mar.

Number.

80
81
32
83
84
86
86
37
38
39

Occupations.

Private houses

Lodginj^s

Victuallers

Coffee houses

Cabinet makers

Drapers

Oil and colourmen

Tobacconists

Greengrocers and fruiterers

Tailors, clothiers, and outfitters-

Boot and shoe makers

Builders

Stables

Under repairs and building

Ghrooers

Booksellers, binders and stationers

Carpenters, Ac. (not cabinet makers)

Offices

Bakers

Railways

Butchers

Chandlers

Marine store dealers

Upholsterers

Coal and coke merchants

Confectioners

Engineers and machinists

Furniture makers and dealers

Chemists (including all chemical labo-1

ratories) j

Farming stock

Hotels and club houses

Looking glass and picture frame makers...

Printers

Beershop keepers

Furriers and skinners

Refreshment rooms

Saw mills

Schools

Unoccupied

Number of Fires.

1879. 1878. 1877. 1876.

Remainder, yarjing from 9 to i

399

172

58
32
30
30
29
27
25
25

24
23
23
20
18
17
17
15
>5
H
>3
13
13
12
12
12
12

II
II
II
II

10
10
10

i»»39
479

1,718

368
203
60
26
27
29
28
22
16
30
21
14
19
36
28
16

9
11

14
10

4
11

6
16

9
11

9
14

7
17
13
10
16

4
10

321
195
56
21
30
*5
25
15
13
23
17
13
21

23
29
II

16
20

10
10

7
6

9
7
4

22
13

327

193

41
10

7
13
11

6
11

14
10

(h) A. list of the fires classified under the causes to which they
haye been assigned, and arranged in the order of frequency of
occurrence : —

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1880.] The Fires of London and the Fire Brigade. 113

Cavset.

Nnmber
of Fires.

1. Unknown 402

2. Lamps (not gas) and lights (thrown down) 256

8. DefectiTe, or improperly set — flues, OTens, furnaces, boilers, stores, &c. 183

4. Sparks from fires, &c 17a

5. Qua (in various ways) 146

6. Candles 108

7. Overheating of— flues, ovens, furnaces, boilers, stoves, &c 90

8. Children plajing with fire, matches, &o 64

9. Hot ashes 48

10. Airing and drying stoves 40

11. Foul flues 39

12. Boiling over, or upsetting of fat, pitch, &o 30

18. Smoking tobacco 24

14. Spirits, or vapour of spirits, in contact with flame 24

15. Spontaneous ignition 20

16. Lime slaking by rain and otherwise 14

17. Lucifer matches 14

18. Doubtful II

19. Burning rubbish 5

20. Incendiarism 5

Miscellaneous, varying from 3 to i 23

Total 1,718

(c) The usual sninmaries attached to the report for 1879
further show : that of the months, the greatest number of fires
occurred in December (211), and the smallest number in July
(113) ; that of the days of the week, the largest number of fires
(268) occurred on Saturday, and the smallest number (212) on
Monday ; and that of the hours of the day, the greatest number of
fires occurred between the 7th and 12th hours p.m., and those most
exempt from such disaster were the 5th to the 11th hours a.m.

With reference to the daily summary, the following table, which
gives the totals of the fires for each day of the week for the last
ten years, shows on the average that the largest number of fires
occur on Saturday, and the smallest number on Monday. The
annual ayerage number of fires for the last ten years is 1,647.

YOU XUii- PART I.

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114

Miscellanea,

[Mar.

Tears.

Sunday.

Monday.

Tuesday.

Wednesday.

Thursday.

Friday.

SatonlHy.

Total.

1870....

290

252

2«;8

266

300

258

322

1,94^

71....

286

202

802

271

258

276

1,842

72....

199

206

ii3

207

220

229

1,494

73....

202

209

137

199

230

243

228

1,548

74....

222

228

195

240

231

229

1,573

75....

200

208

231

227

236

209

223

1,529

76....

260

218

226

236

242

221

230

1,682

77....

192

218

212

224

243

216

228

1,533

78....

260

191

271

234

236

253

1,659

79....

235

212

231

267

264

251

268

1,718

Total-

2.346

2,139

2,354

2,346

24^0

2,343

2,486

16,474

The condition of the brigade is reported to be in all respects
satisfactory, and Captain Shaw in his report recommends two fire-
men for special merit in saving life from fire, who collectively saved
six lives dnring the year.

m. — EngliJsh Literature in 1879.

The following particnlars are taken from the Publishers'
Circular of 31st December, 1879, in continuation of a series of
similar extracts for previous years : —

" Comparing the yield with that of 1878, we find that the total
of books issued during the year is 5t834 against 5,314 in 1878.
Of these 4,294 are new books, 3,730 being the number of new books
chronicled for 1878 ; of new editions there are 1,540 as against
1,584 new editions in 1878. The various classes show compara-
tively as follows, new books and new editions together : — Divinity
is 40 per cent, in advance of last year in point of numbers;
education has the same increase ; fiction and juvenile works are
about on a par with those of 1878 ; law, jurisprudence, &c., have
afforded about 20 per cent, more books in 1879 than in 1878 ;
political and practical matters, art and illustrated books, about
half as many again as the preceding year ; geographical research,
travels, history, &c., show a large increase; as against practical
treatises, poetry, and the drama are not so well represented, being
fewer by some sixty or seventy books ; of the rest we may say,
that about the average increase is kept up.

" It is worthy of remark, that the relative activity of the year
just ended, is greater than the gross numbers lead one to think.
The proportion of new books as compared with new editions is in
1879 much greater than in 1878. In 1879 the new books are
not far from three times the number of the new editions ; in 1878
the new books wore about two and a half times as many as the
new editions.

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1830.] English LUercUure in 1879.

Analytical Table of Books Published in 1879.

115

Subject*.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Not.

Dec.

Total of
Books on each

Subjecfc
for the Y-ear.

Theology, sennons,!
biblical, &c J

Edacational, classi-l
cal, and philo- >
logical J

Jurenile works and 1
tales J

Norels, tales, and 1
other fiction j

Law, jurisprudtooe, "1
Slc J

Political and social l
economy, trade >
and commerce .... J

Arts, science, and!
illustrated works J

Voyages, travels, "|
and geographical V
research J

History, biography, T
&c J

Poetry and the \
drama j

Year books and 1
serials in volumes j

Medicine, surgery, \
&c J

Belles lettres, essays, 1
monographs, &c. J

Miscellaneous, in- 1
eluding pamphlets, >
not sermons J

•73
t36

•94
t32

•13
t 8

•51

t28

•15

• 4
t3

•34
14

•19

tio

•32

•16

•57

• 9
t3

•15
t3

•68

tio

36
27

59
27

7
4

3&
17

11
6

17
2

13
3

21
6

9
5

64
20

51
20

10.
9

49
44

15
6.

30
8

86
6

51
20

37
11

8
4

40
33

7
4

8
1

17
3

17
5

47
21

58
12

34
17

9
4

34
6

4
2

28
20

4
5

3
1

5
6

7
2

12
4

103
45

25
5

72
41

11
5

12
3

31
14

27
3

3&
11

12
5

643

384

430

416

624

446

400

340

206

697

653

595

775
811

i,c86

613
215

8a8

153
61

214

607

406

1,013

102
55

157

lai

268
85

353

228

298

319

403

150

286

136
53

136
43

422
94

191
286
189
179

5.834

• New books.

t NeweditionSk

The analytical table is divided into fouarteen classes ; also new
books and new editions : —

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116

MuceUanea.

[Mar.

IMnricnu.

1878.

New
Booki.

New
Edition!.

1879.

New
Books.

New
£cUtiuni.

Theology, termons, biblical, &o

Educational, classioal, and philological....

Juvenile works and tales

NoTels, tales, and other fiction

Law, jorisprudence, &o

Political and Bodal economy, trade and 1

commerce J

Arts, sciences, and illustrated works

Voyages, travels, geographical research .,

Histoiy, biography, Ac

Poetry and the drama

Year books and serials in Tolumee

Uedicine, surgery, &o

Belles lettres, essays, monographs, &c

Miscellaneous, including pamphlets, 1

not sermons J

531
424
819
447
93

138

119
147
812
200
225
176
409

195

8,780

208

162

129

432

118

156

122

1*584

5,814

775
613
153
607
102

268
228
819
150
286
136
186

422

4,294

311
i>5

61
406

85
70

84
11

53
43

1.540

5,884

IV.— German Literaiwre of 1878 amd 1879.

The following is taken firom the Fublishers^ Gircular of 2nd
February, 1880 :—

" Systematic view of the literary productions of the German
bookselling trade in 1878 and 1879, extracted from the BorsenblaM: —

1. Collections or sets of works— literary histoiy, 1

bibliography j

2. Divinity

8. Law, politics, statistics, trade

4. Therapeutics, yeterinary

5. Natural histoiy, chemistry, pharmacy

6. PhUoeophy

7a. Education, German school-books, physical 1

education j

7ft. Juvenile books

8. The classics and oriental languages, anti-1

quities, mythology j

9. Modem languages, old German

10. Histoiy, biography, memoirs, letters

11. Gheoeraphy and travel

12. Mathematics and astronomy

18. War, hippology

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1880.] Emigration and InumgroMo* in the Tear 1879.

117

14. Mercantile science, teclinology

15. Machinerj, railways, mining, nautical

16. Hunting and forestry

17. Domestic economy, agriculture, gardening

18. Belles lettres, novels, poems, drama, &c

19. Fine arts — painting, music, Ac. ; shorthand

20. Popular literature, almanacks

21. Freemasonry

22. Miscellaneous

28. MaigB

Total

187a

18,912

1879.

577

882

384

118

103

886

42 f

1,181

1,170

571

584

715

642

840

378

293

300

14.179

V. — Emigration cmd Im/inigrcUum in the Yea/r 1879.

The following is a copy of Mr. Giffen's Report to the Secretary
of the Board of Trade, relating to Emigration from, and Immigra-
tion into, the United Kingdom in the year 1879 : —

" Sir, — In submitting a year ago the tables of emigration
and immigration for the year 1878, 1 had to call attention to certain
changes in the figures, as compiured with the years immediately
previous; the number of emigrants having increased, while
immigration continued to decline, so that the balance of emigra-
tion, i.e., the excess of emigrants over immigrants, had increased
in still greater proportion than the increase of emigration itself.
The figures of increase and decrease were, however, so small, as
only to raise a presumption that emigration had once more begun
to augment after declining for several years ; it remained to be seen
whether the current would continue to flow, and would flow more
strongly, in the direction in which it had set. The tables of 1879,
which I have now to submit, appear to answer the question in the
affirmative. There is a farther increase of emigration in 1879 over
1878, that increase being also more considerable than the similar
increase in 1878 over 1877; there is also a farther decline in
immigration, and consequently a farther considerable increase in the
excess of emigrants. It is also noticeable, as we shall see, that
some of the concomitants of the increase of emigration in 1878 are
again observable as regards the much larger increase of 1879. It
is again to the United States and British North America that the
additional emigrants have departed ; the increase in the emigration
to Australia, which had not ^llen off as that to the United States
and North America had done, being inconsiderable.

'' The exact figures as to the increase of emigration, decline of
immigrationy and increase of the excess of emigrants, are as
follows : —

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118

IfiseeUoMea.
(a) Increase of Emigration.

[Mar.

Total, hidoding
Foreigner!.

Emisranti

ofBriUihaitdlrUh

Origin only.

Number of emiflrants in 1879

it7»i63
147,663

164,274
U2,d02

locroMc .....1...

69,500

51,372

*' Thus the increase of emigrants of all nationalities is 69,500 as
compared with am increase in 1878 over 1877 of 27,692 only; and
the increase of emigrants of British and Irish origin only, the
main fact to deal with as far as this conntrj is concerned, is 51,372
as compared with an increase in 1878 -over 1877 of 17,707 only.
These increases, it will also be remembered, compare with a decline
which had been going on for several years down to 1877.

(i) Decrease of Immiffratum,

Total, including
Foreigners.

Immigrants

of Britisb and Irish

Origin only.

Nwmber t^f imwiicrTAnfia In 1S78

77,951
53,973

54,944
87,936

° ' ' »ijn

Decrwu* in 1879

23*978

17,008

** Thus the number of total immigrants has fallen from 77,951 to
5 3, 97 J, and the number of immigrants of Britisk-and Irish origin
only has fallen from 54,944 to 37,93'6. The decrease in 1879 as
compared with 1878, is also greater than in 1878 as compared with
1877.

"It clearly follows from these figures, that the excess of
emigrants in 1879 must have been much greater than in the two
previous years, aa will be more clearly perceived from the following
additional summary: —

(e) Increase of Excess of EmigramU,

Total Emigration

and

Immigration.

Emigration

and ImniigratioB

of Pen>ons of

British and

Irisb Origin only.

Number of emigrant in 1879 «...

ixpmiffTaTitff ..

217,163
53r973

164,274
37,936

Exoess of emigrants »

CoiresDonciinff excesa in 1878

163,1^

69,712

3«Wi3
44,665

126,388
57,958

vrrepo mg 77; :::.,

81,305

'76

88,066

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1880.] Emigration cmd Immigration in the Year 1879. 119

**Thn8 the excess of emigrants — the loss of populaHon to the
United Kingdom through more people going to places oat of
Europe than come back from those places — is very much greater
in 1879 than in any of the three previous years. As regards
persons of British and Irish origin only, the excess of emigrants
in 1879, amounting to 126,338, is more than double the excess in
1878, which amounted to 57,958 ; more than four times the excess
in 1877, when the figure was 31,305 only; and between three and
four times the excess in 1876. From being only nominal in the
previous two or three years, the emigration in 1879 has, in fact,
risen to an appreciable total.

" Into the causes of this increase of emigration this would
hardly be the place to enter, as there are no data obtained in the
collection of the statistics themselves which throw light on the
matter. I may be permitted, however, to suggest a reference to
the statement in my report for 1875, in which I drew attention to
the decline of emigration, which always appeared to occur in years
of depression in this country and the United States.* The coin-
cidence of the present increase of emigration with a revival of
trade which has been making progress in the United States for the
last two years, and in this country during the latter part of 1879,
appears so far to confirm the view that a great falling ofE in
emigration is among the signs of a depressed period in this country.

" It remains to be seen, however, whether the amount and rate
of emigration will, with the revival of trade, return to their
former level, or whether the tendency is not to a gradual but still
appreciable decline from period to period. The degree of falling
o£E in 1877 and 1878 was certainly very remarkable, but it is
difficult to compare it properly with earlier years on account of the
imperfect record, or rather absence of record, of immigration
which previously 'existed. In the absence of a better test, then,
the actual decline •of immigration at a time when emigration
increases appears important. It would seem to be a natural
inference from ithis cireumstance that there is always a certain
amount of " tentative " emigration, and that of those who go away
a larger numbeo* stay in the countries to which they depart in good
times than in times when trade is depressed. Thus the diminution
of immigration in a year like 1879 is a sign of the operation of
causes which are likely to promote emigration for some time after-
wards. By-and-bye, as emigration increases, immigration will
increase ioo, till at last, when the tide is again turning, immigra-
tion will be large in the face of declining emigration, and there
will be a small excess of emigrants ; but for the present, judging
by past statistics, we seem to be at the comparatively early stage of
a new tide of emigration. In confirmation of this opinion, it seems
sufficient to glance at No. 15a of the tables annexed to the Report.
It will there be seen that between 1870 and 1873, emigration and
immigration both increased, but there was very little increase in the
excess of emigrants ; that in 1874 there was a large decrease of
emigration coupled with a large increase of immigration, so that

* This report was a departniMital paper only, and was not presented to
parliament.

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120

MisceUwnea.

[Mar.

the excess of emigrants showed a large diminutioii, the exact
contrary of what is now occurring ; and that from 1874 to 1877
there was a steady decline of both emigration and immigration,
but more in the former than the latter, so that the excess of
emigrants declined. It seems reasonable to infer that the present
movement is Ukely to follow the same course, and will be followed
by an increase of both emigration and immigration, accompanying
a considerable net emigration, and then by a decrease of both,
accompanied by a very small net emigration. Of course I do not
put forward any such opinion authoritetively, the sole object being
to call attention to what seems the bearing of the figures when
compared with those of former periods.

'^ It has already been stated incidentally that the principal part
of the increase of emigration, as was the case last year, is to the
United States and British North America, in which, as I had often
occasion to point out in former reports, the chief falling off in
previous years occurred. The point seems deserving of fuller
statement. The inference from the former falling o£E was that the
natural stream of emigration was to North America, and the
emigration to Australia was only steadier because it was not so
completely self-supporting; and this inference is apparently sup-
ported by the direction of the stream of emigration when trade
becomes good. Almost all the increase goes to North America and
very little to Australia. Thus, taking all emigrants, including
foreigners, we find that out of a total increase of 70,000 in 1879,
compared with 1878, no less than 53,000 is an increase of emigra-
tion to the United States and 9,000 to British North America,
leaving only 8,000 as the increase to all other places, including
Australia. The increase to America, moreover, is about 65 per
cent., whereas to Australia it is very little over 13 per cent.
Dealing with the emigration of persons of British and Irish origin
only, we find that while the total increase as above stated is 51,372
persons, the increase to the United States only is 37,112 persons,
and to British North America, 7,300 persons, leaving only 7,000 as
the increase to all other places, including Australia. Here, again,
the increase to North America is 69 per cent., and to Australia only
about 12 per cent. And we get a still more striking comparison,
when we look at the figures of the excess of emigrants for a series
of years, as exhibited in the following table : —

Destinations of Excess of Emigrants over Immigrants amona
British and Irish Origin only in the Undermentioned Y

Persons of
ears.

Coantry of Emigntion

Excess of Emignnts in

and Immigntion.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

United States

(-) '43»
2,706
29,617

603

2,033

26,501

8,168

20,654
4448

584

71,758

14,456

85,992

4,183

Sritish. North. America

All other parte

38,065

81,305

57,958

126,388

* Excess of immigrants.

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1880.] EmxgraUon and Immigration in the Year 1879.

121

" Thus, of the whole addition of 69,000 to the net emigration
last year, 51,000 is to the United States, 10,000 to British North
America, and only the remainder, or 8,000, to all other places. The
iocrease in the case of the United States, again, is from 20,654 to
71,758, or more than 240 per cent.; and, if the years 1876 and 1877
are compared, is practically an increase from zero to this large
figure. The increase in the case of North America is from 4,448 to
14,455, ^^ about 230 per cent. ; and in the years 1876 and 1877 is
from about 2,000 to 14,000, or a multiplication of the minimum
number by seven times. But the increase in the case of Australasia
is from 32,272 in 1878, and 25,501 in 1877, to 35,992 in 1879, or at
the rate of rather more than 10 per cent, in the former case, and
rather less than 30 per cent, in the latter. In other words, the
natural stream of emigration to North America, which was almost
wholly suspended in 1876 and 1877, and which began to flow a
little in 1878, haa once more swollen to dimensions greatly in excess
of the comparatively steady emigration to Australasia.

'* Another sign of what appears to me the increase of natural
emigration in 1879, is the circumstance of its corresponding very
closelv to the increase of steerage passengers outwards, the number
of caoin passengers remaining stationary. We get the following
comparison : —

Numbers of Cabin and Steerage Passengers Leamng the United Kingdom
for Places out of Europe, in each of the Years 1876-79.

Yean.

Cabin Pasaeiigeri.

Steerage Passengers.

Total.

1876

41,900

37,147
43,168

43,9*8

96,322

82,824

104,495

178,235

138,222
119,971
147,663
217,163

»78

•79

*' There can be no doubt that, as a class, emigrants go as steerage
and not as cabin passengers, and the increase of steerage passengers
is practically an increase of emigrants.

" Another subject which has been specially dealt with in former
reports is the composition of the emigration from the United
Eangdom. It has been shown that the proportion of Irish persons
in the total emigration from the United Kingdom, which used to
be 50 and 60 per cent., and as late as the five years ending 1875
amounted to 34 per cent., had, since the latter date, fallen to 24 per
cent. Now it would seem that, while the numbers are again
increasing, still it is only pari passu with the increase of the
numbers of English and Scotch emigrating, the proportion being
still 25 per cent, only, as compared with 26 per cent, in 1878 and
24 per cent, in 1876 and 1877.

** The following table showing this is in continuation of a similar
table in former reports : —

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122

Miscellanea.

[Mar.

StatemeiU of the N^tmber and Proportion of Persona of English^ Scotch,
and Irish Birth respectivdy, in the Total Emigration of Persons
of British Origin, at Diffei'ent Periods,

Engluh.

9«*d..

Iridi.

Period.

Nomber.

Per-
centage

of
ToUl.

Kumber.

PeP-

oenUge

of
Tout

NMber.

Per-
centMge

of
ToUl.

ToUl.

Three jean, 1858-55
Five years.... '56-60

„ .... '61-65
.... '66-70

„ .... '71-75
Year 1876

211,013

243,409

236,888

368,327

545,015

73,396

63,711

72,323

104,275

30
39
33

«7
«♦
64

62,514
69,016
62,461
85,621
95,055
10,097
8,663
11,087
18,708

9
10

10
ao
9
9
10
If

421,672

915,059

418,497

400,085

829,467

25,976

22,831

29,492

41,296

61
5«

58
47
34
24
24
26

695,199
617,484
717,796
854,033
969,537
109,469

95,196

»78

112,902

„ '79

1^274

'* How small the t«tal of Irish emigration still is, as compared
with that of former years, is shown by the following table, which is
likewise continued from former reports : —

Annual aTorage, 1861-70 81,858 persons

Year 1871 711067 „

„ *72 ^ „ 72,763 «,

„ 73 83,69a „

» '74 , ^ 60,496 „

>} '75 4»»449 »»

i» '76 25,976 „

„ '77 - ~ 22,831 n

» '78 29^.91 ».

„ '^9 ^ ^ 4>»»96 ,1

" In proportion to the popnlstion, however, the Irish emigration
is still larger than that of Great Britain.

^' The nsaal tables have been added, showing, in detail, the
nnmber, sex, and destination of the emigrants, distinguishing
between adnlts and children, and between married and single
among the adnlts, and showing also the occupations of the adults.
With regard to these, the only point to which I would call atten-
tion, on comparing the tables with those of former years, is the
great increase of certaim classes of emigrants of British and Irish
origin during the past year. The ' general labourers ' number
28,504, compared with 13,701 in 1878, and 9,816 in 1877; the
* farmers ' number 5,382, compared with 3,296 in 1878, and 2,477
in 1877; the * miners and quarrymen ' number 3,933, compared
with 1,176 in 1878, and 1,428 in 1877; the 'males, occupation not
stated,* number 13,353, compared with 10,995 in 1878, and 9,767
in 1877 ; the * females, occupation not stated,* number 37,594,
compared with 27,363 in 1878, and 23,531 in 1877. In such classes
as ' gentlemen, professional men, merchants, <fec.,' there is hardly

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1880.] Rates of Life Insurance Premiums. 123

any change in 1879, compared with the two previons years, a fact
which seems to lead to the same inference as the increase of steerage
passengers during the last two or three years, while the number of
cabin passengers has remained stationary.

^' Tables are also given, as usual, containing a statement of the
number of emigrants embarking from different ports of the United
Kingdom, particulars of detention money recovered by emigration
officers, and statement of remittances by settlers in the United
States or British North America to their Mends in the United
Kingdom, besides comparative tables. I may again repeat, how-
ever, the observation in my last report, that the data as to the
remittances by settlers to friends at home are necessarily most
incomplete, and the figures are only givem quantum, valeant, and to
continue those formarly published.

(Signed) " R. OnrBN."

VI. — Bates of Life Insuramee Premivms.

The following is taken from the Statist of the 17th of January,
1880, being No. 7 of a series of special articles on " Insurance
Companies' Accounts,^ that have appeared in that paper : —

*' In the course of ihe various special articles which we have
published, and which we have in preparation, on the accounts of
the different insurance companies, it has been necessary to refer in
each case to the rates of premium charged. The ideal company is
of course one which charges the lowest possible rate of premium
consistent with safety, at the same time using ap the smallest
possible portion of that premium in expenses and proprietors'
profits, and investing the funds to the best advantage in suitable
securities. Hence the primary necessify for referring to the rates
of premium, while there are other secondary reasons, such as the
comparison of the proportion of expenses actually incurred, and the
proportion allowed for in the loading, among companies charging
the same, or nearly the same rates of premium, and the comparison
of the amounts returned as bonuses, the companies which charge
the highest premiums being of course bound to give the largest
bonuses, if their policy holders are to be treated equally. But it is
not easy to compare the rates of different companies. They have
mostly different scales, according as the policy holders are entitled
to participate in profits or not, and according to other conditions
of insurance. In comparing particular scales, it is found, as it
ought to be, that there are differeant premiums for each age, from
20 or even a lower age to 50 and upwards, and that the companies
are not uniformly dearer or chea^r at all ages, but that some which
are cheaper than others at ages under 30 are dearer at the ages
above that, and vice versA, How, then, find a common term of
comparison ? Hitherto, following a usual practice, we have com-
pared what are called the * with profit ' premiums to insure lOo/.

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124 MUcdUmea^ [Mar.

at death at three ages, viz. : 21, 31, and 41 ; but this is not wholly
satisfactory. It is right, we believe, to select the *with profits'
premiams for comparison; most of the business of insurance
companies being insurances for the whole term of life, with a right
to participate in profits — ^in mutual companies the whole of the
profits, and in proprietary companies three-fourths or four-fifths,
and sometimes nine-tenths of the whole. But the method assigns
no relative value to each of the three ages, and a more extended
comparison would clearly be useful. We propose to give such a
comparison in the present article. For this purpose we have com-
pared the *with profit' premiums for the whole of life of the
oifEerent companies at the ag^ between 26 and 41 inclusive, these
being obviously the ages at which the bulk of insurance business
must be done; and to obtain a single figure for comparison, wo
have added together the premiums at each age, sixteen in all, and
divided them by this number of sixteen, so as to give the average
or mean of the whole. To be scientifically correct, we should have
compared all ages and allowed each to enter into the avei*age only
in the proportion of the amount of business done at that age to the
whole business, but this would be obviously impossible, there being
no general statistics embracing all companies of the ages at which
insurances are effected ; while even if it were possible, there would
be the farther difficulty that the proportion of business at each age
done by a particular company would vary from the general average.
It seems to us, therefore, practically useful, though not scientifically
perfect, to compare the premiums between 26 and 41 in the way we
nave done, that is, assigning an equal value to each age. Our
readers will, of course, understand that the companies might be
ranged somewhat differently than they are on our list if the com-
parison embraced all ages, and if each age affected the comparison
only in proportion to the actual amount of business done. All we
have proposed to do is to make a list which may be useful in the
absence of anything better.*

" The general results of the table are obvious enough. Out of
ninety- two companies which we have been able to include in our com-
parison, having an aggregate premium income of I2,i63,75i/,,t it
appears that there are fourteen companies, with an aggregate pre-
mium income of 2,424,8 12/., where the mean annual premium at the
ages 26 to 41, to insure 100/. at death with profits, exceeds 2/. i6«. 3(f. ;
that there are twenty-six companies, with an aggregate premium

* As ojxt table shows, oar anthority for the preminms charged is the statistical
returns to the Board of Trade, under the Life Insurance Companies Act of 1870,
sixth schedule. In all cases we have taken the last returns in the blue books, and
it is possible, of course, that there are one or two instances where the companies
have since altered the scale of premiums. In one instance, the Equitable, where
there are no recent statistical returns in the blue book, we have taken the figures
from the published tables of the company.

t As the number of companies and amount of premium income dealt with are
different from those in our article of 9th August last, showing the proportion of
expenses to premium income, it may be useful to explain that it has not been
possible in all cases to compare the companies in our former list, some of them
taking weekly payments, and there being other difficulties.

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1880.] Bates of Life Insurance Premmms, 125

income of 4,563, 109Z., where the mean annual premium exceeds
2L I5«., and does not exceed 2/. i6s. ^d. ; that there are thirty-three
companies, with an aggregate premium income of 3,1 14,910/., where
the mean annual premium exceeds 2L 139. gd,, and does not exceed
2 1. IC9. ; that there are eleven companies, with an aggregate
premmm income of 1,036,124?., where the mean annual premium
exceeds 2/. i28. 6d,y and does not exceed 2L 135. 9^ ; and that there
are eight companies, with an aggregate premium income of
1,024,796/., where the mean annual premium does not exceed
2 1. 128. 6d. The bulk of the companies, numbering seventy, are in
the second, third, and fourth lists, their aggregate premium income
being 8,714,000/., or 72 per cent, of the total ; and this means that
most of the companies have average premiums at the ages referred
to not differing in the most extreme case by more than about 6^ per
cent., that being the difference between a mean annual premium of
2/. i6s. ^d. and another of 2/. i2«. 6d, A considerable addition
might be made to this from the lower part of the first table, where
the mean annual premium exceeds 2/. 165. 3 c?. by a very small
amount ; but the facts as they stand are very striking. Whatever
differences there may be at particular ages, still between 26 and 41
on the average, there is great likeness in the premiums which our
insurance companies charge. The difference between 2/. i6«. ^d.
and 2/. 126. 6d., considering the objects for which insurances are
effected, and the proportion of the payment, as a rule, to the whole
income of the insurers, is practically inappreciable. It amounts to
a difference of i/. 17*. 6d. on the sum required to insure 1,000/., the
difference, namely, between 28/. 28. 6d., the sum required at a rate
of 2/. 168. 3c/., and of 26/. 5^., the sum required at a rate of 2/. 12s. 6d.
To a man whose income would suggest the expediency of an insurance
for 1,000/., the difference between 28/. 2s. 6d. and 26/. $8. would
hardly be appreciable. On an income of 500/. it would not be more
than 0'4 per cent. Security being the main element sought in
insurance, the least shade of doubt about the cheaper company
would justify and induce an insurer to seek the dearer one, when
the difference between cheaper and dearer is really so little. The
limits of difference as reg^ards many particular companies are of
course still less.

"Nor can it be said that at certain ages the differences are
greater. Looking down the different columns it will be seen fchat
at the extreme ages, where the differences are apt to be greatest,
these differences are still very limited. The highest at the age 26,
in Tables 11, III, and lY, is 2/. 6s. 8c/., and the lowest 2/. 2s. 4c/.,
which is at most a difference of 10 per cent. ; while the highest
at the age of 41 is 3/. gs. gd., and the lowest 3/. 49. gd.^ or a
difference of 7 per cent. only. At the intermediate age, which
appears to be 34, the rates correspond with singular closeness to the
mean of the sixteen ages, the highest being 2/. 16s. le/., and the
lowest 2/. 128. ^d. An examination of the tables will show that
the rates do approximate about age 34, those having the same mean
which start with a relatively high rate at 26 having a relatively low
rate at 41, and vice versdj and the ages from 30 to 34 being the
point where the two different scales approximate. Why this should

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126 Miscellanea. [Mar.

be so — why the companies should not be nniformly higher or lower
all through, as ought to be the case if they have the same scientific
basis, is an actuarial question on which we need not enter. But it
is obviously of practical interest to an insurer to know that while
the mean annual premiums of the bulk of insurance companies at
the insuring ages vary little, the extremes of variation at particular
ages within the same limits cannot be very much greater, and are
insignificant in a question of security, which is his main object in
insuring. This conclusion is absolutely demonstrated by the tables
which we have arranged.

" There remain two tables — Table I and Table V — about which
a remark or two may be added. A portion of the former, and
perhaps the whole of it, with the exception of the single company
that heads the list, which occupies a peculiar position, might even
be included with the second table, and still much the same remarks
we have made would apply. The difference between zl. iSs, 5^.,
which would then become the maximum, and the minimum of
zL 1Z8. 6c2., would still be comparatively immaterial in respect of
the main question for an insurer, while the difference would be still
less^ of 'course, between the maximum, and all but the few com-
panies near the minimum of zL izs. 6d. The extremes on either
side would also be extended in no greater proportion, the maximum
at age 26 becoming 2/. 98. id, and at age 41 becoming 3/. 115. 9^^.,
instead of 2I, 7*. %d, and 3/. 98. ^d. respectively. Adding the

Premium income of Table I to> the premium income of Tables II,
II, and IV, the- result would be that out of companies with a
total premium income of 12, 163,7 ciZ., the companies with a
premium income of 1 1,139,000^., or 91^ percent, of the total, charge
rates of premium which differ so little from each other that the
slightest shade of doubt about the security of a cheaper company
ought to incline the insurer ta the dearer. Of course the premiums
being ' with profit * premiums, a great difference will be made by
the various management of companies in respect of the risks they
take, the rate of interest earned, and the proportion of expenses to
the premium income, but the latter are the vital points and not the
differences in the rate of premium. A company with premiums
5 per cent, lower than a neighbouring company, a difference which
will include a wide range of companies, may manage so very much
better as not only to give more ample security than the dearer
company gives, but to insure a larger return to the policy holder in
the shape of bonus. As rega^rds most of the companies, therefore,
as between themselves, the comparison of their premiums only
serves to increase the importance of the other vital points to be
examined in insurance accounts.

"A more interesting point arises upon Table V, that which
includes the cheaper companies. These are only eight in number,
with a premium income of 1,02:4,796/. only, or 8^ per cent, of the
total, so that they are obviously a class apart from the others, and
it is obvious that if we were to include them we could no longer
say that the differences in the rates of premium charged are alto-
gether immaterial. No less than three companies are included, with
mean premiums of 509., or 5 per cent, lower than the minimum of

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1880.] Bates of Life Insurance Premiums, 127

Table IV, and there is one company — the Scottish Provident — with
a mean of 46*., or 12 per cent, lower than that minimnm. Between
these companies, and especially between the last of all, and the
companies in Table I, as well as the highest in Table II, there is
manifestly a great divergence, amonnting in the extreme case to
ai^ per cent., which is a very different matter from differences of
premium amonnting to 5 per cent, only, or perhaps amounting in
extreme cases to 7^ or 10 per cent. It may be true that an insurer,
if there is a shade of doubt,, should still prefer the dearer company,
even a difference of 21^ per cent, being only the difference between
29/. ^s. and it^l. in an insurance for 1,000^, or a percentage of less
than 1 1 per cent, on an income of 500Z. ; but the divergence is so
great as to suggest that there is a difference of principle in the
methods followed — that the higher rates are deliberately adopted,
or at least continued in practice, not because they are necessary for
safety, but for extrinsic and incidental advantages. What these
advantages may be will be a point for consideration; but if the
cheaper companies are right in their practice, as far as safety is
concerned, the choice as between them and the dearer companies
cannot necessarily be given to the latter, on the score of safety, on
a mere consideration of the premiums alone.

" Stich is an account of the tables themselves, and we may now
proceed to discuss some of the points they suggest. To some
extent the remarks already made have raised some of these points,
but explicit discussion may be ueefdl.

'* 1. The great divergence between the cheaper and the dearer
companfes raines an important point. If the che»p companies are
perfectly safe; as they seem to Be, what is the advantage or dis-
advantage of insuring in them compared with the dearer com-
panies ? The- extra charge for the latter above what is required for
safety seems very large. One of the very cheapest companies, the
Economic, has a proportion of 8| per cent, of expenses to its
premium income; and the still cheaper company, the Scottish
Provident, has a proportion of icr9 per cent. Adding to this latter
figure the percentage by which the premiums of the companies at
the top of the list exceed the lowest, or say 20 per cent., we make
out the loading in the highest premiums to be at least 30 per cent.
As some of the companies with these high premiums woric with a
proportion of expenses of only 5 per cent, or less, which is obviously
sufficient, it would thus seem, on a mere comparison of premiums
alone, that the excess of premiums in the ca^e of the dearer com-
panies above what is required for safety amounts to 25 per cent.
The same conclusion would be enforced by a consideration of the
position of other companies in Table V, or at the bottom of
Table IV, where the proportion of expenses to premium income
amounts to from 12 to 15 per cent., companies whose position and
general reputation entitle them to be regarded as safe. It would
also be enforced by an examination of the non.participating
premiums of some of the dearer companies, these being about as
low as the participating premiums of the Scottish Provident, and
yet, it may be assumed, leaving some margin over. The excess
above what is required for safety in the cafle of the dearer corn-

Digitized by

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128 Miscellanea. [Mar.

panies may even be more than 25 per cent., bnt we state a figure
"whicli appeal's to be justified by a comparison of the practice of the
companies themselves, quite apart from actuarial discussions, into
which we do not enter. The question, then, is, what advantage an
insurer gets by paying this 2 5 per cent. ? The advantage would
seem to be this — that the whole excess is an investment An
insurance of a certain sum being required for contingencies, the
insurer voluntarily adds to his premium in order to save indirectly
what he might not save directly. He assumes that he provides
sufficiently for the contingency of death if it should happen soon,
and if he lives to pay many high premiums the excess will be prac-
tically saved, and his familv will receive it. Along with this goes
a belief that probably the dear companies are the best and safest,
as they have a larger margin, and some such idea, it may be sup-
posed, helps at least to reconcile the insurer to paying a high
premium. And this belief and practice are not without excuse.
Certainly the general practice of English companies and of
insurers with them is not to be condenmed off-hand as unreason-
able. All that need be pointed out is that an insurer paying a high
premium necessarily counts on greatly adding to his policy by
bonuses; that these bonuses enter into his calculation; and that
an insurer paying a low premium is content with a more exact
arrangement. The latter acts with more theoretical correctness,
but the usage of the former is practical and English-like, and
eminently safe.

*' 2. As between most of the companies, there is no necessity
for regarding the rates of premium in judging of their manage-
ment in respect of the proportion of expenses to premium income.
A well informed correspondent in our columns suggested that it
was not quite fair to compare companies having low premiums with
companies having high premiums, for the same expenses, calculated
on an income from premiums at a low rate, woald bear a larger
proportion than when calculated on an income from the same
number of premiums at a high rate. But where the difference
between the rates of premium is 5 per cent., or less, this would
obviously be immaterial. A proportion of expenses amounting to
10 per cent., in the case of a company having 5 per cent, higher
premiums than its neighbour, would still amount to no more than
10^ per cent, in the case of the latter company. Where the differ-
ence was 10 per cent., an ampunt of expenses giving a proportion
of 10 per cent, in the one case would still only give 1 1 per cent, in
the other. Even where the difference of premium is as great as 20
per cent. — an extreme instance — an amount of expenses giving
a proportion of 10 per cent, in the one case would still only give
12 per cent, in the other. Where the differences in the amount and
proportion of expenses to income are at all serious, the consideration
of the difference in the rates of premium would not, as a rule, affect
very much one's judgment of the management of a company. The
lower the rate of premium, besides, the more necessity for care
about the expenses, the margin being so much smaller.

** 3. As already suggested, the important thing, as between most
of the companies, is obviously not their rates of premium but their

Digitized by

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1880.] Bates of Life Insurance Premiums. 129

management. The rates varying within limits of 5, 7, and even 10
per cent., it is qnite plain that dilEerences in the care with which
risks are taken, in the rate of interest earned, and in the proportion
of expenses to premium income, are more vital to insurers than
differences in the rates of premium. The insurer must judge as
best he can of these points, especially taking care, as regards the
rate of interest earned, to steer between the Scylla of companies
which are timid and lazy, and invest in solid securities enough but
without getting the rates they might obtain with greater vigilance,
and the Charybdis of other companies which venture too much
among securities not of the first class for the sake of a higher rate.
But as regards one of these points — ^he proportion of expenses to
premium income — the table we formerly published, and the essential
part of which we now repeat along with the statement of the pre-
mium, becomes an invaluable help. It is obvious that the point is
of cardinal importance. It may well be that a company charges 5 per
cent, more than a neighbour, but if the neighbour spends 1 5 per
cent, or more in expenses and profits, and the first company only
5 per cent., it is the first company clearly which it is most advan-
tageous to insure with. UnhappUy, as our table shows, there are
even greater differences between companies in the proportion of
their expenses to premium income. Insurers cannot be urged too
strongly to look to this point. The explanations of companies
where the proportion is highest, as to their getting new business
and the like, ought, of course, to be weighed, and our readers must
understand that we are not discussing at present all the bearings of
this question. We are only urging, in view of the great similarity
of premiums at the insuring ages, its very great importance.

**With these remarks we lay the tables of comparative pre-
miums before our readers. Apart from all other uses they have, we
cannot but believe that they will be useful for reference, and they
will be useful to ourselves at least in our future articles in ' placing *
the respective companies we discuss."

TOL, XLin. PIKT I. K

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

18D

MisoeUcmeck,

[Mbt.

Tables sktnpwff the. '' With Profit"* Premiumefop the Whok qf Life ta Inmre lool. at Death
the Mean Qf the PrenUume at theee Agee ; also the Amount of the Premiwm Income of each
in Order from the Highest to the Lowest Mean Annvfll Premium Charged * [Frim the

I. Compamiss with a Mean Annual

London Lifef

Hook

Law Life

Equitably.

Positive

Hand'in-Hand

Colonial

Norwich Ihuon (N.S.)

ScotdBh Sqaitable

„ Widows' Fund
„ Amicable ..

Bojal Exchange

United Kingdom ....

West of England ....

36.

«. d,

54 6
49 I

^9
49
46
45
4<5
47
47
47
47
47
45
46

27,

II5I

1151

^ 8,47 ..

47 10 48 II

48 7 49 7
48 « 49 7
48 6 49 7
48 5 49 6
48 149 3

46 10 48 4

47 9 48 10

29.

«. d.
67 9
62 8
62 8
62 8
50 7
49 4
60 1
60 8
60 8
60 8
60 7
60 6
49 6
60 -

80.

#. d.

59 3
53 5
53 5
53 5
5» -

50 8

51 4
51
51
5»
51
51

50 8

51 3

81.

62 11
62 11
62 11
62 11
52 10
62 -
62 6

82.

6z -

55 9

54 i»

53 9

#. d.
68 6
67 1
67 1
57 1
66 8

55 6

55 1

34,

#. d.

65 3

58 5

58 6

57 -

56 10

56 9

5« 9

5^ 9

56 6

86.

«. a.

67 -
69 10
69 10
69 10
69 11

68 9

68
58
68
68

58 2
68 2
58 -
57 11

II. Companies with a Mean Annual Premium

Mntual

Legal and G-eneral

PeUcan

Briton Med. and C^n.

National of Ireland ....

,, Provident ....

Provident

Atlas

Marine and G-eneral ....

Eagle:

National

Metropolitan Life

Provincial

University

Union

Eng. and Scottish Law
N. British & Mercantile

Imperial Life

Life Assoc., Scotland

G-uardian

Scottish Union§

Qresham

General

Prudential II

Alliance

Sun Life

«. d.

45
46
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
46

45 I

46 4
46 8

46-

45 3

46 3
45 4
45 -
45 I
44 5
43 9
43 9

s. d,

46 9

47 8
46 7
46 4
46 6
46 6
46 6
46 6

46 6

47 6
47 -

46 1

47 4
47 7
47 7
46 6

46 -

47 -

46 6

47 2
46 5
46 -
46 2
45 8
45 2
45 2

«. d,

47 10

48 ^
47 9
47 8
47 8
47 8
47 8
47 8

47 8

48 6
48 I

3
4
7
7
7
4

47
48
48
48
47
47
48
47
48
47
47
47
47
46
46

s, d.

48 11

49 6
49 -
48 10
48 11
48 11
48 11
48 11

48 11

49 7

49
48
49

2
5

6
8
8
8
7
1
8
8
9
5
7
4

47 11
47 11

<. d.

50
50
50
50
50
50
50

50 8
50 4

49
50
50

50 8

49 9

49 10

50 3
50 -
50 4
49 "
49 7
49 10
49 6
49 2
49 i

s. d.
61 4
52 -
51 8
51 4
51 6
51 6
51 6
51 6
61 6
51 10
51 6
51 1
51 10
51 11
51 10
50 11

51 1

51 5

51 -

51 5

51 2

50 9

51 1
50 9
50 6
50 6

s. d.
5* 7
53 4
53 1
5* 9
52 "
5a II
5a II

5* "
52 II

53
5i
5*
53
53
53
5^
5a
5a
5*
5i
52
5*
5^
5i

5
7
3
7
6

5
I

51 10
51 10

s. d.

54 -

64 8

54 6

54 8

54
54
54
54
54
64
54
64
54

4
4
4
4
4
4
2
1
4

54 8
54 8
58 6
53 10
53 10
53 9
53 10
58 10
58 5
53 9
58 6

53
53

s. a.

55 8

56 1
56 -
55 >o
55 >o
55 >o
55 10
55 «o
55 »o
55 8

54 II

«. d,

57 6

67 7

57 7

57 6

56 11

56 10

56 6

57 -
66 8
57 -
56 7
56 9
56 7
56 6
56 8
56 8
56 8

* In the case of companies doing a foreign or colonial business, the premiums for the home
t These payments, it is stated, are calculated to allow a reduction of 60 per cent, after
X Return for half-year only. § Amalgamated with Scottish National.

Digitized by

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18800

Bates of Life Inturwnee PrenUums.

131

of the undermentioned Life Insurance Companies at the Ages from 26 to 41 inclusive^ with
Company and the Proportion of Expenses to that of Income ; tM Companies being Classified
StatisticcU Returns to the Board of Trade under the Life Insurance Uompa/nies Act of 1870.]
Premifsm Sxceedimg iL i6s, ^d.

Meui

Proportiou

36,

37.

38,

39.

40.

41.

Annoftl
Pre-

Premium
Income.

of
ExpeoMi
to Premium

mium.

Income.

s. d.

*. d.

(2.

*. d.

«. d.

*. tf.

#. d.

Perent.

68 9

70 9

74 9

77 -

79 3

62 10

307,629

3*9

London Life t

61 4

62 10

66 2

67 11

69 9

58 5

142,867

IO'2

Bock

61 4

62 10

66 2

67 II

60 9

58 5

254,784

8-0

Law Life

61 4

62 10

66 2

67 II

69 9

58 5

149,706

5'5

Equitable

61 10

63 9

(>s

67 9

69 9

71 9

58 2

89,408

50*5

Positiye

60 7

62 7

«4

66 8

68 10

71 3

57 -

186,264

8-3

Hand-in-Hand

60 -

61 8

65 4

67 4

69 6

$6 10

9,177

75*1

Colonial

59 8

61 3

64 8

66 6

68 6

56 10

168,222

J3*i

Norwicb Union (N.S.)

59 9

61 3

640

66 3

68 2

56 9

204,345

13*1

Scottish Equitable

59 9

61 3

64 6

66 3

68 2

56 9

579,194

10*9

„ Widows* Fund

59 8

61 2

646

66 3

68 2

56 9

178,940

11-6

„ Amicable

59 8

61 2

64 6

66 3

68 2

56 7

138,960

io*9

Bojal Exchange

59 4

61 6

66 1

67 4

69 6

56 4

22.567

53*5

United Kingdom

59 5

61 1

64 4

66 1

67 11

56 4

103,249

12*3

West of England

2,424,812

Exceeding il. i^s. <

ffKJ not Exceeding zl. i6s. id.

s. d.

s, d.

#. <;.

s. d.

#. d.

PercnU

59 4

61 2

65 4

67 6

69 9

56 I

81,046

12-7

Mutual

59 1

60 8

64 1

65 11

67 10

56 -

140,067

io*7

Legal and General

59 3

60 11

64 6

66 5

68 5

55 I'

86,310

12*2

FeUcan

59 3

61 1

66 -

66 9

68 6

55 10

167,712

9*4

Briton Med. and Gen.

59 -

60 9

64 4

66 3

68 4

SB 9

14,280

H'o

National of Ireland

59 -

60 9

64 4

66 3

68 4

55 9

266,025

9*4

„ Provident

59 -

60 9

64 4

66 3

68 4

55 9

182,836

14-6

Provident

59 -

60 9

64 4

66 3

68 4

55 9

91,582

12-4

Athis

59 -

60 9

64 4

66 3

68 4

55 9

28,619

23 -8

Marine and General

58 7

60 2

68 7

65 5

67 4

55 9

132,103

9*7

Eagk:

58 7

60 3

63 10

65 9

67 9

55 7

66,203

11-9

National

59 «

60 9

64 5

66 4

68 6

55 7

147,814

5'i

Metropolitan Life

58 6

60 -

63 8

65 -

66 9

55 7

32,427

19*5

, ProTincial

584

59 9

62 11

64 7

66 4

55 6

51,232

10*9

University

58 3

59 9

62 10

64 7

m 8

55 6

97,523

14-2

Union

58 6

60 3

64 3

66 6

68 9

55 5

129,617

14-6

Eng.and Scottish Law

58 6

60 2

64 1

66 I

67 11

55 4

309,894

11-9

N.Briti8h & Mercantile

58 2

59 8

63 1

64 11

66 10

55 3

81,442

I3'4

Imperial Life

58 3

60 -

63 8

65 3

67 3

55 a

328,454

14-4

Life Assoc, Scotland

58 -

59 6

62 9

64 6

66 5

55 i

115,500

11-9

Guardian

58 3

69 10

63 3

65 -

66 10

55 a

159,609

J5'*

Scottish Union §

58 3

60 -

63 10

65 10

68 -

55 I

413,717

26-4

Gresham

58 z

59 10

63 5

65 4

67 4

55 I

95,303

20'I

, General

58 4

60 2

63 11

65 u

67 11

55 >

1,184,170

50'3

Prudential II

58 5

60 4

64 6

66 6

68 7

55 -

99,181

10-7

Alliance

58 5

60 4

64 6

66 6

68 7

55 -

130,448

H'3

Sun Life

4,563.109

busioess are taken for oompariaon.

seven parents.

II Including in expenses 141,000^. of special new bos

inesscharg

es.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

132

MisceUanea, [Mar.

III. Companies with a Mean Annual Premium

s, d.

Reliance

London & Provin. Law 45
Law, Property, and Life 44 1 1

3
5
I
6
3

Lir. and Lon. & G-lobe*
London and Southwark

Emperor

British Equitable .
Midland Counties .

Caledonian

SoTereign

London Assurance.

Law Union

United Kent

Rojal

Yorkshire

Queen

Scottish Commercial ....

Commercial Union

Scottish Imperial

Westminster and Qten.

Scottish National t

Patriotic of Ireland ...

Star

Masonic and General...

United King. Temp

Cler. Med. and Gheneral

Equity and Law

standard t

Imperial Union §

Qreat Britain

Sceptre

National Guardian ....
City of Glasgow Life....

44
45
45

44 10

45 -
44 9

3
3
6

S
9
7
9
10

9
3

44 1
44 I

27.

8, d,

45 4

46 3

45 11

46 -
45 6
45 7

45 3

46 5
46 5

45 11

46 -

45 10

46 3
46 4
45 9
45 11
45 8
45 11
45 9
45 -
45 2
45 -
45 -
45 -
45 -
45 -
45 3
45 3
45 1
45 -
44 10
44 9
44 8

28.

*. d.

46 8

47 5
47
47
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
46

47
47
46
46

46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46-

29.

8. d.

47 11

48 8
48 8
48 8
48
48

47 8

48 8
48 9
48 2
4S 4
48 2
48 6

48 7

48 4

48 2

47 11

48 3
48 2
47 7
47 9

47 6

47 7

47 6

47 8

47 9

47 2

47
47
47

47 2

30.

49 4
49 10
49 5

49 5

49 4

49 3

49 -

49 II

49 10

49 4

49 6

49 4

49 8

49 9

49
49

49 I

49
49

48 10

49 -
48 9
48 9
48 9
48 10
48 9
48 10
48 II
48 5
48 4
48 8
48 6
48 5

81.

8. d.

50 8

51 1
50 8
50 8
50 8

50 7

50 4

51 -
50 11
50 7
50 8

60 5
50 11

61 -
50 5
60 6
50 8

32.

«. d,

50 7

50 5

50 -

50 2

50 -

50 1

49 8

49 7

49 10

49 9

49 8

5»

51 -

50 II

33.

53 8
53 5

63 3
53 5

34.

63
53
53

53 3

52 10

53 '
52 11

52 8

53 -
52 9
52 9
52 9
52 9
52 9
52 11
52 8
52 8
62 4
52 6
52 5
52 4

*. d.

5S I

55 I

54 10

54 II
54 10
54 9

54
54
54

54 II
54 9
54 8

54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54

53 10

54 I
53 II
53 10

*. d,

66 9

56 6

56 5

66 6

56 6

66 2

66 1

56 3

56
66
56

66 2
56 3
56 -
56 -

55 9

56 10
55 10
55 10
55 10

55 11

56 «

55 7

56 9

55 10

56 8
55 8
55 6
55 8
55 6
55 5

t Amalgamated with Scottish Union. The

• With guaranteed bonus,
as yet of the amalgamated company.

§ In this case the policies are payable at specified ages as well as at death.

lY. Companies with a Mean Premium

British Empire

British Workman's .
Scottish Proyinoial .

Unirersal

Lancashire

Northern

Whittington

Edinburgh

Crown ,

Royal Farmers' ,

Church of England ..

8. d.

8, d.

8. d.

8, d.

43 5

44 8

45 10

47 -

48 3

43 I

44 3

45 6

46 8

47 II

41 II

44 3

45 7

46 10

48 I

44 4

45 6

46 7

47 8

48 10

44 -

45 -

46 -

47 -

48 6

43 I

44 4

45 7

46 10

48 -

43 6

44 6

45 8

46 10

48 -

43 -

44 1

45 3

46 5

47 7

4* 5

43 8

44 10

46 1

47 4

4i 4

43 7

44 10

46 1

47 5

42 6

43 6

44 7

46 8

46 10

8. d.

49 7
49 3
49 4
49 11
49 6
49 3
49 2
48 10
48 9
48
48

8. d.

50 II

50
50
51
50
50
50
50
50
9 I 50
1 49

#. d.

8. d.

62 5

53 10

55 4

52 1

•;3 8

65 2

62 1

53 7

55 2

52 3

53 7

54 11

52 -

53 10

55 -

51 11

Si 5

54 11

61 6

53 -

54 8

51 6

53 -

54 6

51 6

53 -

64 6

51 6

53 -

64 6

50 10

5* 4

53 11

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Bates of Life Insurance Premiums.

133

Exceeding 2I. 1

13*.

9£

and not Exceeding

2l.

15*-

Mean

Proportion

86.

87.

88.

89.

40.

41.

Annual

Premium

of
Expenies

Pro-

Income.

to Premium

miam.

Income.

s, d.

*. d.

«.

Percnt

58 4

60 1

63 11

85,400

21*1

Beliance

5« -

59 8

63 -

80,789

9'5

London &. Provin. Law

58 -

59 9

63 6

8,783

n'9

Law,Property, and Life
Liv. and Lon. & Globe*

58 -

59 9

63 5

235,341

9'4

f8 1

59 10

68 8

4,124

I5'0

London and Southwark

58 z

59 10

63 7

14,352

34>

Emperor

58 2

60 -

68 11

126,282

27*3

British Equitable
Midland Counties

57 8

59 8

62 8

2,741

I7*»

57 7

59 8

62 9

64,073

t6-8

Caledonian

57 11

59 7

68 2

74,652

14'3

Sovereign

57 10

59 5

63 -

159,455

9*9

IxHklon Assurance

57 8

59 4

63 2

65,728

»3*4

Law Union

57 7

59 -

62 4

21,514

11-6

United Kent

57 7

59 1

62 4

245,058

9*9

Eojal

57 6

59 3

63 2

41,433

12-3

Yorkshire

57 6

59 8

63 -

52,383

14-1

Queen

57 8

59 4

62 11

13,519

5^-6

Scottish Commercial

57 3

58 11

62 5

97,178

'4*3

Commercial Union

57 5

59 -

62 6

24,664

13*2

Scottish Imperial

57 6

59 8

63 3

46,182

20'9

Westminster and Gten.

57 6

59 4

62 8

98,206

i6-8

Scottish National t

57 6

59 8

63 -

9,571

8-5

Patriotic of Ireland

57 6

59 8

63 -

66 11

197,298

i6-2

Star

57 6

59 8

63 -

5,318

56-2

Masonic and (General

57 6

59 3

63 -

66 11

225,844

13*0

United King. Temp.

57 6

59 8

63 -

185,434

Cler. Med. and General

57 5

59 -

62 7

123,690

lOT

Equity and Law

57 3

58 11

62 6

675,222

13'7

Standard!

57 4

59 -

62 8

^^4

2,613

52-8

Imperial Union §

57 2

58 11

62 10

70,149

34*0

Ch-eat Britain

57 4

69 -

62 9

27,479

25*9

Sceptre

57 2

58 11

62 8

666

I2'3

National Guardian

57 -

58 10

62 6

134,919

14-2

Citj of Glasgow Life

3,114,910

last returns of each company in the blue books haye been made use of, there being no return
X Home scheme, with profits equal division.

Exceeding 2I. I2«. 6d. and not Exceeding il. 139. ^d.

9. d.

9, d.

*. d.

9. d.

*. d.

Feront

56 6

58 7

60 4

62 8

64 2

66 2

53 9

101,962

20*6

56 II

58 9

607

62 6

64 6

66 8

53 8

33,387

6\'6

S^ 11

58 8

60 7

62 6

64 6

66 3

53 7

129,924

>5*7

56 5

58 -

59 7

61 3

63 -

64 9

SI 7

121,239

10-5

56 6

68 -

59 9

61 6

63 6

65 6

53 6

60,498

11*4

56 7

58 4

60 I

62 -

63 II

65 10

53 5

167,581

9'9

56 4

58 2

60 2

62 2

64 2

66 2

53 5

40,013

28-7

56 I

57 9

59 6

61 8

67, 2

65 2

52 11

165,656

14-2

5<5 1

57 10

59 6

61 4

63 4

65 6

52 10

138,788

13*5

56 I

57 9

59 6

61 4

63 4

66 5

52 10

9,940

17*2

SS 8

67 6

59 4

61 4

61 6

66 9

52 6

77,186

14-4

1,036,124

British Empire

British Workman's

Scottbh Provincial

Universal

Lancashire

Northern

Whittington

Edinburgh

Crown

Eoyal Fanners'

Church of England

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184

MiseeUcm^a,

[Mar.
y. Compcmie^ with a Mean

London and Lancashire

Provident Clerks*

Wesleyan and General

Clergy Mutual

Argus

Friends Provident

Economic

Scottish Provident

9, d,
4* -
41 3
43 9
41 4

41 "

4Z I
40 -
38 6

27.

*. d.

43 8
42 7

44 -
42 6

42 1

43 -
41 -
39 2

*. d.

44 5
43 "

45 5
43 10
43 a
43 10
4* -
39 "

29.

9. d.

45 8

45 2

45 10

45 -

44 8

44 9

43 1

40 8

80.

9. d.
46 10

4^
46
4<5
45
45
44
41

31.

*. d.

48 -

47 7

46 11

47 6
46 8
46 9
45 5
42 6

32.

*. d,

49 3

48 10

47 5

48 8
47 II
47 9
46 8

43 5

88.

9. d

50 8

50 6

50 -

49 8

48 10

48 -

44 6

84.

9. d.
5^ »

51 9
5» 7
51 6

50 7
50 -
49 5
45 7

35.

58
58
52
58
52
51 2
50 11
46 10

II
8

£ 9.d.

Companies with mean premiums exceeding 2 16 3

M „ 2 15 - and not above 2^ 16«. Bd.
„ „ 2 18 9 ,» 21. 15*. -<i.
», „ 2 12 6 „ 2^ 13*. 9d.
„ Hot exceeding 2 12 6

Total

£
z,4a4»8i*
4»563»io9
3»iH»9»o
1,036,124

1,014,796

12,163,751

VII. — Sepori of a Committee with reference to the Gemw of 1881.

A COPT of the following Report, approved of, and adopted by
the Conncil, has been submitted to the President of the Local
Government Board.

The CoMHiTTEB AppoTNTiD hy the COUNCIL of the Statistical
SociBTT of London, wi the l^th November^ 1879, for the
Purpose of Considbbino " Whether any Suogistions can with
" advantage he Madk as regards Improvements in the Inquiries,
" or Machinery, connected wUh the Census (tf 1881,** herewith
siihmit their Report.

It appears to the Committee that the subject referred to them
divides itself into two branches : —

1. The nature and form of the inquiries to be made.

2. The form in which the information, when obtained, is ix> be

abstracted and published.

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1880.] Beport of a OommiUee €^h f^fe^^hce to the Cktrnts of 1881. 135
Premium not BxeeedU^g zL iik. 6d

MeM

PrOportioB

86.

»r.

88.

69. '

40.

4d^

▲nuual

Premiam

of
UKpeoftefe

Pre-
mium.

Income.

to Premiam
Income.

s. d.

*. d.

s, d.

*. tf.

^. <i?.

•. d.

Per cat.

SS 2

66 11

58 8

60 6

6*4

64 8

5* I

65,846

ire

London and Lancasliire

55 '

56 10

58 9

60 8

6i 8

65 2

51 II

94,219

13*9

Provident Clerks'

5» 7

63 7

56 8

61 10

^4 5

66 4

51 10

. 18,927

i9-i

Wealeyan and Gtenoral

548

56 '6

58 4

60 2

61 2

64 -

5^ 7

196,517

6-9

Olef gy Mutual

53 7

55 2

56 II

58 8

60 7

62 7

50 8

26,475

10*6

ArguA

52 5

58 8

55 t

56 ^

58 «

69 8

50 "-•

81,284

ii*i

Fridnd« Ph)vident

5^6

54 2

55 "

67 9

59 9

61 10

49 >!

227,281

8-6

Eoonomic

48 a

49 8

5« 3

52 11

54 9

56 8

46 -

824,297

10*9

Scottish Provident

1,024,796

As the Censns Bills will be soon laid before Parliament) and l^e
opiAiolU of the Gonii6il on the former branch should be stibmitted
withont delay to the Government, the Oommittee hare deemed it
desirable to oonfine their attention, in the first instance^ to that
branch, and to such points in the second brandi as ard necessarily
Connected with it, and to reserve iAiQVt suggestions on the latter for
a future report.

The Committed are of opinion i^^

1. That the results of the Census shdnld be presented to the
public, not^ as hitherto, in the form only of separate reports 6n the
three divisions of the United Elingdom, but in a general report oil
the whole Kingdom, iKdth tables exhibiting the more important
facts rekkting to ihe whole collectively. At the same time it is
desirable not to dispense 'with the separate reports hitherto pub^
lished.

2. That the same information should be obtained, and iDonse^
quently the sane form of inquiries should be adopted, throughout
the whole Eohgdom^ including the Isle of Man and the Channel
Islands*

The reasots for these reoomm^ndatiDns ore — ^That the past
arrangement makes it difficult for all but statistical adepts to ascer-
tain the leading facts relating to the population of the United
Kingdom at one view^ while the difficulty fwr adepts is greatly
increased by the necessity and consequent expense of procuring
thjree series of costly volumes ; or is even trendered insuperable by
the results being so classified in the three separate reports, and the
annexed tables, as to make it impossible to combine them in a form
applicable to the whole of the Kingdom^

8. That the occasion oi each recurring ^nsud shall be taken by
the Grovernment to require from all public departments under its
control who are charged with the supervision of any branch of the
national life, special reports, in as. much detail as will be practic-
able and useful, at the date, or as near as convenient to the date,
of the General Census.

As examples 4f tiie iaten^on of the Coijamittee» they woidd 4ite

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136 MiseeUanea, [Mar.

the Edacation Committee of the Privy Conncil, who can snpplj the
statistics of edncation, and render it nnnecessary to make inquiries
on this subject in the Householder's Schedule. The Local Gt>yem-
ment Board can supply detailed returns regarding pauperism, to
which the Commissioners of Charities can add further valuable
information. Beports from the Commissioners of Prisons and
Lunacy will throw light upon the subjects of crime and disease.
The Board of Trade can supply the agricultural returns in more
detail than usual; while the Inspectors of Factories and Mines
might furnish returns bearing upon the industrial condition of the
population.

The Committee, although deeply impressed with the import-
ance of obtaining an Industrial Census of the Kingdom, have hesi-
tated to recommend it on this occasion, looking to the careful preli-
minary consideration which must be given to the details of the
arrangements for its prosecution, and also to the additionaf expense
which its preparation would entail ; but they desire to record their
conviction that it is desirable that before the next following
Census, steps should be taken to combine such a census with the
general enumeration of that year.

In the meantime the Government may be able, from the sources
above indicated, and perhaps from large public companies having
the management of railways, docks, &o,^ &c., to procure a series of
returns, which, when brought together in an Appendix to the
General Census Report, will form a very important and valuable
addition to that document.

4. That it is desirable, for a variety of purposes, connected with
the growth and movement of the population, the provision of
sanitary arrangements, and the testing of the conclusions drawn
from the periodical returns of births, deaths, and marriages, that a
census should be taken every five, instead of every ten, years.

If the labour and expense of such a census in the same form as
that adopted for the Decennial Census should be deemed too great,
the Committee recommend that a nominal census only should be
taken, which would show the number of houses, and the number
and ages of the population. This, the Committee have reason to
believe, could be carried out, and its results could be abstracted
and published, at a small cost.

The Committee are satisfied that if a census were taken more
frequently, a machinery might be organised which would tend to
the enumeration being more accurately and more completely taken
on each occasion, and to the abstracts being more rapidly given to
the public.

They would call attention to the fact, that although the several
preliminary reports of the Census of 1871, taken on the 3rd April,
were furnished in the following June, the final reports, with the
detailed tables, were dated aa follows : —

For England and Wales 30th July, 1873.

„ Scotland Ist May, 74.

„ Ireland 29th Sept., 75.

Several causes appear to have contributed to the delay in the

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1880.] Beport of a Oommiitee with reference to the Census of 1881. 137

presentation of the Irish Beport, some of which will be obviated
on the approaching occasion, and the Committee will, in their next
report, recommend a change in the form of the Abstract Returns
which will greatij expedite the work.

With these preliminary general observations, the Committee
submit the following Recommendations to the Council, with the
suggestion that, if adopted, they should be forwarded without delay
to the President of the Local Government Board, together with a
copy of this report, both in print, for the convenience of perusal
and reference : —

Recorrnnendations.

1. That vdth a view to a General Beport upon the population of

the United Kingdom, to be prepared under such authority
as Her Majesty's Government and the Legislature may
decide, the same form of Householder's Schedule should he
adopted throughout the whole Kingdom.

2. That the Census of 1881 should embrace all the information

obtained on the laat occasion, vdth the additions hereinafter
suggested.

3. That in accordance with previous recommendations, and in

agreement with the Census of Ireland, and of most of the
British Colonies, including the most important, in 1871,
the religions profession of each inhabitant should be
obtained by the insertion of a column for that purpose in
the Householder's Schedule.

Note. — ^The Committee object to its being left optional
to persons to fill up this column, and to any limitation of
the heads under which they should describe themselves.

4. That in continuance of the inquiry snccessfully made in

Scotland in 1861 and 1871, information should bo obtained
thence, and for the other divisions of the United Kingdom,
as to the house accommodation, i.e., as to the number of
rooms in each dwelling house.

Note. — The density of the population in a district is
determined by the namber of inhabitants in a given space,
but the number of inhabitants which any locality can
accommodate with due regard to sanitary laws is resolved
by the number of houses used for habitation, and the
accommodation those houses afford. Thus from either
the greater housing capacity of the buildings, or the greater
proportion of inhabitable dwellings, one district can with
security to health possess a greater density of population
than another. A return of the number of rooms in each
house, and an enumeration likewise of the dwellings used
for habitation, are requisite for the proper consideration of
the subject.

t>. That "dwelling" houses designed for habitation should be
distinguished from those designed for other purposes, such
as stores, warehouses, school houses, factories, offices and
chambers, <&^.

6. That dwelling houses not in actual occupation, and '* being

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138 Miscellaned. [Hat.

" to let," should be difttingtliflh^d and feltedidfed feej>atately
in the abstracts.

NOTB.-^The difititoctiott hithettb adoj)tfei ^girding hotides
has been between inhabited and nninhabited houses, and
houses building. If the above two suggestians be adopted,
houses will be divided into :-^

Dweiling-houses — inhabited.

„ not inhabited.

„ of which "to let."

„ building.

Other builditgA.

7. That the headings of the last column Ibut one oi tte House-

holder's Schedule, for i-^cording the place " where bom,*' be
changed as follows, with the double object of adapting the
schedule to the whole of the Elingdom, and o^ eliciting the
birthplace of all British bom persons, instead of confimng
it to those bom in the same division of the Kingdom, as
at present.

PROPOftSD Form.
Where Bofn.

Opposite the names of those bom in the United Kingdom, write
the county, and town or parish.

If bom out of the United Kingdom, write the particular State
or country.

The Committee do not attach much value to the addition made
in the original schedule, viz. : — " And if also a British subject, add,
" * British subject,* or * naturalised British subject,' as the case
*' may be ; '* but to meet the case of the children of British parents
bom abroad, they would suggest the addition of the words, *' If of
" * British parents,' add those words."

8. That steps be taken to ascertain from What departments of the

Government, and from what public bodies, such reports
as have been suggested in the first part of this report
should be obtained^ and that timely measures b^ taken to
obtain them.

9. That in the instructions wit^ regard to filling up the cohimn

of Employments, care be taken to remove, as far as prac-
ticable, the difficulties which experience has pointed out as
hindering an exact definition and classification of the
occupations of the population.

10. That in making arrangements for the Census of 1881, they

should be framed with the prospect of a simili^, or an
intermediate partial, Census in 1886.

11. That for the promotion of municipal and sanitary objects,

of works of construction and production, and for other
useful purposes, means should be afibrded to the public of
obtaining, at a reasonable charge, more detailed information
regarding any locality than it is necessary or eonvenient
to supply in the gen^raJ tables*

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1880.] Notes on EcononUcal ^nd Statistical Works. 139

NoTB. — The Committee apprehend that the central
anthorities, by whom the Cenans is made and its results
are abstraoteo, must confine the abstracts to fixed and
recognised bonndaries, and that any variation from these
can only be designed by persons possessing local informa-
tion, and with a definite object in each case. The existence
of some permanent census machinery in connection with
the General Census Office, would facilitate the preparation
of such returns, as well as of those which the legislature
and the executive would, doubtless often, desire to obtain,
if the means of absti-acting them were in existence.

The Committee conclude this Report with the remark that the
first six of the above Recommendations and the ninth and tenth
are in substantial agreement with the Resolutions of the Council of
" The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science,"
which have already been brought to the notice of the Government.

RA.WS0IC W. RaW80N>

Ohairman*
Statistical Socistt of Loimolr,
7th February, 1880.

YlU.-^Notes «n Econofnieal and BtoHstiodl Works.

La Tra/nsformation des Moyens de Transpmi e^ ses consequences
^eOnomiques et sooiales. Pl»r Alfred de Foville, Chef de Bureau au
Minist^re des Finances, (fee. (Ouvrage conronn^ par TAcademie
des Sciences Morales et Folitiques.) Paris, Guillaumin et Cie.,
1880.

This able and interesting volume deals with a branch of what
may be termed social physiology. It treats of the development
and functions of means of communication. M. de Foville com-
mences by laying down the proposition that movement is as
essential to the life of a people as to that of an animal or a plant ;
and that according as the internal movement of a community is or
is not highly devdoped, the people composing it may be considered
as advanced or behindhand in civilisation. The cause of this
movement occurring in society is the necessity for exchange, both of
manufactured commodities and raw produce, and the equal or greater
necessity of rapid personal movement. And the need for the
exchange of these arises from the great differences in the products of
different parts of the globe, and in the characters of the men who
dwell in them. This process of interchange is the basis of modem
life, and " just as in the animal world, the degree of perfection of
each species is measured by the development of the apparatus of
circulation, in like manner the degree of civilisation of each people
may be measured by the importance, efficiency, and value of its
channels and means of communication." With this view of the
subject constantly before him, M. de Foville has carefully investi*
gated, first, the general development of meant of communication,

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140 Miscellanea. [Mar.

and next, the economic, moral, political, and other social effects
that have been produced by, or which have at all events appeared
simnltaDeonsly with, the snccessive stages of this development.
The book is pre-eminently, bnt by no means exclnsively, a book
about railways. The means by which the internal movements of
society were formerly effected have long since either succumbed
altogether, or have taken a new lease of life as assistants and
feeders to their conqueror. ** The principal peoples of Europe have
completed their main systems, and are only occupied in increasing
their ramifications." But the steamship, the canal, the electric
telegraph, and the tramway also receive the notice due to them.
The first part of the volume treats of the direct results of the
application of steam and electricity to the purposes of man. By
the direct results are meant not so mucn the actual physical
results, such as the existence of so many miles of railway in the
various countries, and of so much steam tonnage in their merchant
marines, but two general results, namely, the increase of speed
and diminution of cost. M. de Foville begins by endeavouring to
obtain an idea of the rapidity and cost of movement before the
introduction of railways. The data for this investigation are not
extensive, but he gives some very interesting facts r^arding this
part of the subject, in so far as it concerns France, in which
country locomotion was for a long time slower than elsewhere.
The tables relative to the speed attained on various railways in
different countries contain little that is novel, and it is the
question of cost on which the author has bestowed most pains.
Concerning the cost of travelling in the last century, M. de Foville
quotes from a guide book published in 1775, which is now rarely
met with. This curious work gives detailed estimates of all the
expenses of travelling in most of the countries of Europe. Th0
writer's notions of expense are those of a wealthy man, as may be
seen from the fact that he proposed to spend 340 frs. in England,
and 300 frs. in France per diem. The last official regulation affecting
post horses in France was issued in 1840. Previous to the introduc-
tion of railways, M. de Foville estimates the mean cost of locomotion
at 1 4 centimes per kilometre ; the cost of travelling by rail, even as
early as 1835, was about 8 centimes per kilometre. Since then, in
consequence of successive changes in the tariff, the mean cost has
fallen to 5*19 centimes. These amounts relate to passengers. The
saving as compared with the earlier modes of travelling is thns
about 55 per cent. M. de Foville does not overlook the fact of
the great expense of laying down railways. He gives a table,
showing the cost, per kilometre, of railways in various countries in
1858 to 1875. That cost is still much higher in England than any-
where else, but the cost has risen a good deal on the continent
during the period referred to. M. de Foville then examines the
tariffs of countries other than France. In England he finds the rates
rather higher than in France, not apparently making allowance for
rebates and other reductions, which very materially diminish the
actual cost of carriage here. The saving in the cost of travelling
effected by the introduction of steam was much greater here than
elsewhere, because the cost of titivelling was much higher in

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1880.] Notes on Economical and Statistical Worlcs, 141

England before that event. Belgium appears to have tried several
experiments in tariffs, without any very satisfactory result. As
regards the carriage of merchandise, M. de Foville estimates the
saving consequent on the employment of steam at about 75 per
cent, per ton kilometre. This calculation is probably correct as
regards France, though the taxes and some other charges are not
included in it, on the ground that they are a set off against similar
taxes on the older modes of transport, and also that the use of the
roads was practically gratuitous. As a curiosity among the tariffs
in force in other countries, M. de Foville cites those on some of
the wheat carrying lines of the United States in 1878-79, when
competition had driven them down to rates which were equivalent
to a charge of 1*2 centimes per ton kilometre. He quotes the opinion
of several able French engineers, that the railway tariffs can hardly
go lower, and are very likely to rise in future. The grounds of this
opinion are the tendency of wages to rise; butM. de Foville thinks
that this cause of increased cost naay be neutralised by improve-
ments in the working of the lines, and by judicious developments of
the traffic. In speaking of the increased security of modem
travelling, the author points to the defective information supplied
as to accidents affecting servants of the companies, and hints that
it would be well to imitate England in this matter. In France
there has been, it seems, no account of the accidents to i*ailway
servants published for any year later than 1869. Turning from
railways to roads, M. de Foville remarks that these latter have by
no means been rendered useless by the spread of railways, but have
on the contrary increased steadily in length, besides having more
spent on them per kilometre. Their function is chiefly to feed the
railways, and consequently roads which cross the general direction
of a railway system, have gained in importance at the expense of
those parallel to it. The author here entei*s on an interesting
mathematical investigation of the attraction exercised by a railway
connecting two important centres. By the aid of a little elementary
geometrical conies, M. de Foville is able to show that the " zone of
attraction " of the two terminal stations will be respectively the
two branches of a hyperbola, which has the two stations for its foci,
and the middle point of the line joining them for its centre. There
is a good deal that is interesting and valuable in those portions of
the work which are devoted to canals, and to the ocean highway.
The " indirect " effects of the improved modes of locomotion are
treated in as systematic a manner as the " direct '' effects of the
employment of steam. We need not speak of them at length,
however, as they are a portion of the subject matter of works on
the general progress of civilisation. The principal effect dwelt on
by M. de Foville is the unification of prices, and he gives some
rather striking instances of the differences in the price of wheat
which existed even as late as 1847, in which year there was a
difference of 20 frs. between the market prices in two departments
of France per hectolitre of wheat. The author remarks that the
improvement in our means of communication, both by land and sea,
has practically resulted in rendering famine an impossibility in the
civilised world. Among the minor economio effects, he mentions

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142 MiseeUanea. [Mar.

the tendency to concentrate retail business, and thus kill ont the
smaller traders. In conclusion, we are glad to find that
M. de Foville takes a hopeful view of the prospects of free trade
in France.

A History of the Precimis Metcds, from the Earliest Times to the
Present. By Alexander Del Mar, IJ. S., formerlj Director of the
Bureau of Statistics of the United States ; Member of the United
States Monetary Commission of 1876. (George Bell and Sons,
1880.)

Mr. Del Mar's work is intended as a successor to that of
Mr. William Jacob. Mr. Jacob's book may fairly be considered
out of date, considering the immense increase in the production of
the precious metals that has occurred since he wrote. Besides this,
Mr. Del Mar is able to show that, with all his ability and care,
Mr. Jacob fell into more than one serious error, particularly in
underestimating the productiveness of Brazil. These deficiencies
are noted in the preface to Mr. Del Mar's book. Speaking of the
work of his predecessor, our author says, " It fails to mark the
significant agency of conquest and slavery in the production of gold
and silver ; it is vitiated throughout by unsafe calculations of the
world's stock of these metals in ancient and mediceval times; it
affords no information of the very considerable movement from
Japan to Euro^ during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; it
scarcely mentions, and thus underrates the importance of the
Brazilian placers which have yielded to the world nearly 200 million
pounds sterling of gold ; it contains no connected history, indeed,
but little mention, of the ratio of value between gold and silver ;
and it omits all reference to the devastation of the earth, and the
social mischiefs entailed upon mining countries 1^ the search for
these metals." On all points except the last, Mr. Del Mar seems to
have made out his case, but his remarks about the moral and
material mischief produced by gold and silver mining are too
sweeping. That, however, is a minor point, and does not detract
from the merit of the book as a comprehensive treatise on the
history of the precious metals. Mr. Del Mar, while objecting to the
vague and unsatisfactory guesses of Mr. Jacob, as to the amounts
of gold and silver existing in early periods, refuses to attempt to
give an estimate himself. As regards Brazil, he calculates the gold
production of that country up to 1870 at 180 million pounds.

Economic Studies, By the late Walter Bagehot. Edited by
Bichard Holt Hutton. (Longmans, Green, and Co., 1880.)

This volume contains the incomplete fragments of a work which
Mr. Bagehot had intended to write, but was unable to finish, unfor-
tunately for the world. The main point we notice in this exceed-
ingly interesting book is its logical connection with the anther's
" Physics and Politics," a work in which he shows how one great
" peculiarity of this age," the " sudden acquisition of much
physical knowledge," has operated to modify the notions formerly
held on politics and political economy. As regards the latter the
extension of our knowledge of the conditions of life in various
countries and at various periods^ gave rise to the historical school
of economists, who deny that there are any laws of economics at all.

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1880.] Notes on AddUions to the Library. 143

Hr. Bageliot held that the older eoonomistB were not wrong in
their views of the economic conditions of modem England, but
that the historic school were sound in their opposition to the
attempts of later writers of the " orthodox *' school to apply these
yiews to all countries and all periods. He also held that aa other
conntries advance in wealth and civilisation, the extent of the
applicability of the general doctrines inculcated by Ricardo and
Mill will increase. The phenomena of *' business" will be the
same wherever "business" is done, and the theories which are
true or almost true in England, the land of ** business," will
become true in other countries in time. Briefly, then, Mr. Bage-
hot ma^ be said to have gone far on the road to reconciling the
conflicting claims of " orthodox and historical " economics, for
which alone he would have deserved the gratitude of all who per-
ceived the logical need for such a reconciliation in the interests of
economic science itself. Their thanks are also due to Mr. Hntton,
Mr. Bagehot's intimate friend, to whose careful and patient labour
they are indebted for the arrangement of the papers which are
here published* The latter were at the untimely death of their
author, in some oon^ion, to which the mind that bad produced
them alone had the key, and Mr. Hutton's self-imposed task was
consequently ViQi altogether an easy one^

IX. — Notes on some of the Additions to the Library^

Annwiire Statistique de la Norvege. Premiere AnnSe^ 1879.
£labor6 dans le Bureau Central de Statistique. Kristiania, 1879*

The Norwegian Statistical Office have decided to pubbsh an
annual volume containing a resume of the more important
statistical information which is obtained in that kingdom each
year. This, the first volume of the kind, is necessarily somewhat
imperfect. Apparently, it is intended that it should be, to a large
extent, modelled on the Statistical Abstract of the Board of Trade.
In all cases where the figures were obtainable they are given for a
series of years, and in nearly every case those for two or three
years are supplied. The returns are brought down to 1878 as
regards the population, national finances, imports and exports,
bsmking, and in some other instances. The difficulty of producing
the first volume of such a work is much greater than that of
issuing those subsequent to it, and its value for practical purposes
cannot be overestimated.

BesuUadojB Oenerales del Genso de la Tohlacion de 'Espana segun
el empadionamiento hecho enSl de Diciem^e, 1877. Por la Direc^
cion General del Institute Geografico y Estadistico. Madrid, 1879.

The returns of the Spanish Census, taken on 81st December,
1877, show that the actual residents in Spain at that date numbered
16,625,860 persons. There were also 565,554 persons returned as
" absent," of whom the great majority were Spanish subjects, the
remainder, 1,088, being foreigners. The returns a,re given by

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144 Miscellanea, [Mar.

provinces and districts, the most popnlons province being Barcelona,
with 835,306 persons, and that with the least population being Alava,
with 93,191. As the information contained in this volume is con-
fined to a statement of the number of persons, male and female,
who were resident in Spain at the date of the census, there is
nothing further of interest to say regarding it. Apparently the
Spanish authorities are of the same opinion, for the remarks of
the Count of Toreno, who signs the introduction, are very meagre.
It appears that since 1860, when the last census previous to this
was taken, there has been an increase of population amounting to
952,324 persons, or about 6 per cent.

8toria e teoria generals della Statistica del Dr. Antonio Gabaglio,
Professore di Statistica nel R. Institute Tecnico e Incaricato di tale
insegnamento nella R. Universita di Pavia. Con nove tavole
miniate. Ulrico Hoepli. Ulilavo, 1880.

We had occasion to notice, in the Journal of the Society for
March, 1878, the able and lucid work of M. Maurice Block,
entitled TraitS ThSorique et Pratique de Statistique, and in that
for December, 1877, we commented on the profound volume by
Dr. Mayr on Die Oesetzmdssigkeit im QeselUchaftsleben, We have
now to record the appearance of another volume on the same
subject — the work of Dr. Antonio Gabaglio, the Professor of Sta-
tistics in the University of Pavia. Of all the books on the scientific
theory of statistics with which we are acquainted, this of Dr. Gubaglio
is the most exhaustive, and, on the whole, the most satisfactory.
This assertion is not intended as any disparagement of the works
of Dr. Mayr and M. Block, for the purpose of each of these two
writers was different from that or Dr. Gabaglio. The three
authors agree to a very large extent in their conception of the
nature of statistics, and in their modes of expounding it ; but
Dr. Mayr, when he wrote Die Gesetzmdssigkeit im QeselUchaftslehen
addressed an audience presumably unacquainted with the subject.
He furnished a manual of statistics for the use of that large and
increasing body of intelligent persons who desire to possess a
general conception of the principles of science in general, and of
the nature and methods 01 the particular sciences. Accordingly
Dr. Mayr described with unrivalled skill the nature of statistics
and its relation to the sociological sciences, and gave a rSsumd of
the more general results that have been arrived at by means of
statistics. On the other hand, M. Block applied himself to the
historical and practical sides of statistical inquiry, and paid great
attention to setting forth the results of his own valuable experience
as bearing on the problems presented to the officials of statistical
departments. The theoretical aspect of statistics received only a
general, and not always a sound, treatment at his hands. The
treatise of Dr. Gabaglio is a complete analysis of the theory of sta-
tistics, and a complete historical account of their rise and progress,
so far as such an account was needful for his purpose. The first
third of the volume deals with this latter subject. It is divided
into chapters, of which the first two, extending over about forty
pages, contain such information as is available regarding what, by
courtesy, is called " statistics in antiquity and in the middle ages."

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1880.] Notes on Additions to the Library. 145

We tlien have a chapter whicli carries the histoiy of statistics down
to Qu^telet, and in which the work of the various contributors to
the advancement of statistics is touched on briefly. The remaining
five chapters of the first part are devoted to an account of the work
done in Belgium, France, Germany, England, and Italy, since
Qu^let, by the publication of his famous "Letters,'* gave to sta-
tistics the status of a branch of scientific knowledge. The special
views of each writer in each country are briefly described, and this
portion of the work therefore forms a valuable epitome of the views
of the chief statistical authorities of Europe, on those first prin-
ciples of statistics regarding which ihere is more or less difference
of opinion among those competent to form a judgment. That
Germany obtains the lion's share of the space devoted to this
historical inquiry is natural, and we can hardly blame an Italian
for giving rather more space to his own country than the number
of eminent Italian statisticians would perhaps warrant. But cer-
tainly England has no right to grumble at the small amount of
space allotted to her, for hitherto, unhappily, English works on the
theory of statistics have resembled the too famous " snakes of
Norway " — there have been none. Dr. Gabaglio generously endea-
vours to make out a case for us by mentioning the names of John
Stuart Mill and Buckle, as well as that of Porter. But though
Porter was a great practical statist, he was not strong as regards
theory, and neither Mill nor Buckle devoted their ab&ties to sta-
tistics, except in a purely incidental way. It is true there are
passages in Mill's works, particularly in his remarkable essay On
the D^inition a/nd Method of Political Economy, as well as in the
concluding chapters of the Logic, which bear on the theory of sta-
tistics, but we doubt whether the writer realised the full scope of
the remarks in question. And as to Buckle, his great work is
statistical only in the sense in which that of Achenwall and the
older " descriptive " school receives the title. Nevertheless, there
are passages in the History of OimUsation which show that a dim
conception of the function of statistics was present to the mind of
this author also. The second part of Dr. Gubaglio's work is
nominally divided into six chapters, but Chapter V, "On the
Method of Statistics " occupies by far the greater part of it. The
first chapter, after dealing briefly with the etymology of the word
" statistics," discusses various definitions that have been proposed
for it, and in particular criticises the distinction proposed to be
drawn by several of the German writers between Stalistik and
Btaatenkunde, between the " theory of statistics," and the " statistics
of a State" Dr. Grabaglio considers this nomenclature objectionable
on more grounds than one, and we agree with him. He proceeds
to consider the defects of the definitions offered by the various
authors whose views are stated in Chapters IV to VIII of Part I.
The criticisms are generally sound, but we do not think that
Dr. Gkibaglio altogetiber does justice to M. Block, in saying that
his definition " represents statistic as a simple description of the
actual state, which makes no use of numbers, and does not trouble
about laws." M. Block expressly says at the commencement of
his " partie th^rique" that statistic, as a science, is identical with

VOL. XLin. PAST I. L

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146 Miicdlanea. [Mar;

" demograpliy,*'and he elsewhere define* demog^phy as " la science
de rhomme yivant en soci^, en tant qu'elle pent etre exprim6e
par lea ohiffres," which is really nofc bad as a mere deaoription of
this branch of knowledge. Dr. (jabaglio^s charge is rather too
sweeping therefore, but we admit that there is a certain want of
accuracy and rigidity about the theoretical portion of M. Block's
work which cannot but be displeasing to so close a reasoner as
Dr. Gtibaglio. As we hare alr^dy said, M. Block is less a master
of theoretical than of practical statistics. When we come to our
author's own definition, we find that according to it the science of
statistics (statistica come scienza) is ^Hhe study of the actual
social-political order by means of mathematical induction.'' Against
this definition we have little to say. It is perhaps rather better
than Engel's, and is certainly preferable to Mayr's, both of which
make statistics intrude, to some extent, on the sphere of general
sociology, but the view taken by all three authorities is essentially
the same. We are rather inclined to take exoeption to the t^m
^ mathematical induction " (induzione matematica), as equivalent
to what the Glermans call '* Massenbeobachtung," which excellent
w(M:d may be translated "aggregate observation. " The phrase
" mathematical induction " does not indicate with sufficient clear*
ness the processes which are intended to be denoted by it. There
is an additional objection to its use, that this phrase is already
appropriated to a procedure of mathematics proper, namely, the
artifice by which the laws of permutations and combinations, to
take a simple instance, are demonstrated, in which we show that if a
certain law empirically assumed for a series of terms, holds when a
particular number of the terms is taken, it will also hold when that
number is increased by one. On the other hand, the term *' aggre-
gate observation" or " Massenbeobachtung,'' or '* osservazione
coUetiiva," thoroughly expresses the nature of the characteristic
process of statistics. In Chapters II and III the author defines the
limits of statistics, and its relations with the other social sciences,
such as economics, politics, "social physiology," " social psychology,"
and history, as well as with jurisprudence. Here we think that
Dr. G«bagJio fails to deal satisfactorily with the subject, on grounds
which we can for the present only indicate. It seems to us Ainda-
mentally eironeous to set up statistics as an independent social
science, the proper conception being that statistics is essentially a
method applicable to all sciences alike, but pre-eminently to the social
sciences. W hen applied to sociology the function of statistics is to
extricate and render perceptible the facts relating to communities
of human beings ; the facts themselves, when thus made perceptible^
must be dealt with by the scienoes under which they come. This
is very nearly, thougn not quite, coincident with M. Block's view.
Chapter Y, the most important of all, treats of the method of
statistics. Dr. GUkbaglio commences with a dissertation on scientific
method in general. The phenomena of society are produced by
causes, some of which are constant and some variable. Phenomena
of this class may be investigated in three ways. First, by " obserw
vation of external psychical activity associated with observation of
internal observation." (From the context, ihiM rather obscore

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1880."] AddiHofiB to the Idbrary. 147

sentence appears to mean " by observation of the external manifes-
tations in others of psychical processes, coupled with observation
of the processes of one's own mind." Second, by " historical
observation*' (the historical method). Third, by "collective, or
mass, observation." At this point Dr. Gabaglio inserts his state-
ment of the difference between the method of statistics and mathe-
matics. Mathematics deal with abstract quantity, while the objects
of statistical investigation are not abstract quantities, but " facts
translated into concrete quantities." The method is applicable to
all the sciences. We work by aid of the statistical metlwd when
we investigate the climates of countries, and the meteorological
phenomena which affect them. We employ the statistical science
when we apply the results of these investigations to explain the
phenomena of mortality, or investigate the influence of the prices
of the chief means of subsistence on the number of marriages or of
crimes. Dr. Ghkbaglio treats exhaustively, with the aid of simple
mathematical formulsa, of all the forms of statistics. He uses the
method of least squares for determining probable values whenever
it is possible, and he concludes by giving a full description of the
nature and use of diagrams, and of the useful method of graphic
representation. Taken as a whole, this volume is the most complete
work on statistics which has, as far as we know, appeared in any
language, and to students of this important branch of knowledge
its value cannot but be great.

X. — Additions to the Library during the Quarter,
Additions to the Librari/ during the Quarter ended Zlst Marcky 1880.

DOMtiOM..

By w1k» PrMtnttd.

Austria and Hungary —

Statistisches Jahrbuoh des E. K. Ackerban-ministe-'
riums j 3*« Hefte, 2« Liefenmg ; Bergieerks-Betrieb
Oesterreiohs im Jahre 1878. 128 pp., 8yo. Wijsn,
1879

StatistiBches Jahrbuch, f£ir 1878. Hefte 9 and 11.
Imp. 8vo. Wien, 1879

Stotifltiachefl Jahrbuoh fiir Ungam, 1877, 7*' Jahrgang.
Hefte 1—3, 6—10, und 11. Imp. 8to. Budapest,
1880

Imperial Central Sta-
tistical Oommis-

Boyal Statistical
Bureau

Belgixun —
Bulletin hebdomadaire de Statistique D^ograrohiqueT -r>^ t« . ««- •p^,^
et Medicale. Ann6e xi, Nos. 1 et 2, efc 8, 9, efc 10. \ ^'- Jaww"". ^^^'
8vo. Bruxelles J ®®"

Oliina —
Imperial Maritime Customs —
I. Statittical aeries. No. 2. Customs Gasette,! B. Hart, Bsq., In-
Ko. 43, Jolj — September, 1879. 4to. Shanghai J spector-Q^iMral

Boyal Asiatic Society, North China Branch, Journal 1
of the. New Series, No. 13. Plates, 8to. Shanghai, > The Society
1879 „ J

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14S

MUeeUanea*
Donations — Contd.

[Mar.

Donatioiii.

Bj vkon ProMBtod.

Denmark —
NatdonalOkonomisk Tidsskrift, Bind 15, Hofte 1 og 2.

8vo. Kj6benliftTn, 1880

SiatiHuk Tahelvmrh, 4* RtBkke—
litra C. Nr. 2. Det besaaede Anal og UdsflBden den'
17*» Jtili, 1876. (Superfide enw

meno^ ftc) 4to

litis D. Nr.2. Yare-Indfdnelen oe Udfdnden,
Handel8-Flaaden,slib0farteD aamt
Bnenderins Froduktionen, &c., i
aaret, 1878. (Commerce, Nariga-
tion, &o.) 4U>. KjObenhaTn,
1879

Danish Political Eco-
nomy Society

Statistical Bureau of
DenmariL

Miniature dee Finances. Bulletin de Statistiqne et de
legislation comport, 8* ann^, Becembre, 1879,
4* ann^ Janrier, 1880. 8to. Paris

;del

>, et !> M. 1. de

Forilla

B^me Bibliographiqne UniTerselle—
Partie litteraire, tome xxtI, No. 6, Becembre; et'

tome xxriii, Nos. 1 — 8, Jan. — Mar

„ Technique, tome zxrii, No. 12, Deoembre,
et tome xzx, No. 8, Mars, 1880. 8to.

Paris, 1879-80

Soci^t^ de Statistiqne de Paris, Journal de la,'
zxi« ann^. 1880. Nos. 1—^, Jan. — Mar. Imp.
8to. Paris

The Editor

> The Society

Qermany —

Monatshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Beichs.'

Band xxxvii, Hefte 11 und 12 (Not.— Dez., 1879) ;

nnd Band xliii. Heft 1 (Jan., 1880). 4to. Berlin
Statistisches Jahrbuch fOr das Deutsche Beich, 1''

Jahrgang, 1880. 8to. Berlin

BsBLiir. YerOffentlichungen des Statistischen Bureau's^

der Stadt ; Bheschliessungen, Gkburten, Sterbefalle

nnd Witterung. Nos. 60—66, 1879 j und 1—10,

1880. 4to ^

Hambubo. Neuee Handels-Archiy; Jahrgang 1879. '

8to. 1880 ^

Sazokt. Zeitschrift des K. S&chsischen Statistischen

Bureau's, Jahrgang 25, Hefte 1 und 2. 4to.

Dresden, 1879

PBI788IA. Preussische Statistik, B&nde 49, 60, 51, 52.^^
Folio. Berlin, 1879

Zeitschrift des K5niglich Preussischen Statistischen
Bureau's, 19«' J^irgang, Hefte 8 und 4, Juli—
Dezember, 1879. Folio. Berlin

Italy—

Notizie e Studi sulla Agricoltura, 1877. xri and'

1130 pp., imp. 8to. Boma, 1879

Annali cU Agncoltura, 1879, Nos. 15 e 19 (Pte 1>) ;

e 1880, No. 28. 8to. Roma

Annali dell' Industria e del Commercio, 1879. No. 11 ;

el880,Nos. 10— 18. 8to. Roma, 1879-80

Annali di Statistica. Serie 2*, toI. 10, 1879 ; ctoL 11,

1880. Diagrams. 8to. Boma

Imperial Statistical
Office

Statistical Bureau of
Berlin

Chamber of Com-
merce, Hamburg

Royal Statistical
Bureau of Saxony

Royal Statistical
Bureau of Pmssia

Directorate-General
of Statistics ;

Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Industry, and
Commerce

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1880.]

AddUiont to the Librcury.
Donation* — Contd.

140

DoMtioiif.

By wImmd PnMiited.

Italy— Con^i.
De raasistanoe Publiqne et des ^blissementB de charity

et Iiutitutions pieiises en Nonr^ (£xpo8^ pour

la Stat. Internationale). 120 pp. 8yo. Borne,

1880

Atti Pariamentari. Sesdone del 1878-79. Camera dei

Deputati, No. 190a

Biforma della legge elettorale Politioa del 17 Dicem-

bre,1860. Relazione della Oommisnone. 147 pp. 4to.

Boma

Bflanci Oomunali, anno xyi, 1878. Imp. 8to. Boma ....
BoUettino Settimanale dei Frezzi di Aicuni del prinoi-

pali Prodotti Agrari. Anno 1879. Nob. 48 — 52 ;

e anno 1880, Noe. 1 — 8. Imp. 8yo. Boma

BoUettino Mensile delle Sitnazioni dei Oonti deg^

Istituti d'Emissione. Anno i, Noe. 9 — 11, Sett —

Dee., 1879. Imp. 8to. Boma

BoUettino Bimeetrale deUe Sitnazioni dei ContL

Anno z, Nos. 4 e 5, Ag.— Ott., 1879. Imp. 8to.

Boma

BoUettino Bimeetrale del Bieparmio, Anno 4, No. 5,

Ott. Imp.STO. Boma, 1879

BoUettino di Notizie OommerciaU. Nos. 26 — 29,

1879 ; e 1, 1880. Imp. 8vo. Boma

BoUettino Oonsolare. Vol. zy, faec. 11 e 12, Nor.—

Die. 1879 ; e toL zvi, faeo. 1, e 2 Gen. e Feb. 1880.

8to. Boma

Statistica del Gommeroio Sjpeciale dt Importazione e di

Ezportazione dal G^nnaio— Dec., 1879. 4to. Boma
Statistica delle Careen per Tanno 1876. YoL x.

Imp. 8fo. Civita Veocfaia, 1879

MonograAa Statistica sul Servizio deUe Suasistenzie

MiUtari durante Tanno 1877. zvi e 521 pp.,

folio

Belazione Medioo-Statistica sidle condizioni Sanitarie

deU' Esercito Italiano neU' anno 1877. Diagrams,

8vo. Boma, 1879

Quattordicesimi Belazione sul servizio Postale,

1876-78. Map.4to. Boma, 1879

Belazione Statistica sui Telegrafi del Begno d'ltaHa,

ndl' anno 1878. Diagram, 4to. Boma, 1879

A Diagram in Plaster of Paris, representing : — II

numero aseoluto dei Nati viri maschi e loro sujierstiti >

dassificati per et4 seoondo 1 risultati dei oensimenti

in Syezia, 1760-1876

GuiAaLio (Dr. Aktonio), Storia e Teoria Generate

della Statistica, ziy e 697 pp., diagrams, 8yo. Milaoo,

1880

Directorate - General
of Statistics :

Ministry of Agricul-
ture,'Industry, and
Commerae

Directorate • General

of Statistics

Nuoya Antologia di Sdenze, Lettere ed Arti, anno ziy,
2* Seiie, yoL zviii, iame. 24, Dic^ 1879. 8yo.
Boma

Biyista Eoropea, Biyista Intemazionale. VoL xyi,
fasc. 4, yoL zni, fasc. 1 — 4, • yoL zyiii, faeo. 1 e 2,
1879-80. Imp. 8yo. Firenze

Society Italiana d*Igiene, CKomale deUa, anno 1^,'
No. 6, Not. Syo. Milaoo, 1879

^TbeBditor

The Society

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150

MiteeUanea.
Denatumt — CotUd.

[Mar.

Bonationt.

Bj vbom Presented.

Naftherlands —

Statistiek van het C^ndorediefc in Nederland orcr de "| a*-*:-«^i q,^^^ «#

Poxtaaral — Sociedade de QSographia de Lithca —
Expedi^ Bcientifica so interior de Africa; Obser-'^

Ta^^tos meteorologicas e magneticas feitas pdbs [ m^ tLiAmtm
explopadorea Portugneze* H. Capello e B. Ireng. ( ^'^ «>««V
Folio. Lisboa, 1879 J

BoTunania. Questionnaire d'une StetiBtique Interna- *!
tionale compart det Soci^t^ d'assnrance oontre la I Central
grAle et T^pizootie. Ann^ 1879. 16 pp^, folio. [ Office
Buoarest «....,.«...... « J

Statistical

Bnasia.

pour

*. B^glement Definitif du Budget de TBrnpiro \ v a VaMi^u^Vr
rExercice 187^ 8va St Petersbourg, 1880 ....J "* ^' ^e^eiOTSiy

Spain —

Oenso de la Poblacion en 1877, por la direocion general 1 Institute of Geo-
del Insituto Gbogrdfico y Estadistico. yiii and \ graphy and 3ta-
601 pp., 4to. Ma&d, 1879...^ I tistica

Sooiedad Gkogr&fica de Madrid. Boletim de la. |
Tomo rii, Nos. B y 6, Nor. — ^Dic, 1879 ; y tomo Tiii, \ The Society
Enero, 1880 - J

Central Statistical
Bureau of Norway

Sweden and Norway —

NOEWAY —

Annuaire Statistique de ]a Korr^e, 1* ann^, 1879'

95 pp., 8to. Eristiania

OffteieUe StcUutik--

B. No. 1. Tabeller Todkommende SldfterflBsenet

i aaret 1876. (FaiUites)

,y 8, Beretning om Bigets strafarbeidt-
anstalter for aaret 1877. (P^niten-
tiaires)

C. No. 1. Tabeller yedkonunende Folkemsng-

den8BeTfiBgd8eiaaretl875. (Moure-

ment de la Population)

M i. Beretning om Sundhedstilstanden og

Medidnalforholdene i aaret 1877.

(I'l^tat Sanitaire et Medical)

„ 9. Statistik orer Norges Fiskerier i aaret

1877 (P^he}

„ 10. Statiitik orer Norges Eommnnale Fi-

nantser i aaret 1876. (Finaneee dee

Conununes)

„ 18. Statistik over Norges Fabrikanlieg

af aaret 1875. (Etabkseements

Industrieb.) 4to. KristiaBia

SwBDEN — Offhiela SttrUeHh^-

A. BefoVmings^tatistik, ny ibljd, sx, fftr ir 1878.1

(Population) I Central Statistical

B. B&tt8T§sendet ny fdljd, xx, 1, 2, fOr ftr 1877. \ Burevn

(Justice civile et crimineUe) ......

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1880.]

Additions to the Library.
Dimation9-^C<mid.

151

Donaiiont.

By vhom Presented

Maps

Sweden — Contd,

Offidela StatUHk — Contd.
F, Utrikes Handel ochSjOfart, for &r 1878. (Com-^

merce et nayigation extorieur)

L. Statens Jeray&^trafik, 17, fbr ir 1878.

and diagram. (Chemins de fer)

M. Postrerket, 14, 1877 ; tillagg till Serien B

15. 1878. (Poetes)

N. Jordbrak och Boekapsskdtsel, fbr ftr 1879 (Sta-

iistiqae agricole)

Q. SkogdT&sendet 1, 18, intiU &r 1870. (For^ts)
B. Val-Statistik) 4, fdr &ren 1876-78. (Statistique

eleotorale)

S. AllnuUma Arbeten, 7, £6r &ret 1878. (Travaux

pablics)

V. Brftn?in« tillyerkning och fdnfilining, 2, f6r
&ren 1875-76, och 1876-77. (Fabrication et

vente de Teau-de-Tie)

Kapital Eonto till Biks-Hufvud-Boken £5r ftr 1877

Biks-Stat f6r &r 1880. (Budget)

dfVeraigt af Syeriges Biksbankt etillning, tamman-

fattad efter 1878 Are Bokslut

General-Sammandrag &fTerl878 &r8 Bevillning

Uppgifter om Hjpoteksiniftttningame f^r &r 1878 ...
Sammandrag af Biksbankens SuHlningy Jan. — Dec.,

1879. (Banque de Suhde)

Sammandragen dfversigt af de enskilda bankinr&tt-
ningarnes st&llning efter 1877 ooh 1878 &ren

Bokslut, &c

Sammandrag af de solidariska enskilda bankemas
samt akUebankemas och kreditaktiebolagens upp-
gifter Jan.— Dec., 1879

Uppgi^t i runda tal & rikets in och ut-f Orsel af rissa
biSrudsakliga yaror under Januari — December,
1875-79. 4to. Stockholm, 1879-80 J

United States—

Agriculture, Department of,

Central Statistical
Bureaa

Sp^Beport on tiie| Commissioner of
nd 21, December, 1879, V limcultiire
and January, 1880. 8vo. Washington J '^

Condition of Crops. Nos. 20 and 21, December, 1879, \

Commissioner of
Education

Bureau of Sdmcation —

Circulaors of Information of the, 1879 , '

No. S. The yalue of School Education to Common

Labor. By Dr» E. Jaryis

I, 4. Training Schools of Cookery

„ 5. American Education as described by the
French Commission to the International
Exhibition of 1876. 8yo. Washington....^

Bureau of Statistics —
Imports and Exports, Summary Statement of^

Nos. 4 and 6, October and Noyember, 1879

Quarterly Beport of the, to 30th September, 1879 I Joseph Nimmo,Esq.,

(No. 1, 1879-80). 8yo. Washington f jun.

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8yo. Washington * ^

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Donatumf. By vhom Presented.

United States— Con/i.

Comptroller of the Currency, Beport of the, for 1879. "I

(Large and small edition.) Cloth and half -calf, 8to. > John Jay Knox, Esq.

Washington J

Marine Hospital Service, Annual Report of the Super- 1 The Surgeon-General
rising Surgeon General, for 1878 and 1879. 176 pp., > U.S. Marine Hos-

8vo. Washington J pital Service

California —
The Resources of Calif omia (a Newspaper). No. fori J. C. G-. Kennedy,

January, 1880. San Francisco J ^

Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Mercantile'
Library Association of San Francisco, 1879.
8vo. 1880

Esq., Washington
* The Librarian

Bankers* Magazine, New YorL Series 4, voL xir.
Nob. 7— 9, January— March, 1880. 8to

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Journal of the.
Series 8, toI. Ixxviii, No. 6, December, 1879, and
ToL Ixxix, Nos. 1 — 8, January — March, 1880. 8vo.

Western, The. New Series. Vol. vi, Nos. 1 and 2, \ mi^ ttj;*.^,
January— April, 1880. 8to. St. Louis ^ ^^ ^^^^

The Editor
The Institute

India, Colonial, and other PoeeeMions.
IndU, BritiflOi—
^'^^^ N*^^gation» Monthly Returns of. Qurrent | j^^^ Govemment

Benoaii—

Report on the Administration of, 1878-79. Cloth,") Q- over n men t of

royal 8vo. Calcutta, 1879 J Bengal

Asiatic Society of —

Proceedings, Nos. 8 and 9 (August and November),^

Journal, voLiviii,iMttti7N^ f ^® Society

1879, maps, &c., 8vo. Calcutta J

Kew Sonth Wales —

Financial Statement of the Colonial Treasurer, madel

10th December, 1879. Folio I Affent-General for

Sydney, Vital Statistics of, for November, 1879. 3 pp., [ New South Wales
folio J

New Zealand. Statistics of the Colony of, for 1878. \ Registrar-General of
Folio J New Zealand

Queensland. Report of the Meteorological Observer! ^x t a«-, t?-^

for 1877. FoUo Z .!. J ^' •^**^°' ^^-

oouMi .Auamuia —
Statistical Register of, 1878. Folio. Adelaide, 1879 1 J. Boothby, Esq.,
„ Sketch of, by Josiah Boothby, C.M.G., for V G-overnment
1879. 92 pp., diagrams, 8vo., Adelaide J Statist, &c.

Tasmania. Reports of the Medical Officer of Health of 1 E. Swarbreck Hall,
Wellington, Ac, for 1876-78. Fdio J Esq., MR.C.S.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

1880.]

AddiHoM to the Library.
Donation* — Contd.

153

DoDfttionB*

B J whom Presented.

India, Ck>lonial, and other PoMeMions — Contd.
Victoria—

Australasian Statistice for 1878. Folio 1

Statistical Begister of the Ck>loii7 of, for 1878. I Ag^t-Q«neral for

Part 5. Law, Crime, &c f victoria

„ 6. Production J

„ 7. Accumulation. Folio H. H. Hayter, Esq.

Mining Survejors and Begistrars, Beports for the 1 -w- • «. « -u"

quarter ended SOtli September, 1879. FoUo J ^"^'^^ ^^ ^^'^^

Patents and Patentees, Indexes for 1876, toI. x, byl

B. GKbbs, Begistrar-Q-eneral. 66 pp., numerous > Begistrar-GbnenJ

plates, 4to. Melbourne, 1879 J

Victorian Year Book for 1878-79, by H. H. Hayter, \ ™, * .,
Government Statist. 395 pp., 8vo. Melbourne / ^'^^ ^utnor

py '

Folio. (Pari. Pap.

United Kingdom —
Emigration and Immigration, copy of Statistical'

Tables relating to, for 1879. ~

No. 8, 1880)

Foreign Countries, Statistical Abstract for the principal

and other, in each year from 1866 to 1877-78, No. 6.

8vo. Pari. Pap. [C-2451]. 1879

Trade and Navigation, Monthly Betums of. Current

numbers

Factories and Workshops, Beport of the Chief Inspector

of, for the year ending 31st October, 1879. 8vo.

Pari Pap. [C-2489]. 1880

Navy, Statistical Beport of the Health of the, for 1878. \ Admiralty

Maps, Ac., 8vo. (Pari. Pap. No. 346, 1879) ^ '^

•J

Board of Trade.

A. Bedgrave, Esq.,
^ C.B.

Medical
Department

War OflBce List, &c., for the British Army, 1879. Svo."]

London I Messrs. Harrison and

Foreign Office List, and Diplomatic and Consular [ Sons, Pall Mall

Handbook, 1880. Cloth, maps, 8vo. London J

England and Wales —
Ellison's Annual Beview of the Cotton Trade for 1879.
(For private circulation only). 8 pp., 4to. Liver

pool

Friendly Societies, &c., Beports, 1878 —

■}

Messrs.
Co.

Ellison and

Part I (A)...

Part I (B), Appendix (D).

Industrial and Provi-
dent Societies
Part I (C), Appendix (E). Trade TJnions. (ParL

Pap. Nos. 375, 1,-n, 1879.) FoUo

Kemp's Mercantile G^ette, Supplement, containing a
Statistical Abstract of Failures in England and

Wales during 1879. 1 sheet, 4to

Quarterly Betums of Marriages in, to September, and
of Births and Deaths, to December, 1879. No.
124. 8vo ^

Ireland —
Weekly Betums of Births and Deaths of eight large 1
towns, current numbers, with an Annual Summary.
8to ^ I

Begistrar of Friendly
Societies

^ Messrs. John Kemp
and Co.

B^istrar-Gheneral of
England

General of

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154

Miseellemea.
Donation* — Contd.

[Mar.

Donation!.

By vhom Pretented.

Ireland — Contd.

Quaiteriy Retums^of the Marriages in, to Septembw,| Registrar-Gkneral of

and Births and Deaths, to December, 1879.
8vo. Dublin-

No.

Begistrar-Gkneral of
Scotland

Scotland —

Census of 1871, Preliminary Beport on. Folio *"

Births, Deaths, and Marriages : —

Weekly and Monthly Ketums of, in the eight

principal towns, current numbers. 8vo.

Quarterly Return of, to December, 1879. No. 100.

8to

Twenty-first Detailed Annual Beport on (abstracts
of 1876). 8yo. Pari. Pap. No.tC-2494.] 1879....^

Edinbubgh, City op —
Accounts published in 1879, with Appendix. Cloth,*"

folio

Bolls of Superiorities belonging to the Lord ProTOst,

&c., showing the Accounting for the Feu Duties 1 Bobert Adam, Esq.,

in the Year ended Ist August, 1878. Cloth, ( City Cluunberlain

folio. Edinburgh, 1879

Water Trust, Beport on Financial Affairs for 1879,

with Appendix. 36 pp., folio ^

Glasgow. United Trades Council, Beport for 1878-79. "I mT^ ^ampi^rr
24 pp. 8vo / owwwiy

Anthon, ftc. —
Atkiitbok (Edwabd). Chart giying a Geographical

Presentation of the Comparatiye Areae of the States

and Territories of the Umted States and the Countries

of Europe, omitting Bussia and Alaska. 1 sheet .....
Bbvan (G. Phillips). Primer of the Industrial

Geography of Great Britain and Ireland. 109 pp.,

cloth, 12mo. London, 1880

Eccentric Club, The, by X. Y. Z. 202 pp., cloth. 8vo.

Liverpool, 1880 _

Edmonds (W.). Bills of Sale Begistered in England'

and Wales, 1878-79. 7 pp., 8to. Portsmouth, 1880 ,
KOEdsi (Joseph). Id^ sur le but et le r6le des

Bureaux communaux de Statistique. (Extrait des

ann. de D^m. Int., torn, iii.) 8to _

MOLDKNHAWEE (J.). Fremstilling af Blindeforholdene

i Danmark. 78 pp., 8vo. Kjdbenhavn, 1879
MuLHALL (M. G. y E. T.). Manual de las Bepublicas '

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y Londres, 1876

Newcomb (F. N.) Tables showing proposed plan for

reducing the National Debt. 1 sheet

PozNANSKi (Joseph).

The Productive Forces of Pohmd, with Financial,
Commercial, and Industrial Statistics from 1874
to 1876. 263 pp., diagram, 8yo. St. Petersburg,
1879 „

The Financial Questions of Bussia. 86 pp., 8vo.

St. Petersburg, 1878 ^

\_Both in Ruanan.l

» The Author

W. Swan Sonnens-
chein, Esq.

The Author

}

M. G. Mulhall, Esq.

The Author

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1880.]

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155

Donatkmi.

By whom Preienied.

The Author

W. Ytti PMagfa, Esq.

The Author

Anthon, fto. — Contd,
Pbaash (W. van)—
British Institutions for the De«f and Dumb, alplia-'^
betically arranged aocording to their location.

1 sheet. London, 1880 *.

On the Oral Education of the Deaf and Dumb (re-
printed from the ''Journal of Education*').

7 pp., 8to. Beading, 1878 ^

Deaf and Dimib, Association for the Oral Instruc- '
tion of the. Report for 1878, and objects of the

Association, &c. 8vo. London

Baikeb (Capt. Qt. A.). History of the Honourable"
Artillery Company, vol. ii. xl and 563 pp., cloth,

maps, plates, &c., 8vo. London, 1879

SAinrDSRS (William). Land Laws and their Results'
at Home and Abroad. 62 pp., 8to. HuU and

London, 1880

Tmpp (A. C.)—
The Indian Ciyil Serrioe and the Competitiye"^
System. 142 and xcvi pp., cloth, 12mo. London,

1876

* Statistics of the N.-W. Provinces of India. 186 pp.,

cloth, imp. 8vo. Allahabad, 1877

Imperial Gazetteer of the N.-W* Provinces of India.

Cloth, imp. 8vo ^

Vine (J. R. Sohsss) —
The County Companion, Diary and Magisterial and^

Official Directory, 1880. Cloth, 8vo. London....
The Municipal Corporations Companion, Diary, > The Editor
Directory, and Year Book of Statistics, 1880,

Cloth, 8vo. London J

Waones (Peopessob H.). Johann Eduard WappaBUs |

(separatabdruck aus Petermann's Mittheilungen, > The Author

1880, Heft 8). 4to. Gotha J

Walkbe (Pbop. Francis A.). Money in its Relations |
to Trade and Industry. 839 pp., cloth, 12Uio. \ "

New York, 1879 J

White (William). The Insurance Register for 1880. 1 Messrs. 0.
8vo. London j Layton

and E.

Societies, Ao.
Actuaries, Journal of the Institute of, and Assurance 1

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1879. 8vo J

Arts, Journal of the Society of. Current numbers. 1 ,j« Society
8vo. London J ^^

Bankers, Journal of the Institute of. Parts 4 — 6, 1 mi Tnafif nf-
January— March, 1880. Plate, 8vo. London / -^'i® ""^^^^

Labouring Classes, the Magazine of the Society fori

Improving the Condition of the. No. 263, January, > The Society

1880. 8vo. London J

London Hospital, General Statement of the, number ]

of patients under treatment in the, during 1879. V The Secretary

1 sheet, folio J

Manchester StaUstical Society ^ papers read before. 1
The Silver Controversy, by B. Montgomery. V The Society
National Insurance, by Rev. W. L. Blackley. 8vo. J

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J)onaiunu — ContcL

Donationt.

By whom Pnsenttd.

Societies, fto. — Contd,
Mechanical Eniriiieers, Prooeedinirs of tlie Institation, 1 mu t ^•j. j.*

No. 6, October, 1879. PlatesTiyo. London | The InstituUon

Mefcropolitan Fire Brigade, Bepoit of the Chief 1 ru «. tj' tlt qi.

Officer on the state of the, and the Fires in London, [ ^^P'^i ^' ^' ^'^^'

during 1879. 8vo J ^•'*^-

Mortalitj, a (Collection of the Yearly Bills of, froml

1657 to 1768 inclusive, with reprints of Essays on I y , a*. «.«. it

MortaUty, PoUtical Arithmetic, Gh^wth of London f ''^'^ °^^^* ^^'

(1767), and Life Tables. 4fco. London, 1759 J

Post Magazine Almanack and Insurance Directory, for 1 f*,. i^ q . , ■»

1880. 8yo. London / ^' ^' ^^^* ^•

Aoyal Asiatic Society, Journal of the, new series, \ q« « . .

voL xii, part 1, January, 1880. 8vo. London J "^^^ oociecy

Boyal Q^graphical Society, Proceedings of the, new 1

series, toL ii, Nos. 1 — 8, January — March, 1880. > „

8to. London J

Royal IntHtution —

Proceedings of the, toI. ix, part 2, No. 71. Plates, 1
8vo V The Institution

List of Fellows, &c, and Additions to libraiy. 8to. J
Boyal Society, Proceedings of the, to the present time. 1 rm^ Sociflt

8vo. London j ^

Boyal United Service Institution, Journal of the, 1 mv j i.**^ *,•

vol. ixiii. No. 103. Phites, Ac., 8vo. London, 1879 / ^^^ AMtitution
Social Science Association, Sessional Proceedings of the, 1 nru a ' *■'

vol. xii, Nos. land 2, Jan.— Feb., 1880. 8vo. London/ ^^^ Association
Surveyors, Transactions of the Institution of, vol. xii, 1 «,, t l-*. *.-

parte 4^^, 8to. London, 1880 } ^^^ ^*^^^

WancUworth. Report on the Sanitorv Condition of.T ^* ^°^ °j^°?k
during 1878. »ro. London, 1879 | DLtriot

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1880.]

AddHtMU to iha Library.
Donatwna — Cowtd.

157

DomtionM.

Bj whom Presented.

Atbenffium, The. (Montblj parts) .... Oorrenl

Bankers' Magazine (London)

Capital and Labour *»„

t numbers

»^
M

»
ft

n
»»
»
tt

jorology,]
82 pp., V

The Editor

Commercial World, The «

Kconomisty The

Insnranoe Giusette. The

Becord. The

„ World, The

Inyestors' Monthly Mannal, The

Lx>n and Coal Trades BeTiew

»*

Mai^hinery Market, The

Nature

Beview, The

Statist, The

Textile Manufacturer, The

Universal Engineer, The

Urania; a Monthly Journal of Astrology, Mete
and Physical Science, toI. i, January, 1880.
8to

Trade Circulars for the Tear 1879—

BAlfiuit Linim TnulA HoniTnitt^W rTiinen^

The Committee

Boutcher, Mortimer, and Co., London (Leath<
Durant and Co., London (Silk)

It)

TheUrm

"/ ••••••••••••

Baton (H. W.) and Sons, London (Silk)

Niohol (W.) and Co.. Bombay TG^neral Prices^

PixW and Abell. Tjondon rBullion>

Powell (T. J. and T.), London (Leather)

Bagg (A.) and Co., Lirerpool (Wool)

Bonald and Sons, Lirerpool (Wool)

Thompson (W. J. and H.), London (China Tea)

Umson. Elliott, and Co.. LiTflmool rTobaooo^

Wool Brokers* Association. LiTemool

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158 Mucellamd. [MaiC

Purchase,

American Almanac and Treasury of Facts for 1880. 884 pp., cloth,
12mo. New York and Washington.

Annales d'Hygiftne publique. Nos. 8, 10 — 16, October, 1879, to March,
1880. 8to. Paris, 1879.

Archivio di Statistioa. Anno 17, faso. 1—4. 8to. Boma, 1879.

Banking Almanac, Directory, &o., for 1880. Cloth, 8to. London.

British Almanac and Companion for 1880. 12mo. London.

Classified Directory to the Metropolitan Charities, for 1879, with
Appendix. (Fourth Annual Edition.) 12mo.

Eason's Almanac and Handbook for Ireland, for 1880. 12mo.
Dublin and London.

Financial Reform Almanac for 1880. 8to. London.

Inde;^ Society's Publications, No. 4, containing Report of First Annual
Meeting, 1879, and four Appendices, yiz. : —

(1) Index to Books and Papers on Marriage between near Kin, bj

A. H. Huth.

(2) Index of the Styles and Titles of English Soyereigns, by W.

De Gray Birch.

(3) Indexes of Portraits in the " European Magazine," " London

Magazine," and '' Register of the Times," by E. Solly.

(4) Index of Obituary Notices for 1878. 4to. London, 1879.

Journal des Economistes. 4* sMe, Nos. 20—27, August — ^December,
1879, and January— March, 1880. 8vo. Paris.

Lowe's Handbook of the Charities of London for* 1880. 12mo.

Masttnt (F). The Statesman's Year Book for 1880. 12mo. London.

Medical Directory for 1880. 8to. London.

Mitchell's Newspaper Press Directory for 1880. Imp. 8vo. London.

Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac for 1880. 8to.

Post Office London Directory, for 1880. Boy. 8vo.

RoBXBTS (C, F.R.C.S.). A Manual of Anthropometry, Cloth,
diagrams, 8to. London, 1878.

Surtees Society, Publications of the. Vol. Ixix, cloth, 8yo, London.

Thom's Irish Almanac and Official Directory for 1880. Royal 8vo.
Dublin.

Todd (T. J.) . The Book of Analysis, or a New Method of Experience.
Cloth, 8to. London, 1881.

Whiteker'a Ahnanae for 1880. Cloth, 12mo.

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1880.]

159

REGISTRATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

No. L-ENGLAND AND WALES.

MARRIAGES— To 30th Sbpteicbbb, 1879.
BIRTHS AND DEATHS— To 3l8T Deoekbbs, 1879.

A. — Se^nal Table of Marriages, Births, and Deaths, returned in the
Years 1879-78, and in the Quarters of those Tears.

Calendar Years, 1879-78: — Numbers.

Teari

'79.

'78.

'77.

'76.

•76.

'74.

'73.

Marriages No.

BiHhs „

Deaths .... „

882,866
528,194

189,657
891,418
539,574

194,343
887,055
500,348

201,835
887,464
510,308

201,212
850,607
546,453

202,010
854,956
526,632

205,615
829,778
492,520

•Quarters of each Calendar Year, 1879-78.
(I.) Masbiaoss: — Numbers.

Qrs. ended
last day of

'79.

•78.

•77.

•76.

•74.

•73.

Marcli No.

35,851

39,106

39,755

41,757

42,376

41,413

41,217

June „

46,488

48,433

49,054

51,218

48,410

52,827

53,408

September „

45,071

46,510

47,732

49,135

49,826

49,144

49,709

December „

—

55,608

57,802

59,725

60,600

58,626

61,281

(II.) BniTHS: — Numbers.

Of s. ended
last day of

*79.

'78.

'77.

'76.

'75.

'74.

78.

Marcb No.

226,669

221,567

230,036

229,980

214,862

214,514

215,744

June „

221,011

228,702

223,220

225,866

214,939

217,598

206,516

September „

218,170

222,004

213,190

216,167

211,109

210,323

204,167

December „

217,016

219,146

220,609

215,451

209,697

212,521

203,361

ail.)

Deaths .-

—Nwrnbers.

Qrs. ended
last day of

79.

•78.

*77.

76.

'76.

'74.

'73.

March No.

156,390

139,825

135,000

142,269

162,256

136,518

132,432

June ,

132,186

129,111

131,289

126,212

130,999

123,907

118,582

September „

103,733

129,348

109,565

119,909

121,547

124,253

114,676

December „

135,885

141,290

124,494

121,918

181,651

141,954

126,830

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160

Periodical Eetwms.

[Mar.

Annual Rates of Marriaobs, Births, and Deaths, per i,ooo Persons
LiYiNG in the Tears 1870-78, and in the Quarters of those Tears.

Calendar Years, 1870-78: — General Ratios.

TiAma

'79.

Mean
'69-78.

'78.

^77.

•76.

•74.

'78.

Estmtd. Fopln.
of England
til ihou*andi\
in middle of
each Year....

25,i^5»

—

^4.854.

a4.547,

24.144.

^3.944.

^3.^49.

a3,35«»

Persons Mar-\
ried /

Births

861
210

i6'6
35*7

21-8

16-8

86-9
21-7

16-8

861
20*4

16-6

86-6
21-0

16-8

85*5
22-8

171

86-2
22-3

17-6
85*5

Deaths

21-1

Quarters of each Calendar Tear, 1870-'78.
(I.) Pbbsovb Married : — Ratio per 1,000.

Qrs. ended
last day of

'79.

Mean
•69-78

'78.

•77.

•76.

•74.

•78.

March

11-6
14*8
14*2

13-7
i6-8
i6-i
19*6

12*8
15-6
14.8
17*8

181
16*0
15*4
18*7

13-8
16*9
161
19*5

14*4
16-2
16-6
201

14*2
17*9
16-6
197

14*3

Jnn^ ,

18-8

September

December

16-9
20*8

(11.) Births :-

Qrs. ended
last day q^

79.

Mean
'69-78.

•78.

•77.

•76.

•74.

'78.

March

86'6
35-2
34*4
34*2

37-1
36-a
34*7
34-8

36*2
36*9
35*4
350

38*0
36*5
34-5
36-7

38-0
37*4
35*4
35*3

36*4
360
350
34*7

36-8
36*9
35-8
36-7

37-5

June

35-5

September

December

34*7
34-5

JH.) Deaths :-

—Ratio per i,occ

Qrs. ended
last day qf

March

'79.

Mean
'69-78.

•78.

•77.

•76.

'74.

•78.

26*2
211
16*4
21-4

24*1
21*2
20*2

21-9

22-8
20-8
20*6
22-6

22*3
21-5
17*7
201

23*5
20-9
19*6
200

27-5
21-9
201
21*8

23*4
210
20-8
23*8

23*0

Jane -...

September

December «.

20-4
19-5
21*6

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1880.]

Uegistraf-QeneraVt Beport: — England.

161

B. -Comparative Table of

Consols, Provisions, Coal, and Pauperism in

each Quarter of 1877-78-79.

Ayerage Prices of

pAUpemisM.

Consols

Dis-

Whkat

Mkat per Ponnd

St the Metropolitan

Meat Mnrkei

Potatoes

Coal

Quarterly Average of

(for

count

per

(Best

(Sf'H.

the Number of Paupers

Qoarten
ending

Money)
per

lOO/.

charged
bytlie
Bank

of Eng.

Quarter

England

and

(by the Carciwe),
with the Jf«u Prices.

Quality)
per Ton at
Waterside

Market.

borne)
in the
London
Market

Relieved on the
iM/i^ay of each Week.

Stock.

land.

Wales.

B<er.

Uutton.

Somhwsrk.

per Ton

In-door.

Out-door.

1877

*. d.

d. d. d.

<;. <;. d.

*. *. *.

*. d.

Mm. 31

95J

2'0

51 4

4t-7i
6i

6-9f

138-172

^55

16 8

15^.778

582,697

June 80

941

^•9

61 5

4i-9i
7

136-174
>55

18 2

143,674

528,878

Sept. 30

95i

a'4

62 ~

4f-9l

97—126
111

17 7

>39»iii

509,110

Deo. 81

96i

4*5

52 4

8f-8
5l

4i-8j

152—174
163

18 3

151*701

512,839

1878

Mar. 31

95f

2'4

50 10

4i-8i
6*

4|-9i

188-212

200

16 2

162,442

540,571

June 80

951

a-8

50 2

4*-8f
6»

6— 9i
7t

150—187

168

16 4

151,715

583,787

Sept. 30

95^

4'3

44 6

4i-8i
61

4i-»i

120—161

'35

16 -

145,956

513,616

Dec. 81

5*4

40 2

4i-7i
6

4i-«l
6i

111—132

121

17 4

159,7*1

523,996

1879

Mar. 81

96i

3*3

39 -

3i-7i
5»

4i-8i
6*

118—144
131

16 6

172,200

599,991

June 30

2-0

41 2

4i-9

12^-161

144

16 2

i59,94<>

567,916

Sept. 30

971

2*0

47 2

4^71
5l

41-9
«l

182—233

207

14 10

157,113

548,755

Dec. 81

2-6

48 1

3j-7i
5t

4i— 7i
6t

136-160
148

15 10

173,099

565,644

G. — Oeneral Average Death-Rate Table: — Annual Rate of Mortality to 1,000
of the Population in the Eleven Divisions of England and Wales,

Divisions.

England and Wales

I. London

II. South-Eastem

ni. South Midland

IT. Eastern

T. South- Western ,

TI. West Midland

yn. North Midland

rni. North-Western

IX. Yorkshure

X. Northern

XI. Monmthsh. and Wales .

YOL. XLIII. PAET I

Average Annual Rate of Mortality to 1,000 Living in

Ten Years,

1851^. 18ftl-70.

22*2

23-6
19*6

20-4
20*6
20*0
224
21*1

25*5
23*1

22*0
21*3

22*4

24*3
191
20*2
20*1
19*9
21*8
20*8
26*3
240
22-7
21*6

Year
lb78.

21*7

23*4
17*8
i8*8
19*5
19*3
21-6

20'9

iS'9

22*6
21*7
21'1

1879. Quarters ending

March.

25*2

271
20*3
22-3
230
23* 1
251
25-9
30*6
25-5
22*4
24*3

June.

211

22*4
17*8
19*5
20*2
19-6
21*2
21*4
231
21-1
20*9
21-8

Sept.

16*4

18*4
131
14*0
15*4
140
15*4
170
18-9
170
171
16*3

Dec.

21*4

24*9
170
180
18*7
18*8
20*4
21*8
25*4
21*2
19-8
19*6

Digitized by

Google

162

Periodical Betums,

[Mar.

jy.^Special Average Death-Rale Table: — Annual Rate of Mortautt per
i,ooo in Town and Country Disfricts of England in each Quarter of the
Years 1879-77-

Area

in Sutute
Acres.

PopnUtion
Eiinmerated.

Qimrters
ending

Annual Rate of Mortality per 1,000
in earli Quarter of the Years

1871.

1879.

Mean
•69-78.

1878.

1877.

Inl84Di8trict«,andl
67 Sub -districts, 1
comprising the (
Chief Townt J

3,184,419

12,900,142

rMarch..
J June ....

1 Sept

LDec

Year ....

26-6
21-6
17-5
23*8

22-7

24-5
22-2
231
24-8

23-8
22-7
19-2
22-3

22-4

23-8

23-7

220

84,134,802

9,812,124

Year ....

fMarch..
J June ...

1 Sept

LDec

191

192

190

18-2

In tbe nmuiniiicr Dia-")

comprising chiefly f
Small Town$ ana
Countrjf PaH»k*» J

23-2
20-3
14-7
180

21-8

194

i6*9
i8-6

20-5
18-9
17-2
19-4

20-2
19-6
15-6
17-2

JVb^.— The three montha JaaoMT, Fehraary, March, eontain 90, and in leap year 91 da/s; the three montha
April. Hay, June, 91 daya ; and each of the laat two opartera of the year, 93 daya. For Uiia meqtudity a oonrectioB
ia made in f^i«ml^bng the rate of mortality in the dimrent <iQartera of the year.

"E,— Special Town TViife;— Population ; Birth-Rate and Death-Ratb in each
Quarter of 1870, in Twentt-Threk Large Tomm.

Cities* Ice.

Estimated

Population in

the MiddSe

of the
Year 1879.

Annual Rate to i,ooo Liring during the Thirteen AVeeks ending

29th March.
(1st Ouarter.)

Births. Deaths.

SSth June.
(2nd Quarter.)

Births. Deaths.

27th September.
(3rd (Quarter.)

Births. Deaths.

3rd Jan.. 1880.
(4th Quarter.)*

Births. Deaths.

Total of 23 towns in U. K.

London

Brighton

Portsmouth

Norwich

Plymouth

Bristol

Wolverhampton

Birmingham

Jjeicester

Nottingham

Liverpool

Manchester

Salford

Oldham

Bradford

Leeds

Sheffield

Hull

Sunderland

Newcastle-on-Tyne

Edinburgh

Glasgow

Dublin

8,502,896

3,620,868

105,608

I3»»82i

85,222

74»293
209,947

75,100
388,884
125,622
169,396
538,388
361,819
177,849
111,318
191,046
311,860
^97,138
14<5,347
114,575
146,948
226,075
578,156
314,666

37-8

380
29-0
32-4
35-2
34-0
380
421
42-4
40-2
37-8
40-8
38-8
44*4
35-6
35-7
381
36-5
39-7
41-7
37-4
330
36-8
31-8

27-8

27-1

21*3
20-3

H'9
23-6
23-8
27*8
26*6
26-1
26*9
32*9
35*1
31*5
27-5
247
26-5
26-4
26-4
24-6
*5'4

21-8

26-6
43*3

35-7
35*4
31-2
31-3
34-9
291
34-8
38*4
40*5
35-9
35-7
37-6
35-7
381
340
31-6
36-3
35-8
40-8
40-8
37-3
34*3
86*3
32-7

22-7
22*4

i8-o
t5-8

22*0
21-7
20*1

»3'3

22*4

19*9

20*7

23-6
25-8

22-8

21-3

21*1
2fO
2fO
21-8
22-8

25*4
20'6

22*0

36-5

35-6

35-8
28*8
31-5
31-4
32-6
35-4
34-7
38-4
381
35-2
38*4
36*4
40*3
34-9
31-2
36-5
35-6
39-7
38-6
36-8
31-8
33-2
32-4

8-4

8-4
6-2
3*0
7*4
7*3
6-5
6-0
6-6
8-0
7*4
*4
o'S
9*5
7*2
6-8
8-3
6*5
6-8

9*5

20*9

6-5
7*0

25*1

35-6

36-7
30-2
31-7
34-7
301
35-2
37-3
39-2
36-0
35-4
38-9
34-5
37-7
340
330
36-6
35-6
38*3
36-5
35'9
32-2
31-4
28*4

24-6
249

20*2

17*7

22-7

26-8
23*7
23-8

23*1
22-4

25*3

30-2

26-2

*5'7

20'8
22*0

24'3

21*2

23'9
20-8

22-8

19*7
21-3
35-6

* This quarter contains fourteen weeks.

^itized by

Goo^It

1880.]

Bsgiatra/r-OeftLeraV 8 Repwi: — Bnglcmd.

163

F.^Divisional Table: — Marriages in the Tear ending ZOth September; and Births
avd Deaths in the Tear ending 31«< Decemher^ 1879, as Registered Quarterly,

4 i < 7
MAaniAQM in Qaartem ending

DIVISIONS.
(England mnd Wales.)

in
SUtate Acres.

1871.
(Fsrsom.)

3l8t

December,
1878.

Slst
March.
187«.

SOth June.
1879.

SOth
1879.

Engld. kWAJLEB....T»taU

37,319.221

No.
22,712,266

No.
^ 55,608

No.
35,851

No.
46,488

No.
45,071

I. London »..

II. South-Eaetern «

III. Soutb Midland

IV. Eastern

75,362

3,994,431
3,201,325

3,211,441

4,981,170
3,945,460
3,535445

1,998,914
3,702,384
3,547,947

5,125,342

3,254,260

2,167,726
1,442,654
1,218,728

1,880,777
2,721,931
1,406,935

3,889,044
2,444,762
1,365,041

1,420,408

9,533

5,205
3,278-
3,162

3,646
6,369
3,455

8,429

6,333
3,067

3,131

6,276

3,096
1,530
1,530

2,496
3.847
1,996

6,408
4,852
2,330

1,991

8,524

4,184

2,304
1,946

3,228
5,112
3,130

7,639
5,173
2,610

2,638

9,187

4,096
2,280
1,708

V. South-Western

VI. West Midland

VII. North Midland

VIII. North-Westem

IX. Yorkshire

2,871
4,875
2,541

7,937
4,849

z. Northern

2,616

XI. Monmthsh.&Wales

2,311

9 10 11 12
BiETHS in each Quarter of 1879 ending

18 14 IS 16
Oraths in each Quarter of 1879 ending

DIVISIONS.
(England and Wales.)

Slst
March.

SOth
Jane.

SOth
Septem-
ber.

Slst
Decem-
ber.

3l8t

March.

SOih
June.

SOth

Septem-

her.

Slst
Decem-
ber.

No.
226,669

No.

221,OH

No.
218,170

No.
217,016

No.
156,390

No.
132,186

No.
103,733

No.
^35,885

I. liondon

34,262

19,511
13,007
10,736

14,585
27,555
14,495

38458
25,728
15,192

13,140

31,900

18,647
12,861
10,847

14,187
26,992
14,305

36,620
25,179
15,633

32,276

19.007
12,311

10,2f9

13,901
25,894
13,993

37,163
25,365
14,925

13,116

35,658

19,169
12,370
10,716

13,646
25,365
13,960

85,292
24,741
13,817

24,4-29

12,407
8,733
7,305

10,935

18,367

9,643

28,685

1.7,822

8,87 <

20,248

11,024
7,739
6,472

9,388

15,660

8,067

21,944

14,933

8,380

8,881

16,633

8,198
5,625
5,012

6,772

11,492

6,476

18,137

12,138

6,958

6,292

24,230

n. South-Eastem

III. South Midland

IV. Eastern

10,629
7,205
6,087

V. South-Westem

VI. West Midland

vn. North Midland

vni. North-Westem

ix. Yorkshire

9,063

15,266

8,295

24,388
15,149

X. Northern

8,049

XI. Monmthsh.ft Wales

ld,84(

[)

12,2

9,18

7,674

, * These are revised figures, and will be found to differ somewhat from those first
published.

Digitized by

C^Sogk

164

Periodical Returns.

[Mar.

G. — Oeneral Meteorological Table,

[Ahttracted fiom the particulars tupplied to the

Temperature of

Elastic
Force

of
Vapour.

Weight
of Vapour

1879^

Air.

Evaporation.

Dew Point.

Ai^-
Daily aange.

Water
of the
rhames

ina

Cubic Foot

of Air.

Month!.

Mean

DiflT.
from
Aver,
age of

!o8
Year».

Diff.
from
Aver-

Years.

Hean.

Diff.
from
Aver-
age of

88
Years.

Mean.

Diff.
from
Aver-

Years.

Mean

Diff.
from
Aver-

Years.

Mean.

Diff.
from
Aver-

Years.

Mean.

from
Aver-
age of

88
Years.

Jan

o
81 •»

o
-4-7

o
-8-8

80-4

o
-8-8

o
27-0

o
-8-2

o
7-1

-2-6

o
84-9

In.
•146

In.
-066

Grs.
1^7

6r.
-0^7

Feb

88-9

-0-5

-1-2

86 -7

-l-O

34-7

-0-4

8-3

-2-9

38-9

•201

-006

9^8

-©•1

Mar. ..

41-2

+01

-0-4

38'6

-0-7

35-2

-11

14-2

-0-4

48 0

•90S

-010

9-4

-0-1

Mean ...

37-1

-1-7

-2-8

SS-2

-2-8

32-3

-3-2

9-9

-2-0

38-9

•184

-•024

2^1

-0^8

April ...

43-2

-2-9

-4-0

40-7

-3-4

87 -a

-30

:l6-8

-2-2

48-4

•226

-•029

9-6

-0 8

May

48-4

-4-1

-4-8

44-7

-4-2

40-7

-46

18-3

-21

52-0

•254

-•046

2-9

-0^6

June ...

66-9

-1-8

-2-1

6V8

-0-6

51-0

+0-4

17-4

-8-8

69-6

•374

+ •004

4-9

+0^1

Mean ...

49-5

-2-8

-8-5

46-4

-2-7

43-1

-2 4

17-3

-2-7

52-7

•284

-•024

8-2

-0-3

July

68-1

-8-6

-^•1

56-6

-2-1

58*4

-0-6

16-6

-6-7

60-6

•409

-•008

-01

Aug. ...

69-9

-1-0

-1-6

67-4

0-0

f>6*2

+1-4

16-4

-8-4

62 9

•436

+ •018

4-9

+0^3

Sept. ...

66-8

-0-2

-0-8

&3-8

-01

51-4

+0-4

16-3

-2-2

68-8

•879

+ •001

4 8

-01

Mean ...

68-1

-1-6

-2-2

55-6

-0-7

63-3

+04

18-1

-&-8

60-7

•408

+ 004

4^6

0-0

Oct

491

-0-6

-11

47-6

-0-7

46-8

-0-2

19-6

-2-3

—

•308

-•006

8^6

-01

Not. ...

88-8

-40

-5-2

86-6

-4-8

•34-9

-5-2

10-9

-1-4

—

•197

-•049

2^3

-©•5

Dec. ...

32*4

-6-7

-7-6

81-3

-7-8

28-8

-7-9

10-6

+ 1-2

•168

-062

1-9

-0-6

Mean ...

89-9

-8-7

-4-6

38-4

-4-2

36 -3

-4-4

11 1

-0-8

•221

-•039

2^6

-0^4

Note. — In reading tltis titble it will be borne in miud that the sign (— ) minus signifies

The mean temperature of the air for October was 49°'l, being 0°-5 and l^'l
reapectively, below the averages of the preceding 108 years and 88 years. It
was 2^^4 lower than the value in 1878.

The mean temperature of the air for November was 38°*8, being 4°'0 and
5**'2 respectively, below the averages of the preceding 108 years and 88 years. In
the preceding 108 years there are but four instances of so cold a November, viz.,
in the year 1782, 34°-7; in 1786, 86°7; in 1851, 37°-9; and in 1871, 37*^-6.

The mean temperature of the air for December was 82°*4^ being 6^*7 and
7^*6 respectively, below the averages of the preceding 108 years and 38 years. It
was the coldest December in this century, and there are but three instances of so
c?)ld a December back to 1771, viz., in the year 1784, 31*^; in 1788, 29°D; and
in 1796, 30°-4.

Digitized by

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1880.]

Meteorological Report

165

for the Year ended 31«< December, 1870.
Regittrar-Genenil by JAMxa GLAisHBm, E8Q.» F.R.S., &e.]

Degree

Reading

Weight

of a

Cubic Foot

of Air.

Daily
Hon-
zontel
More.
ment
of the
Air.

Reading of Tliermometer on Grata.

of
Hnmidity.

Barometer.

Bam.

Numlier of Night!
itwai

Low.

eit
Read.

ing

at
Night.

High.
est

Read,
ing
at

Night.

1S79.

)fMa.

Diff.

from
Aver-
ngeof

38
Years

Mean.

Diff.
from
Arer.

Tears.

Mean.

Diff.
ftrom
Aver-

Years.

Annt.

Diff.

from
Aver-
age of

64
Ycar».

At or
below
SOo.

Be-

tveen
80O
ami
40O.

Above
40O.

Month!

- 7

In.
29-661

In.

+ •097

Gra.
668

Grs.
+ 10

In.
2-6

In.
+0-7

Milei.
283

187

o
33-0

January

+ 3

29 -368

-■488

647

- 6

3-8

+2-3

808

28-0

44-9

Feb.

8f)

- 2

29-809

+ 069

669

+ 2

0^6

-1-0

816

Snm
88

Snm

24-9

42-2

March

29-674

-•091

654

+ 8

Sum
7-0

Sum
+2-0

Mean
301

Sum
48

18-7

Higfast
44^

Mean

+ 8

29 620

-•241

644

■ + 1

2-6

+0-9

229

24-0

40-6

April

- 1

29-838

+ -062

644

+ 8

8-4

+1-3

260

24-6

46 6

May

-t- «

29-641

--171

681

- 1

4-8

+2-3

277

86 8

66-6

June

7»

+ 8

29-666

I--120

640

+ 1

Slim
10-3

Sum

+ 4-6

Mean
256

Sum
16

Sum
37

Sum
38

Lowent
24-0

%•'

Mean

+ »

29-628

-•177

629

+ 1

8-7

+ 1-2

314

400

68-6

July

+ 9

29-672

-•114

528

6-2

+8-8

286

41-0

66-2

August

+ 4

29 802

-•008

684

+ 1

2-8

i+0-4

221

86-0

67-0

Sept.

+ 7

29-701

-•098

680

+ 1

Sam
11-7

Sum

+ 4-4

Mean
273

Sum
0

Sura
3

Sum

Lowest
36-0

Mean

+ 8

29-962

+ -2M

646

+ 6

0-8

-2-0

263

29-2

oOO

October

- 8

80-084

+ •295

669

+ 11

0-9

-1-6

239

16-0

42-2

Nov.

- 1

80-139

+ -863

668

+ 16

0-6

-1-4

230

13-7

37-5

Dec.

30-024

+ -800

667

+ 11

Sum
2-3

Sum
-4-9

Mean
241

Sum
46

Sum
80

Sum
17

LowMt
13-7

"«W

Mean

below the average, and that the aign (+) plus signifies above the average.

The mecm temperature of the air for the quarter was 89°^9, being 8^^7
and 4^*6 reapectiTely below the avflraget of the preceding 108 years and
88 years.

The mean high day temperatures of the air were 2^*8, fSi^'i, and 7^*5 respec-
tivelj, below their averages in October, November and December.

The mean tow night temperatures of the air were 0°'6, 4^*0, and 8^-5 respec-
tively, below their averages in October, November and December. Therefore the
days and nights were cold Uironghont the quarter, and particularly so in November
and December.

Digitized by

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166

Periodical Returns,

[Mar.

No. n.-6G0TLAND.
BIRTHSl, DEATHS, aitd MABBIAGES, nr thx Ybab

(BNDBD aiST DbOSMBBB, 1879.

I. — Sevial Table : — Number of Bprths, Deaths, and Marriaobs in Scotland^ and
their Proportion to the Population estimated to the Middle of each Year^ during
each Quarter of the Years 1679-76 inclusive.

1879.

1878.

1«77.

1876.

1875.

Number.

Per
•Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

1st quarter—

Births

Deaths

Marriages ..

31,830

22,364

5,956

3'5i
2'47
0-66

81,226

20,320

6,063

3-48
2-26
0*63

31,256

20,525

5,977

3*51
2'3i
0*67

82,333

21,294

6^663

3-67
241
0*75

31,096

25,116

6,369

3-56
2-87
0-73

Mean Tern- 1
perature j

84°0

89°-9

38''-5

3r-9

88°-7

2.nd Quarter-

Births

Deattis

Marriages ..

32,968
18,784
'6,050

3-64

2-04

0*67

33,629

19,&14

6,095

3*74

2-17

0-68

33,355

19,580

6,735

3*75

2'20
0*76

53,088

19,270

6,469

3'75
i-i8

0-73

32,294

19,518

6,638

3*70

2-23

0*76

Mean Tern- 1

perature j'

46*'-8

50''-4

4r-5

49°'2

60^-73

Srd Quarter—

Births

Deaths

Marriages ..

81,436

16,115

5,061

3-47

1-67
0*56

31,236

17,344

5,508

3-48
1*93
o-6i

30,988

15,919

5,694

3*45
1*79
0*64

80,790

16,465

5,895

3*49
1-87
0*67

30,123

18,050

5,723

3 '45
2-07
0*65

MeanTem-'
perature

64^1

5r-5

54''0

56'0

5r-27

^th Quarter—

Births

Deaths

Marriages ..

30,064

17,480

6,523

3-32
1*93
0-72

30,616

19,597

6,662

3*4<
2-i8

0-74

31,225

17,916

7,384

3*51

2*OI
0*83

80,588

17,093

7,546

3-46
1*94
0-86

30,180

19,101

7,191

3*45
2-19
0-82

Mean Tem-
perature

40°-4

39°-2

42°-8

43°-5

4r-7

Year—
Population .

3.6^7,453

3>593»929

3»56o,7i5

3.5*7,811

3,495»2H

Births

Deaths

Marriages..

125,736
73,329
23,462

3-46

Z'02
0*65

126,707
76,775
24,333

3'53

2-14

o'68

126,824
73,946
25,790

3-56
2*o8

0-72

126,749
74,122
26,563

3*59

2"10

0-75

123,693
81,785
25,921

3'54
i'34
0-74

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1880.]

Begtstrar-OeneraVs Report : — Scotlcmd.

167

I r. — Special Average Table: — dumber of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland and
in the Tovm and Country Districts for each Quarter of the Year ending 3lst
December, 1879, and their Proportion to the Population; also the Number of
Illegitimate Births, and their Proportion to the Total Births.

TotHl Births.

Illegitimate

Births.

Deaths.

Marriaifes.

Registration
Groups

Per
Cent.

Ratio.

Per

Ratio.

Per

Ratio.

Per

Ratio.

of Districts.

Number

One in
every

Nnmber

Cent.

One in
erery

Number.

Cent.

One in
every

Number.

Cent.

One in
every

Isf Quarter—

Scotland

31,830

3*51

2,736

8-6

11-6

22,364

3^-47

5,966

0-66

152

Principal towns

10,955

r46

911

8-^

120

8,125

*'57

2,421

0*76

132

Large „
Small

3,894

4*20

275

7*1

141

2,959

3'J9

707

076

132

7,463

V67

605

8-1

12-3

4,801

2-36

1,288

0-63

159

Mainland rural

8,778

r^f

894

lo'a

9-8

5,758

2*2<;

1,311

0-50

200

Insular „

740

231

6-8

14-7

721

2*20

229

071

141

2nd Quarter —

Scotland

32,968

3-64

2,606

7*9

12-7

18,784

2-04

49-0

6,050

0-67

140

Principal towns

11,506

V6^

959

120

7,007

2*21

45-2

2,392

076

132

Large „

4,294

46 s

273

6-4

15-6

2,327

2*51

39-8

698

075

133

Small

7,878

V87

561

7'i

141

4,230

2*o8

AS'\

1,280

0*63

159

Mainland rural

8,576

V^7

770

9*0

111

4^657

1-78

56-2

1,578

o'6o

167

Insular „

714

2'23

16-7

563

176

56-8

102

0-32

313

9rd QuaHer—

Scotland

31,436

3*47

2,729

8-7

11-6

15,115

1-67
1-73

60-0

6,061

0-56

179

Principal towns

10,781

3*40

940

8-7

11-5

5,462

58-0

2,236

071

142

Large „

3,980

429

265

6-7

16-0

1,892

2-04

490

645

070

144

SmaU

7,598

3*74

627

8-3

121

3,478

1-71

58-5

1.076

o-.')3

189

Mainland rural

8,177

V12

846

10-^

9-7

8,831

146

68-4

1,009

0-39

259

Insular „

900

2-8 1

5*7

17-6

452

1-41

70-9

0-30

337

Uh Quarter—

Scotland

30,064

3'32

2,606

8-6

11-5

17,480

^•93

6,523

072

139

Principal towns '

10,285

3-25

873

8-^

11-8

6,538

2-o6

2,420

076

131

Large

3,782

4-o8

264

7-0

14-8

2,259

2*44

724

078

128

SmaU

7,169

3'S2

675

8-0

12-5

4,060

2'OC

1,441

071

141

Mainland rural

7,915

V02

839

io'6

9-4

4,198

r6o

1,785

0-68

147

Insular „

923

2*88

6-0

16-8

425

^'11

163

0-48

209

Papulation of Scotland,

Population.

ScoUand.

Principal
Towns.

Large
Towns.

Small
Towns.

Mainli«na
Rural.

Insular
Rural.

By Census of 1871

Estimated to the middle \
of 1879 '

3,360,018
3»627,453

1,079,211
1,266,521

318,740
371,076

767,487
813,646

1,062,576
1,048,013

182,004
128,198

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168

Periodieal Beturns,

[Mar.

III. — Ba»tardy Table: — Proportion of Illbgitimatb in every Hundred
Births in the Divisiom and Counties of Scotland, during each
quarter of the Year ending 31«/ December, 1870 ; unth the Corresponding
Figures for 1878 added for Comparison,

Divitioni aad CoantiM.

Per Cent for the Qtuirtert ending

SUt
March.

80th
June.

HOth
Sept.

Silt
Dec

Per Cent, for the Qumrten endiig

187B.

Slit
March.

SOth
Jane.

SOth
Sept.

Silt
Dec.

SOOTLAUD

8-6

7-9

8-7

8-67

8*46

7-8

8-5

Divisions —
Northern

North-western..

North-Eastern ..

East Midland ..

West Midland ..

South- Western..

South-Eastem ..

Southern

Countiss —

Shetland

Orkney

Caithness

Sutherland

Boss and Cromarty

Inverness

Nairn

. Elgin

BanflT

Aberdeen

Kincardine

Forfar

Perth

Fife

Kinross

Clackmannan ...

Stirling

Dumbarton

Argyll

Bute

Renfrew

Ayr

Lanark

Linlithgow

Edinburgh

Haddington ...

Berwick

Peebles

Selkirk

Roxburgh

Dumfries

Kirkcudbright

Wigtown

7-0
6-6

8-3
6-8
7*0
8-1
14*6

4-0

3-6

II-4

6-8

4-0

9'2

9*3

13-8

i8-z

14-6

i6'9

9-8
8-3
6-9

**7

7'5
6-3
5*3
9'5
8-0

5*4
8-0

7-2
8-4
8-0

7*4

9*3

ii-7

7-5

12*9

14*6

M-4
17-7

72
6-6

129
8-8
5-8
6-6
7-6

11-3

2-2

10-8

6-7

6-6

13-9

160

131

9-6

102

9-7

6-5

5-4

6-2

6-6

7-9

7-4

7-8

6-9

8-3

100

11-6

11-2

131

6'o
14*0
9*5
6-7
7*5
7*5
U*9

61
6-0

141
9-6
7-7
71
7-6

14-3

8-9
6-0
14-9
90
6'4
6-9

7*5
14-1

3*o

5-7
7-0

5*9

6*5
9-6

11*9

i8-o

13*1
16-8

11-4
8*5
7'i

io*6

6'S

5*8
5*9

lO'O

4*5
6-5
8-1
7-6
8-6

7*1
8-6

8-3

6-4

10*4

12-4

•4*1
14-9
14*6

3-9

7-6

6-3

3-9

8-0

15-6

14*6

13-8

16-6

11-3

9-4

6-6

14-6

7-7

8-1

9-5

6-8

6-9

7-5

7-4

8-2

5-4

10-9

9-6

101

12-8

16-6

14-4

12-7

5*1
9-6
II-4
7*7
3*7
8-1

17*5

22*2
17*3

<3*3

I4'4

9*3

9*6

8-0

12-8

9*5
6-1

5*6
8*4
5*7
5-6
6-9
7'2
7-6
7*4
B'S
12-6

7*5

2*7

io*4
i3*«
i6-7
i8*o

90
61

130
8*4
6-6
6*4
7*6

11*3

6-4

13*6

6*4

6*0

7*0

6*5

14*8

140

12*8

12*3

9*8

7*3

6-9

11*6

7*4

6*6

4*8

6-9

6*5

5*1

6*7

6*6

7*5

7*8

8*7

7*1

9*1

12-1

11-2

12*9

7*1

5*9

14*0

8*9

6*2

8*4

13*4

4*»

7*6

8-3
7-8
3-6
8*1

7*4
16*2
i6'4
'3-8
10*0

9*9
io*4

6-9

4-8
7*o
7*i
4*3
7*3
3*9
6*4
7'5
7-1
7*9
8*o
101
13*1
4-8
8*o
8-7
U*8

i6-3
i6*i

8-67

61
60

141
9*6
7*7
7*1
7-6

14*3

3*9

7-6

6*3

3-9

15*6

14*6

13-8

15*6

11*3

9*4

6*6

14*6

7*7

9*6

6-8

6*9

7-6

7*4

8-2

7*1

5*4

10*9

9*6

101

12-3

16*6

14*4

12*7

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1880.] Registrar-aeneraVs BepoH:^ Scotland. 169

IV. — Divistonal 7'aW«:— Marriaobs, Births, anc? Dbaths Regiitered in

the Year ended ^Ut December, 1870.

(Compiled from the Regiitrar-General'i Quarterly Retnmi.)

DIVISIONS.

(Scotland)

kMMk

in
SUtute Acrei.

Population.

1871.

(Persons.)

4
Marriagee.

6
Birthi.

6
Deaths.

SOOTLAVD TotaU

19,^391377

No.
3,360,018

No.
23,729

No.
126,850

No.
75,860

I. Korthem

2,261,622

4.739,876
2,429.594

2,790,492
2,693,176

1,462,397
1,192,524
2,069,696

127,191
166,851
398,199

559,676
251,088

1,188,218
475,523
203,772

598

800

2,604

3,575
1,494

9,646
3,816
•1,196

8,124

4,279

13,694

19,626
9,081

52,436

18,193

6,417

2,044
2,836
7,175

12,098
5,515

31,920

10,317

3,955

n. North- Western

in. North-Eaatern

IT. Bast Midland

T. West Midland

ri, Soutb-Western

yn. South-Eastern

VIII. Southern

No. IIL-GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

SumcART of Marriages, in the Year ended 30th September, 1879 ; and
of Births and Deaths, in the Year ended Zlet December, 1870.

(Compiled from the Quarterly Retnmi of the reapectire Regittrara-Oeneral.)

[OOO'i omitted.]

Marriages.

Per
1,000 of
Popu-
UUon.

Birtha.

Per

1,000 of
Popu-
lation.

Death!.

Per

COOHTKIXS.

Area

in
Statute
Acres.

Popu-

bUon,

1871.

{Persons.)

l.OOOof
Popu-
lation.

England and!
Wales /

Scotland

37,319,

19,639,
20,323,

No.
22,712,

3,860,
5,412,

No.
183,018

23,729
23,824

Ratio.
8-1

7*1

4*4

No.
882,866

126,850
185,408

Ratio.
38-9

37-7
25*0

No.
528,194

75,860
105,432

Ratio.
23-2

22-6

I'vland . .

19-5

G^BSAT BbitaiwI

AND IbBLAND J

77,281,

31,484,

280,571

7-3

1,145,124

36-4

709,486

22*2

Note. — ^The numbers against Ireland represent the marriages, births, and deaths
that the local registrars hare succeeded in recording ; but how far the registration
approximates to absolute completeness, does not at present appear to be known. It
will be seen that the Irish ratios of marriages, births, and deaths are much under those
of England and Scotland. — Ed. 8. J,

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iro

Periodical Returns.

[Mar.

Trade of United Kinflrdom, for the Tears 1878-74. — Declared Value of the Total
Exports of Foreifrn and Colonial Produce and Manufactures to each Foreign
Country and British Possession.

Merchmndise Exported
to tlie following Foreign Coontriet, Sec

[000*8 omitted.]

1878.

1877.

1876.

1875.

1874.

I.— FOBEIGN COUNTBIBS.

Northern Enrope; ^iz-i Russia, Sweden, 1
Norway, Deumark, k Iceland, & Heligoland J

Central Europe; viz., Germany, Holland 1
and Belgium j

Western Europe ; viz., France, Portugal, 1
(with Azores, Madeira, &c.), and Spain, V
(with Gibraltar and Canaries) J

Southern Europe; viz., Italy, Austrian!
Empire, Greece, Ionian Islands, and Malta /

Levant ; viz., Turkey, with Wallachia and 1
Moldavia, Syria and Palestine, and Egypt J

Northern Africa; viz., Tripoli, Tunis, 1

Algeria, and Morocco j

Western Africa

Eastern Africa; vrith African Ports on
Red Sea, Aden, Arabia, Persia, Bourbon,
and Eooria Mooria Islands

Tndian Seas, Siam, Sumatra, Java, Philip- 1

pines ; other Islands ^ J

South Sea Islands

China, including Hong Kong

United States of America

Mexico and Central America

Foreign West Indies and Hayti

South America (Northern), New Granada, l

Venezuela and Ecuador j
,, (Pacific), Peru, BoUvia,i

ChiU, and Patagonia .... j
,1 (AtIantic),Brazil, Uruguay, 1

and Buenos Ayres J

Other countries (unenumerated)

4.799»
20,915,.

i2>973,

1,766,

737,

178,
257,

328»

£
4,687,

22,182,

12,789,

1,778,
474,

77,
299,

307,

4,951,
23,543,

14,343,

2,066,
593,

76,
270,

183,

£
5,478,

25,842,

13,509,

2,056,
655,

86,
259,

162,

Total — Foreign Countries..
n. — ^British Possessions:

British India, Ceylon, and Singapore
Austral. Cols. — New South Wales and Vic-

ic-l

toria. So. Aus., W. Aus., Tasm., and
Zealand

British Xorth America

„ W.Indies with Bt>8h.GKiiana& Honduras

Cape and Natal

Brt. W. Co. of Af., Ascension and St. Helena.

Mauritius

Channel Islands .,

Other possessions

Total — British Possessions

General Total £

38a,

2,980,

121,

689,

37,

323,

735»
109,

344,

3,509,
119,
497,

33,

264,

593,

150,

290,

3,393,

97,

595,

41,

297,

406,

136,

407,

3,194,

125,

406,

58,
360,
452,

79,

47,329,

1^536,

597,

306,

546,

99,

22,

198,

5o»

5»3o6,

52,635»

47,997,

51,280,

53,128,

1475,

2^18,

642,
328,
387,

82,
106,
184,

34,

5,466,

53,453,

1,433,

1,788,

347,

315,

84,

22,

170,

80,

4,857,

56,137,

1,536,

1,733,

646,

361,

441,

94,

26,

150,

31,

5,018,

£
5,116,

24,016,

14,560,

2,105,
668,

93,
271,

29,
34,

441,

3,996,
216,
490,

45,

262,

512,

438,

52,995,

58,146,

1,437,

1,606,

879,

325,

400,

41,

69,

99,

241,

5,097.

58,092,

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1880.]

Imports, ExporUy Shipping y Bullion.

171

^rade of TTnited EUn^dom, 1879-78-77. — Distribution of Exports* ^rom United Kingdom,
according to their Declured Real VcUue; and the Declared Real Value {Ex-duty) of
Imports at Port of Entry, and therefore including Freight and Importers Profit,

Mercbuidiie {excluding Gold and Sihtr)

Imported from, and Exported to,

the following I'oreisn Conntriet, Ice.

I. — FOBEIGN COUNTBIES:

Northern Europe ; yiz., Russia, Sweden, \
Norway, Denmark & Iceland, & Heligoland J

CeDtral Europe; Tiz., Germany, Holland, 1
and Belgium „ j

Western Europe ; vi«.. France, Portugal i
(with Azores, Madeira, &c.), and Spain >
(with Gibraltar and Canaries) J

Southern Europe; ▼iz-* Italy, Austrian \
Empire, Ghreece, Ionian Islands, and Malta j

Levant ; viz., Turkey, with Wallaohia and 1
Moldavia, Syria and Palestine, and Egypt J

Northern Africa; viz., XripoU, Tunis, 1

Algeria and Morocco J

Western Africa

Eastern Africa; with African Ports on
Bed Sea, Aden, Arabia, Persia, Bourbon
and Kooria Mooria Islands,

Indian Seas, Siam, Sumatra, Java, Philip- ]

pines; other Islands J

South Sea Islands

China and Japan, including Hong Kong
United States of America ^

Mexico and Central America ,

Foreign West Indies, Hayti, &c.

•}

South America (Northern), NewGranada, l

Venezuela, and Ecuador J
„ (Pacific), Peru, Bolivia, 1

Chili, and Patagonia .... J
„ (Atlantic)Brazil, Uruguay, 1

and Buenos Ayres j

Whale Fisheries ; Gmlnd., Davis' Straits, 1
Southn.WhaleFishery,&Falkland Islands J

Total — Foreign Countries

II. — Beitish Possessions :

Britiah India, Ceylon, and Singapore

Austral. Cols. — N. So.W.,Victoria&Qucensld,

„ „ So, Aus-, W. Aus., Tasm., 1

and N. Zealand J

British North America

„ W.IndieswithBtsh.Guiana&Honduras

Cape and Natal

Brt. W. Co. of Af., Ascension and St. Helena

Mttoritius

Channel Islands

Total — British Possessions

General Total £

[UOO'i omitted.]

1879.

Imports
ttom

28,916,

8,306,
12,267,

1.035.
1,436,

454.

3i320,

167,
1 2,844,

90,896,
1,965,
3.294,

1,562,
7,379,
5,974,

153,

284,919,

3«,024,

8,291,

10,569,

7,303,

4.570,

586,

642,

738,

77.361,

362,280,

£
11,814,

33,078,

20,804,

8,622,
9,325,

602,
836,

1,066,

2,297,

168,
10,238,

20,595,
1,407,
2,625,

1,624,

1,749,

8,661,

12,

135.223,

24,201,
10,080,

6,178,

6,465,

2,812,

5,844,

767,

345,

599,

56,281,

I9«.504,

1878.

Imports
fh,m

£
31,427,

$7,134,

54.3*6,

6,825,
11,803,

1,089,
1,269,

538,

3,111,

116,

15.426,

89,071,

1,500,

2,217,

1,164,

7,957,

6,375,

170,

291,518,

32,975.
13,029,

7,795.

9,441,

^,334,

4.383.

624,

889,

946,

76,416,

367,934,

EaporU

£
10,859,

34,275,

21,128,

8,251,
10,841,

406,
1,174,

465,

2,563,

81,
9,212,

14,621,
1,503,
2,836,

1,705,

2,684,

8,891,

22,

131.457,

26,853,
12,480,

7,089,

6,412,

2,761,

4,911,

897,

409,

536,

61,347,

192,804,

1877.

Import*
from

£
36,510

59,106,

60,829,

8,350-
18,258,

1,874.
1,525,

543.

3,755.

16,048

77,669,
2,167.
2,099:

722;
8,321,

8,775.
177,

306,81c,

38,396,
14,682,

7,031,

12,010,
7,117.
4.275i

772i
1,918,

938,

87,139.

393.949

Ksperit

£
10,172,

34,615,

21,355,

8,946,
8,083

700,
1,175,

464,

3,394,

78,
10,119,

16,313,
1,925,
3,169,

1,783,

2,864,

9,134,

21,

34»2io,

28,657,
13,209,

6,072,

7,585,

3,008,

4,114,

833,

494,

549,

64,521,

198,731,

* i,e,f British and Irish produce and manufactures.

yitized by

Google

172

Periodical BekmM,

[Mar.

IMPORTS. -(United Kingdom.)— For the Tears 1870-78-77-76-76.— 2)ec^arec^
Real Value {Ex-duty), at Port of EiUry {and therefore indvding Freight and
Importei^s Profit), of Articles of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise Imported
into the United Kingdom,

[000*B omitted.]

FoRKlOM AATICLK8 ImFOKTSD.

1879.

1878.

1877.

1876.

1875.

BAwMiTL8.-r«ar<i7tf,&c. Cotton Wool ....
Wool (Sheep's)..
Silk*

36,279,

24*930,

16,825,

3,581,

4,943,

1,901,

88,524,

24,589,

16,867,

8,483,

6,156,

1,583,

86;489,

26,310,

17,733,

6,055,

4,978,

1,686,

40,847,

24,980,

18,186,

8,537,

4,755,

2,180,

46,820,
22389,
15,227,

Flax

4,880,

4,822,

Indigo

1,62^1,

88,459,

85,202,

9>,>96,

93,935»

95,259,

„ „ yarious. Hides

5,109,

3,477,

lo,6iy,

2,>00,

10,726,

6,266,
3,184,

10,632,
1,811,

13,915,

6.495,
^,200,

11,569,
2,570,

20,191,

6,273,
4,786,

10,252,
2,874,

19,026,

7,005,

Oils

5,868,

Metals

12,685,

TaDow

2,087,

Timber

15,862,

3^,031,

35,808,

45,025,

43,210,

42,457,

,, ,, Aareltl, O-nano

704,
7,098,

1,806,
8,690,

1,667,
9.139,

2.462,
8,970,

1,292,

Seeds

8,789,

7,802,

io495>

10,806,

",43»,

10,081,

Tropical, Ac.,PiiODTroK. Tea

i',373,
7,324,

22,35',
>,975,
5,481,
3,794,
5,380,

2,895»

13,097,
6,098,

21,107,
3,718,
3,192,
3,509,
6,003,
2,209,

12,482,
7,852,

27,277,
3,589,
8,507,
4,384,
7,156,
2,256,

12,818,
6,413,

20,620,
8,946,
2,927,
8,839.
7,020,
3,968,

14,167,

Coffee

7,606,

Sugar & Molasses
Tobacco

21,917,
2,987,

Rice

1 2,991,

Fruits

3,789,

Wines

6,821,

Spirits

2,885,

58,573,

58,928,

68,403,

61,541,

63,162,

Food Qraisi and Meal.

ProTisions

60,596,
35,901,

58,378,
35,951,

63,210,
33,241,

51,550,
82,837,

52,714,
25,752,

96,497,

94,324,

96,45i»

84,387,

78,466,

Remainder of Enumerated Articles ....

4^955.

43,253,

42,560,

4>,i99»

45,716,

Total Enxtmbsatbd Impobt^..^
Add for Unbihtmeilated Iicpokts (say)

325,3*7,
36,810,

328,010,
38,050,

354,44^
39,500,

335»704,
38,300,

335»Hi,
38,800,

Total Impobts

362,127,

366,060,

393>94i»

374,004,

373,94',-:^

* ** Silk," inclusive of manufactured silk, *' not made up."

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Imports, Exports^ Shipping^ Bvlllon.

173

EXPORTS.— (United Kingdom.)— Por the Years 1879-78-77-76-76.— 2)«c;arc(i
Real ValuBf at Fort of Shipment j of Articles of British and Irish Produce
and Manufactures Exported frova the United Kingdom,

[OOO't omitted.]

BllTISR PXODUCB, IcO., BXPOETBD.

1879.

1878.

1877.

1876.

MiKFBS.— reoT^fZ^. Cotton ManufeuitiiFes..
Tarn

51,843,
iA,i03,

15*85 1>
3,714,
1,696,

694»
5»474,
i,c75,

52,908,

13,006,

16,723,

3,910,

1,921,

664,

5,526,

1,213,

66,964,

12,209,

17,335,

8,609,

1,707,

572,

5,830,

1,291,

54,851,

12,783,

18,620,

4,417,

1,769,

1,073,

5,621,

1,460,

58,666,

13,170,

21,649,

6,102,

1,738,

878,

7,271,

1,865,

Woollen Manufactures
„ Yam

Silk Manufactures

„ Yam

Linen Manufactures ....
Yam

9^,450,

95,766,

99,507,

100,594,

I10,Z28,

„ Sewed, Appai^l

3,198,
3,487,

8,166,
3,966,

2,833,
8,803,

2,962,
3,771,

8,186,
4,922,

Bikberdy. and Mllnry.

6,685,

7,121,

6,636,

6,733.

8,107,

'M'KVATii. Ikjn Bardware

3,019,
7,283,

i9»439»
3,380,
1,019,

7,20i,

3,290,
7,490,
18,394,
3,622,
1,057,
7,321,

8,336,
6,683,
20,095,
8,503,
1,363,
7,829,

8,481,
7,198,
20,731,
3,401,
1,202,
8,901,

4,266,
9,099,
25,781,
3,730,
1,300,
9,646,

Ma<4»inerT ,,,-.-,,- ,r-.

Ii^n

Copper and Brass

Leaa and Tin

Coals and Culm

4»»342,

41,074,

42,809,

44,914,

53,821,

Ceramic Mannfcts, Earthenware and Glass

2,5'26,

2,450,

2,614,

2,577,

2,812,

Indi^enon* Kfi^e. Beer and Ale ..,,....

i»759»
235»
55.
136,
552.
454,

1,762,
243,
66,
170,
503,
390,

1,895,
247,
72,
196,
463,
373,

1,922,
210,
70,
151,
529,
312,

2,090,

240,

and Products. Butter

Cheese

Candles

177,
676,
277

Salt ^

Spirits

Soda

2,300,

3»<9i»

3,134,

3,246,

3,194,

5,848,

Various Mfmufcts, Books, Printed

953,

2,058,
433,
213,
664,

891,

2,003.
406,
221,
647,

896,

1,995,
366,
218,
655,

877,

3,343,
312,
247,
659,

915

Furniture

Leather Manufactures
Soap

2,385,
311

. Plate and Watches ....
Stationery

uxx,

804,
684

oo*t,

4,321,

4,167,

4,129,

5438,

4,599,

Remainder of Enumerated Articles

XTnennmerated Artiolesr,- , .,..,.,.„„„.r.„.tT,,r,

22,936,
18,053,

20,953,
18,139,

22,509,
17,281,

19,796,
17,330,

20,880,
17,200,

Total Exports

191,504,

192,804,

198,731,

200,576,

223,494,

Digitized by

Google

174

Periodical Betums.

[Mar.

SHIPPING.--(United Kiugdom,)^Account of Tonnage of Vesseh Entered and
Cleared with Cargoee, from and to Various Countries, during the Tears ended
December^ 1879-78-77.

Countries from

whence Entered and

which Cleared.

FOEBIGir COUVTBIBS.

\ Southern h

Sweden

Norway

Denmark

G^erraany

Holland

Belgium

France „

Spain

Portugal

Italy

Austrian territories

Greece

Turkey

Boumania

Egypt

United States of America ....

Mexico, Foreign West 1
Indies, and Central l
America J

Brazil

Peru

ChUi

China

Other countries

Total British and Foreign.

1879.

Entered. Cleared.

Total, Foreign Countries

Bbitish Possessions.

North American Colonies ....

Fast Indies, including 1
Ceylon, Singapore, and V
Mauritius J

Australia and New Zealand

West Indies

Channel Islands

Other possessions

Total, JBrititrh Possessions

Total Foreign Countries
AND British Possessions,

Tears

ended
December,

ri879

i 78

I 77

Ton*.

1,161,245

284,747

1,143,64S

665,034

239,776

1,653,266

1,250,035

828,024

1,843,596

1,106,416

188,603

262,477

38,767

74,442

164,523

79,726

281,056

4,981,317

317,892

209,025
113,543
127,832
138,513
608,344

17,746,842

1,249,901

949,453

357,339
206,795
296,444
292,570

3,352,502

Tom.
1,066,649
151,107
632»399
442i»i79
640,744

2,361,798

1,360,310

872,170

3,230,265

713,797

351,700

1,029,891

80,296

76,749

264*453

i3>75i

430,888

3,038,411

464474

467,276
79,680

156,702
i3»4"

711,177

18,670,277

715,169
1,530,654

549402

179,563

199,134

1,005,158

4,179,080

21,099,344 22,849,357

1878.

Entered.

Tons.
1,389,143

364,882
1,135,394

765,235

226,282
1,709,068
1,226,814

875,987
1,952,058
1,155,908

219,861

254,066
39,570
64,581

801,974

201,656
4,718,304

223,439

199,069
239,363
32,660
170,288
664,099

18,009,691

1,248,277

1,040,738

809,906
182,699
288,739
238,296

3,308,665

21,318,246

aeared.

Tom.

983,599

237,8' I

645,757

425,973

609,992

2,277,658

1,361,961

902,760

5,120,192

665,720

316,824

894,049

85,108

72,099

385,180

394,598
2»369,354

412,656

491,033
69,667

176,520
20,281

625,858

17,544,650

686,395
1416,506

597,995
160,577
182,052
993,5 »3

4,037,038

21,581,688

1877.

Entered. Cleared.

Tons.
1,804,220

166,737
1,324,690

775,660

202,402
1,705,672
1,206,035

882,532
1,967,674
1,184,911

219,158

336,877
37,869
79,334

838,643

417,790
4,070,638

198,730

230,793
216,438
62,166
150,222
649,728

Tons.

938435
56,542
746,935
463,323
658,951

2,317,399
1,322,876

932,156

2,98 1 ,046

696,039

314,078

869,110

88,610

64,445

221,353

470,357
2,029,537

413,946

474,667

85,543
186,439

28,887
638,132

18,207,709 16,998,812

1,641,153

1,277,962

269,018
173,338
289,199
273,097

3,923,767

707,982
1,698,887

598,391
160,589
174,691
857,668

4,198,208

22,131,47621,197,020

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Imports, Exports, Shipping, Btdlion,

175

GOLD AHD SILVER BULLION and SPECIE.— (United Kingdom.)
— Declared Heal Value of, Imported and Exported for the Tears

1879-78-77.

[OOO'i omitted.]

1879. 1

1878. 1

1877.

Conntries.

Gold.

SUter.

Gold.

SiUer.

Gold.

Siher.

Imported from —

Aufltra-liA

£
3,152,

1,374,

388,

110,

3»767,
2,59^»

£
5,681,

1,591,

866,

21,

3,548,

i,6i6.

£
6,655,

1,172,

2,062,

£
38,

So. Amoa., including 1
Mexico and W. [.
Indies J

United States

3,394.
2,616,

Prance

4,914,

2,903,
853,

563,
409,

809,

116,
2,765,

6,473,

2,347,
833»

274»

22,

349,

62,

374.

8,138,

5,908,
2,019,

376,
1,578,

480,

122,
2,801,

1,741,
4,100,

77,
43,

41,
361,

9,889,

873,
1,036,

501,
817,

187,

121,
2,528,

6,048,

1.521,
U.855.

46,
107,

11,
122,

Germany, Holl. &\
Belg /

Prtgl., Spain, and!
Gbrltp /

Mlta. and Egjpt

China, including 1

Hong Kong J

West Coast of Africa
All other Countries ....

13,331,

10,734.

20,872,

",549,

15,452,

21,711,

Prance ,,,,,,,r--rrt,T.----,r,rt

696,
3,537,

859,

723,
1,871,

279»

4^599,
5,324,

1,316,

2,191,
I1645.

729,

6,147,
8,404,

744,

768,
166,

1,566,

Germany, Holl. k
Belg ;

Prtgl., Spain, and
Gbrltr. /

Ind. and Cliina...

5,092,

219,
6,949,

1,730,

1,072,
2,617,

2,873,

6,574,*
614,

24.

596,
350,

11,239,

233,

829,

847,

809,
1,612,

4.565,

5,840,
1,083,

39.
191,

16,296,

609,
1,168,

485,

683,
2,121,

2,500,

16,361,
298,

59,
212,

United States

South Africa

So. Amca., including 1
Mexico and W.
Indies

All other Countries ....

TotaU Exported ....

17,579,

11,031,

14,969,

11,718,

20,361,

19,437,

Excess of imports ....
exports ....

297,

6,903,

169,

4,"9()9,

2,274,

• This entry is now shown direct, instead of to Egypt as formerly.

Digitized by

Google

176

Periodical Beturns.

[Mar.

BRITISH CORN.— (7<w«tt« Average Pricet (Exolakd and Walks)
Weekly for 1979.

[Thife Table i» oommnnioated hj tlie Statutical and Com Department, Board of Trade.]

Weeks ended

Saturday.

Weekly Arerage.
(Per Imperial Quarter J

Wheat.

Barley.

OaU.

Weeks eided

Saturday.

Weekly Average.
(Per Imperial Quarter.)

Wheat.

Barley.

OaU.

1879.
January 4

„ 11
„ 18
» 25

February 1 ....
.> 8
„ 15
,, 22

March 1..
„ 8..
„ 15..
» 22..
„ 29..

April 5 ..
,, 12 ..
„ 19 ..
,, 26 ..

May 3..
,, 10..
„ 17..
„ 24..
., 31..

June 7
„ u
,, 21
„ 28

*. d.

39 7

38 II

39 I

38 4

38 I

37 7

38 -

39 I

39 7

40 8
40 8

40 II

41 -
41 2
40 II

40 9

40 8

41 4
41 5

41 7

41 4

41 8

42 6

e, d.
38 10
86 11

36 11

37 5

36 9
35 7
35 5
34 10

33 10

34 4
34 1
83 9
33 -

32 6
32 8

30 11

31 -

80 1
30 9
30 1
28 10
28 6

26 6
28 2
25 11
28 1

a. d,

20 3

20 I

19 8

20 I

'9 5

20 -

19 2

20 3

19 7

20 5

20 9

21 I

20 8

21 I
20 8
20 7

20 II

21 9

ii 5

21 II

22 6
21 II

21 8

a* 3

23 5

22 I

1879.

July 5

„ 12 .......

„ 19

„ 26

August 2 ....
„ 9 ....
„ 16 ....
„ 23 ....
„ 80 ....

September 6
„ 13
„ 20
., 27

October 4...,
„ 11 ...
„ 18....
., 25 ...

November 1

December 6
„ 13
„ 20
,, 27

e. d,

42 4

43 4

44 10

47 7

49 3

49 7

49 5

49 3

48 I

48 z

47 II

47 4

46 5

47 I

48 8

49 9

49 >o

50 4
50 5
48 9
47 10
46 7

46 7

46 2

46 6

47 1

8, d.

24 6

24 -

28 -

29 1

28 6
26 11
31 -

31 1

29 7

32 11

36 8
43 2
41 11

40 7
40 9
40 10

40 10

41 1
40 8
40 1
39 8
38 10

38 4
38 5
38 7

37 11

*. d.

24 2

21 -

22 -
^4 4

2t 8

24 2

»3 6

24 10

24 9

26 7

^5 7

22 II

23 II

23 4

22 2

a* 3

22 I

21 C

21 4

21 6

20 6

»« 4

21 4
20 II
20 10

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Periodical BehtoTM.

177

BRITISH COBN. ^Gazette Average Prices (England and Wales),
Summary of, for 1870, vdth those for 1878, added for Comparison,

[This Tftble U oommiuiicated hj the Statiatieal and Corn Department, Board of Trade.]

Average for

January —

Febrnaiy m

March — -...m.^..

First quarter

April.
May .
June .

Second quarter....

July

August

September..

Third quarter ....

October ^..^

Kovember

December »..

Fcmrth quarter....
ThbYhab ....

Per Imperial Quarter, 1879.

Wheal.

*. d.

39 3

38 -

39 7

39 -

41 -
40 II
+1 9

41 2

44 6
49 I
47 5

48 10
48 9
46 7

48 I

43 10

Barley.

s.
37

35 6

31 8
29 7
27 2

29 6

26 4
29 5
38 8

31 4

40 9
40 -
W 3

39 8

34 -

Oats.

S. d.

19 8

20 6

20 9

21 10
*i 4

21 8

22 10

*3 9
24 9

i* 5
21 4
21 I

21 7

21 9

Per Imperial Quarter, 1878.

Wheat.

s. d.

51 II

51 4

49 7

50 10

51 3

48 -

50 a

44 II
44 9
43 8

44 6

39 7

40 4

40 3

40 a

46 5

Barley.

«. d.

43 11

44 2
42 5

43 5

41 11
39 10
36 11

39 4

37 5
36 -
41 7

38 4

40 4
39 8
88 11

39 7

40 2

Oats.

s. d.

23 II

H 3

24 -

a5 4
26 -
26 3

25 10

*7 6
26 2

24 -

*5 II

21 10
21 -

21 8

^4 4

VOL. XLlll. PART I.

Digitized by

Google

178

Periodical Eetums.

[Mar,

REVENUE ov thb TJnitbd Kikodom.
Net Produce in Quarters and Years ended 31*< Dec., 1879-78-77-76.

[OOO's omitt«d.]

QUABTEB8,
ended 8l8t Deo.

1879.

1878.

1879.

Leis.

More.

1877.

1876.

rhMfcnmfl

5>356>
6,460,

3,725»

26,

1,630,
365,

£
6,484,

6,990,

2,628,

26,

1,564,

826,

£
128,

680,

97,

76,
40,

£
6,386,

6,855,

2,786,

46,

1,677,

820,

£
5,433,

Exci06 t • «•••••

7,058,

flfajTi'na

2,692,

Tftxes

39,

Post Office

1,552,

Telegraph Serrice ....

330,

PiviTiftrfcv Tar

16,562,

17,007,
440,

658,

213,
46,

16,919,
342,

17,099,
281,

fJ*«"WTi Xjands

17,048,

135.
316,

1,108,

17,447,
141,
883,

1,098,

658,

67,

259»
10,

17,261,
141.
837,
644,

17,380,
141,

Interest on Advances
Miflcollaneous

276,
880,

TotaU

18,617,

19,069,

721,

269,

18,383,

18.677,

Nkt Dec*. £462,

TEAB8,

1879.

1878.

1879.

Corresponding Yean.

ended Slst Dec.

Lttt.

More.

1877.

1876.

nnntrimfl

195750,

26,277,

11,019,

2,644,

6,3i9»

i»375»

£
20,166,

27,372,

10,652,

2,665,

6,180,

1,380,

£
416,

1,095,
11,

367,

'39.
45.

£
19.762,

27,868,

10,968,

2,636,

6,133,

1,820,

20,076,

Excise •

27,853,

flfa,ir|T)8

10,946.

Taxes • ......«•• •

2,488.

Pout Office

5,970,

Telegrapli Service ....

1,295,

Pro-nertv Tax

67,384.
9>485>

68,364,
6,031,

1,521,

3454.

68,187,
6.736,

68,627,
4,095,

rWvkxm TAnds

76,869,

399»

1,127,

4.272,

74,386,

410,

1,047,

4,642,

1,521,
11,

370,

4.005,
80,

73,923,

410,

954,

3,898,

72,722,
405,

Interest on Advances
UTiaAAllainflOiis

797.
8,555,

Totals

82,667,

80,484,

1,902,

4,085,

78,680,

77,479,

Net IncK. £2,183,

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Periodical Betums,

179

LONDON OLBABINa; OIBOULATION, PRIVATE AND PROVINCIAL.
T/ie London Cleainng, and the Average Amount of Promissory Notes in Circulation irk
England and Wales on Saturday in each Week dttring the Year 1879; and in
Scotland and Ireland, at the Dates^ as under.

CO.OOCTs omitted.]

Elf GLAND

AHD Walks.

SCOTLAMD.

lUCLAND.

Londont

Prirrte

Joint

Dates.

Cletred in

Banks.

Stock
Banks.

Total.

Weeks

£6

Under

Total.

£6

Under

Total.

Saturday.

each Week
ended

(Fixed
Issnes,

(Fixed
Jisues,

(Fixed
Itsnes,

ended

and
upwards.

£6.

(Fixed
Issues.

and
upwards

£6.

(Fixed

IFedHtsday*

8.72).

2,49).

6,21).

2.68).

6.86).

187».

1879.

JtlL 4

88,89

2.09

1.84

r.^

„ 11

89,55

2,10

1.66

n 18

97i70

2,07

1,83

Jan. 18...

2.06

8.68

5,63

8.70

2,98

6,68

. 26

9a.48

2,02t

1,79

Feb. 1

77»38

J'K

1.76

„ 8

111,12

1.92

1,74

Z 16

76,8|
109,06

1,87

1.71

3.58

Feb. 16...

1,98

5.29

8,67

2.84

641

.. 22

1,84

1,70

3,54

Mar. 1

7it53

1.88

1.70

3.53

„ 8

Z 16

1.83
1.81

1.70
1.71

3.53
3.52

Mar. 16...

1.86

8.81

5,17

8,66

2.71

6,a6

.. 22

102,3a

1.74

„ 29

75.43

1.88

1.80

April 6

I03i55

1.97

1.88

3.85

„ 12

2,02

1.91

3.93

April 12...

1,86

8,88

5,19

8.62

2,67

6,29

„ 19

2.08

1.92

3.95

u 26

109.59

2,01

1,90

3.91

M.y 8

; 10

104,75
90.52

2,01
1.98

1,90
1.90

May 10...

2.00

8.46

546

8,67

2,66

6,32

n 17

84,26

1.97t

1,89

3.86

n 24

109,06

1.91

1.82

l;S

,. 81......

77.9*

1.78

June 7

I03.a5

1,84

1.74

3.58

June 7...

2.60

8.90

d^o

8.46

2.66

6,00

.. 14

8149

1.81J

1.71

3.52

„ 21

104,70

1,79

1.68

i:J2

>. 28

8o,ao

1,80

1.68

July 6

J 12

115.56
93,<»

1.88
1.86

1,70
1.71

July 6...

2,08

8,60

5»68

8,22

2,48

5.r>

„ 12

105,00

1.84

1.68

3.52

„ 2«

83.83

1.79

1,64

343

Aug. 2

73.68

1,78

1.68

3.39

Aug. 2...

1.89

8,08

5,42

8,18

2.42

5,60

« 9

10247

1,74

1,68

3,37

.. 1«

78,75

1.72

1.60

3.32

„ 28

S:^

1.89

1.68

3,27

„ 80*

1.67

1,66

3,23

„ 80...

1.77

8.42

5.19

8.06

2.86

541

Sept «

102,81

1.87

1.68

3,25

» 18

74.41
94,60
^.75

1.66

1,67

3.23

„ 20

.. 27

1.67
1,68

1.68
1.68

l:^al

Sept 27...

1.76

8.46

5.21

8,06

2.42

5,48

Oct. 4

102,93

1,79

1.64

3,43

„ 11

86,53

1.86

1.69

3.54

„ 18

'S;g

1.86

1,72

3.57

„ 25

1.83

1.72

3,55

Oct. 26...

1.80

8.68

5,33

8,86

2.68

6,C3

Nov. 1

80,78

1,848

1,78

„ 8

121,19

1.86

1.76

" 15

85.21

1.86

1.77

3.62

« 22

i»5.97

1.84

1.76

3.60

Nof . 22...

2.12

8.87

5.99

8,49

2.89

6,38

» 29

7741

1.84

1.77t

3,61

Dec. 8

'Sul

1,80

1.75

3.55

« 18

1,78

1.71

3,49

» 20

'^M

1.78

1.72

3.50

Dec 20...

2.04

8.79

5.83

8.40

2.88

6,28

« 27

1,80

1,73

3,53

' The Wednesdays preceding the Saturdays.
S Fixed Issues. 8,60.

t Fixed issues, 8,66.
Fixed Issues. 8.68.

t Fixed Issues, 8,64.
f Fixed Issues, 2,46.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

180

Periodical Betums.

[Mar.

BANK OF ENGLAND,
Puriuant to the Act 1th and Sth Victoria, cap. 32 (1844)

C0,00O*t omitted.]

I88UI DlPASTmRT.

6 T

C0LL4TlSiLX. COLtniHS.

liabilitiat.

KotetlMnod

Datu.
(WednMayi.)

Aoeto.

Gtoreramest
Debt.

Other
Seonritiea.

OoldCoin

and
Bullion.

Notes

in Hands of

Pablie.

(CoL 1 minus
eol. 1«.)

Minimum Batet

of Dbeount

Bank of 'FF>gi»wd

Mlns.
42.19
48,73
43.81
43.87
48.95

44.87
44.94
46.«1
46,87
46.28
46.74
47.16
47.82

47,76
47.19
47.22
47.64
47.61

47,60
47.26
46.97
47,06

47.06
47^
48,01
48.74

49.02
48,97
49,14
49,16
49.57
49.21
49.19
49.18
48,68

48,46
48.69
49.03
48.88

48.73
47.99
47.25
46.00
44.98

44.08
48.18
42.76
42,76

41.69
41.49
41.44
41.26
41.38

1879.

Jan. 1 ..

, 8 ..

o 16..

» 22 ..

„ »..
Feb. 6 ..

: S::

„ 36..
Mar. 6 ..

: \l:

„ 26..
April 2 ..

lil

« 80..
May 7..

•• It:.

„ 28..

June 4 ..

„ 11 ..

; 18..

n 81..
July S ..

; iJ::

„ 23..
., 80 ..

Aug. 6 ..

: ^::
: 27..

bept. 3 ..

„ 10 ..

« 17..

M 24..
Oct 1 ..

•• i"

,» 23 ..

Nov. 6 ..
„ 12 ..
M 19..

Dec. 8 ..

„ 10 ..

" V-
.. 24..

n 81..

£
Mlns.
11.02
11,02
11,02
11,02
11.02

11,03
11,03
11,08
11,08

11,03
11,03
11,03
11,02

11,02
11,02
11,03
11,02
11.02

11,02
11,02
11,02
11.02

11.02
11.02
11.03
11.03

11.03
11,08
11.03
11,03
11.03

1103
11,02
11,02
11,02

11.02
11.02
11.02
11,02

11,02
11.02
11,02
11,02
11.02

11,03
11,03
11.03
11,02

11.08
11.08
11.02
11.02
11.02

£
Mlns.
8.98
8.98
8.98
8.98
8,98

8.98
8.98
8,98
8.98

8,98
8,98
8.98
8,98

8.98
8.98
8,98
8.98
8,98

8.98
8,98
8,98
8.98

8,98
8,98
8,98
8.98

8.98
8.98
3.98
8.98
8.98

3.98
8.98
8.98
8.98

8,98
3.98
8.98
8.98

8.98
8,98
8.98
3.98
8^98

8^98
8.98
3.98
8.98

8.98
3.98
8.98
8.98
3.98

Mlns,
27.19
27.73
28,21
28.67
28,96

29.37
29.94
80.61
30.87

81.28
81.74
38.15
82,82

82,76
32.19
33.23
33.54
82,61

82.60
32.26
81,97
83,06

32.06
82.87
33,01
83.74

84.02
83,97
34.14
34.15
34,67

84^
34.19
84,18
83,68

83,46
38.69
84,02
33.88

33.78
82.99
82.26
31.00
29,93

29.06
28.18
27.76
27.76

26.69
26.49
26.44
26,25
26,88

£
Mlns.
3»,78

33M
3146

39i38

28,50
28,89

29.63
29,83
29,42
29i<H
29.37

2943
29i37

29,39
28,90
28,64
28,89

^!i

29,33
29,29
29,32
29,66

25,24
28,83
28,54

1079. Per cot.

16 Jan » 4

29 „ 8

12 Mar 2i

9 April 2

6 Not.,.

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

PeriodiccU BetutM.

181

— ^WSIXLT BbTUBN.

for Wednesday in each Week^ dwring the Tear 1879.

[0,000's omittedO

DATia.

Assets.

Totals

Capital and Rett

Depodts. 1

Seren

Secoritiet. |

Besanre.

of
LiabiU.

Day and
other
BilU.

(Wcdn'sdys.)

ties

Capital.

Beat.

Piblie.

Private.

GoTem-
ment.

Other.

Notes.

Gold and
SUverCoin.

and
AsseU.

1879.

Mlns.

Mint.

Mlna.

Mint.

Mlna.

Mlns.

Mhs.

Mlns.

14,55

8,81

4.94

81.13

,22

Jan. 1

14.72

9,41

.89

54.14

14,56

8,48

4i75

89.64

,27

.. 8

18.29

9.69

,99

55.59
55.01

14,56

8.69

4i4i

8934

« 16

18.94

10.66

14»66

8.68

89.60

.98

,. 21

17,09

10.48

1,04

54.93

14,56

8,64

81.08

.89

« 29

16.72

11.80

1,06

53.21

14.66

8,58

5i92

99.08

fiO

Feb. 6

16,44

23.99

12.91

1.04

53.38

14,66

8,68

7.43

98.61

.88

„ 12

14.67

24.04

14,61

1,18

14.66

8,68

6,09

28.87

.88

.. 19

14.69

t'^

16.76

1.26

14,66

8,80

28.71

.86

. 26

14.69

16,49

1.27

55.21

H56

8,88

8,90

99.86

Mar. 6

14.96

23.72

16.96

1,88

56,96

14,66

8.88

9i7»

98,87

.97

., 12

14,98

22,54

17,90

1.40

14.65

8.92

10,77

28,39

.86

„ 19

15.46

22,37

22,38

18,66

1.49

14,66

8,98

'0.97

98.86

.84

.. 26

15.46

18,98

1,28

14»56

8.98

98,88

,87

April 2

15.64

23.00

18,12

1,14

57.80

14,66

8,U

80.66

.88

n 9

14,91

22. 16

17,86

1,80

55.73
50.33

14.66

8,U

81,89

.97

„ 16

14.91

22,33

17,80

1.29

14.56

8.16

89,89

.88

.. 28

14,91

22,38

18.60

1.28

57.02
56.04

14,65

8,18

<S65

81,48

,99

.. 80

14,91

21,00

18,24

1.09

H66

8,14

6,98

80,40

.81

May 7

14.91

21,33

18,07

1.17

54^^

14,66

8,14

99,50

,98

H U

14.68

20,97

17,89

l*iS

14.66

8.15

2;S

99,31

.27

„ 21

14,68

21,02

17.90

1.29

54.82

14,65

8,15

98,28

.26

n 28

14,67

20,19

18,17

1,28

54.26

H66

8.10

7,56

97,79

.26

Jane 4

14,68

»9.7o

17,66

1.16

53.19

14.66

8.10

7i70

27,8(7

,88

„ 11

14.68

19.20

18,87

1.26

53.50

14,66

8.10

7.58

28.84

,80

.. 18

14,68

10,08
18,52

19,87

1.24

54.37

H56

8.11

%95

28,68

.26

n 26

14,68

1936

1.40

54.45

14.66

8.17

7.28

29,96

.29

July 9

14.48

20,04

19.49

1.26

55.25

14.66

8.80

4.8a

82,88

.88

M 9

16.78

18,27

19,49

138

55.82

14,66

8,84

4.05

88,61

.86

,. 16

16,76

17.92

19.81

1.89

55.80

H66

8,86

88.46

.86

„ 28

16.75

»7.H5

19.86

1.97

14,66

8,84

88,29

.88

.. 80

16,76

17,70

20,26

1,12

14.66

8.88

4.46

82,26

.88

Anf. 6

16,80

'7.47

19.66

1,16

54.98

14.56

5.5a

81,80

.84

,7 18

16.80

19.96

1.21

55. 10

14,66

8.49

81,06

.28

„ 20

16.38

2036

1.20

54.84

14.56

8.87

81,06

,29

,. 27

16,93

90,14

1,17

54.17

14.66

8.72

4,61

80,67

,29

Sept. 8

16.68

17.61

19,61

1,19

53.84

14.66

8,72

6,00

81.14

,80

,. 10

16.84

17,28

2038

1.24

55.09

14.56

8.79

81.66

.29

., 17

16,34

17.25

20,98

1.19

solo*

14.66

8,78

81.48

,28

n 24

16,88

17.33

21,16

1,29

14.66

8,79

5.48

81.00

,29

Oct. 1

16,88

17.45

Si*

J'Jl

55.13

14.66

8,06

5i90

88.51

.82

M 8

19.67

17.43

1,10

56.'73
55.78

14,56

8,07

5.08

83.68

.86

., 16

19.87

1?;S

18.41

1,18

14.66

8,07

4.94

89.86

.86

„ 22

19.17

17,47

1,96

14.66

8,08

4.90

81,96

.80

„ 89

19.07

17.86

16,66

1.17

54.76

HI6

8.07

4.17

81,69

.84

Not. 6

18,67

18,59

16.66x

J'Jl

53.82

14,66

8.07

8.12

81,94

,84

„ 12

18.14

18,76

16,06

1,19

53.02

14,66

8,08

3,36

81.49

.86

„ 19

17,79

18,89

14.99

52,84

14.66

8,08

3.14

81,09

,88

.. 26

17,29

18,84

14,97

1.09

52.19

H66

8.08

29,97

,88

Dec. 8

16.86

19.17

14,10

J'^

50,66

14,66

8.04

28,68

.84

„ 10

16.66

19,01

14,48

1-i!

50.21

14,66

8.08

4.41

99,11

.80

.. 17

16.84

I9!65

14,68

1.26

5I.4S

14,66

8.08

i:S

28,04

.48

« 24

16.84

20,30

14.02

^'IZ

lit

14»66

8.07

29.97

.28

- 81

16.69

24.29

18.76

139

Digitized by

Google

182

Periodical Betuma,

[Mar. 1880.

FOREIGN EXCBANGEB.—Quotatums as under, London on Paris, Hamburg
and Calcutta; — a^ New York, Calcutta, Hong Kong, and Sydney, on
JjOJXiyoif, for 1879.

London

on
Piria.

8 ni.d.

London

Hunborg.

8m.d.

New
York.

60d.i.

Calcutta.

Hong
Zong.

6m.d.

Sydney.
SOd.«.

Standard

Datm.

(Approxi-
mately.)

Indian

Council

Bills.

CalcntU

London

Bank BiUi.

tf m. a.

SUttr

in Ban in

Loodott.

pr.oi.

1879.

Per cnt.

Jan. 8....

„ 17....

25-57i
26-62i

20-76
20-67

4-81i

4-84

i8|
19*

19*

43*

—

491
501

Feb. 11 ....
„ 26....

26-46
26-47i

20-61
20-64

4-85
4-86}

IS-

i9i
I9i

43|
43i

—

49*
481

Mar. 11 ....
„ 26....

25-62i
25-60

20-66
20-66

4-86i
4-85

;:»

;if

43*

—

49i
60*

April 8 ....
„ 22....

25-60
26-42i

20-66
20-61

4-86
4-86

I9i
"9*

•9i
i9«

.It

—

49K

May 6....
„ 20....

25-87i
26-40

20-68
20-59

4-86}
4-871

19*

v.\

—

601
60i

June 3 ....
„ 17....

25-37i
26-46

20-59
20-60

4-87
4-87

19A

47i

—

62i
62

July 8....
„ 17....

25-46
26-47i

20-62
20-63

4-86i
4-85i

•9«
19H

»oi

46f
45*

—

62t
61*

Aug. 6 ....
„ 19....

26-46
26-47i

20-63
20-64

4-811
4-8U

19*
I9i*

:»

44|
+4*

—

61*
61ii

Sept. 4 ....
„ 18....

26-52i
26-60

20-66
20-65

4-80}
4-81i

>9i
>9«

20*

44*
44*

—

61*
611

Oct. 2....
„ 16....

26-60
26-47i

20-63
20-62

4-81
4'80t

«9«

44*

—

in-

Nov. 4....
„ 18....

26-42i
26-46

20-66
20*66

4-79i
4-80}

»oi

20i

20}»
20H»

4«*»
4«i»

—

68i
63i

Dec 4....
„ 18....

26-47i
26-47i

20-67
20-57

4-81
4-81i

aoi

20i»
20i»

4«*
45*'

—

62}
621

• These are at four months' date only.

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JOURNAL

OT THB

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(Jfmmbtb 1834.)

Vol. XLIIL— Part II.
JUNE, 1880.

LONDON:
EDWARD STANFORD, 65, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

1880.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

HIS BOTAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES, E.G.

COUNCIL AND 0 F F I C E R S.— 1879-80.

{having filled the Office of President),

Thb RiaHT HovoiTBABLE Thb Eael of

SHAPTESBrET, K.G., D.C.L.
The Right Honoubablb The Eael of

Haeeowby, K.G., D.C.L.
The Rioht Honoitbable The Lobd

Otteestonb, M.A., F.E.G.S.
The Bight Hokoubablb The Eabl of

Debet, D.C.L., F.R.S.
James Heywood, Esq., M. A., F.R.S.

The Right Honoitbable The Lobd

Houghton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
William Nbwmabch, Esq., F.R.S., F.I. A.

(Corr. Member Inst, of France).
Wm. Fabb, Esq., M.D., C.B., D.C.L.,

F.R.S. (Corr. Member Inst, of France).
William A. Gut, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P.,

F.R.S.
Geobgb Shaw Lefetbb, Esq., M.P.

Tf^xtiititnt
THOMAS BRASSEY, ESQ., M^.

eitf^XtixtitvAi.

F. J. MoiTAT, M.D., F.R.C.S. I Feedbbick Pubdy.

A. J. Mundblla, M.P. I Sib R. W. Rawson, C.B., K.C.M.a.

^XvAttti.

Jambs Heywood, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. | Sib John Lubboce, Babt., M.P., F.R.S.

William Newmaboh, Esq., F.R.S.

RiCHABD BlDDULFH MABTIN, M.A.

€0undL

Majob-Gekebal H. p. Babbage.

Abthub H. Bailey, F.I.A.

T. Gbaham Balfoitb, M.D., F.R.S.

A. E. Bateman.

Stefhen Bottbne.

Edwabd William Bbabbooe, F.S.A.

James Caibd, C.B., F.R.S.

J. Oldfibld Chadwick, F.R.G.S.

Hammond Chubb, B.A.

Hyde Clabkb.

Lionel L. Cohen.

Caftain Patbick G. Cbaigte.

JULAND DaNVBES.

Robebt Giffen.
Feedbbick Hendbies.

Henby Jbula, F.R.G.S.

Peop. W. 8. Jevons, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Fbancis Joubdan.

Pbofessob Leone Leti, LL.D.

John B. Mabtin, M.A.

RiCHABD BlDDULFH MaBTIN, M.A.

Fbbdebio John Mouat, M.D., F.R.C.S.

Anthony J. Mundblla, M.P.

Fbancis G. P. Neison.

Robebt Hogabth Pattebson.

Feedbbick Pubdy.

E en est Geobge Rayenstein, F.R.G.S.

SiB Rawson W. Rawson, C.B., K.C.M.G.

Ebnest Sbyd.

CoBNELius Walpobd, F.I.A.

Ibtxxtiaxxsi.

Hammond Chxtbb. | Robebt Giffen.

Pbofessob W. Stanley Jevons.

Fbedeeic J. Mouat, M.D.

e^itax al ^t 90uma(.

Robebt Giffen.

Joseph Whittall.

J^uxSktxt* — ^Messrs. Drummond and Co., Chabino Ceoss, S.W., London.
2

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(KINa'S COLLEaB ENTRANCE),

STEAND, W.C, LONDON.

Jvne, 1880.

NOTICES TO FELLOWS.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTIONS are due in advance, on the Ist of
Jannary in each year.

A Form for authorising a Banker or Agent to pay the Snbecrip-
tion Annually will be forwarded by the Assistant Secretary, on
application. When conyenient, this mode of payment is recom-'
mended.

Drafts should be made payable to the order of " The Statistical
Society," and crossed ** Brwmmond and Oo"

To be included in the Ballot at any particular Ordinary Meeting,
the Nomination Papers of Candidates for Fellowship, must be
lodged at least six days before the date of such Meeting.

Fellows who may desire to receive Special and Separate Notices of
each Paper to be read before the Society, should indicate their
wishes to the Assistant Secretary.

Members borrowing books from the Library are requested to be
good enough to return them with as little delay as possible, but
without fail at the expiration of a month, so as to obviate the
necessity otherwise of recalling them.

Members changing their Addresses are requested to notify the same
to the Assistant Secretary, so that delay in forwarding communica-
tions, or the JotMmalf may be avoided.

Bi Order of the Exbcutivb Committee.

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HOWAKD MEDAL OF 1881.

The following is the title of the Essay to which the Medal will
be awarded in November, 1881. The Essays to be sent in on or
before 30th June, 1881.

" On the Jail Fever from the Earliest Black Assize to the last
" recorded Outbreak in Recent Times J*^

The Council have decided to grant the sum of 20/. to the writer
who may gain the " Howard Medal *' in November, 1881.

{The Medal is of hronzBy having on one side a portrait of John
Howard, on the other a wheatsheaf with suitable inscription).

The following are the principal conditions : —

No Essay to exceed in length 150 pages (^vo.) of the Journal of
the Statistical Society.

The 'President shall place the Medal in the hands of the suc-
cessful Candidate, at the conclusion of his Annual Address, at the
ordinary Meeting in November, when he shall also re-announce the
subject of the Prize Essay for the following year.

Competition for this Medal shall not be limited to the Fellows
of the Statistical Society, but shall be open to any competitor,
providing the Essay be written in the English language.

The Council shall not award the Prize, except to the author of
an Essay, in their opinion, of a- sufficient standard of merit; no
Essay shall be deemed to be of sufficient merit that does not set
forth the facts with which it deals, in part, at least, in the language
of figures and tables; and distinct references should be made to
such authorities as may be quoted or referred to.

Further particulars or explanations may be obtained from the
Assistant Secretary, at the Office of the Society, Eling's College
Entrance, Strand, London, W.C.
4

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CALENDAR FOR 1880.

JAN.

JULY

FEB.

AUG.

24
31

MAR.

SEP.

...

20
27

21
28

22
29

23
30

APR.

...

OCT.

...

19
26

20
27

21
28

22
29

23
30

24
31

MAY

...

• . •

NOV.

...

JUNE

...

DEC.

...

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In Monthly Parts. Price 325. per Annum. Postage Free.

PRECIS

OFFICIAL PAPERS,

BEING

ABSTRACTS OF ALL PARLIAMENTARY RETURNS

Directed to be Printed by both Houses
of Parliament

SESSIOnST 1880.

MESSRS. W. H. ALLEN AND CO.,
13, WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON,

MEMORANDUM WITH REFERENCE TO

ADVERTISEMENTS

POB THB

STATISTICAL SOCIETY'S JOURNAL,

Which has a wide circiilation, both at Home and Abroad,

Suitable Advertisements will be inserted in the Quarterly
Parts of the Society's Journal, at the undermentioned rates : —

In the Four Quarterly Parte of the
Journal —

(FOUB IlflSETIOm)

One Page •• •• £10 10 0

Half Page.. 6 6 0

In one Quarterly Petri of the Journal
onljf^

(Om Imnnov)

One Page • • ..£330
Half Page .. .. 2 2 0

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ISSUED BY

EDWAED STANFOED,

56, OHARINQ CROSS, S.W.

L ATLA8ES and MAPS.— General Catalogue of Atlases and Maps
publiflhed or sold by Edwabd Stahpobd. New Edition.

2. BOOKS. — Selected List of Books published by Edward Stamford.

Naval and Military Books, Ordnance Survey Publications, Memoirs of the Geological
Surrey of the United Kingdom, and Meteorological Office Publications, published
on account of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

4. LONDON and its ENVIRONS.— Selected List of Maps of London

and its Environs, published by Edwahd Stakpobd.

5. ORDNANCE MAPS. — Catalogue of the Ordnance Maps, published

under the superintendence of Colonel Cookb. Price 6d. ; per post 7d.

6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-

LAND.— Oatalosue of the Geological Maps, Sections, and Memoirs of the Geo-
logical Survey of Gbeat Britain and Ireland, under the superintendence of Akdbew
C. Bambat, LL.D., F.B.S., Director-General of the Geological Surveys of the
United Kingdom. Price 6d. ; per post 'Jd,

8. ADMIRALTY CHARTS.— Catalogue of Charts, Plans, Views, and

Sailing Directions, &c., published by order of the Lords Commissioners of the
Adminlty. 224 pp. royal Svo. Price 7a, ; per post, 7s. 4i.

9. INDIA. — Catalogue of Maps of the British Possessions in India and

other parts of Asia, with continuation to the year 1876. Published by order of Her
Migesty's Secretary of State for India in Council. Post free for Two Penny
Stamps.

10. EDUCATIONAL.— Select List of Educational Works published by

Edwabd Stanfobd, including those formerly published by Yabty & Cox.

11. EDUCATIONAL WORKS and STATIONERY.— Stanford's

Catalogue of School Stationery, Educational Works, Atlases, Maps, and Globes,
with Specimens of Copy and Exercise Books, &c.

12. SCHOOL PRIZE BOOKS.— List of Works specially adapted for

School Prizes, Awards, and Presentations.

14. BOOKS and MAPS for TOURISTS. — Stakford's Tourist's
Catalogue, containing a list, irrespective of Publisher, of all the best Guide Books
and Maps suitable for the British and Continental Traveller ; with Index Maps to
the GoTemment Surveys of England, France, and Switzerland.

*0* With the exception of ttaore with price affixed, any of the ahove Catalognes can be had gratis on
Application; or, by poet, for a Fenny Stamp.

EDWABD STANFOBD, 55, Charing Cross, London.

AgeiU hff Appointment for the Sale of the Ordnance and Geological Survey Maps^

the Admiralty Charte, Her Majesty* e Stationery Office and

India Office Publications^ etc.

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Air OUTLINE OF THB OBJECTS OF

THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

Thb BtoMstical Society of London was founded, in porsnanoe of a
reoommendation of the British Association for the Advancement ot
Science, on the 15th of March, 1834 ; its object being, the carefnl
collection, arrangement, discussion and publication, of facts bear-
ing on and illustrating the complex relations of modem society
in its social, economical, and political aspects, — especially facts
which can be stated numerically and arranged in tables ; — and also
to form a Statistical Library as rapidly as its funds would permit.

The Society from its inception has steadily progressed. It
now possesses a valuable Library and a Beading Room ; ordinary
meetings are held monthly from November to June, which are well
attended, and cultivate among its Fellows an active spirit of inves-
tigation : the papers read before the Society are, with an abstract
of the discussions thereon, published in its Journal^ which now
consists of forty-two annual volumes, and forms of itself a valuable
library of reference.

The Society has originated and statistically conducted many
special inquiries on subjects of economic or sot^ial interest, of which
the results have been pablished in the Jouimal, or issued separately ;
the latest instance being the institution of the " Howard Medal *'
Prize Essay.

To enable the Society to extend its sphere of useful activity, and
accomplish in a yet greater degree the various ends indicated, an
increase in its numbers and revenue is desirable. With the desired
increase in the number of Fellows, the Society will be enabled to
publish standard works on Economic Science and Statistics, espe-
cially such as are out of print or. scarce, and also greatly extend
its collection of Foreign works. Such a well-arranged Library for
reference, as would result, does not at present exist in England, and
is obviously a great desideratum.

The Society is cosmopolitan, and consists of Fellows and Hono-
rary Members, forming together a body, at the present time, of
nearly nine hwndred Members.

The Annual Subscription to the Society is Two Outneas, and
at present there is no entrance fee. Fellows may, on joining the
Society, or afterwards, compound for all future annual subscrip-
tions by a payment of Twenty Chiitieas,

The Fellows of the Society receive gratuitously a copy of each
part of the Journal as published quarterly, and have the privilege
of purchasing back numbers at a reduced rate. The Library
(reference and circulating), and the Beading Boom, are open daily
for the convenience of Members.

Nomination Forms and any further information will be ftir-
nished, on application to the Assistant Secretary.
8

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CORNELIUS WALFORB, F.I.A., F.S.S.,

\ BBIKG

A DICTIONAEY OF THE DEFINITION OP TERMS USED IN CONNEXION
WITH THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INSURANCE IN ALL ITS
BRANCHES: A BIOaRAPHICAL SUMMARY OF THE LIVES OF ALL
THOSE WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND
IMPROVEMENT OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INSURANCE,
WHETHER AS AUTHOR, MANAGER, ACTUARY, SECRETARY, AGENCY
SUPERINTENDENT, OR OTHERWISE: A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REPER-
TORY OF ALL WORKS WRITTEN UPON THE SUBJECT OF INSURANCE
AND ITS ASSOCIATED SCIENCES: AN HISTORICAL TREASURY OF
EVENTS AND CIRCUMSTANCES CONNECTED WITH THE ORIGIN AND
PROGRESS OF INSURANCE, INCLUDING A HISTORY OF ALL KNOWN
OFFICES OF INSURANCE FOUNDED IN GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE
BEGINNING.

AHJ> AL60 OONTAINDra

A Detailed Account of the Rise and Progress of Insnrance
in Enrope and In America.

Continued in Farts, which appear about every Six Weeks^ price 28. 6d.
Four Vols., cloth, 21«. each.

OPINIONS OF THE tPRESS.

We think we may safely say that it suxpasseB all autidpatioxiB which haye been formed
as to its Talue. The plan oi the work is perfect. — Insurance Record,

We think we can safely predict for it the position of a standard work. — Insurance
Agent.

Eyery matter more or lees closely connected with Insurance is dealt with clearly and
fully.— CWy Press.

The work is as thorough as though on each separate article, as on a separate yolume,
the author were content to rest his reputation for accuracy of information and knowledge
of details. — Ineurance Circular.

We haye reyiewed in detail this extended work, which is really one of a national
character, dealing as it does with so many phases of our social life, in the belief that the
knowledge of its contents will be appreciated by many outoide insurance circles. — Times,
2nd January, 1878.

LONDON;:
CHABLES AND EDWIN LAYTON, 150, FLEET STREET.

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Those persons who are inclined to benefit the Society
by legacies are recommended to adopt the following

FORM OF BEQUEST.

I give and bequeath mito the Statistical Society of
London, the sum of £ , such legacy to be

paid out of such part of my personal estate^ not specifically
bequeathed, as the law permits to be appropriated by will
to such a purpose.

Note A. — ^All gifts by will to the Society of land, or of
money secured on, or directed to be secured on, or to arise
from the sale of^ or directed to be laid out in the purchase of,
land, will be void. Gifts may be made by will of stock in
the pubUc funds, shares or debentures of railway or other
jointnstock companies, or money to be paid out of the testa
tor's pure personal estate, or of personal chattels.

Note B. — Bequests may be made either for the general
purposes of the Society, or to the Society's ** Building
Fund," which has been recently established.

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THE LONDON LIBRARY,

12, ST. JAMES'S SQUARE, S.W.

patron.
HIS EOYAL HiaHNKSS THE PKINCB OF WALES.
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Reprinted from the Journal of the StcUtsttcal Society for 1861, Price 1«.,
vdth a PrefIcb and Notes.

STATISTICS

of the

FARM SCHOOL SYSTEM

OF THE

CONTINENT,

AND OF ITS APPLICABILITY TO THE

PREYENTIYE AND REFORMATORY EDUCATION

PAUPER AND CRIMINAL CHILDREN IN ENGLAND.
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BAKXIBTIS-AT-LAW, BOMOKAKT SXCllZTABT.

LONDON: E, STANFORD, 65, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

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Vol.XXXUI. (1870.)

Vol. XXXIV. (1871.)

Vol. XXXV. (1872.)

Vol XXXVI. (1873.) '.

Vol. XXXVII. (1874.)

Vol. XXXVIII. (1875.)

Vol. XXXIX. (1876.)

Vol. XL. (1877.) t

Vol. XLI. (1878.)

Vol. XLII. (1879)

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Sets, or single copies of any number, of the Journal (if not out of
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Members only, under the above mentioned resolution, can obtain
copies of any number of the Journal (if not out of print), at the
Society's Rooms, King's College Entrance, Strand, W.C, London.

Note. — One or two numbers of the Journal are now out of print.
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BOOKS, k, WANTING TO COMPLETE SETS.

The following is a List of Odd Volumes, Numbers, or Parts, &c.,
wanting to complete Sets :

DonoHont of any portion thereof will he acceptable, and will be acknowledged
by the Society, [Dates in all cases are inclusiye.]

Association op the Chambers op Commerce op the United

Kingdom, Annual Reports of. 2, 3, aini 6. (1862-63, aod

1866.)
Athenjbum. The first seven volumes. 1827-34.
Bankers' Magazine. New York. Series 3, Vol. ii, No. 7 (1868) ;

Vol. V, No. 2 (1870) ; Vol. vii, Nos. 6 and 7 (1872), and Vol. viii,

No. 6 (1873).
Census of Berar. 1872.
Census op Coorg. 1872.
Central Chamber of Agriculture, Annual Reports, Nos. 1 and 2,

for (1866-67).
CoMPTB Q^n^ral db l' Administration de la Justice Civile et

Commercials bn France pendant les Annies 1862, 1872, et

1873.

COMPTE OiN^RAL DB L' ADMINISTRATION DB LA JUSTICE CrIMINELLE

BN France pendant les Annbes 1862, 1872, et 1873.
Economist. The first three volumes. 1843-45.
EcoNOMiSTB FRAN9AIS, Annies 1 — 4 (1872-75); Ann6e 6, Vol. 1, and

Nos. 1—42 of Vol. ii (1876); Annee 6, Nos. 51 and 52 of Vol. u

(1878); Ann6e 7, Vol. i, and Nos. 1—50 of Vol. ii (1879).
Hunt's Mbrchants' Magazine. (New York.) Vols, i to xii, and

XV to xxvi.
Investors' Monthly Manual. First three volumes. 1871-73.
Labourer's Friend. Nos. 230 (1869) and 231 (1870).
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, Proceedings of.

Nos. 1—5, 1844-45 to 1848-49.
Manchester Statistical Society. Transactions for 1854-55.
RivisTA Europea, Rivista Internationale. New series. Vols, i

to iii, and Fasc. 1 of Vol. iv (1877).
Royal Society, London. Indexes to the Philosophical Transac-

TIONS. 4to. Parts I, II, and III.
Royal Society, London. Catalogue op Scientific Papers. Vols.

i to viii. 4to.
Royal Society op Edinburgh, Proceedings op. Vols, i and ii.
Royal Society op Victoru, Transactions of. Vol. v.
Royal Asutic Society, Journal. Vol. xiv (1853-54).
SuRTEES Society. Vols, i to xxv, xxvii to xxxii, and xxxiv.
Tableaux Q^n^raux du Commerce de la Francb> ArO., pendant les

AnniSbs 1846, 1847, 1850, et 1868 k 1876.
The Times, from 1845-63 and 1869-74.
14

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LIST OP THE FORMER

OP THE

STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

From its Foundation, on I5th March, 1834.

P«riod. ^

1840-61 — ^Hi8 Royal Hiohnsss The Prince Consort, K.G.

1834-86
1836-38
1838-40
1840-42

1842-43
1843-45

1845-47
1847-49
1849-51
1851-53
1853-55
1855-57
1857-59

1859-61

1861-63

1863-65
1865-67
1867-69
1869-71
1871-73
1873-75
1875-77
1877-79

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, F.KS.

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., LL.D.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam, F.R.S.

The ^ght Hon. the Yisconnt Sandon, M.P.
(now Earl of Harrowby.)

The Most Noble the Marqnis of Lansdowne, E.O., FJBJS.

The Right Hon. the Viscount Ashley, M.P.
(now Earl of Shaftesbury.)

The Right Hon. the Lord Monteagle.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam, F.R.S.

The Blghi Hon. the Earl of Harrowby.

The Right Hon. the Lord Overstone.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam, K.G., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrowby, F JI.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Stanley, M.P.
(now Earl of Derby.)

The Right Hon. the Lord John Russell, M.P., F.R.S.
(afterwards Earl Russell.)

The Right Hon. Su- J. S. Pakington, Bart, M.P., G.C.B.
(afterwards Lord Hampton.)

Colonel W. H. Sykes, M.P., FJR.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Houghton.

The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., D.C.L.

W. Newmarch, Esq., F.R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst of France.

WiUiam Farr, Esq., MD., D.C.L., F.R.S.

WiUiam A. Guy, Esq., M.B., F.R.S.

James Heywood, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G5.

George Shaw-Lefevre, Esq., M.P.

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The Council of the Statistical Society wish it to be understood,
tbat, while thej consider it their duty to adopt everj means within
their power to test the facts inserted in this Journal, they do not
hold themselves responsible for their accuracy, which must rest
upon the authority of the several Contributors.

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Vol XUn.] [Part IL

JOURNAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

JUNE, 1880.

On the Education and Training of the Children of the Poor.
By Frbdkeio J. Mouat, M.D., late Secretary and Member, Council
of Education of Bengal ; Member of the Senate, of the Faculties
of Arts ancZ Medicvne, and Fellow of the University of Calcutta ;
Vice-President a/nd Foreign Secretary Statistical Society^ ^c,
^c, ^c.

[Head before the Statistical Society, 20th April, 1880.]

contents:

PAOB

Introdnction 184

Who and what are Panper

Children? 185

I. — The Past 188

State of the Question prior
to the passing of Poor
Law Amendment Act of

1834 188

II. — ^The Pbesbnt 191

(a) Workhouse Schools .... 193

(b) Separate Schools 196

(d) Training Ships 199

(tf) Boarding Out 202

(/) District Schools 206

Cost of Education in the Poor

Law District and Separate

Metropolitan Schools 209

Bcsults of Education in Poor

Law Schools 212

III.— The PiTTUBE 220

Why the District and
Separate Schools on the
Aggregate System, have
not fully answered the
end intended 221

Reasons for preferring the
Cottage Home System
in all future Schools
detached from Work-
houses 224

Edui'ational Standards of
Elementary Instruction 228

Army and N^vy Schools... 230
VOL. XLIII. PART II.

Casual Children 230

Summary 231

Condusion 233

Appendix.

Table I. — ^Number of Children
educated and Parliamentary
Qrant for payment of Teachers,
1861-78 236

Table IL — Qross Expenditure and
Cost per Child in Metropolitan
District Schools, 1869-78 236

Table III.— Details of Annual
Cost of above, nnder heads of
Provisions; Necessaries, Re-
pairs, and Furniture, and Edu-
cation and Industrial Training 238

Table IV. — Parliamentary Returns
of Numbers of Young Persons
educated in Workhouses and
District Schools who returned
to the Houses, either from mis-
conduct, or from causes not
involving misconduct. Sum-
mary by Counties 240

Table V.— Table of Young Of-
fenders admitted to and dis-
charged from Certified Reforma-
tory Schools from 1854-56 242

Table VI. — ^Number of Juvenile
Offenders committed to Refor-
matories who have been Inmates
of Workhouse or District Schools
from 1868-77 243

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184 MouAT — On the EducaHon.and Traming [June^

IfUrodticHon.

In the early period of the institution of the Statistical Society of
London, few questions occupied a larger share of its time and
attention, and none were considered with more care, than those
connected with education, eepeciallj in relation to the elementary
branch of that important subject ; which, in one of not the least
interesting of its phases, is the immediate purpose of this paper.

Before proceeding to the consideration of the subject, I deem
it right to mention that the statements and views contained in the
paper are purely and entirely personal, and must not be considered
to have any official significance, from my connection with the Local
Government Board, under the general direction and authority
of which the education of all poor law children in England and
Wales is conducted. My qualification for considering such a ques-
tion is based upon a practical acquaintance of some fifteen years'
duration, with all branches of education. Li Bengal, from the
primary elementary schools of that presidency, to the institution
of Universities in Lidia, based upon plans proposed by me some
years prior to their adoption by the State. In this country, I have
been connected with the poor law administration, for nearly eight
years. I conducted two great inquiries, which are published in
official records, into the schools of the metropolis, which gave me a
thorough insight into their management, and I have since seen
many workhouse schools and children in nearly every part of
England and Wales. I hope, therefore, that I do not come quite
unprepared to the task which I have undertaken.

A committee of the Society was appointed, and continued for
some years to conduct educational inquiries, of which the results
were, from time to time, published in our Journal. They are a mine
of wealth on the subject, and of considerable historical interest.

These investigations only came to an end, when a department
of the State took up and continued the work on an extended
scale, with such command of public funds, and with access to such
abundant and instructive sources of information, as rendered it
unnecessary, as well as inexpedient, for private persons to continue
to labour in a field so thoroughly occupied by able, active, accurate
workers, charged with the official responsibility of a public duty in
the matter.

Of all the unpaid toilers in this field, no one was more earnest,
devoted, painstaking, large and liberal in his views, and clear and
candid in his exposition of them, than the late Mr. Joseph Fletcher,
for some time Secretary of the Society and Editor of its Jowmal^ in
several volumes of which his vrritings are to be found. His admi-
rable paper on the Farm Schools of the Continent| and the applica-

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1880.] Of the OhOdrm of the Poor. 185

tion of the system to the preventive and reformatory education of
pavfper and erimiiMd children — ^terms which were, at one time, nearly
synonymous — ^was reprinted by the Society last year.* If the great
value of its contents were better and more widely known, it woxQd
have been eagerly purchased by aU interested in or connected with
the children of the classes to which it relates, as containing counsels
of wisdom in relation to their management, which are of as much
importance now, as they were when written so long since.

Mr. Fletcher's paper immediately preceded the establishment of
district schools in the metropolis, some of which have now been
more than a quarter of a century in existence, and, in consequence,
are in a position to afford positive testimony as to the soundness or
otherwise, of the views which led to their institution. It therefore
marks an epoch, and I take up the parable where Mr. Fletcher left
it, for it seems to me to be an important function of such a Society
as ours, to continue and revise its work from time to time, guided
by the light of subsequent experience, in all great practical ques-
tions.

The excellent i^eports of the Educational Department of the
Privy Council, show how well its work has been done, and how
largely and beneficially the fi»cts and figures collected by its officers,
have influenced the legislation of the country in the wise direction
of its public instruction. It is, I think, no small merit fairly due
to this Society, that it early saw the importance of the work, and
paved the way for its continuance in a manner altogether beyond
its own power, before it allowed it to pass out of its hands.

Before I proceed to the immediate development of my subject
I must say a few words as to who and what are known as pauper
children, and to indicate precisely the nature of the raw material
we have to convert into good stuff, for " to eradicate the hereditary
'^ taint of pauperism, would be to annihilate the great mass of the
" pauperism of the conntry ;" wise words, written by an earnest and
singularly single-minded and devoted friend of this class, whose
eminent and invaluable public services have not received the public
recognition to which they are entitled : I mean Mr. B.C. Tnffnelly
the late inspector of the Metropolitan Poor Law Schools.

What are termed pauper children, are the offspring of destitute
persons, maintained from the rates in union workhouses, district
schools, and training ships, or boarded out at the expense of their
several unions, in all of which cases they are dependent from the
misfortune of thoir birth and parentage, and from no &ult or cause
of their own.

^ " Statistics of the Farm School System of the Continent, and of its Appli-
** cability to the Preventive and Refonnatory Education of Pauper and Criminal
" Children in England." By Joseph Fletcher. Edward Stanford, 1878.

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1 S6 MouAT-^O^i the Education and Training [ Jtme,

Now, as the term " pauper '* has become one of reproach, and is
associated with moral and social degradation, I hold it to be impo-
litic and wrong to brand with it those who are in no way responsible
for the unfortunate position in which the destitution of their parents
has — ^to whatever cause due — placed them. Thus branded, stig-
matised, and placed in a class apart, the child has not a fair sts^
in life.

" A child should not be degraded in his own estimation bj being
^' a member of a despised class. A child cannot be a pauper in the
" sense in which that term is commonly understood ; that is, he
** cannot be indigent as the consequence of his own want of industry,
" skill, frugality, or forethought, and ought not, therefore, to be
" taught to despise himself. The pauper apprentice and the juvenile
** vagrant were, under the old system, brethren of the same class,
** outcasts, neither trained by frugal and industrious parents, nor
" by a well-devised system of public industrial education.

" The dependence of pauper children is probably the natural
" consequence of the crimes or follies (but it may also be of the
" misfortunes), of their parents; and in any of these cases it is the
** interest of society that the children should neither inherit the
" infamy nor the vices, nor the misfortunes of their parents."*

The remedy suggested for all this was the establishment of
district schools, in which the children should be taught with other
children not received from the workhouse, nor the offspring of
pauper parents.

When I asked in Holland for information regarding their pauper
schools, I was told that no such thing existed, and that the appli-
cation of the epithet was not permitted. Provision for the educa-
tion and training of all the children of the poor was made, and no
section of them was treated as a separate class, an example which
it would be wise for us to follow, when a change in the existing laws
permits, and the education of the whole of the poor is gratuitous,
as well as compulsory, a change which I venture to think must
come, however revolutionary and opposed to our present habits of
thought and manner of dealing with these questions, it appears at
first sight to be. This, however, touches the whole question of
elementary education, which is not within the scope of my paper.
In the title to this paper I have advisedly used the word poor^ instead
of that of pauper^ because the term is already employed in some of
the acts of parliament on the poor laws, and because it will be
understood, after my definition of what the children referred to
really are.

Nowhere, and by no one, has this class been better described

• Dr. Kay, ** Reports on the Training of Pauper Children," &c. London.
8vo., 1841, p. 31.

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1880.] 0/ the Children of the Poor. 187

than hj the late Sir James Kay-Shnttleworth, in the parliamentary
report already referred to, when writing of the School of Industry
at Norwood.

'^ As they are chiefly orphans, deserted, illegitimate^ or the off-
" spring of persons undergoing punishment, for crime, they are, in
" fact, children of the dregs of the pauper population of London,
'* and have consequently, for the most part, been reared in scenes
** of misery, vice, and villainy. Their physical conformation and
" physiognomy betray that they have inherited from their parents
" physical and moral constitutions requiring the most vigorous and
" careful training, to render them useful members of society. They
'* arrive at the school in various stages of sickness and disease :
** some are the incurable victims of scrofula ; others are constantly
** liable to a recurrence of its symptoms ; almost all exhibit the
" consequence of the vicious habits, neglect, and misery of their
" parents. Visitors invariably mark the prevalence of a singular
** formation of their heads ; that the boys have almost invariably
" coarse features, and that the girls are almost all plain. To the
" physical coarseness are added faces of suspicion, obstinacy, and
" gloom."

My own observation, based on an examination of the physical
state of several thousands of those in the district schools of the
metropolis, and the children of more than one of our great centres
of industry, such as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool,
brought out in startling relief the fact, that they are a scrofulous,
undersized, badly-developed, narrow-chested, degenerate class, as
compared with all other sections of the population urban or
rural ; that they are more or less torpid and flaccid in mind and
body, and altogether below the average standard of those in town
and country in health and stature, and in the beauty of form aud
feature, which struck St. Augustine so many centuries since, and
which still happily characterise the progeny of the British, nation,
in an ethnological point of view.

Between the lowest type of workhouse child, as described by
Sir James Shuttleworth, and the children of the poor, whose
poverty is the result of misfortune and not of vice or crime, and
who have seen better days, there is, however, nearly every gradation
of physical development ; but, the majority are generally below the
usual standard of beauty of form and healthiness of conformation,
of the working classes of the population at large. In the rural
districts sound and healthy children are generally found, but they
are in a painful minority in the great masses of pauper children
throughout the country ; and I am afraid it must be accepted as
true that, as a class, they are as above described.

I dwell upon these points strongly, because it is, in my opinion,

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188 MouAT — On the Education cmd Training [Jane,

the key to the solutioii of the problem, of how best to deal with
them, at the most critical period of their lives.

We have not only to train them to earn an honest livelihood
when of suitable ages, to lead useful and moral lives, to recmit
the ranks of the indnstrial classes, and to become permanently dis-
panperised ; bnt, it seems to me to be of almost equal importance so
to conduct and regulate their training, as to make healthy men and
women of them, that they may not in time become the progenitors
of a still more degenerate race ; inasmuch as it is now accepted
by all physiologists, that the defects which are transmissible by
heredity, are intensified in each succeeding generation.

The rapid and somewhat alarming gravitation of rural popu-
lations to urban centres, moreover, invests the subject with special
interest, for the children of the poor, bom and Inred in, or trans-
ferred to towns, rapidly degenerate and become scrofulous, from
overcrowding, defective food, absence of the means of healthy recre-
ation, and other insanitary conditions. The taint, as remarked
above, is often accompanied by the coarseness of feature and other
signs of mental and moral degradation, not usually found in the
same classes of the country population. To arrest this state before
it becomes permanent, is then of the utmost importance, for all the
consequences of scrofula are harder to remove the longer it lasts.
In the second and third generations they become stereotyped, and
fill our institutions with the halt, the blind, the epileptic, and the
imbecile. They bear out the view of some of the most careful and
experienced of the earlier writers on the poor laws and their
administration, that pauperism, and the diseases begotten of it,
are, to a very large extent, hereditary. That some of these physical
evils are on the increase, appears to me to be undoubted, and among
the causes I hold to be the condition of the children of the poor
generally, in all our great towns.

With this unavoidably lengthened preamble, I proceed to the
immediate subject of my paper, which, to consider logically, I
mast divide into three steps or stages, the past, the present, and
the future, so as to utilise the knowledge and experience of the
past and present, in the guidance and direction of the future.

I.— The Past.

This does not need any lengthened demonstration, for its evils
were long since recognised, and to a certain extent remedied.
Wherein the remedy has fallen short of the desired effect, and
further measures appear to be necessary to carry it into full effect)
I shall endeavour in my concluding remarks to show.

The commissioners appointed to consider and report upon the
working of the poor laws, in the third decade of the present

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1880.] Of iU OhOdren of the Poor. 189

century, whose labours cnlminated in one of the most beneficial of
all oar measures of domestic legislation of modem times, in
winding np their work, directed attention to the necessity of
attacking the evils of pauperism at their source.

They said, and I quote the whole of their words, for they
4mnnot be too earnestly and frequently impressed : —

" It will be observed that the measures we have suggested are
** intended to produce rather negative than positive effects, rather
*^ to remove the debasing influence to which a large portion of the
'* population is now subject, than to afford new means of prosperity
** and virtue. We are perfectly aware that, for the general diffusion
^'of right principles and habits, we are to look, not so much to
*' any economic arrangements and regulations, as to the influence of
" a moral and religious education.'*

" But one great advantage of any measure which shall remove
*^ or diminish the evils of the present system, is that it will in the
^ same degree remove the obstacles which now impede the progress
^of instruction, and mitigate its results; and will afford a fair
"scope to the operation of every instrument which may be
^^ employed for elevating the intellectual and moral condition of
" the poorer classes.*'

The commissioners went on to observe, that as the subject was
not within their commission, they would not dwell further on it,
and that they only ventured on the few remarks above cited, for the
purpose of recording their conviction, " that as soon as a good
^* administration of the poor laws shall have rendered further im-
** provemeuts possible, the most important act of the legislature is
" to take measures to promote the religions and moral education of
" the labouring classes."

In consequence of this recommendation, after the appointment
of poor law commissioners, and when the department was in fVill
working order, in 1839, the attention of the commission was specially
directed to the subject by the Home Secretary, and instructions were
accordingly issued by them to those assisting the commissioners, to
make ijiquiry into, and report as to —

1. The state of the pauper schools before the passing of the

Poor Law Amendment Act.

2. The improvements introduced into those schools since the

passing of the Act.

3. The further improvements which might be introduced into

the pauper schools, and the obstacles to such further
improvements. ' ,

Somewhat detailed instructions were given as to the great points
necessary to be inquired into and made known, and much minute

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190 MouAT — On the Education amd Travrving [June,

and valuable information was soon collected, of which the most
important was printed in an invalaable report, published by the poor
law commissioners in 1841. By very far the best of all the reports
were those of Dr. Kay, and Mr. E, C. Tuffnell, which abounded in
carefully collected facts, and excellent practical suggestions re-
garding the measures necessary to remedy the evils pointed out.
They all united in one unbroken chorus of condemnation, of the
ante-poor-law amendment period. These schools were shown to be,
as a rule, efficient instruments of evil, with few redeeming qualities.
A large portion of the criminal population was supplied from
the juvenile inmates of the workhouses and their schools; the
system of apprenticeship then in force was one of intolerable abuser
and the evidence of workhouse masters and assistant commissioners
tended to show, that the bad results of the system were in so great
a measure due to the associations inseparable from the immediate
connection of the schools with the workhouses, that the remedy was
to be sought in the complete separation of the children from the
adult paupers, rather than in the amendment of the schools them-
selves.

Some of the more flagrant abuses were corrected so far as
correction could be applied without going to the root of the evi},
and there was found an occasional oasis of good and efficient
management, in the dreary desert of a wrong direction in the
training of the children of the poor. There was not, however,
sufficient of this leaven to leaven the mass, and the radical remedy
of the establishment of District Schools entirely separated from the
workhouses, was suggested and steadily kept in view, until after
much discussion and inquiry, the public were sufficiently educated
to induce the legislature to grant the necessary authority for their
establishment. Large schools were recommended, on the groimd of
economy of management, and efficiency of education and training
at moderate cost, the expense of the material and agency employed
being spread over a large sur^ce, and thus lessening the outlay
necessary for the fair start in life of each individual child.

The authors of the plan, however, I think rightly, deprecated its
being considered from the economic side only, for any plan which
falls short of efficiency from the grudging of really necessary expen-
diture of money, cannot be considered to be economical, in the trne
sense of that much misapplied and misused term. The conversion
of unprofitable consumers into profitable producers, the rescue of
the young from augmenting the ranks of those preying upon society,
the enormous gain to the commonwealth of a virtuous, well
conducted, industrious, and thrifty population, are ends that justify,
and even sanctify, any outlay requisite to attain them, even if there
be not, as I hold there are, yet higher objects than are mentioned

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1880.] 0/ the ChOdrm of the Poor. 191

above, in giving to the unhappy cliildren, who are not responsible
for their lowly lot, the best education and training it is in our
power to give, consistent with the position — the honourable position
I esteem it to be — they are intended to occupy in the great army of
the labouring classes, As modem society is itself responsible for
many of the evils inseparable from civilisation in its most advanced
development, so it should not grudge to the irresponsible, the means
requisite to counteract those evils, so far as it is in our power to
remedy them. And surely in no direction have we a better prospect
of success, than in the moral and industrial training of the offspring
of the poor. Rightly regarded, these children of the State are
invaluable material when rightly dealt with. I do not believe in
the practicability of making men sober and industrious, and women
virtuous, by the agency of acts of parliament; I attach com-
paratively little importance to efforts to reclaim those steeped in
vice and crime, in the maturity and decline of their lives: but
I do believe, most heartily and unfeignedly, in the moral and
industrial training of the young, and in the efficacy of education
generally as efficient agents in ridding the body politic of the
most unwholesome of its humours, in cutting out the corrupting
cancer of pauperism from its deepest attachments, and in purifying
the turbid stream of our social life at its source.

No opportunity was neglected by the poor law commissioners in
placing the question fairly and fully before boards of guardians ;
until, by the passing of Act 7 and 8 Vict., cap. 112, the necessary
powers for the formation of school districts, were granted by the
legislature. This met the customary opposition to all new measures
intended to secure uniformity of action, but in due course of time
district schools were founded in the metropolis, with the consent of
the local authorities, and without the enforcement of the compulsory
powers contained in the Act.

As I am not writing a history of the working of the poor laws
since the passing of the great Act of 1834, this brief outline is all
that seems to me to be necessary to record regarding the past, in
relation to the education and training of the children of the poor —
and it naturally brings me to the second division of my subject.

n. — The Peesent.

There are now six recognised methods of dealing with the
children known as the pauper class, viz. : —

(a) In Workhouse Schools,
(h) „ Separate „

(d) „ Training Ships.

(e) ,y Boarding out, and
(/) „ District Schools.

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192 MoTJAT — On the Education cmd Training [ Jnne,

Of tlie schools which still form an integral portion of the work-
honses, a considerable nnmber send the children for instruction to
nationsJ, parish, board, and other day schools, maintaining them
in the workhouse after the time of instruction. The instruction in
all the schools mentioned is based on the standards of the Educa<
tion Department; and is, in fact, that of the public elementary
education of the country.

It is impossible to ascertain from the official returns, the exact
number of the children dealt with. The number of those taught
in district and workhouse schools, with the salaries of the teachers,
is given in Table I, from 1851, the date of Mr. Fletcher's paper, to
the last published report of the Local Government Board. There
has been comparatively little increase or decrease in the numbers and
cost, which have been carefully compiled from the returns of the late
Poor Law, and the present Local Government Boards. The smallest
average number under instruction in any one year was 30,654, and
the largest 41,574.

From a summary prepared from the returns of 1877, the
following figures were obtained, there were : —

Number of in-door pauper children on the f sane. 47i59^

Ist January, 1877 •.- \ insane .... 644

48,140

Of these the number of the orphans, or those 1 g ^

relieved without their parents, was j ^ '^^

A considerable number of the above were infants below the age
at which instruction begins. Of those under instruction, the
following was the distribution at the time mentioned : —

Knmber

of
Uoicms.

How Disposed of.

Daily ATerage

Attendance.

Half-Year ended

L«iy-day, 1877.

Sent their children to 9 district schools

5,59d

8,711

17,980

2,080

416

186 {

Maintained their children in 49 separate schools

Educated the children in 414 workhouse „

Sent their children to national, parish, board, and 1
other daj schools, average attendance at J

This is exclusive of —
Which sent the children to an industrial school ....
Boarded out their children

1
8

34,377

Had no workhouses or in-door oauners

660

The above figures are only an approximation to the truth, for
the number of the large class of casual children who are con-

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1880.]

Of the Children of the Poor.

193

stantly in and ont of the workhonses with their parents, is
extremely difficalt to ascertain, from the incomplete records pub-
lished.

There is also some flnctoation in the numbers themselves, as
shown by the following abstract of the returns for 1878, the
latest for which I have been able to obtain the figures. The
number of children supported out of the rates must of necessity,
to a great extent, fluctuate, in accordance with the variation of the
pauperism of the parents.

Number of in-door pauper children on let f sane 5i>427

January, 1878 L insane .... 7 1 3

Of these children the number of the orphans and 1
of children relieved without their parents was .... J

5**140
30.714

Of those actually under instruction on the same date, the
following is the number : —

Number

of
Unkins.

Manner of thdrDi^xMaL

Daily ArertKe

Attendance,

Half-Ycar ended

Lady-day, 1878.

84
36

418

166 -

Sent their pauper children to 10 district schools

„ f> 28 separate „

Taught their „ in 415 workhouse schools..

Sent their pauper children to national, British, I
board, and other day schools j the arerage atten- •
danoe may be estimated at

6,206

7,011

20HOI

2,870

1
3

Union boarded out its in-door pauper children

Unions had no workhouse

Union had a few <!hildren but no school

In the training ship " Exmouth " «

Total daily arerage attendance in school

139

649

36,627

(a) — Workhouse Schools.

From these returns it will be seen that by far the largest
number of the children are still retained in schools which are
integral parts of the workhouses, via., 18,000 in 1877, and 20,401 in
1878.

In spite of all that has been said and written on the subject
since 1834, and notwithstanding the great and undoubted improve-
ments which have been effected in the internal arraugements and
management of most of our workhouses, the pauper class is very
much the same now as it was then, and probably ever will be,* and

* " Strange as the assertion may sound in some ears, I beliere it, nevertheless,
to be quite true that, of the many millions of adult men and women in England,
scarcely a solitary person has thought of asking himself this vital question : What

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194 MoTJ^T — On the Education a/nd Training [Jnnei

the evil inflaences of pauper example and associations continue to
be about the worst to which a child can be subjected, at the most
plastic and impressionable period of life.

To children brought up in a workhouse, however well managed,
the early home will be the one looked to with greatest affection
throughout life, for early influences are the most lasting ; and the
great kindness and affection with which they are, as a rule, treated
by masters, matrons, and workhouse officials generally, will seldom
be effaced from the memories of even the careless and indifferent,
and those whose misfortune it has been never to have known real
parental affection, or home life beyond the dreary walls of the
union house. Where such a feeling exists, the wholesome sentiments
of independence and self-respect are blunted, and in most cases
probably altogether deadened. The chief incentives to thrift and
economy are removed, when no sense of disgrace is attached to the
workhouse as a refuge in times of distress, in old age, in sickness,
and even in temporary pressure from bad seasons, short work, strikes,
and the other incidents of the career of the improvident, idle, and
ill-disposed members of the working classes, who, unfortunately,
are far too numerous in these times of high pressure, and keen
competition at home and abroad. Parents imbued with such senti-
ments have no scruple in abandoning their children to the support
of the public, and children make no effort to maintain their parents
in old age, while the house which sheltered, fed, and clothed them
in early life, is open for their reception. The best managed work-
house schools are those of which the memory will survive longest
in the minds of those who have been trained in them. Human
nature in its springs of action is very much the same in all classes,
guided as much by early training and influences as by temperament

becomes of the wom-ont and nsed-np moliitudes of the criminal and dangerous
classes? When they can plunder and plague the public no longer, into what
holes and comers do they slink to die ? Not in garrets and cellars — the poor die
in such places as these — ^not in ditches and under hedges, but in union work-
houses. Where else should they wear out the remnant of their ill-spent lives P
Where, too, do the children of the dangerous classes, taught to steal, sent out to
beg, witnesses perforce of every nauseous vice, full to the brim of revolting
experiences, their every word an indecency or a blasphemy ; where do they go ?
Where must they go, when by any accident they fall helpless into the hands of
the police ? There is but one answer. They, too, must go to the union. And so of
profUgate mothers, when their time of trouble comes; and so of the tramping
imbecile, when the weather is not to his taste. These and every other variety of
vicious manhood, womanhood, and childhood, must find their way to the union
workhouse — must take part in the education of those with whom they are mad^
to associate. Let who will do the work of instruction, these, and such as these,
must bring to bear on all around them the terrible force of example. These
must carry on the work of education. Thus does the union workhouse become
inevitably the normal school of all the vices." — <* Walker's Original," 5th edition,
by Dr. Guy, p. 218.

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1880.] Of tlie Children of the Poor. 195

and constitiitioii, modified, as they probably are more or less, by
hereditary and transmitted tendencies.

All wages earned in excess of the narrowest requirements cf
daily existence, will be freely spent in drink and dissipation — there
will be no heed for the morrow. Food, a fireside, a bed, and the
constant congenial companionship of men and women of their own
stamp, are always ready for their reception on the submission of
proofs of destitution. What more do they want ? They will at
once resort to it when such a life as theirs has produced its natural
result, early decay and indisposition to exertion. Hence, I regard
the workhouse as the best possible training school for the produc-
tion, continuance, and extension of pauperism, and I am by no means
sure that it is not still responsible for some of the crime of the
country. A comparatively small part of pauperism is due to true,
misfortune, and the failure of honest, but unprosperous exertions.
Every class, doubtless, has its social failures, but the short* and
simple annals of the poor, if correctly apprehended and honestly
written, would, I am afraid, show that the majority of those who
become a permanent burthen to the community, are exactly of
the type which a workhouse training is calculated to evolve.

As the workhouse test, when rightly used and rigorously
applied, has nearly banished the able-bodied from all well-governed
unions, and left the houses to the old, decayed, worn-out, and
feeble in mind and body ; so the absolute exclusion of all children
from their precincts, would cut off the most fruitful supply of
paupers at its source.

Many excellent and benevolent persons doubt the heredity
of pauperism. I do not — but this is a side issue not necessary
to my argument. Hence I shall content myself with its mere
mention.

I have been informed by a gentleman who has had several
years' knowledge and experience of street arabs, and who has long
been engaged in the training of criminal children, that by far the
most depraved and incorrigibly vicious children who have come
under his care, have been those who have been in workhouse
schools.

There is, of course, a reverse to this medal, and many exemplary
members of the working classes, of both sexes, have been trained
in such institutions. Yet the strength of any system must be
judged by its weakest point, and if it be true that evil communica-
tions corrupt good manners, such communications are the normal
state of a large proportion of the inmates of workhouses.

That children can be properly educated and trained in work-
house schools, with the necessarily imperfect machinery that can be
employed, I altogether disbelieve, and assuredly their hereditary

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196 MouAT — On the Education and Training [ Jane^

physical defects are not to be corrected either by the sorroimdings,
or the dreary life of such places.

Children out of school hours need to be under nearly as careful
regulation, as when at their studies. If left to their own devices,
or in the charge of adult pauper inmates, they hang about the
most objectionable places within reach, the result of which is the
reverse of any beneficial inflaence either on their morals or their
manners. They also require to be taught to play, and to benefit by
all the conditions of active out-door exercises, which are so neces-
sary to their healthy physical growth.

In early infancy they are sometimes placed in the charge of
weak-minded paupers, who, although often singularly gentle Mid
kindly in their treatment of their young charges, are about the very
worst persons to whom a duty of so much importance should be
assigned. Most persons of weak minds, however careful, tractable,
and affectionate they may usually be, are at times uncertain tem-
pered, and not capable of self-control. Their habits and entire
want of education cause them to teach children objectionable tricks
and ways, which are difficult to eradicate at a later period, and are
not improbably the source of some of the nervous and similar
disorders, with which this class are known to be afflicted. Some of
the forms of epilepsy, ending often in complete loss of reason, are,
I have reason to think, due to previous habits acquired in early
life. From tables which I prepared in 1874, it appeared that in the
year in question there were in the extra-metropolitan workhouses
542 deaths from brain disease, 258 from epilepsy, and 1,283 ^^^^^^
paralysis. There are at all times a considerable number of epileptics
in the workhouses. If the exact history of the above casualties
could be ascertained, it is m^re than probable that many of them
had their remote origin in workhcmse influences and conditions.
Hence, in my belief, an additional reason of some weight why pauper
children should never be educated and trained in woi^diouses. To
many of them the remarks published in 1841, by the late Sir
James Kay- Shuttle worth, Mr. Tufihell, and others still apply, and
to their reports I must refer those who desire frirther information
on the subject.

I hope that the time is not far distant, when by the formation
of county boards and the better organisation of all local institutions,
boards of guardians will be brought to see the desirability of sepa-
rating schools entirely from workhouses, without a resort to compul-
sory legislation in any form.

(6) — Separate Schools.

These are schools detached from the workhouses, sometimes in
their immediate vicinity, but for the most part at a distance, and

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1880.]

Of the OhUdr&n of the Poor,

197

ander the control of the workhouse authorities. The nnmbers
taught in such schools range from 7,000 to 8,000 and upwards.
Some of them are of considerable importance, as will be seen hj
the following lists of those in effective operation in 1878, with the
number of children in each : —

Westminster (Battersea) iz7

St. Marylebone (Soufchall) 3 1 8

St. Pancras (Leavesden) 566

Ia]iDgtx>n (Hollowaj) 372

Strand (Edmonton) 410

Holbom (Mitcham) 540

Bethnal Ghreen (Leytonstone) .... 277

St-Gteorge-in-the-East (Plashet).. 267
Mile End Old Town (Bancroft 1 ^

Eoad) / *^^

Lambeth (Norwood) » 465

Brighton 247

Petworth « 17

Bamet loi

Edmonton 156

Wjcombe 54

Oxford 98

Hartismere 30

Norwich 24

Bristol 1 3 1

Wellington 57

Birkenhead 161

Liyerpool 688

Kirkdale (girls) 66

West Derby (the boys at Kirk- "1 _

dale) J

Manchester (Swinton) 966

Newport (Monmouthshire) 198

Cardiff. 169

Bridgend and Cowbridge 110

Swansea 69

Since that time a separate school for Birmii^ham was occupied
at the end of 1879, at Marston Ghreen.

The largest of these schools are, in all essentials aa respects
establishment, teaching, industrial training, and management, on
the footing of district schools. Some of them, as Kirkdale and
Swinton, have attained high proficiency in mental cxdtare and
indostrial training, and are doing a great and important work in
the dispanperisation of the children of the important industrial
and manufacturing centres in which thej are situated. Those at
a distance from the union houses are, taken altogether, absolutely
free from workhouse influences and associations, and the successful
subsequent career of those trained in them, which in a large number
of instances has been carefully traced, shows that they are con-
ducted wisely and well. Those which contain large numbers in big
buildings on the aggregate system, suffer from the conditions of
such aggregation in health, and in the enforced absence of the
study of individual character, which is the only really sound system
of educating the young. But as they share those disadvantages
with the district schools, with which they are essentially identical
in character, I shall postpone my remarks on this head until I
come to them.

Although the district schools come first in logical sequence, from
the number of children — 5,000 to 6,000 — educated in them, I shall
consider them last, for reasons which will appear anon.

From the returns it appears that from some 1 50 or more unions,

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198 MouAT — On the Education and Training [Jane,

the children are sent to national, board, and other schools for their
mental culture, returning to the workhouses for their meals, and in
all other matters becoming inmates of those institutions. The
number of children thus disposed of, is between 2,000 and 3,000.

This does not appear to me to be a satisfactory arrangement,
notwithstanding that the instructive staff of those schools is superior
to the teachers found in the smaller workhouses, and that the
mental training, mode of thought, and the glimpse of the outer,
self-reliant world obtained by the children, are educational in-
fluences of considerable value. All these advantages are neutralised
by the workhouse atmosphere to which they return, and irom. which
they come, and the association with adult paupers, which no
vigilance can prevent. The absence also of industrial training,
which exists only in name in most of the smaller workhouses, is a
cardinal defect of the system for which nothing can compensate.

It would be far better for the guardians of all the unions which
adopt this system, from the most praiseworthy nM>tives, to combine
together in each county to form district schools, than to rely upon
a plan which, seeming to be advantageous, leaves the vices and defects
of the old system in full vigour, during, by far, the greater part
of the lives of the children of the poor committed to their charge.
In some instances, what are called industrial trainers are em-
ployed to take charge of the children to and from school, and to
look after them in the workhouse. In other cases, the same duty
is performed by pauper inmates. The root of the evil is not
reached by either plan. The workhouse and its associations
overshadows them all, and little that is healthy can grow in its
shade.

There is another clas^ of schools not specifically mentioned in
the tabular statement, which deserves a passing notice, viz., schools
certified under the statute, 25 and 26 Vict., cap. 43. These are
schools under private management, in which pauper children are
taken in for education and training on the payment by the
guardians of the unions from which they are sent, of a fee equal
to the cost of maintenance of each child in the workhouse school
of the same union. Several of the schools are for destitute Roman
Catholic children; and before children can be sent to them, the
school and its management must be certified to be fit for the purpose,
by a local government inspector. The number of children in these
schools is not large, but they are doing a good work in a quiet,
unostentatious way, and although the standard of instruction and
industrial training in them is not so high as it is in the district and
separate schools, those which I have seen appear to be fitting their

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1880.] .

Of the OhMrm of the Poor.

199

inmates for the hnmble poeitions they are destined to occupy, in a
^kirly satisfactory manner.

On the 1st of June, 1878, according to a return moved for by
Mr. Salt, Parliamentary Secretary of the Local Government Board,
there were in England and Wales at that time 76 of these institu-
tions containing poor law children, via. : —

Number.

InduBtrial and Training InsfdtiitionB ....
InBtitntions for the hlind „.,.„.,.rT„ -r .r,..T

Boy..

Girii.

TbUL

87
16

116
161
no

382
47

526
181

64
809

64Z
29Z

691
74

11
10

„ deftf and dumb ....
omhanH ....r.

„ ur|iiuuui

„ idiote

816

1,067

1,873

Fifteen of the above are exclusively devoted to Roman Catholic
children, viz., eight industrial schools, two institutions for the
blind, and five for the deaf and dumb.

(d) — Training Ships.

One of the most satis&ctory and successM of the methods adopted
for the training of some of the children of the poor in the metropolis,
is ihe solitary training ship which is exclusively devoted to that
purpose. In 1870, the last report of the late Poor Law Board stated,
^ That a difficulty is often experienced in obtaining a satisfactory
'* outlet for boys brought up in the district and separate schools, and
" it appeared to us that great advantage would result if a ship was
^' founded in the Thames for the training of pauper boys from the
" metropolitan schools.'* They communicated with the Lords of the
Admiralty on the subject, who expressed a willingness to grant
the use of the " Ooliath," then lying at Sheemess, for the purpose.
A provision was introduced into the Metropolitan Poor Law (1867)
Amendment Act, to enable the guardians of any union or parish,
and the managers of any school or asylum district, with the consent
of the Poor Law Board, to purchase, hire, or otherwise acquire and
fit up one or more ships for the purpose of training boys for the
sea service. The " Goliath " was accordingly obtained, a commander
in the navy appointed to her charge, and she was anchored o£E
Grays in Essex. There she lay until she was destroyed by fire in
1875. She was placed under the control of the managers of the
Forest Gate District School, as two of the unions contained in the
district were waterside unions, but she was available for boys from
all the unions and parishes in the metropolis on the payment of a
weekly charge per head sufficient to Cbver the actual cost of main*

VOL. XLIII. PIBT II. p

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200 MoUAT — On the EdueaUon and TrcMng ^Jane,

tenanoe of the cliildren, with a fair proportion of the charges
incurred hy the fitting np of the vessel.

In the first report of the Local Oovemment Board it was stated
that " a sufficient period has now elapsed since the establishment
'* by the managers of the Forest Gitte School District, of the
" ' Goliath ' as a training ship for pauper boys, to enable an autho-
" ritative judgment to be pronounced. The results of this experi-
'* ment have been in all respects most satisfactory. A marked and
^' most encouraging improvement has been observed in the physical
*' development, and in the bearing and general intelligence of the
*' boys transferred to the ship from the metropolitan unions. The
" rapidity with which some, when transferred to the ship — ^town-
" bred boys of stunted growth — ^have increased in stature and in
'* bulk, has excited general remark."*

The purchase of a small sailing tender was sanctioned, to lessen
the cost of conveying stores and water, and to exercise a beneficial
influence on the boys in accustoming them to the sea, and in
developing habits of practical seamanship.

The managers were also empowered to receive children from
unions and parishes outside the metropolis.

The stunted growth and imperfect physical development of the
London poor, led to a correspondence between the managers of the
ship and the most experienced of the Local Oovemmeiit educational
inspectors, in which the latter fully maintained his position, that to
this cause alone was due the exclusion of most of these boys from
the royal navy.f The boys sent to the " Gbliath " were the pick of
the London district schools, and all were rejected who, after careful
medical examination, were found to be in any way unfit for a sea
life, by reason of physical imperfections ; and yet, even from this
selection of the fittest, comparatively few attained the standard of
growth and development, required by the naval authorities. As this
is, in my own opinion, based upon a personal examination of several
thousands of these children, the cardinal defect of the existing
system of training in most of the district and separate, and of all

• First "B«port of Local Government Board, 1871-72," p. xxvi.
t In the prologue to an entertainment on board the " Ezmonth/' in December
last, occurs the following passage : —

** And yet there's one thing saddens as, and that is—
That we, with all our pudding, beef, and g^vy.
Can't reach the standard of the royal navy."

The annual reports of the successor of the " Gbliath," the " Ezmouth," a
lecture by Captain Bonrchier on the system of tnuniug adopted by him» read
before the Society of Arts, 6th March, 1872, and the *' Instruction Book of the
'Exmouth,'" 422, published by Harrisons, St. Martin's Lane, are deserving of
carefhl consideration by all interested in the thorough training of the dass to which
these boys belong.

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1880.] Of ihe ChOdrm of the Foot. 201

the oiher schools of every kind and class to which these children
are sent, I dwell npon it, because, in this direction, the greatest
change is required, as I shall show in my remarks when treating of
the fatnre of this important question.

In the succeeding year, a house on shore was hired to accommo-
date boys suffering from fever and other infectious diseases, such as
are certain to occur when large numbers are congregated in a
restricted space, without a more perfect system of sanitary arrange-
ment and supervision than yet exists. The little attention paid,
heretofore, to such matters, and the universal neglect in all classes
of educational institutions in Great Britain of matters relating to
the hygiene of schools and colleges, must ere long force its attention
upon the public, in such manner as to provide the necessary
remedy.

The '' Ck>liath " continued to advance in the success of its train-
ing, until, on the 22nd December, 1875, it was totally destroyed by
fire, in spite of every effort to save her, of both officers and crew.
There were on board at the time $2$ persons, most of them boys of
tender age, and she lay in deep water and in a tideway ; yet in cold
winter weather, as a result of the admirable discipline maintained,
and the excellent training which produced it, but 2 1 of the ship's
company perished. More striking testimony of the value of such
an institution, in capable hands, could never have been afforded
in the even tenor of its ordinary life, from any length of time.

The behaviour of the commander and of the crew excited sym-
pathy and admiration at home and abroad, and the incident takes
rank, with many other episodes of similar character, which adorn
the annals of our country.

I regret that the space at my disposal will not permit of my
extracting from the official records, where they are buried so far as
the general public are concerned, the very striking accounts of this
incident, which I hold to be the best testimony that has ever been
afforded, of poor law administration when directed in the right
channel.

In addition to the proof by fire of the " Goliath " herself, the
sailing brigantine attached to her as a tender, underwent as crucial
a test by water, of the good stuff into which Captain Bourchier had
converted his indifferent raw materiaL She was run down by a
steamer in a strong tideway, and not a soul on board of her was lost,
every boy having been able to save himself by his activity, and by the
self-command which her excellent commander had instilled into them.
If history be, as it assuredly may be made, teaching by example, do
not these accidents of the " Goliath '* and the behaviour of her lillipu-
tian crew, taken from the very lowest stratum of our town popula-
tion, show how valuable the annual supply of 40,000 or $0,000 of

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202 MouAT — On the EducaUon and Training [Jime»

these strays and waifs, who have been not inaptly termed children
of the State, really are, and how they may, by wise direction and
travelling ont of the beaten tracts of the past, which are not now fit
guides of the fntnre, become the instruments of removing some of
our social difficulties, in the best and most efficacious of all manners.
As stated in the last report on the ** Gh>liath," by Mr. Holgate, the
educational inspector, who had made his annual official examination
a few days before the fire : — " The instruction carried out on board
" was not limited to ordinary schoolwork, but included navigation,
'* seamanship in all its branches, taught by careftilly chosen in-
*^ structors from the royal navy, swinmiing, driU, with or without
** rifles, band, and singing ; besides the industrial work of tailoring,
^ carpentry, and shoemaking ; in addition, the boys had the great
*' advantage of learning to utilise their teaching by cruising in the
*' brigantine of i8o tons, attached as a tender to Uie ' Ooliath,' and
" in which ihej were often away for days together, in all sorts of
" weather."

About 1,645 ^7^ passed through Captain Bourchier's hands in
the '' Goliath," and ip86 in the '' Ezmouth ; ** nearly all of whom
are known to have turned out well. The exact figures cannot be
given, as the early records were destroyed with the ship. There are
now 570 boys in the latter vessel.

(e) — Boarding Out,

There is, probably, no question connected with the education
and trtdning of the class of children to whom my paper refers,
which has excited more controversy, than that of boarding out.
Upon it the philanthropists and all who approach the question from
the sentimental side, are hopelessly at issue with the economists,
and those who are guided mainly or solely by public policy
in the matter. To consider it fairly and with strict impartiality, it
appears to me to be necessary that the real conditions of the ques*
tion should first be clearly apprehended and formulated, and then
that the rules of policy or propriety should be applied to its
solution.

I shall attempt to do so, with the confession that it is always
difficult to determine the manifold relations of any great social
problem, within the limits of an aphorism or an epigram.

The question then is, how to educate and train the orphan
and deserted children of the poor, in such manner as to take them
permanently ont of the class in which they are, with special
reference to their own interests, and to the general administration
of the laws for the relief of destitution.

To take these conditions, not in the order of their importance,
but in that in which they are usually treated by the advocates of

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1880.] Of ths OhUdrm of the Poor. 203

the system, the advantages of the plan as regards the children, \
that it removes them permanently from the inflnenoe of the work-
house and its associations ; tliat it gives to those who have been
denied them, from no fanlt of their own, the comforts, advantages,
and priceless blessings of a home ; that it places them on a level
with the members of the class to which they really belong ; that it
affords them an education suited to the future position they are to
occupy ; that it gives them a fair start in life, without the pariah
taint of pauperism ; and that it is, therefore, the most humane,
thoughts, and considerate manner of discharging the duty of the
State towards them. Pauperism and its surroundings are in &ct
the outcome of civilisation itself, and it should be the sacred task
of society to mitigate as much as it can, miseries which are so
much the creatures of its own creation.

These are, in a few words, so far as I have been able to gather
from the published reports and writings which I have consulted —
and they are legion — the cardinal conditions put forward by the
earnest and philanthropic persons who are advocates of the system.
The public policy of the proceeding is very generally disregarded
by them, and, as usual, in this strictly sentimental view, the minor
is preferred to the major.

In all social problems private must of necessity yield to public
interests, however much apparent individual hardship may be the
result.

From a poor law point of view, as stated by Professor Fawcett,
in his admirable work on *' Pauperism, its Causes, and Remedies,"
it is an encouragement to improvidence, to immorality, and to other
social vices; it rewards the improvident at the expense of the
thrifty ; it will introduce far greater evils than it ^11 cure ; and, it
will exercise a demoralising influence which will most powerfully
promote the future increase of pauperism.

After referring to the rules promulgated by the poor law autho-
rities, which deserve to be more widely known than they are, this
eminent Economist proceeds to show, that it places the orphan and
deserted child in substantially a better position in life than the child
of a labourer ; that it encourages, by a pecuniary bribe, the neglect
of an important part of the obligation of parents to maintain and
educate their children during their lives, and to make provision for
them after their deaths; that it is a powerful premium on illegitimacy,
encouraging it in a manner worse than any of the conditions of the
old poor laws, as shown by the statistics of the country from which
it has been imported — Scotland; that it encourages desertion of
the children bom out of wedlock by their mothers, thus severing
the strongest of all natural ties ; that it is equally injurious to the
class of legitimate children, in affording the strongest possibU

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204 MouAT — On the EducaHon and TrcUning [June,

enoonragement to their desertion ; and, tbat it is inconsistent with
a proper administration of the poor laws. He winds np by
stating that those who disconntenance it, must be content to bear
the reproach of hard-heartedness for resisting the attempts of an
nDwise philanthropy and mistaken benevolence, **to benefit the
" yicioas and improvident, at the expense of the thrifty and
" indnstrions."

An attentive stndy of the rules to prevent the abnse, and
regulate the nse of the system, shows how liable it is to the objec*
tions so forcibly stated by the anthorit^ above referred to, and
how well nigh impossible it is to guard it from inherent dangers,
beyond the pale alike of economic objections, and of philanthropic
motives.

If it could be shown that the classes of children who alone can
be allowed to be benefited by the system are neglected or prejudiced
by the present management of district and separate schools, there
might be some foundation for a small fragment of the philanthropic
plan.

But, it cannot be dem'ed that the mental and physical training
are really superior ; that the taint of pauperism is as efEectually
removed ; that quite as fair a start in life, with better preparation
for it, is given to them, and that the majority do well in their
subsequent career, as I shall show anon. While this manner of
dealing with them is strictly consistent with the correct cardinal
conditions of the relief of destitution, it violates no principle of
public morality, and is altogether removed from the dangers
inherent in boarding out, as shown by the terrible scandals which
occasionally come to light in its working.

The solitary advantage then seems to me to be in the cultivation
of kindly feelings, and the love and affection of foster parents, the
value and importance of which I have no desire to underrate, or to
undervalue.

But, is genuine parental affection a purchasable commodity ; is
the stray waif likely to supersede the child of the house in its mani-
festations ; and can it in any case be regarded as an equivalent for
the better mental and physical culture of the school which is dis-
severed from all pauper associations P

An admirable word picture of the life and lot of the children,
male and female, of the labouring classes, was painted by the late
Sir J. Kay-Shuttleworth, in the report of 1841, and I fail to find
in it any encouragement to bring the best and most hopeful classes
of pauper children within reach of its freedom and advantages,
such as they are. All parliamentary and other authentic reports of
the agricultural population show how much improvement is required
in their dwellings, manners and customs, training, and the other

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1880.] Of the Ohadrm of the Poor. 205

conditions necessary to supplement their healthy, virtnoasy and
otherwise happy lives, to enable them to face with success the fierce
struggle for life, the existence of which has been revealed by the
prevailing agricultural distress and depressiou. Even from the
sentimental side of boarding out, I am not convinced of its advan-
tages, apart from all other considerations.

The question was forced upon the attention of the poor law
authorities in 1869, who stated that for some time past an increasing
number of applications had been made to them by boards of guar-
dians for the practical adoption of that system, and that after much
deliberation they had come to the conclusion that a fair trial ought
not to be refused to the proposed change. They saw the serious
risks attendant upon the practice, and the imperative need of all
possible safeguards, to ensure the proper education and general
well-being of the children. They sent one of their best and most
experienced inspectors (Mr. J. J. Henley) to Scotland, to collect
information as to its working in that country, and directed similar
inquiries to be made in England and Wales, wherever the plan had
been tried. Their reports were published in a separate parliamen-
tary paper (No. 176, Sess. 1870). After detailing all their mis-
givings, they wound up by saying that they quite believed the
system, if well conducted, likely to benefit pauper children in the
highest degree; but that, if not watched with unremitting care,
abuses of a deplorable nature might easily surround it, and result in
moral and social evils of the greatest magnitude.

After accumulating, and carefully considering all the information
they could obtain on the subject, they authorised the guardians of
large town parishes and densely inhabited unions to board out their
children in the country, and sanctioned non-resident relief to enable
them to eflfect that object. They discouraged boarding out in
towns, and framed the extremely stringent regulations hereinbefore
mentioned, to prevent abuse. The order was addressed to forty
unions and separate parishes, all more or less densely populated, and
including the unions and parishes of the metropolis.

Thirty boarding-out committees, composed chiefly of ladies,
were established under the authority of the Board, in some of the
principal counties of England, and the system was &irly floated,
and has continued in operation to the present time, the sanction of
the Board being never withheld, when careful inquiry has proved aU
the conditions required to have been fulfilled.

As might be expected, grave cases of abuse have, from time to
time, been brought to light ; but, on the whole, the plan is reported
to have worked fairly well. It has not, however, been very generally
adopted by boards of guardians, as comparatively few of the chil-
dren in the schools have been brought under its operation.

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206 MouAT — On ihe EdueaHon and Trailing [June,

The latest retom shows that^ in 1879, 597 children, ont of abont
30,000, were boarded ont, nnder the order of 25th November, 1870,
from twenty-five nnions.

I have not referred to or indnded in this statement children
boarded oat in their own nnions, for whose better care regnlationa
were framed, and published in the " London Cbsette " of 14th Sep-
tember, 1877. It is so entirely a mere form of ont-relief, as to place
those children in an entirely different category from those dealt
with nnder the order of 1870 ; and is not accompanied by the same
saf eg^nards to prevent abuse. Their numbers are considerable, and
this manner of disposing of them is liable, in my opinion, to even
graver objections, from a purely poor law point of view, than thai
mentioned above.

(f)— District Schools.

The remedy recommended for the defects of the old system of
workhouse schools, and the removal of the abuses of the appren-
ticeship of pauper children, under the Acts on the subject prior to
the legislation of 1834, was the institution of district schools, by
the union of the authorities of several unions and parishes, in pro-
viding the buildings and agency for the accommodation of their
children in large numbers, in bnUdings calculated to contain them ;
these buildings to be placed in healthy oountiy places far away from
the workhouses and the towns, and surrounded by a sufficient
amount of cultivable land, to admit of farming operations being
conducted on them.

It was considered that by this plan the maximum of good could
be accomplished at the minimum of cost, and that suitable agency
could be procured at a fair and not disproportionate outlay, to
admit of the introduction of a well-devised plan of education and
training.

It took some years of discussion, and the granting of com-
pulsory powers, in the case of the Metropolis, to secure the general
adoption of the plan even there. In several unions, however, the
number of children was safficiently great to justify the establish-
ment of a separate school, so that up to the present time there are
but eleven district schools in existence, viz. : —

Arerace Number
of Cbiidrai.

1. The Central London, at Hanwell^ formed by the City 1 «

of London and St. Savionr's Unions j *^^

2. The South Metropolitan, at Sutton i«58o

(Taking the children from Camberwell, Greenwich,
St. Olaye's, Woolwich, and Stepney).

8. Famham and Hartly Wintney 127

(With children from Alton, Famham, and Hartly
Wintney).

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1880.] Of t\e OhOdren of the Poor. 207

Arerage Number
of Childnik—ConU.

4. North Surrey, at Anerlej 8o8

(To which Crojdon, Lewisham, Biohmond, Wands-
worth, and Clapham, Kensington, and Chelsea con*
trihuted in 1878 ; but the two hist haye since with-
drawn).

6. Sonih-East Shropshire at Quatt 152

(Hare children from Bridgnorth, Cleobniy Mortimer,
Madelej, Scriyen, Newport, Salop, and Shiffnal).

6. Beading and Wokingham, at Wargraye 185

(Haye children from Beading and Wokingham).

7. West London, Ashford, Staines 682

(Haye the children from Eeltham, Paddington, St.
Gkorge*s, and Brentford).

8. Forest Gate, West Ham 545

(Fed &om Poplar and Whitechapel).

0. Walsall and West Bromwich 249

(Haying diildren from Walsall and West Bromwich).

10. Brentwood 535

(Supplied from Hackney and Shoreditch).

11. The training ship ** Exmouth," which is under the orders

of the Metropolitan Asylum District.

In the above schools there was an average daily attendance in
the half-year ended on Lady-day, 1878, of 6,345 children, or abont
a sixth of the whole nnmber of children in all the schools, at the
time in question.

In these schools, which are all condncted on the half-time
system, the mental training is in strict accordance with the
standard for elementary schools of the edacation department, and
very considerable proficiency has been attained in some of them, as
high as the sixth standard. They are carefully inspected by a
special staff of school inspectors, under the orders of the Local
(Government Board. Valuable reports by these gentlemen are
contained in the annual returns of that department. The instruc-
tive staff varies in most of them, and a large part of the teaching
is relegated to pupil teachers — a plan which I, as an old education
officer, regard as an unwise economy, for such teaching can never
be effective, especially with those children who need, but never get,
the very best instructors who can be procured, viz., the younger
children and infants. It would be out of place, even if I could
find time for it, to discuss the very important subject of elementary
education in a paper not specially devoted to it, as it covers a large
area of ground, and would lead me far a-field in my exposition of the
system in use in the poor law schools. The great and crying want
of the country is a sufficient supply of competent teachers, and these

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208 MouAT — On the Educcdion and Training [Jone^

schools suffer from the want as mnch as any other educational
institations. A great ontcry is always raised at any increase of
expense in sach matters, and boards of guardians are, naturally and
properly, anxious to practise the most rigid economy in their estab-
lishments.

While lavish and unnecessary outlay should never be allowed
for any purpose whatever, any expenditure which is really necessary
to secure efficiency is, in reality, a profitable application of funds.
However much they may cost, schools are less expensive than
prisons, and tax the community less than does the vast amount of
money required to maintain the expensive agency needed for the
detection, prevention, and punishment of crime. The correction
of most of our social evils will be better accomplished by education,
than by any other agency ; hence no amount of money required to
place this on a thoroughly efficient footing should be grudged,
however lowly the objects of it may be. The industrial training in
the large district, and the more important separate schools, is stated,
and appears, on the surface, to be sufficient, to secure its imme-
diate object ; but this seems to me to be more apparent than real.
Tailoring, shoemaking, carpentry, smith's-work, and the menial
duties of the establishments, form the staple of the training of the
boys, with instrumental music in the larger schools. For the girls :
sewing, mending, and making, cooking, and household work
generally, chiefly occupy their time and attention. With the
exception of instrumental music to fit the boys for enlistment
into military bands, which is remarkably well taught, none of the
instruction is as thorough as it might be made, if instructors of
a higher order were entertained, and boards of guardians were not
over anxious to launch their children in life, the moment they
are considered in any way qualified, the demand being in excess of
the supply.

Farm work is also, in some schools, well carried on, and is of
great importance, both in supplying the wants of the institution,
and in affording the most healthy and invigorating of all the
varieties of manual labour. This subject is, however, scarcely
carried sufficiently far to induce the boys to become agricultural
labourers, except possibly among those who emigp:tite ; the majority
of them are consequently absorbed into the town populations.

All the essentials of physical training, drilling, gymnastics,
the mast, and swimming are practised in the large schools, and in
some few of them girls as well as boys are taught to swim, with
remarkable success. If time permitted, I could show from a strictly
hygienic point of view, how exceptionably valuable all of these are
for the class of children referred to.

In the above respects, the best of our district and separate

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1880]. Of the OhUdr&n of ilie Poor. 209

Rcbools, are in advance of nearly every one of the other classes of
institntion for elementary education in this country.

This is by no means an exhaustive account of the schools in
question, and I do not intend it to be so. Should any of those who
now listen to me desire to know more about it, I counsel them to
visit the North Surrey District School, at Anerley, near the
Crystal Palace, and see for themselves how by wise and liberal
expenditure on the part of the managers, it has become a model of
its class, in the health and training, mental and physical, of the
children ; how mental culture is pursued in strict relation to indus-
trial training ; how cardinal defects have been remedied, by a bold
application of the remedies recommended ; and to what an extent
the correction of physical defects has been effected by exercises,
as invigorating to the mind, as they are strengthening to the body,
and interesting to the children themselves.

Another school, much farther away, at Swinton, near Manchester,
as a model of what a separate school may be made in capable
hands, is also deserving of a pilgrimage. The extent to which
mental training and farm operations are carried in it are deserving
of all praise ; and the swimming of the girls and boys interested me
much when I visited it. One little maid of 13 years swam once in a
prize contest most gracefully, accomplishing a couple of miles
without touching ground, and without the least sign of distress or
fatigue ; in fact, she declared herself ready and able to double the
distance, had it been allowed. I dwell upon these matters because
I hold them to be of priceless advantage, both in their relation to
health, and as instruments of education. The drill and music of the
boys inculcate order, obedience, unity of action, and the classical
softening of the manners, which tempers the roughness of their
natures. The swimming, musical and dumb bell exercises of the
girls at Anerley, do the same for the other sex, and I am quite
certain that if our educational authorities will condescend to take a
leaf out of the poor law book, break away from their standards and
traditions, and combine industrial and physical training with mental
culture, they will improve the elementary education of the country
to an extent which can be measured by no mere money standard.*

Cost of Education in the Poor Law District cmd 8epa/rate
Metropolita/n Schools,

The cost of the schools still attached to workhouses cannot be
ascertained from any of the published returns, as they are mixed

* In the antamn of last year, at a meeting held at Lansanne, of the teachers
and others engaged in primary edncation in Switzerland, the whole question of
the urgent need of combining physical training with mental colture was discussed,
and resolutions were adopted to increase the former, and diminish the latter. I

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210 MouAT — On the Education and Tradmng [June,

up with the expenditure of the workhonses themselves, in such
manner as to he insusceptihle of separation. One of the grounds
for the retention of the children in the houses which weighs most
with many hoards of guardians, is its supposed economy. What-
ever is inefficient and insufficient, is dear at any price, and of all
possible methods of restricting necessary expenditure, the most
unwise is in the primary education of the children of all classes. If
by means of education crime can be arrested at its source ; virtue
and sobriety be inculcated, when the lessons are likely to be of
greatest efficacy ; habits of industry, order, regularity, and obedience
be implanted at the ages when impressions are most lasting, and
the ranks of the community can be recruited from year to year by a
well trained little army of boys and girls entering upon a life of
independence and self-support, what may not the future of the great
nation to which we belong, become ? If the great body of the people
rise to the knowledge and conviction, that no amount of money
should be grudged in so profitable an investment, a tithe of the
sum wasted annually in drink, or in unprofitable foreign loans to
impecunious and dishonest nations ; or, even, if the amount of money
now employed to the least advantage in many of our charitable
institutions, from absence of organisation and judicious direction,
were more wisely bestowed, it would be sufficient for the purpose.

The return (No. I of the Appendix) shows that in the twenty-
eight years from 1861, the date of the paper of Mr. Fletcher, which
is the last in the records of the Society on the subject, an annual
average of 32,159 boys and girls under 15 years of age were under
instruction in the poor law schools, at an annual average allowance
from the parliamentary grant of 31,498^ towards the salaries of the
teachers. The whole amount thus expended was 881,976/.

This represents but a single head of expenditure, and its mention
shows how inadequate it is even for its special purpose, in the
present state of the labour market. The time has certainly come
when the value of the teaching element in the whole scheme of
elementary education should be properly estimated ; when the social
status of the teacher should be raised ; when he should belong to as
distinct and elevated a body as the medical, legal, engineering, and
other recognised professions ; and when the great truth should be
recognised, without question, that properly to instruct the young of
all classes, needs the application of the highest powers and the best
training in the teachers; when it is understood that all such
imperfect agency as that of pupl teachers, and similar devices for
saving money, are unwise and even mischievous errors ; and that

hxve been unable to obtain a fnll report of tbe discnssion, and of the resolatlonf, bnt
the abstract pablislied showed that the views entertained, were strictly in accor-
dance with my contention.

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1880.]

Of ihe Children of the Poor.

211

in this teaching exists the best and most appropriate common ground
for the work of men and women, each in their own sphere.

How few are able to write children's books of any real valne ;
equally few are those competent to instmot children properly, who
are procurable now, on the salaries considered sufficient for the
purpose.

In 1873 I was employed by the Local .(Joyemment Board in
examining into the cost of maintenance of the district and separate
poor law schools of the metropolis, and my report on the subject
was published as a parliamentary paper in 1876, and appended to
the " Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board for
** 1875-76," No. 17, Appendix B, pp. 95—129. I selected a period of
fiye years from 1867-73, as likely to give a more accurate result,
than could be obtained from the expenditure of any single year.

The following are the figures which represent the average
yearly number of children under instruction, the average gross
annual expenditure, and the cost per child in the years mentioned : —

8t Pancras ~.

Poreet Gate,"GK)liafch"

St. LeoDard's, Shoreditoh.

Oentral London

St. Marrlebone ..

Korth Surrey

Bethnal Qreen

Holbom

Forest Qs,te School

Strand

South Metropolitan

Westminster

Islington

St. &eorge-in-the-East

Lambeth

Mile End.

ATttngo
Number of
Children.

393
387
380

1,131
43*
823
297
431
19
371

127
^47
403
387
a73

Aremge Gross
Expenditure.

14,472
10,432

9,667
26,814

9,937
18,777

6,499

9,265
16,490

7,767
26,623

4,874
7,699
6,566
4,517

Arerage Annual

Cort

per Child.

£ 9.

36 16

27 -

25 8

23 19

23 -

22 16

21 17

3
6

4
3
I
2
2
I

19 15 10
19 14 8
18 17 I
16 19 4
16 10 -

21 10

21 -

20 18

20 5

The particulars of each year are contained in Tables 11 and III
of the Appendix.

They inclnde all expenses, except those of loans, and repayment
of loans with interest. The causes of the variations of the cost
are explained in the report, and the results must only be regarded
as approximations to an accuracy which could not be attained, from
the different manner in which the accounts were kept in different
schools.

As years pass on, the loans are repaid with interest, and the
expenditure is thus considerably reduced, the cost will of necessity
he less than in the years mentioned. That considerable economy.

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212 MouAT — On the EdueaHon a/nd Training {June,

witihoat dimination of efficiency, could be practised in the metro-
politan schools by a better and more sensible system of management
IS certain, as I pointed out in my report.

In the Local Government reports of the two last years, retnms
of the expenditure in the same schools are published ; and for 1878
the cost per head ranged from 34/. 10s. gd.ia the training ship
^^Ezmouth" to 17Z. 3«. 9(£. in the Mile End school, giving a total
expenditure of all the schools of 222,955^, or 23/. gg, ^d, per child,
exclusive of loans and interest.

If time and space permitted, I should have been glad to have
compared this expenditure with that of other schools of the same
character, but of different classes. I must leave the contrast for
others to expound and explain.

Eesults of the Education of Children in the Foot Law Schools
of aU Olatsei.

The results as regards the proficiency attained in the educa*
tional standards, and in such branches of industrial training as can
be tested by examination, are contained in the returns of tiie poor
law educational inspectors. The details are not published, nor
are they of any special use for my paper, which is to ascertain the
ultimate effect of the system, as shown in the ascertained success
in life, of those who have been brought up in the poor law schools.

The reports of the inspectors, so &r as they are published,
show that, in many of the district and separate schools, a very
high standard of proficiency is attained in education, and that, on
the whole, the system works fairly well.

But, as respects the after career of those children, we have a
much more satisfactory basis of comparison of the past with the
present, in the facts and figures contained in parliamentary and
other records.

In Mr. Fletcher's paper on the " Farm School System of the
" Continent," read before this Society in 1851, the record of the
number of juvenile criminals brought up in pauper schools who
were in the prisons at home, was brought down to the year
1849. It was not only believed, but proven, that the results of the
training of children in workhouses were then most disastrous, as
may be ascertained by consulting the various official documents
issued in connection with the great inquiry into the working of
the poor laws in 1834, and in several subsequent years.

Following up Mr. Fletcher's figures, a return was moved for by
Mr. Henley in the House of Commons, of the number of young
persons in the workhouses of England and Wales in 1861, who had
not been less than two consecutive years in those institutions,
within the ten years ending on the last day of 1860, and who had

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1880.] Of the GhUdrm of the Poor. 21 3

left the workhoofle for service or otber industrial occupation, with
the number of those who had returned to the workhouse by reason
of their own misconduct, the number of those who had returned
from causes not involving their own misconduct, and the like
particulars as to district schools. A summary of this impprtant
and interesting return forms Table lY of the Appendix. From
this table it appears that there were in the workhouses of England
14,404 boys, and 12,957 girls, in all 27,361, of whom 836 boys,
find 1,663 girls, in all 2,499, returned to the workhouse by rea43on of
misconduct ; and 1,264 hoys, and 1,748 girls, in all 3,012, returned
from causes unconnected with personal misconduct. This gives a
percentage of bad behaviour, calculated on the whole number
in the workhouse schools, of 5*8 per cent, of boys, and 12*8 per
oent. of girls.

In the workhouses of Wales there were 529 boys and 439 girls ;
20 of the former and 30 of the latter returned to the houses on
account of misbehaviour, and 32 of the former and 43 of the latter
from no cause of misconduct.

In the district schools, some of which had then been only
partially and recently occupied, there were 777 boys, and 612 girls,
in all 1,389, of whom 24 boys, and 63 girls returned on account of
misconduct, and 63 boys, and 67 girls, from no fault of their own.
This gives a ratio of failure of boys, 3*08 per cent., of girls, io'2 per
cent.

The accuracy of the return has been questioned on grounds
which do not convince me of their validity, although they show
correctly that mere figures are of little value, unless the facts
underlying them are explained. It is undoubted that many
children return to the workhouse from no fault of their own, hence
I exclude them; but this does not apply to those the cause of
whose misconduct is ascertained and recorded inmiediately on
their return, and to probably not a few of the others, whose training
has not fitted them for the positions they were sent to fill.

In the same year, the chaplain of the largest metropolitan
district school stated in print, ihat 22*2 per oent. of the children
sent to places from those schools had returned to them, and 8*6 per
cent, to the workhouse. On the other hand, the chaplain of the
Brighton workhouse, in comparing the difference of the system of
educating the children in the separate school, which was established
during his incumbency, stated, as published in Mr. TufEnell's report
for 1868, " that the character and history of the Brighton work-
** house children for many years, is frightful to think of. I can
'* remember as many as 44 persons, members at the same time ot
" the able-bodied ward, all brought up in the workhouse schools,
'* most of them thieves and prostitutes. Thank God, there is an

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214 MoTTAT — On the Education and Training [Jtme,

"end of this, op anything approaching to it. Of 50 girls sent out
" from our present school, I know of only one fallen ; of about the
" same number of boys, the majority are justifying the hopes of
"their teachers, and the expectations of the promoters of this
" important charity. In Brighton, at least, society has shaken off
" a great scandal, and the ratepayers of the parish a heavy burden.
" Here, for the future, the pauper schools will no longer be the
" nursery of pauperism."

Again in 1862, the number of juvenile inmates of the prisons
and reformatories of England and Wales was 19,955, ^^ whom
15,751 were males, and 4^04 were females. Of the total number,
646, or 3*2 per cent., had been brought up in workhouse or distrio
schools.*

These 646 prisoners had been in workhouse or district schools
for various periods, ranging from one day to five years and
upwards* —

22 had been in sohool from 1 to 6 days.

48 ,1 1 »» 3 weeks.

214 „ 1 „ 4 months.

79 „ upwards of .... 6 years.

25 for unasoertained periods.

646

These again are not formidable figures, and for the great
majority the schools cannot fairly be held responsible. In any case
they indicate no wide-spread criminality, considering how many
workhouse children are the ofbpring of members of the cnmim^

Attempts are sometimes made to compare the social failures in
higher grades of life, with those of workhouse children who have
gone to the bad. These comparisons are at the best but vague
guesses and impressions, with no substantial foundation, and based
on conditions so entirely different as not to admit of comparison.

In Table Y is a return of the total number of young offenders
admitted into and discharged from the certified reformatories of
Great Britain from 1854 to 1876, a period of twenty-three years.
It is reprinted from the " Twentieth Report on Eeformatory and
Industrial Schools " (p. 206). The number of those brought up in
poor law schools not being specified in this return, a special state-
ment was called for by the Local Government Board for the ten
years from 1868 to 1877. This forms Table VI of the Appendix.

This table shows, that of the children sent to reformatories in
1868-77 there had been :—

* Parliamentary Paper 494, of Sees. 1862.

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1880.]

Of thu ChUdrm of the Poor.

215

BoyB.

Girta.

Total.

England and WaleB-^

In workhouses

362
80

120
32

482

1 12

„ district schools

442

152

594

In woi*1thon<M)S -,-,,...,,.„„„,,,

25
12

40
12

„ workhouse schools

As many thousands of cliildren passed through these schools in
the years in question, this is but a very small portion of them. The
returns are not published in such forms, as to enable me to get at
anything like even an approximation to the exact numbers repre-
senting the movement of this juvenile population ; but, as the
greatest number of the children are from its fluctuating element,
and are the offspring in too many cases of criminal or degraded
parents, I doubt if the schools are really responsible for the whole
of even this small fraction. In some of the larger institutions as
many as 500 of these children have passed in and out in the course
of a single year — some of them as many as half-a-dozen times.

When compared with the prison returns of former years, these
figures appear to me to prove indisputably, that the education of the
children of the poor is gradually stopping the supply of criminals
at the right end. As we gather from the first of these tables, from
the large number of the juvenile members of the poorer population,
the whole number convicted of crime amounted to only 25,612 boys
and 6,200 girls in nearly a quarter of a century, and from the
latter, that both sexes of those brought up in workhouse and poor
law schools contribute a little over 600 in ten years, a very small
percentage of either of those populations, the result must, I thinks
be considered of an encouraging and gratifying nature.

I am aware, however, that these figures are not rigorously exact,
and that they constitute but a rough approximation to the truth,
for there are many collateral conditions of age, parentage, the
antecedents, and other circumstances of these children, which
require to be known, before any strict deduction can be drawn from
them.

It is, I think, much to be regretted that the legislature does not
make it compulsory on ail public institutions to keep their records
on some simple uniform principle, which would gather together all
the leading facts requiring to be known, and publish them from
year to year in some easy form, to enable us to jadge of the progress

VOL. XLIU. PART II. Q

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216 MouAT — On the Education a/nd Training [June,

we are making. It wonld entail a little tronble in the first instance,
but wonld soon snbstitnte a sonnd basis for the solution of these
great social problems, in the place of the spasmodic and unsatisfac-
tory manner in which we are compelled to deal with them at
present, from the absence of continuous authentic' data.

I have waded through the Poor Law and Local Government
Boards' reports for many years past, to endeavour to compOe from
them such a collection of facts as to enable me to speak with confi-
dence of the results obtained, but I have failed to find the necessary
data. Here and there, scattered through them, are many carefully
collected figures, which may be accepted as proofs, so far as they
go, of the contentions of the observers. There can be no doubt, in
any of these cases, of the high character, good faith, and qualifica-
tions for the task of those who have examined into the question ;
but, there is in some of them evidence of a strong personal biaa
towards particular views, and in others a controversial character,
which somewhat diminishes their value.

It would be a waste of time to attempt to reduce this undigested
mass to order and system, or to deduce from it strictly logical
conclusions, as all sound data of comparison on a sufficiently
extended scale, are absent. I shall, therefore, content myself with
selecting some of the best authenticated figures, and leave you to
form your own judgments as to how far they can be considered to
cover the whole ground. In the consideration of all social ques-
tions there are so many sources of fallacy, so much room for falsifi-
cation and concealment, and so many conditions for which no moral
barometrical scale has yet been constructed, that any conclusions
arrived at must be regarded rather as endeavours to arrive at the
truth, than as proofs of the truth itself.

I have taken the figures from the latest reports, as they most
correctly represent the present state of the poor law schools.

In the report of the Local Government Board for 1872-73,*
Mr. Bowyer, one of the oldest and most experienced of the poor
law educational inspectors, collected in the midland districts, from
returns procured from the schools, particulars regarding 1,009 ^7^
and 1,170 girls, in considerable detail. . An abstract of these figures
is subjoined : —

• Pp. 101 and 102.

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1880.]

Of the Children of the Poor.

217

TtAtl
Knnber.

Number
of Retumi

to
Workhouie.

Number

who
Returned.

CauMS of their Return.

Condition in LifiB,

and Repute
when lait heard of.

1,109 ....

176

157 -

Serions faults
Slight „
No fault ....

99 I

Doing well 1,008

Not doing well .. 51

Dead 11

Not known, or!
still in school J ^^

Total .... 1,109

1,170 ....

417

303 -

Serious-faults
SUghfe „.
No fault

zoi L

Doing well 987

Not doing well.. 98

Dead 15

Not known 70

Total 1,170

The same inspector oolleeted in the preceding jear figures
regarding 657 boys and 621 girls placed ont in eleven tmions, of
whom 605 of the former, and 498 of the latter, were reported to
have done well. In fonr other unions, of which the returns were
mixed, of 261 children of both sexes, 248 had done well.

The most valuable, interesting, and instructive report ever
written of the training of girls under the poor law system, is that
of the late Mrs. Nassau Senior, published in the report of the
Local Gbvemment Board for 1873-74.* I accompanied her in her
visits to some of the metropolitan and other institutions, and can
testify to the singularly careful and conscientious manner in which
she conducted her investigations, and the almost painful anxiety
she exhibited to avoid acquiring erroneous impressions, or arriving
at incorrect conclusions from false premisses.

Although I dissent from the main conclusion at which she
arrived in favour of boarding out, I think she hit the blots in the
system of large schools for girls, and that her proposal to sub-
stitute small schools for large ones, and to classify the schools and
their inmates with regard to girls, was, in principle, thoroughly
sound.

Information was collected by her, or for her, of girls sent out to
service from the metropolitan schools in 1871 and 1872, of 245 girls
from district, and 245 from separate schools. No notice was taken
of girls sent to their famOies, and 74 girls from district and 106
from separate schools were omitted from the record, aa incorrect
addresses were given, the families had removed, or the letters were
unanswered.

• Appendix B, pp. 311—394.

Q 2

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218 MouAi' — On the Education and Training [June,

Of those personally visited, the classification was as follows : —

Class.

District Schools.

Separate Sebools.

Number.

Percent

Number.

Per Cent

Good

I.
n.
III.
IV.

28 - 11-42

64 - 26-12

106 - 43-26

47 - 19-08

61 — 20*81

Fair

81 - 33-06

82 - 32-46
81 - 12-65

Unsatisfactory

Bad

246 - 99-88

246 - 99-98

If all the published tables are scrutinised carefully, it will be
found in almost every instance, even the most fiavourable, that
there is a larger proportion of failures among girls, than among
boys. The reason why it should be so, and why aggregate training
is more dangerous to girls than to boys, is clearly shown in
Mrs. Senior's remarks, and these I regard as one of the most
valuable features of her report. No man could possibly approach
the question with so thorough a knowledge of all its bearings, and
no official inquiry that I know of, has ever been conducted in so
thoroughly careful and painstaking a spirit, as that of the gifted
and lamented lady to whom I refer.

In the report for 1875-76, the Rev. Dr. Clutterbuck, a Poor
Law School Inspector, collected figures respecting the children
sent to service during the preceding five yeaii9, from all the Unions
of the Western District.

Number of
Unions.

Total Number
Sent Out

Reported as
still in Place.

or
Doiug Well.

DoubtfU
or
Bad.

Returned
to, and stUl

in
the House.

Information

as to Present

CoiidiUon.

7
Dead.

England 145
Wales .... B9

fBoys 2,329
\ Girls 2,086

/Boys 616
1 Girls 568

5,599

1,809
1,102

848
297

96
128

30
19

66
88

11
18

839

199
i3*

19
7

8
2

Total .... 184

8,056

273

178

2,026

Dr. Clutterbuck very candidly states, that these tables are h&aed
solely on figures supplied by the house masters and matrons, but
gives the reasons for which he considers them reliable, and further
on states that the "pauper taint," the ** workhouse surroundings,"
may be summed up in the expression, adult influence: hence he
thinks that the schools should be separated from the workhouses.
The virtues of the workhouse school proper in small unions, the

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1880.] Of the Ohildren of the Poor. 219

same inspector attributes to the viidtvidual treatment, -whicli is pos-
sible with small numbers.

In the report for 1876-77, are special and interesting reports on
the results of workhouse school education, by Messrs. Murray
Browne and Davy, general inspectors of the Local Government
Board, and Mr. Mozley, one of the inspectors of workhouse
schools.

Mr. Murray Browne's report is a continuation of one made by
him in 1874 He selected four unions as the subject of his inquiry
— Chester, Tarvin, Hawarden, and Wrexham. These unions
comprise together an area of 185,268 acres, and a population of
120,450.

He found in the four workhouses but 1 1 paupers who had been
brought up in workhouse schools, of whom 5 were imbeciles,
3 more or less disabled by chronic disease, and j who, having been
brought up in them as children, were then inmates through their
own fault.

He then investigated the history, prior to their leaving the
workhouses, of all the children who had been in them for more
than two years, and who had then been in service for two years and
upwards, and whose ages averaged between 16 and 17 years. Of
the total number answering those conditions, there were 49 —
30 boys and 19 girls. Of the 49, 3 were unable, from physical
causes, to support themselves, and 8 more had not been trained.
Among the 38 remaining, of the 21 boys, i had failed, giving a
ratio of 476 per cent., and of the 17 girls, 1 also had failed, in the
proportion of 6*35 per cent., being a general ratio on the combined
figures, of 5*26 per cent. Adding these figures to those of his
former report, of a total of 93' boys and 84 girls, 215 per cent, of
the former had failed, and 9*52 per cent, of the latter — a mean
ratio of 5*65 per cent, in the boys and girls combined.

Messrs. Davy and Mozley visited 52 children brought up in the
Swinton schools, taken at random out of a list of 97 boys, and 74
girls. According to their scheme of classification^ of the 32 girls,,
they found —

21 yery satisfactory.-
II satis&ctory.
o unsatisfaotoiy..

and of the 20 boys —

13 yery satisfactory-
7 satisfactory,
o unsatisfactory.

These figures are evidently too small for any sound deductions
to be drawn from them, but I think that the whole of the figures,
now grouped together for the first time, show, that the state of the

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220 MouAT — On the Education and Training [Jane,

poor law schools is no longer the same as that so strongly denounced
for some years after the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act
of 1834, and that tke dispauperisation of the balk of the children
termed pauper, is seal and satisfactory.

in. — The Future.

If the present has been so fairly successful in its instructional
results, and in its dispauperising effects, in district and separate,
and in some of the workhouse schools, why not extend the best
parts of the system, instead of devising, what in England are ^till
regarded as new and untried ways, of attaining the same end, which
may possibly entail greater cost ?

I will endeavour to supply the answer.

While I ap{»*ove of any system which takes the children out of
the workhouses, trains them to earn an honest liveKkood in posi-
tions suited to their class, dispauperises them, and in some cases
enables them to rise entirely out of the class in which they «tart, I
am of opinion that sufficient experience has now been acquired of
the large district and separate schools, to show that there are some
defects inherent in, and inseparable from them, which can and
o<]ght to be remedied in all future schools separated from work-
houses.

In all schemes of education the unit is the most important
factor, and in all forms of society, the family is tke foundation, on
which we should endeavour to build.

The more we depart from these cardinal conditions, the more
likely we are to err, and although economic considerations may
compel us to modify them, they should be as steadily kept in view
in the education and training of the children of the State, as finan-
cial circumstances will allow.

Too much praise cannot be accorded to the late Sir J. Kay-
Shuttleworth and Mr. Tuffnell, for guiding public ^opinion and the
legislature, in the greatest advance yet made in the elementary
school system of the country, and I should not counsel the smallest
retrocession from the position attained.

But, some careful, far-seeing observers, pointed out at the time
grave objections to the plan of collecting the poor law children in
large numbers, and in big buildings. The experience of the third
of a century, in which some of them have now been in active
operation, has proved that those objections were based on correct
views.

There is a weli-defined limit beyond which the number of chil-
dren under the control of a single head, cannot be placed with
safety. The grouping of large and unmanageable numbers in
school rooms, day rooms, and dormitories, causing undue pressure

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1880.] OJ the Ohildrm of the Poor. 221

upon a limited area, introdnces new conditions of health and disease,
which demand the most serioos care and consideration. From it
have resulted outbreaks of ophthalmia,* skin disease, and similar
very destractive and injurious consequences, the results of some
of which are life-long in their prejudicial influences. The worst
forms of scrofulous degeneration have thus become crystallised and
intensified, and are likely to influence generations yet unborn, in
ways that will render them a permanent burden upon society,
without any misconduct or malfeasance on the part of their
parents.

So much for the physical aspects of the question.

As regards its jhotbI side, the objections appear to me to be
quite as strong. The numbers who have to be dealt with renders
the study of individual character and personal proclivities, impos-
sible to the immediately responsible authority, of any of these over-
grown schools. The absence of this individuality in the earliest and
most plastic period of life, I hold to be £i>tal to any sound scheme
of education in its true meaning. Education is not the teaching of
large bodies of children to act with the precision of machines, or the
cultivation of minds in the mass, for in the process the weakest go
to the wall, and the selection of the fittest is by no means secured.
The formation of the individual is the true aim and object of all
education, and this can never be accomplished by the herding
together of children, any more than it can be in dogs or in horses.
The physical defects of the children influence their whole lives in
their higher relations, and, although some of them attain a good
position in the educational standards, as a body they are as apathetic,
dull, and helpless, when first sent out to earn their livelihood, as
they are stunted in growth, and ungainly in gait and manner.
Their powers of perception and observation are, in numberless
cases, scarcely developed at all, and certainly in no way proportioned
to their book knowledge. All persons engaged in aiding children
to emigrate, and the rules for boarding out, show that it is useless to
attempt to correct bad habits, and to form character after 10 years
of age ; yet, it is during the earliest period that the children are
under the charge of subordinate agents, who possess neither the
training, the knowledge, nor the experience necessary to develop all
that is good in them, and thus to correct their faults.

The domestic economy of a multitude, and their implicit reliance
on all their wants being supplied with unvarying and mechanical

'^ Fide reports of Dr. J. H. Bridges and of Dr. Monat on Ophthalmia:
" Third Annual Report of Local GoTemment Board," 1873-74, Appendix B,
pp. 210—216. Also report of Professor E. Nettleship, F.E.C.S., "Report of
** Local Qovemment Board," 1874-75, Appendix B, pp. 65 — 168, the most able
and exhaustive account of Uie subject in print.

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222 MouAT — On the Education and Training [June,

uniformity and regularity, are destmctive of the individual energy
and prescience, which ought to be cultivated at the earliest possible
age. It is this quickness of observation, readiness of resource, and
adaptability to new circumstances, which sharpens the wits of the
street arabs and gamins, and renders them, unkempt and untrained,
80 superior in the art of taking care of themselves, to the well-taught
workhouse boy or girl. This helplessness in novel circumstances is
described in more graphic language than I can employ, in one of the
most deeply interesting and painful narratives I have ever read ; that
of a success^ workhouse boy, recorded by Mr. Tuffnell in his last
oflBcial report.* It is also, I am afraid, a truer picture of the sad
realities of the workhouse lives of children in many more of those
institutions, than those in which it occurred.

The cooking and laundry work of these great places, in which,
from economy of cost and labour, the preparation of the food and the
cleansing and getting up of the linen are of necessity more cheaply
done by machinery, are no fit training for servants of all work, or
for poor men's wives ; nor are the employment of the elder girls in
kitchens, for the preparation of the officers' food, and washhouses
for the getting up of their linen, <fcc., well suited for the same
purpose.

The nature of the industrial training generally, of the great
schools, does not appear to be sound or judicious ; in the smaller
workhouses it is practically absent. There is a great deal too much
of tailoring and shoemaking, and of cleaning, scrubbing, and
keeping the huge rooms in order, and too little of carpentry, smith's
work, printing, farm and garden labour, and such industries as
develop bone and muscle, while they cultivate the understanding
and produce ready-handiness. Boys should be taught to cook as
well as girls, and all strictly domestic operations should be assimi-
lated as much as possible, to the circumstances of poor men's
homes. This cannot, I am of opinion, be accomplished satisfactorily
in such schools as those I am considering.

Another plea, strongly urged, of the superiority of these schools,
is the low death-rate, and consequent supposed immunity from most
of the ills to which the children of the poor are liable. This I hold
to be a fallacy. It is undoubted that the death-rate is very low com-
pared with that of the poorer classes in the dens and overcrowded
abodes of all our great cities, and even of those in the cottages of
many of our villages, which are known to be in an undoubtedly
unsatisfactory state, as regards their healthiness. It could easily
be shown why it should be so, but that the death-rate is lower
than that of other schools in which care is taken of the health of

• " Report of the Local Gtovernment Board " for 1873-74. Appendix B.
No. 17, pp. 247—269.

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1880.] Of the OhOdren of the Poor. 223

children, and their ailments are attended to at once, I altogether doubt
and disbelieve. I know of public institutions for European orphans
in India, with the management of some of which I was associated for
many years, in which the death-rate was much lower. In them
accurate records have been kept for many years, and there was no
room for conjecture on the aabject. In the Little Boys' Home at
Famingham, in children not specially selected, I was informed that
there had been only 4 deaths in fourteen years among an average
annual population of 300, and of those but i death was from disease
acquired in the institution. So far as I have been able to ascertain,
the deaths in the farm schools of the continent, some of which
have been established for more than a century, are fewer even than
those which have been ascertained for similar numbers in England.
The most authentic figures regarding the metropolitan schools are
those of Dr. Bridges, who reports, that (excepting the deaths of
infants under 2 years of age at the Marylebone schools), the total
number of deaths among the children in 1873 was 102, which gave
a mortality rate of 12 per i,cx>o. Taking the death-rate of the
children in the whole of the metropolis at the corresponding ages
(2 to 15), the ratio was i4'i per 1,000. There is, however, no real
ground of comparison between them. The fact is that the figures
have not been collected with sufficient care and accuracy, and with
an analysis of all the collateral and surrounding circumstances, over
a sufficiently extended period, to determine the question farther than
that the death-rate is really low, but not so low as to cause surprise,
or to justify the extension of the system on that ground. That it
may be still further reduced, when the hygiene of our schools is
better understood than it is at present, I believe, with Dr. Bridges.
A far better test of the unwholesomeness of the aggregation of
these children is the sickness rate, which I have ascertained to be,
in some cases, as high as 2 j per cent, of the inmates. Ophthalmia,
itch, and a multitude of affections of the skin and scalp, have, to
my certain knowledge, had a firm hold of some of these schools
for a lengthened series of years. It is simply impossible to gauge
accurately the amount of misery caused both in early and after
life, by defects and partial or total loss of sight, scrofulous degene-
rations, and the continuance and increase of hereditary and trans-
mitted defects, all of which are only susceptible of mitigation or
removal at a very early age. The stunted growth, impaired general
health, and feeble bodily powers of too many of such children, are
not removed or corrected by massing them in large buildings or
bodies. I have no desire to over-rate or to attach too much im-
portance to snch considerations, if it be possible to do so ; but I do
deem it necessary to point out the existence of the evil, and to
suggest the remedy for its removal : and, that it can be removed, I

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224 MouAT — On tJie EducaHon cmd Training [June,

entertain not tlie least donbt. It is not alone by ascertaining the
greater or smaller number of failures in this class, that the yirtues
or defects of the system can be folly ascertained and explained.
There is a large and possibly increasing factor of imbecility, idiocy,
and nervous disorders generally, and some of the more immediate
results of scroAila at the critical periods of life, which may be due
to the insanitary conditions of this orercrowding, and which is not
touched by any inquiry yet made. There is still another objection,
which is difficult to touch upon, and yet which cannot be altogether
ignored, and that is the habits of immorality which are inseparable
from accumulating children in dormitories which cannot be pro-
perly controlled and watched at night, when they exceed 50 in
number. I hare seen as many as 174 in double beds in a single
room, in one of these schools. It is true that the children were
young, but the precocity in vice of many ef the casual children has
been frequently remarked ; and I have seen too much «f it myself,
to doubt its existence. To ignore social evils, is net the right way
to remove them.

Now, what is the only valid reason which has ever been assigned
for these unnatural and unhealthy accumulations? It is solely
and entirely one of economy, and a more pernicious and unsound
reason could scarcely be advanced.

The saving in iike oost of management and establishment by
spreading it over a larger surface is purchased, I think, at too
heavy a rate to countenance tts extension to the future separation
of schools from workhouses ; fer I hold that, in spite of its many
and great advantages, it is responsible for evils, which no plea of
economy should be permitted to extend.

The remedy then is to break them up mto smaller and more
manageable bodies, and so to subdivide them, that while the study
of individual charac^r and domestic training can be carried on with
as fair an approach to a home as can be secured in such circum-
stances, the elementary education, industrial training, swimming,
gymnastics, and all the advantages of the distriot and separate
schools, can be carried to as high a pitch of perfection, as has been
accomplished in any existing school. That this can and ought to
be done in a school of 500 er 600 boys and girls, as well as in one
of 1,500 or 1,600, I hold to be beyond denial. That it will cost a
little more in establishment is probable, but that the oost will, or
ought to be immoderate can, I think, be shown to be incorrect.

The published tables show that there are maof^ thousands of
children still in the workhouses, who would be better separated
from them, and to them I intend my remarks to apply.

In a letter, dated May, 1873, addressed to Mr. Stansfeld, then
President of the Local Qovemment Beard, and to the chairman of

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1880.] 0/ the OhUdren of the Poor, 226

a Welsh board of guardians, Mr. Andrew Dojle, late an Inspector
of the Board, suggested the establishment of district schools on the
Mettray systeni, in some of the Welsh Unions under his charge.
He believed that, admirable as are some of the separate schools, it
could hardly be doubted ''that a gpreat improvement would be
" effected in the system upon which such schools are organised, if
'' instead of being associated in large numbers, the children could be
" separated into £EkBftilies ; if, for instance, for huge buildings in which
" several hundred dnldrem are massed together, you could substi-
" tute « village in which they might be distributed in cottage
'' homes, leading, as nearly as may be, the lives of the best class of
" cottagers' children." This system he studied at Diiss^thal and
Mettray^ and found that its characteristics are based on family
organisation, and agricultural labour. Mr. Doyle also referred,
quoting largely from Mr. Fletcher's paper, republished by this
Society last year, to the farm school 9)r8tem of the continent
originated by the celebrated Pestalozzi in 1746, or nearly a century
and a-half ago. For all the deeply interesting details contained in
these reports, I must refer to the documents <themselves, which are
well deserving of careful study.

I, too, some years before Mr. Doyle, studied the system at
Mettray, with M. Demetz, and examined his colony most care-
fully, when I was in administrative charge of the prison depart-
ment of BengaL

The outcome of Mr. Doyle's proposal has been the establish-
ment of four of these cottage homes in Wales. They are in full
operation, and when I visited them last year, promised to answer
the anticipations of their founders. They have, however, been
too recently at work to permit of auy judgment being yet pro-
nounced upon them. Similar schools have been sanctioned for
West Derby, West Ham, and Bolton.

More recently the Birmingham, and Kensington and Chelsea
guardians, have adopted the village home system for their
children, and the former commenced work at Marston Green a
short time since. Each of 4iheir schools is for about 6oo children,
and, if all the means and appliances necessary are provided, as
they doubtless will be, we shall soon have an opportunity of com-
paring the system with that in use, on a sufficient scale to determine
which is best. Both are mixed schools for boys and girls, as all
institutions which profess to imitate the family system, ought to
be.

In 1878, the late Captain Bowly, of the Royal Engineers,
then an officer of the Local Government Board, and I, were
directed to visit certain schools worked on the home and cottage
system, and to report as to how far we considered the system to be

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226 MouAT — On the Education and Training [June,

applicable to the edncation and training of the children of the
poor. We visited six institntiona answering the above conditions
more or less, and although none of them are strictlj comparable
with poor law schools, we had no difficulty in arriving at the con-
viction that the system itself is perfectly capable of adaptation to,
and adoption by the poor law department. Our report was pub-
lished as a House of Commons Return, No. 285, of 1878. The
report is accompanied by plans of the schools referred to.

As to cost, we ascertained that at the Princess Mary's Home,
at Addlestone, the cost per child, on an average of 155 girls, in
1876, was 15^ I $8, 6d.

The Little Boys' Home at Famingham, on an average of 510
boys, 20L 8s. 11^.

Philanthropic Farm School at Redhill, on an average of
298^ boys, 23/. 17s. 9c?.

In all the other institutions visited, the actual money outlay was
so much supplemented by donations of various kinds, as to render it
impossible to gauge the individual cost with exactness.

Each pair of cottages at Addlestone, for 10 children each, cost
400/. to build ; and one approaching completion, in a block for
30 children, in three comptu^tments, cost i,oooZ. in erection.

At Dr. Bamado*s Village Home for Female Orphans at Hford,
each cottage for 20 children, cost 500L, which included its share of
the cost of the general drainage system.

At Redhill, the s^arate houses contain 60 boys in each ; when
originally constructed for 50 boys, the cost was about i,20oL, and
the subsequent enlargement to hold 10 more boys, about 400/.

It is obvious, however, that all estimates of the cost of buildings
must vary so much from the differing circumstances of time, place,
price of material, state of the labour market, &c,f that no fixed
scale of cost can be determined. The price of land varies even
still more. But, of one thing I am certain, and that is that
the complete organisation of a mixed village home school for
600 children, complete in all respects for education and train-
ing, need not, and ought not to cost much more than a school
of similar dimensions for children on the aggregate system. If
the moral and material superiority of the family, over the aggre-
gate system could be gauged by any mere money standard, the
question of cost would at once be abandoned, as undeserving of
consideration.

Again, with respect to the extent and nature of the establish-
ments required to manage such institutions, the outlay would be as
low in the one as in the other, if proper, and properly paid agency,
were employed in both.

Nay, I am disposed to go further, and to maintain that if

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1880.] Of ths Children of the Poor, 227

the main objection to the cottage home system is that of cost, on
the ground that yon cannot for any i*eaBonable expenditure form
educational villages on the monstrous scale of some of the schools
holding from i,ooo to i,6cx> children, I should regard it as the best
possible reason for preferring them.

I have not been able to ascertain the exact cost of ground,
buildings, furnishing, and all other particulars connected with most
of the poor law cottage home schools, which are in course of con-
struction.

The cost of the Kensington and Chelsea Village Homes at
Banstead is 60,000/., to which 10,000/. must be added for the pur-
chase and laying out of the grounds and playgrounds.

The village consists of 8 cottages for boys, 12 for girls, and 2
for probationary purposes, in addition to an infirmary, an infectious
hospital, all the necessary schoolrooms, workshops, offices, and a
chapel to hold 400 persons.

The institution is calculated for 672 children, and contains
many requisites not usually provided in schools. The architects
are Messrs. A. and C. Harston, who have already constructed some
excellent poor law buildings. The whole outlay will be at the rate
of about 100/. a child — all told.

The Marston Green Schools are situated about seven miles from
Birmingham, and cost for buildings, including roads, architects'
fees, 32,190/. 19^. jrf. ; furnishing (not yet complete), 2,394/. 8«. ;
and purchase of land, 4,715/. lis. 6(/., the quantity of land being
44 acres 3 rods i yard.

The homes are fourteen in number, seven for boys and seven for
girls, divided in the centre by the workshop block, and swimming
bath, (Sbc. Each home is complete in itself, and has dormitories for
thirty children, ten in each, with kitchen, scullery, day room, store
room, and the abode of the house father and mother, with all neces-
sary out offices, and play yards.

The workshops make provision for shoemaking, tailoring, print-
ing, carpentry; and on the land provision is made for farming
operations.

The architect is Mr. Homeyard, and the whole cost per child
will be about 100/.

Some of the Welsh cottage homes have been built for less than
the above, but they are not so complete. A less costly plan of
building might doubtless be adopted, but what is most appropriate
is probably the least expensive ultimately. I myself personally
advocate much more simple and inexpensive structures for schools,
hospitals, workshops, school chapels, and all places where large
numbers either dwell or assemble, on grounds of health as well as
of economy. But this opens up a large question of an entirely

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228 MouAT— Of» ike Education and Training [June,

different character, which this is not the place to discuss or
consider.

If the exact figures representing the cost of the great district
and separate schools, as well as that of the land on which they are
built, could be got at, together with the not inconsiderable ontlaj
which has been found necessary to make some of them healthy, I
doubt if the system would be found to be much, if anything, cheaper
than that of cottage homes.

But, be that as it may, if the latter were twice as costly, I
should still prefer it, for reasons which I believe to be unanswerable
from the stand points of individual culture, health and morality.

BdMcaUonaX Standards of Elementary Ineiruetion.

And now, before summarising my conclusions on the whole
subject, I wish to take advantage of this opportunity, as an old
educationist, who has occupied the executive offices of professor,
principal, and examiner, and the administrative control of the
public instruction of a province numbering 60 millions of people,
to say a few words on the standards of instruction adopted for the
elementary education of the children of the poor in Great Britain ;
and on one or two collateral subjects.

The standards of the New Code of 1878 do not appear to me to
be altogether judicious, or well calculated to develop in the right
direction, the intelligence of children of the poorer classes, who are
to gain their livelihood by manual labour, or in the various posi-
tions they are destined to fill. An adequate knowledge of reading,
writing, and arithmetic are doubtless necessary, and so may be the
moderate amount of history and geography contained in the code ;
but, they are at best but a deadly lively routine of study, unless
supplemented and relieved by some acquaintance with the nature
of the objects by which they are surrounded, and some knowledge
of their properties and uses. The manner in which the three R's
are usually taught 'in those schools appears to me to be simply
deplorable, and their relegation to pupil teachers and all such
ill-paid, unpaid, and incompetent agency, a grave error.

On the whole, I prefer the Dutch standard of elementary instruc-
tion, to our own.*

The Kinder-garten system for infants, and a more varied and
interesting course of instruction for those more advanced in age,
with as little as possible of poetic recitation and political geography,

* The Dut6b Ryttem of elementary initraetiQn, wit^ lome additiona as to
phyaical traimng, appears to me to be better suited for our poor law schools, than
oar own educational standards.

In the Dutch law of 1857, which, I believe, is stUl in force, it is divided into
ordinary, and more extended instruction.

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1880.] Of the Ohadren of the Poor. 229

and the banishment of grammatical analysis, wonld be of ^ more
nse to them. As soon as they can read, write, and cipher decently,
and learn something exact about the world in which they live,
their subsequent book learning should be strictly and immediately
associated with their technical education, all such instruction being,
from first to last, on the half-time system. If these schools were
properly guided, boards of guardians were not in such a desperate
hurry to tnm out their children immature in mind and body, and
pK^erly trailed teachers were imperative, there is scarcely a child
of average capacity, that ought not to be brought up to the highest
standard necessary, by 12 years of age. What is now, on a thoroughly
hums a non hicendo principle, denominated industrial training, should
be placed on an entirely different footing, and carried on for at
least two years, with all the mesuis and appliances necessary to
render it effective, and with competent agency, if it can be found.

I would that the time allowed, and the space you can give me
in the Jou/mal, permitted of my pointing out to you how this is
managed in Holland, in what are called there " Ambacht Schools."
These are industrial schools, based on the joint stock principle, in
which special instruction is given in trades and handicrafls. The
funds of these industrial school societies, are derived from the con-
tributions and yearly subscriptions of the shareholders, gifts from
those who take an interest in their objects, legacies, bequests, and
assignments, interest, income ^m property, school fees, and
miscellaneous receipts.

Ordinary instmction inclndes :—
a. Beading.
J. Writing,
o. Arithmetic

d. The radimenta of morphology (knowledge of form in general).

e. „ the Dutch language.
/. ,f geography.

ff „ history.

h, „ natural philosophy.

f. Smging.

The more extended instruction is considered to include : —
k. The rudiments of the modem languages.
{. „ mathematics,

m. „ agriculture.

n. Gymnastics,
o. Drawing.
p. Needlework.

Keeping tedinical instmction and industrial training apart, a better graduated
system could, I yenture to think^ be fashioned from this, than that represented by
our six standards.

From the ordinary instmction in poor law schools, most of the geography,
history, and natural philosophy should be eliminated ; but to it should be added
music, physical exercises, and industrial training in the widest sense for both boys
and girls. By a properly graduated system of schools, a much higher order of
technical education might be given to aU the more promising boys and giris.

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230 MoUAT — On the Education and Training [June,

These schools are of a higher order than any similar institu-
tions in England, and I know of no good reason why such schools
should not be established in all our great industrial centres, on the
co-operative principle, which, when correctly applied, is one of the
best of all instruments of self-help in such matters.

One or more such schools formed in connection with the poor
law administration, to which the most promising of the pupils in
our present district and separate schools in all parts of the country
might possibly, under the existing law, be transferred* would be of
incalculable benefit in training those of our orphans and deserted
children who exhibit high and special aptitude, to become skilled
artizans.

Or, what would be better, and it may possibly be legal, to pay
for them from the rates, under the provisions of the Elementary
Education Act of 1876, in technical schools established in the
centres to which the children themselves belong, Manchester,
Birmingham, Leeds, Bradford, Sheffield, Liverpool, and other
important places of similar character.

Why rely upon great corporations and State support, for what
can be much better done by the people themselves, in the way of
technical education, of which so much is said and written just now ?

Army and Navy Schools.

It has been strongly recommended by some persons, that special
training schools for the army and navy should be connected with
the poor law administration. A majority of the boys of the
" Goliath " and " Exmouth '* already pass into the merchant service,
and some into the navy, and many boys from the schools enter the
army as musicians ; but, even if their stature and growth admitted
of any large number being found fit to shoulder the rifle or to
mount the mast, it would scarcely be right to put a pressure upon
them or to compel them to do so, should they have elected to enter
such special schools at an age when they are not capable of fixing
their own destiny, as in the case of orphans and deserted children,
who have no near relatives to guide them.

To train and educate them thoroughly, is the best possible
preparation for either of those callings, and it is wise to leave the
ultimate choice to the boys themselves, when they are old enough
to decide, as is done at present ; for there is quite enough of the
old spirit of fighting among them, and no lack of attraction in the
drum and the blue jacket, to entice those who have a fancy for
them, and are anxious to follow those careers.

Casual Children,
The number of these is very great, as shown in the few parlia-

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1880.] Of the Children of the Poor. 231

mentarj returns, in wliicli an attempt is made to specify tbem.
These returns are of too old a date, however, to be of any present
application ; yet in the workhouses of England and Wales, from 700
to 800 vagrants under 16 years of age, were relieved nightly some
thirty years ago, when a special inquiry was made on the subject.
The children of Scotch parentage were fewest, and those from
Ireland most numerous in the tramp wards at that time. The
remainder of the children, those of the poor in receipt of out- door
relief, are still more numerous : hence the question is one which
ought to be fairly faced, however difficult it may prove of solution.
A more difficult matter is how to deal with the children of the
vagrant and profligate fathers and mothers, without causing greater
evils than would be remedied, by the State taking charge of them,
and relieving their natural protectors from the burden of their
maintenance. I confess that I do not see my way to a satisfactory
solution of the difficulty.

Summary,

To sum up then briefly, what I have attempted to prove in some
detail, I am of opinion : —

1. That most of the flagrant abuses of the manner in which
the children of the poor were dealt with under the Poor Laws prior,
and for some years subsequent, to the passing of the great Act of
1834, have been remedied, by the separation of many of the schools
from the workhouses, and by the generally improved arrangements
of the poor houses themselves.

2. That a very large number, probably a majority, of the
children educated in the schools succeed fairly well in life, and are
apparently dispauperised, so far as they have been traced.

3. That a majority of the orphan, deserted, and casual children
of the poor are still, however, retained in the workhouses. Although
these have ceased to be training schools of crime, their inmates are
not proper associates for the young, and the surroundings and
atmosphere of such places are in every way undesirable for
children.

4. That the education and training in the small schools of
workhouses are, of necessity, incomplete and imperfect, from the
impossibility of obtaining competent agency on the salaries which
can be allowed. Their sole feature of excellence is the amount of care
and attention, such as they are, which can be bestowed on individual
children.

5. That the provision of a home, which is the principle on
which boarding out is based, is sound in itself, and that it is
attended with benefit to the individual, when carefully watched and
controlled; but, that it is liable to so many abuses difficult to

VOL. XLin. PART II. R

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232 MouAT — On the Educaiion and Training [June,

detect and prevent, and is so entirely opposed to a sound system of
relief of destitution, as to be unfitted for general adoption, even if
it were practicable to obtain the agency necessary, on the scale that
would be required.

6. That, while the principle of forming district and separate
schools is correct, the special manner in which it has been advo*
cated and applied, is not equally so : inasmuch as the aggregation
of very large numbers of children in great buildings is attended
with evils, moral and physical, which neutralise much of the
undoubted excellence of the instruction given in them.

7. Consequently, that while all such schools should continue to
be mixed, each should not contain more than 500 or 600 boys
and girls ; for to this number as complete mental, and much more
complete moral and physical, training can be given at a reasonable
cost, as in institutions in which the numbers collected are altogether
beyond the reach of the satis&ctory control and supervision of a
single head.

8. That such schools should be on the village home or cottage
system, with central buildings for instruction in all its branches, in
which mental culture, industrial training, and physical exercises
should go hand in hand, and be united with farm labour, and that
the domestic arrangements should be brought as much as possible
into harmony with those of the homes of the poor, in the best of our
villages.

9. That the educational standards applied to poor law schools
should be better adapted to the future lives of the children brought
up in them, and be more varied in character, without increasing
the difficulty of working up to them. Hence that the status, emolu-
ments, and qualifications of the teachers should be of a higher order
than they are at present, to render the introduction of such a system
possible. Its results would more than repay any additional cost
incurred.

10. That the instruction of the infants in all these schools
should be on the Kinder-garten system, as that best calculated to
train the powers of observation at the earliest ages, for, as recently
remarked by Canon Farrar, " When a child is allowed to gi-ow up
" to the ages of 5 or 7, without any adequate training of the
** power, not of reading and writing, but of the important mental
•* power of observation, it would by that time have learned many
** things in a wrong way, which would be detrimental to it in the
" future." It is aJso much more needed for workhouse children
than for the children of any other class, rich or poor, as it is in the
power of observation that they are naturally most deficient.

11. Lastly. That many of the physical defects of the children
can be removed, as they were in the hardy crew of the " Goliath,"

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1880.] Of the OhOdrm of the Poor. 233

and as thej now are in the " Ezmoutb/' and in both girls and boys
at Anerley, by the mnsical and dnmb bell drill, and swimming of
the former ; and by the drill, gymnastics, mast, and swimming also
of the latter, combined with carpentry, smith's work, farm labonr,
and such other varieties of handicrafts and industrial occn-
pations, as may fit them to take a proper place among the working
classes of the country.

OoncltUfUm.

I cannot conclude my paper in a more fitting manner, than by
quoting the judgment of the family system pronounced by the
Managers of the Children's Home in the Bonner Boad, after some
years of its practical working among identically the same type of
children as are found in the Metropolitan Workhouses. To this
admirable institution none are denied admission, who are
'* friendless, fatherless, or destitute, and for whose moral and
** material welfare no provision is made."

"Many advantages," they say, "are gained by this plan. It
" checks, if it does not entirely prevent, the evils so frequently
" found in very large gatherings of children, evils against which
" special precautions are needed. It renders the maintenance of
" discipline possible, without crushing the spontaneity and vivacity
" of child life. It secures an exactness of oversight and a dealing
" with individual temperaments, according to their special pecu-
" liarities, which in other circumstances would not be possible, and
*' it reproduces as nearly as may be that home life which is God's
" grand device for the education, in the best meaning of the word,
" of the human race. There are, moreover, economical advantages
" attached to the system, but of which one only need be mentioned :
" it enables the institution to be established without any enormous
" outlay for buildings, allows it to grow naturally, and by a succes-
" sion of comparatively easy efforts, house being added to house as
" the families multiply."

What higher commendation could be given to any system ?

fi2

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234 MouAT — On ike Education a/nd Training [June,

APPENDIX.

SIX TABLES,

Showinq THi Amount <yr thx Pabliambntast Grant for thi
Payment of Tiaohebs, 1857-58;

Cost of the Metropolitan Poor Law Schools ;

Beturns of Children sent back to the Workhouses;

TouNQ Offenders Admitted to Beformatort Schools, 1854-76;

AND

Number of Children in Reformatories who haye been in
WoBKHOusis, 1868-77.

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1880.]

0/ the OhUdren of ihe Poor.

235

Tablk I. — JVtmher of Children Educated hy the Poor Law Authorities,
with the Amount of the Parliamentary Grant for Payment of the
Salaries of the Teachers.

Tmt.

Taught in
WorkhooM Schools.

Tiraght in
District Schools.

Total Number

of Childrm

Edacated

by Poor Law

Aathorities.

SalariM
of

Boyt.

Giris.

Boys.

Girls.

Teachers.

1861 ....

18,252

16,151

84,408

21,328

'52....

17,289

i5»579

625

373

88,766

21,848

'68...

16,277

15,051

1,096

783

83,207

22,204

'64....

17,278

16,545

1;007

863

86,698

231013

1855 ....

18,455

X 7,829

1,129

927

38,840

23,982

'56 ....

17,666

17,416

1,448

1,284

87,814

26,616

'67....

17,870

16,999

1,519

x,352

87,240

29»398

'58....

17,886

17,069

1,564

x,349

87,868

30,857

'60....

16,052

14,842

1,453

1,229

38,576

3X,xi7

I860....

14,344

13,761

1,870

x,x79

80,654

3X,23i

'61 ....

15,290

15434

1,435

x,3X7

33,476

3X,i88

'62....

16,684

16,987

1,633

x,475

36,779

32,124

'68....

17,172

"6,732

1,669

x,5i8

37,091

32,768

'64....

16,568

16,003

1,585

x,392

35,648

33,9>6

1865 ....

16,820

15*425

1,596

x,366

34,706

34,220

'66....

15,886

15*304

1,655

1,421

84,266

34,322

'67....

16,815

16,124

1,838

x,5o5

86,282

34,xx7

'68....

18,464

17,640

2,077

1,669

89,850

33,838

'69 ....

19,318

18,420

1,961

hS^6

41,215

35*474

1870....

19,076

17,5x9

2,816

2,163

41,574

36,X39

'71 ....

18,874

16,463

2,782

x,973

39,542

36,778

'72....

16,182

14,800

2,717

x,898

35,547

36,222

'78...

16,374

14,298

8,008

2,217

34,897

36,098

'74....

14,699

X3.459

8,126

2,293

38,577

35,5x8

1875 ....

14,120

13,006

8,894

2^.23

82,943

34*405

'76....

18,711

12,781

8,165

2,4X7

32,074

34*636

'77....

14,068

X 2,595

2,207

2,388

82,258

33*494

'78....

14,359

X 2,925

8,654

2,690

33,628

35»xx6

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236

MouAT — On the Education and Training

[Jane,

Table IL-

-Annual Average

Number of Scholars, Grose Expenditure, and

Cost per Child

Average Number of Scholars per Baj.

Total Expenditure for all Purposes. 1

Nmne of School.

1869.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1878.

Aver-
aireof
the 5
Yean.

1869.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1873.

Averagfi
of the
5 Years.

St. Pancrae ...

—

389

398

393

—

14,562

14,880

14,472

Forest Gate,!
"Gk)li»th"J

—

395

379

387

—

9,462

11,403

10,432

St. Leonard,!
Shoreditch,

404

408

364

361

363

380

9,783

8»554

12,032

9,723

8,192

9,657

Central Lon-\
don , '

1,042

1,065

1,227

1,164

1,166

i>i3i

21,796

21,926

27,408

30,086

32,863

z6,8i4

St.Mai7lebone

436

439

432

439

416

432

9,966

9»663

9,806

10,063

10,186

9,937

North Surrey ..

823

869

864

750

807

823

18,891

19,896

17,176

>5,5'8

22,404

18,77:

Bethnal Green

143

Z46

361

350

894

297

3,111

6,682

7,377

6,751

8,676

6,49^

Holborn

—

424

438

431

—

9,331

9,200

9,265

Forest Gkte"
School ..../

—

881

771

698

791

79>

—

i5»97o

16,429

15,858

17,703

16490

Strand

361

3^7
1,272

399

377
«»234

360

371

7,922

7,821

7,289

8,646
26,008

7,206

7,757

^uth Metro-!
politan ..../

1,310

1,216

1,291

1,265

24,181

24,661

24,906

28,368

25.623

Westminstep....

213

238

239

223

221

227

3,603

4,146

4,817

4,3"

6,835

4*44-

Islington

246

262

241

247

4,224

4,217

4,484

Syioo

6,344

4,874

St. G^eopge- '
in-the-East/

630

488

439

290

266

403

9,191

8,301

7,678

6,550

6,378

7,59«

Lambeth

436

416

387

350

848

387

6,716

6,629

6,387

6,532

6,670

6,56t

Mile End

266

267

266

286

279

273

4,138

4,4H

4,661

4,503

4,877

4.5»:

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1880.]

Of the Children of the Poor.

237

of each of the District and Separate Metropolitan Poor Law SchodU from 1869 to 1873.

Total Cost per Head per AnnQm.

1869.

1870

1871.

1872.

1873.

Average of

tbe
Five Yean.

NaaworScbooL

£«.(«.

£ ».

£ e. d.

£ e, d.

£ a. d.

£ s.

—

57 8 8

86 2 8

36 16

St. Pancra*

—

*3 «9 I

80 1 9

27 -

/Forest Gate,
1 "Goliath"

24 4 8

20 19

33 1 1

26 18 8

22 11 4

15 8

rSt. Leonard,
\ Shoreditoh

21-8

20 XI

22 6 9

25 i6 11

28 8 11

»3 19

fOentral Lon-
1 don

22 18 2

22 -

22 13 11

22 18 5

24 10 10

23 -

St. Marylebone

22 19 8

22 17

19 17 6

20 13 iO

27 15 3

22 16

North Surrey

21 15 1

27 3

21-4

19 5 10

21 15 4

21 17

Bethnal Green

—

22-1

21-1

21 10

Holbom

—

18 2

21 6 2

*2 H 5

22 7 7

21 -

/ForeetGate
I School

21 8 11

21 6

18 5 6

22 18 8

20 11 9

20 18

Strand

18 9 2

19 7

20 9 7

21 I 6

21 19 4

20 5

/South Metro-
\ politan

16 18 4

17 8

20 3 1

19 6 8

24 2 10

19 i5

Westminster

17 4 10

17 I

17 16 10

20 11 3

26 6 6

19 14

Islington

17 6 10

17 -

17 6 2

Z2 II 8

28 19 7

19 12

' St. George-in-
■ the-East

16 8 9

15 18

16 10 1

«8 13 3

18 17 7

16 19

lambeth

15 11 1

16 10

17 11 -

15 14 10

16 9 7

16 10

Mile End

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MouAT — On the EducaHon and Travning

[June,

Table III. — Cost in the Metropolitan Poor Law Schools of Provisions^ Necessaries^ dc

under Four Diferent Heads,

Nameof School

Cottof ''ProfriMu" pet Hotd peri

1869.

1870,

1871.

1872.

1878.

Averamef

tSe
Fbe Yean.

Separate Schools —
Bethnal Green, Lejton- 1

Btone j

St. George-in-ihe-EMt^l

Plaahet /

Holbom, Mitoham

Islington, Homsej

Lambeth, Norwood

Mile End Old Town,!

Bancroft fioad /

St. Marylebone, Sonthall
St. Pancraa, Leayesden....
Shoreditch, Brentwood....

Strand, Edmonton

Westminster, Battersea....

Jhstrid Schools—

Central London

Forest (Hte

North Surrey

South Metropolitan

Separate Schools —
Bethnal Qreen, Lejton- 1

stone J

St. Oeorge-in-the-Ea8t,1

Plaehet J

Holbom, Mitoham

Islington, Homsej

Lambeth, Norwood

Mile End Old Town,!

Bancroft Koad J

St. Marjlebone, Southall
St. Fanoras, LeaTesden....
Shoreditch, Brentwood ,

Strand, Edmonton

Westminster, Battersea.

District Schools-^

Central London

Forest Oate

North Surrey

South Metropolitan

£ s.d,
4 1 10

8 19 6

7-6
6 8 11

6 10 -1

11 6 4
8 6-1
7 16 1

7 15 9

9 6 8
7 11 1

£ s, d,

8 ID 9

648
649

6 2 10

6 18 5

8 1 iii

7 8 4
6 3 li

7 5 8*

6 12 li

8 17 8

7 10 5i

£ s. d,

6 16 2

8 14 9

6 16 2

6 9 8i

6 9 6

7 4 9

7 18 6i

6 19 2

6 10 8

7 6 2

6 8 2

8 18 6

7 11 8

£ s. d.
674

11 14

li
li
9

19 li

II iif
8 9,
6 iii

II 9

- 5

8 15 6i

7 4 loi

9 10 -

8 2 5

£ s, d.

6 8 4

12 2 6i

7 6 2

7 6 8i
7 7 7

6 18 81

7 2 -i
6 18 11

6 14 7

7 17 -i
7 16

8 18 4}
7 17 11

9 6-
7 18 2

£ #. d.

5 16 -

9 »9 9*

7 - I

6 II 5

6 15 1

6 It III

7 4 3*
7 I 4.
7 16 7*
7 12 6
6 18 3

8 - 4
7-9

9 3 5
7 14 9

Coet of ''Neceeiaiiee'' per Head per Annum.

£ s.
4 11

d,
9i

2 21

14 91
14 11

2 17 10

4 10 4i
2 16 -I
2 10 6i

3 18 1

8-6
3 11 1

£ s. d.

a 18 4i

2 14 4

a 14 6\

2 18 4

2 16 4

4 - 8

3i
5i

15 10

3 6
a 5

3 5 9i
a 4 3
286

3 9 II

£ «. <f.

2 6 21

8 7 81

2 16 4

8 2 2

8 12 8

4 16 -

4 18
2 9
2 12

8 17 2i

2 1 21

2 8 8

3 9 6

£ «. ^.

2-10

5-7
211

3 a 1

2 18 8

a 13 2

476
$66

3 10 6

2 12 2

3 I I

3 13 II*

a 9 8i
a 5 3
3 8 2

£ «. d.

3 8-

2 19 lOi

2 14 61

3 16 10
3 2 6i

3 3

6 12
6 13
4 9
3 1
6 2

4 2 7i
2 16 Hi
4 17

4 2-

£ s, d.

3 - -^

3 8 II

a 7
3 -
2 19

4
6

3-7

4 14 -*

5 10 II
4 3 -i

a 14 9
3 4 6k

3 14 6k

28-
a 15 If
3 la I

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1880.]

Of the Children of the Poor.

239

Table III CoiUd.'-Cost in the Metropolitan Poor Law SchooU of Furniture^ and Repairs
of BuHdingSy lAc, under Four Diferenl Heads.

Cook of «« Repain, Famitore, be/' per Head per Annom.

NamoofSdiooL

1869.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1878.

ATerageof
Five Years.

JSeparate SchooU—

.Betihnal Ghreen, Leyton- 1

stone J

St. G^rge-in-the-Bast, 1

Plaahet /

Holborn, Mitoham

Islingtoiii Homsej

£ s, d,
10 19 11

2 9 9

2-10
1-9

16 8}

4 4 8
8 17 7
2 8 10

6 7 8

8 18 7f
8 16 1}

£ s. d.

5 12 11

2 4 3i

* 1 3

1 to 2

2 lO 10

4 II 6

3 i6 9i

4 10 5i

3 19 a

8 7 5
2 i6 9

4 3 4
4 9 II

£ #. d,

8 18 9

2 7 8i

2 11 2i

1 9 11

2 6 4i

8 19 10

9 7 9i
2 4 10
6 10 2

6 1 9i
2 12 8i
2 17 8

6 8 8f

£ s. d.

1 8 8

2 17 9\

6 i6 11

3 15 li

2 12 2

- 19 iii

3 4iii

7 II iii
6 15 iii
a 5 li

4 8 1

3 19 9i

2 8 II

3 8 loi

5 8 4i

£ s. d.
8 11 -

2 15 6i

6 18 8
6 16 9i

1 14 10

2-8

8 6 9i
5 8 4

2 - 7f
2 12 -

5 12 6i

6 18 2\
2 12 2

7 1 8J
4 18 8

£ S. d.
5*3

2 10 II

6 17 7

3 9 -i
1 13 *

1 16 11

3 15 9
678

5 5 i

3 * -

4 II 9

6 I 10}

2 12 7i

4 4 loi

5 I 8

Lambeth, Norwood

Mile End Old Town,")

Bancroft Road J

St. Marylebone, Southall
St. Panoras, Leayeeden ....
Shoreditoh, Brentwood....
Strand, Kdmonton ,

Westminfter, Battersea ...

District Schools^

Central London

Forest Gste

North Suirey

South Metropolitan

Cort of •* iklQcation and Induitrial Training •* per Head per Annum.

Separate Schools^
'. Sethnal Green, Leyton- 1

stone J

St. George-in-the-£a8t,\

Plashet /

Holbom, Mitchn-m. ..r

£ «. d,

- 9 21

4 8 10

- 14 1
2-7

19 1

11-

12 9)
2-9

- 16 5J

8 18 7
1-11

£ s. d.

I » 2i

4 1* -i

- i8 ifi
I i6 8

1 9 3
I I 4i

1 7 7}

2 1 7
-13 6

4 1 loi

- 3 li

I - -t

£ s. d.

- 11 11

4 2 lOi

- 19 7
1 18 6

1 10 6

12 5

1 6 111

2 2 7
-12 7i

8 2 6}

- - 8i

1 2 5i

£ s, d,
-14 3i
4 14 -

I - 6i
I 18 9*

I 9 3

I 3 4*
1 10 -i
I 4 8J
a 5 8

- 14 10

3 3 3i

- I -i

I 3 9

£ s. d,

- 15 4J

5 4 2

18 6
2 4 10

18 7

19 8

1 8 8i
12 9

2 5 4i

- 14 2

2 19 li

- 2 4i

119

£ s. d.
- 14 7
411 4*

- 19 4

I 18 loi

I 9 3i
1 4 1
' 9 4i
1 4 7
232

-143*

3 9 1

- I 9i

LamBeth, Norwood

Mile End Old Town,!

Bancroft Boad J

St. Marylebone, Southall
St. Pancras, Leayesden....
Shoreditch, Brentwood,...
Str^Tid, Edmonton

Westminster, Battersea....

District Schools—
Central London

Forest (Hte

North Surrey

South MetropoHten

1 I 9

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240

MouAT — On the Education and Trainivg

[June,

Table IV. — Summary hy Counties Proper,
[Abftract of PariiamenUry Betvrn of Workhoase and District Schoob, No. 496, dated SOth Jan., I86I.3

County

and
Union.

The Number of Young

Persons who were

in the Workhouse Schools

of the several Unions

and Parishes in Eng^land and

Wales, for a period oi

not less than Two

ConsecutiTe Years within

the Ten Years ended

the 81st daT of December,

1860, and who have Left the

Workhouse, for Serrioe

or other
Industrial Occupation.

Males.

Females.

The Number of such

Young Persons

who have Returned to

the Workhouse,

bj Reason of dieir

own Misconduct.

Males.

Females.

The Number who

have returned

to the Workhouse^

from Causes not

inrolring their owm

Misconduct

Males.

Females.

England.

Bedford

Berks

Bucks

CoDibridge

Cheetep

Cornwall

Cumberland

Derby

Deyon

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton ...
Northumberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Butland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ...

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ...

wnte

Worcester

York (E. Biding)

„ (N.

» (W,

90
818
152
220
257
161
193
195
882
135
186
455
639
128
188

608

1,132

847

455

1,489

84
521
817
152
234
271

22
231
530
665
307
894
652
431
196

42
881
201
177

77
390

"3
332
177
180

173
15*
»59
138
716

178
186
490
5*3
13*
^9^
49
679

813
254
456

i»33^
107
476
294

174
218

15
195
457
505
34»
410

465
384
138

3»
346

185
116

79
377

4
14
11
13
22

6
14
25

8
12
27 «
13

8
43
87

9
32
90

5
19
25

4
24
10

27
25
24
81
44
25
28

8
27

3
85

6
ai
20
16
27
17
II

«3
38
II

51
46
16

120

"03
21

79
175

55
59
21

38
18

119

8
29
87
14
39

2
98
13

38
37

5
17

214

7
80
98

8
25
16

14
23

2
20
67
46
29
29
84
44

2
86
19
16

6
32

Totals ...

14,404

i»,979

1,663

1,264

20
38
10

13
22

3
118

13
8

107

161

47
26
26
20
30

4
27
93
88
62
22
7*
83
23

4»
26

1,748

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1880.] Of the OliUdrm of the Poor.

Table IV, —Symmetry hy Cotmties Proper — ContcL

241

Coonty

and
Union.

The Number of Tonng

Penoni who were

in the Workhooae School!

of the leTeral Unions

and Parishes in England and

Wales, for a period of

not less than Two

Consecutive Years within

the Ten Years ended

the Slst day of December.

IMO. and who hare Left the

Workhouse, for Service

or other
Industrial Occupation.

The Number of such
Young Persons

who have Returned to

the Workhouse,

bjBeason of their

own Misconduct.

The Number who

have returned

to the Workhouse,

from Causes not

involving their own

Misconduct.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Walks.
Angleflea

68
9
31
21
23
100
88
13
68
96
83

5»

4
25

I02

37
89

1
2
2
4

2
3

4
5

1
1

1
3
7

9
9

Brecon

Cftrdisran

Cannarthen

OamarTon

Denbigh

5
6

Hint

Glamorgan

Merioneth

Montgomeiy

Pembroke

4
9
I

Badnor

Totals

629

439

District schools....

777

612

105

Totals of"
Bngland and •
Wales

16,710

14*030

880

1,756

1,363

1,896

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242

MouAT — On the Ed/ucatian cmd Tramvng

[June,

Table Y.—TotdU of the Number of Young Ofender$ Admitted into and
Discharged fro9n Certified Reformatory School* in Great Britain^ and the
Mode of DitchargCy up to Zlst December, 1876.

England.

AdmUsion* —

1864

'56

'66

'67

'68

'69

'60

'61

'62

'63

'64

'66

'67

'68

'70.
'71.
'72.
'78.
'74.
'76.
'76.

Total.

DiscTiargei —
To employment'!

OP seryice J

To friends

Emigrated.

Sent to sea

Enlisted

Discharged on ao- 1

count of disease j
Discharged as in- 1

corrigible J

Transferred

Died

Absconded

Total.

Under detention 1
81st Dec, 1876.... J

In school

On licence

In prison

Absconded, sen-
tence unexpired

Retained in school, 1
sentence expired J

Protestant.

Boyi.

28
164
477
711
668
706
766
869
675
643
664
763
816
860
828
863
801
790
881
863
821
773
800

Qirls.

»4

ICO

X04

^SS
19a
*59
150
149
148
ai3
193
201

213
199
196
182
240
204
207

150
186

16,034 3,718 4,682

Eoman
Catholie.

B078.

192
247
119
148
146
163
161
106
233
268
264
270
266
222
264
248
311
306
306
228
268

3,649

3,743

1,608

2,149

861

161

182

423
274
427

12,707

3,327

2,786

494

36
2

870

144
90
81

1,477
190
697
126

118

2,922 3,628

796

1,164

666
114

986

161

Girls.

4*
53
40
43
46
45
54
47
46
5i
67
43
3»
58
66

59
63
48
57
56
33

1,050

463
219

874

176

164

Scotland.

Protestant.

Boys^

167
161
143
120
129
174
184
186
179
179
186
207
181
186
177
174
194
186
170
216
161
166

Girls.

54
49
50
48
58
50
26

55
51
48
57
40
38
51
56
44
59
39
40

35
38

3,816 1,009 ^1^1

Catholic.

Boys.

60
82
47
49
63
64
60
96
68
95
72
68
76
64
48
44
61

Girls.

4
17
35
18
26
20
22

15
20
28
38
17

31
23
10

4*3

Total.

Boys.

28
831
820
1,101
792
1,009
1,146
1,288
1,069
976
1,119
1,266
1,827
1,396
1,837
1,867
1,301
1,296
1,403
1,396
1,386
1,206
1,275

26,612 6,200

Gills.

I
78
H3
»03
196
27»
3*3
348
285
267
264
337
320
310

334
330
3^7
319
368

3*3
3"
^54
^75

1,636

752

181

134

107
128
176

3,092

723

661
64

395

^5*
^5

«9

»3

4"
34
94

686

161

12
40
49

873 881

136

122
6

200

167
30

149

129
12

2
18

316

X07

103
3

6,889

6,133

1,889

2,980

613

267

176

607
665
740

20,208

6,404

4,679

739

71
2

i»47o
18

**3

221

185

4.985

1,2x5

>.o55

«3»

>9
3

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1880.]

Of ike Ohtldren of the Poor.

248

Table VL—^aofwuy the Ntanber of Juvenile Offenders Committed for Detention in Reformatory Schools,
vfho h(we Previously been Inmates of Workhouse, Union, or Poorhouse Schools, or of Pauper District
Schools, for the Period of Ten Tears, ending Slst December, 1877—1868-77.

Name of Beformatory School

Arno*8 Court girii

•« Akbw ^.. ^ boys

Bedford «

BirkdaleFann ^,

Binnhighaiii nrls

Bolqm Castle

Bra4waU

Buxton ^

CalderEann

Castle Howard „

" Clarenee" .««.

" Cornwall "

Cumberiand

DeroB aad EzjBter ^

Doncatter „

Essex boys

Glamergan ^,

Hampstead «»..... nrls

Hampshire boys

HaroWick ^ „

Hertfordshire » p

Ipswich i:irls

KioKswoed

Lancashire, north

Laocashire, R. C. girls

Leeds ^

Limpley Stoke (Bath)

Liveifool Boys

,, .« ««.... girls

Londen, Home in tiie East boys
Maocbeeterand SaUbid...,

Market Weiehton ,

Monmowthsnire

Moant St. Bernard.

Morthampton m

North Eastern boys

Bed Hill ^ „

Red Lodge ...... girls

Saltley ^

Stoke Farm

Suffolk

Sunderland girls

Surrey

roxtethPark ,

l¥andsworth boys

Warwickshire .,

girls

Wellington Farm......

Wilts

Woodbury Hill

Yorkshire, B. C girls

SOOTLAVD.

Aberdeen girls

Dalbeth

Dairy Road

Glasgow boys

[nvemees boys

Kibble

Did MiU

Parkhead

Eloasie ...#.

Jtranraer

Information not aTailable

:|?|:|?|:|t|:|

data to go upon, but manager reco
|-|1|-|-.|-|4|-|1| ^ ■
Information not availabie

i-i-i-in-i-

No record kept

mformation can be obtamec

I
No record kept

•|l|-|l|-| 8| a

Ty>tal.

—

led 8 more than three

2-13

- 11-18 1-

Hare had a few from workhouses, but none from district school

No record

I
I

No reoord. Thirty girls now hi

the

workhouses

Reiormatonr own to hare been in

482

-l-l-l-lll-l-

- ♦ -

-U ?

kIi-

Nil

|-|-|1|-|1|-|-|-| 8|-

3-l---i-.-_

1 - 6 - 4 - - - 1 -

- I - I - - - I - -

—

1 - - - 1 - - - 1 -

Nil

- - -r II

2- ill 8 1-18 I- 11

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244 [June,

Discussion on De. Mouat's Paper.

The Chairman (Mr. W, Newmarch, F.R.S.) said Dr. Mouat bad
read a very able and conscientious paper, upon whicb be boped
tbere would be a very vigorous discussion. The best compliment
they could pay to the author of the paper was to contradict him
most vigorously, and he trusted that there would be a good
response to that invitation.

Mr. Edwin Chadwick, C.B., commended the high spirit and ability
of a large proportion of Dr. Mouat's paper, but he could have shown
at length, had time permitted, that the doctrine propounded of the
advantages of the smaller, or even of middle sized, over the larger
schools, was wholly in error in principle, as demonstrated by
comparative results ; — that the larger the aggregation, the greater
the segregation or power of classification and of class teaching;
the better the physical, the intellectual, and the moral results, and
the greater the economy. Due credit had been given to the kinder-
garten— ^but the efficiency of the infant school was only to be got
usually with a first-class teacher — as the primary and most im-
portant part of a large school. Dr. Mouat had spoken of it as
a disadvantage of a large school, "that the numbers collected
together are altogether beyond the reach of the satisfactory control
and supervision of a single head." Why this was precisely the
disadvantage of the small school, of the single mastered school,
that its numerous and disparate classes, some six or seven, were
only under the control of one head ; whilst in the large school they
were under the supervision, and special occupation of a number
of heads ; of a first class infant school teacher, whose service
effected a saving of two years of school time (a saving which had
not been noted) ; then of some twelve pupil teachers of different
classes for one class after the other; tiien of a second assistant
teacher, and a first teacher, and of a head teacher, and at the same
time of a drill master — one of the most potent and formative of
masters — of a music master, and of a trade instructor, all of whose
services were brought to bear upon the body as well as the mind of
the pupil on the half-time school system. And what was the
comparative cost of all this teaching and training power in the
larger systematised organisation? why in the instance cited of
the Annerly district school, as in others, it was not more than one
pound per head per annum, as against two pounds per head and
more, the common expense of small schools throughout the
country ; but on the half-time principle, including the in&nt school,
the chUdren of the lowest and slowest type are got well through
the " three R's '* in about seven years, or between the tenth and the
eleventh year, instead of between the thirteenth and the fourteenth
year, saving about three years of time in primary education, gaining
that three years for secondary education. As to the expense of
this teaching power on the half -lime principle gained by aggre-
gation and segregation, it was indeed of seven years at one pound
per annum, as against at least ton years at two pounds per annum,
and the total cost of elementary education. Now as to the moral

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1880.] Discussion on Dr. Motiafs Faper^ 245

and economical outcome from tlie separate district scliools, upon
what material, be it borne in mind, the very lowest morally and phy-
sically of the commnnity, chiefly the offspring of depraved paupers,
hereditary mendicants and delinquents, coming from the lowest
neighbourhoods and most unsanitary conditions. As a class they
were all stunted, and of inferior physique, with a large proportion
of scrofulous and half idiotic children, many of them brought in
late, and with hardened habits. Dr. Mouat spoke of the results in
a subdued tone, that " a large number, probably a majority, of the
children educated in the schools succeed fairly well in after life."
The investigations that have been made show that they succeed
pre-eminently well. The failures were stated to be within 6 per
cent., but formerly the failures were fully 6o per cent., not above
one out of three got into productive service ; the bulk were on the
streets, and formed the largest contingent to the population of the
prisons ; and considering the class, the latest results were grand,
even with a larger discount. As to the physical outcome, there had
been large and persistent misrepresentations, not by Dr. Mouat, but
by others, who maintained that the aggregation of large numbers
must be productive of disease : as it must to those ignorant of
sanitary science, who could only conceive aggregations of filth, of
filthy skins, in foul air. The fact was overlooked that these district
half-time schools were in fact children's hospitals, in which many
were brought in only to die ; yet including these, the deatk^rates in
these institutions were below the general death-rates of children of
the same class of the population ; but taking the children of this
low type, who came in without developed disease upon them, the
death-rates had been reduced to within 3 in a 1,000, whilst of the
boarded out children, it had been held forth as satisfactory that
the deaths had not exceeded 2 per cent., that is to say, 20 in a
1,000. In these lar^r institutions the "children's diseases" of
spontaneous generation had been almost entirely excluded, and the
power of sanitation and physical improvement, as far as they had
gone, increased with the numbers and power of class treatment.

Note by Mr. ChadvncJc. — The real question as to the best course
of treatment of the children of the destitute dates back to 1833,
when the principle proposed by our Poor Law Commission was for
the treatment of the children not under the same roof as adult
paupers as in the union houses, but in separate houses and on a large
scale. There is now a movement for a return to the principle then
pd*opounded, for economising as well as from experience in superior
eflBciency. The principle of graded schools now in progress in
America was taken by Mr. Horace Mann from these separate
schools, such as they were first introduced under the new poor law
in England. The following table displays the principle of the large
and small schools, and of graded schools up to 700. There are
working examples of schools of above 1,000, with increasing advan-
tages in economy, certainty, and presumably in efficiency, and
indeed the limits of the profitable application of the principle as to
numbers have not yet been determined. I submit the table as an
example of statistiaJ exposition of the working of a principle : —

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246 Diiousnon [June,

Admmittraiion of Fvmda for Edvcation,

Table IlluHrathe of School OrganUaHom for the AugmenUaHon of Ijfflcieney
with Meduction of Expense.

tin this table— whkh hat been prepared on inatmetkuit by Mr. T. P. Allen, an experienced and diilM
teadier who had charge, under Earl RoaseU, of an elementary achool at Petenham— it ia aianmed
that the pupils enter «o1k>o1 at 7 yeara <^ ase. At the end of the several periods mentioned in the
third eokmin, they would write a dear hand and would read intelligently, and would be capable
of passinc with credit the ordinary examinatkma in arithmetic approved by Uie Privy Council:
they woud have thoroughly mattered the usual rulea, including proportion, as fkr as decimal
fractions inclusive]. SiiMe it was presented, in 1970, the prices of trained educational service
have been augmented by the demand. The average number of scholars which can be acoMnmo-
dated in the whole of the existing State-aided schools appears to be 95.

Number

of
Scholan.

40^

120^

200

400-^

700-^

Annual Coat per Head.

£ e. d.

Master and miBtress* .... 70 - -"

Monitor 2 10 -

Expensetf 10 - -

House Tentt 20 - -

Annual cost per head.... 2 11

Master and mistress 75 -

One pu]nl teacher 15 -

Expenses 15 -

House rent 20 -

Annual cost per head.... i

Mpkster and mistress 105

Two pupil teachers 30

Expenses 25

House rent 25

IS 6j

Annual cost per head.... i 10 io_

Master 135 - -

Four pupil teachers 60 - -

Expenses 35 - ~

Annual cost per head.... 13-

Master 185 - -

One assistant 70 - -

Six pupil teachers 90 - -

Expenses S5 ~ ~

Annual cost per head.... 1

Master 240

First assistant 1 10

Second „ 70

Twelve pupil teachers .... 180
Expenses loo

Annual cost per head..

Time
of Teaching.

etoTyrs.

7 7ear8§

5 „

4 „

3to4yr8.

Total Cost per Head.

£ 9.

About 16 10

12 10

9 -

« 6 -

4 -

Nearly 4 -

* It will be seen that no mistress is allowed when the number of scholars exceeds 120. In those
cases separate establishments are maintained for boys and girls.

t By expenses is meant disbursements for stationery, cleaning, repairs, Ice.

X Small schools, espedally in the case of the so-called nationaJ schools, are usually provided with
teachers' residences, ui estimating cost, therefore, in the small schods, we must include a fair per-
centage (5^) upon the capital enoployed in the ounstruction of the residence, the teacher's income
being affected to the fall extent 01 the supposed rental.

§ A school of seventy is perhaps rather more obstructive to progress than one of forty. In the
latter, thouj^h the organisation is necessarily very imperfect, the surveillance of the master can be
more readily directed to every individuaL In ranch krger collections this advantage in favour of a
small number is much more than counterbalanced by the constant general supervision of the master,
by the aptitude and intelligence of his subordinates, 8tc.

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1880.] on Dr. Mouafs Paper. 247

Mr. Georoe Hubst said that mach as he admired the excellent
paper they had listened to, he thought some of its contents
admitted of a great deal of discussion. The condemnation of
workhouse schools was altogether unworthy, for a great many of
them had been well conducted, and the children had been brought
up carefully and well. He had had some little experience of work-
house management in the last half century, and he could say that
in many workhouse schools (and he referred particularly to the
one at Bedford) the children had been well taught morally and
intellectually, and had had a thorough training in tailoring, shoe-
making, and other industrial occupations. The children were
generally healthy and cheerful looking, and, at all events at Bed-
ford, very few of them had gone wrong, while many of them had
got very excellent situations.

Mr. E. C. TuFFKELL remarked that one of the main objects of
Dr. Mouat's paper was to discredit large schools. Now this was
a point much discussed in the Leeds meeting of the Social Science
Congress : when the almost unanimous opinion was in favour of
large schools, on account of the economy of time, money, and
teaching power thereby effected. The London School Board have
also expressed their preference for large schools, and acted on this
opinion. Dr. Mouat had also stated that it was a fallacy to
suppose that any credit was due to the district schools on account
of their low death-rate, and instanced the low mortality at the
Famingham school as a proof that the death-rate at the district
schools was not extraordinary. This is an unfair comparison, as
the Famingham school only admits boys under 10 years of age,
and who are physically fit for labour ; whQe the district schools
admit children of all ages and in all states of disease. The last
report of the North Surrey school showed only two deaths in the
year among 8oo children. One of these was a boy who entered ill
of pleuro-pneumonia and who died in a month ; the other was a
child deserted and found half dead from a night's exposure on
Clapham Common, who was partly recovered by the medical care
at the school, and at length died of pneumonia. Now neither of
these cases would have been admitted into the Famingham school ;
therefore it is unjust to contrast the death-rates in the two schools,
unless it be to show the excellence of the district system. But the
evidence alleged by Dr. Mouat in his paper, proves the superiority
of the district schools in this matter. He says that the death-rate
in all the London pauper schools was shown by elaborate inquiry
to be 12 per i,ooo, while the death-rate of the whole metropolis
among children of similar age was 14 per 1,000 : that is con-
trasting the deaths of the lowest caste and physically most weak
children as they exist in pauper schools, with the deaths among
children of all classes, including of course the healthiest ; we find
that the deaths in the latter class are one-sixth larger than among
the former. Can there be a stronger proof of the healthiness of
the pauper schools ?

Miss MiiLLEB said she had had no acquaintance with the class

VOL. XLIII. PA£T II. S

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248 Discussion [Jnne,

of schools nnder discnssion, and, as a beginner, she felt unworthy
to be placed on the same planks with those who had been at work
for twenty or thirty years. There was, however, one question
which suggested itself to her on the point raised by Dr. Mouat, that
the status, emoluments, and qualifications of the teachers should
be higher than at present. Was it not possible that by fulfilling
this condition the teachers would be unfitted for the simple and
elementary teaching of the youngest children ? The minds of the
children were in the earliest years most plastic, and it was then
that the best and most suitable work should be brought to bear
upon them. In the public schools for boys in England, the
masters were men of the highest character, from the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, and they were brought to teach boys of
mild attainments in English and the classics, and the consequence
was that a boy going to Eton or Harrow, who did not know the
rudiments of an English education, would not learn them there.
They must be very careful that they did not take away the
education from the poor to give it to the rich.

Captain Bourchieb, in response to the invitation of the Chair-
man, remarked that he quite agreed with all Dr. Mouat had said
in the admirable paper which he had read that evening.

Mr. Wtndham Holgatb (Inspector of Workhouse Schools), after
expressing his thanks to Dr. Mouat for his excellent paper, and the
Society for allowing it to be read and discussed, said many of the
points brought forward might be looked at from different points of
view. With respect to bowxiing-out, he thought that principle was
not brought out so strong as it might be. Dr. Mouat did not
mention that under the best circumstances boarding-out could only
apply to a particular class — orphans and deserted children of 9 or
10 years of age, while it left on their hands, under any circum-
stances, the children most difficult to deal with. He fully agreed
with the remarks made as to the benefit arising from physical edu-
cation, and he had always told his teachers, when they were rather
alarmed about the Education Act of 1876, that they would get just
as good results if they allowed the children to play double as
long as they did, if they kept them well at their work when in
school. Dr. Mouat referred to the fact that no farming or garden
work was done at the North Surrey schools, or on the ** Exmouth."
While fully agreeing with Dr. Mouat from a hygienic point of view,
he remarked that the boys put to this work were usually the
lowest types of intellect, unless, of course, the boys were really
taught gardening. Mr. Holgate then read some remarks he had
made on the subject of physical education in his last annual report,
in which he advocated the extension of more useful kinds of work
both for boys and girls. The girls should not merely assist, apd do
the work of the servants, but they should receive bond fide instruc-
tion. Dr. Mouat had spoken of the excessive requirements of the
new code ; but with one or two exceptions, the special subjects were
absolutely untaught in poor law schools, nor did he think they
should be. In the " three R*s '* and a good industrial training, he

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. 1880.] on Dr. Mouat's Paper. 249

thought they could tarn out scholars equal to any in the world.
With respect to Miss Miiller's remark as to the teachers being of
too high a dass in some cases, he admitted that the young prig ^m
college was unfitted for the task of teaching in such schools, for he
had not come down to the duty required by the poor law autho-
rities, that of keeping" his temper and seeing to the whole welfare of
the children, their moral and their religious education ; and he re-
gretted that Dr. Mouat had not laid stress on the religious element
in the question. With regard to Tillage schools, there was an admi-
rable building at West Ham : but through an oversight there was
not sufficient rooms to accommodate the number of ofi&cers required.
Village homes must be more costly than district schools, as they
required a larger permanent staff. School inspectors were fully
alive to the weaknesses of the system, and they did their best to .
remedy them.

Surgeon- General Geaham Balfour, F.R.S., asked whether in the
schools referred to by Dr. Mouat, the proportion of children at each
year of life was the same, for if not the comparison of the rates
of mortality would be wanting in accuracy. He had had some
little experience of the physical health of schools, and he was sure
that the combination of physical with intellectusJ instruction was
of the utmost importance. Amongst other things, he had been
instrumental in introducing swimming into the Doke of York's
School at Chelsea, and since 1851 no boy had left that school
without being able to swim well — in his clothes as well as out of
them.

The Rev. I. Doxsbt said for some considerable time ophthalmia
had never been absent from the South Metropolitan District
Schools, and this had been a very grave and difficult question to
deal with. The education was all that could be desired, but he
thought the health of the children was endangered by their being
gathered in large numbers. He suggested whether it would not
be better that while the children were all taught together, they
should live in small numbers, under the care of a single matron.

Dr. Guy, F.R.S., said he became a school boy at Christ's
Hospital at a time when an important sanitary reform was made ;
prior to that time, ophthalmia and head-sores had been prevalent
amongst the boys, and many of them were supplied with caps of
a peculiar kind to prevent them coming into contact with their
neighbours. The boys had previously washed consecutively in the
same water; but by setting up long cisterns furnished with a
number of separate cocks, so that each boy washed in clean fresh
water, ophthalmia disappeared, and the cases of ringworm greatly
diminished. The death-rate among the 8oo boys was very small,
so that a death was a very striking and solemn event. Of course,
with proper care, the rate of mortality at the ages of those boys
should be very small indeed. On the subject of the poor-law
administration. Dr. Guy observed that in his opinion the Govern-
ment ought to follow the example recently set by the prison

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250 Discussion on Dr, MowxCs Fa^er, [Jane,

authorities, who had redaced the number of prisons from 120 or
1 30 to aboat one-half of that number, at a saving already of some
such sum as {o,cxx3/. a-year. There were 630 workhouses, which
might very well be consolidated, and the children removed entirely
from contact with the depraved adults, who form so large a section
of the workhouse community, and with the idiots and imbeciles. At
present the children were brought into contact only too often with
old offenders ; and if we must have a poor law, it ought certainly
to be reformed in this particular. This suggestion did not arise
exactly out of the admirable paper which had been read, but it was
germain to the subject. He knew but little of the workhouse
system, but a good deal of another system which was too nearly
allied to it — ^the prison system. The Home Office has set a good
example, let the Local Government Board follow it, and a lu*ger
economy must result from the change.

Dr. MouAT, in reply, said that notwithstanding his extinction by
his respected friend Mr. Chad wick, who had not waited to witness
his revival, he was well satisfied with the results of the discussion,
as it had not disturbed any of his conclusions. With reference to
mortality rates there were not sufficient data in existence to deter-
mine the question with scientific accuracy, and he had advisedly
spoken with reserve of the results of the education in the poor-law
schools, as less than 10 per cent, of the children brought up in
those schools had been traced in their after lives.

The question of the amalgamation of workhouses, and of the
formation of separate or district schools for the children still
retained in them, must await the probably no longer distant forma-
tion of county boards, as boards of guardians were not at present
disposed to unite for any purpose whatever, and none but central
authorities would take large and liberal views of such questions.

That the educational standards were not worked up to was
probable enough, but that in no way disturbed his contention as
to their unfitness, and the necessity of more physical and less
mental training.

When the changes he advocated were introduced, he had no
doubt that the success of the future would be even greater than
that of the past.

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1880.] 251

Vital Statistics of Cayalry Horses.

By Subgkon-General T. Graham Balfour, M.D., F.R.S., Kenn.
Corr. Etr, de VAcad, Boydle de Medicine de Belgique^ ^c,y 8fc.

[Read before the Statistical Society, 16th March, 1880.]
CONTENTS :

PAQB I PA6B

L— The French Army 251 | II.— The Brit^h Army 266

The vital statistics of horses do not appear to have been mnch
studied in this country, and the information on the subject is con-
sequently meagre. In France, on the contrary, they have been
carefully collected, and the results, as regards those of the army,
have for a series of years been published by the Government. I
propose to bring under the notice of the Society the leading facts
thus recorded, in the hope that the subject may meet with that
attention from our Gt)vemment which it undoubtedly deserves,
and thus lead to measures being taken to obtain trustworthy
information on so important a question. And first as regards —

I. — The French Army.
During the ten years preceding 1843 the heavy losses of horses
in the army by glanders had been repeatedly brought under the
consideration of the military authorities, and several Commissions
had been appointed to report upon various methods of treatment
which had been suggested, and professed specifics for the cure of
the disease, and to make such experiments as might be considered
desirable to throw light upon this important subject. The results
were not satisfe^tory; the vaunted remedies having been found
useless, and the disease, when fully developed, beyond the control
of medicine. An infirmary which had been established for the
purpose of making the necessary experiments, was in consequence
discontinued. But the labours of these Commissions had shown
that much valuable information might be obtained by a systematic
investigation . of the various conditions under which the horses
were placed, and much advantage gained by a judicious super-
vision of their management in health and treatment in sickness.
Accordingly, in 1843, the war minister established a permanent
Commission, under the titie of " Commission d' Hygiene Hippique,"
whose official duty was to be the examination of all questions
relating to the health and preservation of the horses of the army.
M. Magendie, the celebrated physiologist, who had conducted some

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252 Balfour — On Vital Statistics of Ca/vdlry Horses, [June,

of the previous investigations, was named president of the Com-
mission, and with him were associated as members two medical
men and two agricultural chemists — ^members of the Institute — an
assessor, skilled in administrative questions relative to the organisa-
tion of the cavalry and of the remount service of the army ; two
civil veterinary surgeons — members of the Royal Academy of
Medicine — and four military veterinary officers. An assistant
operative chemist was attached to the Ck>mmission to conduct such
analyses and experiments as might be required.

A form of annual report was established, to be furnished by
every army veterinary surgeon, and to include the following
subjects : —

1. A medico-topographical description of the garrison and
cantonments.

2. A description of the stables, their aspect, their internal
arrangements, the nature of the ground, their capacity*

3. The nature and quality of the forage, and nomenclature of
the plants which enter into the composition of the hay of the
natural meadows.

4« Qreen food ; number and ages of the horses which have
been put upon it.

5. Nature and chemical composition of the water in use for
watering the horses.

6. Statistics of the diseases observed from 1st January to
3l8t December.

7. Table of the losses by death during the year, subdivided
according to ages, the districts in which the horses have been
raised, and the fatal diseases ; numerical statement of the horses
cast as unfit for service, according to ages, districts, and causes of
casting.

8. Mode of treatment employed in each class of diseases;
opinion on the contagion or non-contagion of glanders, with facts
observed.

9. Statement of the general causes which have contributed to
the development of the diseases.

10. Hygienic measures adopted to preserve the health of the
horses ; measures suggested for adoption.

11. Sanitary condition of the horses of the corps.

12. Breed of the horses of the corps.

13. Mode of shoeing in use ; improvements suggested.

The war minister also authorised the publication of an annual
volume containing the results of the labours of the Commission.
This, however, was not commenced till 1847, when the first volume
appeared under the title of ** Becueil de M6moires et Observations
*'sur THygiene et la Medicine V^t^rinaires Militaires.*' The

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1880.] Balfoue— On Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses* 253

detailed tables showing the sickness, mortality, and casting, were
not inserted till the second volnme, when those for 1846 were given,
but, owing to some omissions, these were less perfect than those in
the subsequent volumes. There is, however, a complete series for
twenty years, 1847-66, from which the information to be brought
under the notice of the Society has been chiefly obtained. In the
third volume a table is given of the strength, deaths, and numbers
cast in each year from 1835 to 1846, but there is no information
respecting the causes of mortality and casting, or the ages at
which these occurred.

In 1852 a change was made in the composition of the Com-
mission, a more military character being given to it by the appoint-
ment of General Bougenel as president, and of a colonel and
lieutenant-colonel of cavalry as members ; M. Magendie being made
honoiary president. Some slight modifications were introduced
into the returns, but no alteration of importance was made. The
volumes continued to appear annually, till the twentieth, containing
the statistics of 1866, was published in 1869. During the siege of
Pans the documents for the subsequent year were lost or destroyed,
but a new series was begun in 1872, which is still in course of
publication.

The returns relating to the horses of the army in France and in
^gen'a respectively have been kept separate in these reports, and
it is the results ftrom the former alone which it is proposed to
bring under notice. No information has been published respecting
i^e losses in the campaigns of the Crimea and Italy which occurred
daring the twenty years included in the volumes of reports*

The mortality of the horses in the French army serving at
lome amounted, on the average of thirty years, 1837-66, to 58*15
^r 1,000 of the strength annually, ranging between 12550 in 1841,
tnd 25'94 in 1862. The proportion " cast '* during the same period
vas 8o'59 per 1,000, and ranged between 135*20 in 1849 and
f6*8o in 1855. The total loss of horses therefore by death and
casting was close upon 14 per cent. The details of the strength,
deaths, and number cast in each year, will be found in Table 1,
appended to this paper. On examining the table it will be found
that a marked increase in the rate of mortality almost invariably
occurs in connection with any considerable addition to the strength.
This is very manifest in the years 1841, 1848, 1854, 1855, 1856, and
1859. The year 1849 appears to be an exception to this rule, there
having been a large increase in the strength with a decrease in
the rate of mortality compared with the preceding year, but the
difference may probably have depended upon the very large number
of horses removed from the service by casting in that year. We
shall in a subsequent part of the paper refer to the causes of this

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254 Balfoue — On Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses. [Jane

bigliGfr rate of mortality. In comparing the proportion cast in
different years, it must be borne in mind that ** casting " does not
always arise from a great degree of inefficiency, but is liable to be
affected by such circnmstances as an increase or reduction in the
strength of the army ; the former causes all horses to be retained
which are in any degree fit for service, while the latter is taken
advantage of to get rid of any which are sickly, or which it is
desirable, for various causes, to remove from the army. This
remark of conrse does not apply to the mortality.

On subdividing the thirty years into quinquennial periods, the
following results are obtained : —

Period!.

Aggregate
Strength.

Died or
SUttghtered.

Cart.

Ratio per 1,000 of Stitngth.

Died.

Cat.

1837-41

201,843

257,219

286,304

312,213
291,825
251,163

23,238
20,722
15,427
17,843
10,444
6,917

»3,55i
18,381
26,828
23,662
25,260
21,273

115-37
80-56
53-87
55 55
85-79
27-54

6729
7i'46
9370

42-46

•47-61

'52-56

'57-61

86-5«
84-7*

•62-66

Total, 80 years....

1,600,567

93,076

"8»955

5815

80-8:

This table shows a remarkable and steady decrease in tlB
mortality in each quinquennial period, except that from 1852 b
1856 inclusive, the ratio, which was 115*37 per i,cxx) in the firrt
five years, having fallen to 27*50, or less' than one fourth, in tlo
last. The exception above noted was pr6bably due to two causes:
first, the large number of young horses -brought into the service b;
the augmentation which took place on the outbreak of the Crimeai
War ; and secondly, the number of horses which returned from it
some with constitutions impaired by the hardships they had under-
gone, and others labouring under disease contracted on service, tc
which they ultimately succumbed.

The great and progressive reduction in the mortality of the
horses was one of the important results of the labours of the
Commission of Hygiene. It was effected by the improvements
iutroduced, on their recommendation, into the general management
and sanitary conditions of the horses, especially those relating to
feeding, and to the ventilation of, and increased cubic space pro-
vided in, the stables, and by the greater care bestowed upon the
remounts. The importance of these results may to some extent be
estimated by the fact, that in the amount required for the purchase
of horses during the last five years, a saving of upwards of 90,000/.
per annum was effected, compared with what wmJd have been

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1880.] Balfour— On Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses.

255

required bad the ratio of deaths and casting been the same as
daring the first qninqaenninm.

It is a point of some interest to ascertain whether sex exerts
any influence npon the rate of mortality. The retnms do not
enable ns to show this prior to 1850, but during the seventeen
years 1850-66, the following results have been obtained : —

Table shovring the Strength, Deaths, arid Numbers Cast of Horses and
Mares respectively, from 1850 to 1866, grouped in Three Periods,

Hones.

Mares.

Ratio per i,ooo of Strength.

Strength.

Died.

Cut.

StreoKtli.

Died.

Cast.

Horses.

Hares.

Died.

Cast.

Died.

Cast.

1850-56
'57-61
'62-66

238,527
162,859
146,9*26

12,363
5,592
3,813

20,117
15,038
13,160

190,655
128,966
104,237

10,715
4,852
3,104

14,340

10,222
8,113

51-88
34-84
2595

84*34
92-34
89*57

56-20
37-62
29-78

75'2i
79*27
7783

Total....

548,312

21,768

48,315

423,858

18,67132,675

39-70

88-12

4405

77-09

There has been a remarkable uniformity in the three periods
into which the seventeen years are divided, the general result
being that the mortality of the mares has been about 4;^ per 1,000
higher than that of the horses, but the proportion of the latter cast
has been 11 per 1,000 above that of the mares — the total loss of
horses to the army being about 6| per 1 ,000 greater than of mares.

The influence of age on the mortality and casting is a subject
of great importance, and on it the information in the returns is
very complete. In the table appended. No. II, the strength, deaths,
and number cast at each age during the twenty years 1847-66, are
stated, and the following are the results per 1,000 of mean strength
in each quinquennium, and also for the whole period : —

Ages.

Deatlis per i,ooo of Mean Strength in

1847-51.

1852-56.

1857-61.

186266.

1847-66.

4 yean

63-00

57*73
59*88
58*56
56' 1 3
52*53
42-81

38-51
39*77
53*87

75-74
6262
60-71
55-42
56-15
46-90
43-22
41-30
41-98
50-50

5>*79
46-86
38-28
34*58
32*77
32-12
29*32

27*94
27-20

3693

43-93
36-12
2912
24-14
2400
22-90
22-33
2309
25-77
28-47

62*01

5 „

53*18
49-81
44-69
42-64
38-70
34* 14
32-39
33*41
40-63

7 „

8 „

9 „

10 „

12 „

13 upwards

Total

53*87

55 55

35*79

27-54

43*92

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256

Balioub — On VUai Statistics of Cavalry Horses. [Jane,

Aget.

Cast per i,ooo of If can Strength in

1847-61.

1852-56.

1857-61.

1862-66.

1847-66.

4 years

i6*i;2
24*90
48*20
63*93
71*45
80-70
178*18

6*41
1900
37-60
50-53
61-57
71-33
16209

11*45
32*00
49-69
64-44
74*50
84-09
157*47

8*94
10*72
22*59
36-68
49-84
6223
128-72

9*50
22*36
41-56

55*93
65*89

75*35
158*01

5 ..

6 ..

8 „

9 „

10 upwards

Total

93*70

7579

8656

84*70

8500

From this it appears that the highest mortality occurs among
horses of 4 years, and that the rate decreases till 11, when it reaches
the minimnm ; but the mortality at 4, 5, and 6, has been higher
in all four quinquennial periods than among horses of 13 and
upwards. The very high rates at 4 and 5, and, to some extent also,
the excess at 6 and 7, have been attributed to the circumstances
under which horses are bought into the service. Shortly before
the periods at which the purchases are usually made in the
different districts, the young horses undergo what is known as la
'prdparation a la vente. Fed up to that time principally on grass,
and not accustomed to a stably, they are then brought in by the
breeders, and shut up in their stables, which are usually small,
dark, crowded, and low, and they are never exercised. They
are covered with warm clothing, and abundantly nourished with
barley, beans, or cooked grains or roots, to fetten them and give
them a fine shining coat. They are consequently, when sold, very
susceptible of disease from exposure on the journey from the place
of purchase to the remoant dep6t, from the change of food, and
from the amount of work to which they are subjected in their
trainiug, preparatory to being handed over to corps. The effect of
this on the mortality at different ages may be estimated to some
extent by the numbers joining at each age. Of the horses pur-
chased for the remount dep6ts in the seventeen years 1849-65, the
ages were as follows : —

4 years 101,626 - 50*3 per cent.

6 „ 50,321 - 249 „

6 „ 26,146 - 12*5 „

7 „ 24,964-11*3 „

We shall advert to this subject again when considering the
rates of mortality in the different arms of the service.

The casting, as might have been expected, increases progres-
sively with the advance of age, the amount in the earlier years

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1880.] Balfour— 0» Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses,

257

being comparatively very low, as the prevailing diseases among
the yonng horses are chiefly of an acute character, and not very
often terminating in such disabilities as would render them non-
effective. ^

The diseases and injuries by which the mortality among the
horses have been occasioned have been grouped into thirteen classes.
In the following table the results are stated in four periods, with a
view to show in what groups the reduction in the deaths has been
chiefly effected. In consequence of some of the alterations in the
forms of returns which were made on the reorganisation of the
Commission in 1852, it has been found necessary to include six years
in the first, and four in the second period, the last two periods,
being still, as in the other tables, quinquennial : —

Table shomng the Mortality hy DiferetU Classes of Disease among the
Horses of the French Cavalry, serving in France, from 1847 to 1866,
arranged in Fottr Periods,

Period

1847-62.

1853-56.

1857-61.

1862-66.

Aggregate Strength

34i»329-

257,188.

291,825.

251,163.

Died.

Ratio
per

1,000.

Died.

Ratio
per

1,000.

Died.

Ratio

per

1,000.

Died.

Ratio
per
x,ooa

Wounds and injuries
^Fractures

285

835

7,926

504

•
•

4A77

•

528

•

•
3,913

0*69

0-98

23-12

1-48

I2M4

1*54
11*46

816

684

5,515

488
82
94

4,163

74
849
644

534

60
1,591

108

1-23

2-46
21*44
1*90
0-32
036

16*19

0*29
3*30
^•50
2-o8

0-23

6*19

0*42

329

817

3,202

378

2,321

44
878
808

460

58
948

i*>3

2*80
10*97

1*29

0*27

0*22

7*95

o'lS
301

i-75
1-58

0*20
3-25

0*22

235

689

1,863

190

1,565

84
743
532

356

85
592

0*93
274
7-42
0*76
0*19

O'lO

Glanders

Farcy

Sorethroat

Sronchitis

Inflammation ofl

lungs and pleura J

Strangles „.

6-23

0*13
296

2*12
1*42
0-14

a-36

0*04

Diseases of bowels....

Typhoid diseases ....

Diseases of nerrous \
system j

Diseases of foot

Other diseases

Diseases of an epi- ]
or enzootic cha- V
racter J

Total

17,618

51*61

15,152

58*91

10,444

35*79

6,917

«7-54

* Included under *' other diseases.'

This table shows that in all the four periods glanders has been
the cause of the greatest mortality, and that in it also the most
marked reduction has taken place, amounting to 15*8 per 1,000
annually in the fourth as compared with the first period. It may

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258 Balfour — On Vital StatUHcs of Oa/valry Horses, [Jane,

be necessaiy here to note that glanders is considered to be so
incurable, that with a view to prevent its spread by contagion,
a horse is slaughtered as soon as the existence of the disease is
fuUy recognised. A ministerial circulft of 18th December, 1846,
ordered that all glandered or suspected horses were to be
slaughtered unless cured at the end of six weeks. In 1847 instrac-
tions were issued that all horses with suspicious discharges should
' be examined by a special board ; if the board were satisfied that
the disease was glanders, it was to recommend the immediate
slaughter of the horse ; if not satisfied, it was to visit the horse
frequently till the nature of the disease was ascertained. Next to
glanders in importance, as a cause of death, is inflammation of the
lungs and pleura, and in this class also there has been a very
notable decrease. The deaths recorded under the very vague
heading of other diseases, has also undergone a very satisfactory
diminution. But it may be remarked that the ratio has been lower
in the last than in all the preceding periods by all the groups
except wounds and injuries, and fractures. It would appear there-
fore that the measures adopted by the Commission to improve the
general health of the horses have been attended with success in all
classes of diseases.

The influence of age upon the mortality by the different classes
of diseases is a subject of much interest and importance. The
returns show this only a» regards four, but these the most
important, of the groups. The results for the twenty years are
shown in the following table : —

Table showing the Inflxtence of Age on the Mortality by certain Diseases on the
Average of Twenty Years, 1847-66.

Aggregate
Strength.

))eathtb7

Ratio per 1,000 of Strength Died by

Age.

Glundera.

Farcy.

Lang
Inflaro.
mation.

Typhoid
DiwMsei.

Qlauden.

Farcy.

Inflmn-

Typhoid
DiseaM.

4 yeora

96,o8z
I3i,i8i
143,763
I39»6i6
120,449
110,694

97.579
85,176

73,569
143,296

979
2,065
2,897
2,686
2,823
1,846
1,456
1,165

996
2,114

lOl

177
»53
»50
171
165
122
82
71
168

2,729

2,842

1,698

1,343

963

798

576

469

892

926

689
613
381
^56
H9
136

73
62

55
9a

1019

15-65

2015

19-23

19-29

1668

14-92

18-56

18-54 .

14-75

1*05
^35
1*76
1-79
1-42
1-49

0-96
0-96
1-17

28-40
17-84
11-81
9-62
7-99
7-21
5-90
5-89

7-17
463
2-66

7 „

1-83
113
1-^3
0-75

0*7l

10 ,

11 „

12 „

5-83 1 07 «;
6-46 1 0-64

13 and upwards ....

Total

1,141,505

18,506

1,560

12,226

2,507

1621

1-34

10-71

2-ao

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1880.] Balfour — On Vital Statistics of Oa/vdlry Borses.

259

It appears from this that the youngest horses are comparatively
free from glanders. The highest rate of mortality by this disease
occurs among those of 6 years, and there is afterwards a progres-
sive diminution till 13 years. Farcy does not appear to be afEected
by age. By inflammation of the lungs and pleura the young
horses suffer very severely, a result probably in a great degree due
to the manner in which, as already pointed out, they are got up
for sale by the breeders. At the age of 4, the age at which 50 per
cent, of the horses is purchased, the mortality by these diseases
amounts to nearly 3 per cent, annually. It decreases rapidly, and
ultimately fells to a little over \ per cent, at 11 and 12. The
mortality by typhoid diseases is also very high among the young
horses, and likewise diminishes rapidly with the advance of age :
in this respect resembling typhoid fever in the soldiers, among
whom it is essentially, but not exclusively, a disease of the young.

The disabilities which have given rise to the casting of the
horses during the twenty years are shown in quinquennial periods
in the following table : —

Table showing the Causes for which Horses in the Freruih Cavalry were
" CorSt " from 1847 to 1866 indusivSy arranged in Four Periods.

Period

1847-51.

1852-56.

1857-61

1862-66

'^ggrag&te strength

286,304

3I2.2I3

291,825

251,163

Nnmber
Cwt.

Ratio
per

1,000.

Number
Cast

Ratio

per

1,000.

Number
Caat

Ratio
per
1,000.

Number
Cast.

Ratio

per

1,000.

WoondB and injuries
Bad constitution ....
Keetiveness

867

4,022

666

611

5,353
7,904
3,467
1,170
3,268

2-33
2-13

1870
27*61

IZ'II

4-08
11-41

259

2,445

335

578

4,623
7,436
2,816
1,595
3,575

0-83
7-83
ro7
1-85

14-81
23*82

9'02

5"
ii'45

387
2,840

538
•410
tl82
3,239
8,452
3,226
1,373
4,613

1*33
9*73
.•84

}ro3

ii'io

28-96

11-06
4*70
15-81

197

1,174

269

1 313
2,314
8,750
2,896
1,525
3,835

0-79
4-67
1-07

Crib-biting

Blindness

9-21

Old age

Legs worn out

Incurable lameness....
Broken wind

34-84

11-53

6 07

Other causes

15*^7

Total

26,828

93*70

23,662

75-79

25,260

86-56

21,273

84-70

• Four years only, 1867-60.

t One year only, 1861.

The principal cause of casting has been the condition of the
legs, one-third of the whole having, on the average of the twenty
years, taken place on that account, and it appears to have increased
latterly, the proportion in the last having been higher than in any
of the preceding periods of five years. It may probably be fairly

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260

BALForB — On Vital StatUties of Cavalry Horses. [Jane

inferred from this, that, owing perhaps to changes in the drill and
duties of the cavalry, there is now more wear and tear of the
horses than in the earlier period. The marked redaction in the
proportion cast for '^ bad consb'tntion *' may be taken as additional
evidence of the value of the work done by the Commission, in the
careful supervision of the remounts. The other causes of casting
do not seem to have undergone any marked change.

Before submitting the figures showing the rates of mortality
and casting in the different arms of the service, a few preliminary
observations may be necessary. In 1849 a corps of guides was
raised, chiefly as a body guard for the President of the Republic.
In 1854, after the proclamation of the Empire, it was formed into
the imperial guard, and was subdivided into different arms, in the
same manner as the troops of the line. Owing to the comparatively
small numbers composing it, I have not thought it necessary to
work out the results by arms of the service, but have kept the
mortality and casting for the whole GUiard, including the period
they were the corps of guides, separate from those of the Line.

The cavalry of the French army is subdivided as follows :
cavalry of reserve, comprising carabiniers and cuirassiers; cavalry of
line — dragoons, and lancers ; light cavalry — chasseurs, and hussars.
The artillery, engineers, and transport corps also require a certain
proportion of horses, but the greater number of these are for
draught, not saddle ; estimated by the purchases for these corps,
the proportion of the latter amounts to one-sixth. The horses for
all mounted troops are purchased for them, and sent to the different
corps from the remount dep6t8. The regulations in force during
the twenty years under review, as regards height and price of
horses, were as follows : —

Cayaby of reserre

„ line

Light cavalry

ArtiUery, engineers, and trans- J saddle ...

port corps \ draught

Officers' horses

But higher prices were allowed for the horses of the imperial
guard. At first i,ooo frs. were given for all the horses, but in 1857
the prices were fixed at 1,200 for officers, 850 for reserve, 750
for line, light cavalry, and artillery saddle horses, and 650 for all
draught horses.

The mortality and casting in the different arms are shown in
the following table :—

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1880.] Balfour — On Vital Statistics of Cmalry Sorses.

261

Table showing the Losses by Death arid CastiTig in each Arm of the Service
in the French Army Serving at Borne, for Twenty Years, 1847-66
incltisive.

Period, 1847-M.

Aggregate
Strength.

Died.

Cut.

Ratio per 1,000 of
Strength.

Died.

Cart.

80,727

157,207
257,495
267,357

257,448
55,582

19,709
45,980

2,580

6,518
11,476
10,541

10,482

4,091

620

8,878

7,131

15,529
24,685
25»H5
16,501

4,890
1

r3,i42

3203

41-43
44-57
39-48

40-52

73-60

r 31-46
184-34

88-33

98-78
95-87
94-10

50-91

87-99

} 47-83

Troops of the Line--
Cavalry of r^erye

Cavahy of line

XiiffHt cavalry

Artillery and train ofl
artillery J

Engineers, and transport 1
corps J

Military schools

Remount depots

1,141,505

50,131

97,023

43-91

85-00

Omitting the military schools, which are in many respects
exceptional and cannot fairly be brought into the comparison, the
mortality has been lower in the imperial guard than in any other
branch of the service. But to form a fair comparison with the
troops of the line, it is necessary to confine it to the same period,
and to exclude the remount dep6ts, which belong alike to both.
Taking the last ten years, 1857-66, as the basis of comparison, the
mortality in the imperial guard averaged 23*32, while that in the
ti'oops of the line was 31*13 per 1,000 of mean strength. It may be
questioned how far this lower rate of mortality is due to the nature
of the duties of the imperial guard, and whether it may not, to a
great extent at least, be a consequence of the better bred horses
obtained for it by the higher prices allowed. This view seems to
be supported by the lower rate of mortality among the officers' than
among the troop horses. Both are included in the general return,
but a separate table of the mortality among the officers* horses, the
property of the State, enables us to make the comparison for a
period of eighteen years, 1849-66: —

Officer^ Horses, the Property of the State.

Period.

strength.

Cases.

Deaths.

Ratio per 1,000 of Strength.

Cases.

Deaths.

1849-51

'52-56

*57-61.

'62-66

9,800
22,299

27,407
22,260

5,632
11,999
13,426

8,926

409

1,061

922

451

574-7
5381
489-8
401-1

41-73
47-58
33-64
20*26

18 yeais ....

81,767

39,982

2,843

4960

35'20

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262 Balfour — On Vital StaiigHcs of Cavalry Harsei, [June,

During that time the deaths among the officers' horses were*in
the proportion of 35*20, while among the troop horses they
amounted to 43*1 1 per 1,000 of the strength. On the average of the
ten years 1857-66 the rate among the former was 27*64 per 1,000,
thus holding an intermediate place between that of the guard and
troops of the line for the same period.

The mortality of the horses of the engineers and transport
corps is very much higher than in any of the other arms. They
are all draught horses, and low priced, which may to some extent
account for the difference; but it must also in a considerable degree
be due to the constant labour, the amount exacted from them in
transport work, and the necessary exposure in all sorts of weather.
The very high rate of mortality at the remount depots may be
explained by the fact that the average strength is not that of a
number of horses constantly at the dep6ts throughout the year, but
of a large number passing through and remaining at them for
limited periods only. But these are the very periods during which
* diseases arising from exposure on removal from the hot stables of
the breeders, or contracted en route to the depots, or resulting from
change of diet, and from the work in training, would manifest
themselves. That these circumstances exert a great influence, may
be deduced from the fact that inflammation of the lungs and pleura
is the cause of 45 per cent, of the deaths at the remount depdts,
while it amounts to only 23 per cent, of the total, exclusive of them.
Typhoid diseases also cause a mortality of 7*96 per 1,000 of strength
at them against 1*95 in the rest of the service.

The proportion of horses cast has been lower in the imperial
guard than in the cavalry of the line, but it has been much lower
in the artillery than in any of the other arms; the ratio in the
engineer and transport corps has been almost identical with that in
the guard. As already pointed out, the casting does not depend
entirely on the horses being unfit for service, but is considerably
affected by any augmentation or redaction of the force ; it is there-
fore extremely difficult to account for the difference in the various
arms, and especially the apparent exemption of the artillery.

Our observations have hitherto been confined to the mortality
and casting of the horses ; but the returns also show the admissions
into infirmaries by the different groups of diseases. There is, how-
ever a circumstance connected with them which requires to be noted.
At various times there have been a number of mules employed in
the artillery and transport corps, and the cases occurring among
them cannot be separated from those of the horses, as has been
done with regard to the deaths and casting. In the following
table, therefore, it has been necessary to add the strength of the
mules, amounting to 9,985, to the aggregate strength of the horses.

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1880.] Balfoub — On Vital Statistics of Ca/odlry Hot-ses.

263

The nnmber is so small, amonnting only to 9 in 1,000 of the whole
force, that it can only in a veiy slight degree affect the results.*

Table showing the Admissions into the Infirmaries by Various Classes
of Diseases, from 1847 to 1866 inclusive, arranged in Four Periods,

Aggregate!
strength of >
horses & mules J

Admitted

into
Infirmary.

andl

Wounds

injuries

Fractures

Glanders

Farcy

Sore throat

Bronchitis

Inflammation of

lungs and

pleura

Strangles

Diseases of bowels
Typhoid diseases
Diseases of ner-\

Tous system.... J
Diseases of feet ....
Other diseases ....
Epi- or enzootic 1

diseases J

Total

1847-52.

34^3*9

80,749

8d0
9,525
3,425

35,737

5,524

100,768

186,118

Ratio per
1,000 of
Strength.

90*1

27-9
lO'O

104-7

i6-2

a95*2

545*3

1853-56.

261,225

Admitted

into
Infirmary.

84,233

768

6,544

2,087

5,412

12,432

28,904

17,674
8,874
4,103

1,147

5,260
23,445

2,997

153,875

Ratio
per

Admitted

into
Infirmary.

ili'O
2-9

25*1
80

20'7

47-6

iio*6

67-6
34*0
157

4*4

20*I
897

"•5

588-9

1857-61.

294,842

42,180

901

4,790

1,502

6,201

11,040

13,502

16,853

11,565

5,433

952

8,291
28,807

315

152,332

Ratio

per

1,000.

Admitted

into
Infirmary.

1431

3*0

i6-3

5'i

21*0

37*5

45-8

57-2
39'^
i8'4

3*2

28-1

977

I'l

5167

1862-66.

^54.094

83,261

800
2,541

603
4,908
9,677

9,128

13,556

10,541

8,558

808

6,862
29,238

125,548

Ratio

per

r,ooa

130*9
3*1

lO-Q
2*4

19*3
38-1

3*59

53*3
41*5
14*0

3*2

27*0

115*1

0-3

494*1

There was a slight increase in the proportion of admissions in

* The following shows the strength of mules and the numbers that died and
were cast from 1854 to 1866 inclnsiye. The returns do not show any to have
been empbyed between 1846 and 1854 : —

Table showing the Strength, Deaths, and Numbers Cast of Mules in the
French Ca/oalry from 1854 to 1866.

strength.

Died.

Cast.

Ratio per i,ooo.

Died.

Cast.

1854-60t

5.883

4»I02

851
183

610

560

59-66
32-42

103-69
136,52

'61-66

Total

9,985

484

1,170

48-47

117*18

t There were no mules employed in 1858.

TOL. XLIII. PAET II.

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264

Balfour — Ou Ft/ol Staiisties of Cavalry Horses, [Jane,

the second period compared with the first, bat a very marked and
progressiye redaction in the last two periods. The decrease is
most marked in glanders and farcj, and in inflammation of the
langs and pleara. In woonds and injaries there has been an
increase compared with the first six years, bat this maj perhaps, to
some extent, have been a resalt of the change in the groaping of
ihe diseases, a very large nnmber of cases in the first period being
classed ander the heading of other diseases; the admissions by
this groap in the second and fonrth periods were identical. Daring
the last five years the admissions from all caases have been eqoal
to about half the strength annaally ; above one-foarth of them
having been from wonnds and injaries, aboat the same proportion
from diseases of the respiratory system, and rather less than a
fonrth by nnclassed diseases.

The deaths of horses and males affected with glanders amoonted
in the twenty years included in the table to 10,773, °r 79*9 P®^
1,000 of the cases, leaving 20*1 per 1,000 as the proportion cured,
or in which the diagnosis was incorrect, for in the admissions are
included all saspected cases. It is stated in the reports of the
Commission, that many of the cases discharged as cured were re-
admitted with the disease, and ultimately slaughtered, and a very
strong opinion is repeatedly expressed that the disease is really
incurable, and that immediate slaughtering of infected animals is
absolutely necessary to stamp it out, or even to keep it within
bounds.

If a comparison of the deaths with the admissions into the
infirmaries by the various g^ups of diseases be made for the
fourteen years 1853-66, the proportion of deaths to cases will be
found to be as follows : —

Horset tnd Mules.

Classes of Diseases.

Hones and Moles.

ClaiMsof
Diseatet, 8u:.

CaMf.

DeaOis.

Deaths

in
1,000
Gates.

Cases.

Deaths.

Deaths

in
1,000
Uwca.

Wounds, &c

109,674
2464

13.875
4.i9»

16,521

33»i49
51.534

880

2,140

10,773

1,078

209

183

8,108

8-0
868-5
776-4

257*2

ia-6

5*5
157-3

Strangles '.

48,083

30,980

» 3.094

2,902

20,413

81,485

3,389

152

2,472

1,979

1,350

158

3,338

181

3**

85-5

Fractures

Glanders

Diseases of!

bowels J

Typhoid

>5i-5

Farcv

Diseasesofner- 1
Tous system J
Diseases of feet
Other diseases ....
£pi- or enzootic

Sore throat

Bronchitis

Inflammation 1
oflungB,&c. j

465**

7-5
410

33-4

From this it would appear that it has been found necessary to

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1880,] Balfour — On Vital Staiistica of Cavalry Horses,

2G5

slanghter a very high proportion of the cases of fracture. Omitting
these and glanders, already noticed, the highest ratio of deaths to
cases has been furnished by diseases of the nervous .system. In
ioflammation of the Inngs and plenra, and in typhoid, the deaths
have been upwards of i in 7 cases.

The influence of the seasons on the prevalence of the various
groups of diseases, is shown in the following table of the quarterly
admissions into the infirmaries in the years 1853-66 inclusive.

Aggregtte Strength
of

Ratio of Adroisiiont
per 10,000 of Strength in

810,161.

First
Quarter.

Second
Quarter.

Third
Qoarter.

Fourth
Quarter.

First
Quarter.

Second
Quarter.

Third
Quarter.

Fourth
Quarter.

Woundfl and 1

injuriee J

Fractures

22,274

554
8,567
1,027
4,594
8,343

12,056

12,926
6,876
2,546

681

4,806
18,227

595

28,846

720
8,779
1,055
5,307
9,994

14,406

18,040
8,022
8,813

875

6,125
21,670

645

83,872

689
8,591
1,084
3,645
8,839

13,423

10,838
8,618
3,782

864

6,485
21,924

915

26,182

601
2,938
1,026
2,975
6,478

11,649

6,284
7,464
2,953

582

4,997
19,664

1,284

280-4

44*9

57-8
105*0

151-8

i6z-7
86-6
3i-o

7*9

60-5

229-4

7*5

360*0

47*2

>3'i

66-2

124-7

179*8

225-1
100- 1
47-6

10-9

^3'9
270-4

8-0

411-9

8*5

44*3

I3'4

45-0

102-9

165-7

I33'7
106-4

467

10-7

67-7
2706

"•3

310*8
6-2

Glanders

36*3
12-7
367
79'9

143*8

Farcy

Sore throat

Bronchitis

Inflammation of)
lungs and >
pleura

Strangles

77*6

Diseases of bowels
Tjphoid diseases
Diseases of ner- 1
TOUS sjstem j
Diseases of feet ....

Other diseases

Epi- or enzootic 1

92-1

364

6-6

61*7
242*7

»5*a

Tot»l

99,022

122,297

116,564

93,872

1246-4

1526-1

1438-8

1158-7

Note. — In the calculations, the necessarj correction has heen made to equalise
the number of dajs in each quarter.

The second quarter, April — June, has furnished the largest
number of admissions, and the last quarter, October — December,
the smallest. The excess in the second quarter has been chiefly
due to diseases of the respiratory organs. In the third quarter
there has been a considerable increase in the cases of wounds and
injuries, including sore backs, a result of the autumn manoeuvres.

The average number of horses constantly non-efEective from
injuries and disease is a point of great importance, on which unfor-
tunately the returns do not afford information. The nearest
approximation to it which they furnish is the numbers in the
infirmaries on the 31st December in each year, which have been as
follows : —

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266

Balfour — On Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses. [June,

Table showing the Nwmher of Horses and MtUes in the Infirmaries on the
3lst December in each Tear from 1847 to 1866 inclusive.

Year.

Namber

luffrmary

on Slst

Decemlier.

Year.

Number

in
InfirmRTY

on Slst
December.

Year.

Number

Inflrmaiy

on Slst

December.

Year.

Number

in
Infirmarr

on Slst
December.

1847

1,375
3.?93
1,257
1,850
1,59a

1852....
'68....
'64....
'65...
'66...

1,734
1,478
1,931
3,541
i,9H

1857....
'58....
'69....
'60....
'61....

1,318

1,314
2,116

1,471
1,404

1862....
'63...
'64....
'65....
'66....

I,2<2

'48

798

441

1,139

1,457

»40

'60

'61

In periods of 1
fire years J

10,367

—

11,608

—

7,623

—

5,187

Ayerage per"!
i,ooo of >
strength.... J

3^'io

—

37-18

—

26"12

—

20*65

The results show a decrease in the proportion -non-effective
from 36*20 in the first to 20*65 P®^ 1,000 in the last five years.
But the numbers must be considered aa a mere approximation, and
probably a good deal under the average for the whole year, as they
are taken at the end of that quarter in which, as already shown,
the admissions are lowest.

II. — British Army.

The information respecting the horses of the army serving in
the United Kingdom is unfortunately very meagre. It is chiefly to
be found in the ** General Annual Return of the British Army,'*
prepared by the adjutant-general, and presented to parliament.
This return shows the strength, deaths, and numbers cast in each
year from 1861 to 1878 inclusive, but gives no information respect-
ing the causes by which the mortality and casting have been
occasioned, nor the ages at which they occurred.

The aggregate strength for the eighteen years 1861-78
amounted to 246,856, the deaths to 5,202, and the numbers cast to
24,014, being in the proportion of 21*07 ^^^ 97*79 P®r 1,000 of the
strength annually. If the period be subdivided it will be found
that there has been a slight increase in the mortality, but a very
marked decrease in the casting during the last eight compared
with the preceding ten years : —

Aggregate
Strength.

Died.

Cast.

Ratio per 1,000 of Strength.

Died.

Cast.

1861-70

119,324
117,531

2,647
2,655

14,210
9,804

20-47
21-74

109*88
77-16

'71-78

Total 18 years....

246,856

5,202

14,014

2107

97*79

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1880.] Balfour— On Vital Statistics of Cavalry Hones. 267

The mortalitj ranged between 16*87 per 1,000 in 1864, and 28*15
in 1871, and the casting between 75*71 in 1871, and 156*12 in 1878.
It wiU be observed that the year in which the mortality was highest
was that in which the casting was lowest. Unfortunately we
have no means of tracing the diseases in which these differences
occurred, nor of ascertaining the influence of age on the death-rate.

If the results for 1861-70 be compared with those of the French
army for 1862-66, it will be found that in the British army the
rate of mortality has been one-fourth lower, but the casting about
one-fourth higher than in the French army.

From 1872 the returns give the numbers separately for the
different arms of the service, of which the following table shows
the results : —

1872-78.

Aggregate
Strength.

Died.

Cut

Batio per i,ooo of
Strength.

Died.

Cut

HniuAl)o1<l cavalry ,

5,885
47,307
13,025
27,906

2,921

7,558

90
1,073

\ 810

169

492
3,645
3,006

191
1,489

15-29
22 68

1979

20-20

21-04

83-60
77-05

CaTaby of line

Royal [lorae artillerj

Bojal artilleiy „

Boval engineen

73*44

65*39

19701

MiUtaiy train, and armyl
Berrice corps ,.../

Total 7 yean

104,602

3,191

8,823

20-95

84-35

It will be seen that the highest rate of mortality has occurred in
the cavalry of the line, and the lowest among the horses of the
royal engineers ; but the numbers are much too small to justify any
positive conclusions on the subject. The household cavalry had
the highest proportion of horses cast, and the royal engineers the
lowest.

In 1838, Assistant-surgeon H. Marshall, of the 7th Dragoon
Guards, published* a report on the vital statistics of the horses of
that regiment for the eight years 1830-37. The aggregate strength
for that period was 2,016 ; the deaths were 58, and the numbers
cast 168, being in the ratio of 2877 and 83*22 per 1,000 of
strength. These ratios correspond very closely with those of the
French army for the quinquennial period 1862-66. Of the deaths, 23
were caused by lung disease, 6 by glanders, 3 by farcy, 6 by diseases
of the nervous system, and 12 were shot on account of fractures.
Of the horses cast, 67, or upwards of one-half, were for lameness,
33 as worn out, 22 for blindness, 20 as broken- winded, 14 for

• « Edinlmrgh Medical and Surgical Joomal," voL xliz, p. 467.

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268 Balfoub — On Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses. [June,

unhealthy constitution, 8 for vice, and 3 for slowness of pace. The
numbers are much too small to admit of any conclusions being
drawn from them, but they are brought to notice as being, so far
as I am aware, the only information of the kind which has been
published respecting the causes of mortality and casting in the
British army ; and it will be seen that the paper waa published at a
date considerably anterior to the establishment of the statistical
returns of the French army.

The French statistics afford another striking instance of the
value of the numerical method in the investigation of questions
relating to health. The system first adopted by the B^tish
Government in 1836, in the inquiries then instituted into the
sanitary condition of the troops, was followed by the French
military authorities, in 1843, as already stated, with regard to the
horses of the army, and with equally striking results. We are
not aware whether any similar investigation has ever been made in
our army into the condition of the horses, the losses experienced
by death and casting, and their causes, but if it has, the results
have never been published. That such an inquiry should be
undertaken is very desirable in the interests alike of science and
economy. It is not to be expected that as great and important a
reduction can be effected in our army as has been done in the
French, because already the proportion of deaths and casting is
comparatively low, but it is very probable that some improvements
might be introduced and consequent saving made, and that the
experience of the army might be turned to useful account in civil
life. A careful inquiry of this nature is rendered more necessary
at present in consequence of the recent step taken by Government
of purchasing Hungarian horses for the cavalry, for it is only by
means of statistical returns that the practical value of this can be
ascertained. An accurate comparison of the sickness, mortality,
casting, and proportion constantly non-effective of the British and
foreign horses respectively, at the same ages, can alone settle this
question.

The marked reduction in the loss by glanders in the French
army since the rule was enforced of killing all infected horses as
soon as the nature of the disease has been ascertained, gives
valuable support to the practice established of late years in this
country with reference to the immediate destruction of glandered
horses. The diminution in the mortality by inflammation of the
lungs and pleura, also furnishes important evidence of the advan-
tages to be derived from sanitary improvements in the management
of horses. There are still some important points on which further
information is required — such, for instance, as the proportion
constantly non-effective from injuries and disease — which could be

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1880.] Balfour — On Vital StaHsHcs of Cavalry Horses.

269

-well and easilj cleared np by a sjBtem of returns to be periodically
famished by the veterinary surgeons of the army. We trust that
the Secretary of State for War will cause some such measures to
be introduced, and we have no doubt that under such a system, the
veterinary department will soon add very materially to the existing
information, and will establish for itself a reputation as a corps of
scientific observers.

APPENDIX.

Table T. — Skotcing the Strength of Cavalry Horses in the French Army
Serving at Home, the Number of Deaths, a/nd the Number Cast, in each
Year from 1837 to 1866 inclusive.

Yew.

Strength.

Died.

Cast.

Ratio per 1,000 of Strength.

DJed.

Cart.

1887

34*987
36,370
35»045
61,563
60,637
53»70i
i;o,8c9
47,488
44*584
44,883
57,146
67,306
60,726
56,243
55iOi5
54,974
62,871
68,073
71,270

55,944
50.959
62,603
63,160

59,159
53,076
50,596
48.414
50,619
48,458

8,282
8,569
8,799
8,897
7,726
6,521
8,967
8,618
8,613
8,018
2,413
8,592
8,687
8,217
2,518
2,191
2,527
8,831
4,186
4,669
2,074
1,464
8,374
1,875
1,667
1,877
1,488
1,877
1,494
1,231

2,3*1

2,588

2,579
3,030

3,033
4,588
3,411
3,681
3,281
3,420
3,539
3,393
9,100
7,028
3,768
4,552
5,7 » I
3,618
3,186

6,595
5,300
3,288
4,698
7,056
4,918
4,666
3,807
3, "4
5,073
4»6i3

95-40
10201
104-45
111-20
125-50
107-56
73-67
7111
76-08
67-69
68-76
62-86
54-78
52-97
44-77
89-82
45-97
60-98
60-74
65-37
8707
28-73
53-89
29-69
28-01
25-94
28-42
28-44
29-51
28-50

68*51

73*97
70-91
86-46
49*27
75*66
63*5*
72*45
69-09

76-71

78-85

59*37

135*20

115*73
66-99

82-73
103-88

57*55
46-80

92*53
94*74
64*52
75*04
111-72

83*13
87*9«
75*24
64*32
100-22

'88

'89

'40

'41

'42

'48

'44

'46

'47

»48

'49

'50

'61

'52

'68

'54

'56

•66

'67

'68

'69

'60

'61

'62

•68

'64

'66

95*20

Total for 80 years..

1,600,567

98,076

"8,955

6815

80-57

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270 Balfoub — Oi^ VUal Staiiities of Cavalry Horses. [June,

Tablb n. — Showing the Strength of Horees in the French Army Serving %n FraneCy the

AgeB

Four.

Fiye.

Six.

Seren.

Eigbt.

Tear.

dtrengtl Died. Cast.

1847..
'48..
'49..

I860..
'51...
'52..
'68..
'64..
'65..
'66..
'67..
'68..
'69..

I860..
'61..
'62..
'68..
'64..
'65..
'66..

5»547
4,876

4,069
4*131

4*367
5*565
10,337
8,014
7,286
4,698
3,673
5»9*o

3,650
3,*78
1,651
3,>03
3,017
3,609

3,851

282
346
266

297
273
292
478
953
687
434
238
118
441

141
161
79
109
164
192
179

Strength Died. Gait.

127
75
61

68
50
33
35
80

37
43
54
18
88

38
16

8,812
8,491

6,531
5,398
5,396
5,717
9,750
13,338
9,268
6,641
4,961
8,797

7,125
4,379
4,367
3,710

4,094
4,316
4,972

260
673
414

368
294
217
308
784
924
539
246
178
661

229
183
146
143
175
144
167

Streoftli DM. Cast.

123
338

175
107
132
i»3
>39
247
>95
226

123
318

298
56
65
44
48
30
43

4,644
8,668

12,474

8,497
5,796
5,721
5,811
8,052
11,280
113,150
7,678
5,960
9,«25

826
596
767

481
281
258
271
452
783
908
264
178
689

8,930 313

6,685 : 187

4,541
4,226

3,889
4,101

4,547

114
144
126
129
107

StreDgtli Died. Cast. Strength Died.

141
174
948

484
185
214
235
188
289
729
405
225
359

647
271
129
99
75
88
90

4,071
6,506
9.438

9,729
6,985
5,373
5.105
7,006

8,509
11,252

0,317
6,544
8,476

8,725
8,133
6,042

4,687
4.193
4,365
4,175

239
422
576

565
349
229
281
864
499
761
879
177
464

251
198
148
104
112
114
88

193
202

839

817
297
296

325
237
274
750
757
291
45 1

725
495
290

183
107

135
145

3,433
4,688
7,032

7,377
8,290

5,999
4.827
5,225
5,730
7,471
7,772
8,285
6,902

7,349
7,196

6,317
5,231
3,496
3,94«
3,907

189
315

404

450
372
221
227
253
384
543
284
269
317

190
169
157
128

82
104

179
189
631

757
446
337
327
255
225

657
680

451
534

683
446
434
293
109
181
123

* The oast in this ocdiimn indade

Table III. — Showing the Strength, the Deaths, and the NwmJber Cast, of Horses in the
French Army in each Quinquennial Period from 1847 to 1866, and at each Age,

Period

1847-61.

1852-66.

1867-61.

1862-66.

AgCi.

Strength.

Died.

Cut

Strength.

Died.

Cast.

Strength.

Died.

Cast.

Strength.

Died.

Cast.

Yew
4....

33,064

1,453

381

35,5^9

2,694

228

21,219

1,099

243

16,230

718

6....

34,451

1,989

858

43,469

3,722

826

31,903

1,495

1,021

21.458

776

230

6....

40,079

2,400

1,932

44*014

2,672

1,655

38,378

1,469

1,907

21,292

620

481

7....

36.729

2,151

2,348

37.245

2,064

1,882

42,195

1,469

2,719

23,447

666

860

8....

30,820

1,730

2,202

29,252

1,628

1,801

37,504

1,229

2,794

22,873

649

1,140

9....

25,452

1,387

2,054

28,783

1,850

2,053

32.965

1,059

2,772

23,494

688

i^6z

10....

21,676

928

17,053

24.569

1,062

15*217

27,866

817

13,804

23,468

624

17,039

11....

19,447

749

21,333

881

21,399

698

22,997

681

— ^

12....
18 &

up-

17,778

707

—

17,961

764

—

15,51^

422

—

22,314

675

—

136,808

1,983

—

30,018

1^16

—

22,880

797

53,590

1,626

—

wards

TotL

286,304

16,427

26,828

312,213

17,848

23,662

291,825

10,444

25,260

251,163

6,917

21,273

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1880.] Balfode— Oji Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses. 271

Deaths, and the Numbers Cast in each Year from 1847 to 1866 vncHusive, arranged by Age,

Kino.

Ten.

Eleyen.

Twelve.

18 and npwda.

TotaL

Strength

Died.

Cast.

Strength

Died.

Cart.*

Strength

Died

Strength

Died.

Strength

Died.

Strength.

Died.

Cast

2,935

150

207

3,462

156

2,577

4.263

198

4.475

226

7,940

397

44.883

2,413

3,539

3,950

220

165

3.350

148

2,465

3,622

163

4,166

195

7,837

520

57,146

3,592

3,393

5^597

371

633

4.580

203

5,650

3,630

110

3,418

119

7,770

468

67,306

3,687

9,100

5,988

290

619

4*946

222

4.108

3,766

148

2,704

7,119

374

60,726

3,217

7,028

6,982

306

430

5.338

204

2,254

4,166

130

3.015

6,142

224

56,243

2,518

3.768

8,069

298

528

3.917

199

3,012

4.382

174

3.635

128

6,166

175

55.025

2,191

4.552

5.77i

206

488

6,640

262

4,188

5.484

197

4.096

185

5.957

212

54.974

2,527

5,711

4»55*

222

251

4,102

183

2,468

4,683

212

3.774

170

5,390

298

62,871

3,831

3,618

4,608

242

226

3,582

162

1,888

3,264

123

3.648

165

6,100

316

68,073

4,135

3,186

5.782

382

560

4.328

256

3.661

3,520

175

2,808

156

6,405

515

71,270

4,659

6,595

5,618

215

549

4,213

137

2,629

3,166

2,163

3.678

142

55.944

2,074

5,300

6,786

162

393

5.041

116

1,787

3.461

2,477

3.771

120

50,959

1,464

3,288

7,043

853

628

5.575

199

2,320

3,762

139

2,822

4,181

183

62,603

3,374

4,698

6,921

162

729

6,885

217

3,929

5,"6

113

3,469

4.990

178

63,160

1,876

7,056

6,597

167

473

6,152

148

3.139

5.894

165

4.585

108

6,260

174

59,159

1,657

4,918

5,88z

140

39>

5,631

118

3,341

4.893

109

4.945

136

7,807

230

53.076

1,377

4,666

5.702

132

457

5.235

180

2,717

4.904

118

4,466

124

9,332

306

50,596

1,438

3.807

4,682

240

5,344

120

2,529

4.451

115

4,128

11,120

314

48,414

1,377

3,114

3,645

100

187

4.369

4.441

4.940

129

4,499

126

13,010

357

50,619

1,494

5.073

3,611

187

2,952

4,011

3,853

4»353

101

12,435

319

48,458

1,231

4.613

hones of 10 and upwards.

Discussion on Subgeon-Oenebal Balfoue's Paper.

The Chaibiiak (Sir B. W. Bawson, K.G.M.G.), in expressing the
thanks of the Society to Surgeon- General Balfour, echoed the
conduding sentences of the paper, and expressed the hope that the
War Office anthorities would caose some such measures to be intro-
duced as would enable them to apply to these most important arms
of our military service, the same measures which were applied to
our troops forty years ago, mainly throngh the exertions of
Surgeon- General Balfour and his colleagues. The commission, of
which General Tulloch and Surgeon-General Balfour were members,
had the satisfaction of materially improving the condition of our
troops in our own country, and in our colonies, and he trusted that
the exertions of Surgeon Balfour with respect to the vitality of
cavalry horses, would have the same beneficial result. The subject
was one in which the public generally would take a lively interest.

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272 Discussion [June,

Mr. Walfobd tboaght it somewhat anfortanate that two Bach
highly important papers as those of Surgeon- General Balfour and
Professor Leoni Levi should have been set down for the same
evening. When offices for the insurance of horses were started
some few years ago, he took some trouble to obtain statistics of
deaths and sickness of horses. Extended inquiries were made in
several quarters, but he found that the statements with r^i^ard to
the diseases, and consequent mortality, were so divergent, that it
was impossible to compile any authentic statistics. Now, for the
first time, we had something authentic on which to work. From a
national point of view, it was very important that the statistics of
the horses employed in the army service should be examined, as
those familiar with the army estimates would know. France had
been spoken of, and certainly that country had one interest in this
question which did not exist in this country, namely, that horse
flesh was, to a greater extent, he believed, than was generally
expected, used as an article of human food. He had found, on
inquiry, that in parts of France horse flesh formed a considerable
item in the food of the population. He thought the Society, and
the public generally, ow^ the author of the paper a debt of
gratitude.

General Sir F. W. FitzWtobam, Inspector-General of Cavalry,
thought the author of the paper was in error in sajring that there
were no statistics of the vitality, Ac., of horses in the British army,
for he believed that the whole of the information required would
be found at the office of the principal Veterinary Surgeon. With
regard to the casting of horses in oar army, the Secretary of State
for War allowed a certain percentage, viz., lo per cent., each year
for castings. Regiments generally cast up to the allowed percentage,
and hence the uniformity which would be found in the returns.
He thought the percentage, when compared with the ordinary wear
and tear of horses, was very creditable to the veterinary department
and the officers of our army. He had taken some interest and
trouble in this question, and upon consulting several London cabmen,
he found that the usual wear of cab horses in London was about
two and a-half years. He found that omnibus horses ran from
three to three and a-half years, but the exact number could, doubt-
less, easily be obtained from the London General Onmibus Company.
Messrs. Leny, who were the carriers for the Great Western Railway,
got five years' work out of their horses, but this was rather a fast
traffic. He had also had an interview with Messrs. Reid, the
brewers, and he found that their horses, which were uncommonly
well cared for, worked for about nine years. After many inquiries,
he had not found that any large body of horse owners got a larger
average life than in the cavalry of this country. Cavalry horses
last, on the average, for ten years, and the work which they do is
not draft, but carrying on their back an average weight of 20 stone.
He noticed that in the French army glanders amounted to 39OOO
a-year, but in the English army, he thought 30 a-year from that
cause would be nearer the mark. With regard to the alleged
tendency of horses from grass to suffer from diseases, it was

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1880.] Of* Surgeori'Oeneral Bcdfour^s Pofer. 273

hardly his experience that a large number of horses did so sn£Per.
With respect to officers' horses, his own experience was that they
suffered more from disease than the troopers' horses, a fact which
was creditable to the service rather than to the immediate owners.

Mr. G. Flemino said they must all feel extremely indebted to
Surgeon-General Balfour for his paper. He thought information as
that which had been derived from French sources could be obtained
in this country ; but as it had not been called for by the Govern-
ment, it had not been given to the general public. He had looked
through our army returns very carefully, and he had found an
astonishing improvement in the condition of the cavalry horses
during the last thirty or forty years. At an early period in the pre-
sent century, glanders — a most disastrous malady, which was, to all
intents and purposes incurable — was so very prevalent, that whole
troops of horses had to be shot ; but now, in consequence of the
disease being better understood, a great improvement had been
effected. The importance of the disease was very largely owing to
its contagious properties, and the only thing was to destroy at once
the animal in which it appeared. The deaths from glanders among
British cavalry horses in the year before last was, he thought, only
'2 per cent., which showed what an improvement had resulted from
a better understanding of the disease. The greatest percentage of
loss among the horses of the British army was from diseases of the
stomach and intestines, whereas in France the highest mortality
was owing to diseases of the lungs and the air passages, which was
probably due to the bad ventilation existing in the French cavalry
stables. He found that in the last three years the strength of the
horses in the British army was 15,629, of which 8,731 were treated,
the average being 55*86. Of these, 8,102, or a percentage of 51^,
were cured. The average annual number which was supposed to
be incurable was 198*3, or a percentage of 1*26, and the average
number of deaths for the period was 180, or a percentage of 1*14 — a
remarkably small percentage in comparison with that of the French
army — and the average number destroyed had been 114, or 73 per
cent. Heretofore the classification in the Enghsh cavalry had not
been so good as it should be, but they were now at work improving
that matter, and he thought that information of interest with regard
to our army horses would soon be accessible. So far as he was con-
cerned, he would take good care that all the information of interest
that could possibly be given should be afforded. The highest mor-
tality was chiefly among young horses, the great mistcdce having
been the purchase . of 3-year old horsed. Owing, however, princi-
pally to the exertions of General FitzWygram, horses under 4
years of age were not bought now, and he trusted that this raising
of the standard would have the effect of lessening the rate of
mortality.

The Ghaibman said they were much obliged to General Fitz-
Wygram and Mr. Fleming for the information they had given,
showing that the necessary information was actually in existence.
It was just the same in the case of our troops forty years ago, when

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27*1 DUcusiion on Sv/rgeon^Oenerdl Balfour^s Paper, [Jane,

twenty years* information was fonnd to be accessible. He congratn-
lated Surgeon-General Balfour on having brought forward such an
interesting paper.

Surgeon-General Balpoub expressed his gratification at the
manner in which the subject he had brought before the Society had
been received, and the interest it had excited. On one point Sir F.
FitzWygram had misapprehended him: he had not intended to
deny the existence in the War Office of statistics on the subject :
he had merely said that he was not aware whether any existed, as
none had ever been published. With regard to the difference in the
rate of mortality of the officers' horses as compared with the
troopers in the French and British armies respectively, in the former
the horses were the property of the State, but in the latter of the
individual officers, i^ossibly the greater loss in the British service
might be accounted for by the negligence of over-paid grooms.
Mr. Fleming's remarks on the low rate of mortality were iMised on
the returns of three years only, but it would be found that the aver-
age of eight years amounted to 2 per cent. It was necessary to
have a sufficient number of horses under observation to get rid of
accidental irregularities in the numerical results, and where the
numbers were small, this could only be done by esLtending the
period of observation.

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1880.]

275

Ten Tears' Statistics of British Agriculture, 1870-79.

J5y Captain Patrick George Craigie,

Secretary of the Central Ohamher of Agricultwre.

[Read before the Statistical Society, 11th May, 1880.]

CONTENTS :

PA6B

I. — ^Value of the Annual Agri-

cnltural Statistics 275

II. — Classification of Areas 276

III. — Distribution of the Surface

of the Country 279

I v.— Ten Years* Changes in Culti-
vated, Arable, and Pasture

Land 280

v. — Changes in ParticnUr Crops 283

1. Wheat 285

2. Barley 286

8. Oats 287

PAGE

YI. — Changes in the Number

of Live Stock 288

1. Horses 288

2. Cattle ^ 291

3. Sheep 294

VII.— Size of Farms ..._ 296

VIII. — Number and Acreage of

Holdings 299

IX.— Changes in Rent 804

X.— Summary 806

I. — VaVae of the Annual AgricuLiwral StaUstics,

Twelve years have passed since Mr. Caird, in an able paper, invited
the attention of this Society to the then recently established official
statistics of British agricnltnre, and the lessons and deductions to
be drawn from yearly figures. The value of this register of our
agricultural position at home is now universally admitted, and our
gratitude to Mr. Caird for the part he took in Parliament in pro-
curing the now familiar annual blue book deserves prominent
expression. The unreasoning and ignorant objections to the filling
up of the required forms which for some time in the southern and
midland districts of England retarded the completeness of the infor-
mation now furnished may be said, with advanced intelligence, to
have been very largely overcome. Especially is to be noted that
the apprehension of unpleasant fiscal consequences with which at
the outset many occupiers of land viewed the request to give
information respecting their business aflfoirs, through the agency of
officers of the inland revenue department, is fast dying away ; and
English ^rmers are much more generally being brought to concur
in the opinion, long held by their fellow agriculturists in Scotland,
that the inquiry is in no respect inquisitorial or likely to divulge
matters prejudicial to tenant farmers, or to compromise in any way
individual interests.

For only 1,612,143 acres of land in Great Britain, or but 5 per

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276 Craigib— Ow Ten Tears* Statigtics [June,

cent, of the acreage under all kincb of crops, fallow, or grass, is it
now necessary to resort in any way to estimate. Under these
circumstances, at a moment when agriculture stands foremost in the
matters of domestic concern, in indicating the course during the
past decade of this greatest of all our industries, I may, to a very
large extent, rely on the official figures which Mr. GilPen is now
able to place before the country with greater promptitude and
accuracy than has ever heretofore been achieved. Much has been
written and much spoken on British agricalture within the past
three years : it will be the simple aim of this paper to furnish, I
fear but crudely, some of the data which it is above all things
desirable to have as starting points in new ag^cultural discussions.
It may be thought that the existence of the data in the pages of
the ten blue books of the period before us should suffice for this
purpose, but I believe I may profitably bring together to-night some
of the facts spread over a variety of separate papers, and although
but imperfectly, still in some measure so arrange them as to lead to
suggestive criticism.

The first matter that we have to realise in a survey of this sort
is the extent of the area with which we have to deal.

It is perhaps not an absolutely exact statement to say that the
area of the United Kingdom remains necessarily identical in the
whole period under review. Bound the coast no doubt occasionally
there is going on here and there an accretion and here and there a
loss of territory. Slight alterations, however, such as the growth
of Sunk Island, on the Humber, or the inroads suffered on the
Norfolk coast, scarcely affect the official total.

It is perhaps necessary to explain that, according to the ordnance
survey figures which are relied on in the yearly statistics, the only
recorded changes in the area of the United Kingdom during the
past decade are the rise from 77,514,000 acres to 78,011,000 acres
in 1872, wholly due to a rectification made in Ireland at the
time of the census, and a subsequent drop the following year from
78,01 1,000 acres to 77,829,000 acres, at which the total now stands.
The last reduction may be accounted for by an addition of 7,000
acres in England, a diminution of 12,000 acres in Wales, a falling
off of fully 143,000 acres in Scotland, and a relatively considerable
reduction in the area credited to the Isle of Man, all of which may
probably be attributed to the greater accuracy of the ordnance
returns. For any reference to the total area I have preferred to
employ the latest figure only as the most exact.

II. — Classification of Areas.

Starting, then, with a knowledge of the area to be considered,
the first question that occurs to an investigator is the extent of that

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1880.] of British AgrumUure, 1870-79. 277

area which is nnder cnltivation ; and it is interesting here to discri-
minate between the ratios of cultivated laud possessed bj the
different sections of the United Kingdom, due, as this feature
nsnallj is, to climatic, g^logical, or geographical considerations.
And here and throughout the whole of this paper I have attempted
to carry the comparison of the position of matters at the beginning
and end of the period under review further than a mere enumera-
tion for the four great divisions of the United Kingdom — England,
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. For the last three of these I am
compelled, by regard to the time and space at my disposal, to take
only the general results, but for England herself I have attempted
a somewhat narrower scrutiny, grouping into three separate agri-
cultural zones or sections the forty-two counties which form the
units of the official statistics.

I must here explain why I have somewhat departed from the
customary plan of longitudinally dividing England simply into an
eastern, or *' corn," and a western, or " g^rass " half, as was done
by Mr. Caird in 1850-51, and as is done annually in the agricultural
returns of the Board of Trade. I must explain also why it is that
in adopting a triplicate division of England I have not strictly
followed the classification of the several counties in the " com,"
** mixed," and " pastoral " groups indicated by Mr. Giffen in the
valuable tables appended to the official returns of 1879. One other
explanation, too, must be offered in reference to the variation of
method in the maps presented herewith from those interesting ones
furnished by Mr. Pnrdy in vol. xxxi of our Journal, in 1868.

I cordially agree with the opinion expressed in that volume
that a geographical and not a merely mechanical or alphabetical
arrangement ought to be adopted in this matter, and this will
explain my slight divergence from Mr. Giffen 's classification this year.
I am not at all indifferent to the advantages, for which Mr. Purdy
contended in 1868, of following the same divisions for agricul-
tural as for poor law, and registration, and census purposes, and if
I do not follow it, it is because I am anxious to attain a more
strictly agricultural congruity in the counties grouped together
than was possible in the maps then given. However generally
convenient the Registrar- General's divisions are for most purposes,
I cannot view with satisfaction an arrangement which unites, for
example, such grass counties as Derby — where arable land forms
but 19 per cent, of the whole area — ^with com counties such as
Lincoln, where about 60 per cent, is thus occupied. In order,
therefore, to avoid linking such agricultural opposites, and striking
a common average for a "North Midland Division," comprising
both, I have ventured to make a simpler triplicate division. The
five eastern counties of Cambridge, Hunts, Norfolk, Suffolk, and

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278 Cbiigib— On Ten Tears* BtaJtUtUe [Jane,

Essex, I liave regarded, as the agricultural returns for 1879 also do,
as pre-eminentlj com counties, and have designated them my firet
earn distriei. Of these over 64 per cent, is now under the plongh,
and only 18 per cent, is in permanent pasture. Moving westward, I
draw another line from the Yorkshire ooast to that of Hampshire,
enclosing a second belt of counties, where also com growing, though
on the whole less markedly, predominates, and this larger area I
call my second com district. Throughout this the ayerage area under
the plough will just exceed 50 per cent, and that in grass just hH
short of 30 per cent.

These two areas together make up the artible district of Eng-
land, which very nearly coincides with the longitudinal " com "
division, for some time back g^ven in the yearly blue book. Thus
combined, the whole eastern area displays an average of 55 per cent,
of arable land, and 26 per cent, in permanent pasture.

All to the west of the last drawn line up to the Welsh boundary
I take to be more or less correctly viewed as the grass district or
pastoral belt of English soil. It coyers, doubtless, a large area, but
its general characteristic is that in contradistinction to the figures
just quoted, it has only got 29*7 per cent, of its area under the
plough, while it has 41 per cent, occupied by permanent grass.

It will be seen by reference to the map, that I am compelled in
thus adopting a geographical rather than a simply arithmetical
grouping of counties to include in the arable area the somewhat
isolated counties of Surrey and Middlesex, whose place should
strictly be to the west of the central line, while I balance this in-
equality by another in not including Cornwall in the com area, for
which its percentages qualify it. This exchange, for convenience
sake, occurs also in the customary official grouping into "com"
and " grazing '* counties, and indeed my complete arable and grass
districts would altogether coincide with that arrangement, but for
the fact that I include to the east of my line of division the county
of Wilts, and exclude the county of Warwick. Geogiaphical and
other local reasons decide me in doing this, and it should be
noticed that the arable land of Wilts is very nearly half its whole
area (48*4), while that of Warwick is less than two-fifths of its
area (397). Warwick also, with its 46 per cent, of grass, seems
to me to be more fitly placed among the grass counties than Wilts,
where the permanent grass is but 39 per cent.

Mr. Caird's line between com and grass differed still more con-
siderably from that adopted officially than does mine. It included
Northumberland, Durham, and part of Yorkshire on the north, and
Dorset in the south as com counties; while it classed Notts, Rutland,
Northampton, Oxford, and part of Wilts as grass counties. This
may have been right in 1850, but I do not think it will now apply.

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1880.]

of British Agriculture, 1870-79.

279

III. — Distribution of the Surface of the Country.

AssTuning that I have justified my departure from precedent,
I will invite attention to the changes which have taken place
in the modes of utilising the agricultural area of the several
divisions of England just enumerated separately, and of each of
the other divisions of the United Kingdom collectively in the ten
years which have elapsed since 1870. The subjoined table
exhibits the particulars as to total area, cultivated area, arable land
and pasture, for the following distinct areas, to which, wherever
practicable, I propose to refer all other facts, viz.: —

(1.) Five counties of England called the First Oom District.

(2.) Sixteen counties of England called the Second Oom District,

(3.) Twenty-one counties collectively as the Arable District of
this division of the United Kingdom.

(4.) Twenty-one pastoral counties of England called the Grass
District.

(5.) England as a whole.

(6.) Wales.

(7.) Scotland.

(8.) Great Britain.

(9.) Ireland.
(10.) The Isle of Man and Channel Islands.
(11.) The entire United Kingdom.

Distribution of Surface,
[GOO'S omitted.]

Total

I. Com district ....
II.

Arable district

^rasB „

England

CalUvated Area.

Arable Land.

Pasture.

Area,
1879.

1870.

1879.

1870.

1879.

187d.

1879.

Acres.
4,n6,
io,392»

Acres.
3,259,
8,078,

Acres.

3,382,

8,336,

Acres.

2,617,

5,321,

Acres.
2,639,
5,267,

Acres.
642,
2,756,

Acres.

743,
3,069^

14,508,
18,089,

11,337,
12,072,

11,718,
12,786,

7,938,
5,791,

7,906,
5,364,

3,398,
6,282,

3,812,
7,422,

32,597,

4*722,

I9>496,

23,409,
2,548,
4,451,

24,504,
2,759,
4»7i3,

13,729,
1,120,
3,486,

13,270,

985.

3.554,

9,680,

1,428,

965,

ii,234f
1,774,
1,159,

Wales

Scotland

Great Britain

Ireland,

56,815.
20.820.

30,408,
15,653,

116,

31,976,
15.336,

125,

18,335,
5,662,

96,

17,809,
5,138,

93,

12,073,
9,991,

21,

14,167,
10,198,

31,

194.

r Isle of Man and "1
\ Channel Islands J

United Kingdom ....

77,829,

46,177,

47,437

24,092,

23,040,

22,085,

24,396,

yOL. XLIU. PART II.

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280

Ceaiqik — On Ten Years' Statistics

[Jane,

Here it is well to recognise the relative dimensions of the three
belts or sections of English territory accounted for. The first corn
district contains but an eighth of the entire area. The second
com district covers about a third, while more than half of England
lies in the grass district. The percentages of the total area under
cultivation at the beginning and end of the decade, and the percen-
tage in arable and pasture respectively at these dates, appears from
the following table : —

Percentages of Total Area,

I. Com district ,

II. „

Arable district

G-rass „

England

WiSes

Scotland

Great Britain

Ireland

Isle of Man and Channel!
Islands J

United Kingdom

CuUivBtea.

1870.

79-2
77-7

781
66-7

71-8
5 to
22-8

53-5
75-2

59-8

59-3

1879

82-z
So'z

8o*8
7i-a

75*2
58'4

24*2

56-3
73*7

64-4
6ro

Arable.

1870.

63-6
51-2

64-7
820

421
23-7
17-9

32-3
27-2

490
810

1879.

641
50'7

54'5
29-7

40-7
20*9
i8-2

31*3
H*7

47-9
29*6

Pasture.

1870.

15-6
26-6

23*4
84-7

29-7

30-2

4-9

21-2
48*0

10*8
28*4

1879.

i8-i

^6*3
41*0

34*5

37*5

5'9

H-8
49-0

16-0
3i'3

rV. — Ten Tears' Changes in Cultivated^ Arable^ and Pasture Land.

The first of the changes to be noted in the period 1870-79 is
the growth in the cultivated surface. This is due, as has been
explained in the yearly reports, to more accui-ate returns, as
well as to a real extension of agricultural operations. It is general
everywhere in all three districts of England, and in the rest of the
United Kingdom save only in the case (so often exceptional) of
Ireland. But the Irish falling off is, I believe, rightly ascribed to
a technical cause, the more correct classification of certain moun-
tain pastures as waste rather than cultivated territory. As
Mr. Giffen has indicated, it is difficult to draw the line between
cultivated and uncultivated land, and it may be doubted whether
the distinction now shown, particularly in Scotland, represents the
practical position of matters. For my own part, I am disposed to
believe that it would be well somewhat more widely to extend the
definition of cultivated land, and give us, so far as may bo, all
land, mountain or other, actually used in the agricultural economy
of the country in the process of feeding sheep or cattle.

Taking, however, the figures given as to increased ^ cultivation,''

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1880.]

of British Agriculture, 1870-79.

28(;

the following table shows the changes of the past ten years, and
indicates where the chief increase of area has arisen. Any referenec
to the apparent growth of pasture must be, however, subject to the
caution of the last Agricultural Blue Book, that it is possibly
to some extent a reclassification of land formerly reckoned under
rotation grasses. '

[000*8 omitted.]

CaltiTated Area.

Arable.

Pasture.

Increase.

Decrease.

Increase.

Decrease.

Increase.

Decrease.

I. Com district

Acres.
a58»

Acres.

Acres.
22,

Acres.
74,

Acres.
lOI,

3I3>

Acres.

Arable district

381,
7.4,

—

68,

32,
427,

414,
1,140,

Grass „

England

1,095,

ZII,

262,

459,
136,

1,554,
346,
194,

W^es

Scotland

flif^f Britain

1,568,
9,

817,

526,

524,

2,094,
207,

10,

Ireland

Isle of Man, &c

—

United Kingdom

1,260,

—

1,052,

a,3ii,

—

One and a quarter million more acres are now therefore
accounted for in the United Elingdom, and virtually the whole of
this addition takes the form of permanent grass — a classification
which has grown also by the application of this less labour-
involving form of husbandry to another million acres formerly
under the plough. It does not seem generally to have been
recognised that it is in Ireland alone that half this transformation
has been effected, and a glance at the Inst given table makes it
plain that the disposition to convert com land into grass, as
alluded to in Mr. GifEen*s report in 1879, is almost wholly to be
found in pastoral districts.

In the most conspicuously com area of England we have
actually 22,000 acres more arable land, and in Scotland, where
the plough is always in favour, 68,000 acres. The entire falling off
to the east of my line between the arable and grass districts of
England is altogether insignificant. While reduction of arable
land in England generally has been a matter of 3*3 per cent., and
the ratio of falling off in the whole arable area is less than i per
cent., in the grass district it is 7*4 per cent. In Wales it has been
12 per cent., in Ireland over 9 per cent. There is not quite so
much difference in the rate at which cultivation appears to extend.

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282

Craigie — On Ten Tears* Statistics

[Jnne,

The arable half of England shows additions that represent an
increase of less than 3^ per cent., while the grass region has 6 per
cent, more of its total surface in cultivation than in 1870. More
permanent pasture is accounted for by some 1 2 per cent, in the arable
area, but this contrasts with fully 18 per cent, more in the pastoral
district. The growth of permanent grass is unmistakably to be
found mainly in districts most suited to grass growing, for, with a
single exception, all the western counties exceed the average
increase, and with very few exceptions all the eastern fall below
it.

In Table I, in the appendix, will be found a total of the English
counties in the order of precedence suggested by the relative extent
of their cultivated area in 1879, with relative figures for 1870, and
the increased percentage of total area now appearing in the
returns.

To the three south-western counties of Devon, Cornwall, and
Somerset, must be ascribed the largest additions to the area of
cultivation : there being in the case of the first of these counties
upwards of 7 per cent., in the second upwards of 6 per cent., and
in the third 5^ per cent, more of their surface now accounted for
as under crops, fallow, or grass. Bucks, Notts, Hertford, Durham,
Bedford, Berks, and Kent add less than 2 per cent., while the
Gloucestershire additions are slightly below i per cent.

To obtain a clear view of the relative character of the agriculture
of the several sections of the country, I have thought it well here
to interpolate a table of the percentage, not of the absolute, but of
the cultivated area : —

Percentage of Cultivated Area,

Arable.

Pasture.

1870.

1879.

1870.

1879.

I. Corn district

Arable district

GJ-rftflfl

80-3
65-9

700
480

58-6
440
78-3

60-3
86-2
81-9

62-2

78*0

6rs

4Z-0

541

35-7
754

55*7
33-5
74*4

48-6

19-7
341

800
520

41-4
560
21-7

39-7
63-8
181

47-8

21'0
36-8

3^*5
58*0

45*9
64-3
H-6

44*3
66-5
256

51*4

England

Wales

Scotland

Great Britain

Ireland

Isle of Man, &c

United Kingdom

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1880.] of Britieh Agriculture, 1870-79- 283

Here the strongly marked divergence of the two com districts
and the grass district of England becomes very clearly apparent,
and I woold invite attention to the difference in the Scotch
tignres thus indicated; "while Scotland has only i8 per cent, of her
whole area under the plough, she still has, after a 3 per cent,
reduction in the ten years, 75 per cent, of her so-called cultivated
area still in the condition of arable land — a higher percentage than
appears in any one of the eleven sections under which I have
grouped our information.

It may be noted as a distinct and characteristic effect of the
ten years* changes and extension of cultivated area, that whereas
in the United Kingdom, as a whole, rather more than half of that
area was in 1870 accounted arable, and rather less pastoral, now
the positions are almost exactly reversed, and the pasture exceeds
the arable by just about the same relative proportions.

V. — Changes in Pa/rticular Grope,

A ten years' retrospect of our agricultural statistics furnishes
interesting confirmation of those changes in cropping which are
usual matters of remark, and it may be well to see how these minor
movements correspond with the general changes which I have just
noted.

That we grow less wheat and more barley, is on every hand
said. The question I propose to ask of the official oracle is, how
much less and how much more respectively, and where the chief
alteration is going on ?

According to the tables supplied in the last agricultural returns,
the land under com of all sorts in England has dropped from 23*2 per
cent, of the total area to 2 1 *8 per cent, since 1870. I believe that
only two counties have at this moment a larger percentage of com
than they had ten years ago, and in neither is the abnormal
increase important. Suffolk accounts now for 40*3 per cent, of its
surface under com in place of 397 per cent., and Lincoln for 35*1 in
place of 34*9. The following table exhibits the falling off in the
corn area for the several sections of the country : —

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284

Craioie — On Ten Tears^ Statistics

[June,

Changes in Corn-Cropped Land,

[000*8 omltt«dl.

1870.

1879.

DecrsMe.

DMrease.

I. Corn district

11.

Acres.

1.606,

8,056,

Acres.

1,577,
2,940»

Acres.

29,

116,

Percnt.
1-8
3-8

Arable district

4,662,
2.908,

4,5' 7,
2,596,

145,
812,

10*7

Grass ..

England

7,570,

554,

1,424,

7,113.

482,

1,390.

457,
72,
84,

6-0

Waes

I^'O

Scotland

2*4

Great Britain

9,548,

2,173,

84,

8,985.

1,762,

30,

663,

411,

5*9
18-9
in

Ireland

Isle of Man, ko

United Kingdom

11,766,

10,777,

978,

8-3

Very nearly a million acres less of com was therefore grown in
the United Kingdom last year than at the beginning of the decade.
This is practically the reduction visible in arable land generally,
and as in that case Ireland, not England, is the scene of the largest
proportionate change. In the period under review, the proportion
of corn on the arable land is slightly diminished. Of the arable
land of the United Kingdom some 47 per cent., in place of 49 per
cent., is devoted to the growth of com. In England the altera-
tion means a reduction of the com-bearing percentage of arable
land from 55 to 53^. Still upwards of half the land under the
plough grows com. For the last two years the English green
crops cover slightly fewer acres, but so far the figures go— and it
must be remembered there is some little haziness about the official
classification of rotation grasses — the item of clover shows an
increase, while a larger breadth in fallow may be due, doubtless,
to the exigencies of disastrous weather, and growingly dirty soil.

I am anxious, however, it should be noted that the check in com
growing is much more marked in some districts than in others. In
the counties selected as my first com district the alteration repre-
sents less than 2 per cent, of the corn area, and the reduction
coincides with an increased arable area, green crops and clovers
bulking more largely. In the second and more mixed district the
percentage of decrease rises to nearly 4 per cent., but over the
whole eastern and arable division of England the diminution of
com is bat 3*1 per cent., against 10*7 in the grazing counties.
Taking this fact in conjunction with the still larger relative falling
off in Wales and Ireland, and the remarkably small falling off in

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1880.]

of BriHgh Agricuttwrs, 1870-79.

285

Scotland, it is clear agricultarists are not jet harriedlj abandoning
the cultiyation of com in districts and soils most snited to its
growth, bat are stirred np, by the keen competition of America,
2)iore carefully to appropriate their laud to the most distinctly
Buitable form of crop.

1. Wheat.

The foremost item of the com changes is of course the smaller
breadth of wheat now cultivated, and this also I have analysed in
the same divisions as before. The actual alteration in each county
in England is shown in Tables II, III, and IV of the appendix, and
a summary of the results shows : —

Wheat Changes,

[000*1 omitted.]

1870.

1879.

Decresie.

Decrease.

I. Com district

Acres.

701,

1,856,

Acres.

637,
1,150,

Acres.

64,

206,

Per cut,

9'
^5*i

Arable district »..,

2,057,
1,191,

1,787,

270,
259,

131
%V1

Qrass

Bngland

8,248,
127,
126,

2i7iy,
95»
76,

529,
82,
50,

i6-3
39*7

Wales

Scotland

G-reat Britain

8,501,

260,

12,

2,890,

158.

611,

102,

>r5

39'i
33*3

Ireland

Isle of Man, &c

United Kingdom

8,773,

3,056,

717,

19*0

Here the change in the aggregate is nearly three-quarters of a
million acres, and in England alone it is more than half -a-mill ion ;
hut as England is the only important wheat growing section of the
United Eangdom, containing some nine-tenths of our wheat land,
this result is to he expected. It is not, however, in England so much
as in Scotland or Ireland that the largest relative abandonment
of wheat appears. North of the Tweed wheat has never been a
favourite crop, but five and twenty years ago Scotland had not far
short of 200,cxx> acres of this cereal. Ten years ago this area had
shrunk to the diminished figure of I26,(XX), and even that small
section, not one acre in each 1 54 of the surface of North Britain, is
now reduced by well nigh 40 per cent. The Irish reductions show a
similar percentage of diminution. In Wales 25 per oent. less wheat
appears, and, as in the case of com generally, the least reduction
in England appears in the five com counties of the first district,

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Craioie — On Ten Years* Statistics

[June,

wliere 1 5 J per cent, of the whole area is used for wheat growing,
and the most marked reduction is in the grass counties, where only
5 per cent, of the surface is thus occupied.

It should he noted that no less than 44 per cent, of the com
land of the first com district of England is still growing wheat, as
also 39 per cent, of the com land of the second com district,
whereas of the com land in Scotland, not 6 per cent, is in wheat ;
in Ireland not 9 per cent., and in Wales less than 20 per cent.
The good, and in years not abnormal as of late, the profitable,
character of Scotch agriculture is generally recognised. Climate
alone will scarcely account for the entire diversity in practice. It
would seem therefore that English farmers may much more largely
than they have yet done discontinue wheat growing without en-
tailing an agricultural catastrophe.

2. Ba/rley.

Very nearly half of the surface withdrawn from wheat culti-
vation has been devoted to the growth of barley. The entire area
of this crop is now in the United Kingdom all but equal to that of
wheat. In Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland, it is considerably
more important. In Wales only is there any exception to the
general increase of barley culture in the several divisions of tha
country. The following table of ten years' barley changes possesses
several interesting features : —

Barley Changes,

[000*0 omitted.]

1870.

1879.

Incrette.

Decrease.

Increase.

Decrease.

I. Corn district

Acrei.
747,

Acres.
602,
893,

Acres.

83.
146,

Acres.

Per cm.
i6-2
19-7

Percnt

Arable district

1,266,
698,

1,495,
741,

2i9t
43,

—

i8-o
6-2

Grass .,

England

i,964»
164,
a44»

2,286,
162,
279,

a7a,
35»

12,

13-8
H*3

Wales

7-3

Scotland

C^r^fiX "Rritftin

i,37i,

241,

2,667,

265,

10,

i95>

14*

—

12-4
5-8

Ireland

Isle of Man, Ac

—

United Kingdom

2,622,

2,982,

310,

—

II-8

—

Ireland here shows the least relative addition, and the com
districts of England the greatest. The increased acreage of barley
grown in 1879 in the first com district is greater than the

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1880.]

of British Agriculture^ 1870-79.

287

decreased area of wheat just remarked, and nearly half of the
whole barley increase of the second com district has occurred, as
may be seen in Table III, in the county of Lincoln alone. While
of the 272,<xx) acres of barley added in ten years to England as a
whole, 130,000 acres appear in the two great counties of Lincoln
and York.

3. Oats.

The third of the great cereal crops occupies the largest absolute
area of any ; but its distribution is singular. Much more than half
of our oats are grown in Scotland and Ireland, in which countries
this crop occupies from 25 to 30 per cent, of the arable area, and
no less than 72 to 76 per cent, of the whole surface under corn.
This contrasts strongly with the 7I per cent, of com land which is
alone spared for oats in the first com district of England. The
favour shown towards a crop suitable to a moister and more
northerly climate leads us to find it more largely in the north and
west ; the arable districts generally devoting 1 5 per cent, of their
com area to the oat crop, the grass districts giving it 28 per cent.,
and Wales as much as 47 per cent.

Oats, however, like wheat, have decreased in the ten years
1870-79 ; chiefly, however, in Ireland, where, as the following table
will show, 330,000 acres less were grown in 1879 than in 1870.
Although only 26,000 acres less oats are grown in the first com
district of England, the relative decrease there is nearly as great,
17*8 per cent., a figure which contrasts strikingly with the 4*4 per
cent, of decrease for England as a whole, while Scotland sticks
strongly to its distinctive national grain, only 14,000 acres less
of oats being grown there now than ten years ago : — •

OcUs Changes.

[000*8 omitted.]

1870.

1879.

Inereste.

Decrease.

lucrease.

Decresse.

I. Com district

Acre*.
146,
682,

Acres,
lao,
569,

Acres.

Acres.
13,

Per cnt.

Percnt.
17-8

2*3

Arable district

728,
763,

689,
736,

—

39,

27,

—

'>'4>

Otms .,

3*5

Enirland

1,491,

253,

1,019,

«,4a5>

aa7,

1,005

66,
26,
I4»

4*4
10*3

Wales

Sootland

1*4

Cb«at Britain

2,763,

1,650,

12,

2,657,

i,330»

II,

106,

330,

—

%'9

Ireland

ZO'O

Isle of Man, Ac

8-3

United Kingdom

4,425,

3,998,

—

473,

—

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288 CjULiQi%—On Ten Tears' Statistics [Jane,

VI. — Changes in the Number of Live Stock,

If the changes occurring in British agricultore in the chief
cereal crops are interesting, it can hardly he said the alterations in
the liye stock of oar farms are less so. Briefly, I will endeavour
to indicate, at all events as regards horses, cattle, and sheep,
omitting for the present that interesting animal the pig, what ten
years have done for as.

In the United Kingdom, as a whole, we possess 200,000 more
horses than we did in 1870 ; we account for 727,000 more cattle,
and we lament a reduction of 548,000 in our flocks of sheep. As
I may he ahle to show hereafter in more detail, one class only of
horses — hreeding mares and unbroken horses — and only one class
of cattle — ^young stock under 2 years of age^may be said to
account for the addition to our totals, while only the older class of
sheep shows any material reduction.

The course of increase has not been uniform, and generally
speaking the decade 1870-79, except in the case of horses, has
witnessed a rise and then a fall in the numbers of our live stock.
The horses of all sorts averaged for the first three years of this
period 1,750,000, for the second three years 1,790,000, while the
annual average for 1876-79 has reached 1,910,000. Cattle, on the
other hand, averaged in round numbers 9,430,000 head in the first
three years, 10,200,000 in the next three years, reaching the
maximum in 1874, while in the last four years the average sunk
again to 9,863,000. Sheep also, which on the average of the years
1870-72 were 32,480,000 in number, during 1873-76 had multiplied
to 33)770,000, and for the last three years they are reduced to
32,380,000.

1. Horses.

Taking first the changes occurring among horses — those only
actually employed in agriculture, and as breeding and young stock
being reckoned — the student of ten years of agricultural statistics
has to notice a distinct and material increase in the numbers
annually recorded. This increase is specially notable in ^he class
which denotes an extension of horse breeding. Throughout the
United Kingdom, as a whole, we have in 1879 nearly 12 per cent,
more horses of all sorts than were recorded in 1870. The manner
of the classification of horses in Ireland differs somewhat from that
employed on this side of St. George's Channel, and deficiencies will
be found in the figures I give for Ireland and for the United
Kingdom, on account of my omitting the details of the classes of
Irish horses, which are not in a form strictly comparable with those
of England or Scotland in the years preceding 1877, although

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1880.] of BrUish Agriculture, 1870-79. 289

the totals appear to have been entered without qnaJification in the
summary of the general returns.

For Great Britain we have now 1 3 per cent, more horses than
we had ten years ago ; but while horses actually employed in agri-
culture have only increased by some 2 per cent, in this period,
unbroken and young horses and breeding mares are more numerous
by half as many again. We have in Qreat Britain no less than
147,000 more horses of this class than we had in 1870. No doubt
this increase is due to the remunerative prices which prevailed for
young horses, and to the foreign demand which has been noted.
The development has been throughout steady and continuous, and
it may be seen just as clearly in the years preceding the repeal of
the horse duty as in those which followed 1874.

It may at first sight strike the observer as somewhat curious
that horsebreeding, as shown by this column of the official tables,
shows its largest relative increase in the five eastern counties, which
I have designated the first and most distinctively com district of
England. Since 1870 the increase in breeding mares and unbroken
horses is 60 per cent, in this area, while the average of all England
shows 49 per cent, increase. Scotland only of the other divisions,
where arable land again predominates in the cultivated area, ap-
proaches this percentage with an increase of 59 per cent, in its
young horses and mares.

The same phenomenon characterised the addition in the com
district of England in the shorter period, 1874-79, for in that time
we find the percentage of increase is 33 per cent. ; so that for every
three unbroken horses or mares five years ago we have now
four.

There is, however, another matter to which I would like, under
this head, to invite attention, and that is the tendency, in the more
recent years, to add also to the number of horses employed in agri-
cultural work. It would have been no matter of surprise if there had,
on the contrary, been a falling off in this particular, which might
have been set down to the use of steam machinery for cultivation ;
and from 1870 to 1874 we did see such a falling off. From
1874 to 1879 however the reverse process has been at work, and it
is not so much in the com growing as the less arable districts where
this excess of horse power is now to be met with. In the first corn
district the increase in farai horses is 3*8 per cent, since 1874, and
in the whole arable half of England it is a little over 3*6 per
cent., while in the grass districts it is very nearly 5 per cent, and
in Wales, strangely enough, not far short of 6 per cent. ; —

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Gbaiqie — On Ten Yean* SttUistics

[June,

Number of Horses at Three Periods,

[000*8 omitted.]

1870.

1874.

1879.

Uaedin

Agri.

cnltore.

Unbroken

HorMa

Breeding
If area.

Total.

Uiedin

Agri.

cnltore.

Unbroken
UorMa

Brewing
Marea.

ToiaL

Uaedin

Agri.

coltore.

Unbroken

HorMa

Breeding
Maito.

TtoUL

T. Com district ..
II. „ ..

No.

133,
264.

No.
35,
63,

168,

37a,

No.

I3»»
258,

No.
42,
74,

No.

174,

332,

No.

137.
267,

No.
56,
90,

No.

193.

357,

Arable district ....
ChTiM „

397,
359»

98,
124,

495.
483,

390,
349.

116,
152,

506,
50»,

404,
366,

146,
185.

550,
55 «.

England

Wales

756,
71,
1391

222,
45,
84,

978.
116,
I73»

739,

69,

136,

268,
54,
46.

1,007,
181,

770,

73,
142,

831.
68,
54.

1,101,
136,

Scotland

196,

(Jreat Britain

Ireland

966,
7,

301,
3,

i,i67,

474»

10,

944,
7,

867,
2,

i,3>a,
459,

985,
7,

448.
2,

1,433.
5>3,

Isle of Man andl
Channel Islands/

United Kingdom ..

—

i,75<»

—

1,780,

—

1,95^

Increase in Horses,

[000*a omitted.]

Increase since 1870.

Increase since 1874.

Uaedin
Agricnltnre.

Unbroken

floraea

or Breeding

Marea.

ToUU

Uaedin

Agricoltore.

Unbroken
Horaea

or Breeding
Marea.

TotiO.

Norn,
ber.

Per

Cent.

Nom-
ber.

Per
Cent.

Norn-
ber.

Per
Cent.

Nom-
ber.

Per

Cent.

Nnm.
ber.

Per

Cent.

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent.

I. Com district

4,
8,

3*0
1*1

21,
27,

6o*o
42-9

25,
80,

14-9
9*2

5,
9.

3-8
3-5

14.
16,

33'3
21-6

19,
26,

io*9

7*5

Arable district ....
Grass ,. ....

7,
7.

VS
i'9

48,
61.

49*0
49*2

55,
68,

in
14-1

14,
17.

3-6
4'9

80.
33,

^5*9
21*7

44,
50,

8-3

lO'O

England

14,
2,
8,

VS
2-8

2*3

109,
18,
20,

49-1
40*0
58-8

123,
20,
23,

12-6
17*2

13*3

31,
4,
6,

4*2
5-8
4'4

63,
9,
9,

23*5
i6-7

20*0

94.
12,
15,

9*3
97

8-3

WtSes

Scotland

(Jreat Britain ....
Ireland

19,

2'0

147,

48-8

166,
39,

i3'i
8-2

41,

4*3

81,

22*1

121,
54,

9*a
11-8

United Kingdom

—

204,

11-7

—

175,

9-8

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1880.]

of British Agriculture, 1870-79.

291

2. GaUle,

The changes which have occurred in this branch of the farmer's
property are of considerable moment. At the present time there is
but little short of lo million head of cattle within the British Isles,
that is to say, were they evenly spread over the United Kingdom,
one ox, cow, or calf for every 7*8 acres of territory, or on the
so-called cultivated area of the annual statistics, one for every
4*7 acres returned. Computed for each hundred cultivated acres of
crop, fallow, or grass the proportion of cattle varies, however,
somewhat considerably. The subjoined tables, carrying, as in other
instances in this paper, the investigations into somewhat closer
areas than the official figures, exhibit the relative head of cattle
reckoned in each hundred acres, both of the entire area and of the
cultivated portion of each of the several sections of the country.

Cattle per 100 Acres.

1870.

1874.

1879.

Per

100 Acres
Total Area.

Per
100 Acres

of
Cultivated

Area.

Per
100 Acres
Total Area.

Per
100 Acres

Cultirated

Area.

Per

100 Acres
Total Area.

Per
100 Acres

Cultivated

Area.

I. Com diBtrict
II.

Arable district ....
Ghrass „ ....

Sngland

6-6
9-5

8-7
13-8

11-5

12-8

5-3

9-5
18-2
120
38-3
35-2

8-4

l\'Z

20-8

i6'o
23*7
23-4

17-8
H*3

20-I

58-2
58-9

8-4
111

10-8
15-5

13-2

140

5-9

10-8
19-8
131
400
357

io*3
14-0

I3'0

17-9
24-8
25*2

19*6

26-1
20"9

6o-3*
59*6

7-8
10-7

9-9
160

12-7

13-6

6-6

103
19-5
13-8
383
35-4

9'5
13-3

12*2
21*1

1 6*9

23*3

23.0

18-3
26-5

21'3

567
6i-4

Wales

Scotland

Great Britain

Ireland ,....

Isle of Man

Jersey

Guernsey, &c

United Kingdom

11-9

ZO'O

13-2

21-8

12-8

2I*0

* Returns for 1875, those for 1874 not being stated.

The distribution of cattle on the total area of the different parts
of the United Kingdom is remarkable. Omitting the cases of the
Channel Islands (which I have given separately, as instances of
the large percentage of stock kept), Ireland, it seems, bears off the
palm with the highest ratio of cattle to her entire surface ; the grass
district of Englajid and Wales coming next, while Scotland stands
lowest in this particular, although occupying very nearly the

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292 Ceaioib— On Ten Years' Statistics [June,

opposite position in respect of the cattle on its cultivated area.
As the official tables do not give the ratio of stock to the whole
acreage of the country, I have thought it might be useful to
supplement their information by the above figures.

Another point, which must not be overlooked in this connection,
is the entire failure of our returns to give us, on account of the date
at which they are collected, anything like the real head of stock
often to be found in the com counties. Although, therefore, the
entire stock of the country at a given date appears, it is to a
great extent an accident that they appear where they do. A large
portion of work of feeding cattle is done in winter in many com
counties. In Norfolk, for example, little or no summer stock is
kept, and there, as Mr. Clare Bead pointed out lately before a
parliamentary committee, three typical stockowners, interrogated
as to the number of cattle held by them in December and the
number returned in June, stated that they had 414 over 2 years
old in winter, but only 98 when the return was made.

These movements of cattle in the process of their manufacture
into beef, from one county into another, and from Ireland into
England, deprive the local apportionment of this branch of onr
live stock of much of its value.

Taking the figures as they stand, and bearing in mind that they
are to a considerable extent modified by the circumstance I have
mentioned, I should like to point out, as possibly helping to the
solution of the problem sometimes discussed, whether more pasture
will give us more stock, that in the grass districts of England the
ten years now in review began with 208 cattle on every 1,000
cultivated acres, and ended with no more than 211 on the same
area, a far less relative development than the increase of from 84 to
95 per 1,000 acres in the first com district, 123 to 133 per 1,000 in
the second com district, or 112 to 122 per 1,000 in the arable
counties generally. Taking, as is still better, the ratio of the stock
to the constant total area at the beginning and end of the decade,
it is clear that while the stock on the arable district has increased
14 per cent., that on the grass land, with all the extension of
pasture efi*ected, has been but 8| per cent, per 100 acres.

The absolute increase, with the rise up to 1874, and the subse-
quent drop, is given in the tables which follow. There it may be
noticed that there is an addition of 47,000 cattle or 17*2 per cent,
to the stock of the first corn district in the ten years, and one of
nearly 13 per cent, in the arable district generally where the process
of conversion into pasture has been less marked. Everywhere else
the increase has been relatively much smaller. In the western
counties, Wales, and Ireland, where permanent pasture has more
rapidly increased, the growth of stock has been from 6 to 8| per

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1880.]

of British Agrictdture, 1870-79.

293

cent. only. It is impossible within the limits of such a paper as
this to touch on more than one or two of the suggestive points
mooted by any analysis of our valuable yearly figures, but the
proportion borne by the cows and breeding stock on our farms to
the total head returned, and the large diversities in the ratio of
young to old animals, are all matters which will repay those who
have the time to make closer investigation.

The distinct check which, after 1874, attended the growth of
our cattle stocks in this country, must be held to have been largely
due to the recent prevalence of disease, and the dread among
breeders of the continued risk of foreign contagion. This icause
of alarm is happily now to a great extent removed. The useful
statute of 1878 has done much to clear our country of diseaBes
which, though less alarming to the public, were far more injurious
to the farmer than rinderpest itself ; and the administration of the
Act has been equally successful in checking the threatened invasion
of meat-destroying diseases from America and elsewhere. If the
same care is taken for the future, there seems no reason to doubt
that a very large and considerable development might be effected
in the quantity of home-bred stock maintained on British farms,
while the figures I have quoted tend to show that such an increase
of meat production need not depend on a great conversion of arable
into pasture land.

Number of Cattle at Three Periods.

[OOCi omitted.]

1870.

1874.

1879.

COWB.

Othrr CatUe.

Total.

No.

i73-

994

Cowa.

other Cattle.

Total.

CoWB.

other CatUe.

2 Yean

and
upwards.

Under

8
Yean.

2 Yean

and
upwards.

Under

2
Yean.

8 Yean

and
upwards.

Under

2
Yean.

Tbtal.

I. Com district
11.

No.

85,
875,

Ho.
29 ^

Ko.

94,
826,

No.

94,
400,

494,
1,120,

1,614,
264,
396,

No.

120,

335,

No.

130,

422,

No.
344*
1,157,

No.

91,
400,

No.

106,

317,

No.

123,

394,

No.

320,

1,111,

Arable district ....
Grass

460,
1,069,

387.
591,

420,
830,

1,167.
2,490,

455.
651,

652,
1,033,

1,501,

2,805,

491,
1,114.

423,
610,

617,
974,

1,431,

2,698,

England

1,529,
256,
376,

978,
123,

^55^

1,250,
225,
411,

3»757,

604,

1.042,

1,106,
>25,
279.

1,685,
276,
481,

4,306,
665,

1,605,
262,
389,

1,033,
112,
260,

1,491,
270,
435.

41,29,

644,

1,084,

WiSes

8<M>tland

Great Britain ....
Ireland

2,162,
1,527,

16,

'.356,
796.

1,885,
1,474,

15.

3i797-
iS-

2,274,
1,490,

16,

1,510, '2,342,

oil, 1^19

6,125,
4,110,

38,

2,255,
1,465,

16,

1,405,
840,

5»

2,196,
1,762,

17.

5,856,
4'067,

38,

Isle of Man andl
Channel Islands j

5»

17,

United Kingdom

3,705,

2,156,

3,374,

9»i35'

3,780,

2,426, J

4,078,

10,283,

3,736,

2,250,

3,975,

9,961,

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294

Craioie — On Ten Years' Statistics
Increase or Decrease of Cattle since 1870.

[June,

Number. [OOCs omitted.]

Percentage.

Cows.

Other Cattle.

Total.

Covt.

Other Cattle.

S Years

and
Upwards.

Under
2 Years.

8 Years

and
Upwards.

Under
8 Years.

Total.

I. Com flintrict
IL

6,
25,

29,
68,

47,
Ii7f

70
6-7

11-8
8-2

30-8
20-9

17-2
11-8

Arable district ....
Grass „

81,
45,

36,
19»

97,
144,

164,
208,

6-7
42

9*3
3'i

231
17-3

12-9
8*4

England

76,

13,

5S*
-II,

5»

241,
46,
24,

371,
40,
4»»

50
2-3
35

5*6
8-9

2'0

19-3
200

6-8

9'9
6-6

Wales

Scotland

4*0

Great Britain

Ireland

95,
-62,

49»

44»

310,

288,
2,

454.
270,

3»

4-4
-4-2

3*6

5'S

16-4
19-5
18-3

8*4
71
8-6

Isle of Man

United Kingdom

88,

94»

600,

727,

4*4

18-0

7*9

Decrease c

f Cattle since

1874.

Number. [OOO's omitted.]

Percentage.

Cows.

Other CaUle.

Total.

Cows.

Other CatUe.

2 Years

and
Upwards.

Under
9 Years.

3 Years

and
Upwards.

Under
S Years.

TotaL

I. Com district
II.

18,

7,
28,

24,
46,

3-2

II-7
5'4

5-4
6-6

7-0
4*0

Arable district ....
Grass „

3,
6,

3 a,
41 »

35,
60,

70,
107,

0-6
0-5

7*o
6-3

6-2

6-8

4-6
3-8

TTnglftTid .„

9,
2,

73,
13,
19,

95,

45,

177,
21,
71,

0-6
0-8
1-8

6-6

10-4

6-8

60
2-2
9-4

4«

3'2

6*1

"W^ales

Scotland

Great Britain

Ireland «...

Isle of Man, &c

19,
25,

105,
71,

146,

+ 43,

270,
53,

0-9
1-7

7'o
7-8

6-2

+ 2-5

4'4
1*3

United Kingdom

44,

176,

103,

3^3,

1-2

7*a

2-5

3"!

3. Sheep.

The diminution in the sheep stock of the country is a feature
pressed upon our attention in the annual returns. The tables
appended to this section make some endeavour to discover if there is
any marked local peculiarities in this reduction.

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1880.]

of Bntish Agriculture^ 1870-79.

295

It mxLst be specially noted that while compared with 1870 we
have in the aggregate bat little diminution of onr flocks, the falling
ofF when 1879 is contrasted with 1874 is much more serious. The
aggregate flocks of the United Kingdom rose from 32,800,000 in
1870, to 34,800,000 in 1874, and dropped again to 32,200,000 last
year. Over the more recent period, and for the whole country, the
reduction marked is 7J per cent. Ireland shows relatively a
greater falling off than any other section of the United Kingdom,
unless we take the drop, of course on a very much smaller scale,
in the flocks of the Isle of Man into account. So far as
England herself is concerned, it is distinctly the com and arable
districts where the greatest loss of sheep is reported. This is
quite what ought to be expected from the effect of the wet seasons on
the corn-growing clays ; and it is here that in the ten years, 1870-79,
a material diminution is apparent. The Welsh sheep-farmers
account for 6 per cent, larger flocks than at the beginning of the
decade, and the grass district of England has about one-tenth pGr
cent, more sheep than in 1870, while the arable district has 5 per
cent. less. The figures as between 1874 and 1879 do not retain the
same marked difference in this respect, though the falling off in this
case is about 8 per cent, on the arable to 6^ per cent, on the grass.

It is worthy of remark, however, that we have practically no
larger flocks now in those very districts of England where the
permanent pasture is greater by 1,100,000 acres than it was ten
years ago.

Number of Sheep at Three Periods,

[OOO*! omitted.]

1870.

1874.

1879.

One Year

and
Upward*.

Under
1 Year.

Total.

One Year

and
Upwards.

Under
lYear.

Total.

One Year

and
Upwards.

Under
lYear.

TotaL

I. Corn district ....
II.

No.

1,320,
4,709,

No.
798,
2,720,

No.

2,118,
7,429,

No.
1.314.
4.739.

No.
873,
2,895,

No.

2,187,
7,634

No.
1,210,
4,384,

No.
790,
2,662,

No.

2,000,
7,046,

Arable diatriot

Grass

6,029,
5,974,

3,518,
3,419,

9.547,
9,393,

6,053,
6,389,

3,768,
8,650,

9,821.
10,039,

5.594,
5,927,

3,452,
8,473,

9.046,
9.400,

£iifflaxid

12,003,
1,892,
4,5 >5»

6,987,

815,

2,235,

18,940,
2,707,
6,750,

12,442,
2,111,
4,896,

7,418,

954,

2,493,

19,860,
3,065-
7,389

11,521,
2,012,

4,639,

6,925,

861,

2,199,

18,446,
2,873,

WiSes

Scotland

6,838,

Qreat Britain

18,410,
2,840,

34,

9,987,
1,494,

21,

28,397,
4,334,

55i

19449,
2,857,

51.

10,866,
1,581,

36,

30,314
4.438-

87,

18,172,
2,572,

36,

9,985,
1,446,

27,

28,1 ';7,

Ireland

4,018,

Isle of Man andl
Channel Islands

63,

United Kingdom ....

21,284,

11,502,

32,787,

22,357, |l2,482.

34,838,

20,780,

11,458,

32,138.

YOL. XLIII. PART II.

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29C

Craigie — On Ten Years* Statistics

[June,

Increase or Decrease of Shee^ since 1870.

Number.
[pOC* omitted.]

Pereeatagtt.

One Year

and
Upwards.

Under
1 Year.

Total.

One Year , Under

■nd 1 - „
Upwards. 1 1 Year.

1^>tal.

I. Cora district

II.

Inc. or dee.
- no,
-325,

Inc. or dec.
- 8,
-58,

Inc. or dec.
- 118,
-383,

PerciiU

- 8-3

- 6-9

Percnt,

- 10

- 21

Per cat.

- 5-6

- 5"2

Arable district

-435,
- 47,

-66,

+ 54,

-501,
+ 7,

- 7'2

- 0-8

- 1-8 1 - 52

OrasA ..

+ 1-6 , + 01

England

-482,
+ 120,
+ 124,

-12,
+ 46,
-36,

-494,
+ 166,
+ 88,

- 4-0
+ 6-2

+ 2*7

- 0-2 - 2-6

W'^es

+ 6-6 + 6*1

Scotland

- 1-6 + vx

I ■

Great Britain

- 238,
-268,

+ 2,

- 2,
-48,

+ 6,

- 240,
-316,
+ 8,

- 1-3

- 9*4
+ 6-0

- 3-2
+ 230

- 0-8

Ireland

— 7*3

Isle of Man and!
Channel Islands j

+ 14*5

United Kingdom

-504,

-44,

- 548,

- 24

- 0-4 1 - 1-7

Decrease of Sheep since 1874.

Number.
[OOCs omitted.]

Percentage.

One Year

and
Upwards.

Under
lYcar.

Toui.

One Year

and
Up»«ids.

Under
1 Year.

Total

I. Corn dutrict

II-

104,
355,

83,
233,

187,
588,

7*9

7*5

9-5
80

8-6
7*7

Arable district

459,
462,

816,
177,

775,
639,

7-6

, 7'2

8-4
4-8

7*9
6**;

G-rasB

Enffland

921,

99,

^57,

493,

98,

294,

1,414,
i9i,
551,

7*4
4-2

5*i

6-6

9-7

11-8

6-3
7*5

Wales

Scotland

Qreat Britain

1,277,
285,

15,

880,

135,

2,157,

420,

24,

6-6
100
294

8-5

260

7*1

9-5
27*6

Ireland . . . „-,-..,,—

Isle of Man, &c

United Kingdom

1,577,

1,024,

2,601,

8-2

7*5

VII.— Stise of Farms.

Although not a matter capable of being treated in the same
waj as the statitstics of the growth or diminution of the crops or

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1880.] of BrUish Agriculture, 1870-79. 29?

stock of our fanners, the question of the size of onr agricnltural
holdings generally is a matter now so much canvassed that I
venture to submit some remarks on this topic.

I have found some difficulty in arriving at any approximate
statement of the distribution of holdings according to their size, as
the returns on this subject vary both in the time and mode of their
collection. We may be said to have two distinct sets of data,
those furnished in some of the yearly agricultural returns, and
those tabulated by the census commissioners in their general
report for 1871. The agricultural returns provide information in
somewhat different forms and at various periods, so that we have
no complete record going down below 50 acres for all classes of
holdings for any one year.

The census collection of figures cannot however be resorted
to for general purposes. It is not gathered from the whole area
of any one of the divisions of the United Kingdom. The tabu-
lation has been made only for seventeen counties believed to be fairly
and typically agricultural. These counties were Sussex, Hants,
Berks, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, Notts,
Derby, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland,
and the extra metropolitan parts of Kent and Surrey. For these
areas it indeed distinguished certain particulars in all cases where
the occupiers of land were technically viewed as farmers, and so far
as these farmers filled up their returns. The several holdings were
arranged in twenty-five groups, from those of under 5 acres to those
of over 2,000 acres. As the report of the commissioners acknow-
ledges, however, there were many instances in which the farmers
did not give the particulars which by the householder's schedule
they were directed to do, and the interpretation also of a '* farmer"
according to tibe census classification is very distinctly narrower
than the more general designation of ^'occupier of land." The
average size of an English holding according to the Census Com-
missioners was 1 52 acres — a figure lately contrasted by our Presi-
dent with the not dissimilar dimensions of American farms ;
according to the agricultural returns an average holding was little
more than one-third as great, or 57 acres. The entire divergence
between the two sets of figures, the census and the agricultural
returns, is very puzzling to any inquirer into the distribution of our
land and the size of our holdings, who happens to overlook these
distinctions. I cannot perhaps do better than illustrate here in
the case of one or two counties the entirely different results of
the two calculations. I take as typical the large and important
agricultural county of Lincoln and its small neighbour the county
of Butlsjid. The following table shows the figures for Lincoln-
shire:—

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298

Craigie — On Ten Years^ Statistics

[Jnne,

Census Retnrns.

No.

670
2,437
1,993
1,439
3,237
311
106

10,093

Extent of Farms.

Not exceeding 5 acres

5 to 20 acres

io » 50 »i

50 » Joo «

100 „ 500 „

AboTe 500 „

Acreage not stated....

Total

Agricultural Returns.

No.
9,287
6,145
5,274
2,181
3,705

398

25,990

Taking another sample in tlie case of a county where the area
and number of farmers is small, the same altogether different
reading is obtained. In Rutland thus we have : —

Census Returns.

No.

107

102

236

638

Extent of Farms.

Not exceeding 5 acres

5 to 20 acres

^o „ 50 „

50 »» 'oo «

100 „ 500 „

Orer 500 „

Acreage not stated ....

Total

Agricultural Retums.

No.
651
173
226
139
262
11

1,862

Not only therefore does it appear that the census returns
altogether omit numerous small occupancies, probably in no case
going down to the quarter-acre limit of the agrictiltural returns, but
all through the scale the agricultural retums are much the more
exhaustive of the two. Between 20 and 50 acres they account for
double the number of holdings, and between 50 and icxd acres for
at least a third as many more as appear in the census figures. These
differences seem to be greater than can be accounted for simply on
the hypothesis that Lincolnshire farmers to the number of 1,445, ^^
Rutland men to the number of 89, declined to make the necessary
statements in the census schedule, that veiy small plots are not
considered technically '* farms," that the entire occupation of each
man, and not, as in the agricultural retums, the separate holdings
he may cultivate, are given, or even by the consideration that land
occupied by persons having other professions than farming is dis-
regarded in the census statement. No doubt a very large share
of the discrepancy is accounted for by these diversities, but their
existence, and the otherwise defective nature of the census tabula-
tion, leads me to revert entirely to the agricultural retums for such

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1880.]

of British AgricuUn/re, 1870-79/

29d

information as may be required for the purpose of tliis paper
respecting the size of agricultural holdings.

I cannot do so, however, without inviting the attention of this
Society to the very great desirability of securing at the approaching
census some distinct understanding and correlation between the
data gathered by the enumerators, and that furnished periodically
by the Board of Trade. It is true a committee of our Council has
directed attention to the advantage of securing contemporaneously
with the census a more than usually exhaustive series of agricul-
tural returns in 1881. As however unusual interest attaches in
the minds of many persons at this time to the question of the size
of farms, I would throw out the suggestion that either by means
of the census machinery, or in connection with the agricultural
returns for the same year, a complete statement should be furnished
showing the size of all holdings in all parts of the country, and
where two or more are cultivated together this also might be stated.
That these facts are already furnished for Ireland, where in 1878
there were 579^399 holdings in the hands of 531,422 occupiers,
ought I think to make us hesitate to pronounce the task one
impossible in Great Britain, while of its value for many purposes
there can be little doubt.

VIII. — Number and Acreage of Holdings,

It is necessary to explain how the figures are obtained which I
have attributed to the agricultural returns in the two counties just
mentioned, and hereafter in the general approximate classification I
propose to attempt. I find that in 1870, the agricultural blue book
obtained and tabulated the numbers of each class of holdings in
each division and county of Great Britain in the following classes,
"not exceeding 5 acres," "from 5 to 20 acres,** "from 20 to 50,"
" from 50 to 100,'* and " above icx3 acres," giving at the same time
the percentage of holdings not exceeding 20 acres, between 20 and
ICX3 acres, and above 100 acres.

The results obtained expressed in thousands, were these : —

Number of Holdings,

[000*8 omitted.]

EugUiid.

Wales.

Scotland.

Great Britain

Not exceeding 5 acres...

102,
III,

46,
71,

11,
17,
13,

9,
7,

23,
21,
11,
9,
14,

136,

From 5 to 20 „

„ 20 .. 50 ,.

150,
87,

., 60 ., 100

64,

AboTe 100 acres

92,

Total

393,

67,

79,

529.

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800 Ceuoie— 0» Ten Tear$' Statistics [Jnne,

While the percentages given showed that 54 per cent, of the
holdings in England, 49 per cent, of those in Wales, 57 per cent,
of those in Scotland, and 54 per cent, for Great Britain as a whole
did not exceed 20 acres. Holdings between 20 and 100 acres formed
in England 28, in Wales 38, in Scotland 25, and in Great Britain 28
per cent, of the entire number recorded, leaving the larger farms
above the 100 acre limit to represent in England, Scotland, and
Great Britain, 18 per cent, and in Wales 13 per cent, of the
returned total.

Acreage was not, however, returned in this tabulation, though
appended to it appears an estimate of the probable acreage in each
class of holdings. This estimate was subsequently, on fuller data
being obtained, found to be inaccurate. I have not therefore
ventured to rely on it, or indeed on these earliest official statements,
for the tables I venture to construct.

In the following year, 1871, we had given us a return of ^e
number and actual acreage of all holdings below 20 acres, with
additional information detailing the character of the cultivation
of these holdings, their pasture and arable land, and the live stock
kept upon them. A further step was taken in 1872, when we had
presented to view the above, and even more detailed particulars for
one class of the section of our smaller holdings, those whose sizes
ran from one-quarter of an acre to an acre, and from that limit
to 5 acres inclusive. This process revealed a larger number of
these small areas than had been up to that time suspected. A
number of allotments were also embraced in these totals, amounting
indeed to 49,000 holdings, or about two-thirds of the entire number
of holdings of from a quarter to i acre in extent. It was intimated,
however, that this was much below the real number of allotments
actually existing; and accordingly, in 1873, a special return of
allotments was furnished embracing both these and others. It then
appeared that 242,000 garden allotments, without reckoning the
numerous gardens surrounding the houses of labourers or artisans,
existed in England; while Wales and Scotland between them made
up 3,800 more of such small holdings.

Leaving for the present the interesting but separate subject of
the geographical distribution of these allotments, we have last of
all available the valuable analysis of the size of agricultural
holdings supplied in the returns for 1875. There we have for six
groups of occupations — those not exceeding 50 acres, those from
50 to 100, from 100 to 300, from 300 to 500, and from 500 to 1,000,
and above 1,000 acres — the statistics, county by county, of their
number, acreage, and live stock at the above date.

Making use of the most recent of the above statements, I
have endeavoured to tabulate in one form the information thus

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3880.]

of British Agriculture, 18?0-79.

301

obtainable. Owing to discrepancies which I have been nnable to
reconcile in particnlar counties, this table cannot be completed in
detail, bat assmning that, ronghl j speaking, any irregnlarity in the
stractare of the several returns, and in the varying numbers
accounted for in different years, will not very greatly affect the
totals, I venture to submit the following approximate classification
of the number and acreage of several distinctive classes of agri-
cultural holdings in the great divisions of the United Kingdom : —

Number of Holdingn,

England.

Wales.

Seotland.

Irdand.

Not exceeding 1 acre

67^-21
93,148
50,895
82,004

1,103
10,041
15,390
13,627

1,319
21,091
21,511
12,390

51,221

1 to 5 acres

6 ,. 20 „.

66,359
} 373,782

20 ., 50 ..

Total 50 acres and under
50 to 100 acres

193,469

44,842

69,695

4,334

40.161

9,656

7,749

56,311

9,878

13,790

817

491,362
56,138
80,347

100 „ 500 ,.

Over 500 „

1,552

Total

412,340

57,660

80,796

579,399

The total number of returns is that given in 1878 for Ireland,
and in 1875 for the other columns. Assuming, however, that the
percentages now would not materially differ from those resulting
from the above table, it is interesting to note what ratio the small
holdings bear to the total number of those accounted for.

PercerUage of Holdings.

England.

Walea.

Scotland.

Ireland.

Not exceeding 1 acre

-3
12

2
17
27
24

2
26
27
15

}

1 to 5 acres

5 „ 20 „

20 „ 50 , -

....

Total 60 acres and nnder
60 to 100 acres

71
11
17

70
17
13

70
12
17

85
10

100 „ 500 „

Oyer 500 ^ -

100

The Irish figures from 5 to 50 acres are grouped in one class,
the mode of division not allowing of the same classes to be stated
as for England. By fiir the larger portion of this 65 per cent, are,
however, under 30 acres ; and perhaps one of the most striking

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Craigib — On Ten Tears' Statistics

[June,

features of snoli a table is that in the verj smallest class of occu-
pations England has the largest share.

The relative acreage of the several classes of holdings is perhaps
quite as interesting as the numbers of each class, and in the same
summary form it may approximately be given thus, omitting, as I
have here to do, the case of Ireland : —

Acreage of Holdings.

[OOO'b omitted.]

England.

Wales.

Scotland.

Great Britain.

Not exceeding 6 acres

288,

1,1 20,

i,i4».

81,
172,
429,

76,
210,
380,

S95,

1,502,

20 ., 60

2,961,

Total 60 acres and under ....

60 to 100 acres

100 „ 600

3,550,

3,259,

H,245,

3,c86,

682,

699,

1,299,

67,

666,

698,

2,710,

537,

4,848,

4,656,

18,254,

Over 600 „

3,690,

24,140,

2,697,

4,611,

81,448,

In this table, as in the last, I rely for the data in the last four
scales on the official totals of 1875, and on the facts to be gathered
from earlier returns for the smaller plots, the cultivated acreage
for 1875 being that distributed. The percentages of this distribu-
tion show : —

Percentage of Acreage,

England.

Wales.

ScoUand.

Great Britain.

Not exceeding 6 acres

I
5
9

6
16

4
8

6 to 20 acres

20 .. 60 „

Total 50 acres and under ....
50 to 100 acres

»5
H
59
12

H
15
59
12

15
16

100 ., 500 „

Over 600 „

100

I have not been able to work out similar statements for the
arable and grass districts of England respectively, on account of
the uncertainty of some of the figures in the smaller classes of
holdings. In the larger classes this is possible, and on the same
data it would appear that the number of holdings is thus appor-
tioned : —

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1880.]

of British Agrieuliure, 1870-79.

803

50 Acres
aiid under.

50 to 100
Acres.

100 to 500
Acres.

Over
500 Acres.

Total.

I. Com district

11.

31,278
81,679

5,048
11,106

9,207
22,561

899
2,202

46,432
117,548

Arabic district

112,957
180,512

16,164
28,688

31,768
37,927

3,101
1,233

163,980
248,360

Grass

£Dffland

293,469

44,842

69.695

4,334

412,340

The percentages of the number of these holdings respectively
were thus : —

50 Acres
and under.

50 to 100
Acres.

100 to 500
Acres.

Over
500 Acres.

Total.

I. Com district

67
70

11
9

20
'9

2
2

100
100

Arable district ............

69
73

10
12

19
15

100

Grass „

100

England

100

The acreage in 1875 of the various classes of holdings, which
it must be remembered slightly differs from the acreage of 1879,
was also thus distributed : —

50 Acres
and under.

50 to 100
Acres.

100 to 500
Acres.

Above 500
Acres.

Total.

I. Ctorn district

352,
919,

363,
810,

1,986,
4,952,

648,
1,572,

3,349,
8,253,

Arable district

1,271,
2,279,

1,173,
2,086,

6,938,
7,307,

2,220,

ODO,

1 1,602,

Grass „

12.538,

Eneland

3»55o,

8,259,

I4>245,

8,086,

24,140,

o""""- * " *

While, if we wish to see the relative proportions of the separate
classes to the total of each area, the percentages of acreage appear
to be these : —

50 Acres
and under.

50 to 100
Acres.

100 to 500
Acres.

Above 500
Acres.

Total.

I. Com district

II
II

11
10

59
60

19
19

100
100

AmhlA diatriH;

II
18

10
17

100

ttraee „

100

England

100

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304 CRkiQiE^On Ten Yean' SiaiisticM [June,

From such statements as these it is at least apparent that the
small holdings in the com districts form a relatively smaller ratio
of the whole, and occupy a still more distinctly smaller relative
area than those of the grass region generally, nearly one-fifth of
the surface of the western grass counties being broken up into
holdings of 50 acres or less. Of the larger holdings, 2 1 per cent,
altogether in the arable district exceed 100 acres, and occupy
79 per cent, of its area, while in the grass district only 1 5 per cent,
of the holdings attain these dimensions, the lurea so appropriated
being 65 percent, of the total surface.

The average size of an English holding is given in 1875 as
57 acres. But in the com counties of the first district it is as high
as 72 acres ; in the second com district, 70 acres ; while in the
grass district generally it is little over 50 acres. The counties
vary, however, somewhat irregularly in their average siae of
holding. With the exception of Middlesex and Cornwall, where
the average holding is 38 acres, the counties showing a less average
acreage than 40 acres lie in a single group, viz., Lancaster, Cheshire,
Derby, and the West RidiDg of Yorkshire. On the other hand,
Northumberland at one extremity of the kingdom has an average
of 122 acres per holding, while Wilts, in the south, comes next with
95 acres. Oxford, Suffolk, and Berkshire stand next in order, and
all exceeding 80 acres. Lincolnshire, where many large farms are
met with, has its average reduced to the ordinary level by the small
cultivators of the soil for which the isle of Axholme, and one or
two other special districts, is remarkable.

IX. — Changes in Bent,

Although there are many topics I must omit from a hasty
survey of the agricultural situation, I may claim space for an
attempt to discover, from such official sources as may be got at,
whether any, and what, changes occurred in the rent of land
during the period now under review, and if different localities were
differently affected in this particular. I believe those who have looked
closely into this subject will agree with me that the gross assessment
to Schedale B of the income tax is perhaps the nearest approach
we have to a record of agricultural rent, and although the data
which would discriminate between one district of the country and
another is not yet available for the precise years 1870-79, it so
happens that by the aid of two separate returns, and with the
adjustment of a few very simple calcolations, it is possible to
construct a schedule of rental, county by county, for each of the
official years 1868-69 and 1877-78 — ^the beginning and end of the
nearest decade to that I am now dealing with. For the counties of
the^r*^ and second com districts I have given this schedule, with the

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1880.]

of British Agriculture^ 1870-79.

305

percentage of increase in the appendix. For Ireland I have had to
take the fignres from the ** Land " portion of Schedule A, since in
that conntry at the earlier year a practice wholly different from the
present prevailed in the case of Schedule B — net figures only and
not gross being recorded — so that to the unwary investigator of the
official tables, it would seem as if the rent of Irish farms sprang in
one year from 2,897,ocx3^. to 9,235,000/., a change in the mode of
statement only which is not always borne in mind when the series
of totals of Schedule B are looked at: while the wide range
between the gross and the net figures tells its tale of the smallness
of Irish farms.

The following table approximately shows the changes which
have taken place : —

Rent of Zand,
COOO*! omitted.]

1878.

1869.

Increase.

I. Com district

II.

6,830,
17,069,

6,387,
'5,79',

£
443,

1,278,

Per cnt.

6-9
8-1

Arable district

Qtms „

23,899,
24,492,

22,178,
22,732,

1.721,
1,760,

7-8
7-8

England

W^es

48,391,
3,175,
7,670,

44,910,
2,810,
7,217,

3,481,
365,
453,

7-8

i3'o

6-3

Scotland

Great Britain

59,286,
9,938,

54.937,
9.202,

4,299,
736,

7*8

Ireland

8-0

69,174,

64,139,

5,035,

.7*9

The curious similarity in the totals of the apparent rent of the
arable and grass divisions of England will be noted here, but
contrasted with the larger area of the grass region indicates the
greater value of the com land district. In no division it appears
has the rent of land increased except in Wales by as much as
I per cent, per annum, and the percentage of growth in each
district with this exception is very nearly uniform. In Scotland,
where Mr. Caird lately noticed the largest relative increase over
a longer period of successive years, the latest ten years' growth is
less than elsewhere. In the five counties of the first com district
the rate of development is the lowest of the sections of England.
Although in the second com district the average advance is larger,
there are individual counties, such as Notts, where the increase is
scarce 2 per cent., Rutland, where it is but 3 per cent., and North-
ampton, where it does not reach 4 per cent. The growth of rent in

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306 Craiois — On Ten Yeari Statistics [Jane,

the second com district is of course affected bj abnormal adyances
in suburban areas such as the 12^ per cent, rise in Middlesex, i^hile
the fact that rent, so far as indicated by Schedule 6, in the four
southern counties of Hants, Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, has risen
from II to 12-2- per cent, in this period deserves attention. Some
considerable portion of this rise, as indeed of all apparent increases
in the income tax returns, is due rather to closer assessment than to
really enhanced values, and contrasted with any other property, the
rise in rent has been exceedingly small on the whole. What the
figures of a later return would show in these days of general reduc-
tions may be easily conjectured. There can be little question that
at least the ten years' advance and probably much more has by this
time been blotted out.

X. — Summary.

The length to which the very wide subject I have treated has
grown permits but the briefest recapitulation of the conclusions
arrived at by a ten years' survey of the statistics of British agri-
culture.

I have been precluded from entering on many incidental
questions on which I at one time hoped to be able to touch. The
question of the yearly produce of our farms in corn and meat, in
wool and dairy produce, and the vast changes in the quantities and
values obtained in recent years, I must perforce omit ; the distribu-
tion of the population employed in agriculture may perhaps
fittingly be deferred till we have another census, and one perhaps
more exhaustively correct in this particular than I fear was the
last. It would have been instructive to have been able to have
compared with the figures as to the distribution of farm crops
some estimate of the yields of the several cereals in the belts into
which England has been divided ; but to have attempted this would
have protracted my tables beyond all reasonable limits. I may
be allowed, nevertheless, in passing, to notice here that according to
certain data furnished ten years ago, by practical farmers to the
columns of the "Chamber of Agriculture Journal," the diversity
in results would prove quite as striking as in the allocation of the
crops themselves. I might have shown that while the average
wheat crop in such counties as Cambridge or Essex within my
first com district, stands as high as 33 bushels to the acre, in the
second com district, as in Berks and Rutland, little over 3 1 bushels
could be looked for, while in the western counties of the grass
district, such as Devon, no more than 21^ bushels may be looked ou
as a crop. Similarly barley might have been shown to vary from
over 39 bushels in Lincolnshire in the east, to 3 1 bushels in Here-

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1880.] of BrUish Agnctdture, 1870-79. 307

ford in the west, and oats from the six or seven quarters of the
eastern fens to barely four in the thinner soil of Devon.

The time at my disposal also forbids the extension of my paper
in one direction originally contemplated, by which I had hoped to
increase its interest, by including the opinions of practical residents
in the several divisions of the country selected for comparison on
the local explanation of the changes officially noted.

Glancing, however, at what has been attempted, rather than at
what has been omitted, I have endeavoured to suggest a different
classification of areas for the purposes of noting results and
changes than has been usually employed.

I have tried to indicate the varied share of pasture and arable
land now and ten years ago in different sections of the United
Kingdom, and the localities where the chief alterations have been
brought about.

An addition of 1,260,000 acres to the cultivated area, meaning
by that term all crop land, fallow and permanent grass, has been
noted, and the practical acquisition of an equivalent area in grass
alone has been pointed out, while besides this the throwing of one-
half million acres of arable land in England, and another half
million acres of arable land in Ireland into pasture has been made
apparent.

The several changes involving the growing of 717,000 acres less
of wheat, 310,000 acres more of barley, and 473,000 acres less of
oats — the last alteration occurring chiefly in Ireland — ^have been
indicated.

The material and satisfactory increase in the number of our
horses, the very varied density of the cattle stocking of the country,
and the greater relative increase in the cattle of the arable than of
the grass counties, has been shown, as well as the nature of the
fluctuations and the recent drop in the numbers of our flocks.

Lastly, I have collected, from the various records of the ten
years before us, such data as I thought might help future discus-
sions on the probable size of agricultural holdings in different parts
of the United Kingdom, and have suggested that on the occasion of
the coming census we ought to obtain more thorough and accurate
data, at least under this particular head. My imperfect notes of the
salient agricultural changes of the decade have been closed with an
inquiry into the approximate movement of agricultural rents in
different parts of the country. This investigation revealed a
distinctly smaller growth of rent than formerly, although from the
data at my command the calculation stops short in 1878, so that it
could not take account of the great depreciation that has followed
the long series of agricultural disasters, which culminated in 1879,
in a time of unprecedented loss to British landowners and farmers.

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308

CiuiGlB — On Ten Yean' Statistics

[June,

APPENDIX.

Tablb I. — England,

Coautiet.

Leicester

Cambridge

Butland

Huntingdon

Oxford

Northampton

Bedford

Wilte

Herts

Bucks

Warwick

Nottingham

Worcester

Lincohi

Shropshire

Berks

York,E. B

Hereford

Stafford

Suffolk

Gloucester

Somerset

Norfolk

Essex

Derby

Dorset

Chester

Kent

Sussex

York, W.B

Devon

Hants

Middlesex

Monmouth

Luicaster ^.

Durham

Cornwall

flurrej

York, N.B

Cumberland

Northumberland
Westmoreland .

PercenUge of Entire Area BeturiMd m Caltirated in

1870.

897
899
86*7
876
86-7
86-4
86-4
84*1
85-1
85-3
83-4
839
78-8
817
79'4
8i-7
8o*3

79'5
78-4

78-1
8o-i
75*5
77*3
753
74-0

7i-4
719

717
68-2
66-5

613
66-1
611
6o*2
6o'o

566

59*1
58*8

54' 1
518

45'»

1879.

92-6
923
91*4
91-8
88-9
88*8
88-8
87-6
86-7
86-6
86-1
85-8
84-2
841
83-8
88*6
83-6
82-9
81-9
81-8
810
810
79-7
78-6
77-6
771
76-8
78-6
71-8
68-9
68-5
68-5
65-2
64-7
64-8
640
62-9
62-0
61-7
58-9
641
49-0

IncreaMd

Percentage of Total

Area.

2-8
»'4
4'7
3*7

2*2

»'4

3*5
1-6

1*3

2-7
1*4
5*4
a'4
4*4
>'9
33
3'4

o-y
5*5
»'4
3'3
3-6
4*7
39
1*9
39
a'4
7-a
a'3
41
4*5
4*3
1*7
6-3
2*9
2*9
4-8
»'3
3-8

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1880.]

of British Agriculture^ 1870-79.

809

Tablb II. — Changes in Acreage of Com Crops in First Com District,

[000*1 omitted.]

Wheat.

Barley.

CoanUes.

1870.

1879.

' In-
creiise.

De-
crease.

1870.

1879.

In-
crease.

De-
crease.

O&mbriclgo ..........^.....

Acres.
130,

184,

46,

194.

147,

Acres.
1 18,

162,
43,

155,

—

Acres.
12,

3i
12,

Acres.
67,

106,

22,

194,

140,

Acres.
72,

131,

27,

209,

163,

Acres.
15,

25,

16,

23,

Dssex

Hnntf rr,r

Norfolk

Suffolk

Total

701,

637,

—

64,

519,

602,

88,

Oats.

All Com Crops.*

CoontiM.

1870.

1879.

In.
cresse.

De-
crease.

1870.

1879.

In-

De-
crease.

Onmbridgd

Acre*.
38,

45,

12,

84,

17,

Acres.
3 a,

35,

10,

I5»

—

Acres.
6,

10,

Acres.
262,

410,

100,

467,

877,

Acres.
»54,

396,

97,

447,

383,

Acres.
6,

Acres.
8

Essex « «....

Hunts

»4,

10.

Norfolk

Suffolk

*v,

Total

146,

120,

—

16,

1,606,

1,577,

35,

t29,

* Including beans, peas, &o.

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310
Table IIL-

Craigib — On Ten Tears' Statistics

[June,

'Changes in Acreage of Com Crops in Second Com District.
[OOCi omiUed.]

Coontiet.

Wheat.

1870.

1879.

In-
crease.

De-
creue.

Barley.

1870.

1879.

In-

Oe-
creMe.

York, E.B

Lincoln

Notts

Butland

Northampton .

Bedford

Herts

Bucks

Oxford

Berks

WUtB

Hants

Sussex

Surrey

Kent

Middlesex

Total

119,
810,
78,
10,
79,
53,
61,
67,
62,
61,
98,

111,

100,

48,

110,

1,856,

89.

247,

60,

9.
68,

47,
59,
5i»

87,

100,

89,
38,
89,

1,150,

30,
^3,
13,

I,
II,

7,
6,
",
II,
II,
5»
ai.

56,

149,

50,

11,
55,
81,
47,
81,
64,
4^,
68,
65,
26,
19,
44,
2,

84,
3119,
55,
12,
64,
36,
49,
32,
59,
44,
7a,
66,
24,
19,
55,
3,

28,
70,
6,
1,
9,
6,
2,
1,
6,
4,
4,
1,

11,
1,

206,

747, 893, 146,

Coontiet.

York, E.B

Lincoln

Notts

Butland

Northampton .

Bedford

Herts

Bucks

Oxford

Berks

Wilts

Hants

Sussex

Surrey

Kent

Middlesex

Total

Oats.

All Com Crops.*

1870.

75,

106,

21,

4,
20,
10,
^.
24,
24,
27,
83,
65,
64,
24,
64,

582,-

1879.

79,
94,
aa,
3,
18,

9,
26,
26,

24,
26,

35,
65,
64,
25,
48,
5,

569, 10,

In-
crenM.

4,
1,

2,
2,
1,

De-
crrue.

1870.

12,

I,
2,
I,

279,
617,
166,

26,
183,
120,
151,
187,
164,
149,
222,
260,
218,

98,
252,

19,

23,

3,056,

1879.

274.
620,

153,
26,

174.
1 141
146,

129,
160,

145,
212,
248,
198,

9»,
23',

18,

2,944,

In.
crease.

De.

create.

13,

9,
6.
5.
8,
4.
4.
10,

12,
«5»

6,
»ii

116,

Including beant, peat, 8ic.

CoogTe"

Digitized by

1880.]

of British AgrieuUme, 1870-79.

311

Table IV. — Changes in Acreage of Com Crops in Qrass District,

[OOO'i omitted.]

Northumberland

Cumberland

Durham

Westmoreland .

York,N.B

York,W.B

Lancaster

Cheshire

Derby

Leicester

Staflford

Shropshire

Hereford

Worcester

Warwick

G-louceeter

Monmouth

Somerset

Dorset

Devon

Cornwall

Wheat.

1870.

25,
42,
2,
76,
101.
»7,
84,
32,
48,
54,
84,

60,
67,
78,
95,

21,
78,
47,
128,
58,

1,191,

1879.

a3,
1 6,

3i»
1,
52,
76,
28,
25>
23,
34,
44,
67,

49,

6o,
8i,
1 6,
6i,
40,
107,
43,

932,

In-
crease.

De.
crease.

i6,
9»

II,
I,

24,

25>

10,

»7,

11,
12,
18,
I4»
5»
12,

7,
16,
10,

259>

Barley.

1870.

«7,
11,
16,

4,
64,
71,
10,

6,
16.
31,
88,.
55,

24,
20,
29,
44,
12,
37,
42.
84,
58,

698,

1879.

43,
8,
21,
3,
84,
83,
12,

4.
'5,
35»
30,
59»
26,
23,
30,
46,
II,
37,
42,
75»
54,

741,

In-

_6,

20,

12,

2,
8,
1,
2,

62.

De-
crease.

9,
19,

Northumberland

Cumberland

Durham

Westmoreland ..

York,N.B

York,W.K

Lancaster

Cheshire

Derby

Leicester

Stafford

Shropshire

Hereford

Worcester ,

Warwick

Gloucester ,

Monmouth

Somerset

Dorset

Devon

Cornwall

Oato.

All Com Crops.

1870.

68,
77,
40,
17,
68,
56,
58,
48,
29,
21,
81,
26,

12,.

7,
15,
16,

8,
28,
21,
84,
48,

768,

1879.

57,
69,

34,
16,

66,
57,
53,
45.
25,
21,
29,
25,

14,
9,
18,
19,
8,
21,
20,
90,
4o>

736,

Id.

crease, crease.

2,
8,
3,

De-

1870.

II,
8,
6,
I,
2,

3,
4.

2,
I,

154,

116,

105,

28,

226,

250,

106,

98,

81,

117,

127,

178,

110,
124,
156,
184,
44,
158,
117,
295,
150,

44, 2,908, 2,596,

1879.

129,
94,
90,

19,
216,

231,
98,
79,
^5^
98,
109,
160,

103,
112,

133,
166,

37,
135,
109,

275,
138,

In-
crease.

De-
crease.

25»
21,
15.

10,

19,
8,

I4»
16,

19,
18.
18,

7,
12,
23,
18,

7,
18,

8,
20,
12,

312,

VOL. XLllI. PART II.

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312

Craioib — On Ten Yean of BriUeh AgricvUure. [June,

Tablk y.'-Reni of Land, 1869-7a

1. OOBV DUTBIOT.
[OOO't omitted.]

SebednleB

(1878).

Behednle B

(1869).

iDcreasa.

Increase.

Hunts

£
890,
1,078,
2.099,
1,495,
1.778,

361,
1,010,
1,983,
MC4»
1,619,

29,

68,

116,
91,

144,

Percnt.

8-0

Cambridge

Norfolk

6-2
5-8
61
8-8

Suffolk

Essex -

Total

6,830,

6,387.

448

6-9

2. COBN DI8TBIOT.

Schedule B
0878).

Sdiedule B
(1869).

Increase.

Increaae.

York, E.B

Lincoln

Notts

Butland

Northampton

Bedford

1,469,

8,159,

916,

167,

1,178,

510,

648,

829,

808,

720,

1,281,

1,174,

1,156,

648,

1,956,

455,

1,374,

2,907,

897,

162,

1,136,

485,

614,

750,

75^1

681,

1,210,

1,052,

1,028,

583,

1,755,

4o5»

£
95,

252,
19,
5.
42,
25,
84,
79,
51.
89,
71,

122,

128,
65,

201,
50,

Per cut.
6-9
8-7

2*1

3'o
3*7
5"2
5*5

IO*<

Herts

Bucks

Oxford

Berks

wats

Hants

Sussex

Surrey

Kent

Middlesex

6-8

5*7

5*9

11-6

ii"5
in

"•5

12-6

Total

17,069, 15.791,

1,278,

8-1

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1880.] 813

On the Home Pbodtjci, Impoets, Consumptton, <md Peicts of Wheat,
over Twenty-Eight (or Twenty-Seven) Haeybst-Yeaes, 1852-53
to 1879-80 imlimve. By J. B. Lawes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.,
and J. H. Gilbbet, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

[Bead before the Statistical Society, 11th May, 1880.]

Ik a paper " On the Home Produce, Imports, and Consumption of
" Wheat," published in the " Jonmal of the Royal Agricultural
" Society of England," in 1868, we gave records and estimates on
the subject for sixteen harvest-years 1852-3 to 1867-8 inclusive;
and in 1863, and each year since, an estimate for the then current
year has been published in the '^ Times " and elsewhere, soon after
harvest. We propose, on the present occasion, to pass in review the
estimates formerly given, and to complete the record from the com-
mencement up to the present time; namely, for twenty-eight (or
twenty-seven) years, 1852-3 to 1879-80 inclusive. In our former
paper we gave the records and estimates for each division of the
United Kingdom sepaarately, and for the whole collectively ; but it
is proposed now to confine the illustrations to the United Kingdom
as a whole.

The main elements of the question are the following : —

1. The area under wheat.

2. The average yield of wheat per acre.

3. The aggregate home produce, and the amount of it available
for consumption.

4. The imports.

5. The population.

6. The average consumption of wheat per head of the popula-
tion, per annum.

The data then at command, and the results arrived at, are fully
considered in the paper above mentioned, and we must refer to it
for detailed information on most of the points in question, but the
main facts may be briefly summarised here.

The Area vmder Wheat, — For the period from 1852 to 1865
inclusive, we had to rely on estimates alone in fixing the area under
the crop in England and Wales. For Scotland, we had returns col-
lected by the Highland Society for the years 1854-57 ; but for the
two years prior to 1854, and for the years subsequent to 1857, down
to 1865 inclusive, we had to rely on estimates merely. For Ireland,
returns were available for each of the sixteen years included in the

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814 La WES wnd Gilbert — On Home Produce, Imports, [Jane,

inquiry. Thanks to the exertions of Mr. Caird, we have for 1866,
and for each year since, an official record of the area under the
crop, in each division of the United Kingdom, and in the whole
collectivelj, in the "AgrioTdtaral Betnms" now annually published
about the time of harvest. One element of uncertainty in any
estimates of the home produce of wheat is, therefore, fortunately
removed.

The Average Yield of Wheat per Acre, — ^The only returns or official
I estimates at command relating to this subject, were for Scotland
\for four years, and for Ireland for each year within the period of
, our inquiry ; whilst, for England and Wales, comprising from 85 to
90 per cent, of the total area under the crop, there was, and there
is, no official information whatever. For this large proportion of the
United Kingdom it was, therefore, after very full consideration
of the data, and of the results to which they led, decided to adopt
the average pvodu'Ce per acre each year, on certain selected, and
very differently manured plots, in the permanent experimental
wheat field at Rothamsted, as the basis of estimates of the average
produce per acre from year to year ; and, each year since, the same
data have been relied upon in forming an estimate of the average
produce over the United Kingdom as a whole. But, having regard
to the character of the soil at Bothamsted, to the characters of the
individual seasons, and to the consideration whether the season was
more favourable for heavy or for light land, and so on, the estimate
actually adopted for the country at large has, in some seasons, and
more especially in bad seasons, differed somewhat from the actual
average indicated on the selected plots in the experimental field.
Lastly, in all cases, the actual number of bushels is reduced by
calculation so as to represent bushels of the standard weight of
61 lbs. per bushel.

It is proposed, on the present occasion, briefly to examine into
the validity of the data thus taken as a basis for estimating the
average yield per acre of the cowitry each year, and also into the
trustworthiness of the results arrived at, as tested by subsequent
knowledge, and by their accordance, or otherwise, with the con-
clusions arrived at in regard to other elen^nts of the question.

The Aggregate Home Frodttce^ and the Amount of U Availaible for
Ooneumption, — It will be obvious that, if we know the area under
the crop, and have a trustworthy estimate of the average yield per
acre, the aggregate home produce is ascertained by a very simple
calculation. In determining the amount of the total produce
available for consumption, allowance has to be made for the amount
annually returned to the land as seed. For reasons formerly given,
we have aHSumed 2^ bushels per acre to be so returned to the land ;
and we do not propose to make any alteration in that estimate.

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18S0.] Gonsvmption, and Price of Wheat, 1862-53 to 1879-80. 315

Ths Imports,— 'From, the commencement of the period to which
onr inquiry relates, we have, for the United Kingdom collectively,
returns, either of the net imports of wheat and wheat flour, or of
the imports and exports from which the net imports can be calcu-
lated. For the separate divisions of the country the returns have
not been so complete. But, as we are confining attention to the
United Kingdom as a whole, this is immaterial for our present
purpose. In the case of the United Kingdom, the records for the
individual weeks or months are available ; and from these the net
imports have been calculated, not for the calendar years, but for the
harvest-years, that is, from 1st September of one year, to 31st August
of the nexfc.

The Populaiion. — ^As the Begistrar-G^neral publishes an estimate
of the population at the middle of the calendar year, for every year
between one census and another, it is easy to calculate, with sufficient
accuracy for our purpose, the average number of consumers over
each harvest-year. The middle of the calendar year being the end
of June, and the middle of the harvest-year the end of February,
the plan adopted has been to add to the number recorded for the
preceding mid-summer, two-thirds of the difference between that
figure and the number given for the next midsummer, thus bringing
the estimate up to the end of February. Of course, this can only
be done after the second record is published, and the plan was not
available in estimating the population of the current harvest-year
soon after harvest each year; but the necessary corrections have
now been made. The figures show some irregularity of increase
immediately after the census years, and at some other periods, pre-
sumably from a new factor being then adopted for the calculation
of the annual increase of the population.

The Average Consumption of Wheat per Head of the Population
per Armum. — Previously to the publication of our former paper on
this subject, a higher figure had been generally assumed than we
were then led to adopt. For England and Wales, we founded an
estimate of the average consumption per head of the population, on
the calculation of eighty-six different dietaries, arranged in fifteen
divisions, according to sex, age, activity of mode of life, and other
circumstances ; and the result so obtained was compared with that
arrived at on the basis of the population, and of the amounts of
the available home produce, and of the net imports of wheat, each
year. For Scotland, and for Ireland, it was only possible to
found an estimate on the basis of population, and of the amounts of
the home and foreign supplies. On these bases we estimated the
average consumption of wheat, in the United Elingdom collectively,
to be 5^ bushels per head of the population per annum, during thei)
later years to which our inquiry related ; and we have adopted that

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316 Lawcs CMd GttBiET — On Home Produce^ ImporU^ [June,

figure from that date up to the present time. This estimate,
whether correct or not, has, from that time, been very generallj
adopted by oUier writers on the subject also. Its correctness, and
its continued appUcability, we propose to consider on the pres^ifc
occasion.

Thus, with regard to Hbe area under the crop, the imports, and
the population, we adopt, without modification, the same data or
estimates as previously; but the basis of the estimates, and the
results arrived at, in regard to the average produce of wheat per
acre over the United Kingdom each year, and the estimates of the
consumption per head of the population, we propose to submit to
examination, and to correction or otherwise, as the case may be.

As already said, the estimate of the average yield of wheat per
acre over the United Kingdom is, each year, founded on the average
produce obtained on certain selected plots in the field at Bothamated
which has now grown the crop for thirty-six years in succession —
vrithout manure, with farmyard manure, and with various artificial
manures. There has been no change in the treatment of the un-
manured plot, or of the dunged plot, since the commencement of the
experiments in 1843-4. There were, however, some changes in the
manures applied to the various artificially manured plots during the
first eight years from 1844 to 1851 inclusive. But for the period
of twenty-eight years, from 1852 up to the present time, two of the
selected artificially manured plots have respectively received exactly
the same manure each year, and the third has done so for twenty-
five years, as described below. The selected plots were : —

Plot 3. Unmanured every year, experiment commencing 1848-4.

Plot 2. Fourteen tons farmyard manure every year, commencing
1843-4.

Plot 7. Mixed mineral manure, and 400 lbs. ammonia-salts, each
year, twenty-eight years, 1851-2, and since.

Plot 8. Mixed mineral manure, and 600 lbs. ammonia^salts, each
year, twenty-eight years, 1851-2, and since.

Plot 9. Mixed mineral manure, and 550 lbs. nitrate of soda, each
year, twenty-five years, 1854-5, and since.

In forming the estimate of the average produce per acre of the
coxmtry at large, the plan adopted has been to take the mean
produce of the unmanured plot, of the farmyard manure plot, and
of the three artificially manured plots reckoned as one, and to reduce
the result so obtained to bushels of the standard weight of 61 lbs.
per bushel. As will be shown further on, experience has proved
that this mode of estimate leaves but little to be desired as a means
of computation of the average yield of the country over a number
of years ; but it has not been found to be equally applicable for each

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1880.] Oonsum^tum, cmd Price of Wheat, 1852.53 to 1879-80. 817

indiYidnal jear. Careful comparison leads to the conclusion that
the so-calculated average produce per acre on the selected plots
gives somewhat too high a result for the country at large in seasons
of great abundance, and too low a result in un&vourable seasons.
Acccnrdinglj, as above referred to, in some seasons, instead of the
actual average indicated hj the experimental plots, a higher or a
lower figure has been adopted ; and, especially in the case of some
of the recent bad seasons, a higher one has been taken.

Independently of any such admitted differences between the so
directly calculated, and the actually adopted, estimate for individual
years, the question arises — whether the average result indicated by
the several selected plots remains as applicable as heretofore ? or
whether the produce of some is annually declining, or that of
others annually increasing, irrespectively of the influence of season,
so as to vitiate the continued applicability of such results for the
purposes of such an estimate P

The Unmumured Plot, — There can be no doubt that the produce
on this plot is gradually declining from exhaustion ; and, indepen-
dently of the evidence of diminishing produce, analyses of the soil
at different periods show that there is a gradual diminution in the
amount of nitrogen in it. Owing, however, to the great fluc-
tuations in the amount of produce from year to year, dependent on
season, it is by no means easy to estimate the rate of decline due to
exhaustion of the soil, as distinguished from that due to the
seasons. In the first place, it is difficult to say what figure should
be adopted as the standard produce of the plot, by which to
compare the yield from year to year. The whole field was
manured with farmyard dung in 1839, and then grew turnips,
barley, peas, wheat, and oats, before the commencement of ^e
experiments in 1843-4 The plot then grew eight crops of wheat,
to 1850-1, without manure, before the commenoement of the
period to which our present estimates refer. No doubt the land
would sufEer more or less exhaustion during those first eight years ;
but, as serving to counteract the tendency to decline in yield from
that cause, it happened that, taken together, those eight seasons
were of considerably more than average productiveness ; so that
perhaps we may assume the average produce of those eight years
fairly to represent the standard produce of the unmanured land
independently of material exhaustion. That produce was equal to
17 bushels at the standard weight at 61 lbs. per bushel. If now we
calculate what should be the produce in each of the subsequent
twenty-eight years, on the assumption that it fluctuated from the
standard exactly in the proportion of the fluctuation from year to
year of the adopted average yield of the country at large, and
compare the result so obtained with the actual yield of the plot each

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318 Lawks and Gilbebt — On Home Produce^ ImportSj [Jane,

jear, we find that the latter shows an average annual deficiency
over the twenty-eight years of 4I bushels. According to this
mode of calcnlation, therefore, this represents the decline of
produce on the nnmaanred plot, irrespectively of season ; and it
may be observed that, supposing it to be uniform over the whole
period, it would correspond to a rate of diminution, due to exhaus-
tion, of between one-quarter and one-third of a bushel from year
to year. It remains to be seen whether, with a return of good
seasons, the decline will be as marked ; and also whether, in time, a
point will be reached at which the produce will remain constant,
excepting so far aa it is influenced by the fluctuations of the seasons.

The Farmyard Ma/nure Plot — ^If the unmanured plot is dechn-
ing in yield and fertility, there can be no doubt that the farmyard
manure plot is increasing in fertility. Analysis at different
periods shows that the surface soil has become more than twice as
rich in nitrogen as the unmanured land. In fact, as we have
shown on several occasions, a large amount of the constituents of
farmyard manure accumulates within the soil, and they are taken
up very slowly by crops. It is indeed remarkable that, notwith-
standing this great accumulation within the soil, the crops on the
dunged plot never show over-luxuriance. During the last few
years, there has even been a considerable decline in produce, due
to unfavourable seasons, which have g^reatly encouraged the growth
of weeds, and especially of grass ; whilst, owing to the wetness of
the seasons, it has been quite impossible effectually to clean the
land, and what has been done to that end has not been accom-
plished without injury to the crop.

If, as in the case of the unmanured plot, we were to adopt the
average of the first eight years, from 1844 to 1851, to represent
the standard yield of the farmyard manure plot, irrespectively of
material accumulation, the figure arrived at would be 28^ bushels.
This is certainly « surprisingly low produce to be obtained by the
annual -application of 14 tons of farmyard manure per acre, for
eight years in succession, and in seasons which, taken together,
•were of more than average productiveness. But if we adopt this
as the standard produce of the plot, then calculate what should be
the produce in each of the subsequent twenty-eight years, pro-
vided it fluctuated &om year to year exactly in the same degree as
the average produce of the country at large, and then take the
difference between this calculated produce fluctuating by season
alone, and that actually obtained each year, we ascertain the
increase or decrease due to accumulation by manure. On this
mode of calculation we get an average annual increase, due to
accumulation, of 5^ bushels. If, on the other hand, instead of the
av^erage produce of the first eight years, we take the average of the

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1880.] Gonsumptiony and Price of Wheat, 1862-58 to 1879-80. 319

whole thirty-six years of the application of the dung, we get,
instead of 28^ bushels, 32^ bnshels, as the standard with which to
compare the annnal produce. Adopting this figure, and following
the same line of calculation as before to exclude the influence of
season, we have an average annual excess, due to accumulation, of
only i^ bushel. There can be no doubt that were it not for the
adverse influence of the recent wet seasons, the estimated excess
would be more than 5^ bushels adopting the first standard, and
more than i^ bushel adopting the second. Probably the truth
lies between these two figures ; and, if so, it would appear that, up
to the present time at any rate, the gradually diminishing produce
on the unmanured plot, due to exhaustion, and the gradually
increasing produce on the dunged plot, due to accumulation,
approximately balance one another-

The Artificially Mamwed Flats. — Though obviously open to
objection, in default of any better alternative, we adopt for these
plots the average produce of the twenty-eight (or twenty-five)
years, to represent the standard yield irrespectively of exhaustion
or accumulation. Doing this, and excluding the influence of
season by the same line of calculation as before, there is no
evidence of material increase, or of material decrease, on either of
the plots receiving ammonia-salts, other than that due to season.
The first fourteen of the twenty-eight years included a number of
seasons of unusually high productiveness, and the last fourteen a
number of unusual deficiency. The calculations show, accordingly,
an excess over the assumed standard produce during the first half
of the period, and a closely corresponding deficiency over the second
half, in both the cases where ammonia-salts were used. Where
the nitrate of soda was employed, there was, on the other hand, a
somewhat greater deficiency over the first period than there was an
excess over the second, indicating for the total period a slight
deficiency.

Finally, taking the average of the unmanured plot, of the farm-
yard manure plot, and of the three artificially manured plots
reckoned as one, as is annually done for the purpose of our
estimate ; then correcting the result for each year as before for the
fluctuations of season ; and comparing the results so obtained with
the actual averages, the actual results show a very slight excess
over the first half of the period, including more than an average of
good seasons, and a somewhat greater, but still small, deficiency
over the* second period, including more than the average of bad
seasons. The average of the whole indicates, therefore, no gain by
accumulation, but if anything a slight loss.

Comparing the direct average of the experimental plots with
that actuaUy adopted as the^average for the United Kingdom each

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320

Lawbs and Qilbbbt — On Honve Froduce^ Imforts^ [June,

year, the experimental plots indicate for the whole twenty-eight
years about three-qnarters of a bashel less per acre per annum than
the actually adopted estimates founded upon them.

Taking the average of the twenty-eight years' adopted estimate
of produce per acre as icx>, the first column of the following table
shows the deviation from this general average for the whole
period, over the first eight, the second eight, the third eight, and
the last four, years of the twenty-eight ; and the second column
shows the deviation, from the same standard, of the average produce
per acre on the selected plots.

Tabls L — Shovnng the Demotion aver each separate Period from the
adopted Average of the whole Period taken a$ loo.

AetntUy
Adopted Arerages.

ATenget of Plote
8, 2, and 7, 8. and 9.

Fint eiffht jmn. 1862-59

I03
104

f
89

101

Second „ '60-67

106

Third „ *68-76

Last four yean, *76-79

Total period, twenty-eight years ....

100

So far as the annually adopted estimates are correct, the figures
in the first column indicate the actual fluctuations in the average
produce per acre of the country at large, due to the characters of
the seasons, over each period compared with the others, and with
the total period.

The first period of eight years included two of considerably
over average, another over average, three rather under, and two
very much under average. The result was, however, upon the
whole slightly over the average of the twenty-eight years. The
adopted average produce showed 3 per cent, over the average of
the twenty-eight years, and 2 per cent, over the actual average on
the selected plots, a higher figure than the actual average having
been adopted in the case of the two years of very low produce.

Within the second period of eight years, there were two of the
highest yield over the twenty-eight years, two more somewhat over
average, two under, and two much under average. In this period
highly productive seasons prevailed ; the adopted average is 4 per
cent, over the average of the twenty-eight years, and the actual
average on the selected plots is 6 per cent, over, or 2 per cent,
higher than the adopted average.

In the third period of eight years there was only one of really
high produce, two more were over average, one was under, and
four were considerably under average, the mean of the whole being
under average. The adopted average for the period shows 2 per

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1880.] Consumption, and Price of Wheat, 1852-53 to 1879-80. 321

cent, under the ayerage of l^e twenty-eight years, whilst the
average of the experimental plots shows i per cent, nnder the
ayerage.

The last four yeans include only one oyer ayerage, two nnder, and
one (1879) yery abnormally nnder average. Oyer this period, the
adopted ayerage amounted to only 89 per cent, of that for the
twenty-eight years; and, with the imusual prevalence of bad
seasons, the experimental plots showed only 7 1 per cent., or much
lower than the adopted average.

Thus, it appears that, in fairly average seasons, the mean
produce of the experimental plots fairly represents the average
produce ; that in seasons of unusual abundance the experimental
plots indicate too high a figure ; and that in seasons of great defi-
ciency they give too low a figore. Upon the whole, it is concluded
that we have no better basis for estimating the average yield of the
country each year, than that of the average produce of the same
selected plots as heretofore relied upon ; but that, as heretofore,
some judgment must be exercised each year, according to the
characters of the season, in deciding whether to adopt the actual
, figure indicated by the experimental plots, or in which direction,
and in what degree, it should be modified. It will, moreover, have
to be considered from time to time, whether any reduction of area
that may take place is in greater degree due to the elimination of
districts where the soil, or the climate, or the combination of the
two, is the less, or the more, favourable for the crop; for it is
obvious that, other things being equal, the ayerage produce per acre
of the remaining area will increase or diminish accordingly.

The next point is to test, as far as the means exist to that end,
the correctness of the estimates of the aggregate home produce, and
of the consumption per head per annum, as given in our former
paper for the first sixteen years, and as annually published as
forecast since that period.

In our annual estimates we have adopted a figure for the average
produce per acre over the United Elingdom, csJculated the aggre-
gate produce, deducted from this the amount required for seed, and
then estimated how much would be required, from stocks and
imports, to make up the total requirement for consumption, this
being reckoned at a fixed rate per head of the population. Now,
however, we have the actual record of the imports each year as a
fixed element of the inquiry; and, adopting the same returns or
estimates as to area and population as heretofore, the question now
is — ^not what will be the imports, but how far the estimates of home
produce have been correct ? and how far these estimated amounts,
minus the quantities required for seed, and plus the actual imports,

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822 Lawks and Gilbert — On Home Produce^ Imports, [Jane,

give a total corresponding with the estimated reqnirement for
consumption ?

The following table shows the averages, for the first eight, for
the second eight, for the third eight, for the succeeding three, and
for the total period of twenty-seven years, of —

1. The aggregate home produce of wheat, deduced by calca«
lating the amount required for consumption (at the rate of 5*1
bushels per head per annum during the first eight years, and of 5*5
bushels in esu3h subsequent year, as up to this time assumed),
deducting from this the imports, and adding 2^ bushels per acre
for seed.

2. The aggregate home produce calculated according to the
annual estimates of the average produce per acre, as previously
published.

8. The difference between the estimate of total home produce
founded on consumption and imports, and that founded on the
annually adopted estimates of average produce per acre.

4. The average produce per acre, calculated from the aggregate
home produce founded on the estimated requirements for consump-
tion and the imports.

5. The average produce per acre, according to the annually
adopted estimates.

6. The difference between the average produce per acre calcu-
lated from the aggregate home produce deduced from consumption
and imports, and the annually adopted estimates of average produce
per acrq.

Table II. — Comparing the Estimates of Home Produce founded on
Requirement for Consumption and Imports, udth those founded on the
Annually Adopted Estimates of Average Produce per Acre, over the
United Kingdom,

Aggregate Home Prodnoe.

Arerage Produce per Acre.

Dednced from

Calculated
Reqnirementa

for
Consumption
and Importa.

According
to Annually

Adopted
EaUmatea of

Average

Produce per

Acre.

Annually
Eftimated

+ or —
Calculated
according to

Require-
menta^fcc

According
to

Conaump-
Uonand
ImporU.

According

to
Annually
Adopt«i

Eatimatea.

Annual
Eatimate

+ or-

Cal.

culated.

Ave-^ages for—
8 yn., 1852-59
8 „ '60-67
8 „ '68-75
8 „ '76-78

Qra.

H»390»95^
13,312,217

i2,i74»77i
io,393»50o

ara.
14,810.779
18,809,247
12,699,155
11,166,910

Qra.

- 80,177

- 2,970

+ 5H»383
+ 773»4'o

Bahla.
28^
28f
251
25*

BahU.
28

28f
21k

Bahla.
-01

0
+ U

27 yr».. 1852-78

i2>97o>52i

13,181,686

+ 211,115

27i

Z7l

+ 0J

Leaving out of view for the present, any consideration of the

/Google

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1880.] OonsvmpHon, and Pnce of Wheat, 1852-53 to 1879-80. 323

inevitable discrepancies which must appear between the results of
these two modes of estimate for individual years, it is obvious that,
whether we compare the aggregate home produce founded on the
requirements for consumption and on imports, with that founded
on the annually adopted estimates of produce per acre, or compare
the estimated average produce per acre itself arrived at in the
two different ways, there is, taking the average of the tweniy-
seven years, comparatively little difference between the results
thus variously arrived at. The annually adopted estimates of pro-
duce per acre over the United Eongdom give, however, the higher
result.

It is obvious that, to bring out still more close conformity of
result from the two modes of estimate, we must either raise the
estimate of requirement for consumption per head, or lower that of
the average produce per acre over the United Kingdom, for some of
the years. Unfortunately, we have little else than judgment to aid
us in deciding between these two alternatives. If, however, we
compare the average result by the two methods for shorter periods
— for the first, for the second, for the third eight years, and for the
last three years, of the twenty-seven, for example — ^it is seen that
the results ol the two estimates agree very closely indeed for the
first two periods of eight years each ; but i^ai,. for the third and
fourth periods, those founded on the requirements for consumption
and the imports, are considerably lower than the average of the
annually adopted estimates for those periods. The fact is that, for
each of the first two periods, the estimated consumption was itself
finally founded on the estimated home produce and the imports
of the period ; so that, although there will be discrepancy in the
results arrived at in the two ways for individual years, there could
not be material disagreement over the whole of either of those
periods. For each of the last two periods, however, the estimate
of consumption per head has been annually adopted indepen-
dently, as forecast, and the discrepancy between the results of the
two modes of estimate for those periods has, therefore, a real
significance.

Independently of the questicm of whether or not any correction
in the estimates for individual years should be made, the foregoing
results would lead to the conclusion that the actual consumption
per head, taken together with the amount consumed by stock, has
been greater over the last two periods than has been annually
assumed. If now we assume the requirement per head to have
been 5*6 bushels over the third eight years, and 5*65 bushels over
the last three years, instead of, as previously, $*5 bushels over
those eleven years, this would bring the two estimates into very
much closer agreement. We shoxdd then have the average produce

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S24 Law^s cmd Oilbbrt— On Home Produce^ Imperii^ [Jnne,

per acre per anniun over the United Kingdom) for the respective
perioda, as follows : —

Table III.

.' Arerage 8 jean, 1852-58— 1869-60

„ 8 „ '60-61— W-68

„ 8 „ '68-69— '76-76

„ 8 „ '76-77— '78-79 ^

AceordiDg to

IncrMMd CoBnnpdan.

an4Inporta.

AceordiDg to
Aui«a)ly Adopted

BMm,
*7

Bahk.
28
28f
261
27i

Arerage 27 yeari, 1862-8—1878-9

i7l

271

It will be obeeryed that, even with the estimates of the average
oonsQmption per head raised as above supposed, the average
produce per acre founded on the annual estimates is slightly
higher over the last two periods than that founded on consumption
and imports. It must be borne in mind that the quantity of
wheat consumed by &rm stock is an unknown and varying
element ; and, either the estimate of the consumption per head of
the population must be fixed to include the average consumption
in other ways, or the annual estimates of produce per acre, and of
the aggregate home produce founded upon them, should exceed
those founded on consumption and imports. It may be remarked
that an increase of one-tenth of a bushel in the consumption per
head per annum would, if derived from home produce, represent
an increase of i bushel per acre per annum over the United King-
dom, assuming a population of 33 millions, and an area under the
crop of 3,300,000 acres ; figures which closely represent the actual
facts a very few years ago. It is obvious that, with an increasing
population, and a diminishing area under wheat, such an assumed
increase in consumption per head would correspond to more than a
bushel per acre.

The following Table (IV) shows the amount of home produce
required for consumption within each harvest-year, as calculated
by deducting the imports from the estimated total requirement for
consumption, adopting the increased estimates of consumption per
head, as above assumed, for the last eleven years ; and, for com-
parison with the result so obtained, there is given the amount of
home produce available for consumption each year, according to
the annual estimates of the average produce per acre, with
2^ bushels per acre deducted for seed. The difference between the
two is shown in the last column.

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1880.] Oonsumpiion, and Price of Wheat, 1852-53 to 1879-80.

Tabl» IV.

325

HMTest
Years;

1st Sept

to
SlstAog.

Total Required for

Coosumption :
JLtS'i Bosbels 1st

8 Years;
■t 5*5 Bushels 9nd

8 Years;
afc 5^ Bushels Srd

8 Years:
at 5-65 Bushels last

4 Years,
per Head per

Annom.

Imports.

Difference:
Beqnired

from Home
Produee

wtthiaewsh
Harvest Year.

Home Produce

AvaiUble

aeoordiug to

Annual EsUmates

per Acre

(2} Bashels per

Acre Dedneted for

Seed).

Avaflable
Home Prodaoe
according to

Annnal
Estimates

+ or —

CaleulaUd

Requirement

within each

Harvest Year.

1852^3
'63-54
'64-56
'65-66
'56-67
'57-58
•58^9
'69-60

1860-61
'61-62
'62-63
'63-64
'64-65
'65-66
'66-67
'67-68

1868-69
'69-70
'70-71
'71-72
'72-73
'73-74
'74-75
'75-76

1876-77
'77-78
'7^79
'79-80

Ors.

17,538,354
17,607,749
17,701,710
17,816,807
17,932,364
18,055,662
18,183,671
18,306,247

19.874.968
20,025,576
20,165,540

20,287,594
20,419,321
20,547,130
20,684,813
20,830,600

21,368,178
21,532,105

21,909.347
22,224,385
22,428445
22,622,952
22,840,258
23.082,333

23.537,495
23,826,133
24,058,216
(24.334*025)

Qrt.
5,902,000
6,092,000
2,988,000
8,266,000
4,112,684
6,795,687
4,655,670
4,616,832

10,023,968
9,099,456
9,205,086
6,991,270
6,500,705
7,318,026
7,633,033
9,015,543

8,243,389
10,000,004
8,841,090
9,316,600
12,291,463
11,583,645
11,739,710
18,948,644

12,168,006
14,611,181
14,431,971

Qrs.

11.636,354
11.515.749
14,718,710
14,551.807
13.819.780

12,259.975
13,628,001

13,789,915

9,851,000
10,926,121
10,960,454

13.296,324
14,918,616
13,234,104
13,051,780
11,815,057

13.124,789
11,532,101
13,068,257
12,907,785
10,136,982
11,039.307
11,100,548
9,133,689

11.379.489
9.314.952
9,626,245

Qrt.
10,488,464
9,337,546
16,427,742
12,776,800
18,007,463
16,143,916
15,147,874
12,004,676

9,966,012
11,176,183
12,882,069
16,881,807
16,179,783
12,950,306
10,458,645

8,545,890

16,626,060
12,301,206
18,089,893
10,382,493
10,438,729

9,290,343
12,898,085

9,088,000

8,857,016
10,039,078
11,698,672
(5,047,840)

Qrt.

- 1,202,890

- 2,178,203
+ 1.709,032

- 1.775.507

- 812,327
+ 3.883,940
+ 1.519,873

- 1.785,340

+ 105,012
+ 249,062
+ 1,921,615

+ 3.585.483
+ 261,167

- 283.799

- 2,593,135

- 3,269,167

+ 2,501,271
+ 769,104
+ 31,636

- 2,525,292
+ 301,747

- 1,748,964
+ 1,797,537

- 100,689

- 2,522,474
+ 724,121
+ 2,072,427

Averages

8 years!
1852-59/

8year8l
1860-67/

8year8^
1868-75j"

Syeups]
1876-78]

17,892,820
20,354,443
22,251,000
23,807,281

4,662,784

8,097,761

10,746,668

13,700,886

13,240,036
12,256,682
« 1.505432
10,106,895

13,159,859
12,253,711
11,632,476
10,198,263

- 80,177

2,971

+ 127,044

+ 91.358

27yeawl
1852-78 (

20,570,665

8,484,076

12,086,589

12,109,746

+ 23,157

When it is borne in mind that the firet estimate (Col. 4)
represents the requirement alone each year, and the second (GoL 5)

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Lawbs cMd OiLBBBT — On Home Produce^ ImporUy [Jane,

the amount available for consnmption from the estimated actual
crop each year, it will be obvions that agreement between the two
estimates for individual years is not to be expected. The amounts
carried over from one harvest-year to another will of course vary
exceedingly according to circumstances, the influence of which
cannot with any certainty be estimatedi We have, for example,
no reliable information as to the quantity of home produced wheat
held in the farmers' hands, the quantity consumed by farm stock,
or otherwise xised, or the quantity of foreign wheat held over in the
granaries. Then, again, the actual length of the period to be pro-
vided for, dependent on the eaiiinees or the lateness of consecutive
harvests, has to be taken into account.

deferring to the actual differences for individual years, as
shown by the figures in the last column of the Table (IV), it is
obvious that, whilst there may be, and frequently is, an excess of
wheat available over that requfred for eonsnmption within the
harvest-year, there cannot be an actual deficiency. Without
attempting to account for each individual difference, it may be
observed that the deficiencies which the figures indicate in some of
the earlier years would doubtless be compensated, at any rate in
part, if the balance were brought forward from the immediately
preceding years; the last three of which were seasons of more
than average productiveness, and of lower than average price,
conditions which imply abundance. Then as to some of the
excesses. It may be mentioned in illustration that, in each of the
four consecutive years, 1862-66, there was more, and in two of
them very much more, than the average produce over the country
at large ; and it was estimated that, at the harvest of 1865, there
still remained over from the extraordinary crop of 1863, and the
abundant one of 1864, wheat equal to from one-third to one-half
of an average crop ; and that, even at the harvest of 1866, some of
the crop of 186.3 remained unthrashed. It may, indeed, be stated
generally, that as a rule the excesses follow, as they should, seasons
of high productiveness, and the deficiencies seasons of low
productiveness.

Discrepancies between the two results for individual years are,
in fact, inevitable ; and the figures strikingly illustrate the difficulty
of the subject so far as individual years are concerned. But if the
bases of the estimates are correct, the results of the two methods
should agree when averaged over a sufficient number of years. An
examination of the averages for the different periods, given at the
foot of the table, will show that, with the increased estimates of
consumption per head for the last two periods, the agreement
between the differently obtained results is really very close.

Finally, as to the questions — whether our previous estimates of

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1880.] Oanswmptum, and Prioe of Wheat, 1852-53 to 1879-80. 827

the oonsnmptioii of wheat per head of the population, over the firat
two periods of eight years each, are correct ? and whether we are
to conolade that there really has been an increased oonsnmption per
head in the subsequent years P

There can be no donbt that the ayerage consumption per head
has increased in the United Eangdom as a whole since the estab- ^
lisbment of free trade in com; and there can be but little doubt that
it has done so less rapidly during the later, than during the earlier,
years since that change. This will be the case, at any rate with the
much larger proportion of the total population which is comprised
within England and Wales ; though the increased consumption has
probably been developed later in Scotland, and perhaps in Ireland
also. The amount consumed will obviously vary according to the
prosperity or otherwise of the people, to the price of wheat itself,
and to iJiat of other articles of food also. With regard to the
price of wheat, barring exceptional cases, there has been a general
tendency to decline throughout the period to which our estimates
refer. Independently of the influence of lower prices, and of the
increased prosperity of the masses of the population, among the
circumstances tending to increase the coDsumption of wheat in
recent years may be mentioned the increased price of meat ; whilst,
among those tending to limit the rate of increase of consumption
may be noted the fact that the proportion of the total wheat con-
sumed which is derived from foreign sources is rapidly increasing,
and the drier foreign wheats will undoubtedly yield a larger per-
centage of flour, and flour of better quality, than much of the
home-grown grain.

As already explained, the estimates of consumption per head
over the first sixteen years, although controlled by the calculation
of numerous dietaries, were finally founded on the estimated
amounts of home produce, and the ascertained amounts of the
imports ; and they were calculated for the first half, and the second
half, of that period, separately, in order to ascertain whether or not
an increased rate of consumption were indicated. The result was
that the so-reckoned available supplies showed a consumption of
about 5*1 bushels per head per annum over the first eight years,
and of 5*5 bushels over the second eight years. Of coarse, even
supposing that the estimates of the available supplies over the
whole period were correct, and that there was a considerable increase
in the rate of consumption during the period, it is not to be assumed
that there was the sudden rise from the first to the second eight
years, which, taking the averages over those separate periods
shows. It is, indeed, doubtful whether the estimcttes of consump.
tion per head over the earlier years, as deduced from the amounts
estimated to be available from the home produce and the imports,

VOL. XLin. PABT II. Z

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328 Lawis CMd Oilbebt— CM Home Produce, ImporU, [June,

may not be somewhat too low, doe to an nnder estimate of the area
nnder the crop in those years. Bnt, as no data exist npon which
to base a trustworthy correction, the safer alternative seems to be
simply to call attention to this probabiliiy.

Then, again, a carefnl consideration of onr ammal estimates of
produce per acre subsequent to the first sixteen years, leads to the
conclusion that some are more probably too low than too high.
For 1866 and 1867, for example, our own estimates are lower than
those of some others ; and that for 1867, at any rate, may we think
probably be somewhat too low. But here, again, there is lade of
sufficient eridence to justify an alteration.

Upon the whole, we are disposed to conclude that our estimates
of consumption per head during the first period of eight years,
may be somewhat too low. We also conclude that our previously
published estimates of consumption for the years subsequent to the
first sixteen, are more probably too low, than that onr estimates of
average produce per acre, and of aggregate produce founded upon
them, are too high. For the reasons given, however, we adopt our
previous estimates of average produce per acre each year without
change. We also adopt our previous estimates of consumption
per head for the first two periods of eight years each without
change. But, for the third period of eight years we assume the
consumption to have been at the rate of 5*6 bushels per head, and
for the last three years at the rate of 5*65 bushels, instead of 5*5
bushels over those eleven years, as previously reckoned.

Accordingly, until further experience should indicate further
change to be necessary, we propose to adopt 5f bushels as the
average consumption per head of the population per annum, over
the United Kingdom.

Table TV, p. 325, shows the estimated aggregate consumption
of wheat in each year, and the amount of it derived from home
and foreign sources respectively; and Table V, which follows,
brings to one view the particulars of the estimated home produce,
of the imports, of the consumption per head, of the average
" (Gazette ** price per quarter, and of the cost of wheat (at the
average " Guzette " price) in the United Kingdom, in each of the
twenty-eight (or twenty-seven) harvest years, from 1852-3 up to
the present time.

Referring to the upper portion of the table for all details, and
to the text for further information respecting some of them, the
general tendency of the changes which have taken place within the
period of our review is clearly indicated in the average results
over the periods of eight, eight, eight, three, and twenty-seven
years, given at the foot of the table.

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1880.] Consumption^ and Price of Wheats 1852-53 to 1879-80. 329

According to the figures, the area nnder wheat was about 20 per
cent, less over the last three, than over the first eight years, of the
twenty-seven.

The average produce per acre over the United Kingdom was
considerably less over the last two, than over the first two periods.
It amounted to only 27^ bushels over the whole twenty-seven
years, as compared with 28^ bushels which we had previously
assumed to represent the average produce per acre of the country
at large.

Owing to the reduced produce per acre in recent years, the
aggregate home-produce has reduced in a somewhat greater degree
than has the area under the crop.

The annual imports averaged about three times as much 9ver the
last three, as over the first eight, of the twenty-seven years.

The total consumption of wheat per annum has increased from
an average of about 18 million quarters over the first eight years,
to nearly 24 million quarters over the last three years.

According to the figures, the average consumption per head per
annum was only about 5*1 bushels over the first eight years, but it
amounted to 5*67 bushels over the last three years.

The price of wheat per quarter has declined from an average of
57». Sd, over the first eight years (including the period of the
Crimean War), to 49^. over the last three years.

The annual value of the home produce available for consump-
tion has declined from an average of nearly 38,ooo,cxx)/.>pver the
first eight years, to less than 25,cxx),ooo/. over the last three years.

The annual value of the imported wheat has increased from an
average of little more than 13,000,000/. over the first eight years, to
more than 33,000,000/. over the last three years.

The annual value of the total wheat estimated to be consumed
has ranged from under 40,000,000/. to more than 71,000,000/.; and
it has increased from an average of about 51,500,000/. over the first
eight years, to more than 58,000,000/. over the last three years.

The average annual cost of wheat per head has somewhat
reduced in the later periods ; and it has been 36^. 2d over the
twenty -seven years.

Over the whole period of twenty-seven years, 40*4 per cent, of
the wheat consumed has been derived from imports; and the
amount supplied from foreign sources has increased from an
average of 26*5 per cent, of the total over the first eight years, to
57*4 per cent, of the total consumed over the last three years, of the
twenty- seven.

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330 liAWis and Oilbbbt — On Home Produce^ Impari$, [June,

Tablb Y. --Particulars of Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, and Price of Wheat, w

Hurrcft

Yean,

IttSepi.

to
Sltt Am$.

1852-63
'58-54
'54-55
•55-56
'56-57
'57-58
'58-69
'59-60

1860-61
'61-62
'62-63
'63-64
'64-65
'65-66
'66-67
'67-68

186&-69
'69-70
^70-71
'71-72
'72-73
'73-74
'74-75
75-76

1876-77

'77-78
'78-79
'79-80

Aver^s.t

8 7earal
1852-69]

8 yeapsl
1860-67/

8year8l
1868-75/

3 years
1876-78

27 years"
1862-78.

EftloMted Home ProteM.

Areannder
Crop.

Acres.
4»058»75i
4»oU»963
4.03^.969
4,076447
4.i'3.65»
4. « 85.974
4»»3i.8ii
4.019,7*5

3.99^.657

3,898,17^
3.8*3.947
3,698,6*9

3.685493
3,646,691

3.649.584
3,628,910

3.937.275
3.976,147
3.773.663
3,818,848

3,839.53*
3,670,259
3.821,655
3,503,709

3,"4.555

3,311,859

.3,372,590

(3,047,752)

4,092,160
3,753,01 1
3,792,636
3,266,335

3,8ii»i65

Arer-
•ire

Yield

per

Acre.

Bbb.
22f
20i
341
271
27

3U
261

22|

25i

36i
301
251^
21

34
27
30
24

24.

22f

261

Total HooM
Produce.

Qrs.

1,574.982
0466473
7,563.140
3,922,801

4.»92,543
7.3*>.22i

6,309»949
3,i35,»24

1,078,948
2,271,546
3.957,554
7,922,048
6,216,328
3.975.936
1,485,091
9,566,522

6,733.419
3419496
4,»5».236

1,456,544
1,518,596
0,322,603
3,972,926
0,018418

mi)

28
281
261
27i

271

i4t3»o,779
13,309,247
12,699,155
11,116,910

13,181,636

ATaflable for CoMompttoB.

no«e

Produce, leas

2i BuakeU

per Acre for

Seed.

Qrs.
10,488,464
9,837,646
16,427,742
12,776,300
13,007,453
16,148,915
15,147,874
12,004,576

9,956,012
11,175,183
12,882,069
16,881,807
15,179,783
12,950,805
10,458,646

8,545,890

15,626,060
12,301,206
13,089,893
10,382,493
10,488,729

9,290,343
12,898,085

9,033,000

9,732,984 8,867,015

0,970,533 10,039,073

2,647,213 ll,698,R72

(5,905,020) (5,047.840)

13,169,869
12,258,712
11,632,476
10,198,253

12,109,746

Imports,

less
Exports.

Qrs.

5,902,000

2,983,000
3,265,000

TMaL

Qrs,
16,836,464

6,092,000 15,429,546

5,795,687
4,555.670
4,516,332

10,023,968

9,099455
9,205,086
6,991,270
5.500,705
7,3 » 3,026

7,633.033
9,015,543

21,939,602
19,703,544
16,620,907

19,979,980
20,274,688
22,087.165
23,873,077
20,680,488
20,268,831
18,091,678
17,561,433

28,869,449

12,158,006
14,511,181
«4,43>.97i

4.652,784

8,097,76

10,745.568

« 3,700,386

8484,076

19,410,742
16,041,800

4,112,584117.120,087

8,243,38923,869,449 30,525,967
10,000,00422301,209 30,760,150
8,841,09021,930,988 31,299,067
9,3 1 6,600 19,699,093 31,749,121
12,29146322,730,192 32,040,636
11,583,64520.873,988 32,318,503
11,739,710 24,637,795 32,628,940
13,948,64422,981,644 32,974,761

21,016,021
24,650,254
26,180,643

17,812,648
20,861,478
22,878,044

20,698,822

FopnlatioB

of Barfsst

TSMS).

27,511,144

27,619,999
27.767,388
27.947.933
28,129.198
28,322,607
28,523,406
28,715,682

28,909,045

29,128,110
29.33«,69<;
29,509,228
29,700,831
29,886,735
30,087,001
30,299,054

33,327,426
33,736,117
34,064,731

[34^55,257)

28,067,170
29,606462

31,787,143
33.709425

30,252,388

tor

Available
Coasaasptiott
per Head.

PlroB
Ho»e
Pro.
dace.

4-74

1-76 4-46
08^ 5-58

Bhb.
3-03
270
4-73
365
870
4-56
424
8-841 i'25|4-59

275
306
3-51
4-57
4-08
3-47
278
226

4-09
3-20
336
2-62
261
2-30
316
219

218
238
275

3-75
3-81
2-93
2*42

Ytom
Im-
porta

BUS.
1-71

093

i-i6l

1-636-19
1-28 5-52

2*77
2*49
2-51

5-62
6-55
6-02

1896-46
1-48 5'66
1*956*42
2-62 4 80

238

4-63

235
3*07

292
344

«*33

y^s

Tot^

4-58
4-86

2'i66*85
2-60 6-80
2-26 5*61

4^
5-68

2-87 6-17
2*88 6-04
3 39 5-68

5<06
582

3 39 6 14

5-06

2' 1 9 5*G0
2-706^63

5-e7

"■r

* ExclosiTe of the islands in the British seas.

t Consumption reckoned at 5*1 bushels per head per annum the Arat ei^t

X The '* averages " are, in each case, the mere means of the figures in the

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1880.] Gonetimptiony and Price of Wheats 1852-53 to 1879-80. 331
the United Kingdom* Twenty-Eight {or Tweniy-Seven) Tears, 1852-53 to 1879-80 indusive.

Talue of Wheat available for

Value of Wheat Estimated

Percent.

Conaumption
(at Average Gazette Price).

to be Ck>iiBiunedt
(at Average Gazette Price).

of
Total Available.

Harvest
Tears,

From

1st Sept.

per

rroB

Per

Home

From

Quarter.

Home Produce.

From Impoita.

Total

Head.

Pro-

[mports.

81st Aug.

dnce.

8, d.

Pr. cnt.

Pr. cnt

4A 7

23>a57i930

13,156,542

36,414472

89,095,914

63-9

361

1862-63

72 11

34,043,136

22,210,417

56,253,553

64,194,918

60-5

39-5

'53-54

70 1

57,565,546

10,452,929

68,018,475

62,029,742

84-6

'5*4

*54^56

78 11

47,319,075

12,066,896

59,285,971

66,847,949

79-6

30-4

'56-56

60 1

39,076,556

12,354,888

51,431,444

68,871,810

760

34-0

*56-67

47 8

38,476,331

18,818,054

52,389,385

43,032,661

73-6

36-4

'57-58

43 8

33,072,858

9,946,546

43,019,404

39,701,015

76-9

23-1

'58-59

48 8

28,961,037

10,895,651

39,856,688

44,163,821

72-7

27*3

'59-60

55 8

27,503,483

27,691,212

55,194,695

54,904,599

49-8

50*2^

1860-61

58 2

32,501,157

26,464,248

58,965405

58,241,050

661

44*9

'61-62

47 8

30,703,264

21,938,788

52,641,053

48,061,204

58-3

4f7

'62-63

41 0

34,607,704

14,332,104

48,939,808

41,689,568

70-7

39-3

'63-64

40 1

30,422,815

11,024,380

41,447,145

40,928,723

73-4

36-6

'64r^5

46 6

30,109,459

17,002,785

47,112,344

47,772,077

68-9

36-1

'65-66

60 4

31,550,246

23,026,316

54,576,563

62,399,183

57-8

43-3

'66-67

68 4

29,198,458

30,808,105

60,001,563

71,171,217

48-7

51-3

'67-^

50 0

39,065,150

20,608,478

59,673,623

53,420,445

65-6

34*5

1868-69

46 2

28,395,282

23,083,343

51,478,625

49,703,276

65'2

44-8

'69-70

54 2

35,451,794

28,044,619

59,396,413

69,337,816

59-7

40-3

'70-71

56 7

29,373,803

26,358,214

55,732,017

62,876,489

62-7

47*3

'71-72

67 4

29,9^4,356

35,235,527

65,159,883

64,294.876

45-9

54* »

'72-73

61 8

28,451,675

35,474,913

63,926,588

69,282,791

44-5

55*5

'73-74

44 7

28,751,981

26,169,770

54,931,751

50,914,742

52-4

47-6

'74^75

45 11

20,738,263

82,023,761

52,763,034

62,998,190

39-3

6o-7

•76-76

54 7

24.172,270

38,181,225

57,353,495

64,237,747

421

57"9

1876-77

50 10

25,515,977

36,882,585

62,398,562

60,558,088

40-9

59*1

'77-78

41 7

24,323,489

30,006,473

54,329,962

60,021,041

44-8

55*2

'78-79

■■■"

'79-80

Avergs.t

57 8

37,709,059

13,112,115

50,821,174

61,492,229

73-6

26-5

r Syeara
\l852-69

52 2

30,824,448

21,585,424

52,359,872

63,132,828

59-7

40-3

8 years
1860-67

52 0

30,019,038

27,862,828

57,881,366

57,852,953

51-9

481

8 years
.1868-75

49 0

24t670,579

38,356,761

58,037,340

58;272,292

42-6

57-4

/ 3 years
11876-78

58 5

31,941,929

22,227,749

54,169,678

54,616,832

59-6

40-4

r27 years
11862-78

yean, 5*5 the second eight, 5*6 the third eight, and 5*65 the next three years,
oolumns for the respective periods.

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332 [June,

Discussion on Captain Craioie's, and Messrs. Lawes' and
Gilbert's Papers.

Mr. J. B. Lawes, LL.D., F.R.S., said that some apology was due
to the Statistical Society for offering them a paper so full of
guesses, instead of figures which could be altogether relied upon,
more especially when his paper followed one from Captain Craigie,
based upon the valuable agricultural statistics for which we are
indebted to the exertions of Mr. Caird. If he (Mr. Lawes) had
been a native of Lincolnshire, he should have found some fault with
Captain Craigie for having excluded that county from the first-class
com district of England ; compared with Huntingdon, which was
one of the five counties called first-class, Lincolnshire had one
million acres of arable land against 1 50,000 acres in Huntingdon ;
Lincolnshire grew six times as many acres of wheat, and had as
^ar^e a proportion of arable to pasture as Huntingdonshire. The
reason for the exclusion of Lincolnshire was apparently due to the
area of waste land being larger in Lincolnshire than in Hunting-
donshire. One great question of interest brought out in the
statistics was the decline of the area under wheat ; in the decenniiJ
period referred to by Captain Craigie, it will be found that the
following eight counties had reduced their acreage from about 25
to 53 per cent., Westmoreland, Northumberland, Cumberlancl,
Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire ; the
eight counties in which the area of wheat had declined the least
were the following : — Herts, Huntingdon, Norfolk, Suffolk, Hants,
Berks, Surrey, and Beds. The county in which the decline had
been the smallest was the county in which he (Mr. Lawes) lived —
Herts, there it was less than 2 per cent ; whether this was due to
the example of his experiments where wheat had been grown
continuoosly for thirty-six years he could not say, but at all events
the farmer had not followed his example in one point, as he had
substituted barley for wheat. With the decline in wheat growing,
an increase in the acreage of barley was evident in some counties,
especially in Suffolk, the increased area under barley much
exceedecl that which was previously under wheat. The agri-
cultural statistics show that the increase of pasture has proceeded
far more rapidly than the decline of arable land ; it would appear
probable that some land originally considered as waste was now
entered as pasture. He noticed that in one year there was in
Devonshire an increase of i {,000 acres of pasture without any
decline in the arable land. Although admitting that a considerate
amount of arable land had been laid down in pasture, he thought
that the figures given in the statistics must be used with some
caution, but on the whole they were fairly correct and of great value.
Mr. E. Power said the writers of the second valuable paper to
which they had listened, assumed that the consumption of wheat
was 5*1 bushels per head of the population per annum. In 1866
he wrote to six or seven of the most reliable and best informed
people in each county in England and Wales, to ascertain what
they considered the average prod ace of wheat per acre in their
respective counties, and he applied the information he received to

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1880.] Discussion on Oradgie^s, Lawes\ and OUbert's Papers. 833

the acreage as given by the statistical returns. Haying firiends in
the midland counties connected with agricnltural pnrsnits, and
more especially with milling and bread making, he was able to
ascertain that the consumption of certain districts in Warwick-
shire— ^which might be considered a fair type of the country — was
aboat 6 bushels per head of the population of men, women and
children. These returns showed the average yield of wheat per
acre for the seven years ended in 1866 was very nearly 31 bushels
of 61 pounds, which he (Mr. Power) was aware was a higher yield per
acre than was generally believed, but applying this to the acreage
for England and Wales, after deducting 2^ bushels per acre for
seed and adding the production of the remainder of the United
Kingdom, and the average yearly import of wheat and flour for the
same period, the result corresponded very closely with the consump-
tion of 6 bushels per head, assuming a deduction of two millions
from the population for the non-bread-eating people of the United
Eangdom. Everybody in the com trade must be especially
interested by the papers given by Mr. Lawes from time to time, for
whether they were accurate or not, they were most serviceable in
enabling a comparison to be made between one year and another.
The information had been on the whole relatively correct, and it had
been a very good guide. In one part of the paper attention was
called to the lower prices of wheat increasing consumption, but he
was himself disposed to think that low priced bread tends rather to
decrease than increase the consumption, because bread is always
the cheapest food, and when the price of bread is high, the main
braad-eating population are unable to get much meat, and are
obliged to live more largely on bread. On the other hand low
prices produce waste, and to a certain extent cause wheat to be
used for other purposes than human food. He (Mr. Power) doubted
very much whether wheat of good qaality was ever used for cattle
feeding as much as was supposed, and instanced the harvest year
1874-75 as an example, when there was every inducement to use it.
The abundance of old wheat in the country when the harvest of
1875 was gathered proved it could not have been so used to any
great extent.

Mr. Edwin Chadwick, G.B., said that the deficiencies of the
statistics afEorded by the censas, to which Captain Graigie in his
able paper had adverted, had restricted him more than he had
stated, and would continue to restrict the progress of statistical
science until the mode of taking the census in this country was
altered. When the census was first taken here, the administrative
unit was the parish, and the officers — the overseers — were very
illiterate : in the rural districts, the overseers were mostly farmers,
many of whom could neither read nor write. As a consequence, it
became necessary to get the work of summarising done in the
central department, where a hundred clerks were employed, and
they occupied about three years in getting out the summaries of
the occnpations. The particulars to be summarised had to be
restricted, and much matter of local interest and importance
excluded, in order to avoid further central labour and central
delay. The experience of changes in getting out Mr. Kelly's

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8M D%$em$i(m (m [ Jnxie,

directories was in tlie ooimtieB, of tlie higber okflses ennmerated
in them, lo per cent.; in suborbttn districts in the metropolis
it was 20 per cent.; mnd of the labouring population, with the
emigration and migration to towns, the changes would |»obablj
be as great or greater. So that during the three years that eli^psed
between the time of taking the enumeration and getting out the
summaries, some 50 or 60 per cent, of error as to the identical
population woald often occur. It was the practice to estimate for
a regular increase of population. This might be true of the whole
kingdom, but it was proved in particular places, that instead of an
increase there had been a material decrease in the population. The
system of central summaries was fraught with large errors of
omission, especially as respects the particulars of the agricultural
population. These errors could not be remedied, because under tiiis
hsA centralised practice any requisite addition would add to the
present grieyons delay. It was objected to the introduction of ihe
enumeration of the dilEerent religious denominations, on account of
the delay as well as the expense it would occasion. The remedy for
all this was to summarise locally. Instead of the old local unit, the
parish, or the commune, we had now the new local administratiye
unit, the union, with its paid officers ; men of middle class educa-
tion, as the clerk of the union, who was superintendent registrar: 625
of them, and 3,000 health officers and registrars, rate odlectors and
union school teachers ; all trained in account keeping, and some of
them practised in summarising the results of elections. It was
unwarrantable, as the central office presumed to assume, that theee
permanent and responsible officers could not do the work required
as well as the temporary clerks previously unpractised, and of less
responsibility. Instead of paying one clerk for thirty-six months
to get out the work, could they not pay thirty-six clerks in the
locality for one month each to get out the summaries P Errors
would be corrected imimediately on the spot, which at the centre
were passed over, or only rectified by long correspondence. By
proper local arrangements, the census, which was not now com-
pleted in less than three years, might be got out better in three
months, at no greater expense. The census of France, by diis
method of summarising locally, got out a census in months instead
of in years. But a great evil of the present system was the exclu-
sion of a great deal of stocktaking, and of statistics of special
importance to the locality. Thus for urban districts there was
wanted for sanitary porposes summaries of the population of streets,
and in rural districts the summaries of the population of villages,
that it might be ascertained what were the proportions of dea^s
to the population ; — that it might be seen what was the direction of
sanitary service needed, and what were the results of measures
taken, which could rarely be done now. In agriculture they wanted
to know what was the difference of production in different places
and conditions ; — ^what was the difference of production of labour and
of wages. It was known that iii some districts the labour of two
was as efficient as three in another. It was stated the other day in
the Chamber of Agriculture that cultivation was cheaper in some
northern districts, at one-third higher wages, than in southern

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1880.] Oapt. Cr<iigte\ and Messn. Lawes^ cmd OtlberVs Papers. 835

districts. He knew agricnltnral districts in which the wages since
the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act had nearly donbled ;
bat they had no statistical returns from which they could ascertain
the progress of production, nor what had since been the cost of
tillage, which was most material to compare with the cost of tillage
in other counties. The present statistics of agricultural production
were most defective. Formerly the com factors of Mark Lane sent
out men to ascertain the yield of crops, which from practice they
did with remarkable accuracy — ^more accurately often than the
farmers themselves. Whilst the farmers* returns gave the yield
at 26 bushels of wheat per acre, the yield, according to the Mark
Lane examiners, was 32 bushels in the com growing districts. We
know that the yield in some districts did not average more than
some 24 bushels, whilst in others it averaged 40 ; " and these means *'
of large districts were widely misleading. The defective state of
agricultural statistics was, he considered, particularly shown by the
second paper read that night, in which a general statistical conclu-
sion was endeavoured to be deduced from the results of one mode of
culture with solid manure on one farm. He could have confidently
made an advance upon this, and have established a constant on the
experience of some, twenty sewage farms, where it was shown in
contrast with adjacent different old modes of culture, that whilst
ihe yield of the common solid manure agriculture of a fair average
was as one, and of the solid manure crdture of the market garden
farms was as three and a half, the good liquefied manure culture
of the sewage farms was as five, — presenting a future of agriculture
such as had not hitherto been conceived. The deduction of the
consumption of produce from the observation of that of a single
family, commonly of a model family, was widely defective. He had
endeavoured to get at more correct results by ascertaining from
different shopkeepers the amounts of produce they supplied to the
different classes of their customers. The statistics of agriculture
he considered to be in other important respects extremely defective,
and that the first step to improvement was getting the summaries
made locally and for the locality itself, sending up to the central
department only the summaries of the general results. These
decennial returns were from the lapse of time very insufficient and
misleading, and quinquennial and even triennial returns were now
being sought. At the statistical congress at the Hague he had
suggested annual censuses and stocktaking. The principle he
proposed was to have a registry made of the individuals or of
the family of a house, and then only to ascertain, and return the
differences from year to year, as was now being done with the
higher classes, in the published works. This, which only required
a tenth of the results to be taken yearly, would not be so much
more expensive than was supposed. Dr. Engel had indeed suc-
ceeded in getting out an annuaJ census for Prussia, and in proving
that it might be done; but it was highly unpopular there, and
discontinued for reasons which would not exist here, where in the
agricultural districts the farmers were not frightened at the know-
ledge of the Government, but at the too particular knowledge of
rent charging landlords.

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336 Diiousdon an [ Jane,

Mr. GoBNBLius WiLrORD thought it was yery satisfactory at this
jnnotnre in agricnltnre to have two snch important papers as those
under discnssion. He thought that no society had done so much
as this one had done to collect the statistics of food, and when he
wrote on famines a year or two ago, he found the Society's Journal
full of varied information on the subject. Without disparaging
the second paper, he considered his friend Captain Craigie's paper
a most excellent one. Many of the agricultural returns which
should have been made were not, at one time, made ; and many of
those made were not accurate, and it had been assumed that
information had not been given by tenants, because landlords would
take advantage of it. As a matter of fact, landlords might, under
such circumstances, construe the unwillingness to give the proper
returns as resulting from a more favourable condition of things
than he believed 'was the fact. The system of ignorance had
misled all concerned, and had in many cases very adversely affected
the farmers. A great improvement had now set in in that respect,
and the future estimates would consequently be much more correct
than the earlier ones were.

Mr. FiNLAT Dun was sure that agriculturists would feel very
much indebted to Captain Craigie for the way in which he had
brought out of the blue books such an amount of practical infor-
mation, which could easily be understood even by ordinary tenant
farmers, who were not perhaps always as well versed in statistics
as they should be. One point of great importance brought oat
prominently in Captain Craigie's paper, was the reduction in the
growth of wheat in the last few years, especially in those western
counties where it was least likely to produce profitable returns. This
indicated a great amount of practical wisdom on the part of ihe
agriculturists. The increased difficulty of producing full crops of
wheat at a moderate cost in this country, was felt with greater
force where there is a heavier rainfall, such as in parts of Wales
and on the poorer clays of Scotland. In the midland counties,
with which he was conversant, a larger amount of land had been
devoted to the prodnction of barley, but a still greater amount was
laid down to grass for one, two, or three years, reducing the costly
labour bills ; but this grass was not always as profitable as it might
be; some of it was wet, much of it was poor, and needed more
thoroughly mannring. In many parts of the country reiterated
wet seasons had left much of the land foul and in bad condition,
and unfit to produce full crops of grass or of anything else. Some
low land had been allowed to lay itself down to a sort of coarse
grass and weeds, which figured in the statistical returns as
" permanent pasture," but was unlikely to produce any foil or
profitable returns. The relative amount of stock kept on arable
and grass land was an important practical matter. The popular
opinion was that as land was laid down to grass, a larger number
of cattle and sheep can be kept, but those more familiar with the
matter knew that to obtain the maximum amount of meat or dairy
produce, it is necessary to have a considerable proportion of arable
as well as gra45S land. Even in the moister regions in the west
of England, they could not get on well without a fourth or a

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1880.] Cajfft. Ora/igie's, and Messrs. Lawes' and GilbeH's Papers, 337

third, or in more suitable climates a half of arable land. With
snch a proportion nnder the plough, oats, cloyer, and roots, or
other winter food, could be provided for the animals. By thus
multiplying their flocks and herds, a great deal more success would
result to the British farmer than by endeavouring to increase his
output of wheat, which can be cheaper raised on the low-priced
lands of America and our colonies. Another point set forth by the
statistics of late years, notably in the neighboarhood of large towns,
especially in the western portions of England — in Somersetshire,
Lancashire, and Cheshire — wheat had been sensibly superseded by
potatoes and garden crops. This increased production of vege-
tables and of smaller fruit, had been a source of considerable
income to tenant farmers, has improved the general cultivation
of the country, has put more capitcJ into the soil, and obtained for
the landlord augmented rents; it has further fdmished valuable
supplies of food which coold scarcely have been obtained at any
price twenty years ago by the masses of the population. This
diversified cultivation was telling advantageously in many ways,
not only finding fuller and more profitable work for the agricultural
popalation, but producing for the working population of the
country a varied, valuable, healthful dietary, which he believed
'woold much encourage sobriety and steady habits.

Mr. Glare Sbwell Bead, as a practical farmer, could not agree
with the statement made by Mr. Chadwick, that the cost of pro-
ducing crops on arable land had recently diminished. He could
assure the meeting that that was not the case in the eastern
counties, for notwithstanding the quantity of machinery now
used, the amount spent in farm labour was considerably more than
it was some years ago. He could compare his books with those of
his father, dating back fifty years, and he found that although at
the present time he had all sorts of reaping, mowing, and a variety
of other machines, still the amount he paid for agricultural labour
was fully 30 per cent, per acre more than his father paid in years
gone by. He did not exactly understand the charge of ignorance
made against the farmers with regard to agricultural statistics. It
had been stated that he did not make the returns because he was
afraid his landlord would know what he grew ; but the tenant never
was asked to state the yield of his crops, and the landlord or his
agent must know, without asking, nearly as well as the tenant the
number of acres of com he grew. It was a puzzling, but he sup-
posed a pleasing fact that the area of this small island gradually
increased. He did not know where. He lived near the sea coast,
but he could not find that the county of Norfolk was any larger
now than it was when he was a child. That the cultivated area
had increased, astonished and perplexed him : because he was sure
of this, that within the last ten years he had known hundreds and
hundreds of acres go out of cultivation. Some twenty-five or
thirty years ago there was a mania for increasing the arable land,
and sheep walks and rabbit warrens were converted into arable
land ; but in the last ten years much of this land had been
reconverted into the state that nature intended it to be in. He
was perplexed to know where the increased cultivated area came

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388 DiBcusnan 0% [June,

from. He thought a great deal of it might be attribnted to the
loose way in which the earl j returns were made ; and probabl j the
ordnance snrvey had not been so absolntely acciirate as it was at
the present time. In the eastern oonnties they seemed to have
grown an increased quantity of barley ; but he thought they had
reached the limit of the demand, if they might judge from the
prices of the last few years. None but the yery best samples of
barley were appreciated by the brewers, and the consequence was
that mstead of bcu*ley being, as gentlemen were apt to suppose, a
very pajring crop, only a few of the samples of prime barley found
their way into the averages at all. He thought there was an
unnecessary complication in the returns in having two columns in
respect to grass land, one for hay and one not for hay. Such a
division was wholly unnecessary, and he hoped it would be
abolished. As to the distribution of cattle, a great deal of what
Captain Craigie said was quite true. The returns being taken in
the summer, they were not, in the eastern counties, supposed to
produce so many cattle as they actually did. They manufactured
more meat than grass lands, and with regard to more cattle than
formerly being kept on com lands, that was because the com
farmers were getting so extremely poor that they were obliged to
keep a small growing stock, and increase the number of cows to add
to the number of cattle. He could only say with what interest
the annual statement of Mr. Lawes was looked for throughout the
country. He ventured to say that that estimate of the yield was
of more use and carried greater weight than all the returns they
got from the Board of Trade. He did not mean for a moment to
depreciate the use and the value of the statistics furnished; but
when they came to see the small difference in the acreage from year
to year, and the enormous difference in the yield from year to year,
the man was doing infinitely more service to the country who
could say what the yield would be, than the official who could
only give the statistics of slight variations in the acreage. The
soil of Rothampsted was particularly adapted to the growth of
good wheat, and the wheat growing distriote of the east of England
were generally more productive in a wet and cold season than in
the parts of the country where the soil was heavy or clayey. He
entered his protest against the remark made by one gentleman
that little or no wheat was given to the cattle. The quantity of
wheat given to the cattle was not so much when wheat was cheap, as
when the quality of the home produce was bad. They had this
year thousands of quarters of wheat in Norfolk not weighing
fifty bushels to the quarter, and if they did not give it to the cattle
and pigs, no one would look at it. He quite i^^reed with the
remark made that the consumption of wheat was greater when
it was cheaper. The concluding statement in the paper bv
Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert was enough to break any British
Armor's heart. It said that in this last decade we had grown
13 million quarters of wheat less in England, and that they had
imported 20 million quarters more from abroad. This was one of
the main causes of the very great distress among the agricultural
eonununity. He could not sit down without tenidering his thanks

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1880.] Ca^t Oraigie% and Messrs. Lawes' and OUbert's Papers. 339

on behalf of the farmers to Captain Craigie for his interesting
paper, which must have taken up an immensitj of time ana
calcnlation. In reply to a question by the Chairman, Mr. Bead
said the produce of the land had not mcreased rateably with the
augmented cost of production. Machinery had doubtless sared a
great amount of manual labour ; but the farmers had to pay a
great deal more than formerly for agricultural labour. They had
at their disposal now, however, the means of securing crops with
greater facility, and thus preeerring a great deal that might other-
wise be wasted.

The CHAiKMiiH (Dr. W. A. Guy, F.R.S.) said he put the
question which Mr. Eead had answered more particularly because,
having himself occasion to visit one of the counties grouped
amongst the most productive in the yield of com, he had been
told over and over again by practical farmers that in their ex-
perience the produce of that part of the country had increased
very largely indeed — ^two or three fold in some cases. Of course
he did not speak with authority on this subject, but on the infor<»
mation which had been given to him by practical men.

Mr. Bbad added that the increase in the produce was not so
much owing to the increased facilities of cultivation, as the
increased use of artificial manures, and the greater consumption
of feeding stuffs by sheep and cattle. No doubt there had been an
increase in the production, but not in the last few jeej:s.

Captain Csaiqib said he had only a few words to offer in reply
to the remarks which had been made. As to the point raised by
Mr. Lawes regarding the exclusion of Lincolushire from the
eastern or chief com division, he would see by a reference to the
map, that in making a geographical division the line had to be
drawn somewhere, and as Lincolnshire showed below 60 per cent,
of her surface in arable land, she was not included in the higher
list of corn counties, but reckoned in the first group, while Hun-
tingdon with 65 per cent, of arable land was included in the first
district. With reference to Mr. Chadwick's remarks about
localising the work of the census, a suggestion had reached him
that morning that the area of the county (which was the unit of
their agricultural returns) was frequently too large for agricultural
analysis, great variety of agricultural practice prevailing occasionally
within county limits. Benefit would, it was said, accrue if the
statistics could be obtained from smaller areas, possibly from poor
law unions. As to the growing of oats in the eastern counties, nothing
was more striking than the giving up of oats as a crop in those
counties. He was surprised to learn they could not grow oats in
Norfolk, especially since he had often seen extremely good crops
of oats grown in Lincolnshire at no great distance from that
district. He thought Mr. Bead was slightly in error when he
complained of the classification of grass land and hay land, for he
believed that the suggestion made to-night had already been
adopted, and the classification altered so as to have one heading.
(Mr. Giffen : Yes, at Mr. Bead's suggestion. The alteration wa«
made in the last returns.) Captain Craigie added that the returns
would, he believed, by this alteration bea)me more accurate. He

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340 Diseussion on CrcUgie'sy L<tw08\ and QMerfs Papers. [Jane,

thanked the meeting for the way in which his paper had been
received.

Dr. GiLBKRT said, with reference to the question of the con-
sumption of wheat, Mr. Power, who had given them some valuable
information on the subject, concluded that it was not less than
6 bushels per bead per annum over the United Kingdom, and that
the estimates of Mr. Lawes and himself were too low. He
(Dr. Gilbert) would remark, however, that their estimate of less
than 6 bushels for the United Kingdom, included as one element
an estimate of even rather more than 6 bushels for England and
Wales ; and he thought that Mr. Power was very near the truth
if he confined his estimate to England and Wales, but that he was
going beyond it in applying his data to the United Kingdom.
They had already stated in their paper that they believed their
estimate of C'l bushels per head for the United Eangdom over the
first eight of the twenty-eight harvest years (1852-53—1859-60)
was too low, owing to too low an estimate of area under the crops
in those years (which, however, they had no means of correcting,
and the consequent too low estimate of the aggrerate home produce
available for consumption over that period. Again, Mr. Power
considered that the average produce of the country at large was
not less than 30 bushels per acre per annum ; but he (Dr. GKlbert)
thought that if that yield were assumed for the period of the last
twenty-eight years or so, it would be found irreconcilable with the
evidence relating to imports, consumption, and other elements of
the question. Mr. Chadwick said he could place no confidence in
calculations as to the yield of the country at large, founded on the
produce of a single farm. But it would have been only reasonable,
before making any such general statement, really to consider what
were the conditions under which the estimates in question were
made. It was at any rate remarkable that, averaged over a period
of twenty-seven years, the published estimates of Mr. Caird and of
Mr. Shaw-Lefevre agreed within an eighth of a bushel per acre per
annum with those of Mr. Lawes and himself, deduced in the way
which Mr. Chadwick had in such sweeping terms condemned.
Further, if the estimates were wrong, the error would show itself
in many different ways. Mr. Chadwick had also objected to their
estimates of consumption. But it so happened that they had gone
into the question in the very way in which Mr. Chadwick said they
ought to have done. They had in the first instance calculated the
bread and flour, in 86 different dietaries, arranged in 1 5 divisions,
according to sex, age, activity of mode of life, and other circum-
stances. Subsequently, they had submitted to careful considera-
tion the numerous results of the same kind collected by the late
Dr. Edward Smith. They had also calculated the consumption on
the basis of the population, and of the amounts of the home
produce available for consumption, and of the imports, each year.
Finally, they found that the estimates founded on dietaries con-
firmed those arrived at on the basis of the population and of the
home and foreign supplies.

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1880.] 341

MISCELLANEA.

CONTENTS :

PAGE

L— General Results of the Com-
mercial and Financial His-
tory of 1879 841

II. — ^The Movement of the Popn-
hition in Russia daring
the Years 1867-70 356

III. — Lloyd's Statistics of Marine
Ouoalties for the Tear
1879 866

PAGE

IV. — An Iron Trade Chart for

the past Fifty Years 880

V. — Notes on Economical and

Statistical Works 882

YI. — ^Notes on some of the Addi-
tions to the Library 888

VII.— A Quarterly List of the Ad-
ditions to the Library .... 393

I. — Oeneral Results of the GommerciaiL amd Fina/noial History
of 1879.

The following extracts, taken from the Supplement to the
Economist of the 13th March, 1880 (being the seventeenth of the
series— commenced with the review of 1863, and published as
supplements to the Econoimst in the second week of March, 1864-79),
are in continuation of a series of similar notices that have appeared
annually in the Journal for each year since 1865: —

'* It is very probable that the six years of depression will, in
future, be reckoned from September, 1873, to September, 1879.
It is certain that in this country there were few signs of renewed
trade during the first nine months of 1879. On the contrary, the
year has been one of the most sunless and cheerless of the century.
The harvest has been among the worst on record, and until the
great influx of orders, first for iron and steel, and then for goods
of all kinds, began to pour in from America about August and
September, hardly anybody looked for better things than that the
winter of 1879-80 should be full of difELculties. As the trade
circulars passim and other evidence abundantly show, these un-
favourable prospects were suddenly brightened by a great volume
and a great activity of trade, which fairly set in with October, and
has gone on so far with undiminished strength, a cogent evidence of
which is the great rise in wholesale prices. For example, during
1879 the wholesale prices in Loudon of the following leading
conmiodities have undergone (chiefly during the closing four or five
months of the twelve) these percentage elevations, viz. : — Manilla
hemp, 62 per cent.; Scotch pig iron, 50; British bars, 35; tin, 38;
raw cotton, 37; cotton yam, 26; tea, 36; lead, 31; jute, 27; tallow,
25; sugar, 21; silk, 19; flax, 18; wheat, 18; copper, 13; coffee, 13;
wool, 9 per cent.

" The foreign wars and negotiations which filled so large a space
in 1876-77, and 1878, have mostly come to an end in 1879.

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342 UiscdUmea. [Jime»

" The grayest danger in Europe is the growing magnitade of
armed forces.

*< The Frankfurter ZeUung very nsefuUj has collected particnlars
with reference to the two periods, 1865, and fonrteen years later,
1879, and from that sonrce we obtain the following summary
relative to the general and the military budgets of the leading
countries: —

** In 1865 (Germany had a budget of 3 1 million pounds, but the
bud^t is now 66 million pounds sterling. The heaviest budgets
in Europe are at the present moment those of France and Russia —
France with an expenditure of some 1 19 million pounds, and Russia
with one of 107 million pounds, the latter now ranking before
England by some 22 million pounds. In 1865, Russia, like G^ermany,
required an income of less than half as much. Her budget then
amounted to 51 million pounds. There is not a European State
but has increased its expenditure since 1865, the total for all
Europe having risen from 398 million pounds to 585 million
pounds.

" As regards the national debts of the different European States,
the same may be said of all, except England and Holland, which
countries alone show a certain diminution of their debts. Russia
especially has raised hers from 208 million pounds to 600 million
pounds, and she has been closely followed by Spain and Italy,
France now ranking first of all ; while in 1865, England was by
far the most heavily burdened with debt, standing before France to
the extent of 250 million pounds. The total debts of the States of
Europe have risen from 2,626 million pounds to 4,324 million
pounds. But the most interesting figures of all, are those of the
military expenditure. Of a total expenditure for Europe, of 585
million pounds, as much as 160 million pounds are devoted to
maintaining armies. In 1865, of 398 million pounds, only 117
million pounds wei*e so devoted. Nearly every State has increased
its expenditure, Germany, France, and Russia heading the list.
Both in 1865 and 1879, however, Russia and England stand first
Russia spent in 1879, 36 million pounds, England 32 million
pounds, France 27 million pounds, and Germany 21 million pounds.
In 1865, the German expenditure on war was estimatea at 10
million pounds, the Austro-Hungarian at 11 million pounds, the
French at 17 million pounds, the British at 27 million pounds, and
the Russian at 22 million pounds. Only Italy and Austria-Hungary
have since then reduced their army expenditure.

" In fourteen years the military expenditure of Europe has risen
at the rate of 3 million pounds a-year, or by no less than 43 million
pounds per annum ; or from 117 to 160 millions, and, as ^ as can
be judged, will go on increasing with the same, or with greater
velocity, till arrested by some combination of three events, viz. (1),
a decisive victory by one or more of the armed States over the
other, (2) the exhaustion of the means and patience of the unfor-
tunate populations who bear the burden, or (3) (most unlikely
of all), such a return of common sense as will produce a pacific
policy.

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1880.] Commeroial and Fma/ncial History of 1879.

343

Gazette Average Price of Wheat {per Imperial Quarter) in United
Kingdom, immediately after Harvest , 1873-79, and Total Average
Gazette Price of Calendar Years,

Periods.

1879.

1878.

1877.

1876.

1875.

1874.

1878.

After harrest

Calendar year"!
ayeraflre i

*. d.
49 9

48 10

8. d.

40 4
46 5

*. d,
56 -

56 9

8, d.

47 -
46 2

*. d.
46 -

45 2

s, d,
46 I

SS 9

s. d,
64 2

58 8

" The figure in October, 1879, was 495. gd.j gs. more than 1878,
and 6s. less than 1877. The average for the whole of 1879 was
under 449. No one, judging merely from these figures, would be
prepared to say that the harvest of 1878 was barely an average,
and that the harvest of 1879 was nearly the worst for wheat and
every other kind of field produce, within living memory ; and yet
this is perfectly true. The cold and rain have ruined hundreds of
farmers, and distressed thousands of landlords, but free trade has
secured plenty and low prices for the population of this country.

" In the section passim on the com and cattle trade, facts and
estimates are given for the fourteen years 1866-79, as regards the
wheat harvests of the United Kingdom.

" The summary of these inquiries is that the wheat crop, and
the harvest generally of 1879, is not only the worst in the fourteen
years, but the "d^orst which has occurred, probably, for thirty years.
During the five years 1866-70, the average yield of wheat was 29
bushels per acre, or about the standard or normal yield ; but in the
five years 1875-79, it was only 24 bushels, or 17 per cent, less ; and
in the year 1879 it was only 18 bushels, or 40 per cent, less than
the usual figure. The * over average ' yields were in 1868, 34
bushels; in 1870, 32 bushels; in 1874, 31 bushels; and in 1878,
30 bushels, or barely an average.

" During the last ten years, 1870-79, the * under average ' yields
were no less than seven, 1871, 27 bushels; 1872, 23 bushels; 1873,
25 bushels; then three bad years in succession, viz., 1875,
23 bushels; 1876, 27 bushels; 1877, 22 bushels; and as a climax
of misfortune, 1879, with its 18 bushels.

" The results of these bad harvests upon the wheat area of cul-
tivation, and upon the volume of the imports of foreign wheat, have
been beyond all precedent. In the foreign, 1866-70, the wheat area
was more than 3 j million acres ; in 1875-79, it had fallen 3^ millions,
or 14 per cent. less. In 1866-70, the home prod ace was I2| million
qrs.; but in 1875-79, only 9^ million qrs.; and in 1879, by about
only 6 million qrs. In 1866-70 we imported an average annual
quantity of wheat of 8 J million qrs.; but in 1875-79, the impor-
tation was 13^ million qrs., or 58 per cent. more. In the present
year, 1879-80, it is pretty certain that the importation will be
1 8 million qrs.

'* But not only have there been defective harvests in this countiy

VOL. XLIII. PART II. 2 a

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344

M%9GeUane€L

[Janey

in 1879, and tbe three or four preceding years, bnt the same calamity,
in a form equally, or more severe, has befallen the largest part of
Enrope. A table is quoted passim from the BuUe^n dm Hullea
giving the average total yield of wheat (in bushels) and the actual
produce of 1879. The table can only be an estimate, but it is an
estimate by high authority. The abstract of it is aa follows (in
millions of bushels): —

Coimtriet.

Average.

1879.

Leetper Cent.

France, (Jennany, Auatria, Belgium..
Italy. SDain

5^8
i8i
207

482
166
179

9
It

KuiwiA, Aoumania

916

776

" Indeed, North America has been the only region with a large
grain surplus, and that surplus has been, and is in demand aU over
Europe.

"In France, the distress of the agricultural, wine growing, and
silk growing industries is very great. They are discussed in detail
by M. Jules Clav6 (in the Eevue des Denx Mondes^ 1st Febmary,
1880).

" The happy and beneficial competition of America aiul Australia
in the supply of grain and bntcher s meat of all sorts, will certainly
go on and increase, not, perhaps, as it has done during the last two
or three years of immense harvests in North America, helped by an
excess of railway competition to carrv them to the tide water.
These are advantages which the American farmer has never bad
before, and may never have again in the same degree. But English
agriculture and cattle raising have a certain natural protection ni
cost and distance against the colonial and foreign competitioD, and
when the conditions are clearly understood, nothing is more oortain
than that in this instance, as in all others, when ruin to English
industries have been most londly foretold, no such thing as ruin,
but the exact opposite, will, before long, become manifest.

" Various attempts, with apparently increasing success, continue
to be made to bring in fresh meat in the raw state from America
and Australia.

" Australicun meats, 8fc,^ show a marked fiJl in price, the demand
having decreased greatly. Domestic consnmption of Australian
prepared mutton and beef has fallen off immensely since the intro-
duction of American compressed beef, and this has assisted in the
lowering of prices. Stimulated by the necessity for meeting the
public trade, the Australian preservers are now sending in compressed
mutton and beef of excellent qpality — pronouncedly superior in
many cases to the American. Prices, we are inclined to think, are
too low to be remunerative.

"The Glasgow Herald, 24th Juiuary, 1880, writes as follows
regarding the manner in which the importations of American beef
reach the retail consumer to the great profit of the butcher : —

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1880.] Commercial and Fimancial History of 1879. 345

** 'Tory large nipplies of American beef (dead and living) continne to reaeh
QretJ^ Britain. In tbe week ending 19ih Janiuury mnsiderably over i,ooo head
of live cattle were imported into this country from the United States and Canada,
and in Liverpool alone 7,97s quarters of fresh beef were reodved, which may be
calculated, in all probability, as inrmshing i^ million pounds of saleable meat,
exclusive of the weight of the living cattle, which may be estimated at about
700,000 pounds ; or, say, for one week, a total of 2 million pounds of good sale-
able beef, exdnsive of the supply coming to the Clyde. These figures bear out
what was stated in the SereUd a few weeks ago, namely, that the importation of
dead meat has enormously increased during the past twelvemonths. For eleven
months of 1878!» there were imported 47)848,192 pounds of dead meat, while for
the same period of 1879 the importations were 56,357,728 pounds — an increase
of upwards of 9 million pounds. We do not know the proportion which came to
Glasgow, or was sold in our city; but su^^KMing it to be only the odd 9 million
pounds, and that all over the price of it was 6d, per pound, it would represent a
sum of 225,000 pounds sterling, all of which, according to a recent correspondent,
would pass through the hands of the persons who deal in American meat, and
' avowedly ' sell it fbr what it is. That nnmber of persons is probably not mora
in reality than twenty, so that the sum in question would give each dealer a turn
over of mofe than 11,000 pounds per annum, which would not be a bad business
as times go.

" ' Our agricultural correspondent having renewed his investigations as to
'what becomes of the American beef?* writes as follows: — *I must reiterate my
deliberately formed opinion that fhlly 85 per cent, of the dead meat which reaches
this dty from America, finds its way to consumers through the ordinary channels,
as home bred and home fed beef, and I wish to infbrm all whom it concerns, thait,
in asserting tbii^ 1 make mora than an * insinuation ' — I maintain it to be a

" We said twelve months since, in our review of the year 1878 :
' In the United States there are distinct signs of commercial revivaL
Three or fonr productive haarvests; cost of railway and canal
transit reduced aJmost to a vanishing point by reason of the excess
of means of conveyance over the traffic to be conveyed ; the stem
lessons of adversify in the form of insolvencies and failures pene-
trating £ar, even into the retail branches of trade; federal, State,
city, and county taxes, and debt, which have carried away no small
part of every man's income — aU these causes have established in
North America a condition of trade far sounder than has prevailed
for more than twenty years. And the full re-establishment of cash
payments from Ist January, 1879, has provided a solid basis on
which the calculations for tbe future may rest.'

** This was the state of circumstances at the close of 1878 in tbe
United States, and everything which happened there during the
first half of 1879 was emphatically favourable to further recovery.
The successful operations in funding the public debt at lower rates
of interest ; the wholesale clearances of bankrupt railways under
sale and foreclosure at prices to the buyers absurdly small compared
with the solid expenditure upon them ; the extensive movement of
population to the west and north-west (as we explain in some
detail in an appendix passim) ; and the certainty of a fourth great
harvest in 1879 of wheat and grain coincident with a general
scarcity and high prices in Europe — all concurred to produce a
sudden and remarkable outbreak of demand at the close of summer.
That demand naturally was first directed to the ' instrumental

2 a2

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346 Miscellanea. [June,

articles ' of iron and steel to be procnred from tills conntry, as
being tke market where thej were cheapest, and best, and most
abundant ; and the orders accordingly came here on a most exten-
sive scale and with most urgent velocity. From iron and steel the
American demand rapidly extended to most of the other kinds of
mannfactares and merchandise suitable for the States. In point of
fact, the facilities and resources of modern commerce, and, in our
own case, free trade, open ports, and superior cheapness of produc-
tion, obtained for us exactly the same sort of benefits as if the
grain harvests of the west had been gathered in a part of our own
dominions, or in our own island. If, for example, Essex and
Norfolk bad been but blessed with overiSowing abundance, and all
the rest of Britain stricken with scarcity, then the demand for
manufactures of all kinds in East Anglia would have operated on
Lancashire and Cleveland, exactly in the same way (not, of course,
to the immense extent, nor in precisely the exact order) as the
demand from New York and Chicago.

'* While, therefore, the English harvest of 1879 was almost as
bad as it could be, we were the first to derive advantage from the
transatlantic abundance. There was naturally at first, and there is
yet, some hesitation to believe that the revival of trade can be
really sound so long as it is not stimulated and supported by the
prosperity of our own greatest industry — that of agriculture-— and
this is a reasonable hesitation. Nor will there be a solid domestic
foundation for greater trade until our own harvests and the
industries dependent on them are prosperous.

*' Beyond the sudden American demand, there was the further
fact that in this country the six years of depression had reduced
generally prices and the cost of production to a level so low that
prudent persons on the look out for speculative and permanent
investments had become convinced that no further decline was
possible ; and hence the first spurt of demand brought forward
multitudes of buyers to whom only a slight encouragement was
wanting to convert their hesitation into confidence.

'* In the United States the prices of iron and steel advanced, in
1879, from 67 to io6 per cent. The advances were, in dollars : —
pig iron 17 to 3 J per ton ; bar iron 43 to 73 ; Bessemer rails 42 to
70, best iron rails 34 to C7 ; old iron rails 19 to 36 ; best scrap iron
^o to 34. The output of coal in the Union rose to 26 million tons,
compared with 17^ million tons in 1878. Iron ores were largely
imported in the last half of 1679, and it is anticipated that quite
half a million tons of iron ores will enter in 1880. The production
of iron rails in the Union in 1879 was 450,000, and of steel rails

^50,000 tons The presidents of the western railways

estimate that not less than j\ million tons of rails — steel, if they got
-them — will be required yearly for a long time ; luad if this estimate
be true, for the United States ^one, leaving all the rest of the
world out of the reckoning, the prospect is a bright one. In one of
the appendices we collect evidence relating to the schemes, more or
less advanced, for large railway extensions in various countries and
regions.

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1880.] Commercial and Financial History of 1879.

347

" The following figures exhibit the production, exports, stock,
Ac. (31st December in Scotland and North ofi England— 1868-79) :—

[In mln. tons, thus 4.970. = 4^970.000. and 780, = 7S0.000.]

Exports.

kUs.

tnt.

Tom.

Tons.

1868 ....

4»97o,

720,

5* 9

562,

583,

906,

2,041,

'69 ....

5»445»

736,

53 3

710,

888,

1,076,

i,676, •

70 ....

5,963»

782,

54 4

763,

1,059,

1,012,

2,825,.

71 ....

6,627,

668,

59 -

1,057,

981,

1,130,

3.169,

72 ....

6,741,

236,

no 10

1,331,

945»

1,106,

3,38i,

73 ....

6,566,

200,

"7 3

1,142,

785,

1,080,

2,957i

1874....

5,991.

186,

87 6

776,

78z,

928,

2,487,

76 ....

6,365,

244,

^S 9

947,

545.

963,

av4«7.

76 ....

6,555,

646,

58 6

910,

4>4,

899,

2,224,

77....

6,608,

809,

54 4

881,

497,

966,

2,346,

78 ....

6,381,

r,034,

48 5

924,

44i»

933,

r,296.

79 •

6i200,

3^,027,

47 -

1,227,

463,

1,189;

2,879,

•• Estimated.

" This table shows that the total increase in exports in 1879 over
1878 is 583,024 tons, and as the United States took 550,254 tons
over 1878, it follows that there has been a slight increase (say,
32,770 tons) in our trade with other countries : it is also worthy
of note that so far the increase has been largely in pig iron, but
we may expect hereafter to see a large increase under the head of
rails. The shipments of rails for December were 35,877 tons,
against 19,500 in 1878.

** The following table shows the distribution of exports during
the following years : —

Total Exports from United Kingdom of Iron, Steely and Tin Plates to the
following Countries, in 1868, 1872, 1878, and 1879.

[000*8 omitted, thus 602. = 60«,000 tons]

1868.

1872.

1878.

1879.

United States

502,
146,
185,
126,
64,
54,
107,
854,

888,
816,

69,
137,
165,

94,

108,

1,102,

167,
557,
210,
85,
101,
205,
112,
872,

707,

fl^rmftny and Holland

502,
195,
64,
t56,
165..
106,.

India

Kussia

British North America

Australia

France

Other countries

981,

Total

2,041,

3»38«,

2,296,

ifin.

'The shipments to the United States in 1879 coasisted of

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3i8 MluceUanea. [June,

276,998 pig; 177,842 tons old iron for remannfactoie ; i$(,795
tons tin plates; 44^98 tons rails; and 51,794 tons of other
descriptions, principally manufactured iron. The quantity of pig
and old material bought is remarkable, and the inference has been
drawn that the Americans are only taking our raw materials ; this
conclusion, however, is scaroeljr correct, as large orders have been
booked for manu&ctured iron ^f all kinds — trails, bars, hoops, and
sheets — ^but as these take time to execute, the exports will not show
largely for some time to come. On the other hand, pig iron, old
rails, and scrap, "being in stock and urgently wanted, larae quantities
have been hurried forward, and this accounts mainly n>r the large
exports during the last few months. The Americi^ demand has
almost cleared off existing stocks of old rails and scrap, and, in
consequence, makers who have been in the habit of using these in
their mills, will be compelled to buy pig iron more largely.

" There are many indications that the iron trade is entering upon
another of those recurring cycles which follow a period of depression.
By way of illustration it may be well to refer to the last period of a
similar kind. In the latter part of 1869 (after a depression extend-
ing over several years) there was a revival, during which Scotch
pig iron advanced from 505. 6d. to ^St. 6d.^ and Scotch Staffordshire
Mist' bars were raised 208. per ton. The breaking out of the
Fnmoo-Q^rman war interrupted this improvement, but towards
the close of 1871, the upward movement was resumed, and continued
till the middle of 1872, when Scotch pie iron reached I37»., and
South Staffordshire 'list' iron 16/. at works. In the autumn there
was a fall of 470. 6d, in pig iron, and 4/. in ^ list ' iron, but a re-
action immediately set in, which carried Scotch pig iron to i45«.,
and South Staffordshire 'list' iron again to 16/. at works.

** The late rise in prices has been very rapid, and a general im-
pression prevails that the advance is quite unnatural and without
precedent. To correct this error, it is only necessary to refer to the
history of 1852, and the prices of January and December in that
year — the only year in which prices weise lower thaoi those lately
witnessed : —

Scotch pig iron at Glasgow

Soath Staffordsliire * li«t * iron at works
Webh bars at Idyerpool

" 1880 opens with very cheering prospects as respects our foreign
trade, for not only has America given evidence of a renewed demand
for iron of all kinds, but our Eastern markets are full of greater
promise than for many years past, whilst other countries are all
bare of stocks, and are not likely to delay ordering in face of
advancing prices. The only drawback is in the home trade, which
is -affected by the depressed state of agriculture, but we think too
much has been made of this, at least so far as the iron trade is
concerned. The home consumption of iron in connection with

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1880.]

Commercial wnd Financial History of 1879.

agncnliiiire is small in comparison with the demand from ship-
bnilders, engineers, machinists, and other departments which are
more dependent on the condition of our export trade. It must
also be borne in mind that what has been onr loss, has been America^
gain, and the iron trade is receiving more than ample compensation
in the active trade which has thereby been set in motion.

'* As respects the cotton industry, the course of trade was quite
as unsatisfactory during the greater part of 1879 as it had been
throughout 1878, and it is certain that if a change for the better
had not taken place before the close of the year, half the spinners
and manufacturers of Lancashire would have been rained. The
profits made during the last two or three months prevented this
wholesale bankruptcy; bat, except in a comparatively few
instances, in which consumers made large purchases of the raw
material at low prices, the net result of the year's business is a
farther increase in the adverse balances which existed at the close
of 1878. This is fully demonstrated in the calculation which we
give under the head of * Profits and Losses, 1871-79.'
• " Compared with 1878, the consumption in 1879 shows a reduc-
tion of about o*3 per cent. ; compared with 1876 the falling off
amounts to 8 per cent. ; compared with a full rate of consumption,
say 63,500 bales of 400 lbs. per week, the reduction is about
11^ per cent.

'' The following table shows that small as was the margin
between the pnce of raw cotton and the value of yams and goods
in 1878, it was still smaller in 1879 :—

Avenge Pricet per Pound.

187t compued with

BeMriptMNi.

1877.

1878.

1879.

1878.

1877.

Middling uj^and

Fair Dhollerah

lot

mi
11*

12A

11*

lOi

101

d.
«*
4H

>oA
9A

9*
•oft

3A
4A

lOi
lOJ

i<Hi

lOA

A higher

A »

lA ..

itV ..

* »

I* .,
i bmr

A lew

A ..

Noohftnge
A lower

1 ..

80^8 Wfttei* twiflt

4ff§ mule twiit

U »

Clotk, per ».—
Priiiers, 4^ lbs. -

If 5i f» -

BhirtiiigB,7 „ «

lA »

BO'S and 40*8 twist

lA »
1* «

PrintflF" ftTifl Hhirtiim ,...,,..

Jiictr^ between —
Uplands and t^«t ..tt rr-,.,Tr,„

1A1«*
1* ..

cloth

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350

MiseeUa/nea.

[June,

Exports of Piece Goods and Tcum to the Principal Districts of the World

at Various Periods, 1820-79.

[In 1.000*8 of ymrdt and Ibi.]

1820.

1880.

1840.

1850.

Yards.

Per
Cent

Tarda.

Per
Cent

Yards.

Per
Cent

Yards.

Per
Cent

PiBCi Goods.
Burope (except Turkej)
Turkepr, Egypt, & Africa
America (except U. 8.)
United States

127-7

9-5

660

23-8

14-2

19-7

50-90

3*79
22-32

948
5-66

7-85

187-4
400

140-8
49-8

56-9

20*2

30*94

8*99

3166

11-08

12*79
4'54

200-4

74-6

278-6

821

/ 146-1

1 29*9

29-9

»5-35
9*43

35*H
4'o7

18*35
3-78
3-78

2221
193-9
360-4
104-2
314-4
104-8
68-9

16*35

i4-a7

26-53

7-68

British East Indies 1

China, Jaya, &c J

AU other c<*ntries ....

*3'i5
7-68

4*34

Total yards

250-9

lOO-QO

444-6

100-00

790-6

1 0000

1858-2

loo-oo

Total Tahie, mln. £

18-2

—

161

—

16*3

—

20-5

—

Yabw.

Europe (except Turkey)
Turkey

lb.

230
0-5

0-5

Pcrcnt.

95-66

2-17

lb.

560
1-5

4-9
2-2

Percnt

86-69

2-32

7-58

3*41

lb.

91-9

8-3

fl61

1 1*8

5-4

Per cnt

77*55
278

»3-59
1-^2
4-56

lb.
90-7

4-7
21*0

81
11-9

Pcrcnt

69-03

3-58

»5-98

2-36

9-05

British East Indies \

China, Jaya, Ac. J

All other countries ....

Total lb ^....

280

lOO'OO

64-6

lOO'OO

118-5

100*00

181-4

100-00

Total yalue, mln. £

2-8

—

7*1

—

6*4

—

1860.

1870.

1879.

Yards.

Percent

Yards.

Per Cent.

Yards.

Percent.

PiiOB Goods.
Europe (except Turkey)
Turkey, Egypt, & Africa
America (except U. S.)
United States

200-5
857-8
527-1
226-8
8251
324*2
214-7

7*49
13-37
19-70

8-48
3083
1^*11

8-02

294*6
670-6
594-5
103-8
923-3
478-2
188-4

9*06
20-6i
18-28

318
28-38
14*70

5*79

872-7
486-5
545-6
51-2
1^27-6
626-6
807*9

10*02

1308

14-68

1*38

British East Indies ....

China, Jaya, Ac

All other countries

35*71
16-85

8-28

Total yards

2,6762

100-00

8,252-8

100-00

8,718*1

100*00

Total yalue, mln. £

40-8

—

52-6

—

Yabw.

Europe (except Turkey)
Turkey

lb.
1160
19-6
80-7
8-8
22-2

Psrent

5879
9*94

15-56
4*46

11-25

lb.

93-7

14-2

810

20-8

28-0

Percnt
49*93

i6'i;x
11-08
14-92

lb.
110-4
20-6
81-8
89-0
84-5

Percnt

46-84
8*70

British East Indies ....

China, Jaya, Ac

All other countries ....

13*28

16-54
14-64

Total lb

197-8

lOO'OO

187-7

100-00

235-7

100-00

Total yalue, mhi. £

9-9

—

14-8

—

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1880.] Commercial a/nd Fma/ndal History of 1879.

361

United Kingdom^ 1879-68. Estimated Valv£ of Raw Cotton Iniported,
Jte-Biportedy and Conswmed, (Ellison's Circular.)
[00,000*8 omitted, thus 87,7 = 87,700,000{. The hal4$ are given in full.]

Import.

Re-Exported.

Conaomed. United Kingdom.

Tears.

Vatae.

Price.

Yaloe.

Value.

Weight.

Bales per
4001bs. eiusb.

1879

"78

1872

'71

'69

'68

Mln.
£

37,7
33,3
34.0
37,2
42,9
47,1
54,2

53,3

51,0
55,2
52,0

Per lb.
d.
6i

Mia.

4,4
3,4
4,0
4,2
6,1
6,0
6,1

8.5
9,«
8,2

",3
ir,6

Mln.

80i9
30,3
32,6
82,8
36,5
40,2
46,4

48,0
40,8
42,1
43,8
41,0

Mln. lbs.

I,l73r
1,176,
1,237,

I,274r

1,230,
1,266,
1,246,

1,175,

1,205,

1,071,

940,

99^,

No.

66,410
66,660
69,610
61,250
69,160
60,870
69,910

56,610
67,960
61,620
46,140
47,890

** Tlie following figures give, in a fairly trustworthy way, the
average value per bale of colonial wool during the past fifbeen
years: —

[lnl,000»sofbales.]

Year.

Import

in
Bales.

Arerage

Value

per Bale.

Total
Value.

Year.

Bales.

Average

Value

per Bale.

Total
Value.

1866

'66

'68

'69

'70

432,
455,
541,
633,
633,
673,

£
28f
24i
20f
18i
15f
16i

Mln.

10,2
11,1
11,2
11,7

9,9
11,2^

1872

'73

'74

'76

'77

'78

'79

661,
708,
815,
874,
938,
993,
951,
1,002,

£
26^
24i
23i
22i
18i
18*
18f
16i

Mln.
£
17,6
17,1
18,9
19,4
17,6
18,6
17,8
16,6

Ayerage per year 1 1 mln. £.

Year of ti

ransition.

*^*

Ayerage per year i8i mln £.

" The 1879 figures tell their own tale. We have not bracketed
them with those of the preceding years, for they look exceptional,
seem to stand apart, and may not improbably prove in future to
be the low water mark of the ebbing movement in values, which
has been in progress since 1872.

*' The normal average value of colonial wool being about 21/.,
16^/. falls short of it by 20 per cent. This is the actual average
for 1879; the present value, based on the improved November
prices, is about 19/., or rather less than 10 per c«nt. below the
normal figure.

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352

IfMCdKanaa.

[Jane,

*^ Supply and Oonsumptum, — The imports of wool into Europe
from the British colonies, the River Plate States, and all other
extra-European sources, have been as follows : —

[00*s omitted.]

AnitnlaaU.

Cape.

River PUte.

AU
other SouroM.

Total Balei.

1879....

826,3

183,2

H7,3

363,0

1,610,0

'78....

79i»»

164,2

266,8

883,0

1,605,1

'77....

823,7

169,9

277,7

837,0

1,608,5

'76...

771,2

170,9

272,1

353,0

1,567,3

•76....

6s)9,6

176,5

248,0

379,0

i,50»»i

'74....

651.5

164,1

250,2

366,0

1,43 i,o

'78....

551.9

160,8

268,3

386,0

1,366,6

•72....

5",8

154,8

237,0

422,0

1,366,7

'* The export of silver to the East, and the Council bills on India,
Ac., are shown by the following table : —

Silvery 1879-67, Shipments to Bcuty BilU Drawn hy India Council on

Indiay Imports of Silver into United Kingdom, Average Price in

London, and Aveirage Rate of Bank Discounts. (Pixley aod Abell's

Circular.)

[O.OOO't omitted, ihoi 7.08 = 7,080.000;.]

TearB.

SUfcr

MDt to

Bills DrawB

Import! of

Siher
into United

SUvcr Coined

United

Average Price
Standard Silver

Average
Bank Rate

Sast.

India CouncU.

Kingdom.

Kin|c<lom.

in London.

Diseourt.

Mln.

Perot.

£ «. d.

1879

7,03

14,70

10,52

0,65

5ii

2 10 -

'78

5,84

13,98

"ii45

0,61

5^A

3 15 8

'77

17,00

8,64

21,62

0,42

fti

2 18 -

'76

10,91

11,61

iS>5^

0,22

2 12 1

1875

3»7i

10,84

9.50

0,59

56*

3 4 8

'74

7,09

13,28

11,80

0,89

?,?

3 18 10

'73

2,50

13,94

12,30

1,08

4 15 10

'72

5*^5

10,31

11,14

1,24

4 2-

'71

3»7i

8,44

16,52

0,70

2 17 8

1870

1,58

6,98

10,65

0,88

6oi

8 2-

•69

2,36

3,70

6,73

0,07

6c^

8 4 2

'68

1,63

4,14

7,71

0,30

2 1 11

'67

0,64

5,61

8,02

0,19

2 10 9

*' The export of silver has been 7, agabst under 6 million pounds
in 1878, and the Council drafts 14I, a^inst under 14 millions.
The price of silver has receded, so that the average of 1879 is only
51^. — the lowest in the table.

" In one of the appendices we draw attention to the new and
valuable work, by Mr. Del Mar, on the * History of the Precious
Metals,' and we compile from it three tables of great interest.

^* The undermentioned table relates to the reserves and con-
dition of the four leading continental bsoiks : —

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1880.]

Gofnmerctal and Financial History of 1879.

858

Leading Foreign Banks, 1874-80. JTo^es in Circulation and Bullion
Reservsy being Summary of Appendix {passim) in MiUion £,

[00,000*8 omiUed, thus 1163 - 116300.000/.]

Diiet.

Bank
of France.

Notei. Bullion.

Imperial Bank
of Germany.

Notea. Bullion.

Bank

of Austria.

Notea. Bullion.

Bank

of Belgtnm.

Notes. Bullion.

1874.

let January

Ist JiUy

1875.

Ist January

Ist July

1876.
Ist January .
Ist July

1877.

1st January

1st July

1878.

1st Janaary

1st July

1879.
1st January .

Ist March

1st July

1st October

1st Noyember..
1st December..

1880.
1st January ..

MIn.
foo,9

96,9

ioOi4
99,z

107,5
100,1

104,1

95»5

93,9
89»5
91,0

86,0

87,7
90,*

93,7

Mln.

£
30,6
47,8

52,8
62,7

67,4
88,0

86,4
90,1

81,0
86,7

81,7
82,7
90,1

84,6
81,1
79,1

78,8

Mln.

£
44,^
42,<

4«,9
43»3

35,7
3M

37.9
37,1

35,8
33,6

32,0
28,8

36,5

37,3
37,1
35.3

39,0

Mln.

85,2
85,5

80,8

29,8

27,1

25,1
27,5

22,6
25,5

28,7
27,0
26,9

24,4
26,0

27,7

Mln.

3^iO

30,»

30,1
29,1

28,8
^7^4

29,6
27,4

27,6
26,7

29,1

27,9
29,2

31,9
34,0
31.7

27,2 31,9

Mln.

14,4

14,2

18,9
13,8

13,6
13,6

18,6
18,7

15,6
15,8
15,5

16,8
16,9
16,2

16,5

Mln.

12,6
11,8

13.1
i*,9

13,5
13,1

14.5
X3,7

13,"
12,5

ia^4
1 1.9
12,1

X2,0

ii,3
i»,3

i3,a

Mln.
£
4,2
8,9

4,7
4,9

4,8
5,5

4,6
4,2

4,0
3,6

3,9
4,2
4,2

3,9
4,0
4,8

4,2

Volt. — ^lo Fritce, thron^h 1878, the market price of gold vas 2 to 9I; avera^ yf per mille pre-
minm. In 1874. bank notea were at par; in 1876 the aame; in 1870 the same; in 1877 specie pay-
ment was resumed.

In Juitria^ in 1873, the premiumon eold was 8 per cent; in 1874 it was 5^ per cent.; in 1676 it
was %\ per cent. ; in 1870 it was 4i ; in 1877 it was 5 ; in 1878 it was t\ to par; and in 1679 it was par.

In Italy, in 1878, the premium on gold was '9 to 15 per cent.; in 1874 it was iii per cent.; in
1876 it was 8 per cent.; in 1876 it was*9 per cent.; in 1877 the same; in 1878 it was 9^; and in 1879
it was iii per cent.

In Ruuioy in 1878, the premiam on silver was 12 per eent.; in 1874 it was iSPer cent.; in 1876
it was i^ per cent.; in 1870 it was 20 per cent.; in 18i77 it was 99 per cent.; in 1878 it was 41 ; and
in 1879 It was 40 per cent.

Bt way of showing the agfnregate bullion and oircnlation of the four great continental banks, and
also or the Bank of England, the following summary is given for 1st Janaary, 1877-80 (million £): —

Bullion.

Circulation.

Banks.

1880.

1879.

1878.

1877.

1880.

1879.

1878.

1877.

126,7
27,6

125,0
28,1

121,2
24i4

129,7
28.8

'S!

167,4
88,0

180,6
27,6

189,5

Bank of England

38,9

It is impoMible not to remark the small mriations per cent both of the coin and notes of the four
continental banka and also of the Bank of England; and it is equally impossible to avoid remember-
ing that while the flsures now htton us exhibit so much steadiness, the variations which have taken
place in the prices of commodities and seeuriUea have been wide and incessant. On the oontinent, as
well as in this country, the development of the resources and fadlitiea of bankiug, capital, and credit
has become the oontrolling power in markets and dealings.

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354.

MiscelUmea,

[Jane,

" The large importations of coin explain the lessened bullion in
the. Bank of JPrance. The Russian paper money is still 40 per cent,
below par.

*' The following is the usual table of the percentages of prices
at 1st January, 1880, and three former dates : —

Wholesale Prices in London, Comparison of 1st January, 1880, ftith Four
Former Dates, stating in Approximate Percentages the Degree in which
the Prices at \st January, 1880, were Higher or Lower than the Prices
brought into the Comparison, see Appendix (B).

ArtielM.

Higher Lover

Tbmn

let January,

1879.

Higher

Lower

Than

1ft Januanr,

1878.

Higher Lower

Than

1st Janoarr,

1870.

Higher Lower

Than

Itt JanuaiT,

1867.

Ooffee

Sugar

Tea

Wheat

Butcher's meat

Indigo «

Oils

Timber

Tallow

Leather —

Copper

Iron

Lead

Tin

Cotton

Flax and hemp

Silk

Wool

Tobacco

Cotton cloth

Bank Note circu-
lation of Great
Britain

Total index number..

Perokt.

17
25

12
20
8d
41

24
4

20
10
16
17

Per eat.

Per cut.

7
27
10

6
9

Per eat

4
22

Perent.

4
12

Perent.

Per cat.

88
30

^3
16

Per cat.

ID
18

70
30
3a
17
12

Note. — This table is deduced from the details given in Appendix (B), and is
read thus : — The prices of Ist January, 1880, were, as regards coffee, 6 per cent,
higher than the prices of 1st Januanr, 1879; 17 per cent, higher than at
1st January, 1878 ; 1 2 per cent, higher tnan at 1st Januaiy, 1870 ; and the same
as at Ist January, 1867. In some cases it is impossible to arrive satisfactorily
at these percentages in consequence of the wideuess of the quotations given in
the prices current, and also in consequence of chaojges in classifying the qualities
of the articles — changes necessarily incident to improvement of culture and
manufacture.

The great increase in the bank note circulation at end of 1878, arose from the
increase of Bank of England notes in the tills of banks, consequent on the dis-
credit arising from the £ulure of the City of Glasgow and West of England
Banks.

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1880.] Oomfmeroial and Finwnoial History of 1879. 355

** The prospects for 1880 are decidedly favourable. There is a
probability of a good season for all classes of farmers ; and, so far
that pestilential personage * the promoter,' has not appeared, except
in a very inferior degree.^

The following is the Table of Contents of the ^Commercial
History and Eeview of 1879," with Appendix: —

Year 1879. — General Besalts of its Commercial and Financial

History.
I. — Com and Cattle Trades,
n. — Colonial and Tropical Produce.
III.— Wine Trade.
rV. — Raw Materials.
V. — Shipping and Freights.
VL— Cotton Trade.

Vn. — ^West Biding, Ac., Woollen, Worsted, Flax, Iron, and other
Trades.
Vin.— The Money Market in 1879.

Appendix.

A. — ^Wholesale Prices of Commodities in London and Manchester —
Average of Six Years 1845-50 ;--Selec*ed Dates, 1867-78 ;
—and Monthly, 1879.

B.— Wholesale Prices, 1845-79— Proportionate Results.

C— Bank of France.

D. — Banks of Germany, Belgium, and Austria.

B. — Foreign Exchanges, 1841-79.

F. — Earopean Rates of Discount per cent, per annum, 1879.

G. — ^Prices of Grain — ^England and Wales — Calendar Years.

H. — Joint Stock Banks in London — ((jroup A) — Entirely Metro-
politan.

I. — Cycles of Bad Seasons in the United Kingdom — Speculations
concerning the Effect of Periods of Sun Spots on the Cha-
racter of Harvests.

J. — The Agricultural Depression in England, 1876-79 — Investiga-
tion of the Business Results of a Farm of 6oo acres in the
Eastern Counties.

K. — Production of Wheat «nd Indian Cem in the United States,
1863-78.

L. — United States, 1872-78 — Land Sales and Movement of Popu-
lation Westward— FaUures 1866-72 and 1873-79- Census
1880.

M. — Production of the Precious Metals.

N. — Possible Railw^ Development at Home and Abroad in 1880.

O. — Strikes in the United Kingdom during the Ten Years 1870-79,
and present Relations of Capital and Labour.

P. — Capital Raised and Proposed to be Raised for State, Muni-
cipal, and Industrial Purposes during the Nine Years
1871-79.

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356

MUcellaned,

[Jime,

II. — The Movement of the Population in Buesia dwrmg the Tears

1867-70.

Wb extract from the JowmaZ de 8t. PHersbourg, ^ March, 1880,
the following contribntion by M. Vesselovsky on the moYement of
population in Knasia : —

^'The Central Statistical Committee of the Ministry of ihe
Interior have recently prodnoed a series of tables relating to the
movement of the population in European Bnssia during the year
1870.

" Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of time which
has elapsed between the dates to which the figures really refer and
the actual date of publication, more especially as statistics of more
recent years have appeared for almost all the other European
countries : but it would be unfair to attach any blame to the com-
mittee for this, as the fact must not be lost sight of, that to obtain
reliable statistics of births, deaths, and marriages in Russia, many
difficulties have to be OYercome, and a vast amount of labour
undertaken by a very small staff. Notwithstanding the delay
however in compiling the returns, the work lately produced by
MM. de Sfcruve and Okhootchinsky will no doubt be studied mm
great interest by our readers, and its intrinsic merit fully appre-
ciated. The following comparative statement shows the movemest
of the population in the fi^y governments belonging to European
Russia (exclusive of Finland and the districts of the Vistula) for
the four years ending 1870 : —

Birtlif.

DeatlM.

lUa^^

1867

3,201,340
3»093,o87
3*178,970
3,180,223

2,299,166
2,617,037
2,450,362
2,263,021

639»74»
606,764

646.549
670,832

»68

'69

Aveimge for the 4 years

3»« 63,405

2,882,396

640,971

*^ From this statement it will be seen that the natural growth
of the population, through the excess of births over deaths,
averaged for the four years 781,000, or vi per cent, of the average
population of these fifty governments during the same period,
which amounted to 64,681,746 persons. Presuming that this rate
of progression be maintained, the population of Russia would in
58 years be doubled, and this result effected in a shorter space of
time than in most of the European countries, with the exception
of Norway, doubling its population in 52 years, Denmark in 56,
and Holland in 58; as in Sweden it would take 62 years^ Ger-
many 68, Belgium 79, Austria 95, Switeerland 99, Itwy 141, and
finally Prance 165 years.

*' It may not be out of place here to mention that although the
rapidly increasing growth of the population in Russia, or at any
rate the considerable increase, annually shown of births as com-
pared with deaths, is a well established fact, the same fiftcilities

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1880.] Movement of tits Popvlaium in Utisda during 1867-70. 867

which exist in otherr countries for arriving at a perfectly aocnrate
idea of the actual figures are not to be found in Russia, one reason
being that up to the present no reliable census has yet been taken,
the importance of which the committee have so frequently insisted
upon ; but still they are of opinion that the figures as stated by
them are rather under than over estimated, and any errors that
there might be would be of too trifling a nature to invalidate the
general facts, but the reserve which we have expressed is nevertiie-
less necessary as a caution against attributing anything beyond
an approximate value to the calculations of which the total number
of the population is one of the chief factors.

** It is in the south and west of Russia that there is the most
rapid increase in the population by the excess of births, the average
rate being 1*6 per cent, in the former and 2*4 per cent, in the
latter dis^ct ; it fluctuates between i and i *6 per cent, in the two
groups formed by the midland and eastern provinces, and is as low
as 1*0 per cent, in the northern ; but in two divisions of this latter
group, viz., Estbonia and St. Petersburg, the deaths are in excess
of births, being at the rate of 0*6 per cent, and 0*33 per cent,
respectively.

" In the period comprised between 1867 and 1870 the proper-
tional number of births to 1,000 persons living averaged 48*8, and
the following table will show at a glance that this birth-rate is
higher than in the other principal European countries : —

Births to One Thousand Persons Living,

Belgium 32*1

Denmark 30*9

Switzerland 30*6

Sweden 30*5

G^e^many 40*01042*8

Hungary 41*7

Austria 38*6

Spain ., 37*6

Italy 37*1

HoUand 356

England 35*4

Norway 30*4

France 25*8

**The governments with the highest birth-rate are those of
Astrakhan, 58*6 to 1,000 persons living, Orenburg 57*8, Perm 56*8,
and Samara 56*6 ; it is over co in the nineteen governments of
Orel, Penza, Toula, Koursk, Viatka, Smolensk, Riazan, Tchemigov,
Ekaterinoslav, Taurida, Nijni-Novgorod, Don, Voronej, Simbirsk,
Vladimir, Mobile v, Oufa, Poltava, and Kief; it fluctnates between
40 and 50 in the twenty governments of central Russia classed in a
descending scale, viz., Saratov, Tambov, Volhynia, Kharkov,
Moscow, Pskov, Minsk, Podolia, Vitebsk, Grodno, Kaluga, Vilna,
Vologda, Ejizan, Kostroma, Tver, Olonets, Cherson, Yaroslav, and
Bessarabia ; and classed in the same descending scale, it fluctuates
between 35 and 40 in the governments of Novgorod, Kovno,
Archangel, and St. Petersburg ; and the governments showing the
lowest birth-rate are the three Baltic provinces of Livonia, Esthonia,
and Kurland, the average proportion per 1,000 declining to 33*4,
31*6, and 30*5 respectively.

** The average proportion per cent, of illegitimate to total
births in Russia is 2*92, the proportion for the members of the
orthodox Greek Church being 3*06, Roman Catholics 3*17, and
Protestants 3*19, but for Jews and Mahomedans, it declines to
0*12 and 0'i6 req>ectively. The low rate of illegitimiaoy in4he last

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358 MticdUmea. [Jane,

two cases may be attributed either to imperfect reg^istration, or to
the fact that among the members of the Jewish race marriages are
contracted at a very earlj age, and a great Btrictncss of morality
observed, and to the fact that among the Mahomedans polygamy
is extensively practised.

** It will be seen then that the average nnmberof illegitimate births
is less in Rassia than in other Enropean cocmtriee : for example, in
Holland, after deducting still births, the rate of illegitimacy is 3*49
per cent., in Switzerland 4*80, England 5*54^ Italy 6*41, Hungary
and Bdgium 7*05, France 7'35, Norway 8-31, German Empire 871,
Sweden 10*23, Denmark 11*05, and Austria 13*46.

** Ck>mpanng the average number of illegitimate children bom
in seventy of the more important towns on the one hand, with
those bom in the remaining towns and country districts on the
other, we find that the proportion for ihe former is at the rate of
14*69 per cent., or nearly six times greater than that of the latter,
viz., 2*37, and five times higher than the general average for the
whole of European Russia.

''In addition to the fact of large towns exercising such an
influence over the illegitimate birth-rate, there is another striking
feature worthy of notice, which is, that the decrease in the rate ia
most conspicuous in travelling from north to south, the reason pro-
bably being that in the north marriages are contracted by no means
at an early age, as the condition of the soil and the severity of the
climate make it exceedingly difficult to obtain the means of
existence; another reason may be, that the working classes of
northern Russia are in the habit of leaving their homes periodically
to seek abroad work and higher wages. ^

" The proportion of male to every 100 female births registered
in Russia is 104*8, against 104 in England, 105 in Germany, Hol-
land, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and
Hungary; 106 in Austria, aiid 107 in Italy. Thus, with the exception
of the two last- mentioned countries, the excess of male over female
births is not greater in the western States than in Russia, but in the
midland districts of the empire the proportion among the Jewish
community is considerably abovo the average, rising to 128*9 P®^
cent.; among the members of the orthodox Greek Church it is 104*3,
Roman Catholics 104*8, Protestants 105*2, and Mahomedans 10^*3.

" The death-rate is higher in Russia than in the majority ot the
European States, the mean annual mortality of the four years
ending 1870 being 3*68 for every 100 persons living ; the following
table shows the different rates in the principal European countries : —

Anniul Rate of

Mortality per

100 Penoni LiTUig.

Prussia 2*74

Holland z'49

Switzerland 2*40

France 2*40

Great Britain 2*22

Denmark 1*98

Sweden 1*93

Norway 1*75

innmU Rate of

100 PeraoDB Lirinf .

Hungary 3*84

Wurtembupg 3*28

Serria 3*15

Austria 3*15

Spam 3*12

Bavaria 3*10

Italy 2*99

Saxony 2'88

" The death-rate, subject to more complex influences than the
birth-rate, does not exhibit the same regularity in the geographical

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1880.] Movevieni of the PqpidaUon in Russia dv/rmg 1867-70. 359

distribution. It is highest in the following sixteen governments
(from 4'0 to 4*6 per cent, of the population) : — Orel, Perm, Nijni-
Novgorod, Smolensk, Moscow, Vladimir, Toula, Samara, Olonets,
Yiatka, Simbirsk, Orenburg, Tambov, Astrakhan, Penza, and
Pskov. In the northern, western, and southern districts it
fluctuates between 3 and 4 per cent.; these districts comprise the
governments of St. Petersburg, Tver, Kazan, Kaluga, Oufa,
Saratov, Yaroslav, Voronej, Biazan, Koursk, Kostroma, Tcher-
nigov, Vologda, Poltava, Kharkov, Mohilev, Kovno, Novgorod,
Kiev, Bessarabia, Esthonia, Yolhynia, Ekaterinoslav, Taurida, and
Vitebsk. It is lower than 3 per cent, in the extreme northern
district of Archangel, the western provinces of Grodno, Minsk,
and Vilna, and in Cherson, and Don, which are situated in the
southern district ; in Livonia and Kurland, two of the Baltio pro-
vinces, the death-rate fluctusd^es between 27 and 2 '4 per cent.

" The number of deaths is more numerous in Russia in the
spring and summer than in autumn and winter, whereas in central
Europe, the death-rate is highest in winter and spring, and lowest
in summer and autumn. Extremes of temperature here, as else-
where, exert a considerable influence over mortality, especially
excessive heat and sudden atmospheric changes. For example,
taking Italy and Spain, during August and September, two of the
hottest months of the year, and the Scandinavian countries during
the spring, when the weather is subject to rapid changes of tempera-
ture and atmospheric pressure, there is an exceptionally high rate
of mortality. In Russia the twenty-nine governments with the
highest summer death-rate are the following, classed according to
the degrees of temperature: — Perm, Viatka, Vologda, Orenburg,
Kostroma, Astrakhan, Nijni-Novgorod, Simbirsk, Bessaradia,
Yaroslav, Samara, Tambov, Vladimir, Saratov, Penza, Kazan,
Oufa, Don, Taurida, Novgorod, Riazan, Voronej, Pskov, Moscow,
Cherson, Archangel, Toula, Ekaterinoslav, and Orel. These twenty,
nine governments are situated in the northern, eastern, southern,
and midland districts, and the heat being greater in the east, it is
there we find the highest death-rate. In the west, mortality is
influenced less by the heat than by sudden changes of temperature,
and the highest death-rate is to be observed in the spring, in the
following governments : — Kurland, Kovno, St. Petersburg, Tver,
Livonia, Poltava, Olonets, Smolensk, Kharkov, Koursk, Kaluga,
and in winter in Podolia, Kiev, Mohilev, Minsk, Tchemigov,
Grodno, Volhynia, Vitebsk, Vilna, and Esthonia.

'* The high rate of mortality in Russia is in a great measure
due to an exceptionally large number of deaths among infants
under one year old ; but there is more difficulty in arriving at the
exact proportion of infantile deaths in this country than in others,
it being almost impossible to obtain accurate information respecting
the mortality of mfants compared with that of all ages, and the
caution already given against attributing anything more than an
approximate value to the calculations must be repeated here, though
at the same time it is as well to state that in every case the figures
taken are nearly, if not quite correct, and any errors that may
creep in will be of too trivial a character to in any way invalidate

VOL. XLIII. PART II. 2 B

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360 MisceUanea, [June,

the general facts. It appears then from calculations made, that in
Russia for every lOO children bom, 26*34, or more than a quarter,
die in the first year of their existence, and this is a higher pro-
portion than is to be found in the majority of the European
countries, as the following statement will show : —

Percent.

Wurtemburg 3»*95

Bararia 3i'79

8axonj 27'8o

Austria 25*82

Italy 22*01

PerCeat

Pruwia ».. 21*77

Switzerland 20*02

Belgium 17*35

France 16*91

England ^S'¥>

" The mean death-rate of children under one year old is 44 per
cent, in the government of Perm ; 40 in Nijni-Novgorod ; it declines
from 38 to 30 in Viatka, Vladimir, Moscow, Yaroslav, Simbirsk,
Olonets, Tver, Orenburg, Kostroma, St. Petersburg, Saratov,
Vologda, Novgorod, Orel, Samara, Toula, Smolensk, Penza, and
Kazan ; from 29 to 20 per cent, in Pskov, Voronej, Archangel,
Biazan, Oufa, Kaluga, Astrakhan, Tambov, Livonia, Kurland,
Tchemigov, and Esthonia; from 19 to about 14 per cent, in
Kharkov, Poltava, Koursk, Kovno, Mohilev, Taurida, Kiev, Vitelsk,
Cherson, Grodno, Podolia, Bessarabia, Volhynia, Don, Minsk, and
Ekaterinoslav ; and it attains its minimum in the government of
Vilna, 12 to 1 1*89 per cent.

** Comparing a statement of provinces classed in the order of
infant mortality with a table of births, there is a want of coinci-
dence between the statements, that is to say, the largest number of
deaths in the first year of life does not correspond with the highest
birth-rate ; while on the other hand the geographical distribution
of the infant mortality shows an almost equal proportion to the
mortality of all ages. It is evident, therefore, that the causes of
the former are identical with those of the latter, chief among
which may be mentioned the climate, social condition of the
people, and their mode of life. Differences of race combined with
differences of religious denominations, also form an important
element in determining the high or low rate of mortality. These
differences are very considerable : for instance, among the members
of the orthodox Gfreek Church the death-rate of infants during
the first-year is 2775 P^^ cent., whereas it is only 21*18 among
Protestants, 17*53 Mahomedans, 14*98 Jews, and 13*96 Boman
Catholics. In large towns there is a preponderance of infant
mortality over smaller towns and the provinces : in the former the
proportion is 29*05 per cent, against 25*46 per cent, in the latter.
As regards the number of marriages, Bussia takes one of the first
places in Europe. The average annual mam'age rate, that is to say,
persons married to 1,000 population, is 9*8. This proportion is only
exceeded in Hungary, the rate being 10*5 ; the Grerman Empire
comes next with a proportion of 9*5 (Prussia 8*9, Saxony 9*38,
Wurtemburg and Bavaria 9*2, &c.), Austria 8*7, England and
Wales 8*4, Holland 8*2, France 8*0, Denmark 7*9, Switzerland and
Italy 7*6, Belgium 7*5, Scotland 7*2, Norway 7*0, Sweden &6, and
Ireland 5*1.

" The number of marriages fluctuates very considerably in the
different districts of Bussia, the proportion per 1,000 being as low

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1880.] Movement of the Population in Bussia during 1867-70. 361

as 6*5 in St. Petersburg, and as high as 12*2 in Oof a. The
greatest number are contracted in the governments of Oaf a,
Toula, Orel, Don, Podolia, Riazan, Astrakhan, Orenburg, Samara,
Koursk and Voronej, the rate varying from 11 to 1 1 '6 ; it is
between 10 and 10*9 in Penza, Viatka, Kiev, Volhynia, Ekateri-
noslav, Tambov, Kazan, Perm, Kharkov, Taurida, Simbirsk,
Nijni-Novgorod, Mohilev, and Poltava ; it is between 9*0 and 9*9 in
Tchemigov, Smolensk, Kaluga, Vladimir, Minsk, Saratov, Vologda,
Olonets, Bessarabia, Tver, and Grodno; between 8*i and 8*8 in
Kostroma, Vilna, Vitelsk, Cherson, Moscow, and Pskov ; between
7 and 7*8 in Archangel, Yaroslav, Kovno, Esthonia, and Nov-
gorod; and lastly, it fluctuates between 6*5 and 6*8 in Livonia,
Kurland, and St. Petersburg. Marriages are contracted at an earlier
age in Bussia than in any other European country, two-fifths of the
men and two-thirds of the women marrying under the age of 20.

" While in the countries of western Europe the proportion of men
marrying under the age of 20 varies from o*i to 3*6 per cent., in
Bussia it is as high as 3 7 '9. The proportion of females marrying under
the age of 20 varies from 4*7 to 19*9 per cent, in other coun^es; in
Bussia it attains the high rate of 5 7 '4. Per contra, for every 100 mar-
riages registered in Bussia, the proportion of men between the ages
of 20 and 30 is 41 '8, and women 3 3 '2 per cent. ; in the other European
countries the corresponding rates fluctuate between 51 '3 and 73 per
cent, in the case of men, and 56*8 to 677 in the case of women.

" If we take a table of governments, classed according to the ages
of the persons marrying, it appears that marriages of people in the
same rank of life are contracted at an earlier age in the south than
in the north ; for example, in Archangel, Vologda, Novgorod, and
Olets, the proportion of men marrying under the age of 20 varies
from 14*2 to 1 8*2 per cent., and of women 21 to 25*1 per cent.

" We have ahready called attention to this fact above, and also to
the cause to which it is to be attributed, viz., the inferior facilities
enjoyed by the rural population in northern districts of supplying
their wants and forming new establishments; but besides the
conditions of material existence depending upon soil and climate,
the variations which are found in the different provinces between
the average ages of mstrried persons are also largely due to the
influence exercised by the composition of the population as regards
race, religion, and agglomeration in large towns. The following
table shows the importance of these last elements : —

To every Hundred Men Married,

Proportion.

Under 20.

From 30 to 25.

From 25 to SO.

Over 80.

Orthodox Greek Ohnreh

40-9

8-5
7-6

15-8
ii'i

39*1

80-6
80-2
31-4
27-4
40-2
29-2
811

9-6
23*9

^5-7

II'Z
21'3

io'4

18-9

Roman Catholics

37-4

Protestants

Jews ....

36-3
19*7

M'fth OTn fd ftn 9

27-5

Seventy-eight principal towns ..
Other towns and provinces

48-4
19-4

2b1

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362

MisceUanea.
To every Hundred Women Married,

[June,

Orthodox Greek Church

Boman Catholics

Protestants

Jews

Mahomedans

Serentj -eight principal towns
Other towns and provinces

Proportion.

Under 90.

59*5
37*7
27-8

47-6
43 -o
58*0

From
SO to 85.

25*4
32-3
86*2
21-9
29-6
27-8
26*0

Vrom
SfitoSO.

6-3
14-1

i8-2
7-9

lO'O

J3'4
6-0

OrerSO.

8-8
15-9
17-8
10-4
12-8
16-8

*' It is in the midland and southern districts of Bassia that the
largest proportion of marriages among minors is found, especially
in the governments of Voronej, Don, Kaluga, Nijni-Novgorod,
Orel, Penza, Riazan, Samara, Tambov, and Toula, the percentage
of men under 20 being from 517 to 65*1, and of women 66*6 to
81-4.

" Tbe following table shows the civil condition of persons mar-
lying in Russia and the other principal foreign countries : —

Proportion to every Hundred Marriages Contracted between

Bnssia

^fVance

Italy

Beldum

En^and and Wales.

Prussia*

Bayariaf

Austria

HoUandt

Denmark §

Sweden II

Norway

Spain

Greece

Boumania

Bschelon tnd

Spiniten.

76*19
84*04
8a*5i
8z*7i
81-65

79*3^
82-35
75-48
79'37
81-30

84-73
84-53
81-06
85-86
84-96

Widows.

4*64
4-08
3*83
6*11
4-44
6*36
5-26
6*40
4-62
6*26
8*69
8-83
4*03
4-06
3*02

Widowors sad

Spinsten.

10-16

8*18

9*86

8*64

8*60

10*80

10*64

13*15

io*94

10*07

9-33

9*55

10*06

6-76

6-21

Widovi.

9-01
3-70
3*80
3*64
6-31
3*60
1*74
4*97
4*84
2*13
2*19
209
4-86
3*32
6*81

* Plos 0*32 per cent, between diroro^ and spinsters; o'lo per cent,
diyorc^ and widows; 0*29 per cent, bachelors and diToro6es; 0*15 per cent,
widowers and diroro^es ; 0*03 per cent, diyoroed persons of both sexes.

t Plus o'02 per cent, marriages of diyorced persons of both sexes.

t tf 0*33 „ diyoroed persons.

§ >» 1**5 » »»

II )) o'i6 „ „

" And with these particulars before us, we can produce the fol-

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1880.] Movement of the Population in Busda during 1867-70. 363

lowing table, after deducting marriages between divorced persons
of both sexes : —

To every Hundred Married Persons,

Bussia

France

Italy

Belgium

England and Wales.

Prussia*

Bayariaf

Austria ...

HollandJ

Denmark §

Sweden Ij

Norway

Spain

Ghreece

Boumania

Men — Proportion of

Bachelors.

80-83
88-iz
86-34
87*8z
86-09
84-71
87-60
81-88
83-89

86-55
88-3Z
88-36
85-09
89-92
87-98

Widowers.

1917
11-88
1366
1218
13-91
14-40
12-38
18-12
15-78
12-20
11-62
11-64
14-91
10-08
12-02

Women— Proportion of

Spinsters.

86-35

92-2Z

9a'37
9i'35
90-25
90-16
92-99
88-63
90'3i
91*37
94*06
94-08
91*12
92-62
91-17

Widows.

13-66
7-78
7-63
8-65
9-76
8-95
6-99

11-87
9-36
7-38
6-78
5-92
8-88
7-88
8-83

t» tt §> III See notes to previous table.

" Comparing the above figures, it will be seen that there is a

greater number of marriages contracted by widows and widowers in
nssia than in any European country, the former representing an
eighth and the latter a fifth of the number of persons of the respec-
tive sexes married.

** It would naturally seem that this fact should be explained by
the high death-rate ; but on the contrary, there is, as a rule, a want
of coincidence between the classification of provinces by the magni-
tude of the death-rate, and that by the number of persons in a state
of widowhood. There are not, however, sufficient data to pronounce
definitely upon this question.

'*As regards different sects, the proportion of marriages of
widows and widowers is much higher among Roman Catholics than
members of the orthodox Greek Church, but in the case of Pro-
testants, it is lower for widows and considerably higher for widowers.
Jews and Mahomedans show the greatest numbers, but this is pro-
bably owing to the imperfect registration of divorced persons.

Proportion to every Hundred Marriages,

Men.

Women.

Bachdors.

Widowers.

Spinsters.

Widows.

Orthodox Greek Church

81-86
77*90
80-34
74*0+
65*19

1814
22-10
19-66
26-96
84-81

87-09
84*88

89*54
79-89
73*62

12*91

Homan Catholics

15*12

Protestants

Jews

Mahomedans

10*46
20*11
26*88

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36 i>

Miscellanea.

[Jtiney

" The figures which we have briefly reviewed represent the
average of the four years 1867-70, bnt it must be remembered that
in two of these years, 1867 and 1868, the effects of exceptionaUy bad
harvests were felt throughout the whole of the Russian empire;
but taking the average for the whole period at lOO, the births,
marriages, and deaths in each year can be stated proportionally, and
show the following percentages : —

Births.

Muriiig^et.

DmUm.

1867

101*04

97*49
100*48
100*99

99-91

9402

100-96

105-12

96-31
105*91
102*71

95*07

'68

»69

" Thus it will be seen that in the year 1867 there is a perceptible
diminution in the number of marriages, only twenty-one ont of forty-
nine governments showing a higher proportion than the average ;
in 1868 the decrease is more pronounced, reaching 6 per cent., and
extends almost throughout the whole of Russia, i.e., in forty-one
governments ; it amounts to 37 per cent, in Archangel, more than
25 per cent, in Orenburg and Esthonia, beyond 20 per cent, in
Novgorod and Mohilev, 15 per cent, in Pskov, Livonia, Kovno,
St. Petersburg and Tchemigov, and 10 per cent, in Kaluga, Vilna,
Tver, Cherson and Smolensk.

** For the same year the births are only above the average (for
the four years ending 1870) in twelve governments out of forty-
nine, whereas in 1867, 1869, and 1870 they are higher in thirty
governments. The decrease in the number is most perceptible in
1868 in the governments of Archangel, Vologda, Voronei, Kaluga,
Kostroma, Mohilev, Moscow, Novgorod, Olonets, Pskov, St. Peters-
burg, Smolensk, Taurida, and Yaroslav, where it represents on the
average 5 per cent. Finally, the number of deaths in 1868 showed
a considerable increase, which was almost universal throughout
Bussia, the only governments with a comparativelv low rate of
mortality being those of Volga, Kazan, Simbirsk, ^ieonara, Astra-
khan, Don, Kurland, Vladimir, Orel, Biazan, Toula, and Tambov.

*' It was only in 1870 that the marriages, births, and deaths
resumed their ordinary level, and on the average the results of these
four years were certainly less favourable than the normal rates.

" The statistics of the movement of the population, at least in
their existing form, with the details required by scientific exigencies,
are of recent origin in Russia ; if they are still defective in several
respects, allowance must be made for the special difficulties which
have to be encountered in our country, of the enormous number of
the population, its distribution over an immense territory, and the
different conditions to which it is subject. Under these circum-
stances no one will fail to recognise the importance of the progress
realised by the enlightened and persevering efforts of the Central
Statistical Committee."

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1880.] Lloyd^s StcUistics of Marine Casualties for 1879.

365

III. — Lloyd's Statistics of Marine Oastuilties for the Year 1879.

In the present number of tlie Journal the nsaal statistics of
marine losses and casualties furnished bj Lloyd's from the reports
made to that corporation for the year 1879 appear, and the short
introduction which has been customary for some years is appended.

Lives Lostf so far as Reported^ in both Sailing and Steam Vessels,

Annual Average.

Thirteen Yean, 1866-78.

1,784

Eight Yean. 1872-79.

1,826

1879.

1,662

This table shows satisfactory figures.
Crews reported saved or drowned give

the following figures : —

Crews Reported Saved.

Crews Reported Drowned.

Annual Arerage.

1879.

Annual ATeragc.

Thirteen

Yean,

1866-78.

1872-78.

Thirteen
Yean.

1866-78.

Seven Yean.
1872-78.

1879.

Sailing yessels ....
Steamers

946
67

1,007
89

. 1,026
119

93
8

131
14

95
8

Both these classes give satisfactory results for the year 1879.
The proportion of collisions to general casualties continues to
increase, as shown in the following table : —

Percentage of Collisions {onlt/) to Total Casualties,

Averages for Diffennt Series of Years.

Nine Yean.
1866-74.

Ten Yean.
1866-76.

Eleven

Yean,

1866-76.

Twelve
Yean,
1866-77.

Thirteen
Yearn,
l866-7b.

1879.

Sailing yessels....
Steamers

16-76
30-90

16-96
30-97

I7'28
31*10

17-44
30-98

17*57
3111

20-58
3011

The Collisions to sailing vessels in 1879 numbered 2,060, or
more than the average of the previous thirteen years by 174, or
9-23 per cent.; to steamers 1,001 in 1879, or 607 above the same
average, equal to 64*91 P^^ cent, of increase. Compared with the
year 1878 alone, 1879 gives an increase of 15*08 per cent, for sailing
vessels^ and of 1974 per cent, for steamers.

General casualties reported to sailing vessels in 1879 were 10,009,

Digitized by

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366

Miscellanea.

[June^

or 788 more than in 1878, an increase of 8*55 per cent. ; while those
reported to stea/mera were 3,325, an increase of 734 or 28*33 per
cent.

The BSpertoire Oeneral of the Borean Veritas gives the number
of sea^going sailing vessels existing in 1879 as 49,024, measuring
14,103,605 tons, showing a decrease of 500 vessels and 213,825 tons
from 1878, equal 4o a reduction of I'Oi per cent, in vessels, and
1*49 per cent, in tonnage; of steamiers^ as 5,897 vessels, measuring
6,179,935 tons gross, or an increase of 435 vessels, equal to 7*96
per cent., and in gross tonnage of 584,760 tons, equal to 10*45 P®^
cent.

The foregoing figures seem to indicate that sailing vessels are
smaller in average capacity as well as fewer in number, but that
steamers are largely increasing in both.

From an interesting statement issued by the committee of
Lloyd's Register of Shipping^ it appears that while the number of
steamers returned as "lost, broken up, &c.," duriug 1879, was
only 151, measuring 130,500 tons, the new steamers classed by the
Society during that year were 331, measuring 451,130 tons; 821
sailing vessels are returned as "lost, broken up, &c.," measuring
. '^9^353 tons, while only 170 new sailing vessels were classed by the
Society during the year, measuring 70,208 tons.

Serious casualties give the following percentages upon the annual
totals : —

Percentage of Serious Casualties

upon Annual Totals.

Avenge of

Thirteen Yean,

1866-78.

ATenze

of Seven Yean,

1873.78.

1879.

Sailing Vessels —

In collision

17*57
26-67
10-77
44*99

18-64
25-39
10-76
45-32

iq-^nS

Stranded

25*79
9-76

43*87

Leaky

Other caaualties

loo-oo

100-00

100*00

Steamers —
In collision

31-11

25*75
2-41

40*73

80-25

25-67

2-29

41-89

30-11
a6-o8

Stranded

Leaky

1*92
41-89

Other casualties

lOO'OO

100-00

lOO'OO

Missing vessels^ or vessels believed to have been lost with all
hands, continue to show a diminution, which may not improbably
be to some extent the result of the attention of late years directed
to the proper character of the vessels, their loading, and equipment.
In 1879 the numbers were 65 sailing vessels, and 6 steamers, while
the averages for thirteen previous years were 86 sailing vessels, and
9 steamers.

The results of casualties reported were, so far as ascertained, a»
under : —

Digitized by

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1880.] Lloyd's Statistics of Marine Casualties far. 1S79.

367

Resolta — Percentage on Annaal Totals.

Arerage of

Tbirteeu Years,

1866-78.

iff

1879.

Sailing Vessels —
Total or oonstructiye loss, or 1

^reat damage j

Minor damage

31*23
46-59

22-l8

28-33

40-97
21-70

28-96

46-81
24-23

Not damaged or results unknown

Steamers—
Total or constructi?e loss, or 1

great damage J

Minor damage

loo-oo

100-00

15-66

43*04
41-30

13-77

47-54
38-69

II-I4

47*23
41*63

Not damaged or results unknown

lOO-QO

10000

lOO'OO

Vessels reported burnt or on fire, show satisfactory figures, when
the very large increase in the nnmber of steamers is remembered,
the numbers being : —

Bnrnt or on Fire.

Average of

Thirteen Years,

1866-78.

ATeran

of Seren Years,

1872-78.

1879.

Sailing yessels

141

132
59

116

Steamers

190

191

189

The proportion of casualties reported to Lloyd's to the number
of sea-going vessels existing as given in the Repertoire OSneral,
appears as under: —

Percenuge of Reported Casnalties to Sea-going Vessels Existing.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

1878.

Mean
ofSercn
Years.

1879.

Sailing ressels....

20-51
55*31

19-77
47-55

19*73
46-97

18-81
4612

'8*45
44*98

21-74
4606

1862
47*44

19-66
47-78

20*42
56-38

The above indicates a very considerable increase in the pro-
portion of casualties to steamers, and an excess also in the case of
sailing vessels, during 1879. Undervrriting experience — speaking
generally — will be found, we believe, to follow the respective
figares of percentage somewhat more closely than is usually
imagined in its pecuniary results ; if so, surely we cannot be wrong
in again drawing the attention of our readers to the very great
benefit which would accrue from the establishment of an " InstiUUe
of British Underwriters y

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368
I.— A Table

MisceUa/nea.

[Jane,

the Number of Wrecks and Camalties to Sailing Ve$sds and Steamer

Compared with the Average Number ant

First Half-Year.

Second Half.Tear.

Annual TotaL

Sailing Vessels.

1879.

Average

18 previous

Years.

1879.

Average

IS previous

Years.

1879.

ATen{:e
ISprrrkms

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent.

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent.

Num-
ber.

Per
Cent.

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

1. Misting

ro2

1-17

0-31

048

0-65

o'8c

2. Abandoned^-
ReooTered ....
Lost

27
134

0-56
a-8o

81
117

0*64
^38

39
106

0*75
i'03

39
130

0*66
2-i3

66
240

0*66
2*40

70
247

o'tz

2-30

Total

161

3-36

148

3*02

145

2-78

169

2*89

806

3*06

317

2*95

3. Collision —
Not damaged

Damaged

Sunk

229

592

4*77

12*34

1-65

227

562

465

1-49

331

730
99

14-CI
1*90

295
647

5-05
1 1 '06

1-38

560
1,322

178

5*59
1*78

522

1,209

154

4*8:

11-2:
1*43

ToUl

900

18-76

862

1766

1,160

22*26

1,023

17*49

2,060

2058

1,886

»7"57

4. Sinkuiff fromi
cmoMs other than >
coUiaion J

111

2*31

149

3-03

163

313

172

2*95

274

2*74

321

2'y9

5. Stranded—
Got off

672
430

14-01
8-96

1-67

708
476

116

9-75
i'37

742
526

131

14-24
10*09

2-51

771
625

164

13*21

10*69
2-8i

1,414
956

211

14*13
9*55

2*11

1,481
1.102

280

i3*8c

2-6 1

Not got off ....
Sabsequeat fate 1
not reported .

Total

1,182

24-64

1,300

26-62

1,399

26*84

1,562

26*71

2,581

25*79

2363

26-67

6. Capture

1
63

208

126

56
448
137

110

1,240
6

0*02
1-31

4*34

ri7
9*34
2-85

2-29
012

192

55
506
237

119

1,086
10

0*07
0-03

3 94
1*88

113

10-36
4-85

a'43

i2-23
021

53
194

79
529
170

1,110
18

I '02

1*73

10*15

3-26

1*63

21*30
0-35

284

122
650
270

118

1,265
19

0*14
0*03
1*29

4*85

1*55

2*09
11*11
4*62

2*02

ii-45
0*3 a

1
116

402

216

135
977
307

195

2,350
24

O'Ol

1*16

4*01
2*16

1*34
9*76
3*07

23*48
0*24

141

476

188

177

1,155

507

287

2,340
29

0*11

o'o;

4+4
r7c

I0T7
472

2*: I

21-SC

7. Piracy

8. Burnt or on fire
I). Dismasted or 1

disabled j

10. Jettison of]
cargo under ►
deck

11. Jettiyn^ofJUgjl

overboard

12. Leaky

18. Lossof anchors'
or chains ..../

14. Machinery f
damaged, &c. J

15. Mutiny, sickness,'

casualty to
crew, or refus-
ing duty

16. Shipdmged.,&o.

17. Water-logged....

Number of casualts.

4,798

—

4,883

—

0,211

—

6,850

—

10,009

—

10,733

—

Number of ressels

4,485

—

4,645

—

4,977

—

6,467

—

9,462

—

10,012

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1880.] Lloyd's StatUUca of Marine Casualties for 1879.

369

reported in " Lloyd's Listy"" during the Year 1879, and the respective Percentages thereon
Percentages for the Thirteen Previous Fears.

First Half-Tear.

Second Half-Year.

Annual TotaL

Arerape

Avera^

1879.

18 prenoui
Yean.

1879.

ISpreriooB

1879.

ISpreTioua
Yean.

Steamers.

Num-

Per

Nnm.

Per

Num.

Per

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

ber.

Cent.

ber.

Cent.

ber.

Cent.

ber.

Cent.

ber.

Cent.

ber.

Cent.

0-37

0-68

—

0-26

o-i8

0*45

1. Missing

2. Abandoned^

—

o'o8

««

—

0-05

Becovered

0*19

0-24

o-o6

0-19

0-12

0*2 1

Lost

0*19

0-32

0-06

0*22

0-12

0-26

Total

3. Collision—

224

i3'99

138

15*45

277

16*07

187

17-70

501

15*07

826

i6'7i

Not damaged

220

>3'74

113

12*56

244

14' 1 5

143

13*59

464

13*96

256

13*12

Damaged

i*oo

118

ri6

1*45

1-08

1-28

Sunk

460

i8-73

262

29-19

541

31*38

345 [32-74

1,001

30-11

607

31*11

Total

f 4. Binking front c«nae«
i *• othS than ooUi-
L sion

1-87

2*13

2*03

2-26

1*95

2-20

347

21*67

189

21-14

411

^3*84

214

20-28

758

22-8o

403

20-67

Got off

2*69

3*77

2-96

4*30

2*83

4-06

Not got off

0-31

1-15

c-58

0-91

0*45

1-02

r Subsequent fate
\ not reported

395

24-67

233

26-06

472

27*38

269

25*49

867

26-08

502

25*75

Total

—

0-07

—

0-06

6. Oapture

7. Piracy

219

2-68

2-20

.2-^6

2-20

2*51

8. Burnt or on fire

0*56

0-84

0-70

1-06

0-63

0-96

r 9. Dismasted or
t disabled
riO. Jettison of

344

1*78

.74

J*43

2*56

1*59

i cargo under
L deck
ril Jettison of deckload
• or waahed orer-
board

o-8i

068

0-64

I -06

0-72

0-89

i'3i

2-64

'•57

2-22

1*92

2*41

12. Leaky
ri3. Loss of anchors

094

1-19

1*45

I'Ol

1-20

i-io

or chains

276

17-24

177

19*72

283

16-41

194

18-41

559

16-81

371

19-01

fX4. Machinery damaged

or short of coals

ri6. Mutiny, sickness,

0-87

1-09

064

0-94

0-75

i-oi

casualty to crew,
or refusing
L duty
16. Ship dmgd., &c.

263

15*80

10*95

238

13*80

110

10-45

491

14*77

208

io'68

—

17. Water-logged

1,601

—

896

—

1,724

—

1,055

—

3,325

—

1,950

—

Number of casualties

1,624

—

861

—

1,709

—

1,022

—

3,233

—

1,883

—

Number of steamers

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370

Miscellanea,

[June,

2. — A Table showing the Resvlts of Wrecks and Casualties to Ship and to CargOy ^nth Salvage
during the Year 1879, and the respective Percentages thereon. Compared

FintHdf-Yctr.

Second Half. Year.

Annual Total.

SaUing Yessels.

1879.

Averaj^e

18 previous

Years.

1879.

Average

13 previous

leam.

1879.

Avera^

IS previoQa

Yeara.

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent.

Num-
ber.

Per
Cent.

Num-
ber.

Per
Cent.

Num-
ber.

Per
Cent.

Number.

Per
Cent.

Num.
ber.

Per

CCBL

Results to Ship—
Total loss

802

417

2,157

19
1,022

17*88

9'30
48-09

042

2179

836

483

2,147

22
969

18-39

1*91

10-62

47-25

0-49

ii'33

887

492

2,271

26
1,225

17-82

1*53
9-89'

45*^3
24*61

1,021

621

2,516

19
1,210

18-67

1*45
u-37
+6-0Z

0-34
22-14

1,689
144
909

4,428

45
2.247

1785

1-50

9-61

4680

0-48
23-75

1.857

166

1,104

4,663

41
2,180

«8'55

165

11*03

4658

0-41
ii-77

Construotiye loss

Minor damage ....

Raised after sink- 1
ing J

Not damaged or"!
results un- >
known J

Total

4,485

—

4,545

—

4,977

—

6,467

—

9,462

—

10,012

—

Results to Cargo so
far as reported —

All lost

364

255

146

812
5-69

0-33
0*40
o'i6
1*09
yz6

468
289
18
13
10
60
74

io'3i

0*39
0*29

0-2I

I'32
1-63

857

243

108

7'i7
4-88
0-26
b-32

O'lO

127

2-17

496

800

9*07
5-48
0*26
0*16
o-i6

1-26

1-35

721

498

112

254

7-62
5-26
0-29
0*36
0-13
rii
2-68

964

539

130

148

963

0-32

0"22
0-19
1*29
1-48

Pai-t lost

Allsared

Forwarded

Heated

Shifted

Otherwise damaged

Salvage Services ....

405

9-04

437

9-63

440

8-93

492

9*00

845

8-97

932

9'5«

Lives —
Crews saved

Crews drowned ....

488
68

IO-88

433
51

9*53

1*12

538
27

io-8i
0-54

518
48

9-38
0-78

1,026
95

10-84
I -00

946
93

9*45
093

Liyes lost so far"|
as reported (in 1
both ships and f
steamers) ....J

1,029

—

944

—

633

—

840

—

1,662

—

1,784

—

Digit

zed by V^

loo

gle

1880.] Lloyd's Statistics of Mwrine Casualties for 1879.

371

ServteeSy Gretas Saved or Drowned and Lives Losty so far as reported in "Llo^fd's List/*
vnth the Average Nvmber and Percentages for the Thirteen Previous Years,

KntHalf-Year.

Second Half-Yew.

Annual Total

1879.

Average
Ycara.

1879.

Average

IS prenoui

Years.

1879.

Aveia^

ISpreviouB

Years.

Steamers.

Num.
ber.

Per
Ceot.

Nam-
ber.

Per
Ceot

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent

Num.
ber.

Per
Cent

Uetulta to Ship--

5-77

7-74

103

6*03

8-19

191

5-91

150

7*99

Total loss

o*o7

0-52

—

0-35

0-03

0-43

Constructiye loss

446

6*91

100

5'^S

7-5^

168

S'io

136

Great damage

756

49-61

382

44'39

771

45"

428

41-91

1,527

47*23

810

43-04

0*92

0-71

0-41

o-8o

0*65

0-76

Baised after sinking

597

39*17

342

39*73

728

42-60

421

41-23

1,325

40-98

763

4054

r Not damaged or
\ residts unknown

1,524

—

861

—

1,709

—

1022

—

3,233

—

1,883

—

Total

Results to Cargo so
far as reported-^

i-49

3*09

2*11

3*o2

2-29

3*05

All lost

617

4*31

4-56

4*3'

172

5-32

43 >

Part lost

—

o'i6

o-o6

o-ii

0-03

0-13

AUsared

—

0'12

o'o6

0*09

0*03

o-io

Forwarded

—

0-I3

0-12

0*09

0*06

o-ii

Heated

i'i5

1-27

1-40

i'59

^'iS

1-44

Shifted

rSi

i*30

3-63

2-42

105

3*25

a-37

164

1076

S'2S

153

8-95

7'3i

317

9-80

144

7-66

Salvage Services

Lives —

3-67

3-73

3-69

3 '43

119

3*37

3*57

Crews sayed

0-39

o*6o

0*I2

o-aS

0*25

0*40

Crews drowned

—

fLives lost so far
J as reported (in
1 both ships and
t steamers)

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372
3.—^ TMe showing the

Miscellanea.

[June,

Number of Wrecks and Casualties to Sailing Vessds reported
Compared with the Average Number and Percentages

Sailing Yessels.

Xnmber.

First Quarter.

1879.

Per-
oent«ge.

Xnmber.

Average Thirteen
preTioQs Years.

Per-
eentage.

Second Quarter.

1879.

Number.

Per-
centHge.

Aver^ Thirteen
prenous Tears.

Nomber.

1. Missing

2. Abandoned —

BecoTered

Lost

Total

3. Collision —

Not damaged

Damaged

Sunk

Total

4. Sinking from causes'!

other than collision j

5. Stranded —

Got off

Not got off

Subsequent fate not 1
reported j

Total

6. Capture

7. Piracy

8. Burnt or on fire

9. Dismasted or disabled....

10. Jettison of cargo"!

under deck J

11. Jettison of deckload or 1

washed overboard. ... J

12. Leaky

13. Loss of anchors orl

chains J

14. Mutiny, sickness, 1

casualty to crew or >
refusing duty J

15. Ship damaged, loss of 1

bulwarks, sails, &c. j

16. Water-logged

Number of casualties

Number of ressels

15
79

136

381

607

389
278

718

34
130

270

852
1

2,978

2,749

0*91

0-50
2-66

3-16

4*57
irii

1*34

17*02

1-91

13*0^
9*33
1-71

24-11

1-14
4*37'
2-92

114

9-07
3'ia

2*48

28-61
0-03

0-86

20
71

0-63
2-30

12
55

0-66
3*o2

2*93

3*68

136

351

4-41

"•33

1*39

261
39

H*34
2-14

530

17*13

393

»i'59

2-68

2-97

408
303

13-17
979
2-48

283
152

1*59

787

^5*44

464

^5*49

113

818
188

747
5

0*05
0-03
I-I7
3*66

<'94

1-10

10-28

6-o8

»'33

^4*13
o'i7

1
29
78

22
178

388
5

0-06
I '59
4*19
2-14

1-21

9-78
2-42

1-98

21-3*
0*27

11
45

212

300
178

513

1
80
79

188

8,094

1,820

1,789

2,853

1,736

1,692

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1880.] Lloyd's Statistics of Marine Casualties far 1879.

373

n ^^LloycTs List^ during the Four Quarters of 1879, and the respective Percentages the^'eon^
7r the same period of the Thirteen Fremous Years.

Third Quarter.

Fourth Quarter.

1879.

Averase Thirteen 1
previoot Tean. |

1879. 1

Average Thirteen
previoni Yean.

Sailing Yeseels.

(Climber.

Per-
ceutage.

Number.

Per-
centage.

Number.

Per-
centage.

Number.

Per-
centage.

o*6o

0*76

0*12

0*35

1. Missing

16
29

o-8o
1*45

11
35

0*59
i*8i

0-72
i*39

27
95

0*69
2*43

2. Abandoned—
BecoTered
Lost

2'^S

2-40

100

311

123

3*ii

Total

134

286
49

6*71

14*33

2*46

113

243

5*89
12*63

1-64

197

444

6-13
13*81

>*55

182

403

4*<J3

10*29

1*26

Not damaged

Damaged

Sunk

469

i3"5o

888

20* 16

691

21*49

635

i6*i8

Total

3-o6

3*49

102

3*17

106

2*68

r 4. Sinking from causes
\ other than collision

800
159

15*03
7*97

1*50

290
185

15-06
9*62

2*38

442
367

101

13*75
11*42

3*H

483
440

118

12*31
11*22

3*01

5. Stranded —

Ckjtoff

Not got off
f Subsequent fate not re-
\ ported

489

»4*5o

521

27*06

910

28*31

1,041

i6*54

Total

200

442
6

0*95

4*21

i'6o

1*15
10*02

3*56
2*16

22*14
0*30

100

245

353
6

0*16

0*07
1*69
5-18

1*55

1-14

12*71

2-46
2*54

>8*33
0*30

34
110

329

668
12

1*06
3*4»
1*80

1*74

10*23

3 '08

1*31

20*78
0*37

184

100
405
228

902
18

0*13
0*01
1*10
4*69

1*55

2*55
10*32

5*^9
1*77

22*99

0*33

6. Capture

7. Piracy

8. Burnt or on fire

9. Dismasted or disabled
riO. Jettison of cargo
[ nnder deck

^11. Jettison of deckload or
\ washed orerboard

12. Leaky
ri3. Loss of anchors or
\ chains
fl4. Mutiny, sickness,
casualty to crew or
refusing duty
f 16. Ship damaged, loss of
\ bulwarks, sails, &c.

16. Water-logged

,996

—

1,926

—

3,215

—

3,924

—

Number of casualties

930

—

1,831

—

3,047

—

8,635

—

Number of ressels

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374

MiiceUcmea,

[Jane,

4. — A TabU $howing the Nwmher of Wrecks and CcuucUtiee to Steamen reported m

Compared with the Average Number and Percenta^

First Quarter.

Second Quarter.

Steamers.

1879.

Average Thirteen
prerioiii Years.

1879.

Arer^ ThiitecB
previous Tears.

Number.

Per-
centage.

Number.

Per-
cenUge.

Number.

Ter-
centage.

Number.

Per-
cenuge.

1. MUeinff

o*3»

0*85

0*46

o*44

Beoorered ...^

Lost

O'Zl .

0*25

0-I5

0*22

Total

0*2I

0-33

o'lS 1

0-30

3. ColUsionr-^

Not damaged

111
136

11-68

i4'3i

0-74

1494

12-79

1*24

118

84
9

17*36

12-90

1-38

62
47

16*14

12*26

I 09

Damaged

Sunk

Total

254

26*74

149

28-97

206

31 64

113

29*49

4. Sinking from causes 1
other than collision j

1-68

2*07

i'»5

2*21

6. Stranded—

G-ot off

206
28

21-89
0-42

100
19

«9'49

3*70

1-26

139
15

21*35

2*31

0-15

89
15

23*35
3-86

I'd

Not got off

Subsequent fate not 1
reported J

Total

240

25-26

125

H-45

155

23-81

108

28-22

6. Capture

19
6

156

171

2-00

0-63
3'37
1-05
2-63
0*84

16*42
0-84
18-00

11
5

5
13

2-23

0-96
1*54

0-87

>'53
19*05

1-05

16
3

3
12

120

0-46

3*53
0*46
1*84
I -08

18*43

0*92

12'6o

13
8

4
28

3*28

0*69

2*09
0-42

2*80

0-75
20*61

ri5

7*45

7. Piracy

8 Burnt or on fij^

9. Dismasted or disabled....

10. Jettison of cargo 1

under deck J

11. Jettisonofdeckloadorl

washed overboard... J

12. Leaky

18. Loss of anchors orl
chains J

14. Machinery damaged 1

or short of coals .... j

15. Mutiny, sickness, 1

casualty to crew, or V
refusing duty J

16. Ship damaged, loss of 1

sails, bulwarks, &a J

17. "Water-loeeed

Number of casualties

950

—

512

—

651

—

382

—

Number of steamers

905

—

495

—

619

—

366

—

Digitizec

byGoC

)gle

1880.] Lloyd's Statistics of Marine Casualties' for 1879. 875

^^ Lloyd's Listy' during the Four Quarters of 1879, and the respective Percentages thereon,
for the same period of the Thirteen Previous Years,

Third Quarter.

Fourth Quarter.

1879.

Previout Yean.

1879.

Avcrajfe Thirteen
Prerioua Yean.

Steamers.

Xnmbor.

Pct-
eentage.

Nnmber.

Per-
centage.

Number.

Per-
cenlage.

Nnmber.

Per-
centage.

—

0-36

1. Mitsing

—

0-17

0-09

0-19

2. Abandoned —
Becovered
Lost

—

0*19

0*09

0*24

Total

116

i8mo

13-88

1-40

78
60

19-13
14-64

1-62

161

155

14-86
14-31

1-02

108

16-79
12*92

3. Collision^
Not damaged
Damaged
Sunk

214

33-38

145

35'39

327

30-19

201

31*06

Total

1-56

2-20

2-31

2*30

r 4. Sinking from causes

155
14,

24-18

2'lB

0-31

88
17

21-41

4* 14

0-75

256
37

23-64

3*41
0-74

126

19*57
4*39

I'OI

6. Stranded^
6K)toff-
Not got off
f Subsequent fate not re-
\ ported

171

26-67

108

26-30

301

27*79

161

24*97

Total

11
4

6
9

133

1-72
0*62

1-72

0-94
1-40
1-09

20-75
1-09
9-05

12
3

2
8
2

2*97
0-72

»-73
0-41
a'03
0-60

20-57

1*22

5*53

18
18

150

180

2*49
0-74

1*75

0-46

1-66

13*85
0-37
16-62

110
5

O'll

1-98

1-29
1-24

1-48

2*33
1-27

17*04

0-76

13-56

6. Capture

7. Piracy

8. Burnt or on fire

9. Dismasted or disabled
riO. Jettison of cargo
\ under deck

fll. Jettison of deckload or

washed overboard
12. Leaky
ri3. Loss of anchors or

chains
ri4. Machinery damaged

or short of coals
ri5. Mutiny, sickness,

casualty to crew, or
[ refusing duty
r 16. Ship damaged, loss of

17. Water-logged

641

—

409

—

1,083

—

646

—

Number of casualties

633

—

396

—

1,076

—

625

—

Number of steamers

Toil. XLIII. PABT 11.

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376

MisceUanea,

[Jnne,

5.— ul TaMe showing the RemdU of Wrecks and CamaUies to Ship and to Cargo^ v^
Liet^^ during the F<ywr Quarters of 1879, and the respective Percentages tAawn^
Previous Fears.

Sailing Vessels. 11

First Quarter.

Second Quarter. 1

1879.

Arertge Thirteen
previoui Years.

1879.

Arerag« ThirtecA 1
prenoiu Yean.

Number.

Percent

Number.

Percent

Nomber.

Percent

Number.

PteCCBt

JUsuUs to Ship^
Total loM

480
41

246

1,858

619

1746
1-49

8-95

49-22

0*36

22-52

605

807

1,412

666

17-69

1-78

10-75

49*49

0-44

19-85

822

171

804

408

»8-55

9-85
46-31

23-21

881

176

786

408

19-58

2-14
10-40

43-48
0-58

23-82

ConstmctiTe loss

Great damage

Minnr damaire ...............

Not damaged or results 1
unknown J

Total

2.749

—

2,858

—

1,786

—

1,692

—

Ees¥Usto Otrgo so far its

Alllnnf; ,

284

151

29
78

8-51
S'So
0-33
o'44

OMl
I -06

2-66

296

160

42
44

io»39
5'a7
0-43
0-28
0-24
1-46
1-56

180

104

7*49

5'93

o'35

o*35 .

0-23

115

421

172

io'i6
517
0-33
0-30

I -08
1-76

Part lost

All iMty^ .

Forwarded

Heated

Shifted

Otherwise damaged

Salyage services

285

8-55

288

lO'II

170

9-22

149

8-8i

Lives^
Crews saved *

802
41

to-99
I '49

270
29

9*4^

I -00

186
27

10-71

168
22

9-66

Crews drowned

Lives lost so &r as re- '
ported (in both ships •

706

—

442

—

824

—

602

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1880.] Lloyd* 8 Statistics of Marvns Casualties for 1879.

377

Salvage Services, Crews Sa/ved or Drowned and Lives Lost, so far as reported in ^*Lloyd*s
Compared with the Average Number and Percentages for the same period of the Thirteen

Sailing

YesselB

Third Quarter.

Fourth Quarter.

1879.

Averag

e Thirteen
at Yevfl.

1879.

1 Average Thirteen
1 previoni Yean.

Number.

Percent.

Number.

Percent.

Number.

Percent.

Number.

Percent.

SesuU* to Skip--

294

i5*23

827

17-87

698

19-46

694

19*08

Total loes

2-i8

Z'OO

'•05

1-17

OoustruotiTe loss

184

9*53

211

ii-SS

808

lo-ii

410

11-27

Great damage

904

46-84

804

43 '90

1,867

44.86

1,712

47'io

]^iiior damaffo

o'6i

o'49

0-46

0-27

Baued after sinking

492

^5*49

448

24-19

783

24-06

767

2Ilt

/Kot damaged or results
\ unlmown

1,930

—

1,831

—

8,047

—

3,685

—

Total

Results to Cargo so far as
reported—

128

6-63

159

8-67

289

7-84

887

9-27

All lost

4->5

4-69

168

5*35

214

5*88

Part lost

o'z6

0-28

0*26

o'^S

Allsayed

0-57

o'H

o-i6

0-12

Forwarded

O'lO

O'ZZ

o-io

O'll

Heated

0-93

0-89

1-48

I '47

Shifted

2*90

1-79

1-71

i-ii

166

8-6o

160

8-75

274

8-99

832

9'i3

Saltage aerrioes

Uvee—

191

9-90

160

8-74

847

11-39

858

9-70

Crews aared

0-83

0-70

0*36

0-82

Crews drowned

849

—

270

284

—

670

—

'Lires lost so far as re-
ported Cm both ships

2c2

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880 MiBcelloAvea, [Jane,

IV,— An Iron Trade ChaH.

We have received a copy of Fossick's Iron Trade Chart, com-
piled and designed hy Mr. R. R. Mabson, F.S.S., and published by
Messrs. E. and F. N. Spon, of London and New York, with the
following summary of the history of the iron trade as it appears
from this charfc : —

*' The above shows for the past fifty years the great flnctaationa
continually taking place in prices of rails, Welsh bars, Staffordshire
bars, and Scotch pig-iron ; also the almost continnoos increase in
the yearly production and export of iron and steel from the United
Kingdom, with the stocks of Scotch pig-iron held at the end of
each y^^'

** From the data given it appears that the production of iron in
the United Kingdom increased from 678,417 tons in 1830, to
6,200,000 tons in 1879, the largest production being reached in
1872, when it amounted to 6,741,929 tons.

"The stocks of Scotch pig-iron, which in 1844 amounted to
200,000 tons, reached 250,000 tons in 1845, but fell to 125,000 tons
in 1847, when they again commenced to increase, ana in 1852
reached 500,000 tons. The lowest point appears to have been
touched in 1856, on the termination of the Crimean war, when the
total quantity in stock was 100,000 tons, from which point it
increased yearly until the end of 1864, when it reached 750,000
tons ; by the end of 1867 it had fallen to below 500,000 tons, and
then again commenced to show an annual increase until 1870, when
it reached 700,000 tons, from which by degrees it diminished, till in
1874 it was down to 100,000 tons. It has since continued to
increase yearly, and at the end of last year amounted to a little
over 750,000 tons.

"The exports of ii«on and steel in 1830 amounted to 117,135
tons, and increased each year almost without break, excepting
during the Crimean war in 1854-56, and the American civil war in
1861-65, until 1872, when they reached their maximum, viz.,
3,382,762 tons; from this they decreased until they reached
2,224,470 tons in 1876, at about which level they continued until
last year, when they reached 2,879,834 tons.

"The price of steel rails, which in 1864 was 17Z. los. per ton,
fell gradually, until in 1870 it averaged for the first half-year 10/.
per ton ; in 1872, and again in 1873, the price once more reached
ijL 108, per ton, and by the autumn of last year it had fallen to
4/. 1 3^. per ton (about the same price as iron rails), but by the end
of the year had risen to 8/.

"Welsh bar and iron rail prices, which may be considered
synonymous, are perhaps the most reliable, being less affected by
specuhktive purchases than pig>iron ; and it is interesting to notice
that when a considerable advance in price takes place, it is
invariably during the winter months, or between September and
March, and that the price seldom remains at the highest point
touched more than a month or two, when it falls as rapidly as it

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1880.] An Iron Trade Cha/rt 381

rose, and is generallj followed by a second advance and subsequent
falL In 1844 the lowest price of Welsh bars and iron rails was 4/.
per ton — except for a slight break in the latter part of that year, a
continuous rise in price took place to 10^ izs. 6d, per ton early in
1845, a year which saw a large amount of capital employed in
railway construction — a rapid reaction to 7Z. 7«. 6d,^ caused by the
heavy fall in railway securities, was followed by another upward
bound to 9/. 5«. in the autumn, and, despite the panic of 1847, the
price remained between 8/. and 9/. until the dose of that year. The
collapse of speculation, and the political troubles on the continent
in 1848, caused a rapid fall until the end of the year, when the
price was only 4/. 1 55. per ton.

'^ The lowest price touched by Scotch pig-iron appears to have
been ^zs. per ton in 1843; however, in about twelve months it
reached 635., and in 1845 it was nearly 5/. 105. per ton. After
many fluctuations, it fell as low as 37^. in the spring of 1852, but
before the year was out the price was nearly 4/., and the following
year, 5^ Early in 1865 it had Allien to 400., but before the end
of the year it had risen to 605. per ton, and by the following spring
went up to 75«, The next lowest point touched was 50*. in 1870,
from wnich it improved, almost without a break, to 6/. io«. in 1872,
and 7/, 55. in the beginning of the following year ; by last autumn
it had again fallen to 405., but improved to 68«, before the year was
out, and has since been as high as 739. 6d,

*' Other important points shown by this chart are periods and
oycleB of upward bounds and periods of depression: thus the
chart shows that in 1836, probably owing to the construction of
railways, a great upward movement took place in prices ; a more or
less ^*adual fall followed until 1843, wnen renewed building of
railways again sent up prices, as we have shown in detail, till the
highest point was reached in 1845. Again there was a decadence,
until the lowest point was touched in 1852, when the super,
abundance of bullion began to push up prices, until in the early
part of 1853 we have another apex. Comparative steadiness for
three to four years, despite the Crimean war, was followed by
renewed depression, until the lowest point was reached in 1861.
Company-mongering and trade activity in 1863 drove up the prices
until another apex was reached in the following year. The trade
depression subsequent to the panic in 1866 was followed by a great
upward bound soon after the conclusion, in 1871, of the Franco-
German war, until in 1872, and again in 1873, the highest points
ever touched in the history of this chart are shown. The last few
years will be in the reader's recollection, and when we mention that
the prices last year descended very nearlv to the prices of 1843 and
1852, the severity of the vecent trade depression will be readily
understood."

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MlsceUanea [Jane,

V. — Notes on Economical and StaUsHcal Works,

BcmJc-raie in England, France, and Oermany, 1844h78: with
Remarks on the Causes which Injhtence the Bate of Interest Changed ;
and an Analysis of the Accounts of the Bank of England. By
R. H. Inglifi Palgrave. Effingham Wilson, 1880.

Mr. B. H. Inglis Palgrave tells us in his preface, that he had
originally intended to confine himself to investigating the published
accounts of the Bank of England, but he found it desirable to
extend the scope of his work to matters which conld not be
adequately treated without reference to the transactions of the
banks of France and Germany. The basis of the inquiry is the
" Analysis of the Accounts of the Bank of England," published by
him in 1874. This analysis is reprinted, with a great deal of
additional tabular matter referring to the same subject. There are
also tables relating to the accounts of the banks of France and
Germany, and the minimum rates of discount charged by those
institutions. Mr. Palgrave has a doctrine to preach in connection
with the management of the Bank of England, and his book is
intended to enforce its acceptance. He thinks that the practice of
the Bank fix)m 1844 to 1877, in stating in the yearly accounts
the weekly amounts of the balances at the credit of the London
bankers, and also in distinguishing between '* bills discounted '' and
" advances *' was a salutarv one, and ought to have been carried out
further by publishing these items of information each week.
Unfortunately, since the issue of the return for 1876, the practice
has been discontinued as far as regards the discounts and advances,
and in the return for 1878, the balances of the London bankers
were also left out. We agree with Mr. Palgrave in thinking that these
omissions are much to be regretted, *' as much in the interest of the
Bank of England itself, as of the public at large." It is useless,
however, to lament a determination to abandon a practice which it
will be difficult to re-commence, and we must be content with the
information we already possess with regard to the magnitude of
the bankers' balances, and the way in which they fluctuate during
the year. Mr. Palgrave maintains, and it will not be easy to
conti^overt his assertion, that these balances, though they are
practically treated as if they were a real reserve, are not a reserve
at all, in the proper sense of the word. " Taking the amounts held
on deposit by the bankers in London into consideration, and the
demands which may be made on them on that account, it would
appear that the balances which they keep with the Bank of England
rather represent what should, with strictest accuracy, be called their
*till money,' than their * reserve.' *Till money,* as every one
concerned in business knows, is the amount which every banker is
bound to keep close at hand, ready to meet the calls of the moment.
It is indispensable to the proper conduct of a business, but it
cannot be looked on as a * reserve.' A reserve, though equally
needed to meet immediate calls, must be on a far larger scale than
the mere amount of cash necessarily held in this manner." It
would be rather a strong thing to say that the bankers' balances

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1880.] Notes on Economical and Statistical Works. 883

are, and ought to be regarded as " till money," and Mr. Palgrave,
no donbt, would not wish to press his conception of their nature to
its extreme consequences. It is easy to see what he means, and
very few persons would, we imagine, wish to dispute its correctness.
Indeed, Mr. Palgrave is able to produce " law and warrant," for his
view, out of the mouth of no less a person than an ez-govemor of
the Bank of England. He quotes from a letter of Mr. H. Hucks
Qibbs, to Professor Bonamy Price, published in an appendix to a
recent work of the latter.* Mr. Gibbs expressly states that there
is a portion of the bankers' balances which is in the hands of the
Bank " only for safe custody." There is, it is true, a minimum
which is always in the hands of the Bank, and which it can use for
profit, if it pleases, but when this minimum is exceeded, the excess
must remain " untouched and uninvested ; must, in fact, form an
addition to our (the Bank's) reserve,*^ In other words, there are
times when the Bank's reserve looks larger than it is, considered
with reference to the liabilities which it may be called upon to
discharge at any moment. As Mr. Palgrave says, " the balances
kept by other bankers with it, cannot i^ally form part of its own
reserve, and of the other banks as well, unless the amounts thus
derived are held in hand ready to meet any emergency." It will be
seen that what Mr. Palgrave is attacking, is what Mr. Bagehot
caUed the "one-reserve system," that "example of the greatest
economical power, and economical delicacy that has ever existed."
That the banks should prefer to keep their reserves with the Bank
of England, was a natural outcome of the position in which the Bank
has been placed by legislation. To do so is safer and more convenient
than for each bimk to keep its own reserve. But certainly the
sums thus held by the Bank of England, cannot be regarded, and,
as we see from Mr. Gibbs' letter, are not regarded as exactly like
any other sums of money held by it. The arrangement is not fair
to the Bank, as it throws on it the trouble and cost of keeping the
whole reserve of the country without this having ever been exphcitly
said. The Bank might say, so ^ as the mere letter of the law goes,
" we know nothing about the reserve of the whole country, we keep
our own reserve, and a very strong one too. If the London bankers
like to be our customers as well as our rivals in the discount market,
we have no objection, but why should we treat their balances on
different principles to those on which we treat the balance of any
other customer?" As we all know, the spirit in which the Bank
acts in this matter is entirely different from that of the above
imaginary speech. But, says Mr. Palgrave, " if there is an axiom
to be observed in banking, it is that things should always be
regarded as they really are. To have a balance in your hands which
you cannot use, is a hindrance to business, and not a help." This
seems to us unanswerable, and the thing to be considered therefore
is, how can the saving of economical power, attained under the
one-reserve system, be made compatible with the better and jaster
management of the bankers' balances? Mr. Palgrave shows by his

• Chapters on Prtxctical Political Economy. By Bonamy Price, Professor of
Political Economy in the UniTenity of Oxford. C. Kegan Panl and Ck>.

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d4^ Miscellanea. [June,

exoellent tables that the Bank's reserve is somewhat smaller now in
proportion to its liabilities than it was thirty years ago, while the
proportion of the bankers' balances to the reserve had increased
np to the time when the last return showing them was issued.
Remembering that, as Mr. Bagehot remarked, ^' the forces are
qnicker and stronger than they nsed to be," the conclusion is inevit-
able that the reserve ought to be rather larger, and ought not to be
so largely composed as it is of money that is counted on as a reserve
by powerful customers of the Bank. Mr. Pal^rave has examined
with considerable minuteness into the history of the discount rates
that have been charged by the banks of France and Germany since
1844. One of the results of his investigations is that the fluctua-
tions in the rate of discount are more extensive here than on the
continent. On the other hand, the average rate during the period
examined was lower in England than in France or Germany. The
closer relation in which we now stand to the Paris and Berlin
markets, makes it a matter of importance that they should be
studied, and Mr. Palgrave's excellent tables will materially assist
those interested in attaining a dear conception of their general
characteristics.

The Iron, Steel, and Allied Trades in 1879; Annual BepaH to the
Memhers of the British Iron Trade Association, 1880. B. and F.
N. Spon, and British Iron Trade Association, Victoria Street.

The year 1879 may fairly be regarded as one of the anni mira-
hUes in the history of the iron ti^e. The earlier months were
characterised by unusual prostration in all the great iron-producing
centres, owing to the crisis in the money market and the gener^J
fall in prices which followed the failure of the City of Glasgow
Bank, while the latter half of the year was a season of an activity
in trade as intense as the previous depression had been extreme.
The report to the members of the British Iron Trade Association
covers so wide an extent of ground, that few details of the events
of 1879 are given, but the information supplied as to the character
of the year, as a whole, is most valuable. Not the least remarkable
among the facts disclosed, is that iron ore was exported from Eng-
land for the first time in considerable quantities, chiefly for the
United States. Probably the demands made on us last year were
exceptional, the ironmasters of the United States having been
taken by surprise, and the local means of meeting their require-
ments not having been capable of rapid development. We our-
selves were under the necessity of obtaining considerable supplies
of hematite from Spain, a fact which is illustrated by the enormous
rise in the price of Cumberland hematite, which advanced 1 50 per
cent, in value from the lowest price touched before the end of the
year. The influence of the improved American demand was felt in
Barrow sometime before it affected Glasgow and Cleveland, the
inquiry at first being chiefly an inquiry for steel. It is not yet
possible to state accurately what the oui^ut of iron ore was in 1879,
but we are in possession of the figures of the production of pig.
This amounted to 6,200,000 tons, of which 2,879,884 tons were
exported, while the home consumption is said to have been
3,309,567 tons. As the latter quantity is expressly stated to be an

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1880.]

Notes on EconormccU and Statistical Works,

385

estimate, there seemfl a slight inconsistenoy in givine the last three
places of figures. Of the total production of pig iron, 1,781,443
tons were made in Cleveland, and 932,000 in Scotland, so that these
two districts produced nearly one-half the total output of the
United Kingdom. With regard to Cleveland, it is worth noting
that the shipments of this description of iron for 1879 were the
largest on record, the next largest being those of 1877. The pro-
duction, on the other hand, was a good deal less than that of any
year since 1870. The number of furnaces in blast at the close of
the year in Cleveland was 96, put of 165 built, while in Scotland
the furnaces blowing numbered 100 out of 154. The inferior out-
put of Scotland per furnace, is accounted for by the fact that more
than half of these Scotch furnaces are of antiquated types, which
the owners are hardly likely to use except when obliged, while the
Cleveland works are equipped with a great number of the best
furnaces that modem science has been able to invent As regards
the course of prices in 1879, the report supplies information from
abroad in two cases, namely, from the United States, and from
Germany. It appears that the rise in " No. 1 anthracite foundry
pig " in Philadelphia amounted to 106 per cent., and the rise in
foundry pig at Diisseldorf was 25 per cent. Early in 1880, how-
ever, a further rise in the latter occurred. The progress made in
economising the fuel used for producing iron, is illustrated by two
tables, showing the amount of coal used in producing a ton of iron
in 1840, and in each year from 1869 to 1878. The change during
the last ten years is extraordinary. In 1869 3 tons of coal were
burnt per ton of iron produced ; in 1878 the coal expended was only
2 tons 4 cwts., a reduction of over 26 per cent. It has not been
found possible to give a similar statement for the other iron-pro-
ducing countries of the world, but the report contains a table
showing the average annual make of pig iron per furnace in all the
important countries, except Russia, concerning which there are
no sufficient data. As the information given hy the table is new,
we print it in full :—

Furnaces BuHt and in Blast, and Average Annual Make of Pig Iron per
Furnace througkoiU the World,

Year.

Country.

Number

orrunmcea

Built.

Number

of Furnaces

in Blast

Tons of Pig

Iron
Pcoduced.

Tons of Pig Iron
Fnmsce at Work.

1876....

Austria

279
61
464
463
948
825
692

166

270

197

i^4

400,426
425,200
1,217,838
1,846,846
6,881,851
860,541
2,577,861

4.5>o
6,216

77....

Belgium

'78....

France

76....

Germany

78....

7a...

78....

, Great Britain ...

Sweden

United Stotes ....

Total

12,813

1,560

10,028

3,232

1,738

18,198,762

Mean 7,699

We may remark that the " mean " here given is open to objec-
tion on statistical grounds. No satisfactory mean can be obtained

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386 Miscellanea, [J one,

from the separate averages of each coontrj, on aooonnt of the dif-
ferences in the oatput of the conntries and the consequent different
^* weight " that shoold be assigned to the averages, neither is it
possible to deduce the mean fi^m the totals, inasmuch as thej are
made up of items which belong to different years. Although the
table is less effective than it might be, if the other countries of the
world were not so slow in publishing their statistics, it is a valu-
able one. It would be interesting to inquire into the cause of the
enormous difference in make per funmoe between France and
Belgium. The figures given in a similar table concerning the pro-
duction of Bessemer steel per converter, are rather startling. It
appears that in the United States the annual production per con-
verter is 36,988 tons, while in Gbeat Britain it is only 12,272 tons,
about 550 tons less than in France. Possibly the superior speed of
the American and French makers may be attained at the cost of
quality, but in any case the matter, on the face of it, requires
investigation. It is remarked in the report that unfortunately no
record has been kept up to the present time of the production of
manufactured iron in the United Kingdom. It is to be feared that
accurate information on this point will never be obtained, but an
attempt has been made in the report to determine the amount of
iron rails that have been made since 1856. The table in which the
results are given, is based on the new railway mileage, considered
as a single Ime, laid down each year ; the known length of the total
mileage of the kingdom, considered as a sine^le line, each year ; the
assumption of ten years as the average life of a rail; and the
assumption of 100 tons to the mile. The tonnage for new lines, and
the tonnage for renewals, is easily calculated ; tiie tonnage exported
is known, and by adding these three items together we have,
approximately, the make for each year. This method is ingenious,
and the results of the table are valuable ; but we have one or two
criticisms to make on the summary of the results of the period
1857-78, which is appended to it. These consists of (1) the ''average
of nules open;" (2) the "average tonnage used annually;" (3) the
''annual average" tonnage of tons used in renewals; (4) the
" average " tonnage of raik exported ; and (5) the " average " of
rails made. Now there is no objection whatever to make against
the use of the word " average " to describe the statistical number
given in the second, fourth, and fifth cases, but there is a grave
objection to its use in those of the first and third. The average
tonnage of rails exported is a real statistical quantity, it furnishes
a real measure of a rough sort for the magnitude of the exports of
any given year. But the average mileage of twenty consecutive
years is not a statistical fact at all. For there cannot be a
statistical average for a series of quantities which are ex hypoihen
in ascending order of mag^tude. The only average of any value
in the case of the annual mileage of the railways of a country,
would be the average (mrmal mcrease in that mileage. The same
criticism applies to the " average tonnage used in renewals," this
tonnage being ex hypothed a function of the mileage. "So harm is
done to the usefulness of the table by the insertion of these two
figures, which we must characterise as unmeaning ; but the practice

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1880.] Notes on Economical and Statistical Works. 387

of introducing unmeaning " averages " into statistical tables is so
prevalent, that a protest onght to be made against it. To give an
"average " for a series of numbers which cannot possibly yield an
avera^, but only an arithmetical mean, is a solecism ; it is almost
as bad as the case mentioned by M. Block, of the ingenious gentle-
man who stated the numbers of those killed on the 10th of August
by cannon, bullet, and sword, added them together, and then stated
that ** the mean was so-and-so." We may mention that there are
seven printer's errors in this table, one is a 0 for an 8 in the " total
make " of 1865, the other is 22,320 instead of 24,320 in the mileage
of 1867, and there are corresponding errors in the totals. To make
yet another criticism, it is a pity that in the interesting table given
on p. 104, showing tiie rise in the prices of the shares pf B^gian
iron and coal companies, that the paid-up value of the share of each
companv was not given, as well as the number of shares, thus ren-
dering it possible to measure the appreciation in the total value of
the capitid invested.

Europdische Staaienhunde, MU einem Anha^g: die vereimgten
Sta^aten von America. Mit Benutzrmg der hmierlaisenen Ma/Miscrvpte
Osca/r PescheVs nach den Originalquellen hea/rheitet von Otto KrUmmel.
ErsterBwfid. Erste Ahtheifung. Allgemeiner TheU — Das Prussische
Reich — Skandinavien — Diinemark — das Britische Beich. Leipzig:
Verlag und von Duncker und Humbolt. 1880.

By the request of the widow of the late Professor Oscar Peschel,
of Leipzig University, the papers left by the latter have been edited
by Dr. l^iimmel, of (Jottingen. Professor Peschel's studies were
directed to the investigation of the ** Staatenkunde " (a word not
easy to translate) of Europe. By " Staatenkunde " the Grermans
mean the study of the conditions under which the existing politics 1
divisions of the world have arisen and continue to exist. With this
view Professor Peschel examined the climatic, geological, and other
physical conditions of each of the European States, and then
proceeded to deal with their ethnology. He also gave a careful
account of the industries and occupations of each people, and of
their political and social systems. He made a free ana excellent
use of statistics. This was the scheme on which, as we understand
from Dr. Kriimmers preface. Professor Peschel prepared his lec-
tures, and on which, as well as on notes found after his death, the
present volume is based. The profound learning shown in this
remarkable book, and the intimate knowledge it displays of the life
and character of countries other than G^rma^, especially our own,
make it the more unfortunate that Professor Peschel did not live to
complete it. At the same time the volume reflects the greatest credit
on Dr, Krummel, for to him is owing the excellent order in which
its necessarily somewhat incoherent materials are placed before
the public. Dr. Krummel, with great modesty, says very little
about his own share in the work, but it is easy to imagine how
much time and care must have been spent on it before the volume
could have appeared in its present form. The tabular matter is
very well prepared, but as far as we can see, it does not contain
any information not obtainable elsewhere. In fact, the statistical
portion of the work is quite subsidiary and subordinate to the more

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388 Mtscelianea. [Jane,

important ends kept in view by the anthor and his editor. As a
work of reference, this work will be found very nsefnl to the student
of sociologj, as well as to the political inquirer.

YI. — Notes 091 some of the Additions to the Library,

An Essay on the Improvements in the Education of OhUdren and
YoHtig People during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, Bj
Beatrice A. Jourdan. Howard Prize Essay of the Statistical Society^
1879. Elliot Stock, Paternoster Bow, 1880.

Miss Jourdan's essay is necessarily little more than a sketch of
the growth of the education of children in this country, but it is a
very good sketch. It is well written, and in a style which shows a
greater mastery of the subject than is usually to be found in com-
positions of the class to which it belongs. The earlier pages are
devoted to a brief description of the history of education previous
to the eighteenth century, a history which is characterised by alter-
nate periods of attempts to extend education, followed by periods
of almost total cessation from all efforts of the kind. There was
not much seal for education during the Wars of the Boses for
instance, and probably the state of intellectual lethargy into which
that exhausting struggle plunged the country, made the period of
the revival of letters seem doubly bright. The political troubles
which arose later^ were not favoui^ble to the spread of education,
and the condition of the people in this respect declined greatly,
except in Scotland, where the principle of compulsion was early
recognised. The most remarkable, and in some respects the most
unfortunate of the effects of the frivolity which marked the reign
of Charles II was, as Miss Jourdan says, that " among the higher
and middle classes of society (and with regard to these classes alone
had the matter been hitherto esteemed worthy of attention) the
education of women fell into singular disrepute." This state of
things continued to be the rule well on to the (dose of the eighteenth
century. Miss Jourdan thinks that the curious prejudice against
giving women mental cultivation, was becoming much less potent
during the latter half of the century. But certainly in some
quarters this irrational feeling continued to be manifested long
^ter, and may indeed be said to be not wholly defunct even yet,
though for the last twenty years at aU events, it has been powerless
for mischief. Miss Jourdan traces the gradual growth of a wiser
and better feeling on the subject of education at large, giving due
prominence to the early workers who gave their labour to education
at a time when it was unpopular and unfashionable, to the Lindseys,
Baikes, Mores, and especially John Howard. The efforts of later
educationalists are less interring, though fully as useful. At the
beginning of this century, the need for education was fairly
recognis^, though odd notions were still held as to special points,
the teaching of writing in national schools for instance being
resisted by a few educationalists of the older type, until the present
century had well begun. Miss Jourdan describes the labours

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1880.] Notes on AddUtons to the Library. 389

of the Manchester Statistical Society, and of the committee of
the Central Society of Education, directed to investigating the
condition of the various classes of schools in England. That as a
whole they were found to be very ineflficient, ludicrously so in some
oases, is well known. In spite of our national talent for organising
social machinery, the problem of education was more than we could
manage, chieflv, no doubt, because the great mass of the people
were not sufficiently alive to the need for its solution. Ever since
1839, when Lord John Bussell successfully fought for an increase to
the education grant, the question has been before parliament, and
at length was recognised as requiring legislation. Miss Jourdan
has necessarily little to say about the present system, not only
because all are more or less familiar with it, but because it is
hardly, as yet^ possible to judge &iriy of its merits. All we can
say at present is, that the organisation has been created by which,
if sufficient energy and zeal is maintained, proper instruction may
be given to all children. In concluding this brief notice of Miss
Jourdan's little work, we may remark that it is peculiarly fitting
that the Howard prize should have been awarded on this occasion
to a lady, since education is a subject which even the most arrih-Ss
thinkers admit to be within " a woman's sphere," whatever that oft
used, but most incomprehensible phrase may mean.

InduaiTrlal Geography Primers, By G. Phillips Bevan, P.G.S.
Great Britain and Ireland,

Industrial Geography Primers. By the same. France, W, Swan,
Sonnenschein and Allen, Paternoster Square, 1880.

Mr. Bevan has commenced the publication of a series of
Industrial Geography primers, which promise to be very useful.
The two at present before the public deiu with the United Kingdom,
and with Fntnce. They gi^e a general account of the products and
manufactures of these countries, specifying the head quarters of
each industry. At the end of each is a list of the territorial
divisions of the country, in alphabetical order, with the towns
where any important manu&cture is carried on. It is hardly
possible that works of this kind should be absolutely free from
errors, whether of typography, or of other origin, and we hope
Mr. Bevan will not mind our pointing out one statement we notice
in the primer of France, which, though strictly correct, is likely to
mislead his readers. On p. 42, he says, speaking of a district of
Eastern Prance, ** here are made the celebrated Gruyfere cheeses."
The student would imagine, from this, that Gruy^ is in Prance,
and not in Switzerland. We believe that the majority of Grny^re
cheeses are still made in Switzerland, though not at Gruy^re itself.
There is also a misprint on p. 2, Mt. Iseran being said to be the
highest point in the Graian Alps, a distinction r^lly occupied by
Monte Yiso. Mt. Iseran is only a pass. Both volumes give an
account of the railway system, and of the principal parts of the
countries they treat of.

PrSds of Official Papers, Being Abstracts of all Parliamentary
Betwms directed to be printed by both Houses of Parliameni. Session
1880. No. 1. W. H. Allen and Co., 13, Waterloo Place. (Sub-
scription 32«. per annum, postage free.)

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890 Miscellanea. [June,

Messrs. Allen have oommenoed the publication of a most nsefxil
work, the need of which has been felt for a long time, though until
now, no one has had the courage to attempt it. The enormous
number of blue books and other parliamentaiy papers issued in the
course of the year, and the prodigious length of some of them,
is a most serious drawback to their xisefalness. For purposes of
reference, again, it is often difficult to procure the particular paper
wanted, unless the inquirer knows its number and other particulars
regarding it. The " Index to Parliamentary Papers " is of course
of some use, but it does not meet the want fully. Messrs. Allen
give first a table of contents in which the papers are arranged in
their numerical order, then a table of contents in which they
are arranged in alphabetical order, by reference to their subject
matter, and then follows a precis of each paper. The precis is
very well done. We hope that the success of this most useful
work will be such as to enable Messrs. Allen to carry it on perma-
nently.

Preliminary Report. The Bate of Fatal a/nd Non-Fatal Accidents
in a/nd about Mines and on BaHways, with the Cost of Insurance
Against such Accidents, By Francis G. P. Neison, F.S.S., &c.,
Actuary. Harrison and Sons, 1880.

We are only able to notice briefly this able and valuable report.
In his letter to Mr. M. W. Peace, Solicitor, of Wigan, which is
prefixed to it, Mr. Neison, says : — " This report is preliminary to the
extent that though the subject of accidents in mines has been folly
dealt with, the sections relating to accidents on railways, and the
cost of insurance have been completed on verv short notice," they
being required for use by a deputation whicn a week or so back
waited on Mr. Gladstone, with r^rence to the Employers' Liability
for Injuries Bill. The most striking point brought out by the tables
on which the report is based, is the fact that the most general cause
of accidents in mines is not fire damp, but falls of portions of the
roof or of coal. Accidents from this source amount to over 49 per
cent, of the whole. It is true, explosions, when they do occur, are
very deadly in their results, but even as regards the number of lives
lost^ they are the cause of only 22 per cent, of the whole mortality
from mining accidents. The whole report is well worth study.
But we wish Mr. ITeison had not allowed the tables to be deformed
by so wholesale a use of what M. Block, with pardonable heat,
terms "ces vilaines inscriptions perpendiculaires." We have no
hesitation in saying that these n^ad never appear at alL It is a
mere question of absolutely prohibiting printers from setting
headings to columns in that way.

Uehersichten Uher Production Verhehr und Handel in der Welt-
lovrthschaft. Von Prof. Dr. F. X. von Neumann-Spallart. Jahr-
gang 1879. Stuttgart. Verlag von Julius Maier, 1880.

We have to notice the publication of the second number of
Dr. Neumann's " Uebersichtem." This valuable work, which made
its appearance for the first time last year, as the successor to the
author's yearly contribution to Behm's " Geographische Jahrbuch,"
contains a most useful general account of the world's trade, and of
the leading industries of the various countries. Owing to the

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1880.] Notes on AddUUms to the Library. 891

Blowness with wUcli the statistical returns of the Continent are
published, the fiffures given are often sadly behind the times,
though they are of course the latest available.

HidorieaU Statistical Notes on t?ie Production a/nd Oonsumption of
Ooffee, By N. P. Van den Berg, LL.D., h. c. President of the
Java Bank, Vice-President of the Batavia Chamber of Commerce
and Industry. Translated from the Dutch by G. G. Batten.
Batavia. G. Kolff and Co., 1880.

Mr. Van den Berg has published a very interesting monograph
on oofEee. He deals with the history of the gradual extension of
its cultivation in various parts of the earth, but especiaUy in Java.
He also gives us information on the present position of the coffee
industry, with the latest figures obtainable relative to its production
in each country. M. Van den Berg is in favour of a policy of free
trade in this important article, and he recommends his countrymen
to lead the way in adopting measures which would increase its
consumption.

The Prog^'ess of the World in Arts, AgrumUure, Commerce^
Mam,ufa^tureSy Instruction, Railways, amd Public Wealth, since the
begimting of the Nineteenth Oentury. By Michael G. Mulhall, P.S.S.,
Author of English in South America, &c., <fe(;. Edward Stanford,
1880.

Mr. Mulhall has produced a useful and interesting volume,
though we cannot say the figures are always to be trusted, and too
many are given without any means of verification. One statistical
book on such a matter as the Progress of the World, cannot difier
much in subject matter from another similar work of the same
size. The information given must be very general in its character.
It is interesting, however, to compare this volume with that of
Dr. Neumann-Spallait's Uebersichten, who treats the subject by
taking the departments of industry in succession as the main head,
and making each country a subhead. Mr. Mulhall, in common
with most English statists, adopts the old fietshioned method of deal-
ing with each country successively, and describing all its industries.
Both methods are useful, but as that of which Dr. Neamann's
book is an example is less known in England than it might be, we
rather wish some one would publish a work on that plan here.
Mr. Mulhall seems fairly acquainted with the continental statists :
he quotes M. Block pretty frequently ; Engel and Mayr he appa-
renUy knows only at second-hand.

Protection and Bad Times, with Special Reference to the Political
Economy of English Colonisation. By George Baden-Powell, M.A.,
F.R.A.S., F.S.S., Author of New Homes for the Old Country.
Trubner and Co., 1879.

Mr. Baden-Powell divides his book into four parts, viz., into an
Introduction on Political Economy in General, on Protection, on
Commercial Depressions, and on " England as an Example." He is
a strong opponent of protection, and he brings out a point which,
though not new — for it would be wholly impossible to find a really
new point in treating this most threshed-out of themes — has been
less developed than some other parts of it. He calls the attention
of the protectionist to the &ct that his system, apart from the

VOL. XLIII. PART n. 2d

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892 Mis6eUemea. [June,

direct loss to tlie nation occasioned bj high import dntieg, sets in
motion foroes which will render it powerless in the long mn. A
nation which *' protects *' one class of producers against the compe-
tition of the producers of another nation, bj shutting cat what
they make, will speedily find that it has destroyed a market for its
own products. The nation against whom the tariff is directed will
be unable to take the products of the protectionist country, and
will be forced to set up manufactures of these for itself. This is no
doubt partially true, but the greatest indirect loss incurred by
nations which guard their shores by a barrier of import duties, is
the loss of the advantages of having a large carrying trade, for a
large proportion of the ships which enter its ports necessarily do
BO in ballast. Mr. Baden-Powell treats specially of the application
of protection in a new country, and shows how mischievous it is in
all cases; how it sets up the wrong industries and hampers the
right ones. At the same time he maintains that there is no objeo»
tion to bounties on successfal manufactures in new countries, asj
for instance, a bounty on the first bale of cotton or other product
that is sent to market. The objection here of course is that
€k)vemmeniB are no judges of the relative merits of different
manufactures. They are composed of individuals, and individnak
frequently have " fads." No individual is an entirely safe judge erf
whether any industry will pay, not even if he risks his own money
in the business — certainly not when he is going to risk nothing.
With regard to commercial depressions, Mr. Baden-Powell*s remarks
are very sonnd, though his analysis of their causes is not satis*
factory in all respects. He states thc^ causes to be : — 1. Waste
of capital. 2. Waste of labour. 3. Failure of natural agencies.
4. Closing of markets. 5. Glut of markets. Under the third head
he adverts to the theory that trade has a tendency to move in
cycles, which are dependent on general telluric conditions. He
admits that the phenomena of periodicity in commercial crises
suggest a connection, which is on other grounds very probable,
between these and the periodic changes in the productive foroes of
the globe. He does not touch on the idea that, apart from the
physical periodicity, there may be a psychical periodicity, shown in
i;he rise, growth, culmination, and finally the destruction of that
wonderful psychical state known in the city as '* confidence." In
conclusion, there is one point in regard to which, as it seems to us,
Mr. Baden-Powell enjoys a most enviable distinction. He has
written a book in which depression of trade occupies a considerable
space, and yet he has not, so far as we know, so much as mentioned
silver.

Egyptian Statistical Tableau for ths Tea/r 1879. Compiled
and published annually by B*. J. Moss and Co., Alexandria,
Egypt.

Messrs. Moss's Egyptian Statistical Tableau is a very well
arranged sheet. It gives estimates of the quantities and values of
the principal imports and exports of Egypt, together with the
estimated total values of the imports and exporta, and tables rela-
ting to the prices of cotton and coal, and the shipments of the
former to the United Kingdom and to the Continent. Similar

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1880.]

Additions to the Library.

398

information is supplied with regard to wheat, beans, and cotton
seed, and tables are added showing the exchanges thronghont the
year, the number and tonnage of the merchant ships cleared at
Alexandria, and the rise of the Nile in 1877-7^, as registered by
the Kilometer at Cairo.

VII. — Additions to the Library,
Additions to the LUbrcary during the Quarter ended ZOth June, 188Q.

Doiutioui.

By whom Pi-etented.

Argrentiiia Bepubllo —

Informe present ado 4 la Oficina de Estadistica de'

Buenos Aires, por el Dr. £. B. Coni. 81 pp., 8to.

1880

Begistro Estadistico de la Proyinoia de Buenos Aires,

afio 1874. Folio. Buenos Aires, 1876

Austria and Htmsrarsr —

Statistisches Jahrbuch fOr 1877. Hefte 2, 7, und 10,

und fur 1878, Heft 7. Imp. 8vo. Wien, 1880 ....

Statistdsches Jahrbuch f&r Ungam, 1878, 8*' Jahrgang.

Hefte 4, 6, und 11. 4to. Budapest, 1880

Tableau sjnoptique des operations de la premiere
d'^pargne k Budapest, depuis Touverture,

caisse d'^pargne

1840, jusqu'li la fin de 1877.

Statiatioal Bureau

1 Imperial OratralSta-
j tistical Commission

Boyal Statistical
Bureau

1 sheet .

phique]
6-23, k

Dr. Janssens, Brus-
sels

In-

Belsrixim —

Bulletin hebdomadaire de Btatistique D^ographique

et Medicale. Ann^ xi, Hob. 11 — 14, et 16-

1880. 8to. Bruxelles

Annuaire Statistique de la Belgique, 10* ann^, 1879.^

Diagram, 8yo. Bruxelles I Minister of the

Expos! de la Situation du Eojaume de 1861 k 1875 ; | terior

fasc. 6*. 8to. Bruxelles J

Ohlna —

Imperial Maritime Custom* —
I. Statistical Series —

No. 2. Customs Gazette, No. 44, Oct.— Dec., 1879"
No. 4. Reports on Trade at the Treaty Ports for

1878 (14th issue). Diagrams, 4to. Shanghai,

1879

III. Miscellaneous Series —

No. 6. List of the Chinese Lighthouses, Light
Vessels, Buoys, and Beacons for 1880 (8th
issue). 4to. Shanghai ^

B. Hart, Esq., Shan-
ghai

Denmark —

Sammendrag af Statistbke Oplysninger (Statistical! csi. 4-^-_i x»
Abstract)rNo. 8, 1878. 8to. KjdbenhaTn, 1880 .... / ^^^^^ ^^^^

Nationaldkonomisk Tidsskrift, Bind 16, H»fte 8—6.1 Danish Political Eco-
8to. Ejdbenhayn, 1880 J nomy Society

2d2

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394

MUceUanea,
Donaiion$ — CorUd,

[Jane,

Donatkmi.

By whom Preaentod.

Directorate Geaeial
of Stfitiftics

B«TPt—
Bulletin Trimestriel de la Narigation par le Canal del
Suez, 1* ann^, No. 6 (Jan.— Mar., 1880). 4to. V

Le Oaire J

Statistical Tableau, Bbowing Prices, Importa and'1

Exports, Freights, Ac., of Tarious articles, for 1879. I Messrs. James Moss
(Compiled and published bj B. J. Moss and Co., f and Co., Liyerpool
Alexandria.) 1 sheet J

Ckemim de Fer —
Documents Statistiques relatifs k I'ann^ 1868. 4to.''

Paris, 1877

lUpertoire M^thodique de la Legislation des. 4to.

Paris, 1879

Statistiques relatifs k Tann^e 1876. 4to. Paris,

1879

Demographic, Compte-Bendu Stenographique des
Soeances du Congr^ Intemationid de, tenu k

Paris en 1878, 1*' fascicule. 8to. Paris

Minist^re des Finances. Bulletin de Statistique et de
Legislation coroparee, V ann^e, Fct. — Mai, 1880.

8vo. Paris

Minist^re des Traraux Publics, Balletin du, 1* ann^e,

Mare, 1880. 8to. Paris !.

Statistique, Comptes-Rendus Stenographiques des Con-'
f^rences Internationales de, tenues k Paris, Juillet,
192 pp., 8to. Paris,

Dr. P. J.
F.R.C.S.

Mouai,

M. A. de Forille

Ministry of Publio
Works

Foreign Office

1878. No. 7 de la sAfie.

1880

B^yue Bibliographique TJniTerselle —

Partie Lit&raire, tome xxviii, Nos. 4 et 6, Arril — "]

Mai, 1880 I r

„ Technique, tome xxx, Nos. 4 et 5, Ayril^Mai, [

1880. 870. Paris J

Sooiete de Statistique de Paris, Journal de la,1
xxi* ann^e. Nos. 4—6, Ayril— Juin, 1880. Imp. V The Society
8vo. Paris J

The Editor

Statistical

Statistical Bureau

Monatshefte sur Statistik des Deutsohen Beichs. '
Band xliii, Hefte 2 und 4 (Februar und AprH, 1880) .

4to. Berlin

Probe der Ermittelun^ des budgets der arbeitenden^
klassen naoh dem aul der October (1879) oonferenx
beschlossenen Programm. 1 sheet. Berlin,

1880

Bbblin. YerOffentlichungen des Statistischen Bureau's

der Stadt ; Eheschliessungen, geburten, Sterbef&lle

undWitterung. Nos. 11— 26, 1880. 4to. Berlin

Statistisches Jalu-buch der Stadt. 6*' Jahrgang, fur

1878. aoth, 8to. 1880 ^

Fbakefvbt-a.-M. StadstischeMittheilungen&berden I /x^^^^v-^i j

TJebersicht der Frequenz der dfFentlichen Schulenl
der Stadt, wShrend des Sommersemesters 1879.. y Dr. Q-. Yarrentrapp
1 sheet J

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1880.]

Additions to the Library.
Donation* — Contd.

395

Donationi.

Bj whom Pretentad.

Italy—

Annali di Agriooltnra, Nos. 9, 20, e 21. 8to. Boma,'
1879-80

Annali dell' Indiistriae del Oommeroio. Noe. 14 — 18.
8to. Eoma, 1879-80

Annali di Statistioa. Serie 2*, toIs. 12, 14, e 15. 8to.
IU)ma,1880

Atti Parlamentari. Sessione del 1878-79. Camera dei
Deputati; Eiforma della legge elettorale Folitica
del 17 Bicembre, 1860. 4to. Boma

Bollettino Settimanale dei Preszi di Alcuni dei pnnoi-
pdi Prodotti Agrari. Anno 1880. Noe. 9—20.
Imp.Syo. Boma

Bollettino Mensile delle Situazioni dei Conti degli
latituti d'EmiBsione. Anno x, No. 12. Bicembre,
1879; e anno xi, Noe. 1 e 8, G^en. e Mar., 1880.
Imp.dTO. Boma

Bollettino Bimestrale delle Situazioni dei ContL
Anno X, No. 6, Die., 1879. Imp. 8yo. Boma

Bollettino Bimestrale del Bisparmio. Anno iy, No. 6,
Die, 1879 i e anno t. No. 1, Feb., 1880. Imp. 8to.
Boma

Bollettino di Notizie Oommerciali Anno ii. Nob. 8 — 7,
Aprile— Giugno, 1880. Imp.8T0. Boma

Bollettino Consolare. Vol. xri, Noe. 8 e 4, Mar. e
Aprile, 1880. 8to. Boma

Bollettino Idrografico. Anno 1878, fascioolo xi. Osser-
Tazioni Fisico-Ghimiche fatte sulle acque dell' Amo
e del Tevere. 7 taTole. Folio. Boma

Statistioa del Oommeroio Spedale di Importazione e di
Esportazione dal 1° G^nnaio al 81 Marzo, 1880. 4to.
Boma

Emiffrazione, Statistioa della, all* Estero nel 1878.
Diagrams, imp. 8to. Boma, 1880

Ministero della Ghierra. Della Lera sui noyani nati
neU* anno 1858 e delle ficeude del B. Esercito dal
V Ottobre, 1878, al 80 Settembre, 1879. FoUo.
Firenze, Boma

Servizi Idraulici, Belazione sui, pel 1877*78. 4to.
Boma, 1880

Nayiflazione, Moyimento della, nei Forti Esteri. Anno
xyi, 1877. Imp. 8yo. Boma, 1879....

Popolazione. Moyimento dello Stato Civile. Annoxyii,
1878. Introduzione e Parte 2*. Imp. 8yo. Boma,
1880

Sodetii di Mutno Socoorso, Statistioa della Morbosit^
ossia firequenza e durata delle Malattie presso i
sooi delle. 80 pp., diagrams, imp. 8yo. Boma,
1879

A Diagram, representing: — II numero assoluto dei
nati yiyi maschi e loro superstiti classificati per et^
secondo i risultati dei oensimenti in Syezia, 1750-
1875 ; di Signor Luigi Perozzo, Ingegnere oarto-
grafo presso la Direzione della Statistioa Gtonerale,
Boma ^

Prison Statistics, Intonational (in Italian). 4to. .

Directorate • General
of Statistics

Dr. P. J.
F.B.O.S.

Mouat,

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MuoeiUanea,

[Jtiney

Donations — ConUL

DoDationi.

By whom Presented.

Italy— Contd.
Bivista Europea, Birista Intemazionale. YoL xyiii,]
fasc. 8 e 4, e toI. xix, fesc. 1—4, 1880. Imp. 8vo.
Firenze - — J

Ketherlands —

Berekening Tan do Waarde der Onroerende Qoederen I
(eebouwde en ongebouwde eigendommen). 4to. >
S^ararenhage, 1880 ^ J

Btatifltiek Tan het Ghrondcrediet in Nederland OTerl
1876-78. 98 pp., 4to. S'OraTenhage, 1880 J

BuMia. B^glement D6finitif du Budget de rEmpirel
pour VExercice, 1878. 41 pp., imp. 8to. St. P^ten- V
bourg, 1880 J

The Editor

Netherlands GK>Tern-
ment

Netherlands Lega-
tion, London

M. A. Yeas^loTsky

Spain. Sooiedad Ckogdlfioa de Madrid, Boletin de \ mu ^ a^^^«_
la. Tomo Tiii, Nos. 2-4, Feb.— Abril, 1880. 8to / ^'*® ^^^^

Sweden —

Ojfficisla StoHttik—

C. Bergsbandteringen 1877-78 (mines et usines) ...."^

D. Fabriker och Manufakturer for 1878 (Indu- *

strie) «

E. Inrikes sjdfart och handel fdr 1878 (Commeroe

et NaTigation) «

G. F&ngrarden ny foljd xx, fOr Ir 1878 (Prisons).

4to. Stockholm «

I. TelegrafTftsendet, nj fdljd, xix, fOr &r 1879

(Xll^pbes)

K. Kelso- och SjukT&rden I, och II, for &r 1878

(6tat Sanitaire) „ „

L. Statens JernT&gstrafik, 17a, for &r 1878

(Chemins de Fer). Map

Q. SkogsTftsendet, x, for Er 1878 (For^ts)

U. Kommunemas FattigTird och Finanser, iT, for

kt 1877 (Finances des Communes). 4to.

Stockholm

Statistbk Tidskrift, 1879. H 57, No. 8. 8to.

Stockhohn, 1880

Stockholm. Le Congr^ P^nitentiaire International'
de ; Memoires et Bapports. Tomo 2*. Boy. 8to.
Stockholm «

Central Statistical
Borean

Dr. F. J. Mouat,
F.B.C.S.

Switserland. Zeitschrift Mr Schweizerische Statistik,^

Jahrg&nge 12«', 1876, Hefte 1—4 ; 13", 1877, Hefte I Federal Statistiaa
1—8 J 14*', 1878, Hefte 1—8 ; 16«', 1879, Hefte 1—4; f Bureau
16»s 1880, Heft 1. 4to. Bern J

United Stateii—

Agriculture, Department of. Special Beparts on thel Commissioner of

Condition of Chrops. No. 28, April, 1880 „... j Agricultore

Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information — 1 American Statistical

No. 8, 1879. 8vo. Waehingtcm ^ J Association

Another copy of the aboTe Dr. E. Jarris

No. 1. 1880. (College Libraries as aids to Instmc-I Commissioner of
tion.) 8to. Washington j Education

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X«80.]

AddUian* to the Library.
Donation* — Contd.

397

Dunatiom.

Bj whom Presented.

Uxilted State*— Con^^f.
Bureau of StatUtici —
Imports and Exports, SummuT^ Statement of/

No8. 6, Dec., 1879, end 1—6, Jen.— June, 1880.

4to. Washington

Quarterly Report of the, to December, 1879. (No. 2,

1879-80.) 8vo. Washington, 1880

Annual Report on Commerce and Navigation ion

1879. (Foreign Commerce.) Cloth, diagram.

8vo. Washington, 1880 „....

Statistical Abstract for 1879. No. 2. 8vo. Washing-
ton, 1880 ,

Comptroller of the Currenoj, Reports of the, for 18781
and 1879. (8 copies of eadi.) Sre. Washington J^
DepoHment of State —
Commercial Relations -vrith Foreign Countries,'

Reports for 1870-78. Cloth. 8to. Washington
International Monetarj Conference held in Paris,

1878. Proceedings and Exhibits, with Report of

American Commission, and Appendix. 918 pp.,

cloth, 870. Washington

Labor in Europe, State of, in 1878. Reports from

U. 8. Consuls. 428 pp., 8vo. Washhi^n, 1879 .,

Treasury, Annual Report of the Secretary of, on the'^

State of the Finances, for 1879. Cloth, 8to.

Washington ,

Columbia. Public Schools of. Fourth Report on,'
1877-78. 849 pp., doth, plane, 8to. Washmgton,

1878

Massachvsbtts. Bureau of Statistics of Labor,
Elerenth Annual Report of, 1880. 294 pp.,

diagrams, 8to. Boston .,

New X okk —

Police and Excise of Brooklyn, Annual Report of, \

for 1879. 8yo. Brooklyn /

Census of the State of, for 1875. xxzir and 465 pp.,^

doth, maps, foUo. 1877 ^^ «

State Library, Annual R^wrts of the Trustees of.

Nos. 68 to 61, 1S76-78. 8to

State Museum of Natural History, Annual Reports

on the. Nos. 27—31, 1873-77. Maps, plates,

8vo „ ^

Ohio —
American Instructors of the Deaf and Dumb, Pro- 1

ceedings of the Ninth Conrention of, held 1878. >

817 pp., plate, cloth, 8to. Columbus ...» ^ J

Secretary of State, Ammal Report of, including 1

the Statistical Report to the General Assembly, y

for 1878. 659 pp., doth, 8vo. Cohunbus J

WiBOOwatK—
State Board of Health, Fourth Annual Report of, 1

for 1879. 8vo. Madison /

Massach usbtts—
Agriculture, Nineteenth Annual Report on, 1871-72.

aoth, 870. Boston, 1872

Education, Forty-seeond Anaoal Report of the

Board of, 1877-78. Cloth, 8to. Boston, 1879 .

Joseph Nimmo,Ssq.,
jun^

John Jay £nox, Esq.

Sevellon A. Brown,
Esq., Department
of State

The Secretary of the
Treasury

Smithsonian Institu-
tion

0. D. Wright, Esq.,
Chief of the
Bmeoa

F. L. Jenkins, Esq.

New York State
Libraiy

Smithsonian Institu-
tion

The Secretary of
' State

)

Dr. J. T. Reere, Sec.
to the Board

American Statistical
Assodation

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898

MiieMansa.
DumUimu — dmtd.

[Jime,

TJniUd nUim—Comtd,
MA88A0HI7BBTT8 — coidUined,

Insuranoe, Twentj-fourth Annual Report of the'
Ck>mmiBnoiier of for 1870. Part 1, Fire and
Marine, &o. Part 2, life, &c. 2 Tola., obth,
8to. Boston

Public Docnmente, 1862, Not. 1— i2 ; 1876, Not.
1— S2 ; 1877, Not. 1— 8a 18 Tola., half-oalf, 8to.
Boston

BoeTOH. Thirty-sixth Semi-Annnal Beport of

Public Schools of, Sept., 1879. 8to. Boston ....

Pbotidbhcb, Bhodi Iblaitd. Annual Reports upon

the Births, Deaths, and Marriages in. Nos. 21,

28, and 24, for 1875 and 1877-78. 8to. Pro-

yidence

AnmrsoN (Edwabd). (Geographical Presentation
of the Areas of the States and Territories of the
United States and the Ck>untries of Europe, omit-
ting Russia and Alaska. 1 sheet

Ma«bachubitt8. Adjutant-Oeneral, Annual Reports
of the, 1862 and 1876. 8to. Boston

Aggregates of Polls, Property Taxes, &c, as

1st May, 1877-78. 8to. Boston

Auditor of Accounts, Report of the, for 1878.
Cloth, 8to. Boston

Births, Biarriages, and Deaths in, Thirty-serenth Re-
port of, for 1878. 8to. Boston

Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Ninth and Tenth
Annual Reports of, for 1878-79. doth, 8to.
Boston

Railroad CommissionMrs, Annual Reports of the.
Nos. 6 and 8, 1875 and 1877. 8to. Boston

Western Railroad, Historical Memoir of, by George
Bliss. 8to. Springfield, 1868

Railways, sereral Reports of the " Boston and Pro-
vidence," "Boston and Albany," "Pitchbary,"
and " Old Oolonjr " Companies. 8to

School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded Touth,

Thirty-first Annual Report of, for 1878. 8to....

B06TOH. Annual Report on Births, Marriages, and

Deaths in, for 1878. 8to

Board of Health of. Sixth and Serenth Annual

Reports of the, for 1878-79. 8to

CoHOOBD. Annual Reports of the Town of, 1879-80.

8to. Boston

Yksmont. Annual Reports on Births, Marriages, and

Deaths in, for 1876. Cloth, 8to. Montpelier

American Si
Association

Dr. B. Janris

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Proceedings'!
of the. New series, toI. yi, 1878-79. Plates, Ac., \ The Academy
8to. Boston J

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Proceed- \

• ' ' - - - - - (jI »

American Geographical Society —

ings of the, parts 1 — 8, Jan. — Dec., 1879. Plates, 8to.

Bulletin of the, 1879, No. 8, and 1880, No. 1
Journal of the, toIs. rii — x, 1875-78. Cloth, mi^,
Ac., 8to. New York

TheSociefy

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1880.]

AddUum$ to ihe Library.
Dotiationt—Contd.

899

Donattoni.

By whom Presented.

TJniUd BtmUm—Contd.
Amerioan Philosophical Society, Proceedings of the,'
ToL XTiii, Nos. 103 and 104s January — December,

1879. Plates, Syo. Philadelphia

BankOT^B Magazine, New York, toI. zIt, Nos. 10 and 1 rp. ^ imu^v

11. April and May, 1880. 8vo / ^'^^ ^^^

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Journal of the,'

Tol. baix, Nos. 4—6, April—June, 1880. 8to

Western, the, new series, rol. vi, No. 8, May— June,'

1880, 8to. St Louis

The Society

The Institute
The Editor

Oolonlal, and other PosaaMiloiiJi —

India OiBoe

BritLdi—
Moral and Material Progress of, during 1877*>78 (14th'

number). ParL Pap. No. 866, 1879. Folio

Trade of, with Bntish Possessions and Foreign

Countries, Statement of the, for 1874-75 to 1878-79.

ParL Pap. No. [0-2686], 1880. FoUo

Trade and NaTigation, Monthly Returns of. Current

numbers <

Beyiew of the Trade of, with other Countries, for

1878-79. Folio. Calcutta ^

BinoAL, Asiaiie Society of^

Proceedings, Nos. 6, 6, and 10, May, June, and De-'l
cember, 1879. 8to. Calcutta I

Journal, toL xlyiii, part 1, No. 4, 1879, plates, 8to. f

Calcutta J

Madras. Elerenth Annual Beport' of the Sanitaiy 1

Commissioner, for 1878, with appendices. Diagrams, v

Folio ^ I

Indian Qcremment

The Society

Dr. W. B. Cornish,
F.B.C.S.

Xauritin* —
Almanac and Colonial Begister for 1880.
Edited by J. B. Kyshe. 285 pp. 8to.

(12th No.) 1
Another copy of the aboye .«» i

The Editor

The QoTemor of
Mauritius

Hew South Wales —

Estimated Population of the Colony of, on 81st De-""
cember, 1879. 1 sheet «

Stdnbt. Vital Statistics of. Monthly Beports of the
Begistrar-G^eral on, for December, 1879, and
January and February, 1880. Folio

Hew Zealand —
BesulU of a Census taken 8rd March, 1878.
Wellington, 1880.

Folio.

StatistioaF and Chronological Chart of, compiled by 1
A. Bryce Bain. 1 sheet. Wellington, 1879 J

floath Australia—
Census of, taken March, 1876.

Folio. Adelaide, 1879..

A^ent-General for
New South Wales

Begistrsr-General
The Compiler

.J. Boothby, Esq.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

400

MUoellanea.
l>onatum§ — (hnUL

[JuBBi

Donatioiii.

By wlioB PreMntod.

8<mth Australia — Conid,
BenBter of the Rainfall from 1889-79, by Sir 0-. S.

fingBton. Diagrams, folio. Adekude, 1879 «...
South Australian Directory, for 1880, edited
J. Boothbj. Cloth, map, 870.

J. Boothby, Esq.

Tasmania,
for 1878.

^H^To;?!^!^..?!^:.!.^} '«'* socuty

H. H« H^ftflt, Ba^

Victoria—
Quarterly Abstract, showing the Estimated Population''

on the 81st December, 1879. 1 sheet

Statistics of Friendly Societies, for 1878. Folio ...
Statistical Beeister of the Colony oi; 1878^
Ckneral Index to the.

Part 8. Interchange. ^...•w.* \

„ 9. Beligious, Moral, and Intellectual Progress
Other copies of the abore parts, and also of the |

Statistics of Friendly Societies for 1878 — i AMii-OaMnl

Victorian Tear Book for 1878-79, by H. H. Hayter, [ Victoria

895 pp., 8to. Melbourne and IxmdoB »» ^

Mining Surreyors and Begistrars^ Beporta of, for the \ "t^j.!^^ ^ t#i«^
QuSter end^ 81st DecSiber, 1879. Folio / ^^^'^^ <^ Mfaiea

United Kingdom —
Association of Chambers of Commerce, Seventeenth 1

Annual Beport of, for 1876. 8to. London

Colonial and other Possessions, Statistical Abstract^

for, from 1864 to 1878, No. 16, Pari. Pi^. [C-26a0],

1880. 8to

Import Duties upon the Produce and Manofaoturee of

the. Part 1— Foreign. Pari. Pap. laO, 1880. 8ro.
Navigation and Shipping, Annual Statement of, for

1879. Pari. Pap. No. [0-2518], 1880. Folio

Trade and Navigation, Monthly Betums of. Current

numbers. 8vo. ......^ * »...«..»......^..

Sugar, Card Diagram, showing the fiiUing oft in
British and increase in Contmental Imports since*
the Bounties in ld78. Card

Colonial Office List for 1880. Maps, 8vo. london .... •

fiuffland and Wales-
Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Forfy-irst Annual'
Beport of the Begistrar-General (Abstracts of 1878).

Pari. Pap. No. [0-2568], 1880. 8vo

Quarterly Betum of Marnages in, to December, 1879,
and of Births and Deaths in, to March, 1880.

No, 125. 8vo « « .

Dioceisan Map, showing the piovisioBB of Bishoprio Aoi^
(1878), the recommendations of the Cathednd Com-
missioners (1854), and the Population (Census 1871),
^., compiled by Bev. D. J. Maekey, BIa., &o

B. Noble, Esq.

Boacd of Trade.

Workmen's National
Executive Com-
mittee ibr Abo-
lition of Sugar
Bounties

Messrs. Harrison end
Sons^PaUMaU

Bglaad

Messrs. W. and A. K.
JoknslQtt

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1880.]

Additiom to the Library.
DoHOtwM — Oonid.

401

DonatioM.

By whom PiMented.

Bnffland and Wales — Contd.
Bbistol. Annual Report of the Inoorpomted Chamber I

of Commeroe and Shipping for 1879-80, with Ap- V L. Bmton, Esq.

pendix. 8to J

West Sussex, Sixth Annual Beport on the Condition of 1 jv rfhi^r^^ v it

the Combined Sanitary Dirtriist of. 8to. Worthing, V ^'j£^^ ^®"3^»

looO ....' •••»..» —»»»*.. ..,^»— •. J

Begistrar-GeDeral of
Ireland

Ireland—

Weeklj Returns of Births and Deaths of eight large'

towns. Current numbers. 8to. — ...*...

Quarterly Return of Marriages in, to December, 1879,

and of Births and Deaths in, to March, 1880.

No. 66. 8to. Dublin — ^

Statistical and Social Inquiry, Society of, Journal of 1 m,^ a.^«•.rf^

the, ToL Tiii, No. 1, Apnl, 1880. 8to. Dublin .... J ^^^ ooaet^
Dublin. Statistical Tables of the Metropolitan PoHoe, \ Commissioner of

for 1879. FoUo — — J Polioe, Dublin

Scotland —
Births, Deaths, and Marriages —
Weekly and Monthly Iletums of, in the eight

principal towns, current numbers. 8yo

Quarterly Return of, to Slst March, 1880. No. 101.

8to. Edinburgh

Supplement to the Monthly and Quarterly Returns

of, during 1879, also the Vaccination Bourns for

1878. 8vo. Edinburgh

Edikbubgh. Royal Society of —

Proeeedinm, voL x. No. 103. Session 1878-79."

Plates, &o., 8vo

Transactions, vol. xx?iii, Part 8, Session 1877-78, and

Tol. xxix, Part 1, Session 1878-79. Diagrams,

plates, Ac., 4to _

Glasgow —
Mortality Tables of the City of, with remarks by 1

Medical Officer, for the Quarter and Tear ending V Dr. J. B. Russell

31st December, 1879. 8to J

United Tiiades' Council, Reporte of, 1872-73 tol m, ^ « l^

1878-79. 8to .^^ / ^^"^ Secretaiy

Registrar-General of
Scotland

The Society

Authors, &o. —

Almquist (G. Fb.). La Su^de, ses Frogr^ Soeiaux
et ses Institutions P^nitentiaires. 8to. Stockholm,
1879 « „

Bbhx (G.). Nachtrag pro 1878 su der Statistik der''
Mortalitftts, Inyaliditftts, nnd MorbilitAtsyerh&ltnisse
bei dem Beamten-Personal der Bahnen des Yereina
Deutscher Eisenbahn-Yerwaltungen. 81 pp., Sto.
BerUn, 1879 „ ^

Beddos (Dr. JoHir, F.R.S.). The Progress of Public'
Health in Our Own Times. 24 pp., diagrams, 8to.
Bristol, 1879 :

Beyav (G. Phillips). Industrial €teography Pri-
mers. France. 100 pp., elotfa, ISmo. London,
1880

Dr. F. J.
F.B.C.S.

Mouat,

Terein Deutscher
. Eiseabahn Yer-
waltungen

The Author

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402

MisodUmea.
DcnationM — Could.

[JanOy

By whom Preteat«d.

}pp.,

Authors, 4ko. — Contd,

Blaoklit (Bey. W. L.). Collaoted BsnyB on the'
Prerention of Pauperism. Tiii and 148 pp., cloth,
8to. London, 1880 «

B5HXBBT (Br. y.). Die Statistik der Bechtspflege
mit besondere Bdekaioht auf dae KOnigreioh Saohten
Ton 1860 bii 1877. 50 pp., 4to. Dresden, 1879 ....

BsAOHELLi (Dr. H. F.)—
Statistische Skisze der Oesterreichisoh-Ungarischen'
Monarohie nebst Liechtenstem, 7* Auflage. 60

8to. Leipxig, 1880

Statistische Skixse der Boiopiischen Staaten,
Aufla^, Naohtrlge bis ende MAn, 1880. 8to.
Leipxifl ^

OhLBM (O.L.). CknnparatiTe Statement of the Cost^
of H.M. Prisons and of Prison Bamings. 8 pp.,
postito. London, 1880 ^

DoTLi (Patbiok, O.B.). Petroleum, its History,'
Origin, and Use, &o. 28 pp., 12mo. Brisbane,
1880

DvKOAir (W. J.). Our Home and Foreign Trade,
supplement to " Notes on Bate of Discount.'* 29 pp.,
cloth, 8to. Edinburgh, 1880 _

Gbho (J. B.) Bank Note and Banking Beform.'
26 pp., 8to. London, 1880

GuTHBii (jAms). The Birer Tjne, its History and
Besouroes. 248 pp., doth, plates, &c., 8to. New-
castle-on-Tyne, 1880

JousDAV (BiATBici A) . ImpoTcments in Education
during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.
(Howard Med^ Prize Essaj, 1879.) 89 pp., clo^
12mo. London

Nbisoh (F. a. P.). The Bate of Fatal and Non-'
Fatal Accidents in and about Mines and on Bail-
ways; with the Cost of Insurance against such
aoodents. Preliminary Beport. 78 pp., 8to.
LondoI^1880 ^

PiBOZZo (Looi). Statistica Grafica (Estratto depli'
Annali di Statistica, serie 2*, rol. xii). 80 pp., dia-
grams, imp. 8to. Boma, 1880

PiTBBSiH (Alikbib). Landmandcu og National6ko-
nomien. 20 pp., 12mo. Kldbenhavn, 1880

Bbid (Or, H.). Protection or Free Trade P Speech in
&TOur of Free Trade, delirered at Sydney. 18 i^.,
8to. Sydner, 1880 _

BoBiKBOK (W.). Beport on the Laocadive Islands,'
1848. 188 pp., doth, 8to. Madras, 1874 ^

SOOTT (B., F.B.A.S.). Statistical Vindication of the
City of London. 200 pp., doth, 8to. London,
1867

Tupp (A C). The Indian Ciyil Service List for
1880. 671 and Ixxxt pp., doth, diagram, 8to.

Madras

. Ykv DBH Bbbo (N. p., LL.D., &c.). Historical-Sta-'
tistical Notes on the Production and Consumption
of Coffee. (Translated from the Dutch by Qt. Qt.
Batten.) 92 pp., 8to

The Author

Howard Aieociation
The Author

Effingham Wilscm,
Esq.

Tyne Improrement
Commissioners

The Authoress

The Author

Sir W. B. Bobinson,
K.C.8.I.

H. Lloyd Beid, Esq.
The Author

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1880.]

AddUUmt to the Library.
Donatiotu— Contd.

403

Donations.

By whom Presented.

The Author

Anthors, &o. — Contd.
Yabbbntbapp (Dp. O.)—
Offener Brief an Herm Dr. Erhardt, Ton Mfinchen^
betreffend Dr. L. Winterhalter's Schrift '*Zur
Kanalisation Ton Miinohen." 24 pp., 8to.

Mfinohen,1880

Sereral Pamphlets containing BeTiews of TariooB
English Ch>Temment Reports, &o. 8to

YBSsiLOYSKY (A.). L'Impdt snr le Berenu Mobilierl

en Italie. 188 pp., diagram, imp. 8to. St. Peters- > „

bourg, 1879 J

YiNB (J. B. SoMBBs). Alphabetical List of thel

Members of the New House of Commons, 1880, with V The CompOer
Tarious Sl^otoral Statistics. 24 pp., 8to. London J

WALBA8 (L^on). Thferie Math^matique du Billet 1 ^^ Author
de Banque. 8yo t j

SooietiM, &o. —
Actuaries, Journal of the Institute of. Vol. xxii,\
part 8, No. 119, April, 1880. 8to J

Arts, Journal of the Society ol Current number^.....

Bankers, Journal of the Institute of. Parts 7 and 9, 1
April and June, 1880. Svo. London j

CiTil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings of the Insti'
tution of. VoL lix. Part 1, 1879-80. Cloth, plates,
8to. London

;}

Labourers* Friend, The Magazine of the Society fori
ImproTing the Condition of the Labouring Classes, v
No. 264, April, 1880. 8to J

Boyal Agricultural Society, Journal of the. Seoondl
series, toL xri, part 1, 8to. 1880 J

Boyal Asiatic Society, Journal of the, new series,!
Tol. zii, part 2, April, 1880. Map, 8to. London.... J

"RojbI G^eographical Society, Proceedings of the,
Vol. ii, Nos. 4—6, April— June, 1880. 8to.
London

Boyal Medical and Chirurgical Society, Proceedings of 1
the. VoL Tiii, No. 9. 8to. London j

The Institute
The Society
The Institute

The Institution
The Society

;}

Boyal Society, Proceedings of the.
Nos. 202— 204. 8to. Xondon

Vol. XXX,

Boyal United Serrice Institution, Journal of
VoL xxiT, No. 104, 1880. Plans, 8to

}

the.1
.el

St. Thomas's Hospital, Statistical Beport of the
Patients Treated m, for the years 1876-77. 256 pp.
8to. London

Social Science Association, Sessional Proceedings of 1
the. Vol. xiii. No. 4, June, 1880. 8to. London. J

Surreyors, Transactions' of the Institution
VoL xii. Parts 9— 12. 8to. London, 1880

.1}

The Institution

H. Percy Potter,
Esq., F.B.C.S.

The Association

The Institution

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MticManea.
Donaticm — ContcL

[Jane, 1880.

DohaUom*

By whom PrMented.

Athentfoin, The. (Monthlj partt) .... Cunent numben

The Editor

Bankers* Magasine (London) „

»»

Commercial Worid, The „

»»

Economist, The „

Insurance (ihisettei The t.

„ Beoord,The — „

Inyestors' Monthlj Manual, The „

Iron and Coal Trades Beyiew „

Machinery Market, The „

Nature „

Beriew, The „

Statist, The «.... „

»f

Tettile Manufacturer, The „

TJniTersal Engineer, The „

Purchased,

Allen's Precis of Official Papers. Session 1880. No. I. 8to. London.

Annales d*Hygi^ne Publique. 8« s^rie, Nos. 16—18, Arril— Juin
1880. 8yo. Paris.

Annual Register for 1879. Cloth, 8yo. London.

Bbddoi (Johv, M.D.). On the Stature and Bulk of Man in the
British Isles. 8to. London, 1870.

Index Society's Publications, No. 6 —

An Index of Hereditaiy English, Scottish, and Irish Titles of
Honour, by E. Solly, F.R.S. 4to. London, 1S80.

Shaw's Local Qoremment Manual and Directory for 1880. Cloth,
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JOUENAL

01 THB

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

(gonribiii 1834.)

Vol. XLIIL— Part II L
SEPTEMBER, 1880.

LONDON:
ED WARD STANFORD, 56, CHAEING CHOSS, S.W.

1880.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETT.

HIS BOTAL HIOHKESS THB PRINCE OF WALES, E.O.

COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.— ISSO-SL
Sononprs WUt4fixtiitnnti

{hamn^ filled the Office of JPreeiden^.

Thi Bioht HoHOUBABLi Thb Babl of

Shaptksbubt, K.Q-., D.G.L.
Thb Bight Honourabli Thb Eabl of

Habbowbt, K.Q., D.O.L.
Thb Bight Hohoubablb Thx Lobd

OynuBToira, M.A., F.B.G.S.
Thb Bight Hoboitb4blb Thb Babi* of

Dbbbt, D.C.L., P.Bil.
Thb Bight Hohoueablb Thb Lobd

Houghton, P.O.L, F.B.S.

William Nbwkaboh, Esq., F.B.S^ F.T.A.

(Corr. Member Inst of France).
WiLLLiM Fabb, Ebq., M.D., CJ3., D.C.L.,

F.B.S. (Corr. Member Inst of France).
WoLiAic A. auT, Ebq., M.B., F.B.C J?.,

F.B.S.
J4MBB Hbtvood, Esq., H.A., ¥JL3

F.a.8., Ac.
Q-BOBGB Shaw Lbfbtbb, Esq., MP.
Thomas Bbassbt, Esq., M.P.

Htdb Olabeb.
Fbbdbbiok Hbndbxks.

JAMES OAIBD, ESQ., C.B., F.B.S.

Wiu4fixti%titati.

I Pbof. W. S. Jbvoks, LL J)., F.BJ.
I Fbbbbbic Johk Mouat, M.D.

Jaxbs Hbtwood, Esq., M.A., F.B.S. | Sib Johk Ltjbbook, Babt., M.P., F.B^
WnxiAH Newmaboh, Esq., F.B.S.

BlOHABD BlDDULPH MaBTIH, M.P.

CotttufL

Abthitb H. Bailbt, F.I.A.

T. Gbahax Balfoub, M.D., F.B.S.

A. E. Batbmait.

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Stbphbn Botjbnb.

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MP.
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Htdb Clabeb.
Lionel L. Cohen.
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JULAND DaNYBBS.

Bobbbt Giffbn.

Fbbdbbiok Hbndbies.

nobl a. humphbbts.

Pbop. W. S. Jbvons, LL.D., F.B.S.

Bobbbt Lawson.

Pbofessob Leonb Levi, LL.D.

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COBNBLIUS WaLFOBD, F.IJL

Thomas A. Welton.

ttacttstiti.
Hammond Chubb, BA.. | Bobbbt Giffbn.
John B. Mabtin.

Fbbdbbio J. Mouat, M.D.

editor of t^e 9ottnuiL
Bobbbt Giffbn.

Joseph Whittall.

Bstfitertf*— Mbssbs. Dbummond ana Ca, Chabing Cboss, S.W., London.
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STRAND, W.C, LONDON.

September, 1B80.

NOTICES TO FELLOWS.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTIONS are due in advance, on the ist of
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A Form for authorising a Banker or Agent to pay the Subscrip-
tion Annually wiU be forwarded by the Assistant Secretary, on
application. When convenient, this mode of payment is recom-
mended.

Drafts should be made payable to the order of " The Statistical
Society," and crossed *' Brvmmond and Oo.'*

To be included in the Ballot at any particular Ordinary Meeting,
the Nomination Papers of Candidates for Fellowship, must be
lodged at the Office of the Society, at least six days before the date
of such Meeting.

Fellows who may desire to receive Special and Separate Notices of
each Paper to be read before the Society, should indicate their
wishes to the Assistant Secretary.

Mbmbbbs borrowing books from the Library are requested to be
good enough to return them with as little delay as possible^ but
without fail at the expiration of a month.

MiMBBBS changing their Addresses are requested to notify the same
to the Assistant Secretary, so that delay in forwarding communica-
tions, or the JaumcUf may be avoided. *

Bt Obdeb op the Ex^gutivb Commttteb.

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HOWABD MEDAL OF 1881.

The following is the title of the Essay to which the Medal will
be awarded in NoTember, 1881. The Essays to be sent in on or
before 30th Jnne, 1881.

*' Off the Jail Fever from the Earliest Black AMtxe to the laet
" recorded OuihreaJc in Recent Times.**

The Goonoil have decided to grant the sum of 2oL to the writer
who may gain the " Howard Medal " in November, 1881.

(The Medal is of broriMey haiving on one side a portradi of John
HouHJvrdy on the other a wheatsheaf toUh suiktble inscription).

The following are the principal conditions : —

Each Essay to bear a motto, and be accompanied by a sealed
letter, marked with the like motto, and containing the name and
address of the author ; snch letter not to be opened, except in the
case of the sncceesfdl Essay.

No Essay to exceed in length 150 pages (8to.) of the Journal of
the StatisticcU Society,

The Council shall, if they see fit, cause the successful Essay, or
an abridgment thereof, to be read at a Meeting of the Statistical
Society; and shall haye the right of publishing the Essay in their
Journal one month before its appearance in any separate indepen-
dent form ; this right of publication to continue till three months
after the award of the Prize.

The President shall place the Medal in the hands of the suc-
cessful Candidate, at the conclusion of his Annual Address, at the
ordinary Meeting in Noyember, when he shall also re-announce the
subject of the Prise Essay for the following year.

Competition for this Medal shall not be limited to the Fellows
of the Statistical Society, but shall be open to any competitor,
providing the Essay be written in the English language.

The Council shall not award the Prize, except to the author of
an Essay, in their opinion, of a sufficient standard of merit ; no
Essay shall be deemed to be of sufficient merit that does not set
forth the &cts with which it deals, in part, at least, in the language
of figures and tables; and distinct references should be made to
such authorities as may be quoted or referred to.

Further particulars or explanations may be obtained from the
Assistant Secretary, at the Office of the Society, Bong's Coll^;e
Entrance, Strand, London, W.C.
4

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OFFICIAL PAPERS,

BEING

ABSTRACTS OF ALL PARLIAMENTARY RETURNS

Directed to be Printed by both Houses
of Parliament

SESSIOIsT 1880-

LONDON: W, H. ALLEN AND CO.,
13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.,

ADYERTISEMENTS

IVTHB

ENGLISH, INDIAN, COLONIAL, AND
FOREIGN JOUENALS

Correctly inserted in aaay language required, and copies
of the papers promptly supplied, by the undersigned, who
onjy require one copy of each Notice or Advertisement with
Instructiona

STREET BROTHERS,

5, Serle Street, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.

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CALENDAR FOR 1880.

«'

JAN.

JULY

FEB.

AUG.

«3

23
30

24
31

MAR.

SEP.

...

20
27

21
28

23
30

APR.

«..

...

. ..

OCT.

...

•...

...

19
26

24
31

MAY

...

. ..

...

NOV.

...

JUNE

•ft

DEC.

. . .

...

»3

...

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THE LONDON LIBRARY,

12, ST. JAMiES'S SQUARE, S.W.

HIS BOTAL maHNESS THE PBINCE OF WALES.

THOMAS CABLYLE, Esq.

9uc*firtitbtiitf«
Tra DEAN OF WESTMINSTBB. I EDWABD H. BUNBUBT, Ebq.
BT. HON. W. E. aLADSTONE, M.P. | JAMES SPEBDING, Esq.

Cmstttt.
LOBD HOiraHTON. | EABL OF OABNABYOK. | EABL OF BOSEBEBY.

Sir James Aldbbsoit. Stdkbt Gbdgb, Esq.

F. W. BuBTON, Esq. Pibfessor Oladbtokb.

Ber. Canon Ohbbthaic F. Habbibon, Esq.

Dr. J. J. JUBBBBAin).

0. M. Kbknbdt, Esq.
Bey. Dr.STAKLBY Lbathbs.
W. Watkiss Lloyd, Esq.
H. Maxwbll Lttb, EM}.

The Libnury (estoblisbed in 1841) contains 90,000 Thames of Ancient and Modem
Litcoratore, in yarions Languages : Subscriptions, £8 a-year, or £2 with Elitranoe Fee of £6,
Life Membership, £26. Fifteen rolumes are allowed to Country and Ten to Town
Members. Beading-rooms open from ten to half -past six. Catalo^e, New Edition, 1876
(1062 pp.), price 16*. ; to Mraibers, 12«. Prospectuses on application.

BOBBBT HABBISON, Secretary and lAbraricm.

ReprifUed fr<m th$ Journal of tie StaiMoal Society far 1861} Price U^
^oM a Pbbfacb cmd Norss,

J. 0. Oobtbbabb, Esq.
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Sir Fbbdbbiok Eluot.
Ber. E. E. Estooubt.
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Jas. Cottbb Mobisok, Esq.
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STATISTICS

FARM SCHOOL SYSTEM

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CONTINENT,

AND OF ITS APPLICABILITY TO THB

PREYEMVE AND REFORHATORT EDUCATION

PAUPER AND CRIMINAL CHILDREN IN ENGLAND.
By the late JOSEPH FLETCHER, Esq.,

BAmmiSTZX-AT-LAW, HOHOBAXT SBCESTAST.

LONDON: E. STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

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AK OUTLINB OF THB OBJBOTS OV

THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

Thb Statistical Society of London was founded, in purananoe of a
recommendation of tbs British Association for the Advancement of
Science, on the 15th of March, 1834 ; its object being, the carefiil
collection, arrangement, discussion and pubUcation, of facts bear-
ing on and illustrating the complex relations of modem society
in its social, economical, and political aspects, — especially facts
which can be stated nomericallj and arranged in tables ; — and also
to form a Statistical Library as rapidly as its fonds would permit.

The Society from its inception has steadily jprog^ssed. It
now possesses a valuable Library and a Reading Uoom ; ordinair
meetings are held monthly from November to June, which are well
attended, and cultivate among its Fellows an active spirit of inves-
tigation : the papers read before the Society are, with an abstract
of the discussions thereon, published in its Journal, which now
consists of forty-two annual volumes, and forms of itself a valuable
library of reference.

The Society has originated and statistically conducted many
special inquiries on subjects of economic or social interest, of which
the results have been published in the Journal^ or issued separately ;
the latest instance being the institution of tiie ** Howard Medal '*
Prize Essay.

To enable the Society to extend ita sphere of useful activity, and
accomplish in a yet greater degree the various ends indicated, an
increase in its numbers and revenue is desirable. With the desired
increase in the number of Fellows, the Society will be enabled to
publish standard works on Economic Science and Statistics, espe-
cially such as are out of print or scarce, and also greatly extend
its collection of Foreign works. Such a well-arranged Xibrary for
reference, as would result, does not at present exist in Englmid, and
is obviously a great desideratum.

The Society is cosmopolitan, and consists of Fellows and Hono-
rary ^embers, forming together a body, at the present time, of
nearly nine hv/ndred Members.

The Annual Subscription to the Society is Two OmneaSy and
at present there is no entrance fee. Fellows may, on joining the
Society, or afterwards, compound for all ftiture annual subscrip-
tions hy a payment of Twenty Ouineas.

The Fellows of the Society receive gratuitously a copy of each
part of the Journal as published quarterly, and have the privilege
of purchasing back numbers at a reduced rate. The Library
(reference and circulating), and the Reading Room, are open daily
for the convenience of Members.

Nomination Forms and any further information will be ftuv
nished, on application to the Assistant Secretary.

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R. J. MITCHELL & SONS,

52 & 36, PARLIAMENT ST., A 52, BUCKINGHAM PAUCE RD., 8.W.

DAAFpnmnr/l executed in every variety of style, at less than
DUUaDinUinU Co-operative prices for Cash. Price List gratis,

B. J. H. ftod Sows respectfoDy Infonn the Nobility and Gentry thai ererr attention is paid to this paitienlar
branch; the best Workmen being employed. The Sewing and Forwarding is strictly attended to, and a superior
taste displayed in the Finishing. At this Establishment a large assortment of Books of a superior character ii
kept constantly on sale, in ▼arions s^les of Morocco and elegant Calf Bindings, ttom which specimens of
Bookbinding may be selected as patterns for Binding.

Old Books Neatly Be-backed and Brightened Up at a Very Iiow Gharge.

E. J. KITGEEiLL, LIOEKSZD AFPBAISEE & TALUEE, is prepared to Talue
Lil)rari68 for Probate, &g., at a moderate Cominissioii, also to purohase either
small or large GoUeotions of Books at a &ir value.

DEPOT FOR THE SALE OF PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS,

AT GREATLY REDUCED PRICES.

36, PARLIAMENT STREET, S.W.

LQyrariu Purchased and Books BxchoHgwL,

NOTED STORES FOR CHEAP MUSIC.

0(M)PEBATIVE PBICE8 FOB C(M)PEBATIVX TEBMS. FBOMPT CASH.

m ^tow: R. J. MITCHELL & SONS,

52, BUGEIKQSAII FAIAGll £D. (opposite the &rosveno]r Hotel) LOIfDOlSr, S.¥.

REGULATIONS OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY'S LIBRARY.

1. The Library is open daily from 10 a.m. till 5 p.in., except on
Saturdays, when it closes at 2 p.m. ; and it is entirely dosed during
the month of September.

2. Members of the Society are permitted to take ont Books on
making personal application, or by letter addressed to the Librarian.

3. Members are not to have more than two works at a time, nor
keep any books longer than a month.

4. Scientific Journals and Periodicals are not circvlated nntil
the volomes are completed and bound.

5» CyclopsBdias and works of reference are not circulated.

6. Any Member damaging a book, either replaces the work, or
pays a fine equivalent to its value.

7. Works taken from the shelves for reference, are not to he
replaced, but must be laid on the Library table.

8. The Secretary shall report to the Council any infringement
of these regulations.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETY'S LIBRARY.

The following ia a List of some of the Odd Volumes, Numbers,
or Parts, &o., wanting to complete Sets:

DomaUoru ^f any fcirtion thereof will be aceeplailet amd will he acknowledged
hff the Society, [Dates and Kumben in all oaaea are inoItiaiTe.]

Association of thi Chambers of Cohhbbok of thk TTkitkd

Kingdom, Annual Reports of. 2, 3, and 6. (1862-68, and

1866.)
Athenjbum. The fb^ seren Tolmnes. 1827*34.
Bankers' Magazine. New York. Series 3, Vol. ii, No. 7 (1868) ;

Vol. V, No. 2 (1870) ; Vol. vii, Nos, 5 and 7 (1872), and VoL viii.

No. 6 (1873).
Census of Berar. 1872«
Census of Cooro. 1872.
Central Chamber of Agriculture, Annual Reports, Nos. 1 and 2,

for (1866-67).

COMPTB G^Nl^RAL DB L* ADMINISTRATION DB LA JUSTICB ClYILB BT

Commbroulb bn France pendant jm^ Annies 1862, 1872, et
1873.

COMPTR GiNiRAL DB l' ADMINISTRATION DB hk JUSTICB OrIMINBLLB

BN France pbndani' lbs Annbbs 1862, 1872, et 1873.
Economist. The first three volumes. 1843-45.
Economiste FRAN9AIS, Ann4e 6, Nos. 51 and 52, and Analytical Table

of Contents of Vol. ii (1878) ; Ann6e 7, Vol. i, and Nos. 1—50

of Vol. ii (1879); Ann^ 8, the Analytical Table of Contents to

Vol. i (1880).
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. (New York.) Vols, i to xii, and

XV to xxvL
Investors' Monthly Manual. First three volumes. 1871-73.
Labourer's Friend. Nos. 230 (1869) and 231 (1870).
Liverpool Litbrart and Philosophical Socibtt, Proceedinqs of.

Nos. 1—5, 1844-45 to 1848-49.
Manchester Statistical Society. Transactions for 1854-55.
RiviSTA BuROPEA, RiviSTA Internazionale. New aeries. Vols, i

to iii, and Fasc. 1 of Vol. iv (1877).
Royal Society, London. Indexes to the Philosophical Transac-

TiONS. 4to. Parts I, II, and HI.
Royal Society, London. Catalogue of Scientific Papers. Vols.

i to viii. 4to.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings of. Vols, i and ii.
Royal Society of Victoru, Transactions of. Vol. v.
Royal Asutic Society, Journal. Vol. xiv (1853-54).
Surtebs Society. Vols, i to xxv, xxvii to xxxii, and xxxiv.
Tableaux G^n^raux du Commerce db la France, 4c., pendant les

Annies 1846, 1847, 1850, et 1868 k 1876.
The Times, from 1845-63 and 1869-74.
10

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ISSUED BT

EDWARD STANI^ORD,

65, OHABma 0B0S3, S.W.

1. ATLASES and MAPS.— General Catalo^e of Atlases and Maps
pablithed or sold by Edwabd SxiifrFOBD. New Edition.

2» BOOKS. — Selected List of Books published by Edward Stakford.
Naral and Military Books, Ordnance Survey Publications, Memoirs of the Geological
Sturey of the United Kingdom, and Meteorological Office Publications, published
on account of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

4. LONDON and its ENVIRONS.— Selected List of Maps of London
and its Enyirons, published by Edwabb Staitpobd.

6. ORDNANCE MAPS.— Catalogue of the Ordnance Maps, published
under the superintendence of Colonel Cookb. Price Bd, i per post 7d*

6. OEOLOOICAL SURVEY of GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-

LAND. — Catalogue of the Q-eological Maps, Sections, and Memoirs of the Geo-
logical Survey of Ghreat Britain and Lreland, under the superintendenoe of Avbbbw
C. Bamsat, LL,D., F.B.S., Director-Gbneral of the Geological Surreys of the
United Kingdom. Price 6d. j per post 7d.

8. ADMIRALTY CHARTS.— Catalogue of Charts, Flans, Views, and

Sailing Directions, Ac, published by order of the Lords Commissioners of the
Adm^ty. 224 pp. royal Svo. Price 7s. ; per post, 7«. 4d.

9. INDIA* — Catalogue of Maps of the British Possessions in Lidia and

other parts of Asia, with continuation to the year 1876. Published by order of Her
Majesfy's Secretary of State for India in CoundL Post free for Two Penny
Stamps.

10. EDUCATIONAL.- Select List of Educational Works published by
Ebwabd Staitfobd, including those formerly published by Tabty k Cox.

IL EDUCATIONAL WORKS and STATIONERY.— Stanford's

Catalogue of School Stationery, Educational Works, Atlases, Maps, and Globes,
with Specimens of Copy and Exercise Books, &c.

12. SCHOOL PRIZE BOOKS.— List of Works specially adapted for
School Prizes, Awards, and Presentations.

14. BOOKS and MAPS for TOURISTS. — Stanfobd's Tourist's

Catalogue, containing a List, irrespective of Publisher, of all the best Guide Books
and Maps suitable for the British and Continental Traveller ; with Index Maps to
the Government Surveys of England, France, and Switzeriand.

%* Witb tbe exception of those with price affixed, any of the above Catalogues can be had gratis on
Application ; or, by poi^ ftir a Penny Stamp.

EBWABD STANFOBJD, 55, Charing Gross, London.

A^etU hy AppoUUmeiU for the Sale of the Ordmanoe and Chologieal Survey Mapt,

the Admiralty Charts^ Her Majetiy^e Stationery Office and

India Office Publications^ etc,

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JOURNAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

COST OF A COMPLETE SET (if not out of primt).
1838-79. (42 Vols., imboimA)

£ «. d.

Vol. I. (1838.) 9 Nombert at U 6ir. ^^ -IS 6

Vol. II. (18S9.) S Numben at 1«. M. and S Parts at 2«. M. - 12 -

VoU. Ill— XI. (1840-48.) 9 rob. lOt „ 4 10 -

Vol. XII. (1849.) Indiiding a double number ». ^ ». - 12 6

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Vol* JL2L* ^lOVf.J .•......•»»»«..M..»«MM».»M»M«..».».M»»...»»M».«.»»««»»M»«»».»«»M...».«»»«. ^11 ^

VoL XXI. (1858.) - 12 -

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ToL XL. (1877.)

VoL XLL (1878.) , «

VoL XLIL (1879)

General Analytioal Indexes:—

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£29 15 6

Sets, or single copies of any number, of the Jowmal (if not oat of
print), can be obtained of the publisher, E. Stanford, 55, Charing
Cross, London, S.W.

By a resolntion of the Council, dated 12th May, 1854, the price
of back numbers of the Journal of the Society, ohaiged to Memoers,
was raised from one-half to three-fifbhs of the publishing price.

Members onhf^ under the above mentioned resolution, can obtain
copies of any number of the Jowmal (if not out of print), at the
Society*s Booms, King's College Entrance, Strand, W.C., London.

NoTB. — One or two Dumbers of the Jtmmal are now out of print.
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CORNELIUS WALFORD, F.LA., F.S.S.,

BBnra
A DICnONABT OF THE DEFINITION OF TEBBfS USED IN CONNEXION
WITH THE THEOBT AND PRACTICE OF INSURANCE IN ALL ITS
BRANCHES: A BIOaBAPHICAL SUMMARY OF THE LIVES OF ALL
THOSE WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE DETELOPMENT AND
IMPROVEMENT OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INSURANCE,
WHETHER AS AUTHOR, MANAOER, ACTUARY, SECRETARY, AOENCY
SUPERINTENDENT, OR OTHERWISE? A BIBUOOBAPHICAL BEPEB-
TOBY OF ALL WOBKS WBTTTEN UPON THE SUBJECT OF INSUBANCE
AND ITS ASSOCIATED SCIENCES: AN HISTOBICAL TBEASUBY OF
EVENTS AND CIBCUMSTANCES CONNECTED WITH THE OBIOIN AND
PBOOBESS OF INSUBANCE, INCLUDING A HISTOBY OF ALL KNOWN
OFFICES OF INSUBANCE FOUNDED IN GBEAT BBITAIN, FBOM THE
BSaiNNING.

AVD AI£0 OOVTAHriKa

A Detailed Account of the Rise and Progress of Insurance
in Europe and in America.

Continued in ParUy which appear about every Six Weeks^ price 2b. 6d.
Four VoIb^ doth, 21«. each.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

We think we may safely say that it siurpassee all anticipations which hare been formed
as to its Talue. The plan of the work is perfect. — Insurance Record.

We think we can safely predict for it the position of a standard work.— Juntrofice
A$eid.

Eyeiy matter more or less closely connected with Insurance is dealt with clearly and
fully.— CWy Press,

The work b as thorough as though on each separate article, as on a separate Tolume,
the author were content to rest his reputation for accuracy of information and knowledge
of details. — Intwramee Circular.

We hare reriewed in detail this extended work, which is really one of a national
character, dealing as it does with so many phases of our social life, in the belief that the
knowledge of its contents will be appreciated by many outside insurance oircles.-^2%ji^«i
2nd January, 1878.

LONDON:
CHAELES AND EDWIN LAYTON, 160, FLEET STBEET.

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LIST OF THE FORMER

OF THB

STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

From it$ Fmmdatkm, on 15t& March, 1834.

1840-61— Hi8 BoTAL Highness Ths Primob Consort, K.0.

1884-^6
1886-38
1888-40
1840-42

1842-43
1843-45

1845-47
1847-49
1849-51
1851-53
1858-55
1855-57
1857-59

1859-61

1861-68

1863-65
1865-67
1867-69
1869-71
1871-73
1873-75
1875-77
1877-79
1879-80
14

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, F.KS.

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart, M.P., F.R*8., LL.D.

The Right Hon. the Earl PitzwiUiam, F.R.S.

The Itight Hon. the Viscount Sandon, M.P.
(now Earl of Harrowby.)

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, K.G., FJLS.

The Right Hon. the Viscount Ashley, M.P.
(now Earl of Shaftesbury.)

The Right Hon. the Lord Monteag^e.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam^ F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrowby.

The Right Hon. the Lord Overstone.

The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam, K.G., F.R.S.

The lUght Hon. the Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Stanley, M.R
(now Earl of Derby.)

The Right Hon. the Lord John Russell, M.P., F.R.S.
(afterwards Earl Russell.)

The Right Hon. Sir J. S. Pakmgton, Bart, M.P^ G.C.B.
(afterwards Lord Hampton.)

Colonel W. H. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Houghton.

The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, MP., D.C.L.

W. Newmarch, Esq., F.R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst, of France.

WiUiam Farr, Esq., M.D., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

William A. Guy, Esq., M.B., F.R.S.

James Heywood, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.

George Shaw-Lefevre, Esq., MP.

Thomas Brassey, Esq., MJ'.

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Those persons who are inclined to benefit the Society
by legacies are recommended to adopt the following

FORM OP BEQUEST.

I give and bequeath unto the Statistical Society of
London, the sum of £ , such legacy to be

paid out of such part of my personal estate, not specifically
bequeathed, as the law permits to be appropriated by wiU
to such a purpose.

Note A. — ^All gifts by will to the Society of land, or of
money secured on, or directed to be secured on^ or to arise
firom the sale o^ or directed to be laid out in the purchase of,
land, will be void. Gifts may be made by will of stock in
the pubUc funds, shares or debentures of railway or other
jointHstock companies^ or money to be paid out of the testa-
tor's pure personal estate, or of personal chattels.

Note B. — ^Bequests may be made either for the general
purposes of the Society, or to the Society's "Building
Fund," which has been recently established.

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Ths Coimcil of the Statistical Society wisli it to be understood,
that, while they consider it their daiy to adopt eveiy means within
their power to test the facts inserted in this Jowmaly they do not
hold themselves responsible for their accoracy, which must rest
upon the authority of the several Contributors.

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VoL XT.TTT,] [Part m.

JOUBNAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

SEPTEMBER, 1880.

Rbpoet of ilA Council fw IIa Financial Ybae &ndedi Z\Bi December^
1879, and for the Sessional Year mding SOth Jime^ 1880,
presented at the Fobtt-Sixth Annivbrsabt Meeting of the
Statistical Society, held at the Sodety^s Booms, Somerset Hotue
Terrace (King^s College Entrance), Strand, London, on the 20th
of June, 1880, and of the Pbocebdinos at the Meeting.

The President, Thomas Bbassbt, Esq., M.P., in the Chair.

The circalar conyening the meeting liaving been read, and the
minutes of the last ordinary meeting read and confirmed, the fol-
lowing report was read : —

Report of the Council.

The Society is now in the forty-seventh year of its existence,
and the Council have again to state, to qnote the language of last
year's report, that it '* folly maintains the position it has obtained
" as respects the number of its members, and its power to fulfil
'* the objects for which it was established."

In the past year the number of members hsks risen from 746 to
783. The result compares as follows with the average of the
previous ten years : —

1879.

Last Ten Yean.

Nmnber of Fellows on Slst December

78j
119

646

TiifA 'M'ATTiYiAm inftliitlAd in thfl fthnve

Number lost by death, withdrawal or default

New Fellows elected

81
67

Since the Ist of January last 46 new Fellows have been
elected.

VOL. XLIII. PART III. 2 B

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406

Report of the Council. — Session 1879-80.

[Sept.

The financial condition of the Society also shows satisfactory
prog^ress, notwithstanding a slight decrease in the receipts from all
sources in 1879, yiz., 1,698/., as compared with 1,732/. for the
previous year. This slight falling off is more than accounted for
by a reduction of the receipts from compositions, which are of a
fluctuating character, and there has been real progress in the per-
manent sources of income. This is brought out by the subjoined
analysis of the receipts of the Society for the last five years : —

BeeeipUper

1879.

1878.

1877.

1876.

FhreTean.

DiridendB

1,800

126

176

i»i97

294

169

£
41

1,117

252

161

i»o54

168

"59

928

106

188

1,119
189

158
H

Annual Subccriptions

Compositioiis

Jouml nles

1,698

i,73i

1,697

IH38

1,281

i»539

The investments of the Society at the present time are increased
to 2,700/. of New Three per Gents, as compared with 2,400/. a year
ago. The following is a comparison of certain particulars for last
year, with the average of the previous ten years : —

1879.

AYengtt
Last Ten Tein.

BftlftTic* ftt beginping 0^ ye*r

'94

1,698

4.»95

£
267

1,284
266

Cash balance at end of year

Sarplos of assets orer liabilitiet

2,616

A comparison of the principal figures at intervals of ten yesrs
from the formation of the Society, will farther show the progress
that has been made : —

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1880.] Beport of the Counca.-^ Session 1879-80. 407

Comparison of Condition of Society at Intervals of Ten Tears, on 3lst Dec.

Yew.

Nnraber
of Fellowt.

Ineorae.

lixpenditure.

Amount
Invested.

Liabilities.

Cosh
Balance.

1889...
'49....
'69 ....
'69 ....
'79 ....

398
387
357
400

783

£
819

734

729

796

1,698

849

764

743

726

1,427

£
867

867

1,136

2,283

306

383
287
"5
238

£
60

297

200
84

It will be noticed that great progress has been made during the
last decade. The number of Fellows having been nearly doubled,
while the income and amount invested have been more than
doubled in that time. The following table gives the particulars for
each year of that period : —

Tear.

Number
of Feltowi.

Ineome.

Expenditure.

Amonnt
Invested.

LiabUities.

Caah
Balance.

1870 ....

403

£
852

839

£
1,186

135

£
214

'71 ....

431

880

804

1,136

290

'72....

454

1,112

806

1,322

135

411

'73 ....

530

1,248

1,097

1,607

135

376

'74....

588

1,377

>>49i*

1,607

460

'7$....

607

1,231

1,733*

1,207

216

'76....

61X

1,488

i»340*

1,207

187

192

'77....

683

1,697

i,a86

1,898

201

312

'78....

746

1,732

1,345

1,902

168

194

'79....

783

1,698

1,4*7

2,288

238

* The expenditure of these years was affected by the heayy expenses incident
to moTing into new premises.

Confirmation of the steady progress of the Society may be again
referred to with satisfaction, as indicated by the increasing sale of
the Society's Journal. The average of the annnal sales

In the ten years 1841-60 was $6

'61-60 „ 85

'61-70 „ 97

In the nine years '71-79 „ 150

2b2

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408 Report of the Caunca.— Session 1879-80. [Sept.

The amount realised in 1879 as already shown was 176^, which
exceeds that of any previous year.

The library of the Society continues to increase in sise rapidly,
chiefly from the numerous and liberal donations received from all
parts of the world.

The Opening Address of the President was given on the re-
assembling of the Society in November, and the papers read and
the members elected at each of the monthly meetings are recorded
as follows : —

Sbssioh 1879-80.

First Ordinary Meeting^ Tuesday, ISih November, 1879.
The President, Thomas Bbjlssit, Esq., M.P., in the Chair.
The following were elected Fellows : —

William John Cooper.
Francis S. Powell, F.R.Q.S.
Francis Henry Nalder.
Joseph Leete.
J. Fisher Smith.
Mark WhitwiU, J.P.
Fang Tee.
H. Ribton Cooke.
Frandi W. Pixley.

William Miller.

Frederick W. Barry. M.D.

Henry L. Jephson.

Edward Fisher Bamber, C.E.

William NeUson Hancock, LL.D^

M.R.IJL
Howard Payn.
Evan C. Nepean.
James Adams Wenley.

The President deliyered an Opening Address, and declared
the " Howard Medal " for 1879 (with 20/.) to be awarded to

. Miss Beatbicb A. Joubdan.

Second Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, 16th December, 1879.

The President, Thomas Brasset, Esq., M.P., in the Chair.

The following were elected Fellows : —

W. A. Thomas. I William Tipping.

Edwin Bowley. | Frederick Harris.

Mr. R. H. Patterson read a Paper on, " Is the Value of Money
'* Rising in England and Throughout the World ? with Remarks
'* on the Effects of the Fluctuating Condition of Trade upon the
" Value of Money."

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1880.] B^ort of the Council— Session 1879-80. 409

Third Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, 20th Jamnwjry, 1880.

SiE Rawson W. RJlwson, C.B., K.C.M.G., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

A. Marshall.
Bobert Brace BonaXd.
William Summen, M.A.
]*Vederick Charles Danvers*

The following were elected Fellows :

William Dayies Stephens.
David Aitcheeon.
Byron L. Ronald.
Lionel Frederic Lee.

Alexander John Finlaison.

Mr. G. Phillips Beyan read a Paper on " The Strikes of the
Past Ten Tears."

Fourth Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, 17th Februa/ry, 1880.

Sm Rawson W. Rawson, C.B., K.C.M.G., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

The following were elected Fellows : —

Alfred Cotterill Tnpp»
Philip Henry Fowell- Watts.
Michael 0. MulhalL
William Ftokin.
T. Eglinton A. Owynne.

Jervoise Smith.
Isaac Lowthian Bell, M.P.
George Alfred Oakeshott.
Wilfred Arthur Bowser.
Hon. Frederick Strott.

Mr. Thomas A. Welton read a Paper on " Certain Changes in
** the English Rates of Mortality."

Mfth Ordinary Meelmg, TuesdoAj, l^th Ma/rch, 1880.

SiE Rawson W. Rawson, C.B., K.C.M.G., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

The following were elected Fellows : —

Walter Johnson. [ A. F. Boberts.

William John Cox. | Isidor Oelsner.

(a) Dr. T. Graham Balfonr, F.R.S., read a Paper on "Vital
" Statistics of Cavalry Horses."

(6) Professor Leone Levi, LL.D., read a Paper entitled "A
'* Survey of Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction Offences in
" England and Wales, from 1857 to 1878.''

Sixth Ordma/ry Meeting, Tuesday, 20th April, 1880.
Wm. Newmarch, Esq., F.R.S., Honorary Vice-President, in the Chair.
The undermentioned was elected a Fellow : —
James Starii.

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410 BepoH of the Oownca.—SeMicfi 1879-80. [Sept.

The following were elected Honorary Members : —

Signor Luigi Cossa, of Pavia.
Signor Emilio Morpnrgo, of Padova.
Signor Angelo Meesedaglia, of Borne.

Dr, P. J. Mouat, P.B.C.S., read a Paper on " The Bdocation
" and Training of the Children of the Poor."

Seventh Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, 11th May, 1880.
De. W. a. Gut, F.R.S., Honorary Vioe-Preaident, in the Chair.

The following were elected Fellows : —

John Holms, M.P.
Frederick Burt.
John Pender, M.P.

Walter Wren. M.P.
John Charlee Twitt
Thomas Charles Baring, M.P.

(a) Captain P. G. Craigie read a Paper on "Ten Years' Statistics
" of British Agriculture, 1870-79."

(5) A Paper by Messrs. J. B. Lawes, F.R8., and J. H. Gilbert,
F.R.S., on " The Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, and Price
" of Wheat over the Harvest Years 1852-53 to 1879-80,'' was read
by Dr. Gilbert

Eighth Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, Ibth June, 1880.
Db. W. a. Gut, F.R.S., Honorary Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following were elected Fellows : —

Stanley Leighton, M J*.

Charles Schreiber, M.P.

Joseph Whitwell Pease, M.P.

Robert Jasper More.

Hon. Wilbniham Egerton, M.P.

The Bt Hon. Joseph ChamberUdn, M.P.

William Lariea Jaduoo, M.P.

Oeorge Keaddy.

William S. Caine, M.P.
Joseph C. Bolton, M.P.
William Young Craig, M.P.
Joseph Loregrove.
Oeorge Henry finch, M.P.
James Bankin, M.P.
Charles Seely, jnnr., M.P.
Chas. H. Cromptom-B*bert^ M.P.

The undermentioned were elected Honorary Members : —

His £xoellenoy M. Jean Babtiste L6on Say, of Bms.
The Hon. Charles F. Conant, of Washington, U.S.A.
M. le Dr. Jacques Bertillon, of Paris.

Mr. R. Price Williams, C.E., read a Paper " On the Increase of
^^ Population in England and Wales.''

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1880.] Beport of the Gounca.—Semon 1879-80. 411

The above sufficiently indicates the character of the different
papers which hare been read at the meetings. Those meetings, for
tlie most part, have also been numerously attended, and althongh
ihere has been perhi^s less excitement i^ian in the two previous
sessions, there is apparently no abatement of real interest in the
proceedings of the Society. Among the new members in the
present session, there is a considerable number of members returned
Uy F^liament at the late general election, including one* or two of
the moFe prominent members of the House.

Among the matters which have occupied the attention of the
Council during the year, apart from papers read, have been the
approaching Census of 1881, the retirement of Dr. Farr from his
office as Superintendent of Statistics in the Department of the
Registrar-General, the Rowland Hill Testimonial, and the question
of obtaining better House Accommodation for the Society.

With regard to the Census, the step taken by ihe Council was
the appointment of a special committee, which duly considered the
subject, and which finally prepared a memorial to the President of
the Local Qovemment Board. This memorial was adopted by the
Council, and duly presented, and has been printed in the Society's
Jowmal, The Council hare now to express their regret at the very
great delay which has occurred in passing a Census Bill. To give
suitable time for preparation, an Act should have been passed in the
session of 1879, but no Bill was brought in until the present year,
when the delay caused by the elections has made it quite hopeless
to get the measure passed till the very dose of the present session.

The retirement of Dr. Farr from his office was the occasion of
a special vote by the Council, expressing their high appreciation of
his long services to the Gt>vemment and the country, as well
as specially to this Society, in the cause of statistics. The GK)vemp
ment conferred on him the decoration of C.B., the only special
honour which these long services have received. The Council are
glad to notice that a public testimonial to Dr. Farr is being pro-
moted by a most influential committee, including many leading
members of this Society.

The Rowland Hill Testimonial has been supported by a small
donation from the Council of the Society, in order to mark their
sense of the great services to the community of a distinguished
member of this Society, though for many years before his death he
took DO active part in their proceedings.

With regard to the subject of House Accommodation, the
Council regret to say that no progress has been made, although
a special committee on the subject has held uiany meetings and
made numerous inquiries. The project of a common building for
several learned societies, to be called " The Hall of Applied

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412 Report of the OouneU.— Session 1879^. [Sept.

*' Soienoes," which was encouraged by the o&r of Dr. Siemens to
contribute lo^oooZ. towards such building, has also fallen through,
in consequence of the indisposition of the societies, in which Dr.
Siemens was himself most immediately interested, to g^ on with the
matter. The Goundl propose next session to continue the appoint-
ment of the committee.

The Society was well represented by its Fellows at the Meeting
of the British Association at Sheffield in August, 1879, and at the
Meeting of the National Association for the Promotion of Social
Science in October, at Manchester.

The Howard Medal of 1879 (with 2ol.) was awarded to Miss
Beatrice A. Jourdan, for her essay on '* The Improvementi that have
" taken place in the Edxicaition of Children and Young Penom during
** the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,''

The subject of essays in competition for the Howard Medal
of 1881 (with 2oL added) is to be—

^* On the Jail Fever, from the Earliest Black Assize to the Last
" Recorded Outbreak in Recent Times."

The Society has had to lament the death of the following
members since the last anniyersary meeting : —

Fellows.

General Sir Thomas A. Larcom, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Samuel Wood, F.R.C.S.

The Right Hon. Lord Lawrence, G.C.B.

Sir Rowland Hill, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Alexander Robertson.

The Rev. Canon AshwelL

James McClelland.

Harry Maple.

Julius Paul Beer.

Edward T. Blakely.

W. Tayler Dent.

The Right Hon. Lord Hampton, G.C.B.

Joseph J. Cohen de Lissa, F.R.G.S.

Henry Ashworth.

Honorary Members.

M. Michel Chevalier, Membre de Tlnstitut, Ancien Depute et

S^nateur.
Dr. Adolphe Ficker (President of the Imperial Central

Statistical Commission at Vienna).
Dr. M. de Baumhauer (late Chief of the Statistical Bureau

at The Hague).

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1880.]

Bepart of the OoimcU, — Session 1879-80.

413

The following list of Fellows proposed as Officers and Council
of the Society for the Session 1880-81, is submitted for the con-
sideration of the meeting : —

Council and Ofpicbes fob 1880-81.

PRESIDENT.
JAMES CATBD, C.B., F.E.S.

COUNCIL.

Frederick Hendriks.

Noel A. HnmphreyB.*^

Prof. W.S. Jerons, M.A.,LL.D., F.E.S.

Bobert Lttwson.*^

Professor Leone Leri, LL.D.

John B. Martin, M.A.

Bichard Biddulph Martin, M.A.

Frederic John Monat, M J)., F.B.C.S.

Francis G-. P. Neison.

Bobert Hogarth Patterson.

Henry D. Pochin .•

Frederick Purdy.

Sir B. W. BawBon, C.B., K.C.M.a.

Thomas A. Welton.<*

Cornelias Walford, F.I.A.

Those marked * are new Members of CounoiL

Arthur H. Bailey, F.I.A.

T. Graham Balfour, M.D., F.B.S.

A. E. Bateman.

a. Phillips Bevan.*

Stephen Bourne.

Edward William Brabrook, F.S.A.

Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.I., M.P.*

J. Oldfield Chadwick, F.B.G.S.

Archibald Hamilton, J,T*

Hammond Chubb, B.A.

Hyde Clarke.

Lionel L. Cohen.

Major Patrick G. Craigie.

Juland Danrers.

Bobert Giffen.

TREASURER.
Bichard Biddulph Martin.

SECRETARIES.
Hammond Chubb. | Bobert Giffen.

John B. Martin.-

FOREIGN SECRETARY.
Frederic J. Mouat, MJ).

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414

BepaH of ike OouneiL—Setdon 1879-80.

[Sept.

The e^tnct of receipts axid expenditure, and the balaaoe sheet
of assets and liabilities at 31st December, 1879, are subjoined,
together with the report of the Auditors on the accounts for tiie
same year : —

(I.) — ^Abstract of Bbcbipts and Patmkkts for the Fbab ending
^Ut Decbmbkb, 1879.

BSCBIPTS.

BaUnce in')
BanMlBt(l92 14 7
Dec., 1878)

£ t. d.

raft)

►re- >

Less draft]
not pre. [> 10
seated

.£182 U 7

BaUnce of Petty Cash. 11 9 -

Balance of Adver-
tisement Gash

194 4 10

Dividends on 2,40<M. New 8 per > 64 12 6
Cents >

Subscriptions received for: —
81 Arrears £65 2 -

672 for the year) -i oai j
IftTft f ^»*"^ *

1879
16 in Advance,
619

12 -

1,299 18

6 Compositions 126 ->

Journal Sales £175 16 5

Journal. Advertise-*) qi m
meiitiin $

207 6 6

£1,892 1 9

FATIOBNTS.

Bent £200 - -

Less sublet 118 15 -

£ 9. tL

81 5 -

Salaries, Wages, and Pension 846 12

JoiinMi(, Printing £588 6 9

Annual Index

Shorthand \
Beporters j

Literary")
Services y

Bartholo-
mew for
Maps

5
28

5 -
2 -

48 8 6

7 - -

671 17
K 4
SO 12

Advertising

Ordinary Meeting Expense*

Library ^.. S8 19

Stationery and Sundry Printing ... 70 4

Postage and delivering Journals ... 59 6

Fire and Lights 8 10

Incidental Expenses ,.. 46 8

Furniture and Repairs 5 7

SUtistical Dinner Club 8 15

Grant with Howsrd Medal 20 -

Howard Medals 1 10

1,426 12 t
Purchase of 400iL New 8 per) o^i

Cents, at 95J ) '^^ " "

£1,807 12 2

Balance at Drum-> go 18 1

mono s )

Balanseof PeUyOash 8 16 6

84 9

£1,892 1 9

(Signed)

5^ Al(^, 1880.

"J. 0. Chadwick,
"Thomas A. Wblton,
" G. Phillips Bbvan,

Auditors.*'

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1880.]

Be^rt of the Cotmdl. — Session 1879-80.

415

(IIO — ^Balahcb Shbbt of AssBTS and Li abilities, Zlst December, 1879.

IiIABTTiTTIBB.

£ t, d. £ i. d.

Per Accounts for —

J^ecember number') ^00,0 o

of Journal J ^^^ ^® ®

Annual Index to ditto 5 5-

Stationery and> oa 1- t

Printing | 26 h 7

Advertisements 12 6 11

Hiscellaneoas, say ... 63 13 3

238

Balance in favour of the Society... 4,194 17 7

£4,482 18 -

£ $. d.
84 9 7

ASSETS.

Cash Balances

2,400/., New 8 per Cents, cost 2,288 6 6

Property (Estimated Value) :—

Books in Library ^,000

Journals in Stock 500

Furniture and Fixtures 500

2,000 - -

Arrears of Subsorfotions reoo-) ^. »

verable(8ay) / 65 2 -

£4,432 18 -

(Signed)

m May, 1880.

'J. 0. Chadwick,
' Thomas A. Wblton,
'G. Phillips Bbvan,

Auditors.**

(III.) — ^Building Fund (Established lOth JuLy^ 1873), Balance Sheet,
Z\st December, 1879.

LiABHiiriBs.

Amount of Fund from last Account

Dividends Beoetved and Invested |
during the year 1879 '

£ «.

156 15

6 12

d.
5

ASSETS.

£ 8,

1879. Invested as per last Account
in MetropoMtan ConsoUdated
8J per Cent Stock, in the
name of the Treasurer, B.
B. Martin—

£153 12 11 cost 156 15
15 July. Purchased' 5 2 1 „ 5 5
6 Nov. Ditto 15 8,, 17

5
5
3

£163 8

Total jei60 - 8 „ £168 8

(Signed)

5a May, 1880.

"J. 0. Chadwick,
"Thomas A. Welton,
" G. Phillips Biyan,

Avditors**

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416 Report of the C(yimcil.— Session 1879-80. [Sept.

"STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

" bth May, 1880.

"AUDITOBS* RePOBT FOB 1879.

*' The Auditors anointed to examine the Treasurer's Accounts for
the Tear 1879,

** Bepobt : —

^^That they have ca/refkdly compared the Entries in the Books
with the several Vouchers for the same, from tJie Ist January to the
Slst Decernber, 1879, and find them correct, shounng the Receipts
(including a Balance of 194/. 48. iod, from 1878) to home been
1,892/. \s, gd., and the Payments (including the purchase of ^ooL
New Three per Oents), 1,807/. I2». id.^ leaving a Balance in favour
of the Society of 84/. 9*. 'jd. at Slst Deceniber, 1879,

" They have also had laid before them an Estimate of the Assets
and Liabilities of the Society, the former amounting to 49432/. i8«. -d,,
and the latter to 238/. -s. $d., leaving a Balance in favour of the
Society 0/4,194/. 17*. yd.

" The amount standing to the credit of the Building Fund, at Hie
end of the year 1879 was 160/. -«. 8c/., Metropolitan 3I per CmiU,
invested in the name of the Treasurer, R, B. Martin, Esq.

" They further find that at the end of the year 1878 (he number
of Fellows on the list was 746, which number was diminished in the
course of the year to the extent of ^2, by Deaths, Resignations, and
Defaulters, and that 89 new Members were elected, leaving on the list,
on 31st Deceniber, 1879, 783 FeUows of the Society.

(Signed) "J. 0. Chadwick,

"Thomis a. Wblton, y Auditors.'*
"G. Philmps Bbvan, J

», y

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1880.] Proceedings of the Forty-Sixth Anndversary Meeting. 417

. Sir R. W. Rawson, C.B., K.C.M.G., who temporarily occupied
the chair, said, according to precedent, I have to submit a motion,
in the absence of Mr. Brassey, whom, however, we expect to see
before the meeting is over. I have to move " that the report of the
Council, the abstract of receipts and payments, the balance sheet of
assets and liabilities, and the report of the Auditors for 1879, be
adopted, entered on the minutes, and printed in the Journal^' I
can scarcely suppose that there will be any hesitation on the part of
the members to adopt the report, seeing that it gives so full and so
favourable an exposition of the condition of the Society. Being
one of the oldest members — although I see two or three who pre-
ceded me, and as the Society is approaching its half-centenary, and
as I am approaching my half-century's connection with it, it is a
matter of very great gratification to me that I have the opportunity
of presiding to-day, and of expressing my own satisfaction, which
I trust will be reciprocated by the other members present, as to the
position of the Society, its usefulness, and its sound financial posi-
tion. The subject of statistics is not one of the most popular. We
cannot compete with the Geographical Society, we cannot compete
with the Horticultural and other societies which are attractive upon
other grounds, but I think we may say that certainly during this
last half-century the Statistical Society has done most valuable and
substantial work, and that every year its value is increasing. The
importance of its papers, the large views of economic science and
of social science embraced by the authors in our papers, cannot fail
to render it of great value. (At this point Mr. Brassey, who was
warmly received, entered the room.) I am very happy to welcome
our President, and as he has come in, 1 will ask him to take the
chair. I was just proposing the adoption of the report of the
Society. I had anticipated that our President would have moved
it, but I hope he will join with me in recommending it to you for
adoption. As a much older member of the Society than the Pre-
sident, and as one of the oldest members, I will say, what I believe
he will concur with me in maintaining, that the Society during the
last half-century has done a valuable and important work, is doing
the same now, and is increasing in power and usefulness year by
year, both by its publications, by its works, by bringing together
men who study these subjects, and are interested in them, and by
bringing a variety of views to light for examination and discussion.
1 believe we may hope that the next half-century will advance in an
increasing proportion. With these few observations, I shall vadeite
the chair, and request our President to take it.

The President having taken the chair, said, I will call upon
Mr. Bailey to second the adoption of the report.

Mr. A. H. Bailet: Mr. President, I had hoped that your
entrance into the room would have spared me the necessity of
troubling the Society with any remarks. However, I have great
pleasure in seconding the motion which Sir Rawson Rawson has
moved, for the report is so thoroughly satisfactory, and enters into
the details so fully, that it will be unnecessary for me to take up

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418 Proceedings of the Forty-Sixth Aimiversary Meeting, [Sept.

the time of the Society^ at any length. I wonld merely remark that
I am glad to see that the subject of Vital Statistics has occupied
more of the attention of the members than has been the case in one
or two previous sessions. I have thought sometimes that there
has been some risk of this Society drifting into a political Society,
seeing that the subjects which excite the greatest amount of
attention here are those which are expected to come on for discus-
sion in the Houses of Parliament. I think that is a risk which
this Society should avoid. With regard to the other parts of the
report, we all very much regret that we have not seen Dr. Farr at
these meetings for some time past, and, from what I have heard
lately, unless his health is much reestablished, we shall not
see him at these meetings very often. I am very glad that tlie
Queen has, through the Government, bestowed an honoraiy dis-
tinction upon him. With regard to house accommodation, that
subject has certainly engaged the attention of the Council for some
time. We all see that it is very desirable we should have better
rooms than these, but the difficulties in the way of obtaining them
are very great, and they stare ns in the fooe whichever way we
turn. We want a building, or rooms of considerable dimensions in
a convenient situation ; but at present the Council have not seen
their way to obtain what we require. Our efforts in that direction
will be continued. With these few observations, I have much
pleasure in seconding the motion moved by Sir Rawson Bawson.

The Pbesidint : Qentlemen, I hope you will allow me to say a
few words in support of this resolution. I am sure we shall agree
that the report is, as it has been stated by previous speakers, a vary
satisfactory report. When we turn to tiie financial statement,
which is set before us in a concise and lucid manner, well worthy of
the Statistical Society, we see the state of our affairs as r^ards our
finances, upon which, I will undertake to say, a good many learned
bodies would look with envy. We are growing year by year a
wealthier Society, and have, therefore, greater ability to cany for-
ward the work for which this Society was especially constituted.
Well, gentlemen, in former years, when I was giving much atten-
tion to labour questions, I appreciated very highly indeed the prac-
tical usefulness of the work done by the Society in the particular
field in which I was engaged ; and 1 am quite sure that those who
have been working in other departments or other branches of inquiiy
have found, as I have found on referenoe, the admirable information
published annually by this Society, and included in its publications,
to be extremely valuable. Well, gentlemen, under those circum-
stances, when you did me the honour to invite me to be your Pre-
sident, I accepted the invitation with much gratitude, and with a
high sense of the honour done me, and with a most earnest desire
to be as useful as I could to the Society; but events have gone
against me. I was takm abroad in the early part of the year by
circumstances which I need not narrate — by Ulness in my family —
which necessitated my absence in January and February. Then
oame your March meeting, which I was unable to attend, in con-
sequence of my duties in connection with the business of the House

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1880.] Proceedings of the Forty-Sixth Anniversary Meeting. 419

of GommoBS, and 1 need not recapitulate the incidents which have
since occurred — the arduous electioneering contest in which we
were engaged, and my suhsequent engagement with the present
Board of Admiralty. All these things have gone against me, and
made me unable to do what I should have earnestly desired to do
for the Society; but, gentlemen, this report shows you that the
Society is well able to take care of itself; that it is not the creature
of a President, but that it has living and vital force which is inde-
pendent of any action on the part of its President. At the same
time I am sure we all rejoice very muoh indeed that we shall have
durine the coming year the extreme advantage of having for the
President of the Society Mr. Caird. We all know the eminent
position that gentleman holds in matters statistical, and especially
in relation to agricultural inquiry, which, as we all know, is one of
the most important and anxious subjects with which the Gx>vem-
ment and those who are concerned in statistical affairs will have to
deal. I am quite sure that Mr. Caird 's services as President of this
Society, and more especially in connection with agricultural statis-
tics, will be of extreme value. It has been said that we are still
suffering from the want of adequate house accommodation. I regret
that, and yet we all know that the Society has managed to do pretty
well, even with its present apartments. We cannot make a great
effort without union in this matter, and of course you all know yery
well that the Society of Civil Engineers, which might have helped
very materially, is so perfectly satisfied with its present position,
that it is not inclined to co-operate in any joint effort such as that
proposed by Dr. Siemens. I cannot doubt, nowever, that the noble
offer which Dr. Siemens has made, and which is still open to con-
sideration, must sooner or later stimulate action in the direction in
which we desire to move. It may not be this year or next, but
sooner or later, I am quite sure, with such a noble offer before ue,
we shall be able to do something with which we shall have reason
to be satisfied. Gentlemen, I thank you very much for the kind
way in which you have always received me, and I tbank you also
very much indeed for having elected me for a time your President,
and I have only now to put the motion for the adoption of the
report to the meeting.

The motion was carried unanimously.

Mr. J. 0. Chadwick and Mr. John Finch were appointed to be
scrutineers, and a ballot was then taken.

Uiie Bcrutineers having presented their report, the President
announced that the genl^emen named in the printed list submitted
to the meeting were unanimously elected ais the President, Council,
and Officers for the ensuing year.

The Pbesidbnt then announced the title of the Howard Medal
Essay for 1881, viz., " On the Jail Fever, from the Earliest Blaok
Assize to the Last Recorded Outbreak in Recent Times," and stated
that five essays had been seoeived in competition for the Howard
Medal for 1880.

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420 Troceedinga of the Forty- Sixth Anniversary Meeting, [Sept.

Mr. Jamis Hktss'OOD, F.R.S.: I have been requested to move a
Tote of thanks to the President and the retiring officers for what
they have done, and I beg to mention in regard to oar President
that he has done a very popular thing, in my opinion, in respect to
the invitation to the South Kensington Museum, in having included
an invitation to a lady with each gentleman, so that every gentle-
man will be able to take a lady, and this is greatly increasing the
popularity of the gathering. I have great pleasure in moving this
vote, for the Council have a great deal to go through, and you see
by the report what they have done. The motion is : " A vote of
thanks to the retiring President, Council, and Officers for their
services during the past year, and to the Chairman for presiding on
the present occasion."

Dr. W. A. Gut, P.R.S.: I have been requested to second the
motion, and I do so with great pleasure. I have been a constant
witness of what has been done by the Council and Officers of the
Society, and a witness to the kind attention you. Sir, have given us
on every occasion on which you have been present. I am sure, Sir,
we are extremely obliged to you for what you have done on our
behalf. I think I have heard it said that gratitude is an expectation
of favours to come. I am not going to ask you. Sir, so much for a
personal favour, as that in the position which you now occupy, you
will give your favourable consideration to a matter which must
some day come before the Gk)vemment, whatever it may be, and
that is for providing house accommodation for this Society, or what
would be better still, for several societies. We occupy a peculiar
position in relation to the present Ministry, which includes two
Presidents of this Societv, Mr. Shaw Lefevre and yourself. Need
I say. Sir, how hard we have recently found it to get any sort of
accommodation for this Society. We have c^one right and left, east
and west, and have found it almost impossible to provide ourselves
with a decent house. I have ventured on a former occasion to point
out (in a paper which I shall have the pleasure of republishing)
that our kings and princes, in times past, have done honour to
themselves in doing honour to science; and there are many pre-
cedents in favour of scientific societies being properly housed by the
assistance of the Government, which it must be hard to ignore. I
hope, therefore, that we may have the advantage of your favourable
appreciation of this matter as ha as it may be consistent with your
official duty: beyond that, I am sure you will never go. I wish
also to state that just before we came together, the House Accom-
modation Committee held a meeting at which they sanctioned
certain suggestions which I offered them for the improvement of
the premises here, hoping that if we get the permission, as we hope
to do, to make some improvements in our rooms, and also to expand
our short tenure, we may for the time being be very comfortable,
and be able to remain in these rooms long enough for the time to
arrive when the Government shall really consider the question
carefully. We know that it is an honour to any Government to
mak^ provision, as in times past, for Science. You, Sir, have
spoken of the claims of this Society. I cannot conceive any society

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1880.] Proceedings of the Forty-Sixth Armiversary Meeting. 421

with a higher claim to Govemment assistance than this Society has.
Every paper submitted to us on any important statistical question is
really and truly saving the Government of the country the necessity
for some investigation which would entail expense upon it ; and I
think I may venture to say, we do it as well as if the Govemment
appointed the writers of the papers themselves. We command the
best talent ; things are explained in the best way ; and we may say
that the constant aim of the Society is to do that work which it is
the duty of the Gtjvernment itseK to do ; and on that ground we
fiiirly claim to receive for the Society by itself and of itseK, your
favourable consideration. I will also say that there are many other
societies which might be associated with us under the same roof
with the assistance of the Govemment ; but there is no reason why,
because other societies do not recognise this, we should be home-
less. I have taken up more time than I desired, or I should have
liked to refer to the present state of health of our dear friend.
Dr. Farr. I won't detain the meeting any longer; but ask all
present cordially to support the motion which I beg to second.
The motion was carried unanimously.

The Pbbsident: Gentlemen, I thank you very much for the
kind speeches which have been delivered, and for the vote of
thanks ; and I return that expression of gratitude even more on
behalf of the Council and Officers, because I think they may fairly
claim a larger share of your gratitude than I can justly claim. 1
shall always look back to my connection with this Society with
the greatest possible pride and interest, and I can assure Dr. Guj
that if it should be in my power to promote the plan which he has
sketched in his speech, I shall be very glad to do so. It is
certainly an odd circumstance that two members of the Board of
Admiralty should be Fellows of the Statistical Society. Certainly
the statistics of the Admiralty ought to be first rate, and I think
we ought to be warmly in favour of tbe Statistical Society. Well,
Sir, if this Society could accept translation to one of the dockyards,
or to some distant island, like Ascension, I would promise to try
and do something for them, but as matters are we cannot help you
much, because the control of the Admiralty ends with the shore,
and we cannot do what we like. I fully support what Dr. Guy
has said as to the nature of the work done by the Statistical
Society. It is an essential work whicb has contributed to the good
govemment of the country, and work which if it were not done by
the able and laborious officers of this Society, must be done by the
Govemment of the country, and at the expense of the country. I
am quite sure it could not be more efficiently done, for Mr. GifPen
is a model of what a Govemment official ought to be. In his
particular department he is unrivalled, and no one knows more
than I do how greatly the Government of the country is indebted
to his researches, which extend over a very wide field indeed.
Mr. Giffen was, I daresay, very much astonished to find that his
evidence was most valuable as to our colonial defences, and that the
Admiralty at once rushed to him as their most competent adviser
on the subject. That shows what is done by those who make them-

YOL. XLHI. PART III. 2 F

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422 Proceedings of the Forty-Siosth Aimiversary Meeting, [Sept,

selves masters of this subject. I think our prospects in the fntore
most be considered to be bright and prosperous. I cannot believe
that the Government of the country, whatever its complexion may
be, will go on year by year ignoring the existence of the Society ;
and certainly the precedent which has been set by receiving a
number of other societies — which I may undertake to say do not
do a more usef ol work than the Statistical Society — is one that we
may claim to make use of on our side when the opportunity arrives.
I thank you once more for your kind vote of thanks, and I can only
say that I have had great pleasure in being present on this occasion.

Mr. Chubb : As one of the honorary secretaries, and included in
the vote which our President has acknowledged, I should like to
say a word or two. First of all, I would express on the part of the
secretaries, our great regret that we shall not have to work for two
years under Mr. Brassey. We were looking forward to working
under him for two years, and to have his active interest in the
institution. A remark was made in the early part of the meeting,
that this Society cannot necessarily be a very popular one. Well,
if popularity is expressed in the desire to know what we are about,
I think we have evidence of it now, and I would especially refer,
on behalf of one of my colleagues, to the increased circulation of
the Journal. I think that is an evidence not only of the popu-
larity of the Society, but also of the ability and judgment of
Mr. Giffen, upon whom the responsibility of issuing the Journal
rests. It is more prosperous than it has ever been before. I would
also refer to another colleague. Professor Jevons, who now retires
from the secretaryship. I always felt it a pleasure to work with
him, and I am sure that those who have done so, will never forget
the pleasant association which that work has involved. It is a
satisfaction that Mr. Martin has been good enough to add his name
as one of the secretaries for the futare. I have only now to thank
you tor the compliment which you have paid us.

The Peesidknt: We now adjourn, gentlemen, until the 16th
November, with our concluding meeting of the session taking
place at South Kensington this evening. I am quite sure that if
the evening is less statistical, it will have other charms.

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]880.]

423

A SuEVBT of Indictable cmd Summary Jurisdiction Offbnces In
England and Wales, from 1857 to 1876, in Quinquennial
Periods, and in 1877 and 1878. By Leone Levi, Esq., F.S.A.,
LL.D., ^c, ^c.

[Bead before the Statistical Society, 16th March, 1880.]

CONTENTS :

PAOB

T. — Introductory 423

II.— Police Force „. 425

IIL— Crimes Committed 425

IV. — ApprehensioDS for Crime... 426

V. — Criminal Proceedings 427

VI. — Proportion of Apprehen-
sions to Popniation 428

VII.— Classification of Crime .... 429

VIll.— Canses of Crime 483

IX. — Locality of Crime 434

X. — Crime and Density of

Population 434

XI. — Crime and Occupation .... 435
XII. — Crime in Relation to Ig-
norance, Savings, and
Pauperism 485

BAOE

XIII.— Crime in Relation to Sex 436

XIV. — Character of Criminals.. 437
XV. — Proportion of Acquittals
to Committed for

Crime 438

XVI.— Punishment of Crime .... 438

XVII.— The Punishment of Death 440

XVlII.—Conmiitment to Prisons.. 443

XIX.— Recommittals 443

XX. — Age of Prisoners 444

XXI. — Education of Prisoners.. 445

XXI I. — Nationalities of Prisoners 446

XXUI.— Conclusions 446

Appendix.

TahlesAtoN U7

I. — Introductory,

The Statistics of Crime in England and Wales have frequently
engaged the attention of the Statistical Society, and to their elnci-
dation many pages of its Jov/mal have been from time to time
devoted. Sir Bawson Bawson ; the late Mr. Fletcher, and
Mr. Neison ; Dr. Guy, Mr. Hammick, and others, laid before the
Society communications of great value, both in illustration of the
progress of public morals, and as an evidence of the uniformity of
the human will. But the materials were not hitherto available for
any complete survey of the crimes and offences committed. It is
only since the passing of the Police Act in 1857, 19 and 20
Vict., cap. 69, which made provision for the presentation of annual
returns of all criminal proceedings, the initiation of which is due to
the lessons of the International Statistical Congress,* that we

* At the International Statistical Congresses beld at Brussels in 1863 and 1856,
the defective character of our criminal statistics became so apparent, that, on the
8rd October, 1866, 1 wrote a letter on the subject to Mr. Fonblanque, of the statis-
tical department of the Board of Trade, my colleague at the congress, urging the
collection of judicial statistics. This letter was presented to both Houses of

2f2

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424 Leyi — On Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

have had a complete system of judicial statistics. Notwith-
standing, however, the laboors of that Congress on Judicial
Statistics, no means are yet afforded for a correct comparison
of the criminal statistics of different countries ; no general con-
sensus having been obtained on the meaning and classification
of crimes. The legal appreciation of certain acts being different,
the numerical expression of the same does not admit of comparison.
Twenty-two years of the judicial statistics of England and Wales
are now before me, and confining myself to these, I venture to
think that their leading fietcts and results may prove both interest-
ing and valuable.

Though remarkable for great oscillations between depression
and excitement, the last twenty- two years have been highly favour-
able to the economic condition of the people. Wealth has greatly
increased in amount, and is much more diffused. Pauperism has
diminished. Much has been done for the promotion of health and
education among the people. The taxes on most of the necessaries
of life have been removed. The cost of living has been by no
means high. Altogether, there is reason to think that the leading
operating causes of crime have been less intense than in former
years. At the same time, a great revolution has taken place in
criminal jurisprudence. Whilst the criminal code has become
less vindictive and more corrective, a large number of offences,
formerly tried by sessions, are now dealt with by magistrates with
summary jurisdiction, many new offences have been created by
statute, and what is still more important, a higher sense of public
order and morals tends to bring to light offences which were
formerly passed over as too trivial for punishment.

The judicial statistics of England and Wales date from 1857.
It will be convenient to take the first twenty years, divided into
four quinquennial periods ; compare the same with the population,
according to the census of 1851, 1861, and 1871, and after
ascertaining the average result of the whole period of twenty
years, compare the same with the years 1877 and 1878 in relation
to the population of thepe years respectively, and examine wherein
there is progress, and wherein retrogression.

Parliament (see Honie of Lords' Papers, 641 of 1856). On the 12th Norember,
1855, 1 read a paper before the Law Amendment Society on ** Judicial Statistics,^
and on the 8rd March, 1856, Lord Brougham, its president, moved resolutions
on the subject in the House of Lords, in accordance with its suggestions.
Subsequently I drafted a Bill for the collection of judicial statistics, which Lord
Brougham introduced in the House of Lords, but the necessity of proceeding with
it ceased when the Secretary of State provided for the same in the Bill to render
more effectual the police in counties and boroughs in England and Wales in 1856.
The judicial statistics for Ireland were commenced in 1863, and the judicial
statistics for Scotland in 1868-69.

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1880.] Offences in England a/nd Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 425

11.— PoUce F(yree.

The maintenance of a sufficient police force being no longer
optional in counties and boroughs, some increase is observable in
the proportion of police to the population.

Tean.

PopoUtioii.

PoUce.

Proportion of PoKce
to i,cxx> PeraoDS.

1857-61

Ayerage.
19,687,000

20,830,000

22,174.000
23,652,000

20,442
22,922
25,988
28,916

Average.
1-03

1*10

'62-66

'67-71

ri6

72-76

1*22

1867-76

21,586,000

24,558

»I3

1877

H.547,000
25,165,000

80,006
80,628

1*22

'78

1*21

An increase of 7 per cent, in the police force in proportion to
population is of importance. To judge, however, of the means for
the detection and repression of crime, space as well as population
is an important element, and in both the greatest diversity
obtains alike in boroughs and counties. In 1878, whilst in Man-
chester there was i constable to 5 acres, in Newcastle there was
I in 26 acres. Whilst in the county of Lancaster there was i police-
man to 98 1 acres, in the county of Northumberland the proportion
was I to 7,957 acres. In Manchester there were 442 persons to a
constable ; in Liverpool, 548 ; and in Newcastle, 640. But other
elements must be taken into account in estimating the sufficiency
of the police. Bace and occupation, education and religion, poverty
and wealth, affect to a large extent the relative criminality of
boroughs and counties, and by that must the proportion of police
be greatly regulated.

III. — Grimes Gommitted.

Some data, though I fear an imperfect one, are afforded of the
amount of crime committed by the number of indictable offences
reported to the police. These do not include offences subject to
summary jurisdiction, and, moreover, many crimes may be com-
mitted which elude the vigilance of the police. Nevertheless,
substantially the crimes reported represent the amount of crime
committed in the country, and the average results are as follows : —

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426 Levi — On Indtdahle and Summary Jwisdicticn [Sept.

Yean.

to Jane.

July to

October
to December.

^ia:s.*-

Total

Per 1,000
Penoiu.

1857-61 ....
'62-66 ....
'67-71 ....
'72-76 ....

12,471
12,039
12,570
10,841

12,589
12,135

12,511

11,061

14,397
14,031
14,752
12,604

'4,215
13,651
14,199
12,296

53,674
51,658
54,036
46,718

2-72
2*47
2-43
'•97

1857-76....

11,980

12,074

18,696

13,189

51,521

2*39

1877

'78

11,944
12,625

11,892
11,980

13,024
15,073

13,083
14.387

50,843
54,065

2-07
214

Tbrovgbont the period there has thns been a marked diminu-
tion of crime when compared with the population. Divided
according to season, it will be seen, that of the total number of
crimes, 25*50 per cent, were committed in spring, 25*50 per cent,
in summer, 26*60 per cent, in the autumn, and 26*40 per cent, in
winter. The influence of the season is not so marked as one
might imagine, except that crimes against the person are more
numerous in summer than in winter, and crimes against property
more numerous in winter than in summer.

rV. — Apprehensions for Crime,

Nor do the seasons seem to affect materially the number of
apprehensions for crime, which in the same periods of years and
seasons were as follows : —

ATerage
Yean.

April to June.

July to

October
to December.

Jiuiuary to
March.

TotaL

—

Crimes

to
Pereont.

—

Crimea

to
Tenon:

—

Crimea

to
Persons.

—

Crimes

to
Persons.

Crimea

to
Peraooa.

1857-61
'62-66
'67-71
'72-76

6,812
6,891
6,661
5,418

1-83
i'74
1-88

2*00

6,736
7,068
6,646
5,520

1-86

1*71
1-88

2*00

7,386
7,314
7,039
5,721

1*93
1-65

2*OI
2-13

7,544
7,646
7,147
5,791

1-90
1-83
2-07
2-17

28,436
28,920
27,494
22,452

1-88
178
196
2-o8

1857-76

6,445

1-85

6,492

1-85

6,852

1*99

7,032

1*87

26,821

1*92

1877 ....
'78 ....

5,708
6,005

2-09
2*10

5,734
5,534

2-07

2-i6

6,183
6,482

2*12
2*32

5.970
6,641

2-19
2*38

23,545
24,062

2'l6
2-24

The number of persons apprehended for indictable offences is
larger in the winter than in the autumn, whilst summer is decidedly
the lightest quarter. The number of persons apprehended, it will be
seen, has steadily diminished, but if we compare it with the number
of crimes reported to have been committed, all reasons for congratu-
lation are at an end. Whilst in the twenty years there were 1*92

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1880.] Offences in England cmd Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 427

crimes for every person appreliended, in 1877 the number of
crimes to persons was 2'i6, and in 1878 2*24. Is there a greater
want of vigilance, or are there any other defects in the means of
detection and repression ? The proportion of crimes committed to
persons apprehended differs materially in the different classes of
crimes, as follows : —

Yean.

Crimes

asainst the

Terion.

Crimet againtt

Property,
with Violence.

Crimes against

Property,withoat

Violence.

Malicious
Property.

OlTences
nminstthe
Currency.

Other
Crimes.

1857-61....
*62-66....
'67-71....
'72-76....

0*98
0-97
0*96
0-97

203
1-83
207
219

2-19

a*05
226

2'47

110
1-10
1-09
1-12

rio

III
I -09
1*15

0-89
0-86
0-86
0-92

1857-76...

0-97

203

2-4

1-10

I'll

0-88

1877

'78

0*90
0-93

216
2-93

2-6l

res

103
0-99

i''3
1*13

0-95
0-92

The greatest excess in the nnmber of crimes committed in pro-
portion to the nnmber of persons apprehended, exists in connection
with crimes against property, with and withont violence, probably
arising from the insufficient interest and unwillingness of the parties
injnred to assume the onerous task of prosecuting the offenders.
With the institution of a public prosecutor, this disparity may
henceforth be lessened. A crime is an offence against the State,
against the majesty of the law, and it is befitting that the State
should vindicate its rights.

V. — GriminaZ Proceedings.

If we now follow the results of the preliminary proceedings as
regards the persons apprehended for indictable offences, we shall see
what proportion are discharged from want of sufficient evidence or
other causes, and how many are finally committed for trial. The
numbers were as follows : —

Years.

Total Number
Apprehended.

Nnmber
Discharged.

Nnmber
Bailed.

Nnmber

Committed for

Trial.

Percent.
Committed.

Proportion

per

1,000.

1857-61
'62-66
'67-71
'72-76

28,436
28,920
27,494
»a,45a

10,611
8,812
8,583
6,781

1,633
1,713
1,716

1,775

16,084
18,895
17,245
13,996

56-56
63-61

62-73
62-07

0-81
0-88
0-77
0-59

1857-76

26,825

8,684

1,709

16,480

61-24

0-76

1877

^3,545
24,062

6,950
5,732

1,976
1,740

14,609
15,039

62*04
62-50

0-59
0-59

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428 Levi — On Indictable and Swmmary JwrisdicHon [Sept.

Two important facts are here observable: first, that of ihe
number of persons apprehended for crime, about 62 per cent, are
committed for trial, and 58 per cent, discharged ; the dischargee
haying greatly diminished in late years ; and second, that in pro-
portion to popalation, the number of committals for trial has
diminished from 076 to 0*50 per 1,000, or in the proportion of
22 per cent.

VI. — Proportion of Apprehensions to PoptUation.

Hitherto we have dealt with indictable offences only, but a
much larger number of offences are committed subject to sum-
mary jurisdiction. The total number of persons so proceeded
against summarily was as follows : —

Yetn.

1867-61
'62-66
'67-71
72-76

1867-76

1877

'78

Arenge Number.

389.14*
44*»493

616,731

4891635

653*053
676,723

Proportion per 1,000.

19-7
21-2
230
260

22-7

26-8
26-8

It will thus appear that there has been a decided increase in
the total number of persons brought before the magistrates for
offences subject to summary jurisdiction; but this increase is
greatly modified by three important circumstances ; first, that in a
very large number of cases the same individuals come again and
again before the courts ; and second, that a large proportion of the
cases so dealt with by magistrates consists of offences of a very
light character, partaking more of the nature of insubordination
and lawlessness than of moral turpitude. In England, including
indictable and summary jurisdiction offences, there were in all
700,835 cases brought before the courts in 1878, or in the pro-
portion of 27*8 per 1,000. In Scotland, the total number of
persons charged was 138,612, or in the proportion of 41*25
per 1,000. In Ireland, the total number of persons committed
for trial and under summary jurisdiction in 1878 was 273,447,
or 51*10 per 1,000 of the population. In France, in 1876, the
total number of persons charged with crime brought before the
correctional tribunals and tribunals of simple police, was 716,937,
which, with a population of 37,900,000, gives a proportion of 19*38
per 1,000.

Much may be said against the expediency of constantly in-

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1880.] Offences in Englcmd and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 4.29

creasing tlie number of offences, especially involving imprisonment.
The table appended (Appendix F) shows that within the last six
years since the passing of the Education Act as many as 132,000
offences under that Act came before the magistrates ; the number
in 1878 having exceeded 40,000. Public opinion must sanction any
new l^islation before it can be enforced with advantage. The con-
sequences of imprisonment on the character of the offender must
ever be taken into account in adding to the list of offences (already
too heavy), which subject many otherwise useful members of society
to the police court and prison discipline.

VII. — Classification of Grime.

A good classification of crime would be a great aid in studying
the working of our criminal jurisprudence. The present classified*
tion of our judicial statistics into six classes is neither sufficiently
explicit nor in accord with the gradation of the moral character of
the offences, nor in harmony with any well-marked category. A
better classification would be that followed in the proposed criminal
code by Mr. Justice Stephen, viz., offences against public order,
internal and external, including treason, riots, conspiracy ; offences
against the administration of justice, including corruption and dis-
obedience, misleading justice, escapes, and rescues ; offences against
religion, morals, and public convenience, including disturbing
public worship, unnatural offences, nuisances ; offences against the
person and reputation, including murder, bodily injuries, assaults,
rape, bigamy, and defamatory libels ; and offences against rights of
property, including theft, fraud, robbery, burglary, forgery, coining,
arson, fraudulent debtors, Sdc.

If we classify the number of persons committed for trial in the
manner thus suggested, the following is the restdt : —

Offences.

1857-61.

1862-66.

1867-71.

1872-76.

1857-76.

1877.

1878.

Against Public Order,
Biot, breach of the peace

126-8

189-2

147-8

68-0

132-9

148

Against the AdnUnistraHon

of Justice.

Periurv

83-0

73-4

96-0

88-4

85-i

108

Against EeUgion and Morals.
Sacrilege

9-6
9-6

104-4
36-6
62-8

1*3*^

18-0
5-8

130-0
48-8
73-6

150-4

20'6

7-8
108-4

38-4
69-8

H3'6

10-8
5-6

106-4
84-0
620

158-4

14-6
7'a

1 12-3
37-0
67-0

144-0

168

12
II

Attempts to procure mis-l

carnage J

Concw^liner births

Sodomy

Attempts to commit sodomy ..
Rape

140

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430

Levi — On Indictable and Sunvmwry Jurisdiction [Sept.

Offences.

1857-61.

1862-66.

1867-71.

1872-76.

1857-76.

1877.

Assault, with attempt to ravish
Carnally abusing young girls.

Abduction ,

Bigamy ,

Child stealing

Keeping disorderly houses ...

Against the Person and
Iteput<Uion,

Murder

Attempts to murder

Shooting

Manslaughter

Assaults

Against Eights of Propertg.

Burglary

Housebreaking

Breaking into dwelling houses

„ shops

Misdemeanor, with attempt 1

to commit J

Bobbery

Cattle, horse, and sheep 1

stealing j

Larceny

Stealing

Embezzlement

Stealing letters

Beceiying stolen goods

Frauds

Setting fire

Killing cattle

Destroying manufactures

Attempts to commit arson ....

Forging bank notes

„ instruments

Coining

Game and fish

Others*

Total

1340
14*0

3-8

88-6

4-6

121-8

259-6

15-8

8-2

83-4

4-4

85-6

278-2
11-8

76-6

5-6

69-8

292-0
1-6
9-2

98-6
5-6

73-8

240-9

IO-8

6-7

86-8

87-7

318
4
5

79
4

713-4

878-6

836-2

858-0

820*0

880

63-8

286

236-2

221*8

901*0

69*0

85-6

142*0

272*6

1149*6

64*6

35*4

i36"o

247-6

1007-6

68-4

32-4

156*2

243*0

1060*4

66*4

33*0

167*6

2465
1029*6

170

244

1,150

M5»'4

1668-6

i49i'a

1560-4

»543'i

1,676

483-0

580-4

404

196*0

40-4

4i3'o

a43*i
97626
403-0
423*8
45*8
461*2
829-8

133*2
i8-6

5'4

2*0

23*0

174*0

6 1 8-8
105*2

610*2

716-6

37*2

270-6

61*4

435-6

2060

10929*4

2910

5266

290

651*2

8360

240-8

240

5*8

5-8

6-0

173*6

4486

92*8

474*4
634-0

56*0
257*4

43*6

376-0

214*0

10227*0

273*2

410*8
32-6

584*4

921*8

171*6

16*4

4*8

3*4

174*6

3664

85-6

247-4

414-0

28-6

2230

28-6

288-8

1560

83740

164-4

800-6

35-6

420-2

7650

90-2

16-4

6-4

8-8

160-6

225-0

49*8

427*5

586-2

40*5

2367

47-0

378-3

204*5

9823-2

282-9

417*2

35*7

5292

838-1

158-9

18-8

5*6

3*7

170-7

4»4*7

583

353

422

316

233

145

8,591

174

290

415

971

164

202
59

U002-8

16488-2

15328-0

12018-4

14677-7

12,576

447*2

459-6

546*2

5430

17824-6

19757-6

'8445*4

15136-2

5328

604

17791-7

15,890

• Several offences belonging to each class not given in detail for brevity.

A claasification of the cases subject to summary jurisdiction of a
similar character to the foregoing, gives the following results : —

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1880.] Offences in England and Wales 1857-76 amd 1877-78. 431

Offences.

1857-61.

1862-66.

1867-71.

1872-76.

1857-76.

1877.

1878.

Against Public Order,
Sreftoh of the oeftce

9,539

10,570

15,066

20,402

13.769

20,749

20,709

Against the Administration^
of Justice J

Against Beligion and Morals.
Bastardy

5.071

4,944

4.237

8,436

4422-0

4,179

4.360

Against the Person,
Assaults

79,423

90,313

92,271

99,299

902765

94,566

92,659

Against Bights of Property.
Ii4it»eny

39.234
15.561

45,164
19,828

45.869
21,689

41,282
22,731

42874*7
19827.2

41,645
24,213

43,65'
24.450

Malicious offences, embezzle- 1
ment, Ac J

54,795

64,492

67,558

63,963

62701*9

65,868

68,ior

Drunkenness

84.351

100,279

121,709

186,872

» 23052-7

200,184

194.549

Against Local Letws and

other Acts.

Vagrancy

28,108
127,855

29,144
142,751

38,209
170,994

87,856
205,943

333292
16201 10

41,894
225,627

43.764
252,631

liocal laws. &.C &o.

155.963

171,896

209,203

243,799

195340-0

267,521

296,395

Total

389.142

442,498

510,175

616,781

489645-2

658,058

676,773

If we DOW tmite all crimes and offences, whether indictable or
not, under the same classification, we have the following results : —

Offences.

1857-61.

1862-66.

1867-71.

1872-76.

1867-76.

1877.

1878.

1. Against Public Order —

Indictable

127
9,539

189
10,670

148
15,066

68
20,402

133
13.769

46
20,749

148
20,709

Suimnary ..,.,.,.r,-..... --

r^V>»UUH»J ........T.r. ......

9,666

10,759

15.214

20,470

13,902

20,795

20,857

2. Against the Administration
of Justice —
Indictable

85
820

108

Summary -.,,....>.,

8. Against ReUgionS^Morals^

Indictable

SunimarY .... „,.-.,

713

5.071

879
4,94*

836
4.237

858
8,486

820
4.422

880
4,179

874
4.360

*•*""*/

5.784

5,828

5*073

4,294

5.242

5,059

5.234

4. Against the Person —

Indictable

1.451

79.423

1,669
90,318

1.491
92.271

1,560
99,299

1.543
90,276

1,676
94,567

92,659

Summarv .....,,.„„..,,,.,

80,874

91,982

93.762

100,859

91.819

96,241

94.224

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432 Levi — On Indictable and Summary JwrUdtction [Sept.

Offenew.

1857-61.

1862-66.

1867-71.

187276.

1857-76.

1877.

1878.

6. Against Riff his of Property
Indictable

15,003
54,795

16,488
64,492

i5»3Ji8
67,558

12,018
63,963

H.677
62,702

12,576
65,858

12,956
68,101

Summftry

*'*"•*"**«/

69,798

80,980

82,886

75,981

77,379

78,434

81,057

6. Against Public Decorum—
Hummary ..,...„t, rrr.

84,351

100,279

121,709

185,872

m.oKx

200,184

'94,549

"^*"*"*"""'/

* 1 •" •'*'

7. Against Local Latoe and
other Acta—
SummarY

165,502

182,465

224,269

864,201

ai3,i09

288,063

317,104

'^**'"""~j

8. Other Indictable Offences-

448

460

546

548

833

604

758

Total

406,967

462,151

528,489

731,907

5"»354

668,943

693,145

Compared with the population at the reepectiye time, the
proportion per i,ooo is as follows : —

OffeDcet AgHinit

1857-61.

1862-66.

1867-71.

1872-76.

1857-76.

1877.

187a

Public order

0*40

0*29
4-10

3*54
429
8 -co
0*02

0-51

0-27
4-41
3-88
4-81
8-24
002

0*69

0-23
4*i3
3'73
5'49
952

0'02

0-86

018
4-26
3-21
2-85
10-31
0-02

0*64

0-24
4-26
3*57
5-6i
10*02
0*02

084

0-20
3*82
3-15
815
10-94
002

0*82

Administration of justice

Religion and morals

0*20

The person

3*74

11*78

Property

Public decorum

Local laws, &c., Ac

Others

20*64

2809

23-81

26-99

M*36

2712

a7*49

Public order, justice, reli-"!
gion, morals, the person, «
and property J

Public decorum and local laws

8-53

12*11

902
1407

8-88
H'93

8-51
18-48

8*71
15-65

8-01
1911

798
19*51

These facts are on the whole very favourable. Though the total
number of persons brought before the courts of justice, or rather
the number of cases tried before our criminal courts, has increased
from an average of 24*36 per 1,000, in the twenty years from 1857
to 1876, to 27-12 per 1,000 in 1877, and 27*49 in 1878, the portion
of such charged with ofiences of a moral character has diminished
from 871 to 8'oi per 1,000 in 1877, and 7*98 per 1,000 in 1878:
the increase being entirely in offences against public decorum, or
against local laws. Among indictable offences, crimes against
property are the most numerous, or in the proportion of 80 per
cent, of the whole. But amongst summary jurisdiction offences,
the greatest number consists of cases of drunkenness and transgres-
sion of local laws. Crimes against property usually diminish as
trade is good and the rates of wages are high ; but in proportion as
these increase, so the offence of dnmkenness nsoaily increases.-

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1880.] Off&nces m Unglwnd and Wales 1867-76 and 1877-78. 433

Vni. — Causes of Grime.
If we could fathom the canses of crime, what a guide woald be
afforded for moral reforms. Groping in the dark as we do, criminal
jurisprudence tries, we fear in vain, to cure what it has not the
means to prevent. Medicine draws immense light and guidance
from the analysis of the causes of death, so fully and ably hitherto
exposed by our distinguished member, Dr. Farr. For the prevention
of crime we may well wish that a similar analysis would accom-
pany our judicial statistics. The causes of crime are now given in
the case of those upon whom the highest penalty is awarded. The
French judicial statistics give the causes of crime in all cases of
murder, arson, and poisoning ; and it would be a great advantage if
an attempt was made, in as many cases as possible, to arrive at the
relative influence on crime of violence, vindictiveness, want, greed,
intemperance, and insubordination. From 1874 to 1876 there were
tried iu France 1,557 crimes, viz., 54 poisoning, 552 arson, 383
murders, and 568 assassinations, and their causes were found to be
as follows : —

Cantet.

Per Cent.

Cupidity

Adultery

Domestic dissensions

Opposed love

Debauchery

Hatred, yindictiveness .
Publiohouee quarrels
Fortuitous „
Different motiyes

The tendency to crime, if not inherited, is certainly acquired by
contact with criminals : children learn it from their parents ; asso-
ciates one from the other. Crime lives and propagates among
numbers; love of display, gambling, dissolute habits, the fre-
quenting of low publichouses, or of worse orgies, all contaminate
the character and lead to crime. Many have expressed an opinion
that drunkenness is the most preponderating cause of crime. It is,
however, in moral diseases, what fever is in physical diseases : it
aggravates the causes which exist ; it stimulates the imagination of
evil and prompts revenge ; but it is seldom the primary operating
cause of crime, and where that exists, even though that element of
aggravation were to disappear, it would, I fear, manifest itself in
the same or other manner. It cannot be said that in countries
where drunkenness does not exist, crime is less numerous. The
criminal statistics of many European States might be easily adduced
in opposition to such a theory. The large increase in the number
committed for disobedience to local acts, way acts, police laws,

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434 Le?i — On Indtctable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept-

education acts, poor laws, cattle plague orders, mercantile marine
acts, factory acts, health acts, and the like, only shows that it takes
time for the nation to accnstom itself to restrictions, often dictated
by reasons the value of which the people themselves are incapable
of appreciating.

IX. — Locality of Grime.
The locality of crimes and offences is another important element
in criminal statistics, for the economic condition of the different
counties in England and Wales differs considerably from the pecn-
liarity of race of their inhabitants, and from the special character
of their principal industries, viz., agriculture, mineral, industrial,
and manufacturing. Classified geographically, the number of persons
committed for trial and proceeded against sunmiarily in proportion
to population was as follows : —

CouiUet.

Crimes.

Offences.

1857-76.

1877.

1878.

1857-76.

1877.

187a

Mf^ti^Dpolifl .............t-

0*90

077
0*64
060
0*92
064

VIZ

o-7y
047

067
0-66
0-45
034
069
051
093
0-57
042

0-54
054

o'39
075
06 1
090

073
0-38

3f36
1934
H-37
9*03
13*89
2236

i6-87
34*59
2240

39*H

46-46

9-87
16-69
1014
12-98
3111
24-60
37-56
22-98
82-96

45*38
11-27
17'97
10-55

i3'93
3»*77
24-80

3839
2'*'88

South-Eastern

„ Midland

Eastern Counties ....

South- Western

West Midland

North Midland

„ Western

York

Northern..

3089

X. — Grime and Density of Population,
The relation of crime and offences to density of population is
very intimate, closer probably than to any other cause whatever, as
the following will show : —

Wilts, Dorset, Deron, Cornwall,!

Somerset J

Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk

Herts, Bucks, Oxon, Northampton, 1

Huntingdon, Oxford, Cambridge j
Durham, Northumberland, Cum- \

berland, Westmoreland J

Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, Not- 1

tingham J

Kent, Sussex, Hants, Berks

Yorkshire

Gloucester, Hereford, Salop, Hert- "I

ford J

Cheshire, Lancaster

Middlesex, Surrey

Persons

to a Square Mile.

Centos, 1871.

238
289
258

256

257

875

402

444

1,181
8,490

Crimes.
1867-76.

0*59
0*64
0*70

0-47

0*64

o'88
o*79
0*92

I'Zi
VIS

Offences.
1867-76.

12-24
9*03

29"37

16-87

i3i'37
22*40

23*95

34*59
37-00

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Jouni SUK Soc.Octvhal'^SC

SKELETON MAP, NAMES OF COUNTIES.

England & Wales.

60 r^^

P- 434-5.

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1880.] Offences in Engla/tid and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 435

A distinction between the amount of crime in country districts
and in boroughs and large towns, would still more exhibit the close
relation between crime and density of population. Crimes and
offences do not exhibit a corresponding frequency in all the
counties. In the northern counties crimes are low, whilst offences
are high. In the north midland counties crimes were high and
offences low.

XI. — Grime and OccwpaMon,
Classified according to occupation, the results are as follows : —

Agricnltural.

ComwaU ....

MinenL

Chester ....

Industrial
Manufactoring.

Crime.

Offeuces.

CrimeB.

Offences

Crimes.

Offences.

Bedford ....

0-67

Il'i9

0-43

9-80

1-20

25*79

Berkshire ....

0-83

'453

Derby

0-66

19-66

Bucks

Cambridge ..

0-77
0-68

13*47
12-55

Durham ....

0-59

44'i5

Lancaster....
Nottingham

1-24
0-66

4340
1934

Dorset

064

lyzz

Stafford ....

0-80

31*92

Hereford ....

0-90

ll'lO

Monmouth .

1-10

27*98

Gloucester..

0-90

»9*39

Hertford ....

0-73

»3*47

Leicester ....

0-68

i6-i6

Huotingdoo.

0-54

iro8

Northum- "
berland . ,

Warwick ....

108

2203

Lincoln

0-73

i7'63

0-48

40-28

Worcester..

i03

18-05

Norfolk

0-69

lO'iS

York

0-79

22-40

0-71

13-84

0-66

30-55

0-90

23'8i

Crime is least frequent in the mineral districts, and most frequent
in the industrial and mannfactnring. Offences, on the other hand,
are least frequent in the agricultural, and most frequent in the
mineral districts. In crime, Cornwall, a mineral county, stands in
a remarkable contrast with Monmouth, the former for lightness, and
the latter for heaviness. Chester and Leicester stand in equal
contrast, and so do Hereford and Hnntingdon. In offences Durham
and Lancaster carry the palm. If race be considered as an element
in the frequency of crime, it may be noticed that the Irish element
is most prominent in the north-western and northern counties.

XII. — Crime in relation to Ignoram,ce^ Samngs, and Pauperism,

Of still greater value is the element of education. Taking the
mean average number of persons unable to sign their names on
the marriage register in 1861, 1871, and 1877, and comparing the
results in each group of counties with the amount of crimes and
offeuces, it will be seen that ignorance goes hand-in-hand with
crimes and offences in certain cases, but by no means uni-
formly : —

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436 Levi — On IncUdahle and Sfimmary Juri$dicHan [Sept.

CriBct.

OffenMt.

Ifaoraaee.

PeroeaUfteof

Siniataret

by Marks.

ShUlioft;

Kunber per

Head in

8«Tingt Buiki.

Pwiperum

per

1,00a

South-Eaitem

„ MidUnd

0*90
0*91

19-34 154
14-37 , 248

Eastern Countief ....

South-Western

WertMidUnd

0*64
o'6o
0*91

903
13-89
22-36

25*2
2t-0

26-4

88
58

North Midland

„ Western

0*64

I"22

16-87
34-69

21-8

28-4

39
41

York

0-79

o*47

22-40
89-24

22*0

20*I

86
32

Northern

The north-western connties, the least educated, have the largest
proportion of crimes and offences, but the south-eastern counties,
the best educated, are bj no means least in rank as regards either
crimes or offences. The relation between crimes and offences with
the amount of savings and pauperism is not so clear. In the
northern counties the amount at the savings banks is very low, and
the number of offences high. In the south-eastern counties where
the amount at the savings banks is high, crimes and offences are
comparatively low.. But pauperism is high where crimes and
offences are low, as in the eastern counties and in the south midland.

XIII. — Grime in Edation to Sex.

The sex of the persons committed for trial, and of persons
subjected to summary jurisdiction, was as follows : —

Number Committed for Trial.

Nnmber under Summarj JuriwlictioB.

Hales.

Females.

Per Cent.

of
Women.

Males.

Itoales.

Percent.

of
Women.

1857-61 ....
'62-66 ....
»67-71 ....
72-76 ....

13,826
16,609
14,755
11,848

3»997
4,128

3,287

22-42
20-91
20-00
21-05

320,463
855,800
412,100
496,100

80,679

86,600

98,000

120,600

20-70

19*57
18*28

19*55

1867-76 ....

14,009

3»775

21-22

396,116

96,469

19*60

1877

12,586
13,104

3»354
3,a68

21*04
19*95

528,015
548,418

125,038
128.355

19*14
18-96

The proportion of males to females does not show much change
during the entire period. They are in the proportion of four-
fifths to one-fifth. Larceny is the chief crime for which women are

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1880.] Offences m England and Wales 1857-76 omd 1877-78. 437

committed. But a large proportion of women are committed for
assaults, dmnkenness, offences against local acts, larceny, prostitn-
tion, and begging. In Scotland the proportion was 72*55 per cent,
males and 27*45 per cent, females. In Ireland 83*55 per cent,
males and i6'45 P®^ G&ni. females. Scotch women appear thus
more lawless than English and Irish women.

XrV. — Oha/racter of GrinUnah,

A large proportion of the persons committed for both crimes
and offences is found to belong to the criminal classes, such as
thieves, prostitutes, vagrants, and suspicious persons. An increasing
number are habitual drunkards, but many had a previously good
character, or were otherwise unknown. The proportions per
1,000,000 were as follows : —

Known Thieves.

Prostitates.

Ysgrants.

Saspicioos
Persons.

Habitual
Dmnkards.

Crimes.

Oirences.

Crimes.

Offences

Crimes.

Offences.

Crimes.

Offence*.

Crimes.

Ofliences.

1867-61
*62-66
'67-71
72-76

293
274
251
187

82Z

704
64Z

533

94
70
67
84

1,020
860

877
881

37
41
30
14

938

941

I, [28

821

335
316
276
176

2,128
1,894
1,577
1,589

20
26
23
20

I1I36

1,394

1,602
1,803

1867-76

251

675

909

957

276

1,797

1,483

1877 ....
78 ....

186
203

519

536

32
40

879
866

14
15

882
937

189
203

1,624
1,602

23
24

1,795
1,760

Prerionsly Good Character.

Unknown.

Proportion per Cent.

of Previously
Good Chamcter, and

Crimes.

Offences.

Grimes.

Offences.

Uuknown,
to Total Number.

1867-61 ....
'62-66 ....
W-71 ....
72-76 ....

25<l
300

279

153

6,976

7,962

9,398

11,739

297
365
322
261

7,074
7,341
7,822
8,665

3*
30
27
23

1867-76 ....

272

9,018

7,950

1877

271
270

12,175
12,363

280
^85

8,728
9,167

An increasing proportion of persons seems thus annually drawa
to a criminal life. The criminal classes are probably in many cases
the instigators of crime, but a large proportion of the offenders,
notably for offences subject to summary jurisdiction, are year by
year drawn from the mass of the population.

YOL. XLUI. PABT III. 2 Q

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438 Leyi — On Inddciable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

XV. — Proportions of Acquittals to CovMrdtted for Crime.

Hitlierto I have dealt with the nnmber of persons committed
before the magistrates or committed for trial. We mnst now
direct our attention to the results of the proceedings. Of the
nnmber committed before the magistrates, the proportion convicted
and discharged was as follows : —

Number.

Proportioii per Cent.

Committed.

Convicted.

Conricted.

Diacharged.

1857-61 ....
'62-66 ....
'67-71 ....
'72-76 ....

389,142
442,493
610,176
616,751

^54,434
301,862
370,619
481,282

65
68

72
78

35
3*
28

1867-76 ....

494,640

352»049

1877

653,053
676,773

519.838
538,13*

79
79

21
21

Of the nnmber apprehended for indictable offences, the propor-
tion committed for trial and discharged was as follows : —

Number.

Proportion per Cent.

Apprehended.

Committed for
TriiO.

Committed for
Trid.

I)isduiK«d

1867-61 .«.
'62-66 ....
'67-71 ....
'72-76 ....

28,428
28,920
27,494
22,462

16,085
'8,395
17,145
131996

66
63
62
62

44
37
38
38

1867-76 ....

26,823

16,430

1877

23,546
24,062

14,609
15,039

62
62

38
38

'78

The proportion discharged is considerably larger in the case of
indictable offences than in the case of offences snbject to summary
jurisdiction, yet it is smaller now than in the previous twenty years.

XVI. — Punishment of Grime,

In both cases of crimes and offences, there are evidences of
greater rigour in the distribution of justice. In minor offences,
especially drunkenness and the like, the state of public opinion
considerably influences both the police and the magistrates, and the
larger proportion submitted to the correction of the courts, is only
a proof of a higher sense of morals and public order prevalent in

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1880.] Offences in England and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 439

the entire commrmity. In the case of persons snbject to sommarj
jnrisdiction, the judgment of the magistrates being final, conviction
and punishment go hand-in-hand, and the mode in which thej were
disposed was as follows : —

Number
CoBTicted.

Number
Fined.

Number

Committed

Prison.

To l-'ind
Saretieii, and

to
Reformatory

Schools.

Proportion per Cent.

Fined.

Committed

Prison.

Others.

1857-61 ....
*62-66 ....
'67-71 ....
72-76....

254,434
301,862
370,619
481,282

159,568
188,273
235,546
332,955

59»ii8
71,965
86^33
89,529

35,648
41,624
48.640
58,798

62
62
63
69

23
23
23
18

15
15
14
13

1857-76....

352»049

229,085

76,786

46,178

1877

519,839
538,252

358,053
369,586

100,525
103,169

61,261
65,477

19
19

12
13

The term of imprisonment awarded bj magistrates is but small,
and there is a slight increase in the proportion of short imprison-
ments, but this arises from the increasing number of light offences
recently added to the statute book. The proportion is as follows : —

Per Cent, of Committals to Prisons.

Fourteen

Dhjtb
and Under.

One Month

and
orer U Days.

Two Months

and
over 1 Month.

Three Months

aiid
orer 2 Months.

Six Months

and
overs Months.

Above
6 Months.

1857-61...
'62-66. ..
*67-71....
72-76....

33
38
44
43

33
32
30
30

16
15

13 •
14

4
3
3

1
1
1
1

1857-76....

1877

43
44

28
29

12
12

8
8

3
3

1
1

The proportion of the persons committed for criminal oflfences,
eventually acquitted, is as follows : —

Number Committed.

Number Acquitted.

Percent

1857-61

17,824
*9,756
18,445
I5»i36

4,361
4,760
4,712
3,772

240
240
»5*o
25-0

'62-66

»67-71

72-76

1857-76

17,790

4,401

247

1877

15,890
16,37a

3,903
3,864

246
236

2g2

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440 Le?i — On Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

The proportion of acquitt^ differs, however, considerably,
according to the class of crimes, in the following order t —

ChM.' 1867-61.

^ J Offences against the 1

\ I person J

f Offences affainst pro- 1
\ perty,witliTiolence |
Offences
per

yiolenoe
Malicious offences 'I
against property.... j
Forgery and offences "I |
against the cur- > | i z

rency J

6 I Biots, &c 32

ices against pro- 1
rty, without >
lence J

Per cnt.

1862-66. 1867-71

Per cat.
29

20
20
38
U

Per cut.
33

^5
43

1872-76. 1867-76. 1677.

Percnt.
.29

14
80

Per cnt. i Per cut
30 I 30

20
23
4*

13
25

1878.

Percnt.

»5
25

XVII.— T^e Punishment of Death.

The proportion of acquittals is large in the case of nuifder, the
only offence for which the punishment of death is still awarded.
The proportion was as follows : —

Committed
for Trial.

Acquitted.

Detained
as Insane.

Conricted.

Per Cent.
Acquitted.

Per Cent.
Insane.

Per Cent.
Convictod.

1867-61
'62-66
*67-71
72-76

319
345
323
34*

173
152
181
144

50
58
48
60

96
135

94
138

54
44
56
4*

16
17
14
18

30
39
36
40

1857-76

33i

162

116

1877 ....
78 ....

70
59

25
27

11
12

34
20

36
46

16
20

48
34

The result of criminal proceedings in respect to murder is that
of 100 persons committed for trial, 48 are acquitted and dischai^ed ;
1 6 are detained as insane, and 36 per cent, only are convicted. In
Scotland, of 12 cases disposed of in 1878, 9 were convicted, or 75 per
cent. In Ireland, of 26 cases of murder, only 5 were convicted, or
25 per cent, of the whole. In France, of 270 cases of meurtre and
assassinate 55 were acquitted, and 215 convicted, but of these only
2 were condemned to death, and the remainder to imprisonment for
different terms.

Those guilty of the crime of murder have, moreover, a great
chance of escaping the penalty of death after conviction, the pro-
portion of executions to the number of convictions in the last forty-
five years having been as follows : —

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1880.] Offences in England and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 441

Sentenced to Death.
Decennial ATerage.

Executed.
Decennial Average.

Percentage Exeevtedi

1822-31 .^

*82-41

15*3

17*9
i8-z

2Z'9

18-»
10-3
10-6
10-4
11-7.

86
59
59
57
57

»42-61

'62-61

'62-71

1872-77

^7-4

170

1877

34:0

Z0"0

220
140

64
70

'78

The large proportion of acqnittalB in cases of murder donbtles»
arises from an nnwillingness to convict, owing to the severity
and irreparable character of the punishment of death. That this
element enters largely in the result of the trial, is confirmed from
the apparent ease with which the plea of insanity is admitted.
Dr. Guy's admirable paper on "Insanity and Crime, and on the
" Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases," read before the Society in
1869, showed that the acquittals on the ground of insanity are, as a
rule proportionally more numerous as the crimes are more serious.
And he added, that pleas are admitted or allowed in cases where
the punishment of death follows conviction, which would not be
received where any other punishment could be awarded ; and that
the great chance of escaping the dire punishment of death is likely
to have the effect of rendering the criminal more careless and
daring. The evidence of judges on the diflBculty of obtaining a
conviction in consequence of such punishment is very pointed..
Lord Cranworth, Baron Bramwell, Mr. Justice Denman^ all said
substantially that capital punishment leads to the acquittal of many
men who would otherwise most certainly be convicted.

The penalty of death is, I fear, of little use as inspiring
a dread of death, for how many are there who are careless
of life, nay, too anxious to put an end to a life of misery and
wretchedness ? What does the large number of suicides* testify but

* The number of stiicidcfl averaged as follows : —

1857-61
'62-66
W-71
'72-76

1867-76

1877 ...
'78 ...

1,309

i>35»
1,489

hSSS

1,426

1,636
1,709

Per i,ooo,ooa

66
64
67
65

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442 Levi — On Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

a greater dread of life than of death ? The punishment of death
has no longer the glare and the spectacle of the public gallows,
since executions are carried out within the precincts of a jail.*
Nevertheless, so long as the punishment exists, so long does it tend
to diminish the sacredness of human life, which it is the dutj of
the legislature to inspire. The punishment of death, said Beccaria,
is a war waged by the nation against the citizen, on the plea that
the death of the criminal is necessary and useful to society. But,
he adds, it is not necessary when society can easily deprive him of
his freedom, and it is not useful, since it does not, as a fact, serve
as a deterrent of crime.

The progress of public opinion on the question of capital punish-
ment is remarkable. In 1823 capital punishment was repealed for
cattle, horse, and sheep stealing, and larceny to the value of $L in
dwelling houses, and for forgery, except of vnlls and powers of
attorney to transfer government stock ; in 1833, for housebreaking ;
in 1834, for returning fijom transportation ; in 1836, for sacrilege
and letter stealing ; in 1837, for forgery in all cases, attempts to
murder, sacrilege, burglary, stealing in dwelling-houses, robbery,
piracy, and arson ; in 1841, for rape, riot, and embezzlement ; and
now capital punishment is inflicted only in case of murder.

Not only capital punishment is but seldom awarded, and still
less often put in execution, but transportation is a thing of ihe
past, and even penal servitude and imprisonment are awarded for
shorter periods. Of the total number convicted, 14 per cent, were
committed to penal servitude, and 86 per cent, to imprisonment.
Of those committed to penal servitude, the majority were for six to
fifteen years, penal servitude for life being awarded in only o*6o per
cent.; whilst of those committed to imprisonment, only 10 per
cent, were for above one to three years, and the remainder for one
year to one month and under, to the reformatory school, or for
whipping.

The statistics of punishments in relation to the different crimes
and offences committed, would, I fear, exhibit not a few strange
anomalies. Daily do we observe striking illustrations of the
inequality of punishments; trifling offences, often by women or
children, being punished with great severity, and again, the
lightest punishment being often awarded for offences of the
g^vest character. Doubtless the circumstances relating to the
antecedents of the offenders must be taken into consideration,
but too great a latitude is evidently left with the judges. Again, I
say, the scale of punishment should be such as will commend itself

* The Capital Panisbment Amendment Act, 1868, provided for the carrying
out of capital punishment within the walls of the prison in which the offisnd^ is
confined at the time of execution.

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1880.] Offences in England and Wales 1857-76 a/nd 1877-78. 443

to the moral sense of the nation, if we wish it to exercise a whole-
some inflnence on the commnnitj.

XVIII. — Commitment to Prisons.

The total number of commitments to prisons in England and
Wales during the period in question was as follows : —

T«n.

Popnktkm.

Arerage Number
Commitmenta.

Proportion per i,ooo
Population.

1867-61

19,687,000
20,830,000
aa,i74»ooo
23*652,000

128,767
189,941
161,369
167,364

6-54
672
7*37
7*07

*62-66

'67-71

72-76

21,586,000

149,866

6*90

1877

24,547,000
24,854,000

187,412
186,060

7*59
7-48

Who are these ? How many of these were committed before ?
What were their ages, and sex, birthplace, degree of instruction,
and previous occupation ? Correct infoi*mation on the antecedents
and the particulars of the criminal population cannot be got before
conyiction and imprisonment. It is only when all inducement to
secrecy ceases to exist, that the truth can be fathomed. Would,
indeed, that ihe whole truth could even then be ascertained !

XIX. — Becommittals,

If it be a sad experience that a large proportion of our com-
mittals are new men first brought under the power of justice, it is
stiU more equally grieving and disappointing that an increasing
proportion consists of recommittals. The proportion of first com-
mittals was as follows : —

1867-61
'62-66
'67-71
72-76

1867-76

1877 ....
78 ....

First Commitment.

Percnt.

69*51
68*46
65-46
61*96

66*34

60-84
6o*oo

Recommittals.

Per cnt.
80-49
81-64
84*64
88-04

83*66

39-16
4000

Of the recommittals, during the twenty years 1857-76, the pro-
portions were as follows : —

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444 Levi — On Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

1857-66.

1877.

1878.

Onoe

Per cnt

6
9

Per cnt.

34-8
i6-2

9'9
7*4
5*1

6'o
13*4

Per cot
85*5

Twice

161

Thrice

9-8

Four times

Fiye Hroe« .,-„-,„,-.„,---

6*0

Seren times, andl
aboTe 5 /

6-8

Ten times and above 7
Above 10 times

6-8
13-5

100

lOO'O

1000

The increase in the number of recommittals manifestly shows
how difficult it is to eradicate crime when the fatal root has onoe
been planted. The recommendations of the royal commissioners on
the working of the penal servitude acts, regarding an improved
system of classification of convicts and other subjects, are worthy
of the most earnest attention. It is indeed much to be feared that
as it is the prison is less a place for the reformation, than for the
contamination of character. The increase of recommittals from
seven times and upwards, especially of women, is very disappointing.

In 1869, somewhat on the example of continental countries, a
system of police inspection was established upon habitual criminals.
The Habitual Criminals Act gave power to the police to apprehend
holders of licences on suspicion,' provided for the registration of
criminals, and rendered any person twice guilty of felony, and not
punished with penal servitude, subject to the supervision of the
police, it may be for seven years. Have the results fulfilled the
expectations entertained of the Act ? The proportion of recom-
mittals has increased, not decreased, since the passing of the Act
(32 and 33 Vict., cap. 99).

XX. — Age of Prisoners.
The ages of those conmiitted exhibited the following propor-
tions : —

1867-66.

1877. .

1878.

Under 12 yean

I*IZ

i9*6o

3a-i5
20*40

12-15

5-63
3-00
0*30

0-6

8-7

160

82-4

22-8

18-8

7-4

8-6

0-2

o'4

3-5

15-8

3»'9

"•5

13'^

7*3

3-6

o*a

12 and under 16

16 „ 21

21 „ 30

80 ,. 40

40 ., 60

60 „ 60

Aboye 60

Not ascertained

lOO'OO

1000

lOO'O

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1880.] Ofences in England and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 445

There is ihappilj a considerable diminntion in the number of
prisoners nnder 1 2 years of age,, and also from 12 to 16 : bat this is
greatly owing to the number detained in reformatory and industrial
schools.*

The criminal age is thus pre-eminently 16 to 50, or still more,
21 to 40. Comparing the proportional ages of the population with
the proportional ages of criminals, the relative liability to crime is
apparent.

PopuliitioninlSTl.

Under 12

CriminalB, 1878.

Under 16

X3-5J
22-58

0*4

5 and under 15

12 and under 16 ....

3*5

15 „ 20

9*59

16 „ 21 ....

15-8

20 „ 80.

16-66

21 „ 80 ....

3a'9

80 „ 40

I2*8o

80 „ 40 ....

ii'5

40 „ 60

10-05

40 „ 50 ....

13-8

50 „ 60

7*3»

50 „ 60 ....

7-3

60 and upwards ~

7-48

60 and upwards ....

3-6

XXI. — Education of Prisoners,

It is interesting to find the remarkable diminntion of children
in our prisons, the fruit, to a large extent, of the educational
measures of recent years.

The state of education among prisoners .was as follows : —

Neither
Rend or Write.

Read or
Write Imperfcctiy.

Read and Write
Well.

Superior
Instruction.

1857-61 ....
'62-66 ....
'67-71 ....
'72-76 ....

35*0
35'o
34-6
33*2

59-1
60-0
61-4
62-4

4-6
3*7
3-0
3-8

0-80
0-20
0-16
015

1867-76 ....

34'o

60-0

3*7

002

'77

'78

S3'»
33*o

62-9
63-4

3'7
3'i

001
0-01

The proportion who could neither read nor write has decreased,
and the proportion who could do so only imperfectly has almost
proportionately increased. The bulk of crime is committed by the
uneducated.

* By tbe 17 and 18 Vict., cap. 86» and sabseqnent Acts, it became lawful for
any ooort before wbom any person nnder the age of 16 shall be convicted and
sentenced to reoeire any punishment to the extent of fourteen days' imprisonment
at the least, to direct tiiat in addition to such imprisonment^ such person may be
sent to a reformatory school. But if the reformatory school is intended to save the
child from the contamination of the prison, why send him there in the first
instance P Nothing but the most pernicious consequences on the character of the
child can arise from an early contact with prisons and prisoners.

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446 Levi — On Indictable and Summary JurisdieHon [Sept.

XXTI. — Nationality of Prisoners.

The nationality of prisoners maj be deduced from the following
proportions of their birthplace : —

Englith.

WeUh.

Scotch.

Irish.

Colonies.

Foreign.

Per cut

Parent.

PeroDt.

Percnt.

1857-61 ....

78-i

2-5

1*9

14-2

0-4

'62-66 ....

78*0

I '9

U-8

0-4

'67-71 ....

78-5

141

0-4

72-76 ....

77-8

^'i

14-5

o*4

'57-76 ....

78-1

2-6

2*0

14-4

790

a*4

18*5

0-4

1-8

79-3

a-3

181

o'4

1-8

Compare the number of prisoners of different nationalities with
the total number bom in other countries and residing in England
and Wales, and we have the relative proportion of contribuents to
the criminal classes as follows : —

England and Wales

Sootland

Ireland

Colonies

Foreign countries ...

Popalmtion, 1871.

Criniinsls, 1878.

824

79-8

0-9

2-8

i'5

181

o'3

0-4

0-6

1-8

It will be seen that a much greater preponderance of offenders
is to be found among those bom out of England and Wales than
among those bom in England and Wales, but the proportion of
adults among the former is greater than among the latter.

XXIII. — Conciasums.

The progress of crime in England and Wales, both abaolutelj
and in relation to population, during the twenty years from 1867
to 1876, and for the last two years 1877 and 1878, exhibits many
evidences of improvement.

It is gratifying to note that treason does not exist in England, that
the blackest crimes are diminishing, and that the aspect of society
is, on the whole, brighter now than it was a quarter of a century ago.
Disobedience to law, regardlessness of public order and deoomm,
immoderate desires of property, exist indeed largely, but there is
more respect for the person and for the administration of justice.
The desiderata in the English character are more sobriety of deport-
ment, more seriousness of conduct, more thrift of resources, and
above all, a greater sense of personal responsibility.

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1880.] Offences in Engla/nd and Wales 1867-76 and 1877-78. 447
Table A. — Quinquennial Average Nwmher of Persons Committed for Trial,

Counties.

1857-61. 1862-66. 1867-71. 1872-76. 1857-76. 1877. 1878.

Bedford

Berks

Bucks

Oambridge

Chester

Oomwall

Cumberland

Derby

Devon

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton ...
Northumberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Bntland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ...

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ....

Wilto

Worcester

York

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan ,

Carmarthen .,
Carnarvon

Denbigh

Flint

Glamorgan .,

Merioneth

Montgomery

Pembroke

Radnor

89
160
128
126
658
183

2l8

468

138
a6i

301
503

lOI

138

750

3»i'9

i8z

3^9

'95
34»

220
118
12
192
S5i

$02
60s
223
722
307
619

148

366

i»43*

19
34
14
29

39
49
31
374
II

58
45
18

104
170
110
181
650
192

96
284
896
122
298
293
461
180
142

85
783
8,265
163
852
3,288
195
861
206
150
238
167

10
232
391
522
665
215
812
854
678

167

853

1,831

27
47
26
38
27
62
39
345
32
91
43
24

165
^55
142

136
597
157
98
»5i
363
1*7
317
296

4H
118

135

612

2,769
171
320

3*240
216
298
189
'75
'54
139
II
204
331
456
622
219
922
330
584
23
"39
298

1,768

18
37
29
28

3»
39
49
392
27
75
40
1^

54
116
HI
100
504
103

90
190
240

99
357
222
378

24
450
2,688
147
228
2,525
161
216
158
183
159

81
9
146
248
385
437
127
818
241
510

113

237

1,449

14
38
16
28
25
29
28
862
18
36
21
8

149
129

122
602
158
91
223
366

308
277
439
no
127
34
6i5
2,960

165

307

2,874

191

303
176
164
192
126
10
192
330
465
582
194
817
307

595
22

14J

312

1,620

19
38
21
28
30
44
36
367
20

64
37
16

129

101

489

178

176

423

210

423

112

517

3,228

169

239

2,683

137

219

194

106

176

145

242

352

402

149

847

248

506

270

1,406

16
45
15
81
18
25
41
338
16
84
32
10

6i
113

69
482

92
"4
189
170

76
343
254
432
127

20
440

3»H7
196

279

2,917

123

226

215

157

211

192
264
371
529
171
916
241

524

129

273
1,496

23
23
38
30
263
II

37
22
10

England and 1
Wales /

17,825

19,758

'8,445

15,186

17,790

15,890

16,372

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448 Levi — On Indictable and Summary JwrUdidion [Sept.

Table K—Quinattenmal Average dumber of Pereane Committed for Trial
per i,ooo of the Population in 18.M, 1861, 1871, 1877, and 187a

CoOBtiM.

Bedford

BerkB

Bucki

Gambridge

Cberter

Cornwall

Gumberland

Derby

Deron

Donet

Durbam

B«8ex

Gloaoester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton ....
Northumberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Butland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ....

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ....

Wilts

Worcester

York

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen

Carnarvon

Denbigh

Flint

Glamorgan

Merioneth

Montgomery

Pembroke

Badnor

Bndand and 1
Wales J

186761. 1862-66.

07a
9*94
078
0-68

»*44

051
0-42

o*73
083

0-75
0*67
o-8a
1*10
088
0*82
0*56
i*ia
i'54
o*79
o*8o
«*30
»'H
077
0*73
050
o-8i
0*69

o'53
083

079
125
0-99
066
V06
0*91

«*30
0*40
0-58

o*79

0-33
0-56
0*09
o'lS
044

o*5a
0-45
1-63
0-28
0-86
0-48
0*70

0*99

0-76
0-96
0-83
0-74
1-28
0*52
0-46
0-69
067
0-64
0*58
0-72
0*94
104
0-82
0-66
0-99
1-34
0-68
0-85
1-49
111
0-82
0-90
0-48
0-81
0-97
0-46
0-96
0-87
1-08
0-89
0-64
0-97
0-97
119
0-41
0-67
114
0-90

0*48
0-76
0-86
0-29
0-28
0*62
0-56
108
0-82
1-86
0-44
0-96

0-98

1867-71. 1872-76

0-84
0-86
0*84
0-77
118
0*42
0*48
074
0*62
0*67
0*62

073
0-87

0-95
078
0*67
0-83
114
072
077
146

i'a3
0-68
082
051
o'5»
o*8i
049
084

074
094
0*83
0*64
I'll
0*91
I -04
0-37
0-55
0-97
0-87

o'33
0*59
0*41

0-24
0-3*
0-39
0*69

1*22

0-68
1*11

042

07a

0*91

0-87
069
0-63
0-58
0-89
0-27
0-41
0-49
0-40
0-60
0-62
0-47
0-69
0-76
0-49
087
0*68
0-96
0-64
0-62
0-99
0-88
0-49
0-64
0-47
0-49
0*46
0*42
0-69
0-68
0-70
0-60
0-86
0-84
0-67
0-80
0*88
0-48
0-70
0-69

0-27
0-68
0-21
0-23
0-28
0-27
0-87
091
0-27
0-58
0-23
0-88

0-66

1857-76. 1877. 1878.

0-87

0*67

0-40

o'39

083

058

0*4*)

077

0-68

ou^

0-68

048

O'H

120

0-83

o-8i

0-43

0-27

026

o'45

0-43

0-49

0-66

0-61

o*H

0.63

0-28

0-27

0*64

0-45

0-39

€>'59

0-60

0-40

0-68

0-48

o-«;i

090

0-81

082

0-90

0-91

1-04

073

0-41

0-46

o\54

0-47

o'35

0-89

064

0-45

124

1*03

099

0-68

0-67

0-65

073

0-63

0*62

1-31

104

i-io

0-68

o-«;i

0-69

060

o-i;2

077

0-76

0-82

0-48

0-39

o*37

0-66

0-46

o'5')

073

0-42

044

047

0-47

073

o'8i

0-68

0-70

073

0-48

o'^\

099

0-62

0*64

o-8o

0-42

o'H

0-57

0-42

o7;i

0-99

0-66

0*69

0-84

0-54

o-Si

ro8

0-74

0-76

038

0-86

0-28

0-56

0-26

o-M

103

0-78

073

079

0-61

o"54

0*36

0-81

0-21

0*64

0-76

0-56

0*29

0-20

0-I2

026

0-26

0-19

0-3*

0-17

0*2I

o*45

0-24

0-36

0-52

0-68

0-39

1*21

0-85

0-66

0*29

0-34

0-23

0-96

0-60

o"54

o*39

084

0-23

0-63

0-44

044

0-64

o-6s

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18S0.] Offences in England cmd Wales 1857-76 a/nd 1877-78. 449

Table C. — Quinquennial Average dumber of Persons Proceeded against
Summarily before Justices*

Coanties.

Bedford

Berks

Bucks

Cambridge

Chester

Cornwall

Camberland

Berby

Deron

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Metropolis

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton ....
Northimiberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Bntland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ....

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ....

Wilts

Worcester

York

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen

Camanron

Denbigh

Flint

Glamorgan

Merioneth

Montgomery

Pembroke

Badnor

England and 1
Wales J

1857-61.

i,i86
2414
1,990
2,049
10,071
3,»99
2,917

1,280

13,478

2,582

7,182

2,34>

1,989

690

5,049
81,366

3,121
5,433

93,723
3,537
3,843
2,642
7,730
4,485
1,748
194
5,077
6,257
5,971

19,345
3,133
1,612

a,905
8,064

623

a,345

4,553

30,665

433
1,218

396
1,566

870

1.345
1,003

7,497

277

1,123

935
309

389,142

1862-66.

1867-71. 1872-76.

1,435
2,597
2,108
2,200

12546
4,228
3,218
5,577
7,121
2,887

18,511
2,758
8,967
2,445
2,518
726
6,742

86,647
3,865
7,093

95,273
4,568
4,483
2,862
8,916
4,841
2,100
206
5,853
6.551
7,816

21,497
8,203
1,695
8,655

12,463

849

2,452

5,197

42,563

409
1,479

565
1,575
1,410
1,312
1,328
7,999

488
1,147
1,229

434

452,493

1,803
2,728
2,761
2,603
13,488

3,819
3,680
6,805
7,779
3.138

23,698
3,310

10,283

2,829

3,020

849

7,327

"4,343

3,927

8,182

102,319

5.336

4,725

3,195

10,350
5.202
2,561
219
5»903
^,998
8,171

22,885
3,346
2,507
4.484

15,290
1,018
2,458
5,699

46,737

454
1,548

752
1,846

1,572
1,246

1,423
10,023

535
1,188

1,235
485

510,175

1,628
2,626
2,251
2,290

16.215
8,076
5.229
9.909
7,499
2,697

40,898
8,352

11,746

2,604

2,467

572

7,456

138,830

5,428

8,780

111,281

6,152

4,832

8,508

17,155
8,255
2,266
401
5,550
6,988

81,817
8,398
2,217
4,809

19,732
1,069
2,895
6,727

67,165

491
1,601

968
1,807
1,710
1,450
1,830
14,261

461
1,281
1,066

419

616,731

1857-76.

1,511
2,591
2,284
2,285
13,080
3,580
3,760
6,676
7,027
2,500
24,021
2,997
9,544
2,554
2,498
7C9
6,642

105,296
3,960
7,371

100,648
4,898
4458
3.050
8,830
5,696
2,168

255
5.595
6,697
7,560

23,761
32,70
2,007
3,858

13,887
902

2,544

5.543
46,782

446
1,461

669
1,698
1,390
1,050

1.395
9.944

440
1,184
1,108

411

496,136

1877. 1878.

1,989
2,648
2,109
2,130

17,170
8,110
6,078

11,911
8,261
2,810

87,669
8,497

12,029
2,828
2,495
529
8,500
142,472
6,958

10,379

125,857

6,148

5,465

4,281

17,616
8,683
2,550
422
6,221
7,484
9,129

29,168
3,752
2,598
5,121

22,168
1,128
8,201
8,390

73,405

895
1,794
1,829
2,480
2,485
1,642
1,801
14,872

664
1,887
1,096

537

633,053

2,136

3,254
2,224

2,131

18,387
2,898
6,491

11,544
8,889
3,224

35,370
3,731

13,705

2,824

2,623

849

^789
144,604

7,359

11,793

127,194

7,066

5.896
4.579

16,634
9.712
2,857
443
5.967
8,393

10434

30,168
3,716
2.897
5.714

22,705
1,016

3.451

8,468

74,609

1,164
1,568
1,307
2,896

2,563
2,010

1,729

13.923

606

1,300

1,677
506

676,773

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450 Levi — On Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

Tablb D.— Quinquennial Average Number of Persons Proceeded against
Summarily before Justices, per i,ooo of the PoptUationy 1851, 1861,
1871, 1877, and 1878.

Coantiei.

Bedford

Berks

Bucke

Gambridge

Chester

CJomwall

Cumberland

Derby

Devon

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Metropolis

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton ...
Northumoerland

Nottingham

Oxford

Rutland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ...

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ...

wau

Worcester

York

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen ..

Camarron

Denbigh

Flint

Q-lamorgan ..

Merioneth

Montgomery..

Pembroke

Radnor

:1and and 1
ales /

1857-61.

9*55
14*61
1213
1 1 '07
»2o8

903

H'95
14*93
lO'Si

6-95

34*33

7*oi

15*71

ao-35

11-91

10-78

8-26

40*16

'3*56

13*34

41*54

22-48

869

12-46

25*67

i6'6o

10*28

8*04

22*17

14*0^

14*89

31*76

9*29

a*36

8-64

i6*97

II '60

9*22

16*43
17*08

7*59
19*96

5*57
14*23

9*87
13-38
14*73
3272

7*io
16*74

9*94
»2*39

21*70

1862-66.

10*62
14*75
12*54
12*60
24*84
11*45
15*74
16*44
12*19
15*42
36*37

6*80
18*45
19*71
1455
11*34

9*18
35*66
1419
17*21
33*96
26*10
1019
12*29
25*93
16*47
12*28

9-31
24*28
14-72
16*21
28*77

9*50

2-04
10*04
2217
13-91

9*84
16*92
2093

7*43
23*85

7*84
1406
14-68
12-99
18*68
2615
12*51
1711
1280
17*36

22-55

1867-71.

13*35

^S'So
16-48
14*78
26*69
10*34
17-94
20-36

13*32
1660

46-55

8*16

21-15

22-81

«7*45
13*26
998
47*67
16*56
1985
36*48
3048
10*86
14*01
30*17
17*69
14-98

9*95
24-49
15*72
16-95
3063
9*92
3*oi

12*31

27-20
i6*68
9*87
18*56
22-98

8-25
25-29

10*44
1648

16*37
12-33
20-32

31*51
13*64
17*73
12*86

19*40

^5*41

1872-76.

1112
13-39
12-78
1231
28*99

8*49
2376
26-00

7-48
18-76
58-96

7-19
21*99
20*83
1277

9*00

8*79
49-24
20*17
20*13
34*01
31-64
1100
14*35
44 32
25*79
12-84
18-23
22-87
15-08
15-22
36*53

9-76

2-02
10*33
3112
16*44
11-26
19*90
27*57

9-62
26*68
13-19
15*44
•1613
1394
2407
36*01

9*80
1883
11-58
16-76

27*15

1857-76.

11*19
14*53
13*47
i»*55
25*79

9*80
18*07
19*66
13*28
13*22
44*15

7*33
19*39

21*10

13*77
11*08
908
4340
16*16
17*63
37*03
2798
10*18

13*31
40*28

19*34
12*53
11*59
23*«;2
14*88
15*91
31*9*
9*6i
2-28
9*91
22*03
15*00
10-02
1805
22*40

8**5

23*95

9*29

14*87
14*49

13*25
19*64
31*66
10*68

17*77
11*87

16*44

24*51

1877.

12*50
11*03
13*18
10*73
29*40

8-78
26 42
34*62
13*41
1465
46*47

722
23*15
23*18
1211

9*28

901
45-70
23*41
23-42
46*46
2619
12 66
16-33
42*34
23 35
13-95
1834
22-95
1611
1612
30 63
1066

201
1118
32-68
16-68
12-84
22-98
26*82

17-34
29-90
18*20
21*38
82*97
15-63
23-69
37-36
12*00
20-39
11-91
21.48

26*60

1878.

13*35
1344
13*81
10-65

31*05
8-20
27*97
33*07
14*38
16-56
4127

7*59
26*15

23*14
12-61

14*91
10*22

45*73
24*53
21*59

45*38
29*26
13*61
17*54
39*50
25*55
15*52
19-26
22*30
16-80
18-23
31*26
10-45
2-19
12*29
33*24
14-95
13*75
22-88
26*06

22*82
26-13
17-90
24*96
2417
19*13
22-75

34*98
i2*8o

19-11
18*23
20-24

27-23

Digitized by

Google

1880.] Offences in England and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 451

Table R — Number of the Principal Summary Jurisdiction Offences^

1867 to 1878.

Wtyt

AeU4

1857 ....

76,02g

75,859

1,320

38,560

15,293

32,008

17,382

'58 ....

83,086

85,472

13,087

40,226

16,709

32,700

21,603

'59 ...

84»o33

89,903

12,744

37,339

15,506

25,757

19,034

'60....

77.290

88,361

11,602

36,855

14,327

23,718

20,561

*61 ....

76,681

82,196

10,827

43,192

15,970

26,831

19,900

'62...

79.374

94,908

11,625

46,894

17,015

82,570

20,332

'6i ....

86,723

94,745

11,715

45,785

18,724

27,373

20,333

'64....

93,374

100,067

12,209

43,817

19,704

29,658

22,513

'65 ....

98,776

105,310

11,859

44,908

20,804

28,924

26,889

'66 ....

93,318

104,368

12,910

44,418

20,393

27,195

31,906

'67 ....

90,158

100,357

12,371

46,344

19,894

31,415

31,384

'68 ....

9^,974

111,465

12,550

48,649

21,488

35,365

26,508

'69 ....

94,5*0

122,310

13,755

47,718

22,789

43,024

28,719

'70 ....

90,431

131,870

11,671

44,757

22,748

41,710

29,837

'71 ....

93,*7i

142,343

11,604

41,882

22,182

39,532

30,408

'72....

96,959

151,084

10,469

41,348

21,017

38,364

29,321

'78 ....

95,964

182,941

13,787

43,340

21,006

37,621

22,603

'74....

101,602

185,730

12,967

43,053

25,252

39,642

25,925

'75 ....

101,551

203,989

14,529

38,941

23,181

37,543

28,952

'76 ....

100,422

205,567

i«;,9o8

39,482

23,103

38,510

30,346

'77 ....

94,565

200,184

15,906

41,645

23,242

41,894

30,858

'78....

91,167

194»549

14,806

43,651

23,532

45,622

31,122

Y«tf.

Local Acts.}

PoUce AcU.

BrmehM of
the Peace.

Rlemc
Edact

•ntary
tion.

Game Laws.

ToUI.

1857 ....

21,112

26,913

5,480

369,233

'58....

19,676

24.271

—

8,929

404,034

'59 ....

ai,554

17,678

10,697

—

8,628

392,810

'60 ....

25,831

16,764

9,154

—

8,654

384,918

'61 ....

33,350

17,651

8,767

—

8,483

394,717

'62 ....

22,043

18,206

9,284

—

10,101

409,008

'63 ....

22,883

16,470

10,620

—

9,638

421,863

'64 ....

26,878

17,869

10,654

—

10,117

440,913

'65 ....

24,784

18,840

10,996

—

10,392

458,914

'66 ....

32,173

19,821

11,346

—

10,831

481,770

'67....

27,042

20,825

12,597

—

11,427

474,665

'68 ....

28,844

20,560

13.831

—

11,398

496,752

'69....

25433

25,216

14,157

—

12,291

517,875

'70....

35,681

20,320

16,696

—

12,704

526,869

'71 ....

38,333

19,645

18,050

—

10,773

540,716

'72....

39431

18,452

19,869

—

9,571

559,929

'78 ....

39,757

18,111

17,946

6.^

»93

10,870

590,114

'74....

44>82i

17,836

20,876

i5,c

>l6

11,955

622,174

'75 ....

44,502

18,915

21,302

21,3

12,398

649,827

'76 ....

46,998

18,656

22,019

25,1

13,315

661,613

'77....

45435

18,217

20,749

23,3

13,521

653,053

'78 ....

47,781

21,092

20,709

40,8

136

12,583

676,773

* DeBtrojing fences, walls, fruit and vegetable productions, trees, shrubs, &c.

t Prostitutes, begging, &c.

X Stage and hackney carriage acts, highway acts, railway acts, &o.

§ Load acts, and borough bye laws, offences against.

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452 Levi — On Induiahle and Summary Jurisdiction [Sept.

Tablk F. — Number pet Cent Signing the Marriage Register with Marks ;
Amount per Head at the Savings Banks ; and Proportion per 1,000
of Pauperism in every County in England,

Bedford

Berks

Bucks

Cambridge

Chester

Cornwall

Ctunberland

Derby

Deron

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

HerU

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton ...
Northumberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Rutland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ...

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ....

Wilts

Worcester

York

South Wales

North I,

Ignorance.

Nomber Signing with

Mark.
Per Cent, of If arriaget.

1861.

1871.

1«77.

41-9

3i*'>

26-8

29-3

26-4

13-5

35-8

^5*9

18-9

82-9

i3*9

19-9

340

2i?-I

19-0

366

26-6

20-4

23-4

21-6

16-6

290

21-8

17-5

24-6

161;

121

268

198

151

325

294

23-2

33-2

19*3

151

24-8

i7'<

150

320

23-2

17-2

36-8

27*3

22-2

31-9

229

19-9

235

14-9

121

39-5

29*6

23-4

27-7

22-6

17-5

24-7

i8-c

15-4

31-5

11-8

9-4

44-6

37*4

29-6

33-5

24-8

203

27-8

21*6

16-9

233

18-4

15-5

301

26-3

221

28-9

177

141

22-2

13*^

19-4

371

27'^

200

300

21-8

16-9

210

^'i'O

100

41-5

39*7

28-6

350

*5'»

20-9

20-4

11-7

20-4

13*7

110

28-6

264

21-4

17-4

III

7-5

29-4

19-7

15-4

29-2

aV8

210

260

ii*3

18-7

45-2

38J

29-6

44-4

33'9

260

Aver-
age.

33*0
<9'7

20'3

»5-o

26*0

a7-8

227
17*6

20*6

i8-3

22-5
191
24-1

28-3
249
16-8

30'5
22-6

>93
175
37*2
26-3
203
19*0
261
20-3

19*3
282
229

36-6
27*0
»37
'5*3

I2'0

a5-3

22*0

37-6
34*7

Saving Habits.

Shillingt per Head at
the Saviogt Banka.

1861.

1870.

1878.

Aver
«gc.

PanperlBm.

Nomber of Panpen

per
1,000 of Popalation.

1801.

46 I

53 ; 44

1870.

1878.

'>i

5»

3»

!>o

4«

A?er-

57
58
51
67
a7
42
35
22

51
41
30
56
47
47
58
48
33
26

4*
43
38
49
62

5i
38
40
58
49
30
61

5»
33
60

4«
5»
33
30
61

35
27
fo
60

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1880.] Offences in Englomd and Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 453

Tablb G.

Sex.

Of Penoni Committed for

or Penoni Committed for Trial

Summary Joritdictkm OffenoM.

MalM.

Females.

Total

Males.

Pemalei.

Tbtal.

1867 ....

291,630

78,203

369,233

15,970

4,299

20,269

'68 ....

3iy»834

84,200

404,034

13,865

3,990

17,855

'69 ....

310,690

82,120

392,810

12,782

3,892

16,674

'60....

305*507

79,411

384,918

12,168

3,831

15,999

'61 ....

315**56

79,461

394,717

14,349

3,977

18,326

'62 ....

325.884

83,124

409,008

15,896

4,106

20,001

'63 ....

336,845

86,018

421,863

16,461

4,357

20,818

'64....

35*»8o9

88,104

440,913

15,398

4,108

19,506

'66 ....

370,460

88,464

458.9H

15,411

4,203

19,614

'66 ....

393»i8i

88,689

481,770

14,880

3,969

18,849

'67 ....

384,369

90,296

474.665

15,208

3,763

18,9171

'68....

395»6o8

96,144

490,752

16,197

3,894

20,091

'69 ....

417,75*

100,128

517,875

15,722

3,696

19,318

'70 ...

4*7.546

99.323

526,869

14,010

3,668

17,578

'71 ....

435»586

106,130

540,716

12,640

3,629

16,269

'72 ....

448,138

111,791

559,929

11467

3,334

14,801

'73 ....

472,385

117,729

590,114

11,490

3,403

14,893

'74....

500,681

121,498

622,174

11,912

3,283

15,195

'76 ....

5^,565

126,262

649,827

11,662

3,062

14,714

'76 ....

534,773

126,840

661,613

12,711

3,367

16,078

'77 ....

5*8,015

126,088

653,053

12,536

3,364

15,890

'78....

548,418

128,366

676,773

13,104

3,268

16,372

Table H.—

-Persons Prevwusly

Committed to

any Prison,

Total
Commit.

Oneo.

Twice.

Thrice.

Four
Times.

fife
Times.

Six or
Seven

Eight,

Iline,or

Ten

Above
Ten

TotaL

menta.

Times.

1867

141,970

18,374

8,128

4,401

2,980

1,164

2,276

1,700

2,464

42,169

'68

139.437

18,268

7,939

4,346

2,883

1,639

2,217

1,313

2,002

41,680

'69

126,861

16,346

7,201

3,991

2,602

1,699

2,005

1,367

3,*i7

38,428

'60

116,312

19,676

6,509

3,700

2,359

1,648

1,979

1,206

3409

36,381

'61

129,238

16,388

7,064

3,926

2,518

1,673

1,978

1,661

3,685

38.782

1862

141,742

18,787

8,371

4,678

3,037

1,963

2,265

1,731

4,048

44,877

'63

144,519

18,816

8,245

4,639

3,083

1,944

2,421

1,943

3,946

45,037

'64

139,286

18,603

8,085

4,621

3,100

2,176

2,606

2,027

3,915

45,192

'66

137421

18,623

7,809

4,492

2,940

2,011

2437

2,016

3,646

43,964

'66

136,741

17,897

8,134

4,831

3,102

2,082

2,598

1,978

3,759

44,381

1867

245,184

19,313

8,369

4,799

3,169

2,146

2,663

2.029

3,927

46,416

'68

158480

21,189

9,263

6,213

3,557

2,438

2,933

2,427

4,538

61,608

'69

173,115

23,228

10,233

5,900

4.093

2,670

3,380

2,820

4,934

57,268

'70

169,134

23,367

10442

6,188

4,393

3,041

3,728

3,110

5469

69,698

'71

160,934

21,803

10,147

6,640

4,350

3,042

3,883

3,341

5,678

57,884

1872

158,141

20,926

9,676

5,808

4,290

3,066

3,787

3,482

6445

57,464

'73

165,142

21,841

10,340

6,196

4.498

3,196

4,149

3,822

7,233

61,274

'74

166,588

21,807

10,362

6,358

4,754

3,234

4.405

4,161

7,996

63,167

'76

170,300

22,433

10,671

6,531

4.933

3,469

4,784

4,316

8,734

65,781

'76

176,599

24,298

11,504

6,966

5,217

3,652

4,979

4,631

10,074

71,118

'77

187412

26,630

11,900

7,262

5431

3,748

5,270

4,442

9,8 » 3

73,396

VOL. XLHr. PAET IH.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

454 Levi — On Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction

Tablb I. — Ages,

[Sept.

Under

13 Years

and
under 16.

16 and

31 and

so and

40 and

60 and

^Sc^^'

TotaL

12 Years.

under 81.

under 30.

under 40.

under 60.

above.

Ascer-
tained.

1857....

1,877

10,624

29,949

29,738

22,108

12,212

5,a68

2,726

321

124.823

'58...

1.553

8,776

26,800

38,413

21,632

12,088

5,297

2,798

805

118,162

'59...

i,.^78

7,535

22,846

34,830

19,936

11,772

5,26t

2,783

731

107,072

'60...

1,480

6,549

20,512

33,048

19,555

17,748

4,807

2,605

230

100,616

'61...

1,666

7,135

i3i8oo

86,914

21,360

12,427

5,244

2,915

674

U2,144

1862...

1,531

6,818

26,068

42,823

24,365

14,258

6,152

8,238

222

125,475

'63...

1,549

6,910

27,018

44,066

25,306

14,684

6,365

3,300

229

129,527

'64 ...

1,55^

7,305

25,272

42,174

24,904

15,115

6,6^1

3,267

866

127,006

'65...

1,600

8,040

25,046

41,507

24,718

14,949

6,467

3,889

322

126,038

'66...

1,637

7,719

24,627

40,657

24,122

15,861

6,335

3,322

981

124,291

1867...

»,59<^

8,041

26,442

43,515

15,694

15,101

6,542

3,446

1,028

131,398

'68...

1,800

8,279

28,711

46,980

28,203

16,735

7,574

3,942

970

145,157

'69...

1,669

8,645

31,400

51,431

31,425

18,428

9,004

4,988

273

157.254

'70....

1,692

8,306

30,687

51,529

31,392

18,218

9,065

5,067

277

157,223

'71....

1,467

7,510

27416

47,959

31,416

18,528

9,216

5,880

202

149,094

1872....

1,562

.7,801

26,248

46,132

31,054

19,042

9,606

5,424

199

146,473

'73....

1,48:1

7,877

27,025

47,640

34,114

20,708

10,370

5,815

247

155,413

'74....

1,470

7,473

27,19^

4S.625

35,079

21,169

10,622

5,818

277

157,840

75...

1,084

6,128

26,912

50,876

37,093

21,838

11,461

5,771

225

161,488

'76...

998

6,140

26,928

53,067

38,441

22,666

12,606

6,041

273

167,160

77....

1,065

6,517

28,144

56,973

40,093

23,891

12,893

6,311

269

175,656

Tablb K. — Birthplace,

Colonies

Fonifm

Not

Total.

England.

Wales.

ScoUand.

Ireland.

and East

Ascer.

Indies.

Countries.

tained.

1857....

124,823

97,554

2,903

2,399

18,067

662

2,016

1,732

'68....

118,162

93,169

2,867

2,282

15,887

667

1,927

1,963

'59...

107,072

83,376

2,796

2,239

15,258

496

1,682

1,225

'60....

100,614

78,366

2,605

2,080

14,457

434

1,584

1,088

'61....

112,144

87,806

3,002

2,067

16,376

566

1,625

1,233

1862....

125,475

97,507

3,579

2,368

18,223

660

1,814

1,424

'63...

129,527

100,568

3,327

2,419

19,501

581

1,879

1,251

'64....

127,006

98,630

3,443

2,559

18,979

577

1,666

1,156

'65...

126,038

98,656

3,435

2,568

18,569

583

1,626

601

'm....

124,291

96,482

3,573

2,519

18,066

617

1,683

1,351

1867....

131,401

102,472

4,002

2,636

18,354

645

1,860

1.429

'68....

143,157

112,696

3,793

2,841

I9»972

571

1,952

1,332

'69....

157,254

123,597

4,175

3,146

22,882

667

2,Z47

541

70...

157,223

124,132

4421

3,328

21,985

681

2,186

490

71...

149,094

117,300

4,126

8,247

21,174

813

2,031

478

1872....

147,073

116,549

4,100

8,202

20,993

700

2,084

444

'73....

155,413

122,282

4,129

3,476

22,100

671

2,104

661

74....

157,840

123,152

4,155

3,680

23,371

687

2,160

676

75....

161,488

125,613

4,608

3,847

24,040

626

2,163

691

76....

167,160

130,561

4,790

4,188

24.157

708

2,183

678

77....

175,656

138,767

5i6ii

4,208

23,630

711

2,257

672

Digitized by

Google

1880.] Offences in Engla/nd a/nd Wales 1857-76 and 1877-78. 455
Table L. — Degree of Instruction,

Neither

Ketd, or

Read and

Superior

Instruction

Read

Read and Write

not

Total.

nor Write.

Imperfectly.

Write Well.

Instruction.

Ascertained.

1857 ....

44.^9 >

72,387

6,348

409

1,388

124,820

'58 ....

41,826

68,227

6,813

397

899

118,162

'59 ....

38,286

62,972

4,619

352

903

107,072

*60....

34»279

61,233

4.134

320

648

100,614

»61 ....

38,603

67,972

4,488

309

772

112,144

1862 ....

44,072

76,486

4.823

296

798

126,476

'63 ....

45.209

78,609

4.581

248

880

129.527

'64 ....

44,432

74,722

6,720

234

898

127,006

'65 ....

44.835

75,958

4.093

200

952

126,038

'66 ....

42,564

76,804

3.7»o

206

1,007

124,290

1867 ....

46,462

79,751

3,925

212

1,048

131,398

'68 ....

50.379

87,393

4.187

233

965

143,157

'69 ....

54.951

96,270

4.752

227

1,024

157,254

'70 ....

53,265

98,482

4,947

252

278

157,223

'71 ....

50,816

92,996

4.790

266

149,094

1872 ....

49,345

92,126

4,892

233

487

147,073

'73 ...

5^.893

98,112

4.649

220

554

155,418

'74....

53,805

98,538

4,891

188

h^i

157,780

'75....

54,046

100,722

6.078

288

354

161,488

'76....

53,228

103,646

9.687

292

307

167,160

'77....

58,132

110,443

6.585

243

253

175,666

Table M. — Class of Occupations,

Do-
mesUc

Labourers,
Char^

Factory

Mechanics,
and

Fore-
men and
Over-

Shop-
men,
Shop.

Shop,
keepers

Profes.
sional

Em.

ploy.

SaUors
and

FrosU.

Not

Occupa-
tion.

Ser-

women,
andNeedle-

Workers.

Skilled

lookers
of

women,
and

and

Soldiers.

tntes.

Ascer.
tained.

Tants.

women.

Workers.

Ulwur.

aerks.

Dealers.

ment.

1867

27,7x9

4,756

5O1214

6,621

22,991

185

1454

8,976

302

5,073

1,532

'58

24.789

4,487

49,127

5,703

22,490

162

1,279

3,336

382

5,214

—

1,263

'59

20,767

4,338

45,343

4,816

21,000

134

1,193

3,370

308

4,673

—

1,240

'60

18,949

4,138

43,569

4,547

18,434

106

1,463

3,037

321

5,163

—

888

'61

20,423

4,582

30,160

6,311

20,7 1 2

169

1.419

3,624

305

4,617

—

922

1862

20,826

4,858

57,534

6,840

24,150

192

1,621

3,393

325

4,392

—

344

'68

22,783

4,632

59,743

6,918

24,121

151

1,600

3,700

264

4,598

—

1,017

'64

21,949

4,305

59.887

6,485

23,847

137

1,558

3,716

233

3,737

—

952

'65

18,229

4,308

57,214

5,832

23,337

168

1,518

3,853

224

4,189

6,220

946

'66

16,133

4,420

57,308

5,590

23.592

137

1,563

3,804

288

4,292

6,085

1,089

1867

17,320

4,334

60,675

6,051

25,008

142

1,625

4,227

280

4,496

6,112

1,128

'68

18,356

4,527

66,16^

7,337

27.039

183

1,698

4,790

265

4,482

7,048

1,068

'69

20,016

4,977

72,640

7,979

29,124

162

2,173

5,195

297

5,202

9,044

446

'70

20,259

7,108

74.458

7,891

27,694

146

3.185

5,404

335

4,838

8,597

458

'71

19.342

4,942

70,533

7,806

25,076

132

2,202

3,876

327

4,677

8,456

826

1872

19,834

4,833

68,136

8,061

23,583

100

2,292

5,420

371

5,040

9,101

802

'73

21,666

4,977

72,212

8,664

24,915

137

2,342

5,641

349

5,109

8,963

438

'74

19,804

4,934

75i207

9,384

26,094

130

2,302

5,317

331

5,167

8,741

879

'76

19,757

4,723

77,167

10,181

27,179

156

2,378

6,063

393

6,138

8,917

436

20462

4,590

82,645

10,001

26,313

128

2,527

6,309

427

5,256

9.150

867

'77

^^^SS^

4,377

86,207

10,709

28,529

189

2,826

4,902

453

6,207

9.456

295

Digitized by

^oogk

456

Diteuttum
Tabu N.

[Sept.

h'onlMr
of Priionen.

Nimber oT Ptowas Conmittod to

Debton

and

ChrU ProoeM.

Reformatory Schoob.

Ifiddletex

Indoftrial

Schools.

Other
Scboole.

Males.

Femelet.

1857

14.339
16,620
15,120
11,707
13.591
13.^55
12,414
10,209

9.443
10,598
11,647
ii,833
13.348

8,804

9.23*
8,219
6,687
5.168
4.845
4.925
5.754

960

700

746

886

1,001

847

788

797

961

1,034

1,083

1.076

1,066

1,046

1,053

1,054

1,162

1,099

1,069

996

1,202

159
149

177
212
236

217

177
210

224

256
246
228
267
248
294
258
265
213
214
269

191

189

208

186

187

216

208

264

124

109

116

•

'68

»69

»60

119

»61

»62

369
908

»68

»64

350
421

»66

•66

508

1,112

»67

'68 «

»69

1.465
1.545
1.450
1.904
1,832

»71

»72

»73

2,266

»74

1,970

1.938
2,03a
2,347

Discussion on Pbofbssob Leoni Levi's Paper.

The Chairman (Sir R. W. Rawson, K.C.M.G.) said that no
gentleman who had not made a similar attempt with Professor Levi
to analyse the mass of fibres he had dealt with, for twentj-two jeaiv,
could have any idea or the labour that he must have devoted to
the subject. They were all able to appreciate the valne of ihe
work done, bnt thej were not perhaps all aware of the amount of
labour incurred, and the debt they owed to Professor Levi for
having undertaken it. He fully and heartily sympathised with
Professor Levi. Forty years ago he (the Chairman) analysed the
first five years' returns published by the Government on this same
subject, and his papers appeared in the second and third volumes
of the Society's Journal, He was thus induced to rise early, and
to ask the Professor, when he publishes his paper, to state distinctly
the sources of his information, so as to enable future observers to
compare his results with those which they might obtain. Looking
back to his own paper, he found that in the years 1834-38, the only
information then accessible was the returns of the quarter sessiona.

Digitized by

Google

1880.] on Professor Leone Levies Paper. 46?

assizes, and local conrts. The average of these five years show^ed
that the committals corresponded with what the Professor in his
fifth table calls *' criminal proceedings," where he says, " If we now
follow the results of the preliminary proceedings as regards the
persons apprehended for indictable offences, we shall see what pro-
portion are discharged from want of sufficient evidence or other
causes, and how many are finally committed for trial." In the five
years which he (the Chairman) dealt with, he found that the
numbers committed for trial were as many as 22,000. The num-
ber committed and bailed in 1878 — which is forty years later —
was only 16,700. It was impossible to compare the two analyses,
and it was most desirable that such a comparison should be made,
80 as to see whether the progress of crime in England was
favourable or unfavourabla It was very desirable that they
should be able to compare similar things — to contrast simtlia
m/mUibus — ^but as matters stood, he could not compare Professor
Levi's results with what he obtained in 1838 ; another suggestion
he would make, and he thought it was a most important one, was
that in any statements with regard to the comparative amount of
crime, the actual numbers should be given, and not only the pro-
portions. The Professor had pointed out (and he hoped on exami-
nation it would appear that his inferences would be found correct)
that the effect of education in late years had had a material effect
in reducing the number of our criminal juvenile population ; but
from the statement, as it appeared here, compared with his state-
ment of forty years ago, the results were positively startling, and
unless the numbers are given they would, he believed, be led to
false inferences. In Professor Levi's statement he found that the
proportion of criminals in 1878, under 16, was about 4 per cent.,
whereas in his (the Chairman's) table it was nearly 12 per cent.
Professor Levi said the number of very young people sent to
reformatories might affect this, but he found that between 16 and
21, where the same remark did not apply, whereas in the Professor's
table 16 per cent, were committed in 1878, 30 per cent, were com-
mitted forty years ago. Then between 21 and 30 there was no
change, 32 per cent, being the number in both periods ; from 30 to
40 there was an increase from 1 5 to 22^ per cent. ; betvreen 40 and
60, an increase from 7 to 14 per cent., and so on. But they were
really comparing utterly different things, because in these criminal
proceedings before magistrates, several different and new classes of
offences bad been brought into this statement. In 1878 alone more
than 40,000 persons, adults and children, had been brought up for
offences against the Education Act, most of them for not sending
children to school, which certainly was not a crime, though it was
a legal offence. No doubt a vast number of adults had been con-
victed for not carrying out sanitary and other police laws, which
are now enforced much more strictly than they used to be. All
these punishments fell upon persons of a different age from those
included in the returns of forty years ago, and therefore it was
absolutely necessary that not only the proportions, but the number
should be given, so that they might compare the numbers with the
population. In the paper which he drew up, he made a calcula-

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

458 Discusaum [Sept.

tion of the population and oompared the nnmberof criminals at
each stage of life. In that way a more correct inference might be
drawn as to the existence of crime at different ages than by stating
the percentage proportion of offenders at each age. He did not at
all wish to find fanlt with the paper, on the contrary, bat he was
anxioos to point out to the anthor that the yalne of so great and
important a paper wonld be very much enhanced if he would
eliminate, or enable others to eliminate, possible canses of erroneons
inference.

Hr. GiFTKN said he did not profess to be especially acquainted
with the statistics of crime, but there were one or two points on
which he ooi|ld perhaps throw some light. He wished, to begin
with, to express his very high opinion of Professor Levi's paper.
Any one acquainted with the Yolome of the judicial statistics of
England and Wales, wonld recogpiise the amount of labour which
such a task must have involved, for the statistics were very compli-
cated, and there was a great quantity of them to deal with. To
have dealt with them as Professor Levi had done in a compara-
tively short paper, was he thought a very valuable work for him
to have done. He thought he could give an explanation of one of
the first points to which the Chairman had called attention — ^with
reference to the source from which Professor Levi had got his
figures. Whatever doubts there might have been as to the
statistics of fortv years ago, the sources from which Professor
Levi had drawn his observations were beyond all doubt whatever.
These statistics were all embodied in an annual volume which any
one could obtain, and there was no doubt that the return was an
absolutelv exhaustive one of all the indictable crimes in England
and Wales, including every court which has jurisdiction over
indictable offences. He did not think anything could be more
complete than the statement which Professor Levi had given. The
question would be to compare these with the returns of forty years
ago, and if it be the case that the figures were so much larger forty
years ago, it would follow that the diminution of serious crimes in
England must be really greater than appears on the surface of the
figures; naturally the Chairman is astonished that there should
have been such a reduction. He had taken occasion some time ago
to look into the subject, and he was astonished at the great dimi-
nution ; but he could say that it had been quite gradxial for forty
years. The only point in the paper itself to which he wished to
call attention, and to elicit an explanation from Professor Levi, was
with reference to the statement : — " An increasing proportion of
persons seems thus annually drawn to a criminal life.*' Now, he
confessed, that in looking at the table on which this statement
was founded, that of the commitments for trial, he did not form the
same inference. It did not seem to be consistent with the fact of
the number of convictions for serious crimes in England and Wales
having been diminished, and it would be noticed in reference to
the table of the commitments for trial, that the propoHion per
million of the people of good character, from 185/ to 1876 was
272 ; in 1877 it was 271 ; and in 1878, 270. He did not think a

Digitized by

Google

1880.] on Professor Leone Levies Paper. 459

statement like that with reference to persons of previonsly good
character showed that an increasing proportion of persons seemed
drawn to a criminal life. He thonght the same inference wonld
be drawn if they took 'the case of the persons whose character
is nnknown. The fact was, he believed, that the increasing proper-
tion of commitments was dne to the increasing number of things
that had been made offences, and the increasing powers of the
police courts. He thought it was a wrong inference to say that
'' an increasing proportion of persons seems thus annually drawn to
a criminal life," and he was of opinion that Professor Levi woxdd
acknowledge this error, if he compared the table with that given
at an earlier page, where he distinguished indictable offences from
those for which people had been brought before the police courts.
The offences agamst local laws and other acts increased, but the
offences against the person and against property did not show an
increase. The paper was so excellent that there was very little to
observe with regani to it, except by way of commendation.

Mr. C. Walpobd thought the paper woxdd be of great importance
to those who were considering the alteration of the criminal code,
and with respect to the admirable chart now exhibited, he did not
know that he had ever seen one which presented in itself the
elements of use more markedly than that did. It showed what effect
the educational code had, in the last ten years, produced on the
people, not only as shown by the power of writing in the marriage
registers, and so on, but it showed what effect education had had
with reference to the nature of the crimes committed in the several
counties, and that by a continuous process of observation would
offer a marked test of the benefit, and the degree of the benefit,
resulting from education. There were many points upon which
the paper ought to be discussed in detail, but he would content
himself by pointing out these two, which would be valuable for a
long time to come.

Mr. William Tallage (Secretary of the Howard Association)
cordially concurred in what had been said by the Chairman and the
succeeding speakers as to the excellence of the paper to which they
had listened. He was struck with the extreme interest of the chart,
which he had been particularly interested in, looking at it as a
Cornish man. Cornwall, with Cumberland and Westmoreland, held
the honourable position of having the least amount of crimes and
offences, though Cornwall was one of the lowest with regard to
ignorance. He had been impressed with the large proportion of
horses which, according to Surgeon-General Balfour's paper, died
in France owing to bad ventilation. It was well known what an
effect ventilation had on human life, and he believed an investiga-
tion woald show that healthy dwellings and fresh air had a good
deal to do with regard to the moral as well as the physical life of
the people of Cornwall, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. He was
a native of Cornwall, and he had lived in Westmoreland, and he
thought there were many points in common between them. Corn-
wall, as compared with some other counties, was less instructed :

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400 Discussion [Sept.

but he believed the valne of religion, irrespectiTe of mere sectarian
influences, was shown by the chart. The chief religion of Cornwall
was Methodism, and the Church of England was principallj followed
in Cnmberlaud. The general results, however, were excellent in
both counties, showing that, after all, what might be called a
common-sense religion had more to do in making people virtuous
than school learning. They might go on all day discussing the
interesting points in the chart and in the paper, but he would invite
the attention of gentlemen present to a paper read by a friend of
his, Mr. Joseph John Fox, at the Oxford meeting of the British
Association, many years ago, on *Hhe Importance of a Uniform
Basis of Statistics ;" for there was hardly a department of human
investigation where real uniformity was more needed than in dealing
with the subject of crime. A remark made use of by the Chairman
brought a curious incident to mind as to the importance of numbers
as well as proportions. About a hundred years ago, in a Cornish
village 25 per cent, of the people were executed in one year: but
there were only four deaths in this parish, and one of the four was
an execution on the gallows : so it was very true that a fourth of
the population went to the scaffold ; but the actual figures corrected
%he first impression as to the criminality of the people.

Mr. Rowland Hamilton said gentlemen could hardly have any
appreciation of the enormous mass of statistics that Professor Levi
must have gone through, and their importance. Even where the
results brought apparent contradictions, the work of the statistician
was not the less useful. It was often like that of a man gettin§^
a public or private office out of disorder, where the first wholesome
thing was to show the confusion in which the accounts stood. He
noticed in Salop there were large savings and great pauperism.
Now this suggested a large field of inquiry to those who could carry-
it out. He had taken great interest in the subject of recommittals,
and perhaps few questions were of more urgent importance. A
large proportion were committed once, and then a less proportion
of those committed twice; but there were a large number who
seemed to go on time after time, and to lead a hopelessly lawless
life. He would like to know what became of them after these re-
committals. Were they sent out of the country altogether, having
fallen more deeply into crime, or gone out of it voluntarily in one
way or another ? He had been assured by a gentleman who took
great interest in the matter, that a large proportion of those who
retrieve themselves do so in districts in which they were least
known. With respect to the assumed evil of police supervision,
was it not the worst policy that could be adopted to send out a
criminal who had, there was reason to hope, learned the value of
industry, with a lie in his right hand, by entering a service under
something very like false pretences ? A man thus introduced into
a situation, however well he might be doing, was absolutely at the
mercy of all his old associates who might happen to find him out.
It was not only the policeman who might, as it was said, make mis-
chief, but any of the man's old chums might exercise the most
potent and injurious influence over him. Arguments of this nature

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1880.] on Professor Leone Levi's Paper. 461

appeared to him to be exceedingly strong against the idea of sending
a man ont to attempt to regain honest courses, while keeping his
antecedents a dead secret from those who might be a help to him,
leaving him, alone and nnaided, against those who would drag him
back to crime. It seemed to be the truth that there were men
absolutely unable to maintain an independent course of life, and
that these should be subjected to a long term of probation, not so
much of a penal character as of a disciplinary character. Many
such men were capable of doing good work under supervision, who
were quite unable to stand alone.

Mr. G. Phillips Bevan said one point of great interest in this
paper was the connection of locality with crime, especially in con-
sidering crime spread over so many years. He had been for
twenty- five years on the bench in a Welsh county, thickly popu-
lated with coal miners and iron workers, and in that space of time
he had seen a good deal of alteration in the character of the
people and the country, arising mainly from the general extension
of railways and communications. When he first weut into Wales,
about twenty-eight years ago, Welshmen were really Welshmen,
with a marked simplicity of character, a good deal influenced by
their chief religion — Methodism — which kept them to a great
extent from serious crime. He had not resided there now for six
or eight years ; but while he was there, he had ample reasons for
perceiving how considerably crime had increased in that time, and
he connected it very much with the immigration of strangers
amongst the industrial population. The effect of bad associates
was very marked, and this was a factor which should not be omitted
in their calculations as to the spread of crime in different locaUties.

Professor Leone Levi thanked the members for their kind
appreciation of his paper. With reference to the sources of infor-
mation, all he needed to say was, that it was derived exclusively
from the judicial statistics, which gave a complete view of the state
of crime and of all le^ proceedings in the country. As stated in
the paper, the reduction in the number of persons committed for
trial was owing partly to the extension of summary jurisdiction,
but partly also from an absolute decrease of heavy crimes. The
effect of education upon crime could be seen in the separate tables
in the appendix. The difficulty he had was, to comprise within the
ordinary limits, all the information pertaining to the subject of the
paper. In an appendix to the paper there will be found much
valuable informatiou, which he hoped would be useful to all future
inquirers on the subject.

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462

[Sept.

On the Ingbbabi of Population in England and Wales.
By B. Pbicb Williams, M. Inst. G.E.

[Umd before tite StotbtacAl Sodetj, 16th June, 188a]

CONTENTS :

TkQM

The PopoUtion between 1700 and
1801 462

The PopnUtion between 1801 and
1871 464

The Population and Bate of In-
crease in the Principal Towns ... 466

The Popolation of Towna above
i,ooo and under io»ooo Inhabi-
tante „ 470

The Population of the Rural
Diatricti ^ 470

PAQX

Future Increaae of the Population

. of England and Wake ............

Estimate of the Census of 1881....

Future Inoreaae of the Population
of Oreat Britain in Connection
with the Question of the Coal

8«PPlj.. " -

Future Increase of the Population
of London 475

471

472

In order to realise the enormous increase in the population of
England and Wales during the present century, it is only necessary
to compare it with that of the preceding one.
'j In the ahsence of any census returns, the amount of the popu-
," lation prior to 1801, can only be approximately arrived at, from the
registers of births and deaths, and the poll and hearth tax returns :
the following results obtained in this way, under what are known
as the " Population Acts,*' afford the means of approximately
determining the amount of the population in each decade : —
Population of England and Wales, 1700-1801.

Toir.

PopokUoa.

InercMe.

Deorous.

Pergn^par

1700

No.
5475»ooo

5,240,000

5,565»ooo
5,796,000
6,064,000
6,467,000
6,736,000
7H^8,ooo
7.953,000
8,675,000
8,892,536

No.

826,000
281,000
268,000
403,000
269,000
692,000
625,000
722,000
217,636

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ir

Per cat

'10

DeoroMe.
- 4*92

»20

laereMe.
6*20

»80

4*15

'40

4*62

'60

6-64

'60

416

»70

10-27

'80

7*07

'90

908

1801

2*51

8,652,686
-236,000

235»ooo

+ 64-70
- 4-92

3,417,586

—

+ 40-78

ATorage deoenmal rate of increase

+ 4*98

4*97

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1880.] Williams— On Population in EngUmd and Wales. 463

Altbongh the results given in this table disprove the contention
of Dr. Price, that the population had been continnally declining in
England from the period of the Revolution nntil 1777, they show
v^ clearly that there was a considerable decrease in the first
decade, and that the increase daring the first half of the century
was very slight ; this is further confirmed by the small increase in
the value of the exports in the same period, as shown in the
following table : —

Year.

Exports.

Increase.

Rate of

Iiicreaseper

Decade.

■Imports*

Increase.

Rate of

Increase per

Decade.

1700....

'60....

•75 ....
1800....

6,097,120
10,130,990
16,326,363
38,120,120

4,088,871

6,195,872

22,798,767

Percnt

10*69
21-03
40-38

^7Sh777
7,289,582

14.815.855
30,570,605

2,485,805

7,526,278

15,745,750

Peront.

8-93
32-80

33*6i

The total increase in the value of the exports during the first
fifty years it will be seen only amounted to 4,033,871/., or to an
average increase of 10*69 P®^ cent, in each decade. The rate of
increase, however, in the next twenty-five years was much more
rapid, while during the last twenty-five years it amounted to as
much as 40 per cent, per decade.

It was not in fact until the first decade of the second half of
the last century, which witnessed the conclusion of the Seven
Years' War, the invention and introduction into common use of
the spinning jenny by Bargreaves, and the invention by Watt
of his earliest form of steam engine, that any indications are
afforded of that rapid increase of population which has so markedly
characterised the present centuiy; the increase in the decade
1760-70, however, amounted to as much an 10*27 per cent. In the
diminished rate of increase of the next decade viz., 7*07 per cent.,
may be traced the effects of the war with America which begun in
1773, and that which shortly followed with France.

It is however worthy of note, that it was about the middle
of this particular decade that Watt's steam engine, which has
indirectly had so large a share in promoting the increase of the
population of this country, began to be generally used on a large
scale in the manufacturing districts.* The effects of the general
adoption of steam power in manufactories, and of improvements in
machinery, are clearly indicated in the higher rate of increase of the
population (9*08 per cent.) which obtained in the next decade
(1780-90); and concurrently with all this, it should be observed
that the country was beginning to recover from the effects of the-
great stagnation of trade due to the American War.

* 1775. — Watt* 8 engines erected upon a large scale in manufactoriea, and hia
patent renewed bj Act of Parliament.

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464

Pbici Willumb — On the Increase of

[Sepi

The increase during the last ten years of the century, marked as
it was, as a period of war abroad, bad harvests* and troubles at home
was — ^with the exception of the actual decrease in the first decade—
the smallest which had occurred in any decade during the century.

The total increase in the population during the whole century
only amounted to 39417) $36, giving an average of 4*97 per cent, per
decide, an amount of increase which, as will be seen from the
following table, it took little more than the two first decades of the
present century to equal : —

PoptOation of England and WaUi, 1801-1871.

Period.

Yf^MtMm.

AmovBt of IncreiM.

Pcreentage of iMRMe.

1801

8»89*.53^
10,164,256
12,000,236
I3»89<^»797
I5»909i»3«
17,9*7,609
20,066,224
22,712,266

1,271^720
1,885,980
1,896,561
2,012,825
2,018,477
2,138,615
2,646,042

Pet cat.

14'30
1806
15*81
14-48
ia'69
11*93
13*19

'51

'61

^71

—

18,819,780

—

During ibe first decade of tiie present century (1801-11) the
population of England and Wales increased as nmch as 14*30 per
cout., while in the next decade (1811-21) it reached the maximum
attained in this century, viz., 18*06 per cent. : as from thai period
down to the census of 1861, the rate of increase of the population
has continuously diminished, the decrement during the several
decades being as follows : —

Deeiide.

Bito of Increuf .

Becremait in Rate

of lacnMt

ExpreiMd m a Percentace

oadMBataof iMMaM.

iMnmeai

Bate if latraaM.

1801-11

Per cot
14*30

Perent

Per cat

•11-21

1806
15-81

14-48
12-69

"•93.
»3i9

-12-46

- 8-41
-12-86

- 6-99

»21-81

—

'81-41

'41-51

»51-61

—

•61-71

+ 10*56

-29-22
+ 10-56

+ 10*56

6) -28-66
- 5-78

ATerage decrement for the fire de- "I
cadef taking the initial and V
terminals J

■» 6*09

• 1791

5 and 1797*

Digi

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1880.] Population in England and Wales. 465

A remarkable increment in the rate of increajse occurred, how-
ever, dnring the last decade (1861-71), to which further reference
will be made.

In order to ascertain the respective rates of increase or decrease
of the town and rural population, together with the decrements in
their rates of increase, the writer has for some years past been
engaged on the analysis of the census returns contained in the
accompanying tables, viz. : —

Tables -4* to -4".* — Population, and its rates of increase or de-
crease per cent, of each county in England and Wales for
each decade from 1801 to 1871, subdivided as follows : —

1st. — Large towns, containing a population of 20,000

inhabitants and upwards.
2nd. — Small towns, containing a population from 2,000

to 20,000 inhabitants.
3rd. — Rural districts, including small towns or places

with lees than 2,000 inhabitants.

Table B.f — Showing the aggregate population of the large
towns of 20,000 inhabitants and upwards in each county
in England and Wales, and the rates of increase or decrease
per cent, for each decade 1801-71. (Summarised from
Tables A^ to A^.)

Table C.f — Showing the aggregate population of the small towns
containing from 2,000 and under 20,000 inhabitants in each
county in England and Wales, and the rates of increase or
decrease per cent, for each decade 1801-71. (Summarised
from Tables A^ to A^^.)

Table D.f — Showing the aggregate population of large and
small towns combined, in each county in England and Wales,
and the rates of increase or decrease per cent, for each
decade 1801-71. (Summarised from Tables A^ to A^^. )

Table E.f — Showing the aggregate population of the rural dis-
tricts, including small towns or places with less than 2,000
inhabitants in each county in England and Wales, and the
rates of increase or decrease for each decade 1801-71.
(Summarised from Tables A^ to A*^.)

Table F,f — Showing the total population and the rates of in-
crease or decrease per cent, of each county in England and
Wales for each decade 1801-71. (Sunmiarised from Tables
Ai to AW )

Table O.f — Showing the population and rates of increase or
decrease per cent, of each town of 20,000 inhabitants and

* These tables are not printed. f See Appendix.

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466

Price Williams — On the Increase of

[Sept.

upwards, in England and Wales, for each decade 1801-71.
(Summarised from Tables A* to A^^.)

Population a/nd Baies of Increase in the Principal Tovms,

Attention has already been drawn to the fact that the maximum
rate of increase of the entire population of England and Wales
( 1 8*06 per cent.) occurred in t)ie decade 1811-21. In the case of

Summary of

Larfre Towns over 20,00a

Small Towns over 2,000 and nnder ao,ooa

Total

Decade.

Population.

Bute of
Increase

Cent.

ment
iu Rate of
Increase.

Increment

B^of

Increaae.

Popnlatkm.

Rate of
Increase

ment in
in Rate of Ratte of
Increase. Increase.

P^^mla.

tUA.

1801

2,404,158.
2,878,089 1
8,582,029 1
4.520.056 j
5,672.176 1
6,886.00H
8,218,209|
9.800.887^

1971 ^

24-46)

•2619-^

23-28;

23-56 ^

1936^
•19-25 ^

Per cnt.

-nil

-17-88
- 0-57

Per cnt.

+ 1-20

1,211,092.
1,869.767 <
1.680,0^1
1.874,112 1
2,107,662|
2..328,94H
2,499,061^
2.776.739

13-10
•1900 .
1498 <
12-46^
1050 I

•iix)7

Per cnt.

-21-16
-16-82
-1674
-80-38

Per cat.
+5144

8315,24i

•11

4v247,796

'21

S.212,0f75

»31

6.SHI67

»41

7,671^737 1

»51

9.213,943 '

'61

I0.7l7.2tt

I2.676.e6

-29-61
+ 1-20

+ 120

-8410
+ 61-44

+51-44

4) -28 81

5) -82 66

Average decri

•Averaec dec]
miiul

sment

- 7 08

- 6 58

_ *

rement. initia]

and ter-|

- 7-40

-10-24

The rates of increase of nearly all the most populous towns such
as Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham, attained their
maximum in the same decade as in the case of the aggregate town
population, yiz., 1821-31, the rate of increase of the population in

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1880.]

Population m England amd Wales.

467

the aggregate popnlation of the larger towns of over 20,000 inha-
bitants, it will be found that the maximum rate of increase, viz.,
26*19 per cent., occurred a decade later (1821-31): the rate of
inc|«ase from that time having continually diminished, the decre-
mental rate has, however, varied considerably, being as much as
1 1*1 1 per cent, in the following decade (1831-41), while in the next
there was even a slight increment in the rate of increase of 1*20 per
cent, as shown in the following table ; —

Tables B to E.

Town Population.

Rural Districts and Small Towns under 2,oc3a

Total Population of England and Wales.

Rate of

Decre-

Incre-

Rate of

Deere-

Increment

Rate of

Decre-

Incre-

Increaao

ment

ment in

Popula-

Increase

ment

Popula-

increase

ment

ment in

cS.',.

iu Rate of

Rate of

tion.

Cent.

in Rate of

Rate of

tion.

cS^Tt.

in Rate of

Rate of

Increase.

Per cut.

Per cnt.

6,2774891

1 1211
} '14 74
} 1052
} 969
} 5-88
} 729
} •8-41

Per cnt.

8,892.636

j 1430

Per cnt.

f 17-50

—

6,916,460

10.164,256

] •i8-o6

-»

} 22-70

J Kil

] -28-63
}- 789
] -39-32

} -12-46
} - 8-41
} -12-3d
j- 6-99

6.788.661

13.000,236

} 15*81
} 14-48
} 1269
} n-93
} •13-19

\ •2369

-11-42

7.602,630

13.896,797

} ao-io

- 0-60

8,239.895

16.909,132

} 19*98

} +23-98
} +15-36

■>

-1832

8.718,667

—

17.927.609

} 16-32

j+631

9.348,964

20,066,224

•+10-56

} •17-35

10.135.640

22.712.266

-80-34

+6-31

-76-84

+39-34

-8922

+ 10-56

+ 6 31

+39-34

+10-66

4) -24 08

i6) -36-60

6)-28 66

- 600

- 7 80

- 678

- 6-49

-10-62

- 6-09

those large towns, constituting about 75 per cent, of the entire
population of the large towns, practically governing the period of
the maximom rate of increase, as will be seen from a reference to
the following table : —

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468

Pwci Williams — On ihe Increase of [Sept.

Poprdaticn and RaU$ of Ineteom of PojmUtHon in the Frindpal

London ^

LdTefpool

Manonester

BirminghAm

Leedf

Sheffield

Bristol

WolTerbunpton ....

Bradford

Newcastle

Stoke-upon-Trent

Hull

Salford

Poriemouth

Oldham

Sunderland

Brighton

1801.

PopuhtioD.

Total

Deduct London ....

Total (ex-London) 625,095

958.863
82,195
76,788
70,670
53,162
45»755

30.584
i3.i<54
33*048
23.»78
29,580
18,088
33.»26
21,766
^4.998
7,440

1811.

Popnktioa.

1,583,958
958,863

Total

Deduct London .

Total (ex-London)

Total

Deduct London ....

Total (ex-London)

1.188,816
104,104
91,180
82,768
62,534
68,281
71,483
48,190
16,012
32,573
81,657
87,005
24,744
41,687
29,479
25,821
12205

lUteof
IncreNM

1,898,178
1,138,816

769,368

1877
26-50
i8'68
17*10
17*63
«^'34
1 6-8 1
4122
20-73
-»*44
35*57
25-10
3680
25*16
3543

3*29
64-05

1821.

Population.

19-84
18-77

1,378,947
138,354
129,036
101,722
88,796
66,276
85,108
63,011
26,307
41,794
40,237
44,520
32,600
46,748
38,201
31,891
24,741

ftateoT
IncreMe.

2,362,282
1.378,947

21*48

983,335

21*09
32-90
41-60
22-92
34-00
22-63
19-14

22*74

64-30

28-31

27*51
20*31

31*75
12*40

29*59

23*51

102-71

183L

Pbpnlfttioa.

2445
2 1 09

29*50

1,654,994

201,751

187,022

148,986

123,393

91,692

104,408

67,514

43,527

53,613

61,589

61,911

60,810

60,389

60,513

40,735

41,994

Rate of

3.009,841
1,654.994

1,364,847

20*02
45*82
44*93
4«*55
4725

40*47

22*68

27*36
65*46
28*29
28-21
1 6*60
55*86
7"8o
32*23
27*73
69*73

2741
20*02

37*77

8,892,536
958,863

7,933,673

10,164,256
1,138,815

9,025,441

14*30
18*77

13*76

12,000,236
1,378,947

10,621,289

18-06
2 1 09

17*68

13396,797
1,654,994

12,241.803

15*81

20'02

15*26

TorxL ov Labab

3,615,245
958,863

4,247,796
1,138,815

17*50
1877

6,212,075
1,378,947

22*70
21-09

6,394,167
1,654,994

22*68
20*02

2,656,382

8,108,981

1704

3,833,128

23*29

4,739,173

23*64

BiraLAJiD

The predominating influence of the immense population of
London as affecting the rates of increase of the aggregate town
population in England and Wales is also very noticeable.

In the case of some large towns, such as Wolverhampton,
Newcastle^n-Tyne, Hull, Merthyr, Sunderland, and Preston, the
period of maximum rate of increase occurred in the decade of
1831-41, while in the case of London itself, its period of maxi-
mum was reached in the next decade 1841-51. {Vide Appendix,
Table G.)

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1880.] PoptdaMon in Englcvnd and Wales.

Towns of Eng^nd and Wales, between 1801 and 1871.

469

1841.

1851.

1861.

1871.

Populition.

Rate of
Increase.

PopnlaUon.

Bate of
Increase.

Population.

Bate of
Increase.

Population.

Rate of
Increase.

1,948,417

1773

2,362,236

21-24

2,803,989

1870

3,254,260

16-06

London

286,487

4Z'oo

375,955

31*23

443,938

18-08

493,405

11-14

Ml^S^ter

242,988

29-92

316,213

30-14

857,979

13*21

879,374

5*97

182,922

27*04

232,841

27*29

296,076

27*16

343,787

1611

Birmingham

152,074

i3*H

172,270

13*28

207,165

20-26

259,212

25*12

Leeds

111,091

iri6

135,310

2 1 80

185,172

36-85

289,946

29*58

Sheffield

125,146

19-87

187,328

9*73

154,093

12-20

182,552

18-47

Bristol

93,245

3811

119,748

28-42

147,670

23*32

156,978

6*30

Wolvephampton

66,715

53-27

103,778

55*55

106,218

2*35

145,830

37*29

Bradfopd

70,337

3119

87,784

24-81

109,108

24*29

128,443

1772

Newcastle

68,444

32*67

84,027

22-77

101,207

20*45

124,493

23*00

Stoke-upon-Trent

67,308

29-66

84,690

25*82

97,661

15*32

123,408

26-37

Hull

68,386

34*59

86,108

24*45

102,449

20-38

121,401

18-50

Salfopd

53,032

5'24

72,096

35*95

94,799

31*49

113,569

1980

Portsmouth

60,451

19-67

72,357

19-70

94,344

30*39

113,100

19-88

Oldham

63,335

30-93

67,391

26-36

86,797

27*31

104,490

2179

Sunderland

49,170

1709

69,673

41-70

87,317

25*33

103,758

18-83

Brighton

3,699,54d

22-92

4,578,805

23*77

5,474,982

'9*57

6,388,006

16-68

Total

1,948,417

17*73

2,362,236

21-24

2,803,989

18-70

8,254,260

1606

Deduct London

1,751,126

29*25

2,216,569

26-58

2,670,993

20-50

3,133,746

17*32

Total (ex-London)

AND Small Towns.

7,679,737

20-I0

9,213,942

19-98

10,717,260

16-32

12,576,626

17*32

Total

1,948,417

17*73

2,362,236

21-24

2,803,989

18-70

3,254,260

1606

Deduct London

5,731,820

20-93

6,851,706

19*55

7,918,271

15*49

9,822,366

17*78

Total (ex-London)

AND Walbs.

15,909,132

14-48

17,927,609

12-69

20,066,224

"•93

22,712,266

13*19

Total

1,948,417

17*73

2,362,236

21-24

2,803,989

18-70

8,254,260

i6-o6

Deduct London

13,960,715

14-04

15,565,873

11-49

17,262,235

10-90

19,458,006

1272

Total (ex-London)

Several remarkable instances are also to be met with of large
increments occurring in the rates of increase of town populations
during the last decade (1861-71) : notably in the case of Leicester,
Dudley, Derby, Rochdale, and some few other towns. It should
be observed, however, that the alteration of the boundary in some
other cases explains the higher rate of increase in the last decade.

Decrements in the Bates of Increase in Town Population.
The decrements in the rates of increase of the town population

VOL. XLUr. PART III.

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470 Pbicb Williams — On the Increase of [Sept,

are clearly indicated by the carved ontlineB on the diagrams which
accompany this paper.* It is worthy of remark that in the case of
the population of London, the decrements are very slight indeed,
and the absence of the S shaped outlines of its population on the
diagram, so conspicuous a feature in the population diagrams of
most of the other large towns, shows that London has not yet
reached that declining stage in the rate of its increase of population
long since arrived at in the case of Liverpool, Manchester, and
many other large towns.

The PopulaHon of Tovms above Two Thousa/nd a/nd under Twenty
Thousand Inhabitants,
The increase in the population of these towns has been much
less rapid than in the case of the large towns, their aggregate
population having been little more than doubled in the course of
seventy years. Their maximum rate of increase, viz., 19 per cent.,
was reached, as in the case of the population of the rural districts,
to which reference will presently be made, in the decade 1811-21 ;
from that time down to the decade 1851-61, a rapid decrement of
84*10 per cent, occurred in this rate of increase, followed, however,
in the last decade, 1861-71, by a somewhat remarkable rise of
5 1 *44 per cent. The effect of this increase is clearly discernible in
adding an increment of 6*13 per cent, to the rate of increase of the
town population, and along with the increase observable in the case
of the rural population in this decade, materially affecting the rate
of increase of the entire population of England and Wales. (Vide
Summary of Tables B to E, p. 467.)

Population of the Rural Bietricts.
The increase in the population of the rural districts of England
and Wales during the first decade of this century was ii'ii per
cent., or very similar to that of the smaller towns, and as in that
case the maximum rate of increase (14*74) was reached in the
following decade (1811-21), from that time down to the period of
the census of 1851 the increase of the rural population was rela-
tively very small, having in a period of thirty years only increased
from 6,788,661 to 8,713,667, or 28*35 per cent., the decrement in the
rate of increase during that time being rapid and continuous. From
that period, however, up to 1871, there has been a rapid and con-
tinuous increment in the rate of increase, the effect of which,
combined with that due to the increase of the population of the
small towns, being such as to reduce in 1861 the decrement in the
rate of increase of the entire population of England and Wales to
5 '99 P®^ cent., and in the following decade of 1871 to cause an
increment of 10*56 per cent, in the rate of increase.
• See diagrams Plates 2 to 6.

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be \
ila- [

of I
idew/

1880.] Population in England and Wales. 471

Tlie canse of the slow increase of the mral population between
1821 and 1851, is evidently in a great measure due to immigration j
into the towns ; this will at once be seen on referring- to the |
diagrams, and comparing the outlines showing the rates of increase I
of the town, rural, and total populations. It will not fail to be \
noticed that the periods of greatest increase in the town popula-
tions are coincident with those of greatest decrease in the case (
the mral population. This is especially noticeable in the decade «
1841-51, as may be seen from a reference to the first diagram on
Plate 2, which shows that the aggregate population of the towns,
which up to this period was considerably less than the population
of the mral districts, equalled it about the middle of the decade,
and at the end of the decade considerably exceeded it.

Futwre Increa$e of the Population of England and Wales,.

It is unnecessary here to refer to the checks on the increase of
population due to the limited area for food production in this
country, as since Malthus's time, through the largely increased
transit facilities afforded by the introduction of steam navigation,
there is practically no limit to the area from which the food
supplies of this country can be obtained, so long at least as those
facilities for cheap and rapid communication with the great food
producing countries of the world continue.

The rate of the future increase of the population of this country
depends necessarily to a great extent upon the continuous growth
of its trade and conmierce, and upon the further development of
that remarkable industrial activity which has been brought about
during the last forty years, in a great measure by the agency of
railways and steam navigation.

It cannot, however, be expected that liiere wiH be a repetition
during the next forty years of the same rapid rate of commercial
development which has been experienced during the last, and
which has resulted from the creation as it were, in that short time
of an entirely new and rapid system of Ibcomotion ; still by means
of the improvements which are continnally being made in
mechanical appliances, and ihe economies resulting therefrom
there is everything to indicate that the population of this country
will continue to mcrease at the diminished or decremental rate
which has occurred since the rate of increase of the population
attained its maximum.

In the writer's opinion, in estimating the future population of
England and Wales, it is putting it at its highest to assume a
continuation of the 573 per cent, decrement, which during the last
fifty years has obtained in the rate of increase of the population.

2i2

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472

Pbiok Williams — On the Increate cf

[Sept.

Estimate of the Gensus of 1881.

The following estimates of the population of England and
Wales for the censns year 1881 have been prepared bj the writer
on the basis indicated in this paper : —

Population of the large towne qf 20,000 inhabi-'
tante and mpwanUf awtuned to inereaM in 1871 at |
the ayerage deoremental rate of large townt, -viz^
7' 10 percent

Popnlation qf the email towne wUh over 2,000 and^
under 20,000 inhabitante^ awmning the rate of I
increase of theie townt during the last decade, |
1871, vii., iro7 percent., to oontinne J

Population of the rural dietrictt^ including $mdir\
towne under 2,000 inhabitante, aflsnming the
aTerage decrement in the increment of the rate of >- 1 1,08 2,3 3 9t
increase of the last two decades, rii., 34*237 per

» cent.,* to continue J

11,771,491

3,082,970

Total population of England and Wales in 1881 25,936,800

The population of England and Wales, assuming thel

average decremental rate of increase of the total I - . , - q^-j
popuUtion during the last fifty years to continue, j *5»535»oo^
▼«.» 5*73 P«r ^^^ J ^^^^^^^

In the opinion of the writer, the estimated increase of the
popnlation of the small towns, viz., 1 1*07 per cent., is too high, and
probably the actual population will amount to a mean of the two
results, via., 25,735,900.

Future Increase of the Population of Oreat Britain in connection with
the Question of the Coal Supply.

In the estimate of the future population of Oreat Britain pre-
pared by the writer for the Commissioners appointed to inquire into
the question of the coal supply, and given at p. xv of their
report to the Queen, the average decrement in th& rate of increase
of the population which has obtained from the period when it

ItAte of increase. 1841-51

Percenttee
BatT
of InereMtt.

Increment
percent

DecretM

in Inerement

per Cent

5*88 1

8-44 {
t9*3i5 ^

28-98.
16-77 1
10-87 J

'61-61

•61-71

- 34'i37

- 34"»37

*7l-81

It #*-v»*

t Eural population 1871, 10,137,987 x 1*09315 «» 11,082,339.

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1880.] Population in Sngland and Wales, 473

attained its maximum, 1811-21, down to the tmie of the last census
of 1871, was employed as a means of determiping the rates of
increase in future decades.

In order more accurately to ascertain the rates of increase of
the population during each decade of the present century, the Boyal
Commissioners included the army, navy, and the seamen belong-
ing to the merchant seryioe, which were omitted in the census
returns prior to 1841, the military at home in that year being for
the first time included, while persons on board vessels in the navy
or merchant service, and lying in harbours, creeks, and rivers, were
for the first time included with the mihtary in the later census
returns of 1851, 1861 and 1871.*

The population, however, of Great Britam for 1871, given in
the before-mentioned tables in the Goal Commissioners' report, and
which was furnished to them just prior to the publication of the
preliminary census report of 1871, proves to have been somewhat
.^hort of the actual numbers f given in the complete census returns
pf 1871 ; in addition to this, the army, navy, and seamen employed
in the merchant service have not, as in the case of the previous
decades, been included in these tables for the decade of 1871 ; the
effect of this both upon the rate of increase of the population
during that particular decade, and also upon the average decrement
in the rate of the increase of the population during the period of
fifty years, being very appreciable (see Tables H and I).

An amended estimate of the future increase of the population of
Cb^at Britain, based on these corrected figures, is given in Table L
in the Appendix, p. 493, and graphically shown on diagram, Plate 8.

Estimates of the future increase of the populations of England
and "Wales, and of 3cotlaQd, are given separately in Tables M and N
in the Appendix, pp. 494 and 495, the average decrement in the
rates of increase of the population of each kingdom during the last
fifty years being employed in each case in determining the rates of
increase in the future decades.

The combined results obtained by thus separately estimating
the future increase of the respective populations of i^e two king-
doms during a long period of years, are somewhat in excess of that
obtained in the case of the aggregate population of the two
kingdoms ; in the latter case the initial rate of increase is consider-
ably less, and the rate of decrement more rapid.

The effect of this combination of the populations of the two
kingdoms at once reduces the initial rate of increase of the total

* See fbot note p. z* Sammaiy Table Censiis 1871, vdL i.

f Population, Great Britain 26,071,284

„ Coal Commissioners' veport ^,» 26,062,721

Diffiwenoe ^ 9,563

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474

Pbici Williams — On the Increase of

[Sept.

population in 1871 from 12*990 per cent, in the case of England
and Wales, to 12*533 per cent, when combined with that of
Scotland, and at the same time it increases the decrement in the
rate of increase from 4*595 per cent, to 4740 per cent, per
decade.

The conclusions which, in the opinion of the writer, are to be
drawn from these ^ts are, that the larger the area of population
dealt with, the more accurate and reliable will be any estimates
which are made to determine the future increase of that population*

The decrement in the rate of increase of the population of
London which has only obtained during the two last decades
scarcely affords, in the opinion of the writer, sufficient data for
estimating its future increase for any lengthened period, and that
giiren in Table 0 in the Appendix, and diagram Plate 9, has been
made rather with the object of showing the unreliableness of any
such enormous estimates as those which have recently appeared in
connection with the question of the water supply of the metropolis,
where the population in the course of the next centuiy is estimated
at over .17 millions.

Table shewing the Population of England and WaleSy Scotland and Great Britain

Islands in the
[Extracted from the Census Retmnis for

Decade.

England and Wakt,

Popnbtion.

Bate of

Increase per

Decade.

Deeremant

in Rate
of Increaae.

SeoUand.

Popnlatum.

Rate of

Increase per

Deeade.

DecrcBeat

in Rate
of Increase.

1801..
11..
'21..
'31..
'41..
*51..
'61..
71..,

No.

'0»454»5i9'(
1 2,1 72,664 1
14,051,9861
16,035,198 1
18,054,170 1
20,228,497 1

22,856,164

Cerent
14180

•16*484
15-488
14113
12*591
12*048

•12-990

Percnt.

— 6'o6o
-8-582

.z-725|ii

-2*7*5'
-2*7251

No.
1,678,452-.

1,884,044!

2,137,3251
2,405,610 1
2,652,339!
2,922,362

3,096,808
3,392,559

Percnt.
12-248
•13*444
12*553
10-257
10181^
5-969 1
•9-550-^

5)-22*8i7

Average dimination of rate perl
dec^e J

'Initial and terminal periods

- 4563

- 4*595

Arerage diminution of 1
rate per decade j

• Initial and terminal 1
periods J

Parent.

- 6-627

- 18-291

- 0-741

- J'48 li

5)-3«"9S5

- 6"39«

— 6"6io

t This population was subsequently given in the completed census, published in 1878, as

Digitized by ^

1880.]

PopuUition in England and Wales.

475

Future Increase of the Poptdation of London,

The population of London, and its remarkable growth during
the present centnrj, affords in itself the subject of a paper, and as
a small contribution towards this the writer has prepared certain
tables and diagrams, viz.: —

1st. Sectional Diagp*ams showing the population and rates of
increase or decrease of population in each district, sub-district, or
parish within the registrar-general's district from 1801 to 18714

2nd. Diagram map, showing the rates of increase or decrease
of population in each district, sub-district, or parish within the
registrar-general's district from 1801 to 18714

3rd. Diagram map, showing the number of persons per acre in
each district, sub-district, or parish within the registrar-general's
district, from 1801 to 1871.$

4th. Diagram map, showing the number of persons per acre in
population in each district, sub-district, or parish within the
registrar-general's district from 1801 to 1871.$

5th. Estimate of the prospective increase of the population of

London. (Table 0 in the Appendix.)

(indvding the Army^ Navy^ Marines^ and Merchant Seamen^ hut exduding the

British Seas,)

1871, general table, toI iv. Table i, p. 6.]

Great Britain.

Population.

Rate of

Increase per

Decade.

Decrement in

Bute
of Increase.

Great Britain.

Coal Com.

missioners' Report

Popolation.

(Table No. II,
p. XT, Report 1871).

Rate of

Increase per

Decade.

Decrement

in Rate
of Increase.

Decade.

No.
10,834,623 ^

I4»309»989|
16,457,596 1
18,687,537!
20,976,53*1
23»325»305(
26,248,723-'

Ayerage diminution of 1
rate per decade J

^initial and tenninall
periods J

Percnt.

' 6-065

• 9'7ax

■ 2-562

• 2-562 <

• 2-562

No.

12,338,573 -I

I4»309»989 I

16457,596 I

18,687,537 (

20,976,532 I

23»3 25*305 I
26,062,72 if •'

Percnt

16-977 .
16-008 i
18-648 i
12-248 I
11-187 I
11-736 J

Per cnt

- 6-065

- 9-721

- 9*595

- 8-588
+ 4*814

1801
11
'21
'31
»41
^61
'61
'71

5) -23-472

-33*969
+ 4-814

4*694
4*740

5) -29-155

Average diminution ofl
rate per decade j

- 5*831

26,072,284; the army and navy, Ac., 176,439, being omitted;— total, 26,248,723.

J Not given with this pap«r. Digitized by CjOOglC

476

Peicb Wiluams — On ihs Inerea$e of

[Sept

Afpehdix.* Tablb B.^England ami WaUs. Aggreffaie Populationy and Increase or

County.

Bedford

Berks

Buckingham

Cambriage

Chester ,

Cornwall

CnmberlaDd

Derby

Devon

Dorset «

Durham

Essex

Olouoester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Jjanoaster

Leicester

Lincoln ,

Middlesex

MonmouUi ,

Norfolk

Northampton

Northumberland ,

Nottingham

Oxford

Butland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton ..

Stafford

Suffolk.

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland ,

WUts

Worcester

York, E.,N., and W.B,

Total

Wales.

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen ,

Carnarvon ,

Denbigh

Flint

G-lamorgan ,

Merion^ ,

Montgomery ,

Pembroke

Badnor ,

Total

Total England & Wales

1801.

No.

3.095

9»74*

"6,993

10,087

39»4i4
NU

9»4>5

10,83 a

53,2i»
»5»430
91,961
Nil

96,024

304*855
17.005
10,3*40

75«.753
1,423

7,020
51,078
28,801
11,694
NU
31,043
33,196
41.139
72,759
11,277
161,642
26,526
87,019
NU

22.139

28,370
211,884

2,382,039

22,114
NU

22,114

2,404,153

1811.

No.

8,716
10,788
18,486
11,108
46,779

11,476
18,043
76,806

NU
69,014
17.449
108,206

123,267

386,271
23,463
13,141

874,996

3,026

66,704

8,427

66,409

34,030

12,931

33,630
38,408
61,204
96,663
13,670

202,941
34,743

101,219
NU
23,777
36,492

248,974

2,848,674

29,366

2,878,039

IneresM.

Percnt

20*07

10*74

8*49

10*I2
18*69

21*89
20*41
24-19

10*90
13*08
1767

28*36

26*37
37*92
27*09
16*39
112*58

613

20*04

8*48

18-15

10*58

8*34
15*70
24*47
3284

21*22

25*55
30*98
16*32

7*40
28*63

17*51

19*59

32-79

32*79

19*71

1821.

4,629
12,867
21,717
14,142
60,734

NU
14,416
17,423
86,616

70,867

19,898

134,844

141,722

616,780
31,086
16,178
1,062,319
4,961
71,296
10,793
70,820
40,190
16,364
NU
37,119
46,700
60,096

118,218
17,186

269,7H
63,674

126,363
NU

27,028
46,678

322,486

3,642,663

39,376

3,682,029

Percnt
21*88
19-27
17*80

27*31
29^83

2';-62
33*58
13*51

20*09

14*04
24*61

14*98
33*08
32-33
1554
20*27

63*67
25*73
28*07
27*81
18*10
26^55

10*37
21*59
1737
22*31
25*72
27*97
54*20
23*84

13*67
27*91
29*53

24*36

34*09

2446

1831.

No.

6,698
16,696
24,162
20,917
74,137

18,866

23,627

107,368

90,927

23,168

167,282

162,296

721,806
40,639
17,806
1,262,967
7,062
86,661
16,361
83,396
60,220
20,649
NU
38,732
60,800
69,713

160,888
20,201

327,820
77,447

177,493
NU
29,118
68,076

487,064

4,466,916

63,140

4,620,066

lucieii

Percnt.
25*70
21 '20
11*26

47*91
22*07

30*86
35*61
23*95

28-31
16-38
24*06

1452
39*95
30-94
17-31
19*07
42*64
20-14
42-24
17*76
24*96
26*19

4*34
8-78
16*00
27-6J.
17*54
26*33
44*56
41*60

7*73
24*42

35*53

26*09

34*96

26*19

* Tablea A^ to A**, oonlaiiiiug puticQlart of the population, ntet of increase, fcc, of the town and

1880.] Population in England and Wales. 477

Dtoreane per Cent, of the Large Towns ofwer ao,ooo InhaUtanU between 1801 and 1871.

1841.

Increue

1861.

InoeMe.

1861.

Increase.

1871.

Increue

Cooniy.

No.

Percnt.

No.

Per cnt.

No.

Percnt.

No.

Percnt.

7,748

36*10

12,787

65*04

17,821

39*37

20,733

x6*34

Bedford

18,987

21-43

21,456

13*30

^5,046

16*73

32,313

29*02

Berks

26,887

4-86

26,794

5*75

27,090

1*10

28,760

6*16

Buckineham
Cambridge

24,458

16*90

27,815

13*75

26,861

-5*23

33,996

28*96

118,212

59*45

176,878

48*78

198,642

12*94

210,784

6*11

Chester

—

CornwaU

21,550

14*23

26,310

22*09

29,417

11*81

81,049

S'55

Cumberland

82,741

38*57

40,609

24*03

43,091

6*11

61,881

42*45

Derby

123,265

14*82

164,542

25*37

185,550

21*17

200,008

7*79

DeTon

Nil

..^

Dorset

117.290

28-99

143,225

22*12

183,769

28-30

253,271

37*82

Durham

25,480

10*13

80,029

17-85

39,803

32-55

49,629

24*69

Essex

194,549

16*30

208,914

7-38

229,808

9*76

265,681

45*86

Gloucester

Hereford

))

—

Hertford

—

„

—

Huntingdon

206,228

28*30

253,864

21*91

339,460

33*72

392,877

15*59

Kent

966,797

33*94

1,239,702

28*23

1,475,422

19*01

1,713,250

16*12

Lancaster

50,806

25*02

60,584

»9'25

68,056

12*33

95,220

39*91

Leicester

20,594

15*66

29,796

44*68

36,059

21*02

68,748

49*06

Lincoln

1,458,406

1599

1,755,429

20*78

2,044,772

16-49

2,306,800

1 2*8 1

Middlesex

,10,815

53*»5

19,323

78*68

23,249

20*32

27,069

16*43

Monmouth

90,209

5*3*

99,592

10-40

109,701

1015

122,205

11*40

NorfoUt

21,242

38-38

26,657

25*49

82,818

23*10

45,080

37*39

Northampton
Northum )er1and

102,913

23 '40

126,966

23*08

156,923

23*88

197,628

25*94

52,164

3-87

67,407

10*05

74,693

30*11

86,621

>5*97

Nottingham

24,258

17*48

27,843

14*78

27,660

— 1'02

31,404

13*95

Oxford

—

Rutland

39,534

2*07

43,692.

10*52

47,874

8*43

44,614

-5*83

Salop

63,196

4*72

64,240

1*96

52,528

-3*16

58,714

2-26

Somerset

80,776

15*87

107,401

32*96

141,759

3>*99

167,810

1802

Southampton

203,389

34*79

269,105

3231

340,558

26*55

892,575

15*27

Stafford

25,884

25*66

32,914

29*66

37,950

15*30

42,947

13*17

Suffolk

899,247

21*79

482,485

20*84

579,748

20*17

742,155

28*01

Surrey

89,425

15*46

117,237

31*10

142,849

21-85

175,079

22*56

Sussex

226,818

27*79

285,877

25*82

355,125

24*44

406,046

14*34

Warwick

—

Westmoreland

35,409

21-61

85,503

0*27

36,893

3*91

43,622

18*24

WUts

73,663

26*84

83,952

U'97

91,601

9*11

141,179

54*12

Worcester

556,628

27*36

694,781

H-8I

838,789

20*74

1,144,359

36-43

York,E.,N.,iMidW.R.

5,494,463

23*00

6,772,109

23*25

8,059,774

19*01

9,612,601

19*27

Total

Walbs.

—

.—

—

Anglesey

—

Brecon

...

—

Cardigan

—

— .

Carmarthen

„

—

Carnarvon

»t

—

Denbigh

„

—

„

—

»i

—

Flint

77,712

46*24

112,892

45*27

158,486

40*35

188,286

18*84

Glamorgan

—

Merioneth

—

Montgomery

))

—

))

—

Pembroke

»»

—

Badnor

77,712

46*24

112,892

45*27

158,435

40*35

188,286

18*84

Total

5,572,175

23*28

6,886,001

23*56

8,218,209

19*36

9,800,887

19*25

TotalEngland&Walet

rural, and total population of each county in England and Wales from 18Ul to 1871, are not printed.

30gk

478 Price Williams— On the Increase of [Sept.

Table Q,— England and Wales. Aggregate Population, and Increase or Decrease per

Coantj.

1801.

1811*

luenut.

1821.

1831.

Bedford

Berks

Buctingham

Cambridge

Chester

Cornwall

Cumberland ,

Derby

DeTon ,

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford ,

Hertford ,

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton

Northumberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Rutland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick ,

Westmoreland

Wilts

Worcester

York,E.,N.,&W.B.

Total

Walks.

Anglesey ,

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen ,

CamarTon

Denbigh

Flint

Glamorgan

Merioneth ,

Montgomery ,

Pembroke

Kadnor ,

Total

Total England & Wales

No.

10,235

28,895

13,786
17,775
46,407
35»oio

2^,220

59^993
35,539
14,694
28,339
23,974
15,618
21,676
10,926
50,345
70,35*
"9,383
4*»H*
3,861

8,374
30,282
18,586

14,673
18,295
20417
3,055
45»*9i
35,637
39,785
40,539
21,886

26,497
29,040
21,093
8,015
64,426
12,697
86,722

No.
11,529
31,520
25,472
15,540
21,688
58,025
40,148
28,053
65,702
39,470
15,400
81,561
26,672
16,438
25,165
12,759
64,566
83,988
22,601
60,053

4,458

9,408
31,813
20,193
16,306
20,439
22,188

3,203
48,512
38,134
43,149
45,505
23,449
29,599
37,559
23,144

8,793
66.704
13,494
98,487

Per mt.
I2'64

9-09
15*67
1272
22*01
14*26
14*68
208 1

952
iro6

4*80

"•37
11*26

i6*io

16*78

28*25

19*40

i6'6o

18*49

»5*33

12-35

5*o6

865

1113

11-72

8*68

4-85
7-II
7'oi
8*46
12*25

7-14
11*71

29*34
9*72
9*71
3*54
628

13*57

No.
14,351
35,092

19,079
28,419
65,634
48,662
85,038
78,352
47,333
19,639
36,456
30,340
19,710
80,394
14,575
70,489

105,365
26,487
61,380
4,707
11,148
37,997
23,596
18,389
23,576
25,378
3,790
52,333
45,103
51,045
53,644
27,732
84,320
44,365
28,789
10,438
79,740
15,099

117,072

Per eat

24*48
11*33
10*95

22*72

3104
2378
21*21
24*90
19*25
19*92
27*53
15*51
13*75
19*94
2078

14*23
9*10

25*44
17*20
22*63
5*70
1850

19*44

16*85

12*77
15*35
14*35
18-33
7*88
18*27
18*30

17*89
18*27

1595
18*12

24*39
18*71

19*54
11*89
18*90

No.

17,320

89,299

31,214

22,714

89,668

80,049

51,333

41,692

89,068

53,548

21,860

41,898

85,202

23,277

34,476

16,514

81,985

125,849
82,763
70,522
5,529
13,127
43,832
26,172
19,685
27,943
27,421
4,147
58,991
51,678
57,643
59,148
81,213
89,825
50,157
33,441
11,677
86,629
17,076

129,947

1,139,601

1,285,877

1284

1,523,261

18*46

1,745,432

6,283
1,583
5,989
8,112
8,620

9»755
6,384

<,477

9,355
8,094

1,839

7,047

2,247

6,695

10,487

10,618

10,672

7,393

6,059

11,756

9,069

1,837

1216
41*95
11*79
29*28
23*18
9*40
15*81
10*63

25*67

12*05

— o*io

71,491

83,880

17*33

9,364

2,906

8,758

12,997

13,666

12,071

9,300

6,698

15,596

13,331

2,098

~i06,785

32*88

2933
30*81

23*93

28*71

1311
25*79
10*55

32*66
4699
14*21

10,552

8,343

10,162

16,135

16,919

13,695

11,008

9,082

19,543

15,883

2,358

27*31

128,680

1,211,092

1,369,757

13*10

1,630,046

19*00

1,874,112

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Population in England and Wales.

479

Cent of the SmaU Toums of 1,000

and under 20,000

Inhabitants between 1801 and 1871.

1841.

Increase

1861.

Increnie

1861.

Increase.

1871.

Increase

Goonty.

No.

Per cnt.

No.

Per cnt.

-JXo.

Per cnt.

No.

Per cnt.

21,532

24*3 a

26,168

2i'53

29,640

1289

84,889

16*25

Bedford

48,985

"•93

45,065

2-46

46,669

3*54

62,959

13*50

Berks

82,979

5*66

84,064

3*26

88,620

-1*27

85,286

4*95

Buckineham
Cambridge

25,747

I3'35

29,960

16*36

26,882

— 10*27

27,856

1*76

48,595

22-50

64,982

13*04

64,098

16*69

67,968

6*03

Chester

98,180

22*65

108,510

10*52

116,354

6-31

118,637

276

Cornwall

63,720

461

60,282

12*12

62,708

4*11

65,176

3*93

Cumberland

63,079

2731

68,048

18*78

77,448

22-84

79,090

2*12

Derby

96,235

8-05

102,290

6*29

101,762

-0*52

106,930

5*o8

DeTon

58,362

8*99

68,008

7*95

64,406

2*23

66,920

3*90

Dorset

29,078

33*oo

89,066

34*37

46,848

17*35

61,448

12*21

Durham

46,928

1201

64,105

>5*29

67,686

6*34

64,449

12*02

Essex

87,442

6-36

89,847

6*42

88,148

-4*26

40,926

7*28

Gloucester

24,577

5'5^

25,968

5*64

81,187

20*12

88,272

6-69

Hereford

40,794

18-33

46,259

13*40

49,282

6*53

63,706

8*98

Hertford

17,969

8-8i

19,930

10*91

19,908

— o*ii

20,161

1*22

Himtingdon

90,816

10*26

104,816

»5'4i

117,966

«2*55

146,802

24*02

Kent

149,848

19-07

171,860

14*35

206,954

20-77

248,163

19*91

Lancaster

83,760

304

86,207

4*29

84,998

— o*6i

87,606

7*46

Leicester

82,630

17-17

98,036

>2*59

92,088

-1*07

98,192

6*69

Lincoln

6,706

3-20

6,818

1*88

6,986

2*96

7,028

17*34

Middlesex

14,141

7*72

16,648

9*95

16,824

-1*44

16,644

>*44

Monmouth

48,849

11*44

65,280

I3*x6

61,589

-617

62,876

2*59

Norfolk

29,546

12-89

81,647

71 1

86,491

»5*3i

46,098

26*31

Northampton
Northumberland

19,204

-2*44

22,418

16*71

20,616

-8-02

20,828

-1*39

29,690

6*25

82,688

10*10

88,670

2*70

87,688

12*10

Nottingham

82,105

17*08

82,484

1*18

88,801

4*05

86,808

5*92

Oxford

4,760

14-78

6,099

7*12

6,146

0*90

6,690

»o'59

Kuthmd

64,086

8-64

66,027

>'47

69,919

7*52

78,780

5*52

Salop

58,207

12*63

60,294

3*59

60,941

1*07

68,810

3*89

Somerset

68,083

i8*ii

78,764

15*69

85,620

8*71

101,436

1 8*47

Southampton

68,265

i5*4»

77,547

13*60

87,080

12*29

94,747

881

Stafford

33,517

7-38

86,196

7*99

86,251

-2-61

87,804

724

Suffolk

46,332

16*34

62,838

14*03

68,786

30*19

91,856

32*81

Surrey

64,979

9*62

67,780

5*oo

69,606

3*25

71,221

19*49

Sussex

85,044

4*79

41,764

19*15

42,989

2*84

43,868

0*99

Warwick

11,519

-0*50

11,829

2*69

12,029

1*69

13,446

11-78

Westmoreland

91,567

5*70

89,928

-1*80

87,947

— 2*20

90,987

3*46

Wilts

18,291

711

19,019

3-98

18,850

—0*89

22,012

16-78

Worcester

142,049

9*31

166,078

9*87

174,436

11*77

196,980

12*92

York,E.,N.,&W.E.

1,962,191

1242

2,164,811

10*32

2,822,206

7*27

2,570,198

10*68

Total

Wales.

10,396

-1*48

12,752

22*66

18,275

4*io

13,672

2*99

Anglesey

6,317

59*05

6,070

14* 16

6,689

-7*10

6,291

11*56

Brecon

11,296

1116

11,760

4*11

11,646

-0*97

14,486

2438

Cardigan

18,053

11-89

21,161

17*22

23,294

io*o8

27,630

18-62

Carmarthen

19,003

12*32

22,210

16*88

22,907

3*14

27,640

20*23

Carnarvon

15,450

12*82

16,614

7*54

17,888

7*67

20,228

13*05

Denbigh

14,588

32-52

14,509

-0*54

14,561

0-36

18,958

30*20

Flint

11,140

22-66

16,302

37*36

18,027

17*81

26,869

4622

Glamorgan

—

Merioneth

19,700

o*8o

18,901

—4*06

19,268

1*94

19,480

1*10

Montgomery

17,950

13*01

22,508

25*39

28,079

24*75

28,718

2*28

Pembroke

2,478

5*09

2,846

-5*37

2,262

-3*54

2,190

-3*18

Badnor

145,871

12*97

164,130

12*90

176,846

7*75

206,546

16*23

Total

2,107,562

12*46

2,828,941

10*50

2,499,051

7-31

2,776,739

11*07

Total Enghind&Walei

Digitized by ^

430

Peice WiLLLLMS— 0» the Inerecue of

[Sept.

Tablx D. — England and WaUi, Aggregate Population, and Inerea»e or DtertoM

County.

1801.

1811.

InereMe.

1821.

Increate.

1881.

Bedford

Berks

BucluDffhani

Oambridge

Chester

ComwuU

Ciunberland

Derby

DeTon

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton

Northumoerland

Nottingham

Oxford

Rutland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland

wats

Worcester

York, E.,N., and W.R.

Total

Wales.

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen

Camarron

Denbigh

Flint

Glamorgan

Merioneth

Montgomery

Pembroke

Radnor

Total

Total England & Wales

No.

13.330
38.637
39.014
13,873
57.189
46.407
44.4^5
34.05a
»a«,437
35.539
67,906

43.769

"5.935

15.618

ai.676

10,926

146.369

375.107

36,388

51.582

755.614

9.797

83.709

15,606

65.751
47,096
31.111
3,055
76,334
68,833
80,9 Z4

113,198
33.163

188,139
55.566

108,112

8,015

86,565

41,067

298,606

No.

15,246
42,308
43,907
26,648
68,467
53,025
51,624
41,096

142,008
89,470
74,414
49,010

134,878
16,433
25,165
12,759

187,828

469,259
46,054
63,194

879,448
12,433
88,517
28,620
71,715
54,469
35.119
3,203
82,142
76,542
94,353

142,158
37,119

232,540
72,302

124,363

8,793

90,481

49,986

. 347,461

Percnt

14*37
950

11*55
11*62

19*71
14*26
16*20
20*67

16*94
11 06

9*58
11-97
1 6*33

i6'io
16-78
28*32
15*07
16*56

20*l8

16-39

26*91
5*74

11*77
9*07

15*66
9*37
485
7*61

11*20
16*60
15*48

11*93
23*60
30- 1 2
15*03
9*71
4*53

21*72
16*36

No.

18,880
47,959
49,977
33,221
89,153
65,634
63,078
52,461

164,968
47,838
90,506
56,354

165,184
19,710
30,394
14,575

212,161

621,145

57,528

76,558

1,057,026

16,099

109,292
34,389

68,766

41,737
8,790

89,452

91,803
111,141
171,862

44,918
294,034

97,989
154,142

10,438
106,768

61,777
439,558

Per cat

13*84

13*36

13*83

H*67

30*21

13*78

22*19

27-67

15*81

19*92

21*62

14*90
22*46

19*94
20*78

1413
12*^6

31*37
24*90

1115
20*19

19*49
13*47
20' 1 6

14*39
17*07
18*84

18*33
8*90

19*94
17*79
20*89
21*01
26*44
35*46
13*95
18*71
18*00

13*59
16*51

Ko.

28,013
54,894
55,376
48,681

113,805

^^6,049

■^70,218

65,319

196,426
53,548

112,787
65,066

^02,484
28,277
84,476
16,514

244,281

847,654

78,402

88,828

1,258,496

20,189

129,488
41,523

108,081

78,163

48,070

4,147

97,728

102,478

127,356

210,036
51,414

867,645

127,604

210,934
11,577

115,747
76,152

567,011

3,521,640

4,134,551

17*41

5,065,914

^i'Sx

6,212,347

6,283
1.583
5.989
8,112
8,620
9,755
6,384
17.591
NU

9,355
8,094

1.839

7,047

2,247

6,695

10,487

10,618

10,672

7,393

35,424

11,756

9,069

1,887

12*16

41*95
11*79
29*28
23*18
9*40
15*81

18*39

15*67
11*05

— O'lO

9,864

2,906

8,758

12,997

18,666

12,071

9,300

46,07^

15,596

13,331

2,098

31*88
19*33
30*81

1^93
28*71

1311

15*79
30*06

3266

46*99
14*21

10,552
8,843
10,162
16,136
16,919
13,695
11,008
62,222
NU
19,548
15,883
2,858

93.605

113,246 I 20*98

146,161

29*07

181,820

3,615,145

4,247,796

17*50

6,212,075

22*70

6,394,167

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Population in Bnglcmd and Wales.

481

per Cent, of the Large and Small Town* combined, between 1801 and 1871.

1841.

Increase

1861.

Inaease

1861.

Increase

1871.

Increase

Conntji

No.

Percnt

No.

Percnt.

Ko.

Per cnt.

No.

Percnt.

29,280

*7-23

38,965

33*04

47,861

21*58

65,072

16-28

Bedford

62,022

I4'6a

66,521

5*72

71,704

7*79

85,272

1892

BerkB

58,316

5*31

60,848

4*34

60,710

-0-23

64,046

5*49

Buckingham

50,200

15-06

57,775

15*09

53,248

-7*84

61,362

15*23

Cambridge

166,807

46-58

230,810

38*37

262,740

13*83

278,747

6-09

Chester

98,180

22*65

108,610

10-52

^ 116,364

6-31

118,637

2*76

Cornwall

75,270

719

86,542

14*98

92,126

6*45

96,224

4*45

Cumberland

, 86,820

3139

103,657

20-78

120,539

16*29

140,471

i6*53

Derby

219,500

11-74

256,832

i6*io

287,312

12-75

306,988

6-83

Devon

58,362

8*99

63,008

7*95

64,406

2*23

66,920

3*90

Dorset

146,863

29-77

182,291

H'SS

229,612

25*96

804,714

32*71

Durham

72,408

ii*30

84,134

16*19

97,338

13*07

114,078

44*92

Essex

231,991

1458

248,761

7*23

267,451

7*51

306,606

14-64

Gloucester

24,577

5*58

25,963

5*64

31,187

20-12

33,272

6-69

Hereford

40,794

1833

46,259

13*40

49,282

6*53

53.706

8-98

Hertford

17,969

8-81

19,930

10*91

19,908

— o-ii

20,151

1*22

Huntingdon

299,044

22-42

358,679

19*94

467,426

27*53

538,679

17*76

Kent

1,116,646

31*73

1,411,062

26*37

1,682,376

19*23

1,961,413

16*58

Lancaster

84,566

i5'?«

95,791

13*27

103,049

7*58

132,825

2890

Leicester

103,224

16-86

122,832

18*99

128,097

4-29

161,940

18-61

Lincoln

1,469,112

«5*94

1,761,242

20-70

2,050,767

16-44

2,313,823

12-82

Middlesex

24,956

23-61

34,871

39*73

38,573

10*62

42,613

10*47

Monmouth

139,058

7*40

154,872

11*37

161,240

4-11

176,080

8-58

Norfolk

50,788

22-31

58,304

14-80

69,304

18-87

91,173

31*56

Northampton
Northumberland

122,117

18-47

149,379

22*32

177,538

18-85

217,961

22-76

81,854

4*72

90,095

10*07

108,263

20*17

124.254

14*77

Nottingham
Oxford

56,363

17-25

60,327

7*03

61,361

1*71

67,207

9*53

4,760

14-78

5,099

7*12

5,146

0*90

5,690

10*59

Eutland

103,620

6-03

108,719

4*92

117,293

7*89

118,394

0-94

Salop

111,403

8-71

114,534

2-81

118,469

-0-93

117,024

3*13

Somerset

148,859

16-88

186,165

25*06

227,379

22-14

268,745

18*20

Southampton

271,654

^9*33

346,662

27*61

427,638

23*36

487,322

13*96

Stafford

58,901

14-56

69,110

17*33

73,201

5*92

80,751

10-31

Suffolk

445,679

21*20

535,268

20-13

648,634

21-16

833,511

28-52

Surrey

144,404

1317

174,967

21-17

202,455

15*71

246,300

21-66

Sussex

261,862

24*15

327,131

24*93

898,064

21-68

449,408

12-90

Warwick

11,519

-0-50

11,829

2-69

12,029

1*^9

13,446

11*78

Westmoreland

126,976

9*71

125,426

— 1-22

124,840

-o*47

184,609

7*83

Wilts

91,954

22-36

102,971

11-98

110,451

7*26

163,191

47*75

Worcester

698,677

23-22

850,804

21*77

1,013,225

19*09

1,841,339

32*38

Tork,E.,N.,&W.R.

7,456,654

20-03

8,936,920

J 9*85

10,881,979

16-17

12,182,794

17*35

Total

Walbs.

10,396

-1-48

12,752

22-66

13,276

4* 10

18,672

2*99

Anglesey

5,817

59*05

6,070

14*16

5,639

-7*10

6,291

11*56

Brecon

11,296

11-16

11,760

4*11

11,646

-o*97

14,485

24*38

Cardigan

18,053

11*89

21,161

17*22

23,294

10*08

27,680

18*62

Carmarthen

19,003

12*32

22,210

16-88

22,907

3*14

27,640

20*23

Carnarvon

16,450

12-82

16,614

7*54

17,888

7*67

20,223

13*05

Denbigh

14,588

32*5-

14,509

-0-54

14,661

0*36

18,958

30*20

Flint

88,852

42-80

128,194

44*27

176,462

37*65

214,646

21*64

Glamorgan

—

Nil

—

Merioneth

19,700

0*80

18,901

-4-06

19,268

1*94

19,480

1*10

Montgomery

17,950

13*01

22,608

25*39

28,079

24*75

28,718

2*28

Pembroke

2,478

5*09

2,346

-5*37

2,262

-3*54

2,190

-3*18

Badnor

223,083

22*69

277,022

24-18

336,281

21*03

893,832

17*46

Total

7,679,787

20*10

9,213,942

19-98

10,717,260

16*32

12,576,626

17*35

Total England & Wales

Digitizec

jbyGoOQle

482

Pbicb Wiluams — On the Increase of

[Sept.

Table E. — England and Wah$, Aggregate Population and Increase

CooBty.

1801.

1811.

iBcretM.

1821.

InCTMM.

1831.

Bedford

Berki

Buckingbam
Cambridge ....

Chester

Cornwall

Cumberland

Derby

DeTon

Dorset

Durham

Essex

G-louoester ....

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster ....

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex ....
Monmouth ....
Norfolk

Northampton

Northumberiand

Nottingham

Oxford

Rutland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland

WUto

Worcester

York, B., N., & W. R.

Total

Wales.

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen

Carnarvon

Denbigh

Flint

Glamorgan

Merioneth

Montgomery

Pembroke

Radnor

No.

71.843
69,118

65*473
i35.>»6
H5»874

72,805

«27,5i5
218,871

78,913
81,478

183,913

I34»788

72,818

75»7i7

26,642

162,298

298,279

93.694

156,043

6a.5»5

35»77i

189,770

105,919

102,327

93.254

79,866

13.245

92,914

204,744

138.366

129,395

181,241

80,094

103.905
98,686

32,790

97,255

105.374

560,527

No.

54,968

77,122

74,168

74,461

158,564

167,600

82,041

144,891

240,770

85,248

90,879

203,468

151,077

77,093

86,060

29,449

183,878

859,240

104,505

174,440

74,326

49,672

203,430

112,738

111,554

108,495

85,257

13,177

102,831

226,294

152,161

152,382

196,844

91,311

118,041

104,543

37,129

101,872

118,996

638,615

Per cot.
9*8o

7*35
7-29

13-73
17*35
1483
12*69

13-24

lO'Ol

8*03

11 '54

10*63

12*09

5*87

13*53

10*54

13*30

20*44

11*54

11*79

18*89

38*86

7*20

6*43

9*02

16*34

6*75

-0*51

10*67

1052

9*97
17*76

8*61
14*00
13-61

3*52
13*23

4*23
12*93

13*93

No.

65,172

84,680

85,156

89,166

180,945

195,411

93,046

161,190

273,949

97,597

103,005

233,070

171,006

82,959

99,387

34,371

215,068

431,803

117,048

206,500

88,031

69,702

235,076

128,708

123,380

123,107

96,487

14,697

108,85»

263,986

171,756

174,110

226,623

105383

135,389

120,340

40.921

112.806

132,297

734,337

Per eat.

14*57
9*80

4*83
9*75

4*12

6*66
3*41
1*63
3*78
449
3*34
4*55
319
7*61

S'S6
6-71
6*96

0'20
2*00
8*38

8*44
0*19

5*56
4*17
0*60

3*47
317
1*53
5*86
6*66
2*88
4*26
5*13
5*41
4*70
5-1 1

0*21
1*28
118

4*99

4,829,219

5,418,470

6,215,969

27,523
30,742
36,967
59,205
32,901

50,544
33^085
43,288
29,506
38,829
48,186
17,296

29,998
85,488
43,565
66,78a
39,037
53,577
38,544
49,648
30,854
40,428
51,546
18,580

8*99

1544

17*85

12*71

18*65

6'oo

1650

14*68

4'57

4*12

6*97

7*42

35,699
40,920
49,026
77,242
44,433
64,357
44,598
55,999
iii,382
44,649
60,457
20,435

Total

Total Enghind & Wales

448,072

497,990

1114

572,192

5*277.291

5,916,460

6,788,161

No.

72,470

91,340

91,601
100,324
220,586
221,257

99,044
171,851
297,482
105,837
126,469
252,451
184,914

87,340
108,368

36,678
235,277
489,200
128,601
229,137

99,834

77,937
260,571
137,813
133,878
147,164
105,456

15,288
115,795
801,317
186,620
199,444
244,903
118,789
146,040
126,711

43,464
121,497
147,503
804,956

4*72

6,878,176

9*00
5*31
2*54
5*75
3*»2

20*H
5*69

2*8o
1*43
0*44
7*29
9*98

87,773
44,420
54,618
84,605
49,899
68,970
49,236
64,390
35,315
47,301
65,542
22,385

4*90

624,454

4*74

7,502,630

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Population in England and Wales,

483

1 1871.

1841.

Increne

1861.

Increaie

1861.

Increase

1871.

Increase

County.

No.

Per cut.

No.

Percnt

No.

Percnt.

No.

Percnt

78,666

8-54

86,523

8-73

87,926

281

91,185

3*70

Bedford

98,837

8-21

103,644

4*76

104,652

0-97

111,203

6-^6

Berks

98,123

7ia

102,876

4-84

107,283

428

111,833

4-24

Buckingham

114,269

13*89

127,630

11-70

122,773

-3*8i

125,654

i-z6

Cambridge

228,868

3'75

224,916

-1-72

242,688

7-90

282,464

16-38

Chester

243,979

10*27

247,048

1-26

254,086

2*83

248,806

-4-03

Cornwall

102,768

376

108,950

6*02

113,161

3*86

124,029

9-62

Cumberland

186,382

846

192,427

3*25

218,788

13-70

288,923

9*20

Derby

313,459

5-38

310,266

— 1*02

297,061

-4-26

294,436

-0-88

DeTon

116,692

1026

121,204

3*86

124,383

2-62

128,617

3*4»

Dorset

161,600

2777

208,706

29*15

279,054

33*70

380,375

36-31

Durham

272,671

7*97

286,184

4*63

307,613

7*83

852,358

H*59

Essex

199,604

7-89

210,044

5*28

218,319

3*94

228,034

4*45

Gloucester

88,696

»*55

89,626

0-94

92,625

3*35

92,098

-0-47

Hereford

116,866

6*92

121,039

4-46

128,998

3*6.*

138,520

10-43

Hertford

40,680

10-64

44,263

9'OS

44,342

0-20

43,567

-J*77

Huntingdon

260,309

6'39

267,087

271

276,461

7*54

809,616

11-99

Kent

660,409

12-51

620,174

12-67

747,064

20-46

868,082

14-86

Lancas^r

131,301

623

134,617

2*45

134,363

— O'll

136,486

1*59

Leicester

269,378

i3'*o

284,890

9-64

284,149

-o*o8

284,659

o-i8

Lincoln

117,624

1772

126,334

6-64

155,728

24-26

226,942

45-08

Middlesex

109,412

40-38

122,647

12-01

136,060

11 02

162,835

12-33

Monmouth

273,606

S'oi

287,842

5*20

278,568

-4-96

263,576

-3*65

Norfolk

148,440

7*71

154,076

3-80

168,400

2*80

162,718

-3*59

Northampton
Northumberland

143,9a<i

7*49

164,189

7*15

165,487

7*33

168,695

1-94

168,066

14*20

180,332

7*30

185,604

2-92

195,504

5*33

Nottingham

106,764

1-24

110,112

3*H

109,683

-0*48

110,768

1-08

Oxford

16,642

8-56

17,884

8-11

16,716

-6*53

16,388

-1*99

Rutland

122,200

5'53

120,622

-V29

123,666

2*53

129,717

489

Salop

324,196

7*59

329,382

1*60

331,404

0*61

846,459

4*54

Somerset

206,823

10*29

219,205

651

254,436

16-07

275,939

8*45

Southamptoi)

237,818

19*25

262,064

10*19

319,806

21-85

871,004

16*19

Stafford

266,172

4-6o

268,105

4*66

263,869

-1-56

268,118

1-61

Suffolk

138,467

16-56

147,814

6-75

182,559

23*5 >

258,124

41*39

Surrey

166,671

7*33

161,877

3*99

161,280

-0-37

171,166

6*13

Sussex

139,841

u-24

147,882

5*75

163,791

10*76

184,781

12-82

Warwick

44,936

3*39

46,468

3*39

48,788

5-01

61,564

5*69

Westmoreland

129,304

6-42

128,795

-o*39

124,471

-3-36

122,568

'-i'53

Wilts

166,606

6-11

173.965

11-15

196,946

13*22

175,646

- 10-82

Worcester

893,382

10-98

947,191

6*02

1,020,386

7*73

1,095,016

7*31

York,E.,N.,&W.B.

7,640,773

9*^3

7,984,968

5-89

8,572,465

7*36

9,812,337

8*63

Total

Walks.

40,496

7-21

44,575

io*o8

41,334

-7*27

37,868

— 9*60

Anglesey

60,286

I3'2I

66,404

to- 1 8

65,988

1*06

53,610

-4*24

Brecon

57,470

5'^a

59,086

2*73

60,599

r65

58,966

-2*71

Cardigan

88,273

4*34

89,471

1-36

88,502

-i*o8

88,080

-0-48

Carmarthen

62,090

24'43

65,660

575

72,787

10-85

78,581

7-96

Camarron

73,028

5'88

75,969

4*03

82,890

9-11

84,879

2-40

Denbigh

62,331

629

53,647

2*52

56,176

a*85

67,854

3*95

Flint

82,336

27-87

103,665

25*89

141,290

36*31

183,214

29-67

Glamorgan

39,332

11-38

38,843

-rn

38,963

0*31

46,598

'9*59

Merioneth

49,907

5*5 »

48,434

-2*95

47,651

-1*62

48,143

1*03

Montgomery

70,094

694

71,634

2*20

68,199

-4-80

63,280

-7*21

Pembroke

22,980

2-66

22,371

-2-65

23,120

3*35

23,240

0-52

Radnor

688,622

10-28

728,699

5-82

776,499

6-56

823,303

6*03

Total

8,229,396

9-69

8,713,667

5*88

9,348,964

7*29

10,185,640

841

TotalEngland AWales

Digitized by

Google

484

PfiiGK W1LLIIM8 — On the Inoreoie of

[Sept.

Tablb T.—Enffland and Walei, Population^ and Incrmm or

Coanty.

1801.

1811.

1821.

IncroMe.

1881.

Bedford

Berks

Buokinffham

Cambridge

Chester

Cornwall

Cumberland

Derby

DeTon

Dorset

Durham

Kssex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster

Leicester

Lincoln

Middlesex

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton

Northumoerland

Nottingham

Oxford

Butland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmoreland

WUto

Worcester

York, E.,N., and W.E,

Total

Wales.

Anglesey

Brecon

Cardigan

Carmarthen

Camarron

Denbigh

FUnt

G-lamorgan

Merioneth

Montgomery

Pembroke

Badnor

Total

Total England k Wales

No.

^3.393
110^.80
108,132

89.34<i
I9».305
192,281
117,230
161.567
340,308
"4*452
<49,384
227,682

»5o,723
88,436

97,393
37.568
308,667
673,486
130,082
208,625
818,129
45.5<58
^73,479
'3«,5i5
168,078

140,350

111,977

16,300

169,248

*73»577
219,290
242,693
214,404
268,233

159,471
206,798
40,805
183,820
146,441
859.133

8,350,859

33,806

32,3^5
42,956
67,317

4»»52i
60,299

39.469
70,879
29,506
48,184
56,280
i9»'35

No.

70,218
119,430
118,065
101,109
227,081
220,525
183,666
185,487
882,778
124,718
165,298
252,478
285,955

98,526
111,225

42,208
871,701
828,499
150,559
287.634
953,774

62,105
291,947
141,853
183,269
162,964
120,876

16,380
184,973
802,836
246,514
294,540
238,968
823,851
190,848
228,906

45,922
191,853
168,982
986,076

Per cot
10*76
8'io
919
13*«6
1805

14*69
14*02
14*80
12*48
8*97
10*65
10*89
14*66

5*75
14*23

12-35

20*42

23*02

15*74

13*90

1658

3629

6*75

7*47

9*04

i6*ii

7-50

0*49

9*29

10*70

12*41

21*36

9*12

20*73
19*36
10*69
12*54
4*37
»5*39
14*78

Ko.

84,052
182,689
185,138
122,887
270,098
261,046
156,124
218,651
438,417
144,930
198,511
289,424
886,190
102,669
129,731

48,946

427,224

1,052,948

174,571

283,058

1,145,057

75,801
844,868
163,097
212,589
186,878
138,224

18,487
198,311
855,789
282,897
845,972
271,541
899,417
233,828
274,482

61,359

219,574

194,074

1,173,895

Per cut.
9*71
i*o6

4*45
'•05
8*97
8*38
6*80
5-i8
4*54

6*21

7-07
4-64
7-56
9*78
6*61
5*97
4*94
7*09

5*95

9*12

,o*o6
2-05
7*95
5*39
6'oo

4-67
4-82
2-87

7*21

748
4*76
7-46
606

3*34
22*59
9*91
1*84
4*45
4-85
9*05

9,553,021

1440

11,281,888

37,046
37,735
50,260
77,217
49,656
64,249
45,937
85,067
30,854
52,184
60,615
20,417

9-58
16-74
1700
14*71
19*59

16*39

20*02

4'57
8*30
7*70
6*70

45,068
43,826
67,784
90,239
68,099
76,428
53,898
102,078
84,382
60,246
78,788
22,533

54i»677

611,235

12*84

718,353

8,892,536

10,164,256

14*30

12,000,286

No.

95,488
146,284
146,977
148,966
834,391
801,806
169,262
237,170
493,906
159,385
239,256
817,507
887,398
110,617
142,844

53,192

479,558

1,886354

197,003

817,465

1,858,330

98,126
890,054
179,336
286,959
225,327
163,526

19,885
218,518
403,795
818,976
409,480
296,317
486,434
272,644
886,646

55,041

237,244

222,656

1,871,966

8*io

13,090,523

1*64
6-14
4*97
6-^6
7-OI

8*95
7*32
9*99
1*43
5*45
1*73
0*36

48,825
47,763
64,780

100,740
66,818
82,666
60,244

126,612
85,315
66,844
81,425
24,748

7*52

806,274

8*o6

18,896,797

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Poptdati4m in England and Wales.

485

Decrease

per Cent, of each

OourUtf for each Decade betioeen 1801 and 1871.

1841.

Increase

1861.

Increase

1861.

Increase

1871.

Increase

County.

No.

Percnt.

No.

Per cnt.

No.

Percnt.

No.

Percnt.

107,986

13-04

124,478

15*33

135,287

8-68

146,257

8*11

Bedford

161,759

io'6z

170,065

5*14

176,256

364

196,475

11*47

Berks

166,439

6-44

168.728

4-66

167,993

2*6 1

176,879

469

Buckingham

164,459

14-24

185,405

12-74

176,016

-5-06

186,906

6*19

Cambridge

395,660

18-32

455,725

15-18

505,428

10-90

561,201

11-04

Chester

842,159

13-56

855,658

3*9i

369,890

3-89

862,343

-1-91

Cornwall

178,038

519

195,492

9-80

205,276

5'oi

220,258

7*29

Cumberland

272,202

H*77

296,084

8-77

839,327

14-61

879,394

11 -So

Derby

582,959

7-91

667,098

6-41

584,878

3 "05

601,874

2*91

Devon

175,054

9-8a

184,207

5*23

188,789

2-49

195,637

3*59

Dorset

807,963

28-71

890,997

26-96

608,666

30-09

685,089

34*68

Durham

844,979

8-65

869,318

7-o6

404,851

9-62

466,436

15*21

Essex

481,495

11-38

468,805

6-33

485,770

5*88

584,640

10-06

Gloucester

118,272

2*40

115,489

1-96

123,712

7*12

125,870

1*33

Hereford

156,660

9*68

167,298

6-79

173,280

3*57

192.226

10*94

Hertford

68,549

10-07

64.183

9-62

64,250

O'lO

68,708

-0-84

Huntingdon

649,858

H'SS

616,766

12-09

733,887

19*18

848,294

15*59

Kent

1,667,054

24-70

2,031,286

21-84

2,429,440

19*61

2,819,495

1606

Lancaster

215,867

9-58

280,308

6-69

237,412

3-o8

269,811

13*44

Leicester

862,602

14-22

407,222

12-31

412,246

X"23

486,599

5*91

Lincoln

1,576,636

16-07

1,886,576

19-66

2,206,485

16-96

2,539,765

1511

Middlesex

134,868

36-93

157,418

17-15

174,638

10-94

195,448

11-92

Monmouth

412,664

5-8o

442,714

7-28

434,798

-1-79

438,656

0-89

Norfolk

199,228

11-09

212,880

6-6o

227,704

7-21

243,891

7:11

Northampton
Northumberland

266,020

12*26

808,568

14-12

848,025

13-00

386,646

12-72

249,910

10-91

270,427

8-21

293,867

8-67

819,758

8-^1

Nottingham

163,127

6-*5

170,439

4-48

170,944

0*29

177,976

4-12

Oxford

21,802

9-89

22,983

7-89

21,861

-4-88

22,078

0-97

EuUand

225,820

5-76

229,341

1-56

240,959

5*07

248,111

i*97

Salop

485,599

7-87

448,916

1-91

444,873

0-21

463,483

4*18

Somerset

. 854,682

12-96

405,870

H'29

481,815

18-86

644,684

13-05

Southampton

609,472

24-42

608,716

19:48

746,943

22-71

858,826

'4:91

Stafford

815,073

6-31

887,216

7*02

837,070

— 0-04

848,869

3*50

Suffolk

584,036

20-07

688,082

16-96

831,093

21-67

1,091,685

31*35

Surrey

800,075

10-07

836,844

12-25

363,735

7*99

417,466

14:77

Sussex

401,703

19-32

476,018

18-25

561,855

1829

634,189

12*87

Warwick

66,454

2-57

68,287

3*25

60,817

4*34

66,010

6*90

Westmoreland

256,280

8-03

254,221

-0-80

249,811

-1*93

257,177

3*16

wats

248,460

"•59

276,926

11-46

807.397

iroo

838,837

10-23

Worcester

1,592,059

16-04

1,797,996

12-93

2,033,610

13*10

2,436,855

19-81

York,E.,N.,&W.R.

14,997,427

H56

16,921,888

12-84

18,954,444

12-or

21,495,131

13*41

Total

Wales.

60,891

5'3^

67,827

12*65

54,609

-4*74

61,040

-6-54

Anglesey

65,608

16-42

61,474

10-56

61,627

0-25

59.901

-2-8o

Brecon

68,766

6T5

70,796

2*95

72,245

2-05

78,4*1

1*66

Cardigan

106,826

5*55

110,682

4*05

111,796

'•05

115,710

3*50

Carmarthen

81,098

21-36

87,870

»-36

95,694

8-90

106,121

10-90

Camarvon

88,478

7-03

92,583

4-64

100,778

8-85

105,102

4*29

Denbigh

66,919

11 "08

68,166

1*85

69,737

232

76,812

9*43

Flint

171,188

35'ai

231,849

35'43

317,752

37*05

897,859

25-21

Glamorgan

89,832

irj8

88,843

-1-24

88,963

0-31

46,598

'9*59

Merion^

69,607

4*13

67,386

-3-26

66,919

— 0-62

67,628

1*05

Montgomery

88,044

8-13

94,140

6*92

96,278

2-27

91,998

-4*45

Pembroke

25,458

2-89

24,716

-2*91

25,882

2-70

25,480

019

Radnor

911,705

13*08

1,005,721

10*31

1,111,780

10-55

1.217,186

9*47

Total

15,909,182

14-48

17,927,609

12*69

20,066,224

11*93

22,712,266

13*19

TotalEngland^c Wales

TOL. XLIII. PABT UL

Digitized by

^oogk

486

Pwoi WiLtUKS — On the Increase of

[Sept

Table Q.-^Poptdation and Rate$ of Increaee or Decrease per Cent, of ee^ Town m

{The T(yim$ arranged %n the Numerical

London -. A

LiTerpool (Lancathire)

MsDonetter (LancMhire^

BirminKham (Warwickahipe) ..
Leeds (Yorkshire)

"SSJT'

1801.

1811.

Rate of

loCBSMS.

1881.

Bate of
lacMMe.

2
8

4
5

of morteUtr

M. andP.

M.andP.

■>»

f»

P.
M.«ndP.

p.(.)

M.radP.

P.W

l>
II

ILondP.

P. («)
M. and P.
M.AP.(e)

P.(,)

lt.BldP.
P.(.)

I»
II

p,(*)

M. uid P.

p. (.)
M. snd P.

H.
JCandP.

pT«)

p.(.)

M. and P.

P.(»)

ICandP.

P.(*)
P.

}958|863

8a,a95
76,788
70,670
53,162
45.755
61,153
30.584
13,264

33,048

»3.a78

29,580
18,088
33,aa6
21,766
H»998
7,440

10,1 »7

17,005
17,966
28,801

12,174
11,980
10,107
36.854

7,268

16,040

667

12,010

27,154

8,542
10,832

7,913
33,196
14,830
10,117

8,597

239

10,399

12,940

3,201
7/>20

1 1,01 [

3,076
I7H-12

16,846
22,139
11,277
16,573
16,034

9,«52

1,188,815

104,104
91,130
82,763
62,534
53,231
7I,43S
43,190
16,012

32,573

31,657

37,005
24,744
41,687
29,479
25,821
12,205

14,945

23,453
24,799
34,030
17,300
15,083
18,926
36,266

9,671
20,803
795
12,766
35,267
10,763
13,043

9,617
84,408
17,564
11,963

8,782

212

11,189

15,787

3,999

8,427

15,166
8,325
18,896
19,099
23,777
13,670
20,448
17,928
11,302

i»77

2650
i8'68
17*10
1763
1634
i6-8i
•41*22
20*73

- >*44

•35-57

25*10

3680

•25-16

•3543

64*05

47'58

3792
•38*03
1815
42-50
25*90
3778

- 1*62
33'o6
29*70
19*19

629

•2984

25*88

2041

21*53
15*70
18*31
18-25

»'5

- 11*30

7*6o
22*00
H'93
Jcro4

•37*72

•170*65

&-52

1337

7*40

21*22

•2338

11*78

23*49

1,878,947

188354
129,036
101,722
83,796
65,276
86,106
63,011
26,307

41,794

40,237

44,530
32,600
46,743
38,201
81,891
24,741

20,959

81,036
82,045
4ai90
24,869
21,940
18,2U
60,288
13,284
21,691

1,318
17,066
89,621
14,017
17,428
13,368
46,700
21,726
14^896
11,767
286
11,914
19477

4,614

10j793

16,603
13,396
23,479
21,711
27,038
17,186
21,007
21,446
18,480

2.1*09

32*90
41*60

XX*92

54*00

22*63

1914

2»*74
64-30

2»-3i

arji
20*31

31*75
12*40

»9'59

23*51

•102*71

40-24

32-33
29*22
1810
43*20

•45*46
3078

•38-70
37-36
3*79
6515
33*61
12*38
3036
33*58
3885

•*i*59
2383
a4*52
33*99
11*32
6*48
21*47
15-38
28*07

8*82
60*91

H-45

13*68

13*67

25*72

2*73

19*67

10*29

7
8
9

Sheffield (Yorkshire) —

Bristol (Gloucestershire)

Wolrerhainpton (Staffordshire)
Bradford (Yorkshire)

Newoastie-on-Tyne (North- '

Stoke-upon-Trent (Stafford-^

shire) ■

Hull (Yorkshire)

Salford (Lauoashire)

Portsmouth (Hants)

Oldham (Lancashire)

Sunderiand (Durham)

Brighton (Sussex)

Merthyr TjdTil (Glamorgan- '

shire) ^ '

Leicester (Leicestershire)

Bolton (Lancashire)

21
22

Nottingham j[Nottinehamshire)
Preston (Lancashire)

Blackburn (Lancashire)

24
25
26
?7

Dudley (Worcestershire)

Norwich (Norfolk) ^.

Huddersfield (Yorkshire)

Plymouth (Devonshire)

Birkenhead (Cheshire)

Halifax (Yorkshire)

80
B1

Deronport (Devonshire) .......

Rochdale (Lancashire)

Dorbv (Derbvshire")

Southampton (Hants)

Bath (Somersetshire)

Stockport (Cheshire)

36
ft7

Swansea (Glamorganshire) ....
Gateshead (Durham)

38
39

Middlesborough (Yorkshire).,..
Walsall (StaflSrdshiro)

Ghatham (Kent)

flouthport (T/ancashire)

13
14

15
16

Northampton (Northamp- 1

tonshire) „ «J

South Shields (Durham)

Cheltenham ((Gloucestershire)

Exeter city (Devonshire)

York city (Yorkshire)

17
IS
19

Cricklade (Wiltshire)

Ipswich (Suffolk) « «...

Yarmouth (Norfolk)

)0
>1

Coventry (Warwickshire)

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Pofviaticm mi EngUmd and Walet.

487

Bne^and and Wales of TimUy Thousand Inhabitants and vptpards, 1801 and 1871.

18S1.

Kate of
Increase.

1841.

Rate of
luereaie.

1851.

Rate of
Increase.

1861.

Rate of
Increase.

1871.

Rate of
Iiicreajie.

■

1,664,9^4

20*02

1,948,417

17-73

2,682,236

•21-24

2,803,989

l8'70

8,264,260

16*06

201,751

•45-«i

286,487

42*00

375,955

31-23

443,938

18-08

493,405

11-14

187,022

*44'93

\ 242,983'

2992

316,213

3014

357,979

13-21

379,374

5'97

14a,986

V*55

182,922

27-04

282,84a

27-29

296,076

27-16

343,787

1611

188,898

*47'25

152,074

23-24

172,270

13-28

207,165

2026

259,212

25-12

91,692

•40-47

; 111,091

2i-i6

135,310

21-80

185,172

i^'^S

239,946

29-58

104,408

•2Z-68

126,146

19-87

137,328

9-73

154,093

12*20

182,552

18-47

67,614

2736

; 93,246

38-11

119,748

28*42

147,670

23-32

156,978

6-30

43^,527

•65-46

66,715

53-27

108,778

55*55

106,218

2-35

145,830

37*29

55,618

28*29

70,837

•3119

87,784

24-81

109,108

24*29

128,443

17*72

&1,589

28*21

68,444

32-<57

84,027

22*77

101,207

2o*45

124,493

23*00

61,911

i6-6o

67,308

•29*66

84,690

25*82

97,661

15-32

123,408

26*^7

60^810

•55*86

68,386

34-59

85,108

24-45

102,449

20-38

121,401

18*50

60,389

780

53,032

5-24

72,096

•35-95

94,799

31-49

113,569

19-80

60,618

3a'i3

60,451

19-67

72,357

19*70

94,344

30-39

113,100

19-88

40,735

53,335

•30-93

67,391

26*36

85,797

27-31

10i,490

21-79

^,994

^9*73

49,170

17-09

69,673

41*70

87,317

25-33

103,758

18-83

2r,281

3X>*i6

43,031

•57-73

63,080

46-59

88,876

32-97

96,891

15*52

40,639

30*94

50,806

25-02

60,584

19-25

68,056

12-33

95,220

•39-91

42,246

3'*83

61,029

2079

61,171

1988

70,395

1508

92,658

3163

60,220

24-96

62,164

3-87

57,407

10*05

74,693

•3011

86,6^1

15-97

83,871

Z^'^S

60,887

•50-24

69,542

36-66

82,985

19-33

85,427

2*94

27,091

ar48

36,629

35-21

46,536

2705

63,126

35-65

82,853

31*25

28,430

28-66

81,232

33-30

87,962

2i'55

44,975

18-47

82,240

•82-88

61,116

ii'53

62,344

2-01

68,713

1022

74,891

8-99

80,386

7-34

19,036

43*9

26,068

31-70

30,880

2319

34,877

12*94

, 74,358

•113-20

31,080

•43-95

36,520

17-50

62,221

4299

62,599

19-87

70,091

11-97

4,195

•219-50

11,563

175-64

84,469

19810

51,649

4984

65,971

27-73

21,662

23-48

27,620

2r69

33,582

22-03

37,014

1022

65,500

•76-96

44,464

12-20

43,632

-2'07

50,169

15*22

64,783

29-15

64,034

-i-i6

19,041

35-84

24,272

27*47

29,195

20-28

38,184

30-79

63,486

•66-26

28,627

35-^1

32,741

38*57

40,609

24-03

48,091

611

; 61,381

•4245

19,824

*44'72

27,744

43*57

35,305

27-25

46,960

33-01

63,741

14-44

60,800

8-78

63,196

4-72

54,240

1-96

65,628

-3-16

53,714

2-26

26y469

60,154

•96*92

63,835

7*34

54,861

1*91

53,014

-3*37

19,672

32*06

24,604

25-07

31,461

2787

41,606

•32*25

61,720

2431

16,177

28-98

20,123

3259

25,568

27-06

83,587

31*36

48,592

•44-67

883

62*29

5,709

•1390-60

7,893

38*25

18,992

140-62

46,621

14548

16,066

26-46

19,857

31*80

25,680

29*33

37,760

•4704

46,098

22-08

21,124

10-15

24,269

14-89

28,424

17*12

36,177

•27-27

45,792

26-58

6,101

32-23

8,994

4742

14,866

65-28

18,396

23*75

46,124

•145-29

16,351

•42-24

21,^42

38-38

26,657

25'49

32,813

23*10

46,080

^37*39

18,756

13-65

28,072

23-01

28,974

25-58

85,239

2162

44,722

2691

22,942

71*26

31,411

36*91

35,501

11-59

89,6J 3

1324

44,519

12-16

28,242

20-29

37,231

•31*83

40.688

9-29

41,749

2*61

44,226

5V3

26,260

20-95

28,842

9-83

86,303

•25-87

40,433

11*38

43,796

8*32

69,118

7*73

65,409

•21-61

36,5«3

0-27

. 36,893

3-91

43,622

18-24

20,201

17-54

25,384

25*66

32,914

•29-66

37,950

1530

42,947

13-17

24,636

16-80

27,865

13*57

30,879

10-82

34,810

12*73

41,819

20-14

27,298

•27-27

81,082

13-68

36,812

1863

41,647

13-13

41,348

-0-72

19,140

•41-99

24,846

29*81

31,262

25-82

37,563

2015

41,344

1007

2k2

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

488

Pbigi Willumb — On ike Increase of

[Sept.
Tabls G.-

Bamlej (Lancftshire)

Hanley (Staffordshire)

Cardiff (Glamorganshire)

Wigan (Lancashire)

Tynemouth and North 1

Shields (Northumberland) J

Strood (Gloucestershire)

Worcester city (Worcestershire)

New Hhoreham (Sussex)

Ashton-under-Ljne (LanoaO

shire) J

Macclesfield (Cheshire)

Chester (Cheshire)

Cambridge (Cambridgeshire) .

Hastings (Sussex)

Warrington (Lancashire)

Reading (Berks)

Oxford (Oxfordshire)

Carlisle (Cumberland)

Morpeth (Northumberland) ...
Aylesbury (Buckinghamshire)

Dover (Kent)

Wakefield (Yorkshire)

Stockton (Durham)

Darlington (Durham)

Newport Mon. (Monmouth- 1

shire) J

CHreat Grimsby (Lincolnshire)

Lincoln (Lincolnshire)

Colchester (Essex)

Maidstone (Kent)

Wednesbury (Staffordshire) ....

Dewsbury (Yorkshire)

Eeighley (Yorkshire)

Scarborough (Yorkshire)

Hythe (Kent) «

Shrewsbury (Salop)

Heywood (Lancashire)

Stratford (EssexJ

Bamsley (Yorkshire)

Torquay (Devonshire)

Over Darwen (Lancashire) ....

Gravesend (Kent)

Wenlock (Salop)

Staleybridge (Ciheshire)

Canterbury city (Kent)

Leamington (Warwickshire)....

Batley (Yorkshire)

Kidderminster(Woroestershire)

Luton (Bedfordshire)

Brentford (Middlesex)

Total.

Boondmry
Takes.

P. (i»«w)
M.

M. and P.

P(*)
P.

P.(*)

M.(f)

P.(*)

M. and P.

»
P.
M.

P. and M.

M.
M. and P.

M. and P.

1801.

3.918

41338

1,870

10,989

>3»i7i

27,73a
11,460
16,104

6,391

8,743
I5»i74
10,087

2,98*
11,32*

9,742
11,694

9»4<5
4.859

16,993
8,028

10,581
3,936
4,670

1,423

3,143
7,197
11,520
8,027
4,160
4,566

5.745
6,688

2,987

14,739

6,697

3.910

3,606

838

3,587

4.539

16,304

9,000

315

2,574

6,803

3,095
5,035

2,404,153

1811.

6,405

5,346

2,457

14,060

17,548

28,448
13,814
18,690

7,969

12,299
16,140
11,108

3,848
12,682
10,788
12,931
11,476

5,288
18,435
11,230
11,393

4,187

6,059

8,025

4,542
8,599

12,544
9,443
5,872
5,059
6,864
7,067
4,768

16,825
8,001
4,905
6,104
1,350
4,411
5,589

16,805
(Not ascer

10,200
543
2,967
8,753
3,716
5,361

2,878,039

Rate of
Increase.

37-96
2321

31*39
•27*95

•33*23

2-58
20-54
i6"o6

24*53

40*67

6-37

1012

2904

12"02
1074
10-58
21-89
8-83

8*49
•39-88
767
638
8*33
•112-58

44*51
19*48

8-89
17*64
29-14
io-8o
19*48

5*67
5962

i4»5
19*47
15*45
41*54
61*10

22'97

2313
. 3*07

tainable

13*33
72*38
14*88
28-66
20*07
6-48

19*71

1821.

8,242

6,585

3,521

17,716

23,173

86,340
17,023
22,722

9,222

17,746
19,949
14,142

6,111
14,822
12,867
16,364
14,416

5,853
21,717
12,664
14,164

2,956

6,750

4,951

5,188
9,995

14,016

12,508
6,471
6,380
9,223
8,533
4,489

19,854
9,922
5,882
8,284
1,925
6,711
6,588

17,265

12,779
2,183
8,717

11,444
4,529
6,608

3,582,029

Note. — ^Where marked (e) the boundaiy
* The decades thus marked show when

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

FopvlaHon in UngUmd and Wales,

489

Contd.

1831.

Bate of
IncreaM.

1841.

Rate of
IncreaM.

1851.

Rate of
TucreaM.

1861.

Rate of
IncreNM.

1871,

Rate of
Increase.

10,026

21*65

14,224

41*87

20,828

46*43

28,700

37*79

40,868

42*36

8,282

25*77

10,218

23*38

25,369

•148*27

31,953^

25*95

39,976

25*11

6,187

75*72

10,077

62*87

18,361

•82*11

82,954

7958

39,676

20*40

20,774

17*26

25,617

22*83

31,941

25*18

87,668

17*90

39,110

3-86

23,206

0-14

26,416

9*52

29,170

14*77

34,021

16*63

88,941

14*46

69,932

9-89

37,992

-4*86

36,536

-3*84

36,617

-2*79

38,610

8-71

18,610

9*32

27,004

•45* >o

27,528

1*94

31,227

13*44

38,116

2206

25,356

^^'59

28,638

12*94

80,553

6*69

32,622

6-77

37,984

16*44

14,035

5219

22,678

•61*58

29,791

31*37

38,917

'3*85

37,389

10*24

28,129

30*33

32,629

41*07

39,048

19*67

86,101

-7*55

85,450

-1*80

21,344

7*oo

23,866

11*82

27,766

16*34

31,110

12*04

35,267

13*33

20,917

47*91

24,453

16*90

27,815

13*75

26,361

-5*23

33,996

28*96

10,097

•65-23

11,617

15*05

17,011

46*43

22,910

34*68

33*337

45'5i

18,184

•zr68

21,346

17*39

23,363

9*45

26,947

>5*34

33,050

22*65

15,595

21*20

18,939

21*43

21,466

13*30

25,045

16*75

32,313

•29*02

20,649

•26*19

24,258

17*48

27,843

14*78

27,660

— 1*02

31,404

13*95

18,865

30*86

21,550

14*23

26,310

22*09

29,417

11*81

31,049

^ sss

6,577

12*37

7,160

8*86

10,012

39*83

13,794

37-76

30,239

•119*22

24,162

11*26

25,337

4*86

26,794

5*75

27,090

IIO

28,760

6*i6

15,645

23*54

19,189

22*65

22,244

15*92

26,325

13*85

28,606

1256

15,932

12-48

18,842

18*27

22,057

17*06

23,150

4*95

28,069

21*25

7,685

5506

9,727

26*57

9,710

-0*17

13,357

37-56

27,738

•107*67

8,574

49*11

11,033

28*68

11,582

4*98

15,789

36-32

27,729

•75*62

7,062

42*64

10,815

syis

19,323

7868

23,249

20*32

27,069

16-43

6,589

27'i3

6,698

1*65

12,263

•83*08

15,060

22*81

26,982

7916

11,217

12*25

13,896

23*88

17,533

26*17

20,999

19*77

26,766

•2746

16,167

'5*35

17,790

1004

19,443

9*29

23,809

•22*46

26,343

10*64

15,790

26*24

18,086

14*54

20,801

15*01

23,058

10*85

26,237

13*79

8,437

30-38

11,625

37*79

14,281

22*85

21,968

•53*83

25,030

^13*94

8,272

29-66

10,600

28*14

14,049

32*54

18,148

29*18

24,764

•3646

11,176

21*17

13,413

20*02

18,259

•36**3

18,819

3*07

24,704

31*37

8,760

2*66

10,060

14*84

12,916

28*38

18,877

•42-29

24,259

3201

4,623

2*99

8^9

93*36

13,164

47*27

21,367

•62*31

24,078

12*69

21,297

7*27

21,518

1*04

23,104

7*37

26,784

11*60

23,406

-9*22

14,229

•43*41

18,720

31*56

19,872

615

22,349

12*47

23,394

468

6,991

18-85

7,690

9*99

10,586

5r66

15,994

•51*09

23,286

45*59

10,330

24*70

12,310

19*17

13,437

9*«5

17,890

33*H

23,021

28*68

3,582

86*o8

6,982

67*00

11,474

•91*81

16,419

43*10

21,657

31-90

6,972

3*89

9,348

34*08

11,702

25*18

16,492

40*93

21,278

29*02

9,445

43*28

15,670

•65*91

16,633

6*15

18,782

12*92

21,265

13-22

17,435

0*98

18,016

3*33

20,588

•14*27

21,590

4*87

21,208

-1*77

20,760

—

24,921

•20*04

21,092

-15*36

13,679

7*04

17,904

•30*89

18,398

2*76

21,324

15*90

20,962

-1*70

6,209

J 84*43

12,864

107*18

15,724

22*23

17,402

10*67

20,910

20* 1 6

4,841

30-24

7,076

46*17

9,308

31*54

14,873

•59*79

20,871

40*33

16,036

•40-13

15,427

-3*80

18,462

19*67

15,399

-16-59

20,814

35*16

6,693

25*70

7,748

36*10

12,787

•65,04

17,821

3937

20,733

i6*34

7,783

17-78

8,407

8*02

9,828

1690

13,958

42*02

20,232

•44*95

4,520,055

26*19

6,672,175

23-28

6,886,001

23*56

8,218,209

19*36

9,800,887

19*25

has been

extended

in 1871.

the maxii

num inci

rease was

reached.

Digitized bv

Goo^

l\e

400

Pbios WiLLULMg--0» ^ Increate of

[Sept.

Table H. — United Kinadom, Enumerated Population of the United
Kingdom amd of it* €otut%tue$U Part*, at eack of the Cen$u$e$ 1801 tfi
1871, untk the lumbers of the Army, Na»y, and Merchant JSeamen
belonging to the Kingdom,

[Centnt Ketnret. Copy of TaWle 8, p. 4, of **Qenenl Rqiort," toI. ir, for 1971 3

Cenmi
Ymts.

United lingtUm, imeMing

laluMbinBritifhSeu,

and

Amy, Navy, and

Merehant Seamen Abroad.

United Kinadom, indrndina

lalaiidi in Britith Sea^

but exclndinf

Army, Navy, and

If erehant Seamen Abroad.

Uniied ru^fdom, tselmdimf

UUnda HiBiitialiSflMr

and

Army. Na^, and

Merchant Seamlen Abroad.

1801

'11

'21

'31

'41

'61

'71

16,237,300
18,509,116
21,272,187
24,392,485
>7,057,923
27,745.949
29,321,288

31,845,379

16,796,287
18,006,680
20,982,092
24,132,294
26.864,969 <
27,633,766
29,070,932
81,629,299 !

15.717,287
17,926,580
20,893,584
24,028,584
26,730,92^
27,390,629

28,927,485
314^4,661

CensQi
Yean.

WaJea.

S«ttaB«.

Iralaal.

lalaBdain

the
0riliah3Ma.

Army. Navy. Maiitaa.

and Merchant

8eanen belongui(

to the Kingdom.

1801

'11

'21

'31

'41

'61

'71

8,892,536
10,164,256
12,000,236

"3,896,797
15,914.148
17,927,609
20,066,224
22,712,266

1,606,4£0
1,806,864
2,091,621
2,364,386
2,620.184
2,888,742
3,062,294
8,360,018

5,2i6,33>
5,956,460
6,801,827
7,767,401
8,196,597
6,574,278
5.798,967
5.412,377

78,000
80,000
89,608
103,710
124,040
143,126
143,447
144,638

442,013*
502,536*
289,095*
260,191*
202,954t

2l2,l94t

250,356$
2i6*o8at

* At home and abroad.

t Abroad or on botfd TOMels in porta, the latter being esUmated at 28,520.

t Abroad only.

Tablb I. — United Kingdom, Enumerated Population of the United Kingdom cmd ef tie
Constituent Parts, including the Armv, Navy, Marvne$y and Merchant ^eaw^en Abr^adj
belonging to the Kingdom at each of the Ceneueee 1801 to 1871.

[Copy of Table IV from ** General Report," roL hr, England and Wiilea;^

finumeratcd PopmlatioB.

Increaae ot Popnlation.

Censni
Yeart.

United
Kingdom.

England

and
Walea.

Sootlaad.

Irtlaiid.

lelandt
in the

Britith
Seat.

United
Kingdom.

England

and
Walea.

SooUaod.

Ireland.

Islanda

in the

BrtUah

Scaa.

1801 ...
11 ...
*21 ...
•81 ...
'41 ...
'51 ...
'81 ...
71 ...

16,237,300
18.509,116
21,272.187
24.392485
27.057.923
27.745.949
29,321,288
31.845.379

9,166.171
10,454^689
12,W.8«4
14,051,988
18.085,198
18,054^170
«),M8,497
3S,85«,ie4

1,678452
1,884.044
2,137.325
2405^10
2.652.339
2,922,362
3^)96.808
3.392.559

5.819,887
6.084.998
8,869.644
7.888.847
8,944,187
6,828,983
6.850,809
5.440,186

82310.
85.547 ^
92,654 <
106,542 <
126,249 {
U5435I
145.674 1
147470^

«W,816
2,788,071
8,120,998
2.686,4»8
688,008
1,675,889
2,524.001

1.298458
1,718.135
1379.322
1,938,212
2.018,972
2.174.327
2,627.667

Illilli

765.129
784.548
958.803

415.790
Decrease
>.6ao.i55
Decrease

773.673
Decrease
401.123

2,787
7.107
U;888
19.707
19,186
289
1.796

Total incre

aae.l801to

1871

16,606,079

»3.699993

I.7I4.107

129.319

64.660

Note. — The population of Ireland ia estimated lor the yean IbOl aud 1811.

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

PcpulaUon in Englaaid tmd Wales.

491

Table K.—Total Estimated Consumption of Coal in the United Kingdom
on the Basis of Dimitiishing Radios {Decreasing Bate of Increase 5*831
per Cent per Decade),

[Copy of Table III fai Coal Gommuiionen' Beport, p. xrij

'11 ...

104,850,

4-6626

487i8oo',

'21 ....

107,580,

4-6526

500,600,

'81 ....

110,230,

4-6626

512.900,

'41 ....

iiz,790i

4-6526

524,800,

'51 ....

1 i5»i5o>

4-6526

536,200,

'61 ....

ii7,6zo,

4-6626

547,300,

'71 ....

119,900,

4-6626

557,900, J

2181 ....

122,180,

4-6626

568,000, "^

'91 ....

124,180,

4-6626

577,800,

2201 ....

126,200,

4-6626

587,200,

'11 ....

128,110,

4-6626

596,100,

'21 ....

129,950,

4-6626

604,600,

'31 ....

131,700,

4-6526

612,800, ^

60,501 homeoonsmnption
1,200 exported

61,701 total in oeotiuy

85,465 home consumption
720 exported .

36,186 total for 60 years

Total consumption in 860 years 146,736 millions

Digitized by

Google

492 Prick Williams — On the Increase of [Sept.

Table Ea. — Total Eitimated Consumption of Coed in the United Kingdom
on the Basis of Diminishing Rates of Increase of the Population (tni,
4*694 per Cent. Decrease per Decade),

[Amended eopy of Table III in Coel Coanninionen' Report, p. ztl]

Total consumption in 310 years 146,854

Note. — ^Total ayailable coal in the United Kingdom, as estimated, 146,480
million of tons.

Digitized by

Google

1880.]

Population in Englcmd and Wales.

493

Table lu— Showing the Estimated Population of Great Britain during the

next Three Hundred and Ten Tears from 1871. The Rate of Increase

in 1871, viz,y ii'533, coTistarUly Decreasing at the Rate of 4*694 per

Cent, per Decade,

Gbbat Bbitaik.

Deeade.

1871..

1881..

•91..
1901..

*11..

'21..

'31..

'41..

'61..

'71..

'81..

'91..
2001..

'11..

'21..

'81..

'41..

'51..

'61..

'71..

'81..

'91..
2101..

'11..

'21..

'81..

'41..

'61..

'71..

'81..

IncreMe per Cent,
per Decade.

'Per cnt.

11-94

11-38
10-85

10-34
9-86

9'39
8*95
8-53
8-13
7-75
7*39
7-04

6-71

6*39
6*09
5-8i
5*53
5*27
5*03
4'79
4'57
4*35
4- '5
3'95
3*77
3*59
3*4*
3-*6
3*"
2-96
. 2-8z

Eftimated
Future Popolation.

No.
26,248,728

29,388,000

32,727,000

86,278,000

40,029,000

43,976,000

48,105,000

52,411,000

56,881,000

61,606,000

66,272,000

71,170,000

76,180,000

81,292,000

86,487,000

91,758,000

97,086,000

102,462,000

107,862,000

118,277,000

118,708,000

124,128,000

129,527,000

134,903,000

140,231,000

145,517,000

160,742,000

166,897,000

160,979,000

165,986,000

170,899,000

175,719,000

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494

Prick Williams — On the InoreoM of

[Sept.

Table IL-^hawing the JSuimated PofmLaUon of England and WmLm
during the next Three Hundred and Ten Years from 1871. The Bate
of Increase in 1871, w., 12*990, constantly Decreasing at the Rate of
4*563 per Cent, per Decade,

EVOLAKD AHB WaLBS.

Decide.

1871.
IMl.

'ai..

1901.

'IL

'«!..

'Bl..

'41..

'61..

'7X..

'81.

'91.
2001..

'11..

'21..

'»1..

'il..

'61..

'71..

'81..

'91..
2101..

'11.

'21.

'81..

'41.

'61.

'61..

'71..

'81..

Increwe per Cmt
per Deeede.

Per cat
12*990

12*40
11-83

11*29

10-78

10*28

9*82

9*37

8*94

8-53
8*14

Til
7-42
7*08
6*76
6-45
6-15
5-87
5*60

5*35
5*>o
4-87
4*<55
4*44
4*-»3
4*04
3-86
3*68
3-51
3*35

3*20

3-05

Ettiroeted
Tatore Popaktkm.

No.
22366»16i

26,690,000

28,729,000

81,978,000

86,419^000

89,061,000

42396,000

46,916,000

61,110,000

66,470,000

69,986,000

64,646,000

69,443,000

7^68,000

79,386,000

84,606,000

89^04,000

94^969,000

100;&86,000

106^662,000

111^040,000

U6,448,000

121JS63,OO0

127,274000

132,667,000

138^016.000

143,344,000

148,620,000

163,836,000

168»990,000

164i077,000

169,081,000

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1880.]

Population in Etigland and Wales.

405

Tabi«k "N.^-Shomng the Estimated Popttlation of Scotland during the
neM Three Hundred and Ten Fears from 1871. The Bate of Increase
in 1871, viz., 9*550, constantly Decreasing at the Rate of 6-391 per Cent,
per Decade.

SOOTXAND.

187X.

1881.

'91.
1901

'11.

'21.

'31.

'41.

'61.

'71.

'81.

'91.
2001.

'11,

'21

'81

'41.

'51.

'61.

'71.

•81.

'91.
2101.

'11.

'21.

'81.

•41.

'61

'61.

'71.

•81

locKue per Cent,
per Decade.

Per CDt.
9*550

8-94
8-37
7-83
7*33
6*86

6*43
6'oi

5-63

4*93
4*62

4*3 »
4*05
3*79
3*55
3*3^
3*11

2*91

2*7i
»*55
a*39
i*'»3
2*09
1*96
1*83
1-71
i*6i
1-50
1*41

1*32

1*23

Fntnre Popnlstion
per Decade.

No.
8,892,669

8,696,000

4,006,000

4,819,000

4,686,000

4,968,000

6,272,000

6,689,000

6,908,000

6,214,000

6,621,000

6,822,000

7,117,000

7,406,000

7,686,000

7,969,000

8,228,000

8,479,000

8,726,000

8,968,000

9,191,000

9,411,000

9,621,000

9,822,000

10,014,000

10,198,000

10,872,000

10,689,000

10,697,000

10,848,000

10,991,000

11,126,000

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496 Williams — On Population in England and Wales. [Sept.

Table O. — Estimate of the ProspecHve Increase of the Population of
London during Three fftmdred and Ten Years from 1871. Initial
Rate i6'o6 per Cent, per Decade. Decrement on ditto 13*046 per Cent,

LoNDOir.

Deeade.

1871

1881

'91

1901

*11

*21

'81

'41

'51

'61

'71

'81

'91

2001

'11

'21

'81

'41

'61

'71

'81

'91

2101

'11

'21

'81

'41

'51

'61

'71

'81

Incretao per Cent,
per Decade.

Per cut
i6*o6

I3*9<55
12-144
10*560
9*182
7*984
^•943
6*037

5*250
4*5^5
3*970

3*45*
3*001
2-6io
2*270

»*974
1*716
1*492
1*298
1*128
0*981

0*853
0*742

0-645
0*561
0*488
0*424
0*369
0*321
0*279
0*242
o 211

Future Popnlati<»
per Decade.

No.
8,254,260

8,708,600
4,168,800
4,698,000
6,020,200
6,241,000
6,797,400
6,147,400
6,470,100
6,766,600
7,084,100
7,277,000
7,496,800
7,690,900
7,866,400
8,020,700
8,168,800
8,280,000
8,887,600
8,482,000
8,666,200
8,638,800
8,702,400
8,768,600
8,807,600
8,850,600
8,888,100
8,920,900
8,949,600
8,974,500
8,996,200
9,016,800

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PLale^ /.

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POPULATION OF ENGLAND &, WALES PUoe Z.

Jouma/. of StahsHoal SodLa^. 1680.

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Jgumal of6uxLsDuaal Sodefn J8S0.

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POPULATION OF ENGLAND & WALES. PUueA,.

l«OI 11 21 31

Jotunal cCSUMiiMuiBd' Soeiefy.1880.

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POPULATION OF ENGLAND & WALES. FlaUS.

Journal of SiatisUoal/ Society, 1880.

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POPULATION OF ENGLAND &. WALES. PicUe €

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POPULATION OF ENGLAND & WALES. PlaUS.

Journal of Statieiical Society, 1880.

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POPULATION OF ENGLAND &. WALES. ncux €.

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rUtr 7.

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TlateS

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n4u^s.

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1880.] 497

Discussion on Me. R. Price Willums's Paper.

Sir R. W. Rawson, C.B., K.C.M.G., said he had devoted some
time since yesterday morning to the study of the paper, and there
were one or two points upon which he wonld say a few words ;
but before he entered into a consideration of the paper, he wished
to say for himself, and he believed in doing bo he would only give
expression to the sentiments of every member of the Society, that
he regretted very mnch that their esteemed colleague Dr. Farr
(than whom no man in these islands, or perhaps in the world,
would be better able to offer an opinion on this paper) was not
present at that meeting. He rose thus early because he thought he
could give a little interesting information on the subject, which he
had derived from Mr. Price Williams's paper, and also because he
wished to make a suggestion with regard to the validity of his
deductions from the census returns. The paper was so valuable,
and the materials collected had been obtained by such an amount of
industry, that he was sorry he could not at once fully join with
the author in his deductions, and admit the entire correctness of
them. At the same time they were so important that he sincerely
hoped that if Mr. Williams did not intend to publish the detailed
statements from which his abstracts were printed, he would
empower the Council of the Society to publish them, or to procure
their publication by parliament or otherwise. Mr. Williams had
put together the population of London in a series of years ; that
was very easy, but the separation of the population of aJl the other
large towns^ distinguished from the smaller towns, the aggregate
of the smaller towns by themselves, and of the rural districts by
themselves, was not light work, and the information thns supplied
furnished such an amount of material for examination and for
important deductions, that it oi^ht not to be buried in manuscript.
With regard to the doubt that occurred to him as to the validity of
the author's deductions relating to the future increase of popula-
tion, he found that between the years 1821 and 1861 there was a
decrease, and between 1861 and 1871 an increase in the decennial
increment. In 1821 the increase over 1811 was i8 per cent., the
subsequent increase at each decennial period up to 1861 being 1 5f ,
14-^, I if, and nearly 12 per cent., from which the author argued
that as in the fifty years from 1811 to 1861 there had been a
gradual decrease in the increment, the same thing would go on till
the end of his calculation — 3CX5 years. He (Sir R. W. Rawson)
believed this arose not so much from a diminishing rate of increase
in the population, as from an improvement in the enumeration of
the population; At each census up to a recent period the increment
caused by a more correct enumeration became successively smaller.
The first censns — ^that of 1801 — ^was no doubt very imperfect, that
of 1811 was somewhat less so. The experience of these two
censuses enabled the commissioners in 1821 to make a very much
better census, and he believed the decrease in the decennial
increment up to a recent period arose to a great extent from the
improved enumeration. This might not affect the whole of the cal-

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498 IHseuMUm [Sept

dilations ; but he believed it would have eome influence upon them.
He did not see why railways, manufactories, and steam engines —
admitted to be causes of an increase of the population at an early
period — should lose their influences, nor why, if it were so, the
downward career should stop in 1861, and an increase in the
opposite direction shoald exhibit itself in 1871. Then, of oevrse,
came in, as affecting the iigures differently at differettt periods^ the
elements of the army and nayy, the seafaring populationv the
channel islands, and so on ; but he did not know how they affooted
the decrease; Mid without a scrutiny of the figures med by the
experts of the Registration Office, he was not prepared to admit
that they w«re to expeet a constantly diminishing rate is the
increment of the population. It was only matiu*al that the
iivotement should increase rateably if the country was prosperous ;
aad he was not therefore prepared to adsiit that they were to
calculate on a continuous decrease of 5 per cent, decenniatiy in
the rate of increment throughout the next 200 years. The other
points which he wished to bring under their notice were much
move gratifying to him, because thcn^ were not matters of doubt,
but of certainty. Mr. Willisnis had brought together sepavately
^e populations of the large towns, of the smaU towns, and tine
rural districts at each census from 1801 down to 1871 — a -mat
work far ain individual — and one for which not only this Society,
but every man in the kingdom who has occasion to look into these
matters, must feel indebted to him, and he sincerely hoped the
Council would endeavour to get the details published. If there
were any elements of error in the abstracts contained in the paper,
he hoped they would be etiminated, so t«hat it might form tbe
groundwork for ftiture reference and comparison, and thait it
might be followed up by the commissioners of future oensuMS) so
iYaJt the public might have the same classified abstracts in eaoh
oeastis which Mr. Price Williams had made. He had drawn two
deductions from the paper whi<^ he thought would be interestiiig
to the meetbg. Th^ first was the relation of t^ four classes to
one* another under a common denomination, which the paper did
not show. He had prepared a table which showed that. The
second calculation which he had made ^m the paper was to show
how &r the augmentation of towns had arisen from the natural
growth, namely, the excess of births over deaths, and how fJAr
nrom t^e influx of population, and how the rural districts had lost
by the efflux, which had been drawn into the towns. He sub-
mitted these calculations to the members, and he hoped they
would consider them of sufficient interest for him to be allowed to
detain them a few minutes. The paper did not quite sepomte
London from the ot^er large towns, but be had done so. The only
way in which he could ascertain the normal increase of population
in England and Wales was by taking the average of the whole
country, assuming the immigrration and emtgnation of the whole to
balance one another. Taking then the census of 1811 as comparedit
with the preceding census of 1801 (always suliject to the queetionM
of improved enumeration to which he had referred, and subject to
any correction on account of a difference in the amounts of immi-
gration and emigration during that decade^ which he would

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I860.] on Mr. B. Fries WiUiams's Paper. 499

suppose to be equal) for ereiy lOo of increase on the average of
the whole conntrj, the increase in London was 138, in other large
tcnms 140, in small towns 91 (the large towns haying already
begnn to draw from the small ones to the extent of 9 in 100), and
in ihe rural districts it was only 84 ; the migration from the rural
districts into the towns then beix^ 16 out of ibo. He would run
down each of these classes for the series of decades from 1811
to 1871, taking the average of the kingdom at 100. In London
thetincrease was 138, 135, 165, 160; in 1851 it rose to 185, but in
1861 it fell to 162, and in 1871 was only 145 ; so that there was a
gradual increase from 138 to 185 up to 1851, and a decrease from
i^j in 1851 to 145 in 1871. It would be most interesting to add
the figures of the approaching census, and to see what had hap-
pened during the last ten years, l»inging the record up for seventy
years — ^no small period in the life of a nation. For the large
towns (exclusive of London) having over 20,000 inhabitants, the
increase in the same decennial periods had been 140, commencing
in 1811 with almost the same as in London (138), 134, 190, as com-
pared with 165, 1^2, as compared with 160, and in 1851, 195, or
nearly double the average of the kingdom, as compared with 185,
which was also the maximum for London. In 1861 it fell from
195 to 165, and in 1871 to 152, London then being 14c. With
regard to the rest of the country, the excess was entirely on the
side of the large towns and London, except in 1821, when there
was a slight excess over the average in the small towns. In 1811
the increase in the small towns, instead of being 100, was only 91,
then 105, 9$, 86, 82, successively, and in 1861 it was (mly 61 (40
of tiieir natural increase having gone to the augmentation of the
large towns), while in 1871 it had risen to 83. But the most
striking picture was in the rural districts. They began in 1811
with 84, then 81, 66, 67, down to 46 in 1851, when 54 per cent,
of the normal increase had been drawn from the rund districts,
rising afterwards to 61 and 64. These figures, he thought, would
sufficiently clearly show how in London and the large towns the
population had been drawn from the rural to the urban districts
during the period under review. He had uaade some calculations
with regard to the increment of each of these classes by natural
growth, or excess of births over deaths, and by immigration or
emigration. What he called the " natural growth " was of course
affected by any difference in the rate of such growth in town and
country districts respectively, and might be affected by an excess
of immigration over emigration in the whole country, which would
doubtless be directed towards the towns. During the decade
from 1801 to 1811 the increase in London by naturai growth was
137,000, and by immigration only 42,000. Then in each of the
next three decades, the increcbse was 205,000, 2i8vooo, and 239,000
by natural growth, and by immigration, 34^00, 58,000, and 53,000;
but in 1851 came this change, the increase by natural growth was
247,000, and by immigration 166,000, or three times the amount
of immigration of the preceding decade. In 1861 the increase by
natural growth was 281,000 and by immigration 159,000. The
effect of this immigration into London in those two decades being
to increase the increment by natural growth in 1871 to j69^ooo^a

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500 Diteusiion [Sept.

very large augmentation, whilst the immigration was only 78,000,
or about half the number in the preceding decade. He would be
happy to hand the calculations he had made to Mr. Price Williams
and the Council, if they thought worth while to examine them.
With regard to the relative increase of these four classes between
1801 and 1871, the population of London had increased 359 per
cent., the population now being more than three times what it was
in 1801, while the large towns had increased 452 per cent., or 4!
times, the small towns 231 per cent., while the rural districts had
only increased 92 per cent. There were other points to which he
would refer had he not occupied so much time, but he thought
what he had shown would indicate the immense value of the paper
road by Mr. Price Williams, and he would again express the hope
that the materials from which the tables furnished were derived
would be printed in detail.

Note to Sir B, W. Bawson's Bemarlcs,

No. 1. — Statement showing the Population of England and Walee^ and
o/Londony Large TovmSy Small Towns, and Rural Districts separatdy;
tnth the Percentage Increase of each Class separately, and of each Class
compared with the Average o/En^nd and Wales, %n each Decade from
1801 to 1871.

Tout:

Other Large

SmaU Towns:

RoralDistricti:

Yetn.

England and

London.

Towns :
with Popalation

with PopnlaUon
orer 2,000

iiiclnding
Towns under

Wales.

OTer2Qi,ooa

and under 20,00a

2,00a

1801 ....

8,89^,53^,

968,863

i.445.29<>

1,211,092!

5.277,291'

'11 ....

10,164,2561

1,138,816

1,739.224

1,369,767'

5,916,460'

•21 ....

12,000,236

1,878,947

2,203,081

1,680,046

6,788,661

- '81...

13.896,797:

1,664,994

2,865,061

1,874,112

7,502,630

'41 ....

1 5.909* '3 i

1,948,417

3.623^,758

2,107,662

8.2*9.395

'61 ....

17,927.609

2,862,236

4.522,765 ,

2,828,941

8,715,667

'61 . ...

20,066,224

2,803,989

5,414,220

2,499,061

9.348,964 ,

71 ....

22,712,266

8,261,913'

6,546,627

2,776,789

10,137,987

1811 ....

H'30

18-77

20-03

13-10

12*11

^21 . ...

i8-o6

2109

24*37

1900

H*74

'81 ....

i5'8i

20^02

30-00

14^8

10-52

~ '41 ....

i4-4»

17-78

26>7

12-46

9-69

'51 ....

12*69

21-24

24-81

10-60

5*88

'61 ....

"•93

18-70

19-71

7-31

7*29

'71 ....

IJ*I9

16-97

20-99

11-07

8-4f

PercenUge Increase of ead

li aaas in each Decade, compared with
of England snd Wales.

London.

Other
Large Towns.

Average of
Engbnd and Wales

SmalhTbwns.

RmalDistrictt.

1811 ....

1-38

1-40

foo

0-91

0-84

'21 ....

1*35

1-84

i-oo

1-06

C-81

'31 ....

1-65

1-90

I'OO

0-96

0-66

'41 ....

i-6o

1-82

1-00

0-86

0-67

'61 ....

1-85

1-96

I'OO

0-82

0-46

'61 ....

1-62

1-66

I -00

0-61

o-6i

'71 ....

1*45

1-62

I'OO

0-88

0-64

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1880.]

on Mr. B. Price WiUdams^s Fcuper.

501

No. 2. — StatemerU of the Actual, Percentage, and Proportionate Bate
of Increase of the PopuUuion of London, the Large and Small Tovme
respectively, and the Rural Districts of England and Wales, hy Natural
Growth {excess of Births over Deaths), and hy Migration separately, in
each Decade from 1811 to 1871.

London.

Yean.

Increase in each Decade.

Percentage
Bate of Increase.

Proportion of Increase.

By Natnial
Growth.

Immigration.

By Natural
Growth.!

By
ImmigraUon.

By Natural
Growth.

By
Immigration.

ri8ii....

137,117

42,835

14*30

4*46

76-2

23*8

\ 21....

205,669

84,463

l8-o6

8*02

85-4

14-6

L'si ....

218,011

58,036

15*81

4*21

79*o

210

^41 ....

139,643

53,780

14-48

8*25

81*7

18*8

'51 ....

247,254

166,665

12*69

8*55

59*8

40*2

'61 ....

281,814

159,939

11*93

6-76

63-8

36-2

71 ....

369,846

78,078

13*19

2-78

82*6

17-4

Average

—

74*0

26-0

Other Large Towns. .^ Qt*.'- ^^ ' \ <^'*<^^^

^1811 ....

206,676

87,268

14*30

6*00

70*3

29*7

'21 ....

314,103

140,755

i8-o6

8-61

67-7

32-8

'31 ....

348.307

318,672

15*81

14-23

52*6

47*4

'41 ....

414,860

343,837

14*48

1200

54*7

45-3

'61 ....

457,355

439,152

12*69

1212

51-2

48*8

'61 ....

539,5^5

851,890

11*93

7*77

60*6

39*4

'71 ....

714,135

418,272

13*19

7*72

63*2

86*8

SmaU Towns. ' ^iOOO - i 0.£;«^t/ ]

Increase in each Decade.

Percentage Eate
of Increase or Decrease.

By Natural Growth.

By Immigration.

ByNa^ralGfl^h.

By Immigration.

nsii....

173,186

Loss 14,521

i4'^o

- 1*20

!J-

*47,379

Gain 12,910

i8*o6

+ 0-94

U81....

257,710

Loss 13,644

i5*8i|

- 0-83

'41 ....

271,391

„ 87,941

14-48

- 202

'51 ....

267,449

„ 46,070

12*69

-218

'61 ....

277,842

„ 107,732

11*93

- 4-63

'71 ....

329,624

„ 52,986

13*19

- 211

Rural Districts. (

i -^v^ f-^^H^-oBi.. 'xi>c

Natural

Actual

Loss.

Increase
by Natural
Growth.*

L^wty

Proportion of
Increase which

Increase.

Emigration.

Migrated.

^8ll ...

754,652

689,169

115,483

14-30

2*19 \

16-80

'21 ...

1,068,512

872,201

196,311

1806

3*3»

18*37

( '81 ....
'41 ...

1,073,287

713,969

359,318

15-81

5*29

83<48

1,086,380

726,765

3.<9,6i5

14*48

4*79

30*31

'61 ...

1,044,310

484,272

560,038

1269

6*80

53-62

'61 ...

1,039,540

635,297

404,243

11*93

4*64

38*88

'71 ...

1,241,128

789,023

452,105

1319

4*83

86-82

Total ...

—

2,447,113

—

* Assumed to be that of the arerage of Bngland and Wales.

TOL. XLIII. PART III.

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502

DiBOUsnon

[Sept.

Ifo. 3. — Perceniaffe Proportiam of the Town and Rural Pcpnlation of Eng-
land and Wales in 1801 and 1871, and the Actual Percentage Increase
of each Close during that Period,

Aetnal

1801.

1871.

Percentage Ineretae
in 1871.

London

10-8]
\6'i 40-7
i3-6j
59*3

U-4"|
28-8 Um
12-2 J
44-6

339

45»

»3'

9»

Other large towna

Smftll t"AWTH» T .

Rural districts

Total

lOO'O

1000

No, 4. — Statement showing what the Population of the Rural Districts
of England and Wales would have been if they had Increased from
1801 to 1871 in the same Proportion as the Population of the whole
of England and Wales,

Increase from 5»a77»29i in 1801

To 13473,219 „ '71 - 155 per cent.

Instead of 10,137,987 -■ 9a „

A difference of 3i335ii3» - 63 „

Mr. A. H. Bailet (President of the Institnte of Actaaries)
remarked that Mr. Price Williams said, " In the absence of anj
census returns, the amount of the population prior to 1801 can only
be approximately arrived at ;" but he did not think the author had
put sufficient emphasis on the very small reliance that could be
placed on the returns prior to 1801. The poll tax was never levied
on the whole population, the hearth tax excluded all cottages, and
all the calculations of the numbers of the population were arrived
at by an enumeration of the houses, and an estimate of the men,
women, and children who were supposed to occupy them ; and
these calculations were frequently materially affected by political
views. Thus in the parish of All Saints*, Northampton, Dr. Price,
from observations on the registers of baptisms and burials, came to
the conclusion that the population was stationary — the ^t being
that there was an unusual proportion of Baptists in the town and
parish who were not calculated, and by this hypothesis of a sta-
tionary population was brought about (" Northampton Table '*) an
exceedingly erroneous table, and one which had caused a great
deal of confusion. He thought little notice should be taken of the
last century, for he could not believe that the rate of increase of the
population in the last decade of the last century was only 2^ per
cent., while in the first decade of this century it was 14*3 per cent.,
and that during what was throughout for the most part a period of
war ; but' he could not agree with Sir Bawson Rawson that little
reliance was to be placed on the census returns in the early part of
this century. No doubt improvements in taking the censuses had
been made, but these were in collateral objects such as ages and

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1880.] on Mr. B. Price Williams's Paper. 503

occupations, rather than in counting the heads of the population.
The early censuses in this respect, he thought, might reasonably be
depended upon. There were two difficulties that presented them-
selves to his mind, one being that Scotland and Ireland were
excluded from the returns. From both countries there was always,
he thought, a considerable immigration into England ; and the other
was the influence of emigration to the colonies, the United States,
and other parts of the world. He believed there were no trust-
worthy statistics of emigration until a comparatively recent date.
Then as to the divisions made by Mr. Price Williams, there was a
little ambiguity, because what was a rural population in 1801 was
perhaps a town population in 1871. For instance, he found that in
1801 the population of Middlesborough-on-Tees was 239, whereas
it was 46,62 1 in 1871, or an increase of about two hundred times, so
that this would interfere with the general results. Then as to the
question of boundaries. For instance, the question might be asked,
what is London ? There was the registration district of London,
the southern division of which was, he thought, Streatham ; but
surely Croydon might be included in London. The extension of
railways had brought people to be called Londoners who would not
have been so called in the early part of the century, and he thought
the question of boundary was a serious difficulty in all these calcu-
lations. He noticed that Brighton had made the greatest progress
amongst the towns of 100,000 and upwards between 1801 and
1871.

Mr. ST. A. HuMPHRBTS thought they must all feel very much
indebted to the writer of the paper for his wonderful industry, and
for the immense amount of valuable facts which had been collected.
With regard to the opinion expressed by the author, that the
estimated increase of ihe population of the small towns, viz., 1 1 '07
per cent., was too high, and that probably the actual population
enumerated in 1881 would amount to no more than 25,500,000,
he wanted to know what reason there was to support that opinion.
They knew that up to 1861, there had been a steady decrease in
the rate of increment, whereas an increase occurred between 1861
and 1871 ; and that all the facts since 1871 pointed to the most
indubitable conclusion that the rate of increment of increase had
been fully maintained since 1871. The annual natural increase of
population was 11*9 per 1,000 in 1851-60, 12*6 in the decade
1861-70, and increased to 14*02 in the nine years ending 1879,
showing that the actual increment has been more than maintained
during the present decade. He thought the assumption, that in
estimating the population we must take into account a continuance
of an annual decrement in the increase was quite an erroneous one.
Mr. Price Williams estimated the probable population at 25I
millions in 1881, while Dr. Farr's method estimated it at 25,700,000.
The registrar-general in 1871 estimated the population of London
within 8,000 of the actual numbers returned ; that was by taking
into account the ascertained rate of increase during three pre-
ceding decades. In England and Wales, and in the manufac-
turing towns especially, it did not seem possible to invent a theory

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504 ]}%8CU$non [Sept,

which wonld be applicable to a nnmber of townfl. The onlj satig-
factory remedj for this difficulty being to hold a oensva move fro-
quentlj than once in ten years.

Mr. CoBNKUUS Walford thonght the problems connected with
the population of the last centnir had never had the attentiiKi
paid to them which they deeerred. There were special oircom-
stances at work in the last centnry with which they were i^ ^miliar.
The increase in the rate of population would always be abovt the
same in each of the different g^reat races. The Anglo-Saxon race
had always been a prolific one, and it would in all probability
remMn so. In the last century there were continuous ware, and he
would very mach like to see (he had at one time intended to make
one himself) an estimate of the drain of the population of this
country by the wars, naval and military, for the number was so
prodigious that he behoved it would almost account for the want
of increase in the population at that period. Besides the lives lost
in the two services — army and navy — a very large migration to
America took place by those who desired to escape compulsory
service, as also from religious persecution. The armies serving in
the field would not be a ftiir estimate, because foreignere (merce-
naries) were frequently paid to fight for us. Regarding the subject
of population generally, he had been weak enough, some years
since, to read aU the books on the subject that had been published
in this country (he had about sixty of these in his own library),
but he could not say that he knew much more about the actual facts
after than he did before he began his reading, for the statements of
the various authors were exceedingly conflicting; but there was
one man whose writings commended themselves particularly to his
judgment : he meant ihose of Mr. Biokman, whose report on the
census of 1831 was well known. That was one of the very few
books on population which the student might study with advantage.
Mr. Bailey had anticipated him in referring to the question of tne
boundaries of some towns, especially with regard to Manchester
and Liverpool, and perhaps there were no two towns in the country
where the increase had been more marked or more continuous, and
whatever statistics might say as to the apparent want of increase,
those statistics were misleading, for the population spread entirely
beyond the old boundaries. With regard to the increase of popu-
lation between 1811 and 1821, all students of this question would
know that after the drain of a great war nature seemed to reassert
her sway, and production increases at more than the normal rate.
He believed this would be found to have been the case in all
countries. In 1851 there was another marked change, which he
believed was due to the extension of railways and the adoption of
free trade. Free trade largely developed our manufactures, and
the towns grew very largely, and railways tended to take people
into these large towns ; but in later decades a reaction had set in ;
railways were no longer confined to the great oentres ; manu&c-
tories were being removed to smaller towns away from the great
centres, in consequence of the economy of living in these smaller
towns. He believed nearly every circumstance of prominence in

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1880.] on Mr, B. Price Williams's Paper. 505

tlie tables of tlie author could be explained and aooonnted for on
rational principlee, and there was not mach fear but that the
increase would go on in the fatnre as in the past. It would, how-
ever, be a happ7 day for the country when, by the cultivation of
habits of thrift, large families would no longer be associated with
notions of pauperism and poor rates. He thanked the author for
his paper.

Mr. Fkbderiok Hindbiks observed that it was interesting in
inquiries relating to the progress of population, to look back upon
some of the old forecasts of those who had published their specula-
tions upon this subject, and to see how far they had been realised
in the experience of the past. The estimates as to what might
probably be the future population of England and Wales that were
printed, in 1662, by Captain Graunt, a London citizen, under the
auspices of the Royal Society, were based upon the most trust-
worthy and accurate methods of deduction applicable at that period.
The leading data used by Captain Graunt were the numbers of
deaths and of births recorded in the first half of the seventeenth
century in certain London and country parishes, where the number
of the inhabitants was known, p^haps roughly, but still with a suffi-
cient approach to accuracy. It would appear that the population of
England and Wales in 1662 was estimated at 6,440,000^ or in round
figures at 6^ millions, of whom it was supposed that the people in
and about London constituted a fifteenth part. Captain Graunt,
after as careful a study as he could give to ^ London and country
bills of mortality, came to the conclusion that the London mortality
was about i in 32 over and above those who died of the plague,
whilst the country mortality was not over i in 50 per annum. Now
it is very curious to find that even if we throw into the estimate the
mortality from the plague, and then take a total combined average
of what may be called the general population mortality, urban and
rural, as indicated by Captain Graunt*s calculations in 1662, the
result is an average of about 2 J per cent, per annum, or say i in
about 44|. This does not difier to any material extent from the
actual mortality of England and Wales now, in 1880, after the lapse
of more than two centuries since the estimate was framed. This
deserves to be considered by our sanguine sanitary reformers, who
think that so vast a diminution has been taking place in the last two
centuries in the rate of mortality. It also affords a certain degree
of encouragement to such speculative inquiries as those now given
to this Society in Mr. Price Williams's painstaking essay, and it is
to be hoped that some statistician of two centuries hence will
derive some such instruction from it as we of the present day can
derive from looking back to old John Graunt's figures. As nearly
as he (Mr. Hendriks) recollected what Captain uraunt said about
the other factor in the growth of population, namely, the births,
and their excess over deaths, it was made out that ihe result was
to double the people in the country in about 280 years, and in
London in about seventy years, the chief reason being that so many
" breeders," as Captain Graunt called them, left the country for the
metropolis, and bred there ; whilst those who bred in the country

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506 Diseusiion [Sept.

were almost exclnsively those who were bom there. Of course at
such rates of doubling of the population, the number of inhabitants
in England and Wales at the present time would not be one-half of
what it really is. Where then was the chief error in Captain
Graunt's prognostications ? Partly in its assuming that the number
of children bom to each family would not exceed four, whilst it has
really been about five to six. This has greatly arisen also from his
not foreseeing — although it is hard upon him to say he ought to have
foreseen it — that the ui^bsnk populations of this count^, and the
greater inducements and means for increase such populations would
give rise to, as compared with those of rural populations, would
receive a vast stimulus through this country becoming a manufac-
turing, instead of an essentially agricultnral, community. Even in
comparing the movements of popalation, such as Mr. Price Williams
has given for various towns at decennial periods in this nineteenth
century, we must cautiously consider whether we are really com-
paring like with like. In Lancashire and in several of the midland
counties, for example, towns now closely peopled were, at some of
these decennial periods, even within the memory of many present
in this room, simply small country towns, or even only agglomera-
tions of persons dependent chiefly on agriculture. These places
are now the seats of flourishing manufactures and trades, affording
such continuous employment to labour that higher ratios of mar.
riage and of births to population have prevailed there than would
have been experienced had they continuoaslv remained what they
formerly were. The exact growth of the change is in some cases
more gradual than in others, but its eflect on the increment of
increase is obvious. The question is, after all, so large, and affected
by so many distinctly disturbing canses, that it becomes of the first
importance to study their leading elements in the estimate of the
trustworthiness of any forecasts ahead, even for the next decennial
period, and much more so in prognostications, interesting though
they may be, which are to receive their fulfilment at so distant a
date as is covered by Mr. Price Williams's figures.

Mr. Ot. HuBST was of opinion that a different state of things
would exist in the future as to the population of England and
Wales. If the increase went on as at present the population would
be trebled in a century. Our imports were increasing above the
exports more and more, and he thought the checks enunciated by
Malthus of prudence, poverty, and crime for restraining the
population would come into operation very rapidly, and he did not
believe that any real approximation could be arrived at with
regard to the future population. We were depending so greatly on
the foreigner for our food supplies that any disturbance in the supply
might be a great check to the increase. If there come no very
serious checks the country would be overrun with population, and
it would be a great deal too crowded a century hence for anything
but degradation and misery.

Mr. S. BoOBNE joined in the testimony of praise to Mr. Price
Williams for his valuable paper, in which he thought the most

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1880.] on Mr. B. Price WiUiams's Tapw. S07

attractive feature was that which related to the future population ;
he could not but think that the rate of increase would be greater
and not smaller in the future. Half a century hence they might
look for quite double the present population of the United King-
dom, and his own opinion was that supposing no checks were
provided, thej would be double the number in thirty- three and
a-half years. He believed that such a regulation of increase as that
to which Mr. Walford referred, was quite contrary to the dictates
of nature and prudence. What he would recommend was, that an
outlet should be found for the surplus population, and he could
hardly think it at all reasonable that we snould be crowded here
whilst we have such magnificent countries in our own possession
only as yet partially developed. We have splendid food-producing
countries under our sway, and the remedy for over-population was
to &cilitate the transfer of population to those places where every
increase of family is an increase of wealth. That he believed to be
the design of Providence — ^for we have had provided for us the
means of proper sustenance, enjoyment, happiness, and peace, if we
will only be wise enough to avaU ourselves of them. The Americans
were more enlightened than we were, and were gradually going
from the seaboard to the far west, as the seaboard got too full, and
it should be our aim to develop Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand, not only because of reducing the population at home, but
because it would give us important countries upon which to rely for
our food supplies, as well as markets for our manufactures. This
was not only a question of sustenance, but of morals, happiness,
and peace, for people were herding here in barbarism, degraoation,
and crime, when pure air, sunshine, and splendid regions were
waiting for them ; here they were a source of expense — there they
would be a source of wealth.

Mr. John B. Mabtin rose with diffidence to address a meeting
of experts upon the valuable paper which had been read, and the
supplementary paper by Sir Kawson Eawson. The Society could
appi*eciate the d££culties of dealing with the so-called official
returns of early periods, and could therefore sympathise with the
reader in being criticised on the one hand for beising deductions on
untrustworthy figures as regarded the early census returns, and
on the other for dismissing them in too summary a manner. He
would merely call attention to two points, first that every census
would probably have fewer numerical omissions than the preceding
one, and this would affect the apparent percentage of increase ; and
next, that while there was some attempt at recording the emigra-
tion from our seaports, no account was taken of the ebb and now
of emigration and immigration across the channel, whereby our
chief commercial cities, and notably London, were filled with
foreigners, who displaced the native population, and very seriously
affected the apparent natural increment. This was a subject that
deserved careful observation.

Mr. Price Willums having referred to the diagrams exhibited,
replied to some points raised, and especially drew attention to the

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508 Discussion on Mr, E. Pries WiUiams^s Taper. [Sept.

remarkable effect of the oontinned decrease in the population of
Ireland upon the rates of increase of the entire population of the
United Kingdom. As to the improvement in the census taking
between 1811 and 1821 accounting for the very large amount of
increase in that particular decade, he thought that assumption was
discredited bj the figures being put graphically on the diagram, as
had there been an error due to an inaocuracj oi that kind, it would
be apparent at once on the diagram. The cessation of war, the
introduction of machinery, and the cheapening of food, no doubt
had a great deal to do with the increment between 1841 and 1851,
when all the great centres were opened up by means of railways.
He had g^reat diffidence in offering further observations as to his
theory of a decremental rate, but he could not help thinking with
Sir Cfeorge Airey, that the theory would prove to be correct. He
thanked the meeting deeply and earnestly for their i^preciation of
his contribution on this important subject.

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1880.] 509

MoRTALiTT in Eemote Cobnbbs of the World.
By Harald Westebgaabd, of Copenhagen*

CONTENTS :
PAGE I PAGS

I.— The Faroe laUnds 509 | II.— Greenland 514

Although Denmark is one of the smallest kingdoms in Europe, it
can famish the statist with materials for many interesting inves-
tigations. In our levelling and eqnalising centnry, there are few
countries where the different classes of population are still so dis-
tinct, and especially if we go to the distant islands in the Atlantic
Ocean — the Faroe Islands and Iceland — ^we find the original Scan-
dinavian type, speaking the same language as iheir ancestors did a
thousand years ago, dialects of the old northern language. If we
go still farther away, We find in Danish Qreenland a quite different
race of men — the Eskimo — ^leading Terj much the same life now
as they did ages before. I hope, therefore, that some interest may
attach to the following communication, for the materials of which
I am indebted to the directors of the statistical office and the Eoyal
Greenland Board of Trade.

1. The Faroe Islands. — This gronp of islands is situated north of
Scotland between the 61st and 62nd degrees of latitude. There are
twenty-two islands altogether, with an area of about 5cx> square
English miles, but only seventeen are inhabited. They are very
rocky, and the shores are very steep and almost inaccessible. The
climate, under the infiuence of the GuK Stream, is comparatively
mild, with foggy air, changeable weather, mild winters, but cold
and wet summers. There are no forests, but a great quantity of
peat, which is used as fuel ; barley scarcely ripens, but the grass is
excellent, and sheep fanning one of the chief occupations. Bird
catching, whaling, and fishing are also important, and the chief
articles of export are wool, train oil, and dried fish. The inhabitants
(in 1870, about io,ooo) are of Norwegian origin, tall, handsome,
healthy people, from childhood accustomed to the dangerous life on
the rocks and on the sea, boats being almost as necessary to the

* The above paper was written in English by the anthor — an official of the
Qovemment Life Office in Copenhagen. It idll form part of a work by
Herr Westergaard, intended to contain a complete investigation into the canses of
mortality. The author would feel indebted to statists, health officers, or others
who would draw his attention to periodicals, reports, pamphlets, or other publica-
tions concerning mortality which would otherwise be likely to escape his notice.

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510 Westergaabd — On MortaUty in [Sept.

Faroe islanders, as horses to the Indians in North America. They
are poor but intelligent, frugal and temperate, and the compa-
ratively small number of illegitimate children, speaks fayonrably
for their morality.

Of the 9,992 persons enumerated in 1870, only 64 were bom out
of the islands ; about 3,000 persons had their subsistence from the
sea, and about 5,000 from agriculture. The females are in excess as
usual, and there is a considerable number of old people. Among
the males, 9 per cent, were above 60 years of age, and 4 above 70 ;
while among the females, the proportions were 1 1 and 5*5 per cent.
The population is at present rapidly increasing, and would double
itself in seventy years.

The three last censuses took place on the 1st of October, 1855,
1860, and 1870. If we call the results a, 6, and c, 2a + 86 + 10c
will approximately be the number of years of life during the twenty
years 1855-74 ; this formula has been constantly used in calculating
the different probabilities.

The marriage-rate is rather low (67 yearly to 1,000 inhabitants),
which is readily explained when we remember the great number
of old people.* The birth and death-rates are also very low. The
numbers of births and deaths, including stillborn, were 5)379 and
3,229, making a proportion of 285 and 171 to 10,000. Excluding
the stillborn, we get 276 and 162, thus realising Dr. Farr's ideal of
a healthy district. The female births have been slightly in excess.
The proportion of stillborn to all the births has been 0*034, which
is a little less than in most northern countries except Sweden, but
it is a well known fact, that the statistics of the stillborn are always
a little unreliable. While in Denmark the illegitimate children
make 1 1 per cent, of the births, in Faroe they are only 3 per cent.

The illegitimate children seem also to be well treated, for the
mortality does not seem very different from that of the legitimate
ones, and only the stillborn seem to be in greater proportion. The
difference is great enough, according to the calculus of probabilities,
to indicate that there is a cause acting here, though the nxmibers
are so small, that the true proportion cannot be stated with any
security.

To compare the mortality in the Faroe Islands with that in
Denmark, I have calculated the number of persons who would have
died if the mortality had been the same as in Denmark in 1860-69.
I have chosen one general table for the whole kingdom, and another
for the rural districts only, which are almost without exception
agricultural districts. Unfortunately the Danish life tables have

* For comparisoni, I may refer to the Aonnal Reports of the Be^strar-Geoeral
for England, and to the " Movimento dello Stato Civile, anni dal 1862 al 1877."
Introdozione. Boma, 1878.

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1880.]

Bemote Gomers of the World,

511

not been adjosted, which makes them irregnlar; bnt the chief
figures of the tables are nndonbtedlj correct. The results will be
seen from the following abstract : —

Males.

Females.

Age.

Actual
Deaths/
1866-74.

Calculated Deaths,

according to Mortaiity.

1860^9.

Actual
Deaths/
1866-74.

Calculated Deaths,
according to Mortality,

AU Denmark.

Rural
Districts.

All Denmark.

Rural
Districts.

399
414

297

55$

794*17
313*67
832*24
590*81

734*05
280*66

294*85
576-10

371
261
190
562

720*34
343*84
262*46
723*42

671-71
341*74
252-74
720-68

AU agee....

1,663

2081*00

1886*00

1,384

2050*00

1987*00

* The stillbom excluded.

Before proceeding to interpret the above abstract, I may add
that Denmark is one of the healthiest countries in Europe. Among
the females we notice in the Faroe Islands an immense saving of
lives; in every stage of life we see the most striking difference,
especially among the children, and we understand well why there
are so many old women on these islands, as a much greater pro-
portion of the new bom outlive infancy and childhood than in most
other places.

Among the males, we find in childhood and old age the same
striking difEerence in favour of the Faroe islanders ; but between
15 and 65, especially between 15 and 45, this is not the case.
Unfortunately the causes of deaths are not specified in the lists I
have before me ; only the violent deaths have been registered there.
Out of 3,047 deaths (excluding stillborn), 255 were violent. Besides
^4 suicides among males and 12 violent deaths among females,
180 drownings, and 59 other accidents among males have been
registered, being one out of seven^ and probably by far the greater
proportion of all these accidents may be allotted to the vigorous
age between 15 and 65, or even 15 and 45, so that perhaps more
than I in 3 or 4 in these ages, die what our ancestors deemed an
honest death, though it was not deemed so honest to be killed in
war with the elements, as with human beings. If we strike ofi* the
total number of deaths by accident, we have only 1,424 deaths left,
and if we ascribe all the violent deaths to the ages between 15 and
65, we find that whereas the calculated number for Denmark was
646, and for the rural districts only 576, the actual number of
deaths has been 472 only. It is thus justifiable to presume, that

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512

Westbbgaaed— 0»* MortdUtp in

[Sept.

the Faroe islanders are muoh healthier than Danes generally, and
if it were not for the accidental deaths, the mortality in every stage
of life wonid he less than in otiier parts of Denmark.

In order to estimate the infant mortality, we may, as nsnal,
compare the number of births to the nnmber of deaths. The con-
tinental authors are frequently puzzled by this question, and very
often take a wrong denominator, &o. ; but if we support logic by
mathematics, the question presents no difficulty, and no English
author would probi^ly be in any doubt as to how to calculate the
probabilities.

Infant Mortality in Faroe, 1855-76, compared to that in Denmark,

1860-69.

Kales.

Females.

Onl of 10,000 N«v Bora,
than

Furoe.

Deanurk.

Furoe.

Denmsrfc.

Died within

Whole
KiBsdom.

Rural
Districts.

Whole
Kingdom.

Rural
Diitrieto.

Firat year of life

„ Ato yean ,

86a

I,2l6

1,464
2,827

1,3*1

698
1,171

1,237
2,128

1,114
1,961

The following table shows the infant mortality in other
countries (" Movimento," &c., pp. clxxinii, Ac).

Out of 10,000

New Bon

there Died within

EngluMl
ftDd

Wales.

Norway.

Swedmi.

Pnissia.

Anstrit.

Bararia.

Italy.

Fnnee.

First year of life....
„ fiye years

i»540
»,535

1,068
1,800

1,371
2,227

2,177
3,843

2,582
3,998

3,179
3,980

2,201
3,954

1,691
2,497

Norway has always been distinguished as one of the healthiest
countries, and especially its low infant mortality has been frequently
noted ; but even there the mortality is higher than in Faroe.

For the remaining ages we may calculate the rates of mortality
in the usual way, by dividing the number of deaths by the years
of life. After having adjusted the number of living and dead by
assuming the second differences constant, we get the following
table. The numbers for England are taken from the " Fortieth
« Annual Eeport of the Eegistrar- General " (Abstract of 1877).

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1880.] Remote Comers of the World,

Rates of Mortality per Ten Thousand.

513

Males.

Females.

Ages.

Deumwk, 186049.

England.
lSM-77.

PiToe.
18SI.7i.

Denmark, 1860-e9.

IngUid.

1888-77.

Whole
Kingdom.

Rand
DistricU.

Whole
Kingdom.

Rond
Distriets.

106

112

120

127

>77

177

222

318

463

661

976

1,503

2,495

105
57
62

116

142

187

248

396

513

797

1,096

1345

2,938

3,680

105
60

53
70
66
66

119

»63

222

367

484

778

1,071

1,826

2,918

3,608

84
47

} ^^

\ 98

1 182
1 187

|.«

1 674
} 1,470
} 8,054

50
35
38
48
60

74
82

79
88
108
t34
215
366

54a

746

1,047

«,546

2407

109

106

111

188

186

803

427

724

1,010

1,681

2,495

3,350

Ill

71
63
70
78
88

95
101
104

>32
179

298
426

717
1,011
1,663
2,532
3,302

} ^®
} 99

1 128

\ 156

1 281

1 591

-1,340

}2,W1

90-95....

On inspection of this table, we meet just the same featnres as
above ; an exceedingly low mortality among the females and also
among the males nnder 15 and above 65, while between 20 and 50
it is considerably high; and the usual higher mortality of the
women in the child-bearing ages does not appear here.

In conclusion, a few numbers may be added to illustrate the
influence of season on mortality : —

Injltience of Seasons on Mortality; Proportional Nwnber of Deaths; in
the Average Quarter the Number Assumed to he One Thousand.

England and Wales,!
1838-77 J

Faroe —
Excluding yiolent 1

deaths j

Including yiolent 1

deaths J

FintQnarter,

ending
SWt March.

MI3

1,011
987

Second Quarter,

eadiug

80ih Jane.

1,148
1,178

Third Quarter,

endiuf
SOCh September.

920

908
927

Fourth Qnarter,

ending
Slat December.

978

987
913

The spring quarter is, then, most perilous, especially if we
include violent deaths.

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514 Westergaabd — On MorUdiiy in [Sept.

2. Oreenland. — ^West and north-west of Faroe we find the
immense arctic country Oreeoland. The present Danish stations
there date from the time of Hans Egede, an energetic missionary,
who in 1721 came to Greenland with his wife and children, to seek
for the posterity of the old Norse settlers. Finding only Eskimos,
he devoted himself to the difficult task of Christianising them,
and after some years of hard straggle, he succeeded in getting
assistance from the Danish GU>Yemment. In 1774 a royal trade
monopoly was established, which is still maintained, and seems to
be less perilous to the natives than free trade or private monopoly.

Although there is a great deal of European blood now in the
inhabitants, the Eskimo features are still prevalent, viz., the low
stature, the brown complexion, and the coarse black hair. Domestic
life is almost unaltered since the time of Egede, and although the
royal trade requires the assistance of a certain number of natives,
the bulk of the inhabitants are still pursuing their national occu-
pations. Fishing and hunting are still the chief sources of life in
this desolate arctic country with its barren, infertile soil, and its
rough and changeable weather. For full information as to this
remarkable race, which maintains life where no other race has been
able to live, I may refer to Dr. Henry Rink's interesting work,
" Danish Greenland," London, 1877.

The materials for the following investigation are the census
reports and the yearly reports sent to the Board of Trade, con-
taining the numbers of native inhabitants in each district, of
births, deaths, and (sometimes) of marriages, of immigration and
emigration. The ages at death are not given, but the causes of
death are specified. These materials are not very complete, but
though they are insufficient for any actuarial purpose, many conclu-
sions concerning social questions may be safely drawn &om them.
The causes of death cannot of course be well specified ; headache,
stitch, and dropsy, <fec., are frequently named as causes of death.
There is also reason to believe that infants are not always regis-
tered when they die shortly after birth, and in North Greenland the
stillborn are never included, neither in births nor in deaths. Still
the lists are very carefully filled up, and their close conformity with
tiie census reports tends to show this fully. Unfortunately only a
few lists can be found, and I have no more than twelve years' experi-
ence for North Greenland, and eleven for South Greenland.

It would be interesting too, to ascertain the mortality of the
Europeans who live in Greenland, but I have no materials for such
an investigation.

Before the middle of this century, the population seems to have
been rapidly increasing for a while, but now the number is nearly
the same from year to year.

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1880.] . Bemote Comers of the World. 515

In 1884 tiiere were 196 Europeans and 7,356 natiTes
*40 „ 251 „ 7,877

'46 „ 234 „ 8,501

'55 „ 248 „ 9,648

'60 „ 232 „ 9,648

'70 „ 239 „ 9,586

The natives live — nrntatU mutandis — under the same conditions
as our ancestors two hundred years ago ; if a series of years set in
with epidemics and scarcity, the increase is checked, and the births
cannot keep up with the deaths. In Denmark the population six
hundred years ago is said to have been just as great as in the
beginning of this century, and it is only the present civilisation
that has taught us the art of saving life and of doubling the popu-
lation by adding a number regularly every year.

Immigrations from the Danish possessions, or from other coun-
tries, are rare ; and although the natives are a migrating people, the
migrations seem to take place mostly within their own borders.
Sometimes a few Eskimos come from other arctic countries (for
instance from the east coast, where there are no European stations),
but on the whole the increase and decrease of the population are
dependent on births and deaths. During all the years for which I
have got reports, the excess of immigrants over emigrants has only
been fourteen persons.

In 1870 the population was distributed among 176 winter
stations. The number of males 'was 4,484, and of women $,102,
this difference arising mostly from the dangerous occupations of the
men. The number of males aged 60 and more did not amount to
two per cent, of the male population ; among the females the pro-
portion was between two and three per cent.

The marriages have been sometimes registered in South Green-
land, giving very nearly a marriage-rate of i per cent, of the
population; the birth-rate was about 3*8 per cent, (excluding the
stillborn), and the death-rate 37 per cent. There has thus been a
slight difference in favour of births, the total number of births
(exclusive of stillborn) being 4,107, and of deaths 4,027. There is
nothing extraordinary in these proportions, though they may be
uncommon in northern countries.

The years for which I have reports, go from 1865 to 1878 (with
some omissions, making twelve years for the northern districts and
eleven for the southern ones). If we assume the same distribution
of ages every year as in the census year 1870, and if we calculate,
on this supposition, the number of deaths which would have taken
place according to the mortality in Denmark, 1860-69, we get the
following results. In North Greenland the calculated number of
deaths was 794, while the actual number was 1,483 ; and in South

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616

Wbstbegaabd— 0» Mortality in

[Sept.

Greenland the calculated number was 934, but there died 2,j44.
Thus the mortality is more than double of that in Denmark, If we
inspect the single years, we find that the mortality is constantly
higher than in Denmark, bnt the fluctnations in mortality are very
great. The domestic life of the Greenlander, the miserable, over-
crowded, filthy hnts, the want of linen, and the improvidence of
the natives — all the causes, in short, which in past centuries con-
stantly raised the mortality in every European city — are still
acting here. In 1867 pleurisy took 257 lives, being half of all the
deaths that year; during the two years 1875-76, erysipelas killed
180 natives, and so on. Every year a number of people die from
want of cleanliness and of medical assistance, succumbing under
nasty sicknesses such as boils, tetter, and itch.

I find the list of causes too incomplete to attempt classifying
them ; it will only be necessary to show the ravages of one cause,
viz., the violent deaths, which sacrificed 466 hunum beings out
of 4,000 deaths. Thus we have even a greater proportion of deaths
by accident here than in Faroe. Most of the people who perished
l^ accident were probably males. It is a dangerous life the Eskimos
lead ; the kayak sport is especially perilous, and the drownings in
kayak amounted to 270 out of 466 violent deaths.

It may be of interest to compare the theoretical mortality witii
the actual mortality during all the different years.

North Qreenland.

South areenland.

Calculated Deaths

Tetr.

Aetoal Deaths.

(MortalitT
in Denmark. 1860-89).

Actual Deaths.*

Calculated Deaths.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

1865...

32-87

82-43

41-27

44-17

'66...

32*76

32-67

41-71

44-67

'67....

ia6

3l'6i

31-92

129

148

41*23

43-88

'68....

3i*9«

82-34

—

'69....

—

106

41*50

44-08

'70...

32-96

8319

41-96

44-76

'71...

32-86

33-22

168

153

41*47

44-28

'72....

32-50

3306

—

'73...

32*97

33-65

>32

129

41*05

43-63

'74...

33*43

34-10

41-63

43-98

'75....

33-34

84-15

159

204

40*69

42-59

'76...

33-13

84-45

159

154

40-01

41-69

'77....

—

'78....

33-31

84-68

41*43

42-32

Total

794

689

394-00

400-00

2,586-4

2»«= 2,544

454*oo

480-00

* In the deaths in South Gh'eenland 42 stillbom are included, for which the
sexee cannot be distinguished.

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1880.] Bmiote Comers of the World. 517

I am well aware that some objections may be made to these
computations, bat the difference between the calculation and the
experience is so greats that a few deaths more or less have no
importance.

In which ages do these immense losses of life take place P We
cannot ascertain it bj the death registers, as these contain no par-
ticulars as to the age. The only thing we can do is to use the
census reports. It was shown above, that emigration in Danish
Greenland is very insignificant. The number of persons aged 40
in 1870, divided by the number of persons aged 30 in 1860, will
then be the probability for a man aged 30 to live ten years more.
If this probability be p, y^p is approximately the probability for a
man between 30 and 40 to live one year more. This method would
not very well answer for actuarial purposes, but in social statistics
we never require great accuracy, and we are often content with
a knowledge of plus or minus, when we pannot ascertain the quan-
tities numerically.

After having adjusted the numbers of persons at different ages
in the same way as for the Faroe islanders, taking quinquennial
ages, 10 to 15, 15 to 20, Ac., and calling the probability, found in
iAie way just described, for a person between 20 and 25 to live ten
years p, ^p msj be taken approximately to represent the yearly
rate of mortality between 25 and 30. The infancy is more difficult,
for we cannot well make any hypothesis on the distribution of the
infants at the different ages, without at the same time supposing
anything concerning their mortality. And we must finally re-
member that many children who died in the earliest infancy, have
perhaps never been registered. The probabilities must necessarily
be most arbitrary, and I have only calculated them in order to have
means to calculate the numbers of deaths, and thus test the mor-
taliiy table by experience. They have been found in comparing
the average numbers of births to an interpolated number of living.
A few persons have been enumerated without age; these I have
left' entirely out of consideration.

We thus get the following tables, which I have compared with
the Danish mortality table for 1860-69, and also to the mortality
table for Copenhagen during the same years, this place being the
least healthy among the places in Denmark for which mortality
tables have been computed.

YOL. ILin. PART m. 2 M

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

618

Westeboaard— On Mortality in
Rates of Mortality per Ten Thousand,

[Sept.

Males.

Females.

Agw.

in
GrMnland.

Demniirk. 1860^.

Natires

Greenluia.

Dennuirk. 186049.

WlMle
KitiKdom.

CoptahMfm.

Wbol«
Kingdom.

895
273

206

"5
277
308
330
377
445
54»
638
782
1,011
1,170

671

105

116

142

187

248

396

513

797

969
105
4<
5>
99
96

117
135
206

26S
3*9
407
6*5
718
970

795
274
130
90
150
195
238
299
317
406
589

735
890

i.»53
M39

606

109

106

111

188

186

303

427

724

859
100

4*
53
81

90
96
114
X31
H7
171
i*3
343
461
812

70—76 ...

If we first look upon the mortality among males and females
in Greenland, it strikes us at once that the mortality among males
between 10 and say 50, is very much higher than among females in
the corresponding ages. This table gives ns a true picture of the
hardships which an Eskimo male has to endure, when for instance,
the kayaker has to row in a sea with drifting ice, when " the water
*' in washing over, covers the kayak as well as the clothes of the man
" with a crust of ice," or when he is obliged to row against a gale
" for several hours without being able to lift his hand in order to
" shelter his fix)st-bitten face."* On the contrary, the women " on
" growing old, mostly take to in-door life," which, if not causing
violent deaths, is certainly not healthy.

Striking as the difference is between male and female mortality
in Greenland, it is still more so between the mortality in Greenland
and in Denmark. The mortality twoy three,. or four times higher than
in Denmark ! — the results of many combined causes, most of which
seem too closely connected with the conditions under which the
natives live, to be altered in a hurry. But there is always much to
be done, where the mortality is high, and we may well expect a
reduced rate of mortality here from the blessed influence of
sanitary improvements. The natives in Greenland are by no
means spoiled by their acquaintance with Europeans, as are most
other uncivilised races. They are improvident and poor, perhaps
also ignorant and thoughtless, but they do not seem to belong to
the races that disappear ; it is not probable that civilisation will
kill them, and we may add, that they are good natured, quick to
• Dr. Bink's work, pp. 173, 164.

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1880.]

Remote Comers of the World.

619

learn, and — ^what is perhape more important — ^they are receptive
of religions teaching.

Before leaving this subject, I will try to test the mortality
tables by calculating what numbers of deaths would have taken
place according to them : —

I^orth Oreenland,

Experienced Mortality.*

Calcalated Mortality.

Yean.

Males.

Females.

Both Sexes

Males.

Females.

Both Sexes.

1866 ....

>o5

81*69

70*47

152*16

*e6 ....

116

81*40

70*99

I5i'39

'67 ....

126

221

78-56

69*36

147*91

'68 ....
*69 ....
'70....

79-48

70*26

149*74

81*90

72-11

154-01

'71 ....

142

81-65

7218

153*83

'72 ....

168

80*78

71-83

I53i*6i

'78....

81*94

73*12

155*06

'74....

lOI

83*07

7410

I57'i7

'75 ....

136

82*86

74*20

157*06

'76....

156

82-32

74*86

157*18

'77 ....

^—

—

'78....

82*78

73*56

156-33

Total ....

794

689

1,483

978*00

867-00

1845*00

Stillborn excluded.

This table shows a more favourable condition in the northern
parts of Greenland than we expected ; just the opposite is the case
for South Greenland, which will be seen from the following table : —

South OreerUand.

Experienced Mortality.*

Calculated Mortality.

Tears.

Males.

Females.

Both Sexes.

Males.

Females.

Both Sexes.

1866 ....
'66....
'67 ....
'68 ....
'69....
'70 ....
'71 ....
'72 ....
'73 ....
•74....
'76 ....
'76....
'77 ....
'78....

I29t

106

91
168

132

159

»59

84
148t

163

129

204

164

176
187
277t

194
170

3*1

261

162
363
313

162

103*12
104*24
103*04

103*70
104*86
103*62

102*58

104*03

101*67

99*98

103*53

97-35
98*22
96*70

97*16
98*64
97*48

96*16
96*98
93*86
91-88

98*27

200*47
202*46
199*74

200*86
203*50
201*10

198-73
200*96

»95*53
191*86

196*80

Total ....

—

a,586

1134*00

105800

2192*00

* Inoluding 42 stillborn.

t This year there seems to haye been some inaccuracies in the reports,
especiallj ^ regards infant mortality.

2m2

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520 W^BT^BjakiRD~-MortaUiyinBemoUOorner8ofiheW [Se/pL

Thus the oalonlated mortality has been 2,i^y the experienced
2,j86, from which we have to subtract 42 stillborn; but there is
still a considerable difference left. Altogether in North and South
Greenland combined, the theoretical number of deaths has been.
4,037, while the real number of deaths was (excluding the still-
bom) 4,027. There is thus a very good accordance with facts,
but this accordance cannot of course take place for ererj year on
account of the great fluctuations in mortality. If we leare out of
consideration the year 1866 as regards South Ghreenland, and
assume that about half of the stillborn have been boys, we find the
following results : —

Kalet.

FenuUflt.

Both Sexes.

Experksee.

Tkeory.

Experience.

Tbeorj.

Experience.

inieoty.

North GhreenlAnd

South

794
1,185

978
1,030

689
1,177

867
969

1^3
a,36a

1,846
1,989

Total ^....

i»979

2,008

1,866

1326

3,845

8,834

Thus we see, that while in the totals there is more conformiiy
with fishcts than might be expected by such a rough method and
such fluctuating mortality, in South Greenland the real numbers of
deaths are in excess of the calculated numbers, and vice vered in
North Greenland. Thus it seems that the inhabitants of the
northern districts live under better conditions than in South
Greenland, whatever the reason may be. In North Greenland,
therefore, the births can keep pace with the m<»rtality, which erf
late years has not been the case in the southern districts.

As to the influence of season. Dr. Bink gives the following
interesting scheme, based on twenty-six years' experience in the
southern stations: —

Snpplj of fbod end tf ode of Life.

Konthi.

PerCmC

oftW
Namberof

Winter ..J

Spring .... *
Suflinior.

Autumn.

Seals deoreasinff; fish are had reoouneto']
instead of flesn ; occasional want of food ; I
stajing in the winter huts ; diarrhosa being f
the chief sickness J

Want of food rarely occurring; partly"!
favourable catch of seals and fatter kinds >
of fish ; remoTing from houses to tents.... J

Seal hunt increasing; want of food neyerl
oocurring ; trarelUng and dwelling in \
tenU J

The chief seal hunting season; frequent
intemperanoe in fat aiumal food and ber-
ries ; remoring from tents to houses ; the
prerailine complaints being inflammation
of the chest, with stitch, influenxa, and
obstructions

December

Januarj ....
February ..
March ....

^? ::::::

June .......

July

August ....

September
October ....
NoTember

7-5
6-1

6-1

5*4

7*1

7-6
11-8

11-7
I J*

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1880.] 621

MISCELLAIJTEA.

GONTBNTS :

PAGB
L— Ten Teon* Railwty Btatis-

tios 521

IL— Notes OQ Economical and

Statistical Worki 631

PAGB

III.— iNotes on some Addttdons to

the Library 647

IT.— List of Additions to the

Library ^ 548

I. — Ten Yeari* BaUway StaiuHcs,

In their report to the Board of Trade oh the capital traffic and
working expenses of railways in 1879,* Mr. Galcraft, the Assistant
Secretary, Bailwaj Department, and Mr. Giffen, Chief of the
Statistical Department, give the following review of railway
progress in the last ten years : —

Ten Yewrs* Increase of MUectgej Capital^ Traffic^ Working Expenses^
cmd Net Baminga compared.

^ Looking back for ten years, as we proposed to do at the out-
set, it will be nsefnl to bring together at starting a comparison of
the principal features of the railway system, and see at a glance
what the relative progress has been. The broad facts are (1) an
increase of mileage between 1869 and 1879 from 15,14$ to 17,696
miles, or aboat 17 per cent.; (2) an increase of capital from
518,779,000^. to 7 1 7,003,000/., or about 38 percent. ; (3) an increase
of gross receipts from 42,696,000/. to 61,776,000/., or 45 per cent.,
the increase of receipts from railway traffic proper, excluding
' Miscellaneous,' being from 41,075,000/. to 59,395,000/., or 44^ per
cent. ; (4) an increase from 20,780,000/. to 32,045,000/., or 54 per
cent, in the total working expenditure, the increase in the railway
working expenditure only, exclusive of certain miscellaneous items,
being from 20,263,000/. to 3i,oco,ooo/., or 53 per cent. ; and (5) an
increase of total net receipts from 21,916,000/. to 29,731,000/., or
36 per cent., and of the net receipts from railway working only from.
20,812,000/. to 28,345,000/., or also 36 per cent. ; the proportion of
the former to the whole capital falling from 4*22 to 4*1 5, and of the
latter from 4*01 to 3*95. It appears on the face of these facts that
the increase of mileage is much less than the increase of capital,
which would imply, making all allowanoe for the nominal increase
of capital by conversion operations, a constant expenditure of
capital on lines open for traffic; but at the same time that the
increase of receipts is much greater than the increase of capital,
being no less than 45 per cent., as compared with an increase of
38 per cent, only in the capital. The final result is, that in spite
of this large increase of capital, and also of the still larger proper-
tionate increase of working expenditure, amounting to 54 per cent.,
the return per cent, on the increased capital is just about as great
in 1879 as the return on the smaller capital in 1869. Railway share-
holders are on the average no worse on the &ce of the figures than
• C-264L Sees. 1880.

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522

MisceUaneck,

[Sept.

they were in 1869, while the figures themselves, allowing for the
increase of nominal capital only, and for the circnmstance of trade
having begun to revive from a previous depression in 1868, while
1879 was the lowest point of the depression, may be held to denote
a real improvement.

" For the sake of reference we subjoin a brief summary bring-
ing out these points in much the same form as the summary,
comparing 1879 and 1878 only : — *

Summary of the Mileage, Capital, Traffic Receipts, Working Expenses, and Net JEamtngt
of the Railways of the United Kingaom in 1879 and 1869 compared.

1879.

1869.

Increaieiii

187».

Deoeuc

iBlSTt.

Amoont.

Per
Cent.

Araoant.

Per

CCBt

Mileage

17,696

I5>i45

2,551

—

Capital

717,003,000

518,779.000

198,224,000

Gross receipts, inclnding miscelO

laneous J

Tiuffic Teceiots onlT

61,776,000
59,395,000

+2,696,000
41,075,000

19,080,000
18,320,000

45
44i

—

Working expenses, including mis- 1

cellaneous j

Kailwaj working expenses only

32,045,000
31,060,000

20,780,000
20,263,000

11,205,000
10,787,000

54
53

—

Net earnings —

(a) Including nuBcellaneous

{b) Excluding „

29,781,000
28,845,000

21,916,000
20,812,000

7,815,000
7,533,000

36
36

—

Proportion to total capital of net 1

earnings (a) j

(h)

415
3-96

4*22

4-OI

—

007
(H)6

1*7
«"5

" Capital and Mileage,
" Analysing in more detail the particulars of the above progress,
we have first to notice with regard to capital and mileage the
growing increase of the capital expended per mile of railway open*
This is implied in the more rapid increase of capital than of
mileage, bnt it seems nevertheless osefxil to state the fact directly
as is done in the following brief table : —

1870 «34,io6

I'l 35.9+J

72 35.984

W 36.574

Zt 3 7'°7*

,11 3''8»

'76 39,012

21 39.47*

78 40.301

79 40,518

* Qiven in an earlier put of the report

Digitized byCjOOQlC

1880.] Ten Years* Ranhowy Statistics. 523

'* As we have remarked above these figures most be qualified to
some extent bj the fact that part of the increase of capital is an
increase of nominal capital only. Still no qualification of this sort
will alter the fact that the chief expenditure of new capital by the
different companies has been on lines already constracted. A
certain part of the increase of mileage is also in double miles. It
is not possible to give an exact figure for comparison in 1869, but
since 1871 the increase of double miles only is about 1,330, as com-
pared with a total increase of mileage amounting to 2,320. The
proportion of double or more miles in the whole system is thus
steadily increasing, and other things being equal, this is an obvious
reason for the capital expenditure per mile open being greater than
it was.

"The second point we have to notice in connection with the
capital and mileage is the steady diminution of the proportion of
ordinary capital to the total capital of the railway companies, and
the increase of the guaranteed and preferential capital. This is
brought out clearly by the second table in the Appendix, to which
reference may here be made. This shows that while the ordinary
capital in 1869 was 226,788,000/., or 44 per cent, of the then total
of 518,779,000/., in 1879 it was only 266,915,000/., or 37 per cent,
of the increased total of 7 17,003,000/. During the same period, the
guaranteed and preferential capital increased from 15 5,7 58,000/., or
30 per cent, of the total in 1869 to 270,719,000/., or 38 per cent, of
the total in 1879, the proportion of the loans and debenture stock
remaining comparatively stationary. The meaning of this is, that
the proportion of capital interested in the varying fortunes of the
railway companies has become smaller and smaller, and as it has
suffered more in times of depression than if the proportion had
remained the same, so it will gain more in times of prosperity.
The rate of increase of profit when times are good should be
greater than it would otherwise be, just as the rate of decrease in
bad times, though not large, has been greater than it would other-
wise have been.

" Trajgic Receipts.

** Coming to the traffic receipts, and looking to the facts for the
last ten years, the first point to notice appears to be the steadiness
of the proportion between passengers and goods receipts. This
appears very clearly from Table No. 7, Part II, which shows that
in 1869 the receipts from passenger trains were 46 per cent., and
the receipts from goods trains 54 per cent, of the total, but in 1870
these proportions became 44 and 56 per cent, respectively, at which
figure they have remained constant, with the exception of the year
1873, when they were 43 and 57 per cent. The proportions tor the
United Elingdom are also nearly the same all through as those for
England alone. In Scotland, also, though the proportion of
passenger receipts is much lower than the average of the United
Kingdom, being from 37 to 40 per cent, only, there is little change
all through ; but in Ireland, though the proportion of passenger
receipts is still higher than the average for the United Kingdom,
it has Mien from 59 per cent, in 1869 to 53 per cent, in 1879.

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624 Miacdkmea. [Sepi.

The amormt of the Irish traffic is, howtver, too snmXl to make this
change in the proportkmB affect mftteriallj the propoTtioiis of ^bm
United Kingdom.

'* Of conrBe, an acooimt like this does not show how hur the pro-
portions between the receipts from passengers and goods has been
preserved by changes in the rates from time to time, but snch
changes, especiallj the increase and then the decrease, in the rates
chargeable for goods on some of the leading railways during tho
period in question, haye probably contribnted to the result stated.
Statistically, Uie figure is an interesting one, howeyer it may be
explained, and it remains to be seen wheliier the proportions will
vary or remain the same dnring the next few years.

'* As regards the passenger traffic only, the one important fiiei
seems to l:^ the enormous increase of third class traffic, while first
and second class remain stationary or decline. We have frequently
drawn attention to this during the last two or three years, but the
figures are perhaps eyen more striking than any we have yet had
to notice, when we review a period of ten years, as is done in
Table No. 7, Part I. This table shows that while the receipts
from first class passengers in 1869 w^e 5,86S,ocx:>/., and the highest
amount received in any one year since then was 4,725,ocx>/. in 1875,
there has since been a steady decline from the latter figure to
5,888,000/., or little more than the total for 1869. WbUe the
receipts from second class passengers again were 4,878,000/. in
1869, and the highest amount received in any one year since then
was 4,925,000/. in 1870, there has since been a decline to 3,459,000/.
only in 1879. On the other hand, the receipts from third class
passengers, which were 6,837^00/. in 1869, increased rapidly to
over 10,000,000/. in 1872, and after increasing uniformly, though
more slowly, to 14,246^00/. in 1878, declined fractionally in 1879
to 1 3,869,000/., which amount, however, is still more than twice the
figure for 1869. For good or for evil, therefore, and apart from
any explanation of the causes, the tendency of third class traffic to
increase while first and second class traffic remains stationary or
declines, has been most distinctly marked during the last ten years.
The increase in third class traffic alone in that period is, in fact,
nearly equal to the total amount still received from first and second
class traffic together. The proportions would perhaps be altered
slightly by distributing the receipts from holders of season and
periodical tickets among the difierent classes, but they could not be
materially altered, the total increase of receipts from t^iis class of
traffic being from 631,000/. to 1,364,000/., or 733,000/. only. In
proportion, this is an inmiense increase, quite equal to that of third
class traffic itself, but the amount is too small to i^irow out the
general proportions stated, however it may be distributed among
ike other classes.

'* According to Table No. 9, it would appear that the increase
of passenger journeys has corresponded very nearly in the third class
to the increase of receipts ; bat m the first class there is an increase
between 1869 and 1879, coupled, as we have seen, with practically
stationary receipts. Since 1875, however, the decline in first clan
passenger journeys corresponds in some degree, thou§^ not corn-

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1880.]

Ten Tea/r^ BMwofif StaMsHes.

525

pletely, to the decline in receipts. We content onrselTefl, however,
with a mere reference to the table as corroborating the figures
respecting the receipts which we have discossed, and which tell
their own tale with sufficient clearness.

*' As regards the receipts from goods, the important fact appears
to be the greater proportionate increase of the receipts from
minerals compared with those from other descriptions of goods
traffic. The comparison is as follows for 1879 and 1869 : —

ReempU frcm Good$ Troffio tit 1879 ai^d 1869 eompared.*

1879.

1869.

IncreaM.

Anumnt

PerCeat.

MineralB

Lire stock

18,665,000

18,674,000

1,142,000

8,388,000

12,969,000

886,000

5,267,000

5,706,000

256,000

63
44
^9

ToUl.^

38,471,000

21,143,000

U,228,000

50*

" Thus the increase in minerals in the ten years is 63 per cent,
in general merchandise 44 per cent., and in live stock only 29 per
cent. The increase in all classes of traffic has also been compara-
tively steady from year to ye^r, the exceptions being a decline in
minerals and general merchandise between 1877 and 1878, and a
decline in liye stock between 1878 and 1879.

'* The figures are necessarily too imperfect to show whether the
increase of the goods conveyed is or is not in proportion to the
increase of receipts, the amounts of minerals and general merchan.
disc respectively not being even approximately known till 1872,
while we are still without information as to the number of tons
carried one mile. Since 1872 the numbers of tons of minerals and
tons of general merchandise conveyed have increased, the former
at the rfdie of 19 per cent, and the latter 13 per cent., while the
receipts from minerals have increased 22 per cent., and from
general merchandise only 12 per cent., which would go so far to
indicate that it is mineral traffic which has brought most addi-
tional profit. But without knowing the tons conveyed one mile we
can only put this forward as an indication. It would appear,
moreover, that the receipts per goods train mile generally show an
increase from 70*16^. in 1869 to 73*85(2. in 1879, the total of 79*09(2.
having been touched in 1878, though it does not appear whether
the average is brought up by the receipts from minexul or general
merchandise trains.

" Working Eospenses.

^* This is perhaps the most interesting question to the railway
shareholder. As we have seen, on a broad view of the subject, the
percentage of the increase of working expenditure in the period

* Bidoding receipts not elasslfled.

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526 MisceOanea. [Sept.

nnder review has been mncb greater than the percentage of the
increase of gross receipts, and this has sufficed, along with an
increase of the capital oatlaj, to keep down the net return on the
capital invested. It will be useful, therefore, to examine more
minutely what have been the causes of the increase, and what has
been the more recent progress in the matter.

'' The first suggestion is that the disproportionate increase of
working expenses may be due to a change in the manner of
working, bj which a larger gross income is earned but at a larger
expense permanently, so that the net earnings do not increase
proportionately. But this suggestion appears to be inconsistent
with the facts to which attention has already been drawn, that the
mcrease of passenger journeys and of goods conveyed corresponds
pretty closely witi^ the increase of receipts from these sources of
traffic. The suggestion seems also inconsistent with the progress
of the receipts per train mile from traffic, as shown in Table 10 of
the Appendix. This shows that from passenger trains in 1869 the
receipts per train mile were 55*68^., and in 1870 they were 53 •46c?.,
while the highest amount since received was in 1874, when the
figure was 60*7 acL, and the lowest was last year when the figure
was 55'55<^., or about the same as 1870, the receipts in all the other
years having been higher than in 1869. It cannot be said then as
regards passenger trains that there has been any change in the
system of working to cause an increase in the proportion of
expenses to traffic receipts. There are fluctuations in particular
years, the receipts per train mile rising in years when business
mcreases, especially when it increases quickly, and falling in years
like the last two when there is a sudden falling off, but one year
with another there is no increase in the number of trains run in
proportion to the receipts. As regards goods trains, again, the
figures are rather such as would lead us to expect a diminution of
the proportion of expenses to traffic receipts. The income per
goods train mile in 1869 was 70*1 6c?., and in 1870 it was jo'iod.,
while in 1879 it was 73*85^.; the highest figure touched in any
intermediate year, viz., 1873, having been jS'ogd. Putting pas-
sengers and goods trains together there is also progress. The
average income per train mile from all trains having been 62'$Sd,
in 1869 and 61 •63d. in 1870, was 63'i2d. in 1879, showing a
moderate improvement, while still higher figures have been touched
in the interval. The railway companies all round are consequently
doing less work than thev did for the same income, and if working
expenses have increased, the reason apparently must be that the
same quantity of work is more costly.

** This diminution of the work done for the same money is also
what might be expected from a railway system like that of the
United Kingdom which has been long established, and where an
increase of business ought to be largely a pure addition to profit.
It is the last additions to the volume of transactions in any
business which make the profit ; and as the railway companies in
the period under review have been mainly developing their old
lines of traffic rather than opening new mileage, the circumstances
have all been favourable to their receiving, one year with another,

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1880.] Ten Tears' BaUway StaHsHes. 527

and allowing for the nsnal flnctaations between years of prosperity
and adversity, an increasing income without a proportionate addi-
tion to the work they do for it. The conclusion we have already
drawn, therefore, as to the probable cause of the increase of
working expenses, is supported by a general view of the position
of the railway system in an old country like England.

'* We find, in fact, on examination, that the increase of working
expenses is accounted for by an increase of the expenditure per
train mile, although the number of train miles run, judging by
the gross receipts per mile, has only increased in proportion to
the increase of receipts. In 1869 the expenditure per train mile
was ^o'Sjd.f and in 1870 it was 30*09^., while in 1879 notwith-
standing a decrease from the high figure of 37*88cf. touched in
1874, it was still 53d This is an addition of rather more than 2d,
to the cost of doing the same work in 1879, as compared with 1869,
and of nearly 3d. as compared with 1870; and the difference to
railway shareholders is necessarily very great, aa id, per train mile
now amounts to about 1,000,000/. per annum on all the railways
of the United Kingdom.* Accordingly, deducting 2,000,000/. for
the additional 2d. per train mile from the increased working
expenses between 1869 and 1879 above shown, the remaining
increase, amounting to 9,000,000/. would only come to about 43 per
cent, on the working expenses of 1869, showing about the same
proportion of increase as the increase of gross receipts. In this
way it is clearly brought out that the additional id. is additional
expenditure for doing the same work, whereas the circumstances
have been such, apa^ from special causes connected with the
expenditure itself, when a larger quantity of work might have been
expected to be done at a less proportionate cost.

*' The same conclusion is apparent if we look at the proportion
of expenses to working receipts. If our view is right a certain
tendency in this proportion to diminish ought to be apparent, in
circumstances like those of the last ten years, when the receipts per
train mile have rather increased than otherwise, and when the
railway companies ought to be making additional profit from the
additional volume of their transactions. But while in 1869 the
propoiiion of expenses was 49*3 per cent, and in 1870 it was 48*8
per cent., in 1879, although there has been a fall from the figure of
55*6, since touched (in 1874), the proportion was still 52*3 per
cent. Each i per cent, on the present amount of railway trs&c
being equal to about 600,000/., the increase of three points in the
percentage between 1869 and 1879 is quite sufficient to account for
the greater proportionate increase of expenses than of receipts
between 1869 and 1879. The sole cause is manifestly a larger
outlay by the different companies for having the same wc^k done.

*' Analysing the increase of cost in detail, according to the
classification of the items of cost in the Regulation of Railways
Acts, we get the following comparison : —

* Number of tndn miles 22 5,000,000 sat id. per mile, 937,500/.

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528

MiseManea.

[oOpi.

Cost ftttk^ Mils.

Inosass and Dmnsm
in 1879.

1879.

1889.

InereMe.

Decnsas.

Ifainttimee of wmj ». ...^

LooomoiiTe poww „ ^«.

Boiling ttook

TraiBo expemes ^

Qenenl cnarget

Bates and taxet „

Gorenunent duty

Personal injoriee ..».»....^.»...^.^.

Damages to poods ^»...w..

Legal and parliamentary expenses....
MisMJlaneons

d.
6*88
819
2-91
10-41
1-46
1*68
0-80

0-22
0-20
0-28

0-eo

5*94
813

2-70

8-73
»'43
i-4»
o-8o

0*51
o'ai
0-38
0-67

0-44
0-06
0-21
1-68
008
0^1

0-29
CO I

0-15

0*07

Total. «..

88-00

SO-87

2-18

—

^ In other Trords, wbaterer may hare been the oaoses of the
mdditional oost of working railways a few years ago as compared
with a year like 1869, the main caose now left in operation is an
increase of the traffic expenses. ' Maintenance of way * and ' loco-
motiye power ' now oost very neariy the same amounts per train
mile as they did ten Tears ago, and what little addition there is is
largely compensated by the satisfieustorj diminution in the oost for
compensation both for passengers and goods, and in legal and
parliamentary expenses. Into the natore of the item of 'traffic
expenses ' it woold be ont of place for ns to enter here. The fact
that all the other items haye practically got back to the level of
1869 would seem to imply that there is something special in this
item ; that the cost of railway working in this particular has been
permanently increased in consequence of the changes in the last
ten years. Apparently the establishment for working the railways
has been permanently increased, which would be the natural e£Pect
of such changes as the extension of the block system. It may be
considered, howeyer, that the noticeable reduction in the item of
compensation for personal injuries and damages to goods already
mentioned is not unconnected with the immunity from accidents
which the improyements that « haye occasioned an mcrease of traffic
expenses haye secured. The returns of accidents show that those
accidents haye been diminished which the improyements were
designed to preyent ; and in the reduction of the compensation
item we see the financial effect of the diminution. In future also,
the change haying once been made, the g^wth of traffic will be a
reason for the st^idy diminution of the proportion of this item of
' traffic expenses * to the traffic. The st^tdy though slow diminu-
tion of the cost per train mile since 1875 would seem to be of
good augury in this respect. The special causes of diminution in
the case of maintenance of way and locomotiye power, where there
is large outlay in material and coal, haye not existed as regards this

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1880.]

Tm Years' EaUway StatUtics.

829

item during the btst two years, bat the cost per train mile never-
theless appears to slowly diminish.

'* This brings ns to ike question of what the recent progress has
been. Generally we have seen that the cost per train mile, though
it is now 53(^. only, and the difference between the present time and
1869 is almost wholly aoooonted for by the increase of traffio
expenses, has been much higher in the intermediate years, when the
traffic expenses were not much higher than now, 1874 being the
culminating point. In what items mainly was there an increase
between 1869 and 1874 and a decrease between 1874 and the
present time? The following table SQppHes an answer to this
qnestiim : —

Cost per Train MUe of the Uhdermentianed Items in 1869 and 1874, and
in 1874 afid 1879 compared.

Maintenance of way

Looomotire power

Boiling stock

Traffic expenses ......J ^..

General onargee »

Bates and taxes » ....

GoTernment duty

Compensation —

For personal ininry

Damage to goods

Lc^ and parliamentary ^^

expenses ....» »..» J

Miscellaneons ^

Total

1869.

5-94
813
2*70
8-78
148
1-42
0-80

0^51
0-21

0-88

0-67

30-87

1874.

d.
7-86

10-80
306

10-88
1-41
1-42
0-76

0-48
0-80

0-38

0-69

37-89

lucreatei
1874.

d.
I-9I
a-67
0-36
2-10

— o*o»

-0-05

— o*o8
0-09

o'oa

7-02

1874.

d,
7-86

10-80
306

10-88
1-41
1-42
0-75

0-43
030

0-38

0-69

37^89

1879.

6-38
8-19
2-91
10-41
1-46
163
0-80

0-22
0-20

0-23

0-60

33-00

Becreaieiii
187V.

»*47
2-6i

o-'5

0-4X

+ 0-05

+ 0*2 1

+ 0-05

0-2I
O'lO

0-15
0*09

4-89

"From this it is qnite clear that substantially the change
between 1869 and 1874 was a total increase of yd, per train mile,
of which i'9i(^ was in permanent way, 2*67^. in locomotive power,
and 2'iod. in traffic expenses ; and substantially the change between
1874 and 1879 has been a total decrease of 5^., of which the
decrease in permanent way is 1*47^9 ^^^ ™ locomotive power
2*6 1 (2., the reduction in traffio expenses, which accounted for nearly
one-third of the increase between 1869 and 1874, being incon-
siderable, though the tendency is clearly marked. Broadly, it may
be said that $d, out of the yd. increased cost of working between
1869 and 1874, being due to the increased cost of permanent way
and locomotive power, has since disappeared, but the remaining 2d,
of increase, which was due to traffic expenses, remains. As we
have noticed there is a tendency for the latter to diminish, though
more slowly, but it remains substantially true that with the
exception of this item the working expenses of railways are
substantially in proportion to the work done, the same in 1879 that
thev were in 1869 after having been subjected in the meanwhile to
violent fluctuations.

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530 MiaceUaaiea. [Sept.

" There oould be no better proof tbat much of the panic feeling
indulged in a few years ago abont the growth of the working
expenses of railways was nnfonnded. The apprehensions about the
rise in materials and coals have not been justified by the event
which has rather proved that such a permanent advance could not
take place without an equal advance in general business leading to
an increase of railway traffic. Business having fallen off, the loss
is largely made up to railway companies as to other traders by a
diminished cost of working.

** Judging by the past, a further decrease of expenditure in
proportion to receipts is to be expected in the immediate future,
say in the current year and in 1881. This will be the necessary
result of the first additions to the volume of traffic not leading to
an increase of the work done to obtain the traffic. In 1879 the
proportion of expenses to receipts would have been less but for the
sudden loss of traffic in that year, and, now that traffic comes back
as suddenly as it went away, the worUng expenses do not increase
in proportion. Broadly, we anticipate that from much the same
causes the proportion of expenses to receipts will be less in 1880
than in 1879, just as it was less in 1870 than in 1869. Whether
expenditure will again grow as it did between 1870 and 1874
remains to be seen ; but, looking to the above analysis, we should
doubt if there is any reason to expect that the growth will be quite
so great. Allowing that the cost of permanent way and locomotive
power will again be driven up from much the same causes as
existed between 1870 and 1874, there seems no good ground
for expecting a corresponding increase of traffic expenses, which
have not diminished since 1874 as the other items have done.
Possibly there may even be a diminution in this item. It remains
to be seen also whether the extensive relaying with steel rails, which
has been going on during the last ten years, the cost in many cases
being wholly charged to revenue, will really lead to a permanent
economy in the cost of maintaining the permanent way. Altogether,
unless some new source of mischief is developed, railway share-
holders have apparently cause to look forward with hope to the
prospect as regards working expenses during the next few years.

" While making these observations on the working expenses,
we would especially refer to the full tables in the Appendix (Nos. 5,
11, 11a, 12, and 13), as containing much information which it
would be hopeless for us to summarise in this report. These
tables also contain full details of the progress made by each of
certain leading companies in the various items of expenditure,
which we submit for comparison without further remark.

" Summary.

" Our principal conclusions from this review of the last ten years
may be very briefly summed up. While there has been in this
period a considerable increase of mileage, and a larger propor-
tionate increase of capital, the increase of gross traffic has been at
a still greater ratio, and, but for the increase of working expenses
being at a further greater ratio, there would have been a consider-
able addition to the aggregate rate of profit on the capital,

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1880.] Notes on Economical and StaMstical Works. 531

wbereas that rate is mnch the same in 1879 as in 1869, after
having been higher in the intermediate years. This increase of
expenses, however, is fonnd to be exclusively dne, when a com-
parison is made between 1869 and 1879, to the increase of the
item of traffic expenses, which appears now to be slowly diminish-
ing, while there is no canse to expect that if traffic a&^ain increases
the other items of expense will increase any more than they did
between 1870 and 1874, if so much. With regard to the increase
of traffic, again, it appears that during the last ten years the
passenger increase has been exclusively an increase in the third
class traffic, and the largest proportionate increase in goods has
been in the mineral traffic. Notwithstanding also the actual decline
of traffic during the last few years, the increase for the whole
period has been 44^ per cent., and the mean of the percentages of
increase in each year over its predecessor, making a deduction
for the years of decrease, has been 3 '8 per cent.* Apparently,
judging by the accounts of 1880, it is the mineral traffic and third
c)ass passenger traffic which are again increasing. The prospect
seems thus not unfavoarable for the shareholder, both as regards
traffic and working expenses. The circumstances seem all to be
such as to favour an increased receipt per train mile with little
additional expense, while an additional id. per train mile, as we
have remarked, is now equal to about i,ooo,cx>o/. The drawback is
the constant increase of the capital account, though this, as we
have seen, is not safficient of itself to prevent an increase of
dividends so long as the working expenses can be kept in chpck.

II. — Notes on Economical amd Statistical Works.

Report of the Indian Famine Commission. Part I. Famine
Belief. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of
Her Majesty. (C-2591.) Sess. 1880.

The first part of the Report of the Indian Famine Commission,
relating to famine relief, which has just been published, is one of
the most valaable and instructive documents that has appeared for
some time regarding India. The commission in the course of
their investigations found it necessary to examine very fully into the
history of India with a view to ascertaining the frequency, inten-
sity, and extent of famines that have occurred in past times, and
to learn what means have on different occasions been adopted to
mitigate their severity and restrict their range of inflaence. The
information thus obtained would alone be sufficient to give the
report uuQsual importance, bat there is much besides to render it
worthy of the most careful attention from all who take an interest
in our great Eastern dependency. The commission was ordered to
be formed by Lord Salisbury, in a despatch dat«d 10th January,
1878, and on 16th May, 1878, the Indian Gk)vemment formally
appointed the following gentlemen as members : General Sir K.

• See Table No. 6, Appendix.

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MiseeUcmea. [S^

Strachey, R.E., G.S.L, F.B.S.; Preudent^ Mr. James Caird, C.B.;
ihe Hon. H. 8. Gxinningham, Judge of the High Court, Calcutta ;
Mr. G. A. Ballard, Madras CivU Servioe; Mr. O. H. M. Batteu^
Bengal CivU Serrice; Mr. J. B. Peile, C.S.I., Bombay Civil
Senrice ; Mr. C. Bangacharlu, C.I.E., Controller of His Highness the
Maharaja's Household, Mysore; Mr. Mahadeo Wasadeo Banr^
Earban of the Kollapur State ; and Mr. C. A. Elliott, C.S.I.,
Boigal Civil Service, Secretary, In January, 1879, Mr. Ballard
was replaced by Mr. H. E. Sullivan, of the Madras Civil Service.
Mr. Batten left the commission in April, 1879, and Messrs. Bangi^
eharlu and Barv^ did not sit after the commission left India in
October, 1879. The inquiries of the commission were directed by
the despatch of the Secretary of State to two classes of subjects.
*^ Of these," the commissioners remark, '* one would include all
that related to the measures to be adopted where severe scarcity or
famine had actually arisen, and would involve an inquiry into ^^
results of past experience as to the best s3nBtem of &mine relief,
with special reference to such topics as the sise and class of relief
works, the nature of the tests to be employed, the amount of wage,
the quantity of food necessary to sustain health and strength in
famine labourers, and the conditions under which Government might
interfere with the ordinary course of trade in the supply of food in
a tract suffering from fiunine. The other part of the commission's
inquiry was to be directed to the question, ' How far is it possible
for Gk>vemment, by its action, to diminish the severitv of famines,
or to place the people in a better condition for endurmg them P' "
Under this latter head the question of irrigation, railway commu-
nication, and similar matters were indicated as suitable subjects of
inquiry. The Indian Government when appointing the commis-
sion, amplified the instructions of the Secretary of State, and went
into details on various points, such as the alleged unwillingness of
the Madras ryot to aid in the construction of wells, by reason of
the nature of the land tenure in that Presidency. Ab soon as the
members of the commission had made a preliminary survey of the
varied and difficult subjects submitted for their consideration, they
perceived that they were in need of more exact information than
could be obtained from any official records then in existence. They
therefore drew up a series of inquiries, which were sent to each of
the local governments, with a request that the information asked
for should be supplied by "the officials most competent to give
valuable and trustworthy replies." The result of this measure was
satisfactory, and greatly assisted the commissioners in their labours.
The plan of the report is thus set forth in the preliminary
remarks. The commissioners say: **We shall first give a concise
sketch of the geography, population, and climate of British India,
indicating generally the degree in which each part of the country
is exposed to famine. Next we shall treat of the measures to be
adopted for famine relief, prefacing our conclusions and recommen-
dations by a concise historical review of past famines and the
measures adopted to meet them. We shall then deal with the
inquiry (to use the words of Lord Salisbury's despatoh) * how far
it 18 possible for Oovemment by its action to diminish the severity

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1880.] Notes on Economical a/nd StatisUcal Works. 533

of famines, or to place the people in a better condition to endnre
them ? ' This part of onr report will be prefaced by a general
account of the country in relation to the social and economical
condition of the people, the form of administration, the progress of
material improvement, and other kindred subjects, on the conside-
ration of which our reply to this part of the inquiry must be based.
The report will be accompanied by a detailed history of all the past
famines regarding which sufficient records exist, a model famine
code, and appendices containing a collection of discussions on
certain topics which call for fuller consideration than would have
been convenient in the report, and selections from the evidence
and documents of which we have made use." It will be seen from
this scheme that interesting as is the portion of the report already
before us, that which is to follow will probably be, in some
respects, still more interesting.

The commissioners after stating the area and population of
India, point out that of the total i^ million square miles with a
population of 240 millions, 600,000 square miles inhabited by about
50 millions of people belong to native States, the administration of
which is not in British hands. It is also needful to observe that
of the earUer famines several occurred in States not at the time
included in British India. Of this Oudh is a conspicuous example,
that province not having been annexed by us until 1856. The
r4sumS of the characteristics of the climate of the various parts of
India, as determined by the physiography of the country, is
valuable as far as it goes, but the commissioners are of opinion
that the information at present available regarding this matter is
insufficient, and they would, on various grounds, urge 'Hhat, as
the expense of such researches would be small, the measures which
have recently been taken by the Gt)vemment of India to carry them
out should be continued, and even extended in the^ future." They
also remark on the importance of extension of meteorological
knowledge among officials and all classes in India. The tentative
theory put forward by several good authorities that there is a con-
nection between the variations of rainfall and the variations in the
extent of the solar energy, as measured by the extent of the solar
surface affected by sunspots is touched upon, but the evidence in
its favour is dismissed as insufficient to establish it as a basis for
action. The remarks on the climatic conditions of the various
provinces are illustrated by a cartographic map of the rainfall of
India, the country being divided into districts and coloured with
tints varied according to the average number of inches falling
yearly in each district. For instance the greater part of southern,
eastern, and central India, comprising the Camatic part of the
Nizam's dominions, the central provinces, Bengal, central India,
and the north-west provinces, are coloured light green, indicating
that over that area the rainfall varies in different places from 30 to
70 inches. Travanoore, and the whole of the western seaboard
almost to Surat is very wet, and the rainfall averages 70 inches
and upwards, while in Sindh And the southern portion of the
Punjaub the rainfall is less than 1 5 inches. Sindh, indeed, may be
described as a country almost wholly without rain, and dependent

VOL. XLllI. PART 111. 2 N

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534 MiaoeOanea. [Sept.

for water supply on artiBcial irrigation from tbe Indus, bat, never-
theless, famine from drought is hardlj known there, the great
river being abundantlj famished with water from the gigantic
snowfields of the Himalaya. The fact that snch a country as
Sindh has been artificially made free from drought by irrigation
works is very suggestive, as showing what may be done in a
district where the people have never been able to rely on raini^.
In Orissa, on the other hand, there have been terrible famines, not
so much because the rain failed altogether, but becaase it ceased
prematurely. In Mysore and the Deccan the rainfall is between
1 5 and 30 inches, and as the irrigation system is insufficient to cope
with seasons of extreme drought, fanunes have been frequent in
these two districts.

The difficulty of dealing with the famines on such enormous
scale as those which afflict India is much enhanced by the very
limited knowledge available regarding the demography of the
country. The commissioners more thim once allucb to this grave
deficiency, which, in our opinion, is no small cause of the unsatis-
factory treatment that has been applied to famines hitherto. The
magnitude of the population of the various provinces is not known
with any sufficient accuracy. ^In only two provinces has more
than one regular census been taken,^' while ^* of the rate of increase
of the population little is known at present." In the north-west
provinces the rate of increase during the interval between two
censuses "appeared " to be 0*52 per cent., and in the central pro-
vinces 0*33 per cent. In a matter like famine relief, in which
accurate knowledge of the numbers likely to need relief is every-
thing, this dearth of good statistical information is clearly most
baneful. The commissioners give a rough estimate of the distribu-
tion into classes of the 190 nullions composing the population of
British India, as follows : —

Agricaltaral $6 per cent, or 106 TnillionB.

Traders 18 „ 84 „

Labonrert 16 „ 80 „

Profesaonal tad serrioe .... 10 „ 20 „

100 190

This table is useful, but the figures on which, we assume, it
must have been based, namelv the estimates or, when possible, the
returns of the proportions of these classes in different provinces,
would have been more useful still, and would have been worth
publishing. For as the commissioners point out elsewhere, the
order in which the various classes of the population become subject
to want during a famine is almost constant, and consequently it is
of grave importance for the authorities to have a general idea as to
the relative magnitude of these classes, with a view to making
sQitable arrangements for relief works. The section of the report
which deals with the history of past famines is interesting, but the
records of those which occurred previous to the present century are
too scanty to be of much value for practical purposes. Many of
those which occurred before the British occupation were due to

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1880.] Notes on Economical a/nd Statistical Works. 535

war and not to famine, and as long as onr supremacy was con-
tested, portions of the country were liable to fEimines thus caused.
The famine of 1802-04 was rendered more severe in Bombay by
the devastation wrought by the Pindari horsemen attached to
Holkar's army. During this &mine the (jovemment prohibited
exportation, and itself imported grain into the famine-stricken
districts, besides remitting revenue, and making loans and advances
to landowners. The famine of 1807 in Madras was *Hhe first
occasion on which we have distinct evidence of a fact which, as
shown by later and more accurate observation, has characterised
all subsequent famines in India. Large crowds of emaciated
people flocked into the town of Madras, attracted thither by the
existence of a charitable association, and by the hope of obtaining
gratuitous help without limit." The plan of supporting the famine-
stricken population by means of a system of relief works was first
adopted as early as 1792 by the Madras Government, and the same
plan was tried in 1807 in the districts affected. After 1807 the
records of famines and of the expedients brought into use to
alleviate their severity are tolerably copious. During the famine
of 1806 the Madras Government at first refused to exercise any
interference with private trade, but it found itself obliged to depart
from this principle and to import grain, much of which was sold at
a loss afler the mmine had ceased. The Government of Bombay in
1812-13 carried out fully the principle of non-interference which
has since been generally regarded as the best. The great famine
of 1833, generally known as the Gtintur famine, took the Madras
Government by surprise, and little was done to relieve the inhabi-
tants. There was a very severe famine in 1837, which affected the
north-west provinces and the native States adjoining. The Gk>vem-
ment, though as usual very ill-supplied with the needftil statistical
information, took the alarm early, and opened public works freely.
About 20o,ooo/. is reported to have been spent on these works, and
about 35,ocx>/. additional was ex|>e]:ided in gratuitous relief. It is
rather remarkable that prices did not rise to a point which would
now be considered as indicating extreme tension, but it is to be
remembered that prices vary so much in different parts of India
that it is not safe to conclude much from them. The Madras
famine of 1854 was a severe one. About 122,800^ was spent on
relief works, which when subsequently valued were found to be
worth about 38 per cent, of their cost. The principles on which
relief should be administered were actively discussed during this
period, and as on each occasion different modes of treatment were
adopted, the Gk>vemment had a considerable body of information
on which to ground its suggestions to the officials of the famine
stricken districts. After the famine in the north-west provinces in
1837, the general principle that it was the duty of the Government
to find work for the able-bodied, while the infirm and helpless
could best be dealt with by private charity, was regarded as estab-
lished. The north-west provinces were not again visited by famine
until 1860-61, and the distress then was limited as to area, and the
harvests in the neighbouring districts were good. The general
principles acted on were the same as those observed in 1837, but

2n2

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536 MiseeUanea. [Sept.

greater care was taken to ayoid waste. Such grataitoos relief as
was given was distributed in the form of cooked food to those who
having left their homes submitted to reside in a poor-honse. The
chief exceptions admitted were those of respectable women whose
caste did not admit of their appearance in a public place. In
1866-67 there was a severe famine in Madras and in Orissa.
Distributions of cooked food were made, except in certain cases.
The Orissa ^mine in 1866 was due to the premature cessation of
the rainfall, and in part to the ^t that there never having been a
famine there before, the officials were ignorant of the signs of
its approach, and inexperienced in dealing with it. When the
true state of the case became known, the monsoon had set in,
and communication both bj land and sea was almost wholly out
off. By great exertions the Government succeeded in sending in
io,ooo tons of rice towards the end of the year, but the mortality
of the people had been very great before this relief reached them.
Next year this unfortunate district suffered from excess of water,
the harvest being to a large extent ruined by floods, and measures
of reKef were carried out at great expense. In 1868-69 central
India and the native States of Rajputana were attacked by a
serious famine. The native Gt)vemments were unable to do any-
thing on an adequate scale. Belief works were opened in Ajmir
and other British districts, but the number of applicants was so
great that no proper supervision could be exercised, and the
results were very unsatisfactory.

The famine which visited the north-west provinces and the
Punjaub in 1868, was remarkable for the fact that it was then
declared for the first time " that the object of Qt>vemment was to
save every life, and that district officers would be held responsible
that no proven tible deaths should occur." The famine was fore-
seen, and the relief measures were planned in ample time. In the
north-west provinces 65,000 persons were employed for a year, and
about 18,000 received gratuitous relief during that period, the total
cost being 460,000/. In the case of some of the minor works pro-
vided, it was found that persons not in immediate need of relief
were attracted, and measures had to be taken to prevent this. The
Behar famine of 1873 was caused like that in Orissa in 1866
by a premature cessation of the rains. The Government made the
most elaborate preparations to meet it, and resolved to provide the
districts with the whole of the food they were likely to need. The
relief works were on a very large scale, and the tests applied were
relaxed in districts where distress was very severe. Indeed an
endeavour was made to dispense with tests altogether, and to rely
on the personal inquiries of inspectors appointed for the purpose.
The expenditure was 6,500,000/., as much as that of all previous
famines put together. It was very effective, however, for no
deaths due to famine occurred on this occasion. In Oudh, also,
there was an alarm of famine which turned out to be without
cause, and a good deal of money was unnecessarily spent on relief
works, the wages given being excessive. The last famine in the
record, that which visited southern India in 1876-78, was the most
severe evil of the kind that has occurred since 1803. During 1877

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1880.] Notes on Eeonomical and Statistical Works. 537

prices were very high all over India. In the antumn of 1876 tbe
anthorities of Bombay and Madras were aware of wliat was coming,
and took measures to meet it. The Indian Gt>vemment sent
Sir Richard Temple as famine delegate to inspect the distressed
districts. He was instrncted to affirm in the strongest way the
principle that no efforts were to be spared " to save the population
of the distressed districts from starvation, or from an extremity of
suffering dangeroas to life.*' At the same time it was stated that
the Government " would not attempt the task of preventing all
suffering, and of giving general relief to the poorer classes of the
community," and that " the task of saving life, irrespective of the
cost, is one which it is beyond their power to undertake." These
views regarding the duty of the Indian Government are a little
contradictory, but they were perhaps the outcome of alarm at the
enormous expenditure incurred in Behar, where orders had been
given that " no expense was to be spared." The Bombay Gt)vem-
ment operated by establishing large public works, the amount of
gratuitous relief given being reduced as much as possible. It is
remarkable that at one time there was a strike of labourers on the
relief works ; it was not given way to, however. The death-rate
was very high in those districts to which the means of access were
defective, but elsewhere the arrangements made prevented an
excessive rise in the rate. In Mysore the Government were pre-
pared for distress, but their measures were not sufficient for the
actual requirements of the case. No large works of a suitable kind
were started until it was too late, and there was a want of proper
inspection of such works as were opened. In September, 1877,
Lord Lytton visited the distressed districts and ordered large works
to be commenced, in case the crops should fail again, as seemed
likely at that time. Fortunately there was no need of further
measures of relief, as the rain fell in time to save the harvest.
The commissioners had not received any account of the famine
in Madras at the time of writing their report. The Madras
Gt>vemment at the commencement adopted the precedent set in
Behar in 1873, and bought large stores of grain. Thev also com-
menced large public works, and later, by order of the supreme
Gt)vemment, minor works were also opened. When Sir Richard
Temple arrived in the famine districts, he considered the wages
paid were too high, and they were accordingly reduced. Subse-
quently it was resolved to restore the former rate. The Viceroy
visited Madras at the end of August, 1877, and ordered a great
extension of the system of large public works already in force.
The formidable character of the famine may be judged from the
fact that in September the number of persons supported by the
Government was 2,218,000, and that the mortality due to it is
estimated at 2 millions. The money spent amounted to about
8,000,000^

There was a failure of rain in the north-west provinces in
1877, and a famine of some severity resulted. The commissioners
remark on it that '* the relief works were for the first time placed
more entirely imder the officers of the Public Works Department,
with little control from the local civil officers, and the effect of

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538 Mi$ceUwnm. [Sept.

this was not good.** The mortality was bigh, and yet the price of
grain did not rise yerj serionslj.

This valuable record of famines is supplemented bj a tabular
statement of them, and by maps showing the areas affected by
them. From it the commissioners conclude that taking the twenty-
one famines and scarcities of the last one hundred and nine years,
** the proportion is twenty-four years of bad seasons to eigh^-five
years of good, or about two bad to seven good ; in each case on an
average one-twelfth of the population of the whole country, that is
about 20 millions, may be approximately taken as the portion
affected, so that the result might be said to be equivalent to a
famine or scarcity over the whole country once in fifty-four years."
Tq put the result another way, a scarcity is to be expected two
years out of every nine, and a great famine eveiy twelve years. It
also appears probable that northern and southern India are not
likely ever to be simultaneously affected by famine. The famine of
1876-78 may be taken as an extreme case, and the commissioners
therefore assume that " the largest population likely to be severely
affected by famine at one time may be put at 30 millions.'* The
duration of famines is naturally affected by the length of the
interval between one harvest and the next season for sowing, or
between the two harvests in cases where there are two in one year.
It is observed that extreme pressure does not arise until local stocks
are appreciably reduced, and also that when the prospects of the
next harvest are secure, reserves of food are released by their
owners. It is therefore considered that the pressure caused by
drought in one year will last about eight or nine months.

The commissioners consider that '* an estimated failure of even
a third of the year's outturn will always demand the vigilance and
preparedness on the part of the authorities." They remwk that
great caution must be used in attempting to estimate the severity
of a famine by reference to prices, since the conditions vary
enormously at different times and places. '* It is a well ascertained
fact that prices which would be regarded as indicating famine in
one part of the country are quite compatible with undisturbed
prosperity in another." With regard to the effects of scarcity on
the death-rate, they remark that the data for determining this are
very defective, as at present there are no vital statistics of any
value regarding the populations of India. At periods of famine the
rate of mortality is, as a rule, higher than in ordinary times, but
the commissioners think it possible that this is, in some cases, due
less to actnal starvation than to the same causes which destroy the
crops, namely, " abnormal conditions of temperature and humidity."
The ^mine of 1876-78 is estimated to have increased the normal
mortality of the districts affected by about 40 per cent., but there is
no doubt that the normal death-rate in India is higher than in
England, and is also liable to wider fluctuations. In eonnection
with this may be mentioned the fact that in September and
October, 1879, a mortality was registered in the north-west pro-
vinces, then quite free from any scarcity, which was far in excess
of rates prevailing in districts suffering from severe famine.
Famine, in short, appears to be " only one, and perhaps not the

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1880.] Notes on Economical and Statistical Works. 539

most deadly/' of the forces whicH act against the liyes of the
people of India.

At this point of the report (para. 81) the commissioners again
allude to the vast importance of the diffusion of knowledge of the
economic conditions of India, and of good agricultural statistics in
an accessible form.

After the Behar famine of 1873-74i the Indian Government
came to the conclusion that preparations for future famines ought
to be made out of annual income, and it was arranged that a
sum of J,^oo>ooo/. should be set aside yearly for this purpose.
The commissioners point out that there is no cause for fear that
famine relief will be a source of serious financial embarrassment
to the country. Taking the maximum number likely to require
relief in any one year as 2| millions, a higher figure than was
attained in 1877 eyen in Madras, and reckoning 5/. per head, the
maximum charge for any year would be i2,5CX),ooo/. But this
estimate would be &r in excess of the average requirements of a
series of years. The commissioners having remarked that the want
of diver^y of employment is one great source of the disastrous
consequences of a ^uzune in India, and that in spite of the risks to
which he is exposed, the physical comfort of an Indian peasant is
greater than that of one of the same class in northern Europe, pro-
ceed to consider the position of the State towards subjects so liable
to great calamities such as famines. The general principles on
which the relief, which by general agreement the Oovemment is
bound to furnish, should be administered, form the subject of careful
consideration in the remaining pages of the report. Two indis-
pensable conditions of any scheme of relief are stated to be, that it
should not check thrift and self-reliance, and that it should not
impair the structure of society. It is necessary to observe that no
plan of making a district responsible for its own poor relief could
be adopted in Lidia, the scale on which relief has to be given being
too great

The principal roles of action which the commissioners suggest
are seven in number. They are, firsts the adoption of a definite
system of procedure, to be embodied in a famine code. At the same
time an improved system of obtaining and recording statistical and
other information regarding fiGunines should be adopted. Second^ to
provide the able bodied with work at the cost of the State, at an
early period in the famine ; and thirdy to supply gratuitous relief to
such as are incapable of work, throngh village officers or head men,
whenever possible. Fourth^ to organise a system of village inspec-
tion during feunine periods. Fifth, to interfere as little as may be
with the operations of trade, and to facilitate trade by improving
the means of communication. Sixthy to remit to the landlords the
land revenue during a period of serions loss of harvest on condition
that they gprant a proportionate relief to their tenants. Seventh,
to define accurately the limits of local responsibility for expen-
ditare on relief.

The preparation of a famine code would be accompanied by the
creation of a department, to be called the agricultural department,
to administer it. This department would concentrate the work now

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540 Miscdlanea. [Sept.

done by yarious scattered offices, and in ordinary times would be
largely occupied in improving the arrangements for obtaining and
recording stiatistical aud other information relative to the condition
of the agricultural community. There would also be an agricultural
department attached to each of the local governments. On the
occaflion of a famine, the agricultural department of the local
government in which it occurred, would appoint a famine commis-
sioner with full responsibility for directing all branches of famine
relief. This officer should be firmly sapperted by the Government
in any measures he holds to be necessary. One of the duties of the
department would be to make the village accountants responsible
officers with a clearly defined set of duties, and to place a special
officer in each district to gather, supervise, and arrange statistics
relating to the economical position of the district, and generally to
supply information regarding demography.

The general principles of the arrangements fior the relief of the
able bodied should, in the opinion of the commissioners, be the
opening of relief works, of a land such that they can be executed
by unskilled labourers, the wages to be paid by " the task,*' which
task should be only 75 per cent, of what would be required in
ordinary times. Piece work, as understood in Europe, should be
introduoed when the labourers prefer it, but the wages given should
not be much in excess of the wage for task work. The manage-
ment .of the works would be in the hands of the public works
department, which would be responsible for having a list of suit-
able works ready to be opened when required. By watching the'
numbers applying for work the Government would be able to
obtain an idea as to the real dimensious of the famine, and could
extend or restrict the works accordingly.

Gktituitous relief, which will always be to some extent necessary,
is best g^ven through the village system, and the village officials.
This plan may probably involve too free a mint of relief, but this
evil may be minimised by efficient supervision. Relief houses will
be established for persons having no homes, or who have wandered
in search of food, as well as for able bodied persons who refuse to
work. The class of wanderers will be much reduced by an efficient
system of village inspection, to be created when a famine is
imminent. The inspectors will be able to inform the people where
food is to be had, and, generally, what arrangements have been
made for their welfare.

The most important part of the whole report, in many respects,
is that devoted to the question of food supply. The com-
mission was unanimously opposed to interference with private
trade beyond what was absolutely necessary* But on another
point connected with the supply of food there was an important
difEerence of opinion, the majority being against any scheme for
Government storage of grain, while Messrs. Gaird and Sullivan
advocated one, the details of which they explain in a separate
report. The opinion of the majority was based on the general
maxim, not denied by the minority, that governments should
uort engage in commercial operations, coupled with an assertion
that private trade was sufficiently active in India to bring that

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1880.]

Notes on Ecanomicdl and Statistical Works,

541

oountiy wiihin the range of application of the maxim. They also
give estimates, which thej admit to be " rough and approximate,*'
of the ordinary outtam of food in British India. By these figures
it would seem that this ordinary outturn is over 50 million tons,
and tl^e ordinary surplus available for storage, for export, or for
the luxurious consumption of the richer classes is more than
5 million tons. The following is the table :

[In thounnds, 000*i omitted.]

Prorinee.

Popnkp
tion.

Food
Crop
Area.

Oat.
toraof
rood.

Area

under

Non-Food

Crop.

Ordiuary ConaumpUon.

Food.

Seed.

Cattle
Food.

Waat-
age.

Total.

Sur-
ploi.

Punjaub

N. W. Provinces!

and Oudh j

Bengal

Central Provinces ....

Behar

Bombaj

Madras

Mysore

Burmah ......

Total

17,600,

41,000;

60,000,
8,200,

16,000,

31,000,

5»ooo,

Acrea.
18,600,

31,450,

48,000,
12,000,

3,700,
21,500,
26,000,

5,100,

Tons.

5»330i

11,230,

«7,ioo,

a,750i

6 no,

4.500,

8,500,

1,500,

Acrea.
2,500,

5,200,

?
2,500,
2,800,
5,500,
2,500,

500,

Tona.
3,800,

8,420,

13,000,
1,660,
400,
3,300,
6,300,
i,IOO,

Tom.
390,

820,

1,000,
460,

30,
290,
400,

60,

Tom.

250,

830,
l,OOOj

180,

80,

260,

440,

50,

Tom.
270,

500,

900,
150,

80,
210,
420,

75,

Tom.
4»7io,

10,570,

i5»900,|l

2,450,
540,
4»i50,
7,5^0.
1,285,

Tom.

660,

,200,
300,
80,
850,
940,
216,
800,

181,350,

166,250,;5 1,530

21,500,

37,980,

3,460,

3»090i

2,656,

47,165,5,166,

On the data supplied by these figures, the commissioners argne
as follows. In the Madras, Mysore, and Bombay famine of 1876-78,
the year's outtam was 6 million tons short of the average. The
actual crop was then about 4f million tons less than the amount
required for ordinary consumption. But tbey assume that *' a
calamity of this kind immediately leads the population to reduce
its ordinary rate of consumption both for men and cattle, and to
guard more carefully against the waste that usually occurs. So far,
too, as land remains unsown during the drought, something is
saved in seed grain. From these causes the above-stated deficit of
4I million tons might be reduced to 3 millions." We should have
liked to see the evidence on which this assumption is grounded.
The report proceeds to remark that to meet this deficiency there
would be, ** first, the local stocks of the distressed area, which
taken at three months* supply of the people's food, amount to
2 1 millions; second, the year's surplus of the districts not affected,
which by the figures in the above table would be 3^ million tons,
but which might be expected to %e larger in consequence of the
diminished consumption ; and third, the local stocks in those
districts." The latter source of supply seems to us to be of very
doubtful value. It is added that supplies could be obtained from
other countries in case of extreme need. On the above grounds
the majority of the commission have placed on record their opinion
that *' the surplus produce of India, taken as a whole, furnishes the
means of meeting the demands of any part of the country likely to
suffer from famine at any one time." In regard to Government

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542 MisceOaiieoL [Sept.

storage their objections to it are of the usual character, but they
give special reasons against it based on its assumed costliness. To
be adequate, they say, such storage must be on a large scale. Since
7 1 per cent, of the people may at any one time require relief, and
the whole population needs it on the average once in fifty-four
years, a population of 40 millions would require, at six persons to
the ton, a total quantity of 500,000 tons. ** If it is stored, it9
original cost will be enhanced by interest for fifty-four years on the
capital invested in the purchase, which will be 2| times its first
price, and by the cost of storing, renewal to meet waste, and
management, which should certainly be taken at not less than the
interest, so that the ultimate cost will be 6^ times the first cost."
They add that if the grain were purchased as required, even in
times of high prices, its cost would only be three times the price in
a period of low prices, and that the proposed plan of storage would
paralyse the operations of private traders, and thus hinder the
progress of India.

Before describing the remainder of the report, it will be con-
venient at this point to consider the points on which Messrs. Caird
and Sullivan diifer from their colleagues. With regard to relief
measures these gentlemen are in favour of a greater degree of
simplicity, and less interference with the village system i^ian that
recommended in the report. They consider that the management
of the Behar famine should be the guide, since it is the only
instance in which what ought to be the first object, the saving of
life, was attained. They argue that 30 millions of people may be
oonsidered as the greate>st number likely to be affected at any one
time by famine^ and 10 per cent., or 3 millions of these may need
relief for a year, which would require, at 3/. per head, an expendi-
ture of 9,000^000/., which *' would provide relief on a scale double
that given in Madras and Bombay in 1876-78." They therefore
consider that the proposed famine reserve of 1,500,000/. would be
ample, and add, moreover, that this would be a smiall expenditure
on poor relief compared with that griyen in the United Elingdom.
They disapprove the *' task- work " system^ and recommend pay*
ment by the piece, *' on a scale adjusted in accordance with the
market price of food.*' They would deal with idlers by giving
gratuitous relief on a restricted scale.

With regard to the estimates of grain supply above given the
dissentients remark that they can place no confidence in thrai,
arguing that if there is an annual surplus of 5 million tons,
4 millions are available, allowing i million for export, for laying
%) "ft quantity sufficient to feed 24 millions of people." Yet
when fitmines come, it is only by immense pressure that sufficient
supplies can be obtained. They also remark that they cannot
agree that India is, as a whole, self supporting. Population
increases, while the production of food hardly advances. Moreover,
the wages of the people '* bear a less proportion to the price of
food tban in any country of which we have knowledge." They
argue strongly m favour of the storage of grain in seasons of
plenty, in pits constructed and lined with baked clay on the plan
adopted by the natives. Trade, they allege, is too slow in its

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1880.] Notes on Economical and Statistical Works. 543

operations, the profit being much a matter of speculation. The
storage would only be needed for districts difficult of access, and it
might be done on the basis of securing 666,000 tons of grain
" during the first period of eleven years, which would be the whole
quantity necessary to feed for fifty-four years 10 per cent, of the
population, or one-fifth part of India, the proportion here assumed
to be difficult of access. The grain would be bought in years of
plenty on the spot where grown, at 4/. per ton, delivered at the
pits, and the cost of storage may be taken at io«., making together
4Z. los. The quantity annually stored would be 60,000 tons, at the
cost of about 270,0002. At the end of eleven years one-fi^h would
have to be replaced at a cost of 594,000/., spread over the next
eleven years, when another fifth would have to be replaced, and so
on untU the cycle of fifty-four years ended, and a fresh one com-
menced. It is evident that the cost would be higher during the
first fifty.fonr years than afterwards, the annual average cost
becoming less as each period of eleven years elapsed. At the com-
mencement of each new cycle there would be four-fifths in stock.
The dissentients point out that the rate assumed in the report to be
paid as interest on the capital invested in the storage of com is
much too high, since India can borrow at 4 per cent.

To return to the report, the commissioners approve the practice
of suspending the land revenue in cases of general agricultural
distress, care being taken that rents are remitted by the landlords
to a corresponding extent. They also recommend the granting of
loans to landlords and other persons who are likely to make a good
use of them. The principle of local and financial responsibility
must be worked with great care, the circumstances of different
provinces being so various. The local governments may properly
be required to provide means for protecting their own provinces
against famine, and of meeting the cost of it when it occurs.
Executive responsibility may be properly extended to municipal,
committees and other small local organisations.

Under the head of *' Miscellaneous " a few subordinate points
are treated of, the most important being a discussion of the
functions of private charity, which the commissioners consider to
be best performed in judicious support of the poor when the famine
is over, and they may require money to repurchase tools, stocks, &c.
There are also observations on the treatment of subjects of native
States and of wanderers.

Twenty-fourth Report of the Oommissioners of Her Majesty^s
Customs on the Customs (for the year ended 31st December,
1879), 1880.

The introductory remarks to this report contain some remarks
on the general question of the amount of goods taken out of and
brought into the country which are of some interest. Beferring to
a former report in which the import-export controversy was dis-
cussed, they say : — " We make no apology for retnming to this
subject, the less so as we have been enabled, since we reported in
1877, to obtain ftirther information bearing upon it." The com-
missioners then submit some general remarks on foreign trade,
concluding with the very sound observation that we must

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544 MisceUanea, [Sept.

apparently attribute to a " perversity of disposition " that " distur-
bance of mind and reason which appears to dread and mistrust a
trade from which a nation receives back more value than it sends
out, or in other words, which results in the value of its imports
being in excess of that of its exports." They next point out how-
much the investigation is complicated by the fact that the record of
imports and exports is necessarily limited to fixed periods and to
areas defined geographically. Although the ascertaining whai
wealth enters and leaves the country is easier in the case of the
United Kingdom than in that of a country which is not an island,
the difficulties in satisfactorily determining this all important point
are almost insuperable. The official records are necessarily incom-
plete, and the commissioners have attempted to supplement them
by inquiries instituted among private persons and others who might
be able to render assistance. They are of opinion the freight
ought not to be reckoned as a set off* against the excess of imports,
on the ground that freight is an increment of value which accrues
to the goods after they have left the exporting country. This is
correct as far as it goes, but we think a good case may be made
out nevertheless for treating not only freight, but insurance, as
reducing the nominal excess of imports. This, however, is a side
issue, and we must pass on to the main points. The commissioners
urge that the old practice of treating the exports and imports of
bullion as separate from those of other articles ought to be
abandoned, and they spend some little time over an attempt to
distinguish between the medium of exchange itself and promises to
supply the mediam of exchange. So long as bullion is treated as
a special sort of merchandise, so long will the various delusions,
arising from the fact that gold and silver are employed for a
particular and very conspicuous purpose in the economic system of
the world, subsist. The ** foreign and colonial merchandise," the
" coin and bullion," together with the " merchandise in transit,*'
constitute the information as to imports officially obtained. But
the commissioners proceed to add a list of other classes of articles
brought into the country, regarding which they have made
inquiries. These are: "ships built abroad, bought by the. State
or by residents in the United Kingdom from foreign States or
residents abroad for purposes of war or for local use in the United
Kingdom ; ships built abroad, bought by residents in the United
Kingdom for general commercial purposes ; coin and other property
brought into the United Kingdom by immigrants ; coin and other
property brought into the United Kingdom by ordinary passengers."
Itegarding wealth thus introduced into the country, the commis-
sioners have, through the " courtesy and good will of those who
had it in their power to afford it," obtained in some cases direct
returns of value, in others information enabling them to estimate
values.

Taking the exports, on the other hand, there are similar defi-
ciencies in the information available. The classes of value of
which no returns are made are : (1) " Increment of value on mer-
chandise in transit at the time of export." (2) " Ships built in
the United Kingdom sold to foreign States or residents abroad for

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1880.] Notes on Economtcdl and Statistical WorJcs. 545

pnrposes of war or local use." (3) " Ships built in the United
Kingdom sold to residents abroad for general commercial purposes.*'
(4) '* Stores of all ships employed in the foreign trade supplied in
the United Kingdom, including coals." (5) ** Stores of all
Queen's ships supplied in the United Kingdom and expended out
of it." (6) " Coin and other property taken from the United
Elingdom by emigrants." (7) " Coin and other property taken
from the United Kingdom by ordinary passengers." In regard to
these classes also valuable information has been obtained. The
" increment of value on transit trade " is set down at 3 per cent.
It would have been well if the reasons for this estimate had been
given. In regard to the emigrants and immigrants, and the ordi-
nary passengers, the commissioners made estimates founded on the
official returns supplemented by inquiries from shipping and other
companies. The *' balance sheet " containing these additional
items gives a total of 402 ,2 59^3 22 Z. on the import side, and of
308,146,515/. on the export side, thus making the so-called
"balance" against us 94,112,807/. The commissioners very pro-
perly remark that any such " balancing " of the two sides of the
trade account is of very limited value as a test of the position of a
nation.

The Condition of Nations, Social a/nd PolUicaZ, with Complete
Comparative Tables of Universal Statistics, by G. F. Kolb. Trans-
lated, edited, and collated to 1880. By Mrs. Brewer ; with original
notes and information by Edwin W. Streeter, F.R.G.S. G^eorge
Bell and Sons, 1880.

Mrs. Brewer has translated Baron Kolb's great work on the
Condition of Nations in a very careful and satisfactory manner.
There is a certain disadvantage attaching to the translation of books
like this, which are almost wholly composed of figures and comments
on figures^ namely, that both translation and original inevitably get
out of date by the mere lapse of a year or two. It seems almost a
waste of time to translate such a work, especially as the original is
fairly accessible to inquirers, and even if it were not so, there are
excellent works of the same class published year by year in English,
French, and German. The great bulk of the volume may be
described as an enlarged variety of the species of which the best
known in England is the Statesman's Year Book, and the best
known in Europe the Almanach de Ootha. At the same time
Baron Kolb*s work certainly contains useful information in fields
left blank by these two publications. In vital statistics espe-
cially he has taken pains to be strong. But the most interesting
part of the volume is the introduction on " The Philosophy of
Statistics." It gives a rough outline of the class of social phe-
nomena which statistics enable us to observe. Such a work, if
systematically performed, would be of great value, especially if
accompanied by a criticism of the method of statistics. Unfortu-
nately Baron Kolb has not thought fit to treat the subject on any
system, being content to point out a number of cases in which
statistics have been proved to be practically useful, and to call the
attention of his readers to the regularities which are noticeable in
some of the more conspicuous phenomena of social life. From a

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546 MisceUanea. [Sept.

writer of Baron Kolb's leaminp^ we had a rigKt to expect an essaj
on the Method and Results of Statistical Inquiry, illustrated bj the
mass of information contained in the rest of the volume. What we
actually have is a well written but desultory paper on " The Wonders
of Science,'* as manifested to the social inquirer. Although, how-
ever, the scientific student will be disappointed with Baron Kolb's
Introduction, we are very far from considering it useless. On the
contrary, such is the density of the ignorance of the phenomena
which statistics enable us to perceive, that we ought to be very
thankftd to anyone who will take the trouble to place some of these
before the public in a readable form. And from this point of view
we must express our obligations to Mrs. Brewer, who has performed
her task of translation well.

History of Political Economy in Europe, By J6r6me Adolphe
Blanqui. Translated from the fourth French edition by Emily J.
Leonard. With a preface by David A. Wells. G^rge Bell and
Sons. 1880.

The first edition of Blanqui*s Hi$toire de VEoOnomie Politique
was published more than forty years ago, and the later editions
only brought the work down to 1842. During the later years of
his life he was occupied with important works of a special character,
and he made no changes in the work subsequent to that year
beyond writing a new preface to the edition of 1887. When he
died early in 1854 he was engaged, by order of the Academie des
Science Morales et Politiques, in investigating the condition of the
rural population of France. His history, now for the first time, as
far as we know, translated into English, is well worthy of the high
reputation in which it is held. Blanqui was a free ladder at a
time when the principles of free trade had made but little way in
France. He was a pupil of J. B. Say, who persuaded him to study
economics and abandon the career of a teacher of chemistry and
other physical sciences. He succeeded Say as professor in the
Oonservatmre des Arts et des Oommerces in 1833. Blanqui's work
was written in order to point out, in opposition to the general
opinion current at the time of its appearance, that political economy
was not an invention of Turgot and Quesnay, but that in ancient
times, as well as in the middle ages, its subject matter had been
discussed and considered at great length. He quotes from several
authors of antiquity in support of this view, and traces the
characteristics of society in Gh?eece and Rome in a very interesting
manner. He calls attention to the curious anomaly in Plato's
Republic, that he had a full perception of the advantages of
division of labour, and the uses of money, and yet was unable to
speak of artisans and traders except in terms of the deepest
contempt. He apparently thinks that the only useful thing the
Romans did was to make roads and keep them in repair — a view
which will hardly bear examination at the present day. But his
remarks on the ruinous system which forbade free citizens to
engage in industrial occupations unless they were bom to them
show a full comprehension of the causes which led to the break-up
of the empire. His account of Charlemagne and the transition to
the feudal system is brie^ and he passes on to the crusades, of

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1880.] Notes on Additions to the Library. 547

which the economic effects were very extensive, in that they gave a
great impulse to navigation and introduced a number of new
industries into Europe. Blanqui shows how vast masses of
property came into the hands of the townspeople, and how the
power and importance of the mercantile class increased during the
period of the crusades. He then traces the history of the Jews in
the middle ages, notices their use of bills of exchange and the
high development of their commercial system. As regards the
invention of bills of exchange, he thinks it probable that the
Lombards and the Jews must share the credit of the discovery.
But, aa he points out in a note, qaoting M. Courcelle-Seneuil,
instruments resembling bills of exchange were in use at Athens
in the third century B.C. The rise of the Hanse towns and
the services they renaered to the development of commercial enter-
prise occupies some pages, and Blanqui then treats of the origin,
in the reign of St. Louis, of the extensive system of corporations
which did so much good and so much mischief in France. After
noting the rise and downfall of the Italian republics, he proceeds
to discuss the influence of Charles V, of whom he has hardly a
good word to say, regarding him as the founder of the system of
restriction and *' protection " from which Europe has suffered so
much. He considers Charles to have done more harm than
Philip II, because the evil wrought by the latter euded with him,
while his father's system continued to oppress the nations long after
he was dead. This view savours a little of paradox, considering
what Philip's work really was, and besides, Charles, though he did
much to lead the countries he governed into the wrong economic
path, was most ably and sedulously seconded in the same bad course
by other European potentates. We need not follow Blanqui's
exposition down to more recent times, especially as his work
becomes more and more a history of France. The administrations
of Sully and Colbert receive full treatment at his hands, and the
rise of the mercantile system is traced with care. The latter part
of the volume gives a valuable exposition of the doctrines of the
various schools that have come into existence since political economy
became a reoognised body of useful truths. The last chapter but
one gives a general view of the characteristics of the systems
adopted in the various countries of Europe. The translator's work
is fairly well done.

m. — Notes on some Additions to ihe Library,

Le Commerce ExtArieur de VEgyjpt pendcmt VcmnSe 1879. Cairo,
1880.

The process of introducing regularity into the administration
of Egypt is going on with commendable rapidity. The commer-
cial and other statistics issued by the Direction OSnSrcUe de la
Statistiquey under the superintendence of M. Amici, are ftill and
well arranged, and there is the minimum of delay in their appear-

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548 MisceUanea. [Sept.

ance. There are some ooontries where statistics are not published
until a oonple of years or more after the time to which they relate.
Thanks to M. Amici and his stafE Egypt is not one of these. The
commerce of Egypt in 1879 shows, as was to he expected, a very
appreciable advance on that of 1878. The imports amounted to
5,002,163/. E., and the exports to i3)439)OC9/. E. The excess of
exports thus amounts to 8,436,895/. E. The exports were larger
than in any of the last six years, with the exception of 1876, when
they amounted to 1 3,561 ,286/. E. The great bulk of Egyptian trade
is of course carried on with England, the total trade with which
country being 11,219,683^/. E., or 60} per cent, of the total
18,441,222/. E. As compared with 1874 our trade with Egypt
has diminished relatively^ its proportion of the whole being 70 per
cent, in that year. The summary tables of imports and exports of
various articles compiled from the returns by M. Amiei are very
interesting. Taking the imports first, there is an increase in
cotton goods on 1878, but the value of the imports is nrach below
that of the imports of 1875. The imports of iron of all kinds show
a most remarkable reduction on those of the previous yeairs, being
only 51^1 19/. E., against 108,311/. E. in 1878, 105,797/. E. in 1877,
I49,i44/»E. in 1876, 112,466/. E.in 1875, and 17 1,683/. B. in 1874.
No reason is given for this great diminution, but it may perhaps
be attributed to the great rise in the price of iron last autumn.
Of the exports the largest amount are cotton, 8,118,852/. E., and
cotton seeds, 1,316,865/. E. The export of cotton shows a great
increase on that of 1878, but it hea not risen to the level attuned
in 1875 and 1876, when the exports were 8,853,635/. E., and
8,762,712/. E. respectively, and still less to that of 1874, when they
amounted to 9,676,283/. E. There was a falling off in the exports
of sugar, while the general badness of the European harvest in
1879 is reflected in the exports of wheat, which reached the value
of 1,344,093/. E., a higher figure than in any previous year.
M. Amici will pardon us for pointing out an error in the table on
p. 9. The exports of wheat for 1878 are set down as only
92,086^. E., an obvious misprint for some higher number, for he
himself on the next page remarks that the year of minimum expor-
tation was 1874y when the amount was 143,511/. E.

IV. — Additions to the Library,
Additions to the Library during the Quarter ended ZOth September^ 1880.

Donations.

Bj whom Pretented.

Austria and Hungary —

Statistiches Jahrbuch JUr 1878. Hefte 5. Clerus,"1
Lehranstalten, periodbche Presse. 193 pp. Heft 6, I Imperial Central Sta-
PriTat-und Straf-Rechtspflege, Ghef&Usubertretungen. | tistical Commission
207 pp., imp. 8to. Wien, 1880 J

Statistisches Handbiichloin der kgl. Ilaupstadt Prae.l en. i.* i.- 1 -n ^

fur 1878. 7"Jahrgang. 154 pp. (2 oSpies.) Sto. I ^^^^^^^^ ^'^^ °^
Prag, 1880 J ^^^^gue

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1880.]

Additions to the Library.
Donation* — Contd.

549

Donationi.

By whom Presented.

Boval Statistical
Bureau

Austria and Hunarary — Contd.

Statistisohes Jahrbuoh fur Ungam, 1878, 8*' Jahrgang.
Heft 3. Landwirthschaft Emte und Weinleee.
Heft 8. OultuB- und Unterrichtswesen. 4to. Buda-
pest, 1880

Sivatalot Stixtiatikax KdzlemSn^ek —
Magyarorszig Hitelint^zetei, 1878 — ^Ban. zi and

157 pp. 4to

Magyarorsz^ Vasutai, 1877 — ^Ban. xlii and 252 pp.,
imp. 8vo. Budapest, 1880 ,

BelffiTun —
Inauguration de la Statue d*Adolphe Quet^let. 16 pp., 1 t> ^ a j

Sto. BruieUee, 1880 .!. Z .^ .I | ^J*^ Academy

Bulletin Hebdomadaire de Statistique D^ographique 1

et M^cale. Ann^ xi, Nos. 24-~31, et 33—86, 1880. V Dr. Janssens

Imp. 8vo. Bruxelles J

Ohlna —
Imperial MarUxme Custom* —
I. Statistical Series —

No. 2. Customs Ghujette, Jan. — Mar., 1880 1 -q , . „ .

No. 3, part 1. Abstract of Trade and Customs. V ^^^^ C* • '
Revenue Statistics f«>m 1867-79 J o^^g*^

Denmark. National^konomisk Tidsskrift, Bind 15, 1 The Danish Political
Hefte 7, 8, und 9. 8vo. KjObenhayn, 1880 J Economy Society

Bflrypt—

Bulletin Trimestriel de la Navigation par le Canal de'

Suez. 1* ann^, No. 2, du !•' Avnl au 30 Juin,

1880. 31 pp., 4to. (2 copies)

Le Commerce Ext^rieur de I'Egypte pendant 1879.

97 pp., imp 8to. Le Caire, 1880

Commerce Ext^reur de I'Egypte, Bulletin du. 1*"

Trimestre, ann^ 1880. 10 pp., 4to ^

Esq.,

Director-General
Statistics

France —

Annales de Demographic Internationale. 4* ann6e.

No. 13. Mars, 1880. 140 pp., maps, 8vo. Paris
Compte-G^n^ral de T Administration de la Justice "l

'■}

Dr. A. Cherrin

Civile et Commerciale pendant 1878. 195 pp L \f • <. « t -*•

Compte-G^n^ral de rAdministration de la Justice f ^^^^^^^^ ^'•'"*"^

Crmiinelle pendant 1878. 225 pp., 4to. Paris, 1880 J
L'Economiste Fran9ais, 1873-77. 9 vols., folio. Paris .... John Feurer, Esq.
L'Economiste Fran^ais, 8* ann^. Cuirent numbers.... The Editor
Minist^re des Finances. Bulletin de Statistique et de 1

Legislation compar^e, 4* ann^e, Juin — Aoiii, 1880. > M. A. de Foville

8vo. Paris J

lUvue Bibliographique Universelle —

Partie Litftraire, tome xxix, Nos. 1 — 3, 1880

„ Technique, tome xxx, Nos. 7 et 8, JuiUet et

AoAt, 1880. Imp. 8vo. Paris J- The Editor

B^vue G^ogrephique Internationale. 4* ann^e. No. 49,

Nov., 1879. 4to. Paris

Society de Statistique de Paris, Journal de la.

21* ann^e. No. 9, Septembre, 1880. Imp. 8vo. > The Society

Paris

TOL. XLIII. PAET III.

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650

Mttcellanea.
Donation* — Contd.

[Sept.

DonatioDt.

By whom Pretented.

mperi
Offic

0«imany—
Monatshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Beichs. Band 1 Imperial Statistical

xliii, Hefte 6, 6, und 7, 1880. 4to. Berlin J

Bbbun. Die BeydlkerungB-Q«werbe-und Wohnungs-'^
Aafnahme vom 1 December, 1875, in der Stadt

H. 3 u. 4. Diagrams, imp. 4to. 1880

YeW^ffentlichungen des Statisdschen Bureau's der \
Stadt; Eheschiiessungen, Geburten, Sterbef&lle
und Witterung, &c. Nos. 27—43, 1880. 4to. I

Berlin J

HAMBUBa. Beriobt des Medicinal-Inspectorats Aber^
die medicinische Statistik des Hamburgischen Staates

f^ 1879. Maps and diagrams, 4to

Fbussia. Zeitscbrift des k. Preussischen Statistiscben
Bureaus. 20*' Jahrgang, 1880. Hefte 1, 2,

(Januar-Juni). 4to. Berlin, 1880 _

Saxony. Kalender und Statistiscben Jabrbuch fiir''
das Kdnigreiob Sacbsen nebst Marktrerzeicbnissen
fOr Sacbsen und Tbiiringen auf das Jabr 1881. 95

and 160 pp. 8yo. Dresden

Zeitscbrift des K. S&ebsiscben Statistiscben Bureau's.
xiT Jabrgang, 1879. H. iii und iy, Juli, 1880. 4to.
Dresden

Statistical Bureau
of Berlin

Sanitary Bureau

Tbe Bojal Statistical
Bureau of Prussia

Statistical Bureau

Italy—

Annali (Diyisione Anicoltura), No. 97. Concorsi'
Agrari Begionali, No. 7, serie 1*. Anno 1876.
Conoorso di Boma. 206 pp., imp. 8yo. Milano,
1880

Annali di AgricuUura. No. 18. La Pellagra in Italia,
1879. 603 pp., map. No. 22, 1880. Notizie e
Documenti smle Instituzioni d'Insegnamento Agrario
all' Estero. No. 25, 1880. Rapporto Intomo alia
Soorperta della Fillossera nei Circondari di Lecco e di
Monza ed alle Operazioni iyi Compiute durante il

1879

Annali dell* Induttria e del CommerciOy 1880. No. 19.

Notizie e Documenti sulle Scuole Industriali e Com-
merciali Popolari. 194 pp. No. 20. Documenti
Legislatiyi Italiani e Stranieri sul Layoro dei
Fanciulli e delle Donne. 275 pp. No. 21. Atti
della Commissione per la Cassa Pensioni per la
Yeccliiaia e Gl' Inyalidi al Layoro. 133 pp.
No. 22. Relazione e Proposte intomo ad una
Ck)nyenzione fra 1' Italia e la Syizzera sulla Pesca

nelle Acque Comuni ai due Stati

Annali di Statistica. Serie 2», yol. xiii (Industrie
Italiane e G^rmania), 222 pp. ; e yol. xyi, 220 pp.

8yo. Roma, 1880

Banques d'Emission, Statistique Internationale des,

AUemagne. 120 pp., imp. 8to. Rome, 1880

Bibliografia Italiana, Elementi per una, intomo all'
Idrofauna agli Alleyamenti degli Animali Acquatici
e alia Pesca. yiii e 160 pp., imp. 8yo. Firenze,

1880

Bollettino Settimanale dei Prezzi di Alcuni dei princi-

pali Prodotti Agrari. Anno 1880. Nos. 21—32 ....

Directorate - General
of Statistics

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1880.]

Additions to the Library.
Donation* — Oontd.

651

Donationi.

By whom Presented.

Directorate- General
of Statistics

Italy— Contd.
Bollettino Mensile delle Situazioni dei Conti degli""

Istituti d'£ini8sione. Anno xi, Nos. 4, 5 e 6. Apnle

— Guigno, 1880

Bollettino Bimestrale delle Situazioni dei Conti.

Anno xi, Nos. 1 e 2, Feb. e Aprile, 1880

Bollettino Bimestrale del Risparmio. Anno t. Nob.

2 e 3, Aprile— Guigno, 1880

Bollettino di Notizie Oommeroiali. Anno ii, Nos. 8 — 13,

Giugno— Agosto, 1880

Bollettino (Donsolare. YoL xri, Nos. 5 e 6, Mag. e

Giu^o, 1880

Careen, Statistica Decennale delle (1870-79). olix

e 171 pp., maps, imp. Svo. CivitaTecchia, 1880 ....
Carta della Circoscrizione Elettorale Politica dell* Italia
Debiti Proyinciali al 31 Dicembre, 1878. xiii e 15 pp.

Imp. 8to. Roma, 1880

Emigrazione, Italiana, all* Estero nel 1879. Statistica

della. Ixi e 48 pp., imp. 8yo. Roma, 1880

Esposizione Intemazionale di Pesca in Berlino, 1880.

Catalogo degli Espositori e delle Cose Esposte.

cxixY e 221 pp., imp. 8yo. Firenze, 1880

Movimento Commerciale del Regno d' Italia nell* anno

1879. riii e 828 pp.. folio. Roma, 1880

Statistica Elettorale PoliticaElezioni Generali Politiche

16—23 Maggio, 1880. xUii e 89 pp. Imp. 8vo.

Roma

Rirista Europea, Rirista Intemazionale. Vol. xx, 1 q^ -n^..

Nos. 1—4, Tol. xxi, 1 e 2, 1880. Imp. 8vo. Firenze ( ^'^^ ^°*^'
Societa Italiana d'leiene, Giomale della. Anno ii. 1 rm. a • i.

Nos. 3 e 4. 8vo. MilaW) / ^^ ^'^^^

The Statistical
Bureau, Tokio

• The Sodet J

Japan —

Report of Foreign Commerce (in Japanese). 8yo

„ Police Establishment (in Japanese). 8to....

Portugal —

Sociedade de OSographia de Lishoa, Questoes'

Airicanas. Proposta apresentada pela Conunissao

Nacional Portugueza. 21 pp., Svo. Idsboa, 1880....
Questdes Airicanas. Representa9ao ao Gk>yemo

Portuguez pela. 32 pp., 8yo. Lisboa, 1880

O Districto de Louren^o Marques. No Presente e no

Futuro. 46 pp., 8vo. Lisboa. 1880

Luiz de Camoes. Program ma do Terceiro Centen-

ario de. Plans, folio. Lisboa. 1880

Os Lusiadas por Luis de Camdes. 18 pp. Oblong

folio. Lbboa. 1880 ^

Botunanla —
Statistica Penitentiara pe anu 1876 and 1877. 29 pp.^

1880 I Minister of the In-

Cultele pe anu 1878 si inyet&mSntnl pe anu soolar | terior

1877-78. 106 pp., imp. 4to. Bucuresci. 1880 J

Spain. Sociedad CfeogriWca de Madrid. Tomo viii, 1 rm.. q^^^f
Nos. 6 e 6. Mayo, Junio, 1880. Syo / ^^^ »ocietj

2o2

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552

Miscellanea.
Donations — ContcL

[Sept.

DoDfttioni.

Bj whom Pretentod.

Sweden and Norway —

NOBWAT — OfftcieUe StcOutilc —

A. No. 1. Beretning om SkolevieseneU Tilstand,"^

for aaret 1878. (Instruction Pub-
lique)

B. „ 1- CriminaLstatiBtiske Tabeller for aaret

1877. (Statistique Criminelle)

0. „ 3a. Tabeller yedkommende Norgee Handel

i aaret 1879. (Ck>mraerce)

0. „ 3b, Tabeller yedkommende Norget Skibs-

fart i aaret 1878. (Nayigation)

0. „ 9. Norges FUkerier 1 aaret 1878. (Pdohet

Maritimes). 4to. Kristiania

Central Statistical
Bureau

(Sta.'

8wiiT>nif'-0fficiela Sfatittik^
N. Jordbruk och Boskapsekfitel, fbr kt 1878.

tistique Agricole)

O. Landtmiteriet, 18, f6r ke 1879 (Arpcntage) ....
T. Lots-ooh Fyrinriittmiigen samt Lifrilddnings-

anstaltema & rikets kustcr, 7, f6r &r 1879

(Pilotage, Phares, et Sauyetage). Maps. 4to.

Stockholm, 1880

Statistisk Tidskrifl, 1880. H 58, No. 01. 86 pp.
8yo. Stockhobn, 1880

United Stotea—

Central Statistical
Bureau

Dr. F. J.
F.B.C.S.

Mouat,

The Commissioner of

Agriculture, Department of, Monthly Reports on the 1

Condition of Crops. June, July, and August, V Agriculture

Bureau of Statistics —

Imports, Exports, Immigration, and Navigation,'

Quarterly Report to Slst March, 1880, with the

proposed American Inter-Oceanic Canal in its

Commercial Aspects

Foreign Commerce of the United States to 80th

June, 1880, Preliminary Report. 8 pp., 8yo.

Washington

Imports and Exports, Monthly Summary Statement

of. Nos. 10—12. April— June, 1880. 4to.

Washington _

Commercial Relations. Letter from Secretary of State'

transmitting Annual Report on. 211 pp., 8yo.

Washington, 1880 „

Finance, ibmual Report of the Secretary of the'
Treasury, containing the following Reports for
1879—

a. The Six Auditors of the Treasury

b. „ Superintendent of Coast Survey

c. „ Commissioner of Customs

d. „ „ Indian Affairs

e. „ „ Internal Revenue

f. „ Two Comptrollers of the Treasury

y. „ Comptroller of the Currency

h, „ Director of the Mint

i. „ Register of the Treasury

k. „ Tr^urer of the United States, xliv and

584 pp., doth, 8vo Washington, 1879

^ Joseph Kimmo, Esq.,
jun.

Department of State

The Secretary of the
Treasury

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1880.] Additions to the Library, 553

Donattona-^ CorUd.

Donationt. By whom Presented.

United BtMtem—Contd,
MA88ACHU8BTT8. Health, Eleyenth Report of the"! a^^'^„ af„*;«*:«.i
State Board, for Six Months ending 30th June, 1879. I -^encan Btatisucai

184pp.,8yo. Bo8ton,1879 * J ^^^^o^'^^^^o"

Health, Lunacj, and Gharitj. First Annual Beportl
of the State Board of, 1879. xxiy and 277 pp., map, V The Board

plates, and plans, 8yo. Boston, 1880 J

Michigan. State Board of Health, Seyenth Annual 1
Beport of, to 30th Sept., 1879. Ixir and 548 pp., V H. B. Baker. Esq.,

cloth, plans, imp. 8yo. Lansing, 1880 J Secretary of Board

Nbw Yobk —
Report of the Health Department of the City of, I Tn;-.;. •r„-«»„ «f
on Vital Statistics, for week ending 15th May, 1880. [ v^S sS^^

4to. New York J viwiowiusaca

Railroads, Report of the Special Committee on.i
Vols, i— V. With a Supplemental Report and a I a:«.«« fli.«-«^ t?-«
Dissenting Report by Tho^F. Grady (unbound), f ^™^^ ^*^™®' ^•
Calf, maps, 8yo. Albany, 1880 J

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, "I rp.^ a^a^^^

Proceedings of the. New series, vol. tU. 1879 / ^^® ^<^^^7

American Geographical Society, New York, Bulletin 1 mi ^ «_. .

of the. No. 4, 1879 / ^'^^ o«a««7

American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pro-1

ceedings of the, yoL xyiii, No. 105. 1880. Map and V

plates J

Bimkers* Magazine, New York, vol. xiv. No. 12 j 1 «« ^ vAi^j^

vol. XV, Nos. 1—3, June— September, 1880. 8vo / "^^^ ^^^

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Journal of the, 1 rpi,^ t t.**^.i.^

vol. Ixxx, Nos. 1^. 1880 ..2 / ^^ ^^^^^

Medical Herald, Louisville, voL ii, Nos. 1, 2, 15, 1 rr« Editor

and 16 j

Smithsonian Institution'^

Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xxii, plates ^

Miscellaneous Collections, vols, xvi and xvii. Plates, I

&o > The Institution

Annual Report of the Board of Regents, for 1878. I

576 pp., cloth, 8vo. Washington, 1879 J

Western, the, new series, vol. vi. No. 4, July — August,!^ «« ^ t?^:*.,-

1880, Svo. St. Louis / *-^^ ^***^'

The Chica^ Times of 26th April, 1880, and cuttings 1 *-• « ■« a^^^

from Chicago newspapers, on Over P^uction J • • *

India, Oolonlal, and other PoMesslon* —
Canada, Dominion of —

Agriculture, Report of the Minister of, for 1879, with^
Appendix containing Statistics of Insolvency for
1879

Canals, Report of the Chief Engineer, 1877-79. Maps

Estimates for 1881

finances —

Appropriation Accounts, Report on, for 1879

Public Accounts, for 1879

Budget Speech, delivered March, 1880

J. M. Courtney, Esq.,
Deputy Minister
of Finance

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554

Miscellanea.
Donatunu — CorUd,

[Sept.

Donations.

By whom Preientod.

India, Oolcmial, and other Poasesdions — Contd.
lanada, Dominion ot—CotUd.
Inland Itevenue* —

Bepoit on, for 1879 — Supplements. No. 1, Canal
Statistics for 1879 ; 2, Sixth Beport on Weights
and Measures, for 1879; 3, Fourth Beport on

Adulteration of Food, for 1879

Department of the Interior, Beport o^ for 1879

Minister of Justice, Beport on Penitentiaries, for 1879
Marine and Fisheriet —
Twelfth Annual Beport of the Department of, for
1879, with Supplements. No. 1, Beports of Boards
of Steamboat Inspection and Harbour Commis-
sioners, for 1879 ; 2, Statements of Commissioners
of Fisheries, for 1879. List of Lights and Fog

Signals, for 1879

Militia, Beport on the State of, for 1879

Postmaster General, Beport of the, for 1879

Public Works, Beport of the Minister of, for 1878-79
Railways —

Bailwajs and Oanals, Beport of the Minister of, for

1878-79

Bailway Statistics, Beports on, for 1878-79

Canadian Pacific, Beport and Documents in refe-
rence to. 373 pp., maps, imp. 8to. Ottawa, 1880

Secretaiy of State, Beport of the, for 1879

Trade and Nayigation, Tables of, for 1879

J. M.CourtoOT, Esq.,
Deputy Minister
of Finance

Gape of Oood Hope,

Folio.

Blue Books for 1878 and 1879. "I p^,^^. , a^^^^
Cape Town, 1879 and 1880 / ^^^"^ Secretary

India, Britiah—

Beyiew of the External Land Trade of British India,'^
for 1878-79. By J. E. O'Connor, Esq. 48 pp., folio.

Calcutta, 1880 > Indian GoTemment

Trade and Navigation, Monthly Betums of. Current I

numbers. 8vo. CaJcutta J

Bengal, Asiatic Society of —

Proceedings, Nos. 1, 2, and 8, January— March, 1 mi,^ o^^-^i.^
1880. 8to. Calcutta | 1 He Society

General

New South Wales. Sydney, and Suburbs, Begistrar- \ -p -.x-,.
General's Beport on the Vital Statistics of, May, 1880. J ■^P"^^'

(Queensland —
Statistics of the Colony of, for the year 1878. x and'

219 pp., folio. Brisbane, 1879

Supplement to the Gt)yemment Gazette (containing
Vital Statistics) . Vol. xxyi, Nos. 71 and 91. Folio.
Brisbane

South Australia —
Philosophical Society of Adelaide, Transactions andl

Proceedings and Beport of the, for 1878-79. Ixxt V The Society

and 140 pp., plates, 8to. Adelaide, 1879 J

South Australian Institute, A sketch of its Progress, \ rp, -r^ fif^*^
Ac. 29 pp., cloth, photograph, 8to. Adelaide, 1879 / ^^^ AMtitute

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1880.]

Additions to the Library.
DotMtum* — Contd.

555

Donations.

By whom Presented.

India, Colonial, and other PosBe«8ionfl — Contd.
Tasmania —
Beport for 1879 of the Officer of Health for thel

towns of New Town, Sandy Bay, and Wellington I ^j^ Goyemment

Hamlets j

Vaccination, Beport for 1879 J

Viotoria —

Agricultural Statistics of the Colony, for the year to ^

31st March, 1880. (Six copies) I Chief Secretary

Friendly Societies. Beport for 1879, with Appendices. | Victoria

Valuation Table. (Six copies) J

Mines. Chief Inspector's Beport for 1879 ^

Mining Surveyors and Begist^s, Beports for the I ^^ ^ j^

Quarter ended 31st March, 1880 f ■"^"^•^'^ "* i^xuco

Mineral Statistics of, for 1879. Folio. 1880 J

Melbourne, Social Science Congress, 5 copies of the I

syllabus of subjects. 1 sheet, folio. Melbourne, > The Congress
1880 J

Boyal Society of, Transactions and Proceedings of the, 1

vol. xri, 1879. Issued 80th April, 1880 ; xxTi V The Society
and 198 pp., plates, 8yo. Melbourne J '

StatUtical MegUter of, for 1879 —

Part II, Blue Book *|

„ II, Population V Chief Secretary

„ III, Finance, &c. Folio. Melbourne. 1880 J

One copy of each of above | ^^r^xS^''^'^

for

United Kingdom —

Import Duties upon the Produce and Manufactures oP

the. Part Il—Colonial. Pari. Pap. 120-1. 8vo.
Bailway Companies, General Beport to the Board

of Trade on, for 1879. (C-2641.) 26 pp., folio.

1880

Bailway Betums for the year 1879. ParL Pap.

[C-2596.] 1880. FoHo !► Board of Trade

Statistical Abstract for the, 1865-79. No. 27.

[C-2599.] 121 pp., imp. 8vo. 1880

Trade, Annual Statement of the, for 1879. ParL Pap.

[C-2597.] 1880. FoUo

Trade and Navigation, Monthly Betums of. Current

numbers. Svo ^

Bnarland and Wales —

Marriages, Births, and Deaths, Quarterly Betum of. 1 mi,^ -D^^.f.., /a-
Marriages, to March, 1880; Births and Deaths, \ ^® Begistrar-Oe-
to June, 1880. No. 126. 8to J ^^^^

Metropolitan Police. Criminid Betums for 1879. "! Chief Commissioner,
49 pp., 8vo J MetropolitanPolice

Small Pox, Copy of Beport of Dr. Bridges, Inspectori
of the lK)cal Q-OTemment Board, on, in the Hospitals I Local Goyemment
of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, from 1876 to [ Board
1878. ParL Pap. No. 76. Folio J

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5^6

MisoeUanea.
Donations — CorUcL

[Sept.

DonitJoni.

By vkom ProMiited.

Bnarland and VTwAiem^Contd.
Taxation Eetums, The Annual Local, 1878-79. [122.] ] « t>„^, tt.^

FoUo. 1880...... .IZ: ) ^' ^^^^' ^*

Worcester, General Infinnarj, One Hundred andl ▼ p.-v^ti Hmn

Thirty-afth Annual Report, 1879. 8to. 1880 | •» • rar£er, JS^q.

Inyentors' Record and Industrial Guardian (a news-l

paper). Vol ii, No. 70, 4th September, 1880. ^ The Editor

441 — 168 pp., plates. Folio ,

••1

l%e Academy

Ireland-
Weekly Returns of Births and Deaths in Dublin and 1
other large towns, with a Quarterly Summury. I RegistraivGeneral

Current numbers. 8to J

iSova^ Iritk Academy —
Transactions of. Science. Part 22, vol. zxri, No-*"
yember. Plates. 1879
,, Irish Manuscript Series. Part 1.

ToL i. On the Calendar of Oengus. 81 and

oooliipp

Cunningham Memoirs. No. 1. On Cubic Transfor-
mations. 140 pp. 4to. Dublin, 1880

Proceedings of. Polite Literature and Antiquities.
No. 1, Tol. ii, series 2, November, 1879. Science,
No. 4, Tol. iii, series 2, April, 1880. 8to. DubUn..
Statistical and Social Inqmry Society, Journal of the,'l qn^ RnniAHr
ToL Yiii, No. 1, April, 1880. 84 pp., 8yo. DubUn.... / ^^^ °^'^'*®^

Scotland —

Birtlis, Deaths, and Marriages —
Weekly and Monthly Returns of, in the eight

principal towns, current numbers. 8to

Quarterly Return of, to SOth June, 1880

Twenty-second Detailed Annual Report of [Abstracts
of 1876]. Ix and 236 pp., diagram, imp. 8ro.

Edinburgh, 1880

Glaboow —
Mortality Table of, with remarks by Medical Officer,"

for the Quarter ended Slst March, 1880. 8yo

Enteric Fever, Report upon Certain Epidemic Out-
breaks of, in April, 1880. 55 pp., map and
diagrams, 8vo. 1880 ^

Registrar-General

Dr. J. B. Russell

Anthers, Ac. —

BocoASDO (Prof. Gbbolamo). La Sociologia nellal

Storia, nella Scienza, nelle Religione e nel Cosmo. > The Author

cxix pp., imp. 8vo. Torino, 1880 J

BouBNB (Stbphbn). On the Social Aspect of Trade 1

Depression. 16 pp., 8vo. London, 1880 J "

Corona (G.). La Ceramica a Parigi nel 1878.1 Directorate 6^eneral

L' Italia Ceramica. 161 pp., imp. 8vo. Roma, 1880 J of Statistics
Hbnbt (Jambs). iEneidea, or Critical, Exegetical,i

and iBsthetical Remarks on the ^neis. Vol. ii I The Trustees of the

(continued), pp. from 639 — 859, imp. Svo. Dublin, ( Author

1880 J

jAKSSBys (Dr. E.). Yille de Bruxelles, Annuaire D^ l

mographique et Tableaux Statistiques des Causes de > The Author

D^^s. 64 pp.^ plans, and diagrams, Svo. 1880 .... J

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1880.]

Additione to ths Library.
Donation* — Contd.

657

Dunations.

By whom Pratentod.

The Author

Authors, &o. — Contd.

Nanson (Peofessoe E. J.). Proportional Represen-
tation. Paper read before the Royal Society of
Victoria, July, 1880. 19 pp. Melbourne

Petbbsen (Aleksis). Polyteknisk Laeranstalt og
Nationaldkonomi. 24 pp., Bvo. Ejdbenhayn, 1880

Roth (Hbnbt Lino). A Report on the Sugar
Industry in Queensluid. riii and 118 pp., map, 8to.
Brisbane, 1880

Siemens (Dr. 0. William, F.R.S.). The Dynamo-
Electric Current in its application to Metallurgy, to
Horticulture, and to Locomotion. 26 pp., diagram,
8to. London, 1880

Smith (Col. J. T., R.E., F.R.S.). On the local Value
of a Legal Tender Currency, with Special Reference
to an Improvement of Indian Exchange. Essay 13
(printed for priyate perusal). 2 copies. 47 pp.,
8vo. 1880 ^

Stubgis (F. R., M.D.). On the Affections of the'
Middle Ear durins the early Stages of Syphilis
(Reprinted from t£e Boston Mediad and Surgical
Journal, 3rd June, 1880). 7 pp., 8yo

Societies, Ao. —

Arts, Journal of the Society of. Current numbers,

Bankers, Journal of the Institute of. Vol. i, Nos. 101
and 11, July and August

Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings of the Insti-
tution of. VoL Ix, part 2, and vol. bd, part 3,
1879-80. 544 pp., cloth, map and plates. 8vo. 1880.

East India Association, Journal of the. No. 1, VoL 1
xiii, July, 1880. 8vo ^ '

Labouring Classes, Thirty-sixth Annual Report of~
the Society for Improving the Condition of the,
1879-80. 28 pp. 8vo

Manchester Statistical Society, Papers read before :
The Economic Conditions of GKK)d Trade, by William
Hoyle. 114 pp. 8vo

Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings of the Institution
of. No. 2, April, 1880. Diagrams and plates, 8vo. j'

Royal Asiatic Society —
North China Branch, Journal of the, 1879. New!
series. No. 14. 64 pp., plates, 8vo. Shanghai... J

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1
Journal of the, new series, part 3, vol. xii, July, >
1880. 434pp.,8vo. 1880 J

Royal Q^ographical Society, Proceedings of the.1
VoL ii, Nos. 7, 8, and 9, July August, and Sep- >
tember, 1880. Svo J

Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, Proceedings of 1
the. VoL viii, No. 10 J

R(md Society, Proceedings of the. VoL xxx,\
No. 206. Svo J

Rand United Service Institution, Journal of the.
VoL xxiv. Nob. 106 and 106. 828 pp., maps and
diagrams, Bvo. London. 1880. With a list
Members on active service

The Society
The Institute

The Institution

The Association

The Society

The Institution
The Society

heil
aid I

The Institution

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558

MisceUcmea.
Donationi—CarUd,

[Sept. 1880.

DoDAtiont.

By vbom Presented.

Booieties, Ao. — Contd.

St. Thoma8*8 Hospital, Statistical Reports, 1857-74, and \ H. Percy Potter,

1878. 8vo. London ....J Esq., F.B.C.S.

Social Science, Transactions of the National Associa-I

tion for the Promotion of, at Manchester, in 1879. > The Association.

820 pp., cloth, 8vo. London, 1880 J

Wbstmikbtbb, Free Public Libraries of. Annual 1 rni,- a^ww«tMiv

Report of the Commissioners, 1878-79. 23 pp / ^'^^ oe^wKJ

PeriodicaU —
Athen»um, The. (Monthly parts) .... Current numbers

Bankers' Magazine (London) „

Commercial World, The „

Economist, The „

Insurance Qazette, The „

„ Record, The „

Inyestors' Monthly Manual, The „

Iron and Coal Trades Review „

Machinery Market, The „

Nature »

Reyiew, The »>

Statist, The „

Textile Manufacturer, The „

Uniyersal Engineer, The „

The Editor

Purchased.

Annales d*Hygi^ne Publique. 8* s^rie, Nos. 19 et 20, Juillet et

Aoiit. 8vo. Paris.
Annuaire de I'Eoonomie Politique et de Statistique, par M. Maurioe

Block. 37* Ann^. 12mo. Paris, 1880.
Royal City Parochial Charities Commission. Report and Appendicee

I, II, in. Folio. London, 1880.
Eminent Persons. Biographies of, reprinted from the Times, 1870-79.

8yo. London, 1880.
England and Wales, Judicial Statistics for 1876 and 1878.
India, Statement exhibiting the Moral and Biaterial Progross of,

during 1866-67 [341]. Folio. 1868.
Indian Territories. First Report. Select Committee. 1853 [4261.

FoUo.
Ireland, Judicial Statistics for the years 1864-69, 1876, and 1878.
Land, the History of Law of Tenures of. Finlason. Imp. 8yo.

London, 1880.
Municipality of London Bill [228]. Folio. 1880.
Precis of Official Papers (Session, 1880), Nos. 2 and 3. 8fo. London.
Scotland, Judicial Statistics for 1876.
Wheat Trade Annual Review, The, Mark Lane and Baltic Almjttn^

for 1880. Imp. 8yo. London.

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JOUENAL

OF THB

STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

{gonntJtii 1834.)

Vol. XLIII— Paet IV.
DECEMBER, 1880.

LONDON:
* EDWAED STANFORD, 66, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

1880.

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STATISTICAL SOCIETT.

(EING'S OOIiLEGB ENTBANCS),

STEAWD, W.C., LONDON.

December, 1880.

NOTICES TO FELLOWS.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTIONS are due in advance, on the Ist of
January in each year.

A Form for authorising a Banker or Agent to pay the Subscrip-
tion Annually will be forwarded by the Assistant Secretary, on
application. When convenient, this mode of payment is recom-
mended.

Drafts should be made payable to the order of " The Statistical
Society," and crossed " Lrwmmond and Oo"

Fellows who may desire to receive Special and Separate Notices of
each Paper to be read before the Society, should indicate their
wishes to the Assistant Secretary.

Mkhbibs borrowing books from the Library are requested to be
good enough to return them with as little delay as possible, but
without fail at the expiration of a month.

MiMBBBS changing their Addresses are requested to notify the same
to the Assistant Secretary, so that delay in forwarding communica-
tions, or the Jowmal^ may be avoided.

Bt Obdeb of the Executive Committee.
2

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In Monthly Parts, Price 3«. Subscription 32«. per Annum. Postage Free.

PRECIS

OFFICIAL PAPERS,

BEING

ABSTRACTS OF ALL PARLIAMENTARY RETURNS

Directed to be Printed by both Houses
of Parliament.

SESSIOILT 1880.

LONDON: WT. H. ALLEN AND CO.,
13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.,

^nbtisdtn to ti^t |nbia 9Skt,

ADYERTISEMENTS

IK THB

ENGUSH, INDIAN, COLONIAL, AND
FOREIGN JOUENALS

'Correctly inserted in any language required, and cjopies
of the papers promptly supplied, by the undersigned, who
only require one copy of each Notice or Advertisement with
Instructions.

STREET BROTHERS,

5, Serle Street, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.

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HOWARD MEDAL OF 1881.

The following is the title of the Essay to which the Medal will
be awarded in Norember, 1881. The Bssajs to be sent in on or
before 80th June, 1881.

** On the Jail Fever from the Earliest Black Aisiae to the last
" recorded Ouibreak in Recent Times.'*

The Connoil haye decided to grant the sun of 20/. to the writer
who may gain the ** Howard Medal " in November, 1881.

(^The Medal is of hroMe, hawing on one side a portrait of John
Howardy on the other a wheatsheaf with suHahle inscrijption).

The following ai'e the principal conditions : —

No Essay to exceed in length 150 pages (8yo.) of the Journal of
the StatisticaZ Society,

The President shall place the Medal in the hands of the sue*
cessful Candidate, at the conclusion of his Annual Address, at the
ordinary Meeting in November, when he shall also re-announce the
subject of the Prize Essay for the following year.

Competition for this Medal shall not be limited to the Fellows
of the Statistical Society, but shall be open to any competitor,
providing the Essay be written in the English language.

The Council shall not award the Prize, except to the author of
an Essay, in their opinion, of a sufficient standard of merit; no
Essay shall be deemed to be of sufficient merit that does not set
forth the &cts with which it deals, in part, at least, in the langpuige
of figures and tables ; and distinct references should be made to
such authorities as may be quoted or referred to.

Further particulars or explanations may be obtained from the
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Entrance, Strand, London, W.C.

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CALENDAR FOR SESSION 1880-81.

1880

1881

NOV.

MAY

...

. . .

12/

'13

»3

...

23
30

24
31

DEC.

...

. ..

JUNE

...

»3

.19

...

1881

...

JAN.

...

.. .

. ..

JULY

...

FEB.

...

AUG.

...

MAR.

...

SEP.

...

APR.

OCT.

24
31

The Ordinary Meetings of the Society, at which Papers are read and discussed, are
marked in the Calendar above by Black Figures.

TA^ Chair will be taken at 7*45 /.w., precisely.

Visitors may attend the Ordinary Meetings on the introduction of a Fellow.

THE ANNIVERSARY MEETING

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MONTHLY meetings-Session 1880-81.

HELD ON THE

Thhid Tuesday m the Months op November — June.

(Excepting April,)

Tuesday, Nov. 16.

„ Dec 21.

„ Jan. 18.

Feb. 15.

Tuesday, March 15.
„ April 12.
„ May 17.
„ Judo 21.

The Council have reason to expect that in the course
of the Session the following Papers will, among others,
be communicated to the Society : —

The PREsroENT's Inaugural Address. By James Caird, Esq.,
C.B., F.R.S.

" Note on the Tenth Census of the United States of America.**
By Dr. F. J. Mouat, F.KO.S.

" The Growth of the Human Body." By J. T. Danson, Esq.

" The Methods of Electing Representatives." By Henry R.
Droop, Esq.

" The Influence of Expenditure on Intoxicating Liquors on the
Trade and Commerce of the Country." By Wm. Hoylb, Esq.

"The Question of the Reduction of the Present Postal Tele-
graph Tariff." By R. Price Williams, Esq., C.E.

" The Method of Statistics." By Wynnard Hooper, Esq.

" The Comparative Taxation of the Principal European Countries."
By Robert Giffen, Esq.

" The Relative Mortality of Large and Small Hospitals ; their
advantages and disadvantages considered." By H. C. Bur-
dktt, Esq.

" The History and Statistics of the Irish Incumbered Estates
Court, vdth Suggestions for a Tribunal with similar Juris-
diction in England." By R. Denny Urlin, Esq. (lately
Examiner under " The Landed Estates Act — Ireland ).

" On the Development of the Hill Regions of India." By Hyde
Clarke, Esq.

" A Statistical Chronology of the Plagues and Pestilences of the
World." By C. Walford, Esq., F.S A.

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AS OUTLINE OP THB OBJECTS OF

THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

Thb Statistical Society of London was founded, in pnrsnance of a
recommendation of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, on the 15th of March, 1834 ; its object being, the careful
collection, arrangement, discussion and publication, of facts bear-
ing on and illustrating the complex relations of modem society
in its social, economical, and political aspects,— especiallj facts
which can be stated numericallj and arranged in tables ; — and also
to form a Statistical Library as rapidly as its funds would permit.

The Society from its inception has steadily progressed. It
now possesses a valuable Library and a Beading Boom ; ordinary
meetings are held monthly from November to June, which are weU
attended, and cultivate among its Fellows an active spirit of inves-
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library of reference.

The Society has originated and statistically conducted many
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the results have been published in the Journal, or issued separately ;
the latest instance being the institution of iiie " Howard Medal "
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Reprinted from the Joitmal of the StcUtstical Society for 1861, Price If.,
with a Preface and Notes.

STATISTICS

OT THE

FARM SCHOOL SYSTEM

OV THE

CONTINENT,

AND OF ITS APPLICABILITT TO THE

PREENTIYE AND REFORMATORY EDDCATION

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The following is a List of some of the Odd Volumes, Numbers,
or Parts, Ac, wanting to complete Sets :

Donations of any portion thereof will be acceptable, and will be (Acknowledged
by the Society, [Dates and Numbers in all cases are inolusiTe.]

Association of the Chakbers of Commebgb of the United

KiNODOM, Annual Reports of. 2, 3, and 6. (1862-63, and

1866.)
Athen-«um. The first seven volumes. 1827-34.
Bankers* Magazine. New York. Series 3, Vol. ii. No. 7 (1868) ;

Vol. V, No. 2 (1870) ; Vol. vii, Nos. 6 and 7 (1872), and VoL viii.

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Census of Berab. 1872.
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Central Chamber of Agriculture, Annual Reports, Nos. 1 and 2,

for (1866-67).
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EN France pendant les Annees 1862, 1872, et 1873.
Economist. The first three volumes. 1843-45.
EcoNOMiSTE FRAN9AIS, Ann^e 6, Nos. 51 and 52, and Analytical Table

of Contents of Vol. ii (1878); Ann6e 7, Vol. i, and Nos. 1—50

of Vol. ii (1879); Ann6e 8, the Analytical Table of Contents to

Vol. i (1880).
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. (New York.) Vols, i to xii, and

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Inyestors' Monthly Manual. First three volumes. 1871-73.
Labourer's Friend. Nos. 230 (1869) and 231 (1870).
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, Proceedings of.

Nos. 1—5, 1844-45 to 1848-49.
Manchester Statistical Society. Transactions for 1854-55.
RmsTA Europea, Rivista Internazionale. New series. Vols, i

to iii, and Fasc. 1 of Vol. iv (1877).
Royal Society, London. Indexes to the Philosophical Transac-
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Royal Society, London. Catalogue of Scientific Papers. Vols.

i to viii. 4to.
Royal Socieit of Edinburgh, Proceedings of. Vols, i and iL
Royal Society of VicrroRu, Transactions of. Vol. v.
Royal Asutic Society, Journal. Vol. xiv (1853-54).
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(First year.)
SuKTEBS Society. Vols, i to xxv, xxvii to xxxii, and xxxiv.
Tableaux G^n^raux du Commerce db la France, <fcc., pendant les

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6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-
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9. INDIA, — Catalogue of Maps of the British Possessions in Lidia and
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10. EDUCATIONAL.—Select List of Educational Works published by
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XL EDUCATIONAL WORKS and STATIONERY.— Stanford's

Catalogue of School Stationery, Educational Works, Atlases, Maps, and Globes,
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12. SCHOOL PRIZE BOOKS.— List of Works specially adapted for
School Prizes, Awards, and Presentations.

14. BOOKS and MAPS for TOURISTS. — Siakford's Tourist's
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the Admiralty Charts, Her MajesUfs Stationery Office and

India Office Publications^ etc.

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JOURNAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY.

COST OF A COMPLETE SET (if not out of frint>
1838-80. (43 Vols., unbound.)

£ s. d.

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VoL XLII. (1879.)

VoL XLIII. (1880.)

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Copies of any number of the Jou/mal (if not out of print), can
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Members only, can obtain sets or single copies of any number
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Strand, W.O., London.

By a resolution of the Council, dated 12th May, 1854, the price
of back numbers of the Journal of the Society, charged to Members,
was raised from one-half to three-fifths of the publishing price.

NOTB. — One or two numbers of the Journal are now out of print.
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JORNELIUS WALFORD, F.I.A., F.S.S.,

BBnro
L DIOTIONAET OP THE DEFINITION OP TEBMS USED IN CONNEXION
WITH THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OP INSURANCE IN ALL ITS
BRANCHES: A BIOGRAPHICAL SUMMARY OP THE LIVES OP ALL
THOSE WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND
IMPROVEMENT OP THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OP INSURANCE,
WHETHER AS AUTHOR, MANAGER, ACTUARY, SECRETARY, AOENCY
SUPERINTENDENT, OR OTHERWISE: A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REPER-
TORY OP ALL WORKS WRITTEN UPON THE SUBJECT OP INSURANCE
AND ITS ASSOCIATED SCIENCES: AN HISTORICAL TREASURY OP
EVENTS AND CIRCUMSTANCES CONNECTED WITH THE ORIGIN AND
PROGRESS OP INSURANCE, INCLUDING A HISTORY OP ALL KNOWN
OFFICES OP INSURANCE FOUNDED IN GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE
BEGINNING.

AlTD AlflO OONTAIKnre

A Detailed Account of tbe Ilise and Progress of Insurance
in Enrope and in America.

Continued in PartSy which appear about every Six Weeks^ price 2«. BcL
Four Vols., cloth, 2l8. each.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

We think we may safely saj that it suxpassee all autioipations which have been formed
ae to ite yalue. The plan of the work is perfect.— jMMroiuw Record,

We think we can safely predict for it the position of a standard work.— Jimiraiice
Ageni.

Eveiy matter more 9r less closely connected with Insurance is dealt with clearly and
fnlly.— 0«y JV»»#.

The work is as thorough as though on each separate article, as on a separate Yolmne,
the author were content to rest his reputation for accuracy of information and knowledge
of details. — Intmrance Circular,

We haTC reriewed in detail this extended work, which is really one of a national
character, dealing as it does with so many phases of our social life, in the belief that the
knowledge of its contents will be appreciated by many outside insurance drolee. — Timet,
2nd January, 1878.

LONDON:
CHABLES AND EDWIK LAYTOK, 150, FLEET STBEET.

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LIST OP THE FORMER

OF THB

STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

From iti Foundation, on 15tft March, 1834.

patron.

1840-61 — ^Hi8 BoTAL Highness The Prince Ck>NSORT, K.G.

1834-86
1886-88
1838-40
1840-42

1842-43
1843-45

1845-47
1847-49
1849-51
1851-53
1853-55
1855^7
1857-59

1859-61

1861-63

1863-65
1865-67
1867-69
1869-71
1871-73
1873-75
1875-77
1877-79
1879-80 I
14

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, F.ILS.

Sir Charles LemoD, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., LL.D.

The Right Hon. the Earl Pitzwilliam, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Viscount Sandon, MP.
(now Earl of Harrowby.)

The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne, K.O., F JLS.

The Right Hon. the Fiscount Ashley, M.P.
(now Earl of Shaftesbury.)

The Right Hon. the Lord Monteagle.

- The Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwiliiwn, F.RJ&.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrowby.

The Right Hon. the Lord Overstone.

The Right Hon. the Earl Pitzwilliam, K.G., P.R,S.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Stanley, M.P.
(now Earl of Derby.)

The Right Hon. the Lord John Russell, MP., F.R.S.
(afterwards Earl RusseU.)

The Right Hon. Sir J. S. Pakington, Bart, MP., G.C.B.
(afterwards Lord Hampton.)

Colonel W. H. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Lord Houghton.

The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., D.C.L.

W. Newmarch, Esq., F.R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst, of France.

William Farr, Esq., MB., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

William A. Guy, Esq., M.B., F.R.S.

James Heywood, Esq., MA., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The Right Hon. George Shaw Lefevre, M.P.

Thomas Brassey, Esq., M.P.

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The Conncil of the Statistical Society wish it to be nnderBtood,
that, while they consider it their daty to adopt eyeiy means within
their power to test the &cts inserted in this JowmaLy they do not
hold themselves responsible for their accuracy, which must rest
upon the authority of the several Contributors.

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VoL XLm.] [Part IV.

JOUENAL OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY,

DECEMBER, 1880.

The Inaugural Address of Jambs Catrd, Esq., C.B., P.R.S.,
President of ike Statistical Society, delivered on Tuesday,
the lUh of November, 1880.

It is my datj, first of all, to express my warm appreciation of
the distinction conferred on me by this Society, in electing me
their President. When I look at the list of distinguished men
who have occupied this chair, I feel deeply the responsibility that
is laid upon me, to see that no effort of mine shall be wanting to
carry forward the useful work of the Statistical Society. With the
aid of the Vice-Presidents, Council, and Secretaries, and the distin-
guished Editor of the Jotimal, I trust that this object will not fail
to be accomplished.

Tour late President in his kind reference to my appointment
spoke of it in connection with the questions affecting land, with
which the GoTemment and parliament would be called upon to
deal. And as these questions are of specially pressing importance
at the present time, I will venture to make them the subject of my
inaugural address.

Mr. Brassey last year at this time, read a very interesting and
instructiye paper on Agriculture in England and the United States,
and Mr. Shaw Lefevre, our previous President, delivered a most
able address two months earlier at Sheffield, on the State of British
Agriculture, and the causes of ita depression. Since that time
there have been published the report of practical farmers deputed
from this country to visit America, also the careful letters of
the correspondent of the "Times,'' and, finally, the able and
instructive official report to the Royal Commission on agriculture,
of Mr. Clare S. B>ead, and Mr. Pell, M.P., on the Agriculture of
the United States and Canada. We have thus had presented for
our consideration a carefully collected mass of facts and deduc-
tions, affecting the future prosperity and welfare of the most
important single industry in this coxmtry, the land. Much con-
sideration of these, coupled with a personal knowledge of both
countries, and sources of private information in the United States,
have led me to a conclusion different from that of the assistant

VOL. XLIII. PART IV. 2 P

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560 The Pbe8IDENT*s Iruiugurcd Address, [Dec

commissioners. Tbej give figures to show that wheat caimot be
grown in America in an average of years, and delivered in this
eonntrj, much below 48^. a quarter. Some snpport to this viemr
maj perhaps be claimed from the recent rise of price. But that is
altogether due to the famine in certain parts of Russia, whence, and
from Germany, the supply of wheat to this country has dwindled
to one-twentieth of what it was at this time two years ago,
whilst, for the same reason, a considerable portion of the American
shipments, which would have come to us, have gone on to Northern
Europe. The actual prices of the last ten years, and the imports of
wheat from the United States and Canada in the same period, show
that price has very little control over the quantity sent forward. In
five of these years the average price was 4$^. 8d., and in the other
five, $6s. lid. The average annual importation at the lower price
was 32 million cwt., and at the higher price 23 million cwt. The
year of lowest price, 43a. iid., was that of largest importation.
A fall of lis. a quarter, or one-fourth of the value, had no effect
whatever in diminishing the volume. There is indeed an obvions
error in making the average yield of wheat "over a long series
** of years " in the United States the basis upon which to calculate
the future value of the crop, or the cost of production. The
great prairies of the west are only beginning to be tapped, a
region immensely superior in natural fertility to the older cul-
tivated lands of the east, where a yield of 12 bushels an acre has
proved the average. The figures quoted by the Commissioners
show an average of more than double that quantity in Manitoba.
And in potatoes, while the yield of the Eastern States is stated at
80 bushels an acre, that of the prairie region is 3cx> to 400. It is
not so much a question of price as of yield. The cost of production
is found to be within is. a bushel. All that the western farmer,
who owns his land, produces beyond what he consumes, and any
wages he may pay, is gain to him. This gain will be increased
by every additional bushel each acre produces, and by every in-
creased facility, and consequent reduction in the cost of transport.
The rapidity with which this takes place in America may be gauged
by the number of tons carried from west to east over the leading
railroads in 1868 and 1879, 3 1 million tons in 1868, and 72 million
in 1879. This is an increase in twelve years of more than, double
in quantity, and it was accompanied by a reduction in the cost
of transport of one-half. It is computed that the saving to
the public in the whole of the United States by the reduction
made in railroad freights, during the six years between 1873 and
1879, is equal to 90 millions sterling. " This," in the words of
an American writer, " is the result of intelligence, skill, and
'* ingenuity, left free to work out the best possible results^ un-

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1880.] The President's Inaugural Address, 561

" hampered by other legislation than that of their own officers."
A halfpenny a ton per mile is now the average railroad charge, and
this will be farther reduced by the competition of water carriage,
for that countiy has every water advantage which natore- can
bestow, in its magnificent rivers and lakes. By the latter and canals
wheat can be carried from Chicago to New York at half this rate,
and by barges on the Mississippi from St. Lonis to the seaboard, an
equal distance, the same work is now being done for one-fifth of it.
In the month of August last nearly 2CX>,ooo quarters of grain, about
one- tenth of our total monthly supply, was so sent on these terms
for shipment at New Orleans^ where an immense and rapidly grow-
ing increase of business has arisen, through the deepening of the
channel of the mouth of the Mississippi. This is a line of ezport>
only beginning ; it draws ite supplies from an earlier region than
the north-west, much of which is shipped in steamers, and delivered
in Europe before the harvest of Iowa or Minnesota has begun. But
these great navigable rivers, the Mississippi and Missouri, draining
a basin nearly as large as Europe, excluding Russia, must ever
exercise a restraining influence on the cost of railway transport in
America. Ocean freight also^ instead of being increased by larger
traffic, will be more likely to be lowered when cargoes are found
for both outward and inward voyages. And steel ships are now
being built for this trade, of 5^000 to 6^000 tons, which, with little
increase of working expense, will be able profitably to carry cargo
at still lower rates of freight.

There is thus no probability of prices being enhanced by an '
increased cost of transports And when we turn to the area of
production, and the quality of the soil with which European
agriculture is now brought into competition, we can hardly fail to
see the extraordinary advantage possessed by the New World.

A line drawn from Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Missis- /
sippi, would embrace an ares, eas1> of that river, as large as Europe,
as varied in climate and production, and in mineral wealth. From
the Mississippi westward to the Pacific, is a region nearly twice that
extent, one-half of which is believed to be capable of being made
arable, and the other half is to a large extent fit for grazing cattle.
The climate admits of the most varied kinds of produce, cotton,
sugar, and tobacco in the south ; Indian com, wheat, and potatoes in
the north and west. Already one- half of all the cotton used in the
world is produced here, and there is hardly any limit to its possible
extension. The production of the various kinds of com in the
United States alone is now six times that of the United Kingdom.
Their increas^of acreage under wheat, between last year and this,
is more than all the breadth we grow. Including the vast plains
in western Canada, between the Bed Biver and the Rockv Mountains

2p2

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562 TJ^ Presidiht's Inaugwral Address, [Dec

soath of 55** north latitude, proposed to be traversed by the Canada
Pacific Railway, not one-tenth of the land believed to be arable has
yet borne a crop. The vigorons surplus population of all Europe^
for many generations, will thus find room in these western prairies.

The quality of the soil is its next grand feature. '* In the Gh-eal^
" North West," say the Boyal Commissioners, "the country so
" recently opened to the over populated countries of the Old World,
" there is no forest to subdue, or scrub to uproot. The whole is
*' one vast plain, more or lees fertile, which can be converted into a
'' grain field by the simple operation of two shallow ploughings. The
" soil around Portage la Prairie is a rich black loam, light of tillage,
** yet sufficiently retentive to withstand severe drought. In many
" places there appeared no variation to the depth of 3 feet In some
'^ spots the land is swampy and low, but a few main dykes would
" dry many hundred acres, and with a soil so friable no drainage
'* for surface water could possibly be required. This vast region
" is called by some the future wheat gpranary of the New World.
" Much has been said against the long and severe winter ; but
" it id a crisp dry cold that is not unpleasant, and with the first
" sharp frost and &11 of snow the roads that were before impassable
*' become excellent highways for the cartage of timber and grain.
" To the young, the vigorous, and the courageous, who cannot get
" a comfortable living in England, it offers a home that will soon
'* provide all the necessaries of life, and in a few years of steady
" and well directed toil will probably ensure a competency, and
'* possibly a moderate fortune."

A recent American writer describes the soil of the great basin
of the Mississippi to be of the same nature as that of the most
fertile plains of Asia and Europe, and this receives some confirma-
tion from an analysis of four prairie soils, brought by me twenty years
ago from Illinois, and then examined by Professor Voelcker. He
found them very rich in nitrogenised organic matter, more so than
any soils of which he had record, a peculiarity which, with their
beautiful state of division, distinguished these soils so favourably.
This fertile ground, friable and free from boulders, loose stones, or
stumps of trees, nearly level, and thus offering great fSacility for
railway construction, is also most favourable for machine cultiva-
tion. No manual labour except to direct the machinery need be
employed from the time the seed is sown till the grain is placed in
the railway or on shipboard. And, marvellous thongh the richness
of the soil of this vast central region is, that is not the only gift of
nature it possesses, for much of it is underlaid by deposits of coal
and iron, far exceeding in extent the great mineral fields of the
eastern States.

Such is the magnificent country now brought within compa-

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1880.]

Tlie President's Inmigural Address,

563

ratiyel J easy reach of the more populous States of Europe, affording
not only an outlet for those of their people who desire to emigrate,
but bringing, hj the aid of railway and steamship, the working man
of the old countries into close contact with the abundance of the
new. A barrel of flour and a barrel of pork or beef, 5CX> lbs. in
weight, a year's very full supply for a working man, can now be
transported from Chicago to Liverpool at a cost of little more than
two days' wages for an artisan, or four days' of a labourer. The
mechanic of Lancashire can thus, by the expenditure of a few days'
pay, place himself and his £eimily on an equality in regard to his
food supply with the mechanic of Illiuois or Wisconsin. To the
consumers this is an enormous benefit, but to the producers of food
in this country, and Europe generally, a fact of momentous import,
with which they must prepare to reckon. Upon this contest agri-
cultural Europe enters heavily weighted wdth large standing armies,
heavy taxation, differences of language and laws, impeding that
freedom of communication and facility of movement which is pos-
sessed by a competitor who is free from all such embarrassment.

Let us first try to get a clear conception of the products in which
that competition is most likely to be successful. Articles of easy
and simple cultivation, which can best bear rough handling and long
carriage, which can be grown on a^ grand scale, and be cheaply
cultivated and manipulated by machinery, such as wheat and Indian
com, may be expected to be the earliest exports. The following
figures of imports to this country are instructive : —

Quantities and Value of certain ArticUs of Food Imported in 1870 and 1879.

1870.

1879.

Valve
per Heiid.

Namber
or Weight.

Total Value.

Va,ue
per Head.

Number
or Weight.

TotHl Value.

Bacon and hams ....
Beef

£ #.
I8 -

- 34
Per cwt.
«. d.
6a a
4* 9
56 -
105 -
55 6
Wheat
per Cwt.
10 6

1 872,000
Cwt.

667,000
216,000

115,000

1,159,000
1,041,000

74,103,000

4,a98,ooo

1,769,000
461,000

327,900

6,800,000
3,083,000

34,170,000

£ ». d.
fai 16 -
1-47 8

Per cwt.
#. d,

34 4
47 8

58 -
loi 6
42 6

10 6

\ 1,192,000
Cwt

4,917,000
812,000

721,000

2,045,000
1,789,000

136,743,000

6,89a,oco

8,880,000
1,937,000

a, 1 30,000

10,380,000

Meat, freeh, salted,!
and pre»erved.... J
Butter

Cheese

3,8a4,ooo
61,261,000

Corn of all kinds ....

The article which has increased the most is corn, an increase, in
weight, nearly nine times that of all the increase in cattle and pro-

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564 T/ie President's Inaugural Address, [Dec.

risions. In wheat alone the qnantit j has doubled in ten years, being'
in a ratio three 'tiraes greater than is required hy the increase of our
population, and nine- tenths of that increaBe is £rom America. The
price at the end of the period was the same as at the beginning. Next
to com is bacon -and hams, the product of Indian com, in whicli
form the prodigious American crop of 1,500 million bushels is to
a large extent exported to Europe. The increase of pork in its
various kinds was in ten years ninefold, notwithstanding a gradual
fall in price from 628, 2d. per owt. to 348. 4(/. It is in these two
kinds of com, wheat and maize, the crop of which in the United
* States alone yielded 2,000 million bushels in 1879, that we must
look for the earliest and most lasting competition. Had it not been
for the succession of bad harvests here the price of imported wheat
would have fallen, probably somewhat in proportion with that of
the meat produced by feeding pigs on Indian com. The decline in
the home production of wheat and pigs is in fair proportion to the
abundance in which these have been poured in upon us, and which,
for that reason, have become least remunerative.

But notwithstanding a considerable rise of price in live animals
and in meat, and the maintenance of a good average value in dairy
produce, the imports of these have not increased in anything like
the same scale of magnitude. These are the products in which there
is most risk of damage by long transport, and upon the preparation
of which most skill and labour must be bestowed. Large though
the foreign importations of these -appear to be, their total amount
hardly yet affords two ounces per head per day to the population of
the United Kingdom.

Wheat and Indian com are the crops of easiest cultivation and
readiest transport upon the.prairies of the West. The agriculturists
of the eastern States of America see this, and have yielded to an
inevitable fate, which threatened ruin, but has resulted in gain.
Driven by the moi'e cheaply produced crops of the West from the
growth of wheat, they have -turned their whole efforts to the pro>
duction of vegetables, hay, fruit, poultry, and the dairy. The chief
impulse to this change was given by the reduction in the cost of
transport from the West, made ^between 1865 and 1875, in which
last year the value of the new agricultural products of the small
State of Massachusetts was nearly 8 million dollars greater than in
the first. Though the change has been beneficial on the whole, there
are nevertheless many deserted farms in the State ; there has been
in many places a decrease in the rural population, and much land
formerly cultivated would "not now bring the cost of the stone
'* walls with which it is enclosed." This has happened in the more
sterile parts of the country, and those most remote from railways.

Since 1875 the cost of transport has been still further reduced.

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1 880.] The President's IrMttgural Address 565

so mnch further as to bring our English counties under the same
influence of Western agriculture as was Massachusetts in that
year.*

We are brought face to face with the same difficulty now which '
they encountered then, and if we meet it in the same way we may
hope for an equal success. And we must not overlook the im-
mense gain to the consumers in this country by a permanently
lower range of the price of com. The cost of moving com from
the prairies to this country has been reduced by fully ^d. a bushel,
which on the consumption of com of all kinds in the United
Kingdom is a gain to us of lo millions sterling, much of which
will be spent on other articles of food which will be produced
at home. The great com fields of America will prove an advan-
tc^e to us nearly as great as to our brethren on the other side of
the Atlantic, if we accept from them what they can produce more
cheaply, and devote our attention more exclusively to products vnth
which they cannot so easily compete. This is no new doctrine of
mine. Thirty years ago I pointed out, in my letters to the " Times,"
the gradual change which free trade would bring about in the food
of the people of this country, and that as they grew in better circum-
stances, their expenditure on articles the produce of grass and green
crops, butcher's meat, butter, cheese, aud milk, would become many
times greater than that in bread, while the foreign supply of the
latter would increase in the most rapid degree. Again in 1859 I
enforced this view when, after a visit to the United States and the
western prairies, I for the first time obtained an impression of the
magnitude and fertility of the vast central plains drained by the
Mississippi and Missouri, the development of which was thrown
back ten years by the revolt of the Southern States. In 1868, in
a paper read by me to this Society, I pointed out our growing depen-
dence on America for wheat, and her vast power of expanding the
supply. In the second year after the close of the war, 1867, the
imports of American wheat and flour were 5 million cwts. ; in 1879
they were upwards of 44 millions, an increase in fourteen years
more than eightfold. During the same period our own agriculture,
partly fi-om the pressure of this gprovnng competition and partly
from unfavourable seasons, shows a decline of more than 20 per
cent, in wheat, and 10 per cent, in oats, while green crops and grass
have increased in nearly like proportion.

Our system of agriculture is thus already beginning to accom-
modate itself to the change which American competition will
certainly render necessary. In the northern and western parts

* A few days ago the " Times " gave a description of recent railway shipping
appliances in New York, which alone would make a fresh saving of i^. a husbel
on the cost of transport.

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566 The President's Inaugwral Address. [Dec.

of the cotmti7 where live stock predominates over com, and where
the labonr bill is comparativelj moderate, the effects of this com-
petition are little felt, and the suffering that has arisen of late ye^xs
has been more the result of nngenial seasons, and grazings nnthrif tj
for the herds and flocks. In the com districts the loss has been
greater, because not only were the crops inferior but the prices
were low, whilst the labour was very costly. In the least fertile
tracts of poor clay, where every operation is expensive, and the land
is unkindly for grass, it must either go out of cultivation, or be
turned to some other purpose than that of growing food. It is
hopeless to expect that such soils can maintain their old position.
Indeed, nothing but the greatest prudence and freedom of action
will carry our landowners and farmers, on even the better class of
com lands, through the earlier years of the competition on which
they are entered.

How is this freedom of action to be attained P What now^
hinders it ? Entails, settlements, and mortgage, costs of transfer,
and uncertainty of title. The early principle of entail was that
the fee of the estate should be incapable of being mortgaged, so
that each succeeding owner should enter upon it without incum-
brance. This kept the estate solvent; but it soon became necessary
to depart from this principle in order to make provision for the
widow and younger children. This has been further extended by
the need to find money for permanent improvements, such as roads,
buildings, and drainage. Every new charge complicates the title,
whilst at the same time diminishing the free income. When cost of
management, repairs, and renewals of buildings, rates and taxes,
family provision and interest of debt are deducted, the gross income,
thus reduced by one-half to two-thirds, has to bear the entire weight
of any reduction of rent rendered necessary by a permanent drop in
prices. A man with 5,000/. a-year of gross rental, has probably
not so much as half of it to spend, and if his rental is diminished
by 10 or 20 per cent., the whole of this loss falls upon the narrow
margin left to him. The fixed charges, including the interest of
debt, are not affected.

The intolerable burden thus cast upon the life tenant has been
attempted to be lessened and shifted by many legal devices. The
most ingenious one was that devised by Sir Robert Peel on the
repeal of the com laws. By his advice the legislature agreed to
advance to landowners, for permanent improvements, certain large
sums which were to be redeemed in twenty-two years by half-yearly
payments, which should at the close of the term have repaid the
loan. The condition upon which the loan was in each case granted
was that the lender was to be satisfied that the improvement
contemplated would more than repay the half-yearly instalments.

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1880.] The Pkesidbnt's Inaugural Address, 567

This principle has been carried on by the Land Improvement Com-
panies, and mnch good by it has been effected. It was greatly
aided by the general advance of prices up to 1875, through which a
gradual and not inconsiderable rise of rent was obtained. But a
succession of bad seasons and diminishing prices, with farms thrown
on the hands of their owners, many of whom had not the means of
raising capital to carry them on, and the general agricultural
collapse which led to the appointment of a Royal Commission of
inquiry, produced soon afterwards the Land Bills of Lord Cairns,
which^ in consequence of the change of Government, have been held
in abeyance.

These important measures have been prepared with great care
and consideration, with all that knowledge of the law and lucidity
of arrangement which their distinguished author commands, and
with full recognition of the necessity which has arisen for giving as
much freedom to deal with the land of this country as is compatible
with the principle of entail and settlement. And if that principle is
to be maintained these Bills give probably as much facility to land-
owners as the system admits. But the whole evil will not then be
removed. That evil is " limited ownership." The transfer of land
is hampered on every side by the devices required to maintain
collateral rights, and for this object the land of this country is
loaded with what Lord St. Leonards described as the ** complication
" of our law of real property." The transfer of land cannot be
made as easy as that of America until this is removed. And it is
with American land that we are now brought into such direct
competition, that I believe it will be found impossible, in the interest
of any one, to maintain for any length of time the complication of
settled landed property.

The tenant farmer is the first direct sufferer from this competi-
tion, but that will very speedily fall on the landowner, whose rent
begins when, but not until, all the costs of production are paid. It
is therefore most of all the interest of the tenant for life, the
limited owner, that his land should be freed from all that hinders
him from dealing with it in the most advantageous manner.

UnderLord Caims's Bills the limited owner would have power
to sell Q^ in order to pay off debt, or (2) to raise money for
improvements. The money must then pass to trustees for these
purposes, and from them into the hands of the lawyers, and
possibly the court. There need not be very heavy costs in using
the money simply for the purpose of paying off debt. But neither
landowners, nor trustees, can proceed to invest the money in land
improvements, until they have received the sanction of the land
commissioners. Every step beyond the order to sell must thus be
taken, not by the man who has a direct interest in the economy

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568 The Presidbnt*8 Inaugural Address, [Dec.

and sncoess of the operation, but by persons who have no such
interest.

Writing thirty years ago on this subject, I said, " Much of the
'* land of this country, more than two-thirds of the kingdom, is in
'* the possession of tenants for life, so heavily borthened with
** settlement encumbrances that they have not the means of im-
** proving the land which they are obliged to hold. A neglected
" property in this country, the nominal owner of which is incapable
''from his embarrassments to improve it, will not be looked at by
''tenants of capital; and tenants of limited means on such a
"property must be overborne in unrestricted competition with
" farmers of capital, cultivating land where every convenience and
"accommodation which an unencumbered landlord finds it his
" interest to give has been supplied." The competition has now
become infinitely more serious, while the encumbrances have not
diminished. The ooantry has to carry a national debt of near
800 millions, and as it would be a moderate estimate to take the
mortgage debt on landed property at one-third of its value, the
landowners have to bear a special burden in the annual interest
accruing upon several hundred millions besides, in addition to their
full share of the public debt.

Though the Three per Cents are at par, and the general rate of
interest for some years has been so low as to show a rapid accumu.
lation of capital, no reduction of interest on loans for landed property
has been effected. The mortgaged landowner is so completely-
shackled that he can make no stand against this, and the transaction
between him and the capitalist is so environed by questions of title
and collateral interests, requiring legal investigation, that they
cannot directly approach each other. Over a considerable extent
of England at this time there is as much need of a Landed
Estates Court, as there was in Ireland in 1849; many large
properties would no doubt be broken up by it, but the parlia-
mentary title which could then be given would render future
dealings with the land easy and inexpensive, and would after a
time lead to an enhancement of its value.

This has now become a pressing question for " limited owners,*'
much more in their own interests than those of any other body of
the community. In regard to the welfare of the public, the fact
that this country can now depend on foreign lands for a con-
stantly increasing proportion of its food has vastly diminished
the national inconvenience occasioned by entail and settlement.
That which would be best for all would be entire freedom to the
voluntary action under which wise self-interest would fit all
efforts to their best results. Simplicity of title is the first step to
facility of transfer. There would be abundance of land for sale if

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1880.] The Pbesidbnt's Inaugural Address. 569

the restrictions that impede its transfer were removed. Whether
that is to be done by an encambered estates oonrt and a parlia-
mentary title, or by compulsory registration of title, with a
short and de6nite limitation of challenge, is a question for our
most capable law reformers. But when the transfer of land in
this country shall be made nearly as cheap and easy as the transfer
of stock in the money market, a new spirit will be introduced
which would elicit individual ingenuity and enterprise, give addi-
tional value to the land itself, and rapidly stimulate improvement.

I do not feel it necessary to refer to the special circumstances of
Ireland at this critical juncture, or to the further measures thai may
be required there in regard to the tenure of land. A very compe-
tent commission is engaged in sifting the whole subject of the rela-
tions between landlord and tenant in that country, the result of
which will doubtless enable the legislature to deal with it in a spirit
of mutual justice and conciliation. Those of us who can remember
the condition of Ireland in the terrible years of the potato fiamine
between 1846 and 1850, will note a remarkable distinction between
that period and this. In the counties where the famine was worst,
I found, in 1849, that even the finest quality of land was deserted
in many cases by the tenants, owing to the pressure of rates. The
difficulty then was to retain the old tenants on the land; their
anxiety now is to keep possession of it. Apart from the obvious
motive which they have been encouraged to entertain of becoming
the owners of their farms on easy terms, the returns of the Irish
farmers during the last ten years have been much more fiftvonrable
than those of the sister countries. They have rapidly diminished
their dependence* on wheat, the acreage of which has decreased
more than one-third. They have been placing their reliance more
on the rearing of cattle and the produce of the dairy, for both of
which the prices have been good. The small farms, requiring little
expenditure of hired labour, have enabled them to escape the
growing labour bills of the larger farms of this country. For
similar reasons the west of England and most parts of Scotland
have not suffered with anything like the severity of the more purely
com districts of England, whose dependence is chiefly on wheat,
and where the system of large farms is necessarily accompanied by
increasing labour bills. In seven out of ten years the seasons have
been wet and chilly, and this has pressed with special severity on
the crops which thrive best with abundance of heat and sunlight.
South of the H umber, and east of Derbyshire to Dorset, the loss of
tenants' capital from this cause, over so lengthened a period, is
unprecedented in our time. It has been borne in comparative
silence, for men when they find their means shrinking away are not
prone to speak of it. But there are few parishes in all that region

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570 The President's Inaugural Address. [Dec.

of coantrj from the Humber to the Solent in which farms have not
been snrrendered to their owners, and some in which farms are
absolutely tenantless. The local bankers, for their own protection,
have been compelled to withhold credit, and tenants with dimin-
ished capital and restricted credit have found it necessary to retire
from large holdings, and either take smaller farms or quit the
business. A local journal in one of the southern counties, in Sep-
tember last, contained over one hundred advertisements of auction
sales of farming stock, within its own district, embracing 55,ocx^ acres
of land given up by the tenants, some of which had been relet
at a great reduction of rent, but most remained on the owners'
hands. In every county one meets with instances of consider-
able estates with six or eight farms thrown on the landlord's hands,
and certain localities can be named where, within a mile or two of
thriving towns, there are hundreds of acres of clay land entirely
deserted, and on which there has not been a furrow turned for two
years. It is in such circumstances no longer a question of reduc-
tion of rent, or of outlay on improvements. The tenants have left the
neighbourhood, employment of labour has ceased, and the landlords
and their agents, even if they had the means, can have little hope
of gaining a pro6t where a hard-working farmer has failed. The
entire area of com in Ireland is not more than half of that of the
eleven principal com counties of England upon which this heavy
loss has fallen, and if measured in money, the loss of capital in
Ireland occasioned by the seasons would bear no comparison with
that in England.

Circumstances have thus forced upon us changes which can no
longer be postponed. These, by legislative measures which will
tend to break up embarrassed estates, will gradually place the
land in the possession of owners who can act upon it with freedom.
There will then be a large increase of landowners cultivating their
own land, and especially will this be so if the same facilities for
purchasing it as have been offered in Ireland are, in justice to them,
also offered to the farmers of England and Scotland.

We shall find landowners selling a portion of their property, in
order to become themselves the cultivators of the rest with the
capital thus acquired, and the smaller landowners, to whom they
sell, vieing with them in the improvement of their new farms,
neither being hampered with the restrictions on cultivation generally
imposed between landlord and tenant. Boom too will be found for
peasant proprietors, where the agricultural labourer may in finvour-
able localities get a foothold on the land of his own country. I
should have little fear of a prosperous result to well applied industry
on this principle, if due care is taken that no Government loans for
such an object be granted except where the climate is favourable,

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1880.] The President's Inaugural Address, 571

and the land of good natural quality. On such holdings there is
ample room for good husiness in eggs and poultry, early and late
vegetables and fruits, and milk and butter, upon all of which the
profit will be in proportion to the skill and labour employed in
their production. The system would not only give free play to ,
skilled labour, bat wonld also elicit the action of the higher qualities j
with which man is endowed, and which are too apt to lie dormant
when he works under a mechanical routine.

There are some things for which we do not require legislative
help. And in one point of much importance 1 am glad to observe
that the Railway Commission are watching the freight charges
upon railways to see that the farming interests in this country are
not unfairly dealt with. During the last ten years the competition
in America has reduced the freight charges by one-half, without
detriment to the shareholders, and with enormous advantage to
the public. A similar reduction here might be found equally
successful.

In reviewing the statements in this paper, it must be obvious
that a great change is being effected in the agricultural condition
of this country and its people. The narrow boands of these islands
are being rapidly enlarged. By the aid of the improvements made
in the adaptation of steam and steel to locomotion, the Atlantic,
and the great lakes and rivers, and fertile plains of America, are
becoming at once the cheapest lines of transport for the teeming
riches of the West, and also the fittest links for connecting the
mutaal interests of the English speaking race. Of all Western
peoples ours is already the most numerous ; and when we contem-
plate the further spread of the English language over North
America and Australia, and the habits of order, instincts of self-
government, and love of liberty which are the inborn characteristics
of the Anglo-Saxon race, and the voluntary action with which this
beneficent conquest of nature is being conducted, we may well feel
confidence in the future. Holding by natural position, and firm
adherence to free trade, the post of intermediary between the Old
World and the New, we shall be the first to reap the benefits of the
rapidly extending commerce which this fuller development of so
much of the earth's resources is bringing to our shores.

Twelve years ago, in addressing this Society, I described the
contents of a little blue book which I held in my hand, the first
number of the Agricultural Returns. Under Mr. Giffen's care, that
annual book has doubled in size. The prefatory remarks, introduced
by Mr. Valpy, have been continued and extended, many compara-
tive tables have been introduced, and much new matter has been
added. It has thus become not only a useful guide to the legislator
as well as the landowner and farmer, but to the importer and

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572 Proceedings on the 16th Novemhm\ 1880. [Dec.

purveyor of food, and to all persons interested in its distribution
and consumption. Those who took an interest in obtaining from
parliament the means of collecting these returns, will join with
me in expressing our warm appreciation of the increasingly useful
and instructive manner in which they are now placed before the
public.

PsoCEEDiNOS on the 16th November, 1880.

Dr. Gut said that as a former President of the Society it was his
duty to request the meeting to return a hearty and sincere vote of
thanks to the President for the interesting and valuable address
which he had just delivered. When their President began his paper
he (Dr. Guy) mast confess to have been somewhat saddened and
depressed by the prospects held out to British agriculture ; but by
degrees the clouds cleared away, and he took comfort in the thought
that many things which had worried their ancestors no longer
alarmed tiiemselves. There was a time when they were extremely
afraid lest the country might become over populated. That fear
had passed away. Then again we were overwhelmed with appre-
hension about the national debt, when it was but a trifle compared
with its present amount. That anxiety too had passed away ; and
we might indulge the hope that the same fate awaited the gloomy
thoughts which the first part of the President's paper must have
conjured up. Enjrland, let us hope, would survive these difficulties
as she had those of times gone by. He would conclude by asking
them to give to their Chairman the hearty vote of thanks which
his address so richly deserved.

(The vote of thanks was given unanimously and with applause.)

The Pbesident in replying said that he felt deeply indebted to
the meeting for the reception which had been given to his remarks.
He had read his paper under a sense of duty, because he thought
that the extent of competition to which the agriculture of this
country was now exposed was not so thoronghly understood as it
should be ; and he felt quite sure that a matter of this kind should
be seriously looked in the face in order that those interested should
make for themselves the best arrangements that they possibly could
to meet it with success.

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1880.] 573

NoTB on the Tenth Census of the United States of America.
By F. J. Mouat, M.D., P.R.C.S., Vice-President and Foreign
Secretary of the Statistical Society,

[Read before the Statistical Society, 16th November, 1880.]

PlOB

Historical Retrospect 574

Chief Change introdnoed in the

present Census 676

1>istnrbing elements in estimates

of future increase of population . 578

Cost of Censuses 581

Some details of the Tenth Census

Schedules 582

The Census Bureau at Washiog^n 586

CONTENTS :

PAOB

Appendicis.
I. — Individual Schedule of Pro-
ducts of Industry 588

II.— Wealth, Debt, and Taxation 590
III. — Schedule of Wool Manufac-
ture 593

ilV.— Mortuary Statistics 597

V. — Sanitary Authority 601

As questions connected with census operations are, at the present
moment, of much interest and importance to us, I deemed it my
duty during my recent holiday in the United States, to visit the
Census Bureau at Washington, and to ascertain what is doing and
has been done in relation to the census of the present year in the
great Transatlantic Republic.

Among the printed transactions of the Society are some interest-
ing papers on the statistics of the population of the United States
as contained in the seventh and eighth censuses, and a very brief
rdsum6 of the figures abstracted from the ninth census.

The tenth census has been taken in the present year as respects
the population, and is in progress with relation to the wealth and
industry of that great country. Hence a brief note on the subject
may not be without use, even before the returns are worked out
and the results are published for general information.

In March, 1879, the senate and house of representatives of the
United States, in congress assembled, passed an Act for taking the
tenth, and subsequent censuses of the vast territories under their
federal rule.

The 1st June of the present year was the date fixed for the
operation, which was declared to be a '* Census of the population,
** wealth, and industry of the United States."

The English, Irish and Scotch Acts for our next census in 1881,

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574 MouAT — On the Tenth Census [Dec.

are confined to the first point, altboagh, why three separate Acts should
be needed for a purpose in which strict nniformity is essential froni
an imperial point of view, is not very intelligible. An additional
clause or two as to the agency to be employed in the cases of
Scotland and Ireland, could easily have been included in a single
Act, which would then cover the whole ground.

But, be that as it may, the parliament of Great Britain can
legislate for each division of the United Kingdom, or for all of
them collectively in matters of strictly imperial concern.

The federal government has, on the other hand, no direct
control over matters of internal legislation, and all that constitute
strictly State Rights, in the different sections of the great confede-
ration. None of the separate States have any special agency or
provision for the collection of information for a general national
object, and only three or four of them for even State purposes.

Hence those matters which are of paramount importance to the
country ,as a whole, are included in a measure with which they
have no necessary oonnection. Moreover, it would probably be
impossible to obtain a general concensus of the individual States
and territories in securing uniformity either in the collection,
arrangement, or details of the facts required, except by a federal
Act covering the whole.

The American Act gives minute directions as to the agency,
penalties for non fulfilment, and all other subsidiary matters con-
nected with the census, arming the Superintendent of the Census
with full power to give effect to the Act, under the general control
of the Department of the Interior, to which his bureau is directly
subordinate.

A supplementary amending Act was passed in April of the
present year, modifying some of the provisions of the first Act, and
making arrangements for the correction of errors in the original
returns.

The first census of the United States was taken in 1790, under
the authority of an Act of Congress passed in that year. It was
confined to the simple enumeration of the people under six different
categories, and was taken by the marshals of the several judicial
districts. The counting commenced on the 1st August of that
year, and was completed in nine months.

In 1800, a new Census Act was passed, placing the direction of
the enumeration under the Department of the State, and enlarging
the field of inquiry to include age, and the name of the oounty,
parish, township, or city where the families resided. The censuses
6f 1810 and 1820 were taken under the provisions of the same Act,
and ran in the same Hoes. An attempt was, however, made in them
to procure information regarding the industry and manufactures

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1880.] of the Urdted States of America, 575

of the country; but the results were of little or no value, and
embraced only a small portion of the States.

In 1830, no provision was made for the collection of industrial
statistics.

In 1840 the field of inquiry was again considerably extended,
and included the number of persons employed in agriculture,
mining, manufactures, and commerce, and added educational
statistics. Some statistics of industry were again essayed, with
but partial success.

The census of 1850 inaugurated a new era in the conduct of
these operations — the result of much public discussion of the
matter. A census board was established to procure forms and
frame regulations, a census office was added to the Department of
the Interior, and the special office of Superintendent of the Census
was created. Under the Act of May, 1850, the three succeeding
censuses were taken, the last under the able and energetic direction
of General F. A. Walker, to whom the conduct of the present
census has been entrusted.

Those of 1850 and 1860, in addition to the enumeration of the
people, included statistics of the productions of agriculture, social
statistics, embraci^ig the value of real and personal property, the
amount of taxes assessed, educational statistics, pauperism, crime,
the cost of labour, and, under the head of religious worship, the
number and value of the churches, and the number of people each
could accommodate, the products of industry, and mortality
statistics. Detailed schedules for all these objects were prepared
and issued.

The ninth census, that of 1870, was taken under the provisions
of the Act of 1850 above referred to, of which an abstract is
given in the introduction to the census report of that year. A
glance at the subject, and a knowledge of the agency employed in
collecting this heterogeneous mass of figures, shows how incom-
plete and imperfect such a census must of necessity be, and how
unreliable some of the results were.

The superintendent had no power to change the law, which it
was his duty to administer; but his patient industry, singular
analytical skill, and unwearied searching out of sources of error,
with a view to their correction, minimised them as much as
possible, and produced a report of great interest and value from
the chaotic material at his command.

When he again took active charge of the office in 1879, which
he had continued to hold without salary since the completion of the
census of 1870, General Walker exposed, with unsparing hand, its
errors and imperfections, as the following extract from his report
to the Secretary of the Interior, shows : —

VOL. XLIII. PART IV. 2 Q

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h70 MouAT — On the Tenth Gensns [Dec

** The work of the oensos office linoe its orguiisatioii hai been of two ^Kstutft
kindB :—

** Firat. Work in prppantion for the enaineration, whidi is hj Imw to
cummenoe on Ut June, 1880.

** By the itatement of the cese, none of the work of this cheraoter yields
itatietieU resnite. It it in no pert defini tire, but is purely prelimiwiry, embrsdng the
prepsrstion of schedules, the sabdivision of the country into superrision districts,
the osnrass of the geofcmphical conditions of ennnemUon in the sereml sectaoiw
for the purpose of finding the mtes of compensstion* so ss to secure at once tlie
highest efficiency and the highest economy ; the entertaining and answering of
thonssnds of appli4*ations for appointnsents; and, finally, the conducting of the
large correspondence which the organisation of a serrice of sncb popnbur interest,
brings npon the officer charged therewith.

<* It has not, howerer, been upon work of this dass that the greatest part of
the Ubonr of the census office since its organisstion has been bestowed.

*' Second. The collection of certaiu dasses of statistics fbr the corrent year, has
been going on since 1st Jnne.

** There is, by the Act of 1879, ss by that of 1850, both a oensos day and a
census year. The census day b 1st June, 188D; the census year comprises the
twelre months ending at that date. The census day is tlie day on or for which
the count of inhabitants is required to be made, and certain facts relating to the
status of population and industry to be obtained ; the census year is the period for
which certain other classes of facts relating to the morements of the popuktioo
^nd the operations of industry, are required to be taken.

" But. while the Act of 1879 and that of 1850 are alike in thus instituting a
census year for the movements of population and industry, as w«'Il as a oenaus dny
fbr determining their status, the two Acts diflfier widely in the agencies they estab-
lish and the methods they prescribe for obtaining those results.

'* By the Act of 1850, all the statistics to be obtained fbr the census were to
be collected by the regular enumerators in their house to house eanvaas of tbeir
sereral districts. The facts relating to mining, to the fisheries, to agricnlture, to
manufactures, to the mortality of the population, and to many other matters of
social and industrial interest, were to be ascertained and reported on by the same
officers who made the count of the population.

" The inadequacy and the inaccuracy of the statistics thus obtained were some-
times positivdy discreditable, and even disgraceful to the census, their only possible
effect being to mislead the people and misrepresent the country, and led to the
introduction of prorisions into the Act of 1879, by which the census office is
autliorised to withdraw certain dasses of statistical inquiries from the ordinary
enumerators, and place them in the hands of eiperts and special agents.

" In the spirit of this enlightened function, the superintendent has carefully
canvassed the field of investigation, with a view to ascertaining what parts of the
field promised to yield results to such special inquiries over and above what roiglit
be expected to be obtained through the ordinary course of enumeration^ to repay
the necessarily higher cost of the service."

The special investigationB entrusted to experts relate to the

fisheries, the mining industries, power and machinery nsed in

manufactories, the defective, delinquent, and dependent classes, the

social statistics of cities, the statistics of special branches of agri-

"^uJftire, and the mortuary statistics.

The names of the eminent experts selected, are a guarantee of the
value of the results which may iedrlj be expected from this, the
greatest advance yet made in any country for such a purpose.

The only one of the above subjects which interests us with

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1880.]

of ih^ United States of America.

577

reference to our own approaching censns, is that of mortaarj
statistics.

(General Walker pointed oat the extreme disadvantage nnder
which the United States laboured in relation to its vital statistics,
from the absence of an efficient system of registration of births,
marriages, and deaths, and indicated its serious economic, social,
and political results. With a view to remedy some of these defects,
the provision for obtaining vital statistics in the last Act differs
from that of 1850, by allowing the registration of deaths, nnder
State or municipal authority, to be taken by the superintendent of
the census for the returns of enumerators, and by the census office,
with the power of supplementing strictly official agencies by infor-
mation obtained from other sources. For this latt'Or purpose, small
model registers, each containing a record of twenty- four deaths,
with a statement of the causes of death, the sex, age, occupation,
and nationality of the deceased, were prepared and sent to every
physician and surgeon whose address could be ascertained.

These gentlemen were requested to fill in a record 6f all the
deaths occurring in their practice during the census year. Nearly
100,000 of these registers were distributed, and the response of the
medical profession in the United States is said to have been most
gratifying, as might have been expected from a learned body so
thoroughly alive to the value of figures as exponents of facts, in
relation to the great problem of life and death, in the solution of
which they are constantly engaged.

Great and important as this advance undoubtedly is over their
former practice, no one is better aware than the present gifted
superintendent of the United States' census, how very inferior it is
in administrative and scientific value, to the admirable system
worked out by our highly honoured colleague. Dr. Farr, and
imitated by the most advanced nations of Europe.

The population of the states and territories constituting the
United States, as ascertained in each succeeding census from 1790
to 1870, were as follows : —

Yetr.

1790.
1800.

'10.

'20

'80.

'40.

'60.

'70.

PopnlAUon.

5»3o8,483
7,239,881
9,633,822
12,866,020
17,069,453
23»i9i.876
31,443,321
38.558»37i

Increase per Cent.

8510
86-38
83 06
32-61
88*62
86-83
8511
22-65

2q2

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MoiTiT— 'Oh the TefM Cennts

[Dec

In the report of the eighth oensos, the forecast for 1870 was
42,328,432, whereas it was really more than 3^ millions less, of
whom the eoloored popalation represented rather more than half »
million. General Walker has shown in the introdnctiom to bis
report of the censos of 1870, to what the decrease was really due.

The chief distorhing element in all these calcnlations is probftbl j
the coloured population.

The following particulars, extracted from tite introduction to the
report of the eighth census of the United States, are necessary to a
right understanding of the question : —

Centui of Slaves and Free Cohred.

Coiim

Ptm

>Frae

IjMnate.

Stores.

lunreMi. .•

Colored

iBcmaa.

Color«d.

■ad Slaves.

Fcrc&t

Per cat

Per eat.

1790 ....

69,466

—

697,897

—

757,868

—

1800 ...

168,896

82*28

893,041

a7'97

1,001,486

3»'23

'10....

186,446

72*00

1,191,864

33*40

1,877310

37-58

'20....

288,524

»5*i3

1,638,038

28*79

1,771,662

28-58

•80 ....

819,699

36*87

2,009,048

30*61

2,328,642

3"'44

'40....

886,808

20*87

2,487,466

23*81

2,873J58

23 ^i

'60 ....

484,449

12*46

8,204,818

28*81

8,638,762

16*62

'00....

487,970

12*31

8,968,760

a3'39

4,441,780 '

22*07

Showing a gradual decrease in the three last decades, the small
increase in 1840-50, being due to the admission of Texas to the
Union in 1845.

In the forecast of the future, the estimates hare been based on
the assumption that the rate of increase of the census t)f 1860 would
continue in the succeeding decade or until tlie present year, and
that the rate to the close of the century for the colored population
would decrease to 20 per cent.

Estimating then the probable increase of the whole population,
white and coloured, at a mean annual rate of 3 per cent., the
subjoined table contains (die forecast made in 1860 : —

Yetr.

Free
Colored aod SUree.

Afgregate of White
and Colored.

Percentage of
Colored.

1870

5411,900
6,618,350
7,94».o*o
9^SiOAH

42,328,432

56,450,241

77,266,989

100,355,802

12*81

'80

11*72
10*28

'90

1900

9*50

The transition from slavery to freedom, after the civil war, of
some four millions of Africans, had been too short a time in opera-
tion to permit of any accurate deductions being drawn regarding
their increase, decrease, and social condition generally. So long as

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1880.] cf Hhe Wnltedf States of America. 579

they were not free agents, and were practically confinecl to parts
of the States in which they were to a* great extent acclimated, and
in which their fluctnations coald be determined with some approxi-
mation to precision, the data regarding them in the censnS' retams,
may be accepted with- some degree of confidence.

Another disturbing element is- the increase of the number of
Chinese, who in 1870 amounted to 63,254, and who have been
increasing ever since, slowly it is true. It is likely now to be
checked permanently.

The present census will throw much light on all these- questions,
and on some of the unsolved problems of the admixture of races.

In the Eastern possessions of Great Britain, the mixed races
begin to decrease and disappear in the third generation, from
scrofulous degeneration and other causes, moral and physical

The conjectured increase of the coloured population from a little

more than 4 millions in 1870, to 9I millions in 1900 seems to me,

therefore, to be likely to prove an over calculation, although the

estimated annual rate of increase is scarcely one-third of the lowest

of the figures mentioned above. My own impression is that they

will obey what appears to be the natural law as at present under.

stood and determined, and as expressed in. one of the American

reports, where it is said that : —

" The extinction of slavery, in widening the field foR white labonr and enter-
prise, will tend to reduce the rate of increase of the oolonred race, while its diffu-
eion will lead to a more rapid admixture, the tendency of which, judging from the
past, will be to impair it physically without improving it morally."

And again the same authority remarks : —

" With the light before us, it seems therefore rational to conclude that we
need not look forward to cenlories to develop the fact, that the white race is no
more favourable to the progress of the African race iu its midst-, than it has been
Co the perpetuity of the Indian on its borders, and that, as has been the case in
all other countries on this continent where the blacks were once numerous, the
coloured population in America, whether either free or slave, it must, in number
and condition, be greatly subordinate to the white race, is doomed to compara-
tively rapid absorption or extiiiciion."*

Much light however will doubtless be thrown on all these
ethnological points in the census now taken. It is difficult to over-
estimate their importance in the foture of the great republic. I
rather incline to the former than the latter view. In many of the
descendants of the coloured people whom I saw, all trace of the
African admixture had disappeared, and it required very close obser-
vation to perceive that it had ever existed.

The fluctuations of immigration into the United States consti-
tute another disturbing element in all estimates of their population.

The numbers as ascertained from the customs returns from 1820

^ Eighth Census of the United States in 1860; introduction, pp. 11— 12, 1864.

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r»80 MouAT— On the Tenth Genius [Dec.

to 1878 indnsive, fifty-nine years, were nearly lo millions, or aboat
i66,cxx> a-year, or taking the half centary to 1869 inclnsive, aboat
143,000 annaally.* These figures are liaUe to considerable correc-
tion, by i he addition of immigrants who find their way to the States
throngh or from Canada, and by the deduction for retam emigration,
as well as merchants and visitors of all classes, for whom, a
deduction of 14*5 per cent, is believed to be a correct approximate
figure.

Of the vast majority of the immigrants who go out as settlers,
certainly not less than 90 per cent, are at the active period of life,
and all more or less fitted to add to the population ; scarcely 10 per
cent, of them taken over decennial periods from 1820 to 1860, in-
clusive, being above 40 years of age.

The emigration from Great Britain and Ireland alone was
5,046,067 from 1815 to 1860. The French, German, Scandinavian,
and Swiss migration were likewise considerable.

The infusion of all this new blood, with its abundance of moral,
physical, and material wealth, is of incalculable advantage to the
growth and prosperity of their new homes, where they will probably
increase and multiply in even a greater ratio than in the lands of
their births, from the greater abundance and cheapness of food, and
the freer conditions of life in which they live.

It will be interesting, and, in a physiological sense most impor-
tant, to observe which of the nations forming this perennial stream
of fresh scions of the old stocks into the New World will exercise
the most permanent and predominant influence in the future of the
races that must be the result. Will it be the Saxon or the Celt,
or the Scandinavian of the far north, to whom we owe some of our
own best blood, and not a few of our leading qualities as a nation,
or will the gradual fusion form a new national type, as some sup-
pose ? Among several hundred emigrants who went to New York
in the same vessel as myself, by far the best raw material for colo-
nisation were the Swedes and Norwegians. They are not likely to
form permanently communities of a common origin, and will doubt-
less, when population begins to press upon space, however distant
that may be, fuse into the general mass.

If the writings of the physicians and physiologists of the United
States are to be accepted as guides in the determination of this great
question, the prevailing opinion seems to be that there is some
tendency to physical degeneration at the present time, chiefly from
physical causes, among the older families of the Union, who have
intermarried to any great extent.

This is a matter quite as deserving of the attention of statesmen

* AinericaD Almiuiac for 1880, p. 89.

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1880.] of the United States of America, f.Sl

as of scientific men, for it is in their power so to guide the legisla*
tion of the future, as to diminish social evils so far as thej can be
influenced bj wise laws, and so far as acts of the State legislatures
can regulate and interfere in the domestic concerns of the
people.

The following is a statement of the cost of each of the Censuses
of the United States as ascertained from the official records on the
subject : —

Tmt. Cort.

I o.

1790 44,817 18

1800 66,609 04

*io 178,444 67

'«0 108,525 99

'«0 378,543 13

'^ 833.370 95

'60 1,329,027 53

*60 i,9".i7i 4»

*70 3,336,51 1 41

For the tenth census a sum of 3 millions of dollars has been
sanctioned, and a small sapplementarj g^rant for the additional labour
imposed by the amending Act.

Considering the greatly improved manner of taking, tabulating,
and scrutinising the returns of the present census, and the certain
very considerable increase which has occurred in the population in
the last decade, it is not probable that these grants will prove
sufficient, notwithstanding the rigid economy introduced by the
present superintendent.

The difficulty of grasping the value of apparently the same work
in the widely differing circumstances of different parts of the
country, has been forcibly indicated by General Walker himself, and
the truly imperial magnificence of Cong^ress in dealing with all
subjects of such manifest importance and pecuniary value to the
State, render it certain that whatever is needed for the efficient
performance of the woi*k in a manner worthy of the country, will
be freely forthcoming. Nothing impressed me more strongly during
my visit to the United States, than the wise munificence of the
ruling authorities in the publication of all documents of a public
character calculated to be of permanent benefit, and with their
liberality in placing them at the disposal of all persons interested
in them. The medical and surgical history of the War of Seces-
sion, and some of their survey reports, are probably the fullest and
finest records of the kind in existonce, and may fairly be taken atf
examples of the wise and &r seeing policy of the federal govern-
ment in such matters.

One of the chief features of excellence of the present United

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682 MouAT— On the TeniJi Census [Dec.

States* census is the minute and extreme care with which the
varions schedules have heen prepared.

Those relating to the wealth and .industry of the country are
well deserving of careful study. It would exceed my limits, and be
foreign to the special purpose of this brief note, to attempt to
analyse them. It is, I think, to be regretted that in such returns
as are now collected by our Board of Trade, that authority is not
armed with some of the powers of obtaining more exact ajid
detailed information, and that our Acts do not contain the severe
and stringent penalties granted by the last Census Act of the
United States, for wilfully incorrect or false retoms.

I append three of the forms issued as examples. No. I is the
schedule sent to individuals respecting the products of industry ;
No. 2 concerns the wealth, debt,^ and taxation, showing the financial
condition, of cities ; and No. ^ refers to the statistics of wool
manufactures.

I have taken the above merely aa types. Many of the others
are even more searching and minute. Several of these returns are,
I believe, already ^mished, or in progress^ fti^r when complete and
digested, with the reports of the experts, will famish a body of
information such as no other nation possesses. Prefixed to every
schedule are the sections of the Census Act, authorising the collec-
tion of the information, specifying the persons who are required to
afford it, detailing the heads of information called for, and notifying
the penalties incurred for neglect or refusal to give true and
complete answers.

With respect to the ** count of the people," several important
changes were introduced in the Act, all tending to secure greater
accuracy by more minute subdivisions of the areas of enumeration,
by a better selection of the special agents to be employed as
enumerators, and by a more equitable adjustment of the compen-
sation to be paid for the work performed. The period allowed for
the enumeration was shortened to one month (June) in rural
districts and small towns, and to two weeks in cities, as against
five months formerly allowed. The intei^tion of this change is to
diminish the errors resulting from the incessant movements of the
population, during the later summer months.

The schedules and details touching the enumeration of the
population are equally precise and particular, and the instructions
issued to the supervisors, enumerators, and all other persons engaged
in this great work are characterised by clearness, simplicit3% and
judgment. No one could by any possibility misunderstand the
nature and extent of the work assigned to him, nor could those by
whom the information was to be afforded, be in doubt as to what
they were required to give.

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1880.] of the United States of America. 5^3

The schedule of the census return proper consists of twentj-six
columns.

In cities the name of the street and the number of the house are
first given.

Then follow :—

1. Dwelling houses numbered in order of visitation.

2. Families in order of visitation.

3. The name of each person whose place of abode was, on 1st

June, 1880, in the family.

Personal Description, in five columns —

4. Colour : white, W ; black, B ; mulatto, M ; Chinese, C ;

Indian, I.

5. Sex : male, M ; female, P.

6. Age at last birthday, prior to 1st June, 1880. If under a

year, months in fractions, e,g., ■^,

7. If bom within the census year, the month.

8. Kelationship of each person to the head of this family :

whether wife, son, daughter, servant, boarder, or other.

Civil Condition^ in four columns —

9. Single.

10. Married.

11. Widowed; divorced, D.

12. Married during census year.

Occupation, in two columns —

13. Profession, occupation, or trade of each person, male or

female.

14. Number of months this person has been unemployed during

the year.

Health, in six columns —

15. Is the person, on the day of this enumerator's visit, sick or

temporarily disabled, so as to be unable to attend to ordi-
nary business or duties.

16. Blind.

17. Deaf and dumb.

18. Idiotic.

19. Insane.

20. Maimed, crippled, bedridden, or otherwise disabled.

Education, in three columns —

21. Attended school within the censas year.

22. Cannot read.

23. Cannot write.

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584 MouAT— On the Tenth Censw [Dec,

NoHvitrj, in three columns —

24. Place of birth, naming State or territory of United States,

or the conntry, if of foreign birth.

25. Place of birth of the father, naming the State or territory,

or foreign country, if not bom in the United States.

26. The same information as regards the mother of the individual

in qaestion.

In the instructions at the head of the schedule it is noted, that
the census year begins 1st June, 1879, and ends 31st May, 1880.

That all persons are to be included in the enumeration who were
living on the 1st June, 1880, and none others. Children
bom since 1st June to be omitted, but members of families
who have died since 1st June, 1880, to be included.

Questions 13, 14, 22, and 23 not to be asked in respect* of per-
sons under 10 years of age.

It is manifest that some of these reservations are not needed for
a census taken on a single specified day, as in the United Kingdom.

Supplemental schedules, seven in number, were furnished, and
have been returned, for the defective, dependent, and delinquent
classes, viz., the insane, idiots, deaf mutes, blind, deceased, and
persons in prison, together with paupers and the indigent generally.

The object of these supplemental schedules was not only to fur-
nish materials for a complete enumeration of each class, but for an
account of their condition, and enumerators were enjoined, regarding
the defective and deceased to obtain hints from the medical men
practising in the different districts; respecting the paupers and indi-
gent persons from the chief executive officers of all pauper establish-
ments, including homes and asylums for the aged, for the destitute,
and for the friendless in the United States ; and in relation to pri-
soners from the warders or keepers of every prison, station house,
or lock-up in their respective districts.

Of the supplemental schedules, the death register and the sani-
tary record are more complete than any documents of a similar
character with which I am acquainted, and as they afford mforma-
tion which may be useful to us, I have also appended them to this
note — ^Nos. 4 and 5.

In the former particular instructions are given to secure accuracy
of record. They are deserving of careful attention in our own
registration returns, in which the causes of death are not always
accurately stated.

Upon this subject General Walker justly remarks : —

" The United States are at a marked disadvantage, in comparison with almost
any other civilised nation, in the matter of vital statistics. We know not the
numhcr of persons born or dying in any year of oar political history.

" The registration of births, marriages, and deaths, which in otlt^r oooutries is

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1880.] of the United States of Ameiica, 585

rigidly enforced by ndeqaate provisions and sanctions of Isw, is in some States not
even required by statute, while in only three or four of the States which maintain
a formal registration, is the service of such a character ai to give any considerable
value to the results.

" Mere provisions of law will not secure good vital statistics. There must be
vigilant administration by expert and thoroughly trained officials, heavy penalties
for delinquency, and a disposition of the public mind which will not only allow but
demand the relentless enforcement of the law. It is only when it is popularly seen
and appreciated that no one can be bom into the community or die out of it with-
out affecting the rights and interests of every preceding or surviving member, that
adequate legislation and adequate administration will be provided for recording all
the essential facts relating to the beginning and the close of every life.

" Outside the three, or at the most four States, above alluded to as maintaining
a good system of registration, there are perhaps a score of cities which keep up
something like a system of recording births and deaths, of which six or seven have
established a reputation for the completeness and accuracy of their published
reports.

" For all the rest of the country there is either no statistical information at all
respecting the number of those who are bom or die during any given period, or the
statistics are palpably defective.

" The disadvantage to the United States arising from the lack of good vital
statistics is most serious. Not to speak of the unenviable singularity which it
gives our country among the civilised and progressive nations ; not to speak of the
uncertainty in which it involves our sanitary legislation and administration, or of
the loss which tlie science and practice of medicine suffer from the absence of trust-
worthy information respecting the range and deg^ree of vimlence of certain fatal
diseases and the rate of mortality in one section as compared with its neighbours ;
the mere pecuniary disadvantage at which our people are placed, in the important
matter of life insurance, would, if traly estimated, far outweigh the whole first C( st
of good vital statistics. Hundreds of miliions of dollars have been invested in life
insurance in this country within the last thirty years, and yet we have not even an
approximate life table* of the United States. Insurance companies do not know
how much they should charge to be safe ; the people do not know bow little the
companies should charge, to sell insurance at its fair value. All parties are and
have been operating in the dark in the matter of interests involving enormous
expenditures and receipts, for lack of information which only government can
supply, and which in almost all other progressive countries government does
supply.

'* In partial recognition of the importance of mortuary statistics, the Act of
23rd May, 1850, required the return, by the canvassers of popuhition, of all deaths
occurring during the census year ; and if the provisions of the law bad been
adequate to ito intent, the results would have been of gp'eat value, even though
the facts were obtained but once in ten years.

"In trath, however, the statistics of mortality obtained through tbe census
have always been defective and often grossly misleading. In the seventh oensns,
1850, there were returned but 324,394 deatlis from a living population of
23,191,876; in 1860, 394,153 deaths from a living population of 31,443,321 ;
in 1870, but 492,263 from a living population of 38,558,371."

The above sound reasoning will doubtless secure the attention it
merits, at the hands of the States' Legislatures of the United
States.

• " I speak with all respect of the effort made by Mr. E. B. Elliott, to con-
struct such a table for the Statistical Atlas of the United States, in 1874.
Mr. Elliott's effort was most praiseworthy, and his qualifications were equal to
almost any task, but the fatal deficiencies in the information attainable would not
allow success."

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686 MouiT— On the Tenth Census [I>ec-

In Appendix Y will be found a model of the natnre of the infer-
mation that shonld be required from oar sanitary anthorities, of
whose actual working of the Public Health Acts, we have at present
little exact knowledge in anj published report.

The permanent organisations existing in the United Kingdom
enable us to obtain annual statements, more or less complete, of the
insane and paupers and criminals ; and our educational returns
leave little to desire with regard to primary schools, industrial and
reformatory institutions, and factories and workshops in relation to
the young of the labouring classes. All that these require is to be
abstracted, harmonised, and presented to the public and the l^is-
latnre in some simple uniform manner by a central statistical
authority, having no relation to the immediate management of such
institutions, but dealing with the figures and facts in their strictly
numerical and politico-economical aspects, showing the progress of
the nation from year to year in some of the matters relating to its
moral and material condition.

They are of fer more value than any decennial record, however
complete and carefully compiled ; and England has so long taken
the lead in the publication of statistical abstracts of great import-
ance and interest as State papers, as to need only the extension of
the system, and its relegation to an office charged with no other
duties, at comparatively small additional cost to the State.

The constitution of the United States renders such unity of
action extremely difficult, and at present even impossible. I have
no doubt, however, from what I saw and heard that with the general
advancement of education, and the growing prosperity of this
country of practically unlimited capacity of production and pro-
gress, the State legislatures will see their way to the organisation,
in each of them, of permanent establishments to collect the materials
necessary. The federal authorities could then weld into one
harmonious whole, all facts and figures tending to illustrate the
actual state and progressive advancement of what is destined,
from causes beyond the control of human agency, to become the
mightiest and most powerful people the world has ever seen.

That they will exercise their power in a spirit of peace and good
will to all men, who can doubt who has watched the progress of
the Republic from the establishment of its independence to the
present time. In all the great crises of their history they have
acted with a moderation, humanity, and judgment which justify
this belief in their future.

I cannot refrain, in conclusion, from mentioning my visit, on
the 15th of September last, to the Census Bureau at Washington,
of which I carefully examined the working, under the personal
guidance of the superintendent, Major- General Francis A. Walker.

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1880.] of the United States of America, 687

The bureau is located in a large building of several stories,
hired for the purpose; but it was found to be too small, and a
considerable number of the clerks were transferred elsewhere while
I was at Washington.

At the time of my visit the establishment was occupied in
checking the returns of the enumerators, with, a view to their
speedy payment.

On the cellar floor in the basement, which is large and well
lighted, were arranged in order the portfolios containing the
original schedules filled up and furnished by the enumerators and
supervisors from the whole of the United States.

On each of the upper floors were grouped in gradations, the
large staff of clerks and supeHntendent-s, by whom the examination
of each schedule was made. Every entry of every kind, at each
stage of its scrutiny, was subjected to a double system of check,
prior to being sent on to the higher officials for final examination.

From the careful, microscopic minuteness with which this
excellent system of checks and scrutiny has been organised, it is
well nigh impossible for any error of original entry or subsequent
scrutiny to escape detection, before the record is finally passed as
correct.

A large number of the clerks were educated ladies, and the
whole of the eniploy/s who had not been previously passed and
proved, were subjected to careful examination, to prove their fitness
to be employed in the office.

I believe there was nothing to choose in the general correctness
and accuracy of the work of the two sexes ; the final examination
alone being entrusted to the male superintendents.

The minimum standard accepted was the average qualification
of a good bank or paymaster's clerk. The rule laid down by the
General in his report on the ninth census, was, that one good clerk
was more valuable than two, three, or four merely moderate clerks,
while no consideration would induce him to give desk-room to a
really poor clerk.

Of the last census reports, with their voluminoas tables and
maps, 25^00 •copies were printed and circulated.

It needs but little of the gift of prophecy to predict that, in
spite of the difficulties and sources of error inseparable from the
existing system of counting the people of the United States, even
in the greatly diminished space of time allorwed, the present will be
the most valuable and reliable return yet produced.

And, as respects the wealth and industry of the States, the
record will be much in advance of that of any other nation in tho
world.

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588 MoOAT— 0» the Tenth Census [ Dec

Appendix L

Tenth Census of the United States.

PRODUCTS OP INDUSTRY, Ac.

Indiyidqal Schedule.
IVodncts of industiy in , sitaated in

(N«me of KftUblitOintnt)

in tho county of , State of , daring tho

twelve months beginning Ist Jnne, 1879, and ending Slst May,
1880.

[InMTt here name of proprietor, afrebt, or~l
other officer in charge, vith tiUe. J

Street and No.
Poet Office
State

N.B. — ^This schedule is designed to be left with tiie proprietors,
agents, or other persons in charge of establishments of produotiTe
industry, in advance of the visit of the special agent charged with
collecting the statistics of mannfactares. It is hoped that the
requirements of the blank will be studied, and that pains will he
taken to fill out the schedule as accurately as possible, so that it
may be ready for the agent of the Census Office when he shaU
call.

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1880.]

of the United Statet of America.

589

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500 MocAT— On the Tenth Census [t)ec.

Appendix II.

Tenth Census of the United States.

WEALTH, DEBT, AND TAXATION.
Report of the financial condition of the of

county of and State of , for the fiscal

year ending on the day of , 18 .

Sig^ture
Official position

•(OrFICIAL.)

Department of the Interior,

Cefisus Office, Washington, B.C.,

\st May, 1880.

In accordance with the provisions of the Act of Congress,
approved 3rd March, 1879, Rohert P. Porter, Esq., of Chicago,
lUinois, has been appointed the special agent of the Census Office,
to have charge of the collection of the statistics of wealth, debt,
and taxation of the United States.

The special agent thus appointed has all the authority of a
census enumerator under the Act, and is empowered to conduct iu
his own name the correspondence relating to this branch of the
census.

Francis A. Walker,

Superintendent of Census.

Extract from the Act of 3rd March, 1879.

Sec. 18. Whenever he shall deem it expedient, the superintendent of census
mmy withdraw the schedules for manufacturing and social statistics from the
enumerators of the several subdivisions, and may charge the collection of these
statistics upon experts and special agents, to be employed without respect to
locally. . . . And the saperintendent of census shall, with the appro\'al of
the Secretary of the Interior, prepare schedules containing such interrogatories as
shall, in his judgment, be best adapted to elicit this information, with such sped-
llcations, divisions, and particulars under each head as he shall deem necessary to
that end. Such experts and special agents shall take the same oath as the enume-
rators of the several subdivisions, and shall have equal auihority with such
enumerators iu respect to the subjects committed to them.

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1880.]

of the United States of America.

Value of Property and Revenue,
(a.) — Valuation.

691

EttimAted
Fall Value.

Total ralite of real propertj

,, personal propertj .

Aggregate value of real and personal propertj

(b.) — Ebybkttb.
Total receipts from taxation »

„ water rent

„ liquor licenses

Receipts from all other sources

Total receipts

%
%
%

Esependiturei.

For what PorpoM Expended.

Amount.

Schools ^.^« «

Streets

Sanitary Piirooses ..,. , ,.,.,,-,-,„„,,-,„,,,,,,„,,,

Poor

Police

Fire Department...^

Water

Debt and interest

All other purposes ^

Total expenditures

Bonded Indebtedness,

Tean

of
Isane.

What Tuned for—

Giving full

Particulars of all

Bonds.

Length of Time

from Date Bonds

Run before

Maturity.

Date of
Hatnritj.

Amount
Paid.

Amount

Out-
standing.

Rate of
Interest.

VOL. XLIII. PART IV.

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592

MouAT— On the Tenth Cetuus
Floating Indebtedness,

|T3ec.

When
Incurred.

Contr«cted for.

'Composed of.

Bateiof

Maturity of nic

ObKgAtioiu.

Amount
Outstanding.

EateoT
Interest.

Sinking Fwnd and Other Resources.

Amount of

Date when

Purpose for

which
Established.

CompMedof

Otter

Sinking Fund.

Bonds.

Other Items.

Benonrces.

Assets.

Composed of.

Value of Same.

Par Value.

Total

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1880.] of the United States of America. 693

Appendix m.

Tenth Census of the United States,

STATISTICS OF WOOL MANTUFACTURE.

(official.)

Depabtment op the Interior,

Census Office^ Washington^ D. 0.,

Ist November, 1879.
In accordance with the proyisions of the Act of Congress
approved 3rd March, 1879, each proprietor of a wool factory will
be required, on Ist June, 1880, to answer all the questions follow-
ing, and to forward the schedule, as filled, by mail, directed to the
superintendent of census, Washington, D. C.

Mr. George Wm. Bond, of Boston, has been appointed, in com-
pliance with law, as the special agent of the census office in the
collection of the statistics relating to the manufactures of wool.
The special agent thus appointed has all the authority of a census
enumerator under the Act of 3rd March, 1879, and is empowered to
conduct, in his own name, the correspondence relating to the fore-
going branches of productive industry.

Francis A. Walker,

Superintendent of Census.

The answers to all the following questions will be confidential
as to each separate manufacturing establishment. The compilation
will be made by counties, or by cities of not less than io,ooo inha-
bitants.

Bxtraot from ike Act qf 9rd March, 1879.

Sec 14. That each and every person more than 20 years of age, belonging
to any family residing in any enumeration district, and in case of the absence of
the heads and other members of any such family, then any agent of such family,
shall be, and each of them hereby is, required, if thereto requested by the superin-
tendent, supervisor, or enumerator, to render a true account, to the best of his or
her knowledge, of every person belonging to such family, in the various particulars
required by law, and whoever shall wilfully fail or refuse shall be g^ty of a
misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall forfeit and pay a sum not exceed-
ing loo dollars; and every president, treasurer, secretary, general agent, or
managing director of every corporation from which answers to any of the sche-
dules provided for by this Act are herein required, who shall, if thereto requested
by the superintendent, supervisor, or enumerator, wilfully neglect or refuse to give
true and complete answers to nny inquiries authorised by this Act, such officer w
agent shall forfeit and pay a sum not less than 500 doUars nor more than 10,000
dollars, to be recovered in an action of debt in any court of competent jurisdiction,
in the name and to the use of the United States, and in addition thereto shall be
guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be imprisoned for a term
not exceeding one year.

Sec. 16. That all fines and penalties imposed by this Act may be enforced by
indictment or appropriate action at law in any court of competent jurisdiction
where such offences shall have been committed or forfeitures incurred.

2r2

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594 MouAT— 0» the Tenth Census [Dec.

1. Location of mill : State of , oonnty of , citj
or town of

2. Name of mill,

3. Name of corporation, if a corporation,

4. Name of president, ; post office address,

5. Name of treasurer, ; post office address,

6. Name of owners, if privatelj owned, ;
post office address,

7. Name of agent or superintendent, ;
post office address,

8. Number of sets of cards, ; width of same,

9. Daily capacity of same in scoured wool, ; on the
average character of your work, lbs.

10. Number of combing machines of foreign mannfactore,

11. Daily capacity of same in scoured wool, ; on
the average of your work, lbs.

12. Number of combing machines of American manufacture,

13. Daily capacity of same in scoured wool, ; on
the average of your work, Jbs.

14. Number of broad looms on woollen goods,

15. Number of broad looms on worsted goods,

16. Number of narrow looms on woollen goods,

17. Number of narrow looms on worsted goods,

18. If any hand looms, please to give the number,

19. Number of Brussels power looms,

20. Number of ingrain power looms,

21. Number of knitting machines,

22. Number of knitting looms,

23. Number of sewing machines,

24. Number of woollen spindles,

25. Number of worsted spindles,

26. Quantity of scoured wool (not including waste purchased
and shoddy) consumed during the year, lbs.

27. Quantity of foreign wool in condition purchased, consumed
during same period, lbs.

28. Quantity of <iomestic wool in condition purchased, consumed
during same period, lbs.

29. Value at the mill of foreign and domestic wool con-
sumed, t

30. Quantity of camel's hair and noils consumed lbs. ;
value, t

31. Quantity of mohair and noils consumed, lbs.;
value, S

32. Quantity of buffalo hair consumed, lbs.-
value, $

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1880.]

of the United States of America.

695
lbs.;

lbs.;

33. Qnantitj of hair of other animals,
value, t

34. Quantity of cotton used om cards^
yalae, $

35. Quantity of shoddy used, or waste^ not including that made
in mill, lbs.; vahie, $

36. Number of pounds of cotton warp used on woollen goods,

lbs.; value, t

37. Number of pounds of cotton warp used on worsted goods,

lbs.; vahie^ t

38. Number of peunds of woollen yam used not made at mill,

lbs.; value, $

39. Number of pounds of worsted yam used not made at mill,

lbs. ; value, $

40. Number of pounds of worsted yam made and sold not used
at mill, Ibft. ; value, t

41. Number of pounds of woollen yam made and sold not used
at mill, lbs.;- value, $

42. Value of chemicals and dye-stuffs used, $

43. Number oi ccMrds of wool used, ; value, $

44. Number of tons of coal used, ; value, $

45. Value of all other materials, including supplies of every name
and nature, $

46. Value of materials of all kinds, t

Note.— In filling the following retnm, set down all the prodact« of the mill
which are intended for sale, whether yarns, hat-bodies, hats, knitted, felted, or
woven goods; pat each general kind by itself, and the particalar description in
addition.

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596 MouAT— On the Tenth C&nsus [Dec.

47. Of what are the buildiDp^ constmcted ?

48. Eond of power ; steam, water, or both :

49. K steam power, give the nnmber of boilOTS, ;
number of engines, ; total horse power, ;
and quantity of fuel used daily,

50. If water power, state on what river or stream, ;
available head of water, ; kind of wheelB and
nnmber, ; diameter and breadth of wheels, ;
revolutions per minute, ; total horse power,

51. Number of hands employed in actual production in the
&ctory and cloth-room, including overseers and second hands,

. Males of 16 years and upward, ;

below 16 years, . Females of 15 years and up-

ward, ; below 15 years,

52. Number of hands employed as mechanics, engineers,* fire-
men, watchmen, and labourers. Males of 16 years and
upward, ; below 16 years, . Females
of 15 years and upward, ; below 15 years,

53. Number of officers (president, treasurer, agent, superinten-
dent, paymaster, and clerk). Males of 16 years and
upward, ; below 16 years, . Females
of 15 years and upward, ; below 15 years,

54. What was the total amount of wages, earnings, or salaries
paid in conduct of the business, other than selling, in the last
financial year ending ? $

55. What was the wholesale value of the product of the works
in the principal markets, on the basis of prices obtained by selling^
agents, without deduction for expenses of selling P t

56. Amount of capital invested in works and employed in
business, including both fixed and active capital or surplus, S

[In making np this statement, the value of the works should be estimated as
nearly as possible at what they would cost in 1880, if then to be erected, with
such deduction for deterioration as may be suitable in the individual case.]

Office of the Co. (if a corporcUum,)

{Post Office address)

(Date) 188 .

I hereby certify that the foregoing report, made in compliance
with the requirements of the Act of Congress entitled, ** An Act
for taking the Tenth and subsequent Censuses," approved
3rd March, 1879, is correct and just, according to the best of my
knowledge and belief.

(Name)
(Official position)

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1880.] of the UnHed States of Amwioa. 597

Appendix IV.
InBtrtLctions,

The important point in this Bchodnle if the qneition in Col. 14, hetded
** Disease or Cause of Death." Especial pains must he taken in this column to
make the answer full and exact, and to this end, attention is called to the following
points: —

Enter the name of the primaiy disease in all cases, and where the immediate
cause of death has heen a compUcation or consequence of the primary disease,
enter that also. For instance, enter all cases of death resulting either immediately
or remotely from measlea, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, remittent fever, email pox,
&c., under the names of those diseases, hut add also dropsy, hcemorrhoffe firom the
bowels, pneumonia, &c, if these occurred as complications and were the more im-
mediate cause of death. In cases of death from hsemorrhage, specify the origin of
the haemorrhage, thus : hcbmorrhagefrom aortic aneuriem, hemorrhage from ulcer
of intestines in typhoid fever, h^smorrhaye from lungs, haemorrhage from wound
of neck, &c. So also for ahscess, aneurism, cancor, carbuncle^ dropsy, tumour,
ulcer, specify the organ or part affected, as iUac abscess, abscees qf liver ; femoral
aneuriem ; carbuncle on lip; cancer of breast, cancer of uterus, cancer qfface;
dropsy of chest, dropsy of abdomen; inflammation of brain, inflammation qf
liver; tumour of neck, tumour of abdomen; ulcer of face, ulcer of groin, Ac.
Typhus, typhoid, and typho-malarial fevers should be carefully distinguished.
Especial inquiry should be made for cases of " still-births," including infants born
dead from whatever caose. As few deaths as possible should be reported under
such general terms as disease qf the throai, disease qf the brain, disease qf the
liver, disease of the lungs, disease qf the bowels, disease of the spine^ &c. These
should, as far as positible, be reported under special heads.

Make sure that the distinction between apoplexy, epilepsy, and paralysis is
understood. Distinguish between acute and chronic bronchitis, acute and chronic
dysentery or diarrhoea, acute and chronic rheumatism. Beport cerebro-spinal
meniDgitis as cerebro-spinal fever. Do not report as the cause of death old age or
intemperance, or debility, or paralysis qf the heart, or sudden death, in any case
where it is possible to name any definite disease. In reporting suicide, name the
means, whether cutting of throat, hanging, drowning, shooting, poisoning by opium,
arsenic, &c,

A space is left at the bottom of each page of tins schedule for remarks. It is
desired that the enumerators should there describe any particular malady or
unusual or peculiar disease which has prevailed in the subdivision, and the supposed
cause thereof. In case of any unusual number of deaths by violence or accident
(as by the caving of a mine, or similar calamity), an explanation should be g^ven
in the space for remarks.

The enumerator should endeavour to see in person every physician residing in
or near his enumeration district, who is named in this schedule as the physician
attending at death, and courteously invite him to inspect the entries in regard to
the cause of death in his cases, and to verify or restate them as the facts may
demand. For this purpose spaces are provided below, numbered to correspond
with the lines of the schedule upon pp. 598 and 599.

If the physician finds the entry in the schedule correct and fbUy in accordance
with the foregoing instructions, he is requested to make the entry in the proper
numbered space below : Correctly stated. If he does not deem it correct, it is
desired that he restate the cause of death in the numbered space in accordance
with his own views, signing each entry.

The enumerator should also inquire of each physician within his enumeration
district whether he has a record or register of deaths occurring during the census
year, kept at the request of the superintendent of census, and if so, will offer to
take charge of and forward the same to the census office under his offidal frank.

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MOUAT — On the Tenth Census

[Dec

598
Page No.

Superrisor's Dist., No.
EDomention Dist., No^
ScHSDTTLB b.—Penons who Died during the Tear ending Z\st May^ 1880, EiKwmkBmid

}NOTB A
aistMay,
B.— In
only will 1
Col. 8, wh

NoTB A. — ^The oensna year begins Ist June, 1879, and
May, 1880.

, — In makine entries in Cols. 6, 7, and 8, an afBraatite
be used, thus /, except in the case of dimneed
when the letter *<D " is to be used.

Number
of the
Family
UfpTen

in
CoLS,
Sche-
dule 1.

Name of
the Penen Deoeued.

8 4 S

Penonal Deecription.

Age tt Urt

Birthday.

If under 1 xenr,

give Months in

Fractions,
thus; A ^
under I Month,

give Days

in Flractiona,

thns^A.

8ex^

Male(M.),
Female (F.).

Cokmr:

White (W.),

Bladi (B.).

Mulatto (Mo.),

Chinese (Ch.),

Indian (I.).

« 7

What was the Gml <
of thePenoawkoEW*

Single /.

Mained/.

(tti

Note B. — Upon this schedule should be carefully returned —

1st. Every death which hss occurred in this ennmeration district during the census year, whether tiie decani «»^

2ud. £vM7 death which has occurred entside of this eoumesation district during the eensus year, the ili r siefi leaf*

The enuaienitor shoulif jmake these entries upon this schedule with great care, seeking every aooree of iufaiw—

the entiy may be inclosed in parenthesis, thus : Age (26), meaning that the best estimate of the age that can ke^

Of the DeaUis reported above, the following occurred in this Enumeration District, but the F^unilies to wkkh tk
Deceased belonged, resided 1st June, 1880, out of the Enumeration District, as follows:—

Knmberof theLine
upon which

the Case is Beported
above.

Town.

County.

SUtc

BSMABKS.

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1880.]

of the United Staies of America,

699

NoTB 0. — For iii0tnictdon8 relafcive to the entries in Col. 14, see p. 597.

„ D. — In CoL 17, note distinctly if no physician was in attendance, thus : None,

J in the Cownty of

, State of

Enumerator,

9 10

1»

NatiTity.

Profee-

(Not to
beaaked

The

Month

How long

a
Baaident

If the
Diaeaae

Place of

Birth of thia

Peraon,

Where
waa

Diaeaae
or

of the

Coantyf

If leaa

was not

Contracted

Name

naming the
State or

the Father
of

the Mother
of

in
reapect

which
the

Cauaeof

than
1 Year,

atPUce

of attending
Phyaidan.

Territory of
the U. S.. or
the Country

thiaPerwa
Bora?

thiaPerwm
Bom?

toPeraona

onder
lOYearaof

Peraon
Died.

Death.

atate

Montha in
Fractiona,

of Death,
atote

if of Foreign

(Aain

Age.)

thoa: A-

the place.

Birth.

CoL 9.)

Col. 9.)

raa not, at death, a member of any funily which resided 1st Jane, 1880, in the diatriet.

ate of death a member of a family which reaided let June, 1880, in the ennmeration diatckt.

Vhen a poMtire atatement ia impoaaible, as when an age can only be e«timSted, or a birthplace most be eoQJectared.

• 26 years.

Of the Deaths reported abore, the following occurred out of thia Ennmeration Dutrict, though the Vkmilies to which

Namber of the line
upon which

Place where the Death occurred.

the Case ia Beported
abore.

Town.

County.

SUte.

RBMABK8.

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600

MouiT— On the Tenth Geneus

[Dec.

Form for the Statement by Attending Phydcians of the Catuee of Death in
the Cases Reported on pp. 598 and 599.

Number of the

Line on Schedule 6

upon which

thii

Cam it Reported.

1
2
8

4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
80
81
32
88
34
85

Capse of Death.

Primary.

Immediate.

Signatnreof tke
Attending thpiaan.

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1880.] of theUmted States of America. 601

Appendix V.

H.
Dbpabtmbnt of thb Interior.

Census Office^ Washington^ D, 0.,

Uth May, 1880.
Sir,

It is desired to secnre answers to the qnestions in the
annexed schednle concerning the city of , which shall

be as minute and accarate as possible.

Very respectfully yours,

Geo. B. Waring, Jun.,

Uxpert and Special Agent.

(Note. — "Whenever the space allowed in this blank is insuffi-
cient for a full reply, paste in a fly-sheet.)

Sanitary Authority.

What is the title of the chief health organisation ?

Is it an independent board, or is it the board of aldermen or
other body acting as a board of health ?

If an independent board, how many members has it, and what
proportion of them are physicians ?

What is the annual expense of the board when there is no
declared epidemic, and for what uses is the expense incurred ?

To what extent may the board increase its expenses during an
epidemic ?

What is the extent of its authority in the absence of epidemics ?

What during epidemics ?

Please furnish a copy of existing health ordinances.

What is the title, what the salary, and what are the powers and
duties of the chief executive officer of the board ?

What is the mode of transacting the business of the board ?

Please furnish copy of its rules of procedure, if such exist.

What number of assistant health officers and of inspectors are
employed ?

What proportion of them are physicians ?

Have they or any of them police powers P

Of what nature and extent ?

What is the practice concerning inspections, i.e., are they made
regularly, and in all parts of the city, or only as nuisances are
reported ?

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602 MouAT— On the Tenth Census of the United States. [Dec.

When nnisances are reported, what is the procedure concerning^
them?

How is the board appointed, and to what extent is its action
snbject to the control of the city goTemment ?

How often does it^meet ?

What is the custom concerning the inspection and correction of
defective boose drainage, privy vaults, cesspools, sources of drinking
water?

What concerning defective sewerage, street cleaning, &c. ?

What centred does the board exercise over the conservation and
removal of garbage ?

What are the regulations concerning the burial of the dead ?

What are the board's regulations concerning the pollution of
streams and harbours and the removal of excrement ?

Are small pox patients isolated ? If so, in what way ?

Are scarlet fever patients isolated (or quarantined at home), and
in what way ?

Does the board take cognisance of the breaking out of con-
tagions diseases in public and private schools, and to what extent •
does it control the treatment of such cases ?

Is there a public pest house, and where is it situated ?

Is vaccination compulsory ?

Is it done at the public expense ?

What is the system of registration of diseases and births and
deaths?

To whom does the board report ; how often, and how are its
reports published ?

Please state any other interesting or important facts concerning
the public health authority which may be within your knowledge,
and which are not covered by the above interrogatories, noting
especially its relations to the medical profession in your city.

(Date)

{Signature)

(Post Offijoe address)

Discussion on Dr. Mouat's Paper.

Mr. C. Walford said that as the subject of the paper was one in
which he took a deep interest, and on which he had some knowledge,
he wished to make a few observations. He believed it was the first
time that in a comprehensive way the Statistical Society had had
the American method of taking the census explained. About fifteen

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1880.] DisiMssion on Dr. Mouat's Taper, 603

to twenty years ago he had given some outline of the population of
the United States ; but at that time the census was very different.
There was always a very great difficulty experienced in taking the
census of America, in consequence of the scattered population ; and
especially was this the case in the wide tracts of country in the
western States. But one noticeable feature which struck him in
regard to the American census, was the vast intelligence which was
brought to bear upon taking it, and the great interest which was
manifested by the people in regard to it, as well as the readiness
with which they were willing to pay the money required for carry-
ing out the work. The Americans had evinced, the keenest anxiety
to make the census as perfect as possible, as he knew &om special
applications made to himself and others, and whatever suggestion
was made to those in charge of it for the attainment of that object
was most favourably received. He could not help contrasting that
state of things with what had happened in a country nearer home.
He had had the honour of serving on committees of learned societies
in this country, where they had undertaken to make suggestions in
regard to points to be observed in the census enumeration here.
What had oeen the result of those suggestions ? Why, they were
favourably met by the officials, who understood what they were
doing, and were anxious to do all they could for the common good ;
but they had been rejected by Parliament ; not in wisdom, he was
afraid, but in its ntter want of wisdom in this matter. As regarded
the vital statistics as bearing on life insurance, General Walker
was naturally enough desirous of having national life tables, which
might be applied to the purposes of life insurance companies ; but
it must never be forgotten that from the variations of climate, soil,
and character of diseases existing in the United States, no national
table whatever could secure accuracy and reliability. There was a
great difference between the north and west and the south in regard
to these things. At the present time, to show how little tiie remarks
of General Walker could apply to any actual want of a national
table, he might say that twenty leading life insurance companies in
the United States had for the last four or five years had a commis-
sion of actuaries at work, giving all the information required for
the purposes of insurance ; and when they had examined the subject
and tabulated the results, they would furnish a table for the purpose
of life insurance as reliable as any table in this country at the
present time. General Walker was no doubt a very zealous official,
and wished to make a national table because other countries had
one, and indeed there was no reason why there should not be such
a table ; but the reasons assigned for it were not valid ones in a
life insurance sense. Many of the individual States had had effec-
tive tables, which were found very useful. He intended to say
nothing disparaging of General Walker, whom indeed he held in
great admiration.

Mr. E. Hkpplb Hall claimed to be heard on the ground that he
had worked on the United States' census under General Walker,
and he spoke, as they would say, by the " book." He could sub-
scribe to what their friend Dr. Mouat had said, and could fully

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604 Diaoussion on Dr, MotuU^s Paper. [Dec

endorse these words — ^which he took to be the keynote of the whofe
paper — ** the clearness, simplicity, and judgment with wliich the
papers have been prepared." He must, however, take exceptaon to,
and with a great deal of regret, and qaalify these words to some
extent as regards two things. He happened to know something^ of
the means adopted in the preparation of those very voluminous
reports that came to them from year to year from the Statiaticftl
Bureau at Washington, and as Mr. Walford had already said (and
he spoke with a good deal of authority in that respect) as regards
life insurance, these reports were subieot to consideralde qualifi-
cation. He could hardly say much with regard to immigration, but
he had worked thirty years in that field, having made up a consider-
able number of blue books, and he must take very brc«d exception
to the method adopted by General Walker, Mr. Young, and the
others associated with them in that bureau. They all knew of courae
that he spoke entirely on the matter of working. The way in which
those figures were arrived at was not so efficient, orthodox, and
sound as many were apt to suppose from the voluminous schedules
which Dr. Mouat had shown m his portfolio. The method of
gathering statistics in America was most thorough there could he
no question. The schedules were the most perfect that human
ingenuity could devise, but like a beautiful running machine they
would sometimes get off the track; and they got off the track
lamentably, both in regard to vital statistics and immigration, and
especially in regard to the latter for 1881 he felt entitled to state
that the statistics were terribly and widely at fault. He would tell
them why. There was a general tendency in all United States'
statistics to exaggeration. It was quite impossible to keep down
the census returns of the western States. It was a pardonable
vanity on their part. He ^ did not stand there to analyse, dissect,
criticise, or carp at anything in the paper. All that he wished to
say was that they had very great and vital interests hanging upon
the accuracy of every statement that came from the United States
in regard to population, &c., and as a Society it was their duty to
sift and analyse these things as they came to them.

Dr. MouAT replied that some gross errors had crept into the
figures in the tables, which should be duly corrected when the paper
was printed in the Journal, He also defended General Walker in
regard to his remarks on the subjects of life assurance, and the
absence of a reliable life table for the whole of the States, remarking
that no one was more alive to the facts of the different risks to life
firom climate and other causes in different parts of the Union than
the superintendent of the census. The paper was exactly and only
what its title represented, but Dr. Mouat hoped when the census
returns relating to the count of the people was worked out and
published, to prepare an abstract of them for submission to the
Society.

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1880.] 605

" The Obiental Plaqub in its Sogul, Economical, Political, and
" Intibkational Relations, special Bbfbrencb being made to ths
" Laboub^ of John Howard on the subject,^' A Prize Essat,
By Henry Percy Potter, Esq., F.R.C.S., to whom the Howard
Medal of 1880 was Awarded.

CONTENTS :

faoe

Preface 605

1.— Historical Sketch 606

II. — Short Review of Howard's

Biography and Lahonre... 618
III. — Conditions under which the

Plague Arisea ..„ 617

PA0B

IV. — Socially, Religionsly, and

Politically Considered .... 622
V. — Internationally Considered .. 630

Appbkdix.
Tables A to P 633

Preface,

The present Essaj is respectfuUj submitted to the Statistical
Society as a competition for the Howard Medal.

It will doubtless be evident to the reader that many of the sec-
tions have been treated Tery cursorily, but it is hoped that some
approbation will be accorded by the Committee of the Society.

In constructing the different parts of which this contribution is
composed, endeavour has been made to adhere as strictly as possible
to the subject of the title.

The writer feels, howeyer, that some apology is needed on
account of the small amount of statistical matter incorporated in
this small literary production.

It is only necessary to add that frequent reference has been
made to many works treating of the plague, these being specified
at the end of the essay.

The malady known to us as Oriental plague (1^X1/71/, a blow or
wound) has been described under the different appellations of pesti-
lential fever, septic or glandular fever, the black death. Older
writers likewise comprehended in the term plague — brain fever,
influenza, petechial or spotted fever, the epidemic flux and scurvy,
and diphtheria or malignant sore throat. It is of such rare occur-
rence now-a-days that few modem physicians have had the oppor-
tunity of examining or reporting upon a case. There is no doubt
that occasionally individuals suffering from a form of this disease
present themselves at the hospitals in those districts of the Levant

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606 POTTIR— On " the OrimtaL Plague in Us Social^ [Dec

in which ^alty sanitary oonditdonB prevail.* But epidemics of this
disease are now fortunately very infrequent ; it may be looked upon
as one of the greatest natural calamities that ever afflicted the
human race.

When we investigate the geographical range of the Oriental
plague, we find that epidemics have chiefly originated in the eastern
parts of Europe and western Asia, although the disease cazmot be
said to be indigenous to any one country. From this central
source it has spread eastward to China, and westward to Greece,
Italy, France, Germany, and the British Isles. It is exceedingly
doubtful if any large epidemics have occurred independent of actual
importation. It is generally supposed to be an exotic disease.

I—Hietoricdl SJceieh,

Great antiquity attaches to the Oriental plague. The first suc-
cinct account of ^e signs of this malady was given by Thucjdides
the historian and Lucretius the poet, who describe its characteristics
with much ability when treating of the plague of Athens. This
plague broke out in the year 428 B.C., during a siege when the city
was safTering from famine and overcrowding of human beings. It
is said to have originated in Ethiopia ; it then devastated Egypt
and Lybia, and finally struck the Grecian capital.

Lucretius gives the following account of its ravages : —

Frimeipio caput iufentum, ^e.

** First fierce utnuual heaU did seize the head.
The glowing eyes with bloodshot beams kx>k'd red.
The mouth and jaws were filled with clotted blood.
The throat with sores, the tongue could speak no more ;
But orerflow'-d and drown'd in putrid gore
Grew useless, rongh, and scarce oou'd make a moan.
And scarce eiyoy'd the wretched power to groan ;
Next thro' the jams the plagoe did reach the breast.
And then the heart, the seat of life possessed ;
Tlien life hegan to fail, strange stinks did come,
From every putrid hreast as from a tomh ;
The body weak, the kind did sadly wait.
And fear'd but could not fiy approaching fiite.
To these first pains were join'd continual care
And sad complainings, groans, and deep despair;
Tormenting, vexing sobe, and deadly sighs
Which rais'd cowoulsions, broke the vital ties
Of mind and limbs, and so the patient dies."

* The author when at Alexandria in 1877, was furnished with opportunities of
seeing several individuals who were the victims of large elevated patches on the
skin, accompanied with fever which was sud to be contagions. The disease only
existed in those squalid portions of tbe town so well knov^-n to eastern travellers.

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1880.] Economiedl, FoUtioal, and IntemaUonal EdaUons,'* 607

It is with a description of the plagae that Homer begins his
sublime poem ; and the noblest of Grecian tragedies (the (Edipns
Tyramnns of Sophocles) is commenced in a similar manner ; and
in both cases contagion is the immediate messenger of heavenlj
wrath.

" In the reign of Marcns Anrelins, A.n. 167, the real Oriental
" plagoe was carried into Europe by the army returning from the
" Parthian war, and spread all over the western world, Asia,
" Ghreece, Italy, Gaul, Ac, Africa alone was perhaps not reached
" by it. This pestilence must have raged with considerable fury,
'^ and it carried off innumerable victims. As the reign of Marcus
" Aurelius forms a turning point in so many things, and above all
" in literature and art, we have no doubt that this crisis was
^' brought about by that plague. The happiness of M. Aurelius
'* was thus disturbed by the plague, which was carried into Europe
*' from the east, and by the wars with the Germans. It increased
'' in the reign of Decius, that is from a.d. 256. During the
" ravages made by the barbarians it spread all over the empire ; it
" now raged in Africa and Egypt, and became settled." — Niebuhb,
Hist, Bome, vol. v.

The fatal plague of Athens is said to have been put an end to
by Hippocrates, who lighted immense fires in the chief thorough-
fares.

Procopias, a Greek Byzantine historian, gives the history of a
plague in the year 542 A.D., which lasted to a greater or less extent
for half a century.

Agathius, another Greek historian who lived about the same
time, gives an account of the plague at Byzantium.

The first epidemic of plague in this nation occurred in the year
447 i.D. ; it passed thence to France, chiefly attacking Paris in 583.
This disease was termed by the French " plague in the groin," from
the fact of the glands in that region being usually affected.

At least ten plagues are recorded in the sacred history of the
Jews, and thirty-two plagues in the history of Rome, before the
Christian era. During the early history of Greece many epidemics
of pestilence and famine attacked the country ; the plague of Athens
was amongst these. The Roman empire was devastated by the
disease in the second and third centuries, and by the Egyptian
plague twice about the middle of the sixth century.*

Other epidemics of this disease occurred in various parts of
Europe in 1048, 1086, 1093, 1247, 1259, 1315, and in 1348 an
epidemic pestilence began in China, passed through Asia into Greece
and Florence. This malady, undoubtedly an aggravated form of
the plague, was called the "black death," or "great mortality."
• " PubUc Health," by Wm. A. Guy, 1870.
VOL. XLIII. PART IV. 2 S

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608 PoTxra— On " the Oriental Plague m U$ Social, [Dec

It was accompanied bj the nsnal sjmptoms of inflammatioii and
tamours of the glands, spots, fever, and discharges of blood from
the langs ; it began in the east, and passed on nnintermptedl^ to
all countries in western Europe, and reached London in November,
1348, and lasted for several years. At least ioo,cxx) persons were
lost, of whom 50,000 were buried in Smithfield. The scourge
destroyed three-fourths of the people in places where it was most
virulent.

*' In 1418 Strasburgh was visited by the ' dancing plague/ and
'* the same infatuation existed amongst the people there as in tlie
" towns of Belgium and the Lower Rhine A.D. 1374. Many who
*' were seised on seeing the afflicted excited attention at first by their
'* confused and absurd behaviour, and then by their constantly fol*
*' lowing the swarms of dancers. These were seen day and night
" passing through the streets, accompanied by musicians playing^ on
" bagpipes and by innumerable spectators attracted by curiosity, to
** whom were added anxious parents and relations who came to look
*' after those among the misguided multitude who belonged to their
'^ respective families.

** Imposture and profligacy played their part in this city also,
'* but the morbid delusion itself seemed to have predominated. On
*' this account religion could only bring provisional aid, and there-
" fore the town council benevolently took an interest in the afflicted ;
" they divided them into several parties, to each of which they
" appointed responsible superintendents to protect them from harm,
" and perhaps also to restrain their turbulence. They were thus
'* conducted on foot and in carriages to the chapels of St. Vitus,
*' near Zabem, and Rotestein, where priests were in attendance to
'* influence their misguided minds by masses and other religious
'* ceremonies. After divine worship was completed, they were led
*' in solemn procession to the altar, where they made some small
" offering of alms, and where it is probable many, through the
*^ influence of devotion and the sanctity of the place, were cured of
" this lamentable aberration." — Dr. Bascombb.

From England the black death was carried to Norway, thence
to Poland and Russia, where it commenced with spitting of blood,
and proved fatal in two days.

In 1361 the " second pestilence " commenced its ravages, and in
1369 the " third pestilence " occurred with renewed vigour.

In the fourteenth century a quarter of the population of the
old world was swept away in four years, and England lost more
than double that proportion in a few months.

Epidemics of Oriental plague were noted in 1407, 1427, and
1478, and during the fifteenth century the plague broke out seven-
teen times in different parts of Europe.

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1880.] Economical^ PoUUccdy and Intematumal Bdations.** 609

In 1485 it assumed a different character, and was termed the
*' sweating sickness.*' This disease was eminently malignant, inso-
mnch that in those who were attacked scarcely one in a hondred
escaped with his life. Milan was grievoasly inflicted with the
disease in this year.

In 1489 no fewer than 17,000 of the troops of Ferdinand, then
besieging Oranada, were destroyed by a fever, which the Spaniards,
from its spotted character, styled " El Tabardiglio." The disease
revived in 1505, and was distinguished by pungent heat of the
body but no thirst, foul tongue, and intense weariness.

The sweating sickness, which seems to have been a form of the
plague (although easily distinguishable from the true Oriental
disease), reappeared in western Europe in 1517, and in 1525 it
marched to Lower Germany, the Low Countries, Holland, Denmark,
and France, and another epidemic occurred in 1528, and was followed
in 1531 by the plague in France ; in 1539 at Basle, in Switzerland ;
in 1542 at Breslau, whereof nearly 6,000 persons died in twenty- two
weeks ; and in 1543 London was the victim of the disease.

" Between the years 1550-54, during a season of great scarcity
" and a consequent crowded state of the large towns, a fever pre-
'* vailed in Tuscany, and destroyed upwards of 100,000 persons.
'* About the same time (1552) a similar fever devastated the army
'* of the Emperor Charles V during the siege of Meta. The disease
*' was so fatal that 500 or 600 people died daily in a city, and scarcely
" half-a-dozen of those attacked recovered." — Andreas Gratioli.

It was not until the year 1563 that an epidemic of plague
attacked Normandy. It first made its appearance at Havre-de-
Grace, and wa» probably brought there by ihe crew of a vessel from
the East. The disease soon became rife in England, and at London
it raged to such an extent as to destroy 20,156 inhabitants.

In 1566 the notorious morbus hungaricus appeared in the
Hungarian army of Maximilian II, and thence spread over the
greater part of Europe, but was most fatal at Vienna. Here the
disease was unprecedented, and was of an exceediugly contagious
type; amongst its symptoms were intense headache, followed by
delirium, a dry, black tongue, and abscesses of the neck.

This happened during great scarceness of money and the famine.
The next year Constantinople, Alexandria, Lydia, Dantzic, Vienna,
and Cologne were visited by the disease.

The plague next appeared in 1570 in Italy ; in 1576 at Venice,
where it raged furiously, and in the year 1588 it prevailed again at
Basle.

Then after a period of quiescence in 1598 London was smitten,
where 17,890 persons died, including the lord mayor and three
aldermen.

282

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610 POTTBR— On " the Orimtal Plague in, Ub SocM, []>»c.

In 1596 and 1597 the disease was rife in Westphalia, Oologne,
Waldeck, and Hesse; this malignant fever being attended wHh
oonvnlsions, delirinm, and deafoess, and began with lividitj of iiie
hands and feet, fainting, and sadden cramping pains in the Hmbs
and belly.

With the beginning of the seventeenth century the havoc
oontinned amongst the population, for in 1603 we are told 36,269
died of the Oriental plague in London. In 1625 it raged for eigki
months in London, and reached its climax in the month of August ;
4^51 3 persons succumbed to its unmitigated fury, and in 1696 fuDy
10,400.

In many of the intermediate years the deaths from pestilsnoe
amounted to 2,000, 5,000, or even 4,000, and upwards.

Other epidemics of plague visited Europe in 1636 (cfaiefiy at
Nimeguen) and 1640.

In 1643 the people were attacked with delirium, diarrhcsa, oon-
rulsions, and profuse sweats, and in 1656 (chiefly at Naples).
This, like other epidemics, was attended with greater Vitality in the
summer months.

We now come to the great plague of London, which broke out
in December, 1664, during a season of extreme cold, and t«ged with
great ftiry and alarm in August and September, 1665. It lasted
for one year, during which period 68,596* persons perished. The
disproportionate mortality from the plague for this year is shown in
the fact that in the previous year (16< i4) only six persons died from
the disease, the year following the great plague 1,998 persons, and
the year after that only 35. London is said to have lost more than
•ne-fif th part of its inhabitants, and was not absolutely free from
the plague till the year 1680.

In continuing the review of the plague's history in the eighteenth
century, we are informed that the plague in 1710 increased tiie
mortality in many parts of Europe, notably the eastern portion.
The next year it made its appearance for the first time in Denmark,
and spread thence to Bohemia and Germany.

The great plague of Marseilles broke out with great rapidity in
1720, and appears to be distinctly traced to the sailors of a vessal
from the Levant. This epidemic, which lasted eighteen ntonths,
destroyed 80,000 persons. The disease under consideratiion re-
appeared at Vienna in 1713, and showed itself at Aleppo in 1742, at
Messina in 1743, in the Levant from 1759-63, at Holstein in 1764,
at Moscow in 1771, at Malta in 1813.

Upper Egypt was the site of the plague in 1801, when 60,000
individuals perished, in six days 150 soldiers at Cairo lost tlieir

* Lord Clapondon says, that " many who could compute very well, concliidad
** there were in truth double that number who died." — Sistoty of his Own Life.

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1880.] Economiealy Political^ and IfUemtUiondl EelaHomJ' 611

lives, and in whioli town 40,000 persons were attacked bj it. Tke
epidemic reduced the Egyptian garrison 4,000 strong to 1,500 in
less than a montk

It would appear that authors of the present day look upon the
disease known as typhus as being closely related with the plague
of the middle ages.* The conditions giving rise to the former
disease are similar to those propagating or favouring the plague ;
many of the symptoms are common to both, and both diseases occur
in widespread epidemics. The plague of the torrid is probably
identical with typhus of the temperate climes, and some two
centuries back an epidemic of typhus would have been designated
plague.t

The Oriental disease has not been seen in England for two
oenturies, but it prevails occasionally in Egypt and the east. It
has appeared in the present century at the Russian ports in the
Black Sea. Western Europe has not been visited by the malady
since the serious epidemics which occurred in Provence in the years
1720 and 1721, In this century plague epidemics have broken out
principally in south-eastern Europe, and particularly in the countries
borderixig on the lower Danube and the Black Sea, and also in the
Balkan peninsula, all those places having been repeatedly visited
during the second and third decades.

In 1813 it appeared in Malta and GU)so, killing between 4,000
and 5,000 people. Later still it invaded in 1816 Noja (Calabria),
in 1818 Corfu, in 1819 Silesia, and lastly in 1828-29 it devastated
the Russian army in Bulgaria, whilst there is reason to believe
there have been yet more recently at Odessa cases of true Oriental
plague. In many of these places the disease was new to the oldest
physicians living. It had not been seen in Moscow for one
hundred and fifty years, nor in Malta for one hundred and thirty-
seven years, so that we dare not say that England is perfectly safe
from fature infection. Given a tropical summer, a cargo of plague-

* The nosological definition of the plague by Dr. Callen, ia perhaps at correct
as can be given in a few words : — " A typhus fever, in the highest degree cob-
*' tagioQs, and aooompanied with extreme debility ; on an uncertain day of the
" disease, there is an eruption of buboes or carbuncles."

The opinion that plague and typhus are types of tho same disease is
strengthened by the authority of Dr. Mackenzie, who resided tliirty years at Con-
stantinople. ** The annual pestilential fever of that phtce," he observes, ** very
" much resemUes that of our gaola and crowded hospitals, and is only called
" plague when attended with buboes and carbuncles."

Sir John Pringle too observes *' that tliough the hospital or gaol fever may
" differ in species from the true plague, yet it may be accounted of the same
" geous, as il seema to proceed ixom a like cause, and is attended with similar
" symptoms."

t An epidemic disease called typhus, was noted in England in 1809-16, another
in 1826*28, and again in 1836, 1848, 1846-48. l^phns likewise occurred after
the capture of Sebastopol in 1854-60, especially in the French and Rnanan armies.

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612 Potter — On " the Orteivtal Plag^ie in its Social^ [Dec.

stricken passengers, and an unhealthy, badly-managed port, the
plague may yet be revived.

Since 1841 Europe has remained almost free from the plague,
and since 1843 it has not even occurred in Asiatic Turkey, nor in
Egypt since 1844.

The plague appeared in Mesopotamia in the winter 1878-74,
and slightly each succeeding winter until that of 1876-77, when it
sprung anew into activity. In south-western Persia a severe out-
break took place at Shuster, upwards of 2,000 persons being killed
by the malady. The loss of life from the plague in Meeopotatnia in
1876 has been estimated at 20,000. It appeared at Besht, a town
lying between Teheran and the Caspian, in 1877. This outbreak
was the most serious and fatal that has occurred since the plague,
after having apparently become extinct in 1844, has again taken its
place among modem pestilences.

*' If this country has been so long forsaken by the plague as
" almost to have forgotten, or at least to be unwilling to own its
'* natural offspring, it is because the parent has been disgusted with
" the circumstances under which that hatefal birth was brought to
" light, has removed the filth from their doord in which it was
^' matured, and has adopted a system of cleanliness fatal to its
" nourishment at home. But if ever this &voured country, now
** grown wise by experience, should relapse into former errors, and
'' recur to her odious habits as in past ages, it is not to be doubted
'' that a mutual recognition will take place, and she will again be
*' revisited by her abandoned child, who hafi been wandering a
" fugitive among kindred associates, sometimes in the mud cots of
" Egypt, sometimes in the crowded tents of Barbary, and some-
" times in the filthy kaisarias of Aleppo." — Hancock.

From this history we learn that in no era of the world has
society been exempted from epidemics of fever or plague ; but it
has always committed its chief ravages at those distressing junc-
tures when war and scarcity had been extending the dominion of
evil beyond its ordinary limits. For example, after every eruption
of the Goths into the Boman provinces, epidemics were sure to
follow, and to thin the remains of population which the sword had
spared. Indeed, on most occasions of general or local calamity,
whether in ancient or modem times, contagion has made known its
destructive presence, and in this way has the poison been per-
petuated from age to age and from year to year. From the
remotest times down to the present day it has been reproduced an
infinite number of times, and in an infinite variety of constitutions,
without any perceptible alteration in its character or laws. Some-
times it has extended only to a few, at other times it has spread
among multitudes; yet, with whatever scope of operation it has

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1880.] Economicaly Poltticaly and International ftelations,*^ 613

appeared, whether ravaging a kingdom or confined to a hamlet — ^it
has never become wholly extinct, and has worked as a &tal spark
among the neglected embers of society, ready to bnrst forth into a
blaze at every favourable opportunity.

Dr. August Hirsch and Dr. M. Sommerbrodt, in connection
with Dr. B. Kussner of Halle, formed a medical commission, sent
by the German government into the province of Astrakan to make
inquiry concerning the outbreak of plague. They reached the seat
of prevalence of the disease at an earlier period than the British
medical commissioners (Mr. W. H. Colvill and Dr. J. P. Payne), but
all too late to make personal acquaintance with the disease ; but the
Germans were more fortunate in obtaining details as to its history,
character, and progress. The plague broke out in October, 1878,
and lasted till the end of January, 1879 ; it appeared in six places,
but in one only — ^in Vetlianka — assumed an epidemic form. There
appears to have been a direct transmission of plague from Besht to
the Volga.

II. — Short Review of Howa/rtTs Biogrofphy and Labowrs,

Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century a stimulus
was given to those interested in the welfare of the populace by the
exertions of John Howard. This man made himself acquainted
with the conditions of the prisons not only in his own country, but
with those on the continent and elsewhere.

Commonly characterised by the epithet of the philanthropist,
Howard was the son of an upholsterer in St. Paul's Churchyard.
He was bom in 1726, and put an apprentice to a grocer in Watling
Street. His father bequeathed to him a handsome fortune, and he
applied himself to the study of medicine and natural philosophy.
An acquaintance describes him as of low stature, with a speaking
benevolence of countenance. In his manners he was modest and
unassuming, and in his pursuits, steady, diligent, and active.

He was not characterised by noble birth. Placed in the world with
no special natural advantages, he soon learnt how to make them for
himself. John Howard, the great philanthropist of the future, in
his youth had not the benefit of robust health, nor does he seem to
have possessed many of those qualities which are often conspicuous
in men destined to become great in the eyes of the world. He was
no genius in the common acceptation of the term ; he had not even
a liberal education ; but few men could boast of a larger amount of
common sense, and power to bring the fruits of observation into
practice than Howard.

Hq was in no respect an ordinary character. There was a
simplicity attendant on his mode of acting and thinking, even in
the more private relations of life. To the opinion of the world he

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6U T(yrnv^On *' ike OrienMFlagMe in %i$ Social, p3ec.

paid little attention, provided he had the approbation of kia ocm-
loience. Duty, and dnty alone, seems from the earliest period at
which we are acquainted with his history to have been the sole
director of his actions.

Personal experience with the woes of life is calculated to create
in one, who is sensitiye to their efiects, a deep sense of commisermtiott
for those who have to endnre them.

Urged by motives of benevolenoe and cariosity, and aealona im
the search of tmth, he resolved to proceed along the path which Im
had already entered in prosecuting his investigations.

He set sail for Lisbon, bnt on his retnm he was taken prisoaer
and incarcerated in France. Before he reached Brest, says he, in
his " Treatise on Prisons," p. 11, " I snfiFered the extremity of thiral,
'* not having for above forty hours one drop of water, nor hardlj a
*' morsel of food. In the easUe of Brest 1 lay six nights npon
** straw, and observing how cruelly my countrymen were need
** there and at Marlaix, I corresponded with the English prisoners
'^ at Brest and Marlaix. 1 had sufficient evidence of their being
'* treated with such barbarity that many hundreds bad perished,
** and that thirty-six were buried in a hole at Dinan in one day."
'' Perhaps,*' adds Howard, ^ what I suffered on this ocoasion
*' increased my sympathy with these unhappy people.'* The hard-
ship which he underwent, combined with the knowledge of prisons
and the miseries of prison life which he had acquired as a county
sheriff in 1773 and afterwards, determined him in devoting himself
to prison reform. Sympathy for his countrymen was thus excited,
and when freed from his bonds he made himself heard by the
nation ; he pleaded not for redress, but for pity on his compatriots*
The nucleus to the collection of Howard's acts of beneficence is
exemplified by the treatment of his tenants at Cardington, near
Bedford. After his liberation from prison life, he first paid hia
attention to the state of the buildings upon his land. Cottage
after cottage was demolished to give room to healthier tenements,
to increase the house comforts and pleasure of those who dwelt in
them, to mitigate disease, in a word to improve the condition of the
people. He was probably the first builder of model cottages, and
recognising the want of a proper system of education among the
paupers of the village, he erected a school for boys and one for
girls.

In the capacity of high sheriff of the county of Bedford, to
which he was api>ointed in 1773, John Howard's exertions testified
that he was a man of considerable energy. Having at heart the
relief of the oppressed, he lost no time in examining the condition
of the prisons in his county. Thus came to light the abuses prac>
tised in the jails, the disregard to deauliness and consequent ilL

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1880.] Economical^ PoiUictdj and IntemaUonal Bdaiions.** 615

health of ihe captives. The office of sberifi brought the distress of
the prisoners more under his notice. At the jail at Brest he observed
sach scenes of calamity as he had before no conception of. He
inspected the prisons in some neighbouring counties, and finding in
them equal room for complaint, he determined to visit the principal
prisons in England. The farther he proceeded the more shocking
were the scenes he discovered, which induced him to exert himself
to the utmost for a general reform in these places of confinement,
eonsidering it as of the highest importance, not only to the
wretched objects themselves, but to the community at large. He
thus introduced a thorough reform of morals into our prisons,
in which he had found the most flagrant vices to prevail in such a
degree that they were both seminaries of wickedness and viUany.

Having compiled certain facts in regard to the existing abuses,
he petitioned the House of Commons, which passed Acts of Parlia«
ment in 1774 for the better condition of the jails and bridewells
with their inmates. Based on Howard's communication to the
House, two new Bills were passed. The first Bill provided for the
liberation, free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the
grand jury failed to find a true bill, giving the jailer a sum from
the county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. The second Bill
required justices of the peace to see that the walls and ceilings of
all prisons within their jurisdiction were scraped and whitewashed
once a year at least, that the rooms were regularly cleaned and venti-
lated, that infirmaries were provided for the sick, and proper care
taken to get them medical advice, that the naked should be clothed,
that tinderground dungeons should be used as Uttle as could be, and
generally such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and
preserve the health of the prisoners.

Howard seems to have been single-handed in these acts of bene-
Yolence, for we do not read of any other sherifis or persons of high
position striving to improve the sanitary arrangements of these
''pest-houses,'* in which jail fever prevailed to such an alarming
degree. This jail distemper was all but unknown a few years after
the passing of the Act, so stringently were the measures adopted to
exterminate this disease through Howard's intercedence.

The French jails underwent a careful inspection by himself, and
great improvements were made in their condition. In his visit to
the lazaretto at Marseilles, he ran many risks of being captured
and imprisoned in the Bastile. He disguised himself as a French
physician, obtained admission to the lazaretto, although the police
were on the look-out for him with a description of his person in
their hands.

Throughout Howard's labours, whether on behalf of institutions
in distant lands or at home, we cannot fail to observe the wondrous

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616 Potter— 0» " the Oriental Plague in its Social^ [Dec

resnlts which were manifested to large masses of the commnnity,
irrespective of party feeling or exhibiting favour to small sections.
His work was a comprehensive grand scheme to benefit majikind,
and this he effected by striking out boldly at the root of the eviL

Although John Howard had not passed through a medical cor-
rioulnm, he was entrusted by Dr. Aikin and Dr. Jebb to make
himself acquainted with the nature of the Oriental plague. Having
visited Marseilles, Vienna, Smyrna, Italy, &c., and induced the
most eminent practitioners to answer certain specific questions y^ih
which he was furnished by those at home, he presented a report to
the above-named physicians on the plague as he found it in the
East. The facts, or rather opinions, which he thus collected were
necessarily more or less contradictory. The report which he drew
up and published in 1789 had reference to the following : —

1. That the plague is contagious and may be communicated by
near approach to, or actual contact with, infected persons or things,
and by the inhalation of air impregnated with plague poison.

2. That the disease has not been known to arise spontaneously
except by Verdoni and by StoU, of Vienna, who doubted whether it
could be considered as contagious.

8. That the interval between the infection and disease is about
two days.

4. That the spring is the principal season in which it makes its
first appearance.

6. That it was known to have originated in Egypt.

Howard also makes mention of the symptoms, treatment, pro-
portion of deaths, usual length of the disease, and the means to be
had recourse to for its prevention.

In his second tour in the East, having spent some time at
Cherson — a Russian settlement on the Dnieper — he caught a
malignant fever in visiting the Russian hospital, which carried him
ofE on the 20th of January, after an illness of about twelve days.
And surely, if the devotion of time, strength, fortune, and, finally,
life to the sole service of his fellow creatures merits a token of
esteem, it was deserved by one who (to adopt the ezpresAve words
of Burke) visited all Europe and the East, ''not to survey the
" sumptuousness of palaces, or the stateliness of temples, nor to make
'' accurate measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to
" form a scale of the curiosity of modem art, nor to collect medals
" or to collate manuscripts, but to dive into the depths of dungeons,
'' to plunge into the infection of hospitals, to survey the mansions
'' of sorrow and of pain, to take the gauge of and dimensions of
" misery, depression and contempt, to remember the forgotten, to
" attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and to compare and
*' collate the distresses of all men in all countries. His plan is

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1880.] Economical^ Political^ and IntemaUonal BeloHons,** 617

" original, and is as fall of genius as it is of hnmanify. It is a
" vojage of discovery, a circumnavigation of charitj, and already
" the benefit of his labours is felt more or less in every country."

It is not a matter of surprise that a man who worked with the
energy, and exposed himself to a multiplicity of sources of
contagion (as John Howard was known to have done), that he
should have caught the fever. Such is the case, and much may it
be deplored. In the faithful discharge of his duties in Russia,
Howard fell a sacrifice to the fever; he was stricken with the
disease from which he never recovered, and died in 1790 as a
martyr at his post, regretted by his countrymen, and leaving
behind him an example of combined love and labour, which few
could imitate and still less work to the same advantage as this
noble philanthropist.

•* We utrive
In offices of love, how we may lighten
Each others burden in onr share of woe." — MiLTOSr.

in. — Conditions imder which the Plague Arises,

Having reviewed briefly the past history of the Oriental plague,
and the indefatigable labours of John Howard, it is necessary,
before we consider the subject socially and internationally, to speak
of the conditions giving rise to outbreaks of this disease.

It is now generally accepted that plague was an exceedingly
contagious disorder, facta in support of this have been handed down
to us by those who first recognised and described the disease, correct
notions of contagion have descended from remote antiquity. Dr.
Blackmore, in 1721, said "contagious particles may lodge in gar-
'* ments, raggs, and pieces of stuffs, in girdles of leather, &c. If
" they are placed in secret places from which the air is excluded,
" and if exposed to the air many years afterwards, will exert their
" contagion, and revive the plague."

During epochs in which g^ss superstition and ignorance pre-
vailed, physicians were not reticent in assigning as a cause of the
pestilence certain oosmical influences. The plague, as many other
diseases, was looked upon as being due to changes relating to the
world, or the whole system of visible bodies including the earth and
stars. Although this reflects no discredit on that age, we in modem
times have abandoned the hypothesis that " superhuman and astral
" influences," " telluric changes," and " terrestrial corruptions," can
Jiave any bearing upon the causation of malignant diseases, nor
can we give credence to planetary conjunctions, " the grand cou-
" junctions of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars," as being in any way
connected with the origin of Oriental plague.

*' Amongst natural causes," says Dr. Hodges, in his *' Letter to

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618 PoTTEB— 0« '' the Oriental Plague in ite Social, [Dec:

" a Person of Quality," '* tbe conjnnoiions of some planets, (
*^ comets, and snch like appearances in the beavena, are by manj
" accused as the anthors of the plague, and upon this acooiuit aome
** addicted to astrology, observing such appearances the fcH-e^ing
** years, have confidently asserted that onr pest was the issoe of
" these malevolent inflnenoes."

Dryden thns allndes to the malignant influence of the oomets,
in his " Annus Mirabilis,*' v. 291 :—

" The utmost malice of tbe stars is past,
And two dire comets which have seourged the town
In their own plsgue and fire have brsathed their last*
Or dimly in their sinking sockets frown."

It is doubtful whether all or any of these phenomena^ mpmri
from the distress and mental agitation and depression they wonkl
occasion, had any share whatever in even acting as predisposing
causes.

The influences which g^ve rise to the origin of the disorder are
obscure.

Gtden, an eminent anatomist and physician, supposed that a
^ pestilential atmosphere " caused a putrid corruption of the blood,
which was communicated to the whole body, therefore he recom-
mends the burning of large fires to purify the air.

The contagiousness of leprosy was known to physicians of Hkm
second century, and hence they prohibited communication between
the sick and healthy. Plato recognised the contagious power of
ophthalmia, and so in the fourteenth century Pope Qement YI ahut
himself up in his house and was one of the few persons saved.

It is both interesting and instructive to notice the meaas
adopted to prevent contagion in the year 1374 Plague patients
were to be exposed to the air to die or recover. Those who bad
been in attendance upon the patient were to remain apart from
others for ten days, not being allowed to have personal intercourse
during this time. The importation of the disease being traced to a
certain individual, that person to have his goods confiscated. Under
penalty of death only those who were certified were allowed to
attend plague patients, as it was known that the exhalatdons of the
affected became the germs of a similar decomposition in thoae
bodies which receive them and produce in these a like attack.

In 1399 injunctions were published to the eSect that the dtj
gates should be strictly guarded against strangers, that infected
houses should be ventilated for ten days and purified by fires,
rushes, straw, and clothes of the plague patients burned, and bed-
steads disinfected in the sunshine.

Of tbe active nature of the contagion, the following passages
from Hecker will give a striking idea. " Every spot which the

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1880.] Economical^ PoUHcal, and IniemaMonal Bdations.** 619^

** fick had toached, their breath, their clothes, spread the oon-
^ tagion, and in all other places, the attendants and friends who
** were either blind to their natnre or heroioallj despised it, fell a
" sacrifice to their sympathy. Even the eyes of the patient were
** considered as sonrcee of contagion, which had the power of acting
*' at a distance, either on account of their nnwonted lustre or the
'^ distortion which they always suffer in plague, or in oonformiiy
" with an ancient notion, according to which the sight was con-
'' sidered as a bearer of a demoniacal excitement."

The pestilential breath of the sick, who expectorated blood,
caused a terrible contagion far and near, for even the vicinity of
those who had fallen ill of plague was certain death, so that parents
abandoned their infected children, and all the ties of kindred were
dissolved. .

In all attacks of the plague, a disease among domestic animals
of a similar nature has appeared ; it is probable that it is communi-
cable to animals. '* Boccaccio himself saw two hogs on the rags of
*' a person who had died of plague, after staggering about for a
'* short time, fbll down dead as if they had taken poison. In other
" places multitudes of dogs, cats, fowls and other animals fell
" victims to the contagion, and it is to be presumed that other
*' epizootics among animals likewise took place, although the
'' ignorant writers of the fourteenth century are silent on this
** point."— Heckib.*

All the signs of Oriental plague sometimes exhibit themselves
in a country without it being possible to trace its origin to any
foreign source, and there can be little doubt that a few isolated oases
and mild epidemics have arisen independently of transportation.
We find that the plague is not so eminently contagious where it
fails to meet with a suitable soil, and that even in some cases it
may originate spontaneously. Plague is known to have frequently
returned to England till the latter end of the seventeenth century.
There has been a total absence of genuine Oriental plague since,
notwithstanding th^ great increase of trade by which it was sup-
posed to be imported. The improved condition of our quarantine
laws are surely inadequate to produce such immunity. Have the

• The writer of a History of Cholera, published in the " Lancet," 1834, says :
" From the earliest times it has been a matter of common observation that plagues
" and mnrrains among the lower animals, not unfreqoentlj either preceded or
" accompanied the TisitAtions to which mankind were soljected. Thai at the
" siege of Troy, we are told by Homer : —

'/itrd i* ihv li|C€*
Actvi} ik KKayyri yivtr dpyvpioio /3(o7o.
Ovpijac fiiv wpwrov twtaxfrot Kal Kvvac ipyovQ •
AvTCLp lircir* a^roZ^t fiiXoQ l^f xf vcic l^if i; *

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620 Potter — On " the Oriental Plague in its Social, [Dec-

laws of qnarantine exempted ns for more than two hnndred jears ?
The plague as well as other pntrid diseases, prevailed to a very high
degree in places where we know the condition of the towns to hare
been most offensively dirty, and it is instmctive to observe how the
health of the inhabitants returned in proportion as this cause of
their complaints was removed. In September, 1666, w^ile the
plague was yet unsubsided, happened the memorable fire of
London ; it raged several days together, and consumed everything
from the Tower to Temple Bar. The tenements of the people and
city generally were subsequently much improved, and we hear of
very few cases of plague in the year succeeding the fire, ali^ngh
it is palpable there must have been many persons left who were
capable of disseminating the disease.

The plague was known in Europe before nations werp united by
the bonds of commerce and social intercourse, hence it may be
assumed that it sprung up spontaneously.

" The epidemics of 1626 and 1636 broke out in Whitechi^>el,
" — that part of the town which was most densely crowded and
" abounding in filthy dwellings. That of 1665 broke out first at
" St. Giles', which at that time consisted of the most squalid habi-
" tations for the poor." — Hebebden, 1801. Is it not credible that
filth generates disease P

Let us now look briefly into the social relations of this disease,
and discuss the conditions under which it may arise. It will
perhaps not be out of place in this essay to cite the following con-
clusions : —

1. Plague having shown itself in a house or locality, usually
disseminates itself with great rapidity.

2. The chances of the disease spreading is in direct proportion
to the degree of intercouiBe between the healthy and the sick.

8. Healthy individuals living in places where the plague is
unknown are attacked on visiting infected persons at a distance.

4. Plague is likely to be imported by infected persons into locali-
ties previously free from it. It is probable that many epidemics
of plague visiting countries remote from that originally affected
have arisen, in the first place, in seaport towns, having been
brought in the same way as in typhus fever, by an infected crew.

5. The success attending the measures taken to prevent its pro-
pagation, more especially the early removal of the sick, is a strong
argument in favour of the contagiousness of the plague.

Plague is known to be transmitted by the exhalations from the
skin and lungs, actual contact being unnecessary; articles of
clothing strongly impregnated with the poison are also potent
means of communicating the disease.

The history of all the great epidemics of plague points to their

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1880.] Economical, Foliiicaly cmd Intemationdl BdaHons.** 621

having chiefly affected those parts of towns in which faulty hygienic
conditions prevailed, where there existed the greatest overcrowding
and deficient ventilation. Heberden thus describes Cairo : — " Grand
** Cairo is crowded by a vast number of inhabitants, who for the
" most part live very poorly and nastily. The streets are very
** narrow and 4close ; twenty or thirty persons live in one small
'* house. It is situated in a sandy plain, at the foot of a mountain,
" preventing a free circulation of air. A great canal passes through
'* it, and this often quite dried up. Into it people throw filth,
'* carrion, and the stench is insufferably offensive. Plague returns
'* every year."

Proof is not wanting of the susceptibility to disease of people in
towns the subject of famine and destitution ; moreover, it is quite
possible that filth may be under the above conditions a cause of
maladies akin to the plague. Two centuries ago there were no
greater hotbeds of plague than the jails of England, but, thanks to
the philanthropy of Howard, the nation is now freed from such an
imputation. One important cause of the plague making such
rapid strides was the want of hospitals, or, as they were then
called, *' pest-houses.*' This want led to the disease spreading from
infects persons to many or even all the inmates of the same
house.

Our streets in London at the time of the plague were narrow,
dark, and badly paved, the roads being covered with clay and
rubbish, which necessarily absorbed much of the drainage from
the houses. The sewers were above ground, and the supply of
water to them very inadequate. The houses were badly constructed,
and the floors covered with layers of rushes, which were allowed to
remain undisturbed for twenty years or more, concealing dirt, and
from which putrescent odours were exhaled. As regards the diet
and living of the poor, these were rude and gross, and intemperance
was too well known ; the clothing of the people was far too cum-
brous.* Thus, water supply, ventilation, and drainage were insuffi-
cient, and the removal of offensive matters was entirely neglected.

This is the position of Ireland preceding an epidemic of fever
(a modified form of plague) : Ireland in 1797 was convulsed by
internal rebellion ; the upper and lower classes espoused opposite
political opinions, and were arrayed against each other. The con-
sequence was that the management of the large estates fell into the
hands of agents who knew little about the tenantry, many of whom
were deprived of employment. To complete the distressing history,
there was a succession of bad harvests. An uncommon quantity
of rain fell during the summer and autunm of 1797, which injured

* It would also appear that the general habits of the citizens in no way
counteracted the bad effecta of their faulty architecture bj domestic cleanliness.

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the crops. The three following jeara were equally unfayoniiible,
and a great deficiency of the nsoal supply of nourishment to the
poor ensued. The price of hread, potatoes, and indeed of everj
necessary of life, rose enormously. The poor pawned their clothes,
and even their bedding, for money to purchase food, and as a
natural consequenoe it was common for several members of one
family to sleep in the same bed. In 1801 there was an unusual
abundant harvest, and the poor were again furnished witii proTi.
sions of all kinds at a moderate price ; the epidemic immediately
began to decline, and by the end of the following year it had well
nigh disappeared.

Dr. Guy sums up the subject of causation thus : " We have but
*' to suppose exceptional weather, heavy falls of rain, and conse-
*' quent inundations, a ' certain epidemic constitution ' of the air,
'* large gatherings of soldiers or civilians, and a nation of gluttons
" and drunkards living in filthy, unventilated houses in squalid,
*^ noisome streets, with their persons steaming in hot and uncleanly
^* clothing, to be prepared for any conceivable amount of siokziefli
" and mortality."

The immunity from the plague which all civilised countries now
enjoys is unquestionably due more to the improved sanitary oondi*
tion of our towns and villages than to enforced measures of quaraii*
tine. Defective ventilation ooexisting with overcrowding, personal
squalor and filthy apparel, with a deteriorated state of the constitu-
tion such as results from protracted starvation and other debili-
tating causes, favour the development of many diseases, including
the plague. Alison says, with reference to the influence of desti-
tution, " existence of epidemic fever is a most important test to the
" legislator of the destitute condition of the poor ;" so the prevalence
of the plague has been found to be in a direct ratio to the degree of
privation. *' It has hardly ever been known when the disease did
** not first begin among the poor." — Mbad. And Heberden is no
doubt justified in his remark, that *' the pestilence commits its
*' greatest havoc among the lower orders." Hence it has been
designated the poor's plague. Therefore we are not surprised that
increased attention to sanitary arrangements among the poorer
classes is speedily followed by a subsidence of this disease.*

IV. — Socially, Beligionsly, and Polituuilly Considered.

We hear of a great many frightful stories told of nurses and
watchmen who looked after the dying people, using them barba-
rously ; starving them, smothering them, or by other means hasten-

* The plague appears to ha^e been more preralent in the wann weather and
autumn, less in the spring, and least of all in the winter ; in tad it was an exotic
plant, requiring warmth, and really foreign to our dimate.

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1880.] Economical, Political, amd International Belationa,^* 628

ing tlieir end ; and of watchmen being set to guard bonses that
were abut np where perhaps some person was lefib sick ; that thej
have broken in and murdered that person and thrown the bod j into
the dead cart scarcely cold. The indolent and dishonest augmented
the ranks of those preying upon the infected. Avarice was so
strong in some that they wonld ran any hazard to steal and plunder,
and without regard to the danger of infection, take even the clothes
off the dead bodies and the bed clothes from others where they lay
dead.

Some were goilty of atheistical, profane mirth, and mocking at
everything which they happened to see that was religious among
the people, especially to their throng^g zealously to the church to
implore mercy &om heaven in such a time of distress. But it is
also trae that many people showed an extraordinary religions fervor,
and as the church doors were always open, they would go in at all
times, and locking themselves in separate pews, would be praying
with great devotion.

The mortality among young children, who necessarily could not
support and attend to their own interests, was disproportionately
greater than that of adults. We are told they perished by thou-
sands, and many other indirect causes of the increased mortality
among those who were unable to care for themselves are apparent.

It seems to have been a great hardship in shutting up healthy
people in infected houses, although this was sometimes done of their
own free will. The system often led to grave mischief, besides
causing the contagion to spread to these persons where they might
have escaped. It occasioned great violence to be used against the
attendants, who yielded sometimes by force, sometimes by bribery.
The temptation to escape from the house or attendants was so
great, that by means of stratagem and extraordinary devices the
people deluded the vigilance of their keepers, and those who gave
no thought to morality appropriated the property of the dying or
dead ; these extortioners being often taken off suddenly when they
had only just received their ill-gotten treasures. Quarantine thus
carried out ineffectually was a means of the people carrying the
plague with them into the suburbs by personal intercourse ^nd in
their goods and merchandise. As an example of the oppression of
the quarantine laws at the crisis of the plague, the city was sur-
rounded with armed men to prevent the escape of either the diseased
or sound, so that the healthy were confined to a vitiated atmosphere,
and condemned to suffer the effects of the disease. We may be
satisfied that if human lives were secured in one way, they were
placed in extreme jeopardy in another.

The moral effects of the plague were extraordinary, and charac-
teristic at once of the manners, barbarity, and ignorance of the

VOL. XLJII. PART IV, 2 T

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age. The panic was nnivereal. Merchants poured their riches into
the monasteries to the honour of the monks, who feared contagion
with the money bags ; the flagellants revived, and marched in long
processions through the towns of Europe, until they attained political
significance, and were crushed by the mlers and persecuted by the
people ; the fears of instant death banished all the social and kindly
relations, and curdled the milk of human kindness. The social and
moral influence in London showed itself by a thousand extrava-
gancies, and the ^ear expectation of death gave rise to acts of
atrocity, cowardice, madness, and heroism. The aspect of the
streets at the time of the plc^ue is described by various writers as
something terrible. '^ Some of the infected ran about, staggering
*' like drunken men, and fell down dead in the streets, or they lay
" there comatose and half dead ; some lay vomiting as if they had
" drunk poison, and others fell dead in the market, in the act of
'* buying provisions. The plague spared no order, age, or sex. The
*' divine was taken in the very exercise of his priestly office, and
*' the physician while administering his own antidote, and though
*' the soldiers retreated and encamped out of the city, the contagion
*' followed and vanquished them. Many in their old age, others in
" their prime, most women, and still more children, perished ; and
'* it was not uncommon to see an inheritance pass successively to
" three or four heirs in as many days. There were not sextons
*' enough to bury the dead ; the bells ceased tolling, the burying
'* plaoes were full, so that the dead were thrown into large pits dug
" in waste ground in heaps, thirty or forty together ; and those
" who attended the funerals of their friends one evening were
" often carried the next to their own long home." — Public HettUk,
Dr. Gut, 1870.

" Diaorder'd fanendB were hurried on.
Kg decent mourners, nor no friendly groan.
Neglecting other fates, all wept their own."

LuoRETixra, Plague of Athem.

The scene was affecting, awful, and full of terror, and the " best
** preparation for the plague was to run away from it." This was
the popular maxim, and being carried into efiect by a very large
section of the people in London, especially by the vroalthy and ihose
who had country residences, the aspect of the town became changed
in a few weeks. As a result of the deserted state of the me^no-
polis, all trade except such as related to immediate subsistence was
put a stop to, employment, and therefore wages, ceased, and the
wretchedness and poverty of the poor were therefore proportionately
increased. We cannot doubt that the suspension of trade, the
pecuniary embarrassments from the increased expense of living and
privations of unusual severity favoured the spread of the plague.

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1880.] Economical, PoUiical, and International Belations,^* 625

It is almost needless to speak of the unprecedented stagnation- of
every braneli of commerce and manufacture whicH marked tlie
gloomy years of the plague, and the consequent scarcity of all
kinds of employment. Exportation from England was stopped ;
our merchants' manufactures were not received by any country,
for they were as much afraid of our goods as they were of our
people, our woollen goods being as retentive of infection as human
bodies. The labouring poor, who in ordinary years had maintained
themselves and families in tolerable comfort, were thrown out of
work by thousands, and abandoned not only to want, but probabljr
to that heart breaking depression of spirits, which perhaps is more
deleterious to the health and functions of the huuLan frame* than-
many causes merely physical. Filth rendered the wretchedness of
the poor scarcely susceptible of additional aggravation. Can it be
wondered at, that the contagion spread widely in such a mass of •
apt materials, or that when fanned by the sigh of despair on the
one hand, and by poverty on the other, it should be blown up into
a raging epidemic ? Scarcity of labour, 'and the misery and the
privations of every sort which thence result, are but the first in a
train of greater evils that in such calamitous times assail the poor.
Suflfering too often leads then to vice and to crime^ Their want of
intellectual resources leaves them accessible to every sort of im-
morality, but more especially lo a degrading intemperance ; for in
the temporary excitement of intoxication, they hope to assuage the
gnawing canker of the mind, which is little less intolerable than
hunger itself. Ag^n, how firequently does a man's conviction that
" the world is not his friend, nor the world's law," goad him on to
theft or robbery ? And surely if misery thus predisposes him to
moral evil, we may cease to wonder that it should also render him
greatly susceptible to natural disorders.

The governing power of the mind over our bodies has, we
believe, a most salutary elEect in assailing disease. Men of great
mental energy have been enabled to retard the assaults of sickness
and even the chilly approach of death. On the other hand, a
sudden relaxation of these energies lays them open even to the
minor causes of disease, or perhaps subjects them to ideal calamities.
It has long been remarked that in armies, or other large bodies of
men, disease makes little progress while the mind is strongly
engaged, and the exciting passions kept alive by enterprise or
success, but that as soon as great reverses are experienced, and
mental depression ensues, disease makes very great havoc, being
increased, not only in their general number, but in their individual
fatality.

Many might be said not to have perished by the infection
itself, but by the consequence of it, namely, by hunger and distress,

2t2

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being without lodging, without money, without jfriends, without
means to get their bread, and without anyone to give it them.
But even the poor that remained in town were better oft than those
who fled into friendless quarters, and who were often found starved
to death.

The working classes undoubtedly suffered to a great extent in
consequence of the plague. Those who quitted their homes and
weathered the pestilential storm returned to London poverty
stricken and bereft of all social ties. But the wages of labour
were raised on all sides, which increased the importance of the
class, and when the plague had subsided the artisan received a
reward which was proportionately far greater for work done than
that previous to the pestilence.

The great murrain among the cattle was appalling, it was
impossible to remove com from the fields, therefore the price of
food was augmented, which would have been worse had there not
been a plentiful harvest in 1664.

The plague was a f ormidaUe enemy, armed with terrors that
man was not sufficiently fortified to resist, nor prepared to stand
the shock against.

It is certain that a great many of the clergy who wer^ in.
circumstances to do it withdrew and fled for the safety of their
lives, but it is true also that a great many of them stayed and fell
in the calamity and in the discharge of their duties.

Men were callous to sufferings which seemed inevitable to mis-
fortune as well as to crime, even horrible catastrophes when they
occurred excited no more than a passing interest.

Let us ask what are the social features of the calamity which
most naturally occur to every one who contemplates the scourge of
pestilence in its formidable effects upon the inhabitants of a great
city ? '* The general alarm and individual suffering, the silence of
'* the grass-g^wn streets, the thousands of human bodies, carried
" in heaps, many of them unceremoniously, to a common g^ve
*' without any of the decent rites of sepulture, the despair of
" some, the religious prostration of others, the depravity of many
" on the very verge of eternity, the benevolence and fortitude of
" the few, the mutual charities of kindred broken sometimes by
<^ unnatural fears even before the final separation, the dread of
^* death and suspicion of danger at the sight of every friend, the
*' inefficiency of art, the universal horror and the uncontrollable
^^ devastation, all these and many more occurrences at the height of
'^ the calamity, afford ample room for reflections, and are calculated
'* to excite profound humiliation, and the workings of all the
" common sympathies of our nature." — Hancock.

The court, which was then gay and luxurious, was justly con-

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1880.] Economical, Political, and International Relations,** 627

cemed for the public danger. All the plays were forbidden to be
acted, the gaming tables, public dancing rooms and music houses
were shut up and suppressed, for the minds of the people were
agitated with other things, and a kind of sadness and horror at
these things sat upon the countenances of the people. Death was
before their eyes, and everybody began to think of their graves, not
of mirth and diversions.

A picture of suffering was unveiled to which the diseases of the
present time afford no parallel, and the frequent recurrence of
epidemics must have cast a gloomy shade over society throughout
the whole course of their career, and the plague wa« probably one
of the greatest impediments to civilisation that history has ever had
to record.

In the time of such distress, in which even the most undaunted
could scarcely sustain their courage, dark mistrust was general, and
all cheerfulness banished from the minds of the people, who were
impressed with a feeling of alarm at the uncertainty of Hfe.*

" While the kind and generous were moved to acts of heroic
"self-sacrifice, the indifferent and selfish were guilty 'of acts of
" base desertion. The harsh and unfeeling grew cruel, the criminal
" class found rare opportunities for the indulgence of their pre-
" datory habits, and those addicted to the worst forms of dissipation,
" sinned under the pretence that the natural result of their vicious
" practices would prove a safeguard against the more fatal infection
" of the plague. * Parents abandoned their infected children, and
" all the ties of kindred were dissolved.* * Morals were deteriorated
" everywhere, and the infiuence and authority of every law, human
** and divine, vanished.* The doors and windows of houses infected
" with the plague were barricaded, and the inhabitants allowed to
" perish without mercy.'* — Dr. Gut.

We shall now discuss some of the more prominent religious
influences which this fatal disorder had upon the minds of the
people.

The suffering and misfortune which the plague inflicted caused
the inhabitants — who were ever ready to find a victim — ^to suspect
the Jews of poisoning the wells and springs. No sooner had this
hypothesis become general, than these supposed delinquents were
narrowly watched and reproached with severe invectives. It was
merely a revival of the plea which laid guilt upon the Peloponne-
sians, who were said to have purposely contaminated all the wells in

* The pious Byzantines who having felt the shock of an earthquake in 629,
which to their minds was the forerunner of a great epidemic, rushed to their altars
by thousands, and prostrated themselves, seeking to excel one another in devotion,
but no sooner did tiiey feel the ground firm beneath their feet, tlian they again
abandoned themselves, without remorse, to all the vices of the metropolis.

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Athens, to which the cause of the plagae was ascribed. The canker
of haman yengeanoe waited not to prove the veracity of these g^ross
assertions, and the persecution of these innocent Jews was not
restrained by the few who showed their compassion and took them
under their protection. They were taken, imprisoned, and subjected
to the most horrible ill-treatment. Often burnt alive, sometimes
destroying themselves in their own houses, many of the Jews, to
save themselves, became baptised and embraced Christianity. Mas-
sacred everywhere, they were hastened to death by the people^ who
thirsted for their accumulations and pillaged their dwellings, and
those who had the bravery to show that they could no longer tole-
rate such acts of injustice often shared the same fate. And ^when
it came to light that the Christians themselves had frequently
thrown bags containing noxious materials into wells in order to
give occasion to murder and plunder, those who were first and
: foremost in their extravagant accusations against the Jews endea-
voured to withdraw their charges, and make every effort to vindi-
cate their conduct. But it was too late. In one diy alone (Mayence)
twelve thousand Jews were put to death.*

The apprehensions of the people were strangely increased bj
the ignorance of the times ; they appeared to be more addicted to
prophecies and astrological conjurations, dreams, &c., than ever
they were before.

The folly of the black art, which included pretenders to magic,
fortune tellers, conjurors, witches, and also all sorts of deceivers,
.was vigorously combated by the ministers, who were averse to
these practices.

We venture to think that the sudden enthusiasm of a tribe of
people styled the Flagellants did indirectly much harm in those
parts where they were tolerated. The influence which they had
upon the mass aroused a morbid desire among the people to join
their ranks. Commencing as a small and perhaps worthy armj of
crusaders in 1349, they oflTered prayers for the averting of the
plague, and prayed for the sins of the people. In order to fortify
themselves, they enlisted without discretion those who were devoid

* Sach of them ai escaped death were sold, *' body and goods, profit, pleasure,
" and service/' for sach are the terms used by the Emperor Charles IV to the
authorities of Frankfort — for the sam of 15,000 pounds weight in farthings
(*< Heller " is the term, the tweiah of an English penny). *< In 1417 these
unhappy people " were reduced to two families ; twelve years later they consisted
" of six families; and in 1495 they amounted to 104 souls only. In 1462 they
" were prevented ftom building or dwelling near a Christian church ; were confined
" to one narrow locality, which grew into the Juden Qasse, or Jews' Lane, which
*' Was not only closed at both ends by gates every evening, but on Sundays and
'* festivals the inhabitants were interdicted from quitting the lane at all, and could
" only appear abroad at any time in a prescribed garb." — Plague <^ Framkfbrt,
1349.

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1880.] Eco7Mmtcal, Folitical^ cmd Intemaiional Relations,^' 629

of morality and in whom selfish motives were predominant ; so that
this body of men soon degenerated into a lawless mob. Ghiining
perhaps more credit than the priests themselves, they took posses*
sion of the churches, and their actions operating strongly on the
minds of the people, they were able to amass considerable wealth.
The brotherhood of the Flagellant* led to such depraved vices
that the Pope interceded, and resolved to arrest the further pro-
gress of these fanatics, and on pain of excommunication prohibited
the continuance of these pilgrimages. There is very little doubt
that, in consequence of the large multitude of people who followed
these religious enthusiasts from place to place, the spreading of the
plague was promoted. The celebration of a jubilee in 1350 caused
a great eruption of the epidemic, from which scarcely one in a
hundred of the pilgrims escaped.

** Merchants whose earnings and possessions were unbounded,
" coldly and willingly renounced their earthly goods. They carried
'* their treasures to monasteries and churches, and laid them at
*^ the foot of the altar; but gold had no charms for the monks, for
*' it brought them death. They shut their gates, yet still it was
** cast to them over the convent walls. People would brook no
" impediment to the last pious work to which they were driven by
*' despair.** — Kbckeb.

So great was the shock given to Europe, that her losses caused
a retrograding influence on all nations, the quantity of money
swallowed up by the Church impoverished the people, these giving
largely to atone for their sins. The money thus given often fell into
the hands of ignorant laymen, who took the place of the priests
that they might participate in the rich heritages which were left to
the Church from all quarters.

The papal party took every possible pains to represent the
English pestilence as a punishment for heresy and an evident
warning against the triumphant doctrines of Luther. At Lubeck
the monks taught similarly.

Can it be wondered that religion was in a great measure laid
aside ? The churches were often destitute, being bereft of their
priests, and the instruction of the people was grievously impeded ;
covetousness was general, and those who had unjustly secured a
good harvest were the most rapacious for gaining still more.

It is generally supposed that disease tends to heighten one's
devotional feelings, and this was doubtless true in the time of the
plague. Many people were engaged, at the risk of their own lives
and the sacrifice of their personal interests, in endeavouring to
arrest the progress of the evil and to mitigate the suffering of
their fellow men. " In danger, self-preservation is dominant and
" self-denial put to severe proof ;" nations, therefore, as men, attain

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a higher degree of moral worth or gink deeper in ignorance and
vice. Attendants and friends, who were either hlind to their nature
or heroically despised it, fell a victim to their sympathy. The same
fate, however, awaited many of those who quitted the city.
Flight from the infection seldom availed the fearfnl, for the germ
of the disease adhered to them, and they fell sick remote from assist-
ance and in the solitude of the country. *' The sailors found no
'* refuge in their ships ; their vessels were often seen driven about
" on the ocean and drifting on shore, whose crews had perished to
*' the last man." — Hecker.

V. — Internationally Considered.

Much has been done towards the annihilation of the plague by
the improvement of the sanitary condition of Europe and Egypt.
The latter country has ceased to be a breeding place of the plague
since improved sanitary legislation has obtained.

Although our knowledge of the nature of the plague and its
mode of development is very imperfect, as well as the manner in
which the contagion is communicated, quarantine measures would
of necessity have to be re-established if the plague should occur in
those regions with which we stand in direct communication; for
we know that measures of quarantine or hygiene exercise an effect
in limiting a malady to the district thus infected and favour its
extinction.

The liability to contract the disease and the mortality are both
very great only when the hygienic conditions are decidedly bad — as
was the case during the middle ages, and still is the case to-day in
certain parts of the East. It is therefore not very probable that
Western Europe will again be subject to a devastating epidemic of
the plague, provided she does not forget the lessons which bygone
attacks of this disease have taught her.

The history of the prevention of this malady is very instruc-
tive, because it shows how suitable measures, when energetically
carried out, can succeed in so perfectly conquering the severest
of the epidemic diseases, that it no longer occurs except in half-
civilised countries. This extraordinary result has been accom-
plished by quarantine measures rigidly carried out. Although
these measures are generally considered a costly and troublesome
interference with commerce, the country that neglects such pre-
cautions is incuiTing a grave responsibility.

We cannot concur with writers who have spoken of quarantine
in such terms as the following : — *' The quarantine laws are not
" only absurd and needlessly burthensome to commerce, but
*' perverse and barbarous in the extreme, independent of the
'* injurious fears induced, being as dangerous to communities as

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1880.] Economical, Folitical, amd IntemattonaZ Belations.'' 681

*' the J militate against common sense and hnmanitj." A. Hirsch
said that the extinction of the plague was a gradual process, and
kept pace in great measure with the development and perfection of the
quarantine system, as carried out, not only with reference to the East,
but also with neighbouring countries of Europe. " Indeed I cannot
'* understand how anyone pretending to criticise facts in an un-
" prejudiced manner, and with due regard to the condition of the
*' plague in the East, can for a moment hesitate to attribute the
'* chief cause of the disappearance of the plague from European
" soil to the development of a well regulated quarantine system."

England has always been foremost in the necessary laws attend-
ing hygiene, and thanks to her natural isolation from continental
countries, as well as certain climatic and topographical conditions,
by which she is enabled to maintain with impunity the free pratique
of her ports.

It is to the adoption and enforcement by judicious legislative
enactments of prophylactic measures based on scientific views that
we should direct especial attention, for by such measures we not
only to a great extent prevent disease by rendering the body less
susceptible of it, but when attacked by it we lessen its fatality.

The danger attending the intercommunication of the sick with
the healthy was recognised by the ancients. In the time of Moses
the lepers were separated from the rest of the people, and before the
Christian era the Persians expelled the lepers from the towns. It
is to Fracastor we owe the methodical establishment of quarantine
measures in the sixteenth century. He was one of the first
expostulators of the doctrine of contagion, and showed that a
specific virus waB exhaled from the body and was carried in the
clothing.

Self preservation is a law of universal prevalence, and among
mankind this law is strikingly exemplified in measures adopted to
prevent the introduction of pestilential diseases from infected
localities. No blame should attach to the adoption of the most
extreme measures where necessity indicates ; the warrant for such
action was the ancient dictum scUtis populi sttprema lex.

Two things appear necessary to prevent the importation and
spread of epidemic contagious diseases. 1. The careful inspection
of vessels and their crews before being permitted to have inter-
course with seaport towns. 2. The improvement or maintenance
of the hygienic conditions of the threatened community.

If the idea of the plague being entirely dependent on local
conditions be admitted, external quarantine is an useless encum-
brance. But it is not so, and therefore during epidemics of this
disease a country which opens its doors for the reception of goods
and the free intercourse of the people from the seat of the malady,

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is cnlpable of neglecting those preventive measures which have
been proved to be so necessary in snch times.

Again, the partisans of a spontaneous origin of the disease
ascribe the entire troable to defective hygienic conditions, ajid
overlook the fact that epidemics often invade the. most salubrious
locaHty, and therefore must be combated by other measures than
those which are purely hygienic. Certainly hygiene alone cannot
confer an immunity comparable to that which keeps the pestilence
at a distance or at least weakens its transmissible properties.* We
are convinced that by mild and judicious quarantine regulations
many a land has been spared from the devastations of an epi-
demic.

The plan of non-intercourse though justifiable in case of surprise,
without preventive organisation to meet danger, is quite oat of
harmony with the civilisation of our age in the needless hardships
it imposes. Total exclusion of persons and merchandise is an
obstructive quarantine, and probably will never be tolerated by any
country. Quarantine and commerce have been for centuries antago-
nistic, and it rests with the legislator to adjust the claims of both,
so that while quarantine confers advantages on those it protects, it
should not impose grave inconveniences on those it interdicts.

As regards out going vessels by sea no interference would be
necessary, since the quarantine at each port should be competent
for its own protection.

Quarantine cannot and never has been rendered entirely effec-
tual. It is impossible to shut up within certain limits a population
earnestly desirous of transgressing them. A single person evading
the quarantine may render all the preceding precautions of no
avail, and with the knowledge of the present day the adoption of
the measure per se would almost justify a charge of insanity against
any rulers who put their entire trust in it. Unless the professors of
sanitary science are wrong in first principles, or unless gross
negligence is displayed where vigilance is a duty, a country which
can boast of a good system of hygiene may look for the arrival
of plague without great terror, and without imposing a single
restriction either upon the movements of healthy persons or upon
the transit of their goods.

It may be questioned whether, socially, the epidemical visita-
tions of a contagious disease like the plague are not productive of
more misery than war itself, fertile as it unquestionably is in every

* And as to immunity that could be supposed to result from a (dumge m tiie
habits of society, and particularly from the superior attention paid to deuUineas
and ventilation in our cities, we must confess onr apprehensions that any seeds of
disease which depend for their development upon filth, will not perish for want of
a hotbed in many districts of the larger cities of the three Idngdoms.

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1880.] Economical^ PolUicdl, arid International Belations,'* 633

species of calamitj. The actual yictims of war are not only
nnmericallj fewer, bat for the most part belong exclusivelj to a
class openly and almost volantarily devoted to war horrors, while
epidemical sickness ia an evil that threatens indiscriminately every
class of the community, and is chiefly afflicting fitMn its invading
that cherished sanctuary of domestic life in which the happiness
of every individual must mainly centre. The universality of the
inflictioD, the anguish of the immediate sufferers, the distress of
the relatives, and often the subsequent poverty and desolation of
fiimilies, conspire to fill ap the measure of misfortune, and give to
the destructive operations of an epidemic a character of the
deepest gloom, which is not like the fatal scenes of a battle field,
cheered by one spark of valour or patriotism, nor redeemed by one
consoling sentiment of duty or fame.

APPENDIX

A. — In what manner the plague increased, will appear from the
following weekly account : — ♦

llortality.

June

July

Aug.

9
3

H
17

IIZ

i68

Dates.

Feb. 7—14, 1666

April 18—25

May 2— 9

„ 9-16

„ 16—23

„ 23—30

„ 30— June 6

6—13

13—20

20—27 267'

27 — July 4 470

4—11 727

11—18 1,089

18—25 1,043

25 — Aug. 1 2,010

1— 8 2,817

8—16 3,880

16—22 4,237

22—29 6,102

Dates. HortaUtj.

Aug. 29— Sept. 6, 1665 6,988

Sept. 6 — 12 ^i544

„ 12—19 7»i<>5

» 19—26 5,533

„ 26— Oct. 3 4,929

Oct. 8—10 4,327

„ 10—17 2,665

„ 17—24 1,421

» 24-31 1,031

81— Not. 7 1,414

Not.

Dec.

7—14 ..
14-21 ...
21—28 ..
28— Dec.

5—12 ..
12—19 ..

1,050
655
333
210

243
281

68,596
Total died from all causes 97>3o6

* With respect to the progress and termination of the plague, the disease
appears to be subject to the same laws as regidate the course and termination of
other epidemics ; it is most fatal at its first outbreak, and becomes less Tirulent
as it increases in extent. The increased mortality which occurs during the
advance of the plague, and which we haye shown to be at its height in the
month of September, arises from the inoreated extension, and not from the
greater malignancy of the disease.

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634.

Potter — On " ths Oriental Flague in Us Social^ [Dec-

B. — The deaths from the plague, as compared with all other
diseases, are thus tahnlated in the Bills of Mortality of 1665, bj
which it 'will be seen that nearly 40,000 died in the five weeks
between the 22nd August and the 26th September : —

Dates.

Aug. 8—15

„ 15-22

„ 22—29

„ 29— Sept 6
Sept. 5—12

„ 12-19

„ 19—26

„ 26— Oct. 8
Oct. 8—10

Of all Diseases.

Of the Plague.

6,319

3,880

6,568

4,i37

7,496

6,102

8,252

6,988

7,690

6,544

8,297

iMs

6,460

S^Sll

5,720

4»9^9

6,068

4,3^7

69,870

49,705

C. — The numbers that fell by the plague, as given in the Bills
of Mortality from the year 1603 to 1679 :—

Died of
the Plague.

36,^69

896

Tears.

1603

'Ot

'05

'06

'07

'08

'09

'10

'11

'12

'13

'14

'15

'16

'17

'18

'19

'20

'21

'22

'23

'24

*25 35,417

'26 134

'27 4

'28 3

2,124

2,35*

2,262

4,240

1,803

627

2
II
16
17

Died of
the Plagae.

Tears.

1629

'30 1,317

'81 274

'82 8

'33 —

'34 I

'36 —

'36 10,400

'37

'38 ,

'89

'40

'41

'42

'43

3,082

363

314

M50

3,0^7

1,824

996

'44 1492

'46 1,871

'46 2,436

'47 3,597

'48

'49.

'50.

'51

'52

'63

'54

611
67
15
23
16
6
16

Tears.
1655 .

'66.

'57.

'58.

'59.

'60 .

'61 .

'62 .

'63 .

'64.

'66 .

'67.

'68 .

'70 ...
'71 ...
'72 ...
'73 ...
'74 ...
'75 ...
'76 ...
'77 ...
'78 ...
'79 ...

Died of
tbenagve.

9
6

4
»4
36

9
6

. 68,596

. 1,998

In the four plague years of 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665, as
compared with the deaths from all causes, those from the plague
were 69 per cent.

Nearly as many died from the plague in 1665, as from all causes
in 1849.

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1880.] Economical, PoliUcal, and IntenuUional Belaiions,^' 685

J).— Deaths from Plague and other Diseases in the Parish of St, George the
Martyr, SotUhwark, from 1602 to 1667.

Date.

HortaUty.

Remmrkt.

1602 ....

215

'03 ....

938

Year of plague— 36,269 died of the plague in London

'20 ....

296

—

'25 ....

M64

Year of plague— -35,417 died of the plague in London

'34 ....

435

—

'36 ....

980

Year of plague — 10,400 died of the plague in London

'40 ....

261

—

'60 ....

179

—

'65 ....

4'3

Year of plague — 68,596 died of tke plague in London

m ....

»34

—

'67 ....

214

E. — The mortality from the Black Death in the fourteenth
century was as follows : —

Place.

Mortality.

Bemarkfl.

AleDTM)

22,000
15,000

40,000
40,000
60,000
70,000

70,000

100,000

40,000

16,000

150,000

5»ooo

2,500

56,000

30,000

50,000

26,000

16,000

9,000

14,000

100,000

51,000

500 daily

Most of the animfils in ^iz we^kt

Qaza

Cairo

Cyprus

Ghsnoa

Parma

Naples

Siena

Kome

An incalculable numhAr

"Venice

One-third of its population
Jn four months

Florence

VftlPnOia .....rrr

300 a-day

1,800 in one day

1,200 interred in one cemetery

1,800 in the first three days

Vienna

Erfurt

Ayignon

IVeimar

Lumburg

M^ArflAlllAfl

Tn one month

Narbonne

Paris

Strasburg

St. Denis

Lubeck

Basle

London

—

In China the mortality was 13 millions, in Germany i^ million,
Europe 40 millions, and Asia and Africa (exclusiye of China)
24 millions.

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686

POTTBE — On " ihe Oriental Plagiie in its Social, [Dec.

F. — In the following chronological table of some of the principal
plagues upon record, we have doubtless included the mention of
many, which although described under that name are probably a
dissimilar disease, writers having applied the terms pestilential and
pestilent in a generic sense to diseases specifically different.*
From B.c. 1495 to a.d. 1877.

Dat«.

Locality.

Mortalitj.

Remaika.

^Egypt

Deeert of Paran

In the wilderness

^guia (island of) ....

Ashdodi a place be- 1
tween Guza and >
Joppa J

Troy (siege of)

Canaan \

Borne

Velitrae

Jerusalem <

Army of Xerxes

Spain „

Eome

- ■- {

Athens

Spain (from Egypt) ....

Carthage

Ghiul and Borne 1
(armies of) J

Bome

Murnedro (Sicily) ....

Bome

Cadiz

- {

14,000

- {

70,000 1
in three days J

= {

185,000 I

= .}

Depopulated
One-tnird of in- \
habitants .... J
150,000

Half the inha-1
bitants J

Depopulated... <(

10,000

ddly j

During the reign of
Phanoh, King of
Egypt, A-M. 2609.—
Exodus xii

NMmbert xi

Oyid*8 Metam, lib. tH

Among the Philistiiiaiy

1 Sam. T and tI

In the Grecian camp.

Homer's Iliad^ lib. i

In the time of DaTui,

2 8<im. xxir

Plutarch's Ufi of

RomuUu
Assyrian armies at the

siege of Jerusalem

Described by liTy
Small town near Bome

Liyy, iii, 6

Continued without in-
terruption for ^ve
years. — Thmcudid^.
ii, 48

Justin, xix, 2; 2>iod.
Sie.f xiii

Livy,vii,l; Short, Oa
Air

livy

* The number of deaths appear in some cases rery large, this is perhaps
due to famine, want, and priyation, which are so frequently coexistent with
pestilence.

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1880.] Economical^ Political, and International Relations.^* 687
From B.a 1495 to a.d. 1877 — Conid,

I)«te.

B.C.

218
216
218

-177

182-

144

140

134 and 180
126

89
88
60

A.D.

114

187

158

175 and 178

252

262

310

325

865-894

400 J

Locality.

450-67 and \

478 ;

562

617

544

665-610

....{

590

654

665-683 ......

696

703 and 718

717, 724, 1

and 729 J

732 ]

Carthaginian armies....

Carthage

Carthaginian and "I

Roman armies J

Capua

Rome and all Italy ....
Rome

740

762
853

896

Italy

Numidia

Seacoast of Carthage

Roman armies

Rome (people in)

Spain

Rome

Wales

Rome and Italy ...

Arabia

Rome

Alexandria

Rome

England

Britain

Italy and Syria

Asia, Africa, andl
Europe J

Rome

Scotland

Palestine

France

Especially France, 1
Germany and Italy J

Rome

Constantinople-
South Britain ..

England

Constantinople.
Scotland

Constantinople

Norwich in Eng- "I
land, and Syria .... j

Various parts ofl
Europe and the >
East J

Wales. In Chichester

Scotland

GaxiXf Germany, and 1

Italy ;

HorUUlj.

_ ;

- {

800,000 "I
200,000 J

10,000

30,000

- {

45,000

5,000 daily
40,000

71,719

Reronrkt.

30,000

34»ooo

On their rout« to be-
siege Tagimtum

Before Syracuse, Xity,

XXV

livy, xli, 21

OrosiuB, lib. t

? Leprosy

Tacitus Annals, xv
Orosius, lib. vii

Zonaraa, lib. xii

Nicophorus, xiii

P Dysentery

A plague raging, with
intermissions, in most
parts of the world. —
Niceph,, iTii

With intermissions

Raged for 260 yean

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PoTTBB — On " the Oriental Plague in its Bocial^ [Dec

From B.C. 1495 to a,d. 1877— (7oni<£.

Date.

937..

940..

964..

1005..

'12-25

...{

'27

'29-31 \
and 1083 J

'64...

'68

'75

'96-1111 ..

1120..

■{

»26-28, 1
1133-46 J
'72

Locality.

Engl&nd

North of Europe.

'98-96,
1200-1201

01 J

'17..

'85..
'87..

'78..

'88..

1885..

'45..

'46..
'47..

1848

'60-51
'62

1856..

England and other f
jttSte of Europe .... J

England and Ghiul ....

Saracen army \

York and Durham ....

Constantinople

Europe (various parts)

Various parts of the 1

glohe J

England

and Borne..

MortaUty.

: {

Half the human!
race ....» «..../

-■ {

Many thou- J
sands

Damietta

London....
Egypt ....
Utrecht....

Spain..

England

Spain, and spread
oyer the whole
world

Florence

London

Venice

Lubeok

Spain

Syria, Greece, Italy, 1
Cyprus J

Ireland

China

London

Florence

Norwich

Yarmouth

Only 3 persons'!
out of 70,000 y

survived J

20,000

4,000

Ghreat mortality

Leaying scarcely 1

a quarter of the >

human race .... J

60,000

50,000

100,000

90,000

200,000

900,000
50,000

100,000

37,^04

7,50*

Remarks.

Affecting chiefly the

cattle
Emperor Otho's ani^

Baged for three yean

With inter

Couvulsive disease ;
dance of St. Vitas

Marching to invade
Borne ; raged for two
years

Lasted ^^^ yean
? Dysentery

Dancing disease among

the cmldren
Dancinff mania
King Philip of Frsnoe

invaded Spain with

20,000 infantry sod

8,600 cavalry

Interred in one grave-
yard

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1880.] Economieaij Politiecd, and InternaMonal Eelatums,'* 639
From B.a 1495 to A.D. 1877 — Contd,

Date.

A.D.
1363..

'68-70
'71

*72

*79

'83

'84

'87

'91

'94

1401

'10

'18

'29

'39

'50

'65

'68

'82

'85

'88

'89

'93

'95

'99

1529

'30

'35

'37-39

'41

'43

'47

'56

'58

'62..

'64..
'65..
'66..
'70..
'72..
'74..

{

Locality.

Spain

Cologne

England and Ireland .

Barcelona

Germany, Egypt, *)
Greece, and aU the >
East J

Holland, Franco, I
and Bhenish pro- >
vinces .' J

England

Seville

Mallorca

Portugal

England, York and!
Norfolk especiallj J

Spain

London

SovUle

Strasburg

Barcelona

Huescarin the king- 1
dom of Aragon .... J

Italy, Gaul, Ger-1
many, and Spain .. j

Italy

Parma

France

Seville

Andalusia

Barcelona

Mallorca

Saragossa

Britain

England

Germany

Cork and Dresden ....

England

Constantinople

Metz

England, Holland,]
and Germany J

Spain

Murcia

London and most of 1
the principal cities >
of Europe J

Barcelona

Lyons

" Morbus Hungaricus"

Spain ,

Dresden

Spain and Italy ...

Mortality.

aOjOoo

Lubeck 90,000

- {

30,000

- {

London

30,000 i

Saragossa 10,000

Remarks.

Dancing disease of St
Vitus or St. John

Dancing disease

" Sweating sickness "
in Engluid

Spread to Brabant,
Flanders, &c.

Sweating sickness

Spotted fever

VOL. XLIII. PABT IV.

• 2u

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640 Potter— On " the Orietdal Plague in iU SoGtdl, [Deci

From B.C. 1495 to a.d. 1877— CotKct

Date.

Locality.

Mortality.

Beaurkft.

A.D.
1679..

1580-81
*82

'85-86 ....{

'89

'90

1600-02
1603

1606..
'09..
'10..

1613..
'16..

'22..

'26..
'26..
'34..
'35..

1644..
'49..
'68..

1656..

1662..
'63..
'64..
'65..
'73..
'76..

'77..

'79..
'91..
'98..

Borne

Lubeck

Hamburg

Cairo and the East ...
Spain, especially Cadiz
Narra and Bevel, in "

Livonia

Seville

Dresden

Malta

Muscovy

Livonia

London

Paris

Throughout Europe...

Seville

Granada

Constantinople

France and Con- 1

stantinople J

Germany, Denmark, 1

Egypt and Levant J

London .

Throughout England

Lyons

Dresden

Leyden and Kineguen

Madrid

Spain

Moscow ,

Biga

Amflterdam
Leyden

Naples

Benevento

Genoa

Bome

Neapolitan territories

Venice

England

Amsterdam

London

Spain

Malta

Muroia and Cartha- 1

gena J

Germany

Spain

4,000

8,000

3,000

500,000

Bevel 6,000

70,000 in Lisbon 1

and Spain .... j

500,000

30,000

36,000

2,000 weekly

200,000

year 8,oool
„ 1 1,000 I
„ 12,000 (
»» 35»4»7J

Ist year

2nd

3rd

London 30,000
60,000

Leyden 20,000
London 10,000

200,000

9,000

13,200

13.000

240,000 J

9,000

10,000

400,000

60,000

24,000
68,596

11,300

Lasted four yean

Three-quarters of the
inhabitants

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1880.] Economical, PoliUcdl, atid Intemationdl Belations.^* 641
From B.C. 1495 to a.d. 1877— Cor^d

Dftte.

A.D.

1705..
'10..

1720..

'27..
'32..
*35..

'36..

'40..
'43..

'51..

'51-60
'61

'63..
'69..
'70..

1771..

1783-85 ....|
'92

1809..

'10..

'12..
'13..
'15..

'17..

'4i:.

Locality.

'43

'44

'73-76
'77

Ceuta

Copenhagen

Stockholm

Marseilles

Vienna, Hungary, 1
and in the East .... j

Spain

London

Egypt

Cairo

Ireland

Aleppo

Cordova-

Ireland and France .

Carthagena

Aleppo, Jemsalem,

and Damascus

Naples

Bengal

Poland and Russia ....
Bohemia

Constantinople .,

Moscow

Bassora

Egypt, Dalmatia, 1

Constantinople, &c. J

Egypt

Barbary

Fez

Portugal

Oibraltar |

Constantinople

Malta

Corfu

Throughout the ha- 1

bitable globe j

Syria, especially 1

about Erzeroum.... J

Asiatic Turkey

Egypt

Mesopotamia

Besht, near the Caspian

Mortality.

25,000
30,000

1,500 in one week
Many thousands

100,000 •{

40,000 in Cairo 1
and Constan- V
tinople J

30,000 in Cyprus

20,000

** 3 millions and 1

upwards " .... J

20,000

168,000

1,000 buried 1

daily for some >

weeks J

133,299 in 18mos.
80,000

800,000
3,000 daily -j
247,000

Out of 14,000,1
only 28 escaped/
160,000
4*483

20,000 in 1876

Remarks.

In six months the
" sweating sickness "

Epidemic mania

7,000 buried daily for
some days

In the French army in
Egypt

Among British troops

Dancing mania

2u2

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642 PoTTKB— On " the Oriental Plague:* [Dec.

List of Works referred to.

Basoohbb History of Epidemic Pestilence London, 1851. 8to.

— Biography (Select), Howard „ 1822. 12mo.

Buck Public Health „ Svo.

De Fob, D A Journal of the Plague Year „ 1872. 8to,

— Encyclopiedia Britannica. Howard's Edinb., 1856. 8to.

Biography. Eighth edition.

GtUT Public Health London, 1870. 8to.

Hancock Besearches into the Laws and Phe- „ 1821. 8to.

nomena of Pestilence, including a
Medical Sketch and Beriew of the
Plague of London in 1665.

Hebebdbn, Wm. Obserrations on the Increase and „ 1801. 4to.
(the younger) Decrease of different Diseases, and

particularly of the Plague.

Hbokbb Epidemics of the Middle Ages, from „ 1859. Sro.

the German of J. F. C. H., trans-
lated by B. C. Babington. Third
edition.

HowABD An Account of the Principal Laza- Warring-

rettos in Europe, with rarious ton, 1789. Alo.
Papers relative to the Plague, &e.

MAoGBioOB,Sir J. Medical Sketches London, 1804. Sro.

Mbad, B A Discourse on the Plague. Ninth „ 1744. Sra

edition.

MtTBCHiBON TheContinuedFeyers of Great Britain „ 1873. 8to.

BuBSBLL, Dr History of the Plague at Aleppo „ 1756. 4to.

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1880.]

643

MISCELLANEA.

CONTENTS :

PAGE
I. — The Agricnltnral Retnrns for

the Year 1880 643

II.— The Corn Crops of 1880 ... 664
III.— Ten Years' Results of the

London School Board .... 670
IV. — The Annual Local Taxation

Returns of 1878-79 683

v.— Ten Years' Telegraphy 687

YI.— The PopnUtion of the Earth 690

PAOB

VII. — Statistics of Anstralasian

Colonies 698

yill. — Agricultural Distress and

Bills of Sale 700

IX. — Notes on Economical and

SUtistical Works 705

X. — Notes on some Additions

to the Library 709

XI. — List of Additions to the

Library 711

L — Ths Agricultural Returns for the Year 1880.

The following report of Mr. B. GifEen, Chief of the Statistical
and Commercial Department of the Board of Trade, on the Agricnl-
tnral Betnms of Great Britain for the year 1880, with snmmary
tables, is given in continuation of a series of similar notices to be
fonnd in the Society's Journal for previous years : —

*' I have the honour to submit the Agricultural Returns of Great
Britain for the year 1880, the data for which were collected, as in
previous years, by officers of the inland revenue department in
Great Britain, and by officers under the direction of the local autho«
rities in the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

** The returns have been again coUectefd on the 4th of June, the
change to that date from the 25th of the month having been made
in 1877. The usual summary of the returns was issued to the
newspapers on the 17th of August, and a slight addition was made
to the information then published by distinguishing the sheep of
one year old and above from those under one year old, so as to show
as soon as possible the losses among sheep and lambs separately
consequent on the disease of the past wet season. The present com-
plete tables and report are now ready at the end of September, as
has been the case since the earlier date of collection was adopted.

''This department is again much indebted to the farmers of
Great Britain for the trouble they take every year in supplying the
necessary information to the collectors, the acreage of land esti-
mated by the Inland Revenue Officers in default of returns being
only 1,640,571 acres, or a slight increase on the figures for 1879,
while there is still a considerable reduction compared with previous
years, the estimates for 1878 having been 1,768,703 acres, and in
1877, 2,036,931 acres. Of the acreage thus estimated only 2 per
cent, is in Scotland, where the average size of the holdings of which
there are no returns, and estimates are necessary, is between six
and seven acres only. In England the farmers who refuse or
neglect to oblige the Board of Trade in this respect farm holdings
averaging 145 acres each.

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644 MisoeUanea. [Dee.

" In Great Britain returns were this year obtained from 554,058
occupiers and 5,001 owners of live stock only, the occupiers thus
showing a decrease of 765, and the owners of live stock only a
decrease of 22 j from 1879. The variations in the separate counties
are often stated by the collecting officers to be due to the depression
in agriculture. In some cases vacant farms have been returned by
the owner or temporarily added to other farms, in both cases
diminishing the number of occupiers, while in other instances large
farms which had been given up have been subdivided.

'* A special return of various sized holdings and the live stock
thereon has been obtained this year, to which reference will be
made in a subsequent part of this report, as showing any changes
that have taken place in the average size of farms since the last
return of this nature was prepared in 1875. The owners of lire
stock only have decreased materially of late years, having' nnm-
bered more than 6,000 in 1873, and this decrease is in great mea-
sure ascribed to the stricter regulations enforced as to keeping pigs
and cows in populous places, while the increased railway facilities
for bringing milk from the country also tend to lessen the number
of town cowkeepers.

" In the summary of the return annexed (see Table No. 1),
columns are added as usual to show for Ireland and for. the whole
of the United Kingdom the particulars corresponding to those in
the return for Great Britain ; the figures for Ireland having been
supplied to this department by the courtesy of the registrar general
for that country. As has been mentioned in former reports^ the
tretums in Great Britain are obtained from all occupiers of not less
than a quarter of an acre of land, and also from owners of live stock
who do not occupy land, while cottagers' pigs are excluded as well
as pigs kept in towns ; but a somewhat different plan, it appeals,
is followed in Ireland, where the enumerators enter the particulars
themselves, after personally consulting the occupiers. In that
country, all holdings however small, are included, and even garden
crops are entered in the schedules: variations which it is useful
to remember when the agricultural statistics of Great Britain and
Ireland are compared.

" The total quantity of land returned in 1880 as under all kinds
of crops, bare fallow, and grass, amounted, for Great Britain, to
32,102,000 acres. For Ireland the returns obtained by the registrar
general show a total of 15,358,000 acres, and for the Isle oi Man
and Channel Islands the totals are respectively 97,000 acres and
30,000 acres. Thus for the whole of the United Kingdom the
cultivated area was in 1880, 47,587,000 acres, exclusive of heath
and mountain pasture land, and of woods and plantations.

*' In making the following remarks on the returns now pree^ited,
I propose to notice first the chief points in the figures relating to
Great Britain alone, and afterwards allude shortly to the compara-
tive figures for Ireland.

" In Great Britain the area returned as under cultivation has
increased by 126,000 acres since 1879, and the total increase in the
ten years since 1870 is no less than 1,694,000 acres, or a greater
area than the whole of Devonshire. Of this increase, about two-

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1880.] The AgricuUurcU Betwms for the Yea/r 1880. 645

thirds, or 1,187,000 acres, were in England, 220,000 acres in Wales,
and 287,000 acres in Scotland. As has been remarked several
times in previous reports, a large share of this increased acreage
must be credited to the more correct returns of late years, when
errors from the use of local acres, such as * Scotch ' or * Lancashire '
acres, and also the omission of out of the way farms, have been
discovered. In the absence of a complete cadastral survey, there
must always be considerable uncertainty amongst landowners and
farmers as to the exact acreage of their holdings. Making liberal
allowances, however, for these differences, it is certain that a con-
siderable portion of land is annually reclaimed from mountain,
moor, or bog, especially in the wilder districts of the country, and
a good many instances of this are noticed by the inland revenue
officers as having occurred duriug the past year, especially of hill
land or rough common land being enclosed, which would of course
bring such land into the returns. Occasionally also the acreage of
particular counties may vary a little from farms on the borders
being one year included in one county and next year in a different
one, but any material discrepancy, either in the total acreage or in
particular crops, is always carefully examined, the comparison with
the figures of the past year often extending to i^e parish returns.

** Looking at the details of the various crops in Great Britain,
I have to notice that the area under wheat in 1880 was 2,909,000
acres, or 19,000 acres more than in the previous year. The wheat
area of 1879 was, however, the lowest on record since the returns
were first obtained in 1867, and the present year's crop was grown
on nearly 591,000 acres less than in 1870. In some counties it is
stated by the collecting officers that a &vourable autumn led to an
increased breadth of wheat being sown, but the large number of
unlet farms, and of farms where agricultural depression prevailed,
appears to have caused much wheat land to be left in fie^llow, as will
be noticed presently. In barley there is a considerable decrease
since 1879, when 2,667,000 acres were sown, as compared with only
2,467,000 acres in the present year. The inferior quality and the
difficulty of securing the crop last year are stated by the officers in
some places as having cau^ this decrease, but it may be noted
that the present year's acreage under barley is fully equal to the
average of the last ten years.

'^ Oats were sown on 2,797,000 acres, or an increase of 5 per
cent, over the area in 1879, and these figures have only once been
reached since 1867 ; but the other stock feeding com crops show a
considerable falling off, beans being grown on 427,000 acres, as
compared with 530,000 acres in 1870, and peas on 234,000 acres,
against 317,000 in 1870. The imports of maize, which compete
largely with these crops, have somewhat declined during the past
year, but are still more than double those of ten years ago. Taking
then all the figures as to the com crops in Great Britain, we find
their area was 8,876,000 acres, or a decrease of rather more than
I per cent, from the previous year, and of 7 per cent, from the year
1670.

^^ As regards the green crops, we find an increase of 10,000 acres
planted with potatoes, and the area, 551,000 acres, is nearly equal

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646 Miscellanea. [Dec

to the fignre of ten years ago. Turnips and swedes were returned
as grown on 2,024,000 acres, a small increase from 1879, bnt man-
golds show a decrease of nearly 6 per cent, from last year ; cabbage,
kobl-rabi, Ac, of 4 per cent. ; and vetches, Inceme, and other green
crops, of more than 1 5 per cent. ; the acreage this year being* only
380,000, making the total area under green crops 3,477,000 acres,
or 2 per cent, less than in 1879. Green crops, on the whole, have
shown little change during the last ten years, but the present year's
figures are less than in any year since 1868. Flax has increased
somewhat from the average of the last five years, but the area^
9,000 acres, is still less than half the acreage grown ten years
ago. Hops were planted on 67,000 acres — about the same area as
in 1879. A return (Table No. 5) was added last year, and is con-
tinued this year, to show in greater detail than in countiee the
districts in which the hops are grown.

** Bare fallow in Great Britain has further increased from 72 1 ,000
acres to 812,000 acres, and has this year taken a larger area ih^n
in any year since 1870, when there were only 610,000 acres in
fallow. The depression in agriculture and the number of farms
unlet and temporarily farmed by their owners are stated by the
collecting officers as the chief reasons of so much land being
uncropped, and the foul state of the land is also noticed in some
districts.

" Clover and rotation grasses have varied little in their acreage
from 1879, showing 4,434,000 acres at the present time. Permanent
pasture and meadow have increased by 260,000 acres since last year,
and now amount to 14,427,000 acres, or nearly 45 per cent, of the
cultivated area of Great Britain. It will be remembered that last
year the distinction between * for hay ' and * not for hay,* both as
regards rotation grasses and permanent grass, was discontinued
owing to the trouble this distinction was stated to cause the farmers,
and also because these headings were sometimes misleading in the
case of water meadows, and other land cut several times in the
season. Some confusion has always existed between permanent
and rotation grasses, especially as to land under rotation grasses
for two or three years ; but there is no doubt that the tendency to
lay down arable land to grass has been marked for some years,
although the increase of nearly 2^ million acres in permanent grass
since 1870 may not be entirely due to the conversion of arable land
and the enclosure of hill and waste land.

" Orchards in Great Britain again show a satisfactory increase,
their acreage being this year returned as 180,000 acres, against
175,000 in 1879 and 165,000 in 1878. Market gardens have also
increased from 41,000 acres to 44,000 acres, and the collectois
report both with regard to orchards and market gardens that there
is a growing demand for fruit and vegetables, especially in the
neighbourhood of towns. The uncertainty of the climate for fmit
g^wing must always, however, tend to restrict the extension of
truit plantations except in naturally favoured districts.

*^ A special return of the acreage of woods and plantations has
been obtained this year, the last return of this nature having been
made in 1872. Since that date the acreage appears to have

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1880.] The Agricultural Retwms for the Year 1880. 647

increased from 2,187,000 acres to 2,409,000 acres, or nearly 10 per
cent. Considerable difficulties are met with in obtaining tnis
information, as, besides the ez.amination of the parish rate books,
valuation lists, <fec., special application has frequently to be made to
the proprietors of woods, and there is often some doubt as to what
land should be included in the return. It is believed, nevertheless,
that the figures obtained this year are generally accurate.

*' Turning now to the various kinds of live stock there appears
to be a slight decline in agricultural horses, caused it is stated by
the number of unlet farms, and also a decrease in brood mares and
young horses, for which the demand has not been so great recently.
Moreover, the stock of horses had increased up to last year, when
tlie numbers were larger than in any year since 1870. The imports
of horses from abroad were 26,000 in 1878, 15,000 in 1879, and
only 6,600 in the first eight months of the present year. As regards
horned cattle, milch cows have decreased less than i per cent., but
other cattle show an increase of nearly 2 per cent., so that the total
number of horned cattle in Great Britain is this year 5,912,000 as
compared with 5,856,000 in 1879. Sheep in the country have
suffered an important decline of nearly a mUlion, chiefly owing, the
collectors state, to the losses by disease, and lambs have also
decreased more than half a million, partly it is stated from the weak
condition of the ewes. The stock of sheep and lambs is now only
26,619,000, which appears to be a very insufficient number consider-
ing the additional permanent pastures of late years. It may be
remarked that these great losses in sheep and lambs have occurred
only in England and Wales, the counties of Scotland with few
exceptions showing a small increase in sheep and a considerable one
in lambs, while the northern border counties of England have also
escaped in great measure. Pigs have further decreased by 91,000
since 1879 and by 483,000 since 1878, the competition of American
bacon being stated to make pig keeping less profitable than
formerly, while, as before mentioned, the sanitary regulations in
populous places tend also to diminish their numbers.

" Turning now to the figures of the crops and live stock in
Ireland, we find that the changes are of much the same nature as
those in the returns for Great Britain. The cultivated area is
slightly larger than in the two last years, being this year 15,358,000
acres as against 15,336,000 acres in 1879, and 15,345,000 acres in
1878. It is true that before 1877 the cultivated area averaged
400,000 acres more than these figures, but the apparent decline was
caused by a separate heading being made in the return of 1877 for
' barren mountain land,' some of which had often in previous years
been included under the head of * grass ' in consequence of having
some live stock on it when the returns were collected. As regards
com crops in Ireland there is little change to notice from 1879, the
increase in the acreage of oats counterbalancing the decrease in
wheat and barley. There has, however, been a considerable decline
in the area of com crops since 1870, when they covered 2,173,000
acres as compared with 1,766,000 at the present time. Coming to
^een crops we notice a further general decline in the acreage of
a.lmost all the crops. Potatoes were planted in 821,000 acres

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648 MiseeOanea. [Dec

against 843,cxx) acres in 1879 and 1,044,000 acres in 1870. Tnmipa
occupied 303^00 acres against 315,000 acres last year, and the
total acreage of green crops amounts to less than a million and a
quarter as compaied with a million and a half ten years ago. Flax
was grown on 157,000 acres or 24 per cent, more than in 1879.
notation grasses show a small decline and permanent grass an
increase — the area now amounting to 10,261,000 acres.

'* As regards live stock we find a decrease in every descriptioii
from 1879, but as regards horses and cattle the numbers are still
fully equal to those of ten years ago. In sheep, howerer, the
decrease of nearly half a million from last year leaves the number
little over 5^ millions, and pigs too are less by 20 per cent., there
being now only 849,000 against 1,072,000 in 1879 and 1,459,000 in
1870.

'* The usual table showing the relative course of agriculture in
the counties of England, arranged in two divisions of chiefly
grazing and com gprowing counties, has been prepared, and is here
given.

** The grcusmg, or toegtem^ division includes twenty-one counties :
Northumberland, Cumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, York (North
and West Ridings), Lancaster, Chester, Derby, Stafford, Leicester,
Salop, Worcester, Hereford, Monmouth, Gloucester, Wilts, Dorset,
Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall.

" The com, or eastern, division includes twenty-one countiefl: —
York (East Riding), Lincoln, Nottingham, Rutland, Huntingdon,
Warwick, Northampton, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, Bedford,
Bucks, Oxford, Berks, Hants, Her^ord, Essex, Middlesex, Snrrey,
Kent, and Sussex.

'* Although the number of the counties is the same in each of
these groups, the total acreage is larger in the grazing than in the
com division, in the ratio of 53 to 47 per cent, of the toted acreage
under crops and grass in England.

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1880.] The Agricultural Returns far the Tear 1880.

649

Acreage under Crops, and Number of Live Stock, in Grazing Counties and
in Com Counties of England, and Percentages of the Totals in Bngland
in Crazing and Com Counties respectively.

In Grazing Counties.

In Corn Counties.

Acreage

and
Number.

Percentage

of Total
for Kngland.

Acreage

and
Number.

Percentage

of Tour
for England.

Total acreage rettumed "I
under all kinds of crops, >
bare fallow, and grase J

13,119,942

53-3

11,476,324

46-7

Acreage under —

Wheat

956,869
714,146
816,582

10,396
104,530

44,379

34-8
34*7
53*7
32-8

25*9

19-2

1,788,864

1,346,661

703,543

21,287

299,541

186,901

65-2
65*3
46-3
67*2

Barley

Oate

Rve

Beans

Peas

74*1
8o-8

Total under above 1
com crops J

2,646,902

37-8

4,346,797

62-2

Potatoes

190,867

651,447

95,799

8,437

66,870

106,020

1,400,903

58-7
44' z

28-7

22-6

36-7
29'7
52*9

134,064

821,583

237,810

11,749

98,131

251,357

1,245,338

41 '3
55-8
71*3

Turnips and swedes

Mangold

Carrots

77*4
63-3
70*3
47'i

Cabbage, kohl-rabi, and 1
rape ^ '

Clover and other grass I
under rotation J

Total under above green I
crops and grass under >
rotation J

2,505,343

47-a

2,800,032

5^-8

Bare fallow

309,004

7,646,714

3,160

8,819

133,613

748,913

40-7
66-7
36*0
13-2
76-3
5i-i

460,841

8,815,142

6,628

67,884

41,587

686,521

59*3
33'3
64'o
86*8

Permanent pasture

Flax

Hops

Orchards, Ac

i3'7
47-8

Woods, &c

Number of horses used solely '
for agriculture

Number of horses unbroken 1
and mares for breeding .... ^ '

Nufpber of cattle....,

368,064

180,887

2,707,069

8,784,899

807,236

48*0

SB'S
65-1

47-5

898,473

144,868

1,450,977

8,043,747

890,679

44-5

34*9
47*8

5**5

.. sheen

.. niiw

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650

MisceUcmea,

[Dec.

Acreage of each Description of Crop in Grazing and Com Counties
of England, and Percentage of Total Cultivated Acreage in each
Division, under each Description of Crop.

In Grazing Coanties.

In Corn Coanties.

Airenge.

Percontaceof
Total ColUrNted

Acreage
in the DivUion.

Acreage.

Percentage of
Total CnlUvaled

Acmge
in the Divnioo.

Acreage under —

Com crops

2,646,902
1,104.440

1,400,903

309,004
7,646,714

20'Z

8-4
10-7

4,346,797
1,554,694

1,245,338

450,841
3,815,142

37-9

io*9

3'9
33*i

G-reen ..

Clover and other grass \

under rotation J

Bare fallow

Permanent pasture

"On comparing the figures with those of the last year or two,
the variations in the distribution of the crops between the two
great divisions are very slight except in a few instances. Thus in
the com crops the percentage in the grazing counties is now 37*8
against 37-6 last year and 37^9 in 1878, and there are a few small
variations in the green crops, but the total percentage of green
crops in the grazing counties varies only as much as from 47*7 in
1879 to 47 '2 this year, the corresponding percentage of green crops
in the corn counties being 52*8 this year, against 52*3 in 1879 and
52*2 in 1878. In bare fallow the increase has been larger in the
corn than in the grazing counties, the percentage in the com
counties being now 59*3 against 57*1 last year and 55*2 in 1878,
and the percentage of bare fallow in the grazing counties is now
only 40*7. The increased acreage of flax is chiefly in the com
counties, and the percentage there is this year 64*0 of the total area
as compared with 60*9 last year. Woods show a percentage of 52*2
in the grazing counties against 51*0 in the last return in 1872.
As regards live stock, there is again little difference ; but the pro-
portionate number of sheep in the grazing counties is now 52-2,
as compared with 53*0 in 1879 and in the com counties 47*8
against 47*0.

" As before mentioned, a special return of various sized holdings
and the live stock thereon was this year obtained, and the parti-
culars for each county of Great Britain will be found in Tables
Nos. 6 to 22.

" On comparing the principal results with the figures of 1875,
when the last return of this kind was obtained, the proportionate
acreage of the large and small holdings seems to have nndei^ne
little change. Thus for Great Britain the area held in occupations
of 50 acres and under is still 15 per cent, of the total ; that between
50 and 100 acres also 15 per cent.; between 100 and 300, 42 per
cent.; from 300 to 500, 16 per cent.; from 500 to 1,000, 10 per
cent. ; and in farms over 1 ,000 acres 2 per cent.

" In England alone a tendency to larger occupations may be
noticed, the small farms of 50 acres and under being now 1 4 instead

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1880.] The Agricultural Eetvms for the Tear 1880. 651

of 1 5 per cent, of the whole acreage, and the moderate sized ones
between 50 and 300 acres, 54 per cent, against 56 per cent, in 1875,
while &rms over 300 acres amonnt to 32 per cent., or nearly a third
of the cnltivated area as compared with 29 per cent, in 1875.

" In Scotland, however, the tendency is rather to an increase in
occnpations between 50 and 300 acres, which are now 59 per
cent, against 58 per cent, in 1875, and the moderate sized farms
in Wales have also somewhat increased, so that, as before stated,
the proportionate acreage for the whole of Great Britain is almost
the same.

" Tnming to the number of live stock, there is again little
variation to notice. Medinm sized holdings (50 to 300 acres) still
have 58 per cent, of the cattle and 50 per cent, of the sheep of
Great Britain, and the number of sheep in the small holdings is
now 17 per cent, as compared with 18 per cent, in 1875; cattle on
the same holdings being still 24 per cent., or nearly a quarter of the
whole number.

" It may be remarked, as was mentioned in Mr. Valpy's report
in 1875, that the large number of sheep compared to acreage on the
small holdings in Wales and Scotland is owing to these occupiers
having large tracts of rough pasture not included in the agricul-
tural returns in addition to their small acreage of cultivated or
enclosed land.

" With a view to increase the tisefulness of the return, some
comparative tables were last year added, and are now continued,
embracing and expanding the information formerly given for a
series of years in two short tables immediately appended to the
report, and giving in addition certain details as to each county for
a series of years. As was explained in my report last year, the first
two of these tables (Nos. 23 and 24) show for each of the last ten
years the acreage of land under different crops and number of live
stock in each division of the United Kingdom, with a comparison
of land under crops with permanent pasture, while the subsequent
tables give details and percentages of cultivation for the same decen-
nial period in the different counties of Great Britain which are
arranged not geographically but as * com,* * pastoral,' or * mixed '
counties, according to the percentage of their com crops to perma-
nent pasture. Other tables were also added, comprising and con-
tinuing the information as to the prices of com and other articles
of agricultural produce, imports of such articles by quantities and
values, and other matters contained in the Returns Nos. 273 and
401, Sess. 1878, and No. 210, Sess. 1879. These two sets of tables
form Nos. 23 to 58, inclusive, of the accompanying return.

*' The returns of the crops and live stock in British possessions
and foreign countries ceased to be included with this report several
years ago, the principal figures being annually published in the
statistical abstracts relating to the colonies and foreign countries;
but with a view of quoting briefly in this report the principal results
in the Australasian colonies and in the United States, special appli-
cation haa again been made to the heads of the statistical depart-
ments in Australasia, and the valuable monthly reports on the
condition of the crops and live stock prepared by the department

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652 Miscellanea. [Dec.

of agriculture at Washington have been consulted with reference
to agrictilture in America.

" The returns from Queensland have not yet been received, bnt
taking last year's figures for that colony, it appears from the variouB
colonial accounts that 2f million acres of land in Australasia were
under wheat in the last harvest, being two and a half times the
area under wheat there ten years ago, and within 300,000 acres of
the wheat acreage of the United Kingdom. The produce, moreover,
which last year was only 10 bushels per acre, was this year more
than 1 3 bushels, or about the average produce in the United States,
the largest wheat growing colony (South Australia) yielding 10
bushels to the acre, Victoria 13 bushels, and New Zealand as much
as 28 bushels. Barley is not yet an important crop in Australia,
but its acreage was this year 136,000, against 80,000 in 1879,
Victoria and New Zealand having both doubled their area under
barley, and the produce averaged 2 5 bushels per acre. Oats were
grown on 565,000 acres, and yielded about 31 bushels per acre, the
produce of New Zealand averaging nearly 40 bushels an acre. Maize
IS grown almost entirely in New South Wales and Queensland.
The area under that crop in the former colony was 1 3 5,000 acres in
the present year, and the produce 35 bushels to the acre, or nearly
6 bushels more than in the United States. Potatoes occupied
103,000 acres, and the produce was 418,000 tons, or more than four
tons to the acre, the average yield in New Zealand being between
five and six tons. There is little change in the acreage under vine*
yards in Australia of late years, 13,000 acres being this year under
vineyards, from which i ,800,000 gallons of wine were made. About
1 7,000 gallons of wine were imported into the United Kingdom from
Australia in 1879, and New Zealand and Tasmania also consumed
some of the surplus produce of the vnne-making colonies. As
regards live stock in Australasia, in the absence of this year's
returns for two important colonies, Queensland and New Zealand,
we are unable to make a very close comparison with past years, but
in Victoria we find a small falling off in cattle and a larger one,
nearly three quarters of a million, in sheep, the number of sheep in
Victoria being now less than in any jesat since 1864. The decrease
in the number and acreage of squatting runs of late years, owing
to more land being cultivated, is no doubt the chief cause of this
decline. In New South Wales on the other hand there is an increase
from last year's figures in all descriptions of stock and especially in
sheep, of which tibere are now 29 millions or double the number in
1870. The approximate number of live stock in the whole of Austral-
asia for the present year was of horses 1,050,000, homed cattle
7,510,000, sheep 65,400,000, and pigs 810,000.

" The absence of yearly agricultural returns in the dominion of
Canada is much to be regretted, as the decennial statistics, which
are collected with the census and were last taken in 1870, give no
information as to the present production of wheat in the newly
settled districts of Manitoba.

*^ With respect to the United States the latest returns state the
acreage imder wheat to be about 9 per cent, in excess of last year,
which would represent this year's area as rather more than 35^ mil-

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1880.] The Agricultural Beiumsfor ihe Year 1880. 653

lion acres. Maize, whicli covered 53,085,000 acres last year, shows
an increase of less than i per cent. Barlej, 1,733,000 acres last
year, has fallen off 10 per cent. Rye, 1,551,000 acres in 1879, has
also fallen off. Oats, 12,683,000 acres last year, cover an increased
area of abont 2 per cent.

" The returns of the yield of these crops have not yet been
received, but the reports received by the Department of Agricnl-
tnre at Washington state the condition of both the wheat and maize
crops to be little less favourable than last year. Taking into con-
sideration the increased acreage it may be anticipated that the 3rield
of wheat, whioh in 1879 was 448,755,000 bushels, will not be less
this year than 500,000,000 bnshels, and maize, which yielded
1,544,899,000 bushels last year, may somewhat exceed that quantity.
It is evident therefore that the quantity of breadstuffs available for
export to Europe will be fully equal to last year, when (in the
twelve months ended 30th June, 1880) 153 million bushels of wheat,
6 million barrels of flour, and 98 million bushels of maize were
exported from the United States. From the reports of live stock
in the United States estimated on the 1st of January last there
appears to be little change from the figures of 1878-79, except as
regards sheep, in which there is an increase of 6 per cent. Pigs on
the other hand are less by 4 per cent. According to these estimates
the numbers should now be, horses 11 millions, mules if million,
cattle 33 millions, sheep 40^ millions, and pigs 33I millions.

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054

MiseeUanecL,
APPENDIX

[Dec

Table A.—Total Area and Acreage under each kind of Crop, Bare Fallow^ and CHklb
and 1879, in each Division of Great Britain, with similar Partie^^

ToUl am

n acretge uder cropt, Ixare fallow,

Corn Crop*— >

Wheat

Barley or ber«

Ott« .«

Beans

Pew «

Total of com crope ,

OrMD Cropt ■ ■

PoUtoes

Tomipe and swedes

Maufold

CarroU

CabbMge, kokUrBbi, and rape

Vetches and other green crops, except clover ur )

Total of green crops..

Cloror, sanfois, and grasses under rotation

Permanent pasture or grass not broken op in rota- )
ticm (exdosive of heath or mountain wnd) j

Flax

Hops

Bare fallow or uncropped arable land

Horses (Including ponies), u returned by occupiers
of land-
Used solely for purpose of agricutture, 8te

Unbroken "boraes and mares kept solely for breeding

Total of horses .

Cattle-
Cows and heifers In milk or in calf .
Other cattle—

8 years of age and above

Under 3 years of age

ToUl of cattle .

Sheep—
1 year old and abore
Under 1 year old

Total of sheep

Pigs

England.

1880.

Acrea.

32-597.
24^596,

2^746,
2,o6i,

32i
404,
231,

6,994,

325,

1,473,

3.U,

«5,

155,

35%

2,659,

2,6*6,
11,462,

6?:

760,

326,

1,093,

l,593»

1,076,
1,489,

4,158,

10,630,
6,199,

16,829,

1,698,

1879.

Wales.

1880. 1870.

1880.

1«»

Total Amsa axd Acxkaqk Diri>Bft Cc»ui Cksa.

Acres.
82.697.
94.504.

9.719.

2,23«.

1,425.

40.

420.

974,

7,114.

894.

1,468.

S63.

14,

16i,

496.

2.787,

9,676,

11,284,

7.
88,
671,

Acres.

4,722,
2,768,

90,

143,

240,

480,

I,
1,

121,

332,
1,806,

3»,

Acres.
4.722.
2.769.

152,

297,

Acres.

4^738,

481,

48,

67.

_8.

"1.
7.

128.

847.
1.774.

99,

7.
I,

I»403,

a*
I,

16.

4J11

971-
1,0%

»,

UK.

697.

ITS.

I
a.

«9a

i,45<5,
it«59.

22,

1.40.
"21,

770,
831,

1.101.

1.606,

1.0S8,
1.491,

4,129,

11.621.
6.925.

18.446,

1.771.

135,

261,

126,
267,

654,

'siii

2,718,

182,

136.

962.

112.
270.

644.

2,012,
861.

2.878,

198,

141,

53,

19+,

387,

259.
453,

1,099,

1«,
K

196.

89.

9IP.
435.

1,084.

4,651,
2,421,

7,07a,

121,

<6S»,
S.199.

6338,

128.

Number of Lits Stock, as RKTtrurso ctoh

* From Returns prepored by the Registrar-General for Ireland, and laid before Parliament.

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1880.]

The Agricultural Beturns for the Tear 1880.
APPENDIX.

655

and Number of Horset, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs, at returned upon the 4th Jvme, 1880,
tor Ireland,* and with Total for United Kingdom. [ooo'» omitted.]

Great Britain.

Ireland.

United Kinicdom.
Indudinir Isle of M^
and Channel Islands.

1880.

187».

1880.

1879.

1880.

1879.

Grsen Crops, Bauc Fallow, Geass, 8u^

Acres.
56,815,

32,102,

Acres.
56,815,
81.976.

Acres.

20,820,
I5,.'?58,

Acres.
20,8i-'0,
15,336,

Acres.
77,829,
47,587,

Acres.
77.829.
47437,

Total area
M acreage under crops, bare fidioir, and grass

2,909,

2,467,

2,797,

41,

427,

234,

2,890,

2.667.

2,657,

49.

444,

278,

149,

219,

1,382,

10,

158,

255,

1,330.

3.066,
2.695,
4,192,

48,
436,
235,

8.056,

2,932,

3,998.

58.

464.

279,

Com Crops
Wheat

Barley or here
Oats
Rye
Beans
Peas

8,875,

8,985,

1,768,

1,762,

10,672,

10.777.

Total of com crops

551,

2,024,

343,

380,

641,

2,017.

864,

168.

448,

821,

t4,
42,

36,

843,
815,
+ 61,

40,
41.

1,381,

21,

204,

418.

1.898,
2.342.

415.
21,

209.

492.

Green Crops-
Potatoes

Tomips and swedes
Mangold
Carrots
Cabbage, kohl-rabi, and rape

f Vetches and other green crops, except dovor or

I gTHM

3,477,

8,554,

1,248,

1.295,

4,74-,

4372,

Total of green crops

4,43+,
14,427,

6?;

813,

4.473.

14^167,

7.
68,

721.

1,910,

10,261,

158,
15,

1.987.

10.198,

128.

6,389,

24,7*7,

167,

829,

6,461.
24.896.

185.

68,

738,

aorer. sanfoin, and grasses under rotation

< Permanent pasture or grass not broken np in rotation
\ (exclusive of heaUi or mountAin land)

Flax
Hops

THK 4th Ju«E, 1880 AlfD 1879.

980,
4+1,

985.
448,

} 499,

518,

1,930,

1.965.

Horses (including ponies), as retumed by occupiers
of land-
Used solely for purpose of acriculture, kc.
Unbroken horses and mares kept solely for breeding

1,421,

1.433.

499,

513,

1,930,

1.955.

Total of bortes

2,242,

1,461,

2,210,

2.255.

1.405,
2,196,

1,397,

864,
1.660,

1,465.

841,
1.762.

3,655,

2,330,
3,886,

8.786.

2.250.
3.976,

Cattle-
Cows and heifers in milk or in calf
Other cattle— »

2 years of age and above

Under 2 years of age

5,913,

5.856,

3,92^1

4.068,

9,871,

9.961,

Total of catUe

17,186,

9,43.^,

18.172,
9,985,

2,305,
1,256,

2.572.
1,446,

19,523,
10,717,

20,780.
11,458,

Sheep—
1 year old and abore
Under 1 year old

26,619,

28.157.

3,561,

4,018,

30,240,

82.288,

Total of sheep

2,oor,

2.092.

849,

1,073,

2,863,

8.178.

Pig»

t Including beet root.

X Including parsnips.

VOL. XLIII. PART IV.

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656

MisceUoMea,

[Dec

Table R — Percentage of Total Cultivated Acreage under Various Kinds of CropSf tad
and Number of each Kind of Live Stock to every loo Aem

England.

Wilw.

SeoUtnd.

1880.

1879.

1880.

1879.

1880.

1879.

Pbrcentage 07 Total Cultiyatbd Acbiagi

^P««) J

Ghreen crops

28-4

10-8
81

10-8

46-6

0-3

29*0

11*2

io*9

45*9

o'3

17-3

4-3
11

12-0

65-3

17*5
4-6

I-Q

64-4
CO

29-6

14-7
0-6

80-7

24-6

0*4

30-8
24-6

0*0

Baro fallow

ChmM—

Clover, &c., under rotation

Permanent nasture

Otlier cTODfl

Total

100-0

lOO'O

100-0

100*0

lOO-O

100-0

PsSCKKTAaB OF TOTAL ACBSAGB OF COBV CbOH

Wheat

898

29-5

21-7

0-4

6-8

8-3

38-2
3«'4

20*0

0-6
5'9
3'9

18-8

29-8

601

0-4

0-5

0-4

19*7

3»'7

47-1

o"3

0-6

6-3
18-8
73-9
0-6
1-4
01

5*5

20*0

0-6
1-6
0-1

Barley orbere

Oats

Rye

Zz^^

Beans

Peas «~

Total

1000

lOO'O

1000

lOO'O

100-0

lOO'O

_ ^

Pbbcxktaob OF Total Acbbagb of G-bebv Cbops

Potatoes

12-2

55*4

12-6

0-6

6-8

13-4

11-8
53*3

12-9

0*5
5'9

15-6

82-4

54-3

6-4

0-4

0-9

5-6

33-6

53*o

6-6

o'4
i-o

5*4

26-8

69-7

0-3

0-2

0-8

2-2

25*3
7I-J

0-4

jO-2

0*7

2-2

Tiimi'mi fLTid irwAdMi

Itfanffold „„,,,.—,.,„.-,-, --t t-T-

Carrots ..,

Cabbages, kohl-rabi, and rape

green crop, except dover or •
(mm

Total

1000

lOO'O

1000

ico"o

100-0

100*0

KincBBB of bach Edo) of Litb Stock to bvui

Horses ..«

Cattle

Sheep

4-4
16-6
68*4

6-9

4*5
i6'9

75*3
7**

4-9
23-7
98*2

6-6

4*9

*3*3

104-2

7-0

28-2

149-3

2-6

4'^

»3'o

1451

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1880.]

The Agriculinji/raL Beiwms for the Tear 1880.

657

of the Acreage of Cam and Oreen Crops tmder the several Descriptions of such Crops^
wnder Ctdtiva4iony in each of the Years 1880 and 1879.

Great BiiUiii.

Ireland.

United Kingdom,
inelnding Isle of Man

1880.

1879.

1880.

1879.

1880.

1879.

ITNDBB VARIOUS KiNDS OF CbOPS IK BACH YrAB.

27-7

10-8
2-5

18-8

450

0-2

28-1

ii'i

H'o
44*3

0*2

11-5

81
01

12-6

66-8

"'5

8-5
o-i

12-6

0-8

22-4

10-0
1-7

18-4

62-0
0-6

22-7

io*3
1-6

13-6

5i'4

©•4

r Com crops (indading beans and
1 peas)

Bare fallow
Grass—

Clover, &c., under rotation

Permanent pasture
Other crops

1000

lOO'O

1000

lOO'O

1000

lOO'O

Total

Uia>BB B

ACH XmB OF CoBV Cbop in bach Yxab.

82-8

27-8

81-5

0-5

4-8

2-6

3**»

29*6
o'5
4*9
3'i

8-4
12-4
78-2
0-4
0-6
00

8-9
14*5

75'5
o*5
0-5

O'l

28-7

25-8

89*8

0-4

2-2

28-4

27-2

37-1
o'5

2-6

Wheat

Barley or bere

OaU

Bye

Beans

Peas

1000

lOO'O

1000

lOC'O

1000

lOO'O

Total

UNDBS BACH KlND 07 GrEBN GbOP TK BACH YbAB.

15-9

68-2

9-9

0-5

4-6

10-9

<5'i

56-8

IO*2

o*4
4-8

12-6

66*8

24-8

8*8

0-8

8-4

2-9

65-1

24*3

4'o

0-3

3*1

3"a

291

49-2

0-6

4-3

8-8

28-6

48-1

8-5

o*4

4*3

Potatoes

Turnips and swedes
Mangold
CarroU

Cabbages, kobl-rabi, and rape
Vetches, lucerne, and any other
green crop, except clover or
I grwe

1000

lOO'O

1000

lOO'O

1000

lOO'O

Totel

100 ACSBB XTKDBB CbOPS, FaXLOW AlO) GSABS.

4-4
18-4
82-9

6-2

i8-3
88*1

6-5

8-8
25-6
28-2

5-5

3'3
26-5

26'I

7-0

41
20-7
63-6

4*1

21-0

68-0
6-7

Horses

Cattle
Sheep
Pigf

2x2

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658

Miscdla/nea.

[Dec.

Table C. — Statement o^ the Number of Agricultural Moldings of various size*, and c^
Acreage of each Class of Holdings ; and of the Live Stock thereon, in £ngland, W^
Scotland, and Great Britain, in each of the years 1880 and 1875.

ClaMiflcmtkm of
Uoldingi.

England.

1880.

1876.

Wales.

1880.

1875.

Scotland.

1880.

1875.

Great ftriiua.

188a

ITi

50 ftcret and under ..
From 50 to 100

„ 100 „ 300

« 300., 500

„ 500 „ 1,000...
Above 1,000

Total

50 acrei and under ...
From 50 to loc.,

„ 100 „ 300..

„ 300 „ 500..

H 500 » 1.000..
Abore 1,000

Total

50 acres and under ..
From 50 to 100

„ 100 „ 300

1. 300 „ 500

„ 500 „ 1,000

Abore 1,000

ToUl

SO acres and under .
From Soto 100....

„ 100 „ 300...

» 300 „ 500....

„ 500 „ i,oco....
Abore 1,000

Total

50 acres and under ,
From so to

ICO ,

100..
300..
300 „ 500..
„ Soo „ 1,000..
Above 1,000

NUMBKK OF AOKICULTUKAL UOLDINOS Off KACH C1.ASS.

295,318

44,603

58.677

11.617

4,095

600

414304

293.469
44,843
58450
",245
3,871
463

4»2i340

40,aS6

9.767

7,696

464

75
6

58.8S4

40,161

9,656

7,316

433

57,660

55.280

9,726

13.348

2,007

661

80.101

56,3"

9.878

11,823

1,967

691

136

80,796

391.439
6^09$
78.791
14.078
4^1
S85

MS,7S9

Si?»

AcsKAOK OF Holdings of kach Class.

8,528340
3.238.053
10.197.913
4359,794
2.654,360
637311

3,550,405
3,259, "o
10,042,16a
4,202,402
2,513,903
571,994

647.587

707,743

1,209,098

156,993

47,878

7,176

631,941

698,879

.1,141,456

157,725

54.207

12,941

24,611,271 24,139,976 2,767,976 2,697,149 4,741,296 4,611,095 82.190.543 | Si44&^

658.295
721.844
2.082.914
750.295
418.650
114,298

666,356
697.620
1,980.081
729,885
427478
109,675

4.8S9.723 ; 43<5.t:

4,663.610 I iissM

IS.483.933 I ii,x6Um

5,966.069 , 5^V^

3,130.8^ 2,96-^

758.781 ^^

MUMBEK OF HOKSKS USXD FOE AOBICULTUaK ON EACH CLASS OP HoLOIKG*-

141,252
118,433
814352
119,655
65351
12,243

766,486

19.446

90,861

28,746

2,916

686

72.699 —'

34.681
25.032
56,686
16,667
7,106
1,033

141,195 — "

193.378 I

1593^ I
899,684

189.227 I
78^*3

13328 I

980380

NUMBXB OF CaTTLB OH BACH CLASS OF UOLDINSS.

924,407
659,165
1,677,623
578,135
259,669
46,957

4,140,955

963,651
699,548
1,695,295
562,836
244,023
40,050

4,205,403

192.366
172.946
264.406
27,937
6.077
662

196,192
175.9»5
244,140
27,581
6,419
757

654,272 651,004

281,035
196.125
436.561
116,489
47,281
9,297

1,086,788

307,967
206,906
438,145
116,920
52,006
10,595

1,132,541

1397.797

1.028385

2368.589

717,651

818.037

66316

6382.015

3aWP

NUMBEB OF SHBBP AND LaMBS ON KACH CLA88 OF HOLDTHQS.

1,497,760
1,764,255
6.482,090
8,694,3U
2,736,584
704,752

1,808,413
2,126,590
7,592,104
4,038,957
2,865,219
656,50*

ToUl 16,818,785 19,067,787

705,959

749.807

1,037,076

139,790

67.246

7.596

831,618
807,382
1,067,426
167,150
63,419
13.691

2,868,186

1380,934

1,877.601

746,587

584,014

139.667

2,583,626

1,098.738

1,708,614

749.122

608,716

244,387

2.687,474 2,950,686 6,946,889 6,993.203 26,463,148 | 29,031,^

4371,906
3.784,996
9336.667
4380,731
8376.844
863,015

4,<^:^

4,955^

* Unbroken horses and mares kept for breeding were ineluded with Uie bones used for aeriaiUon in
1875. and therefore no comparison can be made between the numbers for the years 1880 and 1876.

tke

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1880.]

The Agricultural Returns for the Year 1880.

659

Tablb D. — Statement thowing the Percentage that the Number and Acreage qf
each ClaMS of Holdingty and the Live Stock thereon, is of the Total Number
and Acreage of Holdings, and of Live Stock thereon, in England^ Wales,
Scotland, and Great Britain, for each of the years 1880 and 1875.

CUuiuficmtion of

fingUud.

WalM.

Scotland.

Great Britain.

Holdings.

1880.

1875.

1880.

1875.

1880.

1876.

1880. 1 1876.

Pee-obntagb op the Total Numbbb of Holdings.

^o acres and under....

From 50 to 100....

„ 100 „ 300....

»4

» 300 „ 500....

„ 500 „ 1,000....

—

Above 1,000

—

Total

100

Pbb-cbntage Oi

Total Acreage.

^0 acres and under....

From 50 to loo....

„ 100 „ 300....

i> 300 „ 500....

„ 500 „ 1,000...

Above 1,000

—

Total

100

PeB-CENTAOB of HOB8E8 ON BACH CtASS OP HOLDINGS.

c,o acres and under...

__•

^_#

___•

•

From 50 to 100....

— •

•

„ 100 „ 300....

— •

•

» 300 ». 500....

— •

•

„ 500 „ 1,000....

— #

— •

•

Above 1,000

— #

—

— #

— •

«_•

Total

100

•

100

.— #

100

•

100

«j»

Pee-c

bntaof of Cattle on each Class 0

F HOLI

ING8.

50 acres and under....

From 50 to 100...

„ 100 „ 300....

» 300 „ 500....

„ 500 „ 1,000....

Above 1,000

—

Total

100

Pei

l-CENTAGE OF SHBBP AND LaMBS ON BACH ClABS

OF Holdings.

Ko acres and under....

From 50 to 100....

„ 100 „ 300....

»4

„ 300 „ 500....

i» 500 „ 1,000....

Above 1,000

—

Total

100

100 1 100

100

• See note p. 668.

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660
Tablb K — Summary

MUeeUcmea, [Dec.

of Total Acreage wider each Principal Crop, and of the Nttmber

Prim

ripal Crops,
rSngland

1871.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

Acres.
8,312,550
126,834
183,010

Acres.
3,336,888
126,367
I35»702

Acrei.
3,252,802
116,852
120,728

Acres.
3,391,440
117,869
120,991

Acres.
8,128,547
111,797
102437

Wi3es

Wheat. ...S

Scotland

.Great Britain....

3,671,8d4

3,598,957

3,490,880

3,630,300

3,342,481

Barley or^
Bere

fEpgland

1,964,210
169,751
251,822

1,896,403
168,014
251.915

1,926,183
163,613
246,117

1,889,722

152,425
245,840

2,090,423
154,444
264,834

Wales

Scotland

.Great Britain....

2,885,783

2,3i<>,33*

2,835,913

2,287,987

2,509,701

rKngland

1,454,144

253,672

1,007,891

1,442,075

256,074

1,007,688

1,419,128

244,893

1,012,206

1,35^,739

235,621

1,004,024

1,421,951

237,170

1,004,888

Wa es

Oats s

Scotland

.Great Britain....

2,716,707

2,705,837

2,676,227

2.596,384

2,664,009

VoiMoee<

f England

391,531

51,853

184,807

339»05<5
48,417
176,615

309,419

44,936

160,827

314,571
45,379
160,480

320.477

44,506

167,671

Wales

Scotland

.Great Britain....

627,691

564,088

514,682

520,430

622,653

f England

1,592,988

69,833

500,978

i,5»2,49<5

69,185

501,826

1,640,807

70,821

610,780

1,560,857

70.843

501,636

1,669,049

70,326

503,323

Tomips

and "S

Wales .-...

Scotland

Swedes

.Great Britain....
fEngland

2,163,744

2,083,507

2,121,908

2,133,336

2,142,698

2,694,370

375,086

1,299,992

2,822,392

370,850

1,320,209

2,678,311

360,555

1,327,952

2,618,655

365,078

1,357,009

2,608,106

360,596

1,385,369

Clover,

Waee

&c.,iinder*<

Scotland

.Great Britain....

4,369,448

4,513,451

4,366,818

4,340,742

4,364,071

Cattle ..,.<

ve Stock,
fEngland

No.
3,671,064
596,588
1,070,107

No.
3,901,663
602,738
1,120,593

No.
4,178,635
642,857
1,148,057

No.

4,305,440

665,105

1,154,846

No.
4,218,470
651,274
1,143,080

Waiee

Scotland

.Great Britain....

5,387,759

5,624,994

6,964,549

6,125^.91

6,012,824

Sheep ,..<

rBngland

17,580,407
2,706,415
6,882,747

17,912,904
2,867,144
7,141,459

19,169,851
2,966,862
7,290.922

19,859,758
3,064,696

7,389,487

19,114.634
2,951,810
7400,994

Waee

Scotland

.Great Britain....

27,119,569

27,921,507

29,427,635

30,313,941

29,167,438

fEngland

2,078,604
225,456
195,642

2,347,512
238,317
185,920

2,141,417
211,174
147,668

2,058,781
213,754
150.297

1,876,367
203>I8
151,213

W^es

Pigs* .,..<

Scotland

.Great Britain....

2,499,602

2,771,749

2,500,259

2,422,832

2,229,918

' Exclusive of those kept in towns and bj

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1880.] The Agricultural BeUirna far the Year 1880. 661

of Live Stock returned in Great Briiaivi, in each Tear from 1871 to 1880 indueive.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

1880.

PHnetpal C

England ^

Wdes

Vop«.
>. Wheat

Acrec.

2,823,342

94*423
78,192

Acre*.
2,987,129
100,226
81,185

Acrei.

3.041,241
101,813

75.363

Aena.
2,718,992
94,639
76,618

ACTM.

2,745.733
89,729
73,976

Sootland

2,995»957

8,168,540

3,218,417

2,890,244

2,909.438

Great Britain J

2,109,265

153,^^47
270,197

2,000,581
147,212
269,845

2,062^.98
148,116
259.038

2,236,101
152,491

278,584

2,060,807

142,514
264,120

England "

Wales

Sootland

Barley

> or

2,533,109

2,417,588

2,469.652

2,667,176

2,467,441

Ghreat Britoin J

>. 534.249

242,417

1,021,764

1,489,999

239,298

1,024,882

1,430,376

234.9«6

1.033.545

1,425,126

226.967

1,004,535

1,520,125

239,5^6

1,037,254

England ^

Wwes

►Oats

Scotland

2,798,430

2,754,179

2,698,907

2,656,628

2,796,905

Groat Britain J

305.429

42,581

154.709

303,964

42,942

166,565

301,852
40,816
165,763

823,992

42,609

174,743

324,931

38,940

187,061

England '

W^es

► Potatoes

Scotland

502,719

512,471

508,431

641,344

550,932

Great Britian J

1,561,116
* 72,049
512,408

1,495,885

70,813

506,757

1*466,973

67,531

497,356

1,467,762

67,349

491,964

14-73,030

65,190

485.987

England ^

Wales 1 Turnips

Scotland > and

I Swedes
Ghreat Britain J

2,145,573

2,073,455

2,031,860

2,017,075

2,024,207

2,787,103

360,159

1.393.0"

2,737,387

351,797

1,405,032

2,785,097

356486

11431,524

2,674,949

347,473

1,450,951

2,646,241

332,353

1,455,745

England ^

WfJes

Clover,
►&c.,imder

Scotland

4.540,273

4,494,216

4.573.107

4,473,373

4.434,339

Great Britain J

No.
4,076,410
636,644
1,131,087

No.

8,979,650

616,209

1,102,074

No.

4.034.552

608,189

1,095.387

No.
4,128,940
643,815
1,083,601

No.

4,158,046

654.714
1,099,286

Live Sto

England *"

WiUcs

ck,
►Cattle

Scotland

5.844.141

5,697,933

5,738,128

5,856,856

5,912,046

Great Britain J

18,320,091
2,873,141
6,989,719

18,330,377
2,862,013
6,968,774

18,444,004
2,925,806
7.036,396

18,445,522
2,873,460
6,838,098

16,828,646
2,718,316
7,072,088

England "

Wales

Scotland >Sheep

28,182,951

28,161,164

28,406,206

28,157,080

26,619,050

Great Britain J

1,9^4.033
215,488
154.099

2,114,751
230,720
153,257

2,124.722
218,337
140,189

1,771,081
192,757
127,721

1,697,914
182,003
120,925

England "^

Waes

^Pigs

Scotland

Great Britain .

2,293,620

2,498,728

2,483,248

2,091,559

2,000,842

cottagers- with less than a quarter of an acre of land.

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662

Miscellanea,

[Dec.

rxBLB F.— Total Acreage under Crops, Bare Fallow, and Grass ; and Acreage under Com

La^id^), in England, Wales, and Scotland

Total Acreage under —

Crops, Bare Fallow,
and Qrags—

England

Wales

Scotland

Total

Com Crops —

England

Wales

Scotland

Total

Green Crops —

England

Wales

Scotland

Total

Clover, &c. —

England

Wales

Scotland

Total

lotal Acreage of —
Arable Land —

England

Wales

Scotland

Total

Permanent Pasture —

England

Wales

Scotland

Total

1871.

Acres.

23,717,660
2,604,817
4,516,090

30,838,567

7,683,692

560,700

1,430,869

9,676,261

2,897,545
136,641
704,094

8,738,180

2,694,370

376,066

1,299,992

4,369,448

13,835,827
1,110,352
3,456,946

18,403,126

9,881,833
1,494,466
1,059,144

12,436,442

1872.

Acres.
4.538,334

31,004,173

7,576,698

561,916

i,434i937

9.573»55<

2,778,925
136,065

701,393

3,616,383

i,8i2,392

370,850

1,320,209

4.5»3,45>

13,839,369
1,103,758
3,485,440

18,428,567

9,990,828
i,53«,884
1,052,894

12,575,606

1873.

Acres.

23,893,558
2,647,080
4,561,982

31,102,620

7,501,713

536,786

1,420,429

9,458,928

2,749,318
183,232
693,936

3,576,486

2,678,311

360,655

1,327,952

4,366,818

13,655,744
1,065,495
3,465,452

18,186,691

10,237,814
1,581,585
1,096,630

12,915,929

1874.

Acres.

24,008,368
2,678,730
4,579,821

31,266,919

7,505,076

516,001

1,410,413

9,431,490

2,764,182
131,956
685,132

3,581,270

2,618,655

365,078

1,357,009

4,340,742

13,570,219
1,045,188
3,473,500

18,088,907

10,438,149
1,633,542
1,106,321

13,178,012

1875.

Acres.

24,112,309
2,696,143
4,607,898

31,416,350

7,528,543

512,178

1,410,929

9,451,650

2,848,473
181,085
6^4,549

3,664,107

2,608,106

360,596

1,385,369

4,354,071

13,676,026
1,029,830
3,497,873

18,103,729

10,536,283
1,666,313
1,110,025

13,312,621

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1880.]

The Agricultural Beiums for the Year 1880.

663

Crops, Green Craps, Clover, dkc., and Permanent Pasture {exclusive of Heath and Mountain
n each Year from 1871 to 1880 inclusive.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

1880.

Total Acreage under —

Acres.

Acre*.

Acres.

Crops, Bare Fallow,
and Grass —

24,iOI,622

24,312,033

24,417,815

24,503,882

24,596,266

England

2,712,097

2,731,169

2,74^,5 n

2,758,743

2,767,516

Wales

4»<537,893

4,669,221

4,690,206

4,713,159

4,738,127

Scotland

^1,551,612

31,712,413

31,854,532

31,975,784

32,101,909

Total

Com Crops —

7,288,186

7,302,772

7,274»8ii

7,113,122

6,993,699

England

498,968

494,678

491,868

481,677

478,116

Wales

1,407,515

1,412,679

1,400,967

1,390,535

1,403,887

Scotland

9,194,669

9.210,129

9,167,646

8,985,234

8,875,702

Total

Green Crops —

i,752,434

2,759,174

2,680,983

2,736,488

2,659,134

England

129,466

129,535

122,708

126,951

120,073

Wales

689,974

696,137

687,319

690,879

697,446

Scotland

3,571,874

3,584,846

3,491,010

3,554,318

3,476,653

Total

CloTer, &c. —

2,787,103

2,737,387

2,785,097

2,674,949

2,646,241

England

360,159

351,797

356,486

347,473

332,353

Wales

»,393,oii

1,405,032

1,431,524

1,450,951

1,455,745

Scotland

4,540,273

4,494,216

4,573,107

4,473,373

4,434,339

Total

Total Acreage of —

Arable Land-

13,512,993

13,454,017

13,408,235

13,270,356

13,134,410

England

1,014,151

998,876

998,310

984,932

961,766

Wales

3,508,524

3,531,165

3,536,691

3,553,772

3,578,774

Scotland

18,035,668

17,984,058

17,943,236

17,809,060

17,674,950

Total

Permanent Pasture-

10,688,629

10,858,016

11,009,580

11,233,526

11,461,856

England

1,697,946

1,732,283

1,748,201

1,773,811

1,805,750

Wales

1,129,369

1,138,056

'»'53,5i5

1,159,387

1,159,353

Scotland

13,515,944

13,728,355

13,911,296

14,166,724

14,426,959

Total

Digitized by

Google

664

MiBcellanea,

[Dec.

Tablk Q. — Population* of the United Kir^dom and Valve of ImporU
of Live Stocky Com and Grainy and various Kinds of Dead Meat ctnd
Provisiomf in each of the Fears 1860 to 1879, and Proportion per
Head of Population.

PopolaUon*
of t>« 1I»!t^

Imports.

TeuB.

1
oTc

1860...

•1 18,778411

2,117,860

31.676,353

8,076,304

41,870,517

19 1

'61...

•1 28,974.36*

2,211,969

34,911,095

9,161,078

46,185,141

1 11 11

'62...

•i 29i»55.o»5

1,888,236

37,774*148

10,630,734

50,193,118

1 14 5

'63...

• 29.433.9 > 8

2,666,072

25.956.520

10,841,324

39.45a.916

I 6 10

•64..

.' 29,618,578

4,276,822

19,881,181

12,157,010

36,314,513

14 6

'66...

.• 19,861,908

6,548,413

10,715.483

12,667,838

39.941.734

16 9

•66...

.' 30,076,811

5,839,058

30,049,655

13,483,716

49.371,428

1 12 10

•67...

•; 30.334*999

4,148,382

41,368,349

12,489,331

58,006,062

1 18 3

'68...

. 30,617,718

2,698,496

39,431,614

13,277,683

55408,803

1 16 2

'69..

• 30.913.513

5,299,087

37,351.089

15,189,933

57,840,109

1 17 5

'70..

. 31,105,444

4,654,905

34,170,221

14,773,712

53.598.838

1 14 3

'71...

. 31,513,44a

5,663,150

41,691,464

16,693,668

64,948,282

2 14

'72...

• 31,835.757

4,394,850

51,128,816

18,604,273

74,117,939

2 6 8

73..

. 31,114,598

6,418,584

51.737.811

23,864,967

81,011,361

2 10 6

'74..

. 31,416,369

6,265,041

51,070,202

25,224,958

81,560,101

2 10 4

'76...

. 32,749.»<57

7,326,288

53,086,691

25,880,806

86,193,785

2 12 8

'76..

• 33.093.439

7,260,119

51,811,438

29,851,647

88,924,204

2 13 9

'77..

■ 33.446.930

6,012,564

63.536,322

30,144,013

99,691,899

2 19 7

'78..

• 33.799.386

7,453,309

59,064,875

32,636,877

99,155,061

2 18 8

'79..

• 34.155.1a6

7,075,386

61,261,437

32,836,911

101,171,734

2 19 3

• T

ExcluBive of th

e army, nary, and merchant eeamen abroad.

jd or fresh, meat preserved otherwise than by salt

t Beef, meat salU

ing, pork.

bacon,

and hams, but

ter, cheese, eggs, and potatoes.

U.—The Com Crops of 1880.
The following appeared in the Times of 13th October, 1880 : —

" The com produce of the United Kingdom reaped in the present
harvest has been estimated by various authorities considerably
differing in their totals. Early in August appeared in our columns
a summary of the reports from every county in Great Britain,
which Mr. Henry F. Moore had collected for the annual volume on
the cereal harvest of all countries published by M. B. Estienne, of
Marseilles. The conclusion was that wheat would be found to
yield about 10 per cent, below the average of the past ten years,
but about 20 per cent, above the wretched produce of 1879^
Mr. H. Kains-tTackson wrote to us taking a more hopeful view,
affirming that the crops of wheat, oats, and barley were really
satisfactory over large portions of the British Isles, and likely to
prove double the yield of a year ago ; and Professor John Wright-
son assured us that estimates of the harvest would probably be
below the truth, owing td the fine blooming period, which was
not sufficiently taken into account. In the middle of August,
Mr. Thomas C. Scott's annual survey of the situation anticipated

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1880.] The C<ym Crops of 1880. 66^

that wheat wonld turn out an average of 28 bushels per acre, and
the crop measure 12 million quarters, or doable what it was last
year. Under date 23rd August, Mr. Scott put up his estimate to*
30 bushels per acre, and, applying this rate to the published agri*
cultural returns, set down the aggregate wheat production of the-
United Elingdom at 11,500,000 quarters. Mr. Henry F. Moore at
first accepted Mr. Scott's earlier valuation of the yield per acre, the
28 bushels being slightly below the standard average for a largo
number of years ; but pointed out that the reduced area of wheat
grown brought the probable total production to 10 or io| million
quarters. Early in September, however, Mr. Moore wrote that
his amended estimate for the United Kingdom is a wheat yield this-
year of 29 bushels per acre (or about a standard good crop),
making the total produce 1 1 million quarters. Mr. James Caird,
late in August, considered the quality as well as yield of the-
wheats to be so greatly superior, as compared with 1879, that we
might reckon on a crop of probably from 3 to 4 million quarters
more. If last year's crop were 6 million quarters, this year's-
would be 10 million quarters. Messrs. J. and C. Sturge's annual
circular placed the wheat crop below an average in yield per acre.
BelVs Weekly Messenger said that, while the wheat crop is satis-
factory in some localities, altogether it is deficient to a considerable
extent compared with an average of seasons. The Chamber of
Agriculture Journal estimated the yield at between 24 and 28
bushels per acre, or somewhat below the average. The Statist put
the wheat crop at 10 per cent, under average, and the total at
about 10,900,000 quarters. More reliable still were the elaborate
returns collected from many hundreds of growers by the Agri-
cultural Gazette and the Mark Lane Express in the third week of
August, county by county, and from many districts in each county,,
enabling those journals to conclude alike that the wheat crop is-
considerably below a good normal average. And the later informa-
tion they give, since the rains and storms fell upon the latter end
of the harvest, renders the account worse instead of better. Now,,
individual judgment and opinions based upon limited observation in
particular divisions of the country cannot be compared for probable
justness and accuracy with the collection of very numerous reports
from gpx)wers and other qualified correspondents in all parts of the
kingdom ; and setting the facts from fortunate districts alongside
those from localities less favoured, at the same time assigning
their due relative importance to the different areas of production,
it becomes apparent that the general yield of wheat per acre for
1880 is really below the standard average, and that the aggregate
production is smaller than has been estimated in any of the fore-
going totals.

'*This conclusion, borne out by a comparison of statements
which we shall give in detail, is not shaken by the more favourable
valuation of the crop contributed by so high an authority as
Mr. J. B. Lawes in the Times of the 1st instant. The experimental
plots at Bothampsted, Hertfordshire, are taken as the basis for
forming an estimate of the general crop of the country ; but,^
obviously, to judge the whole of the United Kingdom from small
allotments on a certain soil in one parish may lead to a very wide

Digitized by

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4j65 Miscellanea, [Dec

deduction. Mr. Lawes, however, has endeavoured to make allow-
ance for the excessive extent to which his own county and the
midlands generally suffered from the had weather of July. The
plot at Bothamsted which has grown wheat every year, and
remained without manure of any description for forty years, has
yielded this year above the average of the last ten years, though
considerably below that of the previous eighteen years. The plot
Annually manured at the rate of 14 tons of farmyard dung per
acre, and growing wheat every year, has given a produce above
the averages of periods of ten, of eighteen, and of twenty-eight
years. And three plots annually bearing wheat with dressings of
artificial manure have yielded in 1880 produce varying little from
the average of twenty-eight years. The inference drawn by
Mr. Lawes, after allowing for the disparity of treatment of his own
and other parts of the kingdom by the weather, is this. He says : —

** * I am disposed to think that the wheat crop of the country
will slightly exceed an average one, and I should he inclined to esti-
mate it at 30 bushels per acre. There were 3,057,784 acres harvested
this season, which, at 30 bushels per acre, give 1 1^66,690 quarters ;
and, deducting 2^ bushels per acre for seed, it leaves available for
consumption a little over io| million quarters. Taking the average
population to be fed for the year ending 31st August, 1881, at
341 millions, and the consumption of wheat per head at 5*65, or
rather more than 5^ bushels, we shall require for our wants a little
-over 24^ million quarters. To make up this quantity, we shall
require from foreign countries 14 million quarters.'

** As already intimated, we regard the balance of authentic and
reliable information as being on the side of a somewhat lower
estimate ; and it will have been observed that Mr. Kains- Jackson,
in a letter which we printed on the 4th instant, corrects his early
estimate quoted above, and now values the chief eastern wheat
areas of England at 24 bushels per acre, against 30 bushels yield
of the southern and some western counties, the result being to place
the total English wheat crop at about 15 per cent, under average.
In a subsequent article we shall adduce the considerations which
lead us to adopt 26 bushels per acre as the probably correct measure
of the wheat yield of the United Elingdom for the present year.
We remark here that 26 bushels are about equal to the average of
the last fifteen years, although 3^ bushels under the standard average
of 29^ bushels arrived at by an inquiry made in 1870, so compre-
hensively as to include each poor law union district in the various
counties. The yield assumed for the present harvest is slightly
greater than the average for the last ten years, and it is about
2 bushels over the yield per acre on an average of the last six years.

" We have grown this season in the United Kingdom, including
the islands, 3,070,000 acres of wheat ; and at 26 bushels per acre
the total produce available for consumption, after deducting seed
for an equal number of acres next year, is 9,114,000 quarters.
Assuming for the present this estimate to be sufficiently near the
truth, and also taking the valuations of the crop in previous years
to correctly represent the real averages, deduced as they were from
similar comparisons of the elaborately collected opinions of growOTS
and other competent observers, the acreage, yield per acre, and

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1880.]

The Com Crops of 1880.

667

quantity available for consumption during the last fifteen years, will
stand as in the following table : —

Estimated W/ieat Production of the United Kingdom,

Year.

Acres.

Character of the Yield.

Assumed

Bashels per

Acre.

Atailable

after
Deducting Seed.

1866....

3,661,000
3,640,000
3,951,000
3,982,000
3,773,000
3,831,000
3,840,000
3,670,000
3,833,000
3,514,000
3,124,000
3,321,000
3,382,000
3,056,000
3,070,000

Under ayerage

27
25
34
27
32
27
23
25
31
23
27
22
30
18
26

Imp. qrs.

11,400,000

10,390,000

»5»790,ooo

12,490,000

14,100,000

11,970,000

10,110,000

10,550,000

13,700,000

9,124,000

9,665,000

9,432,000

11,82^,000

'67....
'68....

Much under average

Much over average

'69

Under average .. ...

'70...

Over

'71....

Under „

'72

Much under avem-gc

'73...

'74....

'75...
'76...

Much under average

Under average

'77...

Much under average

'78 ...

Over average

'79....
'80...

VeiT much under average ....
Unaer average

5,990,000
9,114,000

Acres.

Assumed

Bashels per

Acre.

Arailable
for Consumption

after
Deducting Seed.

Average of fifteen years

3,576,000
3,801,000
3,464,000
3,170,000

26^
29

25 1-5
24^

Imp. qrs.
11,046,000
12,842,000
10,148,000

9,192,000

„ first five years

„ last ten „

„ last six „

** The diminution of area is remarkable. During each of the
last two years we have grown half-a-million acres short of the
general average for the whole period of fifteen years. The average
for the first five years of the series, however, was 3,801,000 acres,
and for the last six years only 3,170,000 acres, being a reduction of
i6| per cent. ; or, in other words, the wheat area now is one-sixth
part smaller. This decrease has been a process of only half-a-dozen
years, the area in 1874 having been 3,833,000 acres, but having
since then fallen, with partial recovery in 1877 and 1878, to
3,056,000 acres in 1879 and 3,070,000 acres in the present year.

** We have said that, according to an inquiry made in 1870, a
standard or normal average yield per acre was taken at 29^ bushels ;
and it will be observed that this really was about the average of the
first five years, 1866 to 1870. But for the ten years— 1871 to 1880—
the average has been 251-5 bushels, and for the last six years of the
series, namely, 1875 to 1880, it has been no more than 24^ bushels.
The crop has been over the standard only four times in the fifteen
years, namely, in 1868, 1870, 1874 and 1878; and the average
for the fifteen years is 26^ bushels, or 3 bushels below the standard
average. Unless a more favourable cycle of seasons should recur
his predominance of low returns will be held to lower that per-

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Miscellanea,

[Dec.

manent average. The calcalated quantity of wheat available lor
consamption (mainlj for bread, but to a small extent also for feeding
animals), after deducting some 9 pecks per acre on the next year's
-acreage as an allowance for seed, appears in the right-hand coliunn
of the table. The general average for the fifteen years is 1 1,046,000
quarters; but, while for the first five years it was 12,842,000 quarters,
for the last six years it is only 9,192,000 quarters, a decrease of 28 j
per cent., or considerably more than a fourth.

'* To illustrate the cause of this falling off, or the conditions which
have made the business of wheat growing worth less to the culti-
vator, we give in the next table the yield per acre, tbe price accx>rd-
ing to the imperial averages, and the computed value of the wheat
crop per acre for each year. As the farmer does not realise for the
whole of his crop anything like the figures obtained as '00m
returns,' which include resales by dealers, and take no account of
the sometiipes large proportion of tail com never brought to market,
we have not set down in the fourth colunm amounts consisting of
the number of bushels per acre multiplied by the official price
per bushel, but from such amounts we have deducted in some cases
5, in others 10, 12, and up to 15 per cent., in proportion to the
inferiority of the crop, the quantity of tail being, on the whole,
greatest when the yield is lowest, and vice versd.

Estimated Value per Acre of Heme Orown Wheat,

HurvMt Year,
September 1 to August 81.

AMomed

Yield per Acre

in fiiuheli.

Official Average

Price per Qoarter

for

Twelve Montha.
July 1 to Jane SO.

Extreme Average Vahia
per Acre. Dedacting Seed»

aodaUo
Dedacting 5 to 15 per Cent.

on Acooontof
TaU Com and Exccaa in Price.

1866-67

^5
34
27
3^

23
27
22
30
18
26

#. d,
58 -
89 8
51 8

45 11

53 5
55 8
57 1
61 8

46 4
46 8
55 8

54 -
41 10
46 7

£ s, d.
8 I 6

*67-68

8 16 3

9 4 10

6 7 10
989

7 14 -
694
7 16 9
7 i8 2

5 5-
7 14 -

5 *<5 7

6 17 9
3 18 -

'68-69

'69-70

70-71

»71-72

'72-73

'78-74

»74-75

*75-76

'76-77

*77-78

»78-79

'79-80

'80-81

Average of fourteen years

26i

53 -

7 4"

Average of firet five years
„ last nine „
last five „

251-5

24i

55 7
51 6i
48 9^

8 7 10

6 12 2

5 18 3

" The result brought out is that, on an average of fourteen jeaiv,
the value of the wheat crop to the farmer when the seed has been
deducted is 7/. 45. iid, per acre; for the first five years, 1866 to
1870, it was 82. 'js, lod.; for the last nine years, 6/. its. id.; and

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1880.]

The Com Crops of 1880.

669

for the last five years, namely, 1875 to 1879, only 5/. 18*. ^d. per
acre. The diminution between the first five and the last five years
has been zL 195. 7^. per acre, or a loss of nearly 37 per cent.
Should present prices rule during the current harvest year, an
average of 40s. per quarter will bring the general average value of
the wheat crop of 1880 to not more than about 5Z. io«. per acre to
the farmer. Fall in price as well as decrease in yield has conduced
to reduction of the area latterly cultivated. The imperial com
average, or price in the selected markets employed for fixing the
tithe rent charge, averaged 53^. for fourteen harvests ; it was y cs. yrf.
for the first five harvests, namely, 1866 to 1870 ; it was 51s. 6|d for
the last nine harvests, namely, 1871 to 1879 ; and it sank to 48^. g\d.
for the last five years ending with 1879. Should the present wheat
crop have to be sold, as appears most likely, at no more than about
405. per quarter, the average price for the last three years will be
42«. I od,j or 108, a quarter below the average of the last fourteen years.
According to no calculation of agricultural experts has it ever been
shown how this cereal can be grown with profit in ordinary farm
practice to realise only 5Z. io«. up to 6/. per acre for the grain, unless
rents and labour cost and public charges are materially modified.
Yet, hitherto, no one has demonstrated how the crop can be
altogether banished from future rotations, or what necessary straw
crop may be substituted for wheat with a clear prospect of being
remunerative in a majority of seasons.

** Our estimate of the home and foreign supply of wheat for the
United Kingdom for the fifteen years during which the agricultural
returns have ascertained the number of acres sown, is given in the
following table : —

Home and Foreign Supply of Wheat for the United Kingdom,

Harrett Year,
September 1 to Angost SI.

Ertimated
Home Prodaoe

avaUable
for Coniumption.

ImporU of Wheat

and Floor,
Dedncting ExporU.

Total Arailahle
for

1866-67

Imp. qrt.

ii,440,ocx)

10,390,000

15,790,000

ii,490,ooo

14,100,000

11,970,000

10,110,000

10,550,000

13,700,000

9,124,000

9,665,000

9,43z,ooo

11,325,000

5,990,000

5,114,000

Imp. qra.

7,600,000

9,010,000

7,880,000

9,580,000

7,950,000

9,320,000

11,720,000

11,230,000

11,640,000

13,940,000

12,156,000

14,503,000

14,417,000

16,400,000

15,000,000

Imp. qrs.
19,040,000
19,400,000
23,670,000
22,070,000

'67-68

'68-69

'69-70

'70-71

22,050,000
21,290,000
21,830,000
21,780,000

71-72

'72-73

'73-74

'74-75

25,340,000
23,064,000
21,821,000

'75-76

'76-77

'77-78

23.935.000
26,242,000
22,390,000
24,000,000

'78-79

'79-80

'80-81

Average of fifteen years

11,046,000

11,490,000

22,536,000

Average of first five years
„ last ten „
„ last six „

1 2,842,000

10,148,000

9,192,000

8,404,000
13,033,000
14,403,000

21,246,000
23,181,000
ai.595.000

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670 Miscellanea, [Dec.

" The general averages for the period of fifteen years, 1866 to
1880, are an annnal growth of 11,046,000 quarters available for
consumption; an importation, imnus exportfi, of 1 1,490,000 quarters,
making a total consamption of 22,536,000 quartera. For the first
five years the average home production was 12,842,000 quarters;
the imports, 8,404,000 quarters, and the total consumption, 2 1,246,000
quarters per year. For the last six years, however, the averag^es
have been 9,192,000 quarters produced in the United Kingdom,
14,403,000 quarters imported, and 23,595,000 quarters consumed.

If we have now about 9 million quarters of home grown wheat
available for consumption, and there was very little of the old stock
left at the commencement of the last harvest year, we shall want
1 5 million quarters ^m over the sea to make up a full supply of
24 million quarters; and in spite of recent fluctuations in the
arrivals from America, there are signs of abundance to come ; so
that we may feel more comfortable as to our chance of receiving
1 5 million quarters during the current harvest year than we were
of importing the 16,400,000 quarters which came to us during the
last twelve months in August/'

in. — Ten Years' Eesults of the London School Board.

At the meeting of the School Board for London, on 30th Septem-
ber last, the chairman, Sir Charles Eeed, M.P., stated that as the
board was constituted in the autumn of 1870, it was now possible
to give the results for ten years, and he took the opportunity to
institute a comparison between the state of elementary education in
the metropolis now, and its condition at the time of the passing of
the Elementary Education Act. He said : —

" The business of the board is twofold. It has on the one hand
to discuss great questions of principle and method, with a view to
attain more eJBfectually the grand end it has set before it ; while on
the other it has to work the existing machinery, supply lack of
accommodation, secure and keep up the attendance of children,
mainly of the roughest class, and provide for their instruction.
The former part — the theoretic — is of great importance ; but the
latter, which is the practical part, is that in which, after all, the
public take keenest interest. They have a right to be satisfied that
we spare no pains to arrive at the best way of doing the work ; but
they would justly complain if we were to arrest the teaching of the
children until our methods were perfect; and they are chiefly
desirous to know the results actually attained. It is for this
purpose mainly that the board confides in the discretion of its
chairman to present annually a brief statement of its work.

'* It is not for me to speak in praise of those results ; but it is a
satisfaction to quote the opinion of one of the most experienced of
Her Majesty's inspectors who, in his report of schools examined by
him in the South wark district, says : — * I would again express in

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1880.] Ten Tears' BeeuUs of (Its London School Board. 671

general terms a high appreciation of the board's work, its vast
extent and rapid spread, its considerable success and immense
saperiority to earlier efforts on behalf of popular education.'

" That the work of the board which I am about to describe may
be rightly appreciated, it w necessary to recall the requirements of
the metropolitan area. The population of the elementary school
class, between the ages of 3 and 13, is at present, according to
the basis adopted in the office of the r^strar general, 740,577,
besides 65,640 children between the ages of 13 and 14s many of
whom may be compelled to attend school under Lord Sandon's
Act of 1876. The s<;hedules sent in by the visitors of the board last
Easter, give the number as somewhat less.

" Looking now to the accommodation for scholars of the
elementary class, it is not possible to take an earlier starting point
for comparison than the close of the year 1871, when the voluntary
schools had furnished their returns, and our own work had just
begun. There was at that time accommodation in all for 262,259
children, or 39*4 per cent, of the estimated population of school age.
At midsummer last the denominational schools had provision for
269,469 children, or 8,000 more than in 1871, while we had provided
for 225,236, giving a total accommodation for 494,705 out of a
present child population of 740,577, or 66 '8 per cent. Thus we
have now seats for two out of every three children needing ele-
mentary education.

*' If we confine our view to the past year, it is seen that the
accommodation afforded by the denominational schools has declined
2,884 places, while ours has increased by 15,008. This latter
increase has involved the acceptance of tenders for twenty-four new
schools, accommodating 2 1 ,75 1 children. These schools are planned
upon our usual scale, smaller schools being proportionately more
expensive.*

" The average cost per head on the tenders of these twenty-four
schools last built has been 8/. iSs. C(2., which includes the provision
of teachers' rooms, school keepers houses, boundary walls, and in
several cases extra deep foundations. The buildings, while free
from display, are designed to be durable, attractive and well
equipped for their purpose. The board has now acquired by pur-
chase freehold sites, giving a total area of over 151 acres, henceforth
the property of the ratepayers of the metropolis. In each case the
department has sanctioned both the site selected and the building
proposed to be erected upon it. Wherever it has been desired, our
schools have been opened publicly, and it has been the practice on
these occasions to present a statement showing the need for the
school. The attendance of the parents at these opening ceremonies
has always been such as to prove the great interest taken in our
work ; and our action has been justified by the readiness with which
the children have fiocked in as soon as the doors were opened, and
the full attendance effected without permanent injury to existing
schools in the neighbourhood.

* Of 116 new permanent schools of the board, 55 are planned to aooommodate
tinder 750 children, 77 to hold under x,ooo children, 78 to hold under 1,500, and
6 to hold apwurds of 1,500.

VOL. XLIII. PART IV. 2 T

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672

Miscellanea,

[Dec.

" On tbe school roll I need not dwell ; a glance at the subjoined
table will show that we have several thousands of children more
upon our rolls than we oould accommodate were all to attend at one
time ; whereas the voluntary schools have a roll oonsiderablj below
their accommodation. A surer test of effective working is 6>und in
the average daily attendance. This has risen in the voluntary
schools from 175,406 at the end of 1871 to 180,706 at midsummer
last, at which latter date our schools showed a daily average of
192,995 ; so that now, with aooommodation for 44,000 children
fewer than the voluntary schools, we have an attendance of i2«ooo
more. The last year has diminished their attendance by 793, while
ours has been augmented by 19,192.*

'* This average tlaily attendance in the efficient elementary
schools of London, of 373,701 children as compared with the
174,301 at the end of 1871, has been attained through the ez&rcme
of our compulsory powers. So early as 1873 Mr. Forst^ then
vice-president of the privy council, bore this testimony : — * We
gave you a great work, and when we ga^e you the power we did
not tmnk that you could accomplish one part especially, I mean the
work of the compulsory powers. I thought Manchester and Liver-
pool might, but it was almost unexpected satisfaction to me when
the London School Beard did it, and I think that much of the
success which has attended the putting that larw in effect is due to
the wisdom and moderation with which you have put it into force.'
[Times, 22nd November, 1873.] And the present vioe-preeident

* The above details may be more dearly shown in dabular form, thus : —

Chratmu.
1871.

CbriBtrau,
187«.

Midsammer.
187».

Midmuur.
1880.

Population of school age

664,723

709,715

733,446

710,577

Accommodation in voluntary s<dK>ols
^ hoard scImx^s

261,158
1,101

287,116
146,074

172,353
210,228

269,469
225,236

Total „...„

.262,259

433,190

482,581

494,706

Average number on roll of voluntary 1
schools J

Average number on roll of board 1
schools J

2ai,40i
1,117

259,436
146,031

232,«74
215,779

231,578
238,6^

Total

222,518

405,467

448,653

470,238

Average attendance in voluntary^

schools «... J

Average attendance in boajd schools....

173,406
895

199,605
114,380

181,499
173,803

180,706
192,995

Total

I74»30i

313,985

355,302

373,701

This shows an increase for the eight and n-half years of 88*6 in aocommodatkm^
X2r5 in the school roll, and 114*3 ^^ attendance.

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1880.] T&i Yeari BesuUs of the London School Board.

673

has recently said that it was owing to the discretion with which the
yarions school boards and local authorities had carried the bye-laws
into effect that ' so large a measure of success had been attained,
because had the system been carried oat rigidly and harshly it
must have infallibly broken down.' It is due to the divisional
committees of the board to acknowledge the patience and leniency
which they have shown in the application of these powers. Now
that parents have come to nnderstEtnd that their children must go
to school, and that public opinion supports the law, the task of our
visitors will be easier, and the cost may in time be considerably
reduced. Our present staff consists of 223 visitors, under 1 1 superin-
tendents and 20 assistants. In the half-year ended at midsummer,
the preliminary notice to parents was issued in 36,852 cases, with
the result of attendance being given or improved in 26,193 cases.
For the same half-year summonses were taken out in the case of
3,012 children : the order to attend school being in all cases
complied with, or a small fine imposed.

" There can be little doubt, that it is owing in a large degree to
the success of compulsion in London, that the G-ovemment has felt
encouraged to apply it to the whole population of England and
Wales. We shall be gainers by this extension. There are numbers
of idle children about the streets of the metropolis, who come in
day by day from the outer suburbs, where their parents have gone
to Uve, so as to be beyond the reach of a school board ; and in the
eyes of many we get the discredit of having failed to do our duty
by these children. The new Act will enclose these in parishes like
Tottenham, which, with a school population of at least 5,000, has
only just elected a school board, and Edmonton, which, with nearly
as many, has a board only now forming.

" Although the average daily attendance in our schools has
greatly improved,* being 74*9 on the average number on the roll at
midsummer, 1875, and 80*8 at midsummer in the current year, we
do not profess to be satisfied with it ; and it must be our constant
endeavour to raise the percentage.

" We are frequently asked how far we have * the right class * of
children, it being implied that board schools were devised solely for
what are commonly and very improperly called gutter children.
The truth of the matter is that our schools were intended to supply
a deficiency of accommodation, the parents being left as sole judges
of the schools suitable for their children. So long as there remains
notable lack of secondary schools, and parents find in the board
schools better teaching than they can secure elsewhere, no one can

• Table showing the improvement in the attendance of
schools in March, 1873-74 and March, 1879-80 :—

children at board

Number on the AoU.

Percentage of

March, 1873

35,766

67,576

209,337

232,726

22,145

47,346

168,167

186,813

38-0
299
19*5
197

„ '74

•80

2t2

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674

MieoeUanea,

[Doc.

dispute their right to apply on behalf of their children for Tacant
seats in onr schools. But while we cannot refuse the johild of m
well-to-do tradesman, nor even of Her Majesty's inspector himseif^
if he seeks admission for it, it is certain that we do secure ^be
attendance of the very poor. Let anyone visit our schools in tbe
lower neighbourhoods, and he can put this assertion to the test.
Mr. Stokes says of his district, ' Some of the board scHooIb are
attended by children as poor and neglected as can anywhere be
found ; while other board schools, though less wretched, undertake
their full share of hard, rough work.' The very children who wrere
dirty and ill-conditioned, are now clean and better dressed, the
result not of improved means on the part of the parents, bat of a
readiness t<o make sacrifices for the sake of the young. There is a
general testimony that * the schools have lifted up the population.*

" To do our duty by such children and yet consideraUy to
raise the fees is impossible. There are no doubt many children
under our care whose parents could afford ^d,^ 6d.j or gd, a-we^ ;
and we would willingly charge it if it were possible to have
different rates of payment in the same school, or to provide sepanUe
schools for the upper working class and the lower. But it net
being possible to introduce these social distinctions, we are obliged
to fix the fee in each school at the average ability of the parents.
As ihe vice-president of the council said last month, * In London
and in large towns it was absolutely necessary that there should be
low feed schools, owing to the impossibility of making full inquiry
into the circumstances of the parents of every child.' As far back
as March, 1879, the board requested the divisional members in each
division of the metropolis to make a report on this subject of fees.
The returns have been submitted to members of the present board
for consideration, and a report may shortly be expected from the
school management committee. At present we have : —

School places at ....

Id.

2d.

3d.

4d,

ed.

49,246

109,903

49,887

10,284

3,807

giving a total of 223,127 at an average fee of 2'i6d.

" At the present time the fees of 4,785 children (or less than 2}
per cent.) are being remitted by the board. This is exclusive of
cases where they are paid by the guardians. As a matter of reward,
certain fees are paid by the department for children who earn honour
certificates for proficiency and regular attendance. Of these, the
schools of the board received 318 for the half-year ended Septemb^,
1879, and 560 for that ended in March last.

" Even when allowing for the class of children with which we
have to deal, punctuality is a weak point in many of our schools ;
and this is the more to be regretted as it interferes with the
scripture instruction, which is everywhere given at the beginning
of the morning session. One of our inspectors reports that 'in
very many schools not half the children are present when the Bible
lesson begins, in some not a fourth,' and adds, ' no feature in our

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1880.] Ten Tears' Results of the London School Board, 675

8c1k>o1 work presents to my mind snch an unsatisfactory appearance
as this nnpnnctnality.' The board naturally casts the responsibility
npon the teachers ; but the task is a yery difficult one for them
unless they are supported by the hearty co-operation of the parents.

" Notwithstanding the admitted defect just referred to, the
interest taken by the large bulk of onr children in the daily
scripture lesson is undiminished. The Toluntary examination for
the prizes given by Mr. Peek and the Religious Tract Society
attracted this year 127,501 children, as compared with 112,979 in
1879. The examiner says : — ' As the above total nearly corresponds
to the ordinary daily attendance, and as the attendance at this
examination is perfectly optional, we have a striking proof that,
with scarcely any exception, the parents of the children who attend
OUT schools do not object to the religious instruction which is there
given, and I am convinced that a gpreat many of them highly value
it.' From the children in Standards IV, V, and VI, who were
examined, the teachers selected about 6,000 to compete, in a written
examination, for prizes and certificates ; but no fewer than 1 12 boys'
departments, and 107 girls' departments failed to gain a single
prize, a failure which can be attributed only to lack of earnestness
on the part of teachers.

*^ In the three fundam^ital subjects our schools have done well ;
for the year ended 25th March last, their percentages of passes were
about the same as in the previous year, despite the raising of the
standard examination, and considerably above those of elementary
schools generally, thus : —

Percentage of PaMes in

Reading
Writing
Arithmetic ....

Writing k....

Sohooli in
England nnd Walea.

8^63
8008
78-87

Lond(m
Board Schools.

88-96

86*3

81-99

" Taking our average of passes at 85*75, I find we still head
the list. Board schools generally coming next with 82*31, Roman
Catholic schools 81*62, next British schools 81*53, Wesleyan schools
8 1 '5, and National schools 79*27, The registrar general says: —
* Looking at the spread of elementary education as evidenced by the
constantly decreasing number of men and women failing to write
their names in the marriage register, the country is to be congratu-
lated on the success attending its efforts in this direction, which
doubtless will be shown in a more striking manner when the
children now receiving education at board and other schools become
men and women.* *

'* That education does not soar too high with us is however
shown by the fact that, taking the 1 19 departments inspected in
March, April and May last, 24*1 of the children were in the first
standard, 26*5 in the second, and 22*4 in the third, the limit of

* During the yearti 1841-45 the percentage in London of men who sig^ned the
marriage register with marks was 11*8, and of women 24; fhr the five years
1874-78 the numbers were 8 and 1 2 respectively.

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676 MiseeUanea. pDec.

which 18 to read a short paragraph, write a sentence from dictatkm,
and do snms in long division and compound addition. This leaves
only 26*8 of the scholars for the upper standards, and jnstifies
one of oar inspectors in saying that ' the charge of over instmctiDg
is wholly groandless ; only 16*5 of the children receive instraction
in specific subjects, the remainder, 83*5, being taught merelj the
three B*s, and in the case of those above Standard I a few simple
facts relating to geography and grammar.'

'* These specific sabjects come in when children have reached the
fourth standard ; but there is ample evidence to show timt their
value depends on the way in which they are taught. Literature, as
it is called, is the favourite subject, and one of great value as ij^iving
children a wider command of Language. But it may be taught as
' a purely mechanical exercise of memory which has no educational
value.' The boy, says Mr. Stewart, who defined the labouring
swain as ^ the farm pig what toils about,' is no exception ; and the
same barren results appear in many of the answers on domestic
economy and cookery. He sums up some strictures, on the jnstice
of whicn it is not for me to pass any opinion, by saying, ' I do not
think that schools are now as successful as they once were in giving
children that real education which is never wholly lost, and if I
may trust to the lessons learned by my own experience, their
inferiority i^ due to (1) the neglect of the art of teaching, (2) the
conversion of standards of examination into standards of organi-
sation, and (3) the ambitious multiplying of sub{ectfi which teachers
put in their time tables,' aod he refers to the dread of low per-
centages of passes and diminished grants as causes which keep
many from pursuing the more solid, if less showy, paths of work.
In cases, however, where the reading is intelligent, the inclusion of
the specific subjects in the upper stsmdards is of the greatest value,
not only for the information imparted, which bears upon the most
practical side of the children's future life, but for the help and
relish they lend to the fundamental subjects. Lord Norton's
motion for limiting the teaching in public elementary schools to
the latter would, if adopted, defeat its own object by the monotony
introduced into the schools of the people. The exemption of
Switzerland from rinderpest has been ascribed on good authority to
the rich variety of food which the cattle find on the Alpine pastures;
and the same holds good in education. Evidence was given in a
recent debate in parliament that elementary science was a subject
full of interest for the young, while the vice-president adduced
instances to prove that the introduction of class sabjects at once
led to a brighter and more successful teaching of the fundamental
subjects.

" The cookery scheme adopted by the board is being gradually
brought into operation with satisfactory results. The parents of the
girls greatly appreciate this branch of the work, and the lessons
given in the kitchens are in many cases repeated in the home.

" We have recently memorialised the department on the subject
of the increasing stringency of the needlework requirements of the
code. Our examiner visits nearly 140 departments each qnarter;
she reports that an undue fear of the government inspector's visit

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1880.] Ten Tewrs* Be^uUs of the London School Board. 677

oanses a good deal of liasty and nneveii work, but that the general
progress is good, and presents a mailed contrast with ' the dark
ages of needlework.'

" The report from Colonel Battersby, on the Ikst! inspection of
boys in drill, should be sufficient to meet the objeoifions of those
who imagine we are training up a nafcion of young warnors. The
code distinctly prescribes ' military drill,' but when it i& understood
that this means chiefly extension motions- and orderly marching,
and that the boys are not armed' even wii^ sticks^ the fear of a
martial spirit being fostered may be dismissed. * I do not hesitate
to say,' says the inspector, * that the best drilled school will be the
most easily managed, and that more instruction will be imparted
in a given time, and with less expenditure of the master*s power,
where he has been able to enforce a prompt and accurate com-
pliance with his orders on the drill ground.' Since December, 1878,
special efforts have been made to promote the physical improvement
of our girls, and the services of an experienced Swedish teacher
have been engaged for the purpose.

** Swimming is a subject to the importance of which the
members of the board are* fully alive, though it is beyond their pro-
vince to make direct provision for it at the cost of the ratepayers.
We are, however, glad t© observe that about 2,000 children annually
have availed themselves of the facilities offered by the London
Schools Swimming Club, to which many of us individually sub-
scribe. The bath proprietors throughout London have readily
assisted the club, and the First Commissioner of Works allows it
to use the Victoria Park swimming lake on Saturday mornings,
when anyone who visits the lake will enjoy a novel and pleasing
sight not easily to be forgotten.' In this department, the late
Miss Chessar greatly assisted us ; and the loss of her encourage-
ment will be keenly felt.

" The singing instructor reports that his classes for pupil
teachers were joined last September by i ,720 ; he has held also nine
classes for head and assistant teachers, at which 300 have been in
regular attendance.

" The kindergarten instructor has continued to visit certain
schools. For six years classes have been held for the teachers of
infants, where * any teacher who wishes to make these exercises
useful to her little scholars, is able to get the information she wants.'

" It is largely due to this educational agency that the infant
schools of the board have attained their high superiority. The

Cuts show great readiness in sparing their little ones, and we
J many excellent teachers who devote themselves to making the
schools as happy and attractive as possible. In looking over the
reports of our inspectors, I have been struck to find almost un-
broken praise of the infant departments. Reports like the following
are of constant occurrence : — * Mrs. T. conducts this school with
great kindness, earnestness and ability ; the children are bright and
cheerful, and have passed a good examination.'

" The library scheme of the board by which select libraries are
established in connection with every permanent school, has proved
a complete success, the children highly appreciating the privilege of

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678 MUcellansa. [DecL

borrowing books for pemaal in tiieir homes, into whicb, yeiy often,
pore and wholesome literature has neyer before found an aitranoe.
The libraries being fonnd too small, the board has enlarged them
from lo^ to 12^ in valne ; the books ate passed on eyeiy six months,
from school to school, so as to supply a freqaent change of reading.

" The rewards we have it in onr power to offer are not nameTOii&
At present about one in four of our scholars obtains a certificate or
book for regular attendance ; and we have, through the generoeitj
of various London companies and individuals, a small number of
scholarships at our disposal. During the current year we have,
received two new scholarships from Mrs. Charles Buxton and
Mr. Sydney C. Buxton, one from the Clothworkers' Company, five
from the Drapers' Company, and one from Mr. A. G. Crowder.
These, with two other scholarships, which are renewals, have beea
taken by eight boys, the sons respectively of a French polisher, a
shoe manufacturer, a comm«*ciai traveller, a schoolmaster, an
engine fitter, a manager, and a plumber; and by three girls,
daughters of a mariner, a gilder and a builder. The head maeter
of the City of London School, where seven^ of our pupils are holding
their scholarships, reports that they have done extremely well, bat
that a little special tuition is needed in order to bridge the interval
between the board school and the middle class public school.

'* It has long been our contention that lai^ funds originally
intended for purposes of education were being diverted into other
channels ; and we cannot therefore but feel gratified at the im-
pression produced by the ' board's report on the city parochial
charities of London. Since I last addressed you, we have presented
a petition to parliament, praying that, in the event of proposals for
a re-appropriation of city trusts being entertained, it wUl make sach
enactment as may tend to the advancement of education under oar
direction, acting for the metropolis. A petition from the board in
r^erenoe to St. Katharine's Hospited has also been laid before
parliament. It is the custom of the charity commissioners to for-
ward to us the schemes drawn up by them for the future adminie-
tration of metropolitan endowments and to invite us to express oar
opinion, with the provision, in many cases, that we shall nominate
members of the governing bodies. The latest instance of this is in
connection with Christ's Hospital, which provides that the school
board for London shall appoint four governors. The scheme also
contemplates the establishment of sixty scholarships to be competed
for by children who have attended public elementarv schools in the
metropolis ;* and it is not too much to expect that m other caseB a
like course may be adopted.

* Article 102 of the draft scheme is as follows : —

" Silt J places shall be allotted to be competed for by boys not being oyer 13
years of age at the time of competition, and having been educated for at least three
years immediately preceding such competition in public elementary schools in the
metropolis, as defined by the Elementary Education Act, 1870, or any statutory
modifiiAtion thereof in force fbr the time being, and having passed the sizth
standard of the Code of llinntes of the Edncation I>epartment in fbroe for the
time being, and being recommended as lit candidates by the managers of the
schoob last attended by them respectively."

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1880.] Ten Teara' Besulta of ihe London School Boa/rd. 679

*' The special departments of our work r^nain to be notioed.
Our lialf-time schools are in good order, the ay^erage attendance at
that in Bethnal Green being 88*8 of the average number on the roll.
At the other, situated in the Tower Hamlets, it has been deemed
advisable to admit whole time children as well as half-timera» and
the attendance has increased threefold.

" Of the blind nearly loo are now under instruction, brought by
their parents into twenty-five of our schools. The superintendent
believes that at least as many are not yet gathered in, and he points
out that there is a class of children who are only partially blind,
whose attendance is extremely difficult to secure. ^ Season alter
season the visitors are met with the excuse that their eyes ore too
bad just now, but that the next quarter or next year they may be

sent Meanwhile the children reach 14 years of age,

having lost advantages which were specially needed by those who
miss much of the sympathy extended to the wholly blind.'

'* For the deaf and dumb we are still making experiments in the
oral and manual systems. Young children are placed at first in the
oral division, where they are taught to acquire articulate sounds
and then to combine these into syllables and words. But where
lip-reading fails to be an adequate means of communication, the
manual alphabet is resorted to. The attendance for the quarter
ended at Lady-day last was 97, out of 162 on the books. The
attendance at the centres where instruction is given has been more
than doubled by the voluntary establishment of homes where the
children who come from a distance can reside during the week.

** In carrying out the provisions of the Industrial Schools Act,
the officers of the board had, up to midsummer last, reported on
11,309 cases of destitute children not chargeable with crime. Of
these 6/x>i have been withdrawn from the streets, and distributed
among fifty-two industrial schools throughout the country, with
which the board has temporary arrangements, or sent to our own
schools at Brentwood and Grays. At midsummer last we had
3,289 children of this class under our care.

'* The school at Brentwood is certified for 100 boys, and is con-
ducted on the half-time system, the boys receiving instruction and
industrial training alternately. Her Majesty's assistant inspector,
on his l&fit visit, reported that the education was ' very well
attended to,' and that all the classes were ' carefully instructed by
competent and painstaking teachers.' Every efEort is made when
the boys leave to place them in suitable employments. The inspector
says, however, that the establishment in London of a boys' work-
ing home would greatly faciUtate the discharge of the boys, and
keep them under control until they were ready to earn their own
living.

'' The same half-time system is adopted on board the Shaftesbury
training ship, which is certified at present to receive 350 boys ; these
are selected after medical examination. Those who leave for service
at sea are provided with a suitable kit. The inspector, who last
July visited the ship and its tender the ' Swift,' reports as follows: —
* The boys look particularly healthy and bright. The ship has made
excellent progress in all respects. Her present condition of fitness

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680 MiMeeOansa. [Dec.

and efficiency places her in the front rank of onr training ships of
this class and character.

** The object of oar troant school, as is wdl known, is the exercise
for a brief space of wise and firm role orer stubborn boys, ' tiie
irrepressiUe bad boys ' lately referred to in the THmes, who haye
snooessf ally defied the authority of parents and friends by habitually
absenting themselyes from school. Up to midsummer last 213
refractory lads had been receiyed with the consent of their parents.
As a rule, upon promise of obedience, they are licensed out after an
ayerage absence from home of twelye weeks. It is most satisfactory
to note that these boys after going out haye made eighty-two school
attendances out of 100, preying that the timely interyention of the
board has secured the object contemplated.

**The prison returns continue to show that juyenile crime is
being diminished, scarcely any conyictions being reported of
children under IS years of age. When this fiEM^ is set against the
statistics recently published of crime in the metropolis fifteen years
ago, it affords proof that the action of the board has largely
contributed to check juyenile delinquency. At the same time the
reformatory returns show that the ranks of juyenile depredators are
continually reinforced by importations of bad boys who drift into
the metropolis firom the lowest agricaltnral class, and their tendency
is to * accumulate in masses.'

'* To turn now to the subjects affecting principle and mei^od,
which haye been prominent in our debates during the past year, I
may notice first the code by which our work is regulated. It is
known that there haye been two codes presented to parliament this
year, which may be called the Richmond and Spencer codes respec-
tiyely. The former contained some changes of so graye a nature
that the board drew up a memorial, showing the eyils that, in its
opinion, would arise if they were carried into efiect. In consequence
of this and other representations, they were dropped by the goyem-
meat which came into power in the spring, on the ground that time
was required for considering the whole question.

*' Immediately on the accession of the present goyemment, we
renewed our request that the system called centre teaching might
be sanctioned. The object of this plan is to giye pupil teachers,
grouped in districts, the adyantage of united instraction from
skilled teachers, not of their own but of any school. The readiness
of their lordships to admit the practical yalue of this system demands
our acknowledgment. They haye met our representations by
making such an alteration in the second schedule of the new code
as will allow us to make arrangements for this most desirable end.

'* This improyement is the more important, since many of our
pupil teachers are unable to gain admission to the existing oyer-
crowded training colleges, and it may not be generally known that
we haye no such institution of our own ; hence we are mainly depen-
dent for our supply of teachers upon colleges under denominational
control. What becomes of these pupil teachers ? They must either
abandon the teaching profession, or be appointed by the board as
assistant teachers without going to college at all. ' The loss of a
college training,' says one of our inspectors, ' is an irreparable loss;

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1880.] Ten Years' Results of the London School Board,

681

I trast that the number of these appointments of ex-pupil teachers
^will be kept as low as possible, for it would be a calamity to have
our schools taught by a body of poorly educated teachers.*

'* The expenditure of the board on school management is shown
in the accompanying table : —

Gro68 coBt per"^
child for the I
half-year ended f
Lady-day, 1880 J

Salarietof
Teachen.

£ «. d.

I i 3

BookB
and Ap-
paratttB.

t. d,

1 7

Faraitnre

and
Cleaning.

«. d.

Rent,
Rates,

«. d.
1 6

Fuel

and

LighU.

Repairs to
Buildings.

d.
11

Sundries.

" The gross cost per child for the half-year was thus i /. gs, jd. ;
bat during the same period the average income per child from fees,
grant, <&;c., was us, 5^., so that the net cost was iSs, 2d. This
shows a decrease for the half-year on every item, making a total
reduction of is. yrf. for every child. From this table it is clear that
the payment to teachers is the principal item of the expense of
maintenance. Our staff is at present as under : —

Number.

Arerage Fixed

Salary.

Ayerafre Share
of Gmnt.

Average TotaL

Head masters

274
500

897
M58

£ s. d.

162 16 11

107 6 11

87 9 4

69-5

£ 9. d,
78 15 a
54 7 6
23 15 8
20 15 8

£ «. d,
241 12 1

„ mistreaseB

Assintant mMters

161 14 4
111 5 -

„ mistresBes

80 16 1

Total

3,129

At an ayerage of

121 11 8

" The board has under its consideration a proposal for paying
its teachers less by the results of examination, so as to secure greater
thoroughness, and to remove the temptation of working feverishly
for immediate results. The only point as yet decided is that the
basis of calculation shall be accommodation as against attendance.
A comparison has been made between the cost of school maintenance
in London, and some large provincial towns, and a special committee
of the board has been appointed to investigate this subject. The*
answers to its inquiries are now being tabulated, and we may expect
from it an early report, which will, we trust, show some feasible
way of limiting the expenditure without starving the schools.

"Another committee, which was charged with the duty of
reporting to us upon the normal staff of teachers for each school,
has made its report, which is now in the hands of the divisional
members.

" An important question has been raised during the year as to
the mode of selection of our head teachers, whose capacity and
influence for good greatly vary. * Your committee,' writes one of
our inspectors, ' will be aware that the discipline in some of the

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682 MiaceOmea. [Dec.

schools in the verj worst sections of Finsbnrj and Marjlebone is
simply perfect ; and there seems no reason why it should not be
equally perfect in all schools save, of course, Uie exodlent reason
that the supply of thoroughly efficient teachers &lls short of the
demand.' At present the nomination of teachers comes from the
local managers ; and the suggestion is that this system is defectire.
Mr. Stokes, in his general report for the present year, expresses an
opinion worthy of consideration. ^The management of London
board schools has always been perhaps our greatest difficulty. It is
plain that a central board of &fty members, howerer well qualified
they may be to frame a code of rules, cannot attend to their admin-
istration in numerous schools scattered over the wide area of the
metropolitan boroughs. Hence, in order to obtain the requisite
oversight, residents m each vicinity are associated with one or more
members of the board in forming a local committee of management,
whose chief duty is to nominate teachers for appointment by the
board. I am unable to report, from personal observation in board
schools, that the management so provided is efficient. . . . For,
whether from paucity of persons willing to s^rve upon local com-
mittees or from other causes, it happens that a school committee
manages, not one school, but a g^roap of schools. The wisdom of
this arrangement may be doubted. Its effect certainly is to lessen
the probability of getting the service efficiently performed, to increase
the risk of a denominational complexion in the school committee
and of teachers* nominations made on other than purely educational
grounds. Second only in importance to the original selection of
conscientioDS and capable teachers is the means of the speedy removal
of teachers who, after appointment, proved themselves undeserving
of such a character. I do not know that any system is in operation
to secure this end.' The board is not responsible for any expression
of opinion on this subject, but it has been considered well to order
a report upon it ; and that report, which is decidedly adverse to any
radical change in the present system of local managers, stands for
early discussion.

'' Our borrowing powers are still before the courts (^ law. In
the steps already taken the board has acted with the concurrence
of the education department and the local government board ; and
it now remains to decide whether the appeal shall be carried to the
House of Lords.

*' The changes upon the board have been many, no fewer than
125 members having taken a share in its work during the past t^i
years. At the triennial election held last November there were
returned twenty-three new members; of the original board only
twelve are members of the existing board. The last to be removed
was our valued colleague, Mr. James Watson, who in the year 1871,
succeeded Lord Sandon as chairman of the statistical committee^
and took throughout the deepest interest in the development of our
work. Still more lately a true friend of the board has been takoa
away in the person of Miss Chessar, whose active and intelligent
services on the second board many of us gratefully remember."

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1880.] The Annual Local Taxation Betums of 1878-79.

683

IV.— The AwnuaX Local Taxation iBetums of 1878-79.

The following memorandam by Mr. Frederick Purdy, Principal
of the Statistical Department of the Local GbyerDment Board,
is taken from The Awnual Local Taxation Betums (England),
1878-79:—

*' 1. This is the ninth annnal retnm of local taxation which has
heen tabulated under the direction of the Local Government Board.
Three summaries in the following pages are now printed in full which
previously had only appeared as brief abstracts : these are the poor
rate return, the county rate return, and the borough rate return.

" 2. The urban sanitary rates in this volume are shown in two
sections, viz., rates raised by town councils acting as the urban
sanitary authority, and the rates levied by other local bodies, and
whose accounts are subject to the provisions of the District Auditors'
Act.

" The total raised during the year 1878-79 by local taxation
was 30,898,828/. In addition to this sum, treasury subventions,
amountiug to 2,153,362/., were received, in easement of the local
rates: —

Taxation.

LocaL

ImpemL

Total.

1. Levied by rates falling on rate- "1

able property J

2. Levied by tolls, dues, and rents, 1

falling on traffic J

8. Levied by duties falling on con-1
snmable articles j

25,685,896

4,756,349

456,583

£
2,146,274

7,088

27,832,170

4,763,437
456,583

Total

30,898,828

2,153,862

33i052»»90

" 3. As stated in previous returns, the treasury grants in aid of
local taxation exceed the sums entered in the accounts of the local
authorities forwarded to this Board. This difference arises, for the
most port, from the Government taking upon itself several charges
in relief of local taxation that do not appear in the annual returns.
The sum voted by Parliament for the financial year 1878-79 was
for England 2,873,675/.

'^ 4. A summary of local rates is shown hereunder : —

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684

Miscellanea,

TaBLB 1. — Bates. [pOO't omitted.]

[Dec.

8<rareeof Rerttoiie.

Poor rate, exclading pre-
cept ratee paid there-
out

;}

2. Ooantj and police rates...

3. Borough and town police"!

rates, excluding school >

board rates J

(See Table II)

4. Highway rates

Year of

the
Return.

5. Metropolitan local'

management rate, ex-
cluding precept rates
paid thereout

6. Metropolitan Board

WorKB, excluding coal
and wine duties
(See Table 11)

7. Metropolitan police rate...
(See Table II)

City of London police rate
„ ward „

187a-79

•78-79
'78-79

77-78

•78-79

Number of
sepente

Antlioritiee
Returned.

240

"ofl
oall

Beoeipt.

Ratet.

8.
9.
10. Urban sanitary rates

(a) Baified by townl

coundls J

(h) Baised by otheri
sanitary jkuthorities I
(leas amount paid to |

joint boards) J

Bural sanitary rate

Port „

13. Lighting and watching 1

rate J

Sewers rate

Drainage and embank- 1

ment rate J

Burial board rate

(See Table II)

School board rate

(See Table II)
18. Oburch rate

11
12.

14.
15.

16.

Total of rates..

78-79

78
78
78-79

1878-79
78-79

78-79

7&-79

78-79

77-78

78-79

} •{

73*

577
36

205

54
161
666

1,801

149

26,888

7,943,

1.481,
1,267,

1.797,

1,718,

476,

638,

62,
6,

Treaanry

Sab-
reutiona.

575»

480,

6,098,

2,324,

201,
t[2.]
41,
69,
206,
133,

1,327,

11,

10,

443.

AU other
Sonroea,
inclttdiDf

975,»

731,
2,266,

TbtaL

9>492,

2,777,
4,002,

61, 1,858,
676, 2,295,

»5»
46.

26,686,

2,468,

148.
81,

8.014.

*.954.

1,1*9.

93.
5.

t4»»*ii

894,t 3,233.

2,146,

219,

19,

68,

283,

2,008,

Talal

8,722.

2,694.

3,6U

1.86$.

2,291,

2,830.

1,08s,
102,

18,762,

4<56.

4>
78,

275.

416,

3.338,
12,

4^.585*

14,288,

2,758.

446,
6,

46,

79,

290,

376,

8,462,

44.861

* (1) The poor rate return, at» summarised above, contains an amount of 592,1 69^. raised
upon loan ; and the rural sanitary rate 2 10,91 82.

t Loans raised during the year are not shown in these accounts.

X Port sanitaiy authority. — The sum of 1,61 22. is excluded from the total of "Bates" lad
of ** Beceipts,** to ayoid a duplicate reckoning of that simi.

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1 880.] Tlie Annual Local Taxation Betu/ms of 1878-79.

685

** 5. The returns of several of the authorities which appear in
Table I, are also represented, so far as their revenues arise from
tolls, dues, and rents, in the subjoined statement : —

Tablb 2.— 7W&, DueSf Fea, and Rents.

[000*8 omitted.]

Tear of

the
Retarn.

Number ot

Beoeipt

Tbtal
Expendi-
ture.

Source of Rercnue,

separate
Antboritiea
Retomed.

Tollf,

Duet^Keea.

and

ReaU.

Trearary

Sub.
TentioDS.

All other

Soarces,

including

Loaos.

TotaL

19. Corporation of London ....

1878

1 See
' Table I

288,

751,

1,047,

1,061,

20. Corporation of London '
(Blackfriars and Clerk- V

84.

34>

30.

enwell improTements) J
21. Borough tolls, dues, and 1
rents

78-79

625,

—

5^5.

626,

(See also Table I)

22. Metropolitan Board of\
Works '

62,

—

62,

(See also Table I)
23. Urban sanitary autho-

rities:—

(a) Town councils

78-79

291,

—

»9«>

291,

(h) Other sanitary!
authorities J

78-79

36,

—

35»

36.

(See Table I)

24. Metropolitan police

78-79

»i

26.

—

26.

(See Table I)

26. Turnpike trusts

887,

31.

419.

27,

426

26. Markets and fair tolls ....

78-79

25,

—

20.

27. Bridge and ferry „

78-79

62.

—

64,

6l»,

28. Burial boaids fees

78-79

162,

«5^»

162.

(See also Table I)

See
■ Table I

29. School board fees

77-78

284,

(See also Table I)

30. Light dues

77-78

416,

421,

373,
3,561,

289

81 Pilotage

6o^

371.

373

82. Harbour

78-79

1,831,

—

1,730,

3,212,

Total of tolls, dues, and rents

—

6o6

4,756,

2.558.

7,32»,

6,847,

* Pilotage. — This is the total number of ports shown separately in the Parliamentary Paper
for England ; thirty are under the Trinity House of Deptford Strond. and sixteen under tbo
Trinity House of Kingston-upon-Hull ; the remainder are classed as " other ports."

" 6. The only local taxes distinguished in the annual returns, as
derived from duties on consumable articles, are those levied by the
city of London on coals, wine, and grain.

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686

Miscellanea.
Tablb S^'-Dutim,

|T>ec

Year of

the
Return.

Number
of Autho-
rities.

Beceipt.

Source of BereBoe.

Duties.

All other

Sources,

including

LtMns.

Total.

Ezpcnfi.
tore.

83. City of London-
Coal duty, at 9<i. ^
City's ooal duty,

at4<i

Wine duty

City's grain duty _^

1878

■{

293,530

130,458

10,111

22,484

£
457,083

462,77i«

Total of duties....

—

456,583

Soo

457.083

4^:1,771

* Indusiye of the drawback on coals, which was 70,396^

'* 7. The loans ontetanding against i^e local authoritiea at ihe
close of the year, are set out hereunder : —

Statement of Local I^oans (hUstanding at the Close of the Tear 1878-79.

Security and Authoritj.

I. — ^Bates chiefly —

Poop law

County

Borough

Highway

Metropolitan local management

„ Board of Works

Urban sanitary :

(a) Raised by town councils

(b) „ other authority

Bural sanitary

Sewers commission

Drainage and embankment commissioi

Burial board

School „

Church

Totals of I .

n. — Tolls, dues, and rents, chiefly —

City of London

Turnpike trustees

Bndge and ferry commissions ...
Market and fair „
Harbour commissions

Totals of II

m. — Duties exdusirely —

City of London grain duties .

Grand totals

Loans Ontstaiiding

aithe
Close of tbe Tew.

£
4t653»^>7
0,963,014

6,3i3.i>7

49»754

ai273»498

13,126,259

46,666,978

10,067,472

642,617

66,901

1,541,294

1,664,829

8,685,093

40»a£9

98,754.802

5,186,000*

1,009,998

213,646

86,980

23,165,561

29,662,185

70,000

128,486,987

* Indnsiye of loans raised by the city on their coal duties.

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1880.] Ten Yewn' Telegraphy.

" 8. — The general summary for the year is subjoined :
Local Taxation Summary , 1878-79.

687

Source of Berenne.

imonator
Local
Impoet.

Other
SoarcM,
in eluding
Treaiiiry
GranU and
Ordinary
IxMua.

Total

Loant
OnUtanding

at
theCloMof

the
respective
Accoonta.

Table

1.— Rates

2.— Tollfl.dae8,l
and rents J
8.~Duties

25*685,896

4*756,349
456,583

20,808,736

2,565,105
500

46,584,632

7,321454
457,083

44,865,780

6,847,857
462,771

98,754.802

29,662,185
70,000

Grand total

30,898,828

23,464,341

54.363,169

52,175,908

128,486,987

" 9. — The valuation, i.e., the * Gross Estimated Bental ' and the
'Rateable Value,* in force at Lady-day, 1878, for each union,
concludes the volume for the year.*'

V. — Ten Yea/re* Telegraphy,

Thb following is taken from the Times of 26th October, 1880 : —

** It is beginning to be apparent that Mr. Scudamore did not,
after all, m^e so very bad a bargain for the country when he
purchased the business of the old telegraph companies. Though
the measure authorising the purchase was condemned as reckless
and extravagant, the event has proved that the telegraph companies
had really something valuable to sell — something which contained
within itself a great capacity for development ; and although it may
be doubted whether the railway companies, or some of them, have
not been overpaid, it should be borne in mind that the conciliation
of a greekt and powerful opposition was worth something at the time
when the negotiations were in progress. It is tolerably certain
that, had the negotiations failed, a fusion of telegraph interests,
leading to a powerful monopoly, would have taken place, and thus
an important social and commercial reform might have been post-
poned indefinitely.

**One has only to read carefully the last report of the post-
master general to see how vast and far reaching have been the
results of this reform. When the telegraph companies disappeared
from the scene, there was something fewer than 2,500 telegraph
offices, of which nearly 500 were at railway stations, in the United
Kingdom. At the close of the year ended the 31st March last
there were close upon 4,000 post offices and more than 1,400 rail-
way stations open for telegraph business, making the total number
of telegraph offices within the United Kingdom 59331. Large as
has been the increase in the number of offices during the ten years
since the post office acquired the control of the system, it would
seem that a very large proportion of this increase must have
occurred during the earlier years of State management. Attention

TOL. XLIU. PART IV. 2 Z

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688 MiseeUcmea. [Dec

has but recently been directed to the fact tbat whereas m tboee
earlier years England stood foremost among the European conn tries
in this respect, she is now gradually dropping behind, and is, in
fSact, becoming so far stationary that only some 70 additional offices
were opened for the transaction of tel^raph business during the
year ended in March last. How far Mr. Scudamore's original inten-
tion to make every money order office a telegraph office would have
been in advance of pubHc wants we do not know ; but at least it
would have helped to sooner abolish the odioas * guarantee ' system
of the old companies. On taking over the telegraphs, the post
office inherited some 5,600 miles of telegraphic line, representing
somethiDg like 49,000 miles of wire ; and we now learn that these
figures have increased to upwards of 23,000 miles of line, embracing
more than 100,000 miles of wire. There remain to be added to this
mileage of ' land line ' upwards of 700 miles of submarine cables,
which compare with less than 140 miles ten years ago. 'Justice
to Ireland ' has, no doubt, had something to do with this very con-
siderable increase of submarine cables, although the post office has
contribated a good deal towards perfecting communication with
the Channel Islands and Scilly, as well as with Orkney and Shet-
land. The number of instruments in use by the telegraph companies
was 2,200, exclusive of those worked on private wires. This number
has increased to 8,150 in use by the post office, and of these up-
wards of 170 are on the Wheatstone automatic principle as com-
pared with only four of a similar improved description worked by
the old companies. It was feared, and, indeed, openly alleged as
an argument why the telegraphs should not be handed over to the
State, that the result would be to stifle invention, and to arrest
progress so far as electrical science was concerned. The post office
may, or may not, have encouraged invention at home here in Eng-
land ; but it certainly has not been slow to adopt the inventions of
the New World, as witness the large number — ^nearly 400 — of
instruments worked on the duplex and quadruplex system, and the
substitution of the * Morse sounder ' for the once useful, but now
rather out-of-date ' Morse printer.' The sounder may be said to
be the telephone of symbolic telegraphy, and is both cheaper to
make, to work, and to maintain than the printing machine of the
early days of post office telegraphy. The total number of tele-
graphists employed by the companies was something over 2.500, of
whom less than 500 were women ; and to this number fall to be
added nearly 1,500 messenger boys, making a total of just under
4,000 persons. The post office, it appears, employs upwards of
5,600 telegraphists, of whom more than 1,500 are women, while
the number of messenger boys exceeds 4,600. In all, considerably
more than 10,000 persons are employed in the telegraph work of
the United Kingdom, not reckoning the large number of * nncoTe-
nanted ' persons of the telegraphist and messenger class employed
at the smaller post offices throughout the country.

'* A valuable adjunct to the telegraph is to be found in the pneu-
matic tube, which has been largely extended in recent years. It
might have been inferred, from a discussion which took place in
Parliament towards the close of the session, that this method of

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1880.] Ten Tears' Telegrcvphy. 689

commtiiiicatioii was comparatiyelj new and bnt little nnderstood in
this country, and required stady at a great distance from home in
order to make its advantages understood and appreciated. But the
postmaster general has reassared us on this point, for it appears
that whereas in 1870 the telegraph companies only used the system
in Manchester and Birmingham, besides London, and only possessed
altogether some 4,800 yards of tube, the post office has extended it
to four other principal towns, and has a length of tube at its com-
mand exactly ten times greater than that existing ten years ago.
London alone has upwards of 37,000 yards, or more than 21 miles,
of leaden pipes buried beneath its streets, through which open tele-
grams are being blown or sucked at all hours of the day; the
system should be extended so as to include the transmission of
closed communications. What is wanted in London is what they
already enjoy in Paris and Berlin — a pneumatic post, or, as they
call it in Germany, a * blow post * which would carry express letters
from one end of the metropolis to the other, and deliyer them,
say, within half-an-hour, for a charge of 6d now and less by-and-
by. This, of course, is not a telegraphic operation at all — a pneu-
matic tube applied to this purpose being an adjunct rather of the
mail cart than of the telegraph wire. But whether in the shape of
a * closed telegram ' (tSlegramme fermSe), as in Paris, or the * blow-
post,' as in Berlin, it may be hoped that Londoners will soon enjoy
the means of sending messages about mechanically, within the four-
mile radius at least, and that in time pneumatic despatch boxes will
be as plentiful in the streets as pillar-posts. So far as we can
gather, they do not manage this matter either in Paris or Berlin so
well as it might be managed in London ; and yet, as we showed a
few months ago, the system is very considerably used in both cities.
The conditions abroad are, no doubt, different from and less favour-
able than those obtaining in London, and our immensely larger
population not only indicates the greater necessity, but the greater
chances of success.

** Having thus reviewed the means of telegraphic communication
provided by the post office, as compared with that bequeathed to
it by the telegraph companies, let us look for a moment at the
residts achieved. Between them, the telegraph and railway com-
panies forwarded some 6^ millions of messages annually ten years
ago. Last year the post office forwarded more than 26^ millions,
BO that the business has increased fourfold. The total number of
provincial telegrams originating in England and Wales was some-
thing under 12^ millions, while the total number originating in
London alone approached 10 millions. Scotland originated rather
more than 2,700,000 messages, and Ireland something less than
1,600,000, these figures comparing with 1,080,189 and 606,285
respectively ten years ago. The total general increase in the year
1879-80 over that of 1878-79 was upwards of 2 millions of mes-
sages, notwithstanding that there was a decrease of nearly 700,000
in the months of June and July, 1879, and March, 1880. In
November, 1879, there were nearly 400,000, and in February, 1880,
nearly 430,000, more messages sent than in the corresponding
montiis of the previous year; and altogether there would seem to

2z2

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690 MuceOanea. [Dea

be » oorresponding aoiivitj in this branch of the national business
to that existing in the post office proper. It is not so easy to com-
pare the financial results of the ten jears* working nnder the post
office with those achieved by the companies, becaose there are no
exact daia as to what the telegraph revenue was prior to 1870.
But it seems probable that the combined receipts of the companies
did not greatly exceed, if thej at all exceeded, half-a-million sterling^,
and we find that in the first complete year of the postal administra-
tion of the system the total revenue was a trifle under 700,0002.
Last year it was 1,452,489/., or more than double, and of this
1,111,547/. went in working -expenses, leaving a net revenue of
340,942/., or an increase of 83,442/. on the net revenue of the pre-
ccKling year, not reckoning more than 1 5,000/. worth of work per-
formed for other Qovernment departments without payment. It
has been estimated that the profit of the telegraphic service for the
current year will be 450,000/., which will yield something like 4^ per
cent, on the entire capital expended in the service. If it be borne
in mind how long the post office revenue was in recovering itself
after the introduction of the penny post, notwithstanding that Sir
Rowland Hill had no * capital account ' to contend with, this result
of shilling telegraphy, brought about in the brief space of ten years,
must be admitted to be satisfactory in the extreme, and such as
even the sanguine spirit who conceived the enterprise could hardly
have hoped for. The public now ask for a cheaper service, and
in so doing they but point the way to increased prosperity.
Mr. Fawcett has been placed at the head of the post office at a
time when one branch of the service at least requires ' moving on.'
He has already practically intimated his concurrence in the reason-
ableness of the demand for telegraphic reform, and only the proble*
matical result of a decreased revenue has hitherto deterred him
from taking a bold step in this direction."

Yl.— The Population of the EaHh.

We extract the following from the Times of 21st September,
1880:—

^* From an early copy of the sixth issue of Behm and Wagner*s
well-known publication. Die Bevolkerung der Erde, we are able to
gather what is the present condition of the earth's surface, so far
as its area and population are concerned. This now indispensable
publication is issued at intervals of from eighteen months to two
years, and is the great fountain from which all other statistical works
are supplied, so far as relates to the subjects of which Herren Behm
and Wagner treat. Every column of this publication bears evi-
dence of the utmost care and discrimination, as well as of tireless
research. The difficulties of obtaining statistics of several States
are known only to those whose duty it is to do their best to obtain
them. So great, indeed, are these difficulties in some instances,
that the able compilers of the Bevolkerung have actually to manu-
facture their statistics for themselves. This may seem very doubtful
praise to some of our readers, but the process is the only one that

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1880.] The Population of the Earth. 691

can be adopted in some instances, if we are to Have tmstworthy
statistics at all. For instance, in some of the South American
States and elsewhere the official statements of areas are so varied
and untrostworthj, that the editors are compelled to make estimates
themselves in the most trustworthy maps that can be obtained, and
after a method that demands great deHcacy. So also where there
are either no, or inconsistent, or only partial, statistics of popula-
tion, Herren Behm and Wagner rightly deem it their duty as
editors to complete these statistics by estimation, after the most
trustworthy methods at their command. Too much credit, indeed,
cannot be given to these two eminent geographers for the
thoroughness and fulness with which at regular intervals they
edit the statistics of the world in respect of two such important
items as the area and population of its various States and divisions.
Dr. Behm, since the last issue of the Bevolkerung, has succeeded to
the position long occupied by the late Dr. Petermann in the eminent
geographical house at Perthes, of Gotha ; while Dr. Wagner has been
transferred from the geographical chair at Konigsberg University
to the corresponding chair in the University of Q-ottingen. Botn
of them have done and are doing much to sustain the high position
to which geographical science has attained in Germany.

'* Since the last publication censuses of several countries have
been either taken or published, the results of which the editors have
been able to utilise. These are: — Spain, 1877; Portugal, 1878;
Greece, 1879 ; Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1879 ; New Zealand, 1878 ;
New Caledonia, Marquesas islands, and Tahiti, 1876; Tuamotu,
Archipelago and the Sandwich Islands, 1878 ; French Senegambiae,
1878 ; Canary Islands, 1877 ; San Salvador, 1878 ; some of the
West India Islands and French Guiana, 1877 ; and Peru, 1876. The
general results for Denmark and Lichtenstein have also been ob-
tained. Although some of the results of the United States census
of this year have been made pubHc, the editors have wisely refrained
from adopting them, awaiting trustworthy official statements. In
view of the recent rumours of foul play, this must be considered
prudent. As they state in their preface, we are on the eve of a
great census period. Austria and Germany, as well as the United
States, take their census this year, and next year our own census is
due ; so that within the next two years we may look for a fresh
issue of the Bevolkeruvg. For many of the States which have taken
no census since the last issue the editors have been able to avail
themselves of official estimates, which in many cases have almost
the value of a census.

" Herr Nessmann, of Hamburgh, contributes an interesting
prefatory essay on the progress of population statistics, and
Professor Wagner a table of all the censuses that have been taken
in the various countries up to the beginning of 1880. The latter
also on a map with various shades of red shows at a glance the
countries in which actual censuses have been taken, the shades of
colour showing their frequency. Countries which have had only
one regular census are all the South American States except ChiH
and India; those that had none before 1853 are Austria, Italy,
Spain, and Portugal, Algeria, the Australian and South African
colonies, and several smaller places. Britain, Germany, France,

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692 MtsceUanea. [Dec.

Norway and Sweden, Denmark, Greece, and the United States had
censuses before 1853.

*' According, then, to the latest data, as given in the new issue of
Behm and Wagner's work, Europe has a population of 3i5,929,ocx> ;
Asia, 834,707,000; Africa, 205.679,000; America, 95^95<»S^^>
Australia and Polynesia, 4,031,000; Polar regions, 82,000; ^Tiiig
a total of 1^55,923,500, showing an increase since the last publica-
tion, nineteen months ago, of 16,778,200.

'* The following are the populations of the various countries of
Europe, with the dates to which the figures refer : — Germany, 1875,
42,727,360, estimate end of 1877, 43,943,834; Austria, end of 1879,
estimate, 22,176,745 ; Hungary, 1876, 15,506,715; Austna-Hungaiy,
1876, 37,342,000, estimate *for end of 1879, 38,000,000; Switser-
land, 1878, estimate 2,792,264; Belgium, estimate 1878, 5,476,668;
Netherlands, estimate 1878, 3,981,887; Denmark, 1878, 2,070,400;
Sweden, estimate 1878, 4,531,863 ; Norway, census 1876, 1,818,853 ;
Great Britain and Ireland, estimate 1879, 34,517,000; Fiinoe,
census 1876, 36,905,788; Spain, census 1877, 16,625,860, indnding
the Canaries (280,388), the Balearic Islands (289,035), and Geata
and other places in North Africa (12,179) * Portugal, census 1878,
4,745,124, including the Azores (264,352) and Madeira (132,221) ;
Italy, estimate 1878, 28,209,620. A census of Greece was taken iix
1879, which gave a total area of 51,860 square kilometres and »
population of 1,679,775. This population, for reasons stated in the
official publication, was considered too small, and 1,702,356 is given
as the correct figure. Of course the editors have not felt them-
selves justified in giving any estimate of the proposed additions to
Greece, as th^ deal only with accomplished facts. It is hoped that
by the date of the next issue they may have a different tale to tell.

'* In dealing with Roumania and the countries of the Balkan
Peninsula, the editors have no easy task to perform in puUing
definitely the numerical results of the treaty of Berlin, so &r as
these have been accomplished. They very rightly give the chief
heads of this treaty before attempting to interpret it. The utterly
unsatisfactory character of most of the statistics relating to this
region is notorious, and in working the subject out the editors
enter into elaborate comparisons of statistics from various sources ;
we can only here give the results. So far as the areas of the
countries are concerned, the editors in most instances made a care-
ful planimetric calculation for themselves from the Austrian staff
map, and probably their results are, on the whole, the most trust-
worthy to be obtained until we have actual surveys of the region.
With regard to Boumania, after taking account of the retrocession
of Bessarabia to Russia, and the cession by the latter of the
Dobrudja, the editors found that the present area of Boumania is
129,947 square kilometres, and the population 5,376,000. The
latter figure is based on rather old data, but there is nothing
more trustworthy until the Roumanian Government has com-
pleted the results of the census. The area of Servia, after its
recent addition of 11,097 square kilometres, is given as 48,657
square kilometres, and the population in 1880, 1,353,890. Though
the latter figure is furnished by the able Servian statistician,
M. Jakschitsch, it seems to be less than it ought really to be by

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1880.]

The PoptdoHon of the Earth.

693

235,000. The treaty area of Montenegro is given as 9)433 square
kHom^tres, and the population 280,000. With European Turkey
the difficulties of the editors colminate, their main resource being
to strike a balance of probabilities ; the details are much too com-
plicated to give here, and we must content ourselves with the
results. The following table, then, gives the results of the calcrda-
tion of Herren Behm and Wagner as to the area and population
of the immediate possessions and the dependencies of European
Turkey:—

Immediate poBsessions

Eastern Boumelia ,

Bulgaria

Bosnia, Herzegoyina, and Novi Bazar

Area.

Square kiloe.

179,475

35,387

63,865

60,484

889,211

Population.

4,790,000
923,179

1,187,879

8,866,500

*' Then, taking the Turkish possessions in Asia, we have : —

Area.

Population.

Square kiioe.

1,889,055

9,601

550

16,133,000

150,000

37,000

Cyprus

QVibutarj princedom of Samos

1,899,206

16,320,000

The entire possessions, then, of Turkey in Europe and Asia have
an area of 2,238,417 square kilometres, and a population of
29,180,000.

*' Turning now to Russia, we find the statistics very mixed,
some being comparatively recent and trustworthy ; others, no one
knows how old, and by no means reliable. There are, indeed, very
recent figures for most of the governments and district towns, but
they are seldom the results of an accurate census.. Such a census
is, we believe, in progress; meantime we must content ourselves
with the very careful reduction of Herren Behm and Wagner.
For Poland, we ought to see that we have perfectly trustworthy
statistics up to 1877 : —

Area.

Population.

European Russia (1870)

Square versts.

4,318,800-6

111,875-4

8,149-2

828,283-2

885,887

22,643-7

10,979,687-3

2,920,524-2

886,125-2

6<,864,oio

Poland (1872)

6.<28,oi7

Addition t<r Bessarabia (1878)

127,000 (?)

Finland (1877)

1,968,626

5,391,744^^^
236,600 (?)

Caucasus (1873-76)

Increase in Armenia (1878)

Siberia (1870) .\.......'.

3,440,362
4,401,876

Central Asia

Caspian Sea

Russian dominions

19,456,925-8

87,959»ooo

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694 MUeeOoHea. [Dec.

XJDtil we know the final resnlts of the Knldja treaty with China,
there is, of course, some nncertaiDty about the Central Asian figures.
As to the area of the still independent region between Khiva,
Bokhara, Afghanistan, Persia, and the Russian Transcaspian dis-
trict, the editors give 206,500 square kilometres, and the popula-
tion, after Vamb^ry, 450,000. The only stock th&t have up to the
present moment retained their entire independence are the Tekkes,
of whom 200,000 are Akhal-Tekkes, frequenting the oases at the
foot of the Knren-Dagh ; the remainder 100,000 have their seat to
the east, at present in Merv. Of Khiva, the area is given as
57,800 square kilometres, and the population 700,000. In a foot-
note the editors give, on the authority of Vamb^ry, they state by
mistake, correctly on the authority of Mr. A. H. Keane, in Nature^
the total number of people of the Turcoman stock in Central Asia,
1, 100,000,

'* Proceeding now to the other countries of Asia, we find Bokhara,
with the adjacent district of Karategin, Schignan, Boschan, <&c.,
has an area of 239,000 square kilometres, and a population of
2,130,00a The total area of Arabia is given as 3,156,600 square
kilometres, and the population c millions; of this, 2,507,390 square
kilometres, with a population of 3,700,000, are still independent of
Turkey. There are qaite recent estimates for one or two districts
of Persia; but the editors still give the area as 1,647,070 squM*e
kilometres and the population 7 millions. The district of Euotur,
ceded to Persia by the Berlin treaty, has an area of 1,125 square
kilometres and a population of 8,000. The editors wisely refrain
from giving numerical effect to the Gandamak treaty in Afghan-
istan, the area of which they still set down as 721,664 square kilo-
metres and the population as 4 millions. At the same time they
g^ve the detailed lists of the various tribes and stocks published in
Nature by Mr. Keane, as the result of careful and independent
research, and yielding as the estimate of population the much
higher figure of 6,145,000. Kafiristan has an area of 51,687 square
kilometres and a population of a million, and Beloochistan 276,515
square kilometres and 350,000 inhabitants. China, with all its
dependencies, has an area of 11,813,750 square kilometres and a
population of 434,626,500. The latter figure is, however, very
uncertain; some authorities maintain it is much too high, and
others much too low ; the former are more likely to be right,
Hongkong in 1876 had an area of 83 square kilometres and a popu-
lation of 139,144; Macao (1879) 11*75 square kilometres and
77,230 inhabitants. Japan, according to official statistics of 1878, had
an area of 379,7 1 1 square kilometres and a population of 34.338,504.
For India many of the figures are more recent than those given in the
last issue of the Bevolkerwig. The total area of British possessions
in India, including Burmah, is given as 899,341 square miles, and
of tributary States 5579903 square miles; population of former,
191,095,445; of latter, 49*203,053; total British possessions,
1,457,244 square miles, population 240,298,500. The French posses-
sions in India have an area of 508^ square kilometres and a popu-
lation (1877) of 280,381 ; the Portuguese an area of 3,855 square
kilometres and a population of 444,987. Ceylon has an area of
24,702 square miles and a population in 1877 of 2,755,557. The

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1880.]

The Popvlation of the Earth.

695

following table shows the areas and populations of the varions sub-
divisions of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, according to the latest
attainable data of any value : —

Area.

Popnlatioii.

Dntiff}! Bnnnfth , t,, ,„„.,,,,.,.„,t„.

Square kikM.

229,351

19,676

65,500

467,000

726,850

440,500

69,467

83,861

81,500

8,472

1,747,148
126,000

'BfCaniDur ,r.r,» „„,,,,,.,.,^t.t,,-,„,„.t,.. .,...,

Trilxm OBflt And south of AMam

200,000

Independent Burmah

4,000,000

5,750,000

21,000,000

Siani

Anam ...,...,.....„...,..,......,...,. .r..,^,rrrr,,,,^-,-

Frpnoh Cochin-China .,.......,...r.- -r tt--

1,600,000
890,000
300,000
35o»ooo

Oambodia ........r..

Indflpendontr Malawa ..........r..,,., t..„

Straits Settlements

2,167,440

36,963,000

" The East India Islands are subdivided thus : —

Andamans

Nicobars

Samoa Islands, &o.
Philippines

Area.

Square kilot.
6,497
1,772

1,698,757
295,685

PopnUtion.

14,500

SfSOO

27,343,000

7,450,000

34,813,000

" Professor Wagner animadverts with good reason on the care-
less manner in which the statistics for the Dutch East Indies are
published. There is no want of such statistics, but for want of
scientific editors and proper arrangement thej are almost practically
useless. Indeed, the most varied and inconsistent figures are given
in official publications in these islands, and this want of method
gives the geographer and statistician a feeling of despair. Herr
Wagner, with infinite trouble, has sought to reduce this chaos to
order, and this part of the work wQl, no doubt, be regarded as the
best authority on the subject we possess.

"Turning to Australia and Polynesia, the editors notice the
recent annexation to Queensland of several islands in Torres Straits,
and give the population of the colonies as follows for 1878 : — New
South Wales, 693,743 ; Victoria, 879,442 ; South Australia, 248,795 ;
Northern territory (1879), 3,265; Queensland, 210,510; West
Australia, 28,166 ; Tasmania, 109,947 ; New Zealand (end of 1878),
476,642 ; including Maoris, which is considerably larger than the
census fig^u^ of March of the same year, 414,412. From careful
estimates the area of New Guinea is set down as 785,362 square
kilometres, or, with the neighbouring islands, 807,956 square kilo-

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606

metres, and the population 500^00.
the Oceanic islands : —

MtsceUanea. [Dec.

The following table relates to

MeUnefia

Poljnesi*

Sandwich Islandi
liicroneua

Aim.

Square kilM.

145,865

9,791

17,008

3,580

176,184

POlMllatMHU

606,800
130,400
58,000
84,650.

879,850

**As the result of a new estimate of the area of Africa, the
editors give 29,283,390 square kilometres. This area is, according
to Dr. Nachtigal, so far as productiveness is concerned, divided as
follows: — Forest and cnltivahle land, 6,376,725 square kilometres;
savannas and light woods, 6,235,378; bush, 1,572,431; steppe,
4,269,027; desert, 10,659,133, of which the Sahara occupies up-
wards of 9 million kilometres, including many oases and cultivated
patches. The area and population of Africa are divided among the
chief countries and regions as follows : —

Morocoo, inoluding Swat, &c

Algeria

Tunis

Tripoli, Ac

Sahara

Egypt and dependencies

Central Soudan

West Soudan and Upper Ghiinea

Abyssinia

Harar, Galli, Ac ,

North Equatorial regions

South „

Independent South Africa

Portuguese East Africa

West „

Orange Free State

British South Africa

African Islands

Ares.

Populatioa.

SqosrekikM.

812,332

7,829,000

667,066

2,867,626

116,348

2,100,000

1,033,849

1,010,000

6,180,426

2,850,000

2,986,915

i74i0|0oo

1,714,983

31,770,000

1,993,046

43,600,000

333,279

3,000,000

1,897,038

15,500,000

2,254,980

27,000,000

1,717,900

20,000,000

1,600,000

i3»286,35o

991,150

1,000,000

78,470*

9,000,000

111,497

75,000

968,418

1,966,000

626,064

3,892,400

* Angola.

For some of these figures we ought to say that Behm and Wagner
are not responsihle, as we have put them together from various data,
not always complete, furnished by them ; the areas especially are
much too small, as for some regions no estimates are given, and the
lakes are not included.

*' Coming to America, we have British North America, with a
total area (including Polar lands) of 3,248,078 square miles, and a
population of 3,839,470; Bermudas, 19I square miles, and, in 1838,

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1880.] The Population of the Ea/rth, 697

1 3,8 1 2 inbAbitants ; French possessions in Nortii America, 90 sqnare
miles, population (1877), 5,338. For the United States the new
census returns of the year were not available ; but from a careful
calculation the editors think that for 1880 a population of 48,500,000
is not too much to expect, exclusive of 300,000 Indians ; the area of
the States is given as 39603,884 square miles. The area of Mexico
is given as 1,921,240 square kilometres, and the present population
as 9,485,600. Central American States, 547,308 square kilometres,
and 2,759,200 population; West Indies, 244,478 square kilometres,
4,412,700 population; Guiana, 461,977 square kilometres, 345,800
population; Venezuela, 1,137,615 square kilometres, 1,784,197 popu-
lation; United States of Colombia, 837,000 square kilometres,
3 millions of population; Ecuador, 643,295 square kilometres, with
population (1878) 1,146,000; Peru, 1,119,941 square kilometres,
with population (1876), 3,050,000 — this is inclusive of the recent
addition of the Bolivian littoral; Chili, 321,462 square kilometres,
population (1878), 2,400,000; Argentine Republic, including Pata-
gonia, 3,051,706 population (1879), probably 2,400,000; Uruguay,
186,920 square kilometres, population (1877), 440,000; Paraguay,
238,920 square kilometres, with population (1876), 293,844 ; Brazil,
8,337,218 square kilometres, population 11,108,291 ; Falkland
Islands, area according to official statement, 6,500 square miles, but
more probably according to Behm and Wagner, 4,840 square miles,
population (1878), 1,394. As the editors greatly distrust the
official estimates of area in the South American States, they give
the result of a new planimetric measurement by Dr. Wisotzki, of
Konigsberg ; this gives the total area, including islands, as 1 7,7 52,303
square kilometres, nearly 8 million kilometres less than the officisd
statistics make it.

" Finally we have the statistics of the Polar regions. The total
area of the regions on or around the Arctic circle is given as 3,859,400,
the only regularly inhabited lands, so far as we know, being Iceland
and Greenland, the former with 72,000, and the latter 10,000 inha-
bitants. No doubt there are a few wanderers in the Arctic regions
of North America, but we have no means of ascertaining their
number. The South Polar regions are credited with an area of
660,000 square kilometres, in which, so far as known, there are no
inhabitants.

" Such, then, is a condensed riswmi of the valuable collection of
statistics contaiued in the new issue of the Bevolkerung der Erde^
which may be taken' as the most trustworthy statement we have as
to the present area and population of our globe."

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698 MiBcdUmea. [Dec

Vn. — StatisUes of Audralasiwn Colonies.

The following has been received from the Kegistrar-Gtenerftl of
for the year 1878, to be fonnd at pp. €58 and 859 of the Journal

AusTEALASiAN CoLONiBS. — Statistical Return showing the Relative Positummi

Area in square miles

Estimated mean population 1

of 1879 J

Revenue of 1879

Proportion of revenue ofl

1879, raised by taxation j
Bate of taxation per headi

of population J

Value of imports for 1879

Value of imports per headi

of the population J

Value of exports for 1879

Value of exports per headi

of the population J

Total value of trade, im-1

ports and exports J

Value of trade per head of 1

the population J

Miles of railway open, Slst 1

December, 1879 J

Miles of railway in course of 1

construction, 81 De9.,1879 J
Miles of telegraph lines 1

open, Slst Dojember, 1879 J
Miles of telegraph wire open, 1

31st December, 1879 J

Miles of telegraph in course of
construction, Slst Dec., 1879

Length of lines Tmiles^

„ wire ( „ )

Number of acres imder crop \

in 1879 J

Number of horses in 1879 ....

„ cattle „

„ sheep „

„ pigs „

Estimated population on \

Slst December, 1879 J

Public debt on Slst Dec., 1879
Bate of indebtedness perl

head of population /

Name of Colony.

New South Wale».

3>Oi937^
7i4,oiz

4»475»059^.
I,a72,72i/.

it. 15#. 7K

14,198,847^.

19^. 17*. 8i<i.

13,086,8 19Z.

1 82. 6s. 6ld,

27,285,6662.

382. 4f. 34i.
736
286

7,5»7i
12,426

497i
497*

6351^41

360,038

2,914,210

29>043.39»
256,026

734t*8*
I4»937,4i9^-
20I. 6s, io\d.

Vietorfa.

88,198

888,500

4,621,520»

1,780,088

12. 19t. 4f<i.«
15,035,6382.
162. IBs. bid.
12,454»1702.
142. -.r. 4c2.

27,489,708/.

302. 18«. 9ii.

1,125

74i

8,156

6,736

23
47

1,688,275

216,710
1,129,358
8,651,775

144,733

899,333
20,050,7532.
222. 5«. lOf (2.

South Aofltnlia.

380,070

255*087

1,662,4982.

526,3662.

22. IS. 3<2.

5,014,1502.

192. I3«. i\d.

4,762,7272.

1 82. i3#. 5<l.

9»776,877?.
382. 6s. 6kd.

559

252i

4.393*

5.934

850
1,010

2,271,058

130,052

266,217

6,i40,39'5

90,548

259*287

6,605,7502.

252. 9#. 6ic2.

669,530
214,180
1,46133^
631,2881

22. 18f. IIK

3,080,8891

142. 7*.8ii

8,434,(M:

162. -*. 8rf.

6,514,9231

302. 8S.4HL

50S

905

5.871

7,891

101,053

163,063

2,800,633

6.065,034

64,686

217,861

10,196,1531

462. 16t. -M

* For the financial year ended SOth June, 1879.

' This rate has been calculated according to the mean population of the financial yeir esm
' Population on Slst December.

* Includes 1,405,018 acres after haying been broken up, including suchasinhay,butexciai<*

* According to the returns of March, 1878.

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1880.]

Siatisties of Australasian Oolomes,

699

New Sonth Wales, and is given with reference to a similar retnm
for last year, vol. xlii.

HggregcAe Importance of the Australasian Colonies, at the dose of the Tear 1879.

Name of Colony.

VitMtem

Total

Tumania.

Aattralia.

TotaL

New Zealand.

for Aastralaiian
Colonies.

26,215

1,000,000

2,474,940*

105,842

2,580,282!

Area in square miles
/Estimated mean population
1 of 1879

111,208

28,668>

2,211,655

448,124

2,659,779

375»367^-

196,816?.

12,792,583^-

8,184,905?.

i5»927H-88?.

Berenue of 1879

236,404?.

88,830?.

4.485»i98^.

1,441,838?.

5,927,036?.

fProportion of lerenue of
\ 1879, raised by taxation

2/. 2#. 6d.

8?. U. 7id.

2?. ^. Sid.

8?. 4«. 4^.

2?. 4». 8K

fRate of taxation per head
\ of population

i,i67,475^-

407,299?.

39,004,198?.

8,874,585?.

47,378,783^.

Value of imports for 1879

III. 7#. iiirf.

14?. 4«. lid.

17?. I2#. S\d.

18?. Idt. 9d,

17?. i6#. 3<?.

rvalue of imports per head
1 of the population

1,301,097?.

404,888?.

35*533,730?.

5,743,126?.

41,276,856?.

Value of exports for 1879

iil.i^s.iild.

17?. 6*. Sd.

16?. I*, zid.

12?.16#.8K

15?. io#.4M.

rvalue of exports per head
\ of the population

2,568,572?.

902,182?.

74i53 7,928?.

14,117,711?.

88,655,639?.

fTotal yalue of trade, im-
\ ports and exports
rvalue of trade per head of
\ the population

23?. IS. lid.

31?. 9#. 4id.

33?. 14s. -kd.

31?.10#.-i(?.

33^. 6*. 7K

17^1

3.167*
93 7i

1,171

4,338i

/Miles of railway open, Slst
1 Deoember, 1879
r Miles of railway in course of
1 construction, 31 Dec., 1879

19f

9374

731

l,668f

23,236!

8,605

26,841!

/Miles of telegraph lines
\ open, 81st Dec., 1879 '

949

l,580f

34,5>^i

9,300

43,8i6i

/ Miles of telegraph wire open,
1 81st Deoember, 1879
Miles of telegraph in course of
construction, 81st Dec., 1879

hsm

—

i,388i

Length of lines (miles)
wire ( „ )

»,575i

—

«»575f

156,184

65,491i

4i9i7,70ii

2,218,782<

7,136^.83!

/Number of acres under crop
1 in 1879

24*578

82,411

926,872

187,768»

1,064,640

Number of horses in 1879

129,091

60,617

7,300,126

578,430»

7,878,556

„ cattle „

1,834,44"

1,109,860

52,844,898

18,069,338*

65,914*236

„ sheep „

38,312

20,897

614,702

207,337»

822,039

pig»

1 1 2469

28,668

2,251,890

468,729

2,715*^19

Estimated population on
81st December, 1879

1,786,800?.

861,000?.

53,937,872^.

23,958,311?.

77,896,183?.

Public debt on Slst Dec.,1879

15?. ijs.Sid.

L2?. 11#. lOd.

23?. 19*. -id.

51?. 18#. 8K

28?. i3#. Hd.

Rate of indebtedness per
head of population

«)th June, 1879 (878,243).

»f 1,936,281 acres of grass*80wn lands which had not preyiously been broken up.

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700 MiBcdUmea. [Dec

YlIi,—AgneuUurdl Distress cmd Bills of Bale,

Wi extract the following f ram the Statist of 20th Noyember,
1880:—

" Recent legislation has had the effect of providing statistical
materials for the illustration of a description of business respect-
ing which very little is generally known, although a considerable
portion of the community, unfortunately for themselves, are
interested. We refer to the Acts for the registration of * Bills of
Sale.' By these Acts every * Bill of Sale,* which is virtually a
mortgage upon moveable effects, has to be roistered, so that the
extent to which these mortgages are granted can now be appre-
ciated. The effect of the legislation, combined, perhaps, wit^
the great depression of trade, the absence of previous statistics
making it impossible to assign due weight to each cause, was to
increase the annual number of biUs of sales granted in England
and Wales from about 20,000 in 1878, to 50,000 in 1879, and
55,000 in the year ending 1st October, 1880, which covers three
months in 1879. Whatever may have been the cause of the
increase, there can be no doubt at any rate of the annual number
now granted in England and Wales exceeding 50^00, which shows
a rather extensive use of this form of borrowing throughout the
country. The amounts involved are usually small, but the fact
that 50,000 persons of the lower middle class have annually to
borrow in that way is itself a sorrowful fact. To a great extent
the lenders appear to be a professional class — obviously money-
lenders— and not improbably the bill of sale is often the climax of
a small loan which has gone on rapidly accumulating, until the
victim is unable to shake off the money lender's grip. According
to the law reports, instances of severe oppression occur, the clauses
of the bills of sale being onerous and oppressive, and the object
contemplated by the lenders being rather the plunder of the grantee
through his failure to comply with the techmcal stipulation of the
bill of sale than the real security of the advance. It is not
pleasant to reBect that there are 50,000 documents of this kind,
adapted to be used, and frequently used, by the money lender as an
instrument of torture, annually granted in the coimtry. The
distress implied must be very great indeed.

" Some tables which we subjoin will throw further light on the
matter. These refer to the bills of sale granted by one class alone
in the year ended Ist October, 1880, viz., farmers, whose position
at the present time is peculiarly interesting, owing to the long
depression of agriculture. The great fact which we find (see
Table 1) is that farmers in the course of the year named gave no
fewer than 3,210 bills of sale for an aggregate sum of 567,560/.
Compared with the aggregate number of farmers, and the aggregate
farming capital, the proportions are not really large. There are
balf-a-million occupiers of land in England and Wales, and their
capital must run into hundreds of millions. But when it is con-

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1880.] Agricultural Distress <md Bills of Sale. 701

sidered that these bills of sale represent only one mode of borrowing
by the farming class, and that the borrowing of those who are
poorest, or under the gresdeat pressure, we cannot donbt that they
show a considerable amonnt of agricnltnral distress. The amounts
for which most of the bills are granted are very small indeed. We
make the following list : —

Number of
BUlt.

For amoiints under 20I ^.. 314

„ 2il. to 5oi 861

„ 51Z. „ iQol 694

„ 101?. „ 200^ 647

„ 201I, „ 500Z 507

»» 5012. „ i,oooZ 125

„ over i,oooZ 74

„ not specified 88

Total 3,210

" Thus nearly 2,000 out of the 3,2 10 are for amounts under 100/.
which reduces greatly the numbar granted, by what would be
considered farmers in a large or even a moderate way of business.
The description of the grantor in the bill of sale frequently runs
that he is a 'farmer and market gardener,' which is of itself an
indication of the class by whom they are granted. Still, that there
are nearly 2,000 such bills in a year indicates a serious amount of
indebtedness, and of resulting distress and misery. As a furtlier
indication of the class of people by whom bills of sales are mainly
granted, it may be noted that it is not so much in the purely agri-
cultural counties where bills of sale are given by farmers, as in the
counties of large towns, such, as Lancashire, Cfheshire, and York-
shire, where the so called farmer is rather a market gardener than
a farmer. While the eastern counties, such as Essex, Norfolk,
Lincoln, and Suffolk do not supply 100 bills each to the registry,
and counties like Devon and Cornwall also supply very few ; we
find that farmers in Lancashire give 275, in Cheshire 129, in Derby-
shire 136, and in Yorkshire 383. It is the small men, then, who
give bills of sale. The large farmer who borrows must proceed in
a different way.

" The second and third tables which we subjoin will give an
interesting amount of information as to the class of lenders. The
second is a list of so-called * banks * and other companies who have
lent in all in the year the sum of 68,655/., and the third a list of
lenders whose names appear frequently, and who, we assume, make
lending a profession or business, and whose lendings in all amounted
to 56,190/. — the bills of sale granted to the former class numbering
563, and to the latter 1,017, or in all very nearly one-half of the
whole. We commend these lists without comment to the considera-
tion of those interested. The apparent nationality of most of the
individual names is striking, while, as regards the banks and com-

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702 MisceOanea. [Bee.

panies, it will be a surprise to our readers, we tbink, that ihere nn
so many * banks ' of which they never heard before. We i^pear to
have here a development of banking in quite a strange direclaon.
One of the banks, we find (the 'National Mercantile'), whidi
advanced 26,181/. to farmers in the year on 164 bills of sale,
advanced in all in the same year the sam of 79,260/. on 850 bills ci
sale. One of the individiuaJ lenders, Abraliam Collins, who ad-
vanced ^fiiyl. to farmers in 1879, on 60 bills of sale, advanced in
all in the same year 25,263/. on 483 bills of sale. The business
seems thus to be carried on on a considerable scale by some of those
engaged in it.

'*As we have said, there are no donbt frequent instances of
oppression in connection with these bills of sale, and the system is
one which gives opportunities for oppression. An astute lender
dealing with the ignorant and nnedncated in their times of difficulty,
and taking advantage of their want of knowledge as well as their
necessities, cannot find it hard to make them sign documents which
they ought not to sign, and so place themselves in his power. The
law has attempted to remedy matters a little by requiring the
signature of a solicitor as a witness to every bill of sale, together
with a certificate from him that he has read and explained the
clauses to the grantor. But a profession which numbers 15,000
members can hardly fail to have some black sheep in it, and we
doubt if this will be a real protection against oppression. We are
disposed to think that the law would act more wisely by declining
altogether to recognise a bill of sale under 200/., unless accompanied
by the actual transfer of the goods. A bill of sale, which is virtually
a mortgage, is a source of more harm than good to those who grant
such documents. At any rate, the extent to which bills of sale are
given is a matter of general concern, and it is of real importance
that the law should be placed on a proper footing.

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1880.]

Agricultural Distress wnd Bills of Sale,

703

\,— Number and Amount of BUU of Sale on the Effects of Farmers
Registered in the Year ending 30^ September ^ 1880.

Coonty.

Bedfordshire .

Berksliire

Bucks

Cambridge

Cheshire ....

Cornwall....

Cumberland ..

Derbyshire ....

Dorsetshire

Deyonshire ....

Durham ....

Essex

Gloucester-
shire ....

Hampshire ....

Herefordshire

Herts

Hunts

Kent

Lancashire ....

Leicestershire

Lincolnshire..

Middlesex ....

Norfolk*

Northampton

Northum-1
berland .. J

Nottingham ..

Oxfordshire..,

Butland ,

Shropshire ....

Somerset

StafTordshire .

Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex

Warwick

Westmore- 1
land /

Wiltshire ....

Worcester- 1
shire j

Yorkshire ....

Wales and 1

Monmouth J

Total

Number of Bills Registered.

Under
2ol.

4
e8

3
8
8

2
2
2
I

2
12

25
I

I
7
7

8
1

15
31
36
4
3
14
21

104

135

861

51'.

100^.

12
3

13
28
10

9
21

15
I
8

112

694

\oil.
to

200/.

547

201 2.

5ooi.

9
61

5»507

5ooi.

i,ooo<.

1
1
4
5
2
2
2

1
8

4
2
3

1
15
11

126

Over

x.oooL

Number
Sum-
moned.

Total.

H
17

25
47
129

136

79
101

74
63
22
6
46
*75
33
90
22
58
27

39
56
H
3
71
83
133
69

30
73
79

383

467

3,210

Tottl
Value.

1,870
3,052
6,011

19,762

14,365
6,130
9,213

11,433
4,293
9,766
9,853

29,077

17,071

17,200
11,792

5,821

2,710
17,532
20,822

7,412
17,664

6,614
18,721

2,467

8,756

12,613
10,952

1,603
12,073

9.000
12,050
28,034

4,638
80,693
14,156

882

17,633

10,067

62,887

62,722

567,560

• One bill described as an assignment of crops.

VOL. XLIU. PABT IV.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

704

MisceUanea.

[Dec.

2. — Number and Amount of Bills of Sale on the EfecU of Farmers gramUd
in favour of the undermentioned Banks and Companies in 1879.

Oommeroial Discount Company

Imperial Advance Bank

„ Deposit „

Midland Credit Company

National Adrance Bank

„ Mercantile „

„ Deposit „

Nottingham Advance Bank

Prorincial Credit Company

Sheffield Deposit Bank

Other so-called Banking, &c. Companies 1
the names of several of whicn are >
giren below J

Knmber of Bills
of Sule.

S^l

Total Amoiut.

1^54

8,049

»4

4,566

9,633

1,594

164

26,181

1.296

2.757

1,456

1,670

200

16,000

68,655

Albion Loan Company

Bank of Industry

Bath District and Finance Company

Blackburn Bank

„ Alliance Company
Bolton Advance Bank
Central Loan Office
Charing Cross Bank
City and County Advance Company
Commercial Deposit Company
County Loan Company

„ Palatine Banking Company
Durham Financial Company
Ebenezer Loan Company
Express „

Essex Loan Office
Exchange and Loan Bank
Farmers' Advance Bank
Globe Loan Company
Heywood District Loan Company
Islington Loan Company
Joint Stock Investment Association
Lincoln Finance Company
Lancashire Advance Company

Lancashire and Cheshire Adr
Company

Liverpool Loan Company

London and Westminster Loan Com-
pany

Manchester Advance Office

Monetary Advance Company

Mutual M

National Loan Office

North-Eastern Loan Office

Norfolk Finance Company

Northern Investment Company

Real and Personal Advance Company

Bochdale Advance Company

Royal Adrance Con^>any

Sheffield Loan Company

South of England Advance Bax^

„ Lancashire Loan Company
Union Advance Company

„ Deposit Bank

„ Loan Company
West Riding Discount Company
Yorkshire Discount Company
York Union Bank

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1880.]

Notes on Economical a/nd Statistical WorJcs,

705

3. — dumber and Amount of Bills of Sale on the Effects of Farmers
granted in favour of the Person* undermentunied in 1879.

Auerbaob, Solomon

Barnett, Henry and Harry

Beimstein, Harris *

Blaiberg, Benjamin

Blaiberg, Solomon

Cohen, Barnett

Cohen, Henry

Collins, Abraham

Da^ds, John

Fineberg, Isaac

Fisher, Leon

Freedman, Joseph

Gbrdon, Marcus

Harris, Joseph

Hart, Nathan S

Jacobs, Aaron

Levy, Woolfe

Mendelssohn, Meyer

Payne, George

Phillips, Moses

Seline, Isaac

Townend^ James

Zeffert, Michael

Lenders whose names are giren below ....
Estimate of loans by apparently pro-1
fessional lenders, other than aboye .... j

Barnett, Solomon
Bernstein, Louis
Blaiberg, Joseph
Cohen, Isaac
Cohen, Meyer
Davis, Morris
Evans, John
Fairhead, Thomas
Hart, Simeon

Jacobs, Hesekiah
Levi, Samson
Levy, Abraham
Lyons, Barnett
Miller, William
Powell, William
Walters, Joseph
Woolf , Joseph

IX. — Notes on Economical and Statistical Worhs,

Guide to the Study of Political Economy, By Dr. Lnigi Cossa,
Professor of Political Economy in the University of Pavia. Trans-
latedfrom the second Italian edition. With a preface by W. Stanley
Jevons, F.R.S. Macmillan and Co., 1880.

Professor Jevons says in his preface to this work that " no intro-

dA2

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706 Miscellcmea. [Dec.

duction to tlie study of economics at all approaching in character
to Professor Cossa*s Ouida aUa Studio deW JSconomia PoliMca is to
be fonnd in the English tongne." Everyone who reads it either in
the original or in the excellent translation, whose appearance we are
recording, will endorse the above remark. That this should be so
is in accordance with onr national genins. English writers are still,
as Professor Jevons says, rather ignorant of what has been done in
other countries, though the reproach is less tme than it was a score
or so of years ago. As regards economics specially, English know-
ledge of the xsontinent was far less than the continental knowledge of
England. And one great advantage which the student of Prof^isor
Oossa will obtain is a knowledge of the relation of the writings of
his own countrymen to those of the rest of the world. The
impartiality of the author is remarkable, and his acquaintance witli
the literature of the subject equally so. Not only that, but the
language he uses is exceedingly accurate and clear, and this is of
much importance in a volume of so wide a range. It is no sniaU
achievement to have planned a work which should trace the history
of political economy from the earliest period, noting the oontri-
buiaons of all even the less important thinkers, and describe in a
judicial and impartial manner the present position of the science.
To have successfully carried out so comprehensive a plan was
perhaps more difficult than to conceive it. At any rate it mnst
nave been hard to keep the work within the limits proposed for it.
The extreme brevity, not to say terseness, of the language is
accounted for by this need for the suppression of all that was not
essential.

Professor Cossa divides his work into two parts, a general part
and a historical part. The first of these is divided into six chapters,
and a glance at the titles of these will show what is the scope of the
book. They are; The Definition of Political Economy, The Division
of Political Economy, The Relation of Political Economy to other
Sciences, Method of Political Economy, Importance of Political
Economy, and Examination of some objections which have been
made to the study of Political Economy. Passing on to the second
part. Professor Cossa, after discussing in the first chapter " The Con-
ception, Division, Method, and Sources of the History of Political
Economy," proceeds in the succeeding chapters to give a brief out-
line of that history. In treating this part of the subject he avows
himself largely indebted to previous writers, whose investigations
have rendered it possible to deal comprehensively i^ ith it. The
extent of information displayed in this part of the volume is very
great, and the comments on the writers whose contributions to the
science are discussed, are made in a thoroughl;^ broad and fair
spirit. The views and theories of the earlier economists are always
considered with reference to the age in which they lived, as well
as with reference to their intrinsic importance. It must not be
supposed that Professor Cossa attempts to ofTer any profound
criticism of the doctrines that have been held by different econo-
mists in former times. All he proposes to do is to give us a general
idea of what may be found in their writings, and to indicate where
more definite information may be found by anyone who requires it.

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1880.] Noies on EconoimcaZ omd Statistical Works, 707

He says : " The history of political economy, considered as a scientific
whole comprehends (1) the external history, which narrates the origin
and development of economic theories and of the varions economic
systems considered as a whole, touching also on their more salient
points, without descending to particulars. It is either, (a) general^
when it takes in all periods and nations, or (6) special, when it is
limited, in time and space, as for example to one epoch, or nation,
or system, or to one or two writers. (2) The internal or, as some
say, the dogmatic history, which studies the formation of particular
theories (e.g., value, money, rent), and which is often treated as an
introduction or complement, in connexion with their scientific exposi-
tion. . . . The purpose and the dimensions of this Guide will only
allow us to give a stimma/ry of the external history, accompanied by
the indications necessary to lead to a wider and more profound
study." The following remarks of Professor Cossa are worth special
attention, both on account of the insight they afford us into the
writer's own conception of history and the functions of historical
criticism, and because the warning they convey to those who are
bent on being " original ** quand mSme in economics is a good deal
needed just now. "The history of economic theories, though only
useful when accompanied by the study of the science as it now exists,
is yet a valuable complement to that study. If it be illumined by
criticism, it cannot generate systematic scepticism, irrational eclecti-
cism, nor a posthumous apology for antiquated doctrines and institu-
tions. It serves to illustrate the general history of civilisation, and
to point out the influence that the theories of economists have
exercised on social reforms. It also promotes a more thorough
examination of separate theories, which cannot be fully appreciated
unless they are traced to their sources." Professor Cossa treats of
political economy in ancient times and in the middle ages in one
chapter. Until the commencement of the sixteenth century economic
investigation was fragmentary. Even when that period had arrived
there was not " as yet any complete or really systematic treatment
of the science as a whole." In short, ** political economy, considered
as an independent science, with well-marked boundaries to its field
of research, and with its proper method of investigation, is an
entirely modem science, it is indeed little more than a hundred years
old.*' The third chapter of Part II carries the history down to the
middle of the eighteenth century, and the next deals with the phy-
siocrats. A special chapter is devoted to ''Adam Smith and his
immediate successors." Of Adam Smith, Professor Cossa haa the
highest admiration, and he quotes with approval Boscher's remark
that '' Adam Smith stands in the centre of economic history ;" .
and " that whatever was written before and has been written since,
may be considered respectively as the preparation for, and the com-
plement of, his doctrine." The chapters on the economic literature
of the nineteenth century, and on contemporary Italian economists,
conclude the volume. The chapter on the method of political
economy in the first part is very interesting. It is rather remark,
able that, in mentioning the authors who have made a special
study of statistics, Professor Cossa says not one word about
Dr. Mayr.

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708 MuceOama, [Dec

Vberseeische PoUHk. Eine (mUurvnssenschaftliche Studie wii
ZaMenbildem, Von Hubbe-Schleiden, D.J.U. (Hamburg, I*.
Friederichsen and Co., 1881.)

Dr. Hiibbe-Schleiden's work is an elaborate essay advocatm^
tbe adoption, by Germany, of a policy of colonisation. He supports
bis views by a most skilful use of statistical tables, sbowing* how^
profitable, from a commercial point of view, the English colonies
nave been, and still are, to tbe mother conntry. He baa a great
admiration for England, and has studied English politics a good
deal. He believes, however, that we have reached our culminating^
point, that we are showing a readiness to abandon the empire
which is at present ours, and that it is possible for Germany to
occupy the position thus left vacant. How far the wish is father
to the thought of Dr. Hiibbe-Schleiden, whose patriotism is of tbe
fervid " young German " order, we shall not endeavour to deter-
mine. The tables in which he shows that all colonies trade most
with the country which founded them, are very interesting. The
exception to the rule is Spain, in which the author says '^tbis
anomaly undoubtedly arises, not merely, or even chiefly, because
the mother country has not carried on its transmarine policy wisely,
for that is also true of France, which country draws as much
advantage from its possessions as Great Britain and the Netherlands.
We must conclude that such a mother country as this is econo-
mically and as a propagator of civilisation, weak." The volume
contains many valuable observations, and is altogether worthy of
attention. Perhaps the most interesting part of it is an attempt to
determine the profit obtained by each nation from its trade with
every other nation. The method adopted is, we believe, a novel
one. It consists in setting the exports of country A to country B,
against the imports of B from A, that is noting the difference
between the united values of the articles at the port of shipment*
and at the port of arrival. Before doing this Dr. Hiibbe-Schleiden
makes some elaborate calculations relative to the imports and
exports, with a view to eliminating the inequalities and errors
arising from the varying conditions of different years, the different
modes of valuing employed, and other causes of discrepancy in the
values. The results as regards some of the principal countries to

which it is applied are thus stated : —

Pwfit

per Cent.

Trade passing from Great Britam to France » i '8

„ France „ Qreat Britain . 1*5

„ Great Britain „ Belgium I'l

„ Belgium „ Great Britain 1*9

„ British India „ Mauritius z*7

„ Mauritius „ British India z'x

The various counties are grouped in " trade centres," and those
in the same centre are compared with one another and with those
lying in other centres. The idea is ingenious, but we fear that the
returns of imports and exports, even of countries whose statistical
arrangements are of high excellence, will hardly bear such delicate
investigations as these. None the less are the calculations of
Dr. Hubbe-Schleiden worth careful examination*

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1880.] Notes on some AacUiions to the Library. 709

X. — Notes on some Additions to the Library,

Tradey Topvlaiion and Food; a Series of Papers on Economic
Statistics, By Stephen Bonme. G^eo^ge Bell and Sons, 1880.

Mr. Bourne has decided to republish, in a single volume, several
of the valuable and interesting papers read by him on different
occasions during the last ten years. The title which he has affixed
to it describes flie character of the volume well, on the whole, but
it would have been impossible to convey in any title the whole scope
of Mr. Bourne's inquiries, which, as all members of the Society are
aware, include discussions on the wine duties, the drink question,
the silver question, colonisation, besides those matters wiib. which
his name is more especially connected, such as the growing prepon-
derance of imports over exports. The introduction to the book is
new, and throughout additions have been made whenever events
subsequent to the date of the article have rendered illustration or
explanation necessary or desirable. In the introduction Mr. Bourne
has concisely described what the contents of the volume are, and
we therefore propose to quote some passages from it, as being the
best possible description of the author's intentions.

'* The subjects treated of in the following pages may be ranged
under three heads : the progress of our trade, the increase of our
population, and the supplies of food which our commerce procures

for our people to consume The remarkable

development of trade in both directions during the twenty years of
its greatest prosperity, 1854-74, forms the subject of the second
paper, that on * The progress of our Foreign Trade,' read in
1875 ; its predecessor, that on the * Official Trade and Navigation
Statistics,' having given information as to the nature of the
returns from which the particulars of this progress were derived.
It was then that the phenomenon alluded to by Mr. Shaw-Lefevre,
in the quotation on the title page, that of the * Grovidng Prepon-
derance of Imports over Exports,' was brought to view in No. Ill
paper of 1876 bearing that title. It vnll be seen, however, from
the concluding paragraph of the previous paper, and still more
from the notes on p. 233, that at a still earlier date (1873) the
analysis to which the trade returns had been subjected, led to
doubts as to whether the rapid rise in our imports was altogether
compatible with the prosperity of trade when unaccompanied by a
corresponding expansion in that of our exports ; ana from this
arose the attempt in that paper, not so much to give the explana-
tion of this phenomenon, which after its reading was in Mr. Shaw-
Lefevre's opinion still needed, as to state plainly the circumstances
of our trade, in order that its conditions might be properly inves-
tigated The last paper to be mentioned in this

section is No. X, * On the Silver Question,' in which, besides
dealing with the history of the production and prices of the
precious metals, it was maintained that there had been neither such
an appreciation of gold as to account for the depreciation of silver,
nor such a scarcity of the superior metal as would either consider-
ably enhance its value or impede trade transactions

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710 MisceOanea. [Dec.

There is no room for qnestioning— whatever may be inferred from
it as to the prosperity or adversity of trade or mannfactures — that
the cause of this continaons balance exists in the 'Increasing
Dependence npon Foreign Supplies for Food/ the details of which
are put forward in paper No. IV, compiled early in 1877 ....
In paper No. VI, * On the Growth of Population, Ac.,' 1877, it
was sought to be shown that up to the date when the paper was
written, there had been no increase outstripping the means of sub-
sistence produced at home or procurable from abroad in exchange
for our manufactures. In No. XII the * Social Aspect of Trade
Depression * as the statistics of the several members were affected
by it was set forth, whilst in No. XIII the necessity for extended
colonisation as a consequence of that depression was contended for ;
and in No. XVI, on the * Finance of National Insurance,' the
practicability of the proposed measures for the prevention of
pauperism was investigated from a financial point of view."

Forty -five Years* History of the Tea 'IVade of Great Sriiaiin,
Designed and compiled from Messrs J. C. Sillar and Co.'s Statistics
by R. R. Mabson, F.S.S. (Published by J. C. Sillar and Co.)

Mr. R. R. Mabson's chart of the tea trade supplies a dis^gram
showing for each year since 1835 the average monthly home con-
sumption of tea, the equivalent number of months' supply in bonded
warehouse (export deliveries also included), the course of price of
"sound common congou," and since 1859, the average monthly
consumption of Indian tea. The chart is very well designed, and
will be of considerable use to persons engaged in the trade, as well
as to economists. The most remarkable feature in the present con-
dition of the trade, as shown by the chart, is the smallness of the
stock held in recent as compared with former periods.

Albv/m de StatUtique Qraphique (Ministere des Travaux PubUes;
Direction des Cartes, Plans, et Archives et de la Statistique Graphique).
1880.

This very remarkable volume was published in the summer of
1880. It deals with the railways and other means of communica-
tion in France, and consists of sixteen cartographic diagrams. The
Bureau de Statistique Graphique was in 1878 commissioned to prepare
each year a collection of maps showing in the graphic form, the
statistical documents relative to the movements of passengers and
goods on all classes of means of communication and at the seaports,
and relative to their construction and working.

We gather from the notice at the commencement of the work
that it has been much enlarged and improved. The former volume
only contained twelve plates, of which eight were of small dimen-
sions, while the present work is furnished with sixteen, all of a
large size. " As in the Album of 1879, these plates may be divided
into two great categories ; those in the one set deal with the feu^ts
of a single working year (such as the annual tonnage), and under
the name of planches de fondation will be reproduced every year,
in order to admit of a comparison being made of the facts of the
same order over a period of time ; the others, on the other hand,
express the result of a long series of accumulated facts (such as the
cost of the first construction of railways), and are therefore conve-

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1880.]

Additions to the Library,

711

niently reviewed at longer intervals." Of tbe sixteen plates, twelve
are "band cartograms.*' They may be divided into four groups.
First, three cartograms showing the tonnage carried on the railways,
canals, and national roads ; second, three cartograms relating to the
receipts of the railways, showing the gross receipts at various
stations all over France, gross receipts per kilometre, and net receipts
per kilometre ; third, four cartograms relating to cost of construc-
tion and ** technical conditions " of railways and canals, that is in
the case of railways the minimum radius of curves and the maxi-
mum incline, as well as the number of lines open, in the case of
canals, the number of locks, &c. ; fourth, three plates relating to the
various means of communication open in Paris, railways, tramways,
omnibuses, and steamboats. There are also two other plates showing,
first, the extent of rail, canal, and road, open in each department,
and second, the cost of maintaining the national roads. Finally,
there is a plate showing the growth of the railway system in each
of the principal countries from 1830 to 1878.

XT. — Additions to the Library,
Additiona to the Library during the Quarter ended Zlet December ^ 1880.

Denatiottt.

By whom Pretented.

Argentine Oonfederatlon. Buenos AireB, Moyimiento I

de la Poblacion de la Ciudad de, durante el ano 1879. > Statistical Bureau
52 pp., imp. 8to J

Austria and Hunffary —

Statdstisches Jahrbuch fOr 1877. Heft yii (2^* abth.)'
Landes und Choindentlastungs-Fonde, Dortirte Poli-
tische Fonde fCLr Zwecke des Cultus und Unterrichts
G^meinde Haushalt. Imp. 8to. Wien, 1880

Statistisches Jahrbuch fur Ungam, 1878, 8*' Jahrgang.'
Heft tI. Das Communioationswesen. 103 pp.,
roj. 4to. Budapest

Hivatalos Statistikai KOzlem^njek. Magyarorszdg
Vasutai 1878-Ban. xxvii and 171 pp ,

Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Sparcassen-Zeitung. Cur-
rent numbers. Folio. Wien

Imperial Central Sta-
tistical Commission

Tbe Bojal Statistical
Bureau

The Editor

Belffiuin —

Bulletin bebdomadaire de Statirtiqne D^mographique^

et M^cale. Ann^ xi, Nos. 37-— 60, 1880. Imp.

8to. Bruxelles

Ecolee, Inspection Hjgi^nique et M^cale dans les.

31 pp., imp. 8to. Bruxelles

Hygiene du Premier Age. Conseils aux M^res de

^mille. 7 pp., 12mo. Bruxelles, 1880

De la Police des McBurs. 32 pp., 8to. Bruxelles, 1880
Tariole, Prophylaxie Administratire oontre la Propa-

rn des Maladies Contagieuses, et sp^ialment de
24 pp., plates, imp. 8yo. Bruxelles, 1880

Dr. Janssens

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712

MiseeUomea,
Donation* — ConCd.

[Dec

Donatknii.

Byi

Belffiimi — Contd.
Ville de Bruxellet —

Hygiene Scolaire. 8 pp., 12mo ^..^,,. ]

Bapport fait au Conseil OommunaL 166 pp., Sto. > Dr. Ji
1880 J

OhlxiA —

Imperial Maritime Customi —
1. Statistical Scries —

No. 2. Customs Ossette, April— June, 1880 .'

No. 8. Returns of Trade at the Treaty Ports for
1879. Part 2. Statistics of the Trade at each

Port. 2l8t issue, yii and 291 pp

n. Statistical Series —

No. 2. Medical Reports for the Half -year ended
80th September, 1879. 18th issue, ri and
82 pp., plates, maps, and plans, 4to. Shanghai,
1880

Judicial Torture, with extracts from a Chinese Gfazette, 1 -n. .. t>^ «

1879. 1 sheet, foUo / ^^*^ ^*^» ^

^ B. Hut, Esq., Shac-
ghai

Denmark. Nationaldkonomisk Tidsskrift, Bind 15, 1 The Daniah Politieal
Hefte 10, 11, und 12. 8to. Kjdbenhavn, 1880 J Boonomy Soci^

B»ypt—
Commerce Ext^rieur, Bulletin du.
1880. 4to. Caire

2* Trimestre, ann^'

Le Commerce Ext^rieur de TEgypte pendant Tann^
1879. 98 pp., rov. 4to. Le Caire

Canal de Suez, Bulletin Trimestriel de la Narigation
par le. 1* ann^. Nos. 1 and 3, h Septembre, 1880.
Boy. 4(to. Caire ^

The Dtrectotr43«Bnii
of Sutiatica

Annuaire Statistique de la France,
xxii and 559 pp., imp. 8to. Paris

8* ann^ 1880.

4fl ann^e.

Dr. A. Chenrin
M. A. De ForiOa

Ministry of Pobbe
VTotkB

Dtoographie Internationale, Annales de.

No. 14. Juin, 1880

Minist^re des Finances. Bulletin de Statistique et de'

L^slation compart. Octobre et Norembre, 1880.

8to. Paris

Minist^re des Trayaux Publics. Album de Statistique^

Graphique, Juillet, 1880. 16 maps, imp. 4to.

Paris

Minist^re dee Travanx Publics, Bulletin do, Juin-*

Septembre, 1880. 8to. Paris

Eoonomiste Fran^ais, L*. 8*ann^. Current numbers.

Folio. Paris ^^..

B^Tue Bibliographique Universelle —

Partie Litt^raire, tome xxix, Nos. 4 et 5, 1880

„ Technique, tome xxx, Nos. 9, 10, et 11, 188a

8vo. Paris

Soci^t^ de Statistique de Paris, Journal de la.

Octobre, Noyembre, et D^mbre, 1880. 8to. V The Sooietr

Paris ^

The Mimstry of Agri-
culture Mid Com-

TheBditor

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1880.]

AddiHone to the Library,
Donations— Contd,

713

Donations.

By whom Presented.

':}

Monatshefto znr Statistik des Deutechen Reicbs. Band
xliii, Hefte 8, 9, und 10, 1880. 4to. Berlin

Bbblin. YerOffentlichungen des Statistischen BnreauB
der Stadt; Eheschliessungen, Geburten, Sterbef&lle
und Wittenmg, &o. Current numberB. 4to. Berlin

Fbakkffbt-a/M. Beitrftge zur Statistik der Stadt.
6*«« Heft, 8««' Band, 4to. 1880 ^

Jahresbericht fiber die Yerwaltung des Medicinal- '
wesens, die Krankenanstalten und die Oeffent-
lichen GbsundheitcTerli&ltnisse der Stadt. Jahr-
gang xxiii, 1879. ir and 220 pp. 8to

Hambubg — f

Handel und Scliiffalirt, 1879. 230 pp., 4to -J

Statistik des Hamburgisohen Staats. Heft

160 pp., 4to. 1880

Pbussia.— PreiwmcA* 8t<Ui$tik —

Industriezweige Tom 1. December, 1875. (No. 41)...."^

Die Dampfkessel und Daznpfmaschinen, 1877-78.
(No. 63.) Plates

Ergebnisse der Meterologischen Beobachtungen in
1879. (No. 54)

Die St«rbef&lle nach Todesursachen und Alters-
klassen der Gestorbenen und die Yerungluckongcn
und Selbstmorde w&herend 1878. (No. 55.) 4to.,

Italy—

Affari Penali, Statistica delgi, per 1876. Ixviii and'
273 pp., imp. 8vo. Boma.

Annali di Agrtcoltura, 1880. Num. 27. Atti della
CommissioDe Consultiya per i Prorredimenti da
Prendersi contro la Fillosser. Num. 29. Ordinamento
dell' Istituto Forestale di Vallombrosa. 8to. . Boma.

Annali delV Industria e del Commercio, 1880. Num.2d.
Sul Laroro dei Fanciulli e delle Donne nelle Indus-
trie. Num. 24. n Movimento Artistioo — Industriale
in Ingbilterra, nella Francia e nel Belgio. 8to

Annuario del Ministero delle Finanze del Begno
d'ltalia pel 1880. zxrii and 1137 pp., diagrams and
maps. 8vo. Boma

Antropologia, Oritica e Biforma del Metodo in, fon-
date suUe Leggi Statistiche e Biologiche dei Valori
SeriaU e sull' Esperimento per il Prof. Enrico
MorsellL 178 pp. 8to. Boma, 1880

Atti Parlamentari. XIV Legislatura- Prima, Sessione
1880. Camera dei Deputati N. viii (Documenti) Un-
decima Belazione sulla Amministrazione dell' Asse
Ecclesiastioo per Tanno 1879. 157 pp. 4to. Boma

Bollettino Settimanale dei Prezzi di Alcuni dei prinoi-
pali Prodotti Asrari. Current numbers. Imp. 8to.

Bollettino MensiJe delle Situazioni dei Conti degli
Istituti d'Emissione. N. 7, 8, e 9. Anno zi. Imp.
8vo. 1880

Bollettino Bimestrale delle Situazioni dei ContL
N . 8, Anno xL Imp. 8yo. 1880 ^

1 Impel
j' Ofl3

ffice

Statistical Bureau
of Berlin

FrankfortG^graphi-
oal and Statistica)
Society

The Medical Society,
Frankfort

Bureau of Trade

Statistics
Statistical Bureau of

Customs

^ The Bojal Statistical
Bureau of Prussia

Director • General of
Statistics

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714

Misceillcmea,
Donations — Contd.

[Dec

Donations.

By vhoB PrMeDtsd.

Italy— Con^.

Bollettino Bimestrale del Eisparmio. N. 4, Aimo y^
Imp. 8vo. 1880

Bollettino di Notizie Commerciali. N. 14, 15, 16, 17,
18 e 19, Annoii. Imp. 8to. 1880

Bollettino Consolare. N. 8, 9 e 10, Anno xtL 8vo.
1880

Finanze, Ministero delle. Statistica del Commercio
Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione dal
lo Gennaio al 30 Guigno, 1880. 18 pp., 4to.
Boma

Importazione e di Esportazione, Statistica del Com-
mercdo Speciale dt, dal l^ Gennaio, al 80 Settembre
1880. 18 pp., 4to. Koma

Narigazione nei Porti del Begno, Movimento della.
Parte Prima e Appendice. iSmo xix, 1879. Boyal
4to. Boma

I Partiti Politic! alle Elezioni Generali dell' anno 1880.
Appunti di Statistica Elettorale con Carta Grafica.
61 pp., 8vo. Boma

Pensione, dei Criteri Matematioi per formare TaTole
di CoefRcienti di. 26 pp., plates, imp. 8vo. Boma.
1880

Popolazione. Moyimento dello Stato Civile. Anni
1862-78. Introduzione con Confronti di Statis-
tica Intemazionale. cocxUt pp., roy. 4to. Boma,
1880

Sordomuti in Italia, Gli Istituti e le souole dei. 69 pp.,
roy. 4to. Boma. 1880 .^

Director - Gteneral ol
Statistics

Biyista Enropea. Biyista Intemazionale. Vol.

8 e 4 J vol. xxii, 1—4, imp. 8vo. Firenze. 1880 .
Societa Italiana d'lgiene, Giomale deUa. Current! mv a --^

numbers. 8vo. Milano ^ The Society

™'} The Editor

numbers. 8vo. j^lllano J

Ketherlandi —
Statistiek van den Loop der BevoUung oyer 1878.'

84 pp. 1880

Bijdragen tot de Algemeene Statistiek —

Sterftetafeln over 1840-51, 1850-59, 1860-69. 1878
Bevolking, Qpperolakte. Jaargangl876. Afleveringl.

1880

Physieke en Intelleotuele Toestand der Bevolking.

Jaargang 1877. Afl. II. 1880

Loop der Bevolking Jaargang, 1877. Afl. III. 1880
Opbrengst der Directe Belastingen. Jaargang 1876

Afl. IV. 1880

Toepassing van het Stoomwezen op de Nijverheid.

Jaargang 1877. Afl. V. 1878

Statistiek der Geboorten en der Sterfte naar den Leef-
tijd en de oorzaken van den dood in Nederland,

April, May, and June, 1880

Staatkundig en Staathuishoudktmdig Jaarboekie voor
1850-76 and 1880. 28 vols. Also an Alphabetisch
Bogister op de 25 JaargaDgen 1849-73. 12mo.
Amsterdam

The Netherlands
Legation

The Statastkal So-
ciety of the Neiber-
lanos

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1880.]

AddtMons to the Library.
Donation* — Contd.

715

Donationi.

By whom Presented.

Netherlands — Contd.

Sterfbe- Atlas van Nederland oyer 1860-74. 12 diagrams ^
with tables. Amsterdam, 1879

' The Association of
the Netherlands
for the Adyance-
ment of Medical
Science

Portnffal. Sociedade Geographia de Lisboa, Boletim da. "1 „» a,^^^^
Fundada em 1876. 2a sene, No. 1. 40 pp., 8vo. 1880 / ^'^ ^^^^-^

Spain. Sociedad Gkograflca de Madrid, fioletin de la. 1
Setiembre, 1880. 8vo. Madrid J *»

United States—
Agriculture, Department. Monthly Reports upon the 1

Condition of Crops. 1880 J

Bureau of Education (Circulars of Information) —
No. 2, 1880. Proceedings of the Department or
Superintendence of the National Education Asso-
ciation, at its meeting at Washington. 1880

No. 3, 1880. Legal Rights of Children

The Indian School at Carlisle Barracks

Vacation Colonies for Sickly School Children

Progress of Western Education in China and Siam
Bureau of Statistics —
Imports, Eiports, Immigration, and Navigation,''
Quarterly Report to 30th June, 1880. No. 4.
Summary Statement of the Imports and Exports,

July, August, and September, 1880. 4to

Foreign Commerce, for August, 1880. 1 sheet, 8vo.

Washington

Congressional District Vote for 1878. A map of. 1

Boston, 1880

Surgeon-General of the Marine Hospital Service,'
Annual Report of, for 1880. 218 pp., 8vo. Wash-
ington

Indiana.— Statistics and (Jeology of the State, First
Annual Report of the Department of, 1879. 614 pp.,

doth, 8vo. Indianapolis

Pbovidencb —

Deaths in the City, during October, 1880. 1 sheet ....

Rhode Island. — Births, Marriages, an4 Deaths inl

the City, for 1879. No. 18. 88 pp., 8vo J

The Commissioner of
Agriculture

" The Bureau

Joseph Nimmo, Esq.,
jun.

Messrs. Trdbner and
Co.

The Surgeon-General
The Department

The City Registrar
American Statistical
Association

Bankers' Magazine. Nos. 4, 5, and 6, vol. xv. 1880. "I r^ Editor
8vo. New York J

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Journal of the, \ m, ^ t«-*:*„**
vol. Ixxx, Nos. 4, 5, and 6. 1880. 8to ;[ The Institute

Medical Herald, The, Louisville. Vol. ii, Nos. 17 — ^20. 1 rm^ Editor
1880. 8vo J

Western, The, new series, No. 6, 1880, 8vo. St. Louis.... „

India, Oolonial, and other Possessions —
Oypms —

Combined Sanitary Districts in Craven. Reports for"|

1879. Folio. Settle I Dr F W Barrv

Report by Her Majesty's High Commissioner for, f * * *
1879. iv and 345 pp., imp. 8vo. London J

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71G Miscellanea, [Dea

Donations — Contd.

Donatioot.

By vhom PreteBtod.

India, Oolonial, and other Possessions — Contd.
'alUand Islands. — Laws and Ordinances of the, 1 J. Wright
1863-72. 90 pp., cloth, folio J Esq., J.P.

India, British—

Maritime Trade of British India with other Conntries, 1 The Indian €k>^

Review of the, for 1879-80. 47 pp., folio. Calcutta J ment
Eailwajs, Report to the Secretary of State for India in 1 j rvn-riw* n

CouncQ on, for 1879-80. 74 pp., map, foHo. London / •*' ^^an^ere, Jtsq.
Statistical Abstract reUting to, from 1 869-70 to 1878-79. 1 mi^ j^. offlfie

14th number, 155 pp. 8vo. London J ^"a» vmoe.

Trade and Navigation, Monthly Accounts of. Current \ The Indian Qoren*

numbers. 8vo. Calcutta — J ment

Bbnqal, Asiatic Society of—

Proceedings, Nos. 4, 5, and 6, April, May, Junel

Journal, extra number to Part 1 for 1878. Vol. xlix, V The Societj
Parts 1 and 2, No. 1, 1880. Plates. 8vo. Calcutta J

Jamaica. Births and Deaths registered in, Report of 1
the Registrar-General on the, to 30th September, 1879. ^ Registrar-General
44 pp., folio

t of "I
879. I :

New South Wales-
Statistical Register of, for 1879. vi and 823 pp., folio. "I

Sydney J '»

Statistical Return showing the B^atiye Positions and 1

Aggregate Importance of the Australasian Colonies > E. O. Ward, Esq.

at the close of the year 1879. 1 sheet. Sydney .... J
Vital Statistics, Twenty-fourth Annual Report froml

the Registrar-General on, 1879-80. 2 copies, 59 pp., > Registrar-G^oienl

folio. Sydney J

Another copy of abore {-^C^Sh^aSr

Sydney and Suburbs, Registrar-General's Report on I

the Vital Statistics of. June, July, and August, \ Registrar-QeDeral

1880. FoUo J

New Zealand. Friendly Societies. Third Annual 1

Report, by the Registrar of. Folio j •*

Qneensland —
Vital Statistics, 1879. Twenty-ninth Annual Report"

from the Registrar-General. Also a Report, with

plates, on the Earth-Closet System. Folio. Brisbane
Supplement to the Government Gazette (containing

Vital Statistics). (Current numbers.) 1880. Folio.

Brisbane ^

South Anstralia —
Woods and Forests. Report for 1879-80. 42 pp., 1 ^^ ^;jj^ g^^

plates, folio. Adelaide J '

Annual Report of the South Australian Institute, 1 m. ^ T««x;«_i.^

1879-80. 16 pp., 8vo. Adelaide ] ^^ ^'^^^

Tasmania —

Statistics of the Colony for 1879. xxx and 216 pp., 1 •« n ■»• ii ■»

folio. Hobart Town .^I/ ^' ^' ^owfSi, Kaq.

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1880.] Additions to the Library. 717

Donation» — Contd.

Donations.

By whom Presented.

India, Colonial, and other PoMessions — Contd,
Tasmania — Co ntd.
Mercury, The. Nos. 6,992, 6,028 and 6,047, 1880. "1 rin,^ t^ jjt-,
FoUo. Hobart Town J ^^^'

Victoria —

AuBtralaeian StatisticB for 1879. 16 pp., folio. Mel- *! r^^ Chie£ Secretary

bourne J ^

Statistical Register of the Colony for 1879 —

Part IV, Vital StatisticB, &c ]

„ V, Law, Crime, &c I- „

„ VI, Production. Folio J

Mining Surrejors and Reeistrars, Reports of the, for\ -tc' • i.^, ^jt itn«^
the Quarter ended SoTjune, 1880. FoUo | ^^^^^ ^ ^^^

ITnited Kingdom —

Agricultural Returns of Great Britain, -with Abstract 1

Returns for the (Jnited Kingdom. 1880. yii \ R. Giffen, Esq.

and 167 pp., imp. 8to.
Building Societies of Great Britain and Ireland. 1 Registrar of Friendly

Return for 1879. 74 pp., folio J Societies

Friendly Societies Reports, 1878. Industrial andl

Provident Societies, and Trade Unions. Part 2. It ]

and 805 pp., folio. 1880

Finance at the end of the Eighteenth Century, a series 1 -ra -m- to-^-.^^-..^ t?--

of Tracts on, by various authors. aoth,8vo. London/ ^- ■"• ■"^^*^™®'^*^-
Summary of Statistics of Railways, for 1869, 1876-79. 1 ^ Fairlamb Esq

York J ' * ^*

Tea Trade in Great Britain, Diagram showing for each 1

year since 1836 the average monthly home consimip- V R. R. Mabson, Esq.

tion of Tea. London, 1880 J

Trade and Navigation, Monthly Returns of. (Current 1 «« Board of Trade

numbers.) 8vo J

England and Wales —

Local Government Board, Supplement to the Eighth""

Annual Report of the, for 1878-79 ; containing the

Report of the Medical Officer for 1878. xvi and

848 pp., plates and photographs, imp. 8vo

Municipality of London Bill, 1880, with large map,

giving Divisions, &o., of London. Folio ^

Marriages, Births, and Deaths, Quarterly Return of,*)

in England. Marriages, to June, 1880 ; Births and \ ral for England

Deaths, to September, 1880. No. 127. 8vo J and Wales

Ireland —

Births and Deaths in Dublin and in several large! «« ^ -d^^:-*^, n««^
towns. Weekly Returns of, with a Qiiarterly I ^^^f ?^™^
Summary. (Current numbers.) 8vo J «" lo' ^eiana

► F. Purdy, Esq.
The Registrar-G^ne-

Scotland —
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in the eight principaP
towns, Weekly and Monthly Returns of. (Current

numbers)

Quarterly Return, Births, Deaths, and Marriages, to
September, 1880. 8vo. Edinburgh

^ The Registrar- Gene-
ral for Scotland

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718

MisceUanea.
Donationa — ContcL

[Dec

Donfttions.

By whom Pteaeated.

Scotland — Contd,
Glasgow. — Bemarks by Medical Officer, to accompany 1

Mortality Tables of the City, for the Quarter ending V Dr. J. B. Bnasell
80th June, 1880. 8vo J

Authors, Ac, —
Abdub Bahmait (Syud, F.8.S., P.B.C.I.). An]

Address to the Madrasah Literary Club, in Calcutta. Y The Author

19 pp., 8vo. 1880

Atkinson (Edward). The Bailroads of the United
States ; their effects on Farming and Production in
that Country and in Great Britain. Plans, imp.

8to. Boston, 1880

Bbtan (G. p., F.G.S.). United States, Primer of the"
Industrial Geography of the. 104 pp., 12mo

London, 1880

BoUBNB (S.) . Trade, Population, and Food. A series '
of Papers on Economic Statistics, xxrii and 348 pp.,

cloth, 8vo. London, 1880 _

Bbassey (T., M.P.). On Work and Wages, xvi and""

296 pp., doth, crown 870. 1874

„ British Seamen. 899 pp., cloth,

8vo. 1877

„ Becent Letters and Speeches.

76 pp., 8to. 1879

„ Wages in 1873. 56 pp., 8to

„ The Plimsoll Inquiry. 88 pp.,

8to. 1874

„ The Advance Note: what it is,
and why it Ought to be Abo-
lished. 16 pp., 870. 1875

„ Co-operatiye Production. 76 pp.,

8vo. 1874

„ Lectures on the Labour Question.

886 pp., cloth, 8vo. 1878 _

Chablbs, Fibst Eabl op Litbbpool. a Treatise'
on the Coins of the Bealm, in a Letter to the King.

xii and 295 pp., cloth, 8vo. London, 1880

Del Mab (A., M. E.). Monograph on the History of
Money in China. 84 pp., plates, 8vo. San Fran-
cisco, 1881 _

Billon (A.., J.P.). Suggestions for the Continuous'
Audit of Public Accounts. 11 pp., 8vo. London, 1880 , '
Flbhing (W.). The Index to our Bailway System'

and our Leading Lines, 1879-80

GiTTHBiE (Edwin). The Decimal System applied to'

Coinage, Weights, and Measures. 8to. 1880

Heotob (James, M.D., C.M.G., F.B.8.). Handbook^

of New Zealand. 112 pp., maps

and plates, 8ro. Wellington, 1880

„ Sydney International Exhibition,

1879. 105 pp., maps, and plates,

870. Wellington, 1880

Hill (Sir Bowland, and George Birkbeck). The Life

, of Sir Bowland Hill and the History of Penny

Postage. 2 toIs. xxii and 543 pp., x and 494 pp.,

cloth, plates, 8to. London, 1880 »

J. W. Birch, Bm^,

The AuthcM*

M. Dillon, Esq.

The Author

The Manchester
Statistical Society

The Author

The Family of Sr
BowhindHill

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1880.]

Aiditiont to the Ziibrary,
DoTtations — Contd.

719

Donatioiii.

By whom Presented.

AnthoTS, ftc. — Contd,

HoYLB (W.). Fifty Years of Drinking and its In-
fluence upon the Wealth and Industrial Well-being
of the Nation. 12 pp., 8vo

Hi>BBB-ScHLBiDBN (D. J. U.). Uebersoeische Politik,
eine Culturwissensohaftliche Studie mit Zahlen-
bildem.

The Author

xiy and 257 pp., 8vo. Hamburg

Lovely (W., R.N.). ''Where to go forHelp." Giving
Police Stations, Fire Engine and Fire Escape
Stations, Hospitals, Coroners, &c., in London, with
other useful information. 1880 ^

Say (J. B.). National - Oekonomie, YoUst&idiges '
Handbuch der praktischen. 6 toIs. Cloth, 8to.
Stuttgart. 1829

SiHMBNS (C. William, F.R.S.) . The Smoke Question.
16 pp., plates, 8vo. London, 1880

Wbstgabth (W). The Silyer Question: Indian'
Finance DifficiUties, and the ''Double Standard"
Remedy. 4 pp., 8vo. London

Societies, &c. —

Arts, Journal of the Society of. (Current numbers.)

8vo

Bankers, Journal of the Institute of. Parts 12 and 13,

vol. i, 1880. 8vo

Civil Engineers, Proceedings of the Institution of.

Vol. Ixii, 1879-80. vi and 448 pp., cloth, plates.

8vo

Birmingham Free Libraries. Annual Reports for

1878 and 1879. Borough of Birmingham, iv and

88 pp., 8vo

Howard Association Report, 1880. 20 pp., imp. 8vo. .
Labourers' Friend. The Magazine of the Society for

Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes.

265 pp. 8to. 1880

Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester —

Memoirs. 8rd Series. Vol. vi. vii and 278 pp.,
doth, photograph, and platen, 8vo. 1879

Proceedings. Vols, xvi— xii, 1876-77 to 1879-80,

plates and diagrams, 8vo

Manchester Statistical Society, Transactions, 1879-80 ;'

and Index for Sessions 1875-76 to 1879-80. 186 pp.,

8to. Manchester and London

Mechanical Engineers, Proceedings of the Institution

of, at Barrow, 1880. Plates, 8to

Manchester Public Free Libraries, Annual Report for

1879-80. 27 pp., 870

Royal Agricultural Society of England, Journal of the.

Part 2, vol. xri, 1880. 8vo

Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay Branch, Journal of

the. No. 37, vol. xiv, 1879. Plates, Svo

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,

Journal of the, part 4, vol. xii, 1880. Plates, 8to.
Royal Geographical Society —

The Journal. Vol. xlix, 1879. Cloth, maps

The Proceedings, 10 and 11, toL ii, 1880. Maps,
&c

VOL. XLIII. PART IV.

F. N. Newoome, Esq.

The Author

The Society
The Institute

The Institution

The Librarian
.The Association
The Society

The Institution
The Chief Librarian
The Society

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720

MUiellanea,
DcncUumt— Contd.

[Dec, 1^0.

Donatioot.

By vhom Preaeoted.

8ool«tiM, Ao,—Comid.

Soifal Medical and Ckirvrffical Socieiif —

TranMctions. Vol. Ixiii, 1880, Ixxii and 362 pp.,!

cloth, platM, and diagrams, 8to. Supplement to > The Societj

catalogue of the Librarj, 1879-80. 8yo J

Royal Societ J, Proceedings of the. No. 206. ToL 31, 1

1880. 8to J

Roxal Umted SefTice Institution, Journal of the,i ^^ j^^ j

No. CTU, ToL xxir, 1880. Maps and plates. 8yo J

St. Bartholomew's Hospital, Statistical Tables of thel q^ iirA*1i*/Hil TU^^
Patients under Treatment in, during 1879. xii and } -i°® j«^«"«" '^^S^'

122 pp. 8to J

Surveyo«,T«n«ct^nsof the Institution of. VoLxiii,! The Institution
Parts 1 and 2, 1880. 8to J

Unirersity College, London. The Calendar for Session 1 rp^ PniiA^rA
1880-81. 835 and Ixxxnii pp., plan, 8to. 1880 .... J ^"® ^"ege

Periodicals —

Atheneum, The Current numbers

Bankers' Magazine, The (London) ....

Commercial World, The

Eoonomist, The

Insurance Oaxette, The

„ Record, The

Inyestors' Monthly Manual, The

Iron and Coal Trades' Review, The ....

Machinery Market, The

Natiu^

Review, The

Sanitary Record, The

Statist, The

Textile Manufacturer, The

Universal Engineer, The

The Editor

Purchased.

Annales d'Hygi^ne Publique. 3» s^rie, Nos. 21—24. 1880. 8to. Paris.
British Trade Journal. Noe. 210 and 214. 1880. London.
Economistee, Journal des. September to December, 1880. 8to. Paris.
London Suburban Directory (Kelly's), for 1880.
Official Papers, Precis of, Nos. 4 and 5. 1880.
Post Office London Directory for 1881.

TucKBTT (J. D.). History of the Past and Present State of the
Labouring Population. 8to. London, 1846.

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721

INDEX TO Vol. XLIII,

YEAB 1880.

PAOB

Africa, population. See Population of the Earth.

AOBICFLTURI (British), ten years' statistics of, 1870-79 (see Craigie) 275
AoRiCFLTUBB. Agricultural Returns for 1880 [report by Mr. E.
Giffen] 643

Continnation of the faronnible conduct of the farmer* in affording retumi . 64S
Channt shown in average fizea of ferms lince 1876, and decrease in owners

of live stock ........ 641

The returns (or Ireland include all holdings. howe% er small, those for Great

Britain, ownerh of not less than a Quarter of an acre . . 644

Total cultivated area uf United Kiiigaom, 47! million acres . . . 644-6

The increase since 1879 »hovs a considerable portion of land to be annually

reclaimed from moor or bog . . . . . . ■ 645

Increase in areas under mhcat and oats over 1879, but falling off of other

stock-feeding crops ........ 646

Green crops slightly below average, but an increase of bare fallow . . 646

Grass lands, 14^ million acres (45 per cent, of cultivated area) . . 646

Increase of orchards and market gardens; ditto, woods and plantations,

10 per cent ......... 646-7

Continued decline in import of horses, slight increase of homed cattle, but

large decline in sheep and pies in Enshmd and Wales . . . 647

Changes in crops and five stuck in Irefauid ; decline in com crops, potatoes,

8u:., and in slieep, since 1870 ...... 647

Table of acreage under crups, live stock in grazing and com counties of

England ......... 649

Tendencv to larger farms in Enghuid, but not in Scotland and Wale« . 660-51

Comparative analysis of the returns of crops and lire stock in the British

Colonies and the United States ...... 661-8

Appendix of UbUs of total area and acreage under crops and grass, and

number of live stock in divibions of United Kingdom, kinds of crops and

live stock, agricultural holdings, with summary, 1879-80 . . . 654-63

TakU of population, and imports per head of population . . . 664

AOBiciTLTURB. The Crop9 of 1880 [from the "Times'* of 18th
October, 1880] 664

Notice of the different estimates of the wheat crops of 1^80, and conclusion
that the average is 26 bushels the acre, about tlte average of the last fifteen
years ......... 664-7

Diminution of area grown since 1874 from 3,833 000 to 3,070,000 . . 667

Normal average yield per acre 29^ bushels, but for last ten years only
251 bushels ....... 667

Tables of value per acre of home grown wheat, and home and foreign supply,
1866-80 66S-9

Agbicvltitsb, severity of losses in the 00m districts of England

during the last seven years ....... 569-70

AeBicuLTURE. Agricultural Distress and Bills of Sale [from the
" Statist," 20th November] 700

Act for registration of bills of sale, their increase since 1878 from ao,ooo to
55000 . . . . . . . .700

Severe oppression caused by them, as they are obtained by money lenders as
a means of plundering the grantee more than as a real security of the
advance ......... 700

3b2

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722 INDEX TO VOL. XLIII , TEAE 1880.

, PAOI

Agbicitltttee. AgricuHwal Distress, ^c. — oontd.

Amiant of bills granted by fmall far'nen indicatinf; great agjicoltnral
dlstrcM; their Dumber greater in large town coonties than in pore
agricultural countiea ...... . 7D1

Classes of lenders, banks, 8u:.; necessity for improving the law on bills of sale

under 200/. ........ . 703

TaiUi of the bills of sale on effects of farmers, 1879-60, and of those in faroor
of banks, companies, and persons . . . * . . 70S-4

Ainci (M.). "Commerce ext^rieur de TEgypte, 1879 " (notice) . 647
Abbitbation. See Conseils dee Prud'hommes.

see Strikes.
Asiatic States, population. See Population of the Earth.
Absubavcb. Sates of Life Insurance Premiums [from the " Statist "J 123

Variations in the premiums of different ofSees for different ages . . liS

The comparisons taken of the *' with profit " premiums of the ages between

26 and 41 lU

— analysis of ninety-two companies, with a premium income of i2miIlioiis»

showing an extreme difference of not more than 6| per cent. . . 194-4

Other points as to risks, rate of Interest earned, ana expenses, more vital

than the rate of premium ....... 128

Question as to safety between the cheaper and the dearer companies, what

adrantiiges attach to the latter, the relatlTc portion of expenoe*. kc . 128-9

Tahle4 of companiM, with their premiums between the ages 26 and 4l ; preminin

income, proportion of expenses ...... 190-S4

ArsTBALiA. Statistics of Australasian Colonies [from the Registrar-
Cbneral of New South Wales] 698

Statistical return showing the relaUre position and Aggregate importanee of
the Austratasisn colonies, 1879 .... . . €86«9

population. See Population of the Earth.

Bagehot (W.). " Economic Studies " (notice) . . . . 1A2

Bailbt (A. H.). Remarks at anniyersarj meeting, 1880 . . 417

ditto (Walton on English Rates of Mortality) .... 88

ditto (Williams on Population) ...... 502-3

Balfoub (Surgeon-General T. Graham). Vit<U Statistics of Cavalry

Horses 261

Careful collection of these statistics in France . . . .251

The French army : establishment of the "Commission d'Hygiine Hippfqoe?

in l&U, form of annual report adopted, its publication aince, to 1869, and

new series in 1 873 ........ SH-S

mortality, 1837-66, 58 per 1,000. and total loss by death and casting.

14 per cent. ......... 3SS

table showine decrease in mortality in quinquennial periods, I8S7-66.

resulting from the UI)ours of the commiMion .... S»4
tablet sliowing comparative mortality of horses and mares, 1860-66, at

different ages .... * . . . Si(-6

— — highest mortality at 4 years, probably arising from the mode of prepara-
tion and fatteuint; of young horses for sale .... S66
— table of mortality by different classes of disease, and inflnoice of age on

ditto ... 2S7-«

glanders the cause of the greatest mortality, horses at once slaughtered

when disease is recognised ...... 2S8

— — table* of causes for which horses were cast, and of losses by death and

casting in each arm of the senrice ...... SS9-61

compositioD of the French caTalrjr, and regulations for height and price . 2G0

table of losses by death and casting in each arm of the service, lower

mortality of officers' horses, and high rate of armj engineers and trattsp<nt

horses . . . 7 . . . . . Ml-S
table of admissions into infirmaries by classes'of diseases, of hones and

mules, in four periods 1847-66, and comparison with deaths . . 96S-4

table of the influence of seasons on the prevalence of disesse . . 86»-6

British army: information chiefly in "The General Annual Ketnms of the

liritish Army ;" aggregate strength, 1861-78, and ratio of deaths and

casting, and in different arms of the service .... S66-7

Marked reduction in loss hy glanders in l-Vench army since the destmetion

of infected horses as soon as disease is ascertained . . . .268

Appendix, tables showing strength of ca^alrr horses in French army, dcatha

or cast, 1837-66, ditto arranged by age, and in quinquennial periods . 96^71

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, YEAR 1880. 723

PAOB
Balfoub (Surgeon-Gteneral T. Graham) — contd.
Di$cu9sion on Surgeon- Chneral Balfour* a Paper :
KawBon (Sir R. W.)

Referred to Siirfreon-General Balfoor't former laboora for the improvement
of the condition of oar troops, &c. ..... 871

Walford (Cornelius)

No aatlientic statistics ohtiinable when the insurance of horsei-was started
some few years ago. Importance of the subject in tVance, where horse
flesh was largely eaten ....... S73

Fitewygram (Sir F. W.)

The British army statistics of hone» to be found at the ofBce of the
principal veterinarv surgeon ; the casting of horses lo per cent.; comparative
number of years'^ work of horses of cabmen, the omnibus company,
brewers, lie.; favourable to our cavalry ; glanders much less frequent than
in French army ........ 879

Fleming (G.)

Great reduction in the prevalence of glanders during the last forty years; the
greatest percentage of loss among horses of British army from* disease of
stomach and intestines, in France from those of the lungs and air passages,
due to bad stable ventilation ; average number of incurable, of deaths, and
of numbers destroyed ....... 973

Balfour (Surgeon-General) , reply :

He had not denied the existence of statistics, but that anv had beea
published ; the greater mortality of officers' horses, probably from neg-
ligence of grooms . . • . . . ' . . 974

Balpoub (T. G.). Remarks in discussion. (Mouat on Education of

the Poor) 249

Baits op England —

weekly return of the issue and banking departments for 1879 . 180-81
Banks, London, clearing house, and amounts of promissory notes in
circulation (in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland) :

for the year 1879 179

Banks, leading foreign, circulation and reserves .... 853

Bank-Ratb, table of, and of prices, 1845-79 26

rise of, tables, showing recent quicker action of the banks in

raisins .......... 21-2

Baslby, rephicement of wheat crops by it during last ten years. . 286
Bbckbtt (Sir Edmund) . Semarks against strikes, in answer to Mr.
Howell's speech in favour of them ...... 634

Bbhh and Waener, " Bevolkerung der Erde " (notice of). . . 690
Bbyan (G. Phillips). The Strikes of the Fast Ten Tears . . 35

Strikes now the rule and not the exception, and so grave a disease as to
require a careful diagnosis ....... 35

Want of information with regard to their results .... 86

The strikes sometimes not ^mdfide, but carried on by trade sodetiet as an
investment ......... S7

Number of strikes annnally in last ten years ..... 37

Enumeration of the principal causes of the strikes in those years . . 38

"bibles of strikes in each trade, showing large excet>s in the building trades,
and its causes, the humble position of many employers, and the inequality
of wages at different phiees. ...... 89-4S

Tahles or number of strikes in counties, and at special towns, with character
of the trades ........ 44-6

Toilet of time spent in strikes in eadi year, and at special towns, and in
rarticular trades ........ 46-7

DimcultT of learning numbers and results in strikes (one-seventh only) . 47-8
TahUt of losses known in wages in i lo strikes, in which the facts are reliable,
out of 2,233, 4i million pounds ...... 48-60

Lots also of strike pay, ana of profits of employers, to be considered . . 61

Losses also ^m transference of whole inoustries to other countries, depre-
ciation of plant and machinery, deterioration of house property, loss of rents,
shop bills, poor rates, and illness ...... 61-3

Ekjperience in tVance and Belgium of the arbitration by the"Conseilsde8

Prud'hommes." and UAUs showing satisfactory results of their operations . 6S-3
Recommendation of the establishment of similar legalised institutions in this
country, and proposed constitution for them .... 58-4

Discussion on Mr, G. P. Sevan's Paper :
Eawson (Sir R. W.)

Importance of the suggestion for *' Conseils des Prud'hommes " . .56

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724 INDEX TO YOL. XLill, TEAR 1880.

PAGB

Bbyav (G. Phillips). Dueussiom on his Paper — contd.
Sunning (T. Wood)

Deprecation of the use of slighting expressions on either side ; each tide aUke
moved hj self interest; strikes not likely to cease, but may be mncfa
diniinished ; important ameliorations at Newcastle in relations of capital
and labour (the joint committee and the sliding scale) ... BS-4

Hill (Alsager)

Excellent arerage condition of the indostrial classes in England ; the question
one of economic policy, and vant of economic knowledge in the industrial
clauses; poor payment of secretaries of trade councils . . . (9-9

Howell (Mr.)

Doubts as to shipbuilding being driTcn fh>m the Tliamea by strikes;
intemperance of languatre common to both sides, and strikes sometimes
excited by mostfrs; strikes often the only means of tlie men towards
adjusting differences; the battle oft«n fought by a small percentage of a
tnde for the entire body ....... S9-90

Newmaroh (William)

Erils arising from the Act of Parliament allowing trade societies to mix in
one fund contributions for life assurance and sickness and those for strike
and trade purposes; fundamental defect of trades unions, the placing
checks in the way of superior skill ..... 61

Walford (Cornelius)

Great injuries to our international interests, and loss of our supremacy in
foreign trade, caused by strikes ...... 63

Vanderbjl (Philip)

Definition of a strike ; their prevention probable by employers being alloved
to clawify their men and pay according to merit .... 69

Becl[ett (Sir Edmund)

Mr. Howell's ressoning about strikes often mere begging of the question ; his
fallacy as to an analogy between strikes and an insurance company againvt
fire; necessity for ^tting as much work out of the earth as the world
could do without injury to its health ; trade outrages caused by unionism ;
objection to Mr. Howell's statement that shipbuiliung was not driven from
the Thames by strikes ....... 6S-4

Poohin (H. D.)

Arbitrntion unsatisfactory, snd differences as to waget must be settled by
supply and demand, without oombination of workmen or masters . . 64

Bbvak (Q-. Phillips). Semark* on the increase of crime among

Welshmen since extension of railways, from bad associates . . 461

industrial geography primers (notice) ..... 389
Bills of Sale. See Agricultural distress.

BiMBTALLiBir, reoogni«ed bj the Bank Acts 22>3

Black Death, in 1348, notice of 607

<aA/«t of the mortality of 635

Blanqui (J. H.). " Political Economy in Europe," 1880 (notice) . 546

Books. Englith Literature in ^S79 114

Extracts from the "Publishers' Circular,*' with analytical tmkU of books
published in 1879, and comparison with 1878 .... lli-16

Books. German Literature of 1878-79 116

Systematic view of the literary productions of the German bookselling trade
in 1878.79 116-17

Books. Notes on Economical and Statistical Works . . 139

yorille (Alfred de). *' Transformation des Moyens de Transport" . . 139

Del Mar (A.). " History of the Precious Metals " . . . . liS

Bagehot(W.)- " Economic Studies " . . v . . . 14S

Notes on Economical and Statistical Works .... 382

Palgrave (R. H. I). *' Bank-Rate in England. France, and Oemany, 1844-78** S8t
Spon (R. and ?.)■ " The Iron. Steel, and Allied Trades in 18f7« " . . '64

Peschel (0.). ** Europaische Staatenkunde " . . . . .887

Notes on Economical and Statistical Works .... 531

Report of the Indian Famine Commission. Part 1, Famine Relief . SSI

Twenty -fourth report of H. M.'s Commissioners on the Customs, 1880 . MS

Kolb (G. F.). " The Condition of Nations, Social and Political, 1880*' . MS

Blanqui (J^me A.). ** History of PoUtical Economy in Europe, 1880" . §46

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, YEAR 1880.

725

FAGS

Books. Notes on Economical and Statistical Works . . . 705

Cona (L). " Guide to Political Economy " . . • . .705

Uubbe^hleiden. " UbeneeiBohe PoUtik " 707

BouOHiBS (Oapt.)< Semarks in discusaion (Mouat on Education of

the Poor) 248

BoiTBNB (Stephen). Eemarks in discosBion (Patterson on the Value

of Money) 29-30

ditto (Welton on Enslish Bates of Mortality) .... 92
retnarks on the benefits of emigration in meeting our increase of

population. 506-7

on " Trade, Population, and Food," 1880 (notice) . . .709
Bbabsbt (Thomas). Bemarks in discussion (Patterson on the Value

of Money) 88-4

remarks at anniTersary meeting, 1880 418.

reference to papers by him on British agriculture . . . 559
Bullion and Spbcib, gold and silyer imported and exported, Jan-
uary—December, 1877-79 175

see Chldy Silver.

BuKKiNa (T. Wood). Bemarks in discussion (Beran on Strikes) • 55-8

Caibd (James, O.B.). Inaugural Address as President of the StatiS'
tical Society, Tuesday ^ \%th November, 1880 ....

Beference to prerioos papers on British Affricnltore by Mr. Brassey and

Mr. Shav-Lefevre, and the reports on the United States and Canada
Statement of the probable coarse of prices ; reduction in cost of transport by

rail and river, and in price from the enormous area of rich, light, and as

yet nntilled soil in Canada and the United States ....
Momentous import of this to the heavily taxed food producers of Europe and

this country ... .....

Tahie of relative quantities and value of food imported in 1870 and 1879 (corn

doubled, and porlc increased ninefold) .....
Production of vegetables, poultry, fruit, See., in the Eastern States in place

of com. owing to reduction of cost of transport from the west
Omr English counties soon to be in the same position, as to the low range of

price* of com from America, and necessity for their also taming their

attention to green crops and articles of food the produce of them .
Necessity for treeing the land ^m heavy settlements, costs of transfer,

and uncertainty of title; measures of Sir R. Peel and Lord Cairns for that

object .........

Simplicity of title would lead to fadtity of transfer, which would rapidly

stimulate improvement .......

Favourable condition of Irish tenants now to their state in the potato famine

of 184«-60

Severity of the losses in the corn districts of England during the last seven

years, desertion of farms and entire l04S of capital ....
Hopeful character of the future in the spread of the Anglo-Saxon race, with

its habits of order, instiiicu of self govemment and love of liberty .
Notice of Mr. Qiffeu's agricultural retums .....

Oalcbaft (Mr.). See Railways (Board of Trade report).
Cattle, increase of, tables of, 1870-79 . . ...

see Agriculture.
Cbvsubbs. See PopulcUion of the Earth.

Census of 1881. Report of a Committee of the Statistical
Society with Reference to the Census of 1881

SiugMtions as to the nature and form of inqniries to be made ; the report to
be general of the whole kingdom ; special reports of government depart-
ments, industrial census postponed, census every five years; notice of
religions profession ; number of rooms in houses, sic. . . .

559

68(M13
663
563-4
664

665

566-8
668-70
569
569-70

571

291-4
134

CsNBUSBS of the United States, historical retrospect of the first nine .

their cost .........

tenth, of the United States, note on (see Mouat)

appsndix of forms for taking

Chadwick (Edwin). Remarks in discussion, in favour of the larger
schools (Mouat on the Education of the Poor) ....

1S6-7

573-5
581
673
588-^2

244-5

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726 INDEX TO YOL. XLIII, TEAR 1880.

PAOB

ChjlDWICK (Edwin) — contd^

treatment of pauper children on a larger scale, table illustratlTe
of school organisation for reducing expenses, with increased
efficiency ....... . . 245-6

remarks in discussion (Craigie and Lawes and Gilbert, Agricul-
tural Statistics) SS8-6

Chttbb (H.). Memarks at anniyersary meeting, 1880 . . . 422
CoJLL, estimated consumption of, in United Kingdom, for 310 years . 491-2
CoHSH (L. L.). Memaris in discussion (Patterson on the Value of
Money) 27-8

r28

CoiNAGS of gold and silver at the mint, total amount, 1848-66. . < (^^^^\

ComcsBOB. Financial and Commercial Hietory of 1879 [from the
"Statist," by B.Giffen] 96

Genend doom of the early part of the year, followed in the antunui by the

demand for iron manufactnreii, and reaction in trade • . . 9^-6

Act for enabling nnlimited banks to become Limited .... 98
Indian trade reviTal, and recovery in price of tilrer, improrement in Egyptian

alBdra, and drain of gold to the United Statea .... 97
Danger of an Eaitem. followed bjy an European war .... 97
The trade revival, rise in price of mm and watt metals, English railw^rs. and
varioos trades ...... 9B-100

question of its progress in spite of a bad harvest, and analysis of the

causes of a revival ........ 100-108

Uble» showing neat check to production in the iron and wool trades,

8cc., in spite of ro\iral ....... 10S-*

The harvest failure and other events; the worst season on reeord, reduction
in yield 30 to 50 per cent., but the aerieultural industry only a tenth of
the whole industry of the country, and the net reduction about 50 milli(»
pounds ......... lOfr-6

The rise in silver, from 49^. to ^ji., and its causes . . .108
The drain of gold to America, since the resumption of specie payments . 108-7
Scientific improvements, the prospects of 1880 cheerful and on a soUd founda-
tion 108-9

ComcsBOB. General BeeuUs of the Commercial and Financial
HiHory of 1879 [from the " Economist"] 341

Six years of depression, from September, 187$, to September. 1879, soceeeded

by activity of trade and rise in prices since October, 1879 . . . S41

Enormously increased budj^ets and militanr expenditure and national debts
of the European States, compared with 1866 ; total expenditure from 398

to 585 million pounds ....... S4S

Oaxette average price of whent, 1873-79 (the 1879 harvest the worst for thirty

yean), in England and Europe ...... S4S

Competitive supply of American and Australian meats, their sale as home-fed

meat. Sic. ......... S44-fi

Iron and steel production, exports. See .... . S48-8

Cotton industry, prices, exports, &c. ..... S49-S1

Wool, prices ana imports ....... 8(l-f

Silver, imports and export* to the East, Ice., 1887-79 . . . SS3

Banks, leading foreign, circulation and reserves .... 858

Wholesale prices in London, Uhle$ of. at four dates. 1887-79 . . 364

C0KBEIL8 DEB Pbud'hohmbs, results of the arbitration of, in strikes,
in France and Belgium ..... ... 52-3

OoBK. Guzette average weekly prices (with monthly and quarterly

ayerages), 1879 176-7

see Prices of
Cose A (L.). " Chiide to Political Economy " (notice) . . .706

Cotton industry, price and exports 340-^1

Craioib (Captain Patrick George). Ten Tears* Statistics <^ British
Agriculture, 1870-79 276

Value of the annual agricultural statistics ; the original ol^eetions to filling
up the forms largely overcome,from the inquiry not being found to bo
inquisitorial ........ 976

the extent of the area dealt with in the Ust ten years only sUghtly

varving between 77 and 78 million acres ..... S78

Classification of areas ; reasons for not followine strictly the *' com ** and
** grass " or " pastoral " divisions in favour of a geographical triplicate
division ......... 978-8

Distribution of the surface of the country : as first and second com distriets,
arable and grain districts ; England as a whole, &€., in 1870 and 1879 • 979-60

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIIT, TEAR 1880.

727

PA6I

Obaigib (Capfc. p. 0-.). StcUittics of British Affrieulture^conid,

Ten years* chanj^ in cnltivated, arable, and pasture land : takUs of increaae

and decrease m each division, 1870-79, and percentage of cultivated area .
Changes in particnlar crops t a million acres less of corn than at the

beginning of the deoide ....... 883-i

•— wheat : large reduction of acres, especially in Scotland and Ireland,

where it is 40 per cent. ....... 885-<t

barley : the crop eqoal to that of wheat, much of the latter having been

replaced by it ....... . 286

oats : chief part grown in Scotland and IreUmd : 72 to 76 per cent, of

corn land, while only 7^ per cent, in England; great decrease in each

division ...... . . S87

Changes in the number of live stock : 200,000 more^ horses, 727.000 more

cattle, and reduction of 548,000 in sheep, than in 1870 . . 888

— — horses, the increase in them chiefly among young horses and breeding

mares (owing to remunerative prices) in the com districts,and in agriculture

work, but utterly in the grass districts (with tables at three periods) . 989-tN)
— — cattle, number 10 milhons, taiUs of relative numbers per 100 acres, and

at three periods. 1870-79, showing increase or decrease . . S91-4

-— movement of cattle to com districts for feeding purposes in winter,

depriving local statistics of their value ..... 893
^— if foreign diseases be kept out of the country, meat production may

increase, without much conversion of arable into Pasture land . . 893

Sheep : taAle of number at three periods, 1870-79, and their increase or

decrease ......... 894^

Size of farms : great discrepancies between the census and the agricultural

returns : average nze of farms in the former 152 acres, in the latter 57 acres ;

exhaustive character and correctness of the latter .... 396-9
Number and average of holdings : labUs, with statement of how and when

returns were obtained, the relative acreage of the several classes of

holdings, whether corn or grass, fcc . . . . . 899-SOA

Changes in rent : ita amount arrived at nearest in the assessment to Sdie-

dule R of the income tax ; Utile of changM in 1869-78 . . . 804-6

Summarv : variation in wheat crop per acre in com and grass districts zi\ to

33 bushels, barley 31 to 39, &c. ; size of agricultural holdings . . 806-7

Appendix : tables of entire cultivated area in oountiei, changes in acreage of

com crops, and rent of land, 1870^79 ..... 808-13

for Discustion on Captain Craigie*9 Taper ^ see under Lawes and
Gilbert. {piBc^ission^
Cbaigib (Captain). B,efply in diflouBsion on his paper • • . 889
Cbimbs committed, apprehensions and proceedings .... 425-9
classification of, in tables, according to Mr. Justice Stephen's

proposed code 429-82

causes of 483

locality of (with graphic tables in illustration) .... 484-7

in relation to ignorance, sex, &c 435-7

punishment of . . 438-44

tcUfles of committals, and summary procedures, percentage of

ignorance, pauperism, &c 447-56

CsnciiTAL Offences. Surrey of indictable and summary jurisdiction

offences in England and Wales, from 1857 to 1878 (see Lem), . 423
Chops. See under Agriculture.
CvsTOics Report, 1880 (notice) 543

Dbath Eatb. Regularity of the yariation of, at different periods of

life 85

see Mortality.

tctbles of, among males, 1851-75, from specified diseases . . 82
Deaths. See Mortality y Registration.
Death, Ptinishmbnt of, acquittals large in cases of murder; public

opinion on, &c. ....... . . 440-42

Del Mab. " History of the Precious Metals " (notice) . . . 142
DozSBY (Bey. I.). BemarJcs in discussion (Welton on English Bates

of Mortality) 88-9

remarks in discussion (Mouat on Education of the oor) . . 249
Duir (Finlay). Remarks on the profitable substitution of barley, grass,
and garden crops for wheat 336-7

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728 INDRX TO VOL. XLIII, TBAB 1880.

Pies

Educition and Traming of the Children of the Poor (see MoutU) . 18S

standards of elementarj, lists of subjects, Ac. . . . 228-dO

cost of, in the poor law metropolitan schools .... 209-212
see Schools.

EoBDB (Hans). Settlement in Greenland in 1721, &o. . . . 514

Egypt, Statistical Tableau of, 1879 (notice) 892

EiciOBlTiox. Emigration and Immigration in the Year 1879 [Mr.

Giffen's report to the Board of Trade] 117

Increftie of emigration, and decline of immigration compared vith 1876-7S . 117-18

A falling off in emigration a sign of depression of trade . . . 119

Tendency to a decline from period to period, as illustrated since 1870>7S ;

increase in 1879, principally to (Jnitea States and British North Ajserica . 190-31

Comparatire number of cabin and steerage passengers in 1876-79 . . 131

Statement of persons of English, Dutch, anid Irish birth, in total emigratioa

in Tears 1S53-79 ........ IM

Totals of Irish emigration, 1861-79, showing decrease . . .121

Increase in certain dassca of British and Irish emigrants in last year . Ii9

ExoHAKGES (Foreign), quotations for 1879 182

BxPOBTS, United Kingdom, 1876-79 ITS

see Imports.

see Prices of.

Famikb (Ikdian) commission report (notice) .... 531

Fabms, average size of, great discrepancies between the census and

agricultural returns (with tables) ...... 29^^-804

Fabob Islands, dimate, production, and exports, population and

mortality (see Westergaard) ....... 609-13

FiVAKOiAL HiSTOBT. See Commerce,

FiBBB. The Fires of London during the Year 1879, and the Metro-
politan Fire Brigade [from Captain Shaw's Annual Report for
1879] 109

Number of ftrea, proportions of slight to serious losses, lives lost, kc,
strength of the brinde, list of fires according to occupations, 1876-79,
DumlN»« classed under causes, and in reference to days of the week . 10^14

FrrzwTOBAM (Sir F. W.). Remarks in disctission (Balfour, Vital
Statistics of Cayalry Horses) 272

FLBMiNa (G.). Remarks in discussion (Balfour, Vital Statistics of
Cayalry Horses) 278

Flbtohbb (Joe.) — Notice of his papers on education in the Societ/s

Journal ........... 184-5

Fossick. See Iron Trade Chart.

FoviLLB (A de). " Moyens de Transport ** (notice) . . . 189

Gabaolio (A.). "Storiadella Statistical (notice). . . 144-7

GiFFEN (Robert). Remarks in discussion (JPatterson on the Value of

Money) 30-82

ditto (Levi on Criminal Offences) ...... 458

see Agriculture (Returns, 1880).

notice of his Agricultural Returns ...... 571

see Commerce (financial and commercial history, 1879).

see Emigration (report to Board of Trade).

see Railways (Board of Trade report).
GiLBBBT (J. H.). See Lowes and Gilbert on Wheat Produce and
Consumption.

reply in discussion on his and B. Lawes's paper on wheat . . 340
Gold dbain to America since the resumption of specie payment there lOS-7
Gbbbkland, rate of mortality in, com^tred with that of Denmark,

&c. (see Westergaard) 514-20

Hans Egede's settlement there in 1721, &o 514

supply of food and mode of life in 520

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, TIAB 1880. 729

PA0B
Guy (William A.). Semarkt on sanitarj improTements at Christ's

Hospital, and on the benefits of consolidating workhouses . . 249-50
remarks at anniyersarj meeting, 1880, relative to house accom-
modation for the Society 420

Hall (E. Hepple). Remarks in discussion (Mouat on United States

Census) 608-4

Hamilton (Bowland). Remarks in discussion (Welton on English

Bates of Mortality) 94

ditto (Levi on Criminal Offences) 460-61

Haevest Failube of 1879 105-6

see under Agriculture,
Hbitdbiks (Fred.). Remarks on Captain Qraunt's work on population

in 1662 505

Hill (Alsager). jBMiiarJKv in discussion (Beran on Strikes) 58-9

Ho ABB (Henry). Remarks in discussion (Patterson on the Value of

Money) 28

Holgatb (Wyndham). Rwtarks in discussion (Mouat on Education

of the Poor) 248

HoBSBS, recent increase of , Ac 288-90

(cayalry) on the yital statistics of (see Balfour) . . 251

vital statistics of, of the French army . . 251-66

ditto of the British army 266-7

HowABD (John), on the labours of, on the subject of the oriental

plague (see Potter) 605, 618

Ho WELL (Mr.), i^tffitarlrt in favour of strikes .... 59-^

HtyBBE-SoHLBiDBK, " Ubcrseeische Politik " 707

Humph BBT8 (N. A.). Remarks in discussion (Welton on English

Bates of Mortality) 90-91

remarks on the rate of increase of population, and the estimates

of Dr. Farr 508

HvBST (G^rge). Remarks in discussion (Mouat on Education of

the Poor) 247

ditto (Williams on Population) 506

IMPOBTS, United Kingdom, 1876-79 172

see 7V<m£0, Exports.

Insubamob. See Assurance (Life).

Ibblaitd, fikvourable condition of tenants in now, to their state in the
potato famine of 1846-50 569

Ibon Tbadb Chart, Fossick's, sunmiary of the history of the iron
trade for the past fifty years, as shown by it [compiled by
B. B. Mabson] 880

Ibok and Stbbl, production, exports, &c 846

JoTTBDAX (6. A.), on "Improvements in Education in the Eighteenth

and Nineteenth Centuries" (notice) 888

JUBISDIOTION (indictable and summary). See Criminal Offences,

KoLB (O. F.). ''Condition of Nations, 1880" (notice) ... 545

Land, necessity for freeing it fiiom settlements, heavy costs of

transfer, &c., to compete with prices from America . . • 566-70
arable and pasture. See Agriculture,

La WES (J. B.). Remarks in discussion (Craigie, and Lawes and
GKlbert, Agricultural Statistics) 382

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730 INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, TEAR 1880.

FAOB

Lawbs (J. B.) and J. H. Oilbbbt. On the Home Produce^ ImporU,
Comumption, and Price of Wheats over Twenty-eight Harvest
Ftfor*, 1852-80 813

Refereoce to a liniiUir paper by the anihon in the ** AfrkuHnral Society**

Journal "in 1868 .818

Elements of the question, and statement of retnms, whence estimated. Sec . 8IS-18

area ander wheat ....... SIS

average yield ot wheat and aggregate home prodnee . . 814

- imports, population, and average cimitumptiou of wheat . . . SIS

«icctei ' ' ' ■

Aiwonnt of selected plots, without, with farmyard, and with artiAdal i

at Rothampsted, on which the United Kingdom arerafres are founded . S16--lf
— - this average too high in abundant seasons, and too low in oufaTourable

ones ......... 817

.— eradnal exhaustion of the nnmanored plot, equal to one quarter of a

busnel per annum ........ 818

the increasiug produce on the farmhouse manure plot at the lowest i^

bushels per annum ........ 818-4f

— — in artiltdally nuinured plots, no chance except due to season, prodnctiTe

years showing excess orer standard, ana bad seasons a deficiencT . . S19

Takle showing deviation in four periods from aversge of twentyHeicht years . SJO
Table, with analysis, showing comparative estimates for four periods, and total

period of home produce and of average produce per acre . 8S1-8

TahUt^ with analysis, of average produce per acre, and of total retraired fbr

consumption, with imports, uowing home produce required, flee, 18SS-80 . 8S4-S
Increiised consumption per head in United lungdon since free traide in oorn,

ttom 5*1 bushels to 5*0 . . . SS7-8

Summary of conclusions of produce, consumption, price. Sec, as shown in the

tables . . . ... . .829

General table of home produce, imports, consumption, and price of wheats

for twenty-eight years, 18«:2-80 880-41

DiMcnstion on Captain Craigi^s and Messrs. Ltnoes and OUberfs
Papers :
Lawee (J. B.)

Objection to Captain Craigie*s not including Lincolnshire in the first class
corn counties; decline of the area under wheat in particular counties;
increase in the screage of barley especially in Suffolk . . 383

Power (E.)

Considered the consumption of wheat was nearer 6 than Ki bushels per
head ; consumption not increased bv low priced bread, as when the price is
high less meat can be bought, and tne population live more on bread • 888-8

Ohadwick (Bdwin)

Objections to the census details being summarised in a central oflHce, at
causing error and delay ; if siunmarised locallv by the officers of health
and school teachers, the census which now takes three years might be
completed in three months ; many points of great value to localities as to
difierence of Inbour, wa^es. population of iitreets, &c., now omitted j defec-
tive base on which sgncultural statistics are founded ; the experience of
sewage farms that the produce is as 5 to 1 of the common manure farm ;
an annual census possible, with returns of the differences from year to
year ; the object already achieved in Russia .... 8S8-4

Walford (ComeUus)

Large amount of information on statistics of food in the Society*s Journal;
the fear of tenants to give information to their landlords giving way, and
future estimates likely to be more correct ..... 886

Dun (Finlay)

D^culty of producing MX crops of wheat where there was a heavy rainfisU,
like parts of Wales snd Scotland; substitution of barley and grass for
wheat in the midland counties ; necessity for arable (for oata, clover, and
rooU) as well as grass land where cattie and sheep are kept ; benefita to
the western parts of England of superseding wheat oy garden crops . 8S8-7

Read (Clare Sewell)

With the great incresse of reaping and other machine, the amount paid
for agricultural labour 30 per cent, more than fifty vears back ; difHculty in
understanding where the stated increase in arable acreage came fimn,
except by supposing earlier returns incorrect ; only tiie bMt qualities of
barley used oy the brewers: interest attached to Mr. Lawea's annual
statement, from ita giving the increase of yield iu»tead of acreage f dis-
heartening statement in the last paper as to the decrease of 13 millioB
Starters of wheat grown in England, and increase of 20 millions imported ;
e produce of land not incrca^ rateably. with cost of production, owing
to use of artificial manures and feeding stuffs .... 387-8

Craigie (Captain) reply :

Reasons for not including Lincolnshire in higher omrn counties ; question cl
reducing the limita of the county area, as too large for agricultural analysis . 838

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INDEX TO VOL. XLTII, TEAR 1880. 731

PAOB
CsAldlB, likWBBy and Gilbert. Discussion on their Papers — contd,
Gilbert (Dr.), reply :

Question of wheat coneninption in answer to Mr. Power, as more than
6 Irashels for England and Wales, but less for the United Kin^oro ; his
opinian that the produce per acre is 30 bushels per annum, too high ; repl^
to Mr. Chadwick's remarks on their estirostes from a smgle farm ; their
estimates of consumption calculated on dietaries as recommended by
Mr.Chadwick • . J40

Lawson (Robert). Remarks in discussion (Welton on English Bates
of Mortality) . 93

LB7BTBE (George Shaw), reference to paper by him on British Agri-
culture ........... 659

Lbvi (Leone). Survey of Indictable and Summary Jurisdiction
Offences in England and Wales from 1867 to 1876, in Quin-
quennial Periods, and in 1877 and 1878 423

Reference to previous papers on the statistics of crime, in the Journal, Ac. . 48S

The Police Act of 1857, the commencing point of our Judicial statistics . 4S3-4

yarourable character of the succeedfn? ;f ears, as regu^s the economic con-
dition of the people, in spite of oscillations of depression and excitement . 424

Police force, increased proportion of to the population, 18S7-78, 7 per cent. . 426

Crimes committed, diromution from 2*72 to 2 14 per 1,000; excess of crime
sgainst the person in summer, and against property m winter . . 4S5-6

Apprehensions for crime : diminution, hut coniparatire increase of crimes
re|)orted to persons apprehended ; want of a public prosecutor . . 4J26-7

Criminal proceedings: number discharged (38 per cent.) and committed
(62 per cent.) ........ 438

Proportion of apprehensions to population : proportion of summary Jurisdic-
tions 19—26 per 1,000; of total offences in England 27, Scotland 41,
Ireland 51, and France 19 per 1,000 ..... 428-9

Clnssiflcation of crime : in tabUs, according to Mr. Justice Stephen's proposed
criminal code, and proportion per i.ooo ..... 429-38

Causes of crime : given now in cases where the highest penalty is awarded ;
causes given in French statistics; drunkenness an aggravating not a
primary cause ........ 4S8

Locality of crime : crimes and offences, 1857-78 in different groups of counties 434

set of five grafkic tablet in illustration ; crimes, offences, ignorance,

savings bunks, and pauperism ...... 434-7

Crime and density of population [ereatest in densestj, and in occupations:
least in mineral, roost in industnal and manufacturing; offences least in
agricultural, most in mineral . . . . . 434-6

Crime in relation to ignorance, savings, and pauperism [ignorance hand-in-
hand with crime, but the other reUtions not clear] .... 435-6

in relation to sex [Scotch women more lawless than English or Irish] . 4S6-7

Character of criminals : large proj>ortion from the known criminal classes . 437

Proportion of acquittsls to committed for crime [larger in indictable than in
summary Jurisdiction offences] ...... 438

Punishment of crime : proportion of fines and imprisonment in summary
Jurisdiction ; terms of imprisonment, and proportion of acquittals . 43^-40

Punishment of death : acquittals large in cases of murder (only 36 per cent.
convicte<t, hi Sootlsnd in 1878, 75 per cent., and in Ireland 25 per cent.) . 440

—— statement of the progress of public opinion on capital punishmeift, the
difficulty in obtaining conviction in consequence of it, and its little use as
inspiring a dread of death ....... 441-3

Commitment to prison and recommittals [contamination of prisons?] . 448-4

Age, education, and nationality of prisoners [large proportion between 21 and
30 ; decrease in the uneducateo, and relative proportion greatest among
those not born in EngUtnd] ...... 444-6

Conclusions: improvement in character of crime; desirable changes in
English character ........ 446

Tables^ quinquennial average number of committals and summary procedure. 447-51

percentages of ignorance, saving habits, pauperism, sex, ages, birth-

plsce, degree of instruction, class of occupation, and committals to reforma-
tory schools . . 468-6

Discussion on Professor Leone LevCs Paper :
Eawson (Sir B. W.)

Reference to a paper of his own on the same subject for 1834-88, and state-
ments of the difference of his results vrith those of Professor Levi, as to
juvenile criminals, fcc. ...... . 466-6

Giffen (Eobert)

Professor Levi's statistics based on sources which were beyond doubt, and
the gradual diminution of serious crime during the last forty years a great
fact; objection to the author's supposition that more persons were annually
drawn to a criminal life ...... . 468

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732 INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, TEAR 1880.

PAOS

Lbvi (Leone). Diteusnom on hi$ Paper — oonid.
Walford (Cornelioi)

UfefUnen of the rathor's diarti m exhibiting the effect of the edvcatkoal
code, and the effect of education on the nature of crime • . 459

TaUack (William)

Beneflta of healthy darellings and common aenie reHfri"n In redndng crime
in Cornwall, Cumberland, and Weitmoreland, in apite of deficient educa-
tion ; cnriont incident of four deaths in a villace including one execution,
being magnified into 25 per cent, of the pet^ oeing executed • *M

Hamilton (Rowland)

Importance of the aubjeet of recommittala, and neeeavitj for iuperrision orer
ticket-oMeaTe criminals otherwiae entering senrioe under foue pretences*
and at the mercy of old asaodates ...... 460-61

Beran (a. Phillips)

[ncrease of crime among Welshmen sinee the extension of railwayst from
immigration of bad associates ...... 461

LeTi (Leone) reply ........ 461

Library of the Societj. Notei on tome of the AddUions to the
LibratyinieSO: 143

** Annuaire Statistique de la Norr6gf ;*' "Censo de Espaiia, 1877;** OahagUo
(A.). *'8toriadeUa8Uti«tica'* 14S-7

Jonrdan (B. A.) on " Iniprovements in the Education of Childrea in
the Eighteenth and Nineteeiitli Ccntnries, 1880;** Beran's " Industrial
Geography Primers. 1S8<';** '* Pr^is of Official Papers, 1880 ;** "Neison's
Bnte of Accidents in Mines and lUilwavs, 1880;'* Neumann-Spallart,
•* Production. Verkehr und Handel in der Welta irthscliait. 1880 ^ Van
den Berg, on "Production and Consuuptiou of Coffee, 1880;** Mulhall's
••ProgrcM of the World in ArU, kc, 1880;'* Baden-Powell on "Pro-
tection and Bad Times. 1879 ;** ** Efnrptian SUtisUcal Tableau for 1879 ** . a8S-«S

"Commerce Ext^ieur de rKvypte, 18/9," by M. Amici . . • 647

Bourne (Stephen). " Trade, Population, and Food, 1880 : ** MalMon (R. R.)
" Forty.five Years* History of the Tea Tmde ** (Sillar*8 Statistics); ** Album
deSUtUtiqueGraphiqa^lSSO** 70»-ll

ri47-58

J a

i 399.404

Library of the Society, additions to, in 1880 . . >< 548-58

1711-20
LiTBRATURB (English). See Books.
Lite Stock, great increase in horses and cattle, but reduction in

sheep, since 1870 288

see under Agriculture.
LoKDOX. See Population.
see Firee of.
see Plctgue of.
JjXrsQt D1SBA8S, increase of, in the manufacturing districts . . 79-81

MABSOif (B. R.). See Iron Trade Chart.

*' Forty-flye Years' History of the Tea Trade " (notice) . . 710
Mariub Casualties. See Shipwrecks.
Marriages. See Registration.

Martin (J. B.). Remarks in discussion (Williams on Population) . 607
Meat. CompetitiTe supply of America and Australia . . . 344-5

Metals, precious, production and employment of . . . . 13-16

see Ooldf Silver^ Mines.
Meteorological Tables (general), by James Glaisher . . . 164^
Mines (gold and silver), pn>duee of, and ite effect on prices . . 9-13
Monet. Is the Value of Money rising in England and throughout
the World ? (See Patterson) 1

effect of the fluctuating condition of trade upon the Talue of (see

Pat'erson) ......... 1

see Prices.
Mortal] TT of England and Wales, on certain changes in the English
rates of (see Wefton) 66

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, YEAR 1880.

733

PAOB

MORTALHY — COntd.

causes of the increase of, amongst males aged 35 — 65, with

tablet . . •.•..-.• • • ^S-®0

— annual rate per i,ooo in diyisions, in town and country

districts, and in special towns in 1879 ..... 161-2

MOBTALITY in remote comers of the World [Faroe Islands and
Ghreenland] (see Westergaard) ....... 509

of the Faroe Islands less than in Denmark, infant mortality, &c.,
influence of seasons ........ 510-18

of Horses. See Horses^ vital statistics of.
MoTTAT (Frederic J., M.D.). On the Education and Training of the
Children qf the Poor 183

IntrodactioD : the aathor's acquaintance with edacattonal institntions in India
and this countiy ........ 184

notice of Joseph Fletcher's papers on schools and education, in the

Journal 184-5

paaper children^ description of the class, their origin, low physical condi-
tion, scrofulous tjunt, &c. . . ^. . . 185-8

avoidance of the term in Holland, where the education of the poor is

Kratuitous ......... 186

The Past: state of the question prior to the Poor Law Amendment Act of
1834, and improvements since ... . . 188-91

The Present : methods of dealing with pauper children, how disposed of, and

niuuber under each kind of instruction ..... 191-3

workhouse schools: ol^ecUon to the training of children in them, with

quotation from '* Walker's Original ** to that effect .... 198-6

— ~ sepHrate schools: list of those in operation in 1878, and value of the
largest of them as on the footing of district schools, but objection to the
daily return to the workhouse ...... 196-8

certified schools under private management, number in 1878. 76 . 198-9

training ships : the " GoliKth," its destruction bv fire, and its ^ucces8or

the " Eimouth ;** instances of the admirable training of the boys at the

flre,atc 199-203

boarding out: difflcnlty of the question, Professor Fawcett's objections

to it as rewarding the improvident at the expense of the thrifty ; statement

of the present extent of its adoption ..... 8(/8-6

district schools : eleven in existence at the present time ; obiection to

use of pupil teachers for the youngest ; kinds of industrial and physical
training employed ....... ■ S06-9

— cost of Mucation in the poor law district separate metropolitan schools;
expenditure in twenty-eight years since 1851, with table of average cost

per child . . ...... 809-18

results of education of children in the poor law schools of all classes ;

numben returned on account of misconduct ; percentage of numbers in
prisons and reformatories who have been brought up in workhouse schools,
3*2 per cent . . . ' . . . . . 813-16

— — particulars regarding the condition in life of buys and girls fh>m the
schools, from reports by Mr. Bowyer, Mrs. Nassau Senior and others,

1872-77 816-19

The Future : objections to the district schools, an wanting the individual
and family element, phvsically and morally, generating cwtain outbreaks
ci disease, teaching useless industries, Stc. .... 820-28

— low death-rate, but high sickness rate, in these schools in ophthahnia,

skin discMse. be. ....... . 82S-4

<— — a false economy attempted in cost of management ; and the remedy, to
break them up into smuler and more manageable bodies, as colonies ct

Tillage homes at kfettray. &e. . . . . 834-6

— average cost of children, lu;., at various home institutions . . 226-7

— educational standards of elementary instruction, list of subjects, 8cc. . 928-SO

— army and navy training schools, and casual children . . . 830-31

— summary and conclusion, in favour of the family system . .831-3
Appendix, U^Ugf number of children, and parliamentary grant for teachers,

T857-68 835

^— cost of the metropolitan poor law schools .... 886-9

returns of children sent back to workhouses .... 840-41

^— yonng offenders admitted to and discharged from reformatory schools,

1854-76, and number who have been in workhouses, 1868-77 . 842-3

Ditcuesion on Dr. Movm^s Paper :
Chadwick (Edwin)

Error of Dr. Mount's doctrines in favour of the smaller schools— the larger
the school the greater being the power of classiflcation and supervision:
and with greater economy ; small percentage of failures in a eUn stuntra
and half idiotic { the hurge institutions more children's sanitary hospitals,
and not im)ductiTe of disease ......

844-5

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734 INDEX TO VOL. XLIH, TEAR 1880.

FAGB

MouAT (Frederic J., M.D.). DUctusion on hU Paper — conid,
Chadwiek (£.) note

The treatment of jMuper children on a large icale in respectable hooaes first

Sropoaed in ISSiS. TiU>U illustratire of school orgnniMiiou for angmenta-
on of efficiency vith reduction of expense, redocine total cost per hnd
from forty scholars at i6i. lOf., to seren haudred at 4/. . . . 345-6

Hurst (Q-eorge)

His experience waa that in workhonse schools the children were in general
well taught and trained ....... 847

TufEneU (E. C.)

Opinions of the Social Science Congress and the liondon School Board in
favour of large schools; their low death-rate compared with that for the
whole metropolis ........ 847

MuUer (Miss)

Objection to raising the status, emoluments, and qualifications of the
teachers, as unfitting them for elementary teaching . . . S48

Bourohier (Captain)

Agreed with Dr. Mouat's suggestions ..... S48

Holgate (Wjndham)

Boarding out only applicable to the class of orphans and deserted children of
9 or 10 years ; benefits of physical education ; the three R's and indoathal
training sufficient for the poor law schools ..... S48

Balfour (Gbaham)

Attention to proportions of ages required in making compsratiTe rates (^
mortality ; the introduction of awimming into the iJnke of York's School . S49
Doxsey (I.)

Ophthalmia prevalent in south metropolitan district schools ; snggestioB that
if taught in large numbers the children should live together iu small . S49

Guy (W. A.)

Becent sanitary improvements at Christ's Hospital, and lower death-rate
there ; probable benefits of consolidating workhouses, on the example set
by the government iu priaous ...... 349-50

Mouat (Dr.), reply: . . . . .250
MoUAT (Frederic J., M.D.). Note on the Tenth Centue of the United
States of America 573

Historical retroq)ect of the previous nine censuses, and comparison of the

powers of our parliament with those of the federal ^vernment . . 67S-5
Imperfection of the old census from the collection of industrial statistics by

the enumerators, now entrusted to experts ..... 97^-4
Supplementary returns of deaths obtnined ttom the medical profession . S77
Population of the SUtes from 179U to 1870, showing increase per cent, in

each decade ..... ... 677

ditto of slaves and firee coloured ..... &78

Disturbing elements of increase of Chinese, and fluctuation of immigration . 579-80
Probable decrease of the coloured population since the extinction ol slaveiy,

from widening the field for white labour and enterprise . . . $79

Mixed national character of the emigrants to America, and curious problem

as to which will predominate in tlie new national type to be fifted from then 680
Cost of the several censuses of the States . . . . .181

¥nt seeing policy of the munificence shown by the federal govamment in their

Enblication of reports ....... 681

edulec of the new census return*, with remarks by the superintendoit.
General Walker; working of his bureau, &c. . . . . 683-7

^— appendix, tenth census : Forms 1 to 8, products of industry, financial

condition of cities, and statistics of wool manufacturea . . . 688-96

^— Forms 4 and 5, mortuary statistics and sanitary authori^ . 697-603

Diecueeion on Dr, Moua^t Paper :
Walford (Cornelius)

Made a eomparison between the intallieence and interest shown in the
American census, and the want of wisdom in our own parliament in the
same matter ; valuable tables for life assurance of the United Statet
insurance companies ....... 003-S

Hall (E. Hepple)

Could endorse the remarks as to the clearness, simjplicitv, and judgment of
the forms prepared for the Statistical Bureau at Washington, but he took
great exception to the matter of working, from the general tendeaqr to
exaggeration in the States . . . . . 808-4

Mouat (Dr.), reply 604

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, YEAR 1880. 735

FAOB
MXTLHALL (M. G.)- "ProgreBB of the World in Arts," &c., 1880

(notice) . . . 391

M^LLBB (Miss). Semarks against raising the qualifications of

teachers, as unfitting them for elementary teaching . . 248

Nbison (F. Q-. P.). " Report on Accidents in Mines and Railways'*

(notice) 390

Nbumann-Spallabt. " Production und Handel, " 1879 (notice) 390

Newhaboh (William). Bemarks in discussion (Sevan on Strikes) . 61

NOBWAT. "AnnuaireStatistique'* (notice) 143

Oats, chief part grown in Scotland and Ireland, yi per cent, to 7i per

cent, in England 287

Ofbbncbs. See Criminal Offences.

Palgbavb (R. H. I.). "Bank-Rates in 1844-78" (notice) . . 382
PATTBBSOir (R. H.). Is the VcUue of Money Mising in England and
throughout the World? With Bemarks on the Effect of the
Fluctuating Conditions of Trade upon the Value of Money . . 1

Adam Smith's opinion that the fall in the valae of the precioni metals in the

seventeenth century had been stopped in the eighteenth by the contem>

poraneoos increase of reouirements lor it . . . . .1

Beport of the United States^ Commission in 1876, that there had been no fall

in the value of silver ....... S

Question whether the altered value of money is due to supply or demand, be 2-3
Money and prices in Great Britain : notice of tables of prices available for

determining the question ...... 8

the fall of j)nces since 1873 equal to 24^ per cent., showing corre*

sponding rise in the value of gold ...... 3-4

— gold price of silver in 1860, 59^^., rsing during next twenty jrears to

62^, returning in 1873 to 5Qi</-. aiid falliug in panic of 1876 to 48</. ; since

which it has kept the level o\<,i\d. {\$\ per cent, below that of 1872) . 4

— — no depreciation in tbe value of silver, as its full compared to gold is

1 1 per cent, below rise in value of gold compared with general commodities 4
Money and prices in India: the 160 millions of silver poured into India since

18&5, still inadequate for meeting the increased use of coin as currency,

ui place of barter, 8u;. ....... 5

^— fall of prices in India since 1872, ss shown in cotton and saltpetre,

and the purchasing power of the rupee as great as before, in spite of the

lower price of silver ....... 6-7

causes independent of the supply of metals which produce a change of

prices .........

Prices chiefly influenced during the last thirty years by the steam engine and

the gold mine^; the flrst raising them in remote places, and lowering them

in the great towns : and the latter raising them in the hearts of commerce;

the two giving a tide like change ...... 8

The produce of the mints, and the state of trade, the two great factors

influencing prices ........ 9

•— total proauction of the mines, the same now as in 18d2-60, but gold

only two-tbirds, and silver nearly double in amount ... 9
ereat fall of prices after the crises of 1857 and 1866, and the depression ) 9-10

of l879 (discrepancies in the tables rendering perfect accuracv hopeless) j {and note)
the effects of depression of trade in increasiofr the purchasing power

of money, but lowenng the rate of discount, ezplamed . . . 10-11
more money required to carry on the same amount of trade when

prosperous than when falling (from higher prices) .... 13-18
Production and employment of the preci(Ais metals: great reduction of

their value by demonetisation, which will probably increase . . 1.V14

rise in value of gold from recent demonetisation of silver . . 14

— — erroneous character of arguments in favour of the latter, and of a

single gold standard ....... 15-16

Snmroarv and conclusion : the state of prices so much affected by the stat«

of trade, as to be no proof of the value of money .... 16
the value of money rising both in the east and west, from diminished

gold supply and demonetisation of silver ..... 17->18
Tbe subject at home : recent steady increase of the Bank of England note") ig^on

circulation, principally from increase in branch banks, requiring supplies V („„^„p/^)

of them ........ ^ ^

simultaneous increase of the employment of bank cheques . • 19

Rise of the bank^rnte : tables showing the amounts of coin in the bank on

occasions of a 5 per cent, rate, 1844-78, and their gradual increase from

9} to 26 millions ........ 21-2

VOL. XLUI. PART IV. -j C

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736 INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, TBAB 1880.

PAOS

Pattbesou (B. H.). Is the Value of Money Sisinff 1—contd,

Kiie of the bank-rate : recent quicker action of the bank in raiunr its rate
compared with the stock of gold, and its treatment of home and fordgn
drains alike ........ 39

Bhnetallinn, recognised by the Bank Acts ; increasing annoal absorption <^
gold into our currency, which ma)f produce a scarcity of it . . 23-S

Total amount of gold and silver coined at the mint, 1813-65, and light coin ( 33
withdrawn . . . . ( (m^)

Appendix A. Absorption of silrer in India, 1851-75 : Indian trade balanoea,

andhowsettied 34^

B. Table of prices, and the bank-rate, 1645-79 . . 30

Ditcuesion on Mr, R. H. Fattereon*t Paper :
Cohen (L. L.)

Instances in the United States and in Europe of the effects of the change
from paper to gold curreucj not referred to in the paper. Prospective
public works expenditure in France to the extent of 132 millions sterling,
and in other countries, creating a great absorption for money . 37-S

Hoare (Henrj)

Supposed amount of gold in drcuhtion about 1,200 million pounds and large
amount of this (200 millions) absorbed and brought into fresh quarters by
the French goremment^ Germany, and the United States ... 38

Bourne (Stephen)

Failure of Mr. Patterson to show that the alteration of prices really substan-
tiated any increase in the value of money, illustrated by changes of prices
in India, the value of silver 22 per cent, (not 11) less compared with gold,
than of ^Id compared with other commodities; no fear of a metallic
scarcity in America or Eneland, from the exchange of securities and
increased banking facilities of cheques, 8u^ . . . . 9S^SI}

GKffen (Robert)

Necessity for a general survey of several cycles of procpexitr and adversity
in judging as to fall or rise in prices ; present scarcity of bullion in the
world, and large exportation to America ; the annual consumption of goM
in the coinage not above 2 millions per annum; enormous consumption of
silver by luoua in the cotton famine; objection to bimetallinn . 30-SSt

Walford (Cornelius)

The value of mone^ much affected by good and bad harvests, and in other
countries by legislative interference; bullion only one element in the
mercantile transactions of the world ..... SS

Brassej (Thomas, M.P.)

Our selection of a gold standard justified bv experience in flnctnatiOB of
prices ; effect of the demonetisation of silver m Germany in lowering its
value in India ; the demand for commoditiee increased dnnng rise of wages 8S-i

Paul (H. Moncreiff). Remarks in discuBsion (Welton on English

Bates of Mortality) 91-2

Pbsohel (O.). " Europ&ische Staadenkunde " (notice) . . . 887
PiiAauE. Chronological table of the principal plagues on record . 636-41
the oriental plafue in its social, economical, political, and inter-
national relations (see Potter) ...... 605

hiBtorical notices of outbreaks of, in Europe and England . . 606-13

r fill

its relations with typhus . . . • 1 f #*\

of London, great, 1664, notice of 610

tables of the mortality of ..... . 633

of Mabseilles, 1720, notice of 610

PoCHiN (H. D.). Remarks on the unsatisfiictory character of arbitra-
tion in strikes 64

Police Act of 1857 the commencing point of our judicial statistics . 423-4

Police Fobcb, increased proportion of, to population, 1867-78 . 425

PooB. See Education of Children of.

Population. The Population of the Earth [from the " Times " of

2l8t September, 1880J 690

Notice of Behm and Wagner's valuable " Bevolkemng der Erdo," as the great

fountain of all other statistical works ..... 690

Enumeration of censuses taken since 1877, and of those about to be taken . «9l

Total population of the world 1456 millions; population of each country . 091-3
Popiilalion of the Eastern States of Europe anu of the Turkish Empire, the

results of calculation (1 urkcy in Europe and Asia, 25 millions) . . 69&-S

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INDEX TO VOL. XLHI, TEAR 1880. 737

PAGE

Population. The Population of the Earth — contd.

Population of Rnssia based on statistics in some instances tnutworthy, and
in others not reliable, 88.cx30,ooo ...... 093

Asiatic States (China, 434^ millions, British Possessions 240^ millions) Indo-
Chinese Peninsula, East India Islands, Australia and Polynesia . . 694-5

AMcan and American populations ...... 696-7

Population of England and Wales. On the increase of population
in England and Wales (see WilUanu) . . . • . 462

diagrams of increase of . . . . 496

in decades 1801-71 464

of Q-BBAT Bbitain, table showing dyerage diminution of rate

of increase per decade 474^5

tables showing increase or decrease per cent, of large and

small towns, runS districts, &c. ...... 476-90

of G-bbat Bbitain and London, estimated for 310 jears . 498-6

of Towns. Tables of percentage increase of each class of town,

1801-71 500-602

question of decrements in rates of increase in large towns . 469-70

future increase of, with estimates for 1881 census (26 millions) 471-4

of London, its future increase ...... 475

Population of Russia. The Movement of the Population in
Bussia during the Tears 1867-70 [from the " Journal de St. P^ters-
hourg"] 356

Excess of births over deaths at a rate whioh would double the population in
fifty-eight years ........ 366

Districts with highest birth-rate, compared with birth-rate in other European
countries ......... 857

Illegitimate births, greater in north, than in south of Russia . . . 868

Death-rate high, compared with other European States, and deaths most
numerous in spring and summer; high rate due to deaths among infants
under 1 year ........ 859-60

Marriages, proportion at different ages, and comparison with other countries . 861-4

POTTEB (Henry Percy). The Oriental Plague in its Social^ Econo-
micalf Political^ and International Belations^ special Reference
being made to the Labours of John Howard on the subject . . 605

Preface : infrequency of epidemics of the plague .... 606
Historical sketch : antiquity of the plague^ first described succinctly by

Thucydides and Lucretius as breaking out m Athens in 428 B.C. . . 606

— — notice of the successive outbreaks of oriental plague in Europe and

England, from a.d. 167 ...... . 607-13

black death, 1348, sweating sickness, 1489, great plague of London, 1664,

plague of Marseilles, 1720 ....... 607-10

relations of plague with typhus ^^ ^^^

German and British commission to inquire into the outbreak of 1788 in

the Volga 613

Short review of Howard's biography and labours .... 613-16

Conditions under which the plague arises; early opinion as to actual
influences and telluric changes ; contagion ; absence from England since
end of seventeenth century ; list of conditions under which it may arise . 617-v20

offensive filthy condition as at present in Cairo, London at the time of

the plague, and of Ireland before the fever of 1797 . . . 691-^

Socially, reliffiouslv, and politicallv considered : bad treatment of the sick by
nurses and watchmen; doubtful eood of quarantine, and forced shutting up
of healthy people; state of Lonoon in its desertion by the wealthy, and
details of its sufferings . . . . . f . . 699-7

cruel conduct towards the Jews ; vices of the Flagellants ; abandonment

of their wealth by merchants to the Church, &c. . . . . 6S7-S0

Internationally considered: beneficial results of rigid quarantine and
hjgienic measures ........ 680-88

Appendix : tables of the mortality of the plagues of London, and of the
black death of the fourteenth century ..... 633-^

~— chronological table of the principal plagues on record . . . 636-41

— tist of works referred to . . . . . . 643

PowiLL (G. Baden). On "Protection and Bad Times" (notice) . 891

PowsB (E.). Eemarlcs on the consumption of wheat . . 332-3

Pbicxs in Great Britain, notice of tables of, fall, &c. 8-4

tcibles of, with the bank-rates, 1846-79 26

great fall of, after crises of 1857 and 1866, and depression of 1879 9-10

3c2 I

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738 INDEX TO VOL. XLIIl, TEAR 1880.

PAGE
P&ICE8 — contd.

on the rise and fall of (^ee Patterson) ..... 1

produce of mines and state of trade the two great factors
influencing ......... 9

in India, fall since 1872, causes, &c 5-S

wholesale in London, 1867-79 . ... . . . 354

table of consols, provisions, coal, and pauperism, 1877-79 . . 161
of Corn and other food, probable course of, from reduction of
cost of transport in America ; its import to European food
producers, and means of meeting it, by attention to green crops,
n-eeing tlie land from heavy cost of transfer, settlements, &c . 56O-70
Frisoks, commitment to, and recommittals ..... 443-4

age, education, and nationality of prisoners .... 444-6

Punishment. See Crime.

(capital). See Death (punishment of).
PuEDY (Frederick). See Taxation (local returns, 1878-79).

Bailwats. Ten Tears' Railwaif StatUtice [from the report of
Mr. Calcraft and Mr. Giffen to the Board of Trade on Railways in
1879] 621

Ten yean* increase of mileage (17 per cent.), capital (38 per cent), traffic
(441 per cent.), working expenses (53 per cent.), and net earnings (36 per
cent), compared . . . . . . . - . G21-2

Capital and mileage : more rapid increase of the fonner, from 34.000I. to
40,000/. per mile open ; and diminution of proportion of ordinary to total
capital ......... h^3^-Z

Traffic receipts : changes in proportion, between those from passengers and
goods explained ; great increase in third class traffic, and in minerals . 533-6

Working expenses: great percentage iocrease, from greater costlinett of
work, with analyses of tue increase in detail of items of cost, 1869-7V
(highest in 1874) fi3S-81

addition of id. expense per train mile, equal to i million pounds, on all

the railways of the United Kingdom ..... SS7, 631

Bawbon (Sir B. W.). Bemarkt on " Conseils des Prud'hommes" . 55

r 84-7
ditto (Welton on English Bates of Mortality) . . . • 1 93

ditto (Balfour, Vital Statistics of Cavaliy Horses) . . . 271

ditto (Levi on Criminal Offences) ...... 466-8

ditto (Williams on Population) ...... 4S7

tables of percentage increase of each class of town, 1801-71 . 600-602

remarks at anniversary meeting, 1880 ..... 417

Bead (Clare So well). Remarks in discussion (Craigie, and Lawes

and Gilbert's Agricultural Statistics) 337-9

Bbbd (Sir C). See School Board.

Begistbation of marriages, births, and deaths :

serial <aWM, 1873-79 169

divisional tables, 1879 163

annual rat^ per 1,000, 1873-79 160

ditto, Scotland

(serial, average, bastardy, and divisional tables) . . . 166-9

summary of Great Britain and Ireland, 1879 .... 169

Bent, changes in amount, 1869-78 304-6

Betenue of the United Kingdom, net produce in years and quarters
ending :

Slst December, 1876-79 178

Bine's " Danish Greenland," reference to .... . 614

BusaiA. See Population of Bussia, 1867-70.
see Population of the Earth.

Saukdebs (C. E.). Remarks on the general paralysis of the insane 1
due to sexual excess ........

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INDEX TO VOL. XLUI, TBAB 1880. 739

PAGB
School Boabd. Ten Tears' ISenM] of tie London School Board
[report read by the chairman, Sir 0. Beed] .... 670

Satiifactory reaolta of the work of the Botrd in an increaie of school
acoommodation in ooi^jiinction with the vohintary schools, from 39 per
cent, in 1871, to 66 per cenu in 1880, of the population of school age . 670-71

New schools during the past year, and their cost per head; average
attendance greater than in the voluntary schools ; attained by exercise of
the eompnlsonr power, which has since been extended to the whole
population of £n^and and Wales ..... 871-8

Classes of children at the schools ; impossibility of a variety in the average
fee charged ; the religious instruction not objected to by the parents . 074-&

Fn^ess of elementary education shown in the percentage decrease of
marriage registers signed with marks from 11 to 8, and 24 to la, in men
and women respectively ....... 675

Charge of over education groundless, 96 per cent, only attaining the upper
standards ......... 67&-6

Specific subiects, necessitj for their variety to avoid monotony; cookery,
needlewmlc drilling, swmiming, singing, and kindergarten . . 676-7

Library scheme, rewards and scholarships, in connection with the dty
charities ......... 677-8

Half-time schools, blind, deaf and dumb, truant school, system of centre
teaching ......... 879-80

Expenditure in salaries, books, furniture, rent, kc . . . .681

Selection of teachers by local committees of management . . . 681-8

Schools (Abict and Navy) training 280-31

see Ships (training).

(bbfobmatoby). Tables of joune offenders admitted and dis-
charged, 1854-76, and number wno have been in workhouses . 242-8
(wobkhousb). Tables of children at, their cost, &c. . . 285-41

average cost of children at various homes connected with . 226-7

account of them, and of separate, certified, and district

schools in connection with them 198-209

objections to the district schools, high rate of sickness in

them, &c 220-24

reduced expense, with greater efSoiencj of them, by collection

in large institutions ........ 244-6

particulars regarding condition in life of boys and girls from 216-19

Shaw (Captain). See Fires of London.

Shbep. Tables of their increase or decrease, 1870-79 . . . 294-6
SHiPFiKa. Tonnage of vessels, foreign countries and British posses-
sions, 1877-79 174

Ships (training). The "Gk)liath" and the "Exmouth," destruction

of the first by fire, and admirable training then shown . . 199-202

Shifwbbces. Lloyd^s Statistics of Marine Casualties for 1^19 . 865

Comparison of numbers, lives lost, collisions, fcc~ in sailing vessels and
steamers, with 1866-78 and 1873-78 866-7

Tables showing number of wrecks and casualties to sailing vessels and
steamers in 1879, compared with those for thirteen previous years, with
results to ship and cargo, salvage services, crews saved or drowned, lives
lost, and respective percentages ...... 868-79

Selyxb, variations in gold price of, since 1850 4

rise in value of in 1879 106

imports and exports to the East, 1867-79 . , . . 352

absorption of, in India, 1851-75 ...... 24-6

in India, the 1 60 millions poured into India since 1855 inadequate
for meetinff the increased use of coin as currency there . . 5

Spaik. "CensodeEspana," 1877 (notice) 143

Spon (E. and F.). " The Iron and Steel Trades in 1879 " (notice) . 384
Statistical Socibtt, comparisons of the present condition of the

Society with those of previous years .... . . 406-7

report of the Council, June, 1880 405

abstract of receipts and payments for 1879 .... 414-15

proceedings of the forty-sixth anniversary meeting . . . 417-22

proceedings at ordinary meetings, and titles of papers read, 1879-80 408-10

list of deceased Fellows during 1879-80 412

inaugural address of the President, November, 1880 (see Cair^ . 559

Sc8

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740 INDEX TO VOL. XUII, TEAE 1880.

PAOI

Statistics of agriculture. See AgrumUwre,

of railwETB. See Raihoays,
Stbikbs (The) of the past ten years (see Bevcm) .... 85

numher and enumeration of the principal causes of, in the past

ten years . 37-8

tahlet of, in each trade, in counties and spedal towns, time
spent, &c. ......... 39—47

tahle8 of losses in wages in ...... . 48-50

arbitration in, by Conseils des Prud*hommes, &c. . . . 52-4
Sweating sickness in 1489 (notice of) 609

Tallage (William). Semarkt in discussion (Levi on Criminal
Offences) 460

Taxation. Local TaxaHon Returns. [Memorandum by Mr. Frederick
Purdy for 1878-79] 683

Tbtal raifed bj local taxation, 1878-79, 30^ millions .... 68S
TahUs of poor rates, ooonty and police, and metropolitan management and

sanitary rates, 8cc . . . . 684

— tolls, does, fees, and rents, and city of London taxes on coals, wine, and

grain ......... 686-4

local loan outstanding, 1878-79 ...... 686

Tbleoraphy. Ten Tears' Telegraphy [from the ^'l^mes" of 2eth
October, 1880] 687

Jndidous investment by the oonntry in the business of the old telegraph
companies, shown by 'the increase of offices, miles of tel^;raph wires, aiid
persons employed ........ 687-^

Pneumatic tube, its increased use, and advisable extension as a pneumatic
post for closed telegrams ...... * 68&>9

Increase of telegrams by the post (Ace, from 6i miUkms to a6i millioBS, and

corresponding increase in revenue, yielding 4i per cent, on the capital
expended in the service .......

686

Tbadb, tahlee of imports and exports, 1877-79 .... 171

table of exports of foreign and colonial produce . . . 170

effect of the fluctuating condition of, upon tiie value of money

(see Patterson) ......... 1

depression of, effects in increasing the purchasing power of

money, but lowering rates of discount ..... 10-11

revival, see Commerce.

Training of the children of the poor (see Mona£) .... 183
see EdMcation.
see Ships (training).

TuFFNELL (E. C). Remarks in favour of large workhouse schods . 247

TuBKET. See Population of the Earth.

United States. See Census,
see Population of the Earth.

Vandbnbebo (N. p.). On " Production and Consumption of Coffee "

(notice) 891

Vandbbbtl (Philip). Remarks in discussion (Bevan on Strikes) . 62
ditto. Remarks in discussion (Welton on English Bslea of

Mortality) 91

Vegetables and green crops, necessity for greater attention to, in

England, to meet the low price of com from America . . . 564-6

Vessels, losses of. See Shipwrecks.
Vital Statistics. See Horses (Cavalry).

Walfobd (Cornelius). Remarks in discussion (Patterson on the
Value of Money) •......,. 33

ditto (Welton on English Kates of Mortality) , , \ , 89-90

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INDEX TO VOL. XLTII, TEAR 1880.

741

PAOB

Walpobd (Cornelius). Bemarks in discussion — contd,

dittOf on the injuries to trade caused by strikes ... 62
ditto (Balfour, Vital Statistics of Cavalry Horses) . . .272

dittOf on Statistics of Food in the Society's Journal . . . 336
dUtOy on the effects of education on the nature of crime (Levi on

Criminal Offences) ........ 459

ditto (Williams on Population) ...... 604

ditto (Mouat on the United States Census) .... 602-3

Wauleb (General). Working of his bureau for the United States

Census returns ......... 682-7

Welton (Thomas A.). On Certain ChangeM in the English Ratea of

Mortality 65

ReinilaritT of the variation of death-rate, and its nature, in the gradoation
of deatn-rates at the several periods of life . . .65

Variability of detail, and possibility of the modification of rates . . 66

T^Ut of ratea, 1816-75, showing continuoos reduction at ag^ 5— S5, iu-
crea!>e amongst males and females in later years at ages 35—75 . . 66-8

Extent of the changes in mortality : the census returns as to ages to be
amended, unregistered births discoverable, and results of migrations may
he measured . ....... 69

Tables of survivors, male and female, showing increase of excess of female
expectation of life from two in 1856-60, to five yenrs 1871-75; variations of
average mortality of the English people since 1841, &c. . . . 70-73

TahUs of deaths per i.ooo in next Ave years at each age; experience of
1841-75, relative female death-rate, &c. . . . . . 74-7

Causes of the increased mortality amongst males aged 85 — 65, tahUt of

disease, and ditto in large towns and rural divisions . . . 78-80

Increase of lung disease in the manufacturing districts . . . 79-81

TabU of annual death-rate among males, 1851-75, from specified diseases . 82

Summary : increase in death-rlte, chiefly among males at the higher ages . 83

Disctusion on Mr. Welton* e Paper :
Kawson (Sir B. W.)

Suggestions for the supply of omissions in the paper as to proportions, and
uie grounds of the author's concluidons on registration, census defieienciet,
and migration; increased vitality in young people during 1846-75, but its
decrease in middle age^ comparison of the tables with thoSe of Dr. Farr;
increasing proopect of life among child-bearing women ; probable causes of
the improved vitality among children ..... 84-7

Bailey (A. H.)

Disagreed with Mr.Welton's conclusions, and thought his data insufficient; the
result of his own investigations was that there liad been no change in the
rate of mortality in 1840-70; disturbing element of emigration in calculat-
ing rates of mortality ....... 88

Doxsey (Rct. I.)

Improvement in death-rate in females compared with males, and difficulties
attending the search for causes of the increased death-rate of the latter
after 25 years of age . . . . . . . 88-9

Wolford (ComeUus)

The fact stated in the paper that the death-rate up to 25 had lessened, and
beyond that age mucn increased, particularly amongst males, not accounted
for in any way, except partially by drunkenness and emigration of the
young and strong ........ 89-90

Humphries (N. A.)

From the increased aggregation in towns, a stationary mortality is evidence
of good sanitary work ; the increased mortality among males aged 8&— €5
beyond dispute ........ 90-91

Vanderbyl (Philip)

Thought the increased mortality of males was fh)m use of machinery and
dangerous occupations : the improved rates among females from use of
chloroform in child-births ; great danger to mothers of male births . 91

Paul (H. Moncreiff)

No circumstances utated in the paper as accounting for the higher mortalitv,
but the tables pointed to increase in brain and heart diseases as probable
causes ......... 91-S

Bourne (Stephen)

The deferred age of matrimony among males, and their consequent pursuit
of pleasure and dissipation, the probable causes of the increased rate of
nionality ; contrasted with easier circumstances and less labour among
females ......... 9S

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742

INDEX TO VOL. ILIII, TEAR 1880.

Weltoit rrhomas A.). DUeusnon on his Paper— conid,
Saunders (C. £.)

General paralysii of the insane due to Bexnal exceites
Rawson (Sir R.)

Increase in annnal defith-rat«t from particular diieases as given in the paper,
the average from all cantes being 2Z per cent. ....

LawBOD (Robert)

Difficulty in judging as to increase of diseases owing to alterationt in nooen-
datore } mortality among single twice that among married men .

Hamilton (Rowland)

Death-rate of males of marrying age in feeble health added to the daas of
bachelors .........

Welton (Thomas A.), reply:

Potent causes of diseases: drink, hard work, and eidtemaat; deaths
by accident a ffaction to that occasioned by disease

Wbstsboaaiu) (Harald), of Copenhagen. Mortality in UemoU
Comers of the World [Faroe Islands and Gbeenland] .

Distinctness of the chuses of population in Denmark and its islands .

The Faroe Islands; description of their climate, productions, and exports .

population, censuses 1866-70, marriage-rate, small amount ot ilkgiti-

macy; Denmark one of the healthiest countries in Europe, and the
mortality of the Faroe Islands less than in Denmark but for accidental
deaths .........

infant mortality, and general rates of mortality highly favourable com-
pared with Denmark and £ug)and . .....

mfluence of seavons on mortality .....

GrcenUind : Hans Egede's setUemcnt there in 17SI, and establishmoit of a
royal trade monopoly. Reference to Rink's " Danish Greenland "

materials from which the rate of mortality, kc, is drawn ; stationary

numbers of the population now, migration within tlieir own borders
only ; males above 60, 2 per cent, and females 2 to 3 per cent, of the
population .........

large number of actual deatiia compared with calculated rate for

Denmark ; large mortality from dangerous accidents and their miserable,
filthy domestic life .

actnarinl calculation as to probability of life at different ages among the

PIGS

Greenlander*, with tablet of comparison with the mortality of Denmark,
and of experienced and calculatedf mortality ....
supply of food and mode of life in the different seasons .

Wheat, on the home produce, imports, consumption, and price of,
oyer twentj-eight harvest years, 1852-80 (see Latoes and Gilbert) .

gazette average price of, 1873-79

see under Agriculture.

large reduction in area of, during the last decade
see under Agriculture (crops of 1880).
W1LLIAM8 (R. Price). On the Increase of Population in England
and Wales

Table of population, 1700-1801, in decades, with percentage increase (4*97) .
Slight rise during the first half of the century, and effect of the invention of

the spinning jenny and Watt's steam engine in promoting a great

increase .........

Population in decades, 1801-71. showing largest percentage (18*06) in 1811-81,

and average decrement in rates of increase since, 6*09
Description of tables in appendix, and of those from which summarised
Summaries of population, rates of increase iu principal towns in decades*

1801-71

Decrements in rates of increase in town population, showing declining rate

in most laree towns, except London .....

PopnUtion of towns between 2,000 and 20,000, and of rural districts;

maximum increase in 1811-21, and decrement up to 1861-71
Future increase of the population, with estimate of the census of 1881

(26 millions), and increase in connection with the coal supply
Future increase of population of London. List of tables and diagrams illos-

tratine the subject .......

Tabu of populxtion of Great Britain, showing average diminution of rate of

increase per decade ........

Appendix of UbUt of population and of increase or decrease per cent, of

large towns, small towns, rural districts, counties, and towns of 20,000 and

upwards, 1801-71 ........

estimated consumption of coal in the United Kingdom for 810 years

509

509
509

510-19

512-U
61S

614-15
516

617-90
630

313
348

283-^

462
4<9

4ftS

464
466

466-69

469-70

470

471-4

475

474-5

476-90
491-S

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INDEX TO VOL. XLIII, YEAB 1880. 743

PAGE
Williams (R. Price) . On the Increase of Population — contd.

Appendix of tables.' estimated population of Great Britain and of London for
nOveart 49S-«

Nine Diaarams of increase of population in England and Wales, of towns,
&c, and estimated increase -...«.. 490

Discussion on Mr. R. Price Williams* s Paper :
Rawson (Sir B. W.)

The decrease in the decennial increment dae to an improvement in the
enumeration of the population ; relation of the four classes of towns to one
another as to percentage increase ; and calculation how far the au^enta-
tion of towns had arisen from excess of births over deaths, or from immiera-
tion from rural districts (with tablej of percentage increase of each oass
of town, natural growth, and migration, sc^ from 1801 to 1871) . 497-o(hi

Bailey (A. H.)

Small reliance to be placed on returns prior to 1801 ; errors of the ** North-
ampton Table," through Dr. Price calculating on baptismal registers, and
overlooking the great proportion of Baptists in the town; the early
censuses trnatworihy as to number : difficulties regarding immigration into
England from Scotland and Ireland, and emigration to the colonies.
United States, Ac. ; extension of London and Brighton . . . 503-8

Humphreys (N. A.)

Probable maintenance of the rate of increment since 1871 ; correctness of
previous estimates by Dr. Farr ...... 503

Walford (Cornelius)

The problems connected with the popuhition of the last century, affected by
continuous wars, migration to America, &c.; little information to be
obtained from books on population, except from that of Mr. Rickman in his
report on the census of 1831 •, increased productiveness of nature after
drainsfor great wars; effect of free trade and railways . . . 504

Hendriks (Frederick)

Beference to Captain Graunt's work on population in 160S ; singular accuracy

of the population, from his not foreseeing the increase of urban populations

and the manufacturing communities ..... 505-<S

Hurst (G.)

Probable arrest of the great increase of our population by prudence, poverty,
and crime, hastened by our greater dependence on foreign supplies of food . 506

Bourne (S.)

Probable greater rate of increase in the future, to be met by increased
emigration to our extensive colonies ..... 506-7

Martin (John B.)

The percentage of increase likely to be affected by greater correctness of
future censuses ; not account enough taken of the emigration and immigra-
tion across the channel ....... 607

Williams (Price), reply :

Probability of a decremeutal rate, in spite of machinery, cheap food, and
railways ......... 506

Wool, prices and imports ........ 851-2

Works ^iterary). See Books.

UABRI80N AND SOUS, PftlNTBa:* IN OEDlhABV TO UEB MAJESTY, ST. NAETINb LAMB.

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