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THE 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


TELHO, SS: CASE. 


o> - 


VOLUME I 166081 


KANSAS CITY, MO. — 
Press oF Ramsey, MiLtetTr & Hupson. 


aise 


ae 
ae 


DDO VOLUME hOUR: 


Abstinence from Fluids, Experiments in . 286 


Admiralty Surveys . . .229 
ABIES Jey WMAP SG) 651g) a Woo oto laa) a eByA 
African Exploration, 120, 138, 140, 141, 


142, 144, 145, tae 147, Se 37 469, a0 
Agassiz... Sh omee . 766 
Ague a Poison . . Pah yies te} 
Alexander, W. W., Planetary Phenome- 


na . .287, 348, 427, 488, 574 625, 692, 742 


Almacantar, The . : . 644 
America’s River System developed . . . 506 
American Science Association . 321 
American Pottery . : 663 
ANNIE ISNISHS 566) 6 ss Go oye e 622 
Ancient Man in Missouri . 327 
Ancient Works in New Mexico. - 605 
Anglo-American Cattle Company... . . 311 
Antiquity of Man. . . Be . 530, 595 
Antiquity of Man, Evidence > regarding 
Ie Aspe ass Peabo acai) Galt 19 
Ap pliedm science wi eme sae 480 
Aurora Borealis, . 216 
Anthropology, .. . sie 045) 320 
Archeology, .. ; 149, 235, 419, 602, 659 


Arctic Expeditions, 1, 3, 58, 118, 143, 
228, 372, 414, 416, 4qy, 418, 460, 464, 
BT ike 558 

Artesian Wells in Colorado... . 536 
Astronomical Discovery, A new, - 


- 359 


Astronomy, . 4, 67, 289, 348, 421, 488, 

573, 574, 576, 622, 692, 742 
Asphalt Pavements. . . ENDS je 7) 
Aitomatic MentaleAction ey i) cn 23 
Award of the Royal Medals . . 119 
Award of the School Medals . . 120, 231 
Balm of Gilead . 5 7 
Barometer, The. . . 275 
Beneficial Effects of Smoke . . 699 


Berthoud, Capt. E. L., Tertiary Man.84, 236 
Berthoud, Capt. E. L., Artesian Wells in 
Colorado . - 536 
Biography - 351 
Book Notices, 61, 127, 188, 244, ae, 377, 
448, 511, 636 574, 609 & 
Bice ten Yao! Eee 615, 6 


British Science Asssociation. .... ¥ 

British Science Association, Annual ‘Ad- 
dress before the . é 

Bowers, Rev. Stephen, Engraved Stone 
PLOT ONTO) Me ova cased aoa ae 

Broadhead, Prof. G. C., Review of ‘‘Con- 
tributions to Paleontology,” . .. . . 448 


BAW ue eexticey) yak) Mayer vedere ell ve! ¢ie)ibe 


Botany. . 


- 364 
149 


Broadhead, Prof. G. C., The Mastodon . 519 


Broadhead, PTOteule ce , Extricts from an 
old Book of Travels . : 


: HiSeeLOOg) 
Bromide on ht hy lias a alae . 184 
Brown, Dr. R. W., Bromide of Ethyl . : 184 


Building with temper ediiGlassy 1) 1 Brie 

Buried Race in Kansas, A. . .'. . .), 86 

Care of Trees and Shrubs. . 

Case, Ermine, Jr., Sewerage and Street 
Paying . 

Case, Ermine, Jr, 
in Italy . 97 

Case, Theo. S., A Visit to the Birthplace 
of Montezuma Bes - 419 


cera: S., Kansas City Electric Time 
a seme 


+2 


+ 333 
. 6 


Thermometer ‘readings 


a Maire ot A . 610 

Case, Theo. S., The Old i in New “Mexico. Iie) 

Celluloid Veneer Ie . 581 

Chemistry. ... . - . 100, 606 

Child, Dr. A. L., Railroad Bridge at 
Plattsmouth el 


I 
Childs Dra Sele LOeee of he wesern 


Plaing, Subeerial or Subaqueous ? . 


2 
Chimborazo, Ascent of . te 
Chloral Hydrate, Test for Sascha ten nlet RIO 188 
Choice and Sou eh ART rales ae 37 


ning . Aus 3 28 
Clouds. 5 iio, 626, 694 678 
Comet, The Great Southern Baan ae Sig 71 
Congressional peropHations for scien- 
tific purposes. . 738 


Correspondence . .74 240, 02 8, 02, 2 
Corwin, Cruise of ihe : 3 5 49 50% 5 ane 


Crosby, Prof. E. C., The Principles of ie 
structions . . 


SN eis tea ea 102, 158 
Crozet Islands, Position Co} BEND MT 266 
Dakota Group, The . 675 


Dawson, Wm., The Sun and Phenomena 
of its surface . 


Sy carr ne bee rae Noid yer 6 
Deceased of 1880, The. . . : ee 
Decorative Art, The Bane of. . 581 
Deep Sea Researches . . : 362, 704 
Delicate Scientific Instruments . . 743 
Determination of Mars, ANew..... 4 
Diphtheria pRemedy for asc. yee ae 115 
Discoveries, Interesting, in Clinton Co., 

Ohio sy eew es) eins . 236, 237 
Drowned, Perseverance with the . iss 
Dunbar, Prof. John B., Decrease of the 

North Awerican Indians . - 2905 


Iv INDEX. 


Ear ache, Chloroform vapor in. . . 115 
Editorial Notes, 64, 129, 193, 254, 317, 
383, 451, 575» 582, 646, 713, 779 
Education. . . . 102, 158 
Electric Eccentricities . ate eaten 2 17.0) 
Electric Light, Effect nee vegetation sei 


Electric Railway - . 220 
Electric Time Ball . _ 219, ae 720 
Electricity, Seeing By 5 . 122 
Engineering . ; : AG. 97. 333, 471 
Engineering progress i in the U.S. » 335 
Engraved Stone from Ohio . . . 149 
Epidemic, A strange . . Be Mey 
Ethnology. .. 2 . 295 
Evolution, Geology and . 90, 162, 195. 289 
Expansion of clay . ee e205 
Exploration . ; oe 4 OF 
Bee, Dr: John, Good Eyes and Free 


Schools..*. . - 441 
Fire resisting qualities of Building Ma- 


terials . a aul) 
Forests, Preservation of . - 342 
Forests, Destruction of . 723 
Fossil Forest, A . a ZO7, 
Fossils in Colorado ; 5 . 176 
Fossils in Southwest Missouri 5 6 6 OW 
Franklin’s Place in Science. . . . 156 
Freshet in Missouri River, July. 1880 . - 359 
Genesis and Modern Thought . . 170 
Geographical Societies . . 264, 265 


Geography, I, 115, 131, 221, 257, 364, 409, 
460, 551, 685, 736 
Geological Climates . . 5 ol Ba 
Geology, 19, 90, 162, 195, 205, 289, 519, 
595, 672, 729 


Geology and Evolution . . . go, ee 195; 289 


Good Eyes and Free Schools Las - 441 
Gour, A Last City. . . S16 0-6 8 FR) 
Gulf Stream, New Views Of ihe : . 589 
Gulnare, Accident to the . ZO 
Gulnare, Log of the . i . 491 
Hair and Beard as Racial Characteristics... 149 
Haldeman, S. S., Obituary Notice of . . 359 
Haloes, Solar . - 635 


Hazen, Gen. W. Be Notice Of : 5 By 
Heath, Dr. 1I.D., Personal Recollections of 
Orton and Peru |: . Slo 2 2 210 


veath sens i. Re, Dicearadtias in South 
Avmealen Snes Heasises : . 736 

Hermeneutics . m - 373 

Historical Notes. . . - 724 


Howgate Expedition, The Second, 58, 11s, 
257, 418, 551, 552, 685, 688 

Howgate, Miss Ida, The Telegraph as ap- 
plied to Norwegian Fisheries. . - 429 
Hudson River Tunnel... - - 99, 249 
Hydrophobia, Curare and other cures for.185 


Hypothesis, The New. . B66 0 16 Lyon 
Ice, Breaking up the, in'rivers. . . . . 36 
Improvement of the Missouri River .. - 643 
India Rubber producing Insect... ... 51 


Indians, Decrease of the North American 295 


? 


Indians, Traditions Respecting their Ori- 
Sunes 
Insects, Plants and ‘Animals, Relation ipe: 
tween . . - . 000 
Instruction, The Principles of . stom "102, 158 
Iron, A New Process for Protecting . 382 
Ischia, Earthquake at . .. Sh eOW, 
Isthmian Routes, The Three (Ulustrated), 712 
Jews; May they eat Oysters?..... . . 124 
Jones, J. P., The Spanish Pepe ge to 
Missouri in 1719. ‘5 
Judith River Group 40 
Kansas Academy of Science, Proceedings 


. 665 


. 724 
. 729 


Oy OG 453 
Kansas City Electric Time Ball eee 720 
Kansas, Scientific Survey of . . 640 
Kansas University, Scientific work of. . . 645 


Kansas Weather Service . 576, 634, 608, 762 
Kansas Weather Summary for 1880... . 631 
Larkin, Prof. E. L., Motion. . . neyakegeg: 
Larkin, Prof. E. Te Delicate Seientific 
Instruments : - 743 
Lawns, Making and Preserving Bciom inte) Li 


Leavenworth Academy of Science . ... 460 
Lewis, Rev. T. L., Indian traditions . . 665 
Lewis, Rev. T. L., Destruction of Forests. 723 
Lick Observatory, Telescope for . 694 
Wife within they Arctic’ Cixcleyy 2. yan 776 
Lnghitvof jaupitersahey eyes ie. . . «350 
Light, Transmission of Speech by . 578 


Lightning, A Talk About. . . Blo) as 
Linen, The Manufacture of . - 308 
Loess ‘of the Western Plains, Subaeriall or 


Subaqueous?. . . 293 
Long, Prof. J. M., Automatic Mental ‘Ac- 

tony ei: 23 
Long, Prof. ie M., “The Synthetic Phi- 

losophy. . . 649 
Lovewell, Prof. he T. Kansas Weather 


Service: : - - 576, 634, 698. 755 
Lykins, W. H. RS ‘Rambles of a Natural- 


ist. . - - 54, 444 
Lykins, W. ie R., Parhelion in Kansas 


City . . 636 
Magnetic Survey of Missouri . . 718 
Malaria, Dr. W. B. Sawyer. . . . 614 
Mars, A new determination of the dianiee 

ter ‘ae. A 
Maxwell, S. Nop Meteoric Shower of Aug. 

roth, 1880 . Bee : ZO 
Maxwell, S. A., Clouds | 403, 626, 604 
Maxwell, S. Aw Solar) Haloes 3 2 -u oss 
Mastodon, ANAS 


Bae Rls 1) 
elke * r09, 184, 313, 
441, ieee 
Medicine, Taking away the taste of .. . 111 
Meteoric Shower Aug. toth, 1880. . 281 
Meteorological Stations in Behring’ s Sea. - 741 
Meteorology . . . 52, 208, 268, 385, 576, 
626, 694, 750 
Meteorology and the Signal Service . - 385 
Mexico, Explorations in . . 369, 496 


Medicine and Hygiene . 


INDEX. Vv 


Mexico, the Mammoth Caveof. . . . . 176 
Miller, W. H., the Synthetic Philosophy 

of Herbert Spencer... . . . 328, 431, 566 
Mining for Precious Metals in the U. S.. 95 


Miocene Beds of the John a river . . 540 
Mining in Arkansas. c . 251 
Missouri Water Power. 770 


Montezuma, a Visit to the J Birthplace of . 419 


Moquis, the . : : . 729 
Mosaiculture. . . ST GRE MONE ISERIES a as(°) 
Motion . - 177 


Mudge, Prof. B. TA, Geology and Evolu- 

tome ee . . «90, 162, 195, 289 
Myer, Gen’l ‘Albert ike Obituary notice of 315 
Myer, Gen’l the Successor of . . eens OS 
Natural Sciences, their Newness and Value 480 
National Academy of Science . . . 546 
Necrology . . - 233, 267, 315, 359, 509 
Nelson, Prof. E. T., Lune in Ab- 

stinence from fluids . sakes A280 
New Mexico, The Old in. ... AS OZ 
New Mexico, Oriental Resemblance in . 602 
New Mexico, Ancient Works in . 605 
Nipher, Prof. F. E., Choice and Chance! 37 


Nipher, Prof. F. iD peer eae ae of 
Missouri . . athe ous 
Nordenskjéld, Honors Tone et amet 
Nordenskjéld, The Afloat... . sue 5 
Nordenskjéld and his Labors . . 351 
Northern Pacific Coal Fields . . 497 
Notes and Queries . ; . 765 
Noyes, Isaac P., Tornadoes 208 


Noyes, Isaac P. , Prophecy of the Weather 


: 268, 627 
Noyes, Isaac P., athe Storm Center and 
Weather Prophets . iis . 750 
Obelisk, Removal of the, from. Egypt to 
New York . ane Li SRL 
Obelisks, List of the Notable . PMNS MEE OS (C0) 
Obelisk, A Short Story of the. . .,. . . 708 


Obituary Notice of Prof. W. K. Kedzie. 60 
Ore Deposits, Origin and Classification 
of. ets LOG 200 
Original Settlers of America . 239 
Orton and Peru, Personal Recollections 
COLE neulg2y 221 


Oysters, May Jews eat them?. . 124 
Oysters, Propagation of - 311 
Pacific Railway of Canada . - 346 
Palestine, Survey of Western... - 409 
Paper Car Wheels, How made . = Uf 
Parhelion in Kansas City . . 636 


Parker, Prof. J. D., Proceedings of Kan- 
sas Academy of Science . : 453 
Ranker /brofe|. 5) ihe Tornadoes of 
Aprils eS, P1880 io ea ea Pre 2 | she 52 
Parker, Prof. J. D., Heath’s Discoveries 
in South America . eens 
Patagonia, Exploration of : . 207 
Pavements, Comparative Merits of differ- 
ent - Senses Demo tis 
Pavements, Asphalt Res cee eua AR MUL OY, 
Peirce, Prof. Benjamin . 


Perihelia . 


é : . 250 
Peterson, Carl, Death ‘of SH albic Novia AO SO 
Philosophy - . + 37, 328, 1, 43, 566, 585 
Photophone, An Account of A ania © 5 ZOU 
Physics . 285 151, ae: 359, 610, 718 
Physiology. 2)... 3 Ae 246, 281 
Pipe-ore Limonites . c 251 
Planetarium, A New . 288 


Planetarv Phenomena, 287, 3. 348, 427, 488, 
574, 625, 692, 742 


Pliocene Beds of Southern Oregon . . . 600 
Polar Sea, Is there an open?.. . . 262 
Population of the Globe . 579 
Pompeian House, A. St Sareea NS 
Practical Formulas. . . 581 
Preservations of Foods by Salicylic Acid 253 
Prehistoric Cat. . 581 


Pritchett, Prof. C. Sie The Hileetiemime 
Bane ay 

Pritchett, Prof. H, Se ean DEkeaneme. 
tion on the inpameeee of Mars.. . 

Pritchett, Prof. H. S , Electric Time Ball 


. 219 


at Kansas Cikyaisiece . 720 
Project, Engineering, for the year 2000 . 774 
Prophecy of the Weather. . : 268, 626 
Psychology. . . - 23, 78 
Pueblo Indians, The . Base 758 
Quatenary of Washington Territory . 601 


Rae, Prof. Uae Schwatkas Sledge Jour- 
ney . . 498 


Ree Prof. ‘John, Geological Climates . 726 
Railroad Ballasting, Burnt clay for. . . 711 
Rambles of a Naturalist. . - « . 54, 444 
Railroad Bridge at Plattsmouth. . . . 471 


Railroad Building in the Rocky Moun- 
tains 

Railroad and Telegraph Land Grants . 

Relation between Insects, Plants and Ani- 
mals - 


ins : 123 
Remedies for Chilblains ae 684 
iXussia in Greece . : ane V4 
Sanitray Work, Commercial value of . 112 
San Juan Region Nine Slit . 190 
Sawyer, Dr, W. B., Malaria ay . 614 
Schlieman’s Discoveries at Troy . . 659 
Science of the Bible. . ANE 378 
Science in the Schools of France. . Tae, 


Science and Spiritualism... . 82 

Science Letter from Paris 74, 240, 3 302, 542, 760 

Scientific Miscellany, 54, 121, 190, 246 
308, 381, 444, 506, 577, S40, 765 


Schwatka’s Arctic Search . . 414 
Separation of Metals by Electrolysis 520 FiO 
Shaw, C. A., the Barometer . OR i 
Ships on Wheels ais MM Moen ueeinlennia here 
SiberianyCommercel sin enee . 740 
Silver Cliff, Geological Notes on . . 205 
Sewerage and Street Paving. . .. . . 333 
Six Days of Creation. .... Hine Liege 
Sixth Sense lhe ne 305 


Smuithse! Prot gh. iB. Undulatory Move- 
ments as affecting our senses & pli 
Smith, Prof. T. B., The Natural Sciences, 480 


VI INDEX. 


Smiths Prof mie BeAcassizy ees ers 
Smokeless Fuel from Coal : HIS 
Snow, Prof. F. H., Meteorological Sum- 
nebAY MONE IRIS) 5 Gg) 6 ng 615 8 od b 631 
Societies Proceedings oe, "321, 322, 453- 546 
SoulsslesmWihataisiitinye sect.) ssyeueen its 78 
South America, Exploration in. . 147, 736 
Spanish Expedition to Missouri in 1719 . 724 


St. Louis Academy of Science. .... 459 
Steam Engine, History of the. . . . . 486 
Storm Center and Weather aes . » 750 
SOMES, CLES @ll5 oa (e fac IO 
Summer Work, Advice respecting - 301 
Sun and Phenomena of its surface . 67 
Sternberg, Chas. H., Miocene Beds of 
Liem Ohmu Day WRGVerla we ci cluelcr spi 540 
Sternberg, Chas. H., Pliocene Beds of 
Somehenny Oregon. (louie ver oe 4 ', . 600 
Sternberg, Chas. H., The Quaternary of 
Washington Territory . 5 fe ROOK 


Sternberg, Chas. H., The Dakota Group, 675 

Sternberg, Chas. fet The eee River 

* Group . ‘ : 

Steam Heating for Cities. . . i 

Synthetic pron: The, as a Philoso- 
jOSy Go - 328, 431, 566, 649. 

Tanner’s Hast ou 2 246, 281 

Telegraph applied to Norwegian Fisher- 
Hes iy ei . 429 

Telephone, Recent Experiments with the, 125 

Templin, Rev. L.J., ee of the Vegeta- 
ble Kingdom . eines Hee OlLIS| OO, 


729 
- 709 


Tertiary Man. . : 5 oe ELS 
The Thermograph ; “Its Evolution and 
Destiny (Illustrated) ; 677 
Tornadoes.) ee ek We rhe neh nee tennant 208 
Tornadoes of April, TO, SOO, meine 52 
Travels, Extracts from an Old Book of. . | 563 
Trichine in Man. . Sufi 


Trowridge, Prof. S. Ene Science of the 
Bible . : 0 BB 
Undulatory Movements, as s affecting | our 
senses . = nal 
United States Signal Service, Credit tOMe7S 
VanieElorn}) Eon. kcal. The New Hy- 
pothesis. Or 
Vegetable Kingdom, History of the, 615, 667 
Vegetation, Influence of Electric Light 


UN OXOD MMM DU Secor cai dict. "GG !so 9 vb 57 
Velocity of Shot . 477 
Vesuvius Railway, The... STO? 
Wallace, Samuel J., Notes on Silver Cliff 

region . - 205 
Waterproof Cement . 447 


Waterspouts off Kauai . Shere 

Weather Prophecies of Vennon iy ee 627 

West,° Judge E. P., A Buried Race in }. 
Kansas . : 

What to do in Emergencies . bo 313 

Women, Healthful and Dangerous Occu- 
tions for . sae . 109 


i 
if 


1 AUN, S AS © Ply 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND. INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOL. IV. WAY 188o.).- NO Ma 


GOGAT EIN 


EXPEDITIONS TO THE ARCTIC SEA. 


We gladly give place to the following letter from Prof. John Rae, of London, 
correcting a few errors of statement in a former article on this subject. —[Ep. 


THE EDITOR OF THE Kansas City REVIEW :— « 


Str, —In looking over your Review of March, kindly sent me by a friend, I 
find a list—chronologically given—of the various national expeditions to the Polar 
Seas. 

In this list there is one entry that was not a National expedition, one error of 
date, and three omissions, which perhaps you would allow me to point out— | 

The expedition under Captain (ot Lieutenant) Back, in 1833, was got up by 
private subscription, aided by the government to the extent of not a third of the 
money required. 

No expeditions were sent in 1847 by the British government to search for 
Sir John Franklin. 

Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae were sent by the British government over- 
land in 1848 to the Arctic Sea, wz. McKenzie River, and searched the coast 
eastward to the Coppermine River for Franklin. This was a costly expedition, 
as boats and men were sent from England via. Hudson’s Bay. 

In 1849 the British government sent Dr. Rae to the Arctic coast, by pie 
Coppermine River, to search for Franklin. 

In 1851 Dr. Rae was again employed by the British powerniicne to search 
for Franklin by the Coppermine River, during which a sledge journey of over 
Iv-1 


2 3 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


a thousand miles was made at the average rate of about twenty-five miles a day; 
the fastest time on record, considering that both officer and men were hauling 
sledges or carrying loads all the time. On this journey and the subsequent boat 
voyage, about seven hundred miles of unknown coast line of Wollaston and 
Victoria lands were traced, and Victoria Strait discovered and named, remarkable 
for being the channel in which the crews of the Franklin Expedition abandoned 
their ships in 1848. Rae’s boats coming from the South, having reached a point 
on the west shore of the strait in a higher latitude than that where the ships were 
left, formed a last link in the Northwest passage. 

These three expeditions were wholly paid for by the British government, and 
therefore should be included in the chronological list referred to. 

Yours, &c., 
| Joun an 


HONORS TO NORDENSKJOLD. 


The Swedish government has resolved to award a national testimonial to the 
-members of the Expedition under Professor Nordenskjold’s direction. The testi- 
monial is not intended for the officers and scientists of the Expedition alone, but 
for all the men who shared in its dangers and discoveries. King Oscar gives to 
each man a medal bearing on one side the head of the Sovereign with the 
inscription, ‘‘Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway,” and on the other the 
insignia of the order of the Northern Star, with the legend ‘‘ For having opened 
a route in the Glacial Arctic Ocean, 1878-1879.’’ Fifty copies of this medal will 
be struck off—four of them in gold and the remainder in silver. 
_ Nordenskjold reached Paris April 2, accompanied by Captain Pallander, the 
sharer of his adventures in the North. They were received at the railway station 
by delegates of the various scientific societies—M. Grandidier, president, and M. 
Maunoir, secretary of the Geographical society; M. Siebbern, Swedish Ambassa- 
dor, with several attachés; M. Rabaud, representing the Societé de Marseilles; 
M. Meyners d’Estreye, President of the Societé Indo-Chinoise; Dr. Crevaux, the 
young explorer of French Guiana; a deputation of Swedish residents and a few 
journalists, including your correspondent Nordenskjold looked the very picture 
of health and seemed vigorous enough for a dozen Arctic expeditiofis. He was 
dressed with the utmost simplicity in a light traveling suit. Captain Pallander 
appeared to be very much embarrassed in the attire of a private gentleman, being 
so long accustomed to his naval uniform. M. Grandidier said that he was happy 
to meet such a distinguished visitor and bade him welcome in the name of the 
geographical societies of Paris and the Departments and of the scientific societies of 
France. A banquet was given them on the night of April 4th, by the members 
of the Swedish Colony in Paris. Upward of two hundred gentlemen and ladies 
of Swedish nationality were present. But few invitations to foreigners were 
issued, and these merely to the press. The grand saloon of the Continental Hotel 
was tastefully arranged for the occasion, one of the decorations being a carved 


THE NORDENSK/JOLD AFLOAT. 3 


prow of the Vega, surmounted by a bust of Nordenskjold, by Runeberg, son of 
the great Swedish poet. This was projected in the center of the hall. On the 
columns of the room were escutcheons bearing the names of great Swedish 
explorers of old as well of those who had taken part in the Nordenskjold Expedi- 
tion. At the central table was seated Prince Oscar, and among the principal 
persons present were the Swedish Ambassador, the Swedish Consul General 
Moltke, the Danish Ambassador, the Consul General of Spain, Colonel Staafe, 
military attaché; Christine Nilsson, the singer, and M. Rouzeaud, her husband. 
The Swedish Minister proposed Nordenskjold’s health, and the explorer replied 
in Swedish, but with a strong Finnish accent. He modestly said that the greatest 
pleasure which he derived from his success was that it all redounded to the honor 
of his country. 

On the sth of April Nordenskjold was formally received by the Municipal 
Council of Paris, at the Pavillon de Flore, in the Tuilleries. Neat complimentary 
addresses of welcome having been read by the President of the Council and M. 
Ferdinand Herold, Préfet of the Seine, who represented the government, Nor- 
denskjold was then presented with a handsome gold medal commemorative of his 
expedition and of his visit to Paris. Its value was some $300.00. ‘The explorer 
acknowledged the compliment in modest phrase, and the ceremony was ended by 
the President gracefully thanking the French and foreign press for their attend- 
ance. The hall was tastefully decorated with flags. The Municipal Guards, in 
full uniform, lined the staircase. 


A NEW POLAR EXPEDITION. 


The Presse, of Vienna, announces that Capt. Weyprecht, of the Austrian 
Navy, in concert with Count Wilczek, is completing arrangements for another 
expedition toward the North Pole at an early date. This time Capt. Weyprecht 
will not be accompanied by any of the intrepid companions of his former voyages, 
as it appears they prefer rest at home to the adventures and dangers of the hyper- 
borean seas. 


THE NORDENSKJOLD AFLOAT. — 


The Calcutta Englishman reports that the Swedish steamer A. E. Nordenskjold, 
which was sent out in June last in search of Nordenskjold’s Expedition and went 
ashore two months later on the Japanese island, Jesso, has been got off safely. 
M. Sibiriakoff, who commanded her, will attempt to return home westward round 
the north coast of Asia, from Behring’s Strait to Spitzbergen, on the route which 
Nordenskjold took when going eastward in the Vega. [The rescued craft, though 
small, being 340 tons burden and sixty horse-power, is admirably calculated to 
resist the rigors of Arctic navigation, a resistance that has been proved by her 
successful weathering of a severe winter in the inhospitable region of Jesso.] Her 
small size will be rather an advantage than otherwise in the difficult route M. 


4 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Sibiriakoff has proposed to follow. The Nordenskjold was built at Malmo, 
Sweden, for the express purpose of going to the assistance of the explorer, whose 
whereabouts were then unknown. She was launched on April 23, 1879, and left 
Malta on June 3 for Behring’s Strait by way of the Suez Canal. She was to pass 
through Behring’s Strait and thence direct her course to the mouth of the Lena. - 
On August 4 the vessel left Yokohama and proceeded on her way north. At the 
time the Nordenskjold started it was considered that the Vega was beset in the ice 
some forty miles northwestward of East Cape at Behring’s Strait, and at a consid- 
erable distance from any settlement. The Nordenskjold was to seek the missing 
vessel there. When the fate of Professor Nordenskjold and his expedition were 
still undecided and grave fears were entertained for his safety, M. Sibiriakoff, a 
warm friend and supporter of the explorer, was the first to take practical measures 
for his relief and his steamer was the first fitted out for the purpose, he bearing all 
the expenses of the expedition. Not content with fitting out a steamer of his own, 
he made earnest appeals for assistance in all quarters where it was likely to be 
given. 


jevorl IOUN| CML, 


A NEW DETERMINATION OF THE DIAMETER OF MARS. 
H. S. PRITCHETT, ASTRONOMER MORRISON OBSERVATORY. 


During the near approach of the planet Mars, in the recent opposition of 
1879, the following careful observations of its diameter were made with the large 
Equatorial of the Morrison Observatory, partly with the purpose of testing the 
figure of the apparent disc, and partly to furnish an accurate measure with a filar 
micrometer for comparison with those obtained from the heliometer. I have just 
finished a reduction and discussion of these measures, and the results given below 
represent an abstract of a more complete paper forwarded to the ‘‘ Astronomische 
Nachrichten.” The observations were made by Prof. C. W. Pritchett. 

While the measures of such an object as the disc of Mars with a filar micro- 
meter, will never be entirely free from the effect of irradiation, and therefore will 
never give the true value of the diameter quite as accurately as the heliometer, 
still, in a telescope of such good definition as the one used, this effect would be 
very small. Filar micrometer determinations of the diameter are still further use- 
ful from the fact that they are to be used in the reduction of incomplete observa- 
tions made with similar instruments, and for other common astronomical opera- 
tions. For this reason the values of the diameters of planets used in computing 
their apparent discs for the Mautical Almanac, Berliner Vahrbuch and American 
LEiphemeris, are derived from observations with a filar micrometer. | 


A NEW DETERMINATION OF THE DIAMETER OF MARS. 3) 


The discrepancy between these and the value obtained from the heliometer 
is shown in the following table. In the eolumn ‘‘ Diameter” the angular value of 
the diameter for distance unity is given: 

Value used in the Nautical Almanac and Berliner Yahrbuch, 11”. r00 


Valweiusediini the American) Ephemenrisqy 0.) 2) 2 ros Tos 
Bessel’s value from the Heliometer, .. . 9.328 
Hartwig’s value from Heliometer ‘observations of Bessel, 

Kaiser, Main and himself: - - . . Bi ee te 9-352 


we difference Here shown between the largest ail eine values amounted 
to 4” at the time of opposition. The value used in the American Ephemeris was 
derived from observations with the Mural Circle (aperture 4.1 in.) of the Naval 
Observatory during 1845-46, and is subject to the large probable error +-0”.203. 
In the observations made at this observatory the diameter of the disc was meas- 
ured in four different directions : 


1. From position angle 143° to 323°, corresponding to the polar diameter. 
2. From position angle 8° to 188°. 
3. From position angle 98° to 278°. 
4. From position angle 53° to 233°, corresponding to the equatorial diameter. 
The observations extended from October 27 to November 24, the opposition 
occurring on November 12, and the nearest approach of the planet to the earth 
on November 4. After correcting the separate observations for incomplete illu- 
mination and reducing to distance unity, the results of the measures are shown in 
the following table: 


DIRECTION. |NO. OBSER’TION.| DIAMETER. | PROBABLE ERROR. 
143°—323° ir? g’”.422 + 07.024 
8°—188° 9 he OA AS Bac, 1043 
Oa eion 8 Or e5L7 IL © ,ORe 
Ban 258), 17 g .638 + © .044 


If these separate results are considered as independent measures of the same 
diameter, and combined according to the method of least squares, there will result 
finally, Diameter=9”. 486-+-0”.033, which, combined with Newcomb’s value of the 
solar parallax, gives for a mean value of the diameter of the planet 4248 miles, 
with a probable error of 15 miles. ‘This value, as will be seen, agrees quite closely 
with the determinations of the heliometer, and shows conclusively that the values 
in use in the Ephemerides are much larger than would be given by any good in- 
strument of good definition and moderate size. 

The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters being so much 
greater than the probable error would indicate, seems to show an ellipticity of the 
apparent disc. This systematic difference was noted in the individual observa- 
tions from day to day, and is confirmed by the measures of the intermediate di- 
ameters. The observations would then assign to the planet the form of an ellip- 
soid of revolution, with a polar diameter of 4220 miles and an equatorial diame- 
ter 4317, the amount of compression being 1-45. Very varying results have been 
arrived at for the amount of compression of Mars. Sir Wm. Herschel -gives it 
1-16; Schréeter less than 1-80; Arago, from Paris observations extending over 36 


6 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


years, 1-30; Hind gives it 1-51; and Main 1-62. Bessel merely decided that it 
was too small for measurement with his heliometer. This discordance shows 


quite clearly the difficulty of measuring such a bright glowing disc as that of the 
planet Mars. 


IN GUN aeNGe 


COMPARATIVE MERITS OF WOOD, STONE AND ASPHALT 
PAVEMENTS. 


GEN. Q. A. GILMORE, U. S. A. 


Assuming the foundation to be firm and solid, so that ruts and depressions 
cannot form upon the surface except from actual wear, a pavement of stone 
blocks, of first quality as regards hardness and toughness, will possess the long- 
est life of the three, and one of wood blocks the shortest; asphalt lies between the 
two and very near to the stone, and will fluctuate from this position with the 
amount and kind of traffic, and the influences of the climate. Asa rule wood 
must be regarded as the least durable. When it begins to go—at the end of two. 
or three years, under heavy traffic—it wears rapidly into deep and numerous ruts, 
by the crushing of the blocks to their entire depth. Unless the stone be of ex- 
cellent quality for pavements, it takes the second place in the order of durability, 
and asphalt the first. 

The absolute cost of constructing the different pavements will of course vary 
very considerably with the locality. It is believed, however that with few excep- 
tions, the following order of cheapness will obtain throughout the United States : 
viz., first, wooden blocks; second, asphalt, on a solid cobble stone foundation ;. 
third, asphalt on a concrete foundation ; fourth, stone blocks on a concrete found- 
ation. 

Under the head of cost and maintenance of repairs, the life or endurance is. 
to be considered, and the total expense must extend over and cover a period of 
time representing that endurance, under the assumption that at the end of that 
period, the pavement is in as good a condition as at the beginning when it was 
new. The repairs for the first two or three years will be comparatively trifling, 
and in some cities, more especially in England, it is customary for the constructor 
to maintain the pavements in a good sound condition without charge for one, 
two and sometimes three years, and subsequently for a longer period, seldom ex- 
ceeding fifteen years, for a specified sum per square yard per year. 

With regard to wood and asphalt, the recorded observations make it certain 
that although a pavement of wooden blocks is less costly to construct than one of 
asphalt, not only is its annual cost for repairs greater, but its mean annual cost 
during its life, inclusive of the first cost, is also greater than that of asphalt. With 


COMPARATIVE MERITS OF PAVEMENTS. 7 


regard to stone, there is a vast difference in the endurance of hard and tough ba- 
salt and trap, and the average granite and gneiss. 

In economy of maintenance per year during the lifetime of a pavement, in- 
cluding its first cost, the hard basaltic trap rocks should be placed first, asphalt 
second and wood third, except in localities where wood is very cheap and suita- 
ble stone cannot be procured, or is subject to heavy charge for transportation. 
Under such circumstances stone would take the third place and wood would rise 
to the first. Where wood and stone are both expensive, or the latter is not of the 
best quality with respect to toughness, asphalt would take the first position. 

Both mud and dust adhere with more. tenacity to wood than to asphalt or 
stone, more especially after the fibers of the former begin to crush and abrade, 
and the order of merit in respect of facility of cleansing, will be first, asphalt, sec- 
ond, stone, and third, wood, whether the cleansing be done by sweeping or by 
washing. It stands to reason that a smooth, even surface can be cleansed more 
rapidly than one cut up with numerous joints. 

Mr. William Haywood, C. E., of London, in his report ‘‘ as to the relative 
advantages of wood and asphalt for paving purposes,” made to the Commissioners 
of sewers of the city of London, March 17th, 1874, says that ‘‘asphalt is the 
smoothest, dryest, cleanest, most pleasing to the eye, and most agreeable for gen- 
eral purposes, but wood is the most quiet.” It might perhaps be better to say 
that the noise produced by wood is of a different kind, which may be more disa- 
greeable to some persons and less so to others. Stone is the noisiest of all pave- 
ments. : 

The noise produced by wood is a constant rumble, that by asphalt an inces- 
sant clicking of the horses’ feet upon the street surface, with scarcely any noise 
from the carriage wheels, while stone gives out a deafening din and rattle from 
feet and vehicle combined. 

On the supposition that the surface is kept clean by either sweeping or wash- 
ing, the difference in slipperiness between wood, stone that does not polish under 
wear, and asphalt, is not great, although enough, perhaps to place asphalt last ; 
while a horse not only falls more frequently, but recovers himself less often and less 
easily upon it than upon the others, by reason of the joints in the latter, which give 
a foothold. When the surface is covered with mud, asphalt is the most slippery of 
the three, and very little mud makes it slippery. It cannot be said to be slip- 
pery when very dry, or, if free from mud, when very wet. 

In times of snow there appears to be little if any difference in this respect be- 
tween wood, asphalt and stone, but under a sharp dry frost, asphalt and stone 
are generally quite dry and safe, while wood retains moisture and is very slippery. 

In the condition in which they are usually maintained, a slight rain adds to 
the slipperiness of each of these pavements, with this difference, that on asphalt 
and stone this state begins with the rain or very soon thereafter, while the worst 
condition of wood ensues later. It however lasts longer than upon the others on 
account of its absorbent nature. With regard, therefore, to the convenience and 
comfort of those using the street, as well as those living adjacent thereto, the 


8 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


weight of opinion appears to place asphalt first, wood second and stone third, for 
all streets except those habitually crowded with heavy traffic, in which case stone 
would rise to the first place and asphalt drop to the third. 

A practical and general recognition of the fact—so well known in the medi- 
cal profession, and indeed among all ranks of cultured people—that the pave- 
ments of a city exert a direct and powerful influence upon the health of its inhab- 
itants, has never been secured. Most people claim simply that a street surface 
should be hard and smooth without being slippery, and, asa measure of economy, 
that it shall be durable and easily cleansed; but they go no further. 

The advantages of noiselessness are recognized by many upon various 
grounds; by the large majority as simply conducive to comfort, but by few as 
conducive to health; while the kind of material used, provided it satisfies the 
foregoing conditions, and the character of the surface is satisfactory with regard 
to continuity and impermeability, is far too generally considered to be a matter of 
small moment. 

The hygienic objections to granite, are first, its constant noise and din, and 
‘second its open joints which collect and retain the surface liquids, and throw off 
noxious vapors and filthy dust. 

Dr. A. McLane Hamilton; Assistant Sanitary Inspector of the city of New 
York, in an official report dated October 19, 1874, says, ‘‘a quiet and noiseless 
street pavement would advance the health of the population to a great extent. 
The sufferer from nervous diseases would find relief from the noise of empty om- 
nibuses and wagons rumbling or rattling on the rough stones, in the event of a 
removal of this nuisance. In fact there would be many more sanitary benefits 
resulting from a change than I can here detail.” 

_ It is not deemed necessary to enlarge further upon this point. The writings 
of eminent medical practitioners are full of testimony to the pernicious influence 
of street noise and din upon the health of the population, particularly upon inva- 
lids and persons with sensitive nerves. 

The noisome and noxious exhalations emanating from the putrescent matter, 
such as horse dung and urine, collected and held in the joints of stone pave- 
ments, constitutes another sanitary objection to their use in populous towns. — Ex- 
ceptions to wood may be taken upon the same, and even upon stronger grounds, 
for the material itself undergoes inevitable, and, sometimes, even early and rapid 
decay, in the process of which the poisonous gases resulting from vegetable de- 
composition are thrown off. 

The joints of a block pavement, whether of wood or stone, constitute, after 
enlargement by wear, fully one-third of its area, and under the average care, the 
surface of filth exposed to evaporation, covers fully three-fourths of the entire 
street. This foul organic matter, composed largely of the urine and excrement 
of different animals, is retained in the joints, ruts and gutters, where it undergoes 
putrefactive fermentation in warm, damp weather, and becomes the fruitful source 
of noxious effluvium. In dry weather this street soil floats in the atmosphere and 
penetrates the dwellings in the form of unwholesome dust, irritating to the eyes 


COMPARATIVE MERITS OF PAVEMENTS. 9 


and poisonous to the organs of respiration. Its damage to furniture, though se- 
rious, is unimportant in this connection. In the side gutters and underlying soil 
the foul matter exists in a more concentrated form, the supply being constantly 
renewed from the crown of the street, and in many districts, from the filthy sur- 
face drainage of backways and alleys peopled by the poorer classes. Is it too 
much to say that under such circumstances the infant population, and especially 
the children of poor people, in large towns, can only be reared under such pre- 
dispositions to disease as will constitutionally render them an easy prey to epi- 
demics in maturer years? . 

The foregoing are some of the leading hygienic objections to pavements laid 
in blocks, whether of stone, wood or other material. There are others peculiar 
to wood alone, arising from its decay, its natural porosity, and the spongy charac- 
ter conferred upon it by wear and crushing. 

‘‘Impregnation of wood with mineral matters, to preserve it from deen, 
may diminish these evils, but nothing as yet tried prevents the fibers being sepa- 
rated, and the absorption of dung and putrescent matter by the wood being con- 
tinted. The condition of absorbing mere moisture is of itself bad, but when the 
surface absorbs and retains putrescent matters it is highly noxious. The blocks 
of pavement with this material are separated by concussion, and are thus render- 
ed permeable to the surface moisture. Mr. Sharp, who examined some blocks 
taken up for re-pavement, states that he found them perfectly stained and satu- 
rated with wet and urine at the lower portions, while the upper portions were dry. 
Mr. Elliott, a member of the society, and for many years a deputy of the Com- 
mon Council of the city of London, has carefully observed the trials of new modes 
of pavement there, and objects to wood that it is continuously wet and damp. 

Wood is wet or damp, more or less, except during continued very dry weather. 
Its structure is admirably adapted to receive and hold, and then give off in evap- 
oration, very foul matters, which taint the atmosphere and so far injure health.” 
(Report of P. Le Neve Foster, Secretary Society for the Encouragement of Arts, 
Manufactures and Commerce: London, 1873. 

Prof. Fonssagrives, of France, says: ‘“‘The hygienist cannot, moreover, 
look favorably upon a street covering consisting of a porous substance capable of 
absorbing organic matter, and by its own decomposition giving rise to noxious 
miasma, which, proceeding from so large a surface, cannot be regarded as insig- 
nificant. Jam convinced that a city with a damp climate, paved entirely with 
wood, would become a city of marsh fevers.” 

The dust produced by the abrasion and wear of a wooden pavement is re- 
garded by physicians as extremely irritating to the organs of respiration and to 
the eyes, and being light in weight it floats longer in the atmosphere and is car- 
ried to a greater distance, than that from any other suitable material in use for 
street pavements. 

The evidence from a sanitarian point of view, against the use of wood for 
_ paving purposes in populous towns, is very strong, but the evils are not developed 
to the same extent in all localities. Decomposition begins in two or three years 


10 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


in clayey and retentive soils, while it is very considerably retarded and the wood 
remains habitually drier and emits less effluvia where the subsoil is sandy and 
porous. 

The most characteristic features and properties of asphalt pavements have 
been briefly summarized and it is not deemed necessary to repeat or enlarge upon 
them here. Professor Fonssagrives remarks that, ‘‘The absence of dust, the 
abatement of noise, the omission of joints—-permitting a complete impermeabi ity 
and thus preventing the putrid infection of the subsoil—are among the precious 
benefits realized by asphalt streets.” 

Upon hygienic grounds, therefore, asphalt conspicuously stands first, stone 
second, and wood third in order of merit. . 

The correct inference from the foregoing discussion is that no one pavement 
combines all the qualities most desirable in a street surface. It cannot be suffi- 
ciently rough, or sufficiently soft, to give the animals a secure foothold, and at the 
same time possess that smoothness and hardness which is so essential to easy 
draught, The advantages of open joints and entire freedom from street filth can- 
not exist together, under any reasonably cheap method of cleansing the surface. 

A pavement of impermeable bl icks, if laid upon a solid foundation, may be 
constructed and maintained in a water tight condition, by thoroughly caulking the 
joints with suitable material, leaving the surface sufficiently rough and open to 
obviate the objection to a continuous monolithic covering, but roughness, com- 
bined with the requisite hardness, is incompatible with the freedom from noise 
attainable with some kinds of acceptable street surface. 

In order, therefore, to obtain the best pavement for any given locality a judi- 
cious balancing of characteristic merits is generally necessary. The best pave- 
ment so far as we now know, for all the busiest streets of a populous city, where 
the traffic is dense, heavy and crowded, is one of rectangular stone blocks set on 
a foundation as good as concrete, or as rubble stone filled in with concrete ; and 
the next best is one of Belgian blocks set in the same manner. 

The best pavement for streets of ample width, upon which the daily traffic is 
not crowded, or for streets largely devoted to light traffic or pleasure driving, or 
lined on either side with residences, is continuous asphalt for all grades not steeper 
than t in 48 or 50. 

If the blocks of compressed asphalt fulfill their present promise, they may be 
able to replace those of stone upon streets where the latter are now preferable to 
a sheet of asphalt on account of the steepness of the grade. 

It has been urged, as an objection to a concrete foundation, that it is diffi- 
cult to take up in order to reach the gas and water pipes. This is true only in 
the sense that good work is not easily taken to pieces. But such a foundation 
when torn up or deranged from any cause, can readily be restored to its former 
condition, and the pavement relaid upon it with all its original smoothness, firm- 
ness, and stability, conditions which do not obtain with any kind of pavement 
laid upon a bed of sand or gravel. — Roads, Streets and Pavements. 


REMOVAL OF CLEOPATRAS NEEDLE TO NEW VORK. ain 


REMOVAL OF CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE FROM EGYPT 
TO NEW YORK. 


Through the skill of Lieutenant Commander Gorringe, of the United States 
Navy, backed by the splendid liberality of one of New York’s citizens, Mr. W. 
H. Vanderbilt, who has borne the entire expense of the undertaking, the remain- 
ing ‘‘Cleopatra’s Needle,” which was presented some time ago by the Khedive of 
Egypt to the United States, has been finally safely lowered from its pedestal to the 
ground; and if no unforeseen accident should occur, may be expected to reach 
our shores in the early part of the coming summer. 

Obelisks are the most simple monuments of Egyptian architecture, and among 
the most interesting that antiquity has transmitted to us, from the remoteness of 
their origin, and the doubt in which we still remain as to the period when set up- 
The oldest which now remains to us is still standing at Heliopolis, near Cairo— 
the On Ramses or Beth-Shemesh of the Hebrew Scriptures. Abraham was unborn, 
and the Pentateuch of Moses was unwritten when the inhabitant of Heliopolis 
adored his gods in the Temple of the Sun and read upon the obelisk, still in its 
place, the name of Harmachis and that of King Osortisen, who then reigned and 
reared it, and to whom Mariette Bey assigns the date of 2,851 years B. C. Pliny 
says that the Egyptian term for an obelisk conveyed the idea of a sun’s ray, which 
its form was supposed to symbolize. The term obelisk is derived from the Greek 
obelos, which meant a ‘‘spit”’—a term which the witty epigrammatics gave them, 
with the view, like all wits in such cases, to cover with an air of ridicule what 
they could not controvert by reason. Obelisks have, from the earliest periods of 
antiquity, been regarded as remarkable monuments of the skill and perseverance 
of remote ages. They must ever be considered as valuable records of the ancient 
history of the Egyptians, and of the skill of those periods; monumental evidences 
of their sovereigns and their warlike exploits. Extracted with vast labor from their 
_ quarries as monoliths, conveyed six or seven hundreds of miles down the Nile and 
erected with difficulty in front of their temples by kings to commemorate their 
victories and record their various names and titles, they are emblems of both the 
perseverance and love of glory of the Egyptians and their rulers. ‘The very fact 
of their being transported to Europe by the ancient Romans under their emperors 
shows the high value in which they were held by that people, as witnesses of their 
own world-wide victories in remote regions. 

The Egyptians set great value upon the size of their monoliths, and if a large 
block was extracted from a quarry not quite corresponding in all its sides, whether 
as to size or form, they would without scruple use it for their immediate purpose, 
or shape it as near as possible to the object they had in view, without diminishing 
its size. The consequence is that many of thir obelisks, pedestals, and sarcophagi, 
where one would have supposed the most scrupulous attention to uniformity would 
have existed, are irregular in shape. The sides of an obelisk rarely corresponded 


12 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


exactly with the breadth of its face, or the height of the shaft to any fixed relation 
with the width at the base; and there is a like disregard in the height of the pyra- 
midion (the pyramid-like apex), which, however, was high-peaked and never 
stunted. Nevertheless we may assume that the shaft varied from eight to nine 
diameters high up to the pyramidion, which itself was from sixty to seventy-five 
hundredths of the breadth at the base. The four sides or faces of the obelisk were 
usually square, but occasionally they were convex; a fact proving the nice per- 
ception for effect which prevailed in the minds of the Egyptians, as thus the light 
was much softer upon the surface, the shades less crude, and the angles less cut- 
ting. Some of the huge blocks intended for obelisks came from the quarry mis- 
shapen at the smaller end, and to remedy such a defect they covered it with a 
metal capping of the required shape rather than reduce its length by cutting off 
the rugged portion. The summit of the Luxor obelisk, now in Paris, was irregu- 
lar in shape and quite rough, and must originally have been capped with metal. 
Usually, obelisks had one, two, or three vertical hieroglyphs. It may be assumed 
that only one series was intended by the original Pharaoh; but it appears that his 
son, successor, or successors, added a line on each side; and it is remarkable that 
earlier hieroglyphs were much deeper cut than the more recent ones. Mariette 
Bey, the Egyptologist, mentions the fact that the faces of obelisks were sometimes 
gilded, the hieroglyphs themselves retaining their original color and actual surface 
of the granite. On the subject of the dies, pedestals, and steps upon which the 
monoliths were anciently raised we have little information, for the bottom portions 
of those now left standing are encumbered and surrounded by huge fallen blocks 
of stone, preventing their full size from being seen. 

All of the large monoliths were of pink granite taken from the quarries of 
Syene. The position of these quarries must have been of the utmost importance 
in facilitating the application of that fine material. Situated below the cataracts, 
when once the masses were extracted from their beds, no obstruction presented 
itself in their course down the river to their destination, whether to Memphis, 
Heliopolis, or the delta. Twenty-seven of the forty-two obelisks now known 
were from Syene, and they are doubtless the largest. An unextracted block still 
remains at Syene, 95 feet long by 11 feet in diameter, with the quarrymen’s marks 
on it. Sir Gardner Wilkinson states that the final operation of extraction, when 
three sides of a mass had been worked around, was by cutting a groove or channel 
about a couple of inches in depth, and kindling a fire along its whole extent. 
When the stone was intensely heated, cold water was poured into the groove, and 
the block detached itself with a clear fracture. Wedges of wood were also inserted, 
saturated with water, then exposed to heat, and the expansion rent the mass asun- 
der. Thus detached it was drawn down to the river, where it was incased, or upon 
a galley or raft floated down the Nile to near the spot where it was ultimately to 
be set up. From the river bank it was then hauled up to the Propylea in front 
of which it was to stand. There are no hieroglyphics or paintings extant to show 
us how the obelisk was raised and placed in its final position. That this was a 


REMOVAL OF CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE TO NEW VORK. 13 


most critical operation is obvious, and its difficulty is illustrated by an anecdote 
related by Pliny: Rameses erected one obelisk 140 cubits high and of prodigious 
thickness. It is said 12,000 men were employed on the work. To insure the 
safety of the operation by the extremest skill of the architect, he had his own son 
fastened to the summit while it was raised. 

As to the tools used in carving the granite we know nothing. Hardly any 
iron tools have been preserved among the relics of the tombs. With what mate- 
rial did the Egyptians sculpture with such refined delicacy and exquisite sharpness 
the mouth, eyes, ears, and other features of their statues, and the sharp contours 
of their hieroglyphs? We are possessed of no process by which brass may be 
sufficiently hardened for the purpose. Could they have softened the surface by — 
some chemical operation on the harder elements of the stones? No one has as 
yet been able to inform us, and the secret mystery of the execution of the Egypt- 
ian sculpture still excites our wonder and admiration. 

The positions of obelisks were before the gigantic pylons which formed the 
entrance gateways to the fore courts of their temples, and they were without 
exception always in pairs. At Karnac the situation of the two lofty ones erected 
by Queen Hatsou (one of which still stands, and is 108 feet 6 inches high, the 
tallest known) was between two lofty pylons only forty to fifty feet apart. Those 
in front of the outer pylon are not so distant in advance of it. Consequently the 
Egyptians disregarded the immediate proximity of a high wall backing them up, 
and none are known situated in wide open spaces. ‘The sacred way led up from 
the river, flanked on eath side with variously headed sphinxes. At Karnac the 
dromos is one mile and one-third long, with a line of sphinxes on each side... Ap- 
proaching nearer, the worshipper finds two obelisks on the right and left, not 
necessarily of the.same height. At Luxor one is seven or eight feet higher than 
the other, and to diminish the disparity in size, the shorter one is raised on a lofty 
pedestal and brought some feet in advance of its companion. Attached to the 
face of the pylon are six gigantic sitting statues of kings, majestic in size, and 
seated in the hieratic posture. The pylon itself, perhaps 200 feet wide and too 


feet high, forms the background of the whole, crowned by its cavetto cornice, and 


its surface covered with the colored sculptures of the victorious Rameses in his 
chariot, with upraised arm, slaying his enemies, trampling them under his horses’ 
hoofs, and alone dispersing them in flight. In the center of the structure is the 


: portal, 56 feet high, through which.the sacred or triumphal procession passe 


all its gorgeousness to within the sacred precincts, there to observe the ritual 
ceremonies of the mysterious Egyptian cult of one or more of their eight great 
divinities or animal gods. Erasmus Wilson, in his book entitled ‘‘Cleopatra’s 
Needle” (p. 178), enumerates the existing obelisks as follows: Rome, 12; Italy, 
in addition, 4; Egypt, 6; Constantinople, 2; France, 2; England, 6; Germany, 1 

For nearly 2,000 years there have stood on the shores of the Levant, 
near Alexandria, two obelisks of rose-colored granite known as ‘‘Cleopatra’s Nee 


dies.” We are told by Egyptologists that they were taken from the quarries at 


14 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Syene, and thence conveyed to Heliopolis, where by Sesostris they were set up 
before the entrance to the temple of the god Tum, or the Setting Sun. Pliny 
‘states that they were transported to the Nile with the aid of flat-bottomed boats, 
floating in canals specially prepared for that purpose. Sharpe says that they were 
placed in an erect position by cutting a groove in the pedestal, in which the 
lower edge of the monolith might turn as if it were a hinge, the top of the shaft 
‘being elevated by means of a mound of earth, the size of which was continually 
increased till the stone stood securely erect. The obelisks were brought to Alex- 
andria during the reign of Tiberius, but bear their present popular name because 
of a tradition that they were taken to Alexandria in the time of Cleopatra. Their 
age is estimated to be about 3,300 years. One of the obelisks has until recently 
been standing where it was originally placed when brought to Alexandria, but the 
other, which is the less perfect of the two, has for many years been lying prostrate 
on the sand. In 1819, Mehemet Ali offered the fallen monolith to the Prince 
Regent of England, and the British Government accepted the gift, but afterward 
declined to act in the matter because of the expense attending removal. In 1851, 
the subject was again brought up; but, as before, no action was taken. Finally, 
in 1876, Dr. Erasmus Wilson concluded to pay the expenses himself of transport- 
ing the great monolith, and bargained with Mr. John Dixon, a well-known 
engineer and contractor, to bring it to England and erect it on the Thames Em- 
bankment for $50.000. Both of these ‘‘Needles’”—the one transported to England, 
and its more perfect companion recently presented to the United States by the 
Khedive of Egypt—possess great historical value, aside from that sentimental 
estimation which enlightened nations place upon all monuments of antiquity. As 
far as known the hieroglyphs on the obelisk which is coming to this country have 
never been deciphered, but as both obelisks are of the same age, and came origi- 
nally from the same city and temple, it is not unlikely that the inscriptions refer 
to the same, or, at least, to similar subjects. When the London obelisk was 
unearthed, it was found to be just 68 feet long, and its weight about two hundred 
tons. ‘The hieroglyphics which covered each of its four faces were washed, and 
- then. deciphered by Brugsch Bey, the eminent Egyptologist. He found that they 
referred to the lives of the two Kings, Thothmes III. and Rameses II. Subse- 
quently a correct translation of the whole has been made by Dr. Samuel Birch, 
of the British museum, and is as follows: 

‘¢ First Side, Central Line, toward east when erected on Embankment.— 
The Horus, lord of the upper and lower country, the powerful bull; crowned in 
Uas or Thebes, the King of the North and South Ramen Cheper has made his. 
monument to his father, Haremachu (Horus in the horizons), he has set up to him 
two great obelisks, capped with gold, at the first time of the festivals of thirty 
years, according to his wish he did it the son of the Sun Thothmes (III.) type of 
types did it beloved of Haremachu (Horus of the horizons) ever living. 

‘« First Side—Left Line.—The Horus of the upper and lower country, the pow- 
erful bull, beloved of the Sun, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ra-user-ma, 


REMOVAL OF CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE TO NEW VORK. 15 


approved of the Sun, lord of the festivals, like Ptah-Tanen, son of the Sun, Ra- 
meses beloved of Amen, a strong bull, like the son of Nu (Osiris), whom none 
can withstand, the lord of the two countries, Ra-user-ma, approved of the Sun, 
son of the Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, giver of life, like the Sun. 

«¢ First Side—Right Line.—The Horus of the upper and lower country, the 
powerful bull, son of Tum, King of the South and North, lord of diadems, guar- 
dian of Egypt, chastiser of foreign countries, son of the Sun Ramessu (II.), be- 
loved of Amen, dragging the South to the Mediterranean Sea, the North to the 
Poles of Heaven, lord of the two countries, Ra-user-ma, approved of the Sun, son ~ 
of the Sun Ramessu (II.), giver of life, ike the Sun. 

‘¢Second Side—Central Line, toward river (south), as erected on Embank_ 
ment.—The Horus of the upper and lower country, the powerful bull, crowned 
by Truth, the King of the North and South, Cheper. ‘The lord of the gods has 
multiplied to him festivals on the great Persea tree in the midst of the place of the 
Phoenix (Heliopolis). He is recognized as his son, a divine chief, his limbs come 
forth daily as he wishes, the son of the Sun Thothmes (III.), ruler of An (Helio- 
polis), beloved of Haremachu (Horus in horizons). 

‘¢Second Side—Left Line.—The Horus of the Upper and Lower country, 
the powerful bull, beloved of Truth, King of the North and South Ra-user-ma, 
approved of the Sun, born of the gods, holding the two lands (of Egypt), as the 
son of the Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, making his frontier wherever 
he wished, who is at rest through his power, the lord of the two countries, Ra- 
user-ma, approved of the Sun, Ramessu beloved of Amen, the luster of the Sun. 

‘* Second Side—Right Line.—The Horus of the upper and lower country, 
the powerful bull, son of the god Chepera, the King of the North and South, Ra- 
user-ma, approved of the Sun. The golden trait, rich in years, the most power. 
ful, the eyes of mankind behold what he has done, nothing has been said in 
opposition to the lord of the two countries. Ra-user-ma approved of the Sun, 


the son of the Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, giver of life, like the Sun. 


‘¢Third Side—Central Line, west side as erected on Embankment.—The 
Horus, lord of the upper and lower country, the powerful bull, beloved of Truth, 


the King of the South and North Ramen Cheper, his father Tum has set up to 
him his great name, placing it in the temple belonging to An (Heliopolis), giving 


him the throne of Seb, the dignity of Cheper, the son of the Sun, Thothmes 

(III.), good and true, beloved of the Spirits of An (Heliopolis), ever living. 
‘¢Third Side—Right Line.—The Horus of the upper and lower country, the 

powerful bull, well beloved of Ra, the King of the South and North Ra-urser-ma, 


approved of the Sun, lord of festivals of thirty years, like his father Ptah, son of 
the Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of men, son of Tum, beloved of his loins; Athor, 
_ the goddess, directing the two countries, has given him birth, the lord of the two 


“countries, Ra-user-ma, approved of the Sun, the son of the Sun, Ramessu, (I1.), 


beloved of men, giver of life, like the Sun. 


ona ieee 


‘Third Side—Left Line. —The Horus, lord of the two countries, the power- 


16 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ful bull, son of the Shu, the King of the South and North, Ra-user-ma, approved 
of the Ra, the lord of diadems, director of Egypt, chastiser of foreign lands, son 
of the Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, bringing his offering daily in the 
house of his father Tum, not has been done as he did in the house of his father, 
the lord of the two countries, Ra-user-ma, approved of the Sun, the son of the 
Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, giver of life, like the Sun. 

‘Fourth Side—Central Line, toward Road (north), as erected on Embank- 
ment.—The Horus of the upper and lower country, beloved of the god of the tall, 
upper crown, the King of the South and North, Ramen Cheper, making offer- 
ings, beloved of the gods, supplying the altar of the Spirits of An (Heliopolis), 
welcoming their persons at the two times of the year, that he might repose through 
them with a sound life of hundreds of thousands of years with very numerous fes- 
tivals of thirty years, the son of the Sun Thothmes (III.), the divine ruler, beloved 
of Haremachu (Horus of the horizons), ever living. 

‘Fourth Side—Right Side.—The Horus, lord of the upper and lower coun- 
try, the powerful bull, beloved of Ra, the King of the South and North, Ra-user- 
ma, approved of the Sun, the Sun born of the gods, holding the countries, the 
son of the Sun Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, the strong hand, the powerfuj 
victor, bull of rulers, king of kings, lord of the two countries, Ra-user-ma, 
approved of the Sun, son of the Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, beloved 
of Tum, lord of An (Heliopolis), giver of life. 

‘Fourth Side—Left Line. —The Horns, the powerful bull, son of Ptah-Tanen, 
lord of the upper and lower country, the King of the South and North, Ra-user- 
ma, approved of the Sun, the hawk of gold, rich in years, the greatest of victors, 
the son of the Sun Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, leading captive the Rutennu 
(Syrians) and Petit (Libyans) out of their countries to the seat of the house of his 
father, lord of the two countries, Ra-user-ma, approved of the Sun, son of the 
Sun, Ramessu (II.), beloved of Amen, beloved of Shu, the great god, like the 
Sun. 

‘«'The scenes on the pyramidion represent the monarch Thothmes III., under 
the form of a sphinx, with hands offering to the Gods Ra and Atum, the two 
principal deities of Heliopolis. The offerings are water, wine, milk, and incense. 
The inscriptions are the names and titles of the deities, the title of Thothmes III., 
and the announcement of each of his special gifts. 

As before stated, the obelisk which is coming to this country is the more 
perfect of the two, and is the one usually referred to in the books as ¢he ‘‘Cleopa- 
tra’s Needle.” ‘The fact that the Khedive should have presented this noble mon- 
ument to America has excited considerable ill-natured comment in England, and 
has been regarded with considerable jealousy. The temple at Heliopolis, where 
these two monoliths originally stood, is. of interest to biblical students, as it is sup- 
posed to be one in which Moses became learned in all the wisdom of Egypt. 
When the inscription on our ‘‘ Needle” shall have been deciphered, further light 
may be shed upon the history of the remote past in Egypt, which is so profoundly 


REMOVAL OF CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE TO NEW VORK. 17 


connected with the whole rise and progress of the religions, the philosophies, and 
the arts of our own race and our own times. 

The method of lowering and transporting the obelisk to this country is 
entirely original with Lieutenant Commander Gorringe, who has been intrusted 
with the entire matter. The gigantic framework to be used in lowering the mon- 
olith was shipped for Liverpool, October 7th, 1879, on board the Guion steamer 
Nevada. 

From Liverpool it was trarishipped to Alexandria, where it arrived safely, 
and the work of erection immediately began. The machinery was constructed — 
at the works of Messrs. Roebling’s Sons Company, at Trenton, after plans made 
by Lieutenant Commander Gorringe, its total weight being 128,000 pounds. The 
first operation after arriving at Alexandria was, after erecting the proper scaffold- 
ing, to incase the monolith with 2-inch oak planking, bound at intervals of 3 feet 
with strong iron bands. Then the obelisk was guyed at the top from four points, 
like the mast of a vessel, so that there could be no possibility of its falling over. 
The center of gravity had been calculated at a point of twenty-six feet above the 
base, and here trunnions were placed on either side and bolted across the sides by 
eight 134-inch iron and four 2-inch steel bolts: The trunnions were cast from 
cannon metal only, and that of the best quality. The trunnion plates were four 
inches thick, nine feet wide, and six feet high. At the center was the turned 
trunnion, 33 inches long, and 18 inches in diameter. The weight of each trun- 
nion and plate was 1,250 pounds, making together 14% tons. The next operation 
was to quarry out four 6-inch channel ways through the base of the obelisk, and 
insert I beams to assist in raising the foundations. Next the foundations were 
constructed. These consisted of two platforms, one on each side, of 3-inch oak 
planking, each 6 feet wide and 24 feet long: On top of these were set four oak 
sticks, 12 by 18, firmly bolted together. The iron work of the towers was then 
built on top of the preliminary foundation. Each tower was constructed of six 
12-inch heavy wrought iron I beams, spreading out at the base to a distance of 21 
feet, and converging at the top to within 5 feet. The beams at their base rested 
on four heavy I beams, and were securely riveted to the platform by means of 
plates and knees. Placed on top of these posts were caps, each five feet long 
and thirty inches wide, which also were secured by means of plates and knees. 
‘The posts were braced from top to bottom by angle and channnel irons, 
making the towers perfectly rigid. Placed on top of the caps, and securely — 
bolted to the tower proper, were cast iron journals weighing 3,700 pounds, 
each forming the grooves for the trunnions to work in. A 6-inch rib had 
been cast in the bottom of each of the trunnions, and in these ribs were four 
2-inch holes. Through each of these holes 134-inch iron rods were inserted, con- 
nected with similar from the 6-inch I beams running through the base, by means 
of right and left thread turn buckles, which were used to raise the obelisk from its 
foundation and throw the weight on the trunnions. On the 6th of December, 
everything being ready, the monolith was successfully raised in the presence of 


IV—2 


18 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


4 


5,000 people who had come to witness the operation; the foundation was then 
removed, and the obelisk left hanging free. The obelisk having been turned over 
to a horizontal position, Captain Gorringe next proceeded to build two piles of 
beams placed crosswise; and, as soon as they reached the height of the stone, 
jacks were used to lift the latter out of its trunnion bearings and block it up. All 
the construction was then removed, and, foot by foot, the obelisk was lowered to 
the ground by reducing the piles, first from one side and then the other. On the 
ground the obelisk was incased in an iron cradle, consisting of a parabolic truss 
on each side, connected by means of heavy channel flow beams and braces. To 
the flow beams two heavy channel bars were riveted, and corresponding channels 
were laid on the ground to form the track for the obelisk to move on, the move- 
ment being effected by inserting 8-inch cannon balls into the grooves formed by 
the channel bars, and the track being laid sixty feet ahead of the cradles, so that 
as the stone was pushed along, the track behind was taken up and placed in front. 
From the base of the obelisk to the sea a trench had been dug, which, at the end 
near the sea, is 95 feet long by 4o feet broad, and 16 feet deep; in this portion a 
float, constructed for the purpose, will be used to transport the obelisk to the port 
of Alexandria, a distance of about a mile in a straight line. In digging the pit 
around the base of the monolith, Captain Gorringe discovered that the shaft stood 
on a pedestal, the existence of which was before unknown. It was 9 feet square, 
7 feet in height, and rested upon three well-preserved marble steps with a base of 
masonry. From the lower surface of the lower step the obelisk rises 81 feet 2% 
inches to its summit, and its estimated weight is about 196 tons. At the port of 
Alexandria the obelisk will be placed on a large ship selected for the purpose, and 
so brought to this country. [This plan is very different from that adopted by the 
English engineer, which, it will be remembered, was to inclose the obelisk in a 
cylindrical vessel formed of wrought iron plates, and provided with water-tight 
compartments. This, after being rolled into the sea, and towed to the harbor, 
was ballasted and provided with a keel, deck, sail, and rudder. The vessel was 
then placed in charge of two or three skilled mariners, for whom a small cabin on 
deck was provided, and towed to England by a steam tug, the sail being simply 
for steadying the cylinder.] Should our obelisk reach port in safety the same 
machinery, with very slight modification, will be used to place it in an erect posi- 
tion, after a proper site has been selected for it. 

There can be no doubt that our citizens, as they pass by this obelisk after its 
erection, will have their curiosity excited by the sight of hieroglyphs which have 
probably been seen and read by the Jews at the time of Moses, or when the Sav- 
ior was taken by his parents to Egypt as a place of refuge from Herod’s rage. 

The following is a list of the more notable obelisks, with their present sites, 
SIZES, (CEC. 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN QUESTIONED. 19 
OBELISKS. 
Present Site. Size. Height. | By or to whom Dedicated. 
ft. 2 ita alee ett in.| 

Heliopolis : SO te OF 3108 210 00)6 Osortisen,, 2, S5r4B. C: 

Biggeg-Crocodopolis OM Olean ola atts onms| Ditto: 

Karnak : x go 6 |Thothmes I. 

Ditto | Mariette. [108 — ro Hatasou, 1,660 B. C. 

Lateran, Rome QS. GOP TO Lose) Onl (ehothmes Miele 

Vatican, Rome 5 ie 82. g _ |No hieroglyphs. 

Alexandria * AT OO ee Ont CO. we h bothmes! Ith: 

London -|7 104% X%7 8] 68 5% |Ditto. 

Constantinople Broken. Reo) ID eric, 

Sion House . . SAO Oe 7 6 = |Ditto. 

Thebaid, Alnwick . Se OSA SO WO) 7 3. |Amenotep II. 

Porta del Popolo, Romel8 5 <8 5| 78 6 |Seti Menepthah I. 

Trinita del Monti,Rome|4 3 Aga Gu» Ditto: 

EO esc Ao) ated Stan ch as -|ighed 2 o }Rameses II. 

Paris aes 1B VO) SEO GOS a | MD taKo 

San, or Tanis . Soe Neco nal ence nO Hagen 

Monte- Citorio, Rome (hoc: 7 a5) 2) SESOStrIS: 

Piazza Navona, Rome|4 5 BAe 13 

Pantheon, Romie . Fragment. | 50 0 /|Ditto. 

Villa Mattei, OMe vs Sia 

Piazza Minerva, Rome| Fragment. | 17 0 

Brash Viuseums,) 2. ln V6 >< r* 5) 8 » 2) |Amyrtecus I 

Constantinople, 3)... |6 o%><6 oc) 35) Oo \Nectancho'l. 

Corfe Castle, Phile .|2 2 Bia 1% |Ptolemy Evergetes II., 150 B.C. 
_ Benevento Bais 9 ° 

Monte Pincio, Rome . Peso) 0) \Eladrianus. 

*Presented to the United States. 
— Scientific American Supplement. 
x 
CEOEOG 


_ THE PRESENT STATE OF THE EVIDENCE REGARDING THE 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.* 


BY T. MCK. HUGHES, M. A., WOODWARDIAN PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, 


[The following paragraphs, discussing the evidence as to Man’s existence 
in or before the Glacial era in Europe, and the remarks succeeding, by Professor 
Dawkins, are cited from a paper bearing the above title. ] 


We may dismiss at once the case [of supposed human remains], reported 


*Read before the Victoria Institute, 1879. 


20 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


from the Dardanelles, of works of art found in deposits said to be of Miocene age. 
The descriptions* prove that it was not given on the authority of one competent 
to judge in such a case, and it never has been confirmed. 

In beds said to be Miocene; at Thenay, near Pontleroy, the Abbé Bourgeois 
found flints which he supposed were dressed by man. ‘These flints are now 
exhibited in the Museum at St. Germain, where I saw them with Sir Charles 
Lyell several years ago, and again with others since. Some of them seemed 
entirely natural, common forms, such as we find over the surface everywhere, 
broken by all the various accidents of heat and frost and blows. A few seemed 
as if they might have been man’s handiwork—cores from which he had struck 
off flakes such as we know were used by early man, of which I show examples. 
Yet this is not quite clear, for, had the evidence been good that they were found 
in place, there still would have been a doubt whether they were man’s work. But 
when we came to inquire about the evidence that they occurred in beds of Mio- 
cene age, we learned that only those that we put down as natural were found by 
the Abbé himself; the others were brought in by workmen, picked up, we may 
suppose, upon the heaps turned over by their spades, and so perhaps, just dropped 
down from the surface. 

Next in the Crag the teeth of sharks, bored through, as if for wear, were 
found, } part of a string of ornaments such as are commonly worn by savages. Of 
these I give examples: one a boar’s tusk, from the lake dwellings of Switzerland ; 
another, a tooth from a deposit of palzolithic age, in a cave just above the mirac- 
alous grotto of Lourdes in the Pyrenees. I have examined fragments of bone and 
teeth [from the Crag] of various sizes and shapes, and found them marked over 
the surface with many a pit or deeper hole, or even perforation irregularly placed, 
not as if by design, but by accident. ‘There they were in every stage, all over, 
yet of one type. One sawn across explains the whole. The chamber of a shell 
which bores its way into the solid rock. or softer shale was clearly shown. When 
the mass lay embedded in the mud it was but touched here and there. If it was 
thin the animal bored through into the sand or clay below, piercing the tooth 
quite through—a perfectly well-turned and finished work, so good it was thought 
to be man’s. But if the mass was thick and near the surface, the little mollusk 
made a home entirely within it, and its shell often remains there, and reveals the 
_ history and manner of formation of the holes. 

An account has also been given by the Abbé Bourgeois of flints from Pliocene 
beds at St. Prest, near to Chartres, said to be worked by man, but this we may 
dismiss on the same ground as those before referred to given on the same 
authority. { 

Another case brought forward from abroad but recently, has found as much 
favor here as there. Around the Lake of Zurich there are left traces of ancient 
lakes at somewhat higher levels. A bed of clay below with glacial stones, a bed 


*Journ. Anthrop Inst., vol. iii, p. 127, April, 1873. 

fJourn. Anthrop. Inst., vol. ii, p. 91 April, 1872. 

Bourgeois, Congr. Inter. d’Anthrop., 1867, p. 67. 

?@Rutimeyer, Archiy. fur Anthropologie, 1875; Heer, Primzval World of Switzerland. 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN QUESTIONED. 21 


of plants between, half-turned to coal, a mass of clay, moraine-like on the top, tell 
of the time when Alpine ice crept farther down the hills, and touched upon the 
lake, now more, now less encroaching. In these beds the peaty mass of lignite, 
known as Diirnten coal, was largely dug for fuel. I have worked a long time 
down below to see the evidence myself. The sequence of the beds is clear. But 
recently two Swiss professors have proclaimed that they have obtained proofs 
incontestable that man was there, and wove a basket, fragments of which were 
found among the drifted plants which formed the coal. ‘These fragments, it is 
said, consist of pointed sticks, sharpened across the grain, not tapering naturally, _ 
and a cross set of binding withes, all now pressed and changed, but by such char- 
acters referred to work of man. Now I have found myself along the shore frag- 
ments of wood and twigs half decomposed and waveworn till they were cut to a 
point obliquely to the grain, as they describe the Diirnten sticks. Across such 
fragments often others fell, and when the whole was then compressed what won- 
der if they left a mark of wattle or of basket-work ? and the whole mass has sutf- 


_ fered such great pressure from the superincumbent weight of clay that all the 


round twigs and.stems are squeezed quite flat, as in the specimens before you. 
These Diirnten pointed sticks, however, I have not seen, and, therefore, speak 
with caution, showing only how I think the thing might be otherwise explained. 

Widespread beds of loam and sand, and gravel, cover the lower levels of 
East Anglia; and, probably ranging over a vast period, have been collectively 
described as ‘‘ middle-glacial,” for below are glacial beds, and in the middle series 
bowlder clay, and over them, whether in part vemanie or not, another bowlder 
clay. Lying in hollows and on the flanks of valleys,-cut through this ancient loam 
and other beds, are river terraces of later date; and these, because in great part — 
made up of the older beds, are like them, and require experience to distinguish. 
In these old terrace-deposits implements of man’s undoubted work have long been 
found; but recently it has been said that some of these beds belong to the older 
series.{ This, then, becomes a matter of opinion. For my part, being well 
acquainted with the deposits in question, and having listened to the evidence, I 
give my testimony quite against the Glacial or inter-Glacial age of any of the beds 
from which the hatchets came. It is, however, said that other evidence has since 
been found, conclusive as to this. I can but criticise that which has been adduced ; 
but I will say that if such has been found and been so long withheld, while there 
are so many deeply interested, and so many who would like to verify at once and 
on the ground, the statements made, then I do hold that there has not been shown 
that love of full investigation which is the soul of science. 

In many countries where rocks of limestone tower in cliffs and crags above 
the valleys, and are tapped below by undermining streams, the rain which falls — 
upon the higher ground is lost in cracks and joints, and carries off the rock dis- 
solved in water, which contains a little acid caught by the falling rain or drawn 


from decomposing plants. ‘The fissures thus enlarged into the gaping chasms 


aa 


called ‘‘swallows’ holes,” the ‘‘katabothra” of the Greeks, admit a copious tor- 


{Mem. Geol. Surv. Geology of Fenland. 


22 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


rent, carrying stones and sand which grind and bruise and open out the jointed 
rocks into great caves and subterranean courses. ‘These, when tapped at lower 
levels, are soon left dry, and offer to prowling beasts of prey a safe retreat, and 
often man availed himself of them, as testify the Adullamites and Troglodytes of 
every age. 

From such a cave up in the crags of Craven some evidence is adduced tha 
man existed far back into Glacial times, and this, perhaps, is the best case that. 
has been urged* There a large group of animals, such as occur elsewhere along 
with man, and more doubtfully, traces of man himself, were found in beds over 
lapped by Glacial clay which had sealed up the mouth of the vast den in which 
these relics lay. This excavation I have watched myself at intervals from the 
commencement, and I hold that as the cliff fell back by wet or frost, and limestone 
fragments fell over the cave mouth, with them also came masses of clay, which, 
since the Glacial times, had lain in hollows in the rock above. We dug and found 
such there, and, more, I observed that the clay lay across the mouth as though it 
had thus fallen, and not as if it came direct from Glacial ice that pushed its way 
athwart the crag in which the cave occurs. It seemed to have fallen obliquely 
from the side where the fissured rock more readily yielded to the atmospheric 
waste, so that it somewhat underlay the part immediately above the cave. On 
the inside the muddy water which collected after flood, held back by all this clay, 
filled every crevice and the intervals between the fallen limestone rock, while still 
outside was the open /a/us of angular fragments known as ‘‘screes.” 

These are the most important cases that I know where man has been referred. 
to Glacial or inter-Glacial times; but, all, it seems to me, quite inconclusive. On 
the contrary, there is much in them, and much besides, pointing the other way. 
In support of which opinion I will now offer some independent evidence, showing 
that some similar beds with man and the beasts that are found with him in earli- 
est times can be proved to be post-Glacial. * * * 


[ Remarks on the foregoing paper by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.| 


I entirely hold with Professor Hughes in the view which he takes relating to. 
the antiquity of man, and the necessity of looking narrowly into facts bearing on 
the question. All the alleged cases of the existence of man before the Palao- 
lithic age, on the Continent, seem to me on a careful inquiry to be unsatisfactory. 
If the flints found at Thenay, and supposed to prove the existence of Miocene 
man, be artificial, and be derived from a Miocene stratum, there is, to my mind, 
an insuperable difficulty in holding them to be the handiwork of man. Seeing 
that no existing species of quadruped was then alive, it is to me perfectly incredi- 
ble that man, the most highly specialized of all, should have been living at that 
time. The flints shown in Paris by Professor Gaudry appear to be artificial ; 
while those in the Museum of St. Germain appear to be partly artificial and. 
partly natural, some of the former, from their condition, having been obviously 
picked up on the surface of the ground. The cuts on the Miocene fossil bones. 


*Tiddeman, Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1870-8. 


AUTOMATIC MENTAL ACTION. 28 


discovered in several other localities in France may have been produ ed by other 
agencies than the hand of man. 

Nor in the succeeding Pliocene age is the evidence more convincing. The 
human skull found in a railway cutting at Olmo, in Northern Italy, and supposed 
to be of Pliocene age, was associated with an implement, according to Dr. John 
Evans, of Neolithic age. Some of the cut fossil bones discovered in various parts 
of Lombardy, and considered by Professor Capellini to be Pliocene, were undoubt- 
edly produced by a cutting implement before they became mineralized, a point on 
which the examination of the specimens leaves me no reason for doubt. I do not, 
however, feel satisfied that the bones became mineralized in the Pliocene age; 
and the fact, that only two species of quadrupeds now alive then dwelt in Europe, 
renders it highly improbable that man was living at this time. This zodlogical 
difficulty seems to me insuperable. 

The only other case which demands notice is that which is taken to establish 
the fact that man was living in the inter-Glacial age, in Switzerland. The speci- 
mens supposed to offer ground for this hypothesis consist of a few pointed sticks 
in Professor Riitimeyer’s collection at Basle, of the shape and size of a rather thin 
cigar, crossed by a series of fibers running at right angles. They appear to me 
after a careful examination to present no mark of the hand of man, and to be 
merely the resinous knots which have dropped out of a rotten pine trunk, and 
survived the destruction of the rest of the tree. As the evidence stands at present, 
there is no proof, on the Continent or in this country, of man having lived in this 
part of the world before the middle stage of the Pleistocene age, when most of the 
existing mammalia were alive, and when mammoths, rhinoceroses, bisons, horses 
and Irish elks, lions, hyenas, and bears haunted the neighborhood of London, 
and were swept down by the floods of the Thames as far as Erith and Crayford. 
—American Journal of Science. 


Pov CEOLoOGy: 


AUTOMATIC MENTAL ACTION. 
BY PROF. J. M. LONG. 


The development of the life of man depends upon the dynamic arrangements 
in his constitution for action. Those who study man from both the physiological 
and the psychological point of view, should, therefore, take into the account all 
those springs of action with which the Creator has endowed him. That part of 
the physical nature of man directly concerned in action is the nervous system, the 
functions of which are the generation, transmission and distribution of motion. 
That part of the nervous organism known as the Cerebro-Spinal system may be 
properly termed the Physical Mechanism of Mind, because psychical phenomena 


24 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


are conditioned by its action. Psychical, or mental action, assumes three distinct 
forms, namely, Reflex, Latent, and Conscious. 

We have two kinds of reflex mental action—one natural and instinctive; the 
other artificial and acquired. Reflex mental action is that form of psychical phe- 
nomena which occur without the intervention of consciousness,and which, though 
unconscious, accomplish ends analogous to those which take place under the 
direction of thought and volition. 

We have what is termed a reflex psychical action when impulse is sent along 
an afferent nerve from the sunface of the body, and which,on reaching the sensory 
ganglia, is reflected or thrown back along an efferent nerve, in the form of muscu- 
lar motion. In this case an ingoing movement, resulting in a sensation, is con- 
verted into an outgoing movement without an intervention of consciousness. 
Such movements are called Automatic, because they are effected through the 
medium of the nervous mechanism mechanically, like the movements of automata. 
Illustrations of this class of psychic actions are furnished in the batting of the eyes 
when some object is suddenly thrust before them; in the unconscious throwing 
out of the hands to stay the body when about to fall; in the drawing up of the feet 
of a sleeping person when the soles are tickled. 

To ascertain the seat of reflex psychical action, has been one of the interest- 
ing and important questions of modern psychology. The study of psychical 
phenomena from the objective point of view has proved that the brain is not the 
sole seat of mind. The seat of consciousness is in the brain ; but the other forms 
of mental action cannot be restricted to that organ, but are developed, with more 
or less intensity, in the other parts of the nervous system. Consciousness is the 
eye of the soul, and is, therefore, a faculty. But it does not thence follow that 
the mind is active only when this faculty is active. The mind has other sources 
and springs of action. Descartes, followed by many philosophers, identified con- 
sciousness with mind, as though one should confound seeing with perceiving. 
Unconscious mental action we regard as the basis and condition of conscious 
mental action. In pure reflex actions, the brain, or cerebrum, takes no part. 
They are effected through the medium of the spinal cord and the other motor 
centers, of which the cord is a prolongation into the baseof the brain. Hence, 
animals of a low order, being more tenacious of life than those highly developed, 
when deprived of their brains will still perform reflex movements. Brain- 
_ less pigeons will smooth down their feathers ; brainless frogs will rub off sulphuric 
acid which has been dropped upon them, or adjust themselves on a board as it is 
inclined at different angles. Infants, born without brains, have been known to 
perform the usual operation of sucking. There is said to be a man ina French 
hospital who, in consequence of a wound received in the late war with Germany, 
passes out from his normal conscious life once in each month, and lives, for a day 
or two, a life of unconscious reflex action, like a decapitated frog or pigeon. He 
neither sees, hears nor tastes, nor smells, having only one sense organ in a state 
of activity, namely, that of touch, which is exalted into a state of preternatural 


AUTOMATIC MENTAL ACTION. 25 


acuteness. Yet, without consciousness, he is said to go through his daily routine - 
of movements with automatic regularity. All those accustomed actions he per- 
forms through the medium of the spinal cord and the other motor centers, inde- 
pendently of the brain. 

Primary reflex mental action constitutes the innate and fundamental provision 
in the human organism for the maintenance of life. The conditions of life require 
that there shall be something from which to start at the time that the animal sets 
up an independent existence, in order that the organism shall be, to a certain ex- 
tent, in harmony with environing relations. This primitive and innate provision 
for action is called Instinctive, because it is original and unacquired, and exists in 
its full power previous to experience and instruction. . Man, at birth, begins a 
life without knowledge and experience. In this condition, his only guide is in- 
stinctive reflex action, until intelligence and volition become developed. Hence, 
instinctive reflex action forms the basis upon which all subsequent mental develop- 
ment and education take plaee. 

The organism of man is arranged in harmony witha fixed and preéstablished 
system of nature. ‘To render the development of the organic and mental life pos- 
sible, the rudimentary psychical nature must begin in unconsciousness, or reflex 
action, in harmony with the conditions imposed by external relations. As intel- 
ligence and will become developed, the mind rises into a consciousness of this 
preéstablished harmony which from the beginning has rendered the developmen; 
of life, both mental and organic, possible. Thus the mind grows and develops from 
simple reflex action—which presents psychical phenomena in their lowest typical 
form—into conscious volition, in which the intelligence adjusts itself to the com- 
plex relations of space and time. We thus recognize simple reflex action as the 
germ out of which will is developed. Hence, to understand the nature of will,we © 
must study it in its genesis as related to reflex action. It is also by studying 
primary reflex action that we become prepared to understand the nature of sec- 
ondary reflex, or automatic action. 

Secondary automatic mental action is one of the important contributions of 
modern psychology to mental science. Even after this doctrine had been stated 
and received as the only theory which could explain a certain class of mental 
phenomena, it was stoutly opposed by the metaphysical school of thinkers. Sec- 
ondary automatic mental action belongs to that class of psychical activities which 
have, by the force of habit, assumed the form of aptitudes, and which go on with- 
out an effort of the will. Actions which, at first, require all one’s attention, may, 
after many repetitions, become automatic, and go on, of their own accord, through 
the operation of the lower nerve centers, without a conscious effort of mind. The 
larger part of our daily mental actions which constitute the efficient machinery of 
life, is of this character, such as walking and reading aloud while the mind 
follows the thoughts of the author. If all the actions and mental processes which 
the necessities of our daily life impose upon us had to be brought under the review 

of consciousness, it would be burdened down with the weight of complex details. 


26 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The use and value of consciousness as a mental element in running the machinery 
of mind do not lie in what it is in itself, but in what its separate and successive 
states may become. By continual repetition, these separate states may become 
organized into a consolidated whole, which,-like the individual cells in the animal 
organism, finally develops into a complex form of automatic mental action. 
Hence, the mental machinery does not consist in separate conscious states, but in 
organized forms of action into which the mind has grown by the force of repeti- 
tion. : 
The fact of mental automatism finds its explanation on the physical side of 
being in the relation which the cerebrum sustains to the lower sensory and motor 
centers. Impressions are made on the cerebrum by being propagated upward 
through the sensorium. These impressions, after being combined and co-ordinated, 
are reflected downward to the motor centers which execute the mandates of the | 
will in the form of muscular movements. By constant repetition, these motor cen- 
ters grow into the modes of action which have been consciously and artificially 
imposed upon them, so that the only conscious effort required to set them going 
is a mere initiative impulse of the will. In this way the mental and the physical 
organism may be made to take on themselves an artificial and secondary auto- 
matic action, as distinguished from that which is natural and primary. 

We should not pass over this part of the subject without calling attention to 
the important office which this form of action performs in the economy of human 
life. We should regard the spinal cord, together with the motor and sensory 
ganglia, in which it terminates, as charged with spontaneous force, and as conse- 
quently the seat from which emanate ‘‘ the lightning gleams of power”’ exerted 
for the well being of the organism. Man must have some provision in his consti- 
tution which shall serve as a guide and protection, before he can rise into the dig- 
nity of an intelligent and conscious being. Such are the dangers to which life is 
often exposed, that action must come before thought to save the organism, or some 
part of it, from destruction. 

Automatic mental action has a most important bearing on education, whether 
this looks to physical, intellectual, or moral and religious training. It is that, in 
fact, which makes man an educable being. It is only the new school of psychol- 
ogists who, as yet, fully recognize the great value of this form of action as one of 
the capacities of our physical and mental being. ‘It is,” says Huxley, ‘‘ because 
the body is a machine that education is possible. Education is the formation of 
habits, a superinducing of an artificial organization upon the natural organization 
of the body; so that acts, which at first required a conscious effort, eventually be- 
come unconscious and mechanical. If the act which primarily requires a dis- 
tinct consciousness and volition of its details, always needed the same effort, 
education would be an impossibility.” ‘*The acquired functions of the spinal 
cord,” says Dr. Maudsley, ‘‘and of the sensory ganglia, obviously imply the ex- 
istence of memory, which is indispensable to their formation and exercise. How 
else could these centers be educated? The impressions made upon them,and the 


AUTOMATIC MENTAL ACTION. 27 


answering movements, both leave their traces behind them, which are capable of 
being revived on the occasion of similar impressions. A ganglionic center,whether 
of mind, sensation, or movement, which was without memory, would be an idiotic 
center, incapable of being taught its functions.” 

The educators of youth should never lose sight of the fact that their work is 
well done only when both mind and body have been trained to act with automatic 
readiness and precision. ‘This high degree of mental and physical power and 
specialization can be attained only by incessant repetition. Practice, and practice 
alone, makes perfect. 

All beginnings are difficult; but, by virtue of this capacity for automatic 
mental action, they become easy and pleasant, so as to require little or no effort of 
the will to spur the mind on to its accustomed work. After this form of mental 
action has once been acquired, the mind is no longer perplexed with the routine 
of petty details, but is left free to attend to the few unaccustomed matters which 
turn up during its regular work, and which require a distinct consciousness. 

The educator of youth, in availing himself of this spring of action, must take 
into the account the question of vital dynamics. Unless he does this, he is liable 
to err in two particulars: first, as to the extent to which this form of mental action 
should be carried ; second, as to the class of mental operations to which it should 
be confined. Automatism requiring long and laborious repetition must make a 
heavy draft upon the plastic energies of the brain. The consumption of all the 
nervous energy in organizing automatic forms of action would result in a deaden- 
jng of consciousness, and tend to reduce the mind to the level of a machine. 
Prof. Huxley says that he would not object to being thus reduced, provided that 
when wound up inthe morning, like a clock, he would run on with automatic 
precision, and never go wrong. But sucha result, if possible, would not be de- 
sirable, for the reason that it would put an end to all further mental progress in 
making new acquisitions. Mental operations by repetition tend to wear for them- 
selves a channel. The nervous mechanism embodies in its structure the im-— 
pressions made upon it as a part of its organic growth. But this mechanism of 
“nerves is truly a machine, governed by mechanical laws, and is hence capable of 
performing only a limited amount of work. If a certain amount of the brain force 
be consumed in impressing upon the organism a particular form of action, just so 
much less will be left as a stimulus for exciting the mind to other acquisitions. 
Hence, if automatism has been carried to excess, the effect upon the young and 
growing organism must be injurious. The rigid and automatic condition of the 
nervous mechanism produced by habit, brings on a corresponding rigidity and 
deadness of consciousness itself, thus rendering the mind incapable of further 
progress. Automatic action gives efficiency and ease of execution; but,if carried 
too far, renders it difficult and even impossible to make new acquisitions. 

It is also evident that automatic action should be confined to those mental 
and physical movements which will be of daily use, which look to the practical 
side of life, and which, from their nature, must be largely automatic to fulfill their 


28 KANSAS CITY REVIEW. OF SCIENCE, 


ends. Learning to play on the piano, or other musical instrument, must attain to 
automatic quickness, to give that ease and readiness of execution which the nattfre 
of the process demands. The fundamental operations of arithmetic should be 
so thoroughly learned as to be largely automatic. When these fundamental pro- 
cesses of numbers have become organized, as it were, in the mental organism, the 
mind is then left free to attend to the logical processes involved in the mathemat- 
ical operations. But, for the reason that automatism is an expensive acquisition, 
it should be limited to such mental operations as necessarily demand it. Those 
operations which can be well performed by deliberate thought, should be left to the 
conscious control of the will. 

1. The education of the mental organism into automatic action should begin 
early, while the nervous system is plastic and impressible. 

2. One of the practical problems of education is to duly antagonize con- 
sciousness and automatism. 

3. The energies of childhood should not be utilized in the automatic de- 
mands of business, for this would bring on an arrested development of mind and 
body. 
4. The mental life of the school demands that provision should be made for 


the exercise of both these forms of mental action, the automatic and the con- 
scious. 


Rises: 


A TALK ABOUT LIGHTNING. 
F. W. CLARKE, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTY, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI. 


A year or two ago a house not far from Cincinnati was struck by lightning, 
and its inmates were pretty well scared. Among them was quite an intelligent 
young lady, recently from school, who had studied a little about electricity, and 
knew that metals would attract the spark. The flash had fallen, the danger was 
over, but her panic remained; and in her fright she rushed eagerly down stairs in 
search of a pair of scissors with which to cut the steel buckles from her shoes. 
This act, comical as it seems in all its bearings, was yet based upon rational 
grounds. ‘To be sure it was like closing the stable door after the horse had been 
stolen; of course the young lady might simply have removed her shoes; and we 
all know, moreover, that lightning does not generally attack its victims’ feet first, 
unless, indeed, they happen to be sitting in what might be termed the bar-room 
attitude. Yet the fact remains that the wearing of metals during a thunder storm 
slightly increases the danger of the wearer. The metallic object has a determining 
influence upon the course of the flash. In one instance a lady’s bonnet, because 


A TALK ABOUT LIGHTNING. 297 


of its wire framework, was entirely consumed by lightning, although the lady 
hetself escaped serious injury. Another lady inadvertently thrust her arm’ out of 
a window during a thunder shower, and her gold bracelet was dissipated in vapor. 
Still another flash of lightning found a gentleman seated on the top of a stage 
coach and rifled his pocket of a valuable watch, leaving only a few links of the 
chain. The general fact which our heroine had in mind is, then, quite clear. 
Only her peculiar application of it serves very well to illustrate the crudity of pop- 
ular notions about lightning. Many people are so bewildered and dazzled by the 
flash, and so stunned by the explosion which follows, that they become unable 
either to appreciate the beauty of the display, or to reason correctly concern- 
ing its nature. Indeed, very few persons realize how varied are the phenomena 
presented by the lightning in its color, its form, and its effects, and still fewer 
understand in more than a vague, general way, the principles involved in the 
erection of conductors. Every summer the country is scoured by lightning-rod 
agents, each with some eccentric contrivance to sell, who not only take advantage 
of the popular ignorance, but even make it deeper still. Spiral rods, patent tips, 
novel insulators, and goodness knows what else, are carried from house to house 
and forced upon the attention of puzzled listeners with an assiduity worthy of 
better employment. In consequence, a great many of the rods put up are not 
only unsuitable and inefficient, but also much more costly than thoroughly good, 
substantial and adequate conductors even need to be. 

Lightning, by the best observers, has been divided into three kinds. First, 
there is the common zigzag line of light, sometimes as much as ten miles long, 
which seems to shoot from point to point with great velocity, and which lasts, it 
has been estimated, only about the thousandth part of asecond. Secondly, there 
is what is known as ‘‘sheet lightning,” in which vast masses of clouds are sud- 
denly illuminated, as if from behind, no line being seen. This flash is also of 
inconceivably short duration, and varies much in color. White, blue, purple, 
violet, and rose-color are common tints for it to have. With it may be classed 
the so-called ‘‘heat lightning” of hot summer nights, which is probably but the 
reflection of active lightning at a distance. It is worth noting in this connection 
that thunder is rarely heard more than ten miles away, so that the flashes are 
often visible when no sound can be detected. The roar of artillery, as at Water- 
loo, has been audible at a distance of over eighty miles from the scene of battle. 
The third kind is called ‘‘ globular lightning,’’ and is comparatively rare. It 
appears like a ball of bluish fire, rolling with relative slowness on or near the 
surface of the ground or of the sea. When it reaches certain obstacles the ball 
explodes with a loud noise and works much mischief. When two young ladies 
were killed by lightning on the Malvern Hills, England, in June, 1826, the dis- 
charge was described as a globe of fire which rolled slowly along the ground 
toward the building in which they had taken shelter. Such a globe has been 


known to remain in sight for at least ten seconds. Another remarkable case of 


this kind of lightning is mentioned by Mr. Chalmers, who saw it from on board 


a el 


30 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


‘ship in 1749. His attention was called to a ball of blue fire, as big as a millstone, 
which was rolling along the surface of the water three miles away. Very soon it 
reached to within forty yards of the main chains, when it rose perpendicularly 
with a fearful explosion, and shattered the maintopmast to pieces. Still another 
“ instance of a sort of globular lightning was furnished by the great storm in Brit- 
tany in 1718, during which twenty-four church towers were damaged. Three 
globes of fire, each more than a yard in apparent diameter, fell at once upon a 
spire near Brest, destroying the church completely. 

I need say little of the nature of lightning, since everybody is familiar with 
the story of Franklin and his kite. Every child knows that the flash is produced 
by the discharge of electricity accumulated in the clouds. But atmospheric elec- 
tricity may become manifested in either of two different ways. When lightning 
is seen we observe what is called a ‘‘ disruptive discharge;” while in the phenom- 
enon best known as ‘‘St. Elmo’s Fire” a ‘‘ glow discharge” takes place. The 
latter is harmless, and rather rare. Occasionally its peculiar brushes or balls of fire 
tip the ends of masts and spars during storms at sea, as many as thirty of these 
flames having been seen on one vessel at the same time. Once in a while, too, 
it is produced on land. ‘Troops of soldiers have been terrified at finding the tips 
of their lances or bayonets adorned with mysterious fires. Similar flames have 
decorated the hair and the finger ends of travelers caught in a storm above the 
snow line in the Alps. A wagon loaded with straw has been so electrified that 
every straw seemed to be in a light blaze. And at Plauzet in France the three 
points of the cross upon the church were seen surrounded by flame during every 
thunder-shower for twenty-seven consecutive years. But with these glow dis- 
charges we have little to do. The disruptive discharge concerns us, especially 
with regard to its effects. ( 

These effects may be conveniently studied under two heads; first, the effect 
of the lightning upon the air through which it passes; secondly, its effect upon 
the object struck. The first of these heads needs to occupy our attention but very 
briefly. Often after a thunderstorm, especially near articles which have received 
the flash, a peculiar odor is perceived. This odor is commonly described as a 
‘“ brimstone smell,” and, taken in connection with the bluish, sulphurous color 
of the spark, has led people to imagine the actual presence of sulphur in the 
storm. But the odor really belongs to ozone, a modification of oxygen produced 
by the passage of an -electric spark through that gas. Three volumes of oxygen 
have been condensed to two, and the product has the pungent perfume so well 
known. 

But it is when we come to consider the effects produced by lightning upon 
the objects which it strikes that we reach the most interesting ground. Some of 
these effects have already been described or hinted at, and most of them are so 
familiar to everyone that they seem hardly to need extended notice. Yet the 
material is so abundant and so varied that it becomes easy to select many interest- 
ing illustrations of our subject. Take for instance the formation of ‘‘fulgurites” 


A TALK ABOUT LIGHTNING. 31 


in the soil. When a flash of lightning strikes a bed of sand it penetrates down- 
ward with great force for many feet, partially melting the sand on the way. Deep 
vitrified tubes are thus formed, fragments of which can easily be preserved as 
curiosities. These are known as ‘“‘ fulgurites.”’ 

The mechanical effects produced by lightning are often of the most stupen- 
dous character. In June, 1764, the steeple of St. Bride’s in London was struck 
and damaged. A stone weighing seventy pounds was flung fifty yards, and an 
iron bar two feet long was broken in two, one piece of it beang bent back upon 
itself at an angle of forty-five degrees. When the ship Le Patriote was struck in 
1852, a block of wood weighing about one hundred and sixty pounds was torn out 
from the mast, and flung with its thicker end against a massive plank partition, a 
hundred paces away, so violently as to become firmly imbedded in the obstacle. 
A still more remarkable effect was produced when the ship Desirée was struck in 
Port Antonio harbor, Jamaica, in 1803. The maintopmast was broken in two, 
and the next morning one-half of it was found sticking in the mud on one side of 
the harbor, while the other half lay in a lumber yard upon the opposite shore. 
Again, the ship Rodney was struck by lightning in December, 1838. The top 
gallant and royal masts, fifty-three feet long-and weighing about eight hundred 
pounds, entirely disappeared from the vessel, with the exception of the end of the 
royal mast. ‘The sea was covered with chips and splinters, and the water along- © 
side looked as if it had received all the refuse of a carpenter’s shop. The main- 
mast was bound by twenty-six great iron hoops, and of these thirteen were burst 
asunder and thrown down upon the deck. Each hoop was half an inch thick and 
five inches wide. 

These instances serve not only to illustrate the power of the stroke, but also 
the special liability of ships to receive it. Their long, slender masts, rising amid 
an almost level wate, offer the best possible work for the celestial fires. Indeed, 
a ship has been known to receive seven distinct flashes of lightning in the course 
of a few minutes. But the mechanical injury which a ship receives is not always 
its greatest damage. The electricity is apt to derange the compass, and play 
strange freaks with the chronometer. In consequence of these disturbances many 

a ship has been lost long after the danger seemed quite over. ‘The packet ship 
New York, which was struck twice during a storm in the Gulf Stream in April, 
£827, although it came safely to port, had particularly severe experiences. The 
“waves ran very high, the vessel was surrounded by waterspouts, the rain was 
mingled with hailstones as large as filberts, and the lightning was flashing in all 
dire tions with simultaneous reports. The main discharge, which made the ship 
lurch so violently as to throw down people standing upon deck, fell on a pointed 
iron rod about four feet long, melting a few inches of its point. From this rod 
an iron chain one-fourth of an inch in diameter, a wholly inadequate conductor, 
- descended to the water. This chain was knocked in pieces, and some of its links 
made to burn like a taper; while drops of melted iron fell to the deck setting fire 
‘to the woodwork wherever they touched. When the ship reached Liverpool it 


32 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


was found that the compass had been completely demagnetized; while on the 
other hand the steel work of the chronometer had been affected in the opposite 
manner, and the instrument accelerated over half an hour. 

Powder magazines have also been made the particular favorites of lightning 
stroke. Many of them have been exploded by lightning, and thousands of lives 
lost. But no magazine protected by a suitable rod’ has ever been thus damaged. 
Such have been struck, but the shock has always been carried off harmlessly into 
the ground. The gyeatest disaster ever worked by lightning was doubtless that 
which happened at Brescia in 1769. The tower of St. Wazaire, having 207,600 
pounds of gunpowder stowed beneath it, was struck and the powder fired. The 
tower rose bodily into the air, to return in a shower of stone; three thousand 
persons were killed, and about one-sixth of the city destroyed. Thirteen years 
later Fort Marlborough in Sumatra was struck, and four hundred barrels of pow- 
der exploded. 

When living beings booms the subjects of a flash of lightning the effects may 
vary quite considerably. In one case which happened about a year ago, a man’s 
boots were torn from his feet by lightning, while he himself was only stunned. In 
another instance a lady was lying in bed, and the flash entered her window and 
singed away her hair without doing much other mischief. Other freaks of light- 
‘ ning were mentioned at the beginning of this article. When death results from 
such a stroke the body may present any one of a great number of appearances. 
It may be almost unmarked, or covered with burns. Livid welts sometimes 
appear upon it, as if the flesh had been bruised by a blow. Sometimes impres- 
sions, we might almost say photographs, of near objects are imprinted upon the 
skin. A man was killed by lightning at Zante in 1836, and marks of coins which 
he had carried in his pocket were found stamped upon his person. Yetthe coins 
themselves were at a considerable distance from the marks! Such a death is 
probably painless. ‘The electric shock moves so much more rapidly than the 
nervous impression that the victim dies before he has time to become conscious of 
injury. The lower animals seem to be in special danger from lightning. Instance 
after instance could be cited in which animals have been killed in close proximity 
to men while the latter remained unharmed. A ploughman was once, ploughing 
with four oxen. Being struck by lightning, both man and beasts were over- 
thrown. The man, however, was but slightly stunned, while two of the oxen 
were killed outright, and a third paralyzed. According to D’Abbadie, a single . 
flash of lightning in Ethiopia destroyed two thousand sheep. Even the fish are 
not exempt from the paralyzing influence. When lightning falls upon the water 
many of its inmates are killed. 

Fortunately the danger from lightning can be diminished by certain precau- 
tions. Some of these are quite generally known. For instance, one should 
always keep away from all large masses of metal, and from isolated trees. But — 
although isolated trees are such dangerous companions during a thunderstorm, a 
man is but little exposed to risk in a dense forest. Trees may be struck in the 


A TALK ABOUT LIGHTNING. 33 


latter, but they are less likely to be than when standing alone in the midst of a 
level plain. Safety is also found in deep narrow valleys or ravines. Lightning 
rarely reaches to the bottom of such places, but is scattered against their sides. 
The wearing of silk is said to be a safeguard against lightning, and the case of the 
church at Chateauneny les Moutiers in the Lower Alps has been cited to confirm 
this view. The church was struck during divine service on the 11th of July, 
1819. Nine persons were killed outright, and eighty-two wounded. Two of the 
three officiating priests were injured, while the third, who wore a silken robe, 
escaped. One more fact is worth noticing in this connection. Whenever any 
number of men or animals standing in line are struck by lightning, the individuals 
at the ends of the line always suffer the most severely, Many examples of this 
are on record, but one will suffice for us. Thirty-two horses standing in line in 
their stalls were once struck by lightning, and thirty of them were knocked down. 
But only two were killed, and they formed the extremities of the line. 

Although at first sight lightning seems to act so capriciously, leaping from 
point to point in the most irregular manner, and playing tricks more freakish 
than those of Puck, it yet moves in accordance with rigid, definite laws. Certain 
substances are better conductors of electricity than others, and even the same 
substance varies in its conducting power according to conditions. Differences of 
temperature, of internal structure, of form, and of surroundings, will cause two 
samples of copper or iron to conduct electricity very differently. And the light- 
ning in its course, fickle and irresponsible as it seems, invariably follows that path 
in which conduction is the best. In other words, it moves in the line of “east 
resistance, and never leaves that line under any provocation. A river would as 
soon leave its bed and flow along the tops of the hills. Upon this general princi- 
ple the construction of lightning-rods is based. A line of least resistance is artifi. 
cially furnished, through which the flash may pass harmlessly into the ground. 
Occasionally, however, buildings which were apparently protected by suitable 
conductors have been seriously damaged by lightning. Hence many intelligent 
persons have been led into a distrust of lightning-rods. Some have even asserted 
that the rods not only failed to protect buildings from the effects of a stroke, but 
actually attracted the danger. But the difficulty always has been that the offend- 
ing conductors were not properly arranged, or, in short, did not ccnstitute the 
desired line of least resistanee. Many precautions have to be observed in the 
erection of lightning-rods, and to these we shall recur presently. Let us first see, 
however, whether there is evidence to warrant faith in good rods, and whether 
there is any truth in the notion that they increase the danger which they claim to 
avert. 

Now a vast number of facts go to prove the efficacy of suitably arranged rods. 
The church at Antrasmes, for instance, was twice struck by lightning, the flash 
following both times in precisely the same track. Certain picture frames were 
ungilded, certain bars of metal destroyed, and the portraits of the saints black- 
ened. A lightning conductor was finally applied to the building and it has not 


Iv—3 


34 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


been struck since. The chapel of Count Orsini in Carinthia, standing in an 
exposed situation, was so frequently struck and injured that divine service was no 
longer celebrated within its walls. But in the year 1778 a conductor was applied. 
Since then the edifice has been struck less frequently than before, and every 
stroke has been carried harmlessly away. A similar instance is furnished by the 

tower of St. Mark at Venice, 340 feet high. This tower was repeatedly and | 
seriously damaged by lightning until in 1766 a conductor was put on. Since that 
time no harm has been done. The tower has passed unscathed through every 
storm. Still another example is offered by the cathedral at Sienna, which was a 
favorite victim of the lightning. After a while, about the year 1777, a rod was 
attached to the building, causing much anxiety among the ignorant neighbors, 

who called it the ‘‘heretic rod.”” Soon, however, another stroke fell upon the 
cathedral and was rendered harmless by the dreaded conductor. The 
natives began to respectt the ‘‘heretic,”” and have since had no cause to 
alter this feeling. I will cite one miore instance, in which a flash of light-. 
ning, after working serious mischief, was caught up and tamed by a metallic 
‘chain. The ship Hyacinth was struck in the Indian Ocean in 1833. ‘The top 
gallant and topmasts, forty feet long and weighing nearly eight hundred pounds, 

were knocked into bundles of laths which scarcely held together. At the base of 
these masts the electricity encountered an iron chain, fifty feet in length and made 
of half inch metal, which communicated with a copper pipe running through the 
vessel. By these conductors the flash was carried off safely. After reaching them 
the flash could do no more harm. 

The question whether buildings armed with lightning-rods are more likely 
than others to be struck, is partly answered by some of the foregoing examples. 
But, had I space, I might cite evidence of a more convincing character. The 
matter has been many times tested by houses standing closely together, one pro- 
tected by a rod, and the other without defense. Time and time again the unpro- 
tected edifice has been struck and damaged, while its neighbor, which should, 
according to the popular theory, have attracted the lightning, escaped altogether. 
The same thing has also been observed at sea. ‘Two ships, the one equipped 
with conductors and the other not, have been exposed to a storm scarcely half a 
cable’s length apart. And the flash has fallen, not upon the attracting conduc- 
tor, but upon the masts of the unarmed vessel. In fact, nothing is more certain 
than that lightning rods do not increase the danger from lightning. 

That a lightning conductor may be adequate to its purpose several things are 
needful. The rod must be made of proper material. It must be large enough 
to carry off any stroke which may fall upon it. It must be continuous through- 
out, it must terminate in a proper locality, and it must be in part at least pro- 
tected against rust. Negligence on one of these points might render the whole 
affair worthless. 

First, of what material should the rod be made? Of course, the better the 
conducting power of the material, the more efficient the rod. Now, but two 


A TALK ABOUT LIGHTNING. 35 


metals are practically available, namely copper and iron, the first of these- con- 
ducting electricity about eight times as well as the other. Copper, then, is the 
best material. Next to copper ranks the so-called ‘‘ galvanized iron,” iron coated 
with zinc. The latter metal not only conducts better than iron, but protects the 
iron from rust. Common iron is the worst material of the three. The size of the 
rod is the next consideration. If copper alone is used, a half-inch bar will carry 
off any stroke which is ever likely to fall in our latitudes. Of galvanized iron a 
three-fourths inch rod should be used, but of common iron nothing less than an 
inch in diameter is a perfect protection. ; 

Now, how shall the rod be constructed? Here we come into collision with 
certain popular whims. It is common to see rods carefully separated from the 
buildings they are intended to protect by neat little insulators of glass. These are 
utterly useless. An electrical spark which could break through the thousand or 
more feet of air intervening between the earth and the clouds would pay but little 
respect to the inch or so of space occupied by the insulator. Besides, if the path 
of least resistance lies in the lightning-rod the flash will not leave it for any more 
difficult channel. Another popular whim concerns the shape of the rod, many 
people having an idea that a spiral form is the best. This is a matter of no im- 
portance, and need be considered no farther. Let us begin at the tip of our rod. 
This needs to be protected from rust, and also to some extent against fusion. The 
latter difficulty may be gotten over by forking the tips, so that a flash falling upon 
it shall be divided into several parts. The other object is to be attained in several 
ways. ‘The tip may be made either of platinum or aluminum, or it may be plated 
with nickel, or simply gilded. The last-named plan is the best and cheapest. The 
gilding costs but little, does not tarnish, and affords a surface of actually higher 
conducting power than either iron, aluminum, platinum, nickel, or zinc. Gold 
ranks next to copper in the scale of conductivity, silver standing at the head of 
the list. A silver tip, however, would be bad, for many reasons which need not 
be given here. As regards the body of the rod, this should be perfectly continu_ 
ous throughout. No breaks should occur in it. Wherever joints are necessary 
the continuity of the conductor should be preserved by soldering. The lower 
extremity of the rod must be arranged with great care, and ought to extend sey- 
eral feet beyond where it leaves the building. If possible, it should terminate in 
a spring, well, or sheet of water, by means of which the electric shock may be 
scattered and lost. But by no means ought it to dip into a closed cistern or cesspool. 
A discharge of lightning, prisoned in such a place between stone walls, will send 
them asunder in order to escape. Ordinarily it is well enough to divide the lower 
extremity of a rod into several branches, and allow them to run about four feet 
deep into moist earth. By making the rod terminate directly under the water- 
spout, the earth into which it plunges may be thoroughly drenched at every 
shower. Another good plan is to fill a pit with several bushels of charcoal, 
which, previously heated to redness, has been suddenly quenched. The forked 
termination of the conductor is then buried in this pit. But such precaution is 
needed only where there is but very little moisture in the soil. 


36 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Qne more thing is needed. If several rods are placed upon an edifice, they 
should be connected with one another by horizontal rods like themselves. And 
they should also be connected directly with all large masses of metal upon the 
exterior of the building, such as gutters, spouts, cornices, crestings, balconies, or 
metallic roofings. Thus the line of least resistance may be made to communicate 
with nearly all parts of a wooden house, and the protection rendered more sure 
and complete. 

Let me sum up these directions, fitting them for an ordinary dwelling house 
of moderate expense. I will not give a description of an absolutely perfect light- 
ning-rod, but simply of one which will serve all common purposes. Make it of 
three-quarter inch galvanized iron, and let the gilded tip project as much as two 
feet above the ridge-pole or chimney top. See that it connects with the proper 
metallic masses, render it continuous to the ground, and conduct its termination, 
divided into three branches, either into a body of water, or else let it plunge four 
feet below the surface beneath your water-spout. With two such rods any dwell- 
ing of common size may be considered proof against the lightning. 


Some trials were made lately on the Seine, at Paris, to determine the best 
way of breaking up river ice with dynamite. Bernard and Lay, assisted by two 
specialists, Flegy and Streits, of the Nobel Dynamite Company, directed the 
operations and recorded the results. The best effect was obtained by placing 
three cartridges of 406 grammes of dynamite beneath the ice, each connected 
with an electric machine on the bank of the river. When the cartridges were 
exploded it was found that the ice was shattered a distance of about eighty me- 
ters and through a width of from five to six meters. The pieces of the fractured 
ice were, moreover, found to be very small, and easily carried down stream 
past obstructions such as bridge piers. 


The amphioxus, a fish-shaped animal of a very low grade of development 
which affords Haeckel one of his firmest stepping-stones in the lively work on 
evolution, has been the subject of very interesting observations on the part of 
Henry J. Rice, at Fort Wool, on the Chesapeake. He had the good fortune to 
find two males, a ripe female and twenty young. The animal stands on de- 
batable ground between the vertebrates and invertebrates, and received its name 
from its shape. Amphioxus is the Greek of Mr. Yarrel for ‘‘sharp at both 
ends.” Descriptions of the habits, structure and deyelopment of this curious 
primitive animal are being issued in the American Naturalist by Mr. Rice. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 37 


el ULOS Olea, 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 


BY FRANCIS E. NIPHER, 
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY.* 


In a lecture delivered in this city during last winter, and entitled ‘‘ Thoughts 
on our Conceptions of Physical Law,” some points were lightly touched which it 
seems desirable to develop more at length. For the sake of brevity, some of the 
statements which will be made have assumed a slightly dogmatic form. They 
are not so intended. Be kind enough to regard them as thoughts of the truth of 
which we are in some cases all more or less uncertain, which are submitted to the 
judgment of sober minds. It does not make a statement true if the whole world 
affirms it; the world has often blundered. This consideration suggests the frame 
of mind in which we should approach difficult subjects where men are likely to 
differ in opinion. He who comes to debate—to defend previously formed ideas 
—is at a disadvantage. It is difficult for such persons to place a proper value on 
the thoughts of others. In this manner the chances for error are increased. The 
method of the scientific man should be different. If he investigates phenomena, 
he seeks to use methods of experiment which eliminate from his results the per- 
sonal bias of his own mind. He must learn to have no preference for one fact 
over another. He must learn to have no anxiety about the result. He must learn 
to be stringently honest with himself—a most difficult thing. If he works induc- 
tively, he should try to find out what @// of the facts teach. If he has occasion 
to frame an hypothesis, and wishes to work deductively, then his work is, not zo 
demonstrate, but to zest the truth of his hypothesis. In the debating school, young 
men are taught to defend assumed positions. In the Academy of Science it 
should be our only object to search for truth. When we differ it is better to 
think, rather than to dispute. 

In the transaction of business we are constantly estimating chances, or prob- 
abilities. All our predictions for the future, even when based on the experience 
of centuries, are simply more or less probable—in no case certain. We cannot 
be absolutely certain that the sun will rise at its accustomed time to-morrow. It 
is wholly in accord with human experience and with the theory of probability, 
that very unexpected things will occasionally happen. 

If we were to learn the contents of an urn, containing a million balls, by 
drawing the balls one by one, replacing them each time, we might, in course of 
time, gain a general idea of the contents; thus if 100,000 draws gave each a 


* Delivered before the Kansas City Academy of Science, Feb. 18th, 1880. 


38 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


white ball, we would properly decide that white balls are greatly in the majority, 
but we might continue for a century without drawing the single black ball that the 
urn might contain. 

So it is with all human experience in this world. If we could range at will 
through space and time, we might well be surprised, as Tolver Preston has sug- 
gested, by the greatly varying conditions which we might find in other and un- 
known parts. of the all-embracing universe ; just as a minute being, inhabiting for 
a brief moment a single atom of a gas, and who might imagine that he had be- 
come quite familiar with his little world, would find much to learn, could he ex- 
tend his observations over a longer time, or over a wider space. He would then 
find the greatest variety in the motions of neighboring molecules of the gas. 
Some moving with extreme slowness—others with extreme velocity—the same 
differences being observed in the velocities of their rotations. Moreover these 
velocities are being constantly changed, by collision of neighboring molecules— 
collisions which must often result in the separation of the molecules into their 
constituent atoms. 

It may well be, as Preston ingeniously suggests, that all this is repeated on 
an immensely grander scale. Perhaps our solar system is rushing through space, 
with a motion compared with which the relative motions of its various parts are _ 
utterly insignificant. Collisions, instead of happening to each atom many 
millions of times per second, as in the case of gases, are here separated by im- 
mensely long intervals, and it is a minute portion of one of these intervals 
which represents the life-time of our humanity upon one of the atoms of the uni- 
verse. Possibly we are not yet acquainted with the average conditions of the 
universe, our attention being confined, for a comparatively brief interval, to a 
few of the atoms which for the present are nearest to us. 

We are able to predict the probable history of our earth, in the comparatively 
near future, but we know almost nothing of what the remote future may bring. 
Here we have fairly entered the domain of chance, which is the domain of human - 
ignorance. 

It is essential to bear in mind that probability is a thing which belongs, not 
to the events which are probable, but to the mind, depending as stated upon our 
knowledge, or rather upon what we think we know. 

This is clearly shown by the fact that different persons may regard the same 
event with very different degrees of probability ; for example: A thinks he saw 
a ball dropped into a box, and thinks he knows that it is yet there. B is certain 
that it was a juggler’s trick, and that the boxis empty. CC did not see the act and . 
has no opinion in the matter. The conclusions which these men will form will 
depend upon their previous experiences, their opportunities for observation and 
their native ability. Their confidence in their conclusions is not necessarily de- 
pendent upon the real facts. Or, to take another case cited by Jevons: ‘*‘A 
steamer is missing, and certain workmen in a dock-yard, knowing that she is 
poorly built, believe she is lost. The public is informed that she is well built, 


8 
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ono oS .9. oe. 8: So: “8 os 8 ° S-S8s431-°8 ° Ss 
Sn wn BG =F HF wa 2 A See So Ss 5 Bo ONe Ss 8! Screen ol Paseo RS AO 


‘S$ 20 42 2% 26 28. JO 32 3¢Y 36 38 ¥e 


x) 
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n 
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= Ka) 
:] 
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3 x 
2 
3 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 39 


and is probably safe, although delayed. In the event itself there is no uncertainty. 
The vessel has either sunk or not. Nevertheless the probabilities will vary with 
different persons, and in the same person from day to day, as information is re- 
ceived in regard to storms at sea, signs of wreck picked up, the trustworthiness 
of her officers, etc.” Finally after all have united in believing the vessel lost, she 
sails into port. While the general opinion is still the same, a few on land know 
that she is safe. Those on the vessel have never been in doubt about it. 

In order to understand more clearly the application and importance of the 
Theory of Probability, let us take a single example : 

Let us suppose that we have an urn, containing a large number of equal 
balls, and for simplicity, let us suppose that half are white, the others black. 
Draw from the urn any number of balls at once, say six, (of course without 
choosing) and repeat this drawing a large number of times (say 1,000) replacing 
the balls and shaking them up each time. Set down each time the.number of 
white balls drawn. There are seven possible chances, viz: 

; 6 white and o black. 


5 66 ce I 66 
4 6c a) 66 
3 (a 66 3 66 
6c 66 6c 
e 2 4 
I 66 ce 5 6c 
fo} 6é 66 6G (3 


We all know something in regard to the probability in each of these cases. 
We should meet least frequently with the two extreme cases—all white and all 
black—and in the long run we should meet with one as many times as with the 
other, since there is nothing in color or lack of color which could affect the 
chances in drawing. 

The following table gives the distribution of the number of draws out of 100 
for each of the possible cases. The greater the number of draws, the more nearly 
these values would be obtained: 


Chances. No. of Times. 


White. Black. 2 


6 

5 66 ome 
4 (a 
2 
2 

I 

fe) 


fe) 

I 

2 Gua 

66 3 6c 36 
3 4 66 24 
Gs 5 3 
6 


C6 6 


100 

That is, we should draw 6 white balls twice out of each hundred draws, etc. 
These numbers can be quite accurately determined by 1,000 draws, if the urn 
contain several hundred balls * 


i *These numbers represent the successive terms of the expanded binomial (% plus %)6 where the sum 
of the terms is taken as 100, and where the exponent represents the number of balls drawn at once. 


40 KANSA>s CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


In order to represent these chances to the eye, divide the horizontal line 
of Fig. 1 into six equal parts, laying off at right angles to it, and at the points of 
division, the vertical lines whose lengths are proportional to the number of draws 
for the various cases. The fact that the continuous curve passed through the 
extremities of these vertical lines, is symmetric on each side of the middle, means 
that white balls and black balls stand an equal chance of being drawn. If the 
black balls were less in number or were smaller, and had a tendency to sink to 
the bottom, then the curve would be unsymmetric, the probability being in favor 
of the white balls.* 

We come now to the application of what we have here learned. 

If any dimension—for instance the length of an iron rod—be measured with 
the greatest attainable accuracy, the successive measurements will, in general, all 
disagree. Taking a great many such measurements, all differing from each other, 
which shall we adopt as the true value? We may assume that all the observations 
are made with equal care; one can have no preference over another. ‘The fact 
that they all disagree, and that the tendency to disagree increases with the deli- 
cacy of the determination, is sufficient to show that no one observation can be 
adopted as the true value; and further, that it is impossible for us ever to deter- 
mine the true value. The best that we can do is to take the mean of all determi- 
nations. ‘To this mean we give greater or less weight, according as the separate 
determination more or less nearly approximates to the mean. 

In order to illustrate this point we may take the 470 determinations of the 
right ascension of the star Sirius, as made by the astronomer Bradley. In the 
following table d represents the difference between the observation and the mean 
of all observations (in tenths of a second); n represents the number of times the 
respective differences were found to occur. 


The positive and negative distances are thrown together without regard to 
sign : . 


es 
5 


Oo wn AM BPW DN 
on 
Lt 


DOW ta aie ee iy 
Tit Wal Oye a 4 


Zz. €., Out of 470 observations, 94 showed differences of less than 1-10 second, 88 
fell between 1-10 and 2-10, etc. As was to have been expected, the greater 


*Jn this case the terms of the binomial would be no longer equal. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 41 


‘‘errors” are met less frequently than the smaller ones. The results are repre- 
sented in Fig. 2 of the plate where the values (d) are laid off on the horizontal 
line and estimated from the point marked zero (0). 

The line o 2 represents a certain positive ‘¢error,” and the distance from 2 
to the curve represents the number of times it is met in 100 observations. 0 2 in 
in the opposite direction represents an equal negative ‘‘error,” while the vertical 
line at the point 2 represents its frequency. It can here be observed how the 
frequency diminishes, as the magnitude of the error increases, until cells the 
curve intersects the base line, indicating that larger ‘‘ errors” do not occur.* 

The law expressing the divergence of these values from the mean is the same 
as that which expresses the probability in drawing balls from an urn containing an 
equal number of white and black balls. 

In the case supposed, the differences are due to imperfections in the instru- 
ments and in the observer, to unknown variations in temperature, etc. 

Let us consider another case, which will perhaps aid us in gaining a clear idea 
of the subject. Let us suppose that we have a rifle mounted like a swivel-gun, so 
that it can turn only in a horizontal plane. In the same plane let a thin, hard board 
be placed with its edge turned toward the gun __If we fire at a certain point in the 
edge of the board, a sufficient number of times, we should cut into the board a 
gap which would be bounded by a curve precisely like the one before given. In 
case of a good marksman, the gap would be narrow and deep. (Fig. 3.) With 
an equal number of shots a very bad marksman would cut out a wide and shallow 
curve, while if all kinds of people were allowed to try their skill, we should get the 
curve of average human marksmanship. The errors of the former case are here re- 
presented by deviations from the mark, small deviations being most common. It 
might be said that these deviations are caused by chance. ‘They are in fact the 
result of unknown but purely mechanical causes, such as gusts of wind, irregularities 
of the balls, fouling of the gun, or deviations caused by pulling the trigger. Chance 
is neither a thing nor a cause; it is simply a name to cover over ignorance of the 
real causes; it is a matter of experience, that a great number of simultaneously 
acting and constantly varying causes, affect the result in such a regular way that 
we can predict in a statistical way, the frequency of different errors or deviations. 
When these causes are unknown, we say that it is a matter of chance. 

A curve of this kind would at once exhibit the success of any person in 
shooting at a mark, and it seems probable that the success with which we accom- 
plish any other thing involving a great number of acts, would be represented by 
a similar curve. 

We have a large class of people in this world who aim to be as good as other 
people. Some of them resemble the good marksman. ‘Their deeds all lie very 
close to the mark. They are never very good and never very bad; but always 
‘‘indifferent honest.” Others are like wild shooters. If we could grade their 
acts, we should find some decidedly bad, others far above the average of good_ 


+As the mean value is not the true value, it is not strictly correct to call these differences “ errors.” 


42 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ness, while a greater number would be ranked about average. The shallow curve 
of the bad marksman is suggested. The two cases are, however, not exactly 
alike, for a good shot is one which lies nearest to the mark, while the virtue of an 
act is judged by a higher standard than the supposed mark. Hence the marksman 
would always aim at the mark, while the man who wishes to be as good as other 
people, usually tries to make sure of having enough of good deeds by putting in 
a few extra good ones toward the last—that is, he changes his aim somewhat in 
order to polish up his curve into satisfactory shape. 

That this same law of probability applies to the distribution of mental ability 
in a mass of people is well known. Comparatively few people are brilliant and 
comparatively few are stupid (the opportunities being supposed equal). The great 
majority of people rank near the average. Among others, Professor Hinrichs has 
investigated this subject, by a comparison of class markings at the State Univer- 
sity of lowa. The results here given are from the markings of the Freshman class 

“in Physics. 

The results are obtained by combining independent markings for recita- 
tion, notes on lectures, and laboratory work, as determined by three differ- 
ent instructors. The greatest pains were taken to secure just markings, the valu- 
ations being repeated several times. ‘The best students were marked 100, and 
below 65 was counted a failure 

In the following table the numbers are grouped in fives, go per cent. including 
88 to 92, inclusive, etc. 

The total number of students in the class was 287, and the results agree as 
closely with the theoretical values as would those obtained by making 287 draws 
from an urn containing black and white balls in equal number : 


Standing Piro] ise go 84) 78| 72| 66] 60/Total. 
Number of Students SG sie Se7 80 INS OMY <3 3\287 
NOs penToo fj a | 4.5) 18.5 19.9 28.0 15.7 8.4) 4.2| 1.0|100 


This shows that the chances that the standing of a student will fall in the 
group marked 84, is 80-287 or 28-100, or a little less than one-third. This is the 
grade of the average student, and here the greater number are ranked. For higher 
or lower markings, the number of students is less, the fewest numbers being at 
the extremes of excellence. It will be observed that in this case the numbers are 
not quite the same for grades equally removed from 80 per cent., the probability 
being somewhat in favor of the higher markings. This might possibly be differ 
ent if a greater number of cases were examined. Tt is also to be remembered that 
such students are a selected class of society, and if all of the young people of a 
state were to be thus examined, the grade would probably be somewhat lower, 
and the numbers would perhaps show a more symmetrical arrangement. 

We have previously discussed the mental divergence of men from the norma 
or average man. As might be expected, the same law holds in regard to physi- 
cal dimensions, as was first shown by Quetelet. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. . 48 


For any given nation at any given time, there is a certain typical or average 
man, whose dimensions could be obtained by taking the average dimensions of 
all the men of the nation. Mr. Galton has even shown us how to obtain his pho- 
tograph.* This is done by taking photographs of a large number of men, mak- 
ing the photographs of the proper size relatively, and taken in similar positions, 
although no great exactness is necessary. 

Each photograph is then exposed to the camera in such a way that all the 
faces are re-photographed successively on a common plate. The best method of 
doing this, is to pin the first photograph to a block which can be set up in front 
of the camera. Its position there is fixed by nails driven into the base board, so 
that the block may be removed andreplaced in exactly the same position. In 
order that the next picture may be exposed in the same way, an ivory or wooden 
scale, with a beveled edge, is placed with its edge tangent to the iris of the eyes, 
and with any division of the scale bisecting the nose. ‘The position of the ruler 
is then fixed by guide nails or pins, driven into the block. ‘This enables each 
photograph to be placed in the same position on the block, and the block to be 
always placed in the same position before the camera. 

Each portrait is then exposed for a few seconds to the same plate, so that 
when it is finally developed a generalized picture is obtained. 

It is not a portrait of any one person; it represents a type, in which those 
points which are common, are emphasized, and the purely individual peculiari- 
ties are almost wholly suppressed. The greater the number of component pic- 
tures the more truly will the resulting composite picture represent a type. We 
present here a composite picture from three criminals. It is from a wood cut in 
Mr. Galton’s paper. As Mr. Galton remarks, ‘‘the villainous irregularities of 
the originals have. disappeared, and the common humanity that underlies them 
has prevailed. This picture represents then, not so much the criminal, as the 
man who is liable to commit crime.” [Portraits of nine members of the univer- 
sity faculty were also shown, together with the results obtained, by combining 
them in various groups.| It is evident that this work of Mr. Galton is an im- 
mense step in the study of race characteristics, and as has been suggested by him, 
it will be of immense service to art in enabling artists to study various types of 
beauty. th : 

These portraits are shown here to aid you in forming a definite idea of what 
is meant by an average or typical man. 

If, however, we wish to get the azmensions of the average man, we must re- 
sort to physical measurements. In this way it was determined that the height of 
the American soldier is 68 inches; his chest measurement is 35 inches, etc. 
These determinations were derived from the measurements of 26,000 soldiers of 
the Union army. The greater number of the men approximate the mean height, © 
the number taller and shorter diminishing with great regularity to the dwarfs of 
5 feet, and the giants of 6 feet 4 inches. 


*Nature, Vol. 13, p. 95. 


44 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


The number of persons in each rooo, of the various intermediate heights, is 
given in the following table :* 


EGON | Ons o2 620 Gn") (O51 7200 sora aos 


N I I Py 20m Aung Goi uae 134 157 


| 
COO I ee || S| 72 | 


TAO 2 te Soni 57/4 20) ln 5 2 


The numbers here are the same as we should get in the various chances in 
drawing 30 balls from an urn, containing an equal number of white and black. 

The curve (See Fig, 4) representing the above observations, is the same as 
that which might be made by a marksman in shooting at a mark. If we were to 
determine the heights of all the men in a nation for each year of life, we should 
get a very interesting series of curves. ‘Take all male children of one year of 
age; they differ comparatively little in height, or in mental power. They all 
approximate closely to the average. If we were to calculate the divergence from 
the average for 1000 cases, we should get a curve resembling the curve of an ac- 
curate marksman. It would be deep and narrow. Examining children of 
greater ages, say 10 years, we should find that they have begun to diverge from 
each other. Circumstances have arrested the development of some, and have 
caused others to surpass the average. In 1000 cases we shall therefore have a 
less number of persons of average dimensions. 

The curve for this case would be like that formed by a poor marksman, the 
curve becoming more and more shallow, as we come to higher ages. 

If we could grade the various members of society according to their opinions 
upon any subject which agitates the whole of society, we should find some such 
distribution as the one just examined. We should find two extreme parties, (cor- 
responding to the dwarfs and giants of the previous case) comparatively few in 
numbers, but active, resolute, aggressive. Between, we have the great mass of 
respectable society, interested in other things, and giving little real thought to the 
matter; anxious to hold proper views, and therefore holding average views as the 
safest ; pulled upon by the opposing workers, and yielding slowly to the resultant 
force, and thus, by reason of its immense mass, securing comparative stability and 
order against the rough jostlings of the more active, but less ponderous extremes. 

According to the investigations of Horstman, Hinrichs and others, the 
velocity of chemical reactions in time, is represented by this law. It has been 
proved theoretically in some cases, and experiment has confirmed the conclusion. 

If we throw small fragments of zinc into sulphuric acid, we get an evolution 
of hydrogen gas. At first the velocity of evolution is very small; it increases, 
however, and finally reaches a maximum. ‘Thereafter the velocity diminishes 


*Quetelet—Anthopoimetrie, p. 252. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 45 


until it finally ceases. Fig. 5 represents an actual experiment. The time in min- 
utes is laid off on the horizontal line, while the velocity of evolution of the gas at 
various moments is represented by the distances from the base line to the curve. 
Hinrichs has shown from the experiments of Guldberg and Wage, that the proba- 
bility curve represents this case very closely. Operations based upon heat con- 
form more closely to this law, as there all the particles have a more equal chance 
of being acted upon—an essential condition. In society there are manifold oper- 
ations which closely resemble this. Almost every year society is agitated by some 
idea, which at first interests very few people, but the interest gradually grows, 
and apparently with considerable regularity, reaching finally a culminating point, 
and then gradually dying out. The base-ball and blue-glass fever and the zig-zag 
puzzle may be mentioned as cases of this kind, and other cases will readily suggest 
themselves. Movements in society which are properly classed as reforms, usually 
make slow progress at first. The case is, however, advocated by a few tireless 
enthusiasts, like Wm. Lloyd Garrison, and after dragging along for years, the 
matter suddenly makes rapid progress, and is abruptly settled. 

In other movements of less momen, tlike the adoption of some fashion in 
dress, the matter makes great headway at first, rapidly receiving the assent and 
adoption of the great mass cf people, a few laggards bringing up the rear. 

These cases, which are symmetrically related to each other, would be repre- 
sented by the chances in drawing balls from afy urn containing unequal numbers 
of white and black balls. 

Another well-known case lies at the base of all life insurance. We can pre- 
dict with great confidence how many persons out of 1000 who are 10, 20, 30 or 
40 years of age will live through the next year. ‘This case is so well known, that 
we will discuss a somewhat more interesting one, which has been investigated by 
Dr. Granville. I refer to the probability of marriage. Dr. Granville determined 
In some manner the age at which 876 English women were married. ‘The 
values thus determined are given in the following table, where the number marry- 
ing at the various ages from 13 to 4o is given: 


re A CS Ni ee ne a eee 
Age. | malay es uo ins | Pronaonl an sia iy 2a0(iion attain 
por a aa | rei) 43 45 | 76 | tts | 118.) 86 | 85 | 59 153 | 36 


Age. | 26 | 27 | 28 | 24 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33.1 341 35 | 36 137 | 38 | 39 | 40 - 
ees ez itr) ol 7 shale 2lvel 2) ol tl o.. 

From such values, extended to a greater number of cases, we might easily 
‘deduce the probability of marriage at various ages. In this table, those who do 
not marry at all, are not included. These facts are represented in Fig. 6 of the 
plate. 

This operation reminds us very strongly of the chemical re-action. The 
hydrogen is liberated, at first slowly, the velocity increasing for a time, and grad- 
ually diminishing to zero. If we consider the velocity of marriage, the same 


46 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


general relation exists. Starting with tooo young ladies at 13 years of age, 
three of the young ladies marry during this year. ‘The velocity of marriage 
increases until during the 19th year the number is 131, the maximum velocity of 
134 per year being reached at 20. Half of them are now married, and from this 
time these interesting creatures drop off much less rapidly. At the age of 30, 
only ro out of 1000 marry, while at the age of 4o, the chances for a fist marriage 
are practically gone. Those who have had previous experiences of this kind might 
perhaps manage to make some arrangement even then. 

It will be observed that the chances do not diminish symmetrically on oppo- 
site sides of the maximum. In the operation of drawing balls, this would be rep- 
resented by the case where the number of white balls was say greater than the 
number of black, making the probabilities less in drawing black. 

We are thus able to calculate how many times out of too draws we shall 
draw all white balls from an urn, but we cannot predict what will be the result of 
any particular draw. We can predict how many times in too measurements a 
person will make an error of a thousandth of an inch, but we cannot predict what 
the error will be in any particular case. We can predict how many shots a 
certain marksman will put into a circle two inches in diameter, but we cannot 
predict where any one shot will strike. In a class of sufficient dimensions we may 
be able to predict how many will have mental ability enough to reach a mark of 
go per cent., but we cannot discuss the infinite number of subtile influences that 
have been acting on any one person, giving to each its proper weight; we cannot 
repeat the same thing for his ancestors, tracing back from him through the centu- 
ries the numberless divergent threads of inherited tendencies, and thus give a 
complete reason for the ability and inclination to learn, which any given student 
manifests. We cannot tell why any person varies an inch in height from the 
average of his kind; nor can we give a complete reason for similar divergencies 
in moral stature. Quetelet has shown that we can predict how many men will 
commit murder or suicide in Paris during a year, but we cannot discuss the matter 
in such a way as to enable us to predict who the unfortunates will be, at what 
moment they will decide to commit the fatal act, and exactly what they severally 
lacked, mentally or physically, the possession of which would have changed their 
decision. 

But we can imagine a being, who shall be mentally able to do all this; to 
give a complete solution of any problem that the human mind can propose. The 
causes for the breaking down of a railroad bridge can be given by a competent 
engineer, and he may be able to detect the weak points in the theory of its con- 
struction: he may be able to guard in part against flaws in the material. In the 
same way, and in a much more perfect manner, an infinite mind could discuss the 
breaking down of a human resolution, under the strain of temptation, and could | 
give a precise reason for the physical, mental, or moral divergence of any given 
man, from the average man. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 47 


The equations involved in this discussion must be sufficiently comprehensive 
to include the surroundings of each man, as well as the man himself. The decis 
ion a man will reach, by reason of all influences brought to bear on him, 
depends upon the man, and upon the zntensity of the influence, just as the inter- 
action between two planets depends upon doth of the acting bodies. That is to 
say, in the equations there will appear certain constants the values of which will 
differ with different men, just as in building a bridge, the values of certain con- 
stants in the formule depend upon the kind of material used. In the former 
case the value of these constants will be determined by the previous experiences 
of the man upon his inherited ability, tendencies, etc. We recognize all this in 
the popular saying, that different men under the same influences act differently, 
just as different beams of wood under a given tension, would act differently. Some 
would safely carry a load under which others would break down at once. The 
values of these constants may change for the same man, as when experience in 
any emergency causes him to resolve to do aifferently next time. 

Our equations must then enable an infinite mind to trace out, in such a man- 
ner that they could be predicted, all such events in the life history of a man as 
these: On a certain day and hour he will decide to take a pleasure walk, influ- 
enced by motives which we need not consider. Passing near the river bank, he 
sees a fellow-man struggling in the water. At once various mental forces are 
brought into action. He has, during his whole life, found pleasure in deeds 
of benevolence. For this trait in his character there is an adequate cause, but 
we need not consider it. His first impulse is to rush in and save the drowning 
man. The fact that he is an expert swimmer tends to influence him in the same 
direction. But he also knows that his lungs are in feeble condition, and, more- 
over, he is overheated by vigorous walking, he is far from help, and the water 
and. air are cold. The drowning man is strong, and thoroughly frightened. The 
events press for an immediate decision, and this may also have its influence in 
determining what the final decision will be. Some of us think-that a higher power 
may also influence him in some way. All these influences, brought to bear on 
this man’s mind, resemble a system of parallel and opposing forces acting upon a 
particle of matter, only, the relative sagnitude of these forces will be different, for 
different men. As in the one case there will be a certain resultant, in the direction 
of which the mass will move, so in the other case, there will be a resultant—a decis- 
ion, which will bring about a corresponding line of action. For a time, his judg- 
ment may hold him in equilibrium, as previous experience causes him to act with 
prudence. The discovery that the drowning man is his son, would probably 
determine his decision at once, and the discovery of a rope upon the bank, would 
attach upon his mind another intensely acting force. _ During his moments of sus- 
‘pense, the intensity of these forces would be constantly varying, as one after 
another consideration presents itself for the moment prominently in his mind. 
‘The infinite mind, fully learned in mathematics and mental philosophy, could 
predict at what moment the man would decide to rush in, and by continuing the 


Ag KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


calculation, might find that as a result, his respiration and circulation would be 
affected in a certain way, a large secretion would form in his lungs, and that at a 
certain moment, in a fit of coughing, it is calculated that a certain point in one of 
the large blood vessels would be strained a few grains more than it would be able 
to endure, resulting in its rupture. 

In the region over which we have now been traveling, all questions of prob- 
ability have vanished. Everything has become certain. In a world full of such 
minds, many kinds of business——as life insurance—could not be carried on, as 
the individual risks would be perfectly known. 

Our reasoning is all biased on the assumption, that all events, whether in the 
world of matter or of mind, are preceded by events which may be taken as 
direct and adequate causes. Even when a man willfully decides to do an unwise 
and an unreasonable thing, there is a cause for it, and the existence of the effect 
is of itself sufficient evidence of the sufficiency of the cause. ‘That is, there must 
be some reason why a man decides against reason. A rule which seems to be 
quite general is, that in any given case (so far as reasonable motives enter into 
consideration) we decide to do that which we then think will give us on the whole 
most pleasure or least pain, often deciding, however, to give up a greater pleas- 
ure, to be enjoyed only in the future, for a lesser one, to be enjoyed immediately, 
precisely as we sometimes allow a note to be discounted, in order that we may 
realize upon it at once. The actions may in many cases be unaccompanied with 
any elaborate reasoning, and may be without special reference to consequences, 
as when in consequence of previous reasoning of himself, or his ancestors, a man 
may form the /aézt of doing certain things. In such cases the action seems to be 
largely automatic. A man’s ideas of pleasure may be very low and vulgar, he 
may possess very poor judgment, and foolishly discount his happiness for too high 
a per cent., and the question arises then, why is he so? We cannot answer, ex- 
cept in general terms. He has inherited certain peculiarities, certain tendencies. 
He may have been placed in surroundings not favorable to mental and moral 
growth, and one of these inherited peculiarities may be the lack of a deszre to cul_ 
tivate his finer feelings, just as others may evince a lack of desire to cultivate | 
mathematics, or music, or chemistry. Even when placed under the most 
favorable auspices, the mathematician, the musician, the chemist or the moralist, _ 
fail to arouse in him the least sign of appreciation. The lack of appreciation 1s | 
fatal to success in mathematics; why should it not be equally fatal in morals? | 
Precisely what it is that such men lack, whether it be merely a matter of nerve | 
tissue, or whether something infinitely deeper is involved, is a problem, the com- | 
plete solution of which is merely a matter of ability. | 

The fact that our most earnest thinkers on such subjects come to such widely | 
different conclusions, makes it probable that we are all incapable of dealing with 
the subject in any exact manner. Whatever we may think of ourselves, and our | 
reasonings, we are probably all one-sided, and take altogether narrow and incom- | 
plete views of the subject. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. 49 


The difficulty of reaching precise results is increased by the impossibility of 
«ur making precise measurements of the influences about which we are talking. 

A person of rather limited information, who might happen to observe that 
his butcher is sending him less and less beef for a quarter of a dollar, and who 
might incidentally learn that the earth’s mass is being constantly increased by the 
fall of meteoric matter upon its surface, might possibly argue that this apparent 
rise in beef is due to the fact that it requires less beef to pull the index of the 
spring-balance down to the one pound mark. The reasoning is perfectly correct, 
but when we come to measure the zw/ensity of the influence it is found entirely in- 
significant. Such a person would need to learn that there are many other potent 
influences that affect the price of beef. 

So in the difficult subjects which we have been discussing. 

There may be secret springs in the human mechanism of which we are all 
wholly ignorant, and we may attach undue importance to many influcnces. 
However this may be, it seems to me possible to imagine beings of a higher order 
of intelligence, having perfect knowledge of men physically, mentally, morally 
and spiritually, and capable of predicting all our future surroundings, and all our 
future decisions. Of course this has nothing whatever to do with the zature of 
mental or spiritual operations. We may agree that they are as unlike ‘‘ merely 
mechanical” operations as we please. The infinite Being, particularly if He be 
assumed to be a Creator, can trace out the future of a man with much gieater 
precision than a ‘‘mere”’ manufacturer can trace out the future of a watch. Al- 
though the latter may be able to predict approximately what his watch will do, 7 
properly treated, he cannot know how it will be treated. With infinitely greater 
precision an infinite mind could trace out the totally different class of phenomena, 
known as spiritual and mental operations. He would know that at a certain mo- 
ment some one of us will be surrounded with peculiar dangers and temptation ; 
he would know whether the man. will be able to deliver himself without external 
aid, (from either a human or a superhuman source) and he would know whether 
or not this aid will be given, and the precise effect which it will produce. If 
there are beings who mow the future orbits of men, as astromomers know approx- 
imately the future orbits of planets, the question at once arises, in what sense are 
men free to decide, as distinguished from the freedom of a planet to move? If 
amy being knows absolutely that an event will happen, seeing clearly ai of the 
acting causes, is there a single possibility that it may not happen? Would notits 
failure to happen be taken as proof positive that there was no such knowledge as 
was assumed ? 

It is of course possible for me to decide to do a thing, avd to decide not to 
do it, but it is not possbile to do these things simultaneously. They must come 
“successively, and each decision would be determined by the mental forces before 
‘discussed. Each decision could be predicted. One of these forces might arise 
rom a desire to avoid the conclusions which here seem to force themselves upon 
us, and lead to an attempt to exert the mind in a purely arbitrary manner. 
it Iv—4 


50 _ KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


This view of the matter is from the standpoint of perfect knowledge. From 
our standpoint we can only observe that men differ from each other in height, in 
weight, in mental or physical strength, in moral worth, and that they appear to 
group themselves in a definite way about the average man. 

If we now attempt to grade men according to the wisdom which they exhibit 
in their choices, we should find comparatively few people exhibiting the highest 
forms of wisdom; the representatives of extreme foolishness would probably be 
more numerous. Between these extremes we should have all possible grades, in 
which the mass of society would be represented. It is hardly probable that the 
resulting curve would be symmetric. The greater chances would probably be in 
favor of foolishness, corresponding in the drawing of balls from an urn, to the 

case where the number of white balls is greater or less than the number of black. 
That is, from the human standpoint, the wisdom of human choice, in the aggre- 
gate, appears to be a matter of chance, in the same sense in which it is a matter 
of chance where shots will strike a target. 

From the higher standpoint of perfect knowledge no element of chance can 
enter. Each choice, whether wise or foolish, whether the reasoning which has 
led to it be logical or not, is determined by perfectly definite causes, admitting of 
precise mathematical discussion. 

In what way can we then justify the enforcement of law? The stability of 
society is here involved. Society has the right to protect itself against attack, 
and the greatest good to the greatest number demands that this right be exercised. 

Some of us act as missionaries in elevating the aims and tastes of less fortu- 
nate men, in placing before them motives for a better life, decawse, all things con- 
sidered, we prefer to do so. Many of us admire fine paintings, grand music, and 
generous, self-sacrificing deeds. This will ensure their perpetuation. 

Those who, as a result of pre-existing causes, find themselves in the possess- 
ion of a high appreciation of all that is pure and noble, will strive, more or less 
wisely, to surround others with influences which will draw (or push) them towards 
a higher life. A being sufficiently wise and powerful might at once solve our 
problem by at once removing all tendency to evil. Society must, however, settle 
the matter by a slower process—the process of education of head and heart—a 
process necessarily slow, and accomplished with infinite pain. | 

Even in so small a matter as the preparation of our food we have reached | 
our present knowledge by painful degrees. Our rules for cooking, yet imperfect, | 
have been reached through centuries of experiment, and at the expense of a count- | 
less number of sour stomachs and aching heads. So it has ever been in morals. | 
Here we are all doubtless blundering experimenters, but we are gradually learning | 
that some things are better than others, and the tendency is, slowly but irresisti- | 
bly, toward a morality which is not only practiced butappreciated. In the mean- 
time criminal law is the rude and only partially effective means for repressing 
those evil spirits, upon whom better influences have not chanced to act sufficiently. 


CHOICE AND CHANCE. dl 


If we add sulphuric acid to zinc the hydrogen does not all pass off at once; 
the process which follows requires “me for its completion. So it is with the good 
leaven in society. The individualsare not all changed at once; those who chance 
to be most favorably situated are first changed. The whole process requires time, 
and in the meantime, urged on by our necessities, we have taken the responsibility 
of hanging some individuals, just as we kill obnoxious wolves and bears. So 
that for the present, notwithstanding all our efforts to better the condition of the 
poor, a large number of them will never have the opportunity to learn the instincts 
of gentlemen, and their senses will remain so blunted that they will not be able to 
realize, as we can realize, the utter wretchedness of their situation—a situation 
into which they are born, and from which, experience shows, the greater part of 
them cannot escape, even when they chance to possess the desire to escape. The 
misery of their condition is made yet deeper by the successful struggles of stronger 
and better men after ¢hezr ideals of happiness. 

It is difficult to see how an all-wise and an all-powerful Creator could have 
been the author of so much misery. But the other hypothesis that there has 
.been no creation, that the universe is but the sporting-ground of irresponsible 
force, and that finite intelligence has been self-evolved from inanimate matter, 
seems equally incredible. In whatever way we view the matter this difficulty 
seems to me logically insurmountable, and I do not wonder that in the great poem 
of Milton, he describes the fallen spirits as deeply engaged in a hopeless contro- 
versy upon 


“« Fixed fate, free-will foreknowledge absolute, 
And found no end, in wandering mazes lost.”’ 


. —Book II. (560-561.) 
Happily for the business of life the irrepressible love and admiration of 


humanity for the pure and good saves rational men from practical error, or from 
rebelling against the eternal law, in which science and faith agree that although 
time and chance happen to all, yet that whatsoever a man soweth that shall he 
also reap; and in this fact that we believe that we shall be held responsible, the 
feeling of responsibility appears to find, at once, its explanation and its justification. 


An insect which produces a species of India rubber has been recently dis- 
covered in the district of Yucatan, Central America, by an American explorer. 
It is called meen, and belongs to the Coccus family; feeds on the mango tree, 
and swarms in these regions. It is of considerable size, yellowish brown in 
color, and emits a peculiar oily odor. The body of the insect contains a large 
proportion of grease which is highly prized by the natives for applying to the 
_ skin, on account of its medicinal properties. When exposed to a great heat the 

lighter oils of the grease volatilize, leaving a tough wax, which resembles shellac, 
and may be used for making varnish or lacquer. When burned, this wax, it is 
said, produces a thick semi-fluid mass, like a solution of India rubber. 


52 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


IMB TE ORONO Ne 


THE TORNADOES OF APRIL 18, 1880. 
BY PROF. J. D. PARKER, KANSAS CITY. 


Again the state of Missouri has been visited by a devastating tornado, which 
occurred April 18th, and again the phenomena and calamities of St. Charles in 
1877 and Richmond in 1878 have been repeated. We observe sudden high tem- 
perature and low barometer, intense electrical activity and displays of enormous 
atmospheric force, with heavy loss of life and destruction of property. The 
aérial disturbance seems to have been very general over the western portion of 
the continent, from the Ohio valley to the Pacific coast and from the Lakes to 
the Gulf, but,:so far as can be now ascertained, the most direct and well-marked 
line of destructive force extended from the Indian Territory, near the Arkansas 
River, northeastwardly, by way of Fort Smith and Fayetteville, Arkansas, 
Springfield, Marshfield, Russellville, Jefferson City, New Bloomfield, and Fulton, 
Mo., toward and to Jacksonville, Ils. Whether the other disturbances were from 
independent causes, or were offshoots of the same storm, is uncertain. 

Besides the destruction of property and Joss of hundreds of lives on this line 
at Marshfield, which is the county seat of Webster county, 215 miles southwest of 
St. Louis, on a plateau of the Ozark Mountains, though not particularly exposed by 
its elevation, great damage was done at Fayetteville, Arkansas, (though by an 
error, probably, the tornado is reported to have struck Marshfield and other 
points north and east of it several hours before it reached Fayetteville); also at 
Oak Bower, Ark., near the line between Arkansas and the Indian Territory, New 
Bloomfield, etc., all of which has been fully detailed by the daily papers. 

On the same day, but in the morning, a fierce storm was raging in Kansas, 
the velocity of the wind at Lawrence reaching 80 miles an hour, the greatest ever 
recorded there. At Leavenworth the U. S. signal officer recorded 60 miles an 
hour, while at all neighboring points the fury of the storm was almost unprece- 
dented. The barometer at the U. S. signal station at Leavenworth marked the 
greatest depression ever noted there, viz.: 29.04, corrected to sea level. The 
amount of sheet or ‘‘heat” lightning was so great in the western sky that many 
of the people of Leavenworth thought that Lawrence was on fire. 

At this city the storm of Sunday morning was light compared with that of the 
evening, though throughout the whole day there was an alternation of wind, hail 
and rain storms, culminating in a gale at mght which did some damage to roofs 
and fences. The maximum temperature was 82° and the minimum depression of 
the barometer 29.20. 


| 


THE TORNADOES OF APRIL 18, 188o. 53 


It is almost impossible to indicate the paths of these storms from the data at 
hand, but the Signal service charts and reports, when fully made up, will doubtless 
give to the meteorologists some very remarkable information and suggestions. 

The early appearance of tornadoes this year in this latitude seems to be 
exceptional. The equatorial wave of high temperature appears to have drawn 
them forward nearly a month. Tornadoes will occur whenever the conditions 
are supplied, and will of course appear earlier with premature heat. 

I wish simply to call attention to the fact that the Marshfield tornado con- 
forms as far as known to the physical laws as explained by the thermal theory.. 
Prof. Tice, who holds to another theory, in his report of the tornado, says: 

‘< Everywhere along the track of the tornado there is evidence of a wave of 
water flowing in the rear of the cloud spots. At some places there are only faint 
traces of such a wave; at others the debris is carried up and over obstructions 
of from two to three feet high. These waves or currents flowed in greatest volume 
up hill. There are places where the entire top soil is washed away by the cur- 
rents. Fibrous roots and tufts of grass show their direction to have been up hill, 
and what is significant, from all points of the compass to the top of the hill where 
the tornado was raging at the time and expending its force. No trace can be 
found at any point where they flowed down hill. Many level places are swept 
clean of soil. Leaves, grass and debris of the wrecked buildings, fragments of 
plants carried along by the current and left in its track had arranged themselves 
longitudinally to the current.” 

This reported wave is evidently only the great condensation of vapor rushing 
from all directions into the core of the tornado. 

Colonel R. T. Van Horn, in discussing the fact that tornadoes follow the 


isothermals, says: 
‘«The cause is the meeting of two waves of air at different temperatures, and 


-where should that meeting be more marked or the effects produced of as great 


intensity, as on the line that marks the mean between the two conditions? If 
there is a general law that governs in their origin and formation, there must be 
one that controls in their movements. And we have traced enough of them on 
the isothermal maps to be satisfied of the fact that their movement does corre- 
spond to these lines of mean temperature.” 

If tornadoes follow the lines of mean temperature must there not be some vital 
relation between them and heat? This is what is claimed by the thermal theory. 

Electricity seems inadequate as the cause of the tornado or for the produc- 
tion of the fundamental movements. Why does electricity revolve the tornado 
north of the equator in the direction contrary to the hands of a watch, and south 
of the equator in an opposite direction? Why does electricity cause tornadoes 
to move along the lines of the isothermals northeasterly? Why do not some 
of them, even if only for variety, move in an opposite direction? ‘True, light 


substances under a charged receiver will be attracted toward it to restore the 


equilibrium. But will electricity, as in a tornado in Georgia, carry up a tree, 


54 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


sixty feet in length and two and a half feet in diameter, half a mile high, and 
then fling it out of the tornado to come crashing to the earth? Why did the tree 
ascend in a sfzral path? And in the Camanche tornado of 1860, why did a man, 
and two horses in a reversed position, sail around on the opposite sides of a cir- 
cle? Can electricity under its known laws produce such results? Possibly some 
one may yet discover a spiral kind of electricity, and show that zigzag lightning 
is only the transverse section of spiral electricity blazoned on the sky.. 

Forests present the most efficient safeguards against tornadoes. As long as 
cyclones can sweep unobstructed over our prairies we shall see the sudden 
destruction of villages and cities and the terrible loss of life and property. But 
forest countries present such obstacles to the translation of tornadoes on the sur- 
face that when one touches the earth it is soon driven into the upper air where it 
passes off comparatively harmless. Tornadoes are one of Nature’s voices telling 
us in unmistakable tones to plant forests. Indeed abundant forests would free us 
from destructive winds, drouth and locusts, our three most serious physical evils. 
With abundant forests, inhabited by an enlightened people observing the moral 
law, our prairie world would become almost a paradise. 


SCISNMEIEe MisCHZ hl Anne 


A NATURALIST’S RAMBLES ABOUT KANSAS CITY. 
NO. I. 
WM. H. R. LYKINS. 


For the lover of Nature in all her forms there are few better localities for a 
ramble than the hills around our city. The botanist, the entomologist and the 
geologist can here find much to interest them, and add many good and not a few 
rare specimens to their several collections. And for the fortunate possessor of a 
good microscope there is a never-ending fund of instruction and amusement in the 
thousand forms of fresh water infusoria inhabiting the many mossy springs oozing 
out on the hillsides. The Diatomaciz are especially abundant, encrusting the 
rocks with their peculiar brown hue in places where the water streams over the 
cliffs. As we stand upon the top of the bluff fronting westward and look down 
at our feet we find the rocks strewn with fossil shells; and we can easily imagine 
the time when this was a wave washed shore and the vast expanse spread out 
before us was a region of shallow seas dotted with reefs and islets; once the 
homes of myriads of Mollusca, from the tiny Cyéhere, no bigger than a pin’s 
head, to the great coiled and chambered shell of the Vautilus, thirty inches in 
diameter, whose fossilized remains go to make up these rocks. In these waters 
also roamed a great shark, the Petalodus destructor, doubtless the terror of these 


A NATURALIST’S RAMBLES ABOUT KANSAS CITY. 59 


seas, whose sharp triangular teeth we occasionally find here, being all that is left 
of their cartilaginous bodies. 

Descending the hill, we come to the base of a cliff thirty feet in height. The 
rock is solid and close-grained, barren of fossils except here and there a crinoid 
stem or stray shell of an Ayris, showing that it was formed in a still, quiet sea 
too deep for animal life, and we pause to think how many thousands of years it 
took to form this one bed, if it is true, as geologists suppose, that these rocks 
were formed by the slow deposition of sediment washed from the ancient shores, 
settling down at the rate of a few inches ina century. Yet this one bed is no 
more in the carboniferous formation alone than a single leaf in Webster’s Great 
Unabridged, compared with the whole volume. This cliff rests upon another bed 
of limestone formed under different conditions. It is an impure shaly limestone, 
bedded in irregular wave-like layers,. showing that it was deposited in a shallow, 
muddy sea under the influence of a strong current. It has but few fossils except 
in the upper part, where there are many of the lace-like skeletons of a species of 
coral (Fenestella). And so each stratum’ of rock or shale tells its own history to. 
the experienced eye of the geologist as he passes along. 

Next below this is a bed of shale about fifteen feet in thickness. It is entirely 
destitute of fossils except a thin seam about two inches in thickness near the cen- 
ter, which is one mass of the stems and plates of crinoids (stone lilies) and other 
fossils peculiar to the carboniferous. Here, under favorable conditions, an anima} 
life suddenly sprang into existence, grew and flourished for a while, and as sudden. 
ly perished. This place has yielded many beautiful fossils to the collector, crznoids, 
Edmondia, Euomphalos, Hemipronites, Bellerophon percarinata, &c., all in a fine 
state of preservation. Here was found an almost perfect specimen of the head of 
Zeacrinus Mucrospinus, a crinoid, and the only perfect one ever found anywhere, 
so far as we know. In a little pool of water at the bottom of this bed of shale we 
found our first Rotifer Vulgaris, or wheel animalcule, after having long sought for 
it in vain in other localities. Marvelous tales have been told of the tenacity of 
life in this little animal, especially by the Abbe Fontana, who wrote a celebrated 
work on the Poison of the Viper. It was claimed that it could be boiled, baked 
and dried for an indefinite time, and then resuscitated with a drop of water. The 
savants fought long and bitterly with their accustomed acrimony and tenacity 
over this question, and finally left off where they began, neither side being con- 
vinced. All that we ever found perished on the slide as suddenly as any of their 
species, when deprived of moisture. They are, however, a most beautiful and 
wonderful object under the microscope at all times, and well worth the trouble it 
sometimes takes to find them. Their brilliant and crystalline structure allows the 
inspection of their inner formation, and they will kindly feed on indigo, vermilion 
_ or any other coloring matter and make curious and interesting spectacles of them- 
selves. Often they can be found in almost any puddle of water, and again we 
_ may hunt a whole season for them and not find one—at least such has been our 
_ experience. 


56 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


A little farther’down we come upon a clump of Asclepia tuberosa, their scarlet 
blossoms blazing like torches set upon the hill-side. The root of this plant is much 
sought after by old-fashioned country doctors, who consider it a ‘‘ powerful rem- 
edy”’ for coughs, colds and diseases of the lungs. It has many common names, 
such as Canada root, white root, pleurisy root, &c. It is naturally an inhabitant 
of the prairies, but is often found growing in the woods, the only difference being in 
the stalks, which here rise more tall and slender owing to the more confined space 
in which they grow. The root is essentially the same. Many plants which grow 
almost exclusively on the prairies are found in the open places on the west side of 
these hills, such as the prairie sunflower and compass plant. ‘The seeds, no doubt, 
having been brought by the prevailing west winds, lodge here and flourish, con- 
tented exiles from their native homes. There is often an interesting mixture of 
wild and cultivated plants, the latter being probably from stray seed from the old 
gardens of the early French settlers. 

At the foot of a little ledge of rocks we find a pile of the dismembered limbs 

. of the red-leggéd grasshopper (that bandit from Colorado, famous for its ravages 
in Kansas), which looks curiously like the remains of a miniature cannibal feast. 
We have not far to go to find the Ogre; he is at home in his cave, or crevice in 
the rock, a great bloated, black spider, so gorged with the juices of his victims 
that he can scarcely move, and we easily transfer him to a bottle and send him 
on a long journey to a scientific gentleman in Massachusetts. These warm, sunny 
slopes are favorite places for spiders, and collectors of the arachnidae can find 
many different species. There is also found here a most gorgeous beetle, whose 
name we do not know. It is about half an inch in length, of a slender shape, 
beautifully striped in green and gold, with purple legs. It is not plentiful, but 
can occasionally be found in bare sandy places, running about in the warm sun- 
shine. 

One of the most interesting stratum of rocks in our hills is the Odlite, a 
granular limestone formed of small round grains, having the appearance of petri- 
fied fish roe, and takes its name from QOon, a Greek word for egg. It is a fine 
building stone, easily dressed, and was much used in early times in our city. In 
places it yields beautiful fossils, especially a large Pleurotomaria, a coiled conica} 
shell. Its striated surface, of a rich chestnut brown, having the appearance of 
being newly varnished, will vie in beauty with many a recent shell fresh from the 
sea-shore, and make a collector’s eyes turn green with envy. The fish remains 
found in our rocks are principally teeth, of many species, in excellent condition. 
The bed, however, which has afforded the greatest variety of fossils to our col- 
lectors is found at the extreme foot of the hills. Its upper part is a layer of shale, 
passing into a black, flinty stone, which rests upon a fine-grained, dark gray lime- 
stone. In many places this layer of shale is one mass of fern-leaves, of several 
species, but principally a species of Pecopierts. In other places the jointed stems of 
an aquatic plant of the rush family, takes the place of the ferns. A curious and 
interesting object is the fossil shells of several species of animals, which lived on 


INFLUENCE OF ELECTRIC LIGHT UPON VEGETATION. 57 


these water plants, still adhering to the stems. This bed from top to bottom is 
the richest field for the collector, and has furnished our cabinets with many splen- 
did specimens of Vautilus, Orthoceras, Gontatiles, Euomphatos, Allorisma, Pinna, 
Phillipsia —in fact, nearly everything that is usually found in the Upper Carbonif- 
erous of Missouri. It is particularly rich in Nautili, and some of the cabinets in 
our city contain magnificent specimens of a half a dozen different varieties, some 
not described or figured by any of our Paleontologists. In the different collections 
made in this city are to be found many fossils from our hills not named or de- 
scribed in any of the State Reports or books on this subject, and we believe it 
would well repay some good Paleontologist, like the late Prof. Meek, to visit this 
city and examine the fossils of this locality. 

We have arrived at the foot of the hill, but have glanced at ouly a few of the 
many objects of interest to be found as we strayed alonz. But, alas, these pleas- 
ant ‘‘rambles” are fast disappearing under the ‘‘ building hand of man.” Soon 
stately piles of brick and marble and busy streets will cover the places where we 
once held pleasant converse with nature, studied the pages of her book and pried 
into her secrets, and those who have a love for such things should improve the 
present opportunity to enjoy that most healthful and instructive of recreations—a 
ramble on the hills. 
(Zo be Continued.) 


‘THE CURIOUS INFLUENCE OF ELECTRIC LIGHT UPON 
VEGETATION. 


At the meeting of the Royal Society last evening (March 4th) Dr. C. W. Sie- 


mens, F. R. S., gave a detailed description of some experiments upon the above 


subject which have been conducted during the last two months at his house at 
Sherwood, and exhibited specimens. ‘The method pursued was to plant quick- 
growing seeds and plants, such as mustard, carrots, swedes, beans, cucumbers, 
and melons, in pots, and these pots were divided into four groups, one of which 


_was kept entirely in the dark, one was exposed to the electric light only, one to 


the influence of daylight only, and one to daylight and electric light in succession. 


The electric light was applied for six hours each evening—from 5 to 11—and the 


plants were then left in darkness during the remainder of the night. The general 
result was that the plants kept entirely in the dark soon died; those exposed to 
electric light only or to daylight only throve about equally; and those exposed to 


both day and electric light throve far better than either, the specimens of mustard 


and of carrots exhibited to the society showing this difference in a very remarka- 
ble way. 


x 


t 
ii 
° 


Dr. Siemens only considers himself as yet on the threshold of the investiga- 
tion, but thinks the experiments already made are sufficient to justify the following 


conclusions: 1. That electric light is efficacious in producing chlorophyl in the 


58 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


leaves of plants and in promoting growth. 2. That an electric center of light 
equal to 1,400 candles placed at a distance of two meters from growing plants 
appeared to be equal in effect to average daylight at this season of the year; but 
that more economical effects can be obtained by more powerful light centers. 3. 
That the carbonic acid and nitrogenous compounds generated in diminutive quan- 
tities in the electric arc produce no sensible deleterious effects upon plants inclosed 
in the same space. 4. That plants do not appear to require a period of rest dur- 
ing the twenty-four hours of the day, but make increased and vigorous progress if 
subjected during daytime to sunlight and during the night to electric light. 5. 
That the radiation of heat from powerful electric’arcs can be made available to 
counteract the effect of night frost, and is likely to promote the setting and ripen- 
ing of fruit in the open air. 6. That while under the influence of electric light 
plants can sustain increased stove heat without collapsing. a circumstance favora- 
ble to forcing by electric light. 7. That the expense of electric horticulture 
depends mainly upon the cost of mechanical energy, and is very moderate where 
natural sources of such energy, such as waterfalls, can be made available. 

Before concluding his observations, Dr. Siemens placed a pot of budding 
tulips in the full brightness of an electric lamp in the meeting-room, and in about 
forty minutes the buds had expanded into full bloom. 


THE SECOND HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 


Captain Howgate’s bill having passed the House, active preparations are being 
made for the start of the expedition, which is fixed for the 15th of May. The 
Gulnare, a steamer of about 200 tons, is lying at Alexandria, Va., being strength- 
ened and thoroughly refitted for the voyage under the experienced direction of 
Captain Chester. It is expected that the vessel will be ready in a fortnight. She 
will start from Washington, fully manned and equipped, with two years’ supplies. 
The members of the expedition number about twenty-five, including a corps of 
scientific observers. Touching at various points on the coasts of Labrador and 
Greenland, the expedition will proceed to the west coast of Smith’s Sound at lati- 
tude 81 degrees and 40 minutes, where the first permanent depot will be made. 
Landing the men and supplies, the vessel will return in the fall. The general 
features of Captain Howgate’s plan of operations are too well known to require 
explanation. He proposes to reach the Pole, if possible, by a system of slow but 
continuous advances, made during several successive seasons, pushing his camps 
farther and farther northward as rapidly as may be found practicable, establishing 
a secure basis of supplies and replacing men, who may become disabled or dis- 
heartened, with fresh recruits each year. Though this necessarily involves a large 
outlay of means and may perhaps cost some sacrifice of life, it will prove in the 
event of success the least expensive and most humane method of accomplishing 
the result. To lay siege to the desired goal in this systematic and persistent man- 


WATER-SPOUTS OF F KAUAT, 59 


ner is to put a stop to the desultory and ineffectual attempts thus far made by the 
several nations which have so earnestly striven to carry off the prize. The Captain 
finds no difficulty in securing men to undertake the enterprise; his funds are 
ample, and he is sanguine of the success which he certainly deserves after so 
many years of constant effort. 

The Hon. J. R. McPherson, chairman of the Senate Committee on Naval 
affairs and Hon. W. C. Whitthorne, chairman of the House Committee on Naval 
affairs are entitled to the thanks of all friends of science and exploration through- 
out the world for their persistent and successful advocacy of this measure.—[ Ep. 


WATER-SPOUTS OFF KAUAI. 


On Monday, the oth of March, there was a fine exhibition of water-spouts 
off the eastern coast of Kauai. When first seen just after light in the morning 
there were two in company. ‘They were tall, straight and symmetrical, and as 
alike as two peas, extending like pillars from the ocean to the sharply-defined 
lower edge of a black cloud, from which was precipitated at quite a distance in 
the rear of the water-spouts a heavy shower of rain. To the rear again of the 
shower there was at frequent intervals seen the quick flash of electricity as it 
leaped from the cloud to the briny abyss. The whole procession was passing 
majestically toward the south, some ten miles out to sea, in a direction nearly 
parallel with the coast. One peculiarity which added to the interest of the spec- 
tacle was the slow revolution of one of the water-spouts around its mate, describ- 
ing an orbit perhaps two thousand feet, or even more, in diameter. After a time 
the two water-spouts faded away and disappeared, and presently after a lapse of 
several minutes a third one was seen to be forming. The whirling base of mist 
on the sea and a descending cone of cloud appeared simultaneously, and soon 
became connected and developed into a perfect column.—AHawazan Gazette. 


MOSAICULTURE. 


M. Chretian (writes our Lyons contemporary) has this year given us in the 
Parc de la Tete d’Or, some pretty examples of what he terms ‘‘ mosaiculture,” in 
the shape of beds containing mottoes and devices set out with colored foliage 
plants. Our Scottish neighbors seem to have carried the idea farther, with an eye 
to business as well as ornament. On a hillside not far from Glasgow may be read 
the words Glasgow Mews in gigantic letters, each forty feet long and six feet 
broad, formed of colored foliage plants. This inscription occupies a length of one 


hundred yards, and covers a space just 1,450 times the size of the Journal it ad- 
_vertises.— Garden. 


60 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


OBIE CAI NG. 


SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF PROF. W. K. KEDZER: 


Prof. William K. Kedzie, who was known to many of our readers as former 
Professor of Chemistry at the Kansas Agricultural College, and who will be re- 
membered by hundreds of the citizens of this city as having delivered a memora™ 
ble address at the Commencement Exercises of the Kansas City College of Physi 
cians and Surgeons in 1877, died-at Lansing, Michigan, of typhoid fever, on the 
14th of April. He was skilled.in his profession, an excellent teacher, a ready and 
perspicuous writer, and a fluent and attractive public speaker. In addition to 
these qualifications, few men possessed finer social qualities. We condense the 
following items from the Jndustrialist : 

He was born at Kalamazoo, Michigan, July 5th, 1851. He graduated from 
the Michigan State Agricultural College at the age of 19, and at once entered 
upon his duties as assistant to his father, the esteemed Professor of Chemistry in 
the same Institution. The two winters succeeding his graduation were spent at 
Yale College, in study, under Profs. Johnson and Brush, who testified to his great 
skill in manipulation and proficiency in his favorite branch—chemistry. 

In the summer of 1873, Prof. Kedzie received a call to the chair of Chemis- 
try and Physics, in the Kansas State Agricultural College. Commencing with 
an almost entire absence of the most ordinary essentials in imparting chemical 
knowledge—without a course of study, without a lecture-room, and without stu- 
dents even—he succeeded within three years in making chemistry the most 
attractive study taught in the Institution, and his department, in point of equip- 
ment and laboratory conveniences, superior to anything of the kind in the West. 

In January, 1874, Professor Kedzie was elected chemist to the State Board 
of Agriculture, and at once he commenced and carried through a vast amount of 
work in the line of chemical analysis. All the principal sorts of Kansas soils, 
minerals, grains, and even fungi, were subjected by him to rigid chemical exami- 
nation, and the results have been accounted among the most valuable in the 
records of our State B ard. 

In the summer of 1875, the Professor spent four months in Europe, during 
which time he made a careful examination of the principal laboratories of the 
Continent and England. The ideas there obtained he was enabled, the following 
year, to embody in the magnificent laboratory of the Kansas Agricultural College. 
In July, 1876, he was united in marriage to Miss Ella Gale, of Manhattan, who 
is left with two small children to mourn his loss. In 1878 he received an urgent 
call to the chair of Chemistry and Physiology, in Oberlin, Ohio, of which his 
uncle was president, which he finally accepted, and entered upon the duties of 


SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF PROF. W. K. KEDZIE. 61 


his new position at the beginning of the college year. His success in that 
institution was fully commensurate with his ability, and the assiduity with which 
he pursued his studies doubtless led to the disease of whch he died. 

Major Hudson, editor of the Cafital, says of him: 

No young man ever came to Kansas who made more or warmer friends than 


‘Prof. Kedzie. Old and young prized his friendship, and admired his brilliant 


scholarly attainments. It was our privilege to know him well and to honor his 
many manly traits.of character. He was a pure, honorable man in his daily 
walk, not offensively prudish, but one of the cleanest minded men we have ever 
known. His idea of honor was chivalric, and his decease is a loss not only to his 
native state of Michigan, and to his many friends in other states, but to science. 

The Lansing (Michigan) Aepublecan speaks thus of him : 

“During his whole life Prof. Kedzie has been an untiring worker, and although 
not enjoying good health, has accomplished very much. Even before he gradu_ 
ated, he made a fine collection of birds and birds’ eggs which he donated to the 
college museum. He was the principal originator of the Natural History Society 
of the Michigan Agricultural College and has done much to make the Society 
prosperous.” 

His loss is a calamity not only to his friends, but to his 4/ma Mater and to 
the college with which he was connected. His chief published writings, so far as 
we can ascertain, were a work on the Geology of Kansas, and a number of Scien- 
tific articles contributed to the Kansas Academy of Science and preserved in its 
annual reports. 

His. character was most exemplary in every respect, and his life one to be 
emulated by all young men. 


BOOK-NOMI CHS: 


EyvresicHt—Goop anp Bap. By Robert Brudenell Carter, F.R.C.S. Philadel- 
phia, 1880; Presley Blakiston ; $1.50. 

This is a comprehensive popular treatise on the exercise and preservation of 
vision, with numerous illustrations, and is well calculated to educate the public in 
regard to the construction of the eyes in health, their changes and defects in dis- 
ease or old age, and the manner of caring for them in infancy and childhood, as © 
well as in later life. The chapters upon Natural and Artificial Illumination and 


upon Practical hints on Spectacles are especially valuable to those persons who 


are compelled to use their eyes constantly in writing or ypon fine work, and are 


full of useful information to all. 


The author is Ophthalmic Surgeon to St. George’s Hospital, London, and 


‘has had a vast field of experience in the treatment of diseased and defective eyes, 


and this little work bears evidence of his entire familiarity with his subject. 


62 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THe SpELL-BounpD FIppLER. By Kristofer Janson. 12mo., pp. LOX. tees 
Griggs & Co., Chicago, 1880; $1.00. 


For the past year or two this enterprising firm has been publishing, princi- 
pally under the editorship of Professor Rasmus B. Anderson, of the University of 
Wisconsin, a series of books illustrating the literature of the Norse-Land. Among 
these have been put forth in handsome style The Norse Mythology, The Viking 
Tales of the North, Echoes from Mist-Land, The Younger Edda, &c. 

The Spell-Bound Fiddler is a tale by Kristofer Janson, relating in narrative 
form the events of the life of the wonderful musician of Norway, Torgeir Au- 
dunson, and evidently intended as an effort to break down the puritanism of the 
country, which fosters a prejudice against all other than church music and pre- 
sents an obstacle to the progress of the Orphic art among that gifted people. 

The introduction, by Prof. Anderson, contains among other interesting facts, 
some passages in the life of Ole Bull not hitherto published. 


Sea AIR AND SEA BaTHING. By John H. Packard, M. D. 12mo., pp. 121; 
Presley Blakiston, Phila., 1880; 5oc. 


With felicitous appropriateness Health Primer number XI, bearing the above 
title, makes its appearance, containing just the proper directions upon sea bath- 
ing, sea-side resorts, accidents in bathing, sea bathing for invalids, amusements at 
the sea-shore, cottage life at the sea-shore, sanitary matters, the sea-shore as a 
winter resort, excursions to the sea-shore, &c. With the mercury in the eighties, 
as during last week here, such a book will be sought for with avidity and read 
with profit by all who contemplate summering at the sea-side. 


A SERIES OF QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. By Mary F. 
Hendrick. t12mo., pp. 76; Davis, Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y., 1880; 
B25: 

The writer of this little work is Teacher of Reading and English Literature 
in the State Normal and Training School, Cortland, N. Y., and necessarily brings 
to the task a large experience. Her object is to present to her pupils the subject 
of literature in connection with prominent historical epochs and to suggest, by a 
series of questions, noted authors of each and their best known works; and the 
volume closes with a list of reference books and a course of reading embracing 
only the most prominent and standard authors. 

Such a book properly studied cannot fail to be of great value to such readers. 


BOOK NOTICES, 63 


REALITIES OF IRISH Lire. By W. Steuart Trench. Boston, Roberts Brothers, 
1880; 12mo., pp. 297; $1.00. 


The object of the author seems to be to give a clear and truthful account of 
the occurrences which violent party spirit or local prejudices have placed before 
the public distorted, and also to give to the English public, in particular, some 
idea of the difficulties in the way of progress or improvement in Ireland, as well 
as to show that in spite of these difficulties such progress and improvement are 
really practicable. The author writes from the vantage ground of long experience 
among the people he describes, and his stories bear the marks of truthfulnes and 
candor. 

Among the titles of chapters or tales may be given The Ribbon Code, The 
Potato Rot, The Revival, The School, The Battle of Magheracloon, &c. 


‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. Louris. Volume IV, No. 1; 
Octavo, pp. 190; R. P. Studley & Co., St. Louis, 1880; $2.00. 


We are indebted to Professor Nipher for the above-named work, which. con- 
tains two Reports by himself of his Magnetic Observations and Determinations in 
Missouri; a very interesting article by Judge Nathaniel Holmes, upon The Geo- 
logical and Geographical Distribution of the Human Race; one by Dr. G. Seyf- 
farth, upon Egyptian Theology, which displays a great familiarity with the lan- , 
guage and the history of Ancient Egypt; a very practical paper upon The 
Improvement of Western Rivers, by C. M® Scott; besides several others worthy 
of our future perusal. 

This Academy is of long standing and has done much good work, especially 
that of Dr. Engelman and Profs. Nipher and Wadsworth in Meteorology and 
Physics. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


The Report of the Board of Trade of Golden, Colorado, for 1879 and 1880, 
Learning and Health, by Benjamin Ward Richardson; Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
Syracuse, N. Y., 15c ; ‘‘ Egyptian Antiquities” found in America, Prof. F. W. 
Putnam; College Libraries as Aids to Instruction, U. S. Bureau of Education, 
No. 1, 1880; The Effects of Civilization on the Climate and Rain Supply of Kan- ~ 
sas, by H. R. Hilton, Topeka, Kansas; Report on the Interests and Condition 
of Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, by W. G. Elliot, President, 
March, 1880; Report of the State Engineer of California, 1880. 


64 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


DD TiORiA aN Od is: 


THEregular meeting of the Academy of Sci- 
ence was held at its rooms on Tuesday eve 
ning, April 27th. A paper upon the Theory 
of Probabilities, considered from'a mathemat- 
ical standpoint, was read by Professor J. M- 
Greenwood, which was followed by one from 


V. W. Coddington, Esq., upon the Construc- | 


tion of School Houses. Both papers were 
interesting and comprehensive, and received 
the close attention of the audience. They 
will probably appear in these columns within 


a short time. 


On May 21st Rev. Dr. S. S. Laws, Presi- 
dent of the University of Missouri, and one of 
the best thinkers and speakers of the West, 
will deliver the seventh lecture of the Extra 
Winter Course before the Kansas City Acade- 
my of Science, upon the fruitful subject of 
«‘ The Categories of Kant.” 

This subject was proposed by the Kant 
Club of this city, and all who desire to hear 
this difficult metaphysical topic discussed in 
a popular, yet comprehensive and learned 
manner should by all means be present. Dr. 
Laws possesses in an unusual degree the 
power of popularizing and enlivening an ab- 
struse subject, and no one need apprehend a 
heavy or prosy discourse on this occasion. 
No charge for admittance. 


Mrs. Mary F. MupbGE, widow of the late 
esteemed Professor B. F. Mudge, offers to 
place at our disposal, for publication in the 
Review, portions of an unfinished work upon 
which he was engaged at the time of his 
death, several chapters of which we published 
last year. 

Aside from the associations connected with 
them, these articles have the merit of accu- 
racy, soundness, vigor and attractiveness 
of style, and they are in large proportion the 


result of personal investigation. 


Pror. H. S. PRITCHETT, who furnishes an 
article for this number of the Revzew, has 
recently resigned the position of Assistant 
Astronomer at the U. S. Naval Observatory 
to take permanent charge of the Morrison 
Observatory at Glasgow, Missouri, in connec- 
tion with his father, the well-known Professor 
C. W. Pritchett. Such an accession to the 
astronomical observers of our state tends to 
place it in the foreground in this branch of 
science at least. 


A CARD. 


The fourth volume of the Kansas Czty Re- 
view of Science and Industry commences with 
this number, My time is so fully occupied 
with my official duties that I find it impossi- 
ble to call upon my friends in person, and 
take this means of asking them to patronize 
it. 

I may say, without boasting, that the fe- 
view has met with a very flattering reception 
as the exponent of the scientific and literary 
culture of the West, but as it is not yet on a 
paying basis, I am “compelled to ask addi- 
tional aid in maintaining it as a home enter- 
prise, creditable to the community and worthy 
of a generous support. To those who take 
no special interest in scientific subjects it is 
suggested that the articles on Domestic Econ- 
omy and Hygiene alone are worth more than 
the subscription price, while those who desire 
to subscribe for any of the magazines of the 
country or purchase any kind of miscellane- - 
ous or scientific books, can save enough on 
one or two such transactions, made through 
my agency, to pay for the Revzew one year, 

Sample copies of this number will be sent to 
some persons who are not subscribers, in the 
hope that they will become such. Any re- 
ceiving it who feel that they cannot subscribe 
will please return it by the carrier. 

THEO. S. CASE, 
Liditor. 


 L£DITORIAL NOTES, 


Dr. G. F. NEEDHAM, Washington, D. C., 
sends us his Pamphlet (third edition), ‘ Fig 
Culture at the North,” in which he seems to 
show conclusively, that the people of the 
Middle and Northern States, by using the 
proper means, can grow figs of as good qual- 
ity, and in abundance,at the North, as at the 
South, that is, as fine as the imported. 


WE have received of Dr. A. L. Child, of 
Plattsmouth, Nebraska, a copy of an elabo- 
rate report upon the Progress of the Seasons, 
Rainfall, Meteorology, &c., of that portion of 
the state, consisting of observations made and 
recorded by himself, 


Rev. S. B. BELL, of this city, has recently 
commenced the publication of a religious 
newspaper called the Mzd-Continent Presbyte- 
vian, into which he has introduced the novel 
feature of printing the communications of 
skeptics, infidels, and atheists, for reply. It 
is a liberal move and one which, if managed 
prudently and skillfully, will be productive 
of good, Dr. Bell is an earnest and zealous 
worker, and we wish him a full measure of 
success. 


CaPTaIN HowGaTe is having built at 
Washington a house, with double walls, win- 
dows and roof, for the use of the men to be 
colonized in the Arctic Regions. It is de- 
scribed as ‘‘a long one-story building that 
looks like a large livery stable, with a shed- 
like addendum at each gabled end. When 
finished it is to be taken to pieces, conveyed 
aboard ship and re-constructed when the 
home of the polar bear is reached,”’ 


THE cranium of Descartes is often adduced 
as an exception to the general rule that a 
‘great mind requires a large brain. This state- 
ment seems to have rested on no exact meas- 
urement, and Dr, de Bon resolved to test its 
accuracy. The result is that he finds the 
cubic capacity of Descartes’ skull to be 1,700 
centimeters, or 150 centimeters above the 
mean of Parisian skulls of the present time, 


my 95) 

IT is now ascertained that nearly two hun- 
dred years ago a Mr, Benjamin Allen discoy- 
ered and reported to the Royal Society of 
England that eggs had been found by him in 
eels, a fact supposed to have been shown only 
within the past year. 


THE Quarterly Report of the Kansas State 
Board of Agriculture for the first quarter of 
1880 is filled with the most useful statistics 
relative to industries, taxes, values, popula- 
tion, condition of crops, farm animals, mete- 
orology, &c., and shows that in their choice 
of Major’ Hudson, as successor to Alfred Gray, 
for Secretary, the action of the Board was re 
markably well taken, 


IT is impossible for us to thank ecch maga- 
zine and newspaper separately for kind, en- 
couraging worcs spoken in regard to the 
Review, so we tender them our thanks ex 
masse, and hope to reciprocate on all fitting 
occasions. 


AT the Ministers’ Convention, held here 
last week, Rev. A. C. Williams, of Lincoln, 
Nebraska, read an essay entitled, Do the 
Revealments of Science Contradict the Re- 
vealments of the Bible? and Rev. C. C. Kim- 
ball, of this city, one upon The Influence of 
Modern Science upon Belief in Miracles, 
which latter was followed by one upon the 
same subject by Rev. R. M. Tunnell, of Wy- 
andotte. These papers were ably written, 
and we hope to present them to our readers 
soon. Several other papers, more strictly 
clerical in their character, were read by other 
ministers. 


THE Boston Journal of Commerce, which is 
one of our best commercial exchanges, com- 
menced its fifteenth volume in Apri]. It is 
edited by Thomas Fray, Jun., under whose 
management it is rapidly gaining popularity 
as a reliable price current, an authority on 
mines and stocks, and a gazette of manufac- 
turing progress and business intelligence. 


66 


Pror. C, W. PrircHetr of the Morrsion 
Observatory, at Glasgow, informs us by letter, 
that he has completed the telegraphic con- 
nection between that institution and our Union 
depot, and is now in readiness to commence 
sending the time signals* mentioned in the 
Review some months since. 


THE investigation by Prof. Barker and other 
experts, of Edison’s method of producing and 
maintaining the electric light at Menlo Park, 
does not seem to have settled the question in 
his favor, as, notwithstanging the favorable 
report, several of our best known electricians 
still insist that there is nothing new in his 
experiments, and that the electric light can- 
not be made practically and economically 
successful from his standpoint. In this con- 
nection, it is quite significant that in the 
competitive test in London of electric lights, 
the palm was awarded to the patent of 
Brush, of Cleveland, Ohio, and the British 
Government has given an order to the Cleve- 
land Telegraph Supply Company for over 
$30,000 worth of apparatus, including twen- 
ty-four of the largest machines and four hnn- 
dred and twenty-four lamps. 


Judge E. P. West has just returned from a 
trip to Marion county, Kansas, where he has 
been exploring some pre-historic mounds and 
burial places. He brings some very striking 


SPECIAL 


<2 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


relics, and his report, which will be published 
in the June Review, will be read by archzolo- 
gists with decided interest, 


The American Naturalist says that Pierre 
Lorillard of New York is reported to be prepar- 
ing to defray the expenses of an exploration 
and spoliation of the ruins of Mexico and Cen- 
tral America for the benefit and enrichment 
of some institution in Paris, under the name 
of the Museé Lorillard. Does not such for- 
eign spoliation come within the purview of 
Monroe doctrine ? 


THE Vega, escorted by a large fleet of steam- 
ers, arrived at Stockholm April 25th. The 
city and adjacent coasts for many miles were 
splendidly illuminated. Prof. Nordenskjold 
proceeded to the Castle, where they were 
welcomed by the King and _ vociferously 
cheered by the people. 


REV. WASHINGTON GLADDEN, who has 
hitherto had sole charge of the departments, 
Editor’s Table and Literature, in Good Com- 
pany, has relinquished his connection with 
the magazine, all of which will now be under 
the supervision of Edward F. Merriam, who 
has had exclusive management of the Con- 
tributor’s department. This arrangement 
begins with Number Eight. 


NOTICE. 


Itseems to have become altogether a fixed thing for T. M. James & Sons, to 


put their latest importations of rich China and Queensware goods and artistic 
novelties on exhibition at the opening of each week and upon arrival of new 
invoices, and the frequency of such receipts affords our citizens many oppor- 
tunities to examine choice handiwork from abroad and emanating from the most 
celebrated patterns and embellished by the hands of eminent artists. To-day 
may be seen in the show windows of T. M. James & Sons a late importation of 
admirable qualities, and splendid display of hand painted vases of Ionic and 
Grecian shapes and decorated in the most pleasing manner in landscapes, sport- 
ing scenes and classic groups. These goods are very seasonable and their price 
is very low, considering their elegance, and will repay a close inspection and 
ought to find a place in a great number of households in our city and suburbs. 
Messrs. James & Sons are still in almost daily receipt of rich Chinaware elegant 
Glassware and a great variety of other goods requisite in their large trade. A 


visit to this great importing house is time profitably spent both in pleasure and 
economy of prices. 


KANSAS CLTY 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOL. IV. JUNE, 1880. NO. 2. 


SI ONNOUMIG 


THE SUN AND PHENOMENA OF ITS SURFACE. 
BY WM. DAWSON, SPICELAND, IND. 


I have no doubt that the sun contributes much more to all the comforts and 
happiness that we enjoy in life than people generally think. It is very large and 
very distant. Our earth is a great body, and to travel round it—z5,o00 miles— 
is along journey. And yet this, more than three times 8,000 miles, is only one- 
ninth of the distance to the moon. Now if the sun were a hollow sphere and 
the earth placed in its center, the moon might be at its present distance from the 
earth and still be but slightly more than half way from the sun’s center to its sur- 
face. 

The diameter of this vast source of light and heat is given at 860,000 miles, 
and its distance at about 92,000,000. 

Presuming that readers of the Rrvirw already have a general knowledge of 
the spots on the sun, from an article on this subject in the Number for May, 
1879, I will now briefly recite the more important solar phenomena as presented 
in my six-feet telescope during last year; and then allude to the causes of sun 

Spots, and other matters with which they are supposed to be connected. 

During 1879, I observed the sun about every clear day the year through ; 
generally using a magnifying power of 100, furnished with a reflecting prism 
which admits the full aperture of the object-glass, 4,6, inches. This arrangement 
gives a more interesting view of the varied phenomena of the solar surface than 
the direct view with a common eye-piece, which requires a cap or diaphragm over 


‘the object-glass to prevent too much light and heat entering through the object- 
| IV—5 


68 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ive. The reflecting prism is a piece of glass of such form as to allow a great 
portion of the sun’s light to pass entirely through and out of the telescope, and 
still reflect enough to form a good image, and give a fine view of the solar sur- 
face. Examined in this way when the air is very clear and calm, (which, though, 
is rather seldom, even when no clouds are visible,) the disk presents a delicate 
mottled or granular appearance as though there existed many thousands of fine 
freckles all over the fair face of the sun. Sometimes, indeed, it seems rather 
difficult to distinguish between the largest of these minute forms and the least of 
the solar spots. Besides these freckles I sometimes notice a very white curdled 
or brain-like appearance—possibly masses of ‘‘ rice grains,” etc.—to be described 
further on. 

In January two spots were observed in the fore part of the month; and I 
saw only two others—on the zoth; from which we may infer that the sun was 
nearly clear of spots all the month. JI saw none in February till the 14th, 
when a small group appeared, and vanished in a few days. Except a small spot 
March 14th, no more were seen till the 11th of April, when a group of five little 
spots and bright faculz appeared at the eastern edge of the sun. Next day the 
group containéd sixteen spots. On the 13th. nine. In one part of the group, 
several little spots had united into one, which was surrounded by bright penum- 
bra. By the 16th a group of twenty-five spots had formed, seven of which were 
large. On 20th they were mostly gone—only one remaining. It was near 5,000 
miles in diameter, and could be seen with a small spy-glass. It grew smaller, 
and disappeared at the western edge of the sun on the 23d. On 24th no spots, 
but the mottled appearance was very prominent—like innnmerable little specks 
over the sun’s face. No more spots this month. May 6th, bright facula at east 
edge. Next day a group of spots appeared there. On 8th and oth, about a 
dozen were seen—one of them pretty large. By 13th the group had dwindled 
to one little spot. No more till June ath, and very few till 27th, when a group 
of fourteen spots was visible, and in three days it numbered thirty-seven, It 
fell off to one by July 5th. In six days a group of twenty had formed. On 13th 
. one of them was near 8,ooo miles in diameter—nearly large enough to be seen 
without a telescope. It was surrounded with a wide penumbra. On 14th the 
sky was uncommonly clear and fine, and the general surface of the sun appeared 
of a whitish, curdled, or brain-like appearance. By 18th the cluster had vanished. 

It may be noted that the ordinary black spots never, or but very seldom, 
appear near the poles of the sun; but now one or two w/e spots were visible in 
the region of the north pole. On 26th the mottled and fine brain-hke appear- 
ance were very prominent. August 9th, several white spots were seen at inter- 
vals all round the sun’s margin. 

It will be understood that these white spots are entirely different from the 
common sun spots, which are always black or nearly so. Quite a showing of 
solar spots occurred on the 8th to 14th of August. On 12th a large group broke 
out near the west edge and soon disappeared. Another spot show occurred in 


THE SUN AND PHENOMENA OF ITS SURFACE. 69 


the last of August. Between 8 o’clock of 28th and the same hour of 2oth, a 
very large spot broke up and formed three smaller ones. In three or four days 
after this wreck in the sun, a great rain fell in our country. Very few spots in 
September. But a large cluster was very prominent from October 7th to rth. 
In a few days other spots broke out in different places, making a speckled ap- 
pearance on the sun’s face. About the 21st they had all disappeared, leaving 
the sun clear for two weeks, and nearly so for three weeks. Toward the middle 
of November a large group formed and passed over the western side of the sun. 
A few small spots on several days in December closed the exhibition for 1879. A 
show of fifty-five spots in three groups occurred in the middle of January, 1880; 
and since that time but few days have passed without spots being present on the 
sun. So it is evident that they are now on the increase. AndIam not sure 
but that it is more rapid than it was in the early part of the period which com- 
menced in 1867. I consider that the minimum this time occurred in the early 
part of 1879; making the period twelve years long. 

About eleven years is the average length of several former periods from one 
minimum to the next. The extremes are about ten and thirteen years. 

Greater activity seems to prevail during the first half of the period than 
during the last half, so that the maximum, or greatest show of spots, occurs 
about two years before the middle of the period. But Iam satisfied from my 
own observations that the maximum of the last period was near three years be- 
fore the middle, particularly as regards the number. However, spots of large 
size continued two or three years after their number began to grow less. 

In attempting to explain the freckly or mottled appearance, I would offer 
the one theory of its being the interstices of the darker or gray portion of the 
sun’s surface in which a very large telescope, furnished with a polarizing eye- 
piece, shows ‘‘hundreds of thousands of small intensely brilliant bodies, that 
seem to be floating in the gray medium, which, though itself no doubt very 
bright, appears dark by comparison. What these little things are, is still uncer- 
tain; whatever they are, they are the immediate principal source of the sun’s 
light and heat.” They bear a certain resemblance to rice grains of different 
size and shape. Although these little bodies appear quite small when they are 
magnified even many hundred times, yet they are really hundreds of miles in ex- 
tent. It is believed that these little fiery bodies collect in dense masses and form 
the cloud-like faculze which often appear near the edge of the sun, and are apt to 
precede the formation of large spots, though not in every case. These facule 
are often so large and prominent as to be visible through a telescope of 114 or 2 
inches aperture. Huyghens said of them near two centuries ago, that they seem 

to be ‘‘something in the sun brighter than the sun itself.” 
) It is now a settled belief among those who have given the subject most at- 
tention, that iron, magnesium, and other metals exist in the sun, and particularly 
in the region of the spots; though not in the solid state in which we know them, 
nor even in the melted or liquid condition, but in.the form of gas, or vapor— 


70 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the result of most intense heat. Great masses, or clouds of vapor charged with 
these gases exhibit the most fitful and ever-changing forms which it is possible for 
us to conceive. Realize if you can, the effects of one of our most violent hur- 
ricane storms in which the wind travels two or two-and-a-half miles in a minute, 
and smashes the largest buildings and trees it meets. Then picture in the 
mind a raging storm as much more violent than the hurricane as the hurricane 
exceeds a gentle breeze, and you may approach a faint idea of the wonderful 
commotion that sometimes pervades the surface of the sun. 

When a mountain mass many hundred miles in extent, or a vast whirlpool 
of equal area, is actually seen to form and then scatter and disappear in less 
than one hour, we have strong proof of the great activity just alluded to. Moun- 
tain forms of burning hydrogen make up the rose colored prominences which 
nearly always exist along the edges of the sun. Before the invention 
of the spectroscope, these ‘‘red flames” were seen only during total eclipses of 
the sun. But now, this wonderful instrument shows them any tame when they 
are large enough to be seen. 

A solar outburst of much interest was observed by Prof. C. A. Young, of 
Dartmouth College, in 1871, September 7th. On that occasion he saw what 
seemed to be tongues or filaments of burning hydrogen shoot up from a great 
prominence whose height was already 100,000 miles, to an elevation of 200,000 
miles—having made the hundred thousand miles in ten minutes—denoting a 
velocity of 167 miles per second. 

I understand the Professor, as well as R. A. Proctor, of England, to entertain 
the idea that the internal forces of the sun are sufficient to, and possibly do, eject 
solid matter from the sun’s interior never to return; and that ‘‘it is by no means im- 
possible that some of the specimens of meteoric iron in our cabinets are really 
pieces of the sun.” Whether or not this theory is tenable, there is no want of 
evidence that most astonishing forces do exist in the sun. 

The general theory of sun spots, as I understand it, is, that amid the mighty 
rush of torrent vapors great rents or openings are made in the photosphere 
(outer visible surface of the sun) extending deep in the sun’s interior ; and that 
a spot is simply a black and vacant space-—the ‘‘central darkness” of a solar 
whirlpool. In regard to the cause of solar spots, etc., I wish to introduce an- 
other paragraph from C. A. Young: ‘‘ What are the causes of such eruptions it 
is impossible to state as yet with any certainty; still, knowing what we do of 
the enormous amount of energy which the sun is continually pouring out in the 
form of heat, it is nothing strange that such things should occur, and that on a 
solar scale.” 

A feature of much interest in connection with sun spot periods is their cor- 
respondence with similar periods of Aurora Borealis, and magnetic force of the 
earth; the greatest prevalence or maximum of each one accompanying that of 
the other. A noticeable instance of this occurred in 1859, September 1st. Two 
observers in England were examining a large group of sun spots at the same 


THE GREAT SOUTHERN COMET. 71 


time, when they noticed an amazing outbreak of ‘‘two patches of intensely 
bright white light in front of the spots.” These dazzling patches continued visi- 
ble near five minutes, during which time they passed over a space of 33,000 miles. 
At the same moment (as was afterward learned) a noted disturbance occurred 
among the magnetic instruments at the Kew Observatory ; and in sixteen hours 
a magnetic storm set in, which not only impeded communication by telegraph, 
but set fire to some of the offices. I well remember seeing brilliant Auroras on 
several nights at and near that time. 

The following points, I think, are less entitled to acceptance than the one 
just mentioned. The theory that Jupiter and Venus exert an influence in the 
production of sun spots and their periodical occurrence, seems to me very much 
like that of the moon exerting an influence on the weather, the growth of vege- 
tables, etc.,—one in which I have but little confidence. Looking at the very face 
of the matter it seems much more probable to me that the gigantic powers of 
the sun would produce the comparatively feeble magnetic and electric phenom- 
ena of the earth, than that Venus and Jupiter in any position they can have, 
would produce the raging forces in the sun, or even change their directions. A. 
_Elvins, an observer of Canada, gives the opinion that years of sun spot maxima 
and minima are generally more cloudy than the intervening years. My own ob- 
servations hardly confirm this view. So with his conclusion that greatest and 
least show of sun spots have less rain and more cold than other years. Mr. EI- 
vins, with one or two other investigators of these subjects, decide that cylones 
and heavy storms generally occur in about two years after a sun spot maximum. 
This is doubtless correct. But our cylones occur so frequently in other years, 
and even during sun spot minima, that I fail to see the foundation of a law in 
this point. But their idea that both the maxima and minima of spot frequency are 
immediately preceded by very wet years, or season, I find to be true in most 
cases that I have examined. 

And yet, as regards nearly all the above subjects, I heartily endorse the fol- 
lowing sentiment put forth by Arago: ‘‘In these matters we must be careful not 
to generalize till we have amassed a large number of observations.” 

The sun is a great body, and I am sure that: the hidden source of its won- 
derful energies is the Almighty Hand which created and governs the whole uni- 
verse. 


THE GREAT SOUTHERN COMET. 


The interest of the astronomical world was suddenly awakened early in Feb- 
ruary by a telegram from Dr. B. A. Gould, at Cordoba, to Prof. Peters, of Kiel, stat- 
ing simply that there was a great comet passing the sun northward. This, together 
with the announcement of Dr. Gill, of Cape Town, a few days later, which, from 
the lack of unity in the system of signalling astronomical discoveries, could not be 
determined to be the same one, caused an amount of excitement among amateur 
astronomers that is quite unusual. Sufficient facts have not been as yet determin- 


72 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ed to render a thorough discussion of the comet possible, but nevertheless it is 
none too early to begin the accumulation of such facts, as this may at a later time 
be a much more serious undertaking. The story of the discovery of Comet I. 
1880, is given in an extract from a letter from Dr. Gould to Prof. Peters, which is 
in the Astvonomische Nachrichten, No. 2303. 

On the evening of February 2, Dr. Gould saw, during twilight, a bright streak 
of light in the southwest, which he immediately supposed to be the tail of a huge 
comet. An attempt to sketch the object was made, but, owing to the murkiness 
of the sky, it was unsuccessful. The approximate position of this streak of light 
was from R. A. 22h. 4om.— 45° to less than R. A. 23h. om.— 50°. On the 
3d of February, the object appeared somewhat brighter, and had moved north- 
wards throughout its entire length, and was evidently the tail of a comet which 
seemed to be approaching perihelion. All attempts to detect a nucleus were un- 
availing, and the equality in the brightness of the tail throughout its visible length 
of fully 40° and the remarkably small decrease of its breadth toward the horizon 
prevented any safe conjecture as to the position of the nucleus. On the 4th, the 
comet seemed to be a little brighter, and the tail preserved the same peculiarities 
as before, and in brilliancy was inno part equal to the milky way. This evening, 
Dr. Gould observed what he considercd to be the head of the comet, which 
through the haze and twilight appeared to be a coarse; ill-defined mass of dull 
light, some 2’ or 3’ in diameter and without any visible nucleus. 

Observations made by Mr. Gill, at the same time, are noted in the Odserv- 
atory for March, although not fully. Among the early newspaper items may be 
quoted that of Prof. Peirce, who lost no time in comparing the data of Gould’s 
comet with those of the comet of 1843, and announced himself as fully persuaded 
that it was a return of the earlier comet. 

Quite early in the field was the Observatory of Rio Janeiro, the Director of 
which, Prof. Liais, in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2304, under the date of 
February 20, makes a report of the same. At Rio, the weather was unfavorable, 
and, save the 4th and 8th of February, the comet was not observed. In other 
parts of the Empire, however, observations had been made sufficiently numerous 
to justify the statement of an approximate orbit, which, in view of later data, it is 
not necessary to give in detail. 

According to WVatnre, No. 540, Mr. Gill saw the tail of the comet even as 
early as Fehruary 1. No. 541 of the same periodical contains an extract from a 
letter by Mr. Gill, specifying his observations up to the 9th of February. As 
Table Mountain interfered with the view of the comet from the Royal Observa- 
tory at Cape Town, Mr. Gill went over to Seapoint, on the west side of the 
mountain, and sketched the position of the tail, on several evenings. The next 
issue of /Vature contains elements of the comet, by Mr. Gill, which, however, 
may be considered as in error, in consideration of the elements given in No. 544 
of the same periodical. These elements were computed by Mr. Hind from the 


THE GREAT SOUTHERN COMET. 73 


observation of Dr. Gould on February 4, and from rough places communicated 
by Mr. Gill. These elements are as follows :— 


Comet I. 1880. GouLp. 


Perihelion Passage, January 27. 6027. 


Ce eM A: 
Joyalers Wi Jel cralloveliicoy alan Wek ey ana) ee aielieaaen ive ecyay ous (NR Cay 6’.8. 
omer yNOd come vrei hi bai elt auu sas Wad > We 
DNCli a HOT Meier ay ee hea Sa a oar ase 2h im oie By 
em DiStanCe a ayaiiyh aise uicin Gm 1d OLOORO200: 


Motion, Retrograde. 


According to the same periodical, the comet was observed from H. M. S. 
“ Triumph,” while at sea, between Payta, in Peru, and Manta, in Equador, on 
the night of February 7. The nucleus was seen at this date, and the comet was 
again observed on the 8th and oth. 

According to the Odservatory for April, the comet was so faint on the 23d of 
February that Mr. Gill conld not discern the least trace of it, there peng strong 
moonlight, however. 

As has been stated, sProf. Peirce was very early in the field with an assertion 
that this comet was a return of that of 1843. and in this his judgment has not been 
at fault, for, taking either the elements of Mr. Hind or those which may be con- 
sidered as the next most authoritative, the resemblance is altogether too close to be 
the result of accident. The elements of the comet of 1843, as computed by 
Hubbard, were — 


Wonemmberihelions ayeweavatsetya eee gee nen enero Bl it 
None Node WPe tare (Gber He hit cs An MIE KU go 20'.6 
Hine IvyiVOT 5 aah 2! We 2 eh uk UE ale Meagan Lara 1) iO 38.2 
Bete Distance ine as ie Hn ii Uitte 4s OLOOk a TTA 


Motion, Retrograde. 


In view of thc relationship, a few notes on this great comet—which, says 
Cooper, in his Cometic Orbits, has been considered the most interesting of any on 
record—may be acceptable. 

Prof. Peirce, in the note to the Boston Advertiser, already referred to, gave 
as his opinion that Dr. Gould’s comet is that of 1843, and has been seen before 
mB. ©. 1770, 370, 252, 183, and A. D. 336, 422, 533, 582, 708, 729, 882, 
1077, 1106, 1208, 1313, 1362, 1382, 1402, 1454, 1491, 1511, 1528, 1668, 1689, 
and 1702. 

“‘ In 1843,” says Prof. Peirce, in a lecture on comets and meteors, ‘‘at about 
noon on the 28th of February, people in New England were able to see a brill- 
lant object close to the sun. Such a marvelous spectacle had never before been 
seen. Accurate and reliable observations of its position with regard to the same 
were made. A week later, a wonderfully brilliant tail of a comet was seen skirt- 


(Ce KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ing the horizon just after sunset, reaching one-third of the way around. At per- 
ihelion, it was nearer to the surface of the sun than any known comet, save that 
of 1680, and both of them swept in nearer than the solar corona.” 

It was estimated by Newton that the comet of 1680 was subjected at perihel- 
ion to a heat equal to 2,000 times that of red-hot iron. 

The discussion of this comet made by Prof. J. S. Hubbard, and publieneds in 
Dr. Gould’s Astronomical Journal, Vol. 1., is pre-eminently the authority concern- 
ing it. Much difficulty was encountered in an attempt to fix its orbits, owing to 
the shortness of time for observation, proximity to the horizon, and the slowness 
of its motion. ‘The peculiarity producing the most remark was the smallness of 
its perihelion distance, resembling the comet of 1680, while its physical character- 
istics resembled the comet of 1668. In concluding his discussion (Vol. i1.), Prof. 
Hubbard states as follows:—‘‘So far as the data employed and the calculations 
based upon them can be relied upon, the hypothesis of the identity of this comet 
with that of 1688 is not sustained.’’ The probable error of a single observation 
of his computed orbit was determined by Hubbard to be = + 107.62, and con- 
sidering also the probable error belonging to an orbit of 175 years, the difficulty 
stated by Nicholai shows itself, viz.: that ‘‘ the transition from a period of 175 
years to one of infinity, makes almost no difference in the representation of ob- 
servations.” So small a portion of the orbit is it withm our power to observe, 
that the differences in the observations upon a long orbit and those on an infinite 
curve are extremely difficult of determination. In the consideration of the comet 
of 1880 and its discussion, the observations made in 1843 may be of the gr eate 
importance.—Scéence Observer. 


CORE 2S POND ENCE. 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM FRANCE. 
ATMOSPHERIC DUST—-KLEPTOMANIA—HUMAN HEAT—PHOSPHORESCENCE. 


Paris, April 13, 1880. 

The Scientific Association of France has resumed its instructive Saturday 
Evening Conferences at the Sorbonne, our Royal Institution, under the presi- 
dency of the celebrated and indefatigable M. Milne Edwards. ‘The subjects 
selected are of every day, living interest, are the specialty of each lecturer, and 
are handled in a popular manner and illustrated with every suitable apparatus. 
M. Jamin has expounded the latest discoveries in telephones and phonographs; 
M. Egger has deciphered the recent papyrus finds in Memphis; M. Bouley has 
examined the question of rabies, and M. Gaston Tissandier, of elevated balioon- 
ing notoriety, has revealed many interesting facts on atmospheric dust, its con- 
nection with cosmical matter, and the important réle it plays in fermentation and 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM FRANCE. 75 


decomposition. As the air is purer after being washed by rain, so in dry weath- 
er and especially in cities, the atmosphere is a veritable dust-bin; we are sensi- 
ble to the existence of these particles of attenuated matter; in breathing them 
they disgust us, and in falling and remaining on clothing and furniture they 
demonstrate not only their presence but their plenitude. Admit a sunbeam into 
a-darkened room and the molecules will be revealed like nebule; yet the num- 
bers we perceive, are perhaps but the minimum of what exists, for after the naked 
eye and the microscope there are minutiz which dance still. Much of this atomic 
debris is of inorganic origin, and a great deal is derived from animal and vegeta- 
ble sources; the renowned experiments of M. Pasteur have demonstrated, that among 
these atomies which live, move, and have their being in the air, are germs or 
spores of fermentation and decomposition, that is to say, the seeds of disease and 
death. Showers of dust impalpable as flour, and sometimes red as blood, have 
fallen in several parts of the world, astonishing or frightening, as the populations 
are superstitious or cultivated; these showers are simply silicious particles whipped 
up to the superior regions of the atmosphere, and driven along by aerial currents ; 
such particles have been lifted in Guiana and showered on New York, the Azores 
and France, as Ehrenberg detected therein animalcule and shells, peculiar to 
South America. Over the summits of the high mountains of the latter country, 
the atmospheric currents are ever charged with silicious powder, and in parts of 
Mexico, the crests of mountains act as veritable bars, and compel the deposition from — 
these air streams of the dust, and which accumulate in the valleys to the depth of 
ninety yards. Geology recognizes these atmospheric deltas. The foam of waves 
as they dash against the coast, is pulverized into feathery pellicles, which float 
sky-ward with a trace of saline matter and that a sea breeze carries far inland. 
Space contributes. as well as earth and ocean to the production of aerial dust ; 
when meteorites and falling stars are rendered luminous and incandescent by their 
rubbing against strata of air in their vertiginous flight, they part with quantities 
of their metallic elements in the form of powder, iron, nickel, and cobalt, sub- 
stances that Nordenskiold has gathered on the virgin snow of the Polar regions. 
When atmospheric dust, whether collected directly on a sheet of paper, or from 
the sediment of snow and rain, is probed by a magnet, the tiny particles of iron 
attracted, have all a spheroid family likeness, resembling furthermore iron filings 
if melted in a flame of hydrogen or the extinguished sparks that fall on striking 
an ordinary flint and steel. Nay more, similar atoms of meteoric iron have been 
traced in the Lower Lias formation, geology thus affording evidence, that as now, 
so before the appearance of man on earth, atmospheric dust existed. ‘The air is 
a vast store house of animalcules; expose a solution of some organic substance to 
the atmosphere for twenty-four hours, it will be speedily inhabited by myriads of 
infusoria, rolling and tumbling, yet so small that hundreds of them if placed in a 
row would not forma line in length. These worms resemble little eels An- 
alogous animalcules induce decomposition and fermentation, for the latter cannot 
take place unless the organic matters be in contact with the air, to receive the 


76 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


seed of the leaven, which by cellule propagation leavens the whole mass. It has 
lately been shown that the process of nitrification in certain soils is due to a pe- 
culiar ferment, that is to say, to a spore floating in the atmosphere, and finding 
its conditions for action, stops and operates. Marsh fever is due to cellules or 
spores existing in a bog neighborhood; the same spores have been detected by 
the microscope in the expectorations of the patient, in the dew that was examined, 
and on the surface of the peaty soil where they were generated. ‘This is simply 
poisoning; to a like cause is due the fell disease known as hospital gangrene, the 
germs in the polluted ward-atmosphere, enter the wounds, induce putrifaction, 
and death. Hence the importance of washing the affected part with carbolic 
acid or other anti-septic; then dressing it with a wadding that will intercept, by 
acting as a filter, the germs to be deposited, from being sown. In many factories 
workmen become victims to the dust, generated by their special industry, enter- 
ing and saturating the lungs; on dissecting old colliers, their lungs after forty years 
respiration of dust, instead of being rose-colored as in health, were as black as the 
coal itself; the dust in this impalpable form is often the cause of accidents; it can 
take fire and blaze hke alcohol. Witness the catastrophe at the Minneapolis 
flouring mills; the confined air highly charged with the flour, became on a par 
with ether or alcohol, awaiting only ignition from the heated millstone to burst 
into flame and explode. 

The Society of Legal Medicine has discussed the question of shop lifting ; 
no very clear results have been arrived at; it was maintained that in the case 
where the accused female’s family was liable to hereditary cerebral irregularities, 
the court ought to accept such as an extenuating circumstance. It seemed to be 
the opinion, that too much importance was attached to the abnormal inclinations 
and fancies of women enceznée, and also, that the interests of justice were not 
served by the numerous classifications that alienists indulge in. Dr. Lasségue 
repudiates all the doctrines about monomanias; a woman shop-lifts because she 
has not the strength to resist, and if any obstacle rises up to baulk her thieving; 
that chance will save her, as reason does in the case of others. He disbelieves 
in the theory of excitement ; the seduction is not greater than what other females 
experience at the view of articles of toilet; it is transitory, and the thief speedi- 
ly forgets not only the pleasure she anticipated from possessing an object easily 
obtained, but the fault itself. He concludes, the less the impulsion of the weak- 
minded will be imperious, the more she will be encouraged by every attraction— 
that of impunity included. 

M. Hirn has devoted a good deal of attention to the subject of human heat, 
and in his experiments has been assisted by Professor Herzen, of Florence. Heat, 
or caloric, is synonymous with force, and there ought to be a gain or loss of heat, 
following the nature of the work. For example: the exertion to raise our own 
weight in ascending a stair-case, or a mountain, must represent a loss as compared 
with descending either. Now, M. Herzen affirms in both cases the contraction © 
of the muscle is almost the same; there is only a slight difference in the intensity 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM FRANCE. “7 


of the contraction executed, but none in point of view physiological. From the 
moment there is no external work, there is no consumption of heat; when a 
muscle contracts, there is a diminution of temperature, and deoxidation. Fol- 
lowing the contraction or expansion of the muscles, the physiological actions will 
vary: a Swiss guide will ascend a mountain, carrying a burden, without mani- 
festing fatigue; but perspiration will be more or less intense; the pulse and 
respiration will be accelerated; the panting will be more or less sensible, following 
the robustness of the individual. These phenomena will be less during the descent. 
Does intellectual work consume or produce heat? No, according to M. Hirn, 
the course of our thoughts modify at each moment the march of the organic 
functions ; each feeling of joy, of sadness, of pain, of fear, or of agony, determines 
special modifications in the rythms of the pulse, of respiration, etc.; nervous 
persons know how each emotion may create muscular tremblings, and active 
heart-beatings; intense and sustained intellectual work often produces cutaneous 
transpiration, amounting to positive perspiration. Is there no loss of heat in this 
case? None, because the labor is internal, and has nothing in common with 
external manual work; but the intellectual exertion can influence the nature of 
the materials that oxygen burns, during the process of respiration; it can modify 
the employment of oxygen, and thus change the conditions of combustion. 

M. de Bellesme has been studying the phosphoresence of the glow-worm, 
from the physiological side; he substituted for the will of the insect, an electric 
current, and was thus enabled to produce the luminousness desired. He ascer- 
tained, and so corroborates Matteucci, that the presence of oxygen is indispensable 
to the production of phosphoresence, hence, there is in the luminous organ the 
production of a matter, which, in combination with the oxygen of the air, produces 
light; the structure of that organ excludes the possibility of all secretion, liquid 
or solid, for the matter is gaseous, and only phosphuretted hydrogen is glowing 
under ordinary conditions. Not only is there no phosphorus accumulated in the 
organ, but there is no provision of matter at all. M. de Bellesme has demon- 
strated conclusively, that the luminous substance is produced in proportion as 
it is required—never accumulated; that phosphorescence is a general property of 
the protoplasma, the result of phosphuretted hydrogen produced therein by chem- 
ical decompositions in connection with the cellules of the organ; the decomposi- 
. tion in the case of the glow-worm, being under the nervous influence of the insect, 

and which is essential for setting free the phosphorescence. 

The estimation of the quantity of cream contained in milk can now be made 

very accurately and rapidly, by means of centrifugal force. Attach the handle 
of a can, filled with milk, toa cord; hold the other extremity of the latter in 
the hand, and twirl as if for a sling; the cream, lighter than the rest of the milk, 
will accumulate on the surface free from all liquid, and more quickly than if in a 
state of repose; the time will even be lessened in proportion as the revolutions 
are rapid. When the milk has a temperature of 59 to 68 degrees F., the separa- 
tion of the cream takes place in fifteen minutes, at the rate of 600 revolutions per 


78 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


minute. At the same time the quantity of water added to the milk for adulterating 
purposes can be ascertained. M.Gembloux having tested that pure milk contains 
Io per cent. of cream, added one, then a second tenth, of water, and when 
whisked, the cream represented but nine and eight per cent. of the volume of 
milk. Further, when whirled in the cylindrical churn, the contents formed three 
distinct layers—cream, water, and skim-milk. ‘The same centrifugal test was 
applied to butter, maintained in the liquid state by means of hot water; the 
matter separated into three states toward the circumference of the churn—fatty 
butter, caseine, and salt water; it was in the latter all the mineral adulterations 
lodged. It was at the Exhibition of Vienna that an apparatus for separating cream 
from milk by centrifugal action, was first made known: it is to M. Lefeldt that 
the honor reverts for applying the system on a vast scale by means of a turbine 
cylinder making 800 rotations per minute, when the cream is formed round the 
axle of the machine, after which comes the skim-milk, and then the impurities, 
forming, as it were, three rings or zones. Other skim-milk is introduced, which 
forces up the cream to run over, and thus out of, the cylinder. M. Lawal’s 
Swedish skimmer is so constructed, that in proportion as the cream and skim-milk 
are separated, they pass off by the entrance of fresh milk. In the co-operative 
dairy at Kiel, 4,000 quarts of milk the produce of 550 cows, are centrifugally 
skimmed per day. 

M. Forel’s experiments on Swiss Lakes prove that cold can penetrate therein 
to the depth of 120 yards. 

_ M. Nordenskjold has stated, in a letter to M. Daubrée, that judging from his 
dredgings in the Siberian Sea, the fauna most rich in individuals, at a depth of 
from 33 to 110 yards, does not exist between the tropics, but in the Glacial Ocean 
and the Behring Sea, where the temperature, too, remains at the bottom, from 30 
to 28 degrees F. The municipality of Paris intends receiving and honoring M. 
Nordenskjold in the name of French Science. ze HEC: 


ESoVMenMOLOGY. 


THE SOUL—WHAT IS ITP 


Concerning the constitution of man there are three distinct theories. The 
first regards him as composed simply of a body, actuated for a time either by the 
ordinary forms of energy or by some modification thereof not yet recognized, and 
as losing at death his personal individuality. The second and more popular view . 
acknowledges in him a double nature, comprising, in addition to the palpable, 
ponderable, and visible part or body, an invisible and immaterial principle, known 
promiscuously as ‘‘ soul” or ‘‘ spirit.” Butthere is yet a third theory, which con- 


THE SOUL—WHAT IS 1T? 19 


siders man as a threefold being, made up of body, soul, and spirit. It is no part 
of our present purpose to define the exact sense in which these last two terms are 
used. It may suffice to say that by the ordinary advocates of the triplicity of 
human nature the ‘‘ soul” is supposed to be the purely immaterial element, whilst 
the ‘‘ spirit ’’ forms a connecting link between the two, and, if not purely incor- 
poreal, possesses none of the ordinarily recognized properties of matter. 

An author* whose speculations we are about to examine, exactly reverses these 
two terms, and looks upon spirit as a something absolutely immaterial and trans- 
cendent, whilst the soul, the seat of the will, the passions and emotions, is per- 
ceptible by one, at least, of our senses, and is even capable of being experimen- 
tally isolated and obtained in solution. 

We find ourselves confronted by a number of facts, hitherto without explan- 
ation and without connection. Among these must rank the phenomena of sym- 
pathy and antipathy as between different individuals, human or brute. On first 
meeting with some person of whom we have no previous knowledge, we often 
experience a strong liking or a violent dislike, for neither of which we can render 
any definite reason. Asa rule women and children are more frequently impressed 
in this manner than are adult men. It very often happens, too, that if we sup- 
press and overcome these sudden prepossessions, we find in the end that they 
were justifiable, and that second thoughts were not best. 

Further, the emotions and passions of men assembled together are infectious, 
passing from one to another more rapidly than bodily diseases. From one or 
from a few energetic individuals enthusiasm may be diffused through a senate, a 
regiment, or a ship’s crew. On the other hand, a few terrified or bewildered 
persons may spread a panic among thousands. It is commonly said that emo- 
tions propagate themselves, but we wish to know in what manner and by what 
means this is effected. os a a es x i as a a 

We find, again, sympathies, and especially antipathies, which may be traced 
between entire species of animals, and which some of us seek to explain by the 
indefinite and long-suffering word ‘‘ instinctive.” If a dog has been stroked 
with a gloved hand, and if the glove is then held to the nose of a young kitten, 
still blind, the little creature begins to spit in anger. How is this fact to be ex- 
plained? The kitten has never yet seen a dog, but in the mere odor it recog- 
nizes a hostile element. Heredity? True, but how is the antipathy handed 
down from generation to generation? By what sign does the blind animal detect 
the presence of an enemy? 

There is still a further phenomenon which may be looked on as a heightened 
antipathy—fascination. We all know that very intense fear, instead of prompting 
to flight, may paralyse. * * ** . “ * 2 

Taking a general view of all these phenomena, in so far as they are actually 
. established, it would seem that animals, including man, must throw off from their 
surfaces some emanation capable of acting upon other animals and men with whom 
they come in contact or in near proximity. This supposed emanation may vary 


*Professor Jager. 


80 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


in its character in one and the same individual, according to its psychical condi- 
tion. If the vapors or gases thus emitted by two animated beings are in harmony, 
the result is sympathy or attraction, If they disagree, the consequence is antipa- 
thy, showing itself as hatred in the strong and as fear in the weak. This, it will 
be doubtless admitted, is a possible explanation of some of the phenomena above 
noticed; but is it the true or the only one? Do such emanations really exist? 
It is, we think, certain that many animals become aware of the presence either 
of their prey, of an enemy, or of a friend, by the sense of smell, even at very con- 
siderable distances. Our lamented friend Thomas Belt was led to the conclusion 
that ants are able to communicate with each other by means of this sense, and have 
in fact a smell-language. Unfortunately the sense of smell is so weak in man that 
it becomes very difficult for us to decide. 

Prof. Jager holds that certain decompositions take place in the animal system 
in strict accord with psychic changes. All observers, he tells us, agree that mus- 
cular exertion effects but a very trifling increase of the nitrogenous compounds 
present in the urine. On the other hand, Dr. Boecker and Dr. Benecke* have 
proved that intense pleasurable excitement effects a very notable increase of the 
nitrogenous products in the urine, derived, as a matter of course, from the de- 
composition of the albuminoid matter in the system. Prout and Haughton have 
made a similar observation concerning the effects of alarm and anxiety. Hence, 
therefore, it would appear that strong emotion involves an extensive decomposi- 
tion of nitrogenous matter, and in particular of its least stable portion, the al- 
buminous compounds. But does the whole of the matter thus split up reappear 
in the urine? Prof. Jager thinks that a portion escapes in a volatile state, form- 
ing the odorous emanations above mentioned. TZzzs portion he considers ts the soul, 
which exists in a state of combination in the molecule of the albumen, and is lib- 
erated under the influence of psychic activity. Hence his soul, like the body, is 
not a unitary entity, called once for all into existence, but is a something perpet- 
ually secreted, and as perpetually given off. It pervades the entire system. Each 
organ has its distinct psychogen, all of which, however, are merely differentiations 
of the one primary ovum-psychogen. Further modifications take place from time 
to time, in accordance with the mental condition of the man or other animal. It 
will here be remembered that, according to Haeckel (‘‘ Die Heutige Entwickel- 
ungslehre in Verhaltnis zur Gesammt-wissenschaft”’), all organic matter, if not 
matter altogether, is be-souled. Even the ‘‘plastidules’’—the molecules of 
protoplasm—possess souls. , 

In support of the assumption that a volatile something is given off from albu- 
men, Prof. Jager gives the following delicate experiment :—If we prepare, from 
the blood or the flesh of any animal, albumen as pure as possible, and free from 
smell and taste, and treat it with an acid, there appears a volatile matter which is 
perfectly specific, differing in the case of each animal species. But this odor 
varies according to the intensity of the chemical action. If this is slight we per- 
ceive the specific ‘‘ bouillon odor” which the flesh of the animal in question gives 


*Pathologie des Stoffwechsels | 


THE SOUL—WHAT IS IT ? 7) gilt 


off on boiling. On the contrary, if the reaction is violent, the odor given off is 
that of the excrement of the species. Here, then, we have the two main modifica- 
tions of psychogen, the sympathetic and the antipathetic form. 

Dr. O. Schmidt, Professor of Chemistry and Physics at the Veterinary Col- 
lege of Stuttgart, has repeated these experiments upon the brains of animals. The 
odoriferous principle is here evolved much more easily than from egg albumen. 
Immediately on the addition of an acid an offensive odor appears, which vanishes 
as rapidly, and cannot be caused to reappear. Nor has it been found possible to 
elicit from brain the more agreeable odor. 

It will doubtless be granted that certain yet unexamined specific odors are 
given off by living animals; that these odors may be repulsive or attractive to 
other species; that they may be liberated more abundantly under mental excite- 
ment. But where is the proof that these odors are the soul in any condition? 
May they not be regarded merely as an effect which psychic emotion, along with 
other agencies, produces in and upon the body? 

We will, therefore, though not without misgivings, quote an experiment to 
which Duntsmaier attaches much importance. He placed in a large wire-work 
cage a number of hares, and allowed a dog to run around this prison, snuffing at 
the inmates, and attempting to get at them for about two hours. It need scarcely 
be said that the hares were in a state of great terror. At the end of that time the 
dog was killed; his olfactory nerves and the interior membranes of the nose were 
taken out with the least possible loss of time, and ground up in glycerin. The 
clear liquid thus obtained contained the souls of the hares, or at least portions of 
them, in an intense state of painful excitement. Every animal to whom it was 
administered,*either by the mouth, or by injection under the skin, seemed to lose 
all courage. A cat after taking a dose did not venture to spring upon some mice. 
A mastiff similarly treated slunk away from the cat. Now we are here confronted 
by a serious difficulty: if a second dog was rendered timid by merely a small por- 
tion of this extract of fear, how is it that the first dog, after snuffing up the whole, 

did not suffer the same change and become afraid of the hares ? 

Other experiments, we are told, were tried with analogous results. Thus a 
glyceric extract of courage was obtained from a young lion, the olfactory nerves 
of a dog being again used as the collecting medium. 

A difficulty which must make us hesitate before ascribing animal antipathics 
to some disagreement in their souls, making itself known by their specific eman- 
ations, is the following: the animals of uninhabited islands when they first come 
in contact with man entertain no antipathy for him, until his propensity for indis- 
criminate slaughter is learnt by experience. Can we assume that his emanations 
have changed in the meantime? Again, a colony of mice had established them- 
selves at the bottom of a deep mine, doubtless to prey upon the provisions, can- 
dles, etc., of the workmen, and had flourished there for many generations. One 
of them, being captured, was brought up, placed in a cage, and shown to a cat. 
The cat prowled around and tried to get at its prey, but the mouse gave not the 


82 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


least sign of alarm. Why should the emanations of a cat be less alarming to this 
mouse than to any other? Is the tiger, our natural enemy—which, according to 
Prof. Jager, bears the same relation to us which a cat does to a mouse,—any more 
offensive to us than certain animals which never prey upon man at all, such as the 
polecat or the skunk? If the timid man tempts the dog or the ox to attack him, 
on what principle does he diffuse panic among his feliow-men? 

In short, Prof. Jager’s theory is beset with many and serious difficulties. 
Nevertheless, or, rather the more, we consider it entitled to a careful examin- 
ation, both as regards its conclusion and the phenomena upon which it is based ; 
the science of odors has yet to be constituted, and we are convinced that it will 
amply repay the needful trouble.—London Journal of Science. 


SCIENCE AND SPIRITUALISM. 


The recent publication of Professor Zollner’s work in Germany, the death of 
Serjeant Cox, a distinguished lawyer and spiritualist in England, and the extend- 
ed publication of Mr. Joseph Cook’s lectures in this country have manifestly 
awakened a new interest in the alleged phenomena of what is called ‘‘ spiritual- 
ism.” So many communications have come to us from all parts of the country, 
the writers earnestly inquiring ‘‘ why scientific men do not investigate the subject 
fully, and se¢7e it once for all,” that we are led to allude to the matter briefly. 

In the first place, we will say that scientific men ave investigated it, and 
published the results of their labors. In England, three representative men of 
the highest distinction, Wallace, the naturalist, Varley, the electrician, and 
Crookes, the chemist, have given the subject thorough experimental examination. 
Crookes devoted four years to the labor, Varley seven, and Wallace ze, and they 
state in the most decided manner that the alleged phenomena are actual and real. 
All these scientists are Fellows of the Royal Society, and they represent three of 
the most important departments of physical and natural science, chemistry, elec- 
tricity, and biology. In Germany, five of the renowned professors in the univers- 
ities, with Zollner at the head, have laboriously investigated the problem, and 
they also avow belief in the verity of the phenomena. In Russia, Wagner and 
Butleroff, professors in the University at St. Petersburg, after years of patient in- 
vestigation, have reached similar conclusions. In addition to those named above, 
Dr. Franz Hoffman, of Wurtzburg University, Camille Flammarion and Hermann 
Goldschmidt, distinguished astronomers, and a large number of other scientific 
men in Europe, noted for accuracy of research and great acquirements, render 
the same affirmative verdict. In this country, the late venerable Dr. Robert 
Hare, of the University of Pennsylvania, gave five years of experimental labor to 
the subject, and he also became a convert. With him may be counted, perhaps, 
twenty other students in science, of less note, who coincide in his views. 

Let us look at the other side. In England, three distinguished representative 


SCIENCE AND SPIRITUALISM. 83 


scientific men, Tyndall, Huxley, and Carpenter, entirely dissent from the con- 
clusions and views of the three others named. Tyndall speaks of the “‘intellect- 
ual whoredoms of spiritualism.” Huxley asserts that he ‘‘should have no in- 
terest in it if it was true.” Carpenter, in a spiteful way, designates as ‘‘ fools” 
all who take the trouble to look into the matter; and oracularly declares that “the 
whole thing is nothing but waconscious cerebration.”’ All of these gentlemen, like 
the others, are Fellows of the Royal Society. 

In Germany, Zollner meets with a strong adversary in a distinguished professor 
in another university, who has written a ‘‘counterblast ” to Zollner’s book. The. 
great naturalist, Carl Vogt, dissents, and so do Haeckel, Buchner, and Rolle. In 
this country, Agassiz was incredulous of the whole thing, and so, it would appear, 
are a large majority of the notable men connected with our colleges and universi- 
ties. But it is quite impossible to learn the truth in this regard. A considerable 
number, as we personally know, express views in private which they are careful 
not to make known in public. 

From the above brief review it will be seen that “spiritualism” in this 
country and Europe is regarded, among scholars and invéstigators, with about the 
same diversity of views as! ‘‘ Darwinism.” On this continent the great names of 
Dana and Dawson, with numerous others, are counted as disbelievers in Mr. Dar- 
win’s theories; on the other hand, the young naturalists, with America’s distinguish- 
ed botanist, Professor Gray, at their head, incline to adopt his conclusions. In 
Europe about the same remarkable diversity in opinion is found among the great 
scholars and experimenters. “ 

There is hardly any theory or doctrine in science upon which learned men 
are perfectly agreed, and it is not probable that this conflict of Opinion will end 
very soon in regard t» spiritualism or Darwinism. Whilst it is true that in inves- 
tigations which so completely baffle the ordinary observer the thorough scientific 
man has a great advantage, he is still warped by prejudice, and there cling to him 
certain weaknesses common to humanity under all conditions. He is apt to 
adopt Faraday’s views: “‘ Before we proceed to consider any question involving 
principles, we should set out with clear ideas of the naturally possible and im- 
possible.” If we are to investigate nothing till we know it to be possible, the 
boundaries of the field of investigation become narrowed almost to a point. The 
notion is absurd. Nature is chary of her secrets, and we are not permitted to 
have any very clear ideas of what is zmpossible. Doubtless those who have in- 
vestigated the subject under copsideration have entered upon the work with all 
the prejudices and doubts natural to labor in such a field of mist and darkn ess, 
where tricks and fraud may be presumed to hold sway. The conclusions reach ed 
in the aggregate have been so conflicting that, so far as the world goes, nothing 
has been settled, and we do not see how it can become a clear matter of belief or 
disbelief among. all classes from any investigations that may be undertaken, no 
matter how learned or exalted the individuals may be who enter upon the labor. 
To be sure, spiritualism rests upon alleged physical occurrences and facts, and 

IV—6 


84 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


so does Christianity, but science is incompetent to convince the world of the 
truthfulness or falsity of the later as well as of the former. Seeing is not always 
believing, and the most obstinate disbelievers in experimental results are among 
the co-laborers and associates of those who bring forward alleged results for con- 
sideration. Especially is this the case among those whose prejudices run counter 
to facts sought to be established.— Boston Journal of Chemistry. 


ANTE ROPROLOGY: 


TERTIARY MAN. 
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF ZABOROWSKI, BY E. L. BERTHOUD, A. M. 


‘¢ How far in past geological ages can we demonstrate the existence of man? 

We have to-day all necessary elements to give a satisfactory answer to this 
question. 

Already in the beginning of 1864, M. Garrigou believed that he had proofs 
of the contemporaneity of man and miocene mammifers. 

These proofs were bones of Dicrocerus Elegans, broken exactly like those 
from the quaternary caverns of France. Those bones came from the hill at 
Sansan, Department of Gers. Submitted to scientific discussion in 1868, this proof 
made no sensible impression. Nor did the so-called notches on a rhinoceros’ 
jaw observed by Col. Saussédat from miocene strata at Billy, in France, obtain 
any greater credence. 

M. Delaunay reported his discovery of incisions observed by him on the 
fossil ribs of a Haliterium obtained from the miocene cliffs of Pouance. These, 
for a long time, were attributed to the action of man. But in 1873, this posi- 
tion was abandoned by Delaunay and his follower, L’Abbe Bourgeois, and the 
incisions, on the advice and proof M. Hébert, were attributed to a shark, the 
carchorodon megalodon, that had probably once gnawed them when yet fresh. 
These fossils can to-day be seen in the museum of St. Germain. 

Generally, the only objects incontestably of the miocene epoch, which bear 
traces of marks actually formed by the intervention of human agency, are the 
chipped flints of Thénay in the Department (Loire et cher.) These have been 
gathered by M. Bourgeois at a great depth in the ground, under a more recent 
deposit that yielded polished implements of flint. All these being in a much 
more recent quaternary stratum, while under them were miocene layers con- 
taining abundant fragments of haliterium, mastodon, acerotherium, etc. 

The rough flint tools consist of scrapers, reamers, and small flint points, but 


all so roughly fashioned that everybody hesitated for a long time to take them for | 


flint chippings, designedly so chipped. 


| 


TERTIARY MAN. 85 


M. Bourgeois presented the first ones found, to the congress of 1867. A 
few scrapers were then admitted to have been fashioned by human design, among 
those so agreeing being Messrs. Mortillet and Hamy. But when in 1873, M. 
Bourgeois presented some more new specimens found by him, to the same congress, 
opinions of their being the work of human hands, were much divided. But the 
scrapers were, however, recognized as genuine, some of them even presenting 
not only marks of fire, but have been shaped by aid of fire, the chipping having 
been employed only to correct the action of heat, and to modify the rough burnt 
forms. 

M. Mortillet, after this, formed of this epoch of the first recognized human 
labor, the epoch of the ‘‘ astonished stone ’””—in French, ‘‘ Pierre etonnee,”—~.e. 
astonished or split up. Some of the flint tools are deeply altered and seamed by 
this action, nevertheless we can not admit, except with repugnance that the 
beings who constructed these flint chippings, were masters of fire, and capable 
of lighting it, if even of using it. 

Were these beings in fact what we might call men? This question has been 
examined and discussed in all its different bearings by Messrs. Mortillet, Hove- 
lacque and Gaudry, the Paleontologist, and decided by them in the negative. 

It is known that animated beings on earth have followed a regular ascending 
scale, their most perfect developed forms, appearing in the order of succession 

_as a development of former inferior types. 

In all paleontological series, we do not see one group of highly organized 
beings appear on the arena before the appearance of an inferior ancestral group. 

Hence, this law by no means would prevent us from considering the makers 
of the flint tools of Thénay, to be considered ‘‘a priori” as human beings. 

The principal types of monkeys were already in existence in the middle 
miocene epoch ; the single species of which numerous remains are now known 
is the ‘‘ Mesopithecus Pentelici,” from Greece. This simian was highly devel- 
oped, and comes from the upper miocene. 

M. Lartet has discovered two anthropomorphous monkeys in the middle 
miocene. Hence, an ancestrial form nearly human, could very well have ap- 
peared in this same miocene epoch without interfering with the laws of evolu- 
tion. But there is not in the whole middle miocene, one species of mammifer 
identical with present species. 

All species of animals and plants have been changed on earth since that 
period, and there is nothing startling in this when we reflect on the enormous 
period of time that has elapsed since the middle miocene period. 

The Thénay flints occurred below strata that are middle miocene, that is 
the ‘‘ Calcaire de Beance,” then after this we have the upper miocene of Pikermi 

and of Vancleve; then we have the lower Pliocene; then follows the submerged 
forest bed of Cromer, in England; then above that the period of glacial boulder 
clays, of Norfolk; this to be followed by diluvium; then follows the Reindeer 
period ; lastly our present age, ‘‘ (Gaudry.)” 


86 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Since the end of the lower miocene, the mammalian fauna has been re- 
newed at least three times, and between middle miocene and our present period 
there have been not only specific differences, but also generic differences. 


(Zo be continued.) 


A BURIED RACE IN KANSAS.* 
BY JUDGE E. P. WEST, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


Mr President, Ladies and Gentlemen : 


I have the honor this evening of presenting to the Academy some additional 
facts hastily gleaned, upon a subject heretofore partially considered, and which 
tend further to strengthen the growing belief that a field, until recently considered 
barren in archzeological remains, promises now, from developments of almost daily 
occurrence, to become second to none in interest in this respect. The appliances 
of our civilization are bringing to notice, in Kansas, a race unknown to history or 
tradition, and whose very existence, from any monument or vestige appearing upon 
the surface, might have remained unsuspected and unmarked forever, but for 
those appliances. 

The district of country explored is in Marion county, Kansas, and extends 
from Florence, on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R., to four miles north’ 
of Marion Centre, situated on a branch of that road. ‘This entire area, extending 
along the Cottonwood Valley and border of the low hills bounding it on either 
side, to use the language of my young friend Melvin Billings, to whose indefat- 
igable researches we are indebted for most of the facts I lay before you, ‘‘is 
covered and underlaid with human remains.” My own observations sustain the 
justice of this statement. 

In the environment of the confluence of Clear Creek, Mud Creek, and the 
Cottonwood, in the vicinity of Marion Centre, there is evidence of three distinct 
races, which preceded our present civilization. Evidence of the most recent is to 
be found in the burial places of our modern Indians; next a hundred or more of 
low mounds or borrows containing human remains, such as fragments of pottery, 
stone and bone implements, ashes, charcoal, burnt clay, stone pipes, and human 
bones, testify to a greater antiquity; and evidence of the remaining, and most 
ancient race, is to be found in human remains without anything whatever upon 
the surface to indicate their presence. 

These last are encountered in excavations for cellars, in well-digging, and in the 
cuts of the MA) é2 Mi Pi" Ri Rea branch of (the ‘A., Tees: Ho Re iRessietone 
alluded to. The latter class of remains, especially on the low hills fringing the 
valley, are all, so far as I had an opportunity to observe them, found in a Lacus- 
trine deposit, under a deep, black vegetable mold, and rest on the Glacial drift. 
This was the case at the cellars of Mr. Baylis and Mr. Case, at Marion Centre, 


*Read before the Kansas City Academy of Science, May 25, 1880. 


A BURIED RACE IN KANSAS. 87 


where human remains were found. At each place I observed the Drift cropping 
out on the hill-slope at a short distance from the cellars. I also observed drift 
pebbles, which had been thrown out from the bottom of each cellar. In digging 
a trench from Mr. Baylis’ cellar a stone mortar was found at about the same 
depth of the cellar, and was covered over in filling the ditch and left remaining 
where found. But it must not be inferred that these two cellars are the only 
places where these mysterious remains are encountered. 

Mr. Billings, in a former letter to me, says: ‘‘In the excavation of nearly 
every cellar and well in town some relic of aboriginal inhabitancy has been 
found.” His residence is with his father, a short distance out of town, and, in 
the same letter, he says: ‘‘In digging acistern at my home, one of these peculiar 
graves was struck, from which charcoal, burnt bones, flint chips, etc., were taken. 
In excavating the basement of our barn, 38 by 40 feet, seven of these graves were 
discovered.” The M. & M. P. R. R. crosses Mud Creek some two or three 
hundred yards south of Marion Centre, and, in the same letter, Mr. Billings con- 
tinues: ‘‘In grading the approaches to the bridges a large amount of pre-historic 
debris was discovered, among which are broken bone implements, stone arrow 
and spear points, stone axes, grooved mallets, rub stones, broken pottery, etc.” 

But the best observed graves of this kind, if graves they are, were found at 
the brick-yard of Mr. W. S. Moulton, one and a half miles north of Marion 
Centre. These were well examined by Mr. Billings and Mr. Moulton, and 
possess some very remarkable features independent of their evident great antiq- 
uity. The clay used by Mr. Moulton is a Lacustrine deposit containing lime 
connections, and is very similar to the Loess or brick clay in this city. It is three 
to four feet in thickness, only, covered by two feet of black vegetable mold, and 
rests on the Glacial drift. Mr. Moulton has removed the clay, in his brick-making, 
over a space of less than fifty feet, but in this small area he has found eleven of 
these buried repositories of the dead. They are cone-shaped, covered over with 

two feet or more of undisturbed vegetable mold, and all rest on the Drift. From 
a careful measurement of some of these, by Mr. Billings and Mr. Moulton, they 
_ were found to be fifty-four inches in diameter at the base, eighteen inches at the 
top, and thirty-six inches high; i. e. there is found in the clay, of these dimen- 
sions, -a black cone-shaped mass of mixed ashes, charcoal, fragments of shells, 
intermingled, perhaps, with clay and containing human remains. 

What is very remarkable, the base of the cone, at equal distances, sends out 
three triangular projections of about twelve inches in extent; and, still more 
remarkable, is the correspondence with this configuration of an ornamentation, or 
carved figure, on a fragment of the pottery found. The ornamentation seems to 
have been sculptured after the vessel was partially dried, and before burning. 
There is but a part of the figure or emblem on the fragment obtained, but there 
is enough of it remaining to associate it with the peculiar shape of the receptacles 
found imbedded in the clay, without any great stretch of the imagination. The 
part of the figure remaining forms an arc of a circle, with one of the triangular 


88 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


shaped projections based in it. All this will be better understood by the engraved 
representations in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. 

The dark lines in Fig. 1 represent the fragment of pottery and segment of 
the figure remaining on it, and the dotted lines the lost segment, or the figure 
restored as supposed to have been sculptured on the’ vessel. Fig. 2 represents 
the base of the repositories as outlined in the clay. Fig. 3 represents a side view 
of the repositories. 


Flg 1—Full Size. 


What is the peculiar shape of these repositories and figures emblematic of? 
Possibly of the sun. The people who conceived and fashioned them must have 
had some knowledge of geometrical lines and a considerable degree of intelligence. 

All who have examinéd the repositories, without exception, with whom I 
have conversed, agree that the vegetable mold must have formed over them since 
they were made. They rest on Glacial drift, and must have been formed since 
that deposit. But the questions remain to be answered—were they excavated in 
the Lacustrine clay, or were they erected before its deposit and covered in by it ? 
It seems difficult for a primitive people to plan and make an excavation of such 
shape; and these repositories may have been formed of some kind of cement 
upon the surface, before the Lacustrine time and covered by its deposits, and 
since undergone disintegration. 

Marion Centre lies on the southeastern slope of the summit dividing the 


A BURIED RACE IN KANSAS. 89 


et ere oreo 


12 Tienes 


A a ene NG 


Piha Inches 


wowres eee —— 


oo eee Sem ww mw — - On OO eee —S 5 ee 


Inches 


12 2 Inches 


Fig. 3. 


water-shed of the Arkansas river on the south, and the Smoky Hill river on the 
north, and is more elevated than the valleys of those streams on either side. 
What connection, if any, these remains have with those I formerly described, 


90 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


found at a greater depth in those deeper valleys, remains to be determined by 
farther developments. If, however, they rest upon the Drift, as those here 
described do, and it is most likely that such is the case, the only difference would 
seem to be in the thickness of the covering over them, which would naturally fol- 
low from the differences in elevation when the deposit was accumulating, z. ¢., if the 
lake water was four feet at the Moulton brick-yard and thirty feet at Ellsworth, 
supposing remains on the surface at each place when the deposit began, those at 
Ellsworth might be covered to a depth of thirty feet, while those at the Moulton 
brick-yard would only be covered four feet. Such remains might belong to the 
same race, if we suppose an occupancy prior to the submergence of the country. 

It would require months of patien: investigation to bring into order the facts 
connected with this very interesting and mysterious race, and I regret that I have 
not the means to prosecute the work; but hope some one more fortunate will 
do so. 


The Glacial drift underlying the clay at the Moulton brick-yard is well 
marked and not to be mistaken. 

The day devoted to these investigations proved to be tempestuous and rainy, 
but, by the kindness of my young friend’s father,,who placed a splendid team and 
wagon at our disposal, we braved the ‘‘tempest and the storm” and accom- 
plished a good day’s work. We visited several cellars, the Moulton brick-yard, 
some cuts on the M. & M. P. R. R., and took in mounds by the score. 

The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad deserves great credit for the 
interest it has manifested in developing the beautiful country lying along its line, 


and the facilities it has generously afforded scientific explorations in Kansas, and 
merits the thanks of this Academy. 


GHOLOGY AND MINE RAEOGY: 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION.* 


BY THE LATE PROF. B. F. MUDGE. 
CHAPTER I.—LAWS OF EVOLUTION. SILURIAN FOSSILS. 


The doctrine of evolution is by means new. It is found in the oldest writ- 
ings of antiquity, and appears to have secured a few believers in all ages. But it 
is only within the last hundred years that it has assumed a scientific garb. La- 


* NoTE.—We present in this number of the REviEw the introductory chapter of a series of articles written 
by the late Prof. Mudge on Geology and Evolution. Chapters IV and V of thisseries have already appeared in 
the REvIEw under the head of Botany and Evolution. While it is to be expected that many of the conclusions 
and deductions from his train of argument will be denied and objected to by the opponents of Evolution, these 
are nevertheless a valuable contribution to the literature of the subject, by one of the best observers of our 
day, and one who has had many opportunities of investigating this theory in connection with his favorite 


sciences—Geology and Paleontology. The articles are just as they came from his pen, with the exception of 
the necessary correction ofa few obvious errors.—L. 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 91 


marck, and, a little later, the author of Vestiges of the Natural History of Crea- 
tion, and quite recently, Darwin and his followers, have given it a prominent 
position in the scientific world. ’ 

The strongest arguments and facts presented in support of their theory, have 
been based on living organisms. Our position on this question is, that the pres- 
ent period, or even the whole of the historic time, is far too short to settle the 
question of the evolution of the higher orders or genera, from the lower; and it 
is only in the long, long ages of geology that such changes can be studied with 
accurate results. To us it appears that geology must be the final arbiter in this 
great problem. We now propose to see how far this science can furnish evidence 
upon the subject of evolution. 

In advance we state three laws which will guide us in the investigation, viz: 

First. Jf evolution be true, it must be the ruling law, more or less apparent 
through all animated nature ; or at least be seen in a majority of all species and genera. 
of organic beings. 

Seconp. That it should be most clearly observable in those species, whose fossil 
remains are most numerous and most widely disseminated. 

Tuirp. That the development from the lower to the higher type, should be symmet- 
rical and harmonious. 

By the third law we mean that when animals are claimed to be derived from 
a lower form, advancement should be seen in all parts of the body, both internal 
and external, in the same degree. Prof. E’ D. Cope, an advocate of evolution, 
has expressed the idea in the following terms: ‘‘ The natural deduction is, that 
if a portion of an animal exhibits a form intermediate between two known forms _ 
or types, the remainder of the animal structure possesses the same kind of inter- 
mediacy.”** He has endeavored to show a modification of this rule in some 
cases, but the main principle stands unchanged. 

We think these three laws may be fairly and candidly deduced from what 
we already know of the operations of nature; and are not inconsistent with the 
principles laid down in the writings of Prof. Darwin and his associates. 

Now if the student in fossil remains finds forty-nine out of fifty of the most 
abundantly preserved species, showing no marked change, over large areas and 
during long geological periods, even if the remainder should present some appar- 
ent development, in a slow degree, he has a right to conclude, that evolution is 
not a law of nature, and that no high type has arisen or can arise from the lowest. 

There are about 50,000 known species of fossil plants and animals. Some 
of these are represented by very few specimens, others by hundreds or thous- 
ands, and not a few by millions. We consider ourselves justified in saying, 
that at least one-tenth part (5,000) are sufficiently numerous and val preserved 
to show the changes of evolution, if it exists. 

It is apparent that in all animated nature, there is a great diversity in the ap- 
pearance of different individuals of the same species. But we take the position, 


* Cretaceous Vertebrata, p. 8. 


92 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


which we believe we can prove, in the following pages, that this constant, ever 
present variation is always within a narrow limit. Thus, no two oysters, horses 

or menare just alike, but their varied appearance is within a narrow circle. No two 

members of the human family are just alike, yet we easily detect the German, 

French or Irish element, yea, even family traits, in the men we daily meet. This* 
constant variation, is accompanied by an equally constant adherence to the 

normal type. No two sharks are just alike, and different genera and species have 

a regular variance from each other, but the microscopic cell-form of the shark’s 

tooth, as given by Owen in his Odontography, is the same in the earliest tooth of 
the Devonian and in all later geological strata, as well as in the living sharks of 
our ocean. No two pine trees have the same shape, yet the cell-form of the 

wood, so small as to require a strong magnifier to see it, is always of the same 

elongated shape and with the same marking, whether from the Devonian age or 
from the living Auricarian pine. This unyielding persistence will be brought in 

view in the examination of the varied phases of organic life. 

In looking at the facts of geology the great rule is apparent that in a very 
general way the oldest fossiliferous strata contain only low types of animal and 
vegetable life, while the later formations contain higher forms, in proportion as 
they become more modern. This general rule, however fails in detail, as we 
shall endeavor to show. The oldest Silurian does not begin with the lowest 
forms of the five great sub-kingdoms of animals, as it should according to the 
laws of evolution, but has numerous representations of four sub-kingdoms, viz: 
Protozoans, Radiates, Mollusks and Articulates. The Protozoans, which are 
the lowest, and consequently according to the theory of evolution, should be the 
earliest and most abundant, are not found at the first; and when found are the 
least abundant of the Primoidal found. ‘The representatives of the Radiates, Mol- 
lusks and Articulates, are not the lowest of their kinds. This fact was thus 
strongly and clearly stated at a recent meeting of the British Association by Dr. 
Thomas Wright, President of Section C. ‘‘ Instead of a gradation upward in 
certain groups and classes of fossil animals, we find on the contrary, that their 
first representatives are not the lowest, but often highly organized types of the 
class to which they belong. This is well illustrated in the Corals, Crinoids, As- 
teride, Mollusca and Crustacez of the Silurian Age, and which make up the 
beginnings of life in the Palaeozoic period. The fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, 
we have already seen occupy a respectable position among the Pisces; and the 
Reptiles of the Trias are not the lowest form of their class, but highly organized 
Dinosauria.” 

Dana * also says, ‘‘If we may trust the records, Echinoderms, or the highest 
type of Radiates, were represented by species (Cystids and Crinids) long before 
the inferior type of Polyps existed.f” 

The examination of the Silurian fossils in detail are instructive on this point. 
Barande in his valuable publications on the Silurian, has given us the results of 
his studies on this system from twelve district regions. Dividing it into three 


Tee Nature, Aug. 2s, 1875, p. 307. + Mammal, p. 598. 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. : 93. 


periods he tabulates the fossils of the first division. From this he reports from 
the four sub-kingdoms above named, 366 species. Of these, 264 or seventy-two 
per cent belong to Crustacea, the highest of these ’sub-kingdoms. So while on 
theoretic grounds only the lowest sub-kingdom should have been represented, 
the highest outnumbers all the others by nearly three-fold. In abundance of in- 
dividual specimens, the trilobites, the most common crustaceans, outnumber by 
a hundred-fold all other fossils in the first division of the Bohemian Primordial. 
Barande further states that the families and orders are entirely without transitional 
forms. 

If we examine all the fossils of the Silurian Age, we shall find a somewhat 
similar result. Barande gives 10,074 as the number of Silurian Species known 
and described up to 1872. Of these only 153, or less than two per cent, are Pro- 
tozoans—tr, 306 or thirteen per cent are Radiates, while 2,112 or twenty-one per 
cent are Crustaceans. It will be seen that the highest, though not as numerous 
as the next lowest -sub-kingdom, contains more than both of the lowest two. 
This proportion in favor of the Crustaceans is greater than exists in the living 
species. 

If we examine the number in the classes of the Mollusks we shall find results, 
though not as strong, still in favor of the highest. Cephalopods, the most com- 
plete in organization, are the most numerous. It will also be seen that there is. 
no order or harmony in the number of each class. Placing them in the order of 
their rank we have in number of species and percentage ; 


Cephalopods. . . er NCL OD 2h Noein O07 
Pteropods and Heteropods . Bae RO OMe alia OO 
Gasteropodsueians.: Rie ee ures Saeed 
NEC PIDL Ay ae Wess Niel caine) are qt DOO Op ai anion) + sO, 
Brachtopodsian sneer ste EG O7 oo es 1220 


The EXTREMES are most strongly represented. 

Much has been said about the possibility, that all animal life has been de- 
rived from the Ascidian. If so, it should appear among the earliest fossils. But 
it has never been thus found. It has been asserted that because it has no solid 
parts it could not have been preserved if it had existed. It has a tough leathery 
exterior, far more firm than many an animal found fossilized. We have the im- 
pressions of the soft bodies of spiders preserved in the Carboniferous rocks; and 
185 species of worms have been described from the Silurian. Our marine plants 
found in all geological ages, are of softer texture, yet we find their outlines well 
preserved. Besides,.the living Ascidians are frequently covered by the calca- 
reous material of Bryozoans, which would aid in the preservation of the leathery 
sack. No intermediate form between the Ascidians and the vertebrates exist 
among fossils. The size of many species, eight inches and over, would enable 
them to be easily seen, if only the outline had been preserved. 

To any one who has studied the character and relations of the fossils of the 
various geological formations, it is very clearly discernible, that while the first 
forms are not like the animal life of the present day; they are very far from being 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


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PRECIOUS METAL MINING IN THE UNITED STATES. 95, 


in harmony with any system of development. To show this the more plainly to 
the eye, we have given two Figs.—1 and 2, exhibiting the times of the appear- 
ance geologically of the various forms, and also the relative periods at which they 
should have appeared according to the system of evolution. 


Fig. 1 is condensed from Dana.* It will be seen from this that four of the 
five sub-kingdoms of animal life—all but the vertebrates—came in together at the 
beginning of the Silurian, when if there was in nature a systematic plan of de- 
velopment, the Protozoans should have appeared first, and the others followed in 
the order of their organic rank. The latter idea we have endeavored to show in 
Fig. 2. We have divided the time nearly equally between the fine sub-kingdoms. 
This may be giving the lower forms more importance than they deserve for they 
are not equally dissimilar in the degree of their organization. But it is usually 
stated by evolutionists, that the lower the type the more slowly is the change of 
advancement. This we think justifies the statement that the time required for 
the Protozoan to become a Radiate would be as long as for the highest Crustacean 
t» become a Vertebrate. Our tables in Fig. 2 may not be entirely accurate, but 
they are certainly so approximately. It is enough to show how entirely antago- 
nistic are the facts of the earth’s early history to the theory of development. The 
great difference of life rank, between the different sub-kingdoms, is admitted by 
all Zodlogists. coh 

Similar tables (see Figs. 11 and 12) in relation to the geological and theoretic 
appearance of vegetration, gives nearly the same results. 


Note.—We have commenced, in our geological history and observations, with the fossils of the Lower Si- 
lurian. The fossils below that age are so few and obscure that they throw little, if any, light on the subject 
under discussion. Whether Eozon Canadense is organic, is an unsettled question in the scientific world. 

Dana in referring to the oldest Silurian fossils has stated that they were not less than fifty millions of years 
old. Weshall use that standard of time, in the following pages, though most European geologists assume a 
much longer period. [See appendix for the Geological Ages and Periods. ] : 


PRECIOUS METAL MINING IN THE UNITED STATES. 


BY N. S. SHALER. 


*k *K *k * *k k *k * *k *k ae * 

The fields of the precious metals in the United States may-be generally di- 
vided into two principal areas, that of the Appalachian and that of the Cordil- 
leran ranges. Besides these there are the smaller regions, which may be termed 
in a similar fashion, from their neighboring mountains, the Laurentian, including 
the region about Lake Superior, and the Ozark region about the mountains of 
that name in Arkansas and Missouri. There are lead ores in several of the 
States of the Mississippi Valley, at great distances from these mountain ranges, 
that contain a small proportion of silver, but in few cases does this silver exceed 
about the four or five thousandth part of the ore; nor is there any chance that 
they will ever produce this metal in quantities of the least commercial importance. 


* Manual, pps. 886 and 589. 


96 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The whole of the rich agricultural region of the Mississippi; the whole of the 
Western plains, through all their extent to the one hundred and second meridian 
west from Greenwich, and on their northern section to the one hundred and tenth 
meridian ; the whole of the low-lying plains of the Southern States, in all con- 
taining a little over one half the total area of the United States, but at least nine 
tenths of its arable land, is sure never to prove productive of any the metals 
now known to the arts, save iron, lead, and aluminium; and of these lead will 
never be again economically produced there, until the mining industry of the 
Cordilleran region begins to wane. 

This rejection of the larger part of national area from the list of regions 
where gold and silver may be found in profitable quantities is based upon actual 
experience of the generations grown up within the area, as well as the general 
fact that the experience of other countries shows us that such rocks as underlie 
this region are always marked by the absence of gold and silver in profitable 
quantities. 

Of late years there has been a great advance toward a learc understanding 
of the natural processes by which metallic deposits are brought into the shape in 
which the miner findsthem. Allthe old notions about the outburst of mineral veins, 
by fiery ejection from the deep interior of the earth, have been cast aside. Geol- 
ogists now pretty generally recognize the fact that all our metals are deposited in 
our stratified rocks as they are laid down on the sea-floor, having been sepa- 
rated from the sea-water, as a great part of all the rocks are, by the action of 
sea-weeds and marine animals. - eos “s a *k oS 

Whoever looks over the whole field of American precious metal mining will 
be convinced that this industry is certain to make a very rapid growth in what is 
left of this century.- He will also come to the conclusion that the production of 
silver is destined to increase very rapidly for a score or so of years to come, pro- 
vided the demand for this much slandered metal does not fall too far short of the 
supply. Beyond a brief term this yield of silver will surely diminish, especially 
if there is any considerable lowering in its price. ‘The observant eye can also 
see that the production of gold is likely to extend to many new fields, and that 
the yield of this metal is in the future likely to be rather more steady than that 
of its bulkier sharer in the greed of men. North America and the twin con- 
tinent on the south are doubtless to be the great producers of precious metals in 
the future; their store of silver must be of greater value at the present price of 
this metal than their store of gold. If the world continues to use silver in the 
coming century as it has in the past thirty centuries, there is a fair prospect that 
our continent will win some thousands of millions from its silver-bearing lodes. 
Even if we make what seems to me the mistake of using gold alone as a basis of 
exchange, the production of this metal will no doubt give us a larger mining in- 
dustry than any other country can expect to gain.—/une Atlantic. 


ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 97 


BNGINEERING., 


ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 
GEN. Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S. A. 


Within the last twenty-five years bitumen, in some of its many forms, has 
been employed to a considerable extent, as the binding material or matrix for 
road and street coverings laid in continuous sheets without joints. They are all 
comprised under the general head of asphalt paveinents. The city of Paris 
took the lead in this innovation upon the former methods of paving with stone, 
the reasons assigned for the change being, (1) the want of connection and homo- 
geneity, in the elements of which the stone paving is composed, (2) the incess- 
ant noise produced by them, (3) the imperfect surface drainage which they se- 
cure, by reason of which the foul waters are not carried off but filter into the 
joints, and (4) the ease with which they can be displaced, and used for the con- 
struction of barricades, breastworks and rifle pits in time of civil war. 

The forms of bitumen most extensively employed for pavements are mineral 
tar; asphalt rock, which is an amorphous carbonate of lime impregnated with 
mineral tar, and known in commerce as Jdituminous limestone ; asphaltuu ; heavy 
petroleum ous \ike those from West Virginia, or others not volatile under 212 Fah., 
or the residuum of refined petroleum containing no water, and so refined as not 
. to be volatile at 212 Fah. 

The principal sources of the natural mineral tar of commerce are in France, 
at Bastenne (Landes) and at Pyrimont Seyssel (Ain), and in Switzerland at Val 
de Travers, in the canton of Neuchatel. At Bastenne as well as at Gaujac, in 
the south of France, it flows frome sevral springs mixed withwater. 

Asphaltum is a variety of bitumen generally found in a solid state. At ro- 
_ dinary temperature it is brittle, and too hard to be impressed with the finger nail. 
It is black or brownish in color, opaque, slightly translucent at the edge of a 
new fracture, of smooth fracture, and has little odor unless rubbed or heated. It 
melts easily, burns with very little if any residue, and is very inflammable. 

It is found floating on the Dead Sea, and in many places in Europe. Many 
localities in Mexico supply it, and it abounds in the islands of Barbadoes, Trini- 
dad and Cuba, and in Ritchie county, West Virginia, and in New Brunswick, 
Dominion of Canada. 

A capital distinction must be made between pavements of asphalt hereafter 
described, made either with natural asphalt rock, or with the refined asphaltum 
as a cement, combined with suitable calcareous powder, and all or nearly all 
of those attempted imitations of it, produced by mixing crude mineral tar, or 
manufactured tar, with one or more pulverized minerals or earths. And more 
especially must we exclude from the category of asphalt pavements, all those 


98 KANSAS. CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


patent street coverings composed of wood-tar, coal-tar, pitch, rosin, etc., mixed with 
either sand, gravel, ashes, scoria, sulphur, lime, etc., or with two or more or all 
of them. Some of them will produce a tolerably fair sidewalk, but they are to- 
tally unfit for the surface of a carriage way. Some of the best of them will an- 
swer for carriage way foundations. 

The rock should be of the fine grained variety, of tolerably close texture, 
and composed of pure carbonate of lime so uniformly and homogeneously im- 
pregnated with the bitumen, that a cut made with a sharp knife will show neither 
pure white nor jet black spots, but be of a brownish liver color, mottled with 
gray. 

When asphalt rock of this character is heated to a ternperature of 200° to 
212° Fah., the bitumen becomes soft, the grains of limestone separate from each 
other, and the mass crumbles into a partially coherent powder. If this powder 
while still hot, be powerfully compressed by ramming, tamping, or rolling, the 
molecules will again unite, and the mass when cold will assume all the essential 
qualities of the original rock, but in a superior degree, as regards toughness, 
hardness, and incompressibility. This is the whole theory of asphalt road cover- 
ings, as applied to the street pavements in Paris and elsewhere. 

Mention has been made of the superior toughness, hardness and incom- 
pressibility, conferred on bituminous limestone by compressing it while hot. This 
property characterizes any genuine asphalt mixture suitable for paving purposes, 
and advantage has been taken of it, in first forming the material into 
rectangular blocks under a heavy pressure, and then laying them in 
courses across the street, substantially after the manner followed in constructing 
the best stone block pavement. It is, perhaps, needless to say that a pavement 
of this kind, composed of good materials, properly prepared, and laid upon a 
firm and unyielding foundation, should be a good one. Specimens of it have 
been on trial for some years in San Francisco, Cal. The blocks are made with 
Trinidad asphaltum, softened with 7 to g per cent. of the heavy oils or still bot- 
toms, used in preparing the asphaltic cement. This preparation is mixed with 
hot powdered limestone, or powdered furnace slag, and then compressed with a 
- force of about fifty tons into blocks measuring 4 inches by 5 inches by 12 inches. 
The pressure, which is applied to the narrowest face of the block, exceeds one 
ton to the square inch. The limestone or slag is not required to be of the fine- 
ness of impalpable powder, but is composed of grains of all sizes from dust up to 
the size of a small pea. 

Tne blocks are laid close together on their longest edges, in courses across 
the street, breaking joints lengthwise of the street, the joints being filled with 
suitable asphaltic cement so as to render the paveinent water tight. The foun- 
dation should be firm and stable, such as the best of those described on pages 
143 to 149. This pavement while new would be nearly as smooth as that of the 
continuous sheet of asphalt heretofore described, but the wear of heavy traffic 
would, in a short time, crumble off the edges of the blocks and open the joints 


THE HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL. . 99 


at the surface sufficiently to give the horses a foothold, without impairing the im- 
perviousness of the covering. It is suggested that it would be better to form the 
blocks with slightly truncated or rounded edges, so as to give the requisite foot- 
hold when the pavement is laid, rather than to secure the same end by the irreg- 
ular and ragged abrasion caused by use. As they are homogeneous in tough- 
ness and hardness, the blocks can be taken up, and their surfaces become un- 
even from unequal wear, and relaid in mortar, bottom side up, with all smooth- 
ness of a new pavement. It may be added that the process of refining and care- 
ful manipulation, is equally necessary whether the material be applied as a mon. 
olithic sheet, or as blocks, and any mixture that is suitable for the former is also 
suitable for the latter; also, that a form of sand is not a proper foundation in 
either case. — Roads, Streets and Pavements. 


THE HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL. 


The work of tunneling the Hudson River is pushing steadily on, and it is 
expected that in three years from now trains arriving in Jersey City will run di- 
rectly through to New York, and land their passengers in Broadway, somewhere 
fear the Metropolitan hotel, in six minutes’ time. The company says that more 
than too trains of cars could be passed through in twenty-four hours on the 
double track. 

Freight trains will use the tunnel exclusively at night, and market trains in 
the early morning. All will be drawn by engines made especially for the pur- 
pose. These will consume their own steam and smoke. A powerful engine will 
be always at work forcing air into the tunnel. The entire length of the tunnel 
will be 12,000 feet; that is, about one mile under water and three-quarters of a 
mile on each side. Thus far only the New Jersey end has been bored, but the 
work on this side will soon be begun and excavations will proceed from both 
banks until they meet. As many men will be kept constantly engaged day and 
night, as can be successfully employed at once, in making the hole and building 
the lining wall. The gangs will be changed every eight hours, thus doing three 


_ days labor every twenty-four hours. All the work will be done by electric light. 


The tunnel will be lined throughout with iron plates, and these in turn will be 
faced all over with the best hardened brick and hydraulic cement, three feet 
thick. The brick will be made from the refuse taken from the tunnel. This, it 
is said, will effect a saving of $2.25 on every thousand used. As there will be 
2,013 brick in each running foot of wall, it will be seen that the saving is consid- 
erable. The interior will be painted white and lighted with gas. The entrance 
in Jersey City will be from Jersey avenue in Fifteenth street. The tunnel will be 
a single one, twenty-six feet wide and twenty-four feet high in the clear down to 
within a few feet of the river on both sides, and a double one all of the way un- 


_ der the water where the two tunnels will run side by side, each eighteen feet 
high and sixteen feet wide in the clear. It is to extend from Jersey avenue to 


IV—7 


100 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Hudson street and the river, about 3,400 feet; thence under the river, curving 
five degrees northward to the New York bulkhead line at or near the foot of Mor- 
ton street, about 5,400 feet, then curving slightly southward in New York, about 
3,000 feet, to a point to be selected-by the city authorities. The extension grade 
of the tunnel is two in 100 feet descending from Jersey City, then ascending on 
the New York side three in 100 feet for 1,500. From that point the ascent will 
be on a grade of two in roo feet to the New York end. The greatest depth of 
water in the river is about sixty feet. Most of the bottom of the river bed is 
composed of tenacious silt, underlaid by hard sand. Near the New York shore 
a small extent of rock is encountered and some gravel.—.S¢. Louis Journal of 
Commerce. 


Eis MOLSON NG 


BOG BUTTER, FROM COUNTY GALWAY, IRELAND. 


Mr. John Plant, F. G. S., exhibited at a meeting of the Manchester, Eng- 
land, Philosophical society, January 19, 1880, a piece of mineral resin, familiar- 
ly known in the west of Ireland as Bog Butter, (Butyrellite). The lump weighed 
exactly 14 ozs. It came from a good depth in a bog in County Galway. <A few 
years ago, when in that part of Ireland, he had been unsuccessful in meeting 
with a sample of this curious substance, although he was informed that it was 
not unfrequently met with by the turf cutters during each summer. He heard of 
its origin and some of the uses to which it was said to be put by the poor people, 
if they got any of it, from a farmer at Killkee, but he could hardly credit the 
statement that in hard times it was melted down and actually used as a dripping 
to the potatoes ; he rather concluded that the greasing was limited to the axles of 
the potato cart. The Irish have a widespread belief that bog butter was hidden 
by the fairies in the bogs long ages ago; and it is affirmed that the butter is some- 
times found in small wooden kegs in bogs along the coast. These kegs they say 
have been hastily buried by smugglers running a cargo of contraband, though 
when bog butter was declared an illegal article of trade in Ireland they are un- 
able to say. Unfortunately, Mr. Plant was not shown a keg, or even a staver 
of a keg, but he was informed that specimens of veritable kegs of bog butter are to 
be seen in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy and in the museums at Ed- 
inburgh. The fairy origin of the bog butter he thought might be ascribed to the 
active imagination of the Celtic brain, many of the inexplicable things in nature 
being readily put down to the good or evil doings of the indigenous fairies of 
Erin. 

By the aid of scientific analysis the substance called bog butter can be shown 
to be a perfectly natural production arising from the decomposition of the veget- 
able matters forming the peat or bog, and to belong to the numerous family of 


CARE OF STOVES. 101 


mineral resins, or hydrocarbon compounds, of which Dana describes the compo- 
sition of seventy species. 

Many of these are very well known under the names of marsh gas, petrole- 
um, ozocerite, asphaltum, naphtha, paraffin, bitumen, amber, torbanite, coal, 
and its varieties. 

Some of these singular minerals are obtained only from bog and peat beds 

Some time ago Mr. Plant showed to the Section a quantity of one of these 
resinous minerals, which occurred under the bark of pine logs found in a moss 
at Handforth by Mr. P. G. Cunliffe. It proved to be known in Germany as 
Fichtelite, but had not before been known to occur in Great Britain. After- 
ward it was found in pine logs in the peat on Lindow Common. A waxy, 
greasy, or butter-like character is distinctive of these bog products. The one 
now exhibited was described first by Brazier in 1825, and was ae by Will- 
amson in 1845, its composition being given as 


Can omiey ys Ayre een Bien Wey ares 73.78 
FLY GROMEMIL Mr uta oh banisices tone B24 50 
OxXVOEME Mea LN erste te Mere Tigk yo 


When fresh from the bog it is soft ie like butter, but hardens in drying. 
The mass is dirty and bogstained on the outside, but inside pure white and free 
from impurities. It melts at 50° C., and becomes a yellow greasy resin; dissolves 
in alcohol or in ether, and then crystallizes in beautiful needles. When heated 
it gives off a peculiar odor like acroline. ‘By saponification with potash it yields 
an acid which Brazier proves to have a composition similar to palmetic acid. 

There is a mineral waxy resin called Guyaquillite, which is found in extensive 
deposits in the marshy plains near Guyaquil, in South America, which has a sim- 
ilar composition to bog butter. 

Johnson gives it as 


Carbomesemiprc ccm. “cutee ee On Ory 


Ely Gnogens ina. vateceave 1 Only 
OXV SSM TAU Veer, Rahn HSS TG 


It has been proved that the slow decomposition or change in the vegetable 
peat or moss will produce elements of which these hydrocarbons are made.— 
Chemical News. 


CARE OF STOVES. 


The season is at hand for removing stoves from the rooms they have warmed 

_ during the winter. A few words of caution may not be amiss. Iron is more 
sensitive to the hygrometric changes in the atmosphere than any other commonly 
used metal; at least it is more susceptible of permanent injury from dampness. 
_ The planished surface sheet iron, known as the Russia iron, resists these insidious 
approaches of the foe of metals much better than our common iron; but there is 


102 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


no mechanical means known of so thoroughly compacting the outer fibers of sheet 
iron as to prevent the action of moisture. Unused and uncared-for Russia sheet 
iron, unless kept in a place of equable dry temperature soon shows pin spots and 
blotches, like mold, and these are the beginnings of disintegration. Those 
stoves which use wood or charcoal as a fuel, or for kindling, are particularly lia- 
ble to decay. The inside of the stove and the pipe are attacked by the pyrolig- 
neous acid contained in the soot and soon show the effects after being taken 
down. So long asa fire is kept up the heat counteracts, in some measure, the 
attacks of the acid; but when put away for the summer the soot has opportunity 
to act, especially if it is aided by the damp atmosphere of a cellar, or the varia- 
ble draughts of an outhouse. The garret, or a room above the living rooms, is 
the best place for unused stoves and funnel. Perhaps the time will come when 
‘the superior advantages of sheet brass to sheet iron will be conceded, and our sheet 
metal stoves and pipe last a generation and grow handsomer as they grow older. 
Brass—aniy of the alloys of copper—is preserved from decay by its atmospheric 
oxide. The rust of brass preserves the metal and ornaments the surface. 
The oxide of iron disintegrates and ‘‘kills” the metal and disfigures the surface. 
Cast iron is worse in its objectionable features. A cast iron stove once rusted is 
a deformity and an eyesore. No amount of ‘‘ Rising Sun” or ‘‘ Carburet of 
Iron” can restore its pristine beauty or conceal the ravages of rust. The 
only way to preserve for the summer our red hot winter friends is to keep them 
in an equable atmosphere as to humidity; don’t let them dry up through negli- 
gence nor weep out by carelessness.— Boston Journal of Commerce. 


DD UCAmT@IN. 


SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 
BY PROF. E, C. CROSBY, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


Thoughtful comparison of our best common schools with schools of an 
earlier time, suggests the conclusion that, although we are struggling in the dawn 
of a better age, we have hardly escaped from the traditional empiricism which 
forms the literature of the past. Probably, one of the greatest obstacles to pro- 
gress is the paradoxical aversion of teachers themselves to scrutinizing their own 
methods with the same interest and persistence manifested by them in pursuing 
light literature, society, fashions and gain. 3 

A child of six years must attain some proficiency in many subjects, if he 
would leave the school room, at the age of seventeen, respectably intelligent. 
Hence, arises the question, ‘‘ What subjects should be pursued during these few | 
years?’ But this question is inappropriate to the case at hand. Let us see. 


SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 103 


It is autumn, and the fruitful farm groans under its splendid burden; but last 
night a destructive fire swept away every tool and instrument, save one, with 
which to gather the crops. Suppose the farm is sold to a foreigner who is unac- 
quainted with our farm implements. There are the fruits to be gathered and 
shipped, the wheat to be stored, the corn to be husked, the field to be plowed, 
&c., and there is but one instrument with which to do the work. His first 
inquiry evidently is, ‘‘ What kind of work will this instrument perform ?” and not 
‘©Which crop shall I gather first with this instrument?” Now, mind is the sole 
instrument with which the educator deals, and, evidently, his first question must 
be, ‘‘What kind of work will this young mind perform?” and not the question, 
‘© Which branch of study must first be mastered?” The profounder educational 
questions, then, underlying all others, are: What are the principles of mental 
action? What are the elemental acts in the process called ‘‘knowing”? ‘These 
questions carry with them not the tacit but the living assumption that mind, in its 
several departments of intellect, sensibilities and will, is an indication, an express- 
ion of law; and it matters not to the present view whether that law be surmised 
or wholly unknown. This point settled, then, let us proceed to consider the 
questions: How do we acquire? What mystery lies concealed in the dawning of 
intelligence? How are mental faculties aroused to discharge their several func- 
tions, and in what order of succession? ‘To answer these questions, we need to 
consult only our own experiences as simulated in the daily activities of a child. 
A simple illustration: A book falls to the floor; the floor trembles; the air 
quivers; the drums of the tympanum vibrate, and the internal ear transmits the 
vibrations to the nerve which carries them to the brain; terminating this series is 
consciousness of sound. An idea of sound is subsequent to these physical move- 
ments, which it could never precede. Without the former, the latter could have 
no existence. Likewise, the child can never have the thought of heat until its 
nervous organism has been affected by heat. In these acts of knowing, it would 
be difficult to determine whether the sevtiens is more important than the sensum, 
put it is quite unimportant, since neither is dispensable. An object must be per- 
ceived before it can be conceived. It must become to us an object of sense 
before it can become an object of thought. It must first be presented before it 
can be represented. Ideas of roughness, area, elasticity, form, attraction, law, 
are based upon, are awakened by or arise from perceptions, and never precede 
them. And, generally, Frcebel’s system is the only practical philosophy of edu- 
cation extant. 

The class in Physics recites—no apparatus to illustrate the subject. The 
‘pupil answers: ‘<A body is in stable equilibrium when it will return to its for- 
mer position after it has been slightly disturbed.” Well recited, but what does 
that mean? Illustrate. Here is a cone—explain your definition. Several 
attempts, failing to clear up the definition, succeed in showing a total want of 
comprehension of stable and unstable equilibrium. Success is reached only after 
many questions and failures. Here it is clearly shown that a definition is the 


104 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


result of purposed investigation, and the result illustrates the truth that the mind 
is not a crib for storing away forms of finished knowledge, like the above defini- 
tion, unless those forms have become the child’s possession by tentative and expe- 
riential efforts. The mind, rather, is an instrument fitted for hewing out or mod- 
eling the knowledge products which it will possess. To begin with a definition is 
to begin at the wrong end of the educating process. It is much like getting a 
warranty deed to real estate before ascertaining its location, desirability and value. 
A definition, a generalization, a rule, a law, is a product of numerous observations 
and comparisons—a conclusion, the fimale of a thousand experiences. The same 
truth is even more strikingly illustrated in the student’s attempt to know the 
meaning of chromatic aberration, if presented to him in the form of a definition, 
clearly stated, with not more than fifteen words. Correct instruction requires 
the teacher to take his pupils to the glad fountain of experience, where the ele- 
ments of knowledge and their symbols are severally known; where they may be 
individually studied in their relations to each other; where they may personally 
encounter obstacles and feel the glorious enjoyment of surmounting them; 
where, individually evolving the finished forms of knowledge for themselves, 
their exact contents will be known rather than solely the esthetics of expression. 

_ The necessity of perceiving completely and the trained ability of interpreting 
sensations are not outranked by any other department of educational science. A 
single illustration: A child sees a rock-salt prism for the first time. Vision alone 
is concerned. The child’s conception of the prism consists of color, form, trans- 
_ parency and position. On the following day it handles the instrument. Now, 
the child’s conception embraces, besides color, form and positicn, smoothness, 
temperature, resistance, solidity, weight, etc. Upon the third day, the senses of 
sight, touch and hearing are applied to the study of the prism. Now, its concep- 
tion becomes far more complex. At the close of the fifth day, when the experi- 
mental process has been tolerably complete, let the question be asked, ‘‘ Upon 
what day does the child possess the most perfect idea of the prism?” The answer 
is self-evident, likewise the reason. The greater the number of sensual experi- 
ences, both in number and in kind, brought to bear upon an object, the more 
accurate, positive and considerable is our knowledge of it. The mind has been 
reached by different avenues of sensation, the soul has been awakened to new 
life, true conceptions have been formed, and these have been correlated and har- 
monized by the individual activities of the mind to be improved, while they pos- 
sess all the force, weight and power which it is possible for those conceptions to 
possess. Here is the practical question which more deeply concerns every parent: 
Should the schools possess the apparatus which will furnish the opportunity for 
these experiences? ‘There can be but one answer. 

I know it is a great mistake to think that when pupils arrive at their “teens” 
they have passed the period which makes experimental work a necessity. This 
common belief might have some probability in it, did they receive the proper 
training before arriving at that age. Prof. Cook, our American chemist, in a lec- 


SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 105 


ture delivered before the summer school of chemistry, (1879,) declared that 
‘students coming to the university can neither observe with any accuracy nor 
are they able to draw tolerably correct inferences from what they imperfectly 
observe;”’ that ‘‘the student should be brought into personal and original contact 
with facts, and, by practice, become able to draw correct conclusions from them ; 
for these reasons, I find it necessary to take personal charge of the elementary 
classes, leaving the more advanced ones to the tutors.” The same notes of warn- 
ing and complaint have long been uttered by such educators as Porter, Bain, 
Agassiz, McCosh, Gore, Spencer and others who stand among the best teachers 
of our time, and still we continue in thé grooves deep-worn far back in the Mid- 
dle Ages—grooves so deep that he who attempts a statement of the principles 
which underlie acquisition is charged with being a ‘‘theorist,” and his work is 
denounced as ‘‘ not suited to the wants of the teacher,” or as ‘‘ shooting over our 
heads.” Similar is the history of every move forward. 

From whatever quarter we approach the fundamental principles of the educa- 
ting process, there should be: 

In Childhood.—Perceptive work, with few symbols. 

_ In Youth.—Perceptive work, with many symbols. 

In Manhood.—Symbols, not exclusively. m 

All theories of intellectual and moral discipline, devised by ingenious per- 
sons, disregarding the truth that law reigns among mental phenomena no less than 
among physical ones, muSt pass into forgetfulness, supplanted by one which rests 
upon the unalterable and eternal truth, so unmistakably illustrated in every human 
experience, and so concisely formulated in another century, that all our knowl- 
edge begins with experience. 

It is well known that our educational system fails to cultivate and develop 
practical judgment, and this failure demands an explanation which will stand 
adverse criticism. I believe it a truth that is almost axiomatic, that every prob- 
lem in mental.economy and mental discipline must find its solution, ultimately, 
in the nature of mind itself. Education begins with sensual experiences, but it 
does not end with them. When these experiences have been made the child’s 
possession by an exercise of the senses, then, and then only, should those experi- 
ences receive a name, which name—elasticity, for example—can be made no 
clearer by.reference to a lexicon. Henceforth this word or symbol, whether 
thought, spoken or written, recalls the experience and takes its rightful place in 
the language of the child. Henceforth educational advancement is concerned 
with new experiences and their symbols, together with re-combinations, applica- 
tions ‘and rearrangements of the old ones, and this complex mental activity we 
designate as an enlargement of the boundary of mental vision. Again I assert 
that unless the child experiences, by the sense of sight or touch, the rebound of 
elasticity, as seen in rubber, glass or other substance, this quality of matter can 
never become: a concept of his brain, and, consequently, it must remain as 
unknown to him as if it had no existence whatever. This real and individual] 


106 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


contact with other objects is clearly implied in Dr. Porter’s analysis of the know- 
ing process: ‘‘To know always involves two comprehensive acts, each of which 
corresponds to the other—the act of separating or revolving objects as wholes 
into their parts, and the act of uniting or combining these parts into their 
wholes.” 

Concepts are founded upon percepts, but the former are rarely permanent, 
complete and triumphant. Perfect conceptions require experiences rendered per- 
fect by varied, like and similar conditions. Such symbolic knowledge, saving us 
the necessity of returning to sensual experiences, supplies every want and answers 
every purpose which symbols can provide, and with these the future progress of 
the pupil is mainly concerned. ‘These truths must be granted; then, have we 
not a clear necessity for emphasizing the duty of making the child’s perceptions 
not only complete but systematic? Every primary school should be provided 
with abundant apparatus, for instance, the units of length, weight and capacity. 
With these the pupil should be allowed to make the measurements for himself, 
whereby he practically determines the gills and gallons, the inches and yards, the 
ounces and tons. Thus do the gills, inches and ounces, as perceived facts, 
become the gills, inches and ounces of truly conceived facts. ‘‘ True perceptions 
form the basis of intellect.”{ It can not be too strongly insisted that personal 
experience is the sole requirement for personal acquisition, and this knowledge, at 
first intuitively gained, becomes knowledge symbolically known. Knowing the 
full force of these psychological truths, an eminent educator* has well said that 
‘¢in regard to science, our schools are not above those of the Middle Ages—then, 
the students repeated the obscure statements of Aristotle, while now students 
repeat the statements of their text-books, without obtaining any valid ground for 
the conviction they are required to express.” It is not difficult to compare some 
traits in the character of two individuals, one of whom has made science the 
usual literary study, as witnessed in most of the schools throughout the country, 
the other of whom has been drilled in the practical methods which a correct study 
of natural phenomena demands. ‘The first 


Has learned how useful are devices, , 
And gives all honor to inventors ; 
‘‘Promptness,” he terms a business virtue, 
Historic, importance, he says, it hath not, 
Ampére, he calls the mightiest intellect, 
Familiarly quotes from works of Bacon. 
Adroitly speaks of heed and caution, 
Cites stunning things that have existed— 
Whose nebulous causes are historic, 
(Is sure he read it in the text-book). 
Dilates upon the accidental, 
Declares the causes supernatural. 
The second 
5 Clears the way with new devices; 
Execution nerves his sinews, 
Judgment, prompt and vigorous action 
Make many blessings fly about him, 


t The Art of Scientific Discovery. —GorE. 
* Prof. Hinrichs, University of Iowa. 


SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 107 


Anticipating, calculating, 

(Has met neither Ampére nor Bacon,) 
Returns, persistent, to the details, 
Explaining all conflicting portions, 
Feels not too strong in his conclusions. 
Here, ‘‘accidentals’’ claim attention, 
(Has heard not of the early Fathers). 
‘‘Investigate it!” is the watchword— 
Demands to know the hidden causes. 


In the domain of morals, the same principles obtain. ‘There are two kinds 
of government—one exerted by the teacher, parent or society, the other by the 
individual who is to be restrained. The most perfect restraint is seen in individ- 
ual control, where the fountain of discipline is in an enlightened judgment coupled 
with nobility of purpose. The most abominable restraint is the purely external 
one, as seen in the school-room only when the teacher is present, or in a domes- 
tic circle in which the proprieties of deportment are compulsory. Commonly, 
discipline at home, in the school and in society exists by a union of these two 
kinds of restraints. In Sicily, there is much of the external restraint—the arm 
of the civil and ecclesiastical power; in the United States, there is more of the 
“internal” restraint. The quality of society and the school varies with the pro- 
portions of these two kinds of restraints. Sad is the moral condition of that 
school governed largely by external influences, since, upon their withdrawal, the 
individual revels among his accidental changes of feeling and fancy without con- 
trol. These truths render it possible to account for the bad order not infrequently 
seen at the lecture room, at church, and in most public gatherings. Thus is gen. 
eral lawlessness accounted for—defacing public property, indecencies of speech, 
and want in self-respect. Too little attention is given to the fundamental princi_ 
ples of true discipline, and too much to the mere education of intellect. There is 
no honor in graduating an intellectual rascal. It is of but little consequence to 
require a student to memorize and repeat, at stated times, sickly formulas of self- 
government, and to frequently remind him of duty to himself and his fellows. 
But the student must be assisted to govern himself at that moment when desire » 
would entice him from the path of rectitude, at the instant when emotion wars 
against the weakened will. Mighty is the chasm which separates the languid, 
non-effective knowledge that we should do right, from the trained ability to be 
upright, when temptation’s hour approaches. All know that we should not 
embezzle the property of another, but the virtue implied in this statement becomes 
effective and useful to the individual only after he has resisted temptation (of one 
kind or another) time and time again. The simple knowing that we should rea- 
son confers no ability to reason—the inteilect must engage oft and deeply in the 
reasoning process, to acquire that ability; likewise, the simple knowing that we 
should do right confers no ability to do right—the moral powers must engage oft 
and deeply in those processes which constitute a moral act, before the mind 
acquires that desired ability. It is almost unnecessary to say that the simple 
learning of moral truths is an education of intellect and not a training of the 
moral powers of a human being. In the correlation of feeling and intellect, I am 


108 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


sure there is opportunity for research that will yield rich returns to an industrious 
explorer. 

To return again to the intellect; an illustration: The eye falls upon a fruit- 
dish, and observations are made. After a lapse of a few minutes the word, 
‘‘fruit-dish,” suggests its peculiar form, its leaf designs, its fruit reliefs, its soft 
color, its position, its majolica material, its use, its grace and beauty and its slight 
defect. A week hence, its name suggests distinctly its form, its color less dis- 
tinctly, and the details of its ornamentation with increasing faintness. A year 
hence, these scanty details have lapsed into no little obscurity, the name ‘‘ fruit- 
dish”’ being as powerless to awaken original conceptions, in the fullness of their 
details, as Xenocrates’ definition of soul: ‘‘A number moving itself.” But what 
must be the significance of this term to a child who has even never observed one 
especially designed for the double purpose of ornament and for holding fruit ? 
To strengthen this position, let me quote from an eminent educator, (Dr. Porter,) 
since teachers as well as other people rely more upon authority than upon their 
own common sense: ‘‘The impressions received from words, by one who has 
never witnessed the reality, are but as thin and pallid shadows, when contrasted 
with full and glowing intuitions.” It must be admitted, then, that while the 
teacher’s work remains among symbols, he handles a currency whose value is as 
shifting or changeable as the diversity of minds to which he appeals. These sym- 
bols form a redeemable currency, but not a currency that is oft redeemed. There 
‘is but one way for our educational systems to act in this matter, and that is to ~ 
insist upon the evident necessity of the pupils first knowing the thing itself, then 
learning its name, followed up by a frequent reference of the symbol to the real 
object which that symbol represents. Only by this method can the increasing 
faintness of symbols be counteracted. Again, we teach by the use of symbols. 
Symbols of what? Symbols of former perceptions. Where have those experi- 
ences taken place? At the indulgent and perhaps wrangling home and upon the 
noisy, distracting street. Under what circumstances? By the merest accident 
and without careful examination; occurring among scenes of confusion or in 
moments of excitement; in hours of despond@fcy, when emotion silenced the 
intellect; in a hap-hazard manner, when experiences are neither analyzed nor 
respectably put together and were forborne because unavoidable. Now, the 
question arises, ‘‘If the original experiences have been so imperfectly mastered, 
how can their symbols possess a high value? And if these symbols are the com- 
mon currency of teacher and pupil who can longer wonder that the child’s prog- 
gress is not only plodding but very discouraging? In view of these unrefuted 
facts, I fearlessly assert that no attempt at instruction is entitled to the name of 
system, or, is even tolerable, which does not provide for the systematizing and 
perfecting of experiences throughout the course of instruction. ‘The corollary is 
sufficiently obvious; our schools must be provided with apparatus and specimens 
with which to reinforce the symbols, and, primarily, to furnish new experiences. 
Until those almost meaningless symbols, the sole possession of the average child 


HEALTHFUL AND DANGEROUS OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN, 109 


at its entrance into the public school, have a freshness and force which, in our 
teaching we constantly assume, we may expect a continuance of the parrot work 
of the school-room and the difficulties of comprehension. Sensation, perception 
and symbolization, both in logical sequence and mental development, are the 
successive phases which constitute the Archean principles of mental development 
and human progress. 

If the above be taken for granted, how can our partial success in the school 
room be accounted for? There is but one answer. ‘This partial success is mathe- 
matically co-ordinated with, and is strictly dependent upon, those incomplete ex- 
periences which the child already possesses. Furthermore, those new forms of 
knowledge imparted to the pupil in the school room are comprehended by him, 
or as yet remain obscure, according as their elemental symbols are significant or 
meaningless. If the experiences whose symbols we divide, combine and vari- 
ously use, are fresh by repetition or late in time, the new knowledge product 
will stand out in bold relief; but if—as is more commonly the case—the original 
intuitions were incomplete for any reason, the new knowledge-product will be 
unreal, unsatisfactory, and nebulous. It should be added here that although the 
the pupil may recite text-book statements in well rounded periods, it is still far 
from being atest that he understands what he so beautifully says. Thus do we reach 
the conclusion, by the consideration of a few points in mental growth that ‘‘ ob- 
ject teaching” is the only rational method of primary instruction. By ‘‘ object 
teaching,”’ I mean teaching from the objects and the phenomena themselves by 
allowing the pupil to handle and otherwise examine these objects, and not from 
drawings, nor pictures, nor verbal descriptions, nor enchanting stories about 


them. 
(Zo be continued.) 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 


HEALTHFUL AND DANGEROUS OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN. 


In the city of New York or surburbs we find women employed in staining 
and enameling glass; in making glass signs; in cutting ivory, pearl, and tortoise- 
shell; working in gutta-percha, gum-elastic, and hair; making willow-ware and 
cane chairs; feeding printers’ presses and setting type; making and packing can- 
dles; molding tablets of water-colors; assisting in the manufacture of chemicals 
and fire-works; making clocks, enameling dials, and painting the cases; finishing 
backgammon boards; making and dressing dolls and toys; stitching the cloths 
and making the pockets of billiard tables; painting the handles of brooms, and 
weaving twine into netting; making paper collars and twine; burnishing jewelry 
and making buttons. There are about five hundred millinery houses in the city, 


110 _ KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


employing over two thousand milliners, and the manufacture of straw hats engages 
several thousand women in weaving the braid, sewing, and bleaching. The arti- 
ficial-flower trade employs about four thousand women, many of them French, 
and it is as lucrative to adept hands as any other. The manufacture of hoop- 
skirts is said to engage over ten thousand women, who spool the cotton, weave 
the tape and cover the steel; and the cap trade gives employment to many more 
thousands, whose earnings vary from three to five dollars a week. The weaving 
of hair cloth is also done by women, the packing of confectionery, and the mak- 
ing of shoe ‘‘ uppers.” 

Some of these occupations, and others to which we have not referred, are 
dangerous to the operatives, not merely from the long hours of toil, the insufficient 
food, and the lack of proper ventilation in the workshops, but from the nature of 
the materials and the manner of fabrication. The artificial-flower makers, the 
gold-leaf workers, the button-gilders, the cigar makers, and the lucifer-match 
makers also suffer from the nature of their occupation. 

In large manufactories of artificial flowers the ventilation is usually sufficient, 
and precautions are taken to prevent the inhalation of poisonous colors. But 
nearly all the brilliant leaves are made in the artisans’ own home, a back room 
or an attic devoted to all the purposes of existence, and:the arsenic that produces 
the spring-like vividness of color is diffused in the atmosphere and absorbed by 
the system. The fabric from which the leaves are cut is colored in the piece, 
Paris green, cold water, and starch or gum-arabic being used for the purpose. 
This liquid is spread by the fingers over lengths of fine calico or muslin, which 
are afterward beaten or kneaded by hand until they have an even tint. They are 
then spread out in frames to dry, and are next cut and shaded, the final process 
being their immersion in warm wax, and the removal of any loose color upon 
them. The detached particles float in the air, and are inevitably inhaled by the 
workers, whose handkerchiefs are speckled with dots of green blown out through 
the nose.” Another operation, technically known as ‘‘ grass-work,’’ consists in the 
fastening of small glass beads or ‘‘ dew-drop”’ to the artificial blades, which dis- 
lodges portions of the color, and leads to its inhalation. The consequences are 
variable. When the persons employed are cleanly in their habits, and keep their 
windows open, an occasional headache or an attack of dyspepsia is the most they 
suffer; but in other cases, all the symptoms of arsenical poisoning and revealed in 
eruptions of the skin, nausea, colic, and general debility. 

In gilding metal buttons, mercury and nitric acid are used, producing their 
characteristic diseases; and in making lucifer-matches the work-women sometimes 
contract the terrible disease which is technically described as necrosis of the max- 
illary bones, many cases of which have been treated at Bellevue Hospital. In 
the preparation of gold-leaf the substance is so fragile and bouyant that the doors 
and windows are necessarily kept closed, and the air of the work-rooms becomes 
very impure. But the women who suffer most from the character of their oc- 
cupation are the cigar-makers, who, mingling with men, boys, and children, toil 


TAKING THE TASTE OUT. 11f 


many hours a day for five or six dollars a week, living in an atmosphere surcharg- 
ed with dust and fumes that would iaake the most inveterate smoker sick. Part 
of the work is done in factories, but most of it is done in the dwellings of the op- 
eratives, and in neither is any attention paid to ventilation or cleanliness. Grow- 
ing girls at the verge of womanhood suffer in many ways, and are as much under 
the influence of tobacco as a constant smoker. Their faces are pale, and their 
eyes are dead; a stupor comes over them; their nerves are unsettled, and their 
lungs are diseased in nearly every case.—Harper’s Magazine for June. 


[CAVATUN GIVER EAS pO edie? 


Almost everybody knows that a globule of castor oil may-be so folded by a 
deft and quick hand between two tea-spoonfuls of lemon juice that only the acid 
is recognized in the taking, and that where acids may not be used, the same 
effect may be secured by wine or spirit. But everyone does not know that any 
powerfully pungent substance, masticated for a moment and rejected, will pre- 
vent the necessity of acid or of spirit, neither of which, of course, it is always 
best to give. Thus, a bit of lemon peel or of orange peel, if chewed half a min- 
ute, will render castor oil as innocent as water, and it will do the same for the 
quite as vile taste of balsam copaiba. A little bitter almond, too, has the same 
power, if not more of it; and a peach kernel is not quite useless in that way. 
Indeed, one drop of the essential oil of almonds will neutralize the disgusting 
quality of a whole ounce of castor oil, we are told, without detracting from its 
virtues, and less than a tea-spoonful of the oil of orange will work the same 
magic on an ounce of balsam copaiba. If, however, not any of these articles is 
at hand, some strong peppermint is very effectual. Even licorice will prevent 
the taste of anything that is very bitter from being perceived, and, strange to 
say, is the only sweet substance known that is capable of doing that. A pinch 
of the leaves of sage, either dried or green, of pennyroyal, and even of catnip, 
if not quite so strong, is yet very efficient. Something as good as all the rest, 
although to the child probably not quite as agreeable, is the scattering of a few 
grains of Cayenne pepper on the tongue, after whose biting sting neither aloes, 
nor salts and senna, nor colchicum, nor thoroughwort, nor soda, nor bromide of 
ammonia, nor anything else, in fact, however disgusting otherwise, will make 
the slightest impression. If children, as it is very likely, should prefer the taste 
of the medicine pure and unadulterated to the smarting of the Cayenne, there 
are some grown people, and among them especially those gentlemen who, sel- 
dom needing to take medicine, make a great fuss about it when they do, and to 
whom Cayenne is so pleasant and necessary that some of them always carry it 
about them, may be glad to avail themselves of the knowledge in any case of 
need.— Harper's Bazar. 


112 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 
COMMERCIAL VALUE OF SANITARY WORK. 


In a recent lecture in New Haven on the value of sanitary work, Professor 
Brewer, of Yale College, reviewed at great length the causes and effects of 
plagues and pestilences that did so much to darken the history of Europe during 
the Dark Ages. He then traced briefly the origin of sanitary science and its 
benefits, as shown in a largely diminished death rate. And after pointing out 
the four great obstacles to sanitation—ignorance, filthy habits, selfishness, and 
indifference—he proceeded to show how sickness, especially avoidable sickness, 
tends to impoverish communities as well as individuals. In this connection he 
said : i me 

‘Every student of history and of political economy notices the wonderfully 
rapid accumulation of wealth and capital in-modern times compared with what it 
has been in previous ages. ‘The material wealth and working capital of the civ- 
ilized world has more than trebled in less than a lifetime. The accumulation of 
wealth and property (and it is this which represents the aggregate savings from 
labor) during the last few years more than equals all that had been saved in all 
the thousands of years that had gone before, and that, too, while there has been 
a more general enjoyment of the comforts of life and a:much greater indulgence 
in its luxuries. The nature and sources of this rapid growth have been the sub- 
ject of much discussion by the statesmen and political economists. The causes 
generally assigned are the invention of modern machinery, the use of steam as a 
motor, the growth of modern means of transportation by sea and land, the ap. 
plication of the natural sciences to the arts and industries, the spread of popular 
education, the diminution of wars, and the production of the precious metals. 
There is no doubt that each and all of these have had their influence; but there 
is one still greater cause which is too often overlooked, simply because it is not 
so conspicuous. The greatest of all causes is to be found in the better average 
health of civilized countries, and the longer average term of life which is now se- 
cured to workingmen. 

‘Tt was not merely war, nor because they did not have steam, nor did not 
know about greenbacks, that kept the masses in poverty all through the Middle 
Ages—it was disease, and the death that came from disease that kept the nations 
poor. The history of the Middle Ages is a sad succession of plagues, of cities 
devastated, of States impoverished, of laborers swept away in millions, by suc- 
cessive waves of pestilence that followed each other as often as cities grew popu- 
lous. Between the common sickness which was ever present and the pestilences 
which swept off their millions at a swoop, the average period available for actual 
labor in man was perhaps not more than half what it is now. Meanwhile, it 
took just as long to rear children to a working age as now, and sickness was just 
as expensive; so, between the diminished power of production, the waste by 
sickness, the panics and checks to commerce caused by plagues which were 
raging somewhere all the time, it is no wonder that wealthy people were compar- 


COMMERCIAL VALUE OF SANITARY WORK. 113 


atively few and the masses sunk in abject poverty. If we are tempted to think 
that we are saved from this by steam or machinery or increased production of the 
precious metals, let us look at any pestilence-stricken city of modern times. A 
single pestilence of but a few months came near bankrupting Savannah, and laid 
a check on her progress and a burden on her resources which it will take many 
long years to overcome. Worse still is the case of Memphis, with its two pestt- 
lences; and such may be the loss to any American city if it neglects sanitary 
laws. Our modern civilization is one of intense competition. Each producing 
community is now in a struggle with all the rest of the world as it never was be- 
fore. If it have any special advantage, it may prosper; if it have any special 
disadvantage, it either lags behind in the swift race, or, by standing still, rela- 
tively declines, or else it goes under in the hard struggle of productive or com- 
mercial competition. And what heavier burden to bear than sickness! And 
yet this fact is liable to be.overlooked or forgotten. The healthy man hopes that 
sickness will never come,and may be careless of his health, and the healthy com- 
munity rarely awakens to danger until epidemic sickness sets in, and the loss is 
actually begun. 

‘‘Tt is the part of sanitary science to point out the dangers and suggest 
means of prevention, and when epidemics actually set in to suggest remedies ; it 
is the part of sanitary legislation to provide means to apply these remedies; it is 
the function of health boards to administer them. But, from the nature of the 
of the case, the better they do their work the less obvious are their labors. The 
officer who heroically stands at his post during the time of pestilence, labors to 
stay its dread work, helps the suffering, and comforts the dying is a hero, and 
the heroism is of a kind that can be seen; no praise is too high. But the other 
officer who, by his labors, prevents the pestilence and keeps it so far off that the 
danger is scarcely seen, receives no such praise—too often in its stead criticism, 
opposition and indifference. It is because of the nature of sanitary work that its 
value in increasing the prosperity of a city is so often overlooked. In the ordin- 
ary pursuits of business, the clang of machinery, the brilliancy of the applications 
of science to the arts, the bustle of business, the romantic ways in which the 
precious metals have been discovered and won, are more conspicuously in the 
eyes of the public than the quiet, persistent, unromantic, but heroic fight with 
unseen but unwholesome influences which lurk in the air of our towns. These 
malicious influences, mostly growing out of our modes of life, are ever present 
in all our cities, ever growing unless checked, always producing disease, and 
from time to time especially inviting pestilence, as persistent as sin, as tireless as 
nature, and as pitiless as death. The rapid growth of town and city popula- 
tions, as compared with the country during the last forty or fifty years has been 
made possible only by the power which modern sanitary science gives us to pre- 
vent, to check, and to combat epidemics. As matters were before, a pestilence 
of but a few weeks or months would put back the growth of a city for years. 
This city has had but one visitation of yellow fever; it lasted scarcely two months, 


114 ; KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and, from all I can ascertain by a careful investigation of the matter, it took 
from eight to ten years to recover from the shock. Indeed, can we say that it 
ever recovered?. What New Haven might have been, had it not been for that 
check, just ata time of rapidly growing commercial importance, we can never 
know, but that citizens left, with their capital, to go into business elsewhere, and 
never came back, and that trade left the place and never returned, is certain. 
What ‘might have been’ had this pestilence not fallen on us eighty-six years ago 
we can never know. What may be, if another pestilence comes, we know 
too well. Too many cities have had such a bitter experience, even in modern 
times, for us to be ignorant of the effects. 

‘¢We insure our manufactories from loss by fire to insure their being rebuilt 
if once burned. Even with this, the temporary suspension of work may drive 
trade elsewhere. Hence premiums are cheerfully paid to guard against the pos- 
sible contingency, and before the conflagration comes we cheerfully purchase fire- 
engines and apparatus, and organize bodies of skilled men to use them when the 
emergency comes. Here it is recognized that all this, though expensive in the 
beginning, is cheap in the end, and yet how reluctantly any such means are ta 
ken to guard against a worse destroyer of our wealth and prosperity. The ar- 
guments used even by official bodies against adequate support of public health 
administration in many, if not most cities, are curiosities of inconsistency, and 
will be cited as such by the next generation. It must not be forgotten that 
health boards are now more strongly demanded and called for because of their 
pecuniary importance than because of their function in allaying human suffering 
or saving human life. So long as merely men died, and health was lost, and sor- 
row fell on thousands of homes, Memphis went on as of old, dug her cesspools 
deeper and more of them, and did without sewers, but when the loud voice of 
trade cried out, ‘We can not afford to allow Memphis to longer stand as a men- 
ace to the commercial prosperity of the great Mississippi valley,’ then, and not 
till then was a system of sewering begun. A high death rate means loosened 
vigor, lessened powers of production, a check on prosperity, a burden on in- 
dustry. A low death rate in modern cities can only be secured by public sanita- 
tion, and by an intelligent and efficient co-operation of the public with an active 
board of health. A single epidemic but one-fourth as bad as that in Memphis 
last year would cost this city more, and leave us with higher taxes, that the most 
expensive system of sewers and of garbage collection than was ever dreamed of 
here. And there is nothing to prevent it but public sanitation. We had that 
very disease here once, and the city did not recover its prosperity for ten years, 
and it lost some phases of prestige which it never regained. An epidemic of 
small-pox a few years since lost to the city of Philadelphia, in ways which could 
be estimated, above $20,000,000. ‘This city a little later was seriously threaten- 
ed with a-similar epidemic, which was effectually stayed, and the health officers 
were, perhaps, more severely criticised for their work than for any other thing 
they have ever done. The results, however, have amply demonstated the wis- 
dom of their action. 


FOR DIPHTHERTA. 115 


‘‘The fact wants to be kept before the public, that as production and com- 
merce and trade are now carried on, few cities can afford to allow a pestilence to 
invade them. And if it comes to a city, with the natural advantages of soil and 
climate we have, it is due either to official ignorance or public neglect. There 
is, perhaps, not a single kind of pestilence which has afflicted any civilized city 
of temperate climate during the Dark Ages or since, over which we have not 
now control, if the community act up to the light and knowledge we have; and 
on the other hand, as business is now carried on, no city can now be afflicted as 
many then were, and not be bankrupted and financially ruined.—Scientific 
American Sup. 


ROR] PPE WEE RUA: 


A physician in Illinois writes: Ihave used successfully the following for some 
years for diphtheria: B sulphite soda gr. x., dissolved in Zl. warm water. Then 
add ten gr. salicylic acid. Dose, teaspoonful every fifteen to thirty minutes (or 
oftener) to a child of two years. At the same time use beef tea, wine, eggs, 
quinine, etc. I find this an effective anti-zymotic. In bad cases it must be used 
for some days. 


CHLOROFORM Vapor IN EARACHE.—At a recent meeting of the Medical So- 
ciety in the District of Columbia, Dr. James E. Morgan stated, during a discussion 
on otitis, that he had often promptly relieved tke distressiag earache of children 
by filling the bowl of a common new clay pipe with cottonwool, upon which he 
dropped a few drops of chloroform, and inserting the stem carefully into the ex- 
ternal.canal, and adjusting his lips over the bowl, blew through the pipe, —forcing 
the chloroform vapor upon the tympanum. Dr. J. Ford Thompson has also ac- 
complished the same relief upon similar principles. 


CHOGChar FuiGAL NOTES. 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 


The vessel selected and furnished for this expedition is a Clyde built iron 
frame propeller, 200 tons burden, 140 feet in length, 21 feet 6 inches breadth. 
The engine has two 30-inch cylinders, each 24 inches stroke, jet condensers, and 
one boiler. The engine is estimated to be of about 20o-horse power. The 
‘works have been overhauled and put in complete order by Petitt & Dripps, ma_ 
chinists, Washington, D. C. 
| Iv—8 


—— 


116 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


It has been greatly strengthened by filling in 2% inches oaken plank be- 
~ tween the iron frames, sheathing inside and outside with stout oaken planks, so 
as to make the hull uniformly 15 inches thick. To guard effectually against the 
nip or pinch of the ice, which sometimes crushes in the sides of a vessel as easi- 
ly as an egg shell, the inside of the hull has been braced with extra heavy white 
oak timbers placed horizontally, and from side to side in the various compart- 
ments of the ship, directly on the water line. Inside the prow three heavy 
white oak breast hooks have been placed, and on the outside of the bow, over 
all, isa sheathing 36 of an inch iron armor, extending to feet deep and 14 feet 
aft from the stern. 

Capt. H. C. Chester, formerly of the Polaris expedition, who is an experi- 
enced and intelligent Arctic explorer, has superintendence of the work of fitting 
the Gulnare for service in frozen seas. He has placed on the sides of the vessel 
extending above the water line, wedge-shaped oak timbers, which are calculated 
to ease the vessel upward when pressed by heavy ice. This is an idea resulting 
from the experience of the Polaris, which, when caught in the pinch of the ice, 
was forced downward and crushed. A new main deck has been put on, the 
planks being bolted to the iron frame of the ship, and secured on the inside by 
nuts screwed to the bolts. A new smoke-stack and an extra propeller have been 
provided, and amidships will be placed a new bridge 21 feet long. 

As the Gulnare will be used primarily to found an arctic colony of obsery- 
ers, to be recruited by other explorers hereafter, one of the chief designs in pre- 
paring the vessel for service has been to secure all the storage room possible for 
provisions, materials, instruments, arms and munitions. On the deck will be 
carried the frame work and other parts of a complete house sixty feet long by 
twenty feet wide, built on the plan of the houses so long employed by the Hud- 
son Bay Company. This house has been put up temporarily in Washington on 
the vacant lot on Fourteenth street, near New York avenue. It is a complete 
double frame house, with 12 or 14 inches space between, so as to afford the pro- 
tection of an inner wall of caloric. All the pieces are marked and numbéred, 
and when taken apart may be stowed in a small space, and afterward put to- 
gether readily by the arctic colonists. Window frames and glass to give light, 
stoves for heating, lamps and other necessaries will be carried sufficient for a com- 
pany of men at the polar station, as well as for the ship’s company on the voy- 
age. 

In the forward part of the Gulnare is the forecastle, or berth deck for the 
seamen. ‘There are accommodations for twenty-five men in this part of the ship, 
but the quarters will be very close. Under the berth deck is a fresh-water tank 
and storage room. Between this compartment and the coal bunkers, near the 
engine, the hold is entirely given up for storing supplies. The engine, boiler 
and coal of course occupy the center of the ship. Aft of these is the cabin, 
which is a neat and cosy little apartment, with staterooms on each side, with 
accommodations for 18 officers and scientists. In the hold beneath the cabin is 


GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 117 


room for storage. When completely fitted out the little vessel will be closely packed 
with material and subsistence stores, and it is expected her complement of offi- 
cers and crew will aggregate upward of 4o souls. 

In addition to steam power the Gulnare carries main and foremasts, which 
have been put in new, with new spars, cordage, etc. The rigger is J. W. Will- 
ams, 106 Thames street, Baltimore. Pollard & Padgett, sailmakers, Alexandria, 
Va., have made duplicate sets of new sails entire. The vessel is square-rigged 
forward, square foresail, topsail and gallantsail, lug 4% foresail; the main is 
schooner-rigged and gaff topsail. No pains or expenditure has been spared to in- 
sure the best outfit and the most serviceable material. 

The station to be established in the Arctic region will be on the north side 
of Lady Franklin bay, in 81° north latitude, near a coal deposit found by Nares’ 
expedition. The landing party will be in charge of an officer of the United 
States Army. The expedition will be commanded by United States navy officers, 
and the crew will be selected also from this branch of the public service. Capt. 
Howgate, whose idea is being put in practice, will remain here at the base of sup- 
ply to look after the sinews of war and to direct operations in the advance on 
the heretofore sealed region of the north pole, which will be made with a steady 
and systematic persistency which must win in the end, and finally gain for our 
countrymen the renown of having overcome the frozen barriers with which na- 
ture has hemmed in this interesting and forbidden region. 

When the men and material which the Gulnare now carries out have been 
landed and their house has been put up and supplied this summer, the steamer 
will return to the temperate zone for more supplies and men to replace those who 
may have become disheartened or disabled. From the colony first planted, ex- 
peditions will be sent out and a series of continuous advances made by planting 
camps further and further northward, until at last the main object is attained. 
But the glory of reaching the north pole over all obstacles, and over all other 
peoples who have striven for many years in this fascinating adventure, is not 
alone the object of the Howgate expedition. There are other and higher aims in 
the interests of science and knowledge, the fruition of which will be developed in 
the future of that intelligent corps of public servants, whose ceaseless watch and 
scientific industry already enable us to protect some of the most important pur- 
suits in life, as well as the individual health and comforts. While the struggle to 
advance further over the frozen steppes and icebergs of the north will never 
cease, the time consumed will not be lost otherwise. Each day will have its du- 
ties peculiar to the region, in the fight to live as well as in the observation and 
recording of natural phenomena, and in practical siege of the north pole, which is 
to be instituted in this system of steady and gradual approaches.— Baltimore Sun. 


118 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ARCTIC RELIEF. 


The following instructions to the commander of the Revenue Cutter Corwin, 
explain themselves : 


OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, 
WasHINGTON, D. C., May 15, 1880. 


Captain C. L. Hooper, Commanding Revenue Steamer Corwin, San Francisco, 
Gall: 
Str—The department having determined to dispatch the revenue steamer 

Corwin, under your command, to cruise in the waters of Alaska for the enforce- 

ment of the provisions of law and protection of the interests of the government 

on the seal islands and sea otter hunting grounds and of Alaska generally, you 
are directed to take on board that vessel, without delay, supplies of provisions 
for a six months’ cruise and sufficient quantities of fuel and water and leave San 

Francisco with your command not later than the 22d inst., for the waters named 

and make the best of your way to the places hereinafter designated. 

It is desirable that you should be in Behring Sea and the Arctic Ocean as 
early in the season as the opening of navigation will permit. You will accord- 
ingly proceed from San Francisco direct to Ounalaska, and on arrival there will 
take in a fresh supply of coal. From this point you will proceed to Norton 
Sound, touching at the seal islands on your way. You will leave an officer and 
two men on Otter Island for the purpose of protecting the seals there, unless 
you should deem it necessary to take all your command with you in your further 
cruise to the northward. 

It is expected that you will time the movements of your vessel so as to ar- 
rive in Norton Sound before Behring Strait is open for the passage of vessels, 
and that you will avail yourself of the first opportunity to push into the Arctic 
Ocean. Arrangements have been made by which the Alaska Commercial Com- 
pany will place about fifty tons of coal at a convenient point on this sound, from 


which you may replenish your supply, if found necessary, at any time during the 
season. 


TREASURY DEPARTMENT, 


By reference to the report of Captain George W. Bailey, United States Rev- 
enue Marine, who commanded the revenue steamer Rush, in her cruise last year 
in Alaska waters, you will observe that Kotzebue Sound, in the Arctic Ocean, 
_ is reported as the rendezvous of a number of vessels engaged in illicit traffic with 
the natives of Alaska in rum and fire-arms. You will use your utmost endeavor 
to apprehend any such vessels as you may find thus engaged and break up their 
illegal trade. 

It has been reported that two whaling barks, the Mount Wollaston and Vigi- 
lant, were probably caught in the ice within the Arctic Ocean last Autumn while 
endeavoring to return through Behring Strait from their season’s whaling, and 
fears are entertained for their safety. You will make diligent search for said ves- 
sels, and should you fall in with either of them or with any of their officers or 


GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 119 


crews, you will afford such succor or assistance within your power as may be re- 
quired. Should any persons desire to send contributions of provisions, etc., for 
the relief of those whalers, you will receive the same and dispose of them in 
such manner as circumstances may require. 

You are further instructed while in the Arctic to make careful inquiries re- 
garding the progress and whereabouts of the steamer Jeannette, engaged in mak- 
ing explorations under the command of Lieutenant Commander De Long, 
United States Navy, and you will, if practicable, communicate with and extend 
any needed assistance to that vessel. 

Should you be able to accomplish your mission in the Arctic Ocean early in 
the season, or find it necessary in carrying out these instructions to return to the 
seal islands before the usual time (say October 10) for the return of the revenue 
steamer from those waters, you will make a cruise to the westward from Ouna- 
laska as far as Atton, with the general object of protecting the seal otter hunting 
grounds and breaking up the business of illicit traders who frequent those waters. 
You are, however, permitted in your discretion to remain in the Arctic Ocean as 
late in the season as may be, necessary to accomplish the object of your voyage 
without encountering undue hazard to your command. 

A rumor of the wholesale starvation of the inhabitants of St. Lawrence 
Island, in Behring Sea, is noticed by Captain Bailey in his report of last year. 
You will investigate the facts regarding the matter if opportunity offers, and 
will, if practicable, land upon that island and ascertain the number and real con- 
dition of said people. 

While cruising in the Arctic Sea you will make careful observations as to 
currents, tides, etc., and will keep an accurate record of such soundings, sur- 


_ veys, etc., as you may be able to make, and you will obtain such information as 


Oe eae 


may be practicable regarding the numbers, character, occupations and general 
condition of the inhabitants of the adjacent coasts. 

Previous to sailing from San Francisco you will forward to the department 
a muster and descriptive roll of the officers and men of your command. 

You will whenever opportunity presents transmit to the department reports 
of the progress of your cruise. ‘i 

In conclusion, the department, having defined the general objects of your 
‘voyage and relying upon your skill and good judgment, confides to your discre- 
tion the details of your cruising within the Arctic Ocean, and takes pleasure in 
wishing you a prosperous voyage and a safe return. Very respectfully, | 

JOHN SHERMAN, Secretary. 


AWARD OF THE ROYAL MEDALS OF THIS YEAR. 


The Royal medals or premiums intrusted to the Society by the Crown ‘‘ for 
the encouragement and promotion of geographical science and discovery,’’ have 
this year been awarded as follows: 


120 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The Founder’s (King William IV.) medal, to Lieut. A. Louis Palander, in 
recognition of the services rendered by him to geography, as commander of the 
Vega in the late Swedish Arctic expedition, during which he safely navigated 
the vessel along the unsurveyed shore of the Asiatic continent for nearly 3,000 
miles. The Patron’s, or Victoria medal, to Mr Ernest ‘Gills, for leading four 
great expeditions through the interior of Western Australia in the years 1872-6, 
during which 6,000 miles of routes were surveyed, and 20,000 square miles of 
new country discovered. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL PRIZE MEDALS. 


The medals for geographical proficiency annually offered by the Royal Geo- 
graphical Society to the leading public schools have this year been awarded as 
follows: 

Physical geography gold medal, to David Bowie (Dulwich College). Silver 
medal to Albert Lewis Humphries (Liverpool College). _Honorably Mentioned, 
G. I. Schorstein (City of London School,) S. Edkins, (City of London School), 
P. J. Hartey, (University College School), H. McMasters (Liverpool College), 
R. G. Reid, (Dulwich College). 

Political geography, gold medal, Frederick James Naylor (Dulwich College). 
Silver medal, Theodore Brooks, (London International College). Honorably 
Mentioned, C. F. Knaus, (Dulwich College), C. E. Mallett, (Harrow School), 
W. H. D. Boyle (Eaton College), A. D. Rigby (Liverpool College), M. G. 
Grant (Liverpool College), C. J. Casher (Brighton College). The special sub- 
ject this year was Western Africa, between the Sahara, the territory of Egypt, 
and the 6th parallel of south latitude. The examiners were, for Physical Geog- 
raphy, Commander V. L. Cameron, R. N.; for Political Geography, Admiral 
Sir Erasmus Ommanney, C. B., F. R. S. The éxaminations were held on the 
15th of March. 


ITALIAN EXPLORERS IN AFRICA. 


Dr. P. Matteucci, who has not long returned from Abyssinia, has already, 
as we learn from Cora’s ‘ Casinos,’ started on a third expedition into Africa, 
with the object of exploring the little known State of Wadai, our present knowl- 
edge of which depends almost wholly on the information collected by Dr. Nach- 
tigal. Dr. Matteucci is accompanied by Don Giovanni Borghese, son of Prince 
Borghese, at whose cost mainly the expedition has been fitted out, and Lieuten- 
ant A. Massari, as scientific coadjutors The travelers visited Cairo in Febru- 
ary last and were furnished with copies of the surveys executed by Egyptian 
staff officers in Darfur, and on the part of the Khedive with letters of recom- 
mendation to the Sultan of Wadai. The routes to be taken by the expedition is 
via Suakin, Berber, and Kharturn; and they started from Sully on the 24th of 


MAKING AND PRESERVING LAWNS. 121 


February last. Respecting the fate of the travelers Chiarini and Cecchi, who 
left the kingdom of Shoa, two years ago with the intention of proceeding through 
Kaffa to the African equatorial lake region, the Italian authorities are still in 
some uncertainty. The last intelligence respecting them was to the effect that 
they had both reached the town of Kaffa in February, 1879 in good health, had 
been well received by the king, and were on the point of continuing their jour- 
ney to the lakes. Since then no further news has been received, and considera- 
ble uneasiness prevails, owing to the hostile attitude of the Mohammedans in 
those parts. 


MiIsSC2 hi ANEOUS: 


MAKING AND PRESERVING LAWNS. 
BY WALTER ELDER. 


To properly make a lasting lawn, and keep it in good order, taxes the highest 
skill of the horticulturist, and when well executed, is the masterpiece of orna- 
mental gardening. Without it all other improvements look insignificant. It 
forms the green carpet upon which all ornaments are to be placed, and its bright 
verdant hue imparts beauty to all. 

Instructors upon lawn making, generally advise subsoiling the ground. If 
this be done, it should be a year previous to laying down the lawn. It is not 
always best to do it, as the subsoil may be a stiff clay, or barren sand. I have 
seen subsoil brought to the surface so poor that not even beans, peas or corn 
would grow—the germs rusting and decaying away. The seeds of grasses are 
small and succeed best in mellow and fertile soil. Several species of grasses 
should be sown, and very thickly, to make a close, green turf. Red top or herd 
grass, blue grass, orchard grass and a little white Dutch clover. The land should 
be manured the the previous year to sowing the grasses. After digging or plow- 
ing, harrow or rake fine, level up all hollows, and roll firmly down. Then sow 
the grasses, rake fine or harrow, then roll again. The sowing time will be 
according to climate and latitude. Between New York and Baltimore, say from 
early March to middle of May, and from early September to early in October, and 
all the Fall after that. When grasses and weeds are well up, roll well, and let 
them all grow until the earliest weeds shoot up flower stalks, then mow down 
with the scythe or horse-mower, and scatter the cuttings evenly over the surface. 
When they wither, roll again, and then rake all off. On sandy lands the summer 


-mowings should be seldom. On sloping lands and terraces or banks, the grass 


should be let grow long in hot, dry weather, unless artificial watering is at hand. 


_ The lawn should not be weeded the first year, but cut down all weeds when they 


122 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


bloom to prevent them bearing seeds. Weeds may be all taken out in late fall, 
and more grass seeds sown. Men with table knives can get out a vast number of 
weeds in a short time. A thorough digging out of weeds, with table knives,. will 
keep the lawn nearly clean. Do it in late fall or early spring. The lawn should 
be firmly rolled down every spring. It is good to sow some more grass seeds in 
late fall or early spring, so as to insure a close turf the next summer. 

Barnyard manure, so fermented and rotted as to killall seeds of weeds in it, is 
the best fertilizer. It should be spread equally over the surface in fall or winter, 
as it is a most excellent fertilizer, when applied at the rate of five to ten bushels 
to the acre. Marl mixed with plaster of Paris is beneficial on sandy lands. Guano, 
and all the concentrated fertilizers are good, but their effects are different upon 
different lands. Lime, wood ashes and stone coal ashes should all be compounded 
with soil a year before using, and spread over the lawn in the fall.—Gardener’s 
Monthly. 


BALM OF GILEAD. 


_ Dr. De Hass gives the following particulars as to this far-famed specific for all 
diseases: The name of Gilead was sometimes applied to all trans-Jordanic Pales- 
tine; properly, however, it included only the country east of the Jordan from the 
head of the Dead Sea to the foot of the Lake Genesareth, of which Mizpeh Gilead 
was the crowning point. It was here, along the Jordan and about Jericho, the 
balsam or balm once so highly prized, was procured from an aromatic tree, sup- 
posed still to be found in this region, and known as Spina Christi, or tree from 
which the Savior’s crown of thorns was woven. This most precious gum was 
obtained by making an incision in the bark of the tree; it also oozed from the 
leaves, and sometimes hung in drops like honey from the branches. The tree 
which originally was found in Palestine, was transplanted to Egypt by Cleopatra, 


to whom the groves near Jericho were presented by Mark Antony. The shrub 
was afterward taken to Arabia and grown in the neihgborhood of Mecca, whence 


the balsam is now exported to Europe and America, not as balm from Gilead, but 
balsam from Mecca. The gardens around Heliopolis and the ‘‘ Fountain of the 
Sun,” in Egypt, no longer produce this rare plant, and it has long since ceased to 
be an article of export from the ancient Gilead.—/Journal of Chemistry. 


SEEING BY ELECTRICITY. 


As regards the general question of seeing by electricity, the principles in- 
volved are somewhat different from those which have entered into other electro- 
telegraphic problems; the element of “me, which plays such an important part 
in all telegraphic inventions hitherto brought out, is almost wholly absent when 
the question of sight is involved. In the transmission of sound, or of telegraphic 
signals by electrictlty, we have to cause a succession of signals to follow one 


RELATION BETWEEN INSECTS, PLANTS AND MAMMALS. 123 


after the other, and hence it follows that a single telegraphic wire is able to effect 
all that is required. In the case of see/mg, in order to enable the form and color 
of an object to be rendered evident to the senses, it is necessary that a series of 
impressions, infinite in variety, be produced upon the retina in almost immeas- 
urably short space of time, and, practically, all at the same instant; we must 
have, in fact, an infinite series of waves transmitted at the same, or nearly the 
same moment. To do this through a single wire by electrical means is a difficult 
problem ; but that it will eventually be done by means of a single wire, is, we 
think, an undoubted fact. How it is to be done is another question; but we 
feel certain that no arrangement involving a multiplicity of wires will ever enable 
success in the direction aimed at to be attained. It is not because a multiplicity 
of wires is objectionable for practical telegraphic purposes that we say this; but, 
because, almost without exception, all complete solutions of problems, like that 
of the telephone, for example, have been most completely and thoroughly effect- 
ed by the simplest means.— Zelegraphic Journal. 


THE RELATION BETWEEN INSECTS, PLANTS AND MAMMALS. 
BY LESTER F. WARD, A. M., WASHINGTON, D. C. 


It is a fact of profound significance that the higher flowering plants made 
their first appearance on the globe simultaneously with the Hymenoptera and Dip- 
tera in the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, while they did not reach their 
highest perfection until the Zegzdoptera had appeared in the early Tertiary. The 
Neuroptera and Orthoptera which are found in the Carboniferous could have con- 
tributed nothing to the demand for cross-fertilization, and the Coleopfera, ‘sparingly 
met with below the Trias, were doubtless then equally ineffectual in this respect ; 
as even at present they only supplement to a slight degree the work of the bees, 
flies, moths and butterflies. And we accordingly find that the vegetation prior to 
the Jurassic and Cretaceous epochs consisted almost wholly of Cryptogams and 
Gymnosperms, with only afew amentaceous and monochlamydeous Angiosperms 
in the highest of these strata. 

These facts justify the assumption that most of the higher flowering plants 

-would speedily perish were insect aid withdrawn, and also that but for such aid in 
the past we should now see, instead of our gorgeous flora of Orchids, Lilies, 
‘Magnolias, and Roses, one consisting chiefly of Ferns. Cycads, and Conifers, 
mingled with willows, oak, and alders, and plain grasses and rushes. 

But when we consider how poorly adapted Cryptogamous and Coniferous 
vegetation is to the support of animal life, we may also declare with perhaps 
~ equal certainty, that but for the Phenogamia there could have been no Mammalia. 
_ A picture that should represent herds of buffaloes and antelopes roaming amid 
the Ferns, Lepidophytes, and Calamites of the Carboniferous epoch would be an. 


124 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


anachronism whose realization it would be impossible to conceive. And thus we 
have, only on a grand scale, one of those singular chains of cause and effect of 
which naturalists have pointed out several (that of the dependence of clover upon 
cats, being perhaps the most familiar), but which, apart from that grotesqueness 
which they sometimes possess on a superficial view, are among the best illustra- 
tions of that intimate and far-reaching consensus which prevades all departments 
of life. 

Considering to what extent man is dependent upon the Palmacee, Rosacea, 
and other fruit and nut-bearing trees and plants, which, at least on the theory of 
man’s simian origin, must have been far greater if not absolute in the early period 
of his existence ; considering, too, in connection with this, that it is the Aymenop- 
tera that have contributed most to render the existence of this class of vegetation 
possible, it ceases to be a mere poetic fancy to claim for the bee and the ant the 
high merit of having literally prepared the way for the advent of man, whose 
prototype they are to so great an extent, both in their psychic and their social 
attributes. * 205 as a8 i a3 —American Entomologist. 


MAY JEWS EAT OYSTERS? 


A certain elder of the Hebrew Church in America recently propounded the 
doctrine‘that oysters are ‘‘ plants,” and are not, therefore, included among any of 
the articles prohibited as food under the Mosaiclaw. He probably based his re- 
markable discovery on the difficulty which modern research has thrown in the way 
of accurately determining the line which divides animals from plants. Some of 
the members of his church appear to accept the doctrine, and have become 
habitual eaters of oysters; while others maintain that these bivalves are ‘‘ unclean,” 
and avoid them accordingly. A question of extraordinary delicacy is thus open- 
ed up. The different views on the subject of those who do not accept the 
“plant” theory, may be expressed in the following manner. Among the various 
‘¢unclean” animals enumerated in the Levitical law, those creatures of the water 
‘¢that have neither fins nor scales,” are specifically mentioned, and it may be 
argued that oysters do not come within this category, for do we not speak of 
green-finned oysters? and are not the shells virtually ‘‘scales”? On the other 
hand snails are specifically forbidden, and it is claimed that oysters are 
really snails? but then snails might be said to be covered by the prohibition of 
‘‘creeping things,” and those that ‘‘go upon the belly,” so that the mention of 
snails ought not to be taken as including more than those particular creatures. 

Altogether the problem is as delicate as it is curious and interesting. It ought, 
however, to be met fairly, and settled authoritively. To callan oyster a ‘‘plant,” 
for the purpose of evading the generally accepted rendering of the Mosaic law is 
begging the question altogether.— Zhe Caterer. 


RECENT TELEPHONE EXPERIMENTS. 125, 


RECENT TELEPHONE EXPERIMENTS. 


At the suggestion of one of the proprietors of this Journal—Mr. A. E. 
Beach—a series of interesting experiments relating to the electrical transmission 
of sounds has lately been commenced in this vicinity, which seems likely to lead 
to a variety of useful results. In the introductory experiment the Sczentzfic 
American office and Mr. Beach’s dwelling, in the upper part of this city, were 
connected by wire with the auditorium of Plymouth Church—Rev. Henry Ward 
Beecher’s—in Brooklyn, N. Y., and these points were also telegraphically joined 
by the wires of the Bell Telephone Company and those of the Gold Stock Com 
pany, the electrical circuit being thus enlarged and ramified in all directions, 
communicating with offices and dwellings in New York, Brooklyn, Jersey City, 
Newark, Orange, Elizabeth, Yonkers, and other adjacent places. One object of 
the experiment was to determine approximately through how many united cir- 
cuits and lines the voice of a public speaker might be simultaneously trans- 
mitted. 

At Plymouth Church, in Brooklyn, the wire passed under the floor to the plat- 
form or pulpit, where it connected with two of the well known Blake transmitters 
arranged upon a shelf under the speaker’s desk. The general arrangements for 
the experiments were under the charge of Mr. Fredrick C. Beach, Ph. B., of the 
Scientific American office. 

When it became known at the Bell telephone office in Brooklyn that experi- 
ments were to be tried, the interesting news soon spread to all other telephone offi- 
ces, and the various operators not only called into their offices parties of their 
_ friends to enjoy the treat, but gave notice to numbers of private persons having 
communicating wires, who in turn invited friends to their dwellings. Thus at 
many points on the great ramification of connecting wires were groups of per- 
sons waiting, with telephones at their ears, to hear the words of the distinguished 
speaker. At one of the stations fifteen telephones were in this way connected, 
the instruments being joined by wires, just as a circle of people join hands in 
sharing an electrical shock. 

The first experiment was made on Sunday, April.18, and was on the whole 
perhaps more successful than could have been expected. The telephone listen- 
ers stationed in Brooklyn, and nearest the church, were enabled to hear the ser- 
vice with much satisfaction; but those in New York, Yonkers, and Orange, N. 
J., only heard the music and portions of Mr. Beecher’s sermon. It was con- 
cluded on the whole that there were too many telephones in circuit; and it was. 
subsequently ascertained that the wire leading to the church had been surrepti- 
tiously tapped where it passed over a dwelling, a ground made on the tin-roof, ~ 
and a considerable number of telephones smuggled in. 

On the following Sunday, April 25, another trial was had, precautions hav- 
ing been taken not to allow so many tapping lines or instruments in circuit. 
Special care was also taken by Mr. Adee, the adjuster of the Bell Telephone. 


126 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Company, to give the most delicate adjustment to the transmitting instruments at 
the church. ‘The result was most successful and marvelous. * 

From the opening note of the organ prelude to the last word of the preach- 
er’s voice, at the close of the service, everything was delivered to the ears of the 
listening telephoners in the most perfect manner, the tones that came over the 
wires being so full, round, and clear, and distinct, it almost seemed to the hearers 
in New York, Yonkers and Elizabeth as if they were stationed within the church 
itself directly in front of the speaker. | 

The delivery of the music was equally perfect, every note of the organ and 
of the individuals of the choir being fully brought out. The majority of the 
participators in this experiment were persons accustomed to the use of the tele- 
phone, and their unanimous verdict was that the results obtained far surpassed 
anythlng of the kind within their previous experience. 

These experiments proving successful, several new improvements have been 
suggested for trial, and there seems to be every probability that in a short time 
some new and very effective instruments will be in use, by which all who desire 
may carry the sounds of church services into their dwellings, and may also en- 
joy the best lectures, musical and other entertainments with the utmost satisfac- 
tion in their homes. Heretofore, in listening to the telephone, it has required 
effort and strain of the ear on the part of the listener. But this experiment 
shows that all sounds may be delivered in full and easy tones, readily heard, 
with all the natural characteristics, modulations, and inflections of the human 
voice. —<Scientific American. 


BLACK INK FOR STENCILS. 


The following is commended for the preparation of a black ink or paste for 
use with stencils: Bone black 1 pound, molasses 8 ounces, sulphuric acid 4 
ounces, dextrine 2 ounces, water sufficient. Mix the acid with about two ounces 
of water, and add it to the other ingredients previously mixed together. When 
the effervescence has subsided, enough water is to be added to form a paste of 
convenient consistence. ~ 


BOOK NOTICES. 127 


BOCK INO INCE, 


WATER ANALYSIS FOR SANITARY Purposes. By E. Frankland, Ph. D., D. C. 

i. R. S. Philadelphiay Presley Blakiston, pp: 140) $x. 

In view of the rapidly increasing population of our cities, and the corre- 
sponding increase of the contaminating materials, formed in factories, chemical 
works and households, which flow into our streams or filter through the soil into 
our springs and wells, it is of the utmost importance that the people should be 
informed how they can test their drinking water for unwholesome ingredients. 
This is the object of Dr. Frankland’s little work, which, while strictly scientific 
and technical, is at the same time written in such a style as to be readily under 
stood by ordinary readers. Part I, is devoted to water analysis without gas ap- 
paratus, including the preliminary examination of samples, solid matter in solu- 
tion, ammonia, chlorine, hardness, nitrogen, poisonous metals, organic impuri- 
ties, etc. Part II, is devoted to water analysis requiring gas apparatus, includ- 
ing the determination of carbon and nitrogen in organic matter by the combus- 
tion process, the eudiometrical determinations, interpretation of the results of com- 
bustion, sewage or animal contamination. The appendix (40 pages) contains 

lists of reagents, tables, typical analyses, etc., closing with the conclusions and 
recommendations of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners of England. 

Physicians, sanitary commissioners and boards of health will find it a 
‘‘handy volume” in their work. 


Missourt University Lectures. By Members of the Faculty, 1878-9 ; Course 

II, Vol. I, pp. 504. Statesman print, Columbia, Mo. 

In 1g77-8, the Faculty of the Missouri University inaugurated the deliver- 
ing of a series of lectures illustrative of the various special departments, which 
was found to be a decidedly popular move. During the past winter a second 
course was delivered with similar favorable reception by both students and the 
public, to whom they were made free. ‘They were afterward brought together 
and published in a neat volume for general distribution. 

The table of contents is as follows: Petroleum, by Prof. Schweitzer; Evolu- 
tion and Creation, by Prof. Swallow; Insect Ways, Prof. Tracy ; Mathematics, 
Prof. Ficklin; Three Pronunciations of Latin, Prof. Fisher; Mosaic Cosmog- 
| ony, Prof. Meyrowitz; Linguistic Curiosities, Prof. McAnally; Arnold of Rug- © 

by, Prof. Bibb; The Professional school, Prof. Lowry, The Ideal of Art, Prof. 
Bingham; Metaphysics, Prest. Laws; Advantages of Classical Study, Prof. 
Fleet ; Study of Language, Prof. Blackwell; Art, Prof. Diehl. 


128 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Some of these have been published in the REviEw, others have been quoted 
from or commented upon; all are excellent and the work is worthy of the wide cir- 
culation that it has received. 


DweELuinc Houses. Their Sanitary Construction and Arrangement. By Prof. 

W. H. Corfield, M. A., M. D. (Oxon.) D. Van Nostrand, New York. 

18 mo. pp. 156, 50 cents. 

This is Number 50 of Van Nostrand’s Science Series, reprinted from Van 
Nostrand’s Engineering Magazine, and is a very valuable, practical essay, by a 
distinguished architect and professor of the University College, London, upon a 
subject of absorbing interest to all classes of society. 

Situation and construction of houses from foundation to roof, including 
drainage, ventilation, heating and all other points, are fully considered and dis- 
cussed froma scientific and common sense standpoint, and the little volume pre- 
sents a competent guide to the builder and owner of dwelling houses. A few 
pages from it were published in the Review last year and attracted marked at- 
tention. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual report of the Peabody Museum of Ameri- 
can Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. II. Nos. 3, 4; Proceedings of the Daven- 
port Academy of Sciences, Vol. II. Part II. July 1877 to December 1878, and 
Vol. III. Part I. January 1, 1879; Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Session 
of the Missouri Press Association, held at Columbia, Mo., May 1879, To The 
Rockies and Beyond, being an account of the health, pleasure and hunting re- 
sorts of the mountain regions of the West, by Robt. E. Strahorn, 50 cents; The 
California Architect and Building Review, Vol. I. No. 5, monthly, $1.50 per an- 
num; The William Jewell College Student, Vol. I. No. 1, $1 per annum; An 
account of the Tornado of Marshfield, Mo., April 18, by Prof. F. E. Nipher. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


129 


POILORTAL NOEs: 


On Tuesday evening, May 25th, the Kan- 
sas City Academy of Science held its fourth 
annual meeting. A very interesting paper 
was read by Dr. Heath, of Wyandotte, Kan- 
sas, upon Orton and Peru, which will appear 
in the REVIEW next month. Judge West fol- 
lowed with his report of an exploration of 
ancient barrows in Kansas, which appears in 
the present issue of the REVIEW. A resolu- 
tion was passed, thanking the various lectur- 
ers of the extra Winter Course for their aid 
and the pastors of the churches used for their 
courtesy, and the railroads furnishing free 
transportation; after which an election of 
officers for the ensuing year was held. 


THE extra winter course of lectures fur- 
nished by the Kansas City Academy of 
Science was closed on the 22d ult. by that of 
Rev. Dr. Laws; and in most respects it has 
proved a success. The lecturers have been 
selected from among the best teachers and 
writers of Missouri and Kansas, and the 
topics treated by them have been of pop- 
ular interest and suited to the most diverse 
tastes. The audiences have been in most in- 
stances quite large, and in all from among 
our most intelligent people. 

The Academy has been at great trouble 
and some expense to secure the services of 
these gentlemen, to obtain the use of various 
churches in the city and other necessary mat- 
ters, but if our people have been entertained 
and benefited enough to ask for a similar 
course next winter it will be forthcoming. 


AmoncG the later inventions few present 
points more worthy of consideration among 
metallurgists than that of employing the 
electrolytical process of refining the precious 
metals. It has been patented by E. André 
both in the United States and Europe, and is 
in practical use among some of the largest 


works in Great Britain and on the Continent. 
This process is said completely and eco- 
nomically to extract the gold and silver from 
their alloys, ieaving the former in the dia- 
phragms at the anodes and depositing the 
baser metals in a pure metallic state on the 
cathodes. 


As an evidence of the importance and value 


of the U.S. Signal Service observations and 


predictions, it may be stated that the verifica- 
tions of the latter, based upon the former, 
for the month of March, 1880, amounted to 
$2.3 of the whole number of predictions 
made. 


SiGNor N. Perrini, an Italian teacher of 
astronomy in London, has invented a new 
planetarium which is free from most of the 
objections to the old fashioned orreries, 
whose multiplicity of conspicuous wires and 
other machinery was liable to confuse the 
observer. Signor Perrini has his planetarium 
in a large circular room with aconcave dome ~ 
upon which the movements of the sun, moon 
and stars, &c., are distinctly and correctly 
shown by means of motive power which is 
out of sight above the ceiling. 


AN important law suit now pending in the 
courts of Wisconsin involves the exact and 
probably speedy solution of the vexed ques- 
tion of the agency of wind or electricity 
in cyclones. The plaintiff sues an insurance 
company to collect pay for damages done to 
his property by a noted storm in 1878; basing 
his claim on the allegation that the storm 
was of electrical origin and therefore that 
the company is liable under the ‘lightning 
clause” of his policy. Of course the com- 
pany resists payment onthe ground that the 
property was destroyed by wind alone, re- 
gardless of the agency of electricity. 


130 


THE lecture of President Laws on the eve-_ 
ning of the 22d, upon the Categories of 
Kant, was a clear, thoughtful and complete 
account of the philosophy of that wonderful 
metaphysician, with appropriate comments 
and just criticisms. It occupied the atten- 
tion of the audience for over an hour and a 
half without any evidence of weariness, and 
when the speaker closed his remarks he was 
warmly congratulated by numbers of those 
present. Asa lecture proper it was one of 
the most instructive and valuable of the 
course which it ended. 


THE REVIEW for July will contain, among 
other original articles, the paper, by Dr. I. 
D. Heath, upon ‘‘Orton and Peru;’ also 
one on the Ancient Mounds and Remains at 
Madisonville, Indiana, by the well known 
Archeologist of the Smithsonian Institution, 
Stephen Bowers, Esq., both of which will be 


especially attractive and interesting to all, 


readers. 


THROUGH inadvertence, we failed to notice 
the lecture of Rev. Richard Cerdley, D. D., 
before the Kansas City Academy of Science, 
on April 13. It was upon the subject of 
Patience in Culture and Investigation, which 

-was discussed in an able, discriminative and 
eloquent manner, worthy of the man and the 
occasion. It was expected that an abstract 
of the essay would be furnished for publica- 
tion, but we suppose Dr. Cordley’s well known 
modesty deterred him from doing this. 


WE are indebted to Rev. James Marvin, 
Chancellor of the University of Kansas, for 
an invitation to attend the examinations and 
Commencement exercises of that institution, 
between May 31st and June 9th. Railroad 
fares have been reduced, and everything will 
be done to render the occasion especially in- 
teresting to visitors. 


Columbia College has conferred upon Gen- 
eral Di Cesnola the honorary degree of LL. 
D., in token of appreciation of his eminent 
services in the cause of art. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THE closing and, Commencement exercises 
of the Missouri State University occupy the 
time from May 25th to June 3d. On Tues- 
day evening, June Ist, Gardiner Lathrop, A. 
M, LL. B, of this city, will deliver the 
annual address before the literary societies. 
This, as well as the other exercises, will be of 
a most interesting character. 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


THE June number of The North American 
Review contains ‘Popular Fallacies about 
Russia,” by E. W. Stoughton, ex-Minister to 
Russia; ‘‘Divorces in New England,” by 
Dr. Nathan Allen; ‘*McClellan’s Last Ser- 
vice to the Republic,” by George Ticknor 
Curtis; ‘‘ Has the Southern Pulpit Failed 2” 
by Rev. Dr. F. A. Shoup; ‘Caste at West 
Point, by P. S. Michie, Professor of Philoso- 
phy at West Point; and ‘Some Interesting 
Publications,” by M. W. Hazeltine. This 
number closes the CXXXth volume and six- 
ty-fifth year of the Aevzew, During the last 
few years, this magazine has made a most re- 
markable advance in popular favor, Many 
of its numbers have passed through several 
editions, and its permanent circulation has 
increased more than six-fold. All the best 
papers of the country speak of it in the 
highest terms. 


» 


According to the astronomical notes from 
Vassar College observatory in the Sczendzfic 
American, a large and densely black spot sur- 
rounded by the usual gray bordering and ac- 
companied by others of smaller size, may be 
looked for early in June upon the eastern 
limb of the sun. 


Good Company, for June, has its usual quo- 
ta of good things, and in addition a very 
readable article by S. J. Douglass, on Science 
in High Latitudes, which, in view of the 
present interest felt in the second Howgate 
expedition, is very appropriate. 


The American Bookseller says Winchell’s 
Preadamites (S. C. Griggs & Co.) ‘‘is an 
elaborate and deeply interesting study of 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 151 


ethnology, demonstrating the existence of , every respect to any similar institution in the 
men before Adaia and making careful exam- | country. 
ination of their antiquity, conditions, peculiar- 
ities of race and distribution over the earth. The New York Daily Graphic says: The 
While written in popular style, it is based | Kansas City REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND IN- 
upon scientific facts which are everywhere | DUSTRY (Kansas City, Mo., press of Ramsey, 
quoted to support the conclusions drawn, | Millett & Hudson) for May is in several re- 
and history and literature as well are made | spects an advance upon many of its prede- 
to contribute to the writer’s theories.” cessors. The articles are all short and of 
| unusual simplicity and readableness for a 
On looking over the Proceedings of the | periodical of this kind. The table of con- 
Academy of Science of Davenport, Iowa, | tents includes five articles on geographical 
now one of the most flourishing and notable | subjects, the two most important of them 
societies in the west, we came across aa ac- | written for the ReviEw, viz: that on “ Ex- 
count of the tenth anniversary of its estab- | peditions to the Arctic Sea,” by Dr. John 
lishment, at which ‘‘twenty-five persons were | Rae, of London, and that on ‘‘The Second 
present.”” Quite encouraging to some of our | Howgate Expedition.”” The departments of 
own young Academy who feel discouraged | Psychology, Physics, Philosophy and Meteor- 
when at an ordinary monthly meeting no | ology contain original articles on appropri- 
more than fifty or sixty persons attend, The | ate topics. Professor F. W. Clarke’s ‘* Talk 
Davenport Academy is now nearly thirteen | Avout Lightning” should be largely read, 
years old; it has its own building, a fine | containing as it does knowledge needed by 
library and an extensive cabinet. Its publi- | everybody. The ‘Scientific Miscellany ” de- 
cations, finely printed and illustrated in the | partment is filled with carefully selected and 
best style of the art, would be creditable in | interesting matter. 


SPECIAL NOTICE. 


It seems to have become altogether a fixed thing for T. M. James & Sons, to 
put their latest importations of rich China and Queensware goods and artistic 
novelties on exhibition at the opening of each week and upon arrival of new 
invoices, and the frequency of such receipts affords our citizens many oppor- 
tunities to examine choice handiwork from abroad and emanating from the most 
celebrated patterns and embellished by the hands of eminent artists. To-day 
may be seen in the show windows of T. M. James & Sons a late importation of 
admirable qualities, and splendid display of hand painted vases of Ionic and 
Grecian shapes and decorated in the most pleasing manner in landscapes, sport- 
ing scenes and classic groups. These goods are very seasonable and their price 
is very low, considering their elegance, and will repay a close inspection and 
ought to find a place in a great number of households in our city and suburbs. 
Messrs. James & Sons are still in almost daily receipt of rich Chinaware elegant 
Glassware and a great variety of other goods requisite in their large trade. A 
visit to this great importing house is time profitably spent both in pleasure and 
economy of prices. 


VV M EPO IN Ey 


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PICTURE FRAMES, PICTURE MOULDINGS, 


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Mirrors and Mirror Plates, Stationery, A New Line, Cheap. 
FANCY GOODS OF MANY KINDS. 


Woop Bros. 
Wholesale and Retail Dealers, 


OFFICE, 522 DELAWARE ST.. 


KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI 


Watches. Clocks 


AND JEWELRY. 
Te J TURNER 


Agent. 
713 MAIN STREET. 


A full line of the above goods and the finest 
assortment of SPECTACLES and 
EYE GLASSES in the city. 


ALL GOODS AT BOTTOM PRICES. 


Phosphatic Carmiuative Capsules, 


The Best Nerve. and Blood 
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Invaluable as a Corrective of all disorders of 
the Stomach and Bowels, such as Dyspepsia, 
Diarrhoea, Constipation, &c. Unsurpassed as 
a Tonic and Stimulant to the Nervous System, 
and especially useful in Nervous Prostration, 
Headaches and Depression caused by extreme 
heat, or any other cause. Tourists will find it 
especially adapted to the Irregularites of the 
Bowels, caused by change of water, diet and 
climate. It may be carried in the pocket, and 
taken at any time or place, as it contains none 
but efficacious ingredients, which can, under 
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224 and 226 W, Fifth St., KANSAS CITY, MO. 


KANSAS) Clly 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOL. IV. JULY, 1880. NO. 3. 


Gi @ Gin Ne 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 
BY DR. I. D. HEATH, WYANDOTT, KANSAS. 


James Orton, fresh from Andover, spent two years in European travel. In 
1866, while occupying the chair in Natural History in Vassar College, Pough- 
keepsie, he traveled the continent of South America from west to east, through 
Equador, by way of Guayaquil, Quito, the river Napo, and down the Amazon. 
He brought home a large and rare collection of objects in Natural History and 
from his note book wrote out, in glowing words, the story of his adventures un- 
der the title of ‘‘ The Andes and the Amazon.” 

Seven years later, in 1873, while the end of the Pacasmayo railroad track in 
northern Peru was near the 50th mile post, your speaker was standing on the 
tender of the locomotive which was drawing a train of flat cars loaded with rail- 
road iron to the track layers, when he saw on one of the loads of iron a long- 
haired, red shirted stranger, in conversation with a civil engineer—quite likely an 

_ Irishman asking for employment. Mr. Cartlan called and gave an introduction 
to Professor Orton. He had just arrived at the end of the track on his 
second trans-continental journey across South America. This acquaintance was 

~ most pleasant, and only ended with his untimely death on lake Titicaca, five years 
later. The notes of his second expedition were added to the revised edition of 
“<The Andes and the Amazons. 

. In the northeastern division of Bolivia—the Department of the Beni—there 

_ is a province embracing four times the area of the state of Kansas through which 

IvV—9 


132 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


no white man has ever passed; through this unknown region flow two rivers— 
the Beni and the Madre de Dios—of the size of the Mississippi and Missouri. 
To a scientific traveler who had already seen so much of South America as had 
Prof. Orton, this unexplored country was of peculiar interest. After four years 
of careful preparation he sailed for the west coast of South America from New 
York, in Oct., 1876, to explore the Beni River and country—and the brief story 
of this expedition is the subject of this address. 

Steaming out of Guayaquil Bay, latitude 2° south, the ship passes Tumbez, 
where Pizzaro effected his first landing for the conquest of Peru, and then out of 
the tropical heats, out of the great forests, out of the rains to the pleasant lands of 
the Children of the Sun. Now enjoy a temperate climate, cool breezes and 
fall clothing. From the ship’s deck one can see at the same time the wet forests 
of Equador and dry, rainless Peru. 

The officers of the English steamers which run along the South Pacific coast 
are very social and delight in making passengers their guests, from the very mo- 
ment of stepping on board to the hearty ‘‘good bye.’’ Captain Hall, of the 
Oroya, adroitly finds out what one knows of Peru; and, if itis the first voyage, 
kindly warns the ladies not to step upon the grass and the gentlemen from picking 
flowers, or stems off the trees if they go on shore at Payta. He assures them 
of speedy arrest by the police. The captain’s joke is quickly understood when 
they see not a shrub, not a leaf, not a blade of grass—the paved street of a great 
city is not more dry and barren than the country about Payta. Even the water 
they drink is brought seventeen miles by rail. 

Although the country at first sight so barren and uninteresting, the coast 
cities are the sea ports of interior valleys of surprising fertility, and even the 
desert pampas of the Peruvian coast have some time been cultivated, are to-day 
very fertile, and only need water to produce abundant harvests. Sugar, cotton, 
hides, sheep and alpaca wool, tobacco, Peruvian bark, freight many a ship. 
From the coast and plains below, lightning and fierce storms may be seen up in 
the mountains. A multitude of streams running down from the rains and snows 
of the Cordillera, supply water for irrigation. 

Frequently divided by mountain spurs, the rainless portion of Peru, Boliv- 
ia, and part of Chile, consists of long narrow plains more than zooo miles in 
length and twenty to sixty in breadth, beginning with a perpendicular ascent of 
eighty feet from the surf of the ocean and gradually rising up to the mountains. 
The explanation of the present rainless condition of this Pacific coast seems to be 
the strong trade winds and cold ocean current coming from the ice fields of the 
Antarctic Ocean, compressed against the lofty Andean chain of mountains into a 
chute or arch of moving cold, in which are wanting the atmospheric conditions 
for condensing of moisture and consequent rain fall. In Brazil, in eastern Peru 
and Bolivia, and upon the summits of the mountains, the rain fall is abundant. 

Many thousands of years ago, the atmospheric conditions of this Pacific coast 
were probably quite different—a fact indicated by numerous grooves and chan- 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 133 


nels in the dry barren rock of the mountains nearest the coast. There are places 
in these rocks where water has worn ten, twenty and thirty feet deep, where in 
these days it does not rain in a lifetime. Besides this, these same mountains, 
dry, barren and without soil, have a series of stone terraces for hundreds and 
even thousands of feet up their sides. These terraces must have been constructed 
thousands of years ago when there was soil upon these rocks and when the rain 
fall was sufficient to produce vegetation. It is of course plain that in this present 
climate of no rain nor frost, monuments of man’s industry endure almost without 
change for long ages. When did the rain cease and what was the cause? I will 
offer that 40,000 years ago this vast mountain chain was 10,000 feet lower than it 
now is—that then there were soil, vegetation, trees, springs and abundant rain— 
that the inhabitants during succeeding ages cut down the forests—that the soil 
was worn off by cultivation and rains—that as the country gradually rose out of 
the ocean the people built terraces lower down until now the terraces are wanting 
in soil, in rain, in vegetation, and abandoned by man. 

Ruins of a very ancient civilization, probably much older than the Inca 
monarchy, abound all over Peru.—ruins of temples, roads, walls, acqueducts, 
foundations of extensive cities and hundreds of square miles of cemeteries. 
Near Pacasmayo, Trujillo and Lima, there are ruins of temples of adobe still 
eighty feet high and covering acres of ground, which from their very size and 
massiveness have defied the vandalic hand of the conqueror. There seems to 
have been various methods of burial, perhaps indicating the customs of different 
ages —some dead were buried in structures of adobe, others in the level lands of 
the plains without wrappings or casings, and others were carefully wrapped and 
embalmed. Inthe mouth of the dead is often found a peice of copper, and 
buried with them bits of gold and silver, and vessels of pottery of infinite variety 
of shape and design. The vessels probably contained some sacred liquid. Rel- 
ic hunters have exposed and scattered many miles of human bones. 

Our route to La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, was eastward from Mollendo 
latitude 17° south. Hereis one of Mr. Meigg’s ‘‘railroads in the clouds.” Mollen- 
do to Areguipa 107 miles; fare $8.00; daily trains. The track runs along the 
ocean beach nine miles with the salt spray of the surf dashing against the morn- 
ing train, and then begins its wonderful zig-zag course up the ravines and around 
the mountain spurs from whence are magnificent views of the ocean, of the sugar 
cane and alfaifa fields in the Tambo valley and of the many windings of the rail- 
road track over which we’ve passed. 

From Cachendo across the desert pampa of Islay—desert only from want of 
water—the snow-clad mountains of Pichupichu, Chachani and Misti, impress one 
by their massiveness and cold grandeur. At the stations of La Joya and Vitor, 
oranges, pears, grapes, watermelons and generous baskets of most delicious fresh 
figs were offered for sale. Here end tropical fruits. From Uchumayu, 7,000 
feet elevation, there is laid at a contract price of $3,000,000, a seven inch iron 
pipe, eighty-four miles to Mollendo, giving water to all the stations, and from this 


134 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


abundant supply every station yard has become a beautiful oasis in the desert. 
From Vitor to Arequipa the railway train is but a child’s toy in the midst of these 
volcanic mountains and gorges. Arequipa, 7560 feet elevation, is the second 
city of Peru—population, 60,000. Converging to this point descend the numer- 
merous herds of llamas laden with alpaca and sheep wool, gold, silver, copper and 
Peruvian bark. ‘The city is built of a white volcanic stone and situated upon the 
side of the volcano Misti, in the midst of extensive fields of corn and alfalfa, 
wheat and barley and gardens of vegetables, and surrounded by barren hills 
powdered with volcanic dust. From the railway station American street cars 
convey passengers up to the hotels in the city. Streets are paved and well kept.’ 
Streams of clear cold water flow freely along side many streets, and plazas are or- 
namented with fountains and flowers. 

But Arequipa is only half way up. The ride from the ocean to this point, 
and thence to Vincocaya, ninety-six miles further, is well worth a voyage to South 
America if one would enjoy extremes in nature; a ride by rail from the tropics 
into the sleets and snows of the Andean heights. By the kindness of Col. Flint, 
manager, your speaker enjoyed the privilege of making this ascent on one of 
Roger’s locomotives, the Huallata. Standing on the locomotive we, in the after- 
noon, ran into clouds, then rain, then hail, and then into a blinding snow storm. 
The road climbs around to opposite side of Misti by a series of ‘‘ developments ” 
wrought in the hard lava and dejecta from the volcano. Two other trains fol- 
lowed fifteen minutes apart and from different curves and elevations it was won- 
derful to see the other trains—mere toy trains—hundreds of feet below, worming 
their way over the same route we had just passed. At 10,000 feet elevation 
some few of the passengers began to feel the effects of rarefaction of the air of 
high altitudes—at 12,000 feet many bound cloths tightly about the head—at 14,- 
ooo feet many suffered intense headache and sickness, while one or two bled 
from nose and ears. 

At Vincocaya, ninety-six miles from Arequipa and 203 from the ocean, in a 
sort of broad valley green with Alpine grasses and partly surrounded by moun- 
tains of snow, all trains pass the night. ‘The air is thin, cold, frosty; breathing 
is laborious, head and stomach suffer, sleep is broken; and oh, for one good, sat- 
isfying inhalation of air! The highest elevation of the road is 14667 feet above 
the ocean—more elevated than the highest of the peaks of Colorado. Now we've 
arrived where there are abundant rains and the surface of the country is grassy and 
green up to the base of the eternal glaciers. Upon these bleak mountain pampas, 
great herds of alpacas and llamas feed, guarded by their keepers the Quichua 
Indians. A thousand feet lower sheep flourish and neat cattle graze. 

From the summit the train descends by easy grades over a comparatively level 
country ninety-eight miles to the city of Puno, on lake Titicaca, 326 miles from 
the ocean. Puno, capital of the Department, is a city of 4500; building mate- 
rial stone, roofs of tile and straw thatch, streets paved. There are two public 
plazas graced with iron fountains; one weekly newspaper; ‘‘ El Ciudadano.” 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 135 


The merchants buy from the surrounding country, sheep and alpaca wool, hides 
and gold dust. Puno is the centre of a rich mineral region. Near by are the sil- 
ver mines of Maravillas, Santa Lucia, Manta, and the oil wells of Pusi. There are 
no trees nor wood for fuel within two hundred miles. Bosta—dried excrement of 
the alpaca and Ilama—supplies the place of wood and coal. Agriculture produces 
potatoes, onions, quinua (mountain rice), oca and papaliz, (similar to the pota- 
toe), and barley. Upon the lake there are two elegant iron screw steamers, the 
Yapura and Yavar—fuel bosta. Fare to Chililaya, a Bolivian port, $16.40; 
ninety-six miles. 

It is said that the great Andes have, at three different epochs, been sub- 
merged beneath the ocean wave; that since the conques’ in 1533, the rise has 
been eighty feet. Lake Titicaca, now shrunken to a trifle less than Lake Onta- 
rio, has been carried up to the enormous altitude of 12,548 feet. Ages 
ago it covered about seven times its present area. A great number of clear 
mountain streams from every side add to it volumes of fresh water, while the 
river Desaguadero empties its surplus waters into the salt marshes of Lake Aullaga. 
There is no other outlet. The cakes of salt from the dry beds of this lake sup- 
ply all Bolivia. The waters of the great take are somewhat brackish near the 
shore, but away from land are remarkably clear, sweet and pure. Water birds 
and fish are abundant. 

Chililaya to La Paz, fifteen leagues by a Concord coach, drawn by six mules. 
All day long we enjoyed glorious views of the snow-covered peaks Ilampu, Sora- 
ta, Huainapotosi, Illimani. The road passes through a well peopled country, and 
well cultivated fields, gradually rising out out of the Titicaca basin toward the 
base of the szow-filed central Cordillera of the Andes, until suddenly we gazed 
down upon the red tiled roofs, paved streets, and lovely gardens of the city of 
‘La Paz, 1500 feet below. We could hear the busy hum of industry and the 
striking of the city clocks. 

La Paz contains a population of 80,000, and is 12,000 feet above the ocean. 
There are two daily newspapers. Her merchants trade in wool, Peruvian bark, 
coffee, and do business with the gold mines of Tipuhuani and Carabaya, the 
silver mines of Oruro and Potosi, and with the agricultural districts of interior 
valleys. 

March 27, 1877, we set out on mules from La Paz for Cochabamba, 84 
leagues, by way of Oruro, stopping each night at government tambos. Each 
morning we found the roofs and surroundings white with frost. These tambos 
afford free shelter for man and beast. All travelers carry their own bedding, 
and buy food and forage when needed. No wagon has ever passed, except on 
_ pack-mules, to La Paz nor to Cochabamba. We met numerous trains of mules 
and thousands of llamas loaded with flour and metals. In this route we crossed 
the second Cordillera. 

Cochabamba, latitude 1734° south, is a city of forty thousand inhabitants, in 
the midst of a valley of wondrous fertility; too elevated for any of the tropical 


136 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


fruits, but producing plentiful crops of wheat, corn, apples, grapes, peaches and 
pears. Cochabamba flour supplies the entire Republic. It is not so white as the 
celebrated Chile flour, but we pronounced it the richest flavored we had ever 
eaten in any country. In Cochabamba we spent ten days making collections and 
gathering information upon the character and productions of the country. Never 
will be forgotten the delightful climate, the warm hearted generous friends, and 
the pleasant days we spent in this charming city. 

Mules again for the port of Chimoré, on the Chimoré River. The hire of 
each mule for a journey of fifty leagues was equal to $9.60. We left Cochabam- 
ba April 12th, and passing through magnificent fields of ripening wheat, ascended 
the third and last cordillera. Amidcloud and storm and sleet we passed over 
the summit. Nothing could exceed the exquisite pleasure and absorbing interest 
of this descent—first shrubs, then trees, new and strange and of great variety, 
each mile becoming larger.. With the Aneroid barometer in hand, we noted each 
elevatio 1 as we passed down to the potatoe, barley, corn, yucca, fern palm, plan- 
tain, orange, coffee, coca, rice, sugar cane and cacao, (chocolate). The professor 
had been eager to press forward, so that in spite of the advice of friends, we fuund 
ourselves in the great forests of he lower mountains at least three weeks too early 
in the season. We encountered floods of rain and torrents of water. Our pack 
mules fell in the mud or rolled over down the slippery rocks. Professor Orton, 
mule and all, fell into the deep torrent of ariver. nats surrounded us in clouds. 
We were bitten by them until it was not possible to close the swelled hands. We 
wore masks to protect the face. 

At Pachimoco, a place of a half dozen Indian cabins, on the river Chapare, 
we first met the Indian of the forests; painted, wearing feathers of the macaw and 
armed with bow and arrows of extraordinary size. ‘Their only covering a shirt 
prepared from the inner bark of a tree. The material is abundant, easily washed. 
and wears well. The Indians live upon plantains and yucca, fish and game of the 
forest. We were now in the great Madeira platte—the mountains were behind 
us. Elevation above the ocean by boiling point of water, 875 feet. 

It was necessary to travel ten leagues along the base of the mountains to 
reach the river Chimoré where we would find canoes. In the middle-of the af- 
ternoon we arrived at the Coni River, but finding it too deep to ford on account 
of rains of previous night, we camped in the dry bed of the river a mile from shore 
on a high sand bank near which grew a clump of willows and wild cane. Some 
Yuracare Indians whom the Cacique had sent with us from Pachimoco, with sur- 
prising skill constructed for us a perfect shelter out of the wild cane. ‘They then 
swam the river, promising to return early next morning with canoes to ferry us 
over. The night closed in dark and stormy. ‘There were with us the two mule- 
eteers from Cochabamba. ‘They built bonfires to protect ourselves and mules 
from tigers. By ten o’clock the rain poured in torrents, the thunder was deafen- 
ing. ‘The lightning was continuous and of intense brilliancy. The river began 
to rise. Inan hourit had risen fifteen feet; it was within a few inches of our 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 137 


shelter and still rising. There was danger. The water invaded our hut; it was 
eighteen inches deep. We were alarmed. It was time. We drew on our boots 
and stepped down into the water. We piled our eight trunks together and held 
them down with poles to keep them from floating away. Only two trunks were 
above water. The storm ceased—the darkness was intense. We stood in three 
feet of water. We looked death squarely in the face. We talked of home, fam- 
ily, friends. We gave up all for lost. Huge trees swept by us. The tigers 
growled, the tapirs bellowed, the monkies chattered, the birds uttered notes of 
alarm. From the opposite bank masses of earth with portions of the forest went 
down in the flood. After five hours daylight came. Wecould see no land. A 
shout was heard, another and another, but in what direction we could not tell. 
We answered at random. Two hours later shouts were again heard, and this time 
from up the river, and in the distance among the floating debris could be seen the 
heads of swimming men. They touched bottom and waded to us—a score of 
. Yuracare Indians, great powerful fellows. Never were happier men than ourselves. 
They were friends; we were saved. 

From the Coni to the Chimoré, Indian women carried our trunks, each 100 
pounds—nine miles for 2oc each. 

May 3rd, 1877, We embarked on the Chimoré River in two canoes, paddled 
by thirteen Indians. Here the current was swift, with many rapids; banks four 
feet high and crowded to the very edge with the dense tropical forest, so that the 
river seemed hemmed in by two immense walls of living green. Silently each In- 
dian bid ‘‘ good bye” with a pressure of the hand, and took his seat in the ca- 
noe, placing his bow and bundle of arrows by hisside. ‘The tears coursed down 
the cheek of more than one Indian wife; we pushed out into the stream; the 
paddlers bent to their work; the canoe rose and fell in rythmic response to each 
united pressure of the paddles; we moved almost with the speed of the arrow, 
and began our voyage of 300 miles. By two o’clock, not a mountain nor a hill 
was visible. ‘Time down to Trinidad six days—time back up stream, twenty 
days. In four days we found the river as large as the Missouri, with soundings 
of thirty to seventy feet. We camped each night upon a sand bar to be safe from 
night attack of hostile indians—Los Salvajes, as our Yuracare captain told us in 
Spanish. 

(Zo be continued.) 


138 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


CEOGR AT Twi Ak IN Oi: 


AFRICAN EXPLORATION. 


The English expedition sent out by the Royal Geographical Society has so 
far been very successful. ‘This expedition, it will be remembered, left the coast 
near Zanzibar in May, 1879, under the leadership of Keith Johnstone, Jr., after 
whose sad death his companion, Joseph Thomson, took command. After a 
march of 131 days he reached the north end of Lake Nyassa September 22. ‘The 
highest point passed by the expedition between the coast and the lake had 8,116 
feet elevation above the sea. After five days’ rest Thomson continued his march 
to the west, and in thirty-five days succeeded in accomplishing the chief object 
of his expedition by crossing the hitherto entirely unknown region between 
Nyassa and Tanganyika, which he found to be 250 miles broad between the two 
lakes, with mountain ranges 6,000 to 9,000 feet high and inhabited by numerous 
peaceable and friendly tribes. Having reached Pambete, near the southern end 
of Tanganyika, on the 5th of November, he then went on to Ujiji on the eastern 
shore, where he stayed till January 16, when he started on his return journey to 
the coast. He first crossed the lake to the western side, intending to explore the 
Lukuga Creek, passing down the river about thirty miles, in order to finally solve 
the questions raised by Cameron and Stanley regarding its character as to the 
Jake’s outlet. He would then march south through the still unexplored region 
west of Tanganyika, and passing its southern end return to Kilwa on the east 
coast, which he hopes to reach in six months. Mr. Stewart, with the Livingstonia 
Mission, expedition also succeeded in crossing the country between Nyassa and 
Tanganyika, reaching the latter one day after ‘Thomson and by a different road. 
Thus another of the many white spots on the map of Africa has at last been 
filled in. 


THE ROYAL BELGIAN EXPEDITIONS. 


The expedition which was sent out from Zanzibar by the International African 
Association, founded by the King of Belgium, has also attained some real suc- 
cesses after all its misfortunes. The first expedition, commanded by Lieutenant 
Cambier, reached the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika in July last, being over 
one year on the march which Stanley, in 1871, accomplished in less than eight 
months. At Karema, in Ufipa, in latitude 7 degrees south, Cambier purchased 
a piece of land of 1,000 hectares from Masikamby, the chief of the district, and 
there established the first scientific and commercial station of the association in 
Africa. It was Stanley who pointed out this spot as the most suitable for the 


THE ROVAL BELGIAN EXPEDITIONS. 139 


purpose. The station, which consists of several wooden houses, numerous huts 
for the negro followers and a magazine for the goods, is situated on a deep bay 
near the village of Karema, which lies some ten to twelve days by boat south of 
Ujjiji, on a small promontory, elevated twenty feet above the lake. Ufipa is a 
fertile, well watered country, inhabited by quiet and friendly natives. It contains 
some coal beds, and seems fit for raising grain and wild rice. The Arabs also 
have a station near Karema, which consists of 150 grass huts, with 250 inhabit- 
ants. ‘The second expedition, undér Captain Popelin, after combining with No. 
3, commanded by M. Cartier, at Mpwapwa last August, pushed on to the west, 
passed through the Arab capital, Tabora, in October, and by the last accounts 
had just arrived at Karema. Of the eight Belgian explorers who originally 
started for Tanganyika only three have thus succeeded in reaching the lake— 
three died on the road and two were forced to return as invalids. Of the four 
Indian elephants with which Cartier left the coast two have died on the way, but 
the other two reached Karema in good condition. They are now entirely 
acclimated, and have proved of immense service to the expedition. When cross- 
ing the Mgunda-Mkali desert, carrying a load of twelve hundred weight each, 
they traveled consecutively for forty-two hours without food and thirty-five hours 
without water. In passing through the villages they naturally created great 
wonder and excitement among the natives, who only know the animal in its wild 
state. It is now proposed to establish a station near the lake for catching, taming 
and training the African elephant for transport service. For this purpose Mr. 
Sanderson, the noted elephant tamer, with a staff of experienced elephant catch- 
ers, will come from India to Zanzibar. While the expeditions now at Karema 
are solidly establishing themselves in that station, the basis of all future opera- 
tions, a fourth expediticn has organized at Zanzibar and started for the interior on 
January 25. Its leaders are two Belgians—Burdo, who has already ‘traveled on 
the Niger, and Roger, and an Englishman, Cathneade. ‘Their caravan is 150 
men strong, in light marching order, and takes along a number of donkeys asa 
new experiment in transport service, but the /se¢se fly will probably prove fatal to 
these animals. The expedition, which is expected to reach Karema in May, will 
pick up Dr. von Hemoel at Tabora, where he was left behind by the second 
expedition on account of ill health. After all these expeditions have assembled 
at Karema a fresh start will be made with a new expedition under Popelin, Cam- 
bier and Burdo, who will follow Cameron’s and Stanley’s road through Mamyu- 
ema to Nyangwe, the westernmost Arab trading post on the Lualaba Congo, 
where the second fixed station is to be established. Here they will await the 
arrival of Stanley’s expedition, which is at present engaged in pushing up the 
Congo from the west coast, as described further on. Ultimately a complete chain 
of stations is to be stretched across Africa from ocean to ocean. 


140 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


FRANCE AND GERMANY. 


This grand project of the International Association at Brussels is, however, 
not to be executed solely by its own expedition, but the necessary funds have 
been assigned to the sub-committees in France and Germany for establishing 
their share of the explorers’ stations in Africa. The French committee, with a 
fund of $20,000, including a government grant, has appointed the noted traveler 
Count Savorgnan de Brazza as chief of the station which is to be formed near 
the French Gaboon colony on the west cost, while the eastern station will be 
established at ‘Tabora, in Unyamwezi. The chief of the latter, who will also 
be a naval officer, has not yet been appointed. Count Brazza started for his 
post last December with his former companion, Dr. Ballay, with whom, after 
founding the station on the Gaboon, he will continue the exploration of the 
Ogoway river. The German Committee, having received a donation of $10,000 
from Brussels, has organized a new expedition, which started from Berlin a few 
days ago for Zanzibar. It consists of Captain von Schoeler, the chief of the 
station; Dr. Boehm, as naturalist; the Engineer Reichert and Dr. Fischer, who 
explored the Dana River with Denhardt in 1878 and has since resided at Zanzi- 
bar. They are instructed to go to the Tanganyika and establish the first German 
station near the southern end of that lake, as the above described expedition of 
Thomson has demonstrated the importance of the high road leading thence to 
Lake Nyassa, the Zambesi River and the coast. : 

Three other German explorers, sent out previously by the Berlin society, 
have meanwhile continued their work. When Gerhard Rohlfs returned to Berlin 
after the complete failure of his expedition to Wadai and the Congo, having been 
robbed and nearly murdered by the fanatic inhabitants of the Kufarah oasis, he 
resigned the command, which was then transferred to his companion, Dr. Anton 
Stecker, who was instructed to make a new start for the interior by another road. 
Dr. Stecker left Tripolis last February, and now follows the great caravan route, 
due south, by way of Fezzan, to Kuka, the capitol of Bornu, on Lake Tsad. 
From there he will attempt to pass either south through Baghirmi or southeast 
through Adamowa, in order to reach the original goal of the expedition—the 
great unexplored region between the head waters of the Shary, Welle, Binne, 
Ogoway and the north bend of the Congo. Dr. Oscar Lenz, the second envoy 
of the society, arrived at Tangiers, in Morocco, November 13, and went on five 
days later by way of Tetuan to Fez, in the interior. In December last he started 
for the south, intending to cross the high Atlas range and reach the oasis of 
Tafilet, from where, if possible, he will push on to Timbuctoo, on the Niger. 
The third German explorer, Dr. Max Buchner, who started from Loanda, on the 
west coast, reached Malange, in the interior, July 22, with 130 followers, passed 
through Mutua Ngengo August ro, and was near the Lui River, north of Quim- 
bundu, in Sangoland, September 22, from where he dates his last letters. After 
crossing the Kwango he will follow the northern road to Quizimene, the 
Mwato Yanvo’s present capital, as the southern road is at present closed by a war 


OTHER NEW EXPEDITIONS. 141 


among the natives. Having delivered the German Emperor’s presents to the 
Central African monarch he will attempt to penetrate north to the mysterious 
Sankowa Lake and thence to Nyangwe and the east coast. 


PORTUGUESE, SPANISH, ITALIAN. 


The Portuguese explorers Ivens and Capello returned to Loanda last Decem- 
ber, ill with fever, nearly destitute of clothing and deserted by nearly all their 
followers. During their two years’ expedition in Angola they have pretty thor- 
oughly explored the interior of that colonial province, and especially the 
highlands of Bihe with its river sources. They also surveyed the regions of the 
Kwango and Kwanga rivers, and col ected many geographical, topographical and 
meteorological details. They descended the Kwango as far north as the bush of 
Iaca, which is avast region south of the Congo between latitude 5° and 7° south, 
but were prevented from going on to the great river by the hostility of the 
natives. After recuperating their health for some months at Mossamedes they 
returned to Lisbon on the 1st of March. Sefior Albergnes de Sosten, the leader 
of the first Spanish expeditionin Africa, is now at Alexandria. After completing 
his outfit he will start for Massowah, on the Red Sea, and thence to Adowah, in 
Northern Abyssinia, from where he intends proceeding southward through 
Amhara ani Shoa and by way of Guragwe, south of the Blue Nile basin, through 
the wild Galla and Somali countries as far as the Juba River, on which he will 
descend to the Indian Ocean, where he expects to arrive in twelve months, if 
not detained by the hostile tribes, as is but too probable. The Italians are also 
taking an active share in African exploration. Their Commercial and Explora- 
tory Society has recently established stations at Massowah, Odeida and in the 
Abyssinian interior for the purpose of trade with the natives, and the dispatch 
boat Exploratore has hois.ed the Italian flag at Assab Bay, near the Straits of 
Babelmandel, and landed mechanics and artisans there to build a settlement, 
which is to serve as a starting point for Italian expeditions into the interior. In 
February last Prince Borghese and Dr. Matteucei began their new expedition. 
They intend to go from Chartum on the Upper Nile westward through Darfour 
and Wadaii to Bornu, and thence, according to circumstances, to the Guinea 
coast or northward to Tripolis. 


OTHER NEW EXPEDITIONS. 


The Russian explorer, Dr. Junker, has again started for Central Africa. He 
left Cairo December 1, and goes by way of Suez and Snakin on the Red Sea to 
Chartum, his goal being the Monbuttu country beyond the Welle River, where 
he intends completing Schweinfurth’s researches among the Acka dwarfs and 
Niamniam cannibals, and if possible descend the river either to Lake Tsad or the 


142 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Conyer, and thus establish its identity with either the Shary or Stanley’s Aruwimi. 
He is accompanied by Bohndorf, Gordon Pacha’s ex-valet, whose adventurous 
journey to Darbanda was described in the last letter. The Austrian traveller, R. 
Slatin, reached Dara, in Darfour, last September, and intends to go south to 
Kalakka end explore the unknown regions as far as the copper mines of Hafrat- 
el-Nahas and the Upper white Nile. Baron Muller-Oskon-Capitany has also 
started for the Egyptian Soudan and proposes to go by way of Kaffa, south of 
Abyssinia, to the sources of the Juba. Captain Revoil, formerly of the French 
army, has made a successful trip in the land of the Midjurten-Somalis, south of 
Cape Guardafni, where he was well received. He did not, however, go far into 
the interior, but succeeded in collecting much valuable information about the 
caravan routes, and also ascended several of the high mountains, as the Karomo 
(11,480 feet) and the Aisemat (7,080 feet). The German Baron Holzhausen and Dr. 
Moak have made an expedition into the country of the Dabanja-Bedouins, on 
the Upper Atbara River, visiting Kassala and Tomad, the chief’s winter camp, 
last February. They report that complete anarchy prevails in that part of the 
Egyptian Soudan, robber bands infesting the whole country. The blame for 
this state of affairs is attributed to Gordon Pacha’s constantly changing policy 
and shifting projects, with spasmodic attempts at suppression of slavery, but 
without any definite plan for the security and pacification of the country. 


EXPLORATION IN THE SOUTH. 


In South Africa the conclusion of the Zulu and other Kaffir wars has per- 
mitted the resumption of explorations. F. C. Selous, who has lived many years 
on the Upper Zambesi and its tributaries, and has before attempted to reach 
Lake Bangwealo, the source of the Lualaba-Congo, is about to start from the 
Transvaal on another expedition with the same object, and thus span what has 
been called ‘‘the unconnected link between the Cape of Good Hope and the 
Mediterranean.” At Cape Tower two young Englishmen, Bagot and Beaver, 
are preparing an expedition at their own expense, with which they propose to 
explore and survey for four years the region between the Zambesi and the great 
lakes, traveling with two ox carts and native drivers and guides. Donald 
McKenzie has again returned to the settlement, which he has found near Cape 
Juby, on the west coast, and named Port Victoria. He will first replace the 
wooden houses of the colony by stone buildings, for which some quarries close 
at hand furnish good material, and then explore the neighboring country, especi- 
ally the ruins of a Portuguese fort of the fourteenth century not far distant. His 
chief object, however, remains to open up trading connections with the native 
chiefs in the interior as faras Timbuctoo. The Governor of the British colony 
at Sierra Leone also intends sending out an expedition to go from Bathurst, on 
the Gambia, by way of Segu, on the Upper Niger, to Timbuctoo by invitation 
of the Sultan. 


ARCTIC EXPLORATION. 143 
ARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


At the regular meeting of the Geographical Society of Berlin, April roth, 
1880, the President, Dr. Nachtigal, read a letter received from St. Petersbrug 
giving an account of the various attempts made in the course of the year 1879 
to establish regular intercourse by sea between the ports of Europe and the estu- 
aries of the great rivers of Siberia. In 1879 seven ships attempted to reach 
Siberia from Europe by the North Cape, but of these only one, the steamer 
Luise, was successful. With two barges in tow, this vessel left Bremen on the 
8th July, arrived in the Yenissei on the 15th September, and returned in good 
condition to Bremerhaven on the 30th October. The cargo consisted of petro- 
leum, sugar, butter and tobacco, and the return freight of about 20,000 pounds 
.of wheat which had been brought from the interior of Siberia to the mouth of the 
Yenisei in boats specially built for this purpose. All the other ventures were 
complete failures. The two Swedish vessels, the Samuel Owen and the Express, 
freighted by the well-known Moscow merchant, Sibiriakoff, endeavored in vain 
to force a passage through the masses of ice accumulated at the entrance of the 
Kara Sea, and were compelled to return. Still more unfortunate were the two 
steamers, Amy and Mizpah, bound for the Obi and chartered by the merchant 
Fund, as also ihe Danish steamer Neptun, dispatched on account of the same 
firm, and which, as well as Mr. Ketley’s English steamer Brighton, came to 
grief in Baidarak Bay. A similar fate was in store for three sailing vessels which 
after having been built in the dockyard of Trapesinkow at Tjumen (Government 
of Tobolsk), were laden with grain, tallow and spirits, and sailed for Europe. 
The Nadeshda and the Ok were shut in by the ice in Baidarak Bay, near 
the Tambata Rives, and lost their tackle as well as part of the cargo; the Tjumen 
and the steamer Luise (the latter had wintered in the Obi) ran on sand banks in 
the Gulf of Obi and were thus prevented from continuing their voyage. These 
shipping disasters have caused great surprise at St. Petersburg, where Professor 
Nordenskiold’s voyage had been hailed as the commencement of a new epoch in © 
the Siberian trade. The advocates of communication by sea with Siberia point 
out that 1879 has been an exceptionally unfavorable year, and that most of the 
accidents were due not so much to the state of the ice in the Kara Sea, as to the 
want of charts, buoys, beacons, etc. It is also suggested that while there must 
have been in that year a great accumulation of ice in the Kara Sea, the sea 
round Novaya Zemlya just about the same time was free from ice, and we may 
conclude that in each year, according to the direction of the prevailing wind, 
one of these two routes will be open to navigation; an opinion to some extent — 
confirmed by the voyage of the English Captain Markham, who at the end of 
September, having found the Kara Sea encumbered with ice, sailed without 
obstacle round the northern extremity of Novaya Zemlya. Unfortunately our 
experience does not date further back than the year 1875. It is possible that the 
year 1879 may have been exceptionally unfavorable, and its immediate prede- 
cessors exceptionally favorable to Arctic exploration, and as observation alone, 


144 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


extended over a number of years, can prove the correctness of this assumption, 

it is recommended that scientific observing stations be established on the northern 
coasts of Europe. Matotschkin Schar in Novaya Zemlya and the island of Waaigat 
offer themselves as meteorological stations where exact observations might be 
made as to the direction of the wind which renders Kara Strait, or Jugor Strait, 
or the Matotschkin entrance, free from ice, and the results thus obtained might 
be communicated to approaching vessels. The letter went on to say that an 
examination of the difficult navigation of the Obi, and the discovery of a suitable 
harbor in the Gulf of Obi were also urgently required, as the conditions of the 
latter were much more unfavorable than those at the mouth of the Yenissel. As 
a matter of curiosity the suggestion was alluded to that the difficulties of navi 
gating the Obi might be altogether avoided by the construction of a railway 
connecting the Charua-Juga, a tributary of the Obi, with Khaipudirskaia Bay-~ 
(60° east long. of Greenwich). The President further announced that the expe- 
dition which purposes to found a station in East Central Africa, and which is 
composed of Captain von Schloer, the zoologist, Dr. Boehm, Dr. Kayser, for 
geodesy, and the civil engineer Mr. Reichard (the latter accompanying the expe- 
dition at his own expense) was about to start from Berlin, and would probably 
establish a station at the southeast end of Lake Tanganyika. H. M., the King of 
the Belgians, had contributed for this purpose 40,000 francs, and the German- 
African Society their subscriptions for the year 1880, which amount to 16,000 
marks. Dr. Boehm next addressed the meeting on the discovery of the sources 
of the Niger; and Dr. Stolze gave a description, based upon his own observa- 
tions, of Faristan, the cradle of the old Persian nation. 


THE FRENCH IN THE SAHARA. 


The French project for building a railway from Algiers across the Sahara des- 
ert to the Niger and thence to their colony on the Senegal has caused the sending 
out of several expeditions for determining the most suitable line, for which pur- 
pose the Ministry of Public Works has received a grant of $120,000. A though 
the railroad may never be built, geographical science is sure to profit by these ex- 
plorations. Three separate expeditions have been organized in Algeria, of which 
the first will operate only in the colony, while the second explores the Algerian 
Sahara not beyond the oasis of El Goléa. ‘Their leaders are M. M. Pouyanne 
and de Choisy. The third and chief expedition, which is under the command of 
Colonel Flatters, started from Ouargla oasis on the 5th of March. It consists of 
the leader, nine scientific companions, including Dr. Guyard, of the Anthropo- 
logical Society, and some engineers, surveyors, etc., an escort of twelve French 
and sixteen native soldiers, the later being frontier Arabs, and sixty-eight camel 
drivers and servants of the Chambaas tribe, a total of 106 persons. The mate- 
rials and supplies are transported by fifteen horses and 220 camels. Colonel Flat- 
ters intends reaching Temassauin, nearly three hundred miles due south of 


RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 145 


Ouargla, in seventeen to eighteen days; then cross the Ahaggar plateau and push 
on through the desert to the Soudan. Meanwhile the noted traveler, Paul Soleil- 
let, has gone back again to Senegambia to make a survey for the Trans-Saharan 
Railroad in that direction. He feels confident of not only reaching Timbuctoo 
this time, but also of crossing the desert to Algeria. At the same time M. Le- 
carte has been sent out by the government to explore the regions between the 
Senegal and the Niger. In October last two Frenchmen, MM. Zweifel, and 
Moustier, starting from Treetown in Sierra Leone, succeeded in crossing the coast 
range and discovering the ultimate sources of the Djoliba branch of the upper 
Niger, near the village of Kulako. Many travelers, including Caillié Mage, 
Winwood Reade, Solleillet, etc., had previously attempted this feat, but all failed. 
The French also intend to explore the Gamba River thoroughly and open it for 
trade. For this purpose a river steamer is now being built in England, which is 
tobe 105 feet long, sixteen broad and eight deep, with engines of thirty horse 
power and a speed of nine knots. .As this boat is intended to carry sixty tons 
weight on five and one-half feet of water it will be able to ascend the river for 
nearly 200 miles from its mouth and open up the hitherto unexplored regions near 
its sources. 


RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 


The French and English missions in the lake regions must not be omitted in 
an account of African exploration. Advices received by the Archbishop of 
Algiers state that the Catholic mission under Father Livinhac, in Uganda, on the 
north shore of the Victoria Nyanza, still enjoys the protection of King Mtesa, 
but that the Church Missionary Society’s station at Rubaga, the capital, has been 
abandoned by the Rev. Mr. Wilson and his assistants on account of difficulties 
with the king. Two members of the second expedition of the London Mission- 
ary Society to Lake Tanganyika have reached the station at Ujiji, but the third 
had died ex route. They traveled on a new road from Mpwapwa to Urambo, the 
capital of King Miramboo, Stanley’s friend and the foe of the Arabs, whose death 
has been positively asserted recently. The English missionaries at Ujiji have ex- 
plored parts of the lake, and Mr. Hore, the scientific member, asserts that the 
Lukuga is the real outlet. The Jesuit missionaries to the Tanganyika have also 
arrived at Ujiji, where they were well received by the English and Arabs; their 
leader, M. P. Pascal,‘however, died on the way. Their new superior, P. Deniand, 
has since circumnavigated the lake, and they have now gone on to Ulundi, 
on the north east shore, where the chief of Bikari has offered them land for a 
station. ‘The reinforcements for this mission, comprising twelve missionaries 
from Algeirs and six former Papal Zouaves, have passed through Ugogo. 


146 IVAN SA'S) CID V (RE VIEW. OF SCIEN CE, 


STANLEY ON THE CONGO. 


Stanley’s new expedition on the Congo, promises to become the greatest un- 
dertaking ever attempted in African exploration. Since his arrival at Banana, 
the Dutch station at the mouth of the Congo, Stanley has taken the entire expe- 
dition, with his fleet of five small steamers and several small boats, up the river 
as far as the first Yellala falls. At Vivi, opposite the second rapids, and 130 
miles from the coast, he has erected his first station on the right bank of the river. 
His camp, consisting of movable wooden houses, magazines, sheds, etc., stands 
on a small plateau surrounded by precipices, 200 feet above the river level. The 
expedition is very numerous, comprising about one hundred negroes from Zanzi- 
bar, Sierra Leone and the Congo, and some twenty whites of different nations— 
Belgians, Americans, English, Italians, Danes—and including a superintendent, a 
captain for the boats, engineers, surveyors, mechanics, carpenters, sailors, etc. 
Stanley and all his men are now hard at work building the road through the wild 
coast range of mountains to transport the boats and supplies overland past the 
terrible series of the thirty-two Livingstone Falls. As soon as Stanley Pool, which 
is above the last fall and 200 miles distant, has been reached, the second station 
will be established on its shores asa basis of supplies, and the fleet of steamers 
will be launched on the river. Nothing will then prevent Stanley from ascending 
the great river and its powerful tributaries and penetrating to the very heart of 
Africa. 


AFRICAN EXPLORATION. 


The German African Society, in the last number of its MJ7tthetlungen, pub- 
lishes a list of all the scientific expeditions sent out by the (former) German So- 
- ciety for the investigation of Equatorial Africa, and by the new society (under its 
present title) during the years from 1873 to1879. All together there were no less 
than eight expeditions, viz :— 

1. The Loango Expedition, and to the Chinchoxo Station, 1873-1876 ; cost, 
10,532 l. less 1,133 |. realized from sale of specimens: leader, Dr. Paul Giissfeldt, 
not Prof. A. Bastian, (who took part at his own expense in the preparatory steps 
for the establishment of the Chinchoxo Station). 

2. The Ogowe Expedition of Dr. Oscar Lenz, 1874-1876; cost, 1,563 l. 

3. Cassange Expedition, 1874-1876; cost, 44571. Members: Capt. A. 
Von Homeyer, Dr. Paul Pogge, Herm. Loyaux, Lieut. A. Lux. 

4. Eduard Mohr’s Expedition, 1876; cost, 692 1. 

5. Engineer Schiitt’s Expedition, 1877-1879; cost, 2,590 1. 


AN UNKNOWN REGION IN SOUTH AMERICA. 147 


6. Dr. Max Buchner’s Expedition, since 1878; cost, (till October, 1879,) 
Tipe ae, IE 

7. Rohlfs’ Expedition, since 1878; cost, (till October, 1879,) 2,225 1. 
Members: Dr. Gerhard Rohlfs, Dr. Anton Stecker. 

8. Dr. Oscar Lenz’s Expedition to Warrocco, since the end of 1879. 


SAFETY OF COL. PREJEVALSKY. 


A letter has been received at St. Petersburg through Pekin from Col. Pre- 
jevalsky, dated from the town of Si-Ning, March zoth, announcing that the 
expedition under his command is safe. He left the Nan Shian mountains in 
July, and entered Thibet through Shaidash. His party was attacked by Tanguts, 
of whom they killed four and put the remainder to flight. The Thibetian troops 
stopped the progress of the expedition 250 versts from Hlassa, and a messenger 
from the Grand Lama of Thibet brought the refusal of the Thibetian authorities 
to allow the Russians to proceed. The latter were therefore obliged to return, 
which they did with some difficulty through Northern Thibet, wintering at a 
height of 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. Col. Prejevalsky expects to 
reach Kiakhta in August by way of Alashan Urgu. 


ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. 


The bulletin of the Italian Geographical Society for April contains full 
details of the proposed Antarctic Expedition under Lieut. Bove, with a carefully 
compiled map of the south polar regions so far as these have been hitherto 
explored. 


AN UNKNOWN REGION IN SOUTH AMERICA. 


The work of exploration has been carried forward to such an extent that few 
portions of our globe remain unknown to men In this work geographical socie- 
ties have vied with each other, and the various governments have been lavish in 
expenditure. The poles are still a ¢erva cncognita, but under the plan of Capt. 
Howgate the North Pole will probably very soon give up its secrets. He is pre- 
paring to establish with his present expedition a colony, at a high latitude, at a 
point where they have recently discovered an immense bed of coal. This colony 
can be recruited with men, and supplied with provisions, and expeditions con_ 
ducted with sledges over the ice, starting at such a latitude and taking advantage 
of the season, will have everything in their favor for reaching the pole. 

In South America there is also an unknown region. Much has been done 


on that portion of the American continent by Humboldt, Orton and others by the 
IV—10 


148 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


way of exploration; still, on the upper waters of the Amazon, there is a vast re- 
gion of which our maps of that country are mere guesswork. ‘The best informed 
are in dispute in regard to the course of some of the large affluents of the Ama- 
zon, the animals and plants are entirely unknown, and the mineral resources of 
the country are unexplored. It was the cherished plan of Prof. Orton, in his 
last expedition to South America, to explore this unknown region so much 
dreaded by the natives, and open its secrets to the world. But, when he was on 
the very point of accomplishing his purpose, his guard, composed of native 
soldiers, suddenly, by concerted action, placed their bayonets at his breast, and 
marched back whence they came. Baffled in his plans, worn out by travel and 
weakened by exposure and the rarified air of the elevated plateaux of South Amer- 
ica, he died without a struggle, a martyr to science, on the magical waters of lake 
Titicaca. 

Since his death, Dr. I. D. Heath, who was his assistant during his entire ex- 
pedition, and his brother, Dr. Edwin R. Heath, who has restded in South Amer- 
ica for many years, have proposed to complete Prof. Orton’s unfinished work. 
Recently a letter has been received from Dr. Edwin R. Heath, who, it will be re- 
membered, read a paper before the Kansas City Academy of Science two years 
ago, on Peruvian Antiquities, which was republished in Europe. Dr. Heath is at 
present located at Los Reyes, in eastern Bolivia. He is engaged in studies and in 
making collections in the interest of science, and in organizing his contemplated 
expedition to complete the work so suddenly terminated by the death of Prof. 
Ort n. His object is to explore the unknown countries drained by the waters of 
the Beniand Madre de Dios, an undertaking full of difficulty and danger, but for 
which he possesses the personal qualifications, many years of experience, and a 
thorough knowledge of the Spanish language and character. South America is a 
paradise for scientific explorers, being rich in every possibility. Dr. Heath is full 
of enthusiasm in his work, and is confident in being successful in making known 
these unexplored regions. He hopes to achieve results adequate to the importance 
of the field in which he operates. He pays the expenses of this great work out 
of his own private funds, which are wholly inadequate to the scientific and com- 
mercial value of such an undertaking. If some geographical or scientific society, 
or well endowed institution of learning would unite with and assist him in bear- 
ing a portion of the expense of the expedition, and send two or three experts, 
perhaps post-graduate students, for a division of labor, it is believed that this por- 
tion of the world, now absolutely unknown, would furnish results in geographical 
knowledge, and scientific collections, of such great interest and value as many 
times to repay the expenditure.—Kansas City Daily Journal. 


ENGRAVED STONE FROM OHIO. | 149 


ARICIALAOLOGN 


ENGRAVED STONE FROM OHIO. 


BY REV. STEPHEN BOWERS, PH. D. 


During a recent visit to Cincinnati the writer, in connection with several arch- 
zeologists, had the pleasure of examining an engraved stone, taken from a mound 
in Brush Creek Township, Muskingum County, Ohio, by Dr. J. F. Everhart, of 
Zanesville. The mound in which the stone was found measures sixty-four by 
thirty-five feet at the summit, gradually sloping in every direction, and is eight 
feet in height. The stone was found leaning against the head of asort of clay 
coffin inclosing the skeleton of a woman measuring eight feet in length. Within 
this coffin was found the skeleton of a child about three and a half feet in length, 
and an image that crumbled when exposed to the atmosphere. In another grave 
was found the skeleton of a man and woman, the male skeleton measuring nine 
feet in length and the female eight. Ina third grave occured two other skeletons, 
male and female, measuring respectively nine feet four inches and eight feet. 
Seven other skeletons were found in the mound, the smallest of which measured 
eight feet, while others reached the enormous length of ten feet. They were 
buried singly, or each in separate graves. At one end of the mound was found 
a stone altar about twelve by four feet, containing portions of what seemed to 
be charred human bones. 

This mound was opened by the Brush Creek Township Historical Society, 
and under the immediate supervision of Dr. Everhart, who was present when 
the tablet was found, and who measured the skeletons in sz. The Tablet is of 
unfinished sandstone, not quite square, the greater length being twelve and one- 
half inches and breadth eleven inches; thickness four inches. The stone has not 
been squared, nor the surface upon which the characters are engraved so much as 
leveled, nor is there any sign of tools having been used upon the stone except in 
cutting the hieroglyphics. There are two rows of these characters with a straight 
line about one eighth of an inch deep and wide, cut above and below each row, 
or parallel thereto. The characters are clearly and carefully engraved and are 
from one sixteenth to an eighth of an inch in depth and width, indicating no little 
skillin their execution. Between the rows of characters is a circular depression 
one and three-fourth inches in diameter and about five-eighths of an inch deep, 
with other but smaller depressions in the stone. 

It is not the purpose of the writer to speculate concerning this find nor even 
to attempt a description of the characters themselves, further than to say, that 
while two or three of these inscriptions indicate an acquaintance with the old 


150 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Greek alphabet, others may probably be referred to Egyptian and Hetruscan. 
But while we found fair representations of Egyptian, Greek, Punic, and other char- 
acters, we risk no general interpretation of their writing. Mr. Everhart believes 
that the circular depressions refer to the heavenly bodies, and concludes that this 
glant race were sun worshipers, a not improbable conclusion. 

Were the writer to risk an opinion concerning the deszgn of these inscriptions, 
he would suggest that they refer solely to those buried inthismound. ‘The tablet 
contains three V shaped characters similar to those found in the Great Pyramid, 
and which Prof. Piazzi Smith, and others, refer to as symbols of power or distinc- 
tion. Inthis case they may refer to the three important graves found in this 
mound. 

As to the genuineness of the find there seems to be no room for doubt, as 
Dr. Everhart, an intelligent explorer, took it out in the presence of a number of 
witnesses. As to age, it bears the marks of antiquity. It is doubtless as old as 
the mound from which it was exhumed. 

Messrs. Robert Clark, Charles L. Low and Dr. H. H. Hill, gentlemen of 
more than local celebrity in archeological science, to whom, with the writer, is 
was submitted for examination, gave Mr. Everhart a written statement of our 
views concerning this tablet, concluding as follows: ‘‘We have examined this stone 
very carefully after hearing Mr. Everhart’s statement concerning it, and we are 
satisfied that it is not of recent procuction, but has every appearance of being a 
veritable Mound Builder’s relic, and is well worthy a serious effort to unravel its 
mysteries.” 


THE HAIR AND BEARD AS RACIAL CHARACTERISTICS. 


Prof. Otis T. Mason in the American Naturalist for June, in commenting on 
various anthropological papers in the Revue a’ Anthropologie says: The article of 
Mme Royer is designed to show that the human race is descended from a species 
of animal that never had any hair, in opposition to the generally received theory 
that our race has lost its hair in time. Following close after this domes Mr. 
Wake’s paper upon the beard, and on pages 170-175, a review, by M. Vars, upon 
Ecker’s ‘‘Systéme pileux et ses anomalies chez ’homme,” so that three-fourths of 
the original communications of the number relate to this external characteristic, 
After a very extended collation of authorities who have remarked upon the abun- 
dance or scarcity of hair upon tribes in all parts of the world, Mr. Wake con- 
cludes with Peschel that the beard is agood racial characteristic, and ‘‘ that there 
are races upon whom it is developed in all its exhuberances, while there are oth- 
ers in which this distinction appears to be incompletely produced.” The author 
then goes on to seek the causes of this difference. The growth of hair upon the 
face cannot be attributed to such causes as alimentation and climate. Doubtless 
these have had their effects; but the true cause must be sought in the sum total 
of all the influences, moral as well as physical, to which the organism has been 


UNDULATORY MOVEMENTS AS AFFECTING OUR SENSES. 151 


subjected. According to this theory, the most general and complete develop- 
ment of the beard should be sought among the races which have been most favor- 
ably situated or the longest exposed to the conditions favorable to its production. 
Beardless races, in this sense, may be compared to children, and those that are 
bearded to adults. If the beard be a social mark, we seem to be authorized to 
affirm that bearded races are more nearly related to one another than to those 
that are beardless. 

He also refers as follows to the ‘‘ Essay on the Bible narrative of Creation,” 
by Prof. A. R. Grote, of Buffalo, N. Y.: ‘‘ Whatever opinion our readers may 
have as to the weight of authority quoted, or concerning Prof. Grote’s ability to 
guide us in this most intricate problem, no one will question his scientific attain- 
ments or his disposition to treat the subject fairly and his opponents kindly. The 
gist of the treatis is best given in the author’s own words.” If there is one sub- 
ject which now seems to me more important than another, it is the bearing of our 
recognition of the process of evolution upon the existing state of our religious 
creed. It is not that the teachings of Christ are to be rejected, or the morality 
of the Hebrew Bible to be condemned, but that we are to correct our views as to 
the way in which existing plants and animals (including man) came to be what 
they are to-day. For Astronomy and Geology the struggle is nearly over. Out 
of this struggle has sprung the fatal error of believing that our knowledge in these 
branches does not contradict Genesis, or that a reconciliation is possible. But 
with biology the struggle is now going on. It is imagined that the six days 
mean really periods, although from the context the meaning is shown to 
clearly agree with the words, since the morning and evening are given to limit 
the term and decide the intention. It cannot, indeed, be too often remembered 
that people did not write in early times what they did not mean. The study of 
Genesis, or the origin of things, religion must surrender to the sciences. 


JP leal SSIES, 


UNDULATORY MOVEMENTS AS AFFECTING OUR SENSES. 
PROF. T. BERRY SMITH, NORTHFIELD, MINN. 


Let us inquire into the nature of undulatory movement. 

You have all seen the waving of grain fields when the wind was sweeping 
across them. 

Did you ever think of the steps necessary for the production of the waves 
which you saw? 

Let us follow one head of wheat in its movements and find out what it does, 
Now it is standing still and erect. Ina moment the wind comes in a gust and 


152 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the head is bent far forward ; then by reaction like a pendulum it rises, swings 
back and passes beyond its original position to a point about as low as when bent 
farthest forward. The movement may be repeated many times, but we have 
seen all that that particular head does. When erect it is at its highest point and 
when bent farthest forward it is at its lowest point. We learn from this that the 
heads of grain are performing movements which are transverse to the line along 
which the wave is moving. In like manner do the particles of a rope move 
when you catch hold of one end of the rope and cause a wave motion along its 
entire length. And water waves are caused in the same way. 

Again, take an elastic wire, coil it into a spiral, support one end firmly, to 
the other end fasten a weight, and cause the weight to vibrate up and down by 
pulling it downward and then freeing it. Evidently the coils of the spiral are at 
one time stretched apart and at another time crowded together, as the weight 
vibrates up and down. ‘That is, the particles instead of moving /¢ransverse to the 
line of wave motion are moving paralle/ with it. | 

To sum up, then, there are two classes of undulatory movements: 

1—Those in which the elements of the wave move transverse to the line of 
direction of the wave; and 

2—Those in which the elements of the wave move parallel with the line of 
direction of the wave, i. e. there is alternate cond: nsation and rarefaction among 
the elements of the wave. 

. Now there are four classes of material substance with which we have to deal: 


t— Masses. 
2— Molecules. 
3—Atoms. 


4—Radiant matter, called ‘‘ Ether.” 

We look up to those great masses we call stars and: learn that they are for- 
ever in motion. We explain the solid, the liquid and the gaseous conditions of 
matter by saying that the molecules are in motion and are only closer together in 
the solid than in the fluid. By analogy and by the researches of such men as 
Crookes and others, we reason that atoms and ether particles.are likewise in con- 
tinual motion. ‘Thus we are led to conclude that in matter nowhere ‘“‘ can rest 
be found.” 

The constituent particles of all matter are forever unstilled. 

If Ihave made myself understood thus far, I shall now proceed to use 
these facts in explanation of the actions of our various organs of sense. I shall 
try to demonstrate that these various organs of sense are so endowed that each 
takes cognizance of certain rates of undulatory motion and transmits its impres- 
sions to the brain. How these impressions are transmitted to the brain, I shall 
not pretend to say--that is beyond the scope of material science; but I do want 
to show that the nerves of these organs are. affected by and receptive of undula- 
tory movements within limits ordained for each particular organ. In the cases 
of the ear and the eye, this is already an accepted theory. Let us state the 
reasoning in the cases of these briefly. 


UNDULATORVY MOVEMENTS AS AFFECTING OUR SENSES. 153 


In the case of the ear it is generally agreed that two things are 
necessary for the production of physical sound, viz.: A vibrating mass of matter, 
and an elastic medium to transmit the vibrations to the organ of hearing. ‘There 
can be no physical sound in a vacuum. The undulatory motion in this case is 
composed of to-and-fro elements, i. e. there is alternate condensation and rare- 
faction among the particles of the transmitting medium. The limits of rate of 
vibration are about 16 per second for lowest and about 40,000 for highest. Below 
16 per second the rate is so slow that the ear is not affected, and above 40,000 so 
fast that the ear fails to take cognizance of them. The ear is the only one of the 
organs of sense that is a‘fected by aérial vibrations. 

It is well known that the earliest theory of vision was the cor- 
puscular. It was said that exceedingly small particles shot from the luminous 
body fell upon the eye and produced vision. Sir Isaac Newton and others were 
apostles of this theory. Nowadays we laugh at such an idea. Let us think of a 
particle sent from the sun. No matter how small it would be, it might acquire 
velocity enough to give it a momentum that would destroy the eye when it fell 
upon it. M dern science has adopted another theory known as the undulatory. 
This presupposes an exceedingly rare medium pervading all space and occupying 
the interstices between molecules and atoms. This medium is called ‘‘ Ether.” 
In the case of sound, the wave motion was the result of mass vibration upon the 
air; but in case of light, the wave motion is the result of molecular vibration upon 
this so-called ether. The elements of the undulatory motion have a transverse 
movement just as in the case of water waves or the waving of a field of grain. 
The effect produced upon the eye will vary with the number of waves entering 
it in a given time. It has been found by calculations based on observations 
made on soap bubbles, etc., that to produce the sensation we call ved, over 400 
trillions of waves must enter the eye in one second. Then as the numbers 
increase the impression experienced by the eye varies through all the colors of 
the rainbow until about 700 trillions per second are reached. Beyond that the 
eye fails to be affected and darkness reigns, just as it did before reaching the 400 
trillions just now mentioned. Now it is well known that light is usually the 
result of great heat. Hence we may naturally conclude that below 400 trillions 
and down to an unknown limit the effect of molecular movement is to produce 
waves in ‘‘ether’”” which affect the papillae of the skin and make the sensation 
we call heat. When two bodies are brought near each other, if we keep in mind 
that the molecules of each are in motion, then that will be the hot one whose 
molecules are moving the faster and producing the greater number of ethereal 
undulations in a second. But what shall we say of the effects of rates of vibra-- 
tion beyond the highest extreme of impressions named light? We know not 
unless they are such as affect the motor nerves and the muscles and produce the 
sensations we ascribe to electricity. And were we incliued to materialism we 
might say that certain rates of inconceivable rapidity give rise to thought, spirit, 
life, etc. Be that as it may, let us now come back to our special organs of sense 


154 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and see if we can explain the sensations of smell, taste and touch by use of 
molecular movements. 

The story is oft recited in our books of Natural Philosophy, under the head 
of the wonderful divisibility of matter, how a grain of musk was kept in a room 
scenting it for twenty years and yet at the end of that time had lost no weight. 
Now this is marvelous if we suppose infinitesimal particles to be continually pass- 
ing off, which falling upon the nerves of smell produce the sensation we call odor. 
Yes, very marvelous, that particles can be taken from a body through so many 
years and yet not affect the weight of that body; as much as to say that innumer- 
able infinitesimal particles weigh nothing. We must confess we do not like to be- 
ieve such a story. Surely itis more reasonable to think that certain rates of 
motion among the molecules of the musk impart like rates of undulation to the 
‘‘ether” and these ethereal waves reaching our nostrils produce the sensation 
called smell. As in the case of the eye, the senation is various according as the 
rate is various. Sucha theory explains how the vulture scents its prey from afar. 
The molecules of the carrion impress their motion on the ‘‘ ether ” and the undula- 
tions go out and on until they fall upon and affect the keen nostrils of the bird 
quietly floating in the blue empyrean. Would a particle of the dead matter ever 
reach it, think you? 

If you ask how is it the vulture and the dog and other animals can scent 
things imperceptible to man, we reply because they are endowed with keener sen- 
sibilities in this respect. If you ask why so many vibrations do not get mixed up 
and produce confusion, we ask how is it in the great orchestra that you catch the 
peculiar tones of each particular instrument? In music we name the quality 
thus distinguishing instruments ¢imbre ; and so there may be ¢mbre in all kinds of 
vibrations or undulations. An odorous object loses its odor as soon as its pe- 
culiar rate of vibration is varied or lost. As in sound waves and light waves, 
there may be inter erence, i.e., waves which puteach other out, so tospeak, so inodor 
waves there may be interference ; thus we might explain the action of disinfectants 
and deodorizers. As to the limits of the rates of vibration, we know nothing. 

Taste and touch are said to be produced by contact of substances with the 
nerves of the tongue and the skin. Yet perhaps the various peculiarities in taste 
and touch may be ascribed to peculiarities in rate of molecular motion. A thing 
is sour or sweet, bitter or nauseous or acid, occording as its molecular vibrations 
affect the nerves of the different parts of the tongue adapted for the reception of 
rates producing such sensations. We have however no arguments in favor of 
this. As for touch, that requires contact also, just as does taste. 

Let us see how we would explain the various peculiarities of surface of bodies 
as learned by touch. 

As the finger is brought in contact with the fine point of a needle, for in- 
stance, the molecules of the papille in the finger end come in contact in their 
little oscillation with the oscillating molecules of the needle. Of course there is 
resistance; but as this resistance occurs at but one point, we say the needle is 


& 


UNDULATORVY MOVEMENTS AS AFFECTING OUR SENSES. 155 


sharp. It is like a single man meeting a phalanx. But if the finger comes in con- 
tact with a surface and finds even resistance at all points then we say it is smooth. 
That is like phalanx meeting phalanx. In like manner we may explain dullness, 
keenness, roughness, hardness, etc.—all properties which are learned by the 
sense of touch. 

Now, having gone thus far, let us tablulate our conclusions. Matter exists 
as masses, molecules, atoms and ether. ‘These are all continually in motion. 
Matter which produces wave motion must move in one or other of two phases— 
(x) parallel to or (2) transverse to the line of direction of wave. This much es- 
tablished, let us say : 

I. Masses vibrate: 

(a) There is undulatory movement in az; 

(b) Elements move parallel to line of direction of wave; 

(c) Rate of vibration extending, for aught we know, from o to o per 
second; 

(d) Within the limits 16-40000 per second the ear is affected and we hear 
sound ; 

(e) Either side of these limits is silence so far as man is concerned. 

Il. Molecules vibrate: 

(a) There is undulatory movement in e¢her; 

(b) Elements move transverse to line of direction of wave; 

(c) Rate of vibration extending from o to o per second. 

(d) Within the limits 400 trillions to 700 trillions per second the eye is 
affected and we can see light. 

(e) Either side of these limits is darkness so far as man is concerned. 

(f) Other senses affected in the same way are the nose, the skin and prob- 
ably the muscles, but by what rates of motion we do not know. 

Molecules vibrate : 

(a) In contact with the tongue—Taste ; 
(b) In contact with the hand—Touch. 

Now we hinted just now that possibly molecular vibration may result in 
thought. If this be true, and there is such a thing as sympathetic vibration 
among molecules as there is between musical strings, pendulums, etc., then is it 
strange that two persons should think the same thought at the same moment? 
Doubtless you have all had such experience. You have been surprised to hear a 
friend in your company speak of something which at the same moment was occu- 

-pying your personal thought. Be it understood we do not say that thought can 
thus be explained, but the theory seems plausible to say the least of it. 

To go a little further in this theorizing, if the so-called ether does pervade all 
space, and if vibrations or undulations once started in this ether never cease, and 
if the human organs of us limited beings take cognizance of occurrences around 
us when undulations within certain limits fall upon our senses, then an omnipo- 
tent, omnipresent being with unlimited powers could experience absolutely and 


156 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


really any and every occurrence that ever took place. ‘The wide realm of ether 
becomes God’s book of remembrance, and ‘‘ the book shall be opened” to us 
when these limits that now enthrall us are laid aside and power and liberty is ours 
to go in space wheresoever we wish. 


FRANKLIN’S PLACE IN SCIENCE. 


Franklin’s contributions to science are not limited to his electric discoveries 
and inventions. Out of many such that might be mentioned there are two that 
deserve especial attention. They are (1) the course of storms over the North 
American continent; (2) the effects of the Gulf Stream. 

He relates the circumstances of his meteorological discovery in a letter dated 
February, 1749. ‘‘ You desire to know my thoughts concerning the northeast 
storms beginning to leeward. Some years ago there was an eclipse of the moon 
at nine o’clock in the evening, which I intended to observe, but before night a 
storm blew up at northeast, and continued violent all night and all the next day, the 
sky thick-clouded, dark, and rainy, so that neither moon nor stars could be seen. 
The storm did a great deal of damage all along the coast, for we had accounts of 
it in the newspapers from Boston, Newport, New York, Maryland, and Virginia. 
But what surprised me was to find in the Boston newspaper an account of an ob- 
servation of that eclipse made there, for I thought as the storm came from the 
northeast it must have begun sooner in Boston than with us, and consequently 
prevented such an observation. I wrote to my brother about it, and he informed 
me that the eclipse was over there an hour before the storm began. Since which 
I have made inquiries from time to time of travelers and of my correspondents 
northeastward and southwestward, ana observed in the accounts in the newspapers 
from New England, New York, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina, and I 
find it to be a constant fact that northeast storms begin to leeward, and are often 
more violent there than to windward. Thus the last October storm, which was 
with you on the 8th, began on the 7th in Virginia and North Carolina, and was 
most violent there.’’ 

Of late years this observation of Franklin’s has been greatly extended. It 
now appears that almost all the chief atmospheric disturbances of this continent 
pass in an easterly or northeasterly direction toward the Atlantic Ocean. Nor do 
they stop on gaining the sea coast. Why should they? In making their way 
over the ocean, though some may disappear, many reach Europe. It follows, 
then, that the approach of these storms, may be foretold by telegraph, and that not 
only in the case of the more intense atmospheric disturbances, but the coming of 
minor ones, such as are popularly designated waves of heat and cold, and varia- 
tions of atmospheric pressure, may be predicted. The introduction of the land 
and ocean telegraphs for this purpose constitutes an epoch in the science of 
meteorology. Ships about to cross the Atlantic may be forewarned as to the 
weather they may expect. An exhaustive examination of the whole subject was 


FRANELIN’S PLACE IN SCIENCE. 157 


made by Daniel Draper, director of the New York Meteorological Observatory 
in the Central Park, and published in his reports of that observatory for the years 
boy 2-73. | 

2d. Ofthe Gulf Stream. The existence of this current was long ago de- 
tected by the New England fishermen, but they had no idea of its magnificent 
proportions, its great geographical and climatological importance. These were 
first brought into view by Franklin. In a memoir read at a meeting of the 
American Philosophical Society, December, 1785, he states that while he was con- 
cerned in the management of the American Post-office an investigation was had 
respecting the cause of the long voyages made by the packet ships from England. 
The merchant ships made much shorter ones. ‘There happened to be then in 
London a Nantucket sea-captain of my acquaintance, Captain Folger, to whom I 
communicated the affair. He told me that the difference was owing to this, 
that the Rhode Island captains were acquainted with the Gulf Stream, while those 
of the Engli:h packets were not. ‘In crossing it we have sometiines met and 
spoken with those packets, who were in the middle of it, and stemming it. We 
have informed them that they were stemming a current that was against them to 
the value of three miles an hour, and advised them to cross it and get out of it.’ 
I then observed it was a pity no notice was taken of this current upon the charts, 
and requested him to mark it out for me, which he readily complied with. | pro- 
cured it to be engraved, by order from the General Post-office on the old chart of 
the Atlantic, and copies were sent down to Falmouth for the captains of the pack- 
ets. Having since crossed the stream several times in passing between America 
and Europe, I have been attentive to sundry circumstances relating to it by which 
to know when one is init. I annex hereto observations made with the thermom- 
eter in two voyages. It will appear from them that a thermometer may be a use- 
ful instrument to a navigator, since currents coming from the northward into 
southern seas will probably be found colder than the waters of those seas, as the 
currents from southern seas into northern are found warmer.”’ 

Though Franklin was not the discoverer of the Gulf Stream, he was the first 
to bring it prominently into notice, to cause a chart of it to be published, to de- 
tect its most important characteristic—its high temperature—to introduce the use 
of the thermometer, and to point out the importance of that instrument in navi- 
gation. 

In the short compass of this article I have not space to relate many of his 
minor experiments and observations. There is, however, one that deserves to be 

teferred to, from the influence it has had in optical science. ‘‘I took,” says 
Franklin, ‘‘a number of little square pieces of broadcloth from a tailors pattern 
card, of various colors.. They were black, deep blue, lighter blue, green, pur- 
ple, red, yellow, white, and other colors or shades of colors. I laid them all out 
upon the snow on a bright sunshiny morning. Ina few hours (I can not now 
be exact as to the time) the black, being most warmed by the sun, was sunk so 
_low as to be below the stroke of the sun’s rays; the dark blue almost as low; the 


ni 
i 


158 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


lighter blue not quite so much as the dark; the other colors less as they were 
lighter; and the quite white remained on the surface of the snow, not having en- 
tered at all. What signifies philosophy that does not apply to some use? May 
we not learn from hence that black clothes are not so fit to wear in a hot, sunny 
climate as white ones ?” 

‘What signifies philosophy that does not apply to some use?” ‘That is a 
sentiment characteristic of Franklin, characteristic of the age in which he lived. 
In truth, the entire scientific and industrial progress of that century is an example 
of it.—Dr. Joun W. Draper, in Harper's Magazine for July. 


DD UW CAIIOINE 


SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 


BY PROF. E. C. CROSBY, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


(Concluded.) 


Says the Assistant Superintendent of the N. Y. schools (1874): ‘‘ Telling 
pupils facts about an object without the necessary observation on their part to 
clearly comprehend those facts, may possibly be called teaching science, but it is 
neither scientific teaching nor object teaching.” I do not understand how one 
can overlook the truth that the memorization of names of natural objects or the 
names of their qualities, or formule which express their relations, without an in- 
dividual appeal first of all to their perceptive faculties, carries with it neither 
science nor scientific method. As the educating process simulates original in- 
vestigation acquisition becomes more rapid, secure and intelligent. Strange it is 
that, at this late date, these principles, but little less than axiomatic, should be so 
disregarded, and demand explicit statement! The truth is, too many are en- 
gaged in this professional business of teaching without attempting to make it 
professional. A few give attention to the science of teaching ; the many engage 
in fiction, or other diverting literature, popular science, philosophy and society. 
The teacher’s preparation of a lesson which he is to hear recited to-morrow, has 
two phases; one, as to its contents and application; the other as to the exact 
method best calculated to arouse the mind, reach the understanding and adapt 
the subject at hand to the inherent and unchangeable laws of unfolding thought. 
This second phase of preparation is so rarely studied that he who would venture 
to present it at the usual teachers’ institute, would suddenly find himself accused 
of taking up valuable time with ‘‘ pet theories.”” May we not hope that the time 
is not far distant wheu a simple statement of the elemental principles of teach- 
ing, daily witnessed in the school room, will be distinguished from those baseless, 


SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 159 


ill-defined and whimsical notions which too often find vent from superheated im- 
aginations? A single illustration: A teacher writes me concerning these views: 
*¢ How can a child get an idea of an isthmus and such things without learning 
the definition first and then applying them?” Evidently this teacher can not 
understand how knowledge can be gained without beginning with a definition, 
mastering it, then producing an example Suppose a pail of water be carefully 
poured out upon the school yard. Let the pupil see the little handful of dirt 
surrounded by water, then give ita name. All the other geographical facts may 
thus be beautifully experienced and made known to the pupil, after which the 
separate parts may receive their several names. ‘Thus do we advance from per- 
ceptions to abstract ideas. Then follows the question, ‘‘ How can children get 
an idea of the extent of land and water without learning the definition first?” 
After what has been said, this question is evidently an absurd one. Still, the 
question is a natural one, since the most of our school text-books, beginning as 
they do with definitions followed by illustrations (which are occasional), thus to- 
tally reversing the order of mental growth, are but splendid examples of human 
folly, which the next century will not tolerate. 

The character of so-called knowledge depends largely upon the condition of 
mind—whether active or passive—in its acquisition. The passive state receives 
information from the teacher or text-book carefully cut out and clearly sepa- 
rated from the many things with which it was in irregular and mixed contact. 
The child’s mental faculties, in committing this formulated knowledge to memory 
have been inactive save the effort to refer the several symbols back to former ex- 
periences. For a moment think of the obscurities, the opposing facts, the thread- 
like hints, the vague confirmations, the tentative efforts, the sudden checks, and 
the great discouragements, out of which have grown the finished educational 
products he so listlessly receives. The pupil knows nothing of those uniting, 
conflicting and jostling facts, but these very facts are the first things with which 
he will meet when he finally passes the threshhold of the school room, and in 
manhood’s prime, he sees and feels that the school has wholly failed in teaching 
him the process of knowing and the methods used, by which the finished forms 
of knowledge became known. 

In the active state of mind the pupil takes hold of the object, be it material 
or spiritual, and personally examines it, 7 ¢. he determines (if the object be for- 
mulated knowledge) whether the relations among his experiences are like those 
relations asserted in the text. If material objects are under examination he feels 
the spring of their substance then names it ‘ elasticity”; he breaks it then calls 
it brittle; his hand passes over it and he calls it rough; he lifts it, then calls it 
light ; and generally, he first experiences, then names those experiences. Names 
appear after experiences, numerous illustrations after the names, and definition 
after those illustrations—the definition being the finished product, the sign of 
previous investigation. In primary instruction, at least, knowing should ante- 
date the naming. In the active state the mind is not only discovering, but it is 


160 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


originally producing something, and this something is expressed in language from 
the securest date known to humanity. The mind is on the alert, inquisitive and 
determined, this active state securing many things entirely lost to the passive 
state. Not only does the mind fully realize the difficulties, individually knowing 
their exact character, but it is nerved to the effort which overcomes them. Ap- 
pearance are separated from realities, and reality-relations are sworn foes to a 
hazy, mental sky. Orders of dependence, fallacies of position and errors in ver- 
bal statement, are originally discovered by the faculties which are necessarily 
sharpened and made reliant by use. In this active, investigating state of mind, 
comparison goes on involuntarily, the judgment is exercised in a practical way 
that developes it, the discriminating faculty is engaged as it must work in future 
years, and when the investigation is completed, the thing known is thoroughly 
distinguishable from every other. While presenting this line of truth (of the last 
half page) I am certain that its full force will be appreciated only by those per- 
-sons who have, during some period of their lives, actively and persistently en- 
gaged in some experimental investigations, or made some conquests in natural 
history, which enables them to know that it is to have the soul tried in its search 
for truth. He who has never had these experiences—but which lie within the 
reach of every person—need not hope for the possession of an opinion upon any 
educational, scientific or philosophic subject deserving the respect of others. 
Another phase of mental action, to which Leibnitz first drew attention, is 
not a little important to the teacher. Those who observe their ewn mental proc- 
esses know that the mind frequently arrives at conclusions, and, among other 
things, determines duties, which challenge conscious effort. ‘‘Just wait a mo- 
ment, let me see,” is often followed by a total inability to fix upon anything def- 
inite for the purpose. After a time the desired date, the wanted name, or the 
quoted sentence, flashes into the mind unbidden and unforewarned. How of- 
ten we struggle to decide upon some course of action when the pros balance the 
cons, when the difficulties vie with the favoring circumstances, and all to no pur- 
pose. Now, throw away all care, turn the attention wholly to other subjects, 
and how frequently the dawn of morning brings the solution which we unhesi- 
tatingly adopt, although we are not conscious of having studied the matter at all. 
In his ‘‘ Psychological Inquiries,”’ Sir Benj. Brodie says: ‘‘ It has often happened 
to me to have been occupied by a particular subject of inquiry; to have accu- 
mulated a store of facts connected with it; but to have been able to proceed no 
further. Then, after an interval of time, without any addition to my stock of 
knowledge, I found the obscurity and confusion in which the subject was origin- 
ally enveloped, to have cleared away; the facts havé seemed all to settle them- 
selves in their right places, and their mutual relations to have become apparent, 
although I have not been sensible of having made any distinct effort for that 
purpose.” ‘There is no question but that much of our thinking is automatic, and 
it is but little less certain that no small amount is unconscious except as seen in 
results. It matters not whether ‘‘ unconscious thinking” or ‘‘ unconscious cere- 


SOME THOWUGHLS ON HE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 161 


bration ” be its technical expression, there still remains the striking fact that we 
are constantly using unpremeditated inferences and other like conclusions in 
practical life, the processes for deriving which we are profoundly ignorant. More 
than this, their certainty we do not for a moment call in question since all matters 
to which this conclusion applies, stand out in an orderly and bold relief. There 
is but one explanation of these phenomena possible; our minds are evolving the 
materials of former perceptions, balancing arguments, comparing data, and study- 
ing relations, when we do not know it, and in a similar manner to that employed 
when we voluntarily effect a solution of difficulties. Here, then, is the evident 
necessity of making all our experiences and their symbols, clear, concise and sey- 
erally distinguished, since we are wholly unable, at the time in question, to sup- 
plement any deficiency by improving the perception or otherwise increasing the 
quantity of materials for the mind’s use. 

By such training, wherein the pupil knows. from personal observation where- 
of he speaks, instead of relying upon his memory as to what some “authority ” 
has said about it, the student is not only better enabled to encounter the prob- 
lems of life and to perform its common offices not meanly but well. 


‘¢ A great problem, ever pressing upon mankind, 
Is how to discover and apply 
The immense universe of Truth unknown: 
The final end of all original research 
Is the improvement and perfection of mankind.’’* 


‘We are all blockheads in something” ¢ has reference more to special de- 
fects and special aptitudes in the mental constitution, but beneath this striking 
statement there lies the peculiarity, but little less than universal, commonly called 
dullnes. It is clear that, to the extent that original intuitions of the pupil have 
been confined within narrow limits, were incomplete from any cause, or are re- 
mote in time, their symbols will possess but a scanty meaning, and be unman_ 
ageable through all the contrivances and ingenious methods which the teacher 
can devise, 2. ¢. the pupil is dull; but, if the original experiences were ample 
and conclusive, were oft repeated and not distant in time while the native adhe- 
siveness of mind is fair or good, then the symbols as used in new relations, will 
‘possess a power which makes the eye twinkle, fills the face with enthusiasm, and 
begets a desire for continued progress, z. e. the child is apt. ‘‘ The new state- 
ment principle, or truth is comprehended” means, that the pupil has marshaled 
the symbols into intelligible order by readily supporting them with original ex- 
periences. ‘‘ He does not understand” means, the pupil can not refer the sym- 
bols to their fundamental correlates, which, if they ever existed, have now 
faded away. We fail to reach this mind, because this mind fails to perform that 
“act essential to every knowing. It must be noticed that these facts are not in- 
validated by that exceedingly important truth, that a good inheritance has every- 
thing to do with intellectual progress—‘‘ one must be well born”—as the same 


* Gore. 
} Senses and Intellect.—Bain. 


162 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


laws of mental development obtain whether one’s capacity be remarkable or in- 
ferior. 

Such are the fundamental principles of mental development as I conceive 
them, and as such are they slowly coming into favor among those who strive to 
know the kind and direction of that current which forms the substratum of all 
our mental process. In conclusion, I know of no better instruction which will 
induce students to continue in improvement after graduation; none which will 
so much inspire the teacher to grow, after being well seated in his professional 
chair. Such teaching will best enable a person to withhold the expression of an 
opinion when he has none worth expressing; to rely somewhat upon his own ob- 
servation and judgment of men and things rather than upon some ‘‘ authority,” 
to form proportionate judgments when complete ones are impossible; to reserve 
judgments wholly when we have not heard both sides of a controversy; to stand 
aloof from-the acceptation of any views whose details, bearings and history have 
not been faithfully examined; to feel security in honest convictions when formed 
upon the broadest foundation within the range of the individual; to rise and re- 
solve anew when misfortunes beset us, instead of weakening under a flood of 
tears; to unconditionally defend his right to reject or reserve judgment upon 
any beliefs which may be presented for his consideration if their data contradict 
the experiences of his short life time. 


GCEOLOGGAND: MIN EN Ac@ Ge 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 
BY THE LATE PROF. B. F. MUDGE. 
CHAPTER I1.—RADIATES. 


The radiates are the lowest (excepting Protozoa), of the five great sub- 
kingdoms of animals. They do not appear with the first traces of life in the 
Lower Silurian, though they are found soon afterwards. Two of the higher 
sub-kingdoms, the Mollusks and Articulates, appear in the Acadian and 
the Radiates not till the Potsdam. It is also a well settled fact that the lowest of 
the Radiates are not the first representatives of that sub-kingdom. Acalephs and 
Echinoderms appear at the opening of the Primoid, or first division of the Lower 
Silurian and Polyps, at the close of the Trenton, or after a period of one-fifteenth 
of the earth’s geological history. Dana says: ‘‘If we may trust the records, 
Echinoderms or the highest type of Radiates were represented by species 
(Crystids and Crinids) long before the inferior type of Polyps existed; this can 
hardly be accounted for satisfactorily on the supposition that the earliest Polyps 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 163 


made no calcareous secretions, seeing that the ocean’s waters were then eminently 
calcareous.” 

Even the star-fishes are found nearly as early (in the Trenton) as the lowest 
forms. The Radiates then continue to the present time, running a parallel line 
of life with the Mollusks and Articulates, without ever crossing the lines of 
demarcation of these sub-kingdoms. The Oculinay (in Eocene) and Astreze (in 
Mesozoic) Tribes did not make their appearance till long after the Polzeazoic Age. 
So low forms of Radiates should, on all principles of development, have been 
seen at the dawn of life. 

Though there has been a great diversity in the various phases of the Radiates, 
in species, genera and even orders; yet so very slight has been the advancement, 
that if all the changes were proved to be an outgrowth by evolution, it would not 
prove that a high type of animal life could be derived from a low one. 

But there is one aspect of this question which appears to prove an insur- 
mountable objection to the passage of one type into another. It relates to the 
mathematical structure of the Radiates. On the first appearance of the Radiates 
they had the parts in multiples of four; but in the Mesozoic Age the Astra type 
came in with a multiple of parts in sixes. This is a mathematical change. 
Now, there can be no development of a triangle into a quadrilateral. When 
the figure ceases to have three sides it must have four. There can be no inter- 
mediate form. So of the earlier and later corals. The moment it ceases to be 
a radiation of fours, it becomes a radiation of sixes. The difference in structure 
is simply the crossing of two lines; in the one case, and of three lines, 
in the other. As each increases in age and maturity there is an additional 
cross line between each two of the first, crossing at the center, as before, and 
the four rays of the two lines become eight rays from the four lines in the first 
multiple of the old corals; and the six rays rays from the three lines 
become twelve rays; from the six lines in the multiples of the newer corals. 

There can be, from the mathematical construction, no intermediate 


(evolutionary) form. The geometrical structure forbids it. 


There is another plan of structure in some of the Radiates (Star-fish and 
Crinoids§) in which the rays are five in number or multiples of five. These are 
constructed on another plan, differing more from those above described than 
they from each other. The five rays are formed, not from lines crossing, but 
from five lines radiating from a common point, at equal angles. This is also a 
mathematical structure, and cannot be derived from either of the others any 
easier than a pentagon can be derived from a square or from a hexagon. 

All these forms have flourished in the same waters from the Mesozoic, and 


most of them from the Lower Silurian Age. 


The Star-fishes (Paleeaster, etc.), having five rays, possess little constructive 


_ Tesemblance to the five-armed Pentacrinus with its thousands of plates, though 


*Manual, p. 598. 
{Iwo low forms of Corals. 
@Crinoids are sometimes called ‘‘Stone Lillies,” though they are not vegetable organisms. 


IV—11 


164 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


both are of the same mathematical rank. Nor ls there, among our earlist fossils, 
the slightest trace that one has been derived from the other, or both from a com- 
mon parentage. Both appear in the Trenton epoch with the same distinctive 
characteristics which they possess in any later period. 

It is a principle of evolution, that the influence of climate, food and other 
circumstances are largely, and, in the lower forms of organism, the entire cause 
of the variance of structure. In these low, radiate forms ‘‘natural selection ” 
can have no influence. With this principle before us, we would draw attention 
to the extremely monotonous surroundings in which the Radiates, particularly 
the Corals, have always existed. This can be clearly seen in the living species 
and genera. ‘They are nearly all confined within the twentieth degrees of latitude 
on both sides of the Equator. They are most abundant in the Pacific ocean. 
That body of water, even more than the other tropical oceans, is noted for its 
uniform temperature and the uniform proportion of saline elements held in 
solution. Many of the Pacific islands have a maximum range of less than 
15° Fahrenheit of extreme temperature in the year, and the adjoining waters 
have far less, at the depth of which most of the corals live. The zone of coral 
life is limited to one hundred feet in depth, and most genera are confined to a 
belt of twenty vertical feet. The variation of temperature in the year for the 
lower portion of this zone, is probable not over five degrees. ‘This portion of 
the ocean, in which the corals live, is more uniform in its clearness and saltness 
than in its temporature, as when these vary the animals die. The food which 
most if not all of them eat is the same. Their chemical, coral, calcite structures 
are identical. 

Now with all these extremely monotonous conditions of the coral Polyps and 
other Radiates, why do we find so great a variety of species, genera and even 
orders flourishing on the same reef? If diversified conditions, according to Prof. 
Darwin and his associates, give new forms, why should circumstances, such as 
we have described, present us with such varied ones? Or if they owe their 
origin to diversified conditions which are lost to our knowledge by the ‘‘imper- 
fection of the geological records,” why should not our monotonous and very 
uniform conditions of the age of man have reduced these numerous genera and 
species to a few forms? 

Geologists and paleontologists have clearly settled the question that in all ages 
of the globe, wherever corals have existed, the conditions of the ocean, in all 
respects, have been the same as that in which they now exist. In collecting our 
fossil Radiates from the oldest strata, though in certain localities some species 
may predominate, we always find associated others of very different generic 
affinities. Yet they must, like those of the present tropics, have lived in the 
same water under the same climatic conditions. 

Barrande classifies over thirteen hundred species of Radiates of the utmost 
extremes of genera from Star-fishes and Crinoids to Polyps, all gathered from 


ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS. 165 


the Silurian deposits. These present a close resemblance to those now living. 
Prof. Huxley tells us* that only one order of the corals has become extinct. 

Any one looking over the beautiful volume of Zoophites, by Prof. J. D. Dana, 
compiled from his researches while connected with the Wilkes exploring expedi- 
tion in the Pacific, will be struck even more by the diversity of conformation than 
by the beauty of colors in this branch of animated nature. He describes over 
five hundred species (we quote from memory) and saw as many more which he 
had not time to classify. Agassiz in 1850 estimated that there were ten thousand 
living species of Radiates. 


THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS. + 
BY PROF. J. S. NEWBERRY. 


The mineral matters which have proved useful to man form three categories : 
first, the earthy, as gypsum, clay, marble; second, carbonaceous, as coal, 
lignite, petroleum ; third, metallic, as iron, gold, silver. 

The metals occur rarely native, oftener as ores, that is, combined with sul- 
phur, silica, carbonic acid, etc. ‘These form a series of deposits, of which the 
physical and chemical characters and history differ widely. They may be grouped 
into three classes, as follows: 

1. Superficial Deposits. 

2. Stratified Deposits. 

3.  Unstratiped Deposits. 


SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS. 


These include the accumulations of gold, stream-tin, platinum, gems, etc., 
which are obtained from the surface material, gravel, sand and clay, derived 
from the mechanical decomposition of rock masses through which metals or ores 
were sparsely distributed. Thus, gold usually occurs in small quantity in the 
quartz-veins of metamorphic rocks. By the erosion of these rocks, having been 
freed from its matrix, and that more or less perfectly removed, this gold is con- 
centrated by a natural washing process similar to that employed by man, but on 
a grander scale. Inthe same manner, the oxide of tin, which is hard, heavy 
and very resistant to chemical agents, is distributed sparsely through granitic 
rocks or vein-stones ; and where these have been eroded, the cassiterite remains 
in the alluvial deposits of streams, where it can be cheaply and easily collected. 

Superficial deposits have probably furnished nine-tenths of all the gold that 
has been obtained by man, the greater part of the tin, all the platinum and its 
associated metals (iridium, osmium, etc.), and all the gems except the emerald, 
which in South America is obtained by mining. ‘Thus, it will be seen that the 
surface deposits are scarcely less important, economically, than the others. The 


*Lay Sermons, etc., X p. 216. 
{From the School of Mines Quarterly for March, 1880. 


166 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


superficial deposits of gold are for the most part confined to the foot-hills of 
mountain ranges, and are the products of the erosion effected by ages of frost, 
sun, rain and ice, which are continually wearing down all the more elevated por- 
tions of the earth’s surface. Shore-waves also, in some instances, have worn 
away the rocks against which they have beaten, and have produced accumulations 
of debris that contain gold, platinum, gems, etc., in sufficient quantity to be 
economically worked. When a beach deposit of this kind has been raised above 
the sea-level, it sometimes becomes convenient and profitable mining ground. 
On the coast of Oregon, at and above Port Orford, the beaches now yield gold, 
iridium and osmium in sufficient quantity to afford profitable employment to 
quite a mining population; and in the Black Hills, the old Potsdam sandstone 
beach, formed by the beating of the Silurian sea upon cliffs of Laurentian and - 
Huronian rocks traversed by auriferous quartz-veins, now constitutes what is. 
there known as the ‘‘cement deposits,” from which a considerable portion of the 
gold of this region is obtained. As has been mentioned, however, the chief 
supply of gold in all ages has come from the debris that have accumulated at the 
foot of mountain slopes. All mountain chains are composed of metamorphic 
rocks, and nearly all the mountain ranges of the globe are traversed by quartz- 
veins, in which are concentrated much of the gold that was originally finely 
disseminated through the sedimentary strata—conglomerates, sandstones, shales, 
etc.—now granites, schists and slates. 

By the lateral pressure that has metamorphosed the sedimentary rocks, 
and produces the segregation of the quartz-veins, great folds and ridges were 
formed, which, rising high above the general surface, act as condensers of mois- 
ture and receive the most copious precipitation from the clouds. Hence on 
these mountain sides an enormous system of water-power is developed, which is 
spent in grinding up the rocks and transporting the dedris to the bottom of the 
slope. Here it is further washed, stored, and the gold locally concentrated to 
form the rich ‘‘ placer” diggings. As no great skill or expensive mining machin- 
ery is required to work placer deposits, every man with good health, a pick, 
shovel, pan and stock of provisions may go into the business. Gold washing is 
the simplest, as it was probably the earliest, of all mining enterprises, and has 
at different times employed nearly the entire population of a district or country. 
It is not surprising, therefore, that it has resulted in the production of an enor- 
mous quantity of gold. It is evident, however, that most of the placers of the 
world have been already exhausted, and while the little-known continent of 
Africa promises to furnish a large amount of the precious metal from its ‘‘golden 
sands,” we can hardly expect that the production of California, Australia and 
New Zealand will ever be repeated in the world’s history. 


STRATIFIED DEPOSITS. 


These may be subdivided into several groups, such as: 
1. Ore forming entire strata; for example beds of iron ore. 


ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS. 167 


2. Ore disseminated through strata; as copper in the schists of Mansfeldt 
and in the sandstones of Lake Superior. 

1. Segregated masses in strata; as sheets of copper in the Lake Superior 
sandstones; balls, kidneys and sheets of clay ironstone in the shales of the Coal 
measures, etc. 


UNSTRATIFIED DEPOSITS. 


These have been divided into: 
Eruptive masses. 

Disseminated through eruptive rocks. 
Contact deposits. 

Stockworks. 

Fahlbands. 

Impregnations. 

Chambers. 

Mineral veins. 

Of Eruptive masses of metalliferous matter I must confess myself incredu- 
lous. Examples of these are cited in the crystalline iron ores of the island of 
Elba, those of Nijni, Tagilsk in Russia, and in Sweden, and even the iron ore- 
beds of Lake Superior and Missouri. As late as 1854, this was the view taken 
of our crystailine iron ores by Whitney in his Metallic Wealth; but great advances 
have since been made in our knowledge of these deposits, and it is now generally 
conceded that all our crystalline iron ores are simply metamorphosed sedimentary 
beds. The evidence is accumulating that those of the old world have the same 
character. Professor Otto Torell, the Director of the Geological Survey of 
Sweden, recently told me that he had visited all but one of the iron districts of 
Sweden, had found that in all these the iron ores were metamorphic, and he had 
no doubt that those yet unexamined were of similar nature. Where metamorphic 
action has been peculiarly violent, the beds of iron ore have been more or less 
disinembered, and perhaps in some instances have been actually fused; but that 
any bed of iron ore.is the result of an eruption from the interior of the earth, 
is scarcely to be credited. 

The examples of the occurrence of metalliferous matter disseminated through 
eruptive rocks are by no means uncommon, and the amygdaloid traps of Lake 
Superior, in which the cavities formed by gases have been more or less perfectly 
filled with copper, suggest themselves at once. Pyrites, magnetic iron, and 
platinum are found sparsely diffused through trap-rocks, and are sometimes con- 
centrated in such a way as to form valuable deposits when the trap decomposes. » 

Contact deposits are usually understood to be accumulations of metal or ore 
along the planes of contact between two strata; and the sheets and strings of 
copper which are concentrated at the junction of the trap and sandstone in some 
parts of the south shore of Lake Superior constitute illustrative examples of this 
class of mineral deposits. There is, however, considerable diversity in character 
among the deposits grouped under this head; the chief distinction being that 


OI ARR SH 


168 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


in some cases the ore or metal has been segregated from one or the other of the 
strata at the time of their deposition, and in others it has come from a foreign 
source, and has been deposited in a more or less continuous sheet in cavities 
formed between the surfaces of the adjacent rock-beds. To the second of these 
classes would seem to belong the argentiferous ores of Leadville, Colorado. 
These are deposited along the plane of junction between an underlying limestone 
and overlying porphyry, and undoubtedly accumulated in vacant spaces formed 
by the solution of the limestone. ‘These ore bodies have apparently much in 
common with the pockets and chambers excavated in certain limestone beds, 
and subsequently filled with ore, to be described farther on. ‘The true structure 
of these Leadville ore bodies can, however, only be accurately learned when 
they shall be penetrated below the zone of unchanged sulphurets into which they 
will undoubtedly merge in depth. 

The term Stockwork is applied in the old world to a mass of rock or vein- 
stone penetrated in all directions by small intersecting sheets or veins in such a 
way that the whole mass is mined out. Some examples of this kind of deposit 
may be found in most of our mining districts; but the most important which have 
come under my observation are in the Oquirrh Mountains, in Utah, and at Silver 
Cliff, Colorado. In the first of these localities, beds of quartzite—in the second, 
of porphyry, have been shattered, and the crevices between the fragments have 
been filled with ore deposited from solution. 

The name Fahlband, or rotten layer, originated in the silver mine of Kongs 
berg, in Norway, where there are parallel beds of rock impregnated with the 
sulphides of iron, copper, zinc, etc., which, by their decomposition, have rendered 
these beds so soft as easily to be removed. We occasionally meet with pyritous- 
rock in this country, which decomposes in the same way, but none yet known to 
me has any considerable importance as a metalliferous deposit. 

Impregnations may be defined to be saturations of porous rock with a 
mineral solution or vapor from which ore has been deposited. ‘The cinnabar 
which is sometimes found impregnating unchanged or metamorphosed sandstone 
is generally cited as affording typical examples of impregnations. In such cases, 
which occur in California and South America, the deposit of ore has been 
ascribed by some writers to vapors, by others to solution, and it would seem that 
the latter is the more credible theory, although the vaporization of mercury is 
easily effected, and, like other metals, it may be transported by steam, as we 
have proof at the geysers in California. More familiar and satisfactory exhibi- 
tions of impregnation are, however, afforded by the copper-bearing sandstones of 
Lake Superior, New Jersey and New Mexico, and the silver-bearing sandstones 
of Silver Reef, in Southern Utah. In all these cases, it is evident that a porous 
rock was once saturated with a metalliferous solution, from which, in the Lake 
Superior region, metallic copper was precipitated; in New Jersey and New 
Mexico, sulphides of copper and iron; at Silver Reef, sulphide of silver. As 
such repositories of the metals are easily penetrated by surface water and air, we 


ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS. 169 


usually find the sulphides decomposed to a considerable depth; the copper ores 
converted into carbonate and silicate, the sulphide of silver into the chloride. 
Chambers or pockets in limestone form the receptacles of ore in many coun- 
tries; but nowhere else are such striking examples of this class of deposit as 
those found in our Western mining districts. From a study of these, I have been 
led to add them to the catalogue of forms of ore-deposit as a distinct and 
important addition to those given by other writers. The distinctive characters 
of these accumulations of ore in chambers and galleries has not been heretofore 
generally recognized, and a want of information in regard to their true nature 
has led to much litigation and heavy losses in mining. The best examples of 
chamber-mines are the Eureka Consolidated, Richmond, etc., of Eureka, 
Nevada ; the Emma, Flagstaff, Kessler, etc., in little Cottonwood District; and 
the Cave Mine, near Frisco, Utah. All these mines are alike in this, that the 
ore is found more or less completely filling irregular chambers in limestone. 
Some of these ore-bodies are of great size, and the aggregate product of these 
chamber-mines is so great as to make it necessary to record this as one of the 
most important forms of metalliferous deposit. From the Potts chamber in the 
Eureka Consolidated mine, it is said that ore of the value of a million dollars 
was taken, while a still larger amount was produced from the great chamber of 
the Emma. The origin of these chamber-deposits is, in my judgment, simply 
this: A stratum of limestone, more than usually soluble in atmospheric water, 
carrying carbonic acid—which dissolves all limestones—has at some time been 
honey-combed by chambers and galleries such as those which traverse the lime- 
stone plateau of Central Kentucky, of which the Mammoth Cave is an example. 
Subsequently this rock has been broken through and upheaved by the subterra- 
nean forces which have disturbed all our important mining districts; and through 
the fissures then formed mineral solutions ascended, flowing into any receptacle 
opened to them. Where these fissures cut an insoluble rock, they became, when 
filled, simply fissure-veins; but where a cavernous limestone was broken into, 
such caverns and galleries as were opened were more or less filled with ore. It 
has been suggested that the caves now holding ore were excavated by the 
metalliferous solution; but we find some of them entirely empty, with their sides 
incrusted with spar, and having all the characters of ordinary limestone caves, 
and even where the-ore occurs, the walls of the cavity have the same character, 
are hard and unimpregnated with ore. Hence we must conclude that the cham- 
bers were formed, like modern caves, by surface water; and when the country 
was upheaved and the rock shattered, only part of them were opened, and that 
- these received the solution and ore, while the unopened ones remained empty. 
The character of the ore contained in the chambers varies much, as it does in 
the fissure-veins of our mining districts; and the solution from which they were 
filled must have been different in the different localities where they occur. 
Argentiferous galena was evidently the most abundant ore deposited in the 
chambers, as it is elsewhere; but in some cases, this is associated with a large 


6 


170 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


amount of iron sulphide, in others very little; while the ratio of gold to silver 
Is inconstant, and the aggregate of both varies from nothing to several hundred 
dollars to the ton. The ores of Eureka run high in lead, contain much iron, 
and about seventy dollars in the precious metals, half gold. half silver. The 
ores of the Emma mine carried less iron, more lead, much more silver, less gold; 
and a little copper; while those of the Cave mine, at Frisco, contain no lead, 
much iron, a little copper, and are sometimes exceedingly rich in both silver and 
gold. In all the chamber.mines yet worked in this country, the ore taken out 
is thoroughly oxidized ; but in the deeper workings of some neighboring fissure- 
veins, the soft, ochery ores of the chambers are found changed below into com- 
pact masses of galena and iron pyrites; the galena carrying the silver—the 
pyrites, the gold. Hence we may conclude that the ore originally deposited in 
the caves consisted of sulphides, and that, whenever these 1nines shall be worked 
below the water-level, ore of this character will be found. It should be said, 
however, that if the theory I have suggested of the formation of the limestone 
galleries and chambers is true, they will not be found to extend to so great a 
depth as the ore-bodies of fissure-veins, since the excavation of the limestone, if 
produced by atmospheric water, must be confined to the zone traversed by 
surface drainage. In a very dry and broken country, the line of permanent 
water-level may be very deep, as at Eureka, where the ore-bodies extend and are 
oxidized to a depth of at least 1400 feet. Such a condition of things could only 
exist in a very dry climate; but we have evidence that there have been great 
climatic changes in our western mining districts; according to King and Gilbert, 
two wet periods having been succeeded by two dry ones, the last prevailing now. 
We may therefore find chambers wrought in the limestone in a dry period below 
the present or normal water-level. The enormous production of gold and silver 
from the chamber-mines already worked proves the great importance and value 
of this class of deposits; and while we may predict that they will be found to be 
more superficial than true fissure-veins, no limit can be fixed to the future yield 
of mines of this character, even though they should not be profitably worked 
below 1500 feet from the surface. 
( Zo be continued.) 


GENESIS AND MODERN THOUGHT. 
BY PRINCIPAL J. W. DAWSON, LL. D., MCGILL COLLEGE, MONTREAL. 


Every age of the word has its own mental habits, part of which are transient, 
passing away with the time that gave them birth; part are permanent, and are 
handed down to succeeding ages. It thus happens that every great permanent 
monument in the world, be it a mountain, a pyramid, or a divinely inspired book, 
is regarded with somewhat different eyes by the successive generations of men. 

he Book of Genesis is such a monument, reaching unchanged from the 


GENESIS AND MODERN THOUGHT. 171 


dawn of literature, teaching to each successive generation nearly all that it knows 
of the early history of the world and man. It has lasted through ages of primi- 
tive simplicity, of early civilization, of medizval barbarism, of modern revival; 
and each as it passed away has glanced reverently at the old book which tells of 
the generations of the heavens and the earth What have the thought and the 
science of our age done with the old record? One thing is certain: that the 
present is a singular and special period, in its manner of treating ancient things. 
We have a way of keeping out side of us everything which went to the hearts of 
our fathers, of cutting everything to pieces to find what is within it, of coldly 
criticising objects of faith and veneration; and Genesis has received so much of 
this treatment that it is questionable if all even of those who have the firmest 
faith in-revelation regard it exactly as they once did, or as their predecessors did. 
Perhaps it may be well to refresh our souls a little, in this matter, by a more 
kindly and loving glance at the Book of Genesis and its relations to our modern 
science and our modern lives. 

Modern historical research has given us new impressions as to the great an- 
tiquity of Genesis. A book which was translated into Greek three hundred 
years before Christ, which was accepted alike by Samaritans and Jews as a vener- 
able and sacred record at the time of their separation, about a thousand years be- 
fore Christ, the acceptance of which can be proved from the history of Israel to 

-have extended almost as far back as the time of the reputed author, say 1400 or 
1500 years before Christ, is a very old book, if not the oldest of books. Nor has 
any success attended the efforts of modern criticism to show that this venerable 
record has been tampered with or re-edited at any later date. But the date of 
Moses, say 3300 years ago, does not really measure the actual antiquity of the 
contents of Genesis. If we were to pick out of the book all the passages that 
are either explicitly or by implication stated to have been revealed to or spoken 
by Adam, Noah, Abraham, and the other patriarchs, we should find that accord- 
ing to the showing of Moses himself, very much of the matter, and this of the 
most important, must have existed long before his time, and was merely collected 
and edited by him. This is the common sense aspect of that ‘‘ document hy- 
pothesis”? on which so much learning has been expended, and which has per- 
plexed so many. Butthere are other passages, not thus indicated, which must 
have existed long before the time of Moses. Take, for example, the first chap- 
ter of Genesis. The contents of this chapter, relating as they do to matters which 
precede the advent of man, must have been just as much the result of direct in- 
spiration as if they had contained a prophecy of the distant future. But to whom 
were th-y revealed? It may have been to Moses; but there were inspired men 
before Moses, and it would seem strange that this initial part of revelation should 
have been withheld from the generations between Adam and Moses, and more es- 

pecially as the keeping of the Sabbath, which is directly based on it, was a lead- 
ing institute of pre-Mosaic religion. 
Recent researches in the monuments of Assyria now assure us that the an- 


172 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


cient Chaldeans possessed this revelation. It existed among them, it is true, in a 
corrupt form, mixed up with idolatrous ideas; but it can be traced back as far as 
to the time of Abraham. The Father of the faithful may indeed, when he left 
Chaldea, have possessed in a written form all that part of Genesis which relates 
to the creation and the deluge. Thus the substance of the first chapter of Gene- 
sis probably belongs to antediluvian times, was a very old book in the days of 
Moses, may have been taught to him by his mother in the same form in which we 
now have it, and was a revelation to some antediluvian patriarch, perhaps to 
Adam himself. 

The questions raised by the first chapter of Genesis are, however, so many 
and complicated that they can not profitably be entered into in a short article. 
The more important of them may be included in the answers to two gestions: 
ffow was this revelation given? and why was it given? 

The first of these questions—the /ow of the revelation of creation—is an- 
swered by the form of the record. Its condensed, repetitive and rythmical form 
is evidently intended to facilitate remembrance and oral transmission. Its picto- 
rial character and division into days suggest a succession of visions granted to 
the seer, and in which he saw, day by day, the work of creation proceeding 
from its beginning to its close. This is perhaps the most intelligible conception 
we can form of the nature of the revelation; and since it is the mode in which 
the future was presented to inspired prophets in later Biblical times, there can be 
no impropriety in supposing it to have been the means of communicating the 
knowledge of the unknown past. We may thus imagine the seer, wrapped in 
ecstatic vision, having his senses closed to all the impressions of the present world, 
and looking with inward eye at a moving procession of the events of the earth’s 
past history, presented to him in a succession of apparent days and nights. This 
view may relieve us from the difficulties which have arisen from what has been 
called the ‘‘ literal day”’ theory of the creative week. Just as, in the visions of 
later prophets, a day may stand for a year, so in this ancient prophecy, the day 
of the seer may be an emblematic day of vision representing one of the long 
days of God’s creative working. 

This idea of long creative periods as represented by the days of creation is, 
however, too important, both in its relation to science and religion, to be lightly 
passed over. ‘Three affirmations may be made respecting it. 

1. The doctrine of long creative periods is in harmony with the general tes- 
timony of Scripture. Many proofs of this might be given. The word ‘‘day” is 
used in Genesis 2 to denote the whole period of the creative work ‘‘in the day 
when Jehovah created the heavens and the earth.”” In Psalm go, which is ‘‘a 
psalm of Moses,” one day is said to be with the Lord as a thousand years, in ref= 
erence to the period of human history, and the expression ‘‘ from everlasting to 
everlasting,” literally from ‘‘ age to age,” refers to the great length of the crea- 
tive days. In Psalm 104, which is a poetical version of the account of creation, 
the tone of the references shows that the writer understood the creative work to 


GENESIS AND MODERN THOUGHT. 173 


have occupied a long time. While the six days are said to have had an evening 
and morning, this is not affirmed of the seventh day, which may, therefore, in the 
view of the writer, be still in progress. Our Lord in his reply to the Pharisees, 
who accused him of working on the Sabbath—‘‘ My Father worketh hitherto, 
and I work”—affirms his belief that God’s Sabbath lasted up to his time; and 
the Jews seem to have held the same opinion, since they did not object. The ar- 
gument relating to the Sabbatism of God’s people, in Hebrews 4, depends for its 
force on the idea that God’s creative Sabbath is still in progress, and that Christ’s 
Sabbatism, on which he has entered after finishing his work, is also an indefinite 
period. When, in Hebrews 1, Christ is said to have ‘‘ made the worlds,” the lit- 
eral meaning is ‘‘ constituted or determined the long ages of the worlds’ making,” 
—that is, of the creative days, and the expression ‘‘ eternal purpose,’’ used of 
Christ in Ephesians 3:11, with reference to the creation, has the same reference. 
It means the purpose or design of thecreative ages. The above are merely a few 
evidences which show that the doctrine of long creative periods was that held by 
Moses himself, by our Lord, and by the apostles; and after this it will be scarcely 
necessary to add that Augustine and other early fathers of the church understood 
the matter in the same way, and that many good and eminent men in later times 
have arrived at the same conclusion. The days of the first chapter of Genesis 
may be literal days of vision to the seer; but they are working days of God, and 
not of man; and we live in the seventh of them, which was intended to bea 
Sabbath of rest, but has failed of this, for the present, on account of the fall of 
man. 

2. It may be affirmed that this doctrine of long creative days gives the only 
full and complete explanation of the institution and obligation of the Sabbath. 
If God made the world in six natural days, and rested on the seventh, then his 
example would have no force, unless it could be shown that, in some sense, he 
continues to work on six days, and rest on the seventh; but nature shows that this 
is not a fact, and our Lord’s expression, ‘‘My Father worketh hitherto,”’ agrees 
with this. Thus on the literal day theory, there would be a hidden fallacy implied 
in the reason annexed to the fourth commandment. But if Cod made the world 
in six long periods; if the seventh was not only this rest but that blessed Sabba- 
tism in which innocent man was to enjoy perpetual happiness; if this Sabbatism 
was lost by the fall, and if the weekly Sabbath is a memorial of this rest lost by 
the fall and the hopeful sign that it is to be restored by the Savior, then we have 
a substantial reason for the Sabbath day, a warrant for its being placed where it 
is in the ten commandments, and for the great importance attached to it through- 
out the Old Testament. The Sabbath then becomes to us an emblem at once of 
_ the paradise lost by the fall, and of the paradise to be regained in Christ. In- 
_ stead of appearing as piece of ritual misplaced in the moral law, it becomes that 
which gives life and significance to the whole decalogue. We have here also the 
true explanation of the change from the Jewish Sabbath to the Lord’s day; for if 
the one was the reminder of the Sabbatism lost by the fall and to be restored, 


174 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


the day of its restoration necessarily becomes the true Sabbath, and it needed no 
argument or explanation to show to the first Christians their duty in this matter. 
This consideration is also inplied in the argument to Hebrews 4, already referred 
to. 

3. The long creative periods are in harmony with the records preserved 12 
the rocks of the earth by the Creator himself. It is now generally admitted that 
the order of creation in the long geological epochs revealed by scientific investi- 
gation corresponds very closely with that in Genesis. Absolute agreement in de- 
tails is not to be expected in the present state of knowledge; but the general se- 
quence, in the primitive formless state, the development of the atmosphere, 
ocean, and dry land, the introduction first of swarms of lower marine animals, 
then of great reptiles (mistranslated ‘‘ whales” in our version), then of mamma- 
lia, and finally of man, is the same with that in the geological record. ‘There are, 
besides, many other points of coincidence which cannot be detailed here, and 
which give the impression that the series of pictures presented to the inspired 
seer must have strikingly resembled those which might be devised to illustrate our 
geological chronology. It is certainly a remarkable fact that the old record of 
Genesis should thus give us a sequence similar to that arrived at independently 
by science in these last days. 

The second question above proposed, why this detailed revelation of creation 
should have been given, brings us to some practical applications. 

1. The first great object of that ‘‘ book of origins” which we have in Gen- 
esis, is to assure us of the reality of the creation, and of God as the great First 
Cause. The one utterance ‘‘in the beginning God created the heavens and the 
earth,” if received in faith, is subversive of atheism, materialism, pantheism, ag- 
nosticism, and a hundred other false doctrines which have afflicted humanity. 
The author of Genesis does not attempt to prove this great truth, but a moment’s 
consideration suffices to show that it needs no proof. The universe exists with all 
its numerous and complex machinery. Either it must have existed eternally, 
which.is inconceivable, or it must have been produced. If produced, then it 
had a beginning, and could not have produced itself. But before it began there 
must have been a power capable of planning and producing it, and that power 
must have been God. The Hebrew writer calls him Elohim, a plural name—not 
merely a plural of dignity, but implying that plurality of person and action which 
he himself recognizes in the word of God and the Spirit of God, and implying 
also, that all true godhead, by whatever names recognized in different tongues, is 
the one God, the Creator. 

2. The next object of the record of creation is to show us that all the details 
of nature are the work of one God, and parts of one plan. The heathen nations 
recognized many local and partial gods, and they deified heavenly bodies, moun- 
tains, rivers, trees, and animals. ‘The writer of Genesis grasps the whole of this 
material of ancient idolatry, and shows that it is the work of one God. ‘Thus no 
room is left for polytheistic views of nature, nor for that superstition which re- 


GENESIS AND MODERN THOUGHT 175 


gards natural phenomena as the work of malignant beings. Here, again, he lays 
down a principle which commends itself at once to common sense, and which all 
science tends to support. Nothing can be a more assured result of scientific 
study than the unity of plan and operation in all nature, and the folly of these 
superstitions which refer natural events either to chance or to the conflict of sub- 
ordinate deities or demons. Thus the first chapter of Genesis, wherever re- 
ceived and believed, gives the death-blow to idolatry, and superstition. 

Bae smother ereati use)! of) the) mecord of creation /j1s))the./ assertion 
of the truth that man is the child of God, created in his image and likeness. 
The first question in some of our catechisms for children, ‘‘ Who made you ?” 
points to this first and primitive doctrine of religion, on which the whole relation 
of man to God as a moral and responsible being is built. Here, again, Genesis 
is in accord with the best science and philosophy. It is true that there are theo- 
rists in our time who profess to believe that the human will and reason have in 
some way developed themselves from the instincts of lower animals. But these 
men can not but feel that they are maintaining a most improbable conclusion, 
for it is not in accordance with natural analogy that anything should rise above 
its own level, that any motive-power can put forth more or other than the energy 
that isinit. Thus an intelligence like man can not flow upward from lower 
sources, but must have relation to some higher creative intelligence. 

These thoughts carry us no farther than the first chapter of Genesis. The 
history of Eden and the Fall carry with them other truths. But I may now ask, 
are the truths above referred to of no practical value? They may appear too fa- 
miliar to us to need to be insisted on; but the practical, and even the open de- 
nial of them by so much of the infidelity of our time, shows that they still need 
to be enforced, and that they really lie at the foundations of our faith. The edi- 
fice of Christianity, as it now stands forth in all the grandeur of its New Testa- 
ment development, with Jesus Christ as its chief corner-stone, may well by its 
magnificent superstructure call our attention away from the rough stones laid 
down for its foundation in the old patriarchal days. But these were great and 


costly stones, and had they not been bedded on the rock in those primitive times, 
we could not now enjoy that which is built upon them. 


_ It is well that children should be taught the noble, though child-like theology 
of Genesis; and well also that it should be taught in its simplicity, and without 
the misconceptions which have been allowed to cling around it from those darker 
days when the Bible wasa sealed book, and when its place was taken by stories. 
_based on it, but mixed with much of superstition and misapprehension. I have 
found by experience that many of the objections to the truth of Genesis held as 

valid even by educated men, are not founded on the book itself, but on interpre- 
tations or distortions of it which have a nearer affinity with mere nursery tales 
_than with the letter or spirit of God’s word.-—Sunday School Times. 


176 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


FOSSILS IN COLORADO. 


In the ‘‘ Bad Lands” of Colorado over seventy new species of fossils have 
been discovered. They range in size from a mole to nearly that of an elephant. 
One of the largest species had a huge horn over each eye, while another had one 
on each side of the nose, and more than a foot in length resembling those on the 
back part of the head of the ox. A third one, a larger size than the last, had 
rudimental horns on the nose. Still another was about as large as the elephant. 
Its cheek bones were enormously expanded, and its horns were flat. <A fifth 
species had triangular horns, turned upward. ‘The most remarkable monsters 
of the past, whose existence has been disclosed by the present survey, are a 
series of horned species related to the rhinoceros, but possessing some features 
in which, according to Prof. Cope, they resembled the elephant. They stood 
high on the legs and had feet, but possessed osseous hornsin pairs on different 
parts of the head. 


THE MAMMOTH CAVE OF MEXICO. 


REV. F. L. LEWIS, BOLIVAR, MO. 


On the authority of the Scentific American the cave of Cacahuamilpa in 
Mexico is the largest in the world. P. C. Bliss, who has twice explored it, 
describes it as being covered with a volcanic mountain, with an extinct crater. 
He, with a large party provided with the best lights and scientific implements 
the country afforded, made a partial exploration of this wonderful cave. After 
descending about fifty feet they reached the floor and proceeded nearly four 
miles. ‘‘The roof was so high—a succession of halls—that rockets often 
exploded before striking it. Labyrinthine passages leave the main hall in every 
direction. Stalagmites and stalactites are abundant. Below this cave, at its 
greatest depth, are two immense caves, from each of which issues a branch of a 
great river. This isin many respects the most wonderful cave in the world. 
About the only living creature mentioned by any explorers of this cave is the | 
bat, which is numerous. 


As a striking instance of the vast beneficial results which sometimes spring | 
from the working of one capable and active brain, it is stated that by the Bes- 
semer steel invention, the saving to England alone in the wear of rails has been | 
$5,500,000 per annum. ‘The saving is expected to be $20,000,000 annually 
when all iron rails are changed for steel. 


MOTION. 177 


aw wOSO mae, 


MOTION. 


BY EDGAR L. LARKIN, NEW WINDSOR, ILL. 


“Tn the beginning there arose 
The source of golden light . 
There was then neither nonentity nor entity ; 
Neither atmosphere nor sky beyond . 
. The covered germ burst forth 
By mental heat. 
The ray shot across them . 
. There were mighty productive powers, 
Nature beneath and energy above.” 
From Flindu Rig Veda, Ch. X, 121-129, Muller’s Trans. 

‘*¢ All things which exist, are invisible in their primeval state; visible in 
their intermediate state, and again invisible in their final state.” From Hindu 
Bhagavad Gita, Ch. [. Thomson's Trans. 

Motion is the second mode of force displayed by matter, gravity being the 
first. Attraction is the only force really inherent in matter, because all other 
modes of energy are drawn from it by conservation. Gravity is the only force 
which acts when matter rests, all others being evolved from motion. Attraction 
is the sole motive power in nature. Gravity cannot exist separate from matter; 
neither can matter cease attracting, but obeys this law: Every particle of matter 
in existence attracts every other particle, directly as to their combined masses, 
and inversely as their distance squared. The first conservation of gravity is 
motion. Bodies attract and exert energy, but no work is performed unless the 
bodies move. Repulsion moves matter, but gravity brought atoms within its 
range. Matter in motion of necessity evolves all other modes of force. Atomic 
motion causes heat, electricity and light and cannot do otherwise. Matter at 
rest would not be endowed with any force but gravity, and other forms of energy 
would never develop unless it began to move. The only case in which matter 
would be unable to move, would be if the entire universe should be condensed 
into one absolutely solid globe. Molecules being as near as possible could not 
further approach, and gravity acting from the centre to periphery would not 
conserve energy, being unable to first cause motion. Matter will be eternally 
inert, unless separated by space sufficient to allow atoms to move. Motion 
once begun, all succeeding energies of nature follow, for by late philosophy all 
modes of force are forms of motion, heat, light, electricity and chemism are 
states of motion; but heat acts as repulsion, and as the only conservation of 


178 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


gravity is motion, and heat is motion, repulsion itself has origin in remote 
gravity. 

Since space is necessary to matter for its evolution of power, it follows that 
all matter has never been solidified, else it would be solid now, being unable to 
separate by heat as heat is motion of atoms, and cannot begin unless molecules 
can move. All atoms in existence must have been once dissociated, else matter 
would not have full ‘‘ potency ” for labor in building a universe. Mathematicians 
say that dissociated matter is many times less dense than hydrogen, and in this 
condition is subject to no force save its inherent gravity. Cosmic matter destined 
to become a universe obeyed attraction and moved. Cosmogony must begin 
with gaseous matter filling infinity. Cosmical evolution cannot open with matter 
solid for that would not be a beginning, as condensed matter is structural and 
shows itself to have been wrought by force. A fluid is also complex and implies 
work in formation. Gas is the simplest state of matter, it is without organization, 
and nature begins in simplicity and proceeds to complex conditions. Gravity 
began motion in the gaseous mass; but motion of atoms cannot long obtain 
without evolving heat, and heat soon allows chemism to appear. Chemical 
reactions in turn augment heat, electricity develops, and the delicate motion, 
light, awakens from the turmoil of infinitesimal oscillation. All these, however, 
are modes of motion, and all derive from gravity, the primordial store of cosmic 
energy. 

Atoms coalesced into molecules, and these into countless millions of nuclei, 
each one a gravitation centre. These nuclei augmented in size by drawing in 
adjacent matter, thus clearing space. This process went on until fluid balls 
separated by enormous distances condensed from the primitive cosmical mass of 
gas. These liquid globes were intensely hot, and all radiated light. As heat is 
a mode of motion, and cannot appear until motion of material atoms first begins, 
itis clear that primeval matter was absolutely cold; ‘‘fire-mist” never had a 
place in nature, for when matter is condensed by gravity and chemism, sufficient 
to become heated, it is no longer gas, but fluid. If heat increases from conser- 
vation of accelerated motion, the liquid reverts to gas, and at the same instant 
loses all its heat, only to regain it on re-condensation. 

When after the lapse of vast cosmic periods, all matter had condensed into 
celestial spheres, some cooled to solids, others still liquid, a rigid analysis based 
on physics as at present understood, cannot detect the traces of action of any 
modes of force than these: gravity, motion, heat, chemism, electricity, mag- 
netism and light, all modes of motion save gravity their cause. Gravity made 
successive conservations, erected the universe from gaseity, performed all labor, 
yet lost none of its vigor and still wrought with unabated energy. Motion wanes 
and disappears, only to reappear in other forms, as heat, light and electricity, 
while gravity performs all work, but does not wane and fail. Then it is 
inherent. 

Molecular vibrations on all cosmic spheres were intense; chemism wrought 


MOTION. 179 


with inconceivable power, evolving vast quantities of heat and light. But these 
atomic oscillations in time weakened, the elements locked in compounds, affinity 
died away, heat waned, and light vanished from smaller orbs. Indeed, waning 
forces must harmonize, cosmic upheavals cease, quiet ensue, heat lose its 
intensity, crusts solidify, air appear and water form, that two refined and inscruta-_ 
ble modes of motion—life and mind, might develop by undisturbed processes of 
evolution from inorganic atoms. Cosmical motion on each planet must nearly 
stop; coarse chemical reactions cease agitating and jarring the elements with 
unrest, before the laboratory of nature can evolve life and mind from material 
elements. Mind only develops ina mature state matter; material structure is 
most complex before it produces its most refined property. Then mind is of 
short duration on cosmic globes; as heat has nearly vanished before thought 
appears. Polar frigidity has already set in when mind awakens from unconsci- 
ous atoms; molecular vibratory motion is much less rapid when mind evolves 
than in previous cosmical history. Coarse movement in molecules must termin- 
ate; or that excessively delicate atomic vibration causing mind could not begin. 
Motion is of two kinds atomic and massive. Atomic motion is known in differ- 
ent modes, as heat, light, electricity, chemical affinity, life and mind, and 
constitutes the vitality of nature. They begin in gravity, pass many mutations, 
culminate in the evolution of mind, wane, become quiescent, leaving lifeless and 
frigid worlds to roll without use in Arctic voids. All these will be dismissed and 
the remainder of this essay be devoted to massive motion or the movement of 
worlds themselves. 

Massive Motion.—All cosmical bodies are in rapid motion. 

Arcturus moves fifty-four, 61 Cygni, forty, and Capella, thirty miles per 
second. Late sidereal astronomy is rich in results relating to binary systems of 
revolving suns. In 1823 one component of Delta Cygni occulted the other; and 
in 1836, 221 Ophiuchi hid its companion. In 1839 and again in 1873 Xi Urse 
Majoris were seen as one star, between these dates, double. In 1873 the double 
star Omega Leonis appeared as one; they are now separating. By an astonish- 
ing generalization of modern research made possible by the spectroscope, it can 
be said, the universe is a Unit. All suns within range of telescopes are composed 
of like material, as is shown by their spectra. Then they are dominated by the 
same laws. Gravity and motion are omnipresent. The motion of sidereal 
systems is observed with the telescope; and the existence of gravity is demon- 
strated, for suns revolve on ellipses. When the primordial gas condensed into 
innumerable liquid balls, destined to be planets and suns, then to become solid, 
cold and dead, they moved by mutual gravity in all directions. They were of 
_all sizes from asteroids to suns like Sirius. They had not assumed orbits, neither 
did the balls rotate on axes, because rotation is complex motion and cannot begin 
until planets commence orbital circuits. "The spheres necessary to make up the 
universe were on hand, but the vast machine had not begun revolution. The 


_ Sole motor to do the work was gravity, and its task was to project the smaller 


_ globes into orbits about the large ones. 
yaa 


180 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Before seeking the processes by which wandering orbs became reduced to 
orderly revolution in solar systems, the laws of motion will be given. 

First law. A mass of matter in space will move eternally in a straight line 
with uniform velocity, unless gravity turns it aside. 

Second. If a mass in space be attracted by another mass, its deviation from 
a right line will be in the direction of the attracting body, and proportional to 
the mutual gravity of the two masses. 

Third. Gravity and reaction caused by motion are equal and opposite. 

Fourth. If a mass in space be attracted by two or more bodies simultane- 
ously, it will not move towards either, but towards a vacant point between them, 
called their centre of gravity, and the motion is resultant. 

Fifth. All cosmical motion is resultant, and all paths traversed are 
curvilinear. 

The fourth and fifth are results of the three basic laws, and in a close 
train of reasoning might not be termed laws, but results. Their action is uni- 
versal and through them orbits of planets are formed. If the primeval gas, had 
solidified into one rigid ball, nature would have suffered eternal death, no power 
being able to separate the atoms. If into two balls separated by space they would 
have fallen on a straight line to collision and nature would have expired. If into 
three spheres of exactly equal mass and distance, they would have crushed 
together destroying all potency of matter save gravity, and nature would have 
terminated. But if into three globes of unequal mass, or equal in mass and 
separated by unequal distances, then they would inevitably form a solar 
system in regular revolutions. And the same results would follow with any 
number of spheres greater than three, lying in space within the attraction of an 
adjacent sun. i 

CENTRE OF GRAvITY.—When two bodies are joined by a rigid bar, there is 
always a point between them where they would balance if placed on a fulcrum. 
In space these are removed; but an imaginary bar and fulcrum have the same 
property, and the point is the centre of gravity. This vacant place has the 
remarkable attribute, that it attracts the third body with the same force as it 
would if the masses of both spheres were combined there. Therefore, if two 
globes attract another, the latter cannot fall toward either, but will move at once 
toward their centre of gravity by the law of resultant motion. 

FORMATION OF HELIOCENTRIC SvSTEMS.—To begin a solar system of three 
members, a sun and two planets, the globe wandering in space and destined to 
become a sun, will be designated A, and the smaller spheres to be made planets, 
Band C. They form a triangle in space, and obeying the only force to which 
they are subject—gravity, begin draw nearer one another. Instead of moving 
precisely towards each other, however, each globe journeys towards the centre 
of gravity of the two others. C moves toward the weight centre between A and 
B; B falls towards the attracting point somewhere between A and C, while the 
great sphere A moves slowly in the direction of the gravitation centre between C. 


MOTION. 181 


and B. But the three balls start on straight lines; how shall they be deflected 
aside into curves in order to traverse orbits? ‘The reason why seems to be the 
arcanum of celestial dynanics, the secret of cosmic motion, and law upon which 
rests the structure of the universe. The great fact is this: The centres of 
gravity themselves are in motion! Thus, when B moves towards the centre of 
attraction between A and C, this centre of gravity is all the while approaching 
A, because A and C are nearer together. And B started originally towards this 
moving point. But when B first began to move, the objective point was station- 
ary, and afterwards began its motion. ‘The effect on B isthe key to the structure 
of all sidereal systems. ‘The result is that B is turned aside from its straight path 
and follows a curve. Gravity has performed its most difficult task of causing 
worlds to move on curves, for once in motion on curved lines, orbits are 
inevitable. The intricate process is this: B started towards the centre of gravity 
of A and C on aright line, but in a unit of time this attracting centre moved a 
unit of space, which tended to project B on a new straight line towards it. B 
cannot take up this new rectilinear path, however, because it has acquired inertia 
of motion, tending to keep it on its original track by the first law of movement. 
B desires to move in two right lines at once, it can do neither, but obeying the 
law of resultant motion falls into a curve midway between the two straight lines. 
And the reason of B moving on a curve is because its objective point is moving 
and this deflection being a constant force, perpetually seeks to turn B into a 
new straight line, each infinitesimal interval of time, and a curve is made up of 
an infinite number of excessively short straight lines. If A and C were immoy- 
able, their centre of gravity would be stationary, and B would move towards 
it on aright line, but being in motion, B must traverse a curve. Finally all 
becomes ready for the crowning act which will instantly convert B into a planet, 
when it will no more wander in frigid voids, but make regular circuits in the 
genial rays of A. During the long journey of B a time arrives when B seeks to 
pass A, ignore it entirely and fly away forever by reason of inertia gained in its 
flight from remote space, where it first condensed. It cannot pass because at 
the precise moment when the radius vector of A and B or the straight line 
joining their centres, forms a right angle with the direction of motion of B, then 
B loses its relative weight, becomes balanced between the opposing forces, solar 
attraction and inertia of motion, and at once becomes a planet. B can neither 
pass by on its original path nor fall to A, but deflects into a curve, a mean 
between both directions, and its future motion is resultant. The orbit is a curve 
at the proper distance between the paths sought to be traversed under the influ- 
ence of two energies, centripetal and tangential. While B was being made a 
planet C was passing through the same routine, and countless other heliocentric 
systems were in formation by the same laws. But B and C had set the sun A in 
new motion, hence it will continue in motion by its inertia on a curve having as a 
radius the distance to the nearest attracting centre, giving rise to the proper 
motion of the ‘‘ fixed” stars daily seem from observatories. If when C approached 


182 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


A and B, B in its revolution happened to lie near its ine of motion so that the 
attraction of B on C was stronger than that of A on C, then C would fall into 
an orbit about B and become a satellite. 

If when B sought to pass A, the inertia of B had somewhat exceeded the 
attraction of A, then B would move on a little further than it would have 
moved had its inertia been less, and the effect will be to project the planet B into 
an ellipse. If its inertia was considerably in excess, the ellipse would be very 
eccentric like the orbits of Mercury and Mars, or of the binary sun Gamma 
Virginis. If inertia and attraction were equal, then orbits would be circles; 
and as circular orbits are unknown, all suns drew in planets from space, and the 
greater the distance, of course the more rapid the flight of planets, the greater 
their inertia of motion, and the greater the eccentricity of their elliptical orbits. 
The corollary is that the cosmogony wherein rotating cosmical spheres, whether 
gaseous, plastic or fluid, cast off from time to time concentric rings afterwards. 
becoming planets, has no known law of nature in its support. 

Rotary motion is the most complex of massive movement. It is probable 
that for a long time after planets began orbital circuits, they did not turn on 
axes. There is a difference between the attraction of suns on the sides of 
planets nearest them, and on opposite sides. The excess is slight, yet in a thous- 
and revolutions, could not fail making its power felt. The effect is to retard 
somewhat the progressive orbital motion of the sides next suns; and permit the 
external sides to move with the same velocity they had when they fell from space, 
and had their paths changed from tangental lines to orbital curves. This differ- 
ence then in time would cause all planets to assume axial rotation. The rate of 
this rotary motion would not be retarded at aphelion; nor accelerated in perihe- 
lion, because the difference of solar attraction on opposite sides of planets is a 
constant quantity depending solely on their diameters which are invariable. 
When all the primordial mass of dissociated matter shall have been formed into 
large and small globes; and when all the great spheres shall have converted all 
the smaller ones into planets, and when these flying orbs shall have drawn in all 
stray particles of matter as meteors, then the universe will be complete, and the 
cosmos finished. Massive motion will be atits maximum, while atomic motion 
will be on the decline. Molecular activity on all suns and planets will pass cul- 
mination and run down. Light will vanish first, then heat. Elements will be 
locked in cold compounds and affinity cease. Electricity will be no longer dy- 
namic but statical. Ages before this however, the vibrations life and mind will 
have disappeared, and at this epoch the only modes of force displayed by matter 
will be gravity and massive motion. Frigid globes will roll as perfectly on orbits. 
as when mind existed to contemplate the scene. Nature will be as inert as it 
would have been if the cosmic gas had solidified into one inanimate ball, unless 
gravity can put a stop to the circuits of dead worlds. By the first law, all spheres 
must move forever on orbits by inertia, unless some resisting medium in space 
retards their motion. Gravity at this stage of the universe has one opponent,— 


MOTION, 183 


motion, a power derived from itself. Unless gravity can regain dominion over 
matter by destroying massive motion, and conserve it into atomic oscillations, 
lifeless worlds chained to darkened suns by attraction and inertia, will eternally 
make melancholy rounds, and count off useless years. A resisting medium, what- 
ever it may be is the ‘‘ potency and promise” of a new universe. Nothing else 
can stop stellar motion, and allow gravity to secure complete control. Gravity 
however regaining mastery, then planets will run down in spirals, and fall on 
suns; and suns will crush in ruin. Motion from being orbital and rotary, will 
become direct, and tumbling globes will collide with enormous momentum. 
Massive motion ends, when by the well-known law of conservation of force, 
wherein when one mode of energy vanishes, another takes its place of equal in- 
tensity, the falling motion terminates in collision, and atomic vibrations at once 
begin in that familiar mode of motion heat. The heat becomes most intense, 
acts as repulsion, separates matter into molecules and then atoms, and vanishes. 
Universal cold sets in at the moment when that repulsive motion—heat, ends, 
and gravity again begins its work, in the slow formation of another universe. 
Repulsion ends and gravity begins, but repulsion is motion, caused by another 
motion, heat, and gravity caused the heat, forming a never-ending series of muta- 
tions through which matter must pass. And in the midst of all the turbulence 
only one energy wrought—gravity; and all that gravity did was to cause matter 
to move. ‘Then there was at the basis of all only one power, the omnipotent 
attraction of gravitation. ‘The universe then is matter and motion. And the 
postulate of the resisting etherial medium itself is motion. All ideas derived 
from researches into the transmission of light, heat and chemical rays, cannot be 
dissociated from thoughts of motion. And the whole series of motions from the 
breaking up of primeval cosmic gas, is but one cycle of matter. During the en- 
tire turbulence it only assumed three forms, gaseous fluid and solid. These are 
deductions based upon the laws of nature as now known, but they do not seem 
to be very far in advance of the wisdom of our primitive Aryan ancestors at the 
base of the Hindu Kush, when they elaborated the remarkable sentence in the 
Bhagavad Gita, quoted at the beginning of this paper. In this it is said the 
structural or visible universe is but an intermediate state of matter, or a period 
during which it is in active motion. 


At near 12 o’clock, June 29, a meteor, as large as a barrel, starting from the 
zenith, plunged down north the eastern sky and exploded with a report that re- 
verberated for thirty seconds and shook the earth at Macon, Ga. The meteor 
was about five seconds falling, during which time the city was lit up as if by the 
electric light. The time between the disappearance of the meteor and the report, 
was about three minutes. 


184 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


MODOC UN ey IND tees IN le, 


BROMIDE OF ETHYL. 
R. WOOD BROWN, M. D., D. D. S., KANSAS CITY, Mo. 


It has long been known that certain drugs would produce insensibility, also 
that these drugs were often uncertain and unsafe in their action, amongst which 


are the poppy, mandragora, henbane, hemp, etc. Ice bags were used to produce 
local anzesthesia by its intense refrigerant effect while small operations were per- 
formed, such as opening felons, abcesses, etc. In China, haschisch was used to 
produce insensibility during operations, as far back as the year 220, the patient 
recovering after several days. Prior to 1846, opium was sometimes used to pro- 
duce insensibility to pain, but this agent was not safe and was uncertain in its de- 
sired results; certainty and safety being essential to the successful administration 
of anesthetics. The year 1846 opened a new era in the surgical world, and gave 
to man the priceless boon of anesthesia. On Dec. 11th, 1846, Dr. Horace 
Wells, of Conn., demonstrated the practicability of anesthesia by having a sound 
tooth extracted while under the influence of Nitrous Oxide Gas. Then followed 
the discovery of Ether anesthesia by Dr. Morton, of Mass, Simpson of Edin- 
burgh discovering Chloroform anzesthesia soon after. With these three anesthet- 
ics we are all familiar, and their respective merits need not be discussed here. 
The substance, Bromide of Ethyl, is a new anesthetic, and one that bids fair 
to take its place amongst the others. Dr. R. J. Leois, of Phila., has used this 
new agent more than any one else, and with such success as to warrant its being 
subjected to a thorough trial. Dr. Laurence Turnbull, of Phila., has also used 
this agent, and he advises its use. This Bromide of Ethyl or Hydrobromic Ether, 
has an agreeable odor, and does not irritate the respiratory apparatus, a fact 
which is greatly in its favor. ‘The nausea and vomiting which is associated with 
chloroform and ether, is not met with during Bromide of Ethyl anesthesia. It is 
administered by the same method as chloroform and ether, but has the advantage 
over the latter of being non-inflammable. According to Turnbull the first 
drachm must be crowded upon the patient; if not, it is apt to act slowly. Every 
new agent in medicine should, at first, be used with care and after close study. 
“With Bromide of Ethyl, we have a comparatively new anesthetic, but the many 
successful operations under it, upon both animals and man, by men of known 
ability, will certainly commend it to the professions of medicine and dentistry. 
From its rapidity of action, and the short time in which consciousness returns; 
Bromide of Ethyl becomes peculiarly adapted to operations in the dental chair. 
Dr. J. Marion Sims narrated a case before the New York Academy of Medi- 


CURARE AND OTHER CURES FOR HYDROPHOBTA., 185 


icine, in which Bromide of Ethyl was used with fatal results which he lays at the 
door of this aneesthetic, and he expressed an opinion that Bromide of Ethyl was 
adapted to long operations, where there is renal disease: Dr. Sims not having 
investigated the matter, speaks very cautiously about thisnew agent. Dr. J. Ott, 
of New York says ‘‘ that the results of his experiments with Bromide of Ethyl, 
show that its action is upon the gray matter of the nerves, also that it decreases 
the frequency of respiration by acting upon the central nervous system while 
increasing the pulse rate and augmenting the blood by direct influence upon the 
heart. Out of several hundred administrations only one case was fatal, and that 
occurred during an operation of great magnitude. ‘This and the fact that the 
Bromide of Ethyl appears to be free from some of the objectionable characteristics 
of chloroform and ether, renders it worthy of thorough investigation. 


CURARE AND OTHER CURES FOR HYDROPHOBIA. 


There was published in Zhe World a little while ago an interesting communi- 
cation from Dr. John W. Green on the subject of ‘‘ Hydrophobia and Woorara”’ 
—curare, in which he said that experiments had led him to the belief that the 
proper dose of the substances used hypodermically was about the thirteenth of a 
grain, a dose that was to be repeated often till the proper effects were produced. 
The woorara, he said, quieted spasms and reduced a!) nervous irritability, thus 
giving the system time to eliminate the hydrophobic virus, and as to its use, he 
added : 

During the past three years some of the physicians connected with the 
German hospitals have reported a few cases where this remedy has been tried. 
In all but one case complete recovery ensued, and in the case that ended fatally 
I imagine from the report of it that the woorara was not used faithfully and 
understandingly. If it will, however, save 50 per cent. of those attacked, it is 
better than losing all of the affected. In taking account of the cases reported 
which I have seen, making altogether four, there has been one death. ‘This is a 
percentage of 75 in favor of woorara. 

More recently, an article in the same paper states that Dr. Etheridge, of 
Chicago, has been experimenting with curare—the secret of manufacturing which, 
by the way, Jovert bought last year from the Amazonas Indians—upon a hydro- 
phobic patient, with what success we are unable to say as yet. According to the 
German papers, Dr. Offenberg, of Dusseldorf, has cured a woman bitten by a 
mad dog by a hypodermic injection of twenty centigrammes of the agent; on 
the other hand a Russian experiment has failed almost signally. Nine persons — 
were bitten by a rabid wolf in the hamlet of Bogoljubow, in the Wladimir dis- 
trict, and were taken to the hospital, where five of them died in dreadful agony 
soon after their admission. The doctors resolved to try curare in the other 
cases. This was administered at Wladimir to the remaining four persons who 
had been bitten by the wolf, and they all died, but without experiencing the 


186 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


preliminary torture of hydrophobia. This was, of course, something gained’ 
though not much; in the absence of any details it is impossible to say to what 
cause the startling result was fairly to be attributed. Two other Russian physi- 
cians, Schmidt and Ledeben, are said to have cured the case of a little girl of 
twelve by causing her to inhale oxygen. Our old friend, the elecampane cure— 
a third of an ounce stewed in a third of a pint of milk and taken fasting every 
other day for eighteen days—has been going the round of the press, in company 
with the Russian broom-seed tea cure, and the madstone, which. last proved con- 
spicuously useless in the case of the Hon. O. F. West, of Senatobia, Miss. 
Another treatment that has been recommended is bathing with warm vinegar and 
water, and then pouring a few drops of muriatic acid on the wound; still another 
is the application for from six to ten minutes of a sponge dipped in equal parts 
of chloroform and concentrated ammonia. ‘The case of Crosse has been revived, 
who, having been bitten severely by a cat that died the same day from hydro- 
phobia, cured himself by mere mental resolution after pains had reached his 
shoulder and spasms had shot through his throat at sight of water. The specific 
preventive of the pious peasants of the Ardennes is—for the dog a piece of 
bread blessed at mass on St. Hubert’s Day ; for the man wearing a ring or medal 
consecrated at St. Hubert’s shrine. It was to this same shrine of St. Hubert in 
Ardennes that, as Chapella tells us, the Princess of Vandémont, having been 
bitten by a mad dog, did make a pilgrimage in a green carriage, dressed all in 
green. At the spring, having put on a green stole and listened to a chapter of 
the Gospel according to St. John, she drank a glass of water and returned home 
to live fourteen years, while two less pious friends, bitten by the same dog, died 
of hydrophobia. Perhaps, however, the virus was still lurking undeveloped in 
her system, for in June last Mr. Samuel J. Culver died at New Haven, Conn., 
of a bite received twenty years before, a case even more terrible in some respects 
than that of Frank Shields, of Bloomington, Ind., who, on the 1st of November, 
was put in jail to prevent him from doing violence to himself and friends. He 
had been roaming the woods, yelping like a hound in the chase ; and on meeting 
teams on the road would seize the horses and bite them like a dog. He was 
said to have been bitten by a dog ten years ago. 

M. Galtier has recently made some valuable experiments from which he 
draws the conclusion that the saliva of a mad dog obtained from the living 
animal and kept in water, continues virulent five, fourteen, and even twenty-four 
hours; and as the saliva of a mad dog which has succumbed to the malady or 
has been killed does not lose its properties through mere cooling of the body, it 
is important in examining the cavities of the mouth and throat after death, to 
guard against the possible danger of inoculation. M. Galtier tested rabbits with 
regard to rabies, and found it transmissible to them from the dog; also, the 
rabbits’ rabies from them to animals of the same species. The chief symptoms 
are paralysis and convulsions. The animal may live from a few hours to four 
days after the disease has declared itself. M. Galtier found salicylic acid, injected 


A STRANGE EPIDEMIC. 187 


daily under the skin, powerless to prevent the development of the disorder in 
rabbits. ; 

M. Raynaud, experimenting in the same direction, ascertained the effects 
of inoculation of the rabbit from man in the hydrophobic state. A man in that 
state was brought to the Lariboisiere Hospital, having been bitten in the upper 
lip by a dog forty days previously. He had had the wound cauterized two hours 
after the accident, and had thought himself quite safe till some of the usual 
hydrophobic symptoms appeared. The day before his death, in a quiet interval, 
he yielded himself with the best grace to the experiments in inoculation which 
were made with his blood and his saliva. The result of inoculating the rabbit 
with the blood was negative (as in the great majority of previous cases of inocu- 
lation with blood of animals under rabies.) But with the saliva it was otherwise. 
A rabbit inoculated in the ear and abdomen, on October 11, began to show 
symptoms of rabies on the 15th, being much excited and damaging the walls of 
its cage, while it uttered loud cries and slavered at the mouth. Then it fell into 
collapse and died the following night. The rabbit’s body was not dissected till 
thirty-six hours after death, and further experiment was made by taking fragments 
of the right and left submaxillary glands, and introducing them under the skin of 
two other rabbits respectively. These two rapidly succumbed, one on the fifth, 
the other on the sixth day (becoming visibly ill on the third); neither passed 
through a furious stage, however, and the predominant feature was paraplegia 
(a form of paralysis). The important practical result is that human saliva, such 
as caused rabies in the rabbit, is necessarily virulent, and would probably have 
corresponding effects on man; so that it should be dealt with cautiously, and 
that not only during the life of the person furnishing it, but in post-mortem 
examinations. 


A STRANGE EPIDEMIC. 


On the night of Tuesday, June 15, a remarkable epidemic fell upon several 
towns in western Massachusetts, the town of Adams suffering most severely. 
Out of a population of 6,000, several hundred—variously estimated from 600 to 
over 1,o00o—were prostrated by a disease resembling cholera morbus. The symp- 
‘toms were first dizziness, then great nausea, followed by vomiting and prolonged 
purging, and in some cases delirium. A belt of country two or three miles in 
width and several miles long was thus afflicted, beginning at the west, the whole 
number of victims being estimated at from 1,200 to1,500. No deaths are repor- 
ted. 

The cause of the epidemic is not known, but seems most likely to have been 
atmospheric. For some time the weather had been dry and hot. A heavy local 
rain fell during the evening, and was followed by or attended with a sudden and 
_ great lowering of the temperature. A chilly fog hung over the belt of country 
invaded by the disease, and a heavy ‘‘swampy” odor and taste were in the air. 


188 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The malady reached its climax in about twenty four hours. It was first sus- 
suspected that the water supply had been somehow poisoned, but many people 
who had not used the water were prostrated, while others who used it freely escaped. 
Adams has hitherto been regarded as an exceptionally healthy town, and the sur- 
rounding country is high and wholesome.—Sccentzjic American. 


PERSEVERANCE WITH THE DROWNED. 


In a recent communication to the French Academy, Professor Fort asserts 
that he was enabled to restore to life a child three years old, by practicing artifi- 
cial respiration on it four hours, commencing three hours and half after apparent 
death. He mentions also a case in which Dr. Fournol, of Billancourt, reanima- 
ted, in July, 1878, an apparently drowned person by four hours of artificial respi- 
ration begun one hour after the patient was taken from the water. At this season, 
when cases of drowning are apt to be frequent, the possible benefit that may 
come from a persevering effort to revive victims of drowning, should encourage 
friends not to despair of their resuscitation, even after several hours of seemingly 
fruitless labor.— Scientific American. 


SIMPLE TEST FOR CHLORAL HYDRATE. 


A new test for chloral hydrate has been devised by Frank Ogston, namely, 
yellow sulphide of ammonia. On adding this reagent to a solution of chloral of 
moderate strength there is at first no change noticed, but in a short time the color- 
less solution acquires an orange yellow color, and on longer standing turns brown 
and evolves a gas of a very disagreeable odor. Ogston’s experiments show that 
a solution containing ten milligrammes turns brown in six hours, and gives the 
peculiar odor. With one milligramme the orange yellow color appears in twelve 
hours, but no odor. Croton chloral gives the same reaction, but chloroform, 
chloric ether, and formic acid do not. 


IBOOK ING@GICITS. 


PREADAMITES, or a Demonstration of the Existence of Man Before Adam, to- 
gether with a study of their condition, antiquity, racial affinities and pro- 
gressive dispersion over the earth. By Alexander Winchell, LL. D., etc., 
DP Vol. 8 Viel, 1880.) Shi) Griggs &) Co, Chicavous $3: 

The origin of the human race, lost as it is in the night of antiquity, is a sub- 
ject of fascinating interest, and has been a theme of speculation from the earliest 
ages of history. When and where did man make his first appearance on earth is 
an oft recurring question. From the wild inhospitable wastes of the Polar re- 


BOOK NOTICES. 189 


gions to the tropical luxuriance of the equator traces of the occupation of ancient 
inhabitants are found, from the simple flint instrument of the savage barbarian to 
the stately palace and temple of hewn stone of the civilized and cultivated man 
__their name and history alike lost and unknown. And it is not only on the 
surface these relics are found, but deep down in the bowels of the earth in mines 
and caves, and under ‘‘cubic miles of basalt,” his remains have been exhumed, 
showing that vast geological changes have taken place on the earth since his first 
appearance. ‘The difficulty of reconciling the Biblical history of man’s origin 
with the facts of geology and the diversities of the human race has induced the 
theory of a preadamite race or races. Prof. Winchell, the author of several pop- 
ular works on geology and kindred subjects, has collated the most trustworthy 
and authentic evidence on this subject and laid it before his readers in his usual 
pleasing and practical style, and produced a work of great interest and value to 
the student. ‘The general reader will find much curious information in regard to 
the human race not generally accessible, but hidden away in great libraries and 
under a mass of Society transactions. The illustrations are good and useful, but 
one or two cases illustrated, we think, have been rather strained and exaggerated 
to make a point. L. 


Tur CoNSERVATION OF ENERGY. Balfour Stewart, LL. D., F. R. S. Quarto 
pp. 27. J. Fitzgerald & Co., New York. 15c. For sale by the Kansas 
City Book & News Co. 

‘“‘Cheap literature” has up to a very recent period been synonymous with the 
trash written by Ned Buntline and other writers of that ilk, but within the past 

“two or three years the expression has been applicable to scientific, historical, and, 

in fact, all classes of the best works of the best authors by the best known pub- 

lishers of the country. 

As an example we have before us the above named work, with an appendix 
by Professor Alexander Bain, on the Correlation of Nervous and Mutual Forces, 
complete, for fifteen cents, being the seventh number of the Humboldt Library 
of Science. It is well printed and has all the illustrations of the original work, 
which could not be bought for less than about ten times as much. 

Of the work itself it is unnecessary to say anything, as it is widely known as 
an eminently popular standard treatise by one of the most able scientific writers 
of the time. 


- Wricut’s New Map anp GuipE for Kansas City, Mo., Kansas City and Wy- 
' andotte, Kansas. Pocket size, folded, 50c. Published by the Kansas City 
iy Book & News Co. | 

This is an exceedingly complete and convenient map, one which all persons 
interested in the city will find quite useful, though it would have been an excel- 


_ lent idea to include the suburbs of Harlem, Rosedale, Armourville and River- 


190 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


view. It is folded and bound in paper so that it can readily be sent by mail or 
carried in the pocket. Mr. Wright is the pioneer in the kind of thing here for 
which he deserves credit. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


Programme of the International Congress to be held at Brussels, Belgium, 
August 22-29, translated by M. Maurice Defosse for Bureau of Education, De- 
partment of the Interior; Lists of Volumes and parts of volumes of educational 
periodicals wanted to complete the files in the library of the Bureau of Education, 
by Hon. Jno. Eaton, Commissioner; Seventh Annual Catalogue of Officers and 
Students of Hardin College, Mexico, Mo., 1880; Report of the Board of Com- 
missioners of the Seventh Cincinnati Industrial Exposition, 1879, pp. 400, octavo; 
Prospectus of the Monte Christo Gold Mining Co., of Chicago, with charter and 
by-laws, 1879 ; The Campaign in Missouri and the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, 1861, 
a paper read before the Missouri Historical Society of St. Louis, March, 1880, 
by Col. Wm. M. Wherry, U. S. A., pp. 18, 8vo.; Annual Report and Statistics 
of the Meteorology and Mortality of the City of Oakland, Cal., for the year 
1879, J. B. Trembley, M. D., pp. 14, 8vo.; The School Bulletin Year Book, for 
1880, an Educational Directory of the State of New York, compiled by C. W. 
Bardeen, with map of the State. Davis, Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, New York, 
$1; The Graphic, Eureka, Kansas, weekly, H. H. Clark, editor, $1.50 per an- 
num; The Jewel/ County Review, Mankato, Kansas, weekly, L. D. Reynolds, $1 
per annum; The Cotton Planters’ and Manufacturer's Journal, Little Rock, Ark., 
monthly, Coleman & Co., $1; The Wilmington, Ohio, Journal, weekly, Vernon 
& Tudor, $1.50 per annum. 


SCIENTIFIC MISCEEEANY: 


THE SAN JUAN REGION. 


Leaving the Narrow Gauge at Alamosa, the terminus of the main line of the 
Denver and Rio Grande road, the tourist or miner can mount a ‘‘burro” or 
take a stage to the various camps of Silver San Juan—to Lake City, 115 miles, 
or to Silverton, 140 miles, visiting Rio Grande, sixty-nine miles distant, by the 
way, and thence pursue his way across the Range to the Dolores River country, 
fifty or more miles beyond Silverton, and northward to Ouray. 

These names are all familiar to Colorado miners, and they have proved very 
attractive. A little less than a year ago, carbonate ore was discovered on the 
Dolores River, and that section has ever since been the goal of numerous pros- 
pectors. Poughkeepsie Gulch, Rico, the San Miguel, Animas Forks, and 
Mineral Point are also more or less famous; and the outlook for the coming year 


THE SAN JUAN REGION. 191 


is that the narrow-gauge coaches of the Denver & Rio Grande will be taxed to 
their utmost in carrying prospectors and capitalists to the prospectively rich 
regions of southwestern Colorado. 

‘<The formation containing the lodes, aud holding the greatest portion of 
the mineral belt,” says the Denver (ews, ‘‘is in and around San Juan County, 
and the formation, generally speaking, is eruptive or volcanic porphyry, with 
granite and occasionally sandstone and trachyte, as the country rock and vein 
walls. Silver predominates asa galena ore, carrying from ten to twenty per 
cent. of lead, and ranging from fifty ounces upward to the ton. Gray copper, 
ruby silver, wire and native silver, carbonates, sulphurets, chlorides and free gold 
are the other ores found throughout the district.” 

The Summit district, in Rio Grande County, is exclusively gold, free and in 
decomposed quartz, with stamps as the only process of treatment. Henson 
Creek and Sheffer’s Basin, in Hinsdale County, Uncompahgre and Poughkeepsie 
districts, with Mount Sneffles and a portion of the Upper Miguel and Silver Moun- 
tain, in Ouray County, forming a regular belt of mineral, have a high-grade gray 
copper ore, with ruby, wire, native and brittle silver, carrying little lead, and 
hence suitable for the leaching, or lixiviation process. The veins on Mounts 
Galena, Tower, Hazelton, Aulton, King Solomon and Kendall, in San Juan 
County, surrounding Silverton, are essentially galena ore bearing, averaging as 
much as fifty per cent. in lead. These ores are treated by reverberatory roasters 
and cupola blast furnaces. The main stream of the San Miguel, in Ouray 
County, and the La Plata River, in La Plata County, are altogether placer and 
gulch diggings, mined by sluice booming and hydraulics. The latest discovery 
on the Dolores, in Ouray County, properly called the Pioneer district, for it was. 
worked years before the most of the San Juan Region was known, is now exclu- 
sively a carbonate camp, with the same formation and general characteristics as. 
Leadville, except, perhaps, less lead, more iron, and an altitude 3,000 feet lower. 
The notable districts now are comparatively scattered, and there are forty miles 
square webbed with mineral veins, all, as yet, barely prospected. 

As nearly as can be estimated, the ore product of the mines in this district, 
last year, amounted to 9,075 tons, or $1,400,000. The present year a very great 
increase is confidently predicted. Smelting furnaces and reductionand sampling 
works will be erected at many points. The hundred or more mines discovered 
last year will be developed and worked this year. Capital is already seeking 
investment here, and the outlook for activity all along the line could not be 
better. 


SILVER CLIFF AND ROSITA. 


The tourist will do well to make a visit to the famous mining camps, Rosita 
and Silver Cliff, before leaving this section of Colorado. Stages from Cafion 
City make daily trips to these points and enable sight-seers to see the two most 
populous as well as richest mining camps of southern Colorado. Rosita is eight 
miles beyond Silver Cliff and two years ago was the scene of a great rush. It. 


192 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


holds its way with most Colorado camps still, but is left behind in the race by its 
more prosperous neighbor. Silver Cliff is a city of 5,000 people now, and con- 
fidently anticipates a population of double that number within six months. 

The most famous mines of this section are the Bull Domingo, Bassick, 
Silver Cliff, West Mountain, Plata Verde and Racine Boy. The first named is 
a Rosita mine and experts estimate the quantity of ore now in sight at $1,249,- 
440. The Bassick mine has been shipping $2,000 worth of ore daily to the 
Silver Cliff sampling works, and continues to show up fine bodies of high grade 
ore. The Bassick is believed by many miners to be one of the big bonanzas of 
the world. The Racine Boy, at Silver Cliff, is operating two tunnels, and its 
development promises to show better bodies of ore as the work continues. The 
company has taken more than $100,000 from the big tunnel. What is true of 
the above mines, is true of a hundred others in a limited degree. Some rich 
gold discovered have been recently made in several mining camps adjacent to 
Silver Cliff, and the little county of Custer, in which these mines are located, 
bids fair to become a rival even to Lake County. 


THE VESUVIUS RAILWAY. 


The first public trial of this remarkable line took place on the 6th inst. The 
time of ascent requires only eight minutes, on foot it takes an hour and a half. 
A correspondent of Zhe Zimes, who was present on the occasion, says:—‘‘ It must 
be admitted that on this, the first public experiment, the boldest among the many 
present confessed the necessity of screwing their courage up to the sticking po nt 
before making the railway journey along a road steep as a ladder or a fire-escape 
and 860 metres in length ; but as regards danger, it is reduced toa minimum. It 
is not a train in which one travels, but a single carriage, carrying ten persons only, 
and as the ascending carriage starts, another, counterbalancing it, comes down 
from the summit, the weight of each being five tons. The carriages are so con- 
structed that, rising or descending, the passenger sits on a level plane, and what- 
ever emotion or hesitation may be felt on starting, changes, before one has risen 
twenty metres, into a feeling of perfect security. The motion also is very gentle, 
and the effect is magnificent, if not, indeed, grandly awful, as, when hanging 
midway against the side of the cone, one looks, from the window directly upwards: 
or downwards along the line, which, its slight incline alone excepted, is perfectly 
perpendicular. Dismounting at a little station at the summit, one can scarcely 
be said to clamber to the edge of the crater, for the company have cut a conveni- 
ent winding path, up which all, except the aged, heavy or feeble, can walk with! 
ease. The upper station was gaily decked with a trophy of flags. Flags of all 
nations waved along each side of the line, and, after descending again to the base 
of the cone, we sat down, 120 in number, to a splendid banquet, spread in a spa- 


cious and well-appointed restaurant, established in a kind of Pompeian villa.”—| 
Lyon. 


EDITORIAL NOES: 


193 


DIC OuRUUAIL, INOS, 


DuRING a brief visit to Chicago we availed 
ourself of a long-standing invitation to visit 
the University and especially Dearborn Ob- 
servatory, where we found Professor Hughes 
and Mr, S. W. Burnham, the former teacher 
of Natural Science, and the latter so well 
known among astronomers as the discoverer 
of a great number of double stars. 

The University of Chicago is a handsome 
building, with ample grounds, well arranged 
and equipped for educational purposes and 
possessed of a. faculty of finely educated and 
liberal minded men who are doing excellent 
work in their respective departments. 

The observatory is a model structure and 
has the good fortune to own one of the largest 
telescopes in the world, one originally con- 
structed for the State of Mississippi, which, 
Owing to the outbreak of the late war was 
unable to take it. Mr. Burnham has the use 
of this instrument and is pushing his observa- 
tions and studies with great zeal and indus- 
try. 

He paid a handsome compliment to Profes- 
sor Pritchett of Glasgow, Mo., and was en- 
thusiastic in his praises of the atmosphere of 
our western or central region for astronomi- 
cal purposes. 


THE STEAMER Dessouk, with the obelisk on 
board, which was presented to the city of New 
York by the Egyptian Government, sailed 
from Alexandria June 12th, and from Gibral- 
tar, June 26th, for the United States. 


THE HEAT of the past few days has been 
quite universal. 

At Albany, at seven o’clock on the 26th ult. 
the thermometer recorded 79 degrees in the 
shade. At Washington it recorded 80, and at 
New Orleans, where one would; naturally ex. 
pect the temperature to be excessively warm, 


it registered but 77 degrees in the shade. At 
Duluth it was 60, at Philadelphia it reached 
71, and at San Francisco it only mounted 
among the fifties, while the city and bay were 
veiled by a fog. At St. Louis it was 75°, at 
Yankton 78°, at Chicago 77° and at Kansas 
City 70°. 


THE Lancet says it would be difficult to 
point toa more probable source of infection 
in the search for causes of disease in private 
families than the houses where the practical 
work of dress-making is performed. It re- 
commends, therefore, the erection of public 
work-rooms, well-arranged and under proper 
supervision, to which the poor might bring 
their work and finish it in cleanliness, comfort 
and peace. 


THE SIGNAL Service Department at Wash 
ington has established a central meteorolog. 
ical station at Washburne College, near To- 
peka, with auxiliary stations in each county 
in Kansas. The instruments are in place and 
the observations begin July rst. Professor J. 
Lovewell will have charge of the work. 


THE QUESTION of dispelling or illuminating 
fogs requires the attention of physicists and 
meteorologists at once. The number of ter- 


rible accidents occuring lately from collisions 


in fog-banks {1s discreditable to modern sci- 
ence. 


DIPHTHERIA is raging with fearful fatality 
in Russia. Out of 46,136 persons attacked 
18,698 deaths ensued. 


A REPORT upon the paper carbon horseshoe 
lamp constructed by Mr. Edison, prepared 
and contributed to Van Nostrand’s Lngineer- 


194 


ing Magazine for July 1880, closes as follows: 
‘Tt is evident Mr. Edison’s lamp, as now 
made, does not escape the enormous loss 
which has heretofore been encountered by all 
forms of incandescent electric lamps.”’ 


ProFessors Edward M, Shepard, of Drury 
College, Springfield, Mo., and Charles H. 
Ford, of the State Normal School, Kirks- 
ville, Mo., have decided to hold a Summer 
School of Biology at Springfield, Mo., be- 
ginning the first day of July, and continuing 
not less than six weeks. 

Two Lectures will be given each day, 
accompanied by laboratory work in dissec- 
tion, use of microscope, etc. Occasional 
excursions will be made into the surrounding 
country and on the James River, which will 
afford fine opportunities for scientific re- 
search, 

By the kindness of the authorities of 
Drury College, the College building—includ- 
ing lecture rooms, laboratory and boarding 
hall, as well as the library, apparatus and 
collections—will be at the service of the 
students. Access will also be given to the 
collections of the Packard Natural History 
Society, and to the private libraries of the 
instructors. 

Mr. Shepard will instruct in the depart- 
ments of Invertebrate Zoology and Crypto- 
gamic Botany. 

Mr, Ford will have charge of Vetebrate 
and Phenogamic Botany. 


ProFeEssors S. H. Trowbridge, H. S. 
Pritchett and T. Berry Smith have inaugu- 


rated a Summer School of Science in Pritchett. 


Institute, Glasgow, Mo. The object of this 
School is to afford students of the State an 
opportunity of studying science by observing 
some of the facts and phenomena on which 
it rests, and by a free use of illustrative 
specimens and apparatus. The school com- 
menced on Monday, June 28th, and continues 


six weeks. It will embrace three depart- 
ments, viz: 1, Geology and Natural His- 
tory; 2, Astronomy; 3, Chemistry and 


Physics. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


THE reader who is curious to obtain an 
inside view of Prince Bismarck’s character as 
the genius of Statecraft, will find much to 
interest him ina paper contributed to the 
North Review for July, by the 
great Chancellor’s Boswell, Moritz Busch, 
entitled, ‘‘ Bismarck as a Friend of America 
Other articles in the 
same number of the Review are ‘‘ Canada 
and the United States,’ by Prof. Goldwin 
Smith: ‘* The Exodus of Israel,’”’ by Presi- 
dent S. C. Bartlett,—a defense of the Penta- 
teuchal account in the light of modern 
research; ‘‘ The Evglish House of Lords,” 
by J. E. Thorold Rogers, M. P.; ‘‘The 
Ethics of Sex,” by Miss M. A. Hardaker,— 
a calm, philosophical study of the woman 
question ; ‘‘ The Panama Canal,” by Count 
de Lesseps; and ‘‘Profligacy in Fiction,” by 
Exo 15 IIS, 


American 


and as a Statesman.”’ 


THE leading article in the Boston Journal 
of Chemzstry for June is entitled ‘‘Shall we 
bolt our food,” and is a digest of the views of 
several physiologists, who argue in favor of 
swallowing our food whole, and in opposi- 
tion to the long-trusted theory of eating slow- 
ly and chewing the food thoroughly; on the 
ground that the finely masticated food passes 
out of the stomach before it is fully prepared 
for the next process in digestion. 


THE ‘Studies in Comparative Phrenolo- 
gy,” found in the Phrenological Journal for 
July are very interesting and will repay care- 
ful reading. 


AN elaborate article in the London TZeé- 
graphic Journal upon the value and impor- 
tance of ‘‘ Varley’s Electric Time Ball” on 
the dome of the West Strand telegraph office 
prompts the enquiry what has become of the 
project of establishing a similar signal at the 
Kansas City Union Depot, as proposed by 
Prof. C. W. Pritchett, of the Morrison 
Observatory, last spring. 


THE Gardeners’ Monthly, edited by the 
well-known scientist, Thomas Meehan, is a 
periodical that every professional gardener 
and agriculturist needs, and all amateurs 
will find it of the greatest value. 


EEAUING SAS OMG Ne 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


WO Se AUGUST, 1880. NO. 4. 


GZ OMOEA TIN IB) IMMUN GER VSILIONG Ve 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 


BY THE LATE PROF. B. F. MUDGEE. 
CHAPTER I11.—MOLLUSKS. 


In the examination of the sub-kingdom of Mollusks, we find at the begin- 
ning nearly all ranks of groups fully represented. In the address of Vice-Presi- 
dent J. W. Dawson, before the American Association, in 1875, hesays: ‘‘Here then 


_ meets us at the outset the fact that in as far as the groups of annulose and mol- 
 luscous animals are concerned, we can trace these back no farther than in a period 
in which they appear already very highly advanced, much specialized and repre- 


sented by many diverse forms.” Development or evolution, if a law of nature, 
should begin with the lowest of each sub-kingdom, and symmetrically advance 
to the highest. But the first Mollusks of even below the Silurian, are associated 


_ with Pteropods, which are (next to the Cephalopods) the highest order; and the 


4 


latter soon appear. In addition, some of the lowest forms are late in coming 
forward on the stage of life. Some genera come and retire in a short period of 
time; others, like the Lingula, are seen early in the Lower Silurian, both in 


_ Europe and America, and are in existence in our present seas. 


The most noticeable feature of this question of development is, that in 


_ nearly all cases where a definite progression is claimed, either in this sub-king- 
_ dom or any other, the species are represented by few specimens. Where numer- 


= 6 ee 


ous fossils of one species are found, either no evolution is seen, or the progress 


IV—13 


196 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


is so slow and slight that it proves so little as to have scarcely any weight in the 
discussion. Let us notice a few in detail. 

Take one of the lowest, Pusulina Cylindrica, a small Rhizopod, in appear- 
ance like a grain of barley. It has a wide geographical as well as geological 
range. It is found in Europe, Asia and America,and from the Sub-carboniferous 
through the Permian, or in one-eighth of the /fossdsferous age of the globe. It 
has a series of coils, like the Nautilus, with septa, or partitions, extending part 
way across the chamber, instead of wholly, asin the Nautilus and Ammonite.* 
These chambered shells are far higher in rank than this little half chambered 
shell. Yet during all its long geological life of six million years, it never extend- 
ed its partition entirely from coil to coil, to take the first step toward a higher 
form. 

Take another characteristic species of the Carboniferous Age, of a higher 
order—Athyris Subtilita. It is exceedingly abundant in America, as well as in 
Europe, in all the carboniferous deposits. It also, unlike the Fusulima, has a 
tendency to sport under a variety of forms (hence its name), but always keeps 
within a prescribed boundary. Thus a quantity of specimens from the same 
locality, say the lowest, will vary so much, that the extremes being taken, without 
reference to the intermediate forms, two species would be recognized. Another 
quantity from a different region, and entirely different horizon, perhaps the 
highest, will disclose a like variable appearance, but in no greater degree. If the 
two collections are then placed side by side, one cannot be distinguished from the 
other. No two will be found alike, but all are Athyris Subtilita. ‘Though varia- 
bility is always a feature of this shell, it constantly retains its specific character_ 
istics, within a narrow circle of vitality, from the lowest Carboniferous through 
the Permian. 

In contrast, as far as versatility is concerned, and of persistence in details, 
we may take another common carboniferous species, viz., roductus semi-Retic- 
wlatus. It, like the others, runs through that entire geological age. It derives its 
name from the reticulation, or crossing lines, of the outer surface of the upper 
half of the ventral valve of the shell.{ So little change occurs in its structure, 
during all its existence, one-eighth of the geological history, that the simple small 
furrows did not disappear from one half, or extend over the other half, in millions 
of generations. Is evolution a law of natural history when it is so persistent in 
small things ? 

Passing to another order of Mollusks, let us examine the Os¢vea, or oysters. 
They date from the Paleozoic§ Age. Like the Athyris Subtiita, the whole genus 
is noted for its sporting variation of outline, and for an equal adherence to its 
original characteristic phases. Its peculiar foliated texture of shell, too well known 
to need description, the irregularity in shape and curvature of the valves, and the 


*See note on page 21. 

{See Fig. Dana’s Manual. 

*Paleozoic includes the three divisions, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous. 
2See Fig. Dana’s Manual. 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 197 


simple muscle which binds them together, are the characteristics. They are 
found now living in nearly all parts of shoal ocean, outside of the Frigid Zones. 
But a short notice of a simple species will better illustrate the stable nature of this 
genus. Take Ostrea Congesta. It lived through nearly the whole of the Creta- 
ceous Age. It occurs on both sides of the Rocky Mountains over wide areas. 
It is collected in Kansas over ten thousand square miles, and I have seen fifty thou- 
sand on a square acre. While there is in shape as great a variety in any one 
thousand, as in the living Virginia oyster, still no greater variance can be traced 
in specimens from the lowest to the highest geological horizon, or from the beds 
in Texas, New Mexico, or Nebraska. Where so little change occurs, and such 
constancy of species is seen, what support is there for Lamarck’s conjecture that 
man may have sprung from an oyster? Yet oysters have been known to vary, at 
least in size, by varying circumstances. A most interesting and remarkable illus- 
tration, on a large scale, of the effect of a change of circumstances, in controlling 
the vitality of Mollusks, has taken place in the north of Europe. 

When man in the old stone age first dwelt on the shores of the Baltic Sea, it 
was a large open bay of the ocean, covering nearly twice as many square miles 
as at present. It opened into the Arctic ocean on the north, Norway and 
Sweden being an island. Denmark was then represented by a few low islands, 
and the salt waters of the ocean had free access. The Baltic was then in reality 
a part of the ocean, and animals which could live in one, existed, in the 
other. But early in man’s history this part of Europe began very slowly to rise, 
till its pre ent position is about two hundred feet higher than when it began to 
ascend. ‘This elevation united the islands of Denmark, forming that peninsula, 
and joined it to the continent. ‘The southern shores of Norway and Sweden 
encroached on the outlet, and the Baltic became a land-locked sea, smaller and 
less deep than before. Formerly, as now, it received the drainage of that por- 
tion of Europe; and those large rivers, Oder, Vistula, Duna, and others, carried 
so much fresh water into it, that animals which required water of the full ocean 
saltness, suffered, and finally disappeared. As the geographical change was very 
gradual, so also was the change in the Mollusks. The common oyster (ostrea 
edulis), now so abundant in the ocean on the shores of the North Sea, flourished 
equally well, before this elevation, on what is now the shores of the Baltic. By 
the quantity of fresh water poured into this inland sea, these oysters became 
stunted and dwarfed to one-third of their natural size, then diminished in num- 
bers and became locally extinct. The whole history of this interesting change in 
animal life can be studied in the remains of the ‘‘kitchen middens,” or ‘‘ refuse 
heaps,” on the coast of Sweden. ‘There the old pre-historic inhabitants at first 
ate the full sized oyster, and continued to use it as an article of food till it disap- 
peared, near the close of the elevation, and then were obliged to procure a sub- 
stitute. This process of local extermination occupied many thousands of years. 
During all this dwarfing in the oyster, it lost none of its characteristics as a 
species, and showed no tendency to diverge into any other variety, but simply 


198 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


died out. As degradation to a lower character is a part of the theory of evolu- 
tion, here is just the change of surroundings which should have given us a lower 
species. 

The same modification and local extinction took place in the eatable cockle, 
mussel and periwinkle (Cardium edule, Mytilus edulis, and Littorina Littoria), 
which are also found in the ‘‘refuse heaps.” They, as well as many species not 
eaten by man, and now flourishing in the adjacent North Sea, became stunted 
and disappeared in the same gradual manner, without any specific change. Others. 
more hardy are now living in both seas, but are much smaller in the Baltic than 
in the North sea, yet showing no loss of characteristic traits. 

If we examine the Ammonites, we shall find a tribe which varies in its 
characteristics more, probably, than any other mollusk. They appear in the 
Devonian, and continue to the Eocene Tertiary, or during one-half of the whole 
geological period. They are represented by more than one thousand species. 
This great number presents quite a diversity, showing that the family possessed what 
is called a protean tendency in size and shape. It is claiined by some paleontol- 
ogists, with some show of facts, that many of these species run into, or are 
derived from others. It is even contended that genera of the family can be 
traced from one to another by gradual variation. This is not yet admitted by our 
leading authorities in paleontology. Notwithstanding the marked variance of 
different species, they are all distinguished by common characteristics, viz., a 
chambered shell with sutural or interlacing partitions, and a siphuncle passing, 
not near the center, but along the side of the chamber, through the partition. 
The variations of structure are always confined within the circle of these condi- 
tions. The thousand species are during this long range of time not only Ceph- 
alopods, but restricted to the narrow limits of their family features without 
crossing its boundaries. ‘There is no proof that they were derived from a lower 
type or passed to a higher. | 

Now if we allow the utmost claim of the evolutionists, that all these species 
and genera sprang from one common stock, even then we may say, the change 
is too small relatively, to show that any truly low type evolves to a higher. Had 
they continued to live to the present age, would they, at the same rate of prog- 
ress, have attained the structure of a low crustacean? The great variety of forms 
are in most cases no increase in rank, but simply in diversity from those asso- 
ciated in the same seas. 

The firm continuance of general features, from the Devonian to the Tertiary, 
is much stronger against a general system of evolution than the variance of form 
is in its favor. Is it not more remarkable that during so long a geological term, 
in all parts of the world, under so great a diversity of circumstances, that there 
should have been so little change rather than so much. 

The Nautilus family presents another somewhat similar history. It appears 
in the Lower Silurian Age and continues to the present day, through almost the 
whole of earth’s geological history. The Nautilus resembles the Ammonite, but 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 199 


is distinguished from it by the smooth curved line of its partitions (not interlac- 
ing) with the siphon passing through them in the center, or nearly so. These char- 
acteristics the Nautilus retains during its geological life. It is claimed that the 
early species are more embryonic than the later, yet the normal plan is followed 
so closely in the five hundred species, that the real advance in organic structure 
is very slight. Most of the species show merely a diverse relation of parts with- 
out any relative advance in rank. Notwithstanding the range of earth’s condi- 
tions has been so extreme that nearly the whole of the Nautili have disappeared, 
and only three or four species are preserved in our oceans, yet the strange adher- 
ence to the normal structure has been such that they have never diverged to the 
Pteropods or Acephals on the one hand, or developed into a crustacean on the 
other. 

We might multiply facts to show the essential uniformity of Mollusks, but it 
is enough to state that Murchison, in his ‘‘Siluria,” gives the following existing 
genera, viz.: Avicula, Mytilis, Chiton, Natica, Patella, Trochus, Discina, Orbic- 
ula, Lingula, Rhynchonella, and Nautilus, as Silurian, which have continued 
through all geological formations, and are now living in our oceans. ‘The expres- 
sion of ‘‘ all-time genus’’* Nautilus, which Dana has given to one, may be con- 
sidered as applicable to all. 

The examples frequently quoted, of change of species, without apnsidestine 
that the genera to which they belong is permanently inflexible, is a strong argu- 
ment against evolution. Thus, Shaler, in the ‘‘ Geological Report of Kentucky 
for 1876,” has given a very careful and critical memoir on the question of the 
variation of the more flexible or protean species, with tables of measurements 
and illustrations by plates, in addition to detailed remarks. One of his examples 
(Orthis accidentals) shows a variation in the proportion of length to width of 
forty-five per cent. This would be a strong proof of a tendency to outgrow the 
normal characters of the sheli, did we not know that the genus Orthis began at 
the opening of the Silurian and ended with the close of the Carboniferous, cov- 
ering three-fourths of our geological time. This shows that while a species may 
be quite variable within its circle of vitality, that variability may be clearly 
restricted in generic features. 

A similar instance is seen in the fresh water /lanorbis. Hilgendorf has 
described a case, where he collected ten graduated varieties of Planorbis muitt- 
Sormis, from the beds of a deposit in Switzerland. Yet the genus /lanorbis has 
lived from the Jurassic to the present time. ‘The multiform variations of this 
species, like Ovthis occidentalis and many others, did not extend to the generic 
features. 

These cases of a tendency to vary in structure (protean species) are frequently 
quoted in proof of evolution. Although a species is variable, but the genus to 
which it belongs is unchanged during long geological eras, the real evidence must 
be considered as bearing against evolution. 


*Manual, p. 598. 


200 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS.* 


BY PROF. J. S. NEWBERRY. 


(Concluded. ) 


Mineral Veins. Some writers on economic geology—Werner, Von Cotta and 
Von Groddeck, for example—enumerate many different kinds of mineral veins ; 
but disregarding the local characters which all ore-deposits exhibit and the hy- 
brids which are formed by the blending of two distinct forms, not of uncom- 
mon occurrence, I agree with Whitney in recognizing but three dis'inct classes, 
namely : 

I. Gash-veins. 

2. Segregated veins. 

3. Lissure-veins. 

Gash-veins may be defined to be those which occur only in limestone, are 
confined to a single stratum formation, and hence are limited in extent, both 
laterally and vertically. Typical examples of gash-veins are furnished by our lead 
deposits of the Mississippi valley. These occur at three horizons, namely, about 
Galena, in the Galena limestone, belonging to the Trenton group; in Southeast- 
ern Missouri, where the Mine La Motte is located, in the equivalent of the Cal- 
ciferous sand-rock; and in Southwestern Missouri, where the mines of lead and 
zinc occur in the Lower Carboniferous limestone. The origin of deposits of this. 
character is apparently quite simple. ‘The cavities which form the repositories of 
the ore are generally the cleavage-planes or joints of a soluble limestone rock that 
become channels through which surface-water charged with carbonic acid flows 
in a system of subterranean drainage. We usually find two sets of joints approx- 
imately at right angles to each other, and vertical if the rocks are horizontal. To 
form gash-veins, one or both of these sets of vertical joints are locally enlarged 
into lenticular cavities or ‘‘ gashes,”’ whence the name; but sometimes caves of 
considerable size, irregular pockets, and vertical or horizontal galleries are formed. 
These are subsequently lined or filled with ore, sulphides of lead, zinc, and iron, 
originally disseminated through the limestone, and leached out of it by water, 
which saturates and traverses all rocks in a humid climate. The solution thus 
formed reaching a cavity has, by evaporation, deposited the ore asa lining to 
that cavity; narrow fissures being perhaps filled, walls of larger cavities coated 
with stalactites depending from the roof, etc. Subsequent solution has sometimes 
widened a fissure once filled with ore, leaving the ore-body as a central partition, 
a curtain more or less complete hanging from the roof, or a mass of fragments 
mingled with infiltrated sand and clay in the floor of the cave. In Southwestern 
Missouri, the Carboniferous limestone contains layers of chert, which are insolu- 
ble, and which sometimes form horizontal floors or ceilings of caverns. These, - 


*From the School of Mines Quarterly, March, 1880. 


THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS. 201 


breaking down by their own weight, have formed masses of debris, cemented 
together by the ore, which has thus acquired its peculiar brecciated character. 

From the description of gash-veins given above, it will be seen that they have 
much in common with the pockets and chambers previously described ; but there 
is this important difference, that the ore filling the gashes and irregular chambers 
of the lead-bearing limestones is indigenous, having been derived from the leach- 
ing of the adjacent rock, while in the chamber-mines of the West the ore is ex- 
otic, having been brought up through fissur.s from a remote source below; so 
that, while in physical characters the western gold and silver-bearing ore-cham- 
bers resemble gash-veins, they are really but appendages to true fissure-veins, and 
only occur in a country that has been much broken by subterranean forces. 

Segregated veins are confined to metamorphic rocks, are conformable with 
their bedding, and are limited in extent both laterally and vertically. ‘Their ore- 
bodies form lenticular masses of greater or less dimensions, of which the materi- 
al is chiefly quartz, which has segregated (that is, separated) from the surround- 
ing rock. ‘The quartz-veins so abundant in the gneisses and schists of Canada, 
New England and the Alleghany belt are all examples of this class of ore-de- 
posits. The most important constituent of segregated veins is gold, which here 
seems to have been mechanically dispersed throughout sedimentary rocks, and to 
have been concentrated with the quartz in the process of metamorphism to which 
they have been subjected. With the gold we always find iron pyrites, sometimes 
chalco-pyrite, and the latter occasionally in sufficient quantity to be worth work- 
ing. From these remarks it may be inferred that segregated veins have no deep- 
seated origin, are less continuous in depth and laterally than fissure-veins, and 
therefore constitute a less permanent foundation for mining enterprises. It may 
be said, however, that some of them are of enormous dimensions, and that they 
not unfrequently occur in succession, or so approximate that they’are equivalent to 
a continuous mineral deposit. 

Lissure-veins occupy crevices which have been formed by subterranean forces 
and have been filled from a foreign source. They traverse indiscriminately all 
kinds of rock, and are without definite limits laterally or vertically. They have 
as characteristic features smooth, striated, sometimes polished, walls (slickensides) 
clay gouges or selvages on one or both sides, and a banded or ribboned structure 
throughout. The veinstone is usually quartz, and the constituents include the 
ores of all the metals. The mode of formation of fissure-veins is apparently this: 
In the regions where the earth’s crust is broken up in the adjustment of the cold 
and hard exterior to the cooling and shrinking nucleus, cracks are formed, often 
miles in extent, along which the rocks suffer displacement, sliding on each other 
to form what are known as “ faults.”” As the planes of these faults are more or 
less undulated, with displacement the bearing is upon the projecting bosses of 
each side. Between these, open fissures are left of greater or less dimensions. 
These reach down to a heated zone, and form the conduits through which ther- 
mal waters flow to the surface. Such waters coming in different localities 


202 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


from different depths, and leaching rocks of various composition under great 
pressure and high temperature, having great solvent power, become loaded with 
various mineral matters. As they rise to the surface, the pressure and tempera- 
ture are reduced, and the materials held in solution are deposited to line and per- 
haps ultimately fill the channels through which they flow. This theory of the fill- 
ing of mineral veins—that is, by precipitation from heated chemical solutions 
coming from below—is supported by such an array of facts that it must be ac- 
cepted by all who will make a careful and unprejudiced study of the subject. It 
is true, however, that various other theories have been, at one time or another, 
put forth for the explanation of the phenomena. Among these, a few deserve a 
passing notice. They are: 

1. The theory of igneous ejection, according to which the matter filling mineral 
veins has been erupted like that of trap dikes, and such veins as those of Laké 
Superior containing metallic copper have been suggested as affording good exam- 
ples. But here we find metallic copper and silver associated, and each chemically 
pure; whereas if they had ever been fused, they certainly would have formed an 
alloy. The copper is also found in crystals of calc-spar and other minerals, where 
it must have been deposited with the other constituents of the crystal, and that 
crystal formed from solution. Other opposing facts might be cited; butit will be 
sufficient to say that not one sound argument can be advanced in favor of this 
theory. 

2. Aqueous deposition from above. ‘This theory, first advanced by Werner, 
but since generally abandoned, supposes the contents of mineral veins to have 
been deposited froma solution which flowed into the fissures from above; but in 
that case the vein-matter should be horizontally stratified, limited in extent down- 
ward, and spread over the surface adjacent to the fissure; whereas no one has yet 
reached the limits in depth of the ore in a true fissure-vein, and the characteristic 
banded structure can only have resulted from successive depositions of a long- 
continued flow of a hot solution. This theory has been recently advocated in this 
city, by Prof. Stewart of Nevada; but it is not only not sustained, but is really 
disproved by all the facts observed by the writer in some years devoted to the 
study of our western ore-deposits. 

3. Lateral secretion. According to this theory, the material filling all miner- 
al veins has leached into the cavity from the wall-rocks. While this is true of 
gash-veins, it can have played but a very subordinate part in the deposition 
of ore in fissure-veins. This is proved by the facts that different sets of fissures 
which cut the same formation frequently contain very different ores; and where 
the rocks of totally different character are, by faulting, brought to form opposite 
walls of a fissure, the ore may be symmetrically deposited in corresponding lay- 
ers. It may also be said that the same fissure frequently traverses several forma- 
tions, and yet its character may be essentially the same throughout. 

4. Sublimation. The facility with which certain metals are volatilized, and 
the fact that various minerals have been deposited from vapor, have formed the 


, 


i} 


THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS. 203 


basis of this theory; yet it is difficult to see how any one can ascribe more than 
a local and insignificant effect to this cause. It is true that the action of water, 
as steam, is much the same as when fluid and highly heated, in the solution and 
transport of minerals; and the depusit of mercury ; sulphide of iron, and even 
gold, from the mingled water and steam of the California geysers proves this. So 
we may concede that steam has been an agent in the chemical solution and _pre- 
cipitation of ores; but this is a very different thing from the sublimation of the 
metals represented by these ores, and all knowledge and. analogy indicate that 
the silica which forms so large a part of vein-stones, and is so often seenin combs 
of interlocking crystals, has been deposited from an aqueous solution. But ar- 
gument is really wasted in a discussion of the filling of fissure-veins, since we 
have examples that seem to settle the question in favor of chemical precipitation 
from ascending hot water and steam. In the Steamboat Springs of Western Ne- 
vada, for example, we in fact catch mineral veins in the process of formation. 
These springs issue from extensive fissures which have been or are filling with sili- 
cious vein-stone that carries, according to M. Laur, oxide of iron, oxide of man- 
ganese, sulphide of iron, sulphide of copper, and metallic gold, and exhibits the 
banded structure so frequently observed in mineral veins.* 

In regard to the precise chemical reactions which take place in the deposi- 
tion of ores in veins, there is much yet to be learned, and this constitutes an in- 
teresting subject for original investigation, which I earnestly commend to those 
who are so situated that they can pursue it. 

It may be noticed, however, that the thermal springs which are now forming 
deposits like those in fissure-veins, contain alkaline carbonates and sulphides, 
and we have every reason to believe that highly carbonate alkaline waters contain- 
ing sulphureted hydrogen under varying conditions of temperature and pressure 
are capable of taking into solution and depositing all the metals and minerals with 
which we meet in mineral veins. 

To these necessarily brief notes on the filling of mineral veins should be ad- 
ded some interesting examples of the mechanical filling of fissures which have 
been recently brought to light in western mining. These are furnished by the 
remarkable deposits of gold and silver ore in the Bassick and Bull Domingo, near 
Rosita, Colorado, and the carbonate mine at Frisco, Utah. All these are appar- 
ently true fissure-veins, filled to as great a depth as they have yet been penetrated, by 
well-rounded pebbles and boulders which have fallen or been washed in from 
above. The porous mass thus formed has been subsequently saturated with a hot 
ascending mineral solution, which has cemented the pebbles and boulders to- 
gether into a conglomerate ore. In the Bassick, this ore consists of rich telluride 
of silver and gold, free gold, and the argentiferous sulphides of lead, zinc, cop- 


per andiron. In the Bull-Domingo and Carbonate mines, the cementing matter 


is argentiferous galena. That the pebbles and boulders have come from above 


is distinctly shown by the variety in their composition and the organic matters as- 


sociated with them. In the Bull-Domingo and the Bassick, the pebbles consist 


*Annales des Mines, Sixth Series, vol. iii, p. 421. 


204 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


of various kinds of igneous rock, mingled with which in the latter are masses of 
silicified wood and charcoal; while in the Carbonate mine, the pebbles are mainly 
trachyte ; but with these are others of limestone and quartzite. 

Fossils and other foreign bodies have before this been found in mineral veins, 
and Von Cotta mentions the occurrence of quartz pebbles extending to the depth 
of 155 fathoms in the Griiner Lode at Schemnitz, Saxony; but no conglomerate 
veins like those mentioned above are known to exist elsewhere, and they consti- 
tute another of the many new forms of ore deposit which the exploration of the 
rich and varied mineral resources of the United States has brought to light. To 
enumerate and classify these, has been the chief object of this article. 

In regard to the ultimate source of the metallic matters which give value to 
our ore deposits, but little can be said with certainty. The oldest rocks of which we 
have any knowledge, the Laurentian, contain gold and copper, which are indig- 
enous, hence as old as the rocks that contain them, and have been simply con- 
centrated and made conspicuous in the process of their metamorphism. ‘These 
rocks are all sediments and the ruins of pre-existing continents. By their ero- 
sion, they have in turn furnished gold, copper, iron, etc., to later sediments by 
mechanical dispersion and chemical solution. We now find gold everywhere in 
the Drift from the Canadian Highlands, and we have every reason to believe that 
all the sedimentary strata more recent than the Laurentian have acquired a slight 
impregnation of several metals from them in addition to what they have obtained 
from other sources, and we may conclude that the distribution of many of the 
metals is almost universal. Sea-water has been proved to contain goid, silver, 
copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel, iron, manganese and arsenic; and there is lit- 
tle doubt that all the other metals would be found there if the search were suffi- 
ciently thorough. Hence, sedimentary rocks of every age must have received 
from the ocean in which they were deposited some portion of all the metals, and 
for the formation of metalliferous deposits some method of concentrating these 
would alone be required. A pretty theory to explain such concentration through 
the agency of marine plants and animals has been suggested by some German 
mineralogists, and amplified by Professors Pumpelly and T. 5. Hunt. Plants have 
been credited with the most active agency in this concentration; but evidence is 
still wanting that either plants or animals have played any important part in the 
formation of our mineral deposits. The remains of sea-weeds are found in the 
greatest abundance in a number of our Paleozoic rocks, and it is almost certain 
that the carbonaceous ingredient in our great beds of bituminous shale has been 
derived from this source; yet we find there no unusual concentration of metallic 
matter, and none of the precious metals has ever been detected in them. 

The metallic solutions which have formed our ore-deposits have been ascribed 
to two sources. One theory supposes that they have drained highly metalliferous 
zones deep in the interior of the earth; the other, that they have leached diffused 
metals from rocks of different kinds comparatively near the surface. The latter 
view is the one that commends itself to the judgment of the writer. However 


GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE REGION OF SILVER CLIFF, COL. 205: 


probable such a thing might seem, no evidence of the existence of distinct metal- 
lic or metalliferous zones in the interior of the earth has been gathered. On the 
‘contrary, volcanic emissions, which may be supposed to draw from a lower level 
than water could reach, are not specially rich in metallic matters, and the ther- 
mal waters which have by their deposit filled our mineral veins must have derived 
their metallic salts from a zone not many thousand feet from the surface. The 
mineral springs, which are now doing a similar work, are but part of a round of 
circulation of surface-water, which, falling from the clouds, peneirates the earth 
to a point. where the temperature is such as to drive it back in steam. This, with 
fluid water under pressure and highly heated, possessing great solvent power, 
may be forced through vast beds of rock, and these be effectually leached by the 
process. Should such rocks contain the minutest imaginary quantity of the met- 
als, these must inevitably be taken into solution, and thus flow toward or to the 
surface, to be deposited when, by diminished temperature and pressure, the sol- 
vent power of the menstruum is diminished. It is evident from these facts that we can 
not trace the history of the metals back beyond the Laurentian age. And since 
we find them diffused in greater or less quantity through the sedimentary rocks of 
all ages, and also find processes in action which are removing and re depositing 
them in the form of the ore-deposits we mine, it is not necessary to look farther 
than this for a sufficient theory of their formation. 


GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE REGION OF SILVER CLIFF, COL. 
BY SAMUEL J. WALLACE. 


The rough country for twenty miles east of Silver Cliff has been dry land 
through nearly all the known geologic ages. It is the southern part of an old land 
which reaches north through the state, and against which the great ocean beat to 
east, west, andsouth. This may be termed the Madre land, from the Sierra Madre 
mountain system, along which it lies, and as being the mother-land of this region. 

It was a mountain region, of stratified metamorphic granites, or granitoid 
rocks. ‘These are traversed by numerous barren leads, and some which bear val- 
uable minerals, iron, lead, gold and silver. 

The great Sangre de Cristo range, ten miles westward, is capped by a thou- 
sand feet of conglomerate of granitoid boulders, which were washed down from 

these older mountains, when that was the bed of the sea, since upheaved into the 
great range of the continent. The core and west side of that range, here, are 
eruptive granites, and also bear leads with gold, silver, copper andiron. The 
‘Tange bears other sedimentary strata, including limestones, on its flanks north 
“and south, on each side, probably of the same age as those extending south far 
‘into New Mexico, and north beyond Leadville, and attributed variously to the Si- 
| lurian, Devonian, or Subcarboniferous ages. These probably originally covered 
‘the whole range. Fossils have been brought from Hayden’s Pass, north, but I 
o not know of what age they were. 


206 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. | 


About Silver Cliff and Rosita are extensive Trachyte, or light colored lava | 
rocks, bearing mineral. ‘These extend for ten miles nearly east and west; and | 
evidently consist of various outpours differing in their appearance and minerals. | 
Their geology and relations are an interesting field of study. | 

Perhaps the latest is that on which Silver Cliff is built, which bears a pecul-| 
jar manganese ore carrying free milling chloride of silver, of the Racine Boy type: | 
this appears over an_area of two miles east to west, and a mile and-a-half north to 
south. It has a black and glossy pitchstone core exposed at various places under it. 

North-west of this is another body, rather larger, and to the south-east about | 
Rosita another still larger, which are probably older, different in appearance and | 
with different minerals, iron, lead, zinc, copper, sulphurets, and manganese, with | 
silver diffused through the rocks, and in more or less defined leads. All these | 
carry silver in small quantities, making a wonderful field for future mining, from | 
the immense quantity of the rock and its accessibility. After the melted trachyte | 
was outpoured and by cooling left fissures and deep cavities, no doubt water 
penetrating the deep recesses of the earth was heated and caused to take up mine- 
rals in solution and bring them to the surface, where on cooling they were deposi- 
ted in various forms in the passages and through the broken and porous trachyte. 

The Bassick and Bull-Domingo mines are of this type distinctly, while no 
doubt lesser and more diffused outruns have produced the minerals throughout the 
trachyte beds. This trachyte is very old, as shown by hundreds of feet of denu- 
dation and ravines cut in it, especially toward Rosita. There isa sedimentary 
formation, which I have named the Eositon, five miles north-east of Silver Cliff, 
formed from washings of these old trachyte beds and the granite east. This extends 
for-miles in a line from Dora to Bassick’s, in the bed of an old stream, half mile 
wide. Modern streams havecut down showing nearly a hundred feet in thickness. | 
The strata are mostly soft, some fine grained and some coarse with gravel; often 
of soft talc-like nature. At one place, west of Cafion road it is capped with a lo- 
cal deposit of limestone, containing granite boulders, valuable for lime. 

Half mile west of Apperson’s mill the upper strata contain quantities of fos- 
sil wood, of many familiar kinds, apparently showing the grain finely. No ani- 
mal remains have yet been found in it, but it may contain wonders of the time 
when the monsters roamed this land, whose bones were found by Profs. Marsh, 
Cope and Mudge, twenty-five miles north, at Prospect Park. ‘There isa stratified 
sand formation overlying the trachyte north and west, which shows the presence 
of a body of water at a late age nearly as high as the city, at least. | Animal re- 
mains, with huge teeth, have been found in this, in the shaft of the St. John claim 
two-and-a-half miles north-west. There is a deposit of coarse and fine worn gra- 
vel for twenty-five miles south and ten miles wide sloping into Grape creek valley, 
which may be known as the Wet Mountain Gravels. 

There are indications of Glacial action extensively in this region, and no 
doubt. these gravels owe much to it. Debris of the Racine Boy type of ores is 
scattered over the hills for miles north-east. 


| 


FOSSIL REMAINS IN SOUTHWEST MISSOURI. 207 


FOSSIL REMAINS IN SOUTHWEST MISSOURI. 
J. L. LEWIS, BOLIVAR, MO. 


Southwest Missouri is rich in minerals, abounds in wonderful caves and 
springs, and her fossils are worthy of scientific notice. ‘The Missouri School of 
Mines at Rolla is arousing a new interest in our scientific circles, and is doing 
much to develop our natural resources. 

A few years ago Mr. G. C. Broadhead read a paper before the St. Louis 
Academy of Science, in which he refers to the late discovery of the remains of a 
horse at Papinville, Bates county, Mo. Mr. O. P. Ohlinger, in digging a well, 
cut through a bed of thirty feet and ten inches of yellowish clay. Here he 
found a four-inch stratum of bluish clay and gravel, beneath which was a bed of 
sand in which the tooth was found. Under this sand bed was a gravel bed five 
feet deep filled with rounded pebbles, generally hornstone, many of which 
adhered firmly together. Some of the pebbles taken from this bed were of iron 
ore, coal and micaceous sandstone. Some remains of fluviatile shells were also 
found in this gravel bed nearly thirty-two feet below the surface. I have thus 
described this bed for the observation of others in this district. 

The tooth was sent to Prof. Joseph Leidy, of Philadelphia, who, after a most 
critical examination pronounced it to be the last upper molar of a horse, and he 
thought of some extinct species. From a similar gravel bed on the bank of the 
river Marais des Cygnes the fragment of a tusk was found closely resembling that 
of a mammoth. The full length of this tusk was about seven feet and four 
inches. 

Ten miles from Papinville on the bank of the river Marais des Cygnes there 
appears to be the same formation as the one above described. Mr. Broadhead 
considers them to be altered drift, but older than the bluff or Loess. As these 
gravel beds are abundant on the Osage river and its tributaries, it would be well 
for those living in this vicinity to be on the lookout for fossil remains, and care- 
fully preserve all such for scientific investigation. 


A FOSSIE FOREST: 


An interesting discovery has been made at Edgelane Quarry, Oldham, Eng- 
land. The quarrymen, in the course of their excavations, have come upon what 
‘has been described as a fossil forest. The trees number about twelve, and some 
of them are two feet in diameter. They are in good preservation. The roots 
‘can be seen interlacing the rock, and the fronds of the ferns are to be found im- 
printed on every piece of stone. The trees belong to the middle coal measure 
period, although it has been regarded as somewhat remarkable that no coal has 
been discovered near them. The coal is found 250 yards beneath. 


:208 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


METEOROLOGY: 


TORNADOES. 


ISAAC P. NOYES, WASHINGTON, D. C. 


By the study of details we learn principles, and only by a proper study of | 
‘details can we comprehend principles. Principles, however, once grasped and | 
understood, minute details, though still of as much importance in themselves, | 
become a secondary matter to him who has mastered the principles that form the | 
‘sum total of those details. We have the alphabet, then words, clauses, senten- | 
ces, etc. The child learns the alphabet, then to form words, and finally ad-| 
vances to sentences and from sentences to composition in general. He who has 
made himself master of composition, although he heeds the correct juxtaposition 
of the minor details of letters and words, in one sense ignores them, or better per- 
haps, let them take care of themselves. 

When we advance to science he who thoroughly understands the principles 
of his department can the better comprehend and explain all its little variations and 
is not all the while at a loss to explain trifling details or troubled with them as one | 
who has not yet mastered these details. | 

How difficult it is to understand the situation of objects when viewed from a 
wrong point, and how easy to comprehend them when the right point of view is | 
obtained. How difficult to understand the interpretations of nature through some 
wrong theory or false hypothesis, but how plain they become when viewed with 
the full knowledge of the natural laws that govern them. As for example, how 
difficult centuries ago to understand and to be able satisfactorily to explain the | 
physical condition of the planets of the universe before the Copernican theory 
became an established fact, or to explain the properties and full purpose of the 
blood before the circulation of the blood was established as a fact; surely it has al- | 
ways been a fact, but like many other scientific facts it was for ages unknown to 
man. Only within the past few years, as has heretofore been stated, have we | 
had sufficient data in the department of the weather whereby we may satisfacto- 
rily explain its ever varied changes. The daily weather map has become the in- 
strument whereby we may understand these changes and readily comprehend the | 
principles that govern all our weather, from the warm, quiet, sunny days that 
predominate in mid-summer to the cold tempestuous weather of winter and spring. 

Before we had these data we were greatly in the dark on this subject as a_ 
whole. Certainly we understood certain minor details, but we were at the foot of 
the mountain. Through the weather map we ascend to the very highest peak and 

with a bird’s eye view survey the whole broad landscape. We are lifted above 


TORNADOES, 209 


the earth and its commotions of whirlwind and storm, and quietly survey the scene 
and note its peculiarities with the combined indifference and intense interest of a 
commanding general surveying a battle or a surgeon performing some difficult 
operation. Let the elements be ever so quiet or rave so terribly, the weather 
map lifts us above them and we quietly note the effect and trace up the cause. 
And the cause of the terrible commotions that so frequently visit us are as readi- 
ly traced and explained as the most balmy days of ‘‘ Indian Summer.” 

One cause produces all the effects and all the effects proceed from one and 
the same cause, notwithstanding their variety, and whether wet or dry, and the 
various names given to them. In the past, prior to 1870, it isnot surprising that 
from. the minor and disconnected details we should have had queer notions 
of the weather, and that such names as typhoon, tornado, cyclone, hurricane 
and simoon should have been coined to represent the wind commotions of the 
elements in different parts of the earth, and that people should think that there 
must be as much difference in the things known by these various names as in the 
spelling and sound of the names themselves. 

According to Webster, and others will not essentially differ from this au- 
thority, a 

TYPHOON is ‘‘a violent whirlwind that rushes upward from the earth, whirling 
clouds of dust; probably so called because it was held to be the work of Typhon 
or Typhos, a giant struck with lightning by Jupiter and buried under Mt. Attna.” 

1. A violent tornado or hurricane occurring in the Chinese seas. 

2. Sometimes the simoon. 

Tornapo—‘‘A violent gust of wind, or a tempest distinguished by a whirling, 
progressive motion, usually accompanied with thunder, lightning and torrents of 
rain, and commonly of short duration and small breadth; a hurricane.” 

CycLonE—‘‘ A rotatory storm or whirlwind of extended circuit.” 

HurRIcANE—‘‘A violent storm characterized by the extreme fury of the wind 
and its sudden changes; in the East and West Indies often accompanied by thun- 
der and lightning.” 

Simoon—‘‘ A hot, dry wind, that blows occasionally in Arabia, Syria, and 
the neighboring countries, generated by the extreme heat of the parched deserts 
or sandy plains. Its approach is indicated by a redness in the air.” 

Here we have the five principal varieties of storms. At the first glance at 
the definitions, together with the past ideas in regard to them, it may seem ab- 
surd to some to say that they are all one and the same thing, yet nevertheless on 
general principles one and the same thing they are—effects from one cause and 
only varying in minor details as affected by localsurroundings. All are caused by 

_the rush of air toward the center of low barometer, or by the ever contending 
forces, heat and cold. The sun shining on some certain spot and at that point 
creating an intense heat, and this spot or area of heat from the motion of the 
earth on its axis ever moving toward the east. The intense heat following the 
_law of physics causes the heated and rarified air to ascend and the cooler air from 


210 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


around and about to rush in to fill the vacuum, or better, to prevent a vacuum, 
for we can never have a vacuum in open nature, as in order to secure that we 
must have some artificial barrier whereby the air may be prevented from entering 
the would-be vacuum. ‘The vulgar phrase ‘‘just before she does she doesn’t,” 
well represents nature in her struggle to create a vacuum. With her, to attain 
the object that she is ever striving for is an impossibility, and through this impos- 
sibility she accomplishes other and greater physical phenomena that keep her ever 
fresh and impart renewed vigor to her numerous and varied subjects. 

The ‘‘ Typhoon” is the center of the area of low-barometer, or the center of 
the storm, for it is only at this place that the direction of the wind may be upward 
from the earth, whirling clouds of dust, the center being the point where the 
‘‘whirling,”’ if any, takes place as well as the ‘‘upward-motion.” For at the center 
is where the winds from all points of the compass on all sides of the storm must 
meet. I was once in the center of an area of low-barometer in the Gulf of Mex- 
ico. The wind was from every quarter and had this whirling motion here spoken 
of—the upper part of the main-mast of the ship was instantly, in the twinkling of 
an eye—twisted from its place, where it had been so firmly hela by the strong 
shrouds. 

Could we have an ample number of stations in a country where these ‘‘ Ty- 
phoons” are said to occur, we would not only see this effect at its very center, but 
at a great distance, from all sides, see a rush of air toward the spot where this 
commotion takes place. The ‘‘ Typhoon” is more apt to represent the peculiar 
and intense features of an area of low-barometer in hot or equatorial countries. 
Still the cause and principles that govern it are not different from the ‘‘ Tornado” 
which is the name universally given to severe storms that are liable to occur every- 
where, and in the United States occur most frequently in our western territory, al- 
though not confined there, as such storms occasionally visit New York and New 
England. ‘To fully understand the Tornado, one must bear in mind the fact that 
wind under the pressure of a hundred miles an hour or more, will become quite 
solidified and will bear along with it objects of great specific gravity. In this re 
spect it much resembles water in great and forcible commotion, as in a storm or 
freshet. We well know that stone is not buoyantin water when the water is in its 
normal condition, yet when great storms occur along our Atlantic coasts large 
stones of three and four tons weight are borne from their places in sea-walls and 
transported quite a distance. When that dam gave away in Connecticut, some 
few years ago, stones of immense weight were transported upon the condensed 
floods for a number of miles. 

When a Tornado takes place, the air rushing along a narrow way and being 
condensed by its great speed becomes, as it were,a thing of life and may even, and 
does frequently represent an immense serpent going over the ground—dirt, stones 
and loose materials generally, that lie along its path being swept along with the 
mighty current. But weare told, that the Tornado has a whirling processive and 
even bounding motion. This is not at all strange. Unimpeded air, or what may 


TORNADOES. 911 


be practically termed such for the time, becomes solidified in proportion to its 
speed—the greater the speed the more solidity. Then the greater the solidity the 
more it becomes a thing of life and acts like a living thing. If then in its course 
it meets with any stationary object it is more or less twisted and turned by that 
contact, which will readily account for those gyratory motions that belong to this 
degree of storm and are so often characteristic of it. 

How account for the water that so often forms a part of it? may be asked 
by some. ‘The response to this is, that being wet or dry is merely accidental. 
But I will pass on to the Cyclone, and take up this point again further on when 
I come to speak of the late Tornado (of April 18th) in Missouri. 

The Cyclone as defined by Webster as being ‘‘a rotatory storm or whirlwind 
of extended circuit” is nothing more nor less than the center of the area of low- 
barometer. The size of the circle makes no particular difference—the lower the 
barometric pressure the more severe the storm will be, and as the winds meet at 
a common and moving center, from equatorial and polar regions or directions, a 
rotary or circular motion will be imparted to the winds at this point, and their 
twirling or twisting power will be in proportion to the power of dow. 

The Hurricane seemsto be recognized as something peculiar to hot countries. 
It occurs from the same cause—concentrated heat—and the greater the heat the 
more powerful the generated force. That it should be accompanied with thunder 
and lightning is not at all remarkable; indeed it would be more remarkable if it 
were not thus accompanied. 

Wherever there is heat and moisture there will be hghtning and thunder. I 
place lightning first for this is the order in which it should come, the reverse order 
is the universal practice in using these words simply for euphony, but if we speak 
of them in the order in which they take place, the “ghtnimg must take the prece- 
dence over the ¢hunder. Wherever there is sufficient heat and moisture to form 
clouds, lightning will be sure to follow, for it is nothing more nor less than a sub- 
tile form of heat. This will readily account for the fact that lightning is more the 
product of warm countries than of temperate ones, and that we in temperate cli- 
mates have it, with some exceptions only in the warmer months of the year and 
when it occurs in the winter it is only when we have a remarkably warm spell of 
weather for the season. So it is not surprising that the Hurricanes of the East and 
West Indies should be accompanied with thunder and lightning, but rather it would 

_ be more surprising if such were not the case. 

The Simoon is simply what may be termed a dry-storm. It occurs in dry 

countries where there is little water to generate clouds, and by the way, rain is 
purely accidental. On all satellite bodies, such as our moon, all the storms that 
occur there must be after the order of Simoons. If large bodies of water, in the 
form of lakes and streams, together with extensive woods, could be interspersed 
throughout Arabia and Sahara there would be no more Simoons there, but they 
_ would have just such storms as occur in countries that are well watered. 
It is said that the approach of the Simoon is indicated by aredness in the air. 


i 
‘ 


Iv—14 


212 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


It is very natural that such should be the fact, for in such countries there is al- 
ways an abundance of loose sand to be taken up by the wind. A friend tells me 
that he has seen these clouds of fine sand three hundred miles at sea, off the 
coast of Africa and that the steamer which he was in, was fully a day in passing 
through this immense mass of fine dust that had been forced by the winds out to 
sea. 

Always when such storms as the late one in Missouri occur, far more com- 
ment is made over the mere auxiliary and accidental things than over the ger- 
mane cause itself. ‘‘ This storm took up trees by the roots—another demolished 
houses, fences, killed animals.and people—another filled the air with debris—men 
and horses were taken up in the air—it rained frogs and toads, ashes, dirt, stones 
etc., etc.—The tornado moved like a huge serpent—a blackened mass—moved 
in a very narrow path, destroyed this house and just grazed or bounded over that 
one. ‘The tornado of such a date moved along the earth,carrying everything with 
it. One of another date took things heavenward and terrible thunder and light 
ning followed in its_course.”’ 

We see the same diversity in storms at sea or in great freshets, and yet storms 
and freshets are not much unlike each other. The same cause that produced them 
five thousand years ago produces them now,and will continue to produce them so 
long as our physical condition shall be under the laws which governed the earth at 
creation and that govern it now.—Though the principles are the same and uni- 
versal,the details may and will vary with the localities and surroundings. And so 
with storms in general, whether on sea or land, and whatever lies in the path of 
the storm will be demolished, unless it be strong enough to resist it. 

Wind moving at the rate of a hundred miles an hour will have an immense 
force and will not permit things, whether they be trees, toads or stones, to lie 
around loose. If in the way, they will be taken up on the wings of the wind and 
be borne along until the force of the wind so abates as to be unable longer to carry 
them, and if perchance it be near the center of the area of low-barometer, they 
may be carried upward with the ascending waves of the meeting of the currents. 

In this country hardly a summer passes, but that we have from one to 
three or four severe storms, here generally called ‘‘’Tornadoes.’”’ ‘The term or 
name matters little. 

The papers on the 19th of April, 1880, reported a severe storm of this kind — 
the day previous centering mostly in the south-western part of Missouri, but quite 
extensive throughout the state of Missouri and parts of Kansas. One of the re- 
ports of the storm states, that everywhere along the track of the tornado was evi- 
dence of a wave of water flowing in the rear of the clouds, and that these waves 
or currents flowed in greatest volume up-hill, as though there was something very 
surprising in this fact. Water will naturally run down hill, but if there be sufh- 
cient force behind it, it may be forced up to the top of the highest elevation that | 
the earth can produce. When a hill lies in the path of a tremendous wind-storm, | 
it is similar toa rock or fixed object in a stream where there is an immense and rapid | 


TORNADOES. 213 


current. The water will play about the obstacle if it is unable to carry it along with 
its force. And so with a hill in a terrific storm of wind and rain. Clouds as well 
as other things will be swept along with the current and where there are clouds 
there will be moisture, and the more clouds the more moisture, for clouds are noth- 
ing more nor less than suspended moisture, and the denser they become by the 
powerful squeezing process of the winds, the more apt are they to deposit that 
moisture and that moisture itself to be carried along as a river in the air. 

Another party in discussing this tornado of the 18th of April, repeats the old 
idea about the cause being the meeting of two waves of air at different tempera- 
tures. Notwithstanding the firm belief in this idea, I pronounce it as ridiculous as 
the absurd notion that the moon affects and causes changes in the weather of our 
globe, and assert that a more false scientific idea never existed.—And more, I 
challenge proof in support of either this idea or that the moon has the least pos- 
sible effect upon our weather system. What gave rise to this idea was evidently 
the condition of the air at the center of the area of low-barometer. Here such 
‘currents must necessarily meet, as cold and warm water might meet in a valley 
where one stream came from some boiling spring and the other from the melting 
of ice and snow on the mountain top, but the meeting of these warm and cold cur- 
rents of air or water would not be the cause of any destruction that they might 
cause on their passage thither. The cause of the destruction would rather be 
owing to the rapidity with which they rushed to meet each other in this common 
center, on the steepness of the hill whereby the force of gravity is accelerated, 
or the rapid displacement of air by the power of heat at the center of the area of 
low-barometer. 

Then there are people who somehow or other believe that ‘‘ electricity” is 
and must some way be the cause of these severe storms, and indeed they go so far 
as to hold that some are electrical and that others are not, but are due to some 
other cause—but what, they do not know. Now the presence of electricity in 
these storms is purely accidental. The hotter it is the more heat will be taken up 
with the water that forms the clouds, so the more heat taken thus up into the air, 
the more electricity will there be in the air to generate the flash and light we call 
Lightning and the noise we call thunder; which are, as I will repeat, merely auxil- 
lary to the storm and not even essential to it, much less being the cause of it. 

In all the comments in the papers thus far I have not seen the slightest allu- 
sion to the real and simple cause of this storm of the 18th of April, and the only 
cause of all storms of whatever nature and local peculiarities and wherever they 
may occur, whether at the equator or at the poles, or in Asia, Africa, Europe or 
America. 

| According to the daily weather map, published by the U. S. Signal office at 
Washington, at half-past seven on the morning of the 18th of April, 1880, the 
area of low barometer centered at about Omaha, Nebraska, nearly due north of 
the place where the storm of the afternoon of the 18th is noted as first starting. 


214 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Twenty-four hours later the center of the storm was at Lake Michigan, near 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. According to laws heretofore referred to in these arti- 
cles, the area of low barometer starts in the United States in the West, at least 
there is where we at present first get track of it in its passage across our continent, 
and as it travels east trends more or less to the north. This area of low barome- 
ter of 18th of April, 1880, traveled in a line very nearly east-north-east. The first 
starting of the storm on the afternoon of the 18th of April, is reported to have 
been near Fort Smith, on the Arkansas river, in the western part of Arkansas, 
and that it moved in a northeasterly direction. ‘The next place of importance 
where it struck 1s reported to have been Marshfield, Missouri, while the storm, 
though with less force, also raged in and about Kansas City, Missouri. 

Now, if one will study the map, he or she will see that the course of. the 
storm was from the places and localities injured by the storm toward the path of 
the area of low barometer. Here is the simple and universal cause of allstorms of 
this nature—a cause and effect that any one of ordinary intelligence may readily 
understand if he will only heed the signs. If the intelligent will not heed the 
signs, why, then they will be as much in the dark as the ignorant, and if any- 
thing more so. And so it is not surprising that we see published in respectable 
papers such ideas as that there was a similarity between the storm in Kansas and 
one in the Island of Sicily, in the Mediterranean, two days afterward, and that 
therefore both were of meteoric origin. ‘‘The Kansas dust was composed of 
brown and black impalpable matter, and so abundant that on the next day traces 
of the deposits could be seen on the surface of the ground, and on a north porch 
sufficient to receive the imprints of a cat’s feet” *  * * The near coinci- 
dence of dates between the phenomenon in Sicily and here (Kansas), with an 
apparent similarity in the physical properties of the dust, might suggest a com- 
mon origin.” 

In the first place, I would like for the author of the above to publish to the 
world what a ‘‘meteoric” storm is; how it is to be distinguished from other 
storms; what are its peculiarities; what its general nature, and whether it is de- 
pendent upon the influence of the properties of high or low barometer, or quite 
independent of them. In the next place, if he knew any thing about the rapid- 
‘ity of storm centres, or the speed at which the areas of low barometer, which 
causes the storm, travels, he would have seen that it could not possibly pass 
over such a distance in two days, as from Kansas to Sicily, and more than this, 
that it is very doubtful about an area of low barometer which passes over Kansas 
traveling in such a direction as to pass over Sicily, or take any such like of lati- 
tude as Sicily in its course. 

The area of low barometer travels with greater or less speed, probably any- 
where‘from three hundred and fifty miles to even double this distance a day. The 
force or rapidity of the wind toward the center of the area of low barometer has 
nothing directly to do with the rapidity of the area of low barometer, but with 


its intensity. Relatively to the storm the area of /ow is stationary. Then as to’ 


TORNADOES. 215 


the direction of the winds in such storms this is purely accidental, though in 
America these winds are mostly toward the east. I say toward the east rather 
than from the west, for the reason that winds are pulled and not pushed—the 
force that creates them is always in advance and not behind. ‘These storms, 
though generally toward the east are not always so; it depends on the location 
of the area of ow. When the area of low barometer is on the land, the storm 
almost always follows this course, for it is natural that the greater force of the 
wind must be in the track of /ow as it advances toward the east from the west. 
For in this case we have not only the force of the wind in proportion to the in- 
tensity of this area of low barometer, but we undoubtedly have added to this the 
progressive force of Jow as it advances towardthe east. So our tornadoes are 
mostly in the track of a storm toward the east—most, but not always, for some 
times, more especially when the area of low barometer is on a high line of lati- 
tude, the storm takes place or begins with a southeast wind. This at first may 
seem contradictory to previous statements, and so also may the statement that, 
relatively to the storm the area of /ow is stationary, but with a little study of the 
weather maps in connection with storms it will be seen that the wind is ever 
changing as the area of /ow is passing over the country. In the east first the 
wind will be toward the west and to the south or north of due west as the area of 
the advancing /ow is on a low or high line of latitude—then, after the passing of 
Jow more or less reversed, or toward the east. ‘Ilo understand this better, let 
any one take a sheet of paper and mark its four sides—North, East, South and 
West. Over the paper sprinkle some iron filings. ‘Then, near enough to attract 
the iron, slowly draw a magnet from the west toward the east. It will be seen 
that the magnet will attract the particles of iron as it advances, and from all 
quarters, and that as it advances it will take up particles of iron with it, and that 
relatively to the iron the magnet is for the time being stationary, though the par- 
ticles of iron will follow the movements of the magnet. This, so far as iron will 
permit, is a fair illustration of the attraction or pulling power of /ow over air, 
though iron being a far more inert substance than air, is not so readily or ex- 
tensively affected by the magnet as the air is by the attractive force of Jow. 

Then, as to the direction of the wind in a tornado, instead of being toward 
the northeast, or toward the northwest, it may in some localities be from the 
northwest, asin Washington, July 4, 1874, and yet in the track of ow. A south 
west wind had been blowing all day—or in other words foward the northeast. 
Suddenly the wind changed to the northwest and blew a terrific storm that up- 
rooted trees and unroofed houses in this locality. 

In the early part of November, 1877, we had a similar storm on Long 
Asland Sound, when the steamer Massachusetts, being caught by it on a lee 
‘shore, came near being a total wreck. In these instances the cause was the same 
_as created the late tornado in Kansas and Missouri, only the area of low barom- 
“eter was in another locality, and,therefore,the wind that caused it must be froma 
different quarter. It was in the track of the area of low barometer. 


216 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


‘ 


After all this comment on what a tornado is, the question arises, is there no: 
preventive? There would seem not, at least at this present state and power of 
understanding. We may, however, ameliorate the force and concentration of 
the storm by the abundant planting of trees, which will have a tendency to break 
the force of the storm. 

In conclusion, I would remark, or perhaps better, repeat, that the area of 
low barometer is the center and generating influence of the storm—the center 
toward which the winds from all quarters will blow, and the force of these winds 
will be in proportion to the intensity or lowness of pressure at this center of /ow. 
This area of low barometer is ever on the move toward the east or toward the 
advancing sun, and its motion, at least so far as we know on land, is never re- 
versed, although there is some probability of its changing its course on the ocean 
after passing off the land, as discussed in former papers. Butits course on the 
sea, at least after passing off our coasts, is at present unknown to us. We only 
know that the wind is always toward /ow, and that in passing off the coast, more 
frequently than otherwise, the wind after just having been from the southwest, 
comes out from the northwest. 

In order to fully explain this, we must have some stations out on the ocean ; 
either stationary, as a light-ship, or movable, as a steam vessel might be. When 
this can be accomplished, we can study the direction of /ow after passing off the 
coast; until then we can not be certain as to its location beyond what inference 
we may draw as to the direction of the wind. We do know that the wind is al- 
ways toward /ow, and furthermore, that tornadoes, hurricanes, or by whatever 
name we may call a storm,it always will be in the wake or track toward this cen- 
ter or area of low barometer, wherever it may be, and that a tornado is always in 
order after the passing of /ow. Fortunately for us, the conditions of nature are 
not always favorable to it; if they were, we should have them at least once a week, 
and sometimes oftener. 

What becomes us now is to carefully study out the course of Jow every time 
it passes over the country, note the conditions when a tornado occurs and when 
not. By careful noting of data, by and by we may be able at least to say when 
one will occur and when not, and as we advance in knowledge, we may, by the 
judicious planting of trees, or by other means not now plain to us, in a measure 
prevent their occurrence, or at least diminish their severity or intensity. 


AURORA BOREALIS. 


PROF. E. R. PAIGE. 


The cause of this singular phenomena has been a prolific subject of both sci- 
entific and unscientific discussion for many years. 

To the mind educated in cause and effect the canopy of night, lighted up by 
the dancing specter, presents a most alluring sight: while the unenlightened are 


AURORA BOREALIS. 217 


filled with dark forebodings of a visitation of God’s wrath, the scientist sees only 
the grand workings of the immediate laws of nature. 

The heavens illuminated with red light is to the superstitious a sure harbinger 
of impending wars: while the careful observer looks with delight upon the scene, 
and is impressed only with the sublimity of nature, poor unreasoning man is tor- 
tured with fears of coming evil. 

In the slow development of scientific knowledge, many and varied have 
been the theories put forth as to the origin of the Northern Lights, as we in this 
hemisphere call them. It is the reflection of sunlight by the ice at the pole, says 
one, while another contends that it is produced by great and internal fires whose 
chimney occupies the SPACE devoted by Dr. Kane to an open polar sea; but the 
more patient observers have pronounced it electric light. It is my present pur- 
pose to look out through the light of a few known facts in search of the origin of 
this great wonder. Not that any direct good will follow a successful inquiry in 
the matter of utilizing the light for street purposes or for private illumination, 
but if we can find the cause to be natural, and not supernatural, then one more 
old superstition that has haunted the memory and made life unhappy is gone—one 
more bugbear of tormenting fear is consigned to the shades of past ignorance. 
Newton discovered the law that controls the universe, and every child should be 
taught this law, for withoutit we can comprehend nothing in nature. How life 
is produced, how worlds, how suns, and planets formed and held in their orbits, 
is known only through this law. 

‘‘ ach atom has an attraction for each other atom in the universe, and the 
attraction is proportionate to their size, and is lessened as the square of the dis- 
tance which separates them increases.” Late developments in scientific research 
lead to the conclusion that all the varied original elements in nature, so-called, are 
resolvable back to one, and that one to energy. Also that light, heat, electricity 
and sound are only different phases of motion. 

Heat is the arrest of motion, and all the warmth we get from the sun is pro- 
duced by the stoppage of the heat waves sent out by its throbbing power. Chem- 
ical heat is created by the clash of little worlds of gas beating together, and no 
exception is known to the rule, that heat is the arrest of motion. 

All the heat and all the energy we get on the earth come from the sun.. The 
rainclouds are lifted from the ocean; the winds sweep over the mountains and 
across the moors, the blood of life, the sap of vegetation, all propelled by the pow- 
er of the sun. The visible power expended on our little globe passes all efforts of 
comprehension, but it is naught compared with the latent hidden energy. The 
decomposition of one drop of water produces a power equal to the most terrific 
thunder storm ever witnessed, while the decomposition of one grain of water 
_ produces a force equal to the discharge of 800,000 Leyden jars. All this but 
_ shadows the vast amount of energy that comes to us from the sun. Our earth is 
but a speck in space, and not a two thousand-millionth part of the energy thrown 
off by the sun strikes us, but is expended out in dark, empty space. This in- 


218 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


volves a vast waste by the sun, and experiment shows that the sun would be ex- 
hausted and cooled down in 5,000 years if not replenished from some source. 
The earth is passing around the sun once a year over a path 555,000,000 miles 
long, traveling at the rate of 68,000 miles an hour. ‘The speed of our flight is 
eighty times more rapid than the swiftest flying cannon ball. If the globe should 
strike a dead wall passing at this great speed, the concussion, we are told, would 
burn it instantly, creating a heat of which we have no comprehension; and yet 
the heat produced by such a catastrophe would not be sufficient to last the sun’s 
waste for a period of thirty days. 

We are taught, however, that if the earth should let go its place in space 
and be attracted into the sun, that body, being 325,000 times more than the 
earth, and, therefore, possessing 325,000 times more power of attraction, its 
immense pull would draw us in with such a velocity that the kinetic force gath- 
ered in the passage would produce an impact in striking that would give off heat 
sufficient to last the sun’s waste for a period of ninety-one years. 

In any hour of a clear night that we watch we shall see at least six or eight 
stars fall. These stars are simply small pieces of iron gathered and formed in 
space that have fallen into our atmosphere in our flight around the sun; that is, 
have been attracted into the orbit of the world and picked up. Coming into our at- 
mosphere when it is passing with such velocity creates a friction—a concussion— 
an arrest of motion, that immediately burns the iron. We see the explosion and 
call it a falling star. If an unaided eye can see six fall in one hour of the night, 
then what a vast shower must be constantly attracted by the whole earth. If the 
little earth with its slight power of attraction brings in such a constant shower of 
cosmic matter, how much more would be attracted by the sun, possessing 325,- 
ooo times more power of attraction than the earth. Such is the case, we are 
told, and our grand constant shower of cosmic matter is constantly falling into 
that body, forming a vast corona extending out from the sun 800,000 miles, by 
the clashing and impinging of particles aad resultant burning. Thus, by virtue 
of the law of attraction, one constant stream of matter, which is energy, 1s 
pouring into the sun to replenish its waste. This matter must be formed in space, 
and is simply an aggregation of energy, or fire-mist, that pervades the atmos- 
phere. 

The cosmic matter that falls on the earth, that is meteoric matter, is about 
85 per cent. iron, and is merely an aggregation of iron-dust, which is itself an 
aggregation of invisible fire-mist. Great clouds of this fine iron-dust gather in the 
heavens, and are occasionally attracted into our orbit. On striking our atmos- 
phere, flying with such great speed, the concussion, the arrest of motion, in- 
stantly burns the iron-dust and produces light colored according to the surround- 
ing conditions that produce the refraction. ‘This theory is not without its objec- 
tions, and the chief one is perhaps the fact of these lights occurring toward the 
poles. This objection, I think, can be met, however, in the conditions that produce 
refractions of light, but our article affords no space to enter upon that field. 


THE MANNER OF WORKING THE ELECRTIC TIME BALL, 219 


The facts I have alluded to as a basis for reasoning are, of course, not my 
own, and I shall not be deemed immodest, I hope, in saying that they are all 
well established and may be accepted as true grounds of reasoning. 

This being so, it does seem that the wonderful aurora borealis may be fully ac- 
counted for in the burning of iron-dust that gathers into great clouds, and floats 
into our flying atmosphere to be burned by the concussion. — /néer- Ocean. 


lelal YSIS; 


THE MANNER OF WORKING THE ELECTRIC TIME BALL. 
PROF. C. W. PRITCHETT. 


Dr. Case :—In an editorial note in the last number of the Kansas City 
REVIEW, attention is again called to an electric time ball for the Union Depot, 
Kansas City. 

Since June 3, we have transmitted to the Union Depot, by the Western 
Union telegraph, a daily time signal, at 4 P. M. The manner of sending it is as 
follows: At about five minutes before four o’clock we call Union Depot and 
advise the operator of the nearness of the signal. ‘This is also a monition to all 
other operators to keep off till the signals are sent and acknowledged; and by 
special instructions from the Superintendent, they are under obligation to heed 
this monition. At the proper moment, one of the brake-circuit clocks of the 
Observatory is instantaneously switched into the line through a relay, and begins 
to record each of its seconds, on every sounder between Mexico and Kansas 
City. 

The first second marks 3 h., 59 m., Kansas City mean time. 

The sixtieth second marks 4 h., Kansas City mean time. 

The 120th second marks 4 h., 1 m., Kansas City mean time. 

The sixtieth second is specially distinguished from all others by an extra 
break, interpolated by hand before it and also by a like extra break immediately 
after it. There are thus three chances for the operator to get the exact sec- 
ond, if any interruption occurs. I am glad to say that, generally, the signals 
are allowed to pass uninterrupted. Sometimes, however, they are marred by 
Operators either through forgetfulness of instructions, or through ignorance 
of them. Iam reluctant to believe that they are sometimes interrupted through 
mischief. On several occasions keys have been left open, or the line has been 
down or grounded, and hence the signals have failed. - 

A word as to the accuracy of these signals. In sending them the difference 
of time between the Meridian Pier, of Morrison Observatory, and the Union 


220 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Depot, has been assumed to be 7 m. 5s. ‘This difference is probably correct to 
within one or two seconds. It has been deduced from actual measures, in which 
the effect of convergency of meridians, and the spheroidal figure of the earth has 
been duly computed. It is desirable, as early as possible, to determine the exact 
difference of time, to within a small fraction of a second, by time determina- 
tions made on the ground and by exchange of clock signals by telegraph. 

The signals themselves are always correct to the nearest half-second of the 
clock. The error of the standard clock is daily ascertained by standard stars. 
Fractions of a second cannot be sent out by the clock itself, unless a Hack-clock 
be used, and set to the fraction of each transmission. 

Now, a word as to the proposed time-ball. It might be a public convenience, 
and at little expense; and by a little adjustment and punctuality it could be made 
a visible indicator of correct time for thousands. It is entirely practicable to 
drop it from the Observatory; but in view of liability to interruption it would be 
safer for the operator at the Union Depot to do so by touching a spring at the 
first extra-break of the four o’clock signal. A light elastic hollow ball, several 
feet in diameter, and having the figure 4 conspicuously painted round the 
the margin of a great circle, could be easily run up a staff by a cord a few minutes 
before the time, and could be made to descend instantaneously at four o’clock, by 
the simple touch of a spring. I simply suggest this. We send the signals and 
leave it to others to make them as useful as possible. 


Very truly yours, 
C. W.. Peircnmrre 
Morrison OpservATORY, July 15, 1880. 
Nore.—The time-ball at New York is dropped by the first break of the Washington clock. ‘To prevent 


interruption from operators, the operator at New York presses against the armature of his relay, until a few 
seconds before the signal. 


THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY. 


Now that the possibility of an electric railway has been fairly put before the 
public by Dr. Siemens, we may expect to hear more about it before many years. 

The commercial advantages of the system must, of course, determine whether 
the Electric Railway will be extensively used or not. The question is not entirely 
one of economy of fuel; safety and convenience are elements which greatly affect 
the commercial profitableness of any undertaking, and these must be taken into 
consideration in making an estimate. 

As yet, the new means of locomotion has only been experimented upon ona 
comparatively small scale, but the results have been quite sufficient to justify a 
favorable conclusion being drawn. 

The idea of an electric railway is by no means new; little model engines, 
which ran backward and forward on a pair of rails, or round and round in a 
circle, were often to be seen in the windows of the shops of scientific instrument 
makers in the early days of electrical science, and the suggestion to apply the 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 221 


principle on a large scale was such a natural one that it is necessary to go back to 
a somewhat early date in the records of the Patent Office to find the first patent. 
for an electrical railway. So long as the motive power was dependent upon gal- 
vanic batteries but little success could be obtained, but the introduction of dynamo: 
machines altered the question entirely and brought the idea within the range of 
economical possibility. 

For underground railways the system is specially suitable, and those who. 
travel on the Metropolitan railway during the dog days must often devoutly hope 
that some change in this direction will be made at no distant date. Already it is 
contemplated to work the traffic through the new St. Gothard tunnel by electric- 
ity, and plans and designs for the purpose have been in hand. 

Railways worked by electricity will, however, have to compete with a for- 
midable rival in the shape of railways worked by compressed air locomotives. 
This latter means of producing locomotion appears to have waked up again and 
is likely to nave considerable employment. 

For very short distances, where the traffic is heavy and irregular, as for in- 
stance, on the small branch lines used so frequently in mining districts, the elec- 
trical railway could be used with great advantage, especially if natural sources of 
power were available.— Zélegraphic Journal. 


GHOGhAr Ta 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 
BY DR. I. D. HEATH, WYANDOTT, KANSAS. 


(Concluded. ) 


The mosquitoes are excessively numerous and annoying. Sleep is absolutely 
impossible without netting. Each Indian and traveler carries with him a toldeta 
or small cotton tent, three feet high, three feet wide and seven feet long which 
he sets up by means of small sticks. The Indians brought to us gums, resins, 
dye woods, medicines, barks and herbs and textile plants. 

Trinidad, a place of 5,000 ina beautiful grove of tamarind trees, is the cap- 
ital of the Department of the Beni, and a place of considerable trade and busi- » 
ness. It is on the margin of the immense grassy pampas of South America 
where graze countless herds of fat cattle. Imports consist of every class of man- 
ufactured American and English goods. All goods into Peru and Bolivia by way 
of the Amazon enter duty free. Exports are hides, coffee, chocolate, beans, 
tobacco and, from down the Yacuma river,rubber and Peruvian bark. Rice, corn, 


222 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


sweet potatoes, sugar, rum and all tropical fruits are produced in abundance. 
Fresh beef retailed in the market at 2% cents per pound. During the month of 
May, we found the temperature torange from 61 to 86°. Thecathedral here is said 
to be 180 years old. One of the bells had cast in it the date 1729. During our stay 
in Trinidad the feast of the Holy Trinity was celebrated—the patron saint of the 
city. Three days and three nights Indians, dressed in magnificent feather robes 
of brilliant colors, danced in front of the cathedral. Their heads were covered 
with a cap supporting long feathers of the macaw, feathers three feet long which 
were arranged to represent the rays of the sun, the object of their former wor- 
ship. A few made music from drums and from thigh bones of large birds pierced 
with holes for flutes. Other Indians were armed with knives, tomahawks and 
war clubs. The Indians kept step to the music, brandishing their weapons and 
slowly advancing to the open door of the sacred building from whence they would 
suddenly and quickly retreat to the plaza and then again slowly advance. On the 
third day hundreds of men and women dressed in long white robes marched in 
procession from the church bearing the life-size images of the virgin and saints. 
As soon as the image of the virgin appeared outside, those representing the an- 
cient religious rites fled in fear and dismay. 

The birds here are very plenty and extremely beautiful. Fifty were shot and 
their skins preserved. Little groves of the fan palm are a pretty feature of the 
pampas. In places are numerous ant-hills four to six feet high. There is little 
industry ; the ruling classes are Spaniards, gentlemen, and must not work. The 
Indians perform the labor and receive $3 to $4 per month. 

Here the Professor bought and paid for two barges of three and four tons 
each, equipped and provisioned them for three months. The provisions were 
charque, a kind of dried beef, farina de yuca (our tapioca), rice, sugar, coffee, 
chocolate, sugar, molasses, yuca and plantains. He hired a crew of eleven 
Canichana Indians and another crew of nine Machupos. For the protection of 
all he engaged ten Bolivian soldiers, paying their salaries. He disbursed $1, 200. 

On the ist of June we set out and once more voyaged down the Mamore 
river—our general course due north. We passed by pampa and forest, by cattle 
and sugar estates, by plantain, orange and chocolate orchards and groves of 
tamarind trees. 

We stopped a day each at San Pedro, Santa Ana and Exaltacion, where the 
Professor made observations for the determination of altitude, latitude and longi- 
tude, as was also his practice at every important point. We hunted the ostrich 
and tiger, wild turkeys and water birds and made collections of everything inter- 
esting to science. Wild turkeys and fish are in great abundance. We were en- 
joying a delightful climate, floating or paddling down this great river, one and 
two miles wide and at this season of the year of unknown depth. Everything 
was new, strange and interesting. There were more than fifty varieties of palms, 
more than fifty of beautiful cabinet woods. What destiny would steam and mod- 
ern civilization work out for this country ? What new resources might not science 
discover ? 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU, 223, 


Why may not benevolent societies be organized in every Christian nation of 
the world for the purpose of transporting the starving millions of Persia, India 
and China to the fertile plains and Italian skies of the great Madiera plateau of 
South America? a country that could never be wanting in beef, rice, plantains, 
corn and fish. 

After fourteen days of paddling we reached the rapids of Guajaramerim in 
Brazil, only eight leagues distant from those unexplored lands, the object of our 
long and expensive journey. Here the soldiers mutinied, and, with charged mus- 
kets leveled at the Professor’s breast, deserted us, taking away with them one-half 
our outfit. Slowly we made our way back up stream to Santa Ana and there 
changed to ox carts and saddle horses for a journey of 200 miles west through the 
cattle estates of the pampas. The country is nearly level and its general appear- 
ance much like of the prairies of Illinois previous to their settlement. Our route 
was not distant from the timbered line of the river Yacuma. Other pieces of tim- 
ber were seen and clusters of the graceful fan palm. It is a beautiful, quiet, pas- 
toral country. Each of the carts were drawn by two pairs of oxen yoked to- 
gether after the Spanish method by straight sticks fastened with thongs back of 
_the horns. The carts were entirely of wood, well made, without one particle of 
iron in their construction. Upon the carts were placed boxes of rawhide for the 
reception of the baggage so that while crossing the many streams that drain the 
pampas, the Indians, oxen and carts were all swimming at the same time. 

At the time of our visit cattle were reckoned scarce and high-priced. A few 
years previous they existed in such vast numbers that the government at La Paz 
sold permits for their slaughter at $1 per head of those notbranded. Millions of 
cattle were killed for their hides and tallow. In 1877 a cattle estate, land and all, 
was valued at eight pesos ($6.40) per head for all those over one year of age. 
Tigers are greatly feared and are destructive to young stock. Each estate keeps 
twelve to fifteen powerful dogs to watch and fight the tiger whose skin will cover 
as much ground as that of a cow. 

In the latter part of July we arrived once more in sight of the mountains at 
Los Reyes. At this point is he who addressed you two years ago on ‘‘ Peruvian 
Antiquities’—Dr. Edwin R. Heath. He arrived in Los Reyes last September 
by way of the rivers Amazon, Madeiraand Mamoré. He is engaged in studies 
and making collections in the interests of science and getting ready an expedi- 
tion to work out the unfinished task of Prof. Orton—an undertaking full of diffi- 
culty and danger—but for the accomplishment of which he possesses the experi- 
ence of those who have gone before him, a long and intimate acquaintance with 
the Spanish character, language and of their country, and an indomitable ener: 

‘gy; and if he fails in the task before him it will only be from want of sufficient 
funds. 
But to return to the expedition of 1877. Arrived at the foot of the moun- 
tains the next two stages must be made on foot—r18o miles. Engaged sixteen In- 
dians for the baggage, each one carrying sixty pounds besides his own food and 


224 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


blankets, and traveling six to eight leagues per day. The Professor bought a sad- 
dle mule which on the third day, while being led around a dangerous place, 
slipped and rolled down out of sight, dead. Out of 170 head of fat cattle that 
started for Apolobamba over the same road ‘at the same time with ourselves 130 
were lost by accidents on the way. 

Both ascending and descending this eastern cordillera we saw the Cascarilla 
and Peruvian bark tree newly stripped. One species with leaf as broad as the hand 
is found up to 5,000 and 6,000 feet, and another having leaf the size of an apple 
leaf grows only at greater elevations. The gathering of the bark is a destructive 
one, and the tree has almost entirely disappeared from lines of travel. We met 
many Indians loaded with bark. The Indians constantly use coca leaves with 
which in the act of chewing they mix ashes of apalm nut. They claim that it al- 
lays hunger and fatigue. Professor Orton, sick and almost utterly exhausted, 
drank hot infusions of coca two or three times daily and declared for it marvel- 
ous power to restore his strength. ‘The mountain scenery over this route is mag. 
nificent, and is called the Switzerland of America. Mountains 6,000, 8,oooand 
10,000 feet in height with intervening valleys all densely wooded, and rich with 
the deep green of the tropical forest. Of one view the following was written on 
the spot: Not far from Mamacuna we have our first clear unobstructed view 
in the west of the central cordillera stretching away from north to south as far as 
the eye can reach. In the foreground and all about are mountains 7,000 to 1o,- 
ooo feet in height, but high up above for a magnificent background stands this 
dark barrier with its white crest of snow and ice reaching 18,000 to 20,000 feet 
up in the sky. No mortal ever saw a grander sight. Professor Orton declared 
it the most splendid view he had ever seen. Wecould stand here all day, but 
the silent Indians were moving on. 

Apolobamba, 2500 inhabitants, in valley of same name. Coffee, corn, 
yuca, potato, plantain, oranges, pineapple and sugar cane. Sixteen days in 
Apolo. Last of August and first of September. This valley is noted for its coffee. 
The bushes stand six feet in the row and rows eight feet apart. Wesaw them 
in full bloom. ‘There is nothing of the kind prettier—long, slender stems, leaves 
opposite and drooping, and at the axiles of the leaves long rows of erect clusters 
of pearly white flowers. Near Pachimoco there were three coffee trees as large 
as apple trees, said to produce annual crops of seventy-five pounds to each tree. 

Throughout Peru and Bolivia there are many commercially educated Ger- 
mans, who almost invariably speak four languages. At Apolo, we dined with 
Don Carlos Frank, a German dealer in Peruvian bark, who spoke correct English, 
Spanish, French and German, to his guests at the table, and Quichua to his ser- 
vants. He was paying $32 per 100 pounds for poorer qualities, and $80 for best 
qualities of bark. 

Mules again to Pelechuco, 41 leagues. Pelechuco, 10,500 feet elevation, 
in the Quichua, signifies ‘‘Corner of the mist,’’ because from its peculiar posi- 
tion at the head of the valley and just under the snow peaks, the town is much 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. ; 225 


of the time enveloped in cloud and mist. Temperature at mid-day 48° Fahrenheit. 
Mules and llamas do the freighting. Llamas are driven very slowly, sometimes 
in great herds. They carry seventy-five to one hundred pounds, and are valued 
at $4 to $5 each. September 18th, we crossed the summit in the midst of moun- 
tains of snow—temperature 24°—and thence by easy roads descended the valley 
of the Escoma to Lake Titicaca. Along this valley at an elevation of 13,000 to 
15,000 feet, saw, millions it might be, of alpacas grazing—prevailing color black. 
At last, after six months of out-door life, we embarked in the schooner Aurora ~ 
for the city of Puno. The Professor dropped down on a heap of sail cloth, ex- 
claiming, ‘‘I am so glad! so glad! We’ll have no more mules, muleteers nor In- 
dians, no more annoyance, trouble or disappointment. I am so tired! so tired!” 
and quickly fell asleep. Just before daylight of September 25, after a night of 
unusual storm, he became conscious that he was dying, and there, among stran- 
gers, whom, twenty-four hours before, we had never seen, on the highest navi- 
gated lake in the world, 13,000 feet above the ocean, far away from wife, chil- 
dren and friends, calmly, quietly, without a struggle or a word of complaint, he 
died. 

But his final resting place is a glorious one, eminently befitting his life 
and career. It is upon the summit of a rocky island in Lake Titicaca, many 
thousands of feet nearer the sky than are most sepulchers. ‘There he lies in sight 
of the scenes of his last explorations; upon one side is discerned the last mile of 
iron rail and telegraph, and on the other, that mysterious lake and island from 
whence issued the great Inca monarchy. 

As he himself wrote in memoriam of Col. Stanton, a companion in a for- 
mer expedition, who was buried in Quito: ‘‘ He was buried without parade, and 
in solemn silence—just as we believe his unobtrusive spirit would have desired. 
No splendid hearse nor nodding plumes; no long procession save the unheard 
tread of angels; no requiem save the unheard harps of seraphs. Snow-white 
pinnacles standing around him on every side, we left him in this corner of na- 
ture’s vast cathedral; secluded shrine of grandeur and beauty, not found in 
Westminster Abbey.” 

At this time, with Professor Orton, died Mr. Henry Meiggs. Every station, 


engine and car, was draped in the deepest mourning—engine drivers ene with 
each other in decorations of respect. 


They relate many anecdotes of Don Enrique Meiggs, as railroad men call 


‘him. Many years ago a civil engineer of rare ability and training, was at work 
on railroad surveys in Georgia at a salary of $80 per month, when an agent of 
Mr. Meiggs offered him $125 per month, gold, and free ticket down and back, 
to go to Chili and make surveys on the railroad to Santiago. He went. Month 
after month he received his $125, while the other civil engineers received $333 
-per month. He was advised to break his contract and demand higher salary, 


OE A en ee 


but his high sense of honor would not submit to a violation of his pledged word, 
and so he toiled on month after month and year after year, to the end of his 


226 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


term—one of the best engineers in Don Enrique’s employ. Just before sailing 
for home he was among invited guests to Mr. Meiggs’ residence, and, seated at 
the table he found under his plate a check for $40,000. Subsequently Mr. May- 
nadier was chief engineer and superintendent of the Pacasmayo railroad at a sal- 
ary Of $10,000 per year. 

Immediately after having taken the contract at $28,000,000, to build the 
Oroya railroad from Lima over the mountain to the Jauca valley, Mr. Meiggs 
sought to obtain special freight rates from an English company operating a line 
from Callao to Lima; this company having obtained the concession from the Pe- 
ruvian government of exclusive rights for the term of twenty-five years, the new 
road must, necessarily, commence at Lima, and every pound of the immense 
material must come over the English road from the sea port. Mr. Meiggs was 
referred to the printed schedule figures. On no account would reduced rates be 
granted. They rather enjoyed their advantage over the successful American 
contractor. Soon the railroad material began to arrive; it went over the Eng- 
lish road and freights were promptly paid. The new road had many miles 
graded up the valley of the Rimac—several miles of track laid and supply trains 
running, when suddenly, to the astonishment of all, 1,500 men began to throw 
up road bed and lay track down the Rimac toward the ocean. Of course the 
English company notified Mr. Meiggs that this enterprise must cease, that it was 
a direct infringement of their exclusive rghts. Mr. Meiggs said nothing, but his 
men worked right on, laying a mile of track per day. The Englishmen were 
amazed and appealed to the government, which formally warned Mr. Meiggs to 
desist ; but still the work went on. ‘Troops were ordered out to suppress this 
mob of Yankee enterprise, till the matter could receive a judicial investigation, 
when, at the last moment, Mr. Meiggs quietly informed them that he was build- 
ing a private road on private land, and that there was no law in Peru that could 
stop him. Mr. Meiggs had quietly, unknown to the public, bought three haci- 
endas, extending from the Monserrate station, in Lima, to the Guadalupe station 
in Callao, and in the center of this princely estate, at Villegas station, the tomb 
of the dead contractor is in plain sight from the passing trains of the Oroya 
railway. 

The mountains are peopled by the Quichua and Aimara Indians, relics of 
the once powerful monarchy of the Incas. They were skilled in the art of spin- 
ning, weaving and dyeing, both woolen and cotten, centuries before the coming 
of the Spaniards. Even to-day, as they tend their flocks of sheep and alpaca, 
their hands are busy twirling the distaff and forming balls of yarn, while hum- 
ming some gentle melody in the ancient Quichua tongue. They wrought in gold, 
silver and copper. They retain the Quichua language in the family circle— 
many of them never speaking the Spanish. ‘They publicly profess the Catholic 
religion, but still have not forgotten their ancient religious rites. They cultivate 
potatoes, barley, wheat, rear cattle, horses and flocks, and toil in the mines. 

In every city there are Italians, Germans, and of course, on the railroads, 


: 
j 
| 


PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF ORTON AND PERU. 227 


Americans and English. One hundred thousand Chinese have been introduced 
into Peru under a contract for eight and six years of labor. There are now 
nearly 80,000 free Chinamen who speak the Spanish language, have adopted the 
western dress and, marrying native women, have settled down as permanent citi- 
zens of Peru. As slaves,they are worked in sugar cane and rice fields—and free 
they are keepers of shops and eating houses, and toil upon railroads and in mines. 
Outside the large cities, the only public eating houses are the Chinese fondas, 
and these are patronized by all classes. 

The material resources of Peru and Bolivia, are enormous. The fertilizer, 
guano, is found on the rocky promontories and isiands along the entire Peruvian 
coast. The government receives $36 per ton. It is the revenue from guano, 
without one cent of tax from the people, that has enabled Peru, under the 
direction of Henry Meiggs, to perform those gigantic feats of railway construc- 
tion. Millions of tons have been exported, and many millions of tons remain. 

From the earliest date, Peru and Bolivia have been famed for their mineral 
wealth. Gold has been found in many provinces. In the districts of Carabaya 
and ‘Tipuhuani, mines have been worked ever since the Conquest. Silver is most 
abundant—probably not wanting in any one of 1,500 miles of mountain range. 
The silver mines of Hualguayoc, Chilete, Cerro de Pasco, of Puno and others 
were worked before the Conquest, are still worked, but in the most primitive 
manner, without machinery—the metal bearing rock being carried to the surface 
in rawhides on the backs of Indians; each vein being abandoned when covered 
with water. Quicksilver, copper, lead, zinc, are also mined. 

Sugar cane comes to maturity in sixteen months, producing eight to ten an- 
nual crops without replanting. For the production of sugar on the coast of 
Peru, there are no seasons—the sugar mill never stops. During 365 days of the 
year the cane is cut, when the field first harvested, is again ready for the knife. 
The mills produce many tons of sugar each day—there are two of the capacity 
of sixty tons each twenty-four hours.. The profits on sugar production are no- 
where so large as in Peru. 

It is claimed that Peruvian cotton commands a higher price in the London 
markets than the American, and that the climate, soil and system of irrigation 
produce fine crops of Sea Island cotton. 

Near Pacasmayo, in northern Peru, grows a variety of coffee of such de- 
licious aroma that the entire yield was sold at $1 per pound from the haciendas. 

If there is any specific for pulmonary consumption, it is the climate of Peru. 
A carefully kept record of the temperature four times each day for four years at 


_ our hospital in Pacasmayo, gave us 86° for the hottest, and 5814° Fahrenheit for 


the coldest day—a variation of only 28° in four years. In many confined val- 

leys from middle of December till middle of March—the three months of their 

summer—the mercury rises to a hundred and over, but all enjoy nine months of 

our May and September. I believe that every consumptive who possesses 

strength sufficient to travel, can find somewhere, within one hundred miles, be- 
IV—15 


228 KANSAS) CITY REVIEW OF SCTBN CE, 


tween the sea bathing of the coast and elevated mountain valleys, a climate ex- 
actly suited to his physical condition, in which, among fruits and flowers, with 
doors and windows ever open, he will enjoy sound health and long life. While 
in Cajamarca, fourteen persons were pointed out whose baptismal records dated 
back 120 years and more. 

Sugar, tobacco, cotton, hides, wool, bark, and minerals have been offered 
in such quantities that the P. S. N. Co., commencing with two small wooden 
steamers, have had built eighty iron steamships varying in size up to 4oco tons 
each. ‘The greater portion of the immense freight goes to Europe by the Strait 
steamers. With a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, the United States 
would be able to send a much larger merchant marine to the west coast of South 
America. 

I have read that at the time of the Conquest, the Incas were ruling over a 
population of 30,000,000 of people. With the American school book, engineer 
and telegraph, with an exhaustless supply of mineral wealth, a fertile soil and a 
perfect climate, with swift running steamers connecting her ports with all the 
world, to what degree of population and wealth may not the Republic of Peru 
again attain? 


ARCTIC RESEARCH. 


FROM THE ANNUAL ADDRESS OF THE EARL OF NORTHBROOK, PRESIDENT OF THE 
ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 


k * 7 ok *K 7 7 *K K ok 


% 
ANS 


< *K 

The exainination of any part of the vast unknown region surrounding the 
North Pole is interesting to geographers, and discovery in this direction seems to 
have a peculiar fascination for maritime explorers. A year seldom passes without 
some effort being made to add to our knowledge in the far north. During the 
last summer two voyages of reconnoissance were undertaken in this direction, one 
by the Dutch under Captain de Bruyne, and the other by our associates, Sir Henry 
Gore Booth and Captain A. H. Markham, R. N. The Dutch officers actually 
sighted Franz-Joseph Land, while our countrymen attained a remarkably high 
latitude at a very late period of the navigable season. I understand that in the 
coming season, Mr. Leigh Smith, whose name is already honorably associated 
with Arctic yachting, will make a voyage of reconnoissance, which, if circumstan- 
ces prove favorable, may become a voyage of discovery. The American expedi- 
tion, which sailed from San Francisco last year for Behring Strait, is believed to 
have wintered in the pack, and tidings of it may soon be expected. 

I have quite recently received information that the Government of the United 
States have decided upon sending out another Arctic Expedition, via Smith Sound, 
under Captain Howgate. This is a project which has been some time under con- 


ADMIRALTV SUOURVEVS FOR THE PAST VEAR. 229 


sideration, but has only now been matured. It is intended to make a temporary 
station for Arctic observation and discovery in the latitude of 81° 4o‘ on or near 
the shore of Lady Franklin Bay. The expedition will consist of twenty-five peo- 
ple, who are to go up there in the Gulnare, a steamer of two hundred tons. The 
proposal is that they should endeavor to push on to the North Pole by slow de- 
grees during several seasons. The Board of Admiralty have placed at the dis- 
posal of this expedition the depots of provisions left by Sir George Nares in Smith 
Sound in the years 1875 and 1876, and we shall feel an interest in seeing what our 
cousins on the other side of the Atlantic may succeed in doing in this matter. 


ADMIRALDLY SURVEYS FOR DHE PAST VEAR: 
BY THE HYDROGRAPHER, CAPT. F. J. O. EVANS, R. N., C. B., F. R. S. 


k *k *k *K * *K *k *k “k *K *k *K *k 

On the seaboard of China, Captain Napier and his staff in the Magpie, visit- 
ing the Gulf of Tong King and Hainan Island, have surveyed the Treaty-ports of 
Pak-hoi and Hoi-how; determined the position of Gmi Chan Island and Cape 
Cami, including a partial examination of the shoal ground off this headland. Pro- 
ceeding northward, an extended search for the Actzon shoal was instituted; this 
reported danger in the neighborhood of the Shantung promontory, and lying in the 
highway of navigation for ships proceeding to the Gulf of Pechili, having long per- 
plexed seamen ; the search, however, was not successful. A comprehensive sur- 
vey of the entrance of the Yang-tsze kiang, extending from Shaweishan Island and 
the Tungsha banks as a seaward boundary upward to Buch Island above the 
Wusung River, including enlarged plans of the outer and inner bars of this river, 
is also nearly completed. 

In Japan, Commander Aldrich and Staff in the Sylvia have completed the 
Goto Islands; also the west coast of Kinsin from Da Sima to Odimari Bay, in- 
cluding the Kosiki group and the off-lying islands from the western part of Van 
Diemen Strait. A preparatory triangulation of the coast from Odimari Bay to 
Cape Cochrane on the east coast of Kinsin has also been made. The charts of 
the seaward approaches to Western Japan from the ports of China are thus ap- 
proaching a satisfactory completion. 

After six years service on the coasts of Japan, the Sylvia will return to Eng- 
land in the autumn of this year. H. M. S. Flying Fish, an armed sloop, of mo- 
dern type, will take her place. under command of Lieutenant R. F. Hoskyn, this 
officer having taken an active part in the surveying duties on which the Sylvia 
was engaged during the whole of her foreign service. 

On the western coast of South America, H. M. S. Alert, with an efficient 
staff of surveyors, in the early part of the year under Sir George Nares, and sub- 


230 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


sequently under Captain Maclear, has been employed on arduous service, chiefly 
in a critical examination of the ship channels adjacent to the fiftieth parallel of 
latitude. Trinidad channel—directly opening into the Pacific Ocean—with Con- 
ception chanael leading from the inner waters north of Magellan Strait into Trini- 
dad channel, have all been surveyed, together with their numerous ports and tem- 
porary anchorages likely to be useful to passing shipping. Innocentes channel, 
leading to Conception channel from the now well known Guia narrows, has also 
been examined and charted. 

Trinidad channel opens out a clear passage to the Pacific Ocean, 160 miles. 
to the north of Magellan Strait; and although not so secure of approach from 
the Pacific as the well known entrance into that strait by Cape Pillar and the 
Evangelists, it will be found a valuable addition to our knowledge of these waters, 
as enabling ships passing into the Pacific to avoid the heavy sea.frequently ex- 
perienced in the higher south latitude. Similarin feature to Magellan Strait, the 
ocean entrace of Trinidad channel is shoal, having only forty fathoms of water it 
the deepest part, the depths gradually increasing to 300 fathoms in the inner 
channels. The southern shores are bounded by bold, rugged mountains, rising 
abruptly from the sea; whilst on the northern side a low wooded country lies be- 
tween the sea and the rugged spurs of distant snow-clad mountains ; both shores. 
are cut up into numerous bays and inlets. In the latter months of the year very 
few natives were seen; it is understood that at this season the Fuegians leave the 
inner waters for the outer seaboard, in pursuit of seals. 

During the winter months, the Alert, having refitted at Coquimbo, then visited 
St. Felix and St. Ambrose islands, and obtained a series of ocean soundings in an 
area unexplored by the Challenger in 1875 ‘These islands appear to be uncon- 
nected with the South American continent, for soundings obtained midway gave a 
depth of 2250 fathoms (rad. ooze), with a bottom temperature of 33°.5 F , both 
depth and temperature thus corresponding to the general bed of the South Pacific 
Ocean. Neither do they join the Juan Fernandez group, for the depths between 
reached 2000 fathoms. These several scattered lands thus appear to rise from 
a submarine plateau as isolated mountains. Captain Maclear describes St. Am- 
brose Island as volcanic, composed entirely of lava arranged in horizontal strata 
very marked, intersected vertically by dikes of basalt; vegetation is scanty, and 
the island is without water ; though frequented by sea birds, the sides are too steep 
and rugged for guano to collect. 


PUBLIC SCHOOLS’ PRIZE MEDALS. 231 


PUBLIC SCHOOLS’ PRIZE MEDALS. 


FROM THE REPORT OF THE ANNIVERSARY MEETING OF THE ROYAL 
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 


*k *k * *k *K * *K * * * * ce nS 

The medals have been awarded this year as follows by the Examiners. who 
were for Physical Geography, Commander V. L. Lameron, R. N., and for Po- 
litical Geography, Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, F. R. S. ; the special subject 
for the year being ‘‘ Western Africa, between the Sahara, the asehos of ‘Egypt, 
the Equatorial Lakes, and the sixth parallel of south latitude.” 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Gold Medal—David Bowie, Dulwich College. Silver Medal—Albert Lewis 
Humphries, Liverpool College. Honorably Mentioned—Gustave Isadore Schor- 
stein, City of London School; Sydney Edkins, City of London School; Phillipe 
Joseph Hartog, University College School; Henderson McMaster, Liverpool 
College; Robert Galbraith Reid, Dulwich College. 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Gold Medal—Frederick James Naylor, Dulwich College. Silver Medal— 
Theodore Brooks, London International College. Honorably Mentioned — 
Charles Theodore Knaws, Dulwich College; Charles E. Mallet, Harrow School ; 
William H David Boyle, Eaton College; Allan Danson Rigby, Liverpool Col- 
lege; Matthew George Grant, Liverpool College; Charles James Casher, Brigh- 
ton College. 

Mr. Douglas Treshfield, said that, in the absence of Mr. F. Gation, the 
Chairman of the Public School’s Prizes Committee, it fell to him, as a member of 
the Committee, to announce the result of the recent examinations. Before doing 
so he wished to make some remarks suggested by a tabular statement before him, 
showing the number of candidates who had submitted themselves for examina- 
tion in each year, since the prizes were founded in 1869. Such a comparison 
showed rapid oscillation rather than any steady advance. In 1869 we began 
with 81 candidates, the number falling, in 1871 to 23. In 1876 the num- 
ber rose again to 54, and this year stood at 32, which was somewhat below the 
average. This result must not, he thought, be looked on as discouraging. ‘The 
large numbers at commencement were doubtless due to ignorance of the nature 
of the examination, which was not confined to the old-fashioned school topog- 
raphy, a mere list of names to be learned by rote, but aimed at testing the 
knowledge of boys in scientific geography. To prepare boys for the Society’s 
examinations required considerable attainments in the teacher, and it is not every 
school, not even every public school, which is fortunate in the possession of ad- 
equate instructors. One of the results of the examinations would probably be to 
supply the first requisite of sound teaching—a number of competent teachers— 
under whom many schools might rival the successes won for Dulwich and Liver- 


232 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


pool Colleges, under Dr. Carver and the Rev. George Butler. There was, he 
believed, no doubt that the importance of geography as a branch of education, 
was more generally recognized. Indirectly it fulfilled the first requisites of an 
educational subject, by inculcating at the same time accuracy in details and the 
habit of drawing from them broad conclusions. Whatever branch of science the 
student might follow up, he would find a knowledge of the conditions of the 
earth’s surface, such as is supplied by physical geography, a staff in his hand. 
In the more prominent, but perhaps lower walks of life, such a knowledge was 
of great service. In the future, those soldiers who know best their maps, would 
win most battles. The merchants who best understood physical conditious 
would make most money, and the nation whose statesmen were scientific geogra- 
phers would have the most scientific of all possible scientific frontiers. Turning 
to the detailed results of the last examination, he would point out that of the 
fifty-two schools which had been invited to compete, ten only had sent candi- 
dates. The examiners, in their report to the committee, speak very highly of 
the work done. Dulwich College had been most successful, securing both the 
gold medals, the gold medalist in physical geography having last year obtained 
the same position in political geography. Liverpool College was again success- 
ful, and the London International College had carried off a prize, and the City 
London School had obtained a creditable position. 

Commander Cameron introduced the medalist in physical geography, and 
Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, those in political geography. 

The President, in presenting the medals, said with regard to Dulwich Col- 
lege, which had carried off both the gold medals, he would by permission of the 
meeting, make one or two observations regarding that institution. Having had. 
the honor two years ago of presenting the prizes to the boys of Dulwich College, 
and thus becoming acquainted with the head-master, Dr. Carver had written a 
letter to him containing some remarks on the study of geography in schools 
which he thouzht would be of interest to the meeting. He inclosed a copy of 
the school list, and at the same time said: ‘‘ You will see from these lists that. 
Bowie, the gold medalist in physical geography, obtained the prize of his form 
in ‘Form Work,’ and was bracketed for the prize in ‘Greek and Higher Classics” 
with Naylor, the gold medalist in political geography. Your Lordships will, I 
am sure, regard these facts as not altogether immaterial. They show at any 
rate that the proficiency of these boys in geography has not been attained by 
any special ‘cramming’ or by the sacrifice of their general culture to one con- 
spicuous but passing success. To me the success of the College in the compe- 
tition of the Royal Geographical Society has been gratifying, and just for this. 
reason, because it has been obtained, not by boys making modern subjects their 
specialty, but by boys who were prepared to bring well trained and cultivated 
minds to bear upon any subject to which their attention might be directed.” 

To David Bowie, the gold medalist in physical geography, the President 
said: ‘‘I have great satisfaction in handing you this medal. A strong proof how 


ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 233 


well it is deserved is furnished by your having gained, as Mr. Freshfield has told 
us, last year the gold medal in the other branch of the science, political geogra- 
phy, and were honorably mentioned in the examination of the year previous.” 

To the silver medalist, A. L. Humphries, the President said: ‘‘ This is the fif- 
teenth medal gained by the school to which you belong, Liverpool College, a 
striking testimony to the skill and success with which geography is studied in 
that institution, and to the pains taken by its eminent head-master, the Rev. 
George Butler.” 

Mr. R. N. Cust, at the invitation of the President, announced the special 
subject of next year’s examination as being ‘‘ Polynesia, including New Zea- 
land.” 


ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.—An importation of tor African ostriches has succeed- 
ed at Buenos Ayres. ‘Their owner isan Englishman, who proposes to establish a 
farm for ostriches in that province; the climacteric conditions, according to his 
opinion, favoring his project. | 

ExpepitTions.—Dr. E. Pieroth, an Italian traveller and savant, is now or- 
ganizing an Exploring Expedition to Egypt, Palestine and neighboring countries. 
He intends to leave Marseilles, on the second of September, and hopes to return 
by November first. 


Caprain Bove, of the royal Italian navy, who was associated with Prof. Nor- 
denskjold, in his late excursion to the glacial seas of the North, has projected an 
Antarctic Expedition He will leave next May and be absent two years among 
the glaciers of the South Pole His crew and steamer will be furnished by the 
Italian Government, from the royal navy—at an expense of about 600,000 francs. 


NECROLOGICAL.—By sad concidence geology has lost two savants, W. H. 
Willer and M. Ansted,both having died on the same day. ‘The former was eighty 
years of age and author of several classic works, of which, a treatise on crystallo- 
graphy was the most notable. Mr. Ansted was only sixty-six years of age, and 
was professor of geology at King’s College, London, and Examiner on geography 
and physics, in the department of science and art. He was an author of numer- 
ous works. Both of these individuals were educated at Cambridge and belonged 
to the Royal Society. 


FatuHer Horner, the celebrated Catholic Missionary, isdead. He had been 
a resident missionary on the island of Zanzibar for many years, and was conspicu- 
ous for his labors in behalf of the suppression of the slave trade, for his African 
travels, and for the sympathy and assistance he was always ready to give to ex- 
plorers and scientists on the Eastern African coast. He died last May, at Can- 
nes, France.—L’ Exploration. 


234 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


A VIEW OF ATNA. 


BY S. P. LANGLEY. 


It was now December, but in spite of my haste to get on the mountain before 
the snows covered it, I stopped at Taormina, half-way to Catania (whence the 
ascent was to be made), to view A‘tna from the north. ‘Taormina is built on the 
southern slope of a spur projecting into the Mediterranean, whose northern ridge, 
rising a thousand feet above the sea, is crowned by the ruins of a Grecian theatre. 
The stream of pleasure-travel seems to pass by this wonderful coast, so that com- 
paratively few tourists see the shores of Sicily, except from the steamer which takes 
them to Athens or Alexandria; but if the reader is among those few, he may re- 
member the view from these ruins at sunrise as one of which the earth cannot 
furnish many. He will remember, perhaps, rising long before daybreak for a 
solitary climb through steep lanes, half seeing, half groping, his way between high 
walls, over which started into dim sight spectral figures with outstretched arms, 
resolved, as he drew nearer, into some overleaning cactus, vaguely outlined over- 
head against the starry sky. Mounting higher, one comes out from between the 
overshadowing walls into the moonlight, the waning moon, a crescent in the east, 
‘* holding the old moon in her arms,” while, when higher yet, the columns of the 
ancient proscenium stand out against a faint glow that shows where the sun is 
yet to rise; till, passing by these, climbing and groping up the stone benches 
which once held tiers of spectators, one takes a solitary seat at the summit. _Be- 
low, the last lights are still twinkling on the coast, but beyond and over the 
columns, all along the south, rises a dark something, which might be a hundred 
yards away, but is A‘tna, and twenty miles distant. As the dawn grows brighter 
the outlook extends north and east to Italy, and as the sun makes ready to come 
out of the ocean the gray mass in the south moves further away, and takes on dis- 
tinctness as it recedes, until we make out the whole form of A‘tna, with the out- 
line of the crater and of the snow fields about its summit. These distant snows 
suddenly changed their gray to a rose pink as they caught the light of the sun be- 
fore it had risen to me; but of all that was seen when it came out of the ocean I 
was most concerned with the mountain itself, which can be viewed better here, as 
a whole, than from any nearer point. 

The coast line on the lett preserves the level to the eye, but except for this, so 
wide is the base of A‘tna that it fills the whole southern landscape, which seems 
to be tilted upward till its horizon ends in the sky. I could see from here how 
almost incomparably larger the immense volcano appears than Vesuvius; and the 
actual difference is in fact enormous, the height of ‘tna being (if we disregard the 
terminal cone of each) nearly three times, and its mass probably twenty times, 
that of its Italian neighbor. The entire mountain in all its substance is lava, 
which has built itself up in eruptions; but from this point the successive zones of 
vegetation are visible which in the course of ages have in part occupied its sur- 


A POMPEIAN HOUSE. 235 


face. Extending to perhaps a fifth of the whole actual height before me (but 
covering a great deal more of the foreground in appearance), is the cultivated re- 
gion. dotted with villages, which shine out from a background of what we know 
must be vineyards and olives. The second zone is barren, and in sharp contrast 
with the former. It rises to perhaps two-thirds of the whole height, and its broad 
masses of gray are patched with moss-like spots hardly distinguishable in color, 
‘but which are really forests of oak and chestnut. All above this rose what even 
from my distant station could be recognized as naked black deserts, streaked here 
and there with snow, while above this was the terminal cone, snow-covered at the 
time I saw it, and with a depression at the summit from which slowly drifted a 
thin vapor. The railway south of Taormina runs along the coast (and is carried 
through cuttings on old lava streams, which here flowed down to the sea) until it 
reaches Catania, a city which, as every one knows, is not only built on lava, but 
which has been cut through and through by lava streams, and shaken down by 
earthquakes in recent times, and which lives from day to day at the mercy of its 
terrible neighbor. —/uly Atlantic. 


INC ALCON 


A POMPEIAN HOUSE. 


‘¢ The house which was begun to be excavated at the celebration of the cen- 
tenary of Pompeii, and is, therefore called ‘Caso del Centenario,’ and from which 
-I then saw three skeletons dug out, has proved to be the largest hitherto discov- 
ered, and is of peculiar interest. It contains two atria, two trielmia, four aleee or 
wings, a calidarium, frigidarium, and tepidarium. It occupies the entire space 
between three streets, and most likely a fourth, which has yet to be excavated. 
The vestibule is elegantly decorated, and its mosaic pavement ornamented with 
the figure of a dolphin pursued by asea horse. In the first atrium, the wails of 
which are adorned with small theatrical scenes, the pavement is sunk and broken, 


as if by an earthquake, and there is a large hole through which one sees the cel- 
lar. The second atrium is very spacious with a handsome perisytle, the columns 


—white and red stucco—being twenty-six in number. In the center is a large 
marble basin, within the edge of which runs a narrow step. On the pedestal at 
one side was found the statuette of the Faun which we lately described. The 
most interesting place in the house is an inner court or room, on one side of which 
is the niche, with tiny marble steps, often to be seen in Pompeian houses. ‘The 
fiescoes on the walls are very beautiful. Close to the floor runs a wreath of leaves 
about a quarter of a yard wide, with alternately a lizard and a stork. Above it, 
about a yard distant, droop, as if from over a wall, large branches of vine or ivy 


236 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and broad leaves like those of the tiger-lily—all freely, naturally and gracefully 
drawn. At each corner of the room a bird clings to one of these branches. Then 
comes a space—bordered at the top by another row of leaves—in which is repre- 
sented a whole aquarium, as if the room were lined with tanks. There are differ- 
ent sorts of shells and aquatic plants lying at the bottom of the water, and swim- 
ming in or onit all kinds of fish, jelly-fish, ducks and swans, admirably sketched 
with a light yet firm touch. The ripples made by the swimming ducks are indi- 
cated, and one duck is just flying into the water with a splash. On each side of 
the niche this amusing aquarium is enlivened by a special incident. To the left a 
large octopus has caught a monstrous mureenal (lamprey)—which turns around to 
bite—in its tentacles ; to the right fine lobster has pierced another murzenal through 
and through with its long hard feelers or horns. ‘These creatures are painted in 
the natural colors very truthfully. On the left wall above the fishes, are two 
sphinxes, supporting on their heads square marble vases, on the brim of each of 
which sits a dove. Behind the niche, and on the left side of the room, runs a 
little gallery with a corridor underneath, lighted by small square holes in the bor- 
der of hanging branches. The wall of this gallery behind the niche is decorated 
witha woodland landscape, in which, on one side, is represented a bull running 
frantically away with a lion clinging to his haunches ; on the other, a horse lying 
struggling on his back, attacked by a leopard; all nearly the size of life. On each 
side of the doorway is painted respectively, a graceful doe and a bear. ‘The other 
rooms are also very beautiful; one with a splendidly elegant design on a black 
ground; in another a small frescoe representing a man pouring wine out of an 
amphora into a large vessel. The bathrooms are large and elegant, the cold bath 
spacious and of marble. In one room a corner is dedicoted to the dares and 
penates, and in the fresco decoration, among the usual serpents, etc., I noticed 
the singular figure of a Bacchus or bacchante, entirely clothed with large grapes. 
In one of the mosaic pavements is a head of Medusa, the colors very bright and 
well preserved. As some of the ruins are only excavated to within two or three 
feet of the floor, it is possible that many valuable ornaments or statuettes may yet 
be found, as everything indicates that this splendid house belonged to some rich 
citizen.” —London News. 


INTERESTING DISCOVERIES IN CLINTON COUNTY, OHIO. 


Ever since archeologists began the study of the origin, habits, mode of liy- 
ing and cause of the mysteriously complete disappearance of that strange race 
of people which we moderns call ‘‘Mound Builders,” the absence of any pic- 
tured or written record from their hands has proved the rock in the way which 
stopped all further inquiry, almost at the entrance door to their charmed history. 
Thoroughly scientific and able men have studied the subject carefully and closely 
from the basis of the discoveries made of earthworks, utensils, weapons and or- 


INTERESTING DISCOVERIES IN CLINTON COUNTY, OHIO. 237 


naments, and after years of patient work have published their theory of the mat- 
ter to the world. Other men, with as great learning and ability, have followed 
in their footsteps and evolved other and contrary conclusions from the investiga- 
tion of similar facts; they, in turn, to be followed, year after year, by still others 
with constantly varying opinions, until the manifold theories put forth in regard 
fovthe ‘“entrance”’ and the ‘‘exit” of this extinct race have become a maze 
which leads in every direction, but centers upon no one point. All these theor- 
ists, however, are agreed that were any written characters or hieroglyphics of the 
Mound Builders to be discovered it would contribute in a marvelous degree to- 
ward the clearing up of the mystery. Short’s ‘‘ North Americans of Antiquity,” 
a work published as late as the present year, says: ‘‘No well authenticated 
Mound Builder hieroglyphics have yet come to light.’”? Clinton county is rich 
in remains of the Mound Builders, and our archeologists believe that they will 
yet supply the hiatus necessary to establish the identity and trace the race origin 
of the early rulers of America. More than a year ago Mr. Jonathan Richard- 
son discovered in a mound in this county an engraved tablet-stone and a ‘‘but- 
terfly relic” bearing hieroglypics, both of which were first noticed and described 
in the Cincinnati Commercial. They were afterward photo-lithographed and de- 
scription and engravings issued in pamphlet form. 

Now comes another discovery which is as important as any yet made. Mr. 
Jonah Frazier, a farmer, residing some four miles north of Wilmington, and in 
the vicinity of an old deer ‘‘lick,” while spading in his garden on Friday even- 
ing last, unearthed a stone pipe of curious construction, which he yesterday 
brought in for inspection by your correspondent. The pipe is fashioned from the 
the stone known as Clinton rock, two or three specks of iron pyrites being visi- 
ble, hard as flint and shaped like a rubber bali flattened by compression, its great- 
est diameter being 234 inches and its thickest 13 inches. It is elaborately and 
artistically carved, being really a fine piece of workmanship. Ina circular de- 
pression, filling the space of one of its sides, is a bas-relief (front view) of a hu- 
man face with high cheek bones, wide, straight mouth, flat nose, full lips, low, 
broad forehead, and the entire facial features, indicative of the presence of craft, 
cunning and intelligence struggling for the mastery. It is not the face of an In- 
dian, nor such a one as an Indian could have imagined. On the opposite side 
of the pipe is a hollow, fitted to the ball of the thumb when in position for hold- 
‘ing the pipe. Through one side, and just above where the stem should be in- 
-serted, is drilled a hole, evidently intended for the reception of a string by means 
of which the pipe could be suspended around the neck of its owner, or upon ihe 
wall of his dwelling. On the front of the bowl—being the side farthest from ‘he 
smoker when the pipe is in use—is an oblong sunken space in which is carved 
the outline of a beaver, its head toward the upper part of the bowl. But the 
main point of interest in this relic, and that which gives it its greatest value, con- 
‘sists in a series of hieroglyphics beginning just below the face and extending 
around the under side of the bowl. A quarter of an inch below the circle which 


238 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


incloses the face is a character fashioned like the figure 8 laid upon its side, with 
the two inclosed spaces filled with curious characters, and its right end adorned 
with a cresent shaped mark with the horns turned outward. Beneath this are 
other characters in some respects bearing resemblance to those of the Maya lan- 
guage. One is shaped like a wheel with four spokes; another like the letter G, 
with three dots inclosed, and a branch with twigs, shooting from its upper side, 
while others take on shapes the like of which we have never seen before. 

May not these little figures prove to be the lever that shall unravel the mys- 
tery which surrounds the history of that race whose footprints on this continent 
are so strongly outlined and yet so inexplicable, and set at rest the floating the- 
ories in regard to their origin which have been so contradictory and unsatisfac- 
tory? Mr. F. has been offered a considerable sum of money for his ‘‘relic,” 
but refuses to sell. It is now temporarily in the possession of Dr. L. B. Welch, 
of Wilmington, a well known experienced archzologist.* 


* Referring to this discovery we call attention to the tollowing note by a well known writer who sends 
us the article —[Eb. 


THE ANTIQUE PIPE FOUND IN CLINTON COUNTY. | 
To the Editor of the Review: | 

I notice an account in the Commercial of a pipe recently found in Clinton Coun- 
ty, and compare the figures you engrave as fac similes of those on the pipe with 
those in the third and fourth volumes of Lord Kingsborough’s ‘‘ Antiquities of 
Mexico.” Is there any good reason why the theory may not be sustained that all 
the specimens of sculpture so numerous in the Mississippi Valleys may not have 
been the product of the people inhabiting Mexico at the time of the conquest of 
that country by Cortez? The Indians made none of them, but received them all) 
in the way of trade from the far more cultivated race of Mexicans. The speci. 
mens of pottery found on the banks of the Ohio are all of a nature similar to those 
found in Kingsborough’s great work, and were received by the Indians. That 
many of them were deposited in mounds was, of course, natural, as they are also) 
found all over Eorope in similar mounds, constructed by the Scythians and other 
barbarous people. See Martin’s History of France and Thierry. Similar speci- 
mens of sculpture are also found now in the Canary Islands. Why do not the 
facts properly suggest that the artists belonged in all cases to the same race, and. 
that this race found its way to the American Continent, by way of the Canary! 
Islands and the East Atlantic Islands that once stood where now is found the Sar-, 
gosso Sea? That portion of the race that had reached Mexico before the sinking 
of the lost Atlantis became isolated from Europe and was in the plenitude of its 
civilization when Cortez discovered it and ended its career by conquest. This. 
race naturally spread all over the American continent, taking full possession of} 
South America, where Peru was the center of power. In advancing to the North 
it met the Indians, who had come from the north of Europe by way of Greenland 


————— 


THE ORIGINAL SETTLERS OF AMERICA, 239 


and from Asia by way of Behring Straits. The Indians remained masters of the 
North, while the Mexicans perfected their civilization in the South. Had Cortez 
worked as hard to discover history as he did to plunder the people of Montezuma, 
he was in a condition to have had his labor rewarded with some of the most as- 
tounding developments of all antiquity. But the old scoundrel b rned, destroy- 
ed, exterminated every link he found, as far as possible, and we now have a few 
relics with nothing but guess work as to their meaning. Everything found now 
should be preserved with ‘‘religious” care, until the key to the meaning of hiero- 
glyphical characters is at last found, and the mystery of the Aztecs and the Indian 
race cleared up. ANTIQUITAS. 


THE ORIGINAL SETTLERS OF AMERICA. 


A deep interest is taken in the explorations about to be made in Mexico and 
Central America, in order to bring to light the lost history, skill, inventions, arts, 
genius and science of the unknown races who lived, died and passed into obli- 
vion on this continent. .Many-remains have been discovered, but much still re- 
mains to reward the antiquarian, the historian, and the friend of humanity. 

One link needs perfecting. The Aztec antiquities now on exhibition in the 
Metropolitan Museum of art are nearly similar in design to those discovered re- 
cently inthe Isle of Cyprus. It may possibly be shown by further discoveries 
that the same race of men who inhabited Cyprus struck America 1400 or 1500 
years before the Christian era. This discovery will show that the Phcenicians, 
Carthaginians, or Egyptians colonized America. 

_ America is an old country. It is an error to say it was discovered by Colum- 
bus. That was only a restoration of the knowledge lost by a certain portion of 
the world, through timidity, fear, and a want of skill in navigation. What had 
been known to millions was no discovery. People talk of the discovery of glass 
and the circulation of the blood as something new. The Phcenicans and Plato 
knew of them thousands of years ago. Thereisastrong probability that America 
was partly colonized by the Phcenicans, Carthaginians, and Egyptians. 

In the elaborate article in the SuN on this subject you are right in speaking 
of American civilization as dating back to the beginning of Assyrian history. If 
it can be shown that American antiquities are similar to those of the Phcenicians 

and Carthaginians, then the race of Cham and not of Sem originally peopled 
America. The same race colonized Spain, Ireland, France, Italy, Sardinia, 
Sicily, and the Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean. 

In calculating the increase of population after the deluge, we may recall the 

fact that seventy souls among the Jews went down to Egypt; in the course of 215 
years they numbered nearly 3,000,000. Still further, the Phoenicians having 
planted small colonies in various countries, these grew into nations.—Cor. WV. Y. 
Sun. 


9A KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


POR EIGN COmn 2S: OND ane 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 


June 18, 1880. 

French alienists consider ‘‘hallucination” as a perception without an object, 
and ‘‘illusion” as a real perception falsely interpreted. In both cases the result 
is due to united physical and mental causes, that is, the commencement is a 
physical sensation. An ancient and famous philosopher maintained that the en- 
tire universe was only a gigantic hallucination. People are not necessarily ill or 
mad because laboring under an illusion; at a distance a square tower may ap- 
pear round, owing to perspective modifying the apparent forms of objects. In 
the eyes of a maniac, linen suspended from a line becomes hanging corpses; im- 
ages floating in the air, appear balloons directed by aeronauts. Laseque defined, 
that illusion is to hallucination, what slander is to calumny. With lunatics at 
least, it is the ear which occupies the first réle in cerebral troubles; they hear the 
sound of footsteps as of a person walking in another room; or some musical 
notes, musketry fire, or the reports of cannons. But there is an abyss between 
the pa'ient who hears only sounds, and him who listens to words, the latter at first 
in monosyllables, then becoming phrases, and finally sentences, till the afflicted 
indulges in replies, and terminates by believing he is in presence of a distinct 
personality who encroaches on his existence. Such is the meaning of the ‘‘pos- 
sessed” of the Middle Ages, and later of the seventeenth century. It is thus 
that the exorcists charged to deliver the Ursulines of London from the diaboli- 
cal spirits of which they were possessed, became in several instances themselves 
the victims of the epidemic. Sight also plays a conspicuous rdle in hallucina- 
tions, producing alcoholic night-mares, and unceasing terrifying visions. The 
sensitive apparatus is composed of extremities which receive the impression; the 
tube which transmits it, the ganglions which receive and condense it, then those 
cellules of the hemisphere of the brain which perceive it, and that represent 
matter in its highest expression of relationship with intellectual fuctions—and 
where alone phenomena can be judged. The deaf, strange to say, suffer from 
hallucinations of hearing, as well as the blind from those of seeing. Certain 
physiologists maintain, that we ought never to forget anything, because the cere- 


? 


bal cells always remain filled with impressions, though in a latent state, and that. 


there is a mystical power, independent of our will, at work, ready to call up these 
forgotten sentences. During a conversation, we may suddenly forget a name or 
date; next day when the circumstance has passed away, the wanted name or 
date will surge up. What is that automatic, mysterious secretary that has been 
working for us independent of our will? J. J. Rousseau, when conversing, 
was heavy and embarrassed, and it was only on arriving at the foot of the stair- 


case that he discovered the witty reply that he ought to have made in the draw-_ 


SCIENCE LETIER FROM PARIS. 241 


ing room. Often when at school, the lesson imperfectly learned during the even- 
ing, becomes well engraved in the memory on our awakening. The mind has 
worked for us during sleep, but we were unconscious of its acts. In antiquity, 
visionaries saw appear the black Eumenides or the divine Apollo; mythology is 
now replaced by the Virgin and the saints, and it isa fact well known to alienists, 
that the delirium and hallucinations of Catholics differ essentially from those of Prot- 
estants. Van der Kalk remarks, that it is by the left ear that patients who are 
possessed, assert they hear Satan speaking to them, while another patient claim- 
ing to be in relations without a good and bad spirit, at once invariably received 
whispers of vice by the left, and counsels of virtue by the right, ear. 

The sun has become a subject of .ery popular study ; naturally we ought to 
be interested in the rays of a star on which life hangs. ‘The sun is the heart of 
the planetary organism: each of its pulsations spreads vital force not only to our 
‘earth, some thirty-seven millions of leagues distant, but to Neptune 1,100 millions 
of leagues away, also to the pale comets abandoned to an eternal winter, and still 
farther, to stars millions of milliards more distant still. This force emanates in- 
cessantly from the sun’s energy, and is distributed around into space with marvel- 
lous rapidity; eight minutes suffice for light to bound to us from the sun, at the 
rate of 75,000 leagues per second. ‘The sun is 108 times larger in diameter than 
our earth; 1,279,000 times more voluminous, and 324,000 times more dense. The 
highest dome in the world is that at Florence erected by the genius of Brunelles- 
chi; it is about forty-nine yards in diameter, the dome of the Pantheon of Paris 
is but twenty-three yards, yet the latter and a bullet eight inches in diameter, 
would represent the relative magnitudes of the sun and our planet. In other 
words, suppose the sun placed in a scales, it would require 324,000 earths to make 
the scales turn. The planets that revolve ’round the sun resemble so many toys, 
yet sun and stars themselves are only atoms of the infinite. The moon gravitates 
around the earth, and the earth around the sun, while the sun whirls the planets 
and tneir satellites toward the constellation Hercules, and these movements are 
executed with a rythm and exactitude, following determined laws, as the hands of 
a watch turn on the pivot or the concentric circles that ebb away on the surface 
of a pond when a stone is thrown therein. All is movement, vibration, harmony. 
In violet light the atoms of ether oscillate at the rate of 740 milliards of vibrations 
per second; red light is slower, its vibrations in the same time are about 380 mil- 
hards; the color violet, is in the order of colors, what the highest note is in the 
order of sound; red represents the lowest color, or base note. An object floating 
on the water obeys the ripples or waves which arrive from various sides, so the 
atom of ether undulates under the influence of heat and light, the atom of air un- 
der the influence of sound, and the planet and the satellite under the influence of 
gravitation. To comprehend the distance of the Earth from the Sun, were a can- 

non ball to travel at the rate of 550 yards a second, it would require nine years 
and eight months to reach the sun. Again the Sun is the center of most astound- 
ing conflagrations and explosions. If the space between our planet and the Sun 


242 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


could transmit the noise at the usual rapidity of 374 yards per second, the sound 
would necessitate some fourteen years to arrive tous. A train traveling at the 
rate of thirty-eight miles an hour, would require 266 years to reach the Sun. A 
vogager who left at that rate of traveling during the reign of James I., would on- 
ly be due at his destination to-day. 

The Sun is the source from which flows all the forces that put the earth and 
its life in motion, it is the Sun’s heat which causes the wind to blow, the clouds 
to rise, rivers to flow, forests to grow, fruit to ripen, and man himself to exist. 
This united force, constantly and silently, exercised to raise the resevoirs of rain 
to their mean atmospheric height, to fix carbon in plants, to give to terrestria] 
nature her vigor and her beauty, is estimated in a mechanical point of view, to 
be equal to 543 milliards of steam engines, of 400-horse power each, working day 
and night incessantly. It is the Sun’s heat which maintains matter in its three 
states, solid, liquid and gaseous. Examined through a powerful instrument, the 
surface of the sun appears to be covered with small grains of different forms, but 
where the oval predominates, the interstices which are very free, form a kind of 
gray net-work, the knots of this net-work enlarge sometimes as to form pores, 
which increasing still, give birth to a ‘‘spot.”” The luminous surface of the Sun 
has been called photosphere; it is not uniform but composed of a multitude of 
luminous points, disseminated on the somber net-work. These points or grains, 
produce the heat and light that we receive from the Sun, and occupy about one- 
fifth part of the surface of that star; if they approach closer to each other, multi- 
plying and condensing, the dark netting would disappear, the light would be 
increased from two to five fold, and the heat in proportion; were they on the 
contrary to diminish, light and heat would disappear, and the world expire from 
cold. We call flame and fire all that which burns, but the gases in the Sun’s 
atmosphere possess such an elevated degree of temperature that it is impossible 
for them to burn. Occasionally protuberances are visible round the sun; these 
are due to explosions of hydrogen, which shoot that gas upward at the rate of 
244,000 yards in a second; these eruptions continue during several hours, often 
days, motionless as immense luminous clouds, when they fall down in showers of 
liquid fire. These phenomena are hurricanes; now a hurricane of the greatest 
intensity on our planet, does not travel at a greater rate than 100 miles an four, 
the fire-hurricane travels that space in a second Vesuvius has entombed Pompeii 
and Herculaneum beneath its lavas. A solar eruption shooting up flames to the 
height of 63,000 miles in a few seconds, would bury our earth under its shower of 
fire, reducing terrestrial life to ashes in a shorter space of time than is required to 
read these lines. 

Messrs. Richet and Mourrut have conducted a series of experiments at Havre 
on digestion with fishes; with the latter, as in the case of other classes of vertebrata, 
there is a very great diversity in point of intensity of digestion; pending the pre-= 
cess of digestion, the stomach is very acid, and the contrary when the stomach is 
empty; the gastric liquid acts more powerfully the less it is pure; temperature 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 243 


augments the digestive process, and while the gastric juices do not at all affect 
starch, they rapidly transform fibrine. 

Messrs. de Fonvielle and Lontin have produced a new and elegant form of 
electro-magnetic rotation, very ingenious, and that will be an addition to lessons 
in physics. The apparatus consists of a galvano-metric frame, in the center is a 
piece of iron on a pivot, which is polarised by a magnet, fixed on the exterior of 
the frame. When the electric current traverses the galvano-metric spirals, the 
piece of iron revolves with a grand rapidity. ‘The principle is not novel and de- 
pends on the difference in intensity of the alternative currents. The latter if 
produced by a Gramme machine, and made intermittent, will serve equally well. 

M. Lichtenstein has placed the insects, which produce the gall nut, in some 
tubes, in time they deposited young insects, which perished, as he did not know 
their peculiar food. He observed that during August other insects replaced those 
that had left the gall nut, and produced young, the latter disappearing in the 
tender twigs of the (poplar) tree, forming thereon a kind of pad. 

Asparagus, the variety white stems and purple heads, is a favorite spring 
dish in France, and the Italians in their love for that comestible are surpassed 
by the French. The market gardens of Argenteuil eclipse those of Ravenna. 
Does asparagus exercise a nutritive action? It is doubtful; it contains a little 
phosphate of lime and potash. However, it is a very light and agreeable aliment, 
admirable for convalescents, on condition that the sauce suits their stomach. 
Asparagus excites the appetite and has a diuretic action. The root of the plant 
is employed against jaundice and affections of the bladder, it relieves, according 
to some hypertrophy of the heart. It is employed as a calmant by others, as it 
does not irritate the stomach, like digitalis; it is bad for those recovering from 
articulated rheumatism; there are authorities who profess asparagus will cure 
hydrophobia. As a curative agent it may be safely concluded to have no effect. 

Dr. Delpech demands that rearing bees on the outskirts of the city be pro- 
hibited. Several fatal cases of stinging have occured, especially in the face, the 
neighborhood of the nervous centers, where the blood, changed by the venom of 
the sting, rapidly decreases the activity of the nervous system, thus suspending 
the functions essential to the maintenance of life. 

In the Cevennes, sheep are largely reared for their milk, which is made into 
‘cheese, the Roquefort being the most celebrated; even in the time of Pliny the 
sheep cheese of Lozére (Luzara) was famous,and was sent from Nismes to Rome. 
Two curious facts to note in connection with this breed of sheep, reared for milk- 
ing purposes ; many have four nipples, cases occurring of yielding milk by each, 
and the ordinary two teats are very voluminous. 

M. Toussaint has studied the subject of phthisis in pigs, and finds that it is 
hereditary, and can be contracted by the progeny while sucking, by inocculation 
‘or co-habitation. The disease resembles galloping consumption in human beings, 
and brings about death in a few weeks. In sheep the malady takes a chronic 
form. 


IV—16 


944 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


IOUS. INIO MIC eS, 


LIPPINCOTT’S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD: pp. 2478 large Octavo: 
J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia 1880. Fur sale by H. H. Shepard. 
$10.00. 

It is difficult adequately to conceive of the vast strides made in geographical 
knowledge within a few years,except by comparison of old works with new ones, 
and this will be found an especially truthful statement by the student who com- 
pares any Gazetteer more than five years old with that recently published by J. B. 
Lippincott & Co. He will find that it now takes nearly 2500 pages, double column, 
fine print, to describe what was fully described a few years since in far less space- 
He will also be surprised to learn not only that many new and important places 
have sprung into existence and become important commercial centers, but 
that so many which were in former editions mentioned as thriving cities and towns, 
even in our own country are now utterly abandoned andunknown. _ It is astonish- 
ing to see how perfectly the work under consideration has been made up. It not 
only contains recent and authentic information respecting the countries, islands, 
rivers, mountains, cities, towns, &c., in all portions of the globe, but it actually 
gives an account of more than one hundred and twenty-five thousand places, with 
correct spelling and pronunciation indicated in all instances. We have been surpris- 
edand have quite surprised several friends, by the extreme minuteness of the infor- 
mation contained in this work as well as by its extent. Of course, tosecure such 
perfection a vast amount of labor has been expended in consulting similar works 
in all languages, books of history and travel, official documents, and by a most 
extensive private correspondence all over the globe. 

In addition to the vastly increased number of places noticed, such particular 
attention has been paid to orthography, pronounciation, ancient and modern 
names of places and signification of geographical names as to render them charac- 
teristics of the work. 

For public libraries, schools, teachers, ‘and all persons requiring books of 
reference, this is a book of sterling value and of the most reliable character. 


First ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS AND GEOLOGY OF THE 
Srate oF INDIANA. 1879, pp. 514, Octavo: Indianapolis, Douglass & Car- 


lin, 1880. 
It is a little singular that at this late day the State of Indiana is publishing 


her first Report of this kind. With her exhaustless resources of almost every kind 
it would naturally be supposed that they would have been long years since; made 


known to the world in every practicable way. 
But though late in beginning, the work has been well done, and no one can 


BOOK NOTICES. 245 


read this Report without acknowledging that the facts compiled have been judi- 
ciously and forcibly set forth and that great credit is due Professor Collet and his 
assistants for industry in collecting and skill in preparing them. The general de- 
scription of the State with which the volume commences, and the statistical tables 
which follow, furnish the most complete and satisfactory account of the progress 
of the State in agriculture, manufactures, trade, finances, education, religion, 
population and hygiene that could be desired and just such information as the im- 
migrant needs. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, FOR 
Marcu, APRIL AND May, 1880: pp. 152 Octavo, illustrated. 


This Society, which has been in existence since 1817, still keeps up its active 
work and this volume contains the results of the original researches and investi- 
gations of some of the best known naturalists in the country; such as Leidy, Mee- 
han, Lockington, Heilprin, Kingsley, Allen, Bergh, Redfield and Kelly, and is 
illustrated copiously. 

Dr. Ruschenberger is President, Prof. Thomas Meehan, Vice President, and 
Prof. Jos. Leidy, M. D., is Chairman of the Publication Committee and Edward 
J. Nolan, M. D., Editor. 


ENGINEERING PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES: By Octave Chanute, C. E: pp. 
40, Octavo. 


This is the annual address for 1880, read by Vice-President Chanute (for- 
merly our fellow citizen) at the tweifth Annual Convention of the American Society 
of Civil Engineers,held at St. Louis, May 25th, 1880 

The paper is a condensed and at the same time comprehensive review of en- 
gineering and engineering inventions in this country; taking up consecutively the 
principal points of interest in connection with Water Works, Hydraulics, Canals, 
Street Railways, Bridges, Preservation of Timber, River Improvements, Light 
Houses, Marine Engineering, Telegraphic Engineering, Gas Engineering, Metal- 

_lurgy and Mining, Agricultural Engineering, Transportation of meats and the En- 
gineering Future. 

It is concisely written, but possesses great interest, and will doubtless furnish 
to future numbers of the Revew some valuable chapters. 


THE SrubDy 6r Lancuaces Brought back to its True Principles: By C. Marcel, 


pp. 27, Quarto: J. Fitzgerald & Co., N. Y. For sale by the K. C. Book & 
4 News Co. ; 15 cents. 


This is number eight of the Humboldt Library, and like its predecessors is a 
shining example of a good thing in cheap literature. M. Marcel is the author of 
_““Languages as a Means of Mental Culture”’ etc., and has had large experience 
-asateacher. This work is a brief summary of a larger work not yet published, 
_but init are given special directions for the acquisition of ancient and modern lan- 


246 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


guages by learners of all classes. It is divided into chapters upon Subdivision 
and order of study, The Art of Reading, The Art of Hearing, The Art of Speak- 
ing, The Art of Writing, Mental Culture and Routine,and covers the ground fully 
in each instance. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


A Record of the Progress of Astronomy during the year 1879, by J. L. E- 
Dreyer, M. A., of the Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland; 47 pp. 
Octavo :—No II. and III. of the Publications of the Missouri Historical Society of 
St. Louis, being the Recollections of a Septuagenarian, by Wm. Waldo Esq., 22 
pp. Octavo :—The Eleventh Annual Report of the American Museum of Nation- 
al History, Central Park, N. Y. : 33 pp. Octavo:—Annual Report of the Board 
of Directors of the Chicago Astronomical Society and Dearborn Observatory, 1880 
(illustrated) 16 pp. Octavo:—Circular of the Horological and Thermometrical 
Bureaus of the Winchester Observatory of Yale College, New Haven, June 1880, 
8 pp. Octavo. 


SClLE NIC MIis@ bili ANy: 


DOCTOR TANNER’S FAST. 


At noon on June 28th, Dr. S. H. Tanner, of Minneapolis, Minn., com- 
menced at Clarendon Hall, New York City, an attempt to abstain from all food 
for a period of forty days. It appears that there had been some controversy be- 
tween Dr. Tanner and Professor W. A. Hammond and other members of the 
New York Neurological Society, upon the subject of the length of time that the 
human system could endure total abstinence from food, and that the Professor 
had made Dr. Tanner an offer of one thousand dollars if he succeeded in living 
without food for forty days. This proposition. in consequence of a mutual mis- 
understanding, was subsequently withdrawn and the Doctor has been conducting 
the experiment at his own cost and risk. 

Dr. Tanner is about forty-nine years of age, weighed at the commencement 
of his fast, 15744 pounds, and is of a rather nervous temperament. He has been 
vigilantly watched at all times, but especially so since the ninth day, when a de- 
tail of members of the Neurological Society was made for the purpose. 

For the first few days, owing to the newspapers being filled with exciting 
political news, the dispatches were very meager, but as the time has progressed, 
and the termination of the experiment has approached, the public interest in the 
case has been very marked and is daily growing in intensity. At the end of the 


DOCTOR TANNER’S FAST. 247 


fifth day he had lost in weight about ten pounds, or an average of two pounds a 
day. 

On the seventh day his temperature was 984° Fahr., and his pulse 96, soft 
and compressible. The skin was moist and healthy, the countenance pleasant, and 
without the usual appearance of anxiety that follows long fasting, and the eye 
clear and unwavering, with normal dilatation of the pupil. The tongue was moist 
and slightly furred, but not more so than would naturally follow twenty-four 
hours’ privation of food. His conversation was deliberate and coherent, but a 
little languid. The dimunition in the excretion of urea was surprising, as deter- 
mined daily by Dr. Van Der Weyde. 

On the ninth day his temperature was 98,3,° and his pulse 96. On the roth 
day some interesting experiments were made by his watchers about g o’clock to 
determine whether or not his sensibility was diminished. The zsthesiometer 
was employed, an instrument consisting of two sharp points which are arranged 
at right angles to a graduated scale, upon which they can be moved backward 
and forward. ‘This was applied to Dr. Tanner’s feet, legs, handsand arms. He 
was almost invariably able to tell whether one point or two had been applied, 
even when they were very near together. He distinguished distance as small as 
three-eighths of an inch, and the opinion of the physicians was that his sensibil- 
ity was not diminished. 

On the eleventh day he succeeded in regaining some of his lost sleep, and his 
face looked a little less pinched and haggard, and his voice was clearer and 
stronger. At noon Dr. Harwood made a careful examination. The tongue was 
found slightly coated; pulse 88; temperature, 983°; respirations, 14. The 
weight as taken that day was 13934 pounds, showing a loss of about seventeen 
pounds. His legs and arms appeared comparatively plump and full. About 
eight o’clock Dr. Gunn tested his strength and sensibility with the cy Semone, 
and esthesiometer and detected nothing abnormal. 

Dr. Maurice N. Miller, of the University Medical School, watched Dr. 
Tanner during three days as a scientific observer. He made a number of anal- 
yses in the college laboratory which convinced him that Dr. Tanner had taken 
no food. After carefully ascertaining the amount of urea in Dr. Tanner’s bodily 
fluids, he pronounced him to be really fasting. On the 13th day he said: ‘‘To- 
day has tended to increase my conviction that the Doctor can not last another 
week. To me he seems unquestionably more feeble to-day than yesterday. His 
temperature is very high and the back of his neck and head is exceedingly hot 
and feverish. ‘This indicates an excessive amount of nervous wear and tear, 
which, of course, results in exhaustion of the nervous system.” 

On the thirteenth day his temperature was 9734° and his pulse go at 8 a. m. 
At 6p. m. his pulse was 96, temperature 98,8,°, respiration 14. By the dyna- 
“mometer test it was shown that he had not yet lost any muscular strength. 

On the fifteenth day the temperature was 98°, respiration 15, pulse 107, weight 
133 pounds. Much of his time is spent in dozing and rinsing his mouth with 


248 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


water, which he ejects at once. He complained of cold and seemed drowsy and 
‘sluggish. 

Entering on the eighteenth day of the fast, Dr. Tanner exhibited a marked 
improvement. From nine o’clock last night until noon the Doctor swallowed be- 
tween thirty and forty ounces of water. His weight this morning was 137% 
pounds. Allowing one pound for the weight of the coat, he has gained four 
pounds since Wednesday. He took a drive to Central Park in the morning, and 
forced the dynamometer up to 151, against 80 yesterday. His pulse when last 
taken was 80, temperature 982°, and respiration 16. 

His condition was unchanged in the afternoon. He went out for a drive to- 
night. His pulse was 76 and temperature 98$°. He forced the indicator of the 
dynamometer up to 166 pounds, showing a slight increase in strength. During 
the past twenty-four hours he drank seventy ounces of water and felt better for it. 

Dr. Chas. S. Tuttle stated that during the experiment up to the eighteenth day 
one of the attending doctors and himself had both made five chemical analyses, and 
both had failed to discover the least indication of any nourishment having been 
taken. 

On the nineteenth day his pulse registered 82, respiration 16, temperature 
982°, weight increased to 13614 pounds, although he had taken but twenty-eight 
and one-half ounces of water in the twenty-four hours. 

Dr. fanner entered upon the twentieth day of his fasting in good condition, 
pulse recorded at 84, temperature 99°, and respiration 16; weight 13514 pounds, 
showing a loss of half-a-pound in the twenty-four hours, although he had taken 
twenty-two ounces of water. 

On the twenty-first day his weight was 135 pounds, pulse 82, temperature 
994°, respiration 16, while the watching physicians agreed that his physical and 
mental condition indicated a decided improvement over that of a few days before 
and that he did not have the air of one whose vital forces had suffered much loss. 

On the twenty-second day his weight was 134 pounds, pulse 72, temperature 
99°, respiration 15. 

On the twenty-fourth day, pulse 75, temperature 98°, weight 132, respiration 
15. Manner bright and lively. 

On the twenty-fifth day he complained of vertigo and nausea in the morning, 
but at noon was feeling better. Pulse 72, rather weak and more compressible, 
temperature 9834°, respiration 16. 

On the twenty-sixth day his watchers agreed that his appearance was worse 
than at any time before and his manner of walking was heavy and languid though 
he made a strong effort to appear vigorous. ‘The pulse was found to be 80, tem- 
perature 982°, respiration 16; weight 13114 pounds. He expressed the opinion 
that water was distressing him and declared his intention to drink less of it for the 
future. 

On the twenty-seventh day his symptoms remained much the same ; nausea 
and heartburn, with great thirst. His pulse was 76, temperature 982° and weight 


130% pounds. 


THE HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL. 249 


Dr. Miller said: ‘<I form my ideas in regard to the Doctor more on my pri- 
vate chemical analysis than on anything else. I have found that for the last few 
days the waste of poisonous matter from the system has been steadily decreasing, 
hence this poison must be accumulating in the body and will inevitably lead to 
blood poisoning.” 

On the twenty-eighth day the evidences of nervous and muscular prostration 
were more apparrent than on the day before and his stomach was too irritable to 
retain water. Pulse 74, temperature 982°, respiration 16, weight 129% pounds. 

On the twenty-ninth day all his symptoms were more favorable. Pulse $4, 
temperature 98,°,°, respiration 14, weight 130 pounds. 

On the thirtieth day everything favorable. 

On the thirty-first day the symptoms were decidedly alarming and indicative 
of speedy collapse. 

On the thirty-second day, however, there was some improvement. Pulse 
72, temperature 982°, respiration 15, weight 127. 

The history of this case is very remarkable, for while other cases are upon 
record where the fasters are reported to have abstained from food as long as Dr. 
Tanner, and some even longer, this is perhaps the one in which the greatest pains 
have been taken by really scientific men to prevent imposition and to note all the 
conditions, at regular intervals. And it must be admitted that most of the symp- 
toms in this case have been quite different from those expected and predicted by 
the skillful physicians in attendance, as well as those taught by our best physiological 
authors. - The temperature of the body in particular, instead of being materially 
lowered, in accordance with medical teaching and experience, has remained near- 
ly normal; while the pulse and nervous system, since the first ten days have been 
regular and healthful in action. The weight too has been far less reduced than 
any one could have expected. 

Of course there is room for suspicion that food has been supplied in some un- 
known manner, but the probabilities in favor of this manner of solving the problem 
are very few indeed, and we must turn to some other source for an explanation 
of the facts. 


THE HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL. 


This is one of the greatest undertakings of modern engineering science. 

The tunnel has been carried a little more than 300 feet from the great well at the 

‘foot of Fifteenth street, Jersey City, or about 200 feet out under the river. The 
work of sinking the well on the New York side is soon to be begun near the foot 

of Morton street, whence the laborers will bore westward under the river and 

eastward to a point near Broadway, where the New York entrance will be. The 
tate of progress on the New Jersey side will soon be about eight feet a day, bu 

on the New York side, where they must penetrate about a thousand feet of rock, 
the progress must necessarily be slower. Operations are continuous, night and 
day, seven days a week, there being three sets of laborers, relieved every eight 
hours. Only one tunnel has been begun. There are to be two. — Originally it 
was planned to bore one enormous tunnel, and on both sides of the river there 


250 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


will be one tunnel down within 200 or 300 feet of the banks of the river. Thence 
under the river there will be two tunnels—one for trains into the city, and one 
for trains from the city. Each tunnel will be about twenty-two feet in height by 
twenty feet in width in the clear, and circular in form. The outer shell of the 
tunnels is boiler iron, breaking joints and firmly riveted together, and within 
this iron tube will be a two foot wall of hard burnt brick, laid in cement, and ex- 
tending completely around the interior, presenting the form of an arch against 
any outside pressure, whether vertical or lateral. The track for railroad trains 
will lie about forty feet below the bed of the river, and near the New York side, 
where the depth of water is about sixty feet; the traveler in a car under the Hud- 
son will be about roo feet below the vessel overhead. The company’s officers 
say that they can dispatch 400 trains through the tunnel every twenty-four hours. 
The engineers vary very widely in their estimates of the cost of the enterprise, 
some fancying that the $10,000,000 capital will complete the work, and others 
that it will cost as much as $17,000,000. The company expect to complete the 
work about three years hence. —K. C. Zimes. 


PERIHELIA. 


People will discuss the wonders of the universe, and just in proportion as the 
phenomena are mysterious will they see signs and believe in the occult influences 
of the stars. And just now the perihelion of the four great planets, Jupiter, Sa- 
turn, Neptune and Uranus, is a source of vague dread to millions of people. It 
is true they are approaching their nearest position to the sun, and what is to be in 
that regard has not happened in eighteen hundred years. But history furnishes 
nothing coincident with similar occurrences to cause any dread now, though we 
must conclude that the influence which must be exerted between sun and planets 
to keep them in their places and govern their movements, will be more intense in 
action when nearest together, than when separated by the tremendous distances 
of the outer boundaries of their orbits. Neptune, the most distant of all the 
planets from the sun, requires 164 years to complete its circuit, while Jupiter re- 
quires less than one-twelfth of that time. 

But, then, similar stellar perihelia as to other planets have occurred, the last 
one of any note being in 1708, and following years. But this was not marked by 
any unusual phenomena, and there is no reason to suppose it will be so in the case 
of these four. The distances of Uranus and Neptune and in fact both the others 
are so great as to preclude the supposition that the influences from them will be 
any m re marked than in like positions of inferior but nearer planets. 

There is, in fact, nothing upon which to ground apprehension or to find cause 
for any baneful results from these planetary conjunctions, or that they even exer- 
cise a sway upon the meteorological conditions of our earth, ‘Their perturbing 
force seems limited to a slight alteration of the elliptical orbit of the earth, and 
beyond this they do not appear to affect our little world, but, like all large 
bodies toward small ones, are complacent and kindly disposed.—&. C. Journal. 


MINING AFFAIRS IN ARKANSAS. 251 


MINING AFFAIRS IN ARKANSAS. 


The traveling correspondent of the New York A@ining Record has been in- 
vestigating mining affairs in Pima county, Arkansas, and arrived at the conclu- 
sion that mines there are well worth owning, both gold and silver being found in 
goodly quantity. Writing from Dos Cabesas, he says: I went on top of the main 
mountain that I believe is as full of gold as a mountain can well be, and it was 
no fool of a job. It was a mountain ‘‘as is a mountain,” so steep that I left my 
mule at various points, and when I did attempt to ride him the same was of short 
duration, and it was harder to lead him than it was to do the walking. Prior to 
my ascension, I visited the Greenhorn, depth ten feet, with $70 gold assay ; 
Bear Core, depth seventy feet, silver, $90 per ton; Ewell Springs, sixty feet, 
average, silver, $30 per ton; Jumper, eighty feet, silver, with remarkable assays. 
On the top of this mountain, I found lead after lead pointing to and reaching the 
top; they are well defined and wide. Blind Tom could almost see them. Float 
matter could be picked up almost anywhere near the summit. By my guide I 
was told to select a piece, and he would ‘‘horn spoon” it for me. I did, and did 
my level best to make the worst selection I possibly could; I took a piece of 
tock that looked bad in every particular; in fact, the average man would not 
think it worth while to turn it over anywhere in a gold region, but when it was 
crushed and ‘‘horned” out, I saw a different feature in the case. By applying 
an eye-glass to the same, I found gold staring me in the face beyond the ques- 
tion of a doubt. I look upon this mountain as one containing wealth in gold al- 
most beyond computation. I do not give the opinion as an expert, but as one 
who has a pair of eyes in his head and sees in an unprejudiced manner. On 
both sides of the mountain, silver leads are thick and miners with plenty of ‘‘sand 
in their craw ” are hard at work developing the same. On the other side of the 
mountain, and nearer to Tombstone, other miners are at work developing the 
many leads they have discovered. —St. Louzs Journal of Commerce. 


PIPE-ORE LIMONITES. 


We can not pass without notice, the beautiful hypothesis offered by Professor 
Lesley (p. 17, QQ, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania) to explain the 
genesis of the ‘‘pipe-ore limonites.”” These are not to be confounded with the 
“‘pipe-veins”’ of Derbyshire, for instance, which are merely tubular bodies of 
lead ore occurring in fissure-veins. The ‘-pipes” of limonite are ‘‘ singular 
steeples of botryoidal and radiated iron ore,” which ‘‘rise from the solid ore at 


‘the bottom of some of our great mines to heights of fifty and even 100 feet, 


through deposits of ore-bearing clays which fill vast pots in the limestone coun- 
ery.”’ 
Professor Lesley says he has long held that these deposits are made in cav- 


erns, the roofs of which were subsequently carried away by erosion. But there 


252 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


was difficulty in accounting for the support of the vast roofs which the size of 
some of the deposits required. He now suggests that these roofs were supported 
by ‘‘stalagmite steeples, rising to meet stalactites pendent from above”—a phe- 
nomenon common in large limestone caves. ‘‘If such a cavern, with all its 
piers finished, were to have its outlet choked, and to be filled with water through 
which insensible currents moved, it would become filled with ferruginous clays, 
and in the end all its piers of calcite would be metasomatized into limonite of the 
variety known as pipe-ore.” Subsequent erosion removing the roof would ex- 
pose the clay as the country surface, and leave the metamorphosed stalagmites 
as pipes of ore standing in the clay and ‘‘ descending with broadening bases to 
the floor.” This explanation seems to us to fit the observed facts perfectly.— 

LEngincering and Mining Journal. 


With respect to the six days of creation corresponding to six geologic periods, 
let me repeat that no such six periods are known to geology. No geologist rec- 
ognizes just six pericds in creation. Lyell treats of four eras, thirteen forma- 
tions and thirty-eight strata; Dana mentions seven ages of rock, five divisions, 
or ages, of geologic time (and very different, indeed, from the six days of Gen- 
esis), subdivided into twenty-three periods. Gray and Adams describe five 
classes, eight orders, and fourteen systems of rocks; Page’s ‘‘Geology” has five 
classes and twelve systems; Steele’s ‘‘ Fourteen Weeks in Geology” has four eras 
or times, seven ages, and twenty-one periods; Figuier and Bristow have five 
epochs and thirteen periods; Denton has eight ages, or eras, and eleven periods; 
Taylor has three eras and nine periods; Dawson has four periods and sixteen 
minor periods; Gunning has ten great periods; Nicholson has three periods 
and thirteen systems or formations; and Newberry has four eras, seven ages, and 
twenty-two periods. Nowhere do we find a trace of any szx geologic perioas. 

—W. FE. Coleman in Western Homestead. 


RAG SUGAR. 


It is said that a German manufactory produces, per day, five hundred kilo- 
grammes of glucose, taken from old linen rags. These rags, composed of . fibers 
of almost pure cellulose, are first carefully washed, then treated with sulphuric 
acid (oil of vitrol) which converts them into dextrine. The dextrine so obtained 
is submitted to a wash of lime water, then treated with a new quantity of sul- 
phuric acid, stronger than the preceding. Next the mass is transformed and 
crystallized into glucose, chemically identical with that which constitutes natural 
sugar, called grape sugar, the same which is found in honey and ripe fruits. 
With this glucoe they make, in a manner as fraudulent as it is economical, rich 
confections, gooseberry jelly and others, according to the choice of the con-_ 
sumer.—Le Technologiste. 


PRESERVATION OF FOODS BY SALICYLIC ACID. 253: 


PRESERVATION OF FOODS BY SALICYLIC ACID. 


TRANSLATED BY MISS MAY FEE FROM ‘‘LE TECHNOLOGISTE.” 


The author has had in particular view, in the following, the household exi- 
gencies during the summer season—the time when we see all kinds of meat and 
fish rapidly spoiling. Who can calculate the amount of meat spoiled during an 
exceedingly warm day? Among the methods used to prevent aid stop fermen- 
tation, ice and cold occupy a front rank; but neither of these is always at every- 
body’s command. 

With Salicylic Acid, it is easy to accomplish the purpose by two different 
methods: either by dipping the substances to be preserved into a solution of 
Salicylic Acid (three grammes to a litre of warm water); or better still, prepar- 
ing a preserving salt by an intimate mixture of cooking salt pounded fine, in the 
proportion of fifty grammes to one gramme of salicylic acid. In order to pre- 
serve meat for eight or ten days, in summer, carefully rub all its surface with this 
mixture. At the moment of cooking wash the meat in a little fresh water. The 
salicylic acid will leave no taste or smell. 

In a pavilion of the fish hall in London, there is a reservoir filled with a 
.strong solution of salicylic acid, in which the merchants, for a small recompense. 
dip their fish to keep them perfectly fresh for a long time. Moreover, this prac- 
tice has the great advantage of purifying the surrounding air. ‘The antiseptic 
properties of salicylic acid have been happily utilized by the owners of cod-fish 
ships; its regular employment has saved whole cargoes of cod-fish from the 
decomposition which menace them during the warm weather. We shall also say 
a few words about the use of salicylic acid for maintaining, in a good state for 
consumption, the canned substances of all natures, after they have been opened. 


CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 


In view of the drouth which prevailes in many parts of the country and its 
unusual severity over large districts, the Rural New Yorker suggests to those who 
have planted trees or shrubs the past spring that there is one method, and so far 
as we know, says the writer, only one by which they may be protected against 
injury or death from that cause. Surface watering has been shown to do more 
harm than good. The ground is made hard and compact, thus becoming a bet- 
ter conductor of heat while it becomes less pervious to air and moisture. A _por- 
tion of the surface soil should be removed, and then pailful after pailful of water 

thrown in until the ground, to a depth of two feet and to a width about the stem 
‘of not less than three feet in diameter, has become saturated. ‘Then as soon as 
_the water has disappeared from the surface, the removed soil should be well pul- 
verized and returned. A covering of boards, straw, or hay, or even of sand or 
gravel, may then be applied, and the tree or shrub, thus treated, will pass through 
ten days of additional drouth in safety. —Sccentefic American. 


* 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


DP DIR@RTAL, - N@OMES: 


IN our next number we shall have an arti- 
cle from the pen of Mr. C. A. Shaw, U. S. 
Signal Observer, at Madison, Wisconsin, on 
a Variable Scale for Barometric Pressures, 
presenting some original ideas based upon 
his experience as an observer. 


Professor Oren Root, Jr., formerly Pro- 
fessor in the Missouri State University, re- 
cently Superintendent of the Public Schools 
at Carrollton, Mo., and now supplying the 
place of Rev. Dr. Kimball, at the Second 
Presbyterian Church in this city, has lately 
been appointed Professor of Mathematics at 
Huimilton College, New York. This is a 
very fitting appointment, though it is rare 
for an Eastern College to seek any portion of 
its Faculty in the West. 


JULY was an unusually pleasant month, 
there having been but three days when the 
heat at 2 P. M. exceeded go° in the shade, 
while there were none when the heat at Io 
Pp. M. exceeded 81°, and very few where it ex- 
ceeded 75°, The highest point reached by 
the mercury at 7 A. M., was on the 9th, when 
it marked 78°. The highest point reached 
in the middle of the day, was on the 13th, 
96°, and the highest at Io P. M. was on the 
same day, 81°, with pleasant breezes nearly 
every night. It showed the lowest average 
heat since July, 1376, when there was not a 
day whose maximum heat exceeded go°, and 
only two above 88°. 


Dr. John Fee, of this city, will hereafter 
regularly contribute to the REVIEW transla- 
tions of popular articles from its German, 
French and Italian exchanges. This will be 


a decided advantage to our readers, not only 
from the freshness of the foreign matter thus 
furnished, but also from Dr. Fee’s well 
known skill as a translator and transcriber of 
these languages. 


SINCE our last issue we have made arrange- 
ments with Dr. E. A. Frimont of Ozuluama, 
Mexico, to correspond regularly with the 
REVIEW upon archeological, anthropological 
and other similar subjects. From what we 
know of him we anticipate very valuable and 
entertaining letters. 


UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, 
LAWRENCE, Kansas, July 26, 1880. \ 
* co 3 % ce as * 

‘* ALLOW me to congratulate you upon the 
success of the REview, both popularly and 
scientifically considered. It fills a gap in 
our scientific literature and is an essential to 
every lover of science in our new America. 

‘¢Very truly yours, 
F. H. Snow.” 


THE 29th meeting of the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, will 
commence on Wednesday, August 25th, at 
the Massachusets Institute of Technology, 
in Boston, and the general sessions will be 
held in Huntington Hall. Lewis H. Mor- 
gan of Rochester, New York, is President. 
Prof. F. W. Putnam of Salem, Mass., is per- 
manent Secretary. A very large attendance 
is expected and the meeting will undoubtedly 
be of the greatest interest. 


THE office of the Cafexer has been removed 
to 141 Queen Victoria St., London, C. E. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 255 


RECENTLY a well equipped expedition has 
been dispatched to Central America, charged 
with the work of systematically searching 
for everything that may tend to place within 
the domain of history the facts connected 
with a people whose career must have been 
one of the most interesting in the general 
development of the world’s civilization. The 
founders of these cities were our precessors 
on this continent; their peculiar civilization 
and their esthetic development are of the 
highest interest as regards the question of 
the origin of man himself; their history is, 
in fact, the first chapter of the general his- 
Though 
we are not the lineal descendants of these 
builders of the cities that must have rivaled 
even Babylon and Nineveh in some of their 
architectural features, the results of their 
culture have been left to our safe keeping, 
and from these results it is evidently our 
duty, as far as possible, to gather the mate- 
rials for filling up the unwritten first chapter 
of our history. 


tory of the American continent. 


A full account of the ex- 
plorations of the party comprising the expe- 
dition is to be published from monh to 
month in the Worth American Review, with 
illustrations of the most important objects 
discovered. The August number of the 
Review contains an article by the editor in- 
troductory to the series, entitled ‘‘ Ruined 
Cities of Central America.’”’ Other articles 
in the same number of the Revzew aré ** The 
Law of Newspaper Libel,” by John Prof- 
fatt; ‘‘The Census Laws,’ by Charles F. 
Johnson; ‘‘Nullity of the Emancipation 
Edict,” by Richard H. Dana; ‘ Principles 
of Taxation,” by Prof. Simon Newcomb; 
‘*Prince Bismarck as a Friend of America 
and as a Statesman,” by Moritz Busch; and 
““Recent Literature.’’ by Charles T. Cong- 
don. 


Mr. HENRY SHAW, whose name has been 


, rendered illustrious in connection with the 


botanical horticultural history of St. Louis, 
by the establishment of the new world-fa- 
mous Botanical Garden bearing his name, 
and of Tower Grove Park, which he so 
munificently donated to the city of St. Louis, 


celebrated on July 24th, the eightieth anni- 
versary of his birthday. 

Professor F. E. Nipher, of the Washing 
ton University, St. Louis, Mo., who has been 
spending part of his vacation in verifying his 


magnetic observations, writes: ‘‘ Our results 
are wholly in accord with the work of the 
two years before, and show that the conduct- 
ing power of the soil. is what determines 
the /arger abnormal deviations of the mag- 
Before I leave it I mean to 
settle the matter so that it will be evident 


netic needle. 


enough. We start this evening for another 
tour from Salem southward to the Arkansas 
lining”? 

THE sixty first volume of Harpers Maga- 
zine began with the June Number. In the 
July Number was begun a new serial novel 
by HENRY JAMES, JR., entitled ‘‘ Washing- 
ton Suqare’’—an American story of unusual 
interest. The September Number will con- 
tain the continuation of WILLIAM BLACK’s 
«‘ White Wings;” the third part of ‘* Wash- 
ington Square,”’ by HENRY JAMES, JR.; ‘¢ The 
American Graces,’’ a biographical sketch of 
the three Misses Caton of Baltimere—Eliza- 
beth, Mary and Louisa, who married respect- 
ively Baron Stafford, the Marquis of Welles- 
ley, and the Duke of Leeds—with beautiful 
portraits of each; the second part of W. H. 
BrsHop’s ‘* Men and Fish in the Maine Is- 
lands,”’ illustrated by Burns; ‘‘ The Family 
of George III.,”’ with twenty-one portraits— 
fac-similes of old engravings from paintings 
by the best English artists of the latter part 
of the eighteenth and the first quarter of the 
nineteenth centuries; the third part of RE- 
BECCA HARDING DAvis’ ‘‘ By-Paths in the 
Mountains,”’ illustrated by GRAHAM; ‘‘ The 
Seven Sleepers’ Paradise Beside the Loire,” 
an illustrated paper by M. D. Conway; a 
beautiful poem by WILLIAM M. BriGGs, en- 
titled ‘«*Amid the Grasses,” illustrated by 
WILLIAM HAMILTON GIBson; ‘‘ Squatter Life 
in New York,” by WILLIAM H. RIDEING, 
with characteristic illustrations by SHULTz 
and KELLEY; and the usual variety of short 
stories, timely articles, etc. 


256 


Tue American Bookseller, which is itself an 
almost indispensable aid to librarians and 
other book buyers, commenced the publica- 
tion on July rst, 1880, of the AZonthly Index 
to current periodical literature, proceedings 
of learned societies and government publica- 
tions. It consists of the titles of the best 
articles in all the leading periodicals of the 
United States, whether scientific, professional 
or literary, and is well worth its price to the 
student in almost any branch of education 
who can not afford or has not the time to 
read all the current literature of the day. 


$1 per annum. 10, Spruce St., New York. 


The Industrial World and National Econo- 
mist, Vol. 1, No 1, presents itself as an ad- 
vocate and gazetteer of Home industries, Com- 
merce, Finance, Insurance, Railroads and 
Mining. It is published weekly at Montreal. 
$3 per annum. 


The American Naturalist for August, says 
that Mr. J. Walter Fewkes, of Boston,has been 
engaged to deliver a course of lectures on 
natural history to the public schools of New- 
ton, Mass., and handsomely endorses both 
the scheme and the teacher engaged. 


A critic in the Ad/antic Monthly speaks of 
Mr. S. S. Cox’s Search for Winter Sun Beams 
as ‘‘depressing reading, from the fact that 
that the author seems to have labored con- 
tinually under the feeling that it was incum- 
bent upon him to be funny, and in obedience 
to this sense of duty he frequently indulges 
in jests by the side of which grinning through 
a horse collar is a serious and dignified occu- 
pation.” 


Science is a new illustrated weekly record of 
Scientific Progress, edited by John Michels, 
and published at 229 Broadway, New York. 
It is intended to be a medium for presenting 
immediate information of scientific events,and 
each department is to be under the super- 
vision of a specialist in that department. 


The first number made its appearance July 


3d, in quarto form, 12 pages, Io cents per 
number. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


WE have received Nos. 126 and 127 of 
Le Technologiste, Louis Lockert, Rue Ober- 
kampf, Paris. This is a weekly publication 
devoted to the application of science to the 
industrial arts. Its eminently useful and 
practical character can be readily understood 
from a summary of contents: Bleaching of 
Cotton in Skeins; On the Method of Stamp- 
ing Gold and Silver Colors on Woven Goods ; 
On Decorative Weaving; The Preservation 
of Foods by Salicylic Acid; The Adultera- 
tion of Tobacco; Defibrating of Sugar Cane; 
On Rag Sugar; A New Compound Cement 


for Pavements; The Coloring and Decorating 
of Porcelain and Chinaware, We cheerfully 
commend this journal to the manufacturers 
of the United States. 


‘¢ L’ EXPLORATION.” Revue Des Con- 
quétes de la Civilization Sur Tours les Points 
du Globe: M. Paul Tournafond, 35 Rue De- 
Grenelle, Paris. This handsome weekly of 
sixty pages, large octavo, is now before us. 
It is devoted to the collection and diffusion 
of geographical knowledge. Its editor as- 
sures us that it is the single tie that binds 
together the only sixty-five geographical so- 
cieties that are scattered over the five great 
divisions of the globe. In the present num- 
ber we observe a lengthy extract from Hall’s 
second Arctic voyage, by James Jackson, a 
long and original letter from Soudan from 
the pen of Dr. Matteucci, who is now diiect- 
ing the Italian Scientific expedition to Cen- 
tral Africa. Shorter articles from various 
parts of the Globe, civilized and uncivilized, 
some necrological announcements and a new 
map of Cochin China complete the issue. 
We are happy to say that no one, who in- 
tends to be abreast of the latest geographical 
researches, can afford to be without ZL’ Zx- 
ploration. 

Mr. ALDRICH’S ‘Stillwater Tragedy’ in 
the August Atlantic grows in interest. Dr. 
| Holmes in a characteristic poem, entitled 

‘¢The Archbishop and Gil Blas,” sings with a 

pathetic felicitousness of growing old. John 

Burroughs, one of the most charming of out- 
| door writers, contributes ‘* Pepacton: A Sum- 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


mer Voyage down the Delaware.’”? Mark 
Twain has a very pungent tale entitled ‘« Ed- 
ward Mills and George Benton,” which sa- 
tirizes keenly certain forms of pseudo-phi- 
lanthropy. Mrs. Wallace, wife of General 
Lew. Wallace, Governor of New Mexico, 
writes ‘‘Among the Pueblos;” Richard 
Grant White’s English article this time is 
«¢ Taurus Centaurus.”’ The political article 
discusses ‘‘ The Republicans and their Can- 
didate’’? whom it regards as wholly worthy of 
confidence and enthusiastic support. Col. 
Higginson and Susan Coolidge furnish poems ; 
and reviews of new books and an attractive 
variety in the ‘‘ Contributors’ Club” com- 
plete a capital Summer number. The Aé/an- 
zc for September will contain two important 
political papers: one on Candidates and Par- 
ties, and the other relating to the duties of 
independent voters at the present juncture; 
also, a brilliant society story by the author 
of “‘One too Many”’; a study of the intimate 
life of a noble German family; a study of the 
people of a New England factory village; an 
article on women in social and charitable or- 
ganizations; a paper on socialistic assassina- 
tions; and a full variety of essays, reviews 
and poems. 


From the Catalogue of students at the Uni- 
versity of Kansas for this year, we glean the 
following items: The number of students is 
438—being an increase over last year of 38. 
Missouri sends seventeen, of whom six are 
from this city, viz.: Miss Ethel B. Allen, R. 
W. E. Twitchell, Wm.jG. Raymond, Orais 
E. Smith, A. M. Finney and H. M. Lewers. 
Bighteen different states are represented. 
The prospects are good for 500 students next 
‘Session. 


ProF. E. T. NELSON of the Ohio Wesleyan 
University, in writing for back numbers of 
the first and second volumes of the REVIEW, 

takes occasion to speak thus most flatteringly 
of it: ‘‘I feel it to be the Jest journal for the 
general student that is published in our 
country. It is for this reason that I wish to 
complete my set.” 


257 


THE Popular Science Monthly for July and 
August, reached us about the same time, 
the former too late for serviceable notice. 
The contents of the latter are varied and val- 
uable, comprising articles on The Kearney 
Agitation in California, by Henry George, 
in which an attempt is made to show that 
‘‘law”’ governs human actions as it does the 
conditions of the material universe, and that 
social phenomena may be attributed to gen- 
eral rather than special causes; the second 
chapter of Radeau’s Interior of the Earth, 
translated fromthe Revue des Deux Mondes: 
The Method of Zadig, by Prof. T. H. Hux- 
ley, which is a very attractive account of the 
manner of scientists in the interpretation of 
fossil remains and the method of reasoning 
which enables them from a fragment of an 
extinct animal to prophesy, not only the char- 
acter of the whole organism, but its past and 
future conditions; The Medicinal Leech; 
Recent Original Work at Harvard College ; 
Geology and History; The Cinchona For- 
ests of South America, and many others 
equally valuable. As usual, the Editor’s 
Table and Literary Notes constitute a very 
attractive feature. 


OuR space is too limited to say more of 
Good Company for August, than that it con- 
tinues to maintain a literary character which 
fully justifies it in assuming so self appreci- 
ative a title. It is a society magazine of just 
the kind to suit the best families all over the 
land. 


THE American Antiquarian for April, May 
and June, being No. 4, of Volume II, is de- 
cidedly the best number yet issued, and de- 
serves an extensive sale. In our opinion, no 
magazine of its class, either in the United 
States or across the water, equals it. Rey. 
Stephen D. Peet, is editor, but he has as as- 
sociates, Prof. E. A. Barber of Philadelphia, 
Prof. R. B. Anderson, Madison, Wis., A. S. 
Gatschet, Washington, D. C., and Rev. 
Selah Merrill, Andover, Mass.; while he has 
as contributors apparently nearly all of the 
archeologists of the country. 


SPECIAL NOTICE. 


It seems to have become altogether a fixed thing for T. M. James & Sons, to 
put their latest importations of rich China and Queensware goods and artistic 
novelties on exhibition at the opening of each week and upon arrival of new 
invoices, and the frequency of such receipts affords our citizens many oppor- 
tunities to examine choice handiwork from abroad and emanating from the most 
celebrated patterns and embellished by the hands of eminent artists. To-day 
may be seen in the show windows of T. M. James & Sons a late importation of 
admirable qualities, and splendid display of hand painted vases of Ionic and 
Grecian shapes and decorated in the most pleasing manner in landscapes, sport- 
ing scenes and classic groups. These goods are very seasonable and their price 
is very low, considering their elegance, and will repay a close inspection and 
ought to find a place in a great number of households in our city and suburbs. 
Messrs. James & Sons are still in almost daily receipt of rich Chinaware elegant 
Glassware and a great variety of other goods requisite in their large trade. A 
visit to this great importing house is time profitably spent both in pleasure and 
economy of prices. 


Established 1865. 


ED. HH. WEBSTER, 


Real Estate? Loan Broker 


FARMS, Unimproved and Mineral Lands Bought and Sold, Capital Invested, Rents Collected, Taxes Paid, 
Titles Examined, Deeds, Leases and General Conveyancing and Notarial Business promptly attended to. 


Office, No. 60358 Main Street, 
KANSAS CITY, = MISSOURI. 


WY MOE OT ELOR Nia 


PICTURE FRAMES, PICTURE MOULDINGS, 


ARTISTS’ AND WAX FLOWER MATERIALS, 


Mirrors and Mirror Plates, Stationery, A New Line, Cheap. 
FANCY GOODS OF MANV KINDS. 


RAMSEY, MILLET? & HUDSON, 


The Job Printers of the West, 


224 and 226 W. Fifth St. KANSAS CITY, MO. 


EGQAGUN TS AcS (Cian xa 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOI. IV. SEPTEMBER, 1880. NOP. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 


The following extracts from the private journal kept by Dr. Rohé, surgeon 
of the Howgate Expedition, furnish a brief record of the voyage of the Gulnare 
from Washington to St. John’s, N. F-.: 

Weighed anchor at 9:20 p. m., on June 21st, and reached Hampton Roads 
June 22d at 11:00 p. m. Steamed out of the Roads in the afternoon of the 24th 
and passed through the capes about 5:00 p. m. On the 25th there was consider- 
able swell but the weather was pleasant. On the 26th hourly meteorological ob- 


“servations were begun by Mr. Sherman, Mr. Jewell and myself assisting, each 


' taking a watch of éight hours. 


June 27th was cool and pleasant. The ship behaves very well, both under 
steam and sail. About 9:00 p. m. it became very foggy, and at 11:00 p. m. the 
fog was so dense that objects could not be distinguished at a very short distance. 

June 28th. A rather monotonous day. About half-past eight at night, how- 
ever, the engineer startled the whole party by the announcement that two of the 


- fire-boxes had collapsed, rendering the engine unserviceable. He made no ex- 


= 


planation of the cause of the trouble. The accident is a great disappointment to 


. all of us. 


June 29th. The breeze was fresh and the weather cool, damp and foggy. 
June 30th. The weather was pleasant. We are north of the latitude of 


" Halifax, as the coast of Nova Scotia is in sight. Capt. Palmer thought it im- 


i} 
i 


IV—17 


aay 


258 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


prudent to make for Halifax harbor during the fog yesterday, and has determined 
to proceed directly to St. Johns. 

July rst. The weather was cool and foggy, and the wind fresh during the 
day. . 
July 2d. Nearly calm throughout the day. 

July 3d. Brisk head wind and considerable swell. 

July 4th. At 7:00 a. m. the temperature was 51°. ‘The wind and sea-swell 
of yesterday continued during the day, at night it was very rough and stormy. 
Foggy at intervals yesterday and to-day. 

July 5th. Heavy swell still continues. The vessel is making fair progress 
under sail, although the cargo is not properly trimmed, there being a decided list 
to port. 

July 6th. Almost calm to-day. Sighted a number of small icebergs yester- 
day and to-day. 

July 7th. At daylight Cape Spear, just south of the entrance to the harbor 
of St. Johns, N. F., wasseen about five miles off, and soon after we signaled to a 
tug to take us into the harbor. At 9:00 a. m. dropped anchor opposite the 
Queen’s wharf. 

On the eighth day of July Mr. Sherman, Mr. Jewell and I began a series of 
observations on shore, with the magnetometer, dip-circle and pendulum. 

During our three weeks stay in St. Johns the observations were continued 
every day except Sunday, and a good series of results obtained. Hon. John 
Delany, Postmaster General of the province of New Foundland, placed his well- 
appointed private observations entirely at the disposal of Mr. Sherman and rend- 
ered all the aid possible in order to make our work pleasant and satisfactory. 
For many personal favors, I am under obligations to him. 

As soon as the vessel arrived, a board of survey inspected the damaged 
boiler, and steps were taken to have the damage repaired. I do not know what 
the official report of the board is, but I gathered from conversations with mem- 
bers of the board and other engineers, that the accident could only have resulted 
through the carelessness or incompetence of the engineers in charge of the vessel. 
The same impression is, I believe, current among the gentlemen composing the 
scientific party and the officers of the ship. 

The engineers left the vessel at St. Johns and returned to the United States. 
on the St. Alhambra of the Cromwell Line. 

Of the present engineers, nothing but the best reports can be heard in St. 
Johns, where they are both well known. Mr. Stein, the chief, is a German and 
has a certificate of competence from the German government. He is also a 
practical machinist, and the business-like manner in which he attends to his work 
inspires every one with confidence in his ability and prudence. The assistant, 
Mr. McRobbie, appears to be equally proficient in the practical work of his. 
department. Both of these gentlemen have been in charge of the engines of 
steamers plying along the northern coast either in the seal fishery or in the La- 


ACCIDENT TO THE GULNARE. 259 


brador coast trade. They are, therefore, thoroughly familiar with the manage- 
ment of a steam engine in the midst of the ice. They may, I think, both be 
relied on to do their duty as well as it can be done. 

So far as I am able to judge, Capt. Palmer and his first officer, Mr. Bailey, 
are thorough seamen, whose prudence will take the ship wherever it can be done 
with safety. 

In conclusion, permit me to state that my confidence in the sea-going qual- 
ities and entire safety of the ‘‘Gulnare” is not in the slightest degree impaired 
by the accident which has, it appears, caused no little uneasiness among the 
friends of those on board. 


ACCIDENT TO THE GULNARE. 


The following report of the Board of Survey upon the Gulnare on her arri- 
val at St. Johns, gives officially the nature and cause of the accident to her boilers 
referred to by Dr. Rohé. 


REPORT OF THE BOARD OF SURVEY. 


We, George A. Pitts, mechanical engineer, associate of Kings College Lon- 
don, and member of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers of Great Britain; 
Robert Stein and Alexander Murray, sea-going Engineers-in-Chief, having been 
called upon by T. N. Malloy Esq., American consul in this port, and Captain 
Palmer, master of the S. S. Gulnare, to survey the boiler of said steamer, do 
declare that wehave made a careful examination of the said boiler, and found the 
crowns of the three furnaces collapsed, and we consider the accident was due to 
carelessness. We base our opinion on the fact that during our examination we 
found deposits of salt on the crown of the furnaces to a thickness of about 5% 
inch. Further, the crown of the combustion chamber is ina good condition. We 
also certify that the damage done to said boiler can be repaired in St. Johns, and 
the boiler placed in good and efficient condition to enable the steamer to prose- 
cute her present or any voyage. We also suggest that a stop-valve be placed on 
the boiler to supplement the ordinary butter-fly valve at present in use on the 
engine. 

St. Jouns, Newfoundland, (Signed) GrorcGE A. Pirts. 
July 7th, 1880. (Signed) R. STEIN. 
(Signed) A. Murray. 


THE GULNARE AGAIN AT SEA. 


The Gulnare left St. Johns July goth, for Lady Franklin Bay, which locality 
it was proposed to attempt reaching without stopping at Disco, as originally con- 


_ templated. 


260 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THE CRUISE OF THE CORWIN. 


The official report of Captain Hooper, commanding the revenue steamer 
Corwin, now in the Arctic in search of the missing whale vessels and under orders 
to communicate with the Jeannette, was received at the treasury department 
August 6th. The report is dated Norton Sound, June roth. Captain Hooper 
Says :— 

We left Ounalaska on the 8th inst. and visited St. George and St. Paul’s on 
the oth inst. After communicating with the special agents on these islands and 
taking on board a quantity of pup seal skins for Arctic clothing for the officers 
and crew and putting the ice breaker in place we proceeded north the same 
evening. 

On the 11th we encountered ice a few miles north of Nounivak Island, in 
latitude 60 deg. 45 min. north, longitude 167 deg. 50 min. west. A fresh south- 
west gale was blowing at the time, so we did not enter the ice until it moderated 
on the 13th inst., after which we worked our way along to the northward, taking 
advantage of every opening or lead which showed itself. We worked along in 
this way, sometimes making a few miles a day and at others drifting helplessly in 
the pack until the 17th inst., when a sharp northeast gale broke up and opened 
the ice and started it off shore, allowing us to proceed on our way the following 
day. We arrived here this afternoon and found the sound filled with ice. We 
are now at anchor sixteen miles from St. Michael’s. We shall endeavor to get a 
boat ashore to reach there overland to-morrow and deliver the mail which we 
have on board for that place, and continue northward as fast as the ice will 
permit. 

All hands are in good health and everything satisfactory. The Corwin has 
proved herself a very able vessel. Although forced through heavy ice for nearly 
a week, and at times lifted bodily up by the pack she seems none the worse for it. 
I hope to be in Kotzebue Sound ahead of the whisky traders and break up their 
‘Ilicit trade for the summer. I shall endeavor to get some tidings from the miss- 
ing whalers from the natives in Kotzebue Sound, and also from those on the 
Asiatic side, either in Plover Bay or in the vicinity of East Cape, whichever the 
ice will permit us to visit first. 

While in the ice, off Romanzoff, some natives visited the vessel and reported 
the past winter as the most severe ever known, and some sealers from Norton 
Sound, who have just come on board, confirm the report. They say the ice in 
the sound only broke up yesterday. 

A day later than the report Captain Hooper wrote to Major Clarke, chief 
of the Revenue Marine service, giving an account of the hardships already 
experienced on the voyage northward. In this letter he says :— 

This will be the last chance to report, I suppose, until we return to San 
Francisco. We had a hard passage through the ice. We entered it on the 1 3th, 
after trying in vain to get around it, and were six days getting here. The first 


THE CRUISE OF THE CORWIN. 261 


day we only made about forty miles, and the second day about twenty. The 
third and fourth days we did not make any distance at all and had as much as 
we could do to save the vessel. The ice set us in off the lower mouth of the 
Youkon in five fathoms of water. At this depth about half the ice was aground 
and the floating ice was carried by it by the current at least three knots an hour. 
The crashing and warring of the ice on ail sides as the drift ice struck that 
aground was demoralizing to weak nerves. Of course we were carried along 
with it and several times were caught in the ‘‘nip’” 

Our engines had no more effect on the vessel than a toy engine would have 
had. We came near losing our rudder, and at times our boats were in danger, 
the ice was so high. The screw steering gear was carried away and the wheel 
chains parted. After realizing the effect of a ‘‘ nip” I saw the necessity of hav- 
ing the rudder so it could be unshipped at short notice. So I went to work, 
fitted a piece of oak plank over the rudder head so that it could not unship itself, 
but can be removed readily if necessary, cut a piece out of the apron the size of 
the rudder casing and cleared the rudder head of the patent steering gear and 
everything that would not go down through the cashing, made a band and put in 
to keep it from cracking, rigged a pair of shears over the stern and made a pur- 
chase, then put all hands at work and carried coal in sacks forward until her stern 
was raised out of water sufficiently to get at the woodlock and split it out. We 
can now unship the rudder and land it on deck in three minutes, and after a little 
practice can do it in two. I think I have no fears of losing it now. 

This is tough business on revenue cutters, I can assure you. If we had not 
forced her through the ice we would not have been able to get far along for three 
weeks yet. I thought it was all up with her on the morning of the 18th. We 
had been at anchor close in under the Cape Romanzoff during a northeast gale 
and snow storm nearly all day of the 17th, and on the 18th it backed to northwest 
right on shore and blew harder yet. The ice had been broken and started off 
shore by the northwest wind, and, of course, as soon as the wind changed it came 
back. We got under way and tried to work out into the pack to keep from going 
ashore, but for a while it showed such a solid front that we could not penetrate 
it The ice kept driving us in shore until we had only two and three-quarter 
fathoms of water, when an opening showed itself and we shot into it and suc- 
ceeded in getting fast to a piece that was aground in five and a half fathoms and 
rode comfortably until the gale broke and the ice started off shore again. ‘The 
plece we made fast to probably covered a surface of four acres, drew thirty-three 
feet of water and was about twenty-five feet high above the water, so you can 
form an idea of what the Behring Sea ice is like. Our pilot says he never saw 
anything like it outside of the Arctic. 

A native has just arrived from the shore with a note from the Alaska Com- 
mercial Company, who reports the winter as having been terrible—very cold, 
with an unusual amount of snow and heavy storms. None of the traders have 
arrived from up the river yet. The wild geese, which usually have their young 


262 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


hatched out by this time, have just commenced to arrive and lay their eggs. We 
will start north to-morrow, or perhaps this evening if the ice shows a break. I 
don’t expect to get further than Kotzebue Sound for a month. We won’t spare 
her, but will push on as fast as possible. I have no fears but we can go as far as 
any one. ‘The Corwin has good power and is very strong. 


IS THERE AN OPEN POLAR SEA ? 


CONCLUSIONS AGAINST THE POPULAR THEORY DRAWN FROM THE RESULTS OF MANY 


BOLD AND ENERGETIC EXPLORATIONS. 


Dr. I. I. Hayes, the Arctic Explorer, in a recent letter to the New York 
flerald, expressed his well known views in reference to the existence of an open 
polar sea; to which a Springfield, Mass., correspondent takes excepticn as 
follows :— 

In Dr. Hayes’ letter on the prospects of the Jeannette there is one paragraph 
which is of so much importance in view of the history of opinion in regard to the 
open polar sea, that I wish to advance some considerations weighing against the 
opinion there expressed, in the hope that Dr. Hayes may see fit to publish his 
views more at length in the Herald. 

In speaking of the intention of Captain DeLong he says :—‘‘ Of course no 
one imagines that there can be any such thing as a sea about the Pole wholly free 
from ice, but it is equally inconceivable that so large a body of water, embracing 
an area of more than three millions of square miles, could be at any time firmly 
and completely frozen over.” And he infers that should captain DeLong reach 
the northern termination of Wrangell Land he would encounter large areas of 
open navigable water. The opinion here expressed by Dr. Hayes that there is 
in the extreme north a virtually open sea, is the same as he advances at the close 
of his account of his attempt to reach the open polar sea in 1860—61; and the 
arguinent is also the same—viz: that within the encircling shores of the northern 
continents, that is, roughly, within the parallel of eighty degrees north latitude, 
there is a vast expanse of sea where the ice cannot fasten itself to the land and wil] 
therefore of necessity be broken to pieces by wave action. Now, if it were an 
ascertained fact that there is this vast polar water, this conclusion might seem to 
be necessary ; but what support is there to the opinion that we have this great un- 
broken expanse of water at all? 

The progress of northern exploration, great as it has been, has never yet ad- 
vanced beyond the boundaries of land. Parry, to be sure, in his remarkable at- 
tempt to reach the Pole from Spitzbergen, penetrated to 82° 45’ without finding 
land, but his journey proves nothing as to its existence-or absence within a com- 
paratively small distance of his furthest point, for traveling on the ice, he could 
not possibly have distinguished a low Arctic coast at a few miles distance. The 
memorable experience of the Austrian expedition of 1872 is well known. After 


LS THERE AN OPEN POLAR SEA ? 263 


drifting north of Nova Zembla for months, fast in the ice, over an unknown sea, 
they came at last (about latitude 79°) on a new land, which was traced by Payer 
above 82°, and the extreme vision of the Austrians was bounded on the north not 
by water, but by land, whose nothern limit and dimensions no one knows. Again, 
it is well known that Arctic explorers of experience find in the reports of the 
English expedition of 1875—76 reason for belief in the existence of land beyond 
the eighty-fourth parallel. The tremendous character of ice of the so-called 
paleocrystic sea, and the great hummocks which baffled Markham’s sledge party, 
together with shailowness of the sea at the extreme point reached by Markham, are 
regarded as very strong proofs of the existence of land very much further north 
than any yet known. It is to this land to which Howgate’s colony scheme looks in 
jarge measure for success, since it may offer a coast line trending north and reach- 
ing to or near the Pole. No one also yet knows the extreme northerly extent of 
Greenland and adjacent lands. The extreme vision of the English saw only the west 
Greenland coast losing itself in the mystery of the Arctic snows and ice north of 83°. 
And finally DeLong’s expedition itself is proof of land in the extreme north in yet 
another quarter than those named. ‘That Wrangell Land exists north of Siberia 
is known. How great it may be and how far north, no one knows. Dr. Hayes 
himself admits it may reach to the Pole. 

It then remains true that whithersoever men have gone in the far north they 
have found not sea only, but land also. It seems a fair deduction from the past 
history of exploration that wherever they may hereafter go, there they will still 
find land. If, now, this is so, until we know accurately the amount and disposi- 
tion of these Arctic lands all conjectures based on their presence or absence must 
be idle. Suppose these lands to be grouped anywhere about the course of the 
Jeannette, will we not have then just the conditions of coasts approaching one 
another sufficiently near to allow the ice to form and accumulate and pile itself 
up in the enormous masses of Nares’ palzocrystic sea or of those whose tumult 
seemed pandemonium let loose around the Tegethoff, while her navigators were 
yet, as they supposed, in the midst of a boundless sea? 

In the introductory chapters of his book, Payer, reviewing the history of Arc- 

. tic explorations through three centuries, remarks on the doctrine of the open po- 
lar sea and demonstrates, it seems to me, the groundlessness of that opinion by 
showing how, as men have approached, as they supposed, the northern boundary 
of that ice belt which they believed to girdle the open sea, that boundary has 
ever receded and the ice has ever grown heavier, the climate more severe, the 

nearer they have drawn to the Pole. If, then, there is virtue in the consistency of 
reasoning we must assume that beyond where man has reached, the same law 

_ holds true—that the further north we go, the thicker the ice becomes and the se- 
verer the climate. Any other conclusion is contrary to the known facts, and the 

_ belief in the open polar sea would seem to be born solely of splendid enthusiasms, 

high courage and desire to pierce the fascinating mystery of the far north. 

D. W.B. 


264 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF FRANCE. 
(FROM ‘‘L’EXPLORATION.’’) 


Sitting of July 18th.—M. A. Grandidier in the chair. Meeting opened at 
eight o’clock. After reading of the official minutes, the president signaled the 
attendance of M. Pinard, the young explorer from Arizona, who will return to. 
his explorations as soon as the state of his vision, considerably weakened, will 
permit—also the presence of Dr. F. M. Moreno, director of the Anthropological 
and Archeological Museum, at Buenos Ayres. This learned South American, 
continued the veswme of his explorations, in the as yet scarcely known country 
of Patagonia, as follows: In 1873 I made my first voyage to Patagonia, in order 
to dig into the Indian burying grounds along the Rio Negro. After two months 
of excursions, I returned with forty-two skulls and some hundreds of stone imple- 
ments. In 1874, I returned to the Rio Negro. My excavations gave me eighty 
crania, some incomplete skeletons and three hundred stone objects. From the 
Rio Negro, I passed to the Rio Santa Cruz; in order to ascend it, but some ob- 
stacles preventing me, I was only able to make some ethnological collections, in 
the environs of the sea.—In 1875, I left overland, from Buenos Ayres, for the 
purpose of passing over Patagonia until I reached Chilii—Arriving at the Rio. 
Colorado, I continued my anthropological researches, and at the Rio Negro, for 
the third time, I was able to augment my collection of skulls. Leaving this place, 
with a domestic and five Indians, I followed the banks of the river and arrived on 
the slope of the Andes. There the Araucaniens or Manpuches impeded the con- 
tinuance of my voyage. Condemned by a council of war, I obtained permission 
to visit lake Nahuel-Napi. After some weeks of hunting, of religious feasts and. 
orgies, I was given leave to return to Buenos Ayres, where I arrived after having 
had a battle with some Indian cattle thieves. I left immediately for the northern 
part of the Argentine Republic, with the object of excavating the ancient forts. 
and cities of the Colchuguis. In October, I left for the fourth time, for the pur- 
pose of traversing Patagonia. After making some collections at Chuburt and 
Port-Désiré, I commenced the exploration of the Rio Santa Cruz. There, with 
my canoe, I penetrated as far as the lake from which it takes its origin. I could 
see two other lakes to the north, alive with Indians, also a volcano in activity,. 
which I baptized with the name of Fitz-Roy. I reached afterward, by land, the 
strait of Magellan and returned to Buenos Ayres. On my return, I donated all 
my collections, anthropological, zodlogical and paleontological, to the government 
which has established the museum of which I am the conservator. To augment 
this collection, I left in October, 1879, for a voyage of two years in Patagonia. 
After ascending the Rio Negro, in my little steamer, 400 kilometers, I directed 
myself to the South, on horse-back, to the distance of 100 kilometers, thence to: 
the west-south west, traversing a region as yet unexplored. In the place of plains. 
and table-lands, I saw mountains from 1000 to 2000 meters in height. Here I 
discovered some ancient volcanoes, and some basaltic grottoes, which had served: 


THE KHEDIVE’S GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 265 


as human habitations; also some human skulls. Arriving at 43° 30’ south, at 
the foot of the Andes, I found some Indians, and some days afterward, I contin- 
ued my course to the North. I explored the banks of the lake Mahuel-Napz, 
where I found some grottoes containing bones. Here, at the western part of the 
lake, some Araucanien Indians took me prisoner—brought into the presence of 
the principal chief, whom I had known in my voyage of 1875, I was passed to a. 
council of war, and after three days of feasting, I was condemned to death. — 
‘¢ God was angry, and the heart of a Christian must be sacrificed to Him.”” Two: 
days afterward, I escaped in the night, with my domestic and interpreter. We 
constructed a raft, and after two nights and seven days of travel, through the ra- 
pids, we reached the Argentine encampment. My companions, whom I had left 
in a hospitable Patagonian village, informed by a friendly Indian, had saved my 
anthropologieal collection and my botanical gatherings—I was able to save on my 
person a part of my journal and some astronomical observations made at twelve 
different places. Arrived at Buenos Ayres, I was sent, on recommendation of 
physicians, to Europe. a8 ci ** ac Session closed at 10.30. 
ke 


THE KHEDIVE’S GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 
(FROM L’EXPLORATION. ) 


The session of June 11th was well attended, considering the terribly hot 
weather. It was devoted, as announced by the order of the day, to a conference 
with Dr. Zucchinetti, who left Cairo in the month of January, to make an excur- 
sion to the provinces of Bahar-el-Gazar and Bahar-el-Arab, thence toa part of 
Darfur, and of Kordofan, and also to that region of Nubia situated to the south 
of Obeida, a country as yet scarcely known. 

He commenced his discourse by exposing the vast project he had conceived 
of traversing Africa as far as its southern extremity, for the purpose of studying 
it from a statistical and scientific standpoint, and for placing it in condition to 
contribute to that grand activity, in which intelligent Europe desires to place this. 
part of the globe, heretofore so much neglected. 

He then traced briefly, the line followed from Cairo to Khartoom, skirting 
the Nile, from Khartoom to Chiri along the White Nile as far as the third degree 
of latitude, where he was stopped by unexpected difficulties; also sketched the 
route of his return from Chiri to Gaba-Sciambia, thence to the West, to the Ma- © 
_cracas, the Niam-Niams, the Gouro-Gouras on the Bahar-el-Arab, to Sciacca, to 
Fasher, to Obeida in Nubia, to Khartoom, to Djeddah and to Suez. 

He interrupted the recital by quoting some notes, made in the course of his 
voyage, which excited the nist lively interest. The Doctor spoke lengthily of 
_Khartoom, Lake Noo and of the Leds (falls) which arrest the navigation of the 
river, and of the way to avoid them. He then gave a description of the Egyp- 


266 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


tian military posts and their organization. Gen. Stone, who was occupying the 
presidents’ chair with Mr. Bonola, then took the floor to announce that among 
the new members of the Society were counted the engineers Lafitte and Bangabe. 
He also stated that the Society had recently established relations and exchanges 
with the Geographical Society of New York, with the Typographic Society of 
Geneva, and with the journal Z’ Exploration at Paris. He pointed out the favor 
with which the publications of the Society had been received abroad, and 
cited as an example the Bulletin of the London Geographical Society, which had 
reproduced with praise, some articles from the Bulletin of the Khedival Society. 
He proposed the name of Rev. Mr. Wilson, for honorary membership, who had 
but a short time before returned from the land of King M’tesa. 

Doctor Zucchinetti then resumed his narrative. He expatiated on the cus- 
toms of the savage tribes, on the fauna and flora of the countries he had explor- 
ed, and on the resources which this country could offer to European activity. He 
continued with the details of his voyage to Darfur, Kordofan, and to Nubia. This 
last country is rich in gold; and he indicated the manner in which the natives 
gather the precious metal. Finally, he exposed his views on the measures he 
judged most opportune for ameliorating these countries, both morally and materi- 
ally ; and after having defined the character of the negroes, he closed with the 
opinion, that penetrating the country with roads and colonies would be the most 
powerful means of initiating civilization. The ideas of the speaker gave place to 
interesting discussions, and were judged, on the declaration of competent men, 
like Gen. Stone, Purdi Pacha, Col. Saddek Bey, and Dr. Rossi Bey, to be 
worthy of a profound examination. ee: 


THE POSITION OF THE CROZET ISLANDS. 


The admiralty have received from Captain J. N. East, R. N., of H. M.S. 
Comus, a report of his visit to the Crozet Islands, early in March, in order to 
ascertain if any shipwrecked people were there, and to endeavor to establish a 
depot of provisions. No trace of any shipwrecked crew was discovered, but the 
stores of provisions and shelter-huts were successfully landed. The most im- 
portant information which Captain East communicates with regard to this group 
is, that Hog Island should be placed thirteen miles north and west of its present 
position on the admiralty chart. ‘The position of the other islands with regard to 
it appears to be laid down with tolerable accuracy, excepting that East Island is 
not more than seven miles distant from the southeast point of Possession Island. 
The Heroine breakers are reported to consist of one breaker very similar to the 
Bellows off the cape, and to be only one and a half miles to the eastward of a 
straight line drawn from the south end of Hog Island to Penguin Island, and 
nearer the former island. 9 


EXPLORATION OF PATAGONIA. 267 


MURDERED EXPLORERS. 


A telegram from Zanzibar states that Mr. F. Falkner Carter and Mr. Caden- 
head, of the Royal Belgian Exploring Expidition, have been murdered by Chief 
Urambo in Central Africa. Chief Urambo is believed to be the celebrated robber 
chief, Mercambo. 


EXPLORATION OF PATAGONIA. 


Don Ramon Lista has lately returned to Buenos Ayres after a further journey 
in Patagonia, in the course of which he has examined in detail the whole of the 
coast region between Bahia Rosas and Punta Villarino. From the outset he was 
unable to find any water, notwithstanding that careful search was made in all 
directions, and the expedition would have been compelled to retrace its steps had 
it not been for the opportune arrival off the coast of a small vessel with supplies. 
The region explored is reported to be extremely sterile; and the soil, which is 
burned up by a tropical sun, is mostly covered with prickly and stunted plants. 


Carl Petersen, the warm-hearted and faithful assistant to so many Arctic 
expeditions, in which he served chiefly as interpreter, died at Copenhagen, on the 
‘24th of June, at the age of sixty-seven years. He was with Penny, driving his 
dog-sledge, in 1g50~51, when Penny wintered in Assistance Bay with the two 
brigs (Lady Franklin and Sophia) and explored part of Wellington Channel. 
Next he was with Kane in Smith Sound, then with McClintock in the Fox, and 
lastly on a voyage with Torell and Nordenskidld, to Spitzbergen, in 1861. He 
was a fine old fellow, resolute and warm-hearted. Sir Allen Young introduced 
him to the Prince of Wales the last time he was at Copenhagen. Petersen had 
charge of a lighthouse until 1875, when he retired, owing to failing sight, on a 
pension of 600 kronen. The English government had recently granted him a 
pension of £12 a year, and last year a number of Arctic friends in this country 
subscribed together and presented him with a small sum. These acts of kindness 
were deeply felt by the grateful old man, but he lived only a short time to enjoy 
the increased comfort they afforded him. He lived with his sister, whose husband 
kept a restaurant at Copenhagen. In early life he was long stationed at Upernayik, 
and married there. He leaves a son, who is a surveyor, and a daughter who 
married well. 


268 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Minit OR OL@ Ex: 


PROPHECY OF THE WEATHER. 
BY ISAAC P. NOYES, WASHINGTON, D. C. 


The weather has ever been a favorite theme for the prophets, and most mis- 
erably have they failed. All are familiar with the prophecies or statements of 
our almanac makers. For years they have pretended to foretell the weather for 
months in advance. 

The statements of the old almanac makers though ‘‘gospel truth” to the 
many, were not regarded as wisdom by the few who were more advanced in in- 
tellectual culture, yet even those of the highest culture could simply say “‘ they 
did not believe;” no positive evidence had yet developed by which they could 
successfully controvert what their intellects could not accept. They must await 
future developments and see what they would bring forth. 

In 1870 they brought forth the United States Signal service, whereby we 
were no longer confined to the accumulation of a few isolated facts gathered by 
merf having no facilities for immediate communication with each other, or any 
means of conveying intelligence to one central head where it could be digested 
and made to serve the world as kindred facts in other departments have done. 

It was not even possible for the Signal service to grasp the full idea at once; 
time was needed to advance the practical work necessary for so great an under- 
taking, and as facts were accumulated, they suggested new fields for the intel- 
lect to revel in, until now we have a very complete system, though not perfect 
as yet, for time is still necessary to complete and to suggest other steps in the line 
of this advancing science. 

The weather map has proved beyond controversy that the area of low barom- 
eter is the center and motive power of the storm, and that this area of low ba- 
rometer travels, as heretofore stated, in an easterly direction, and that back of 
this power of low barometer, lies the generating heat force of the sun, the crea- 
tor of this power. The sun is our great physical first cause in this as in other 
things connected with and essential to our well-being on this earth. 

The negative part of the weather system is the area of high barometer, which 
plays quite as important a part in the weather of our globe as the area of low ba- 
rometer itself. The details and influence of high barometer will be deferred for 
some future paper, simply remarking here that it is an important power and is 
ever on the move and in the same general direction as the area of low barometer, 
and that we can not have the one without the other—that the area of high ba- 
rometer is as essential and natural in the lighter body air as the hill or mountain 
in the physical contour of our earth. 


PROPHECY OF THE WEATHER. 269 


It is not pleasant to controvert such a venerable notion as that the moon af- 
fects the weather and that by studying its various ‘‘quarters” and conditions, 
we may be able to prophesy the weather months in advance. The moon, it 
must be remembered, is continually on the move and ever progressing with the 
earth and the while moving around it. It therefore must necessarily, and does 
in turn, shine on all parts of the earth. Wherever the sun shines the moon shines 
also. The sun being a powerful heating body, generates the conditions we term 
low barometer. The moon, being a mere reflector of light, has no such power 
—at least its heat power is infinitesimal, and therefore has no power to produce or 
affect the area of low barometer. But it is often claimed that it has power over 
the clouds to collect or disperse them, as the case may be. On the same night 
with the same moon, new, first quarter, half, full, last quarter or old, the same 
moon is shining over territories where there is all sorts of weather from hot to 
cold, and from clear, cloudless skies to extents of territory covered with the 
most dense snow or rain-producing clouds. In one place it may be clear, bright 
moonlight, in another not a ray of light to be seen even with a full moon. Then 
these places may be and are distributed over the earth at intervals of from 500 to 
1,000 miles, and sometimes more. This being the actual condition of things, it 
seems most absurd to claim or believe at this day that the moon at all affects our 
weather, or that it may be relied upon as a basis on which to found prophecies of 
‘the weather. When the new moon is upright so that its two ends or horns are 
level with each other, it is claimed that throughout this moon, we will have lit- 
tle or no rain, because the moon holds its water. Then when the crescent tips a 
little, one side being higher than the other, according to the universal idea, we will 
have plenty of rain during that moon. As though the rain which waters our 
earth, must be held in this little basin up in the sky. It must be remembered 
that the moon is 240,000 miles away from our earth, and at the best calculation 
our atmosphere is not more than forty-five miles high, and more than this that 
the clouds from whence comes our rain, are not over two or three miles high, 
and often much less, probably less even than a mile high. Our rain comes from 
the clouds that are temporarily suspended in the air generated through the heat 
force of the sun from the waters of the earth. 

The sun is ever forming these clouds. The power of the moon in this par- 
ticular is not worth considering even for a moment—might as well claim that 
the moon causes plants to grow, and is an agent for the generation and mainten- 
ance of life on this globe. As it rotates about the earth it happens that it goes 
through certain phases which western new moon, quarter, full, etc., and that at 
times the horns of the new moon will be level with each other and at other times 
not—all depending, as any one familiar with astronomy will know, on the rela- 
tive positions of the sun, earth and moon. The sun will always shine on that 
side of the moon that faces the sun. This is a most natural effect and needs no 
proof. Relatively to the earth the moon must change, for the simple reason that 
these three bodies are ever changing their relation to each other, and this readily 


270 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


accounts for the different appearances of what we call the ‘‘new moon.” The light 
of the sun shining on it, relatively to us, underneath, at other times a little to one 
side. That these merely accidental changes of the moon that have no signifi- 
cance as a motive power, positive or negative, that they should be a power to af- 
fect the conditions that produce or prevent rain that comes, and can only come 
by the generating force or heat of the sun, is most absurd, or that it should have 
any power over the motion of the clouds which are concentrated or dispersed 
only by that power generated by the sun which we term ‘‘low barometer.” The 
prophecy of the weather based upon any such ideas as that the moon has any in- 
fluence in producing such results, is most absurd and can not be maintained by 
facts or the least show of reason, We may have evenings where the sky over 
our particular locality becomes clouded when the moon is visible, or it may be 
cloudy and after awhile the clouds pass away, but not through any agency of the 
moon. If the moon had any such power as this, it would produce the same re- 
sults every time, but we see that it does not, but rather with all sorts of moons 
we have all sorts of weather and changes which may readily be traced to a far 
more reasonable cause—that of the relative conditions of low and high barome- 
ter as effected by the great source of heat and light—the sun. 

Another source of prophecy of the weather, is something which belongs 
rather to a season than to any extended time of years—a sort of sub-prophecy 
depending upon a prophecy of cold winter and warm summer, especially at the 
poles, is that of cold in summer developed from melting icebergs as they float 
down from the Arctic seas. This summer of 1880 there are a remarkable num- 
ber of these icebergs. So the iceberg prophets are prophesying cold weather, 
especially off the Atlantic coasts. 

When it becomes better understood that the heat of certain localities de- 
pends upon the concentrated power of the sun, making what we term the area of 
low barometer, and that this concentration is ever on the move, sometimes on a 
lower line of latitude the whole year through—when this beautiful law of nature 
is understood, it will be seen that the melting or non-melting of icebergs out in 
the Atlantic ocean, will have little or no effect upon our temperature, not one- 
tenth part as much as the melting of the ice in our ice-carts as they pass along 
the streets, or the melting of the ice in the refrigerators and water coolers of our 
houses. 

Although the sun shines more directly over the equator than over the poles, 
and it is therefore warmer at the equator than at the poles, still the heat of the 
sun is not wholly concentrated there, and it is oftentimes warmer in the temperate 
zones than in the tropics, as discussed in a former paper, ‘‘ Evidence From the 
Weather Map of 1879.” 

The melting of icebergs cools the immediate surrounding water and atmos- 
phere, but its influence, like the melting of the ice in our ice houses, ice carts, 
refrigerators, or water coolers, is purely local. 

In this connection the idea suggests itself that we make a better study of 


PROPHECY OF THE WEATHER. 271 


icebergs than we have heretofore done, and that one or more of our idle navy 
vessels be authorized to follow them, keeping as near them as safety will permit, 
and study them day by day and trace them up until the largest ’berg disappears 
under the heat of southern latitudes. 

Then there is another, though fortunately a smaller class, who make some 
pretensions to scientific wisdom who have notions that the weather of our planet 
must be more or less affected by the relative position of our earth and her sister 
planets in the universe. For this year, these prophets have predicted all sorts of 
commotions in the elements because some four of the principal planets of our 
system come together nearer to the sun than for some eighteen hundred years or 
more. Indeed they are already out with their extravagant claims that (up to 
July) we have already had the fulfillment of the prophecy. 

Now, the weather of this year has not been remarkable for its peculiarity 
thus far. We have hadsome severe storms, but what season do we not have them ? 
They occur more or less frequently every year. This year, thus far, (July,) has 
not been greatly different from the average year. But when this class of prophets. 
have prophesied, like Jonah, they want their prophecies fulfilled even though it 
bring great distress upon the nations. They do not like the mortification of be- 
ing false prophets, or to see their scientific pretensions laughed at by the world. 

Probably the most remarkable sensation as a weather prophet at present, is 
Mr. Henry G. Vennor, of Montreal. The name of this gentleman has been 
very conspicuous in the papers the past season as a weather prophet. Many 
people have faith in him and verily believe that he is reliable, and are willing to 
swear by him and contend that he predicted this and that storm, or spell of hot 
or cold weather. 

When men claim to be prophets we want them to come out with plain and 
unequivocal statements. We want no ‘‘if” or ‘‘and,” or general statements of 
uncertain sound, but the plain statement in black and white, just what will and 
will not occur. 

According to the St. Louis Republican, in a letter dated Montreal, May 18, 
1880, he says: ‘‘I believe that June will be an intensely hot month, and proba- 
bly the first of June will be fall-like, with frost again. July. will be a terrible 
‘month for storms, with terms of intense heat, but another fall-like relapse with 
frosts, will, in all likehood, occur a few days before the twentieth. I fear the 
storms of thunder and hail will be of unusual severity during July. I must 
claim the verification of my prediction relative to a cold wave, with frosts, over 
a large portion of the United States between the roth and 15th of May. The 
relapse toward the close of the present month (May) will be more severe than 
‘that just past.” 

This is probably a fair sample of Mr. Vennor’s predictions. We see that 
they are very general and non-committal as to exact dates and localities. 

Mr. Vennor’s first statement in this short article is that ‘‘ June will be an in- 
tensely hot month” Where will it be hot—in Canada, or North or South of Ma- 


272 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


son and Dixon’s line? It might be very hot in Pennsylvania or even in New York 
state, and yet very cold in Montreal. Over what territory must it be hot or cold 
to fulfill Mr. Vennor’s predictions—in the Atlantic states, out West, or at the 
North or South? He claims the verification of predictions relative to a cold 
wave over the United States between the roth and 15th of May. 

As to the month of Juue, it was not unlike June weather in general, unless 
perhaps a little colder, as a whole. In the vicinity of Washington it was rather a 
cool month, though we had a few very hot days, still not as hot on a whole for 
the season as was the month of May. ‘The greater part of May in this vicinity 
was very hot and oppressive, and that too for a very good reason—and it is never 
hot or cold relatively to the season, without this good reason. 

May roth and 11th it was very warm here. On the 11th, about 4.30 8. M. 
we (in Washington) had a summer shower with thunder and lightning, which las- 
ted about an hour and then became cooler, as it generally does, though not al- 
ways after such a storm. From the rath to the r8thof May it was cool and 
pleasant, very seasonable weather for the time of the year. On the r4th of May 
it might have been intensely cold throughout the United States, East of the Miss- 
issippi but for a rather unusual relative location of the area of high barometer. 
On the 14th of May Zow was on a line with the south-end of Florida, while Azgh 
was to the north of Washington, thereby preventing Mr. Vennor’s prediction fall- 
ing true in force, or at least ameliorating it much. The latter part of May was 
extremely hot notwithstanding Mr. V’s. prediction that we then would have a 
severe relapse. 

July, Mr. Vennor says, will be intensely hot with terrible storms with anoth- 
er fall-like relapse. Now we all know that July is very apt to be hot and there- 
fore to be accompanied with severe storms, and it is not an unusual occurrence 
to have a cold spell or two during the summer and that we are as liable to have it 
in July as in June or August. 

In all these statements Mr. Vennor is no nearer, and gets as far from ne 
mark as any other man who will study the Smithsonian or other reliable reports 
of the weather of the United States from year to year and verture a guess in ac- 
cordance therewith. Jortunately for such prophets, the people, and even the 
people of high mental rank, are still quite ignorant of this weather question. _ It 
js a new subject. Many may disbelieve but at the same time they are unable to 
refute, so are very charitable to pretensions of this kind, coming from what they 
think or regard as commendable authority. 

These changes of weather which Mr. Vennor speaks of never occur without 
a good and sufficient cause—a cause that may readily be understood by any in- 
telligent person who will simply read the weather map—for it is there daily recor- 
ded in legible characters that never deceive. For example, it cannot possibly be 
hot in the nothern part of the United States or Canada, unless there is an area of 
low-barometer in that locality. It cannot be cold throughout the United States 
unless the area of low-barometer is on a low line of latitude. There is an end- 


PROPHECY OF THE WEATHER. 273, 


less variety of changes which the movements of low and high-barometer may 
make—more endless than the strains that could be played upon the ‘‘ harp of a 
thousand strings.” Sometimes by the peculiar location of the area of low bar- 
‘ometer it may be warmer in the extreme north-eastern part of the United States, 
than in Virginia. For example, let the area of low-barometer be located off on 
the Atlantic Ocean and in the immediate vicinity of Calais, Me., as it was some 
two or three years ago this spring. Being on a high line of latitude, it caused the 
warm winds from the South to concentrate there, while it being so far to the East 
of Washington, and reaching down into the ocean, caused a severe West wind 
slightly to the North of West which made Washington one of, if not the coldest 
(recorded) place in the United States and much colder than Calais, Me., notwith- 
standing the fact of lower latitude. 

Now when a cause is so well known, how much better would it be for these 
weather-prophets to say, that on such a date of such a month the area of low- 
barometer will be in such and such a locality—then those who know what ought 
ito follow—what would be the result of such a location of Low, will know just what 
to expect. We will know whether it is to be cold or hot, in New England and 
the North-east generally or in Kansasand Missouri and the North-west. If these 
prophets will only tell us where /ow will be they will far surpass their present 
prophecies and the world, at least the intelligent world, will truly wonder at their 
knowledge of the works and ways of the great mysteries of nature. But until 
they can do this they had better not attempt any more of their present ‘‘ prophe- 
cies,” which are merely guesses which may be equaled by any number of persons 
who will study well the compiled weather reports of the past years and venture 
guesses in accordance therewith. Prophets should be men of superior and not 
inferior knowledge in the department in which they propose to prophesy. For 
Such a course will only make them contemptible in the eyes of the world, when 
it comes to fully understand the cause that effects these matters. 

‘ In reading these comments on the prophecy of the weather, it may be asked 
if there is any method by which we may know or prophesy the weather for any 
great period in advance. For one I do not believe there is any such method, for 
the reason that these changes depend, as repeated over and over again in these 
Papers, that all depends upon the location of low and high-barometer and that 
these relations are ever changing, and the changes seem to be an endless surprise 
that cannot, so far as we know at present, be determined upon, even from one 
change to another, much less of changes that may follow each other, weeks and 
Months in advance. Though if any law in this movement of low and high bar- 
Ometer is ever discovered it will only be by the careful study of the weather as re- 
corded on the weather map. 

This may sometimes be the case, but the Signal office has advanced in its line of 
indications until they have made a record for a year of ninety-five per cent, in ac- 
curacy, and this must be acknowledged is not far from perfection. Why not have 
the indications right every time? Let one become familiar with this subject and 


he will readily see why. 
ie IV—18 
Ei 


274 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


There are many reasons why. ‘There are many people of exacting nature in 
the world, who always want positive statements that such and such zé¢l/ de or wall 
not be the case, and their natures cannot conceive any circumstances but what the 
human mind can control; and when ‘‘ circumstances” is mentioned to them, they 
have no place for the word in their lexicons, and with Napoleon I. when in suc- 
cess, they exclaim, ‘‘I make circumstances;” by and by a Waterloo comes and 
they’see perhaps when too late, that there are circumstances which even the strong- 
est man*cannot control. If in the affairs of men there are ‘‘ circumstances” be- 
yond the control of these strong men, much more are there circumstances in na- 
ture that man must abide by. Nature is endless in her varieties, and man is 
powerless to prevent or at all times even to foretell her exact course. Probably 
nothing better illustrates this than to pour some water down aslightly inclined plane 
and note its course. We know that water will run down hill, but it does not take 
what appears to be the most direct course. We know and can readily predict 
that it will take, if left to itself, a certain general course, but when the practical 
reality takes place, we not only discover that it takes a course of its own, but that 
it passes over certain lines and circumvents spots, even in so small a surface as a 
few yards in length, that it was and would be impossible for human knowledge to 
specify or indicate before-hand. This being the case in nature when confined to 
a few yards square, what must be the effect of an area of low-barometer passing 
over variable territory of more than a hundred miles square. 

The Signal Office can tell the course of all regular storms, but occasionally 
there happens an irregular change, which is analagous to this running of water 
down hill, as seen in the course of almost every river large or small in the world. 

In conclusion, I repeat there is no other reliable process than that of the Sig- 
nal Service system, whereby we may foretell the weather. All other known systems, 
if I may so designate or honor them, whether founded on the conditions of the 
moon, the habits of animals, the relation of the other planets to the planet on 
which we live, or the guess-work founded or unfounded on the weather of pre- 
vious years—all these I hereby pronounce the merest nonsense, if not something 
worse—and that all these things are unworthy of any man who makes any pretense 
to scientific knowledge or claims any standing in advanced society. 


From Kansas City Medical and Surgical Review, No. 5, May,1860: The amount 
of rain which has fallen since the first of January, 1860, is 6.60 inches, a smaller 
amount than has fallen here, in the same length of time, in any year since 1854, 
when there was absolutely no rain from June until October. 

From a clipping of a Kansas City paper, September, 1860: August 21st, 
1860, at the chemical works, Waltham, Mass., the rain gauge showed a fall of| 
5% inches of water in a little over an hour. 


THE BAROMETER. 275 


THE BAROMETER. 


SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN REGARD TO A VARIABLE SCALE OF PRESSURE PER SQUARE 
INCH FOR THE BAROMETER AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS. 


BY C. A. SHAW, U. S. SIGNAL OBSERVER, MADISON, WIS. 


LOCAL SUMMARY FOR JUNE, 1880, MADISON, WIS. 


s Sas BS 
S S SS S aR 8 9 Ss 
DATE. 8 Ss ae Sy Ne 8 
Mey 1. J) | GROG | ESE Ic 01) % nw |Fair. 
Ds 29.992] 60.5 1.20 sw |Cloudy. 
B AOOSS | OPES aio |S Fair. 
ae 29.087 | 65.7 axe se /|Cloudy. 
Eg DO) || (Gas) ||) 1622 S Cloudy. 
6m 29.419 | 59.5 -46 w  |Cloudy. 
a 29.888 | 63.2 w  |Fair. 
om HOO || GMa] ee S Cloudy. 
@ 2 PO HEO) || 9/3069) 57 se |Cloudy. 
2©) ¢ 29.793 | 76.5 se. iianae 
ii 29.850 | 80.0 S Fair. 
12. 29.782 | 79.0 sw |Fair. 
1e) 29.800 | 72.2 47 nw |Fair. 
TAG AQ SW || 53.0 | BaAy ne |Cloudy. 
164 BOLO || GuLe 520) me iaiwe, 
nO) ¢ 30.189 | 68.0 nw (Fair. 
gp BOM Teeter Sen alias 
2113) 30.194| 71.0 sw |Fair. 
1@) CKO TD | Gols n Fair. 
FO aren Mest gy iene Aenea ea 2 OL OQ45 lint OuO. w |Fair. 
OMe ya ecseeatain Wilk ese tele ce elena ZOO IT De 9 sw !Fair. 
BD letkee Maite ai tiene sides oc Ua Mee ON Om Onlin gi ge 2 sw |Fair. 
ZU i aeons er nite Mom ceirem (p2 Ove LOM TOs S Fair. 
BAe siren Nar malmec les cs.) a NMA ZOE p52) 7 ALO IA S Cloudy. 
Ine see Le et ey lal elect mama ZO OA iO .03 w  |Fair. 
OR ie ae tule c nh soca al ee eG)! Sano) | Ick 7 e Fair. 
2am a MOK Ra ath a) a Mabe ME AOROOO) ly 7ile7 si) S Cloudy. 
OSM Mane Cay ais ds yee ZO S70 |, (OG. 5 ial | aay eater 
\ DOR imseanO re ee ahe ns hay EEE 2 OUSOS OG. O .19 we iBenne. 
af OR a ey ts Oa eee E8931 68 17 sw |Fair. 
Msums .. .. 9-31 


' tori eV leami ie es) oi) ea Oo (POO. Olin. le sw. 


276 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


TEMPERATURE, BAROMETER AND WIND. 


: % : MILES WIND. b 
S$ |Bs]es/38 Ssl2elegl’ SS & 
. 28 § S 5 < Barometer— Rising or Falling. : < 5 x . S Re a 
eS) Ss ese s/s SS) Ses 
TeO9) | 50/19 A Sb raot aaa Too| 62] 35! 28iez25ius 
Ze eiziaeaS) |). 59 49| 4/| 43). 74) 22SieS2 
2.) WS 58 Veo aaa 79| 65! 49| 69) 262] 18 
Pe 59 12S 80} 37| 63) 89) 269) 23 
eee 7A [Oy |) al Low 86} 90] 125) 93] 394] 50 
6 | Fay Ge) ut SIR, II5| 140] 116] go| 461) 33 
Ti WFO | Gas 3s) 182] TLS) 36) 22ie oleae” 
SMa 5 On LS 28) 25| 17 4a) sLOul ane 
@) || WO I) Oe || ans Be 67; 89) 78] 69} 303] 19 
ie) ff) ya, | Sbfae || ane eRe 56| 58! 44] 47) 205] 16 
TOT ae. LO BQ| 43\) 29|) saree ee ere 
amon laa | 23 O7|. 45), 58] Sul o2zumeas 
13) |) Wat |) OOO) a 66) 4a) 57) Aolnezmalms 
TAS a 50) | 24 11a 52} 16] 68] 80] 216) 24 
SON 52 || 1S TO2)) OF) 175 7Siesoeiae 
TOM eal 50) a2 anohne 83 40l Ao) 20) -rozimNe 
iON O2 "| To Blan 23) 2 6) 15) 15s ols 
Hoyo: | OA) 14 aR 20|, 20|/— Lol siete 
TOM S38) || (03 | 20 High 19] 24] 18) lee 
Om o4e | Ors: ele7, laa 19/15] 14) 1S OC mes 
21 | 84 | 68 | 16 Hiker | 6) o 
22 | 86 | 68 | 18 40} » 30) 48/9) Ao uG yee 
23)/| 88) |/69 | 19 55; 38) 52] 78 223] 16 
2A eS2|.69° | 13 66} 39] 47] 40] 192] 18 
mis yh || Oy ae? URS. 55) | 44). 28)) 228 |ers psi ies 
BOM O4. | O07, | 17 42) 27922 22) aes 
leon TOS. | 13 ae 19] 2'5| 43) AS eemaigiere 
ome i2) (202 ||) LO He athe 60] 32] dol o8|p2zoimer 
29 | 74 | 59 | 15 RS. 81} 438] 36) 39] 204] 30 
Bem 9):|.5°° | 23 541 33} 24) 32] 143] 12 
Sumaye | va 1845|/1422|1353|1457|0077] . 
M’n|78.4|61.8 16.6] . 61 |\47 || 45 | 40) |2osnuae 


Mean daily barometer, 29.861. Humidity, 71.4. 
Highest barometer, 30.251 (rgth). 

Lowest barometer, 28.986 (6th). 

Monthly range of barometer, 1.265. 

Highest temperature, 87 (11 and r2th). 

Lowest temperature, 50 (1st and r4th). 

Monthly range of temperature, 37. 


THE BAROMETER. 277 


Greatest daily range of temperature, 23 (30th). 

Least daily range of temperature, to (28th). 

Mean of maximum temperature, 78.4. 

Mean of minimum temperature, 61.8. 

Mean daily range of temperature, 16.6. 

Total rainfall or melted snow, 9.31 inches. 

Prevailing winds, southwest. 

Maximum velocity and direction, 50, south (1:15 a. m., 5th). 
Total movement of wind, 6,077 miles. 

Number of cloudy days on which rain fell, 9. 

Number of cloudy days on which no rain fell, o. 

Number of days on which rain or snow fell, 16. 

Rain or snow preceded by wind from southwest, 4 times. 
Rain or snow preceded by wind from south, 3 times. 

Rain or snow preceded bv wind from southeast, 3 times. 
Rain or snow preceded by wind from east, north and west, each once. 
Clear days, 0; fair, 21; cloudy, 9. 

Mean of barometer, corrected for temperature only, 28.938. 


THE BAROMETER. 


During the past month, the steadiness of the barometer was most noticeable. 
From the 16th to the 21st it was almost motionless with the least possible wind 
during that time. Even during the excessive rainfall of the 14th the barometer 
was of nearly normal height, and stationary. But then it is to be noticed that 
the wind was moderate in force and amount, while during the heavy wind storms 
of the fifth and sixth the variation was very great. 

The barometer is a most valuable instrument, but the usual legends affixed, 
of wet and dry, and changeable, are mostly hypothetical. It merely measures the 


pressure of the air at the moment of reading. These, compared with other 


readings, may give data for deducing probable changes, but alone they are ex- 
ceedingly vague. Consider that the amount of rain which fell in this vicinity upon 
the 14th would have made a solid block of ice with a square base the size of the 
park, three feet thick for every mile. What sustained this tremendous weight 
before the storm it is difficult to conceive. If the air rushed in to fill the space 
before occupied by vapor tension, destructive winds might have been expected. 
If the elastic force of the vapor exactly compensated for diminished pressure 
before, while the solid air compensated afterward, this implies two elements © 
whose action upon the barometer are so similar as to make the real cause undis- 
coverable. There is certainly in most cases a great loss of power which, by cal- 
culation, should be expended. 

For example. The force required to sustain a column of mercury 27.97 
inches in height is 14.73 pounds. This is about half a pound per square inch of 
mercury. If during twenty-four hours the barometer should change an inch, 
this would give a total variation in pressure equal to about seventy-two pounds 


278 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


per square foot. The pressure of wind at different velocities is something like 
this: Two pounds per square foot for a velocity of twenty miles per hour, eight 
pounds for forty miles, eighteen pounds for sixty, thirty-two for eighty, ete. Sey- 
enty-two pounds for twenty-four hours would be three pounds per hour, equal to 
about twenty-five miles. Now, although twenty-five miles is accounted a fairly 
strong wind, it cannot be doubted that above the earth and free from obstruc- 
tions, the velocity is greatly above this with a change of barometer of an inch. 
It seems hardly too much to calculate it as three or even four times as great. A 
scale might be constructed something like this: 

Pressure of the wind above a place, free of obstructions, when the barometer 
at the surface was between 

29.00 and 30.00 inches—2 pounds to the square inch. 


28.00 66 29.00 6¢ Sl 5 (a4 66 66 66 
27.00 66 28.00 6é ks 7 (a4 66 66 66 
ZO OOM 27 hOO Vi memi its 3°Ti ti es ne ee 
PSO) 99 ACO 7° —ALEXey 8 ee os ae 
2ANOOM Nn 2 5e OO cat 1 © hwy: BG oe ue 
23.00 66 24.00 66 —-T. 00 66 (74 66 (a3 
22.00 < 23.00 3 —o go 6é aC iG 0G 
ZiT OOM) 2/2 OOM ONO Tl oe G6 6G 
ZONCOM e LOLOO ee Ou] Qin le a se Se euCs 


This may be an exaggerated scale but, the principle seems to be correct. 
That the pressure of an elastic medium like the atmosphere would be very ex- 
cessive in the high regions of the scale and of much diminished power in the 
lower, seems natural to conclude. Imagine how weak the force of the wind that 
corresponded to a pressure of mercury one inch in height, for while one inch of 
mercury weighs as much as another the wind producing power of the air at dif- 
ferent pressures must vary. 

Seemingly opposed to such a scale is the fact that the measure of the wind 
does actually correspond nearly with the barometric change. Take an actual 
case: At 6:00 a. m., June 6th, the barometer read 28.986, equal, we will say, to 
a pressure of 2086.56 pounds per square foot. At 6:00 a. m., June 7th, the 
barometer read 29.882, equal to a pressure of 2151.36 pounds per square foot, a 
difference of 64.8 pounds; about 2.6 pounds to the hour for twenty-four hours, 
about twenty-three miles. Though variable, of course the wind record from 6:00 
a. m., June 6th to 6 a. m., June 7th, was 426 miles or about eighteen miles per 
hour, equal to a pressure of 162, a loss of five miles per hour, though as the wind 
was variable, running up at one time to thirty-eight miles, this loss may be excused 
or laid to natural obstructions at the place of observation. But it will be seen 
by looking at the scale of pressure and velocity that a running up of the force to 
forty or fifty miles quickly exhausts the pressure which the change of an inch im- 
plied. Besides which, this would not explain variations in force which occur at 


different portions of a storm’s progress, while the barometer change remains 
nearly uniform. 


ELECERIC LHECEN TRICILLES: 279 


It may easily be imagined that some compensatory phenomena transpire to 
prevent the very destructive winds which this implies; perhaps by ofposzng pres- 
sure, as, in mechanics, the exhaust of a low pressure engine is made to add to 
its working force. The means of determining vapor tension by the hygrometer 
are imperfect ; but if it is this influence which affects the barometer it shows why 
local observations are so unreliable, for after all, to one dependent upon his own 
weather-glass, the following are about all the rules that have been given to guide 
him. 

1. If, after a continuance of dry weather, the barometer begins to fall 
slowly and steadily, rain will ensue; but if the fine weather has been of long dur- 
ation, the mercury may fall for two or three days before any preceptible change 
takes place, and the more time that elapses before the rain comes the longer the 
wet weather is likely to last. 

2. Conversely with regard to a rising barometer and fair weather. 

3. If the change ensues immediately it will not be permanent. 

4. If, though rising steadily for two days together or more, it rains, yet 
fine weather may be expected; though if it begin to fall upon its appearance, the 
fair weather will not be permanent, and conversely. 

5. Sudden falls of the mercury in spring or autumn, indicate wind; in the 
summer, during hot weather, a thunder storm; in winter, a change of wind with 
a thaw and rain, but in a continued frost, a rise indicates approaching snow. 

The difference in value of these indefinite rules to a system of actual meas- 
urement of atmospheric phenomena, embracing a large extent of the earth’s sur- 
face, can be readily perceived. Yet additional instruments are certainly desired ; 
self-registers, delicate and reliable, and with the barometer, an associated instru- 
ment to define these disturbing elements which compensate, disadvantageously 
for scientific purposes, the actual changes of pressure which we know are contin- 
ually taking place. 


ELECTRIC ECCENTRICITIES. 


Mr. James Johnstone sends to the Zdinburgh Daily Review the following in 
teresting account of the effects of a thunder-storm observed on the 7th ult. He 
says :—‘‘On the 7th ult., about 4:15 p. m. the lightning struck the craig which is 
named on the plan of Edinburgh ‘The Dasses,’ which overhangs the Hunter’s 
Bog on the east. The results are so extraordinary that they are worthy of notice 
in your columns. The rock struck is of the hardest basalt, commonly called 
_ whinstone, The lightning did not strike the sharp, serrated, front edge of the 
craig, as might have been expected; but, on the contrary, it struck the flat top 
covered with sod at a distance of three feet from the present edge, and that must 
have been between six and eight feet from the edge before the accident; for the 
lightning detached several tons of the rock from the front of the craig, and sent 


six large masses of rock down into the Hunter’s Bog. The largest of these meas- 
| ® 


280 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ures four feet long by three feet broad and one foot thick, but of irregular shape. 
On the edge of the craig the lightning detached a mass of rock, which now stands. 
in a very precarious position. This large mass measures four feet nine inches 
long by three feet broad and one foot four inches thick. The top of the craig, a 
short distance from the front of it, is covered with a coating of angular pieces of 
basalt, and on the top of these a covering of sod. It was on the sod the light- 
ning struck, and made a hole two feet six inches long by one foot six inches. 
broad. The largest diameter of the hole is in a direction from N. W. toS. E. 
and the lightning continued its course in this direction, ploughing a furrow in the 
sod for a distance of nineteen yards, the furrow diminishing in width as it receded 
from the original hole, where it measures five inches wide. These facts establish 
the direction in which the lightning came, and correspond with the observations 
of three gentlemen who were in a house on the west side of the Hunter’s Bog, 
and saw the lightning pass across the Bog to the rock on the east side, namely 
from N. W. toS. E. Inthe Z2mes of the 14th of October last, notice was given 
that a committee of scientific gentlemen had been appointed by insurance and. 
other companies to investigate the effects of lightning with a view to providing 
the best means for protecting buildings, and a request was made that all persons 
who could furnish information on this subject would do so. In consequence of 
this notice I wrote a letter to the Zzmes on the 25th of October, containing the 
following information, which it is important persons should know who wish to: 
watch thunder-storms, and give the information asked. There are three kinds of 
thunder-storms. First, those that take place between clouds, the lightning 
flashing from cloud to cloud; second, storms in which the lightning comes from: 
the clouds down to the earth; third,storms in which the lightning passes from the 
earth to the clouds. It is the two latter kinds of thunder-storms which affect the 
question of the protection of buildings. The damage done to them and to trees. 
by lightning varies in a remarkable manner, according to whether the lightning 
went from the earth to the cloud or from the cloud to the earth. 

‘“The lightning which struck the Dasses Craig has an important bearing 
with reference to the protection of buildings from lightning. ‘The common theory 
is that lightning will always be attracted to strike the highest or most prominent 
point in its vicinity. The Dasses Craig is near the bottom of the valley, bounded. 
by Salisbury Craigs on the W. and S., and Arthur’s Seat on the E. High land 
and prominent rocks surrounded this craig on all sides, and yet the lightning 
passed all these and descended into the valley to strike it. 

‘“Another interesting fact. On placing a compass near the hole made by 
the lightning I found that the needle deviated from N. to E., and when the com- 
pass was in the hole, the needle stood at E. S. E., instead of N., proving that 
the rock was still powerfully electrical at the spot where the lightning struck it. 
But, except in the vicinity of the hole, the craig did not affect the needle.”— The 
Telegraphic Journal. 


DR. FTANNER’S FAST. 28E: 


THE METEORIC SHOWER OF AUGUST 18, 1880. 
PROF. S. A. MAXWELL, MORRISON, ILL. 


On the night of the roth of August the earth in its orbital revolution passed’ 
through the ‘‘ meteoric zone.” Observers throughout the country were on the 
lookout, and when twilight came had everything ready for conveniently noting 
each phase of the anticipated phenomena. From personal observations of this. 
and several other meteoric showers of corresponding date, I am prepared to say 
this was one of the most interesting that has occured for several years. From: 
9.30 until 10.00 P. M., the number of meteors, according to the best estimate I 
could make, was six per minute. 

For a time after ten o’clock the numbers preceptibly diminished and near 
midnight again became more numerous. I regret that I could not observe this 
interesting phenomenon after midnight, for without doubt the finest part of the 
display took place at that time. 

In point of numbers, the display of 1880 as I observed it was not inferior to: 
that of 1875; but in brilliancy it fell far below it. The larger number of meteors. 
on this occasion, seemed to be in the direction of Ursa Major. I saw nothing 
unusual in regard to their apparent velocity or the direction of their flight. Very 
few of them were either marked by any red color or left any visible train of light. 

Quite a large number of meteors were visible on the evening of the 11th, 
also on the gth, some of which surpassed in brilliancy any that appeared on the: 
night of the roth. 

I have neither the ability nor the disposition to enter into any speculations. 
concerning these erratic bodies. Although much has been learned and satisfac- 
torily explained regarding their composition, a definite knowledge of their origin. 
has not yet been obtained. 


evel CSL OIG SG, 


IDR TAIN INI BIR SS ave 
(CONCLUDED. ) 


In our last number we gave the details of Dr. Tanner’s fast up to the thirty- - 
second day, at which time he had lost 30% pounds in weight, but was in other 
respects in fairly normal condition. During the remaining eight days his condi- 
tion, in brief, was as follows; Thirty-third day—weight 12614, pulse 78, tem- 
 peratue 99°, respiration 91% ; thirty-fourth day—weight 126%, pulse 78, temper- 
ature 9914°, respiration 14; thirty-fifth day—weight 126, pulse 78, temperature 
_ 98°, respiration 14; thirty-sixth day—weight 126, pulse 74, temperature 98°, respi- 


282 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ration 14; thirty-seventh day—weight 12514, pulse 74, temperature 983°, res- 
piration 14; thirty-eighth day—weight 123%, pulse 78, temperature 99°, 
respiration 15; thirty-ninth day—weight 12214, pulse 91, temperature 97°, res- 
piration 13; fortieth day—weight 122, pulse 92, temperature 99°, respiration 17. 

Thus terminated one of the most complete and satisfactory tests of human 
endurance ever witnessed, for though many cases have been reported in which 
abstinence from food has been protracted even beyond this, still there have been 
in none of them so strict a watch kept or so accurate tests made. As has b-en said 
by a well known writer: ‘‘The question of fasting is one of physiology. It is 
best explained by an examination into the nature of those animals that indulge in 
hibernation, as it is termed, almost, as it would seem, by instinct. The term 
means ‘ wintering,’ but hibernation is practiced by certain creatures as much in 
summer as in winter. It would appear to be a plan devised by nature to enable 
animals that cannot change their oca/e readily with the changing seasons, to exist 
without food during the periods unpropitious to their obtaining it. Bears, bats, 
hedgehogs, the dormouse, water rats and certain insects are all addicted to this 
practice, but not alone in winter. The bat hibernates once every twenty-four 
hours, exhibiting all the customary phenomena of the condition. Not to be too 
scientific, it may be said that these include respiration and augmented irritability 
as attendant factors. Birds have high respiration and little irritability; reptiles are 
the reverse in this. In structural changes—as from the egg to the bird, the tad- 
pole to the batrachian and the larva to the chrysalis and insect—respiration is aug- 
mented; in physiological changes, as in sleep and hibernation, it is lessened. 

In winter the swallow and bat migrate to warm regions, while the insects— 
their natural prey—sink into a deep sleep through the season of cold and famine. 
With those animals that hibernate the question of fasting is necessarily involved 
with that of sleep. Yet there have been instances in which the latter condition 
was not certainly prominent. The capacity for existing without food would ap- 
pear to depend on the ability of the heart to carry on the circulation of the blood 
without regard to the arteries. The blood in that case is venous and not oxygen- 
ated. In hibernation disintegration and waste of the tissues progress very slowly, 
and the animal is enabled to live on the slow consumption of its own tissues. 
Bears that come out after hibernation are found to be wasted greatly from this 
cause, and it is considered a positive evidence against the faster in cases of long 
abstinence from food being pretended, if he do not display this waste of his su- 
perabundant fat. It is, therefore, obvious that this condition of inactivity and 
that of a high temperature are of advantage to the voluntary faster. The con- 
sumption of tissue goes on less rapidly under those circumstances, and he is ena- 
bled to utilize the waste for the sustenance of his own life.” 

The period of forty days seems to have been regarded in Biblical times as 
within the possibilities, although evidently far beyond any custom or requirement 
of the Mosaic law. Moses, on Mt. Sinai, and after his descent therefrom, Elijah 
on Mt. Horeb, Jesus in the Wilderness, are marked instances of fasts of this du- 


DR TANNELRAS BAST. 283 


ration. In modern times numerous cases are on record where religious enthusiasts 
have imitated the example of those sacred personages, but success has been rare. 

The experience of physiologists, derived from the most careful and accurate 
experiments carried on for centuries by the most scientific men of succeeding pe- 
riods, proves beyond question that the average man cannot live without food more 
than about ten days, and those persons and those editors of newspapers who 
think and say that this feat of Dr. Tanner’s upsets the theories and reverses the 
teachings of physiologists and medical men, merely show their ignorance of the 
amount of labor, time and skill bestowed upon by such men their researches. 

To the question cuz bono? so often propounded during Dr. Tanner’s fast, 
there have been many answers offered, the principal of which amount to this: 
ist, We all eat and drink too much; znd, Fasting may be employed as a thera- 
peutic agent. To the first of these it may be replied that to eat too little is at 
least as direct a violation of the laws of nature as to eat too much, and to the 
second it may be said that from the days of Esculapius until now, the best physi- 
cians have prescribed fasting in all diseases or injuries of the stomach or intestines, 
as well as in many other diseases of an inflammatory character. 

Among the best articles that we have seen on this subject is one in the Sczen- 
tific American, which we copy: 

‘‘That his experiment is not altogether useless, as is maintained by some, we 
will try to elucidate, notwithstanding we agree that the sacrifice and danger he 
exposes himself to appear so great that it is doubtful if they will be compensated 
for by the physiological and pathological lessons to be learned by it. 

His fast has, in the first place, proved the mistake of those who judged all 
men alike, and reasoned that, because a weak, hysteric, and ill fed girl of 18, 
perhaps consumptive besides, died within two weeks from starvation, as soon as 
she was carefully-watched, therefore nobody could be without food for a period 
of forty days, forgetting that the case is quite different where we have a man of 
between 4o and 50, the age of maximum resistance, a man well fed, of whom the 
weight is far above the average for his size, and who was provided with a copious 
layer of adipose tissue around his body, a man who had practiced fasting for 
Sanitary purposes, finding it the best way for him to cure gastric derangements, 
for which he had a liability, and who had gradually increased the time of fasting 
until, at his last fast in Minneapolis, he had extended it to forty-two days. This 
was not believed, and deception suspected, hence a challenge of $1,000 if he 
succeeded when carefully watched. Dr. Tanner accepted, but the challenger 
backed out under some pretext, and Dr. Tanner, to save his reputation and prove 
his theory, came on and submitted for nothing to the task under the eye of care- 
ful watchers. 

It must be conceded that few persons would possess such a strong will and 
determination to persist in subduing all appetite, and disregard the no doubt 

exceedingly disagreeable and perhaps distressing feelings consequent to total 
abstinence from food; but Dr. Tanner possesses this determination in the highest 


rl 


284 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


degree, and he never thought of cutting the fast short, whatever may sometimes 
have been the opinion of his watchers. 

In order to’ understand what may be learned from this experiment we will, 
for the benefit of the non-professional reader, remind him of a few physiological 
principles. 

The chemical constituents of the human body have to be constantly renewed, 
and the waste has to be supplied by the food. Some of these constituents are 
wasted rapidly, others slowly, and in case of starvation the elements rapidly 
wasting away must be present in the body in sufficient quantity to keep the func- 
tions of life in operation. These rapidly wasting constituents may be divided into 
three classes, those in which carbon prevails, those in which nitrogen, and those 
in which phosphorus is the prevailing element. 

The carbonaceous compounds are wasted in keeping up the animal heat. 
This is accomplished by a slow combustion, that is, a combination of the carbon 
with the atmospheric oxygen, which is continually going on in the capillaries 
through the whole body, the oxygen being furnished by the blood, which absorbs 
it into the lungs, and which by thearteries is sent throagh the body. The product 
of this combustion, the carbonic acid, still absorbed in the blood, is by the veins 
sent to the lungs, where it is given off and escapes in the act of respiration. 
After having stripped Dr. Tanner, when he commenced his fast, for the double 
purpose of ascertaining his physical condition and leave no doubt that he had no 
food about him, it was seen that he had plenty of fat in and around his body to 
furnish carbon enough to last him more than forty days. 

The second element of rapid consumption is nitro,en; it proceeds from the 
waste of the muscular tissue, which is always going on, even during sleep, as the 
heart is a muscle continually contracting, and respiration is kept up by muscular 
action. The blood takes up this waste in the form of a compound, of which the 
chemical name is cyanate of ammonia, but which by physiologists is called urea. 
It is the function of the kidneys to secrete this from the blood, and numerous 
experiments have settled the nature and amount of this secretion, which in healthy 
persons consuming food, varies from 25 to 35 grammes every twenty-four hours. 
When Dr. Tanner began his fast it was secreted at the rate of 29 grammes, and 
as the nitrogen in any excess of nutrition is similarly changed and secreted, it 
was expected that a large reduction would be observed as soon as the fast began 
to have effect on the system. This expectation was realized, and the amount 
soon fell off to 23, 20, 17, 16 and finally 13 grammes, at which it remained sta- 
tionary, with slight oscillations beyond. ‘This amount of nitrogenous substance 
represents, therefore, the waste necessary to sustain the functions of life, and 
would at once be increased in case food was taken by the experimenter, at least 
nitrogenized food, such as beef extract or its equivalent, albumen, casein, milk, 
etc., the only substances which would be of benefit to him. Analytical chem- 
istry, therefore, acts here as a reliable detective, and to the credit of all concerned 
it must be said that never the least suspicious increase of urea was observed, it 


DR. TANNER'S FAST. 285 


remaining very nearly constant, and will no doubt become double and more as 
soon as after the fast food is again taken. 

The third element of rapid waste is the phosphorus; it proceeds chiefly from 
the waste of the brain and nervous tissues. It is so important in these functions 
that a great German chemist has formulated the expression, ‘‘ without phosphorus, 
no thought.”” Every mental act and every nervous excitement is accomplished 
by a consumption of phosphorus, which, combined with different bases in the 
body, especially soda, magnesia, and lime, is secreted by the kidneys as a soluble 
salt, not only easily detected as crystals by the microscope in the sediment, but 
even an approximate estimate may be had of its reduction or increase by the 
number of crystals seen in the field under the same circumstances. 

This third element did not at first show any reduction in quantity, but, to 
the contrary, fora few days some increase. It was at the occasion that Dr. 
Tanner had been unjustly accused by a physician present that he had surrepti- 
tiously accepted food from one of the watchers; this appears to have preyed upon 
his mind. Attention was therefore called to the danger in this direction, a dan- 
ger proceeding from the more rapid waste of the nervous system. Relaxation 
was therefore devised, and daily carriage rides, which eased his mind and were 
followed by a more sound sleep, soon reduced the phosphates secreted, and at 
the same time reduced the irritability and temper of the experimentor. 

The observation tallies perfectly with what has been observed in the case of 
such clergymen who have every week the periodical labor of preparing and 
delivering two sermons on Sunday. Chemical analysis has proved that at that 
time they secrete more phosphates than in the middle part of the week, after the 
test of Monday and Tuesday. 

Looking the whole case over, including the feasting as well as the fasting, we 
are inclined to regard the Doctor’s individual stomach as the most remarkable 
organ on record. ‘That he could, by mere force of will, compel it to do without 
food for forty days, is, in our judgment, far less remarkable than that he could, at the 
end of that time, when it had, ostensibly, become so sensitive as not to be able 
to endure even a few spoonfuls of water, with impunity stuff it with an incon- 
gruous and incompatible mass of milk, watermelon, peaches, oysters, bananas, 
beef, etc., etc., and that, too, without a sign of resentment from it. 

The principal lessons, if any, to be learned from this feat are, that occasional men 
can do like the prophet Elijah, who, before his fast on Horeb, ‘‘ did eat and drink, 
and went in the strength of that meat forty daysand forty nights ;” z. e., they can fill 
up like sponges and live upon their own gradual waste, like bears and ground- 
hogs, or like an old log slowly rotting in a forest; that some men have a vast 
‘deal more control of their wills than others; and finally, that some men have 
stomachs and absorbents that can withstand treatment which would prove fatal to 
‘most human beings. Taking this view of the case, it is very clear that had Dr. 
‘Tanner remained quiet, instead of taking his walks and rides, he could have easily 
have extended his fast for another ten days by living on the tissues wasted by this 


it 
Ne 


Mnuscular action. 
HA 


286 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


EXPERIMENTS IN ABSTINENCE FROM FLUIDS. 
PROF. E. T. NELSON, OHIO WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY. 


Dr. Tanner has well-earned the title of the ‘‘ Fast-Male,” by his remarkable 
experiment and its successful termination. As illustrating the power of the will 
over the physical nature of man, the experiment is the most important ever re- 
corded. The Doctor seems to have gained nourishment as well as consolation 
from a sip of ice water. 

The details of an experiment of an exactly opposite character may not be 
without interest. In 1878 Mr. Charles King, a student of this university, had 
his attention called to the subject of water as an article of diet and to the writings 
of our leading physiologists on this subject. He found Dalton saying, ‘* Water 
is probably the most important substance to be supplied with constancy and reg- 
ularity, and the system suffers more rapidly when entirely deprived of fluids than 
when the supply of solid food only is withdrawn.” 

Flint claims, ‘‘ the body only requires not less than three pints of water to 
two and a half pounds of meat, bread and other solid food daily~” 

Mr. King resolved to avoid the use of all fluids in his diet in order to test 
the effect upon his system. The experiment began on the first day of September. 
The weather was very warm and sultry. ‘The diet consisted of bread with a 
little butter, meat and potatoes, but no tea, coffee, milk, water, gravy or other 
fluid. His appetite, only moderate at first, increased regularly during the whole 
time of the experiment. His pulse was low but very regular, and the general 
tone of the system good. At the end of thirty days he gave up the investigation 
because informed by his friends and physicians that it must prove injurious. 
During the first week in October he drank very moderately of water, consuming 
during the seven days exactly one quart. He then resumed his experiment for 
another thirty days, only under a more complete supervision of his diet, so as to 
avoid the use of any article that contained much water. During this month he 
took no fruit, nor vegetables of any kind except potatoes. No special change in 
his symptoms or feelings was observed during the second experiment. After — 
the first few days all sensation of thirst disappeared, and as Mr. King expressed 
it, ‘¢ I never felt better in my life.” 

During the whole period of two months he took much exercise and was a 
close faithful student. It should be stated that just before entering upon these 
investigations Mr. King had used milk and water very freely, perhaps to the 
extent of two quarts per day. 

August 7, 1880. 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR SEPTEMBER, 1880. 287 


NS ROU IMIN, 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR SEPTEMBER, 1880. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY. 


Mercury, during this month, is in an unfavorable position for observation, 
except in the beginning, when it may be seen before sunrise in the morning.. It 
rises on the rst at 4 hours and 18 minutes a. m., Kansas City mean time; sets on 
the 30th at 6 hours 4 minutes p. m., and is in superior conjunction with the sun 
on the 17th 3 hours a. m. 

Venus may be seen in the evening twilight during the entire month. It 
sets on the 1st at 7 hours and .o5 minutes p. m., 30th at 6 hours 33 minutes p. 
m. On the 7th it is in close conjunction with Mars, being only 31 minutes of arc 
north of that planet (or about the diameter of the moon). 

Mars being too near the sun and nearly at its maximum distance from the 
earth shows to a poor advantage. It sets on the 1st at 7 hours 11 minutes p.m., 
on the 30th at 6 hours oo minutes p. m., and is in close conjunction with Mer- 
cury on the 28th; distance 6 minutes of arc north. 

Jupiter, together with its four moons, forms a superb object for the telescope 
during this month, rising as follows: On the ist at 8 hours and 4 minutes p. m., 
on the 30th at 6 hours and 5 minutes p. m. 

The moons, as they course round the primary in their orbits, present some 
interesting phenomena, of which the following are the most important to be 
observed at Kansas City. On the evening of the 3d at 10 hours and 34 minutes, 
the 3d satellite may be seen to emerge from behind the body of Jupiter or re-ap- 
pear after occultation. 

On the 5th at 11 hours 27 minutes p. m. the 2d satellite may be seen to 
enter on the planets’ disk, preceded by its shadow, 1 hour and 36 minutes, both 
of which can be seen on the disk of the planet at the same time. 

On the 7th at oo hours 28 minutes 11 seconds a. m. the rst satellite will 
suddenly disappear by entering the shadow of Jupiter, and will reappear, coming 
from behind the planet at 3 hours 24 minutes a. m. 

The same occurs again on the 8th, the reappearance being at 9 hours and 50. 
minutes p. m. 

On the roth the 3d satellite enters the shadow of Jupiter and disappears at 
9 hours co minutes 32 seconds p. m., and reappears at 11 hours 28 minutes 51 
seconds p. m., and remains visible 23 minutes and disappears behind the planet’s. 
disk for more than two hours. 

On the 12th the 2d satellite again makes a transit together with its shadow 


288 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


as on the 5th. On the morning of the 14th the 1st is again eclipsed. And on 
the evening of the 14th the 2d satellite reappears after occultation, at 11 hours, 
II minutes. 

On the 15th, 8 hours, 51 minutes, 32 seconds, the rst satellite is eclipsed as 
on the 7th. Similar phenomena to the above happens on the 16th, 17th, 19th, 
2zst, 23d, 28th, 29th and 30th. 

Saturn forms another imposing object for examination this month. Rising 
as follows: On the 1st, at 8 hours, 36 minutes, p. m.; on the 30th, 6 hour, 36 
minutes, p. m. ‘The southern surface of its rings being now presented to the 
earth, we look down, as it were, from an elevation of 15 degrees above the 
plane of the rings. 

Uranus is badly situated for observation, being in conjunction with the sun; 
it rises on the 1st with the sun; on the 30th at 3 hours 47 minutes, a. m. 

Neptune rises on the 1st, 9 hours, 15 minutes, p. m., and on the 30th at 7 
hours, 19 minutes, p. m., and is nearly at its maximum brightness, but needs only 
be looked for with a telescope. 

Our Moon is in conjunction with Mercury on the 3d, Uranus and the sun on 
the 4th, Venus and Mars on the 5th, and passes 6 degrees, 57 minutes north of 
Jupiter on the morning of the 20th, 3 hours, 6 minutes, and reaches Saturn 11 
hours, 17 minutes in the evening of the same day, passing to the north 7 degrees, 
41 minutes, and on the morning of the 21st at 4 hours, 34 minutes. Neptune lies 
to the south 5 degrees, 43 minutes of arc. 


A NEW PLANETARIUM. 


The old-fashioned orreries, which were constructed to show the arrangement 
of the solar system and the motions of the planets around the sun, were some- 
what rude in their mechanism, and were apt to mislead from the conspicuousness 
of the rods and wires by which the astronomical movements were imitated. 

Signor N. Perini, an Italian long domiciled in London, and whose name is 
well-known as a successful teacher for the civil service and the army, has invented 
a new planetarium which is free from most of the defects of its predecessors. 

A high circular chamber or box, standing on twelve wooden pillars, is 
erected in the midst of an ordinary-sized room, with a ceiling higher than usual. 
On entering underneath this chamber, and looking up, a dome is seen, deep 
blue, and sprinkled with stars. The chief northern constellations are in their 
proper places, and round the base of the dome are the names of the signs of the 
zodiac. 

Suspended from the top of the dome by a narrow tube is an opal globe, lit 
inside with gas, and representing the sun. From wires almost invisible the 
planets are suspended around the sun, of sizes and at distances approximately 
proportionate to the real sizes and distances, and each having the proper inclina- 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 289 


tion to the plane of its orbit. The various moons are in their places, and Saturn 
has his rings. 

Thus far, however, all these miniature celestial bodies have been in a state 
of quiescence. Presently Signor Perini, by simply turning a key, sets the solar 
system in motion, slowly or swiftly, as he pleases. The sun turns on his axis, 
and the planets revolve around the sun in proper elliptical orbits, which are 
traced around the inside of the dome, which is 14 feet in diameter at its base 
and 14 feet high. By an ingenious watch-work arrangement inside the earth, 
which is the size of a walnut, our world is made to revolve on its axis, which 
latter always points to the same quarter of the heaven. In like manner the moon 
goes round the earth. 

The machinery is arranged in the chamber above the dome, clock-work 
being the motive power, the originality in the arrangement being the method by 
which the inventor effects the elliptical motion of the planets. Not a sound is 
heard ; the machinery works, like its great prototype, in solemn silence. 

Signor Perini, who has been prompted to this work solely from the enthusi- 
asm of a mechanician, has devoted his nights and mornings to this structure for 
seven years, and has spent on it about £700. The earth alone cost £40. The 
planetarium can be made of any size, from the dome of St. Paul’s to a little 
thing that might be used for school instruction. It is now standing at 77 New- 
man Street, Oxford Street.—London Graphic. 


ChE ONL 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 
BY THE LATE PROF. B. F. MUDGE. 
CHAPTER VI.—ARTICULATES. 


‘CRUSTACEANS. —TRILOBITES. —DEFECTIVE RECORDS. 


: The fourth sub-kingdom of animated nature, the Articulates, appears with 
the first fossils of the lower sub-kingdoms, at the opening of the Silurian Age. 

By the symmetrical laws of evolution, these should have made their appearance 
only after time had allowed them to become developed from the lower sub-king- 
-doms. It is also not a little remarkable that with the first evidence of any of 
_ this division we find distinct traces of a class of animals whose bodies had no 
solid substance. The trails of worms (Annelids) with casts of their burrows re- 
main to show their existence, and 185 different species have been described from 
the Silurians. ‘Their existence affords us another significant fact, that animal life 


however soft or frail, may show its character, even from the oldest geological 
Iv—19 


290 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


strata. It tells us that we have a right to expect, in some way, the trace of any 
class of animals that has been an inhabitant of our planet. 

Ostracoids appeared with the worms, and with their minute, frail shells have 
existed through all geological periods. 

Let us now examine a single form of Crustacean through a long geological 
period, and see the progress or want of progress, which it may make in the scale 
of being. Taking one of the earliest and most common, in species and individ- 
uals and most widely disseminated, we will examine its history. ‘This is the 
Trilobite. It is seen in all the twelve distinct regions of the Silurian, represented 
by hundreds of thousands of well preserved specimens. It is found in the lowest 
beds of the Cambrian and abounds till the close of the Permian. There are 
about two thousand known species, but all are characterized by three lobes in 
the body—a buckler, also divided into three lobes and compound eyes. ‘They 
are equally well characterized by an absence of any /osstlzed organs of locomo- 
tion, though from their known relations to other Crustaceans they must have had 
them. 

These traits they retain in all the varied species throughout their long geo- 
logical life, ending with the highest strata of the carboniferous age; or covering 
nearly three fourths of the whole of the earth’s geological history. 

The Trilobites are not the lowest of Crustaceans, but of ‘‘ highly complex and 
specialized types, and remote from the embryonic stages of the group to which 
they belong.”** They border on the Tetradecapods or middle rank of the sub- 
kingdom, but in all this long period of existence they never became Tetradeca- 
pods, or, in short, anything but Trilobites. There was time enough, and change 
in the earth’s condition sufficient to have shown evolution, if it had been a law 
of nature. The Trilobites, according to Dana’s time ratios then existed 37, 500,- 
000 years without losing their characteristic forms. 

It is a cardinal principle of evolution that ‘‘the use of an organ developes 
it.’} The Trilobites in common with all other Crustaceans must have had organs 
of locomotion, and some faint impressions on sand are supposed to have 
been made by their feet; but these organs were so thin or foliaceous that they 
have never been found fossilized, and this, too, at a time when rain-drops were 
imprinted on the rocks, and are seen to-day so delicately outlined that even the 
direction of the wind is known that attended the shower. Now if use of legs 
develops them, surely during 37,000,000 of years or as many generations, they 
should have become sufficiently firm to have left their shelly structure, or at least 
the impress of their feet beside the rain-drops. 

The arm of the blacksmith is indeed stronger for its use, but a life-long 
hammering adds no new muscle to it, and leaves so slight a mark on the bone 
that the anatomist cannot enter the catecombs and select a humerus, and say, ‘‘This 
is from a blacksmith,”’ even though, as in Europe, father and son for many gen- 
erations follow that employment. 


*Dawson. 
;Thomsson. 


GEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION. 291 


It is claimed that the later Trilobites are somewhat more highly organized 
than the earlier; but Barrande on the other hand says, that those of the first or 
oldest Trilobite fauna, of the Silurian, rank above those of the second or more 
recent fauna. No proof exists, according to the same authority, that one genus 
has been derived from another. 

Against this strong array of geological facts, which we have given in the 
preceding pages, so adverse to the doctrine of evolution, it is urged and objected 
that the geological record is exceedingly imperfect, and if no fossils were missing 
we should have evolution in all its phases. That this record, as we now know 
it is opposed to their theories, Prof. Darwin and _ his associates freely admit. 
He candidly says: ‘‘ But I do not pretend that I should ever have suspected 
how poor was the record in the best preserved geological sections, had not the 
absence of innumerable transitional links between the species which lived at the 
commencement and close of each formation, pressed so hardly on my theory.”t 
We admire the free, frank honesty of Prof. Darwin, that in his estimation, the 
strongest proof of the defectiveness of the record, consists in the fact that it 
does not agree with, but is antagonistic to his theory. If it isso defective, should 
not evolutionists and anti-evolutionists both wait till a better knowledge of these 
records shall be obtained from the rocks of the unexplored portions of the earth ? 
If we had supposed this record were as deficient as Prof. Darwin concludes, we 
certainly should not have written this brief essay, endeavoring to show that its 
facts did not accord with evolution. 

But is the record of the rocks so deficient? We have now 50,000 known 
and described species of fossils, Deducting the plants (6,000) and the articulates, 
and we have about 40,000, representing the four sub-kingdoms of Protozoans, 
Radiates, Mollusks and Vertebrates. Agassiz,“ a few years ago estimated the 
living representatives of these four sub-kingdoms at 45,000, of which less than 
30,000 had been described. Here, then, we have a fossil representation of 
species even larger than the living which have been described. But as there 
were, during the long geological ages, many more species than those living at 
any single period, we may estimate the total extinct of these four sub-kingdoms 
at 200,000, or at most 300,000 species. Are not the 40,000 species, scattered 
from the Archeean to the recent, likely to give us a fair representation of the 
varied life which covered that whole lapse of time? Does not our knowledge of 
the living fauna teach the same fact? We certainly had a correct knowledge oi 
the zodlogical features of South America when our naturalists had described 

_ one-tenth of its fauna. The first explorers of Australia reported a fair synopsis 
_ of the peculiarities of the zodlogy of that region, ere they had penetrated fifty 
miles from the sea coasts. 

: So, while we have a meager list of the animal life of the carboniferous age, 
no one doubts that we possess a correct idea of its peculiar fauna. A perfect 
list of all its mollusks, insects and reptiles would not be likely to enlarge our 


ftOrigin of Species, Chap. X, p. 282, Amer. Ed. 
*Principles of Zoology, p. 27, Edition of 1871. 


292 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


knowledge of the true feature of the animals, which pervaded its oceans, 
swamps and forests. We have probably a small list of its plants, but no one 
supposed that dicotyledons flourished in that era. The labors of the past thirty 
years have tended to push back in geological strata some forms, but has not 
shown a change of type. Reptiles are now known to be older than when our 
list was half as numerous, but the forms are no lower. The pines are now 
gathered from the upper Silurian, when not long ago we had found them no lower 
than the Upper Devonian. But the normal trunk, fruit and cell form do not 
differ from the two horizons. 

While in every locality some breaks are found in the geological deposits, 
yet the missing portions, to a very great extent, are seen in other countries. In 
Russia there is a blank between the upper Carboniferous and Permian, but in 
Kansas and Nebraska no such imperfection occurs, and the fossils pass from the 
lower of the one to the higher strata of the other. The great divisions of the 
geological formations in Europe are not tne same as those in America. ‘The 
three epochs of the Tertiary in the former, become four in the latter, thus help- 
ing the defective record. Some of the American are fresh water deposits, 
synchronous with those of the salt water of Europe. According to Cope and 
Hayden, there is an unbroken continuation of the deposits of the Cretaceous 
and Tertiary ages, ‘‘establishing an uninterrupted succession of life across what 
is generally regarded as one of the greatest breaks of geologic time.” * * * 
Types of lizards and tortoises continue, like the crocodiles, from the Mesozoic to 
Tertiary time without extraordinary modification of structure.” 

But this ‘‘ uninterrupted succession of life,” connecting these two ages, 
covers the spot where we should find the missing links, which should, according 
to the theory of evolution, show the ancestry of all our extremely diversified 
mamal life of the early Eocene; yet, not a trace of any has been found. ‘The 
great variety from Lemur to Marsupial, in the latter formation, demanded nearly 
as much variance of form in the connecting deposits, and thence shading back- 
ward to the primitive type as low as the Ornithorynchus. 

Those who contend that our mammals are derived from a more simple 
quadruped should produce the facts which show it. Should true mammals or a 
high connecting form of marsupials be hereafter discovered below the Eocene 
it will then be soon enough to consider what theory they will sustain. We 
apprehend that they will be more likely to show forms as diverse from each 
other as the members of the Tertiary fanna. 

The Wealden epoch in England and similar deposits in the ‘‘ Foot-Hills” of 
Colorado very nearly cover the chasm which exists in other parts of the world 
between the Jurassic and Cretaceous. ‘Thus we have a continuous succession of 
land through that portion of the earth’s history in which are the records of all 
the highest members of the animal and vegetable world. 

Our American fourteen divisions of the Silurian and nine of the Devonian 


U.S. Geological Survey of Colorado, 1873, p. 442, Hayden. 


THE LOESS OF THE WESTERN PLAINS. 293 


do not cover the exact divisions of those formations in the old world, as given by 
Lyell. Even in the United States, what is wanting in one section, is, in part, 
supplied in another. 

Had not the 10,000 species described from the Silurian failed to show the 
missing links to sustain the theory of Prof. Darwin, neither he nor any of his 
followers would have supposed that they were not a fair and full representation 
of all the types that existed in that geological age. Nearly 1,000 species of 
plants are known from the Carboniferous, and there is no probability that any 
new type of vegetation will be foundin it. With all the numerous and extremely 
diversified genera and species of reptiles from the Mesozoic, more varied than 
all the living, does any one expect that a more perfect list will change the char- 
acteristic feature of the age of reptiles? Ifthe reader will look at tables one 
and two, page 19, or tables eleven and twelve, page 60, he will see the extreme 
difference between theory and known fact. The most sanguine evolutionist and 
most earnest pleader in favor of the imperfection of the geological records must 
admit that there can be little if any possibility that nature has made so imperfect 
a record of her doings as to leave us a history so entirely different from her true 
operations. The discrepancy is too broad and too deep to admit a probability 
that all the fossils showing evolution have been destroyed, while such a large 
number, covering the same periods, have been preserved as a record against it. 


THE LOESS OF THE WESTERN PLAINS—SUBAERIAL OR 
SUBAQUEOUS? 


BY A. L. CHILD, M. D., PLATTESMOUTH, NEB. 


The geologists of the day are divided in opinion as to the method of deposit, 
of the Loess formation of the western plains. From the earlier observations of 
this formation by geologists till quite recently, the idea seemed generally, at 
least tacitly, to prevail, that like the large portions of the earth’s crust, it was de- 
posited under water, or was subaqueous in its formation. 

Nevertheless it was frequently noticed and recorded, that wherever the form- 
ation was exposed the evidences of stratification were very obscure, if not entirely 


i wanting. a 


The position taken by Baron Richthofen, that it was a product of the winds 
brought in from surrounding lands, or of subaerial formation, induced more active 
thought and inquiry on the subject. 

Positive evidence of stratification, although earnestly sought for, eluded ob- 
servation; and yet a deposit of the depth of the Loess from 150 to 200 feet, or in 
fact of any depth, distributed over such an immense surface, so nearly approach- 


_ ing a water level, indicated no hitherto observed or known action of wind. 


i 


( 


In the great cutting for an approach to the west end of the C., B. & Q. R. 
_R. bridge, over the Missouri, at Plattesmouth, this question is most conclusively 


294 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


solved. This cut, of upward of 2,000 yards in length and ranging from ten to 
ninety feet in depth, is entirely in the Loess formation. A portion of the excava- 
tion was made during the months of November and December of 1879, under 
very unusual circumstances. It was very dry, and yet there was a succession of 
a number of long mist-like rains. And during this period of these rainfalls there 
was hardly any perceptible wind. 

The rainfalls were simply sufficient to moisten the smooth sides of the cut, 
without any wash, or disintegration of the surface. The result was an oxydized 
effloresence of minerals unequally distributed, at different horizons. This oxyda- 
tion produced distinct color lines, clearly revealing stratified deposits of from 
three to twenty inches in depth. 

Subsequent heavier rains, with winds, largely mixed and removed these 
colors ; yet some still remain quite distinct after an exposure of from three to six 
months. 

Since reaching the grade level (some sixty days), several rather severe storms 
have fallen. The line of the cut, somewhat tortuous, offers faces, on the one 
side or the other, to any and all points of the compass. And those portions of the 
walls which have been subjected to a certain kind and amonnt ef wear from these 
storms, exhibit clear and distinct lines of stratification; their lines of softer mate- 
rial being removed from between the different strata of from three to fifteen inches 
in depth. 

Portions which have exhibited these lines clearly, are now by further action 
so far broken down and disintegrated that they yield no evidence of stratification, 
thus exhibiting the method by which all lines in exposure of this formation have 
been obscured. Many of these strata, under the peculiar action of the storms, 
are again subdivided into deeply cleft paper-like thicknesses. 

Near the east end of the cut is a very interesting exhibition of the debris of 
an ancient iceberg. This debris so far as exposed (the cut passing through one 
side of it), is in a conical heap of ten feet in height, and about eighty feet in 
diameter. The material is of such a diversified character as could only be obtained 
by a very long travel as a glacier, till it reached the shores of the great lake which 
then covered these Loess plains; into which it fell, after the manner now fre- 
quently seen, on the coasts of Greenland, of the glacier breaking ‘rom the 
mass and floating off on the ocean as an iceberg. So this glacier became an ice- 
berg and floated southwardly, tillit was stranded at this point; and here in time dis- 
solved and deposited this as yet unknown amount of debris. 

The remains of this iceberg give us both indirect and direct evidence of our 
theory of subaqueous deposit. Indirect—by this proof of an extensive inland 
water, on which alone this berg could be transported. And direct, by the dis- 
tinct lines of stratification, both in colors and weathered lines, passing conform- 
ably over this mound of debris. 

Any honest doubter of the subaqueous theory can drop his doubts into the 
debris of the past on a brief examination of the evidence which this cut now 
exhibits. 


THE DECREASE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 295 


EXPANSION OF CLAY. 


From proceedings of the Institution of English Civil Engineers, March 26th, 
1870: 

In railroad tunneling, timbers were frequently broken by the expansion 
of clay, although it appeared quite dry.—Hawkshaw. 

In Primrose Hill and the Kilsby tunnels, if the cutting was left a few days 
without completing the brick arching, the timbers were broken. The expansion 
seemed to be nearly the same, whether caused by the air as in the former case, 
-or by the water as in the latter instance.—J/7. Foster. 

That in the Box tunnel it was usual to leave six inches for expansion between 
the face of the work and the timbers, and that space was scarcely sufficient.—_M/, 
Thompson. 

Had seen, at Richmond, a well of four feet in diameter, completely closed 
in one night by the swelling up of the bottom, although there was not any water 


in it.—Mr. J. Simpson. 


The first stone bridge ever constructed in England was that of Bow, near 


‘Stratford, in 1087: the next oldest was London bridge, constructed in 1176.— 


Linglish Paper. 


hit OWOEN 


THE DECREASE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 


It is an almost universally received statement that, ever since the first contact 


-of the whites and Indians, the latter have been steadily diminishing or disappear- 
ing. The matter has elicited repeated comment on the part of thinking men and 
philanthropists in this and other countries. It has furthermore formed no uncom- 
mon theme of earnest debate and somber prevision among the Indians themselves, 


And yet to ascertain the exact truth in the case is no easy task. Ignorance of 
the real facts has given rise to much of general assertion and idle sentimentation, 


and with the unthinking, careless or unmeaning generalities have come at last to 


be accepted as definite and indubitable data. A few additional words, therefore, 
upon this subject may not be altogether inappropriate. 

That there has been in case of perhaps every one of the best and longest 
known Indian tribes a decrease, in many instances startling in its apparent 
rapidity, no one attempts to deny. Still the true rate of decrease is generally 


greatly exaggerated. The number of the aboriginal population in earlier days 


has been 2imost universally overstated. In the mind of the European explorers 
dhe vast expanse of the country seemed naturally to corroborate the boastful 


296 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


claims made by the Indians as to their numbets. Hence the comparison of tneir 
numbers as reported by these explorers, and subsequently by those who have 
simply repeated their estimates, with their now more accurately ascertained num- 
bers makes the rate of decrease appear much greater than it actually is. In close 
connection also with this fact it must beremembered that the Indians (as /ndzans) 
are not a prolific race. To one at all familiar with Indian life and history this is 
a most obtrusive characteristic. With the normal birth-rate continued it is 
that under the most favorable circumstances in their mode of life the numerical 
increase of a tribe from generation to generation would be very perceptibly below 
the ordinary rate of increase among the whites. Notwithstanding their constitu- 
tional vigor and permitted polygamous life, the children of an Indian family that 
survive infancy rarely number five, and quite usually are only two or three. And 
the statement admits of demonstration that at times tribes in a state of ordinary 
prosperity scarcely more than hold their own from year to year in point of 
numbers. 

Again, in some cases small tribes and remnants of tribes, instead of perishing 
utterly, as is often stated of them, are merely incorporated into the larger con- 
tiguous tribes and so disappear only in name. In frequent individual instances, 
too, Indian blood is simply absorbed by the whites. Whoever is conversant with 
the older and more recent Indian history and border annals meets constant evi- 
dence of such incorporation of Indian blood into white stock. Personal obser- 
vation in all parts of the country presents not infrequent illustrations of the same 
fact. The degree to which this silent transference has occurred is far higher than 
is usually supposed. 

But after all, the considerations just adduced do not invalidate the fact of a 
significant decrease among the Indians; they only call for an abatement in the 
rate. And this brings us to the real question, why is this decrease? What are 
the active causes that have borne part in producing it ? 

Undoubtedly the most noticeable agency has been war among themselves 
and more especially with the whites. Warfare is the Indians’ inspiration, his 
chief avenue to tribal position and influence. In his view, life and warfare are 
quite interchangable terms. Their wars with each other, however, though inces- 
sant, are seldom bloody or to any considerable extent destructive of life. The 
Indians’ proverbial fear of death is generally a sufficient motive to him to forego. 
the shedding of the blood of an enemy wherever it seems likely to involve too: 
great a peril of his own life. Intertribal warfare, therefore, consists mainly 
of petty forays, made by small parties or single individuals, and entailing com- 
paratively unimportant destruction of life. To be sure there are instances where 
entire tribes are reported to have been annihilated, but these are exceptions. 
Such destruction has had place, if at all, only where combined action on the part 
of many, a rare event among Indians, has been made against the few; or where 
both sides have been encouraged or supported by outside influences. It is rather 
their wars with the whites that have proven disastrously destructive. The com- 


THE DECREASE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 29 


bined and long continued operations of the latter are at once impossible to them 
and altogether disconcerting. Statistics show that they have been fearfully 
reduced by this means. Their diminution in battle and indirectly by consequent 
famine and exposure has been enormous. ‘The habitual secretiveness of the 
Indian renders it extremely difficult to carefully estimate these losses; but the 
lapse of time displays their magnitude only too distinctly. It must be borne in 
mind, moreover, that the losses of declared hostilities, great as they are, consti- 
tute but a small part or the actual losses inflicted upon them by the whites. The 
quiet taking-off of an Indian here and there by the irresponsible frontiersman has. 
in the aggregate reached an almost incredible figure.* 

To such a degree has this unreported decimation of Indians prevailed that 
universally they are now become extremely reluctant to place themselves in 
immediate, constant contact with the whites, even under the most solemn assur- 
ance of amity and protection. 

The crowding of the Indians in the advancing occupancy of their domain. 
by the whites has been another important cause of decrease to them. The 
restriction of their wanted limits rendered their former active life a self-support 
by the chase impracticable, while as yet no adequate encouragement or assistance 
in the adoption of new modes of life, made necessary by their changed circum- 
stances, was afforded. Hence was engendered a life of idleness, mendicancy 
and dissoluteness—a most fertile source of decay. Almost constantly during 
the past one hundred years our frontier has been beset with a pale of degraded, 
diseased and perishing red men of this description. Pressed back by the 
encroachments of civilization from their original homes, and not able successfully 
to maintain their new ground against wary assaults from its former occupant they 
are surely (and not slowly) borne onward toward extermination. Disregarded by 
the whites and despised by the adjacent wild tribes they have realized but too 
clearly that there was no place for them, and with perhaps fitful remonstrances. 
have submitted hopelessly and aimlessly to the inevitable. Experience seems to 
indicate that when once the Indian has reached this state there is scarcely any 
help—his doom is set as he is consciously and almost willingly hastening toward 

it. The census of such tribes, as annually taken, is sufficient witness to their 
decline. A single illustration of this assertion, afforded within the last half dozen 
years, may be cited. One of the most robust and spirited tribes of the West has 
decreased 40 per cent. since 1874, in consequence mainly (if not entirely), of the 
limited and almost helpless conditions of life that have been forced upon them 
by the government. 


*To learn what is the prevalent an‘mus of the borderer toward the Indian one has but to refer to the dis- 
_ cussions of the vexed /nxdian question constantly appearing in the journals of the frontier States. The general’ 
tone of feeling there evinced is decidedly inimical tothem. Witness the following from the California corres- 
pondenee of the New Vork 7rzbune, September, 1859: ‘‘ The federal government committed a great mistake 
_ ten years ago in not ordering a large military force to this State, with orders to hunt and shoot down all the 
_ Indians from the Colorado to the Klamath. This would have been the cheapest method of managing the 
Indian affairs of California ; and perhaps the most humane The fact is that every wild Indian in the 
_ State must die It is supposed that ten years ago there were 60,000 Indians in the State; to-day there- 
are not 10,000.” Compare Harpers Monthly, vol. 23, pp. 312-18. Unfortunately the press of the older States. 
_ too often lends its sanction (perhaps unintentionally) to teaching of this character. 


298 KANSAS CILY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Cognate and suggested by the foregoing has been a more subtile but very 
powerful influence,—discouragement. The lack of organizing and recuperative 
faculty in the Indian has been frequently remarked. He seems incapable of 
unintermitted activity and complex combinations. Even periods of success are 
with him, inevitably followed by long lapses of relaxation and almost demoraliza- 
tion, when all his energies of both mind and body seem unstrung and insuscepti- 
ble of reanimation. Much more is this the case in the presence of a long series 
of disasters and discouragements. More or less this fact of a general dispirited- 
ness is become prevalent among all the Indians of our present territory. It may 
not at first acquaintance be noticeable, for as occasion requires the Indian can be 
a diplomat of no mean order; but to one long familiar with them in their daily 
life and thought it is a most impressive and unavoidable conviction that they are 
disheartened. Their ambition as a race is fast disappearing and their hope almost 
perished. In intimate intercourse they make no secret of acknowledging it. 
The first chief of one of the most important of the tribes dwelt with a peculiar 
earnestness upon this fact in a final interview between himself and the writer 
two years since, and his mind was the mind of the many. It is exactly this 
unf rtunate mental status that is working lamentable results upon many of the 
Indian tribes, while in this attitude a quite ordinary ailment frequently proves 
fatal. A slight epidemic will carry off great numbers. Children that grow up 
receive as their most direct inheritance this incubus of hopelessness and are 
thereby quite incapacitated for aught of successful effort toward their own 
improvement or the amelioration of the condition of their posterity. The tem- 
perament of the Indians has become uniformly melancholic, and those among 
them, who possess the most of native ability and from whom we should naturally 
expect the best and largest efforts for good, are the very ones in whom this type 
of temperament is most emphatically present. I do not remember to have seen 
this phase of Indian character particularly noticed; but it deserves careful con- 
sideration from all who are sincerely interested in their welfare and advancement. 
Perhaps it would be as well not to inquire too curiously into the course of events 
that has brought about this special mental attitude in them. The exact truth 
might not be entirely flattering to our humanitarianism. 

Of the deleterious efforts of strong drink and of certain forms of disease 
communicated to the Indians by the whites it seems scarcely necessary to speak. 
Their victims are to be numbered by thousands. The sale of liquors to the 
Indians is now by the wise, but inefficiently administered policy of the govern- 
ment somewhat checked; but it is by no means stopped. One of the most 
frequent cases before the federal courts, sitting in the vicinity of any Indian 
reservation is that of the United States vs. A B for selling liquor to Indians. By 
various avenues considerable quantities continue to reach them and its use still 
operates to their no small detriment. No doubt it is only a very broad euphe- 
mism that the stuff thus illegitimately bartered to the Indians may be dignified by 
the name of liquor; for in more than one instance it has been found by actual 


THE DECREASE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, 299 


test to be a vilest concoction of nauseous and most deadly drugs. The unwhole- 
some effects of such beverage may be readily imagined. Of disease the scrofu- 
lous taint has been the most malign. Some medical authorities claim that there 
is scarcely an Indian within the confines of the United States whose system is 
not to some extent infected with it. This is certainly an extravagant generaliza- 
tion; but the bare fact of its being ventured is evidence of the general prevalence 
and insidious virulence of this type of disease. The frequency of various 
strumous symptoms, and the development of the V-shaped jaw in some tribes ; 
and the alarming mortality among all Indians, of such diseases as affect particu- 
larly the glandular system, are momentous indications in the same direction. 

Obviously this is a catalogue of adverse influences that might well break the 
most buoyant and elastic constitution. The Indians have borne up against them 
with a surprising persistency, but the struggle has been unequal. The magnitude 
of the Iliad of their woes may be inadequately determined by the fact that in 
nearly every instance they have lost ground. In the greater number of cases 
they are still losing ground. The only question now before the friend of the 
Indian is whether this state of things shall continue; whether the decay shall be 
suffered to go on practically unhindered till most of the present tribes pass 
out of existence and become matters of interest solely to the philologist and 
inquisitive historian.* 

Nominally the question was decided years ago. Philanthropists have devised 
and applied not a few schemes for the saving and civilization of the Indian. But 
in practice, with here and there a remote exception, the choicest schemes have 
proven altogether nugatory, if, indeed, not prejudicial. The Indian, as a class, 
remains still hopeless and helpless. To him, as also to his would-be benefactor, 

the experience of the past is not remarkably encouraging. 

Now, of means possible for the correction of the abuses under which the 
Indian is losing ground, as I have endeavored to show, there appear to be but 
two. I. The official, which involves a complete reconstruction of our adminis- 
trative policy with regard to them. The radical defect of the administration of 
Indian affairs hitherto has been that in their direction the goverenment has in 
fact, if not in principle, acted toward them as though they were a temporary 
burden incident to the acquisition of our newer territory, and its duty was simply 
to render easy their passage out of existence and not rather to elevate them into 
the only true existence—that of a man among fellow men. A pupilage, such as 
their present condition is sometimes complacently termed, lacks the one essential 
element of a true pupilage: it is not a state of preparation for better things. It 
is, so far as concerns the Indian, a perpetuity, ending only with his existence. 


*I am aware that the statement here offered will receive a prompt rejection from a considerable number of 
those who have made Indian history and affairs a topic of long and criticalinvestigation. Quite recently there 
has sprung up a strenuous tendency to go to the other extreme and claim that the Indians are in tle main 

_ steadily increasing. I believe the truth lies between. There are noteworthy instances of increase; but there 

_ are undoubtedly more that show a decrease. I have in this paper purposely refrained from giving lists of 
Statistics, that I might not trespass necessary limits; but I have also carefully refrained from stating aught that 
might not be verified by copious data. 


300 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The control of his interests is erected into a separate bureau which has no organic 
union nor necessary interdependence with the life and general civil interests of 
the country. On the contrary, its dealings with the Indians have in not a few 
instances been so conducted as to bring their interests into apparently direct 
conflict with the general interests of the community. In fine, the Indian bureau 
has come to be spoken of and is systematically treated as a most undesirable 
public burden Instead of there being any well organized and sustained effort 
to identify the Indian with, or to prepare him for entrance into the body politic 
as a useful vital force, the general tendency of our present system is to keep him 
distinctly and emphatically debarred from most of its special privileges and 
immunities. And not only is this true as related to the direct work of the 
government with the Indians, but in practice the spirit of its policy has paralyzed 
nearly every effort from other sources (as charitable societies) in their behalf. 
The material surroundings and conditions in which they are kept by the govern- 
ment will not admit of nor sustain the Indians’ essential moral elevation. 

Whether a reorganization of our Indian policy is practicable, as public affairs. 
are now administered, is a grave question; if not, it isa vital weakness. What 
is required is a system which shall have as its only aim the fitting of the Indian 
for an early investiture with the full rights of citizenship, and the moment he 
becomes such, that he comes to realize that he has a rightful place as part of the 
State, it is not consonant with the laws of human nature that he should continue 
to decline. To fully discuss this phase of the Indian question would require a 
volume. My only desire here is to mark it as having been an element in hasten- 
ing the Indians’ decay. 

Il. This is a most important factor in the consideration of our subject; yet 
it is one that is difficult of a proper presentation. I do not flatter myself, more- 
over, that it will at first blush secure any very extended acceptation. The 
measure here suggested is to be gathered from the last cause assigned for their 
decay. If it is undeniable that Indian blood has become corrupt by the admix- 
ture of a vitiated blood from whatever source, then it is physiologically a most 
natural method that it might be reinvigorated by the infusion of a new, untainted 
element, and the problem becomes much simpler if the strain thus engrafted is 
from a superior stock. Historically it may be accepted as demonstrated that the 
sturdiest and most persistent types of the human family have often sprung from 
the union of two differentiated stocks, the one of which presents the highly 
organized, intense element, while the other affords the heavier physical stamina. 
Fortunately we have afforded,us excellent and abundant illustration of this very 
phenomenon in Indian history. The old voyageurs, the courteurs des bois, and 
even the more unadventurous of the French pioneers of Canada, who chose the 
prosaic life of farmers, in considerable numbers formed alliances with native 
women. From this diverse parentage has sprung a large portion of the present 
population of Canada. Even in the older and more densely settled districts of 
the Dominion the greater part of the population (excluding recent immigration) 


THE DECREASE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 301 


still shows evidence of Indian blood; while in the vast Manitoba region the 
entire body of the inhabitants, farmers and hunters, is of this mixed descent. As 
to the physical powers and development of the hybrid stock (except where the 
offspring of vagrant intercourse) the testimony of experience is uniformly favora- 
ble. They are a robust, enduring people among their neighbors of pure white 
blood, with the Indians on the other hand they stand deservedly high. Alexan- 
der Henry, in his travels of 120 years ago, reports a Knistenaux chief as saying 
that the half breeds excelled the pure Indians, both as hunters and warriors. 
Among the Indian tribes of the West and Northwest it is no unusual thing to-day 
to meet chieftains and distinguished braves in whom white blood is easily dis- 
cernible. The excellent characteristics derived from the healthful intermingling 
of the races are so marked as to warrant the designation of the descendants by 
eminent authorities as a new and persistent variety of man. 

It is just herein, I am persuaded, that we shall find a real and possible solu- 
tion of the somber problem of the steady diminution of the Indians. The policy 
of the Canadian government, while the French regime continued, at least 
indirectly encouraged this blending of the white and red races. Peter Kalm, a 
most extensive and critical observer, in his narrative does not scruple to commend 
the system. No doubt it would meet much earlier and ready application with 
the facile Frenchman than with the more unyielding Saxon; but it evidently is 
not impossible. That it has occurred, and with beneficial results in case of some 
of the southern tribes, was sufficiently presented in a paper in a previous number 
of this journal (November, 1879). In these tribes the preponderance of white 
blood is more manifest with each succeeding veneration, and ultimately it will 
completely absorb or assimilate the Indian element. The same event would 
occur with our entire Indian population were the blending once to begin under 
favorable circumstances. The Indian would disappear, but only in name. 
Whatever of vital force or quality in him is worthy of conservation would sur- 
vive and enure to*the advantage of the dominant race. 

It seems, therefore, that it were become a fit question whether it may not be 
made a matter of governmental consideration or policy with us to encourage 
some such system. Certainly the conviction is gaining strength in the minds of 
most intelligent men who have longest been intimate with the Indian’s condition 
and needs, that such a blending, under suitable limitations, is desirable and for 
the Indian necessary; without it our Indian policy must remain an anomalous 
dmperium in imperio, a prison-house system alien and repugnant to our national 


instinct and finally ruinous to the Indian. 
Joun B. Dungar, Deposit, N. Y. 


302 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


CORRESFON DENCE: 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 


July 30, 1880. 

Professor Vogt has drawn the attention of the National institute of Geneva, 
to the physiology of writing. It has been demonstrated that certain parts of the 
brain, situated in the region of the temples, have a predominating influence on 
the formation of articulated language. It is also well known that the nervous 
fibers inter-cross in the brain, and in such a manner, that the movements of the 
left arm are commanded by the right hemisphere, while the movements of the 
right arm are ordered by the left hemisphere of the brain. Apoplectic attacks 
and extravasations of blood, are more frequent in the left, than in the right side of 
the brain. Hence, when the left hemisphere is affected, paralysis and the impossi- 
bility to speak result for the members of the right side, while any lesion in the right 
hemisphere, resulting in paralyzing the left members, generally leaves language 
intact. Now since acenter existsf or language, does one also exist for writing? and 
since we are accustomed invariably to write with the right hand, the power to 
do so ought to be paralyzed when the left lobe of the brain becomes attacked. 
But we can learn not the less to write with the left hand; this raises a general 
question: Does the manner in which we write depend on physiological necessities 
created by the structure even of the brain itself? All peoples write with the right 
hand; how then comes it that the arrangement of the lines and letters be different ? 

The nations of Eastern Asia write from top downward, and in lines from 
right to left; Semitics and Europeans place the lines one below the other, but the 
former shape the letters from right to left centripetally, while the latter do so 
from left to right and centrifugally. The arrangement of the lines and letters 
and their formation, are independent of each other; it is the form and size of the 
letters that constitute individuality. The representation of an object by an im- 
age was the origin of writing; the knotted strings in use with the Aztecs was 
rather an aid-memory than a form of writing; besides, to make a knot on a 
handkerchief to sharpen the memory, is not uncommon among moderns. The 
Mexicans have a combination of image and phonetic writing, suggestive of a re- 
bus; the Red Indians when they paint images on skins, differ in little from the 
races that did the same on rocks. ‘The style of primitive writing depended on 
the material; on a cornice, the lines were horizontal; vertical on a pillar; circular 
round a column. Naturally on a pillar the writing would commence from the 
top downward. 

The Arabs and Mussulmans when writing, keep the hand fixed to the same 
spot, while the other—the left—gently pushes or spins the paper forward, from 
left to right. The Arabs also prefer to write while standing up, besides, the 


SCIENCIMLETTER FROM PARIS. 802: 


Koran enjoins that the right hand ought to remain motionless when writing. 
Easterns could never have written with the left hand, for that hand has ever 
ranked as impure. No Turk strokes his beard with the left hand, or employs it to 
receive food, and to present that to be shaken, ranks in the eyes of westerns as 
an insult. With a Semitic, every religious action is accomplished with the face 
turned toward the east; his prayer would be worthless if uttered in any other 
position; he observes the same rule in writing, so that the light arrives from the 
south, and he writes from that point to shadeward. Westerns receive the light 
on the left side, and curiously enough, write also toward the shade. Both are 
physiologically correct in not writing in full light. A singular fact to note: an 
individual struck with paralysis, experiences ever afterward an inability to pro- 
nounce certain letters, 4, J, 7, for example; the correlation will extend to the in- 
capacity to write these letters, a simple crook is at most all that can represent 
them. Naturally, as observed, the right hand predominates; this was the case 
in the time of Homer’s heroes, and was so with their ancestors; and modern: 
man writes easily, and as rapidly, as a musician’s fingers move unconsciously, be- 
cause the images or letters are stored in the left hemisphere of tne brain. Left- 
handed penmanship is only right-hand writing topsy-turvy; this explains the ec- 
centricity of Leonard de Vinci’s explanations of his designs, and that puzzle so 
many persons; he wrote upside down at an early age, and continued the freak 
when residing in France. Many lithographers at present write on the stone with 
the left hand and draw with the right. 

Professor Vogt concludes, that the position of the lines in writing and recip- 
rocal arrangement of the letters, depend on no physiological necessity. 

M. Hébert has been studying what was formerly the geologic condition of 
the Straits of Dover, and concludes that during the first phase the tertiary pe- 
riod, a part of the Straits was covered by the German ocean, which communi- 
cated with the basin of Paris by the plains of Artois, while it also extended to. 
Belgium, Westphalia and Hanover. He fixes the opening of the Straits, during 
the quaternary period. 

Professor Daubrée claims for Descartes, the honor of being one of the cre- 
ators of cosmology and geolozy, he had been replaced by Newton and Voltaire. 
Before Laplace, Descartes cousidered all celestial phenomena as simple deduc- 
tions from the laws of the mechanics; he proclaimed the physical unity of the 
universe, before the spectroscope had revealed the chemical composition of the 
most distant worlds, and that the earth and the heavens are made of the same 
matter. Heat, according to Descartes, played a réle capital in the formation of 
our globe, which was at one time a star, differing in nothing from the sun, save 
in being smaller, and that the dislocations in celestial vault have been produced 
by coolingsand contractions. The idea that igneous, or crystallized rocks were at 
one time stratified till coming in contact with the internal heat of the globe, they 
became volcanic, has been abandoned since the explorations of Humboldt in the 
Andes, and of De Buch in Norway; the latter found crystalline rocks lying over 


804 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


stratifications, the same in the Tyrol and in the Canaries—proofs of the subter- 
ranean activity of the earth. Cordier, also concluded from the increasing tem- 
perature of mines with their depths that the mass of the globe was still ina fluid 
state. M. Elie de Baumont has based his vast system on this crust of the globe 
contracting by cooling. He astonished scientists also by asserting that the oldest 
mountains, were not the highest, and that little hills in Britany and Wales, were 
older than the Alps and the Andes. ‘The classification zodlogic and the clas- 
sification by systems of dislocations and upheavings, to-day march side by side. 
Professor Daubrée points out that by no means can feldspar or analogous silicate 
tocks be formed independent of heat, that the fissures in the rocks filled with 
metals, have been in intimate relationship with the internal regions of the globe 

M. Perroncioto has made some further researches as to the cause of the 
anemia which affects the workmen in the St. Gothard tunnel. He found the 
patients were invariably suffering from quantities of worms, like small eels, 
whose presence sufficiently explained the malady. The same diagnosis was ob- 
‘served in the case of the men who bored the Frejus tunnel. 

Teeth have a very intimate connection with health; bad teeth imply a bad 
stomach, and a stomach which functions badly contributes to caries and the loss 
of the teeth. From the very earliest history, the preservation of the teeth occu- 
- pied attention. Homer, Hesiod, Euripides, etc., constantly allude to the sub- 
ject. In the law of the Twelve Tables, it was prohibited to bury the dead with 
gold, except when that metal served to bind the teeth. Cascellius, the famous 
dentist at Rome, left, when dying, a fortune greater than that of a pro-consul. 
‘Tooth preservatives or powders, were also in great request in ancient Greece. 
Young ladies ever had a portion of myrtle, the shrub sacred to Venus, in their 
mouths, and St. Clement blamed the ladies of his day for their coming to the 
temple with their mouths full of the drug mastic. The adult has sixteen teeth in 
each jaw, the child but ten, till seven years of age. A tooth consists of the crown 
which extends outside the gum, the neck, which is covered by the gum, and the 
root, which occupies the socket. The tooth is hollow, and filled with a pulp; 
‘closed toward the crown, but open at the roots to allow the nerves and blood 
vessels to ramify. Three different tissues compose the teeth: the ivory or dent- 
ine, which exists at the root, as well as at the crown, and forms the principal 
part, it is not bone, as many think, though it has the same chemical composition, 
no vessel penetrates it, and it has neither medullar sap, nor pores, it consists of 
of layers, one over the other, and hardened even at the moment of formation. 
Next, the enamel, which covers the crown of the tooth, and that resembles not 
a little porcelain, the shade varying with the temperament of each individual. 
It is so hard as to resemble blue steel, it marks the best files, and will strike fire 
with steel, like a flint; third, the cement, which covers the tooth, and thicker at 
the root than at the neck. The teeth live and grow by means of their pulp, a 
matter extremely sensitive, and when inflamed, very painful, in consequence of 
the impossibility to augment its volume, being narrowed in on all sides by the 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. : 305 


ivory. It is to the sensibility of this pulp, that we immediately feel the least 
differences between heat and cold, and the slightest shades in the food masticated. 

The incisors have only a crown and a root, and constantly grow, as in the case 
of rabbits and other gnawing animals; they cut the food, while the canine teeth 
tear it. The ‘‘wisdom tooth” has roots and a crown less developed; its form 
varies, and it appears at no fixed age; when it has no room to develop, grave re- 
sults may ensue. When, through age, the teeth disappear, the form of the jaw 
bones alter, and impart a change to the physiognomy, the lower jaw bone in- 
clines backward, as with infants, and the chin becomes pointed. ‘Teeth grow ir- 
regularly from various causes, and the best period to correct the defect is be- 
tween ten and fifteen years of age. For persons who have acid stomachs, and 
which thus favor the destruction of the enamel, alkaline drinks ought to be pat- 
ronized, and alkaline powder, containing a little magnesia, employed. Caries 
can be either dry or humid—the former, often suddenly stops of its own accord, 

but commences by a black spot, and marked sensibility to heat and cold. When 
the disease eats into the pulp, the tooth ache appears in a most violent form. 

When caries appears, food should not be partaken of when too hot or too cold; 
brushes rather soft than hard, ought to be employed; alkaline powders are excel- 
lent for combating the acid of the saliva—one of the chief causes of caries—as 
stringent preparations fortify the gums. When the teeth are lost, they ought tor 
be replaced, not only in the interest of pronunciation, but in that of digestion, 

for on the efficacy of the latter a prolongation of our days depends. 

There are numerous thermal stations, spas in Europe: England has eight, Ger- 
many seventy-two and France 116. What is chiefly to be kept in view, is not 
the quantity of mineral matters in solution, but their quality. There is no classi- 
fication for natural mineral waters. Their production is one of the most inter- 
esting problems of geology; the mineralization is effected under the influence of 

heat and pressure; isin connection with the nature of the soil, and is associated 
with chemical reactions as complicated as they are obscure. ‘There is much dif. 
ference in composition of springs in point of yield, temperature and richness of 
solution, and they have a relationship with barometrical oscillations and earth- 
quakes. The Lisbon earthquake affected all the thermal springs of Europe. How- 
ever, the best known mineral waters have a very stable and ancient origin. 


THE SIXTH SENSE. 


| Dr. Hughes Bennett, Professor in Edinburgh University, lately read a paper 
_ before the British Association of Science, wherein he announced that the tendency 
of modern physiology was to ascribe to man asixth sense. If there be placed 
_ before a man two small tubes, the one of lead, the other of wood, both gilded 
_ over so as to look exactly alike, and both of the same temperature, not one of the 
five senses could tell the man which is lead and which is wood. He could tel 
this only by lifting them, and this sense of weight was likely to be recognized as 
the sixth sense.—Sczentific American. 


306 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


BOOK N OT1Cis 


THE SKIN IN HEALTH AND Disease: By L. D. Bulkley, M. D., Philadelphia : 
Presley Blakiston, 1880: p. 148, 12 mo., 50 cents. 


This is number ten of the American Health Primers, which have proved so. 
timely and so successful. The author, who is attending physician at the New 
York hospital, writes with experience and consequently with a ready pen; 
dividing his subject into but four chapters, which, however, cover the whole 
ground as fully and completely as could be asked ina merely popular treatise. 
In the first chapter he undertakes to combat certain popular prejudices in regard 
to diseases of the skin by briefly describing the anatomy and physiology of the 
skin. The second is devoted to directions in regard to the care of the skin in 
health and for the prevention of disease, and this is the most important of the 
whole. ‘The third takes up the diseases to which the skin is lable, their recogni- 
tion and home treatment. The last furnishes directions for diet, hygiene and 
mode of life, which will aid the physicians in their cure. The author’s remarks 
‘upon soaps will certainly surprise most readers and should serve to put them 
upon their guard against the numerous ‘‘ medicated,” ‘‘ soothing ” and ‘‘ curative” 
nostrums, which are usually manufactured of the cheapest and most objectiona_ 
ble ingredients and are far more likely to communicate disease than to remove 
it. It is abundantly illustrated and handsomely printed. 


FELTER’s ELEMENTS OF ARITHMETIC: By S. A. Felter, A. M., and S. A. Far- 
rand, Ph. D., New York. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1880, p. 154, 12 mo. 
Cloth, 30 cents. 

Felter’s Arithmetics have been used for years in the New York schools and. 
have received the highest commendations from the principals of many of them. 
Their advantages seem to be the ignoring of theoretical discussions, technica] 
definitions and rules, and the furnishing of a larger variety of practical examples 
and a closer and improved grading, while the illustrations are marvelously fine 
for a school book. ‘The charm of the illustrations and the easy and simple steps 
of the ascent, from the notation one book, two boys, three ducks, four hens and 
five birds, all depicted in the most artistic manner, to the handling of fractions. 
also illustrated in an equally attractive way, must necessarily beguile the most 
wary boy into an interested examination and study of the subject before he 
knows it. The series comprises the above and The New Intermediate, The 
Advanced and the Complete Arithmetics, all by the same authors and all spoken | 
of, by those who have used them, in the highest terms. 


BOOK NOTICES. 307 


RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1879: By J. L. E. Dreyer, M. 
A., Dublin, Ireland. 


This is a sketch of the principal astronomical events of the year 1879, and 
an account of the more important and interesting investigations that were 
made in that year. It is intended as a continuation of the work of Professor 
Holden, of the U. S. Naval Observatory, who has for several years 
prepared such a paper for the Annual Record of Science and Industry 
(now discontinued). In this account of the world’s progress in astronomical 
work it is gratifying to notice that the labors and investigations of the 
observers of the United States occupy a prominent position, and that the names 
of such western observers as Pritchett, of Missouri, Stone, of Cincinnati, 
Burnham, of Chicago, and Watson, of Ann Arbor, are mentioned in connection 
with services of a most valuable character to astronomical science. 


Tue Data or Eruics: By Herbert Spencer: J. Fitzgerald & Co., 1880, Paper, 
15 cents. 


This is number 9, volume I, of the Humboldt Library, those preceding it 
being Light Science for Leisure Hours, by Prof. R. A. Proctor; Forms of 
eWater, by Prof. Jno. Tyndall; Physics and Politics, by Walter Bagehot; Man’s 
Place in Nature, by Prof. T. H. Huxley; Education: Intellectual, Moral and 
Physical, by Herbert Spencer ; Town Geology, by Rev. Chas. Kingsley ; Conser- 
vation of Energy, by Prof. Balfour Stewart; The Study of Languages, by C. 
Marcel 
Thus it will be seen that for $1.35 one can procure nine first class, standard 
works by the best writers of the present day, printed in fair type on good paper, 
while, by subscribing by the year, twenty-four such works can be had for $3.00 
per annum. 


 QuarTERLY Report oF THE Kansas State Board OF AGRICULTURE, JUNE Bios 
1880: J. K. Hudson, Secretary: pp. 119 Octavo. 


This valuable work contains, as usual, statistics relative to population, 
acreage of important crops, railroads, public lands, condition of crops, farm 
animals, meteorology data, etc., together with the Summer and Fall treatment of 
orchards and vineyards, the Growing of sorghum cane, and the Habits and trans 
formations of the web worm, the last by Prof. E. A. Popenoe, of the State 
Agricultural College. This Report is an excellent number, creditable alike to the 


State and to Major Hudson, the new Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. 


_ CircuLars or INFORMATION OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION, No. 2 TSO tony 
John Eaton, Commissioner: Govt. Printing Office, 1880. 


This so-called circular comprises 111 pages and is a Report of the proceed- 
ings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Associa. 
{ tion, at the meeting at Washington, Feb. 18-20, 1880. 


808 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


This meeting was attended by about sixty-five of the Superintendents of 
State Boards of Education, Public Schools, Boards and Principals of Seminaries, 
etc., from all portions of the United States. 

Papers upon appropriate subjects were read by Prof. S. A. Butterfield, 
President Gilman, of Johns Hopkins Union; Hon. C. D. Randall, W. T. Har- 
ris, LL. D., and several others, besides discussions of kindred topics, in 
which most of the members joined. 

These circulars contain valuable matter for teachers at all times, and this 
particular nuniber is especially rich in useful and entertaining articles and 


suggestions. 


SOIMaIN WIE WC MOS Cle ILVAIN XC. 


MANUFACTURE OF LINEN. 


Although the natural appearance of wool might first have suggested its use 
as a textile and woven material, there is no historic evidence that woolen cloth 
antedated that of linen. The manufacture of linen dates from the earliest written 
records. It was well known in the time of Herodotus, and the Egyptian 
mummies are swathed in linen cloth. With the Egyptians, linen appears to have 
borne a sacred character, as their priests were forbidden to enter the temples 
clothed in other than linen garments and their dead were always shrouded in it. 
In later times linen cloth appears to have been a manufacture very generally 
practiced among civilized peoples. 

Probably because of the superior facility with which cotton fiber can be pre- 
pared for spinning and weaving,the manufacture of linen in this country does not 
seem to have attained the proportions to which its actual value entitles it. The 
extensive application of machinery to the manufacture of linen is of a compara- 
tively recent date, and even now much of the Irish linen is of hand make, from 
the pulling of the flax to the finish of the cloth. Massachusetts appears to have 
led in the linen manufacture in this country. Previons to 1640 the people of this 
colony imported from England most of their clothing and all of the finer sort; 
but in that year the Assembly decreed that : 

‘¢The Court taking into serious Consideration the absolute Necessity for the 
Raising of the Manufacture of Linnen cloths, doth declare that it is the Intent of 
this Court that there shall be an Order settled about it, and therefore doth require 
the Magistrates and Deputies of the several Towns to acquaint the townsmen 
therewith, and to make Enquiry what seed is in every town, what Men and 
Wimmen are skillful in the braking, spinning and weaving, what means for the 
providing of Wheels ; and to consider with those skillful in that manufacture, and 
what course may be taken for teaching the boys and girls in all towns the spinning 


ADVICE FOR SUMMER WORK. 309 


of the yarn, and to return to the next Court their severai and joint advice about 
this thing. The like consideration to be had for the spinning and weaving of 
Cotton Wool.” 

The description of cloth to which this order applies appears to have been a 
mixture of cotton and linen, or linen and wool, known as ‘‘linsey-woolsey.” <A 
subsequent order offered ‘‘a bounty of three-pence on every shilling’s worth of 
linen, woolen and cotton cloth, according to its valation, for incouragement of 
the manufacture.”” New England is also entitled to the honor of the first linen 
factory, which was established in the year 1737 in ‘‘ Long Acre,’’—Tremont 
street, Boston. In 1662 the Assembly of Virginia enacted laws for the promo- 
tion of the industry of cloth making. Two pounds of tobacco were offered as a 
bounty for every pound of flax, or hemp, prepared for the spindle, three pounds 
for every yard of linen cloth a yard wide, and five pounds for every yard of 
woolen cloth. Every titheable person was required, under a penalty of fifty 
pounds of tobacco, to produce yearly two pounds of dressed flax or hemp. Flax 
seed was imported from England and distributed to each county. Denton, in 
1670, says of the women of New Netherlands: ‘‘ Every one make their own 
linen and a great part of their woolen cloth for their ordinary wearing.” In New 
Jersey, in 1867, Quakers from Yorkshire and London made linen cloth, and in 
Pennsylvania, in 1693, and in Delaware, at about the same time, one of the 
principal employments of women was the spinning and weaving of linen, and in 
New Hampshire, in 1719, Scotch-Irish carried on the business quite extensively. 

The manufacture is growing in this country, but not with such rapidity as 
many other industries. The census of 1870 reports go establishments for the man- 
factures of flax, but how many are devoted to the making of linen cloth does not 
appear. Of these go no less than 46 are in New York. (The census of 1860 
showed only ten in New York and Massachusetts.) Ohio, in 1870, had 27 es- 
tablishments, and the remainder were scattered in five or six other States. The 
entire number of hands employed in 1870 was 765, the capital invested $524,701, 
and the annual value of products $815,010. Some interesting facts will be added 
to the above by the results of the pending census, and it is quite certain they will 
be much more reliable as data than some which have heretofore been published 
under sanction of the government.—JBoston Journal of Commerce. 


ADVICE FOR SUMMER WORK. 
BY PROFESSOR BURT G. WILDER, M. D. 


Notwithstanding the number of ‘‘Summer Schools of Science” to be in 
Operation this season, many teachers are likely to pass the vacation at a distance 
from the facilities afforded by organized laboratories. How shall they employ 
their time ? 

Doubtless they all need rest, and in most cases at least a fortnight should 


| 
i 
i 


310 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


elapse before any intellectual labor is undertaken. An equal period of repose 
may well occur just before the renewal of teaching in the Fall. But the teacher 
who hopes to make his instruction each year more thorough and successful than 
the last, will be pretty sure to spend the remaining month or two in the search 
of help from books, and, while regretting the vagueness of the information thus 
obtained, may seldom think of making it more real by personal observation. 

Now it is true that in some branches of science this may require appliances 
not readily obtained. This is the case with Chemistry and Physics, and some 
parts of Natural History. But Botany and Entomology may be pursued under 
almost any circumstances, and I venture to suggest that at least one kind of 
anatomical work may be carried on with but a slight amount of apparatus. 

Obviously, the summer is not the most favorable time for study of the 
viscera, while anatomical details respecting the muscles, vessels and nerves are 
not especially required for ordinary instruction. But the ézezm is not only the 
organ least satisfactorily treated in the text books, but at the same time the one 
concerning which the most should be known, from the double standpoint of 
physiology and psychology. 

But how can the teacher procure brains, and how shall he preserve them 
when obtained ? 

The question is a perfectly natural one in view of the prevailing impression that 
the cerebral structure is to be learned from the human brain alone. _ So far from 
correct is this idea, that from a single animal brain, perfectly fresh or well pre- 
served, more may be gained than the average medical student learns from the 
human brains usually examined in the dissecting-room. 

This is due to the fact that, excepting the absence of the occipital lobes of 
the hemispheres, the brains of the cat, the dog, the rabbit and the sheep present 
nearly all of the structural features of the human brain, while their smaller size 
and greater accessibility better adapt them for manipulation and for the preser- 
vation of the numerous specimens which are needed to display all parts of the 
organ. 

Of the animals above named the cat seems to be the most favorable subject. 
It is always and everywhere obtainable; the brain is larger than that of the 
rabbit, and more easily extracted than those of the sheep and most dogs. 

Some features of the brain, as the coloration of different parts, and especially 
the relation of the gray and white substances, are better seen upon fresh speci- 
mens; but the beginner will do well to examine hardened brains first, so as to 
become familiar with the form and relative position of the parts, and with their 
names. 

Among the instruments needed for the removal and dissection of the brain 
the most essential are a very sharp knife, and a pair of ‘‘ wire-nippers’’ with the 
blades set at a slight angle with the handles. 

As an aid to the study of the brain any work upon Human Anatomy will 
be found useful. The best are those of ‘‘Quain” and ‘‘ Gray.’’ Descriptions, 


THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CATTLE COMPANY. oll 


without figures, of the brains of the sheep, and of the dog and rabbit, are given 
in the little works of Morrell and Foster and Langley. With some modification 
these apply to the brain of the cat. 

Finally, it is hardly necessary to urge that outline drawings be made of the 
brain as a whole, and of its parts as exposed by dissection. If thisis done, by 
the end of the summer the teacher will have become better able to appreciate the 
peculiarities of the human brain when one comes in his way, and will have laid 
a substantial foundation for the physiological and psychological instruction which 
he may be called upon to impart. —Sczence. 


THE PROPAGATION OF OYSTERS. 


At the recent meeting in this city of the American Fish Cultural Association, 
a paper was read on the propagation of the oyster, by Dr. W. J. Brook, of the 
Johns Hopkins University. The manner in which this propagation takes place 
had never before, he said, been thoroughly understood. Through studies made 
by him last summer, however, great light was thrown on the subject. He found 
that the American oysters do not breed their young in the shell, as had been sup- 
posed, and consequently the eggs can be impregnated artificially. An average 
oyster contains from six to nine million eggs, and one of large size may contain 
fifty millions. The plan pursued by him in fertilizing these eggs was to chop the 
male and female oysters up together; thus the fluids are mixed and the impreg- 
nation is made complete. The process of development immediately begins, and 
goes on so rapidly that a change may be noted every fifteen seconds. Ina very © 
few hours the embryo is sufficiently formed to swim in the water. The shells at 
first are very small, and are not adjacent to each other. They grow very rapidly, 
closing down over the sides, and finally unite and form the hinge. In the short 
space of twenty-four hours the young oyster is able to take food, and from three 
days to a week it attains perfect form. During its early life it is a swimming ani- 
mal. Tne oyster is able to reproduce its species at the end of a year’s growth, 
and it is marketable at the age of three years. —Sccentujic American. 


THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CATTLE COMPANY. 


Notwithstanding the rapid development of the trade in dead meat and cattle 
between this country and America it is probable that the traffic is only in its in- © 
fancy. To carry on the breeding and rearing of stock in the plains of the far 
West, in a systematic manner, the Anglo-American Company was established 
abont a year ago, and it has been working with much energy in thus utilizing the 
resources of that great expanse of magnificent grazing country. Already the com- 
pany’s manager, Mr. Groom, has secured about gooo head of fine cattle in Texas 
at an average of 27s. or say 30s. each; and these are being steadily driven in three 
great herds, containing something over 3000 heads apiece, towards a point on the 


312 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


great railway system stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, where they will 
be worth at a moderate computation twenty dollars or £4 per head. According 
to last reports all three herds had safely passed through the more enclosed and 

most difficult part of their long journey, and for the rest of the way there was 

abundance of pasture and water. The land upon which the company’s cattle are 
and will be fed belongs to the United States Government, who allow and encour- 
age it to be occupied in the manner proposed by the company, rent free. The 

rich ‘prairie on either side of Goose Creek in Wyoming, which is at a convenient 
distance from the Union Pacific Railroad, has been selected as being the most 

suitable for the purpose. It is in the heart of the country upon which the buffalo 

has thriven from time immemorial, and produces sufficient feed to keep cattle fat 

all the year round. In these districts cattle breeding has up to the present time 
been conducted by individuals of very limited means, who have nevertheless often 

secured ample fortunes. The capital of the company, which is incorporated under 
the Limited Liability Act, is fixed at £70,000 in shares of £20 each, and the un- 
alloted balance is now for a limited time offered at par.—Jron. 


RUSSIA IN GREECE. 


The Russian government recognizing the opportunities presented by the ex- 
cavations and explorations, now taking place in Greece, has resolved to send 
some specialists to the very spot of these discoveries. It is also proposed to or- 
ganize, in a short time, in Greece, a Russian Archeological Institute, in imitation 
‘of those of Germany and France. For this purpose, Prof. Skolow has been sent. 
to Athens for four months, and Mr. Ernstaedt, licentiate of the University of St. 
Petersburg, and Mr. Latyschew, master of the gymnasium at Vilna, have been 
sent for two years. 


BUILDING WITH TEMPERED GLASS. 


We have lately entertained our readers about ties of tempered glass for rail- 
roads, obtained by Siemen’s method. A new application of this method has. 
been pointed out to us which would have appeared incredible at the time, when 
glass was only known in its primitive condition, as a crystalline product, with 
sharp, broken edges, yet fragile and unresisting to shocks and pressure. Tem-- 
pered glass can be obtained in great pieces, gifted with a power of resistance, 
which its specific lightness, compared with heavy metals, would not have given: 
the least presumption. It can now be employed, notably in carpentry, for posts, 
joists, ties and buttresses. It combines the advantages of strength and of incor-- 
ruptibility in contact with all atmospheric agents, as well as with chemical factors, 
and consequently, is of perpetual duration, and join to these advantages the 
smallness of the price of acquisition. This material is now as cheap as iron of 
the same weight, and as a large sale is counted on, it will not be long until the: 


WHAT TO DOIN EMERGENCIES. 313: 


reduction of price will be below the cost of wood. No doubt many industries 
will profit from this new progress in the fabrication of glass, and it will be 
greatly appreciated in the household. One will see the time when the metals 
and wood will be replaced by glass, ina great number of implements, utensils, 
and objects of diverse nature, such as stop-cocks, gutter spouts, buckets, and 
even barrels.—L’ Zechnologiste. Joli 


AGUE A POISON. 
T. L. LEWIS, BOLIVAR, MO. 


A French chemist, M, P. Bolestra, in a communication to the French Acad- 
my, some time ago, offered the following theory in regard to ague. In water 
undergoing putrefaction he found a granular microphyte, resembling the Cactus 
Peruvianus. It grows on the surface of the water, and in its young state looks 
like oil, and is ornamented with rainbow tints. In water of low temperature, or 
that containing but little vegetable matter, it grows but slowly, but under the 
the direct solar rays, mixed with decomposing vegetation, it develops rapidly 
and continually disengages small gas bubbles. It is always accompanied with 
great numbers of small spores, 7/5 of a millimetre in diameter, and sporangia or 
vesicles containing spores from ,2, to 73, of a millimetre in diameter, and of a 
very peculiar form. These spores are of a greenish yellow, quite transparent, 
and are often detected in marshy atmosphere. He claims to have contracted 
ague three times from these spores, which he claims to constitute ague potson. 
He says that ‘‘a few drops of arsenious acid, sulphate of soda, or, still better, 
neutral sulphate of quinine, stops its vegetation at the surface of the water, the 
spores become thin and transparent, and the sporangia alter so that they would 
not be recognized. These changes may be seen under the microscope.” 


EL GLE NE. 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


From two of the valuable papers on ‘‘ Domestic Nursing,” by Miss E. R. 


_ Scovil, of the Massachusetts General Hospital in this city, we cull and condense 


the following extracts for the benefit of our non-professional readers :— 
In very severe cases of burns or scalds the nervous system is so prostrated by 
the shock that there is often less suffering felt than when the injury is slighter. 


_ The pulse will be small and quick, and a stimulant should be administered with- 


out waiting for the doctor. A teaspoonful of raw brandy, or a tablespoonfu) 
in an equal quantity of water, may be given. 


‘B14 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The whole theory of dressing is to exclude the air. The more effectually 
this is done the greater will be the relief afforded. When only a small surface is 
injured, an artificial skin may by formed with flexible collodion ; or if that is not 
at hand common mucilage or gum arabic dissolved in warm water will answer. 
As one layer dries another should be painted over it. 

An excellent remedy for burns and scalds is a mixture of lime-water and sweet 
or linseed oil in equal parts. | Another excellent one is bicarbonate of soda. The 
common kind used for cooking purposes may be employed. A thick layer should 
be spread over the part and cover with a light wet bandage, keeping it moist and 
renewing it when necessary. 

When the clothing takes fire it is well if the victim have presence of mind to 
‘stand perfectly still. Motion fans the flames and causes it to burn more quickly. 
He may throw. himself on the floor and roll over and over, but never move from 
place to place seeking help. A woolen shawl, piece of carpet, or rug may be 
‘wrapped tightly around the person, not covering the face, and if there is time to 
‘wet it so much the better, but there is not an instant to lose, particularly if the 
‘clothes is of cotton. The great object is to prevent the flames from getting down 
the throat and the chest from being burned. 

In a severe cut on the finger, when the flow of blood renders dressing it a 
matter of difficulty, it may be checked by tying a string tightly around the base 
of the finger. It must then be washed in cold water, and the cut can be dressed 
at leisure with diachylon or court plaster, and the string removed. 

Bleeding from the nose may be stopped by lying flat on the back, with the 
head raised and the hands held above it. The nose must be covered with a cloth 
filled with pounded ice, or wrung out of ice water. The head should never be 
held over a basin, as the position encourages bleeding. The blood may be re- 
ceived in a wet sponge. 

When any one coughs or spits up blood the first thought is that it must be 
from the lungs. A slight knowledge of the characteristics of the bood from dif 
ferent parts that may come through the mouth will sometimes save much needless 
anxiety. Blood from the lungs is always brighter red in color, because it has just 
been purified by contact with the air. It is frothy, mixed with mucus, in small 
quantity, and is usually coughed up. Blood from the stomach is dark red, almost 
black, itis mixed with particles of food, comes in large quantities, and is vomited. 
Blood from the mouth and gums is of a red color, and usually mixed with saliva. 
Unless it has first been swallowed, it is not vomited or coughed up. 

In hemorrhage from the lungs the head and shoulders must be raised. 
Some physicians recommend a tablespoonful of table salt to be given in a tum- 
bler of water. It is always safe to give crackedice. Bleeding from the stomach 
may be checked by the application of a mustard plaster over the stomach. Crack- 
ed ice should be given and the doctor sent for. 

In bleeding from wounds or recent amputation there are three things that 
may be done :— 

First, press the finger or hand over the bleeding point : 


GENERAL ALBERT J. MVER, U.S. A. 315 


Second, press on the main artery supplying the wound; or, if this cannot be 
found, apply a bandage as tightly as possible above the wound. An excellent 
tourinquet may be improvised by knotting a handkerchief closely around the 
limb, thrusting a short stick through it, and twisting it tight. The blood from 
an artery is bright red and comes in spurts with each beat of the heart, while that 
from the veins is a dark purplish color and flows in a steady stream. When the 
bleeding is from an artery the pressure should be applied between the wound 
and the heart, when from a vein the limb must be compressed beyond the 
wound. 

Third, raise the part above the rest of the body, that the blood may drain out 
of it, and support it on pillows. It should be bathed in ice water and have ice 
wrapped in cotton cloths laidon it. If faintness ensues the sufferer should not 
-be immediately roused, as this is nature’s remedy and acts by lessening the force 
and activity of the circulation. A physician should be called in as soon as 
possible. 

When poison has been swallowed the first thing to be done isto get it out of the 
stomach as soon as possible, before it has been absorbed into the system. As a 
stomach-pump does not form part of the furniture of an ordinary house, this 
must be effected by means of anemetic. Should none other be accessible, stir a 
tablespoonful of mustard into a tumbler of warm water, and give one-fourth of 
it at a time, following each dose with a cup of warm water; table salt will do as 
- well, using as much as the water will dissolve. When vomiting is over, the 
whites of two eggs stirred in a tumbler of water may be given, and as much 
warm milk as can be taken.— Boston Journal of Chemistry. 


NEGRO OGY 


GENERAL ALBERT J. MYER, U. S. A. 


General Albert J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer U. 5. A., died of heart disease 
at Buffalo, N. Y., on the 24th ult. leaving a wife and six children. 

He was best known as a meterologist and the organizer of the United States 
and International Storm Signal Service; but this was by no means his only 
public work. He entered the army as an assistant surgeon, September 18, 1854, 
having but three years before gratuated in medicine, at the University of Buffalo, © 
N. Y. From 1858 to 1860 he was on special duty in the signal service. Under 
the act of Congress passed March 3d, 1863, he was made Colonel and Chief 
Signal Officer, after having served with distinction under Generals McClellan, 
Butler and others, and was subsequently brevetted as Brigadier General for 
“«distinguished services in organizing, instructing and commanding the signal 
corps of the army, and for its especial service October 5th, 1864.” In 1864 the 
signal corps of the army comprised over 1,500 officers and men, under his com- 
mand, which force, at the close of the war, was reduced to about 150 members. 


316 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Early in 1870 Hon. H. E. Paine, of Wisconsin, introduced a bill in Con- 
gress: providing for the establishment of a system of storm signals, based upon 
meteorological observations by the signal corps and officers of the army, and 
General Myer was placed in charge of the work. ‘To this genial task he devoted. 
himself with great ardor and success, establishing for the first time in meteorology 
a broad system of simultaneous reports of the weather, founded upon simulta- 
neous observations taken all over the country at the same moment of actual 
(not local) time, and embodied upon weather maps issued thrice daily from the 
Signal office at Washington, as well as telegraphed to all prominent points for 
the information and warning of navigators, farmers and others. 

The importance of this service was recognized by his being assigned to duty 
according to his commission as Brevet Brigadier-General in June, 1871. In 
March, 1873, Congress made it the further duty of the signal corps to establish 
signal sections at light-houses, life-saving stations, etc., and to connect them 
by telegraph with such points as were necessary to accomplish the objects in 
view, thus enabling General Myer still further to extend his system of simulta- 
neous observations of the weather. ‘The last Congress made him a full Brigadier 
General 

In September, 1873, at the International Meteorological Congress, at 
Vienna, he was the representative of the United States and there proposed a. 
system of uniform observations, with a view to their daily exchange, to be taken 
and recorded simultaneously at as many stations as practicable all over the world. 
This proposition was adopted and the observations were commenced at once 
with semi-monthly exchanges. In 1875 the publication of a daily International 
Bulletin was commenced, and in 1878 that of a daily International Weather 
Map, with the most valuable results. The gradual extension of this system of 
International observations to every portion of the globe, so as to permit the 
announcement of approaching storms and changes for periods longer in advance 
than have been heretofore practicable, was the cherished desire of General 
Myer’s heart; but it was not to be so. He died at the early age of fifty-two 
years; fortunately leaving his work in the hands of experienced and zealous. 
followers, who will undoubtedly carry out in full his intentions and aims. 


CARL PETERSON. 


The death, at the age of sixty-seven years, of the Danish explorer, Carl 
Peterson who had made so many voyages to the North Pole, has been announced 
at Copenhagen. From 1850 to 1851 he took part in the English expedition of 
Capt. Parry, in seach of the survivors of the Franklin Expedition. From 1853 to 
1855 he accompanied Dr. Kane’s Expedition, of which, he was one of the few 
survivors. From 1857 to 1859 he was with Sir Leopold McClintock, whose ex- 
pedition brought back many relics of the Franklin Expedition. Finally, he took 
part in the voyage of Spitzberg on the /rze, during which, he was accompanied 
by Dr. Nordenskjold. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


317 


DRO AE. N@©m rs: 


THE first meeting of the fall and winter 
session of the Kansas City Academy of 
Science, will be held at its rooms on Tuesday 
evening, September 28th, and on the last 
Tuesday of each month thereafter, until the 
mext summer vacation. 


THE rainstorm of Sunday, Aug. 15. would 
have passed for a very respectable ‘cloud- 
burst ”’ or *‘ water spout” if it had occurred 
in the Rocky Mountains. Between 3:15 and 
4:50 p. m. two inches of water fell, as ob- 
served by Mr. Kenmuir; which, if it had 
fallen upon precipitous mountain sides, 
would have filled any ordinary valley or 
‘cafion in a brief space of time, and to adepth 
that would have done a great deal of damage. 


THERE was frost in the interior river 
counties of New York on Aug. 15th. At 
Stamford, Delaware county, ice formed. 
The temperature there at 6 a, m. was thirty- 
two degrees. A dispatch from Rondout says 
tender vegetation was killed by the frost on 
that night. The growing crops of corn and 
buckwheat are somewhat injured. A stage 
driver reported light snow in Stony Cleave, 
Ulster county. At the same time the mer- 
cury here and in this vicinity stood at 80° at 7 
a.m., 93° at 2p. m. and 75° at Io p. m. 


A soclETY has been formed in England 
with the object of making systematic exca- 
vations in ancient Egypt. Many learned 
Egyptologists have promised it their sup- 
port. Miss Edwards proposes to deliver a 
series of lectures, in this country, for the 
purpose of procuring funds for the enter- 


prise. 


PROFESSOR Von Geert, already distin- 
guished for his scientific explorations in 
Peru and other countries of South America, 
left Panama June t1oth, for Guatemala, 
where he proposes to study the botany of 

| 


that country, and to make collections of new 
specimens, which he hopes to find in the 
northeast part of that Republic, which is, as 
yet, scarcely known from a practical stand- 
point. 


ON the evening of August 12th at about 9 
o’clock we witnessed a very fine auroral dis- 
play, which was also observed throughout 
the northern and eastern States. 


WE are indebted to Dr. John Rae, of Lon- 
don, England, for a copy of hissketch of the 
life and labors of the great Arctic navigator, 
Nordenskjold. We have read nothing so in- 
teresting and complete, and hope to give it 
to our readers at an early date. 


THE number of meteors observed here in 
the nights of August Ioth and 11th, was 
quite as large as usual, in some parts of the 
heavens numbering five or six to the minute 
for several hours on both nights. 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


PROMINENT among the articles in the 
London Monthly Journal of Science, is a series 
of letters by Dr. C. K. Akin, pointing out 
the proper course for the Royal Society and 
other scientific associations to pursue, to 
render their work more effective and valuable ; 
on the changes needed in the system of 
teaching at the British Universities to cause 
them to become more successful in fostering 
and advancing the growth of science in Eng- 
land; and on the kind of scientific literature, 
periodic and nonperiodic, that is required to 
place before the students of science the re- 
sults of experiments by their leaders and 
teachers. I1t also contains an article on The 
Constitution of the Earth, by Robert Ward, 
a Defense of Vivisection and a continuation 
of Prof, Tyndall’s Lecture on Water and Air, 


etc. 


318 


THE Mining Record gives an interesting 
statement of an excursion made to Santa Fe 
by Mr. Vandermeer. In the course of his 
trip, he visited the Indian village of Tosoque, 
the inhabitants of which claim to have de- 
scended directly from the Aztecs. They are 
more industrious and intelligent than the 
Red Skins. They inhabit houses of two 
stories, and have no communication with 
the ground floor except by ladders. In case 
of alarm or surprise the ladder is drawn up 
into the second story, and the house thereby 
converted into a fortress. Each house has 
three or four rooms, and the village has al- 
together about 200 inhabitants. 

THE Columbia Seniinel reports that Mr. Rk. 
B. Gans, a farmer of B>one county, has con- 
structed several small telescopes, wh’ch are 
excellent instruments, and that he is now 
working upon one of seven inches aperture. 
He has also invented and constructed a ma- 
chine for griuding the glasses which is supe- 
rior to any now in use. One of his telescopes 
is now on exhibition at the Missouri Univer- 
sity, and is pronounced by Prof. Ficklin and 
His next 
effort will be upon one of 161% inches diam- 
eter and 20 feet focal length. The wonder 
in this case is that Mr. Gans has never had 


others to be a perfect instrument. 


any training whatever in this direction, but 
is an amateur in the strictest sense. 


Boston has at least two gosd periodicals 
in their respective departments, the /ourna? 
of Commerce and the Journal of Chemistry. 
Both are ably edited, widely read and per- 
fectly reliable. We frequently take occasion 
to borrow articles from them and always feel 
when we do so that we are giving our read- 
ers valuable and readable matter. 


JupciING from accounts in the Zngencering 
and Mining Journal, the absence of all of the 
precious metals in any one of the States or 
Territories would seem to be the exception 
to a general rule. Gold mines in New Eng- 
land, New York and New Jersey, Virginia 
and North Carolina are announced, (also in 
Nova Scotia,) while silver mines are spoken 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


of in Missouri and Arkansas, as well as both 
kinds all through the western mountains, 
California and Arizona, Truly, the outlook 
for the prosperity of the United States never 
was so promising. 

THE Journal of the Franklin Institute has 
its usual of interesting scientific 
articles. Among others we note one on the 
Limitations of the Steam Engine, by Prof. 
Wm. Dennis Marks, of the University of 
Pennsylvania, in which the author remarks 


quota 


that so far as evaporation is concerned the 
perfect boiler has probably been attained, and 
that the utilization of the steam after it 
reaches the engine is the principal point to 
be looked after. Next come concentration 
of power in asmall space and economy of 
steam. Then the prevention of condensation 
by cooling, which he proposes to accomplish 
by diminishing the condensation surface and 
increasing the number of the strokes of the 
piston; also the reduction of the diameters 
of the frictional bearings to their lowest prac- 
tical size and the attainment of high and reg- 
ular speed. The article is an interesting one 
but it cannot be condensed and we only give 
the above points, to stimulate the reader of 


mechanical turn to procure and read it in 
full. 

THE Phrenological Journal, for September, 
contains analytical articles upin Hancock 
and English; Studies in Comparative Phre- 
nology; Notes on the Psychology and Pa- 
tholo of the brain; Relation of food to 
morals ; Notes on science, agriculture, Edito- 
rial items, etc, 

THE essay upon the History of the word 
Chemistry, by Dr. R. Augus Smith, F. R.S., 
before the Manchester Literary and Philo- 
sophical Society, March 23d, an abstract of 
which is given in the Chemzcal News, contains. 
a good deal of new matter, showing a vast 
deal of research and study into the history of 
the Hebrews, Assyrians, Egyptians and 
Greeks, and furnishing results interesting 
not only to the chemist but also to the stu- 
dent of ancient languages. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


In the September Atlantic we find the con- 
cluding chapters of ‘‘ The Stillwater Trage- 
dy,” one of the most vigorous, ingenious 
and delightful novels Mr. Aldrich has yet 
written. Richard Grant White describes a 
visit to Oxford and Cambridge, which will 
have great interest for many readers. The 
Washington Reminiscences this time relate 
to the short-lived Harrison Administration. 
There are two good political articles— 
one on the ‘Progress of the Presidential 
Canvass,’’ the other on the important subject 
of the ‘ Political Responsibility of the Indi- 
vidual,” by R. R. Bowker. Mark Twain 
contributes a characteristic story of ‘‘ Mrs. 
McWilliams and the Lightning.” T.S. Per- 
ry writes instructively of Sir Walter Scott. 
Mrs Kate Gannett Wells discusses ‘*‘ Women 
in Organizations.”” Other stories, poems, 
essays, criticisms of new books, and a bright 
««Contributors’ Club” complete a thorough- 
ly enjoyable number of this magazine. 


WE have made arrangements with J. Fitz- 
gerald & Co., of New York to furnish the 
Humboldt Library in connection with the RE- 
VIEW, or to old subscribers of the REVIEW, at 
a discount of 20 per cent. For particulars 
regarding the Humboldt Library see Book 
Notices on page 307 in this issue of the RE- 
VIEW. 


Harper's Magazine for September is a 
bright, strong number, rich in illustration, 
and piquant with several novel features. 
Especially novel in magazine literature is 
such an article as that by K. M. Rowland, 
on the Family of George III., illustrated 
with twenty-one portraits. A briefer article, 
entitled ‘*« The American Graces,’’ is a bio- 
graphical sketch, with beautiful portraits of the 
three Misses Caton, of Baltimore, who were 
respectively, Lady Stafford, Marchioness of 
Wellesley, and Duchess of Leeds. Mr. Con- 
way contributes ‘‘ The Seven Sleepers’ Para- 
dise beside the Loire.”” Mrs. Rebecca Hard- 
ing Davis concludes her ‘‘By-paths in the 
Mountains’ with a description of the North 
Carolina Mountains. Mr. Bishop also con- 
cludes his ‘‘ Fish and Men in the Maine Is- 


319% 


effectively illustrated by Mr. Burn’s sketches. 
Contrasting with all this beauty, but emi-. 
nently picturesque in manner and illustra- 
tion, is Mr. Rideing’s article, ‘‘ Squatter-life 
in New York.’”” Miss Anna C. Brackett con- 
tributes asuggestive article, entitled ‘¢ Indian 


”? 


and Negro,” apropos of a recent visit to the 


Hampton school. In fiction the Number is. 
The ‘* Editor’s Easy Chair ’” 


gossips in its best vein concerning old New-. 


very strong. 


port, and the women of England and Amer- 
ica, and gives some interesting reminiscences 
of the late George Ripley. 


THE September Popular Sctence Monthly 
well sustains its character as a magazine of 
valuable reading. It is the only periodical 
we have which reports progress in the higher 
and broader applications of science that con™ 
Its contents for September 
are as follows: The Science of Compara- 
tive Jurisprudence, by William M. Ivins;. 
State Educations: A Help or Hindrance ? by 
the Hon. Auberon Herbert; How Animals 
Digest, by Herman L. Fairchild, (illustrated) ; 
The Solar System and its Neighbors, by C. 
B. Warring, Ph. D.; Legal Prosecutions of 
Animals, by William Jones, F. S. A.; Psy- 
chogenesis in the Human Infant, by Prof. W.. 


cern everybody. 


Preyer ; Climbing plants, by Francis Darwin,. 
F. L. S., (illustrated) ; Ai sthetic Feeling in 
Birds, by Prof. Grant Allen; Electricity and 
Agriculture, by Dr. Paget Higgs; Zodlogical 
Education, by Prof. W. S. Barnard; The 
English Precursors of Newton; Night-Schools 
in New York and Paris. by Alice H. Rhine;. 
Sketch of Joseph Leidy, M. D., (with por- 
trait); Correspondence; Editor’s Table; Lit- 
erary Notices; Popular Miscellany,and Notes. 


WE observe that Captain H. W. Howgate 
is very favorably spoken of as the successor 
of General Myer, late chief Signal Officer of © 
the Army. His long experience (since 1863), 
and his devotion to meteorological studies. 
render him peculiarly fitted for the place, but 
it is hardly to be hoped that the claims of 
other and ranking officers will be overlooked. 
Should the Signal Service proper and the 
Meteorological Service be dissociated, no one- 


lands,” full of entertaining marine studies, | could fill the latter named place better. 


320 


L’ Exploration, “This valuable weekly con- 
itinues to reach our sanctum regularly. Each 
mumber has inclosed a valuable map, which, 
‘in the copy before us, is a delineation of the 
new frontiers of Greece. The two former 
-gave sections of Africa and are to be fol- 
‘lowed by additional sections, until a map of 
the whole of Africa, comprising the latest 
explorations, shall have been furnished. We 
translate the summary of contents as follows: 
The New Frontiers of Greece—Col. Prjéval- 
ski’s Expedition to Thibet—Learned Socie- 
ties—The Commercial Geographical Society 
of Bordeaux—The Normand Geographical So- 
ciety—News from all Parts of the Globe— 
Europe—The Archeological Exploration in 
Ancient Lydia—Mourmain Exploration— 
Petroleum in Russia—Explorations in Sibe- 
ria—Lake Onéga—The Caucasus—The Dis- 
covery of a Necropolis—Asia—The King- 
dom of Israel— Fucus-gummiflua—Explora- 


tions in Indo-China—Mineral Riches of Ja- | 


pan—Africa— Oriental Africa—New Bel- 
gian Expedition to Africa—The Eastern 
Cape——-France and Western Africa--America 
Arctic Expeditions—Hudson River Tunnel 
—-Niagara—Mouths of the Mississippi—— 
Wild Lands of the United States—-Oceanic 
—The Port-Breton Colony—-Earthquake in 
the Phillipine Islands, et. Vo ite 


THE September Number of the orth Amer- 
zcan Review contains the initial paper by M. 
D. Charnay on ‘*The Ruins of Central 
America.” This article is illustrated by 
photographs, which aid materially in the 
study of the text. An expedition under the 
auspices of the American and French govern- 
ments, of which M. Charnay is in charge, 
is now operating in Central America, and 
the explorations are likely to create an inter- 
-est more profound, and to be attended with 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


more valuable archeological results, even 
than came from the researches of Champol- 
lion in Egypt. They promise a new chapter 
in American history that shall establish the 
origin of the remarkable race of which noth- 
ing but splendid ruins were left when Colum- 
bus discovered the new world. Following 
this article is one on ‘‘The Perpetuity of 
Chinese Institutions,” from the pen of 5S. 
Wells Williams. Gen. John W. Clampitt, 
the surviving member of Mrs. Surratt’s coun- 
sel, writes upon ‘‘ The Trial of Mrs. Surratt.” 
‘¢The Personality of God” is discussed by 
W. T. Harris, LL.D R. B. Forbes gives 
some valuable suggestions in reference to 
‘*Steamboat Disasters.” The Rev. Edward 
Everett Hale follows with a paper upon “ In- 
sincerity in the Pulpit.”” The number closes 
with a review of several recent works on the 
Brain and Nerves, by Dr. George M. Beard. 


THE American Naturalist for September 
presents the following named original articles: 
The Syphonophores, by J. Walter Fewkes; 
Destruction of Obnoxious Insects by means 
of Fungoid Growths,by A. N. Prentiss ; List 
of Birds of the Willamette Valley, Oregon, 
by O. B. Johnson, and Do Flying-Fish Fly? 
by C. O. Whitman. The Editor’s Table is 
devoted to reasons why the Government 
should foster scientific research, and these 
reasons are set forth both forcibly and unan- 
swerably. The General Notes, as usual, com- 
prise a brief abstract of progress in Botany, 
Zodlogy, Anthropology, Geology, Paleontol- 
ogy, Geography and Microscopy. These ab- 
stracts are furnished by such scientists as Dr. 
Coues, Prof. O. T. Mason, Prof. Yarnall and 
Dr, R. H. Ward. The Book Reviews are 
written in a vigorous and comprehensive 
style, yet with fairness and liberality, and 
constitute a valuable feature of the magazine. 


! 


KANSAS Cry 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


WON Ne OCTOBER, 188o. NO. 6. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SOC TiS: 


THE AMERICAN SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 


The twenty-ninth meeting of the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science began in Boston, August 25. The meeting was called to order by the 
retiring President, Prof. George F. Barker, of Philadelphia, who immediately 
resigned the chair to the President-elect, the Hon. Lewis H. Morgan, of Roches- 
ter. President Rogers, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, delivered 
an introductory address, which was followed by addresses of welcome by Mayor 
Prince and Governor Long. 

The secretary reported the deaths for the past year as follows: George W. 
Abbe, New York; E. B. Andrews, Lancaster, Ohio; Homer C. Blake, New 
York; Caleb Cooke, Salem, Mass.; Benjamin F. Mudge, Manhattan, Kansas; 
Thomas Nicholson, New Orleans; Louis Francis de Pourtelas, Cambridge, 
Mass. 

A committee was appointed to draft resolutions on the death of Gen. Albert 
J. Myer, and another to send by cable the cordial greetings of the Association to 
the British Association at Swansea, on the occaaion of its fiftieth meeting. 

The general session was then adjourned, and the various sections and sub- 
sections organized. In the afternoon, Section A was addressed by Prof. Asaph 
Hail, of Washington, who reviewed the recent advances in the science of astron- 
omy, and the services rendered by men who, like Fraunhofer, have aided the 
work by optical and mechanical skill. 


In the sub-section of chemistry, Prof. John M. Ordway reviewed the recent 
IV—21 


822 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


achievements of practical chemistry, and discussed its methods. The sub-section 
of anthropology was addressed by Major J. W. Powell, on the social organization 
and government of the Wyandotte Indians. In the evening, the retiring Presi- 
dent, Prof. Barker, delivered the customary address, his subject being, ‘‘ Some 
Modern Aspects of the Life Question.” He took the ground that every action 
of the living body is, sooner or later, to be recognized as purely chemical or 
physical, the life that science has to deal with having no existence apart from 
matter. 

The second day’s meetings were held in Harvard College, Cambridge. he 
appointed eulogy on the late Prof. Henry was delivered by Prof. Alfred M. 
Thayer, who dwelt especially on Prof. Henry’s work as a discoverer in science. 
The practical side of that work was touched in connection with the experiments 
which proved so beneficial to the light-house and fog-signal service. One discov- 
ery—that lard oil, when subjected to a heat of 280° Fahr., is superior to sperm 
oil in fluidity and illuminating power—saves the government $100,000 a year. 

Prof. Alexander Agassiz, Vice-President of Section B., followed with an 
address on ‘‘ Paleontological and Embryological Development,” choosing his 
illustrations from a limited group of marine animals—zaurchins—having less than 
300 living species, and more than 2,000 known fossil species. 

The rest of the day was spent in the museums, laboratories, libraries, the 
observatory, and other buildings of Harvard College. 

The reading of the 218 papers comprised in the programme was to begin on 
the third day, Friday, and continues until the final adjournment on Wednesday, 
September 1. Nearly 600 members were registered the first day, and fully 500 
new members have been elected during the two days completed at this writing. — 
Scientific American. 


THE BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 


The fiftieth meeting of the British Assosiation, commenced on Wednesday 
at Swansea, and is likely to be a very successful gathering, the number of tickets 
issued up to that evening being 790, whilst the list of visitors is likely to be con- 
siderably increased. There was a large attendance in the Music Hall to hear the 
address of the President-elect, Professor Andrew Crombie Ramsay, Director- 
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Upon the platform 
were professor Allman, the retiring President, Mr. Hussey Vivian, M. P., and 
many other well-known scientific gentlemen. The Mayor of Swansea having 
given the Association a hearty welcome to the greatest tin manufacturing county 
in the world, Prof. Allman resigned the chair, and introduced Prof. Ramsay as 
his successor. 

Professor Ramsay having assumed the chair, proceeded to deliver his in- 
augural address. He said the chief object of this address was to attempt to show 
that whatever might have been the state of the world long before geological his- 


THE BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 323 


tory began as now written in the rocks, all known formations were comparatively 
so recent in geological time that there was no reason to believe that they were 
produced under physical circumstances differing either in kind or degree from 
those with which we were now more or less familiar. All, or nearly all stratified 
formations had been in asense metamorphosed, excepting certain limestone: the 
fact of loose, incoherent sediments having been by pressure and other agencies 
turned into solid rocks, constituted a kind of metamorphism. Common stratified 
rocks chiefly consist of marls, shales, slates, sandstones, conglomerates and lime- 
stones, generally distinct and definite; but not unfrequently a stratum or strata 
might partake of the characters in varied proportions of two or more of the above 
named species. 

He would not discuss the theory of the causes which produced the metamor- 
phism of stratified rocks; but he might say that under the influence of deep un- 
derground heat, aided by moisture, sandstones had been converted into quartzites, 
limestones had become crystalline, and in shaly, slaty and schistose rocks under 
like circumstances there was little or no development of new material, but rather 
in the main a rearrangement of constituencies according to their chemical affini- 
ties in rudely crystalline layers, which had been very often more or less devel- 
oped in pre-existing planes of bedding. In Cornwall, Devonshire and Ireland it 
was now well known that metamorphic rocks were common, and the cases of 
metamorphism of Silurian rocks on the Continent could be easily multiplied. The 
same kind of phenomena were common in Canada, the United States and India. 
Turning to the Devonian and old red sandstone strata of England and Scotland, 
he found that metamorphic action had also been at work, but in a much smaller 
degree. ‘These rocks were of the same geological age, though they were depos- 
ited under different conditions, the first being of marine and the latter of fresh- 
water origin. With regard to the carboniferous strata, he knew of no case 
where there had been a thorough metamorphism in Britain except that in South 
Wales, beds of coal in the west of Carmarthenshire and in South Pembrokeshire 
gradually passed from so-called bituminous coal into anthracite. He knew of no 
other strata that had suffered from metamorphic action, and he had never seen or 
heard of metamorphic rocks of later date than those that belonged to the Eocene 
series. 

Enough, however had been said to prove that from the Laurentian epoch 
onward, the phenomenon of extreme metamorphism of strata had been of fre- 
quent recurrence, and extended partly to the Eocene series, equivalent to the 
soft, unaltered strata of the formations of the London and Paris basins, which, 
excepting for their fossil contents and sometimes highly inclined positions, looked 
as if they had only been recently deposited. Referring to the subject of volca- 
noes, the President said that the oldest volcanic products he knew of were of low- 
er Silurian age, and they were to be found in Wales and other parts of England, 
but he knew of no true volcanic rock in the Upper Silurian series. In the Old 
Red Sandstone of Scotland lavas and volcanic ashes were of frequent occurrence, 


324 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and they were aiso to be found throughout nearly the whole of the carboniferous 
sub-formations, as well as being associated with Permian strata in that country. 
Volcanic rocks also existed in the Devonian strata of Devonshire, but he knew 

of none in America or on the Continent, and the only instance of a volcano of 
Eocene age known to him was that near Verona. There were, however, well pre- 
served relics of Miocene volcanoes over many parts of Europe, and the evidence 
was clear that in nearly all geological ages they had played an important part,now 
in one region and now in another; and so far as his knowledge extended, at no 
period of geological history was there any sign of their having played a more im- 
portant part than they did in the present epoch. The mountain chains of the 
world were of different geological ages, some of them being of great antiquity, 
and some of them comparatively modern. It was well known that in North 
America the Lower Silurian rocks lay unconformably upon the Laurentian strata, 
and the disturbances which had taken place implied beyond a doubt that the 
Laurentian rocks formed a high mountain chain of pre-Silurian date, which had 
since constantly been worn away and degraded by sub-erial denudation. It 
would not be difficult to add other cases of recurrences of the upheaval and 
origin of special mountain chains, some of which he could speak of from per- 
sonal knowledge; but enough had been said to show the bearing of this question 
on the argument he had in view, namely, that of repetition of the same kind of 
events throughout all known geological time. The recurrence of rock and other 
salts strengthened his view. To give anything like a detailed account of all the 
fresh-water formations deposited in estuaries and lakes from the close of the Old 
Red Sandstone times down to late Tertiary epochs would be impossible in 
that address, but it might safely be inferred that something far more than 
the rudiments of our present continents existed long before Miocene times, 
and this accounted for the large areas of those continents, which were fre- 
quently occupied by Miocene fresh-water strata. With the main formations of 
Miocene age he was not now concerned, nor was it essential to his argument to 
deal with those Jater Tertiary phenomena, which in their upper stages so easily 
merged into the existing state of the world. The last special subject for discus- 
sion’was the recurrence of glacial epochs, a subject still considered to be heretical 
by many, and which was generally looked upon as an absurd crotchet when in 
1855 he first described to the Geological Society boulder beds containing ice- 
scratched stones and erratic blocks in the Permian strata of England. The same 
dea he afterward applied to some of the old red sandstone conglomerates, and 
of late years it had become so familiar, that the effect of glaciers had at length 
been noted by geologists from older paleozoic epochs down to the present day. 
The conclusions he arrived at were these. In opening his address he began 
with the subject of the oldest metaphoric rocks that he had seen, the Laurentian 
strata, the deposition of which took place far from the beginning of recognized 
eeological time, for there must have been older rocks by the degradation of 
which they were formed. Starting with the Laurentian rocks, he had shown 


THE BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 320 


that the phenomena of metamorphism of strata had been continued from that 
date all through the later formations or groups of formations down to and 
including part of the Eocene strata in some parts of the world. He had 
also shown that ordinary volcanic rocks had been ejected in Silurian, De- 
vonian and other times, and from all that he had seen and read of these 
ancient volcanoes he had no reason to believe that volcanic forces played 
a more important part in any period of geological time than they did in 
this modern epoch. So also mountain chains existed before the deposition 
of the Silurian rocks, other of later date before the old red sandstone 
strata were formed, and the chain of the Ural before the deposition of the 
Permian beds. The deposition of salts from aqueous solutions in inland lakes 
and lagoons appeared to have taken place through all time and was still going on, 
and in like manner fresh water and estuarine conditions were found now in one 
region, now in another, throughout all the formations, or groups of formations, 
possibly from Silurian times onward, whilst what was termed the glacial epoch 
was now boldly declared to have occurred at intervals from almost the earliest 
Paleozoic times down to our last post-Pliocene ‘‘ glacial epoch.” 

If the nebular hypothesis of astronomers be true—and he had no reason to 
doubt it—the earth was at one time in a purely gaseous state and afterward in a 
fluid condition, attended by intense heat. By and by consolidation, due to par- 
tial cooling, took place on the surface, and as radiation of heat went on the outer 
shell thickened. Radiation still going on, the interior fluid matter decreased in 
bulk, and by force of gravitation the outer shell, being drawn toward the interior, 
gave way, and in parts got crinkled up, and this, according to cosmogonists, 
was the origin of the earliest mountain-chains. This looked highly probable. 
But assuming that it was true, these hypothetical events took place so long before 
authentic geological history began, as written in the rocks, that the earliest of 
the physical events to which he had drawn their attention was to all human ap- 
prehension of time so enormously removed from these early assumed cosmical 
phenomena that they appeared to him to have been of comparatively quite 
modern occurence, and to indicate that from the Laurentian epoch down to the 
present day all the physical events in the history of the earth had varied neither 
in kind nor in intensity from those of which we now had experience. Perhaps 
many British geologists held similar opinions, but if that were so, it might not 
be altogether useless to consider the various subjects separately on which he de- 
pended to prove the point he had in view.—/von. | 


326 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ANDER © POLOGY 


TERTIARY MAN. 
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF ZABOROWSKI, BY E. L. BERTHOUD, A. M. 
(Contenued from June Number.) 


We do not believe it is possible to claim or admit that in this continued suc- 
cession of changes, physical as well as organic, that man alone has remained 
unchanged, especially when we reflect that changes in living beings are more 
rapid in direct proportion to their more complicated organization. 

Hence to suppose that the flint tools of Thénay may have been fashioned 
by a human being as far advanced, or rather we might better say, as highly de_ 
veloped as our present human races, is absolutely contrary to the fundamenta] 
laws of development, or the best recognized facts of paleontology. 

In view of this consideration, and its incontestable force, the formation of 
these flint tools has first been by M. de Mortillet, attributed to a being whom 
he calls the ‘‘ precursor of man,’’ in its widest sense; that is to say, not only in 
the category of individual or species, but in that of a genus preceding man, 
from which could have sprung at least two types of human races. 

M. Hovelacque has attempted an anatomical restoration of this presumed 
precursor to man after a comparison of anthropomorphous apes and the most 
ancient races of men, on the assumed explanation of their derivation from a com- 
mon ancestor. We have no space now for a detailed account or analysis of this 
attempt; but suffice it to say it is well worthy of our attention, although hazard- 
ous from the present state of our knowledge on these points. But this compari- 
son in itself is based on facts rigorously exact, and to-day admitted by Science. 

When in 1874 we noticed and proclaimed this precursor of man as the 
author of the chipped flint tools of Thénay; we then admitted that our present 
knowledge of facts bearing on this question did not allow us to affirm that the 
human and simian branches were or were not separated in the Miocene epoch: 
and that with this being the true precursor of the human race, we indicated or 
mentioned the hypothesis of a varied dezng, a species not yet fully established, that 
we called then ‘‘ Anthropiskes,” (future men) among whom could have been 
operated a return to a type purely Simian. 

Agreeing in this with Schleicher, who supposed that a certain number, or 
certain species of Anthropiskes had acquired under circumstances more or less 
favorable, the power of articulation, and had thus become men, while other 
branches of this genus less favored, had remained unchanged, had retrograded, 


ANCIENT MAN IN MISSOURI. 327 


even thus constituting in time the four present species of anthropomorphous apes. 

We can also here remark that the flints of Thénay do not seem to have been 
fashioned for any special service or destination; they, perhaps, may have been 
split out by the action of fire, or accidentally, but thanks to this accidental 
formation, those who used them in their rough state were led little by little to 
fashion them into shape intentionally. 

There are numerous instances that prove that monkeys nowadays know how 
to use pebbles and sticks. ‘The most curious trait that we know, is related by 
Darwin of a monkey who used the same stone to break filberts constantly ; and 
that he kept it hid in the straw. 

After that we have not been at all surprised when we saw that M. Gaudry 
in a recent work declared that the most natural idea that presented itself to his 
mind was, that the flint tools of Thénay had been fashioned (taillés) or chipped, 
by the ancient Dryopithecus, this being exactly the big anthropomorphous 
ape discovered by Foutan, at St. Gaudens in France, and described by Mr. Ed. 
Lartet. ? 

Unhappily we, as yet, possess only a lower jaw and a humerus. From an 
examination of these fragments, M. Gaudry concluded that he resembled man by 
several peculiarities. First by its size, which is very important, then by its in- 
cisors, and also by the rounded form of the rear molar protuberances, very simi- 
lar to the molar teeth of Australians. But the size of the pre-molars and canines 
naturally produced extreme prognathism, or large advance of the face. This 
mark of inferiority, however, does not appear very striking, but we are much 
impressed with the general human aspect of the jaw, which M. Gaudry gives in 
a full sketch, which appearance is due not only to the broken canine, but to the 
contour of the chin, which, instead of giving a re-entering angle like apes, is 
almost straight, or like the human jaw from La Nanlette. M.Gaudry, however, 
does not notice this peculiarity. 

We think it is sufficient at this time to pronounce it as certain that the human 
species, properly so called, did not exist in the Miocene epoch. Did it then exist 
in the Pliocene epoch? We can doubt this at least for the older Pliocene. 


ANCIENT MAN IN MISSOURI. 


The finding of numerous relics of a buried race, on an ancient horizon, from 
twenty to thirty feet below the present level of country in Missouri and Kansas, 
was noted in this paper a few months ago. The St. Louis Republican gives par- 
ticulars of another find of an unmistakable character made last spring in Franklin 
county, Missouri, by Dr. R. W. Booth, who was engaged in iron mining about 
three miles from Dry Branch, a station on the St. Louis and Santa Fe railroad. 
At a depth of eighteen feet below the surface the miners uncovered a human 
skull, with portions of the ribs, vertebral column, and collar bone. With them 


328 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCLENCE. 


were found two flint arrow heads of the most primitive type, imperfect in shape 
and barbed. A few pieces of charcoal were also found at the same time and 
place. Dr. Booth was fully aware of the importance of the discovery and tried 
to preserve everything found, but upon touching the skull it crumbled to dust, 
and some of the other bones broke into small pieces and partly crumbled away, 
but enough was preserved to fully establish the fact that they are human bones. 

Some fifteen or twenty days subsequent to the first finding, at a depth of 
twenty-four feet below the surface, other bones were found—a thigh bone and a 
portion of the vertebra, and several pieces of charred wood, the bones apparently 
belonging to the first found skeelton. In both cases the bones rested upon a 
fibrous stratum, suspected at the time to be a fragment of coarse matting. This. 
lay upon a floor of soft but solid iron ore, which retained the imprint of the 
fibers. 

Overlying the last found bones was a stratum of what appeared to be loam 
or sod, from two and a half to three inches thick, below which was a deposit of 
soft red hematite iron ore, lying upon two large boulders of hard ore standing on 
edge, standing at an angle of about forty-five degreés, the upper ends leaning 
against each other, thus forming a considerable cavity which was filled with blue 
specular and hard red ore and clay, lying upon a floor of solid red hematite. It 
was in this cavity that the bones, matting and charred wood were found, inter- 
mixed with ore. 

The indications are that the filled cavity had originally been a sort of cave,. 
and that the supposed matting was more probably a layer of twigs, rushes, or 
weeds, which the inhabitants of the cave had used as a bed, as the fiber marks 
cross each other irregularly. The ore bed in which the remains were found, and 
part of which seems to have formed after the period of human occupation of the 
cave, lies in the second (or saccharoidal) sandstone of the Lower Silurian.—Sczen- 
tific American. 


ME0S, NON WislS TUG IeleVULOSO etsy. 


ITS ASPECTS AS A PHILOSOPHY. 
W. H. MILLER, KANSAS CITY. 


Nature, as man finds himself situated in it, presents the aspects of infinite 
extension, infinite multiplicity of forms, infinite activity and changeableness, 
infinite constancy of continuance and of laws of continual change. It enters 
into his conceptions as absolute in itself, or as containing a principle that is 
absolute from whence it proceeds and by which its activity is governed by infinite 
constant and immutable laws. ‘Thus environed, man finds himself endowed with 


SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AS A PHILOSOPHY. 329: 


an insatiable longing to resolve the mystery of the environment, to know what it 
is, from whence it came, what its destiny, and what the purpose of its being. 

The record man has preserved of himself in history recounts his efforts to 
resolve it and their results in mythology, theology and philosophy, each system 
of which has been partly accepted by one generation only to be rejected by 
another. Even anterior to the historic period, we find man had addressed him-. 
self to the same profound problem, for at the beginning of history he had his. 
beliefs in gods to whose agency he attributed it. ‘These beliefs stand for the net 
results of the efforts of pre-historic man ; for mythology, as well as theology, are 
of the same nature as philosophy in so far as they attempt to account for the 
phenomena of things. Mythology and theology, however, in all the innumera- 
ble forms in which they have been presented, have been found inadequate to: 
command universal acceptance, and to satisfy human longings. They begin by 
assuming gods, or a God, to whom the phenomena are due. ‘This only trans- 
fers the mystery, for with such an explanation, which does not explain the 
phenomena of nature or of man, he becomes as eager to know of the gods, or 
God, as he was to know of nature. Yet to this conclusion, that there is a 
supreme being, infinite and absolute, whether we call it gods or God, the condi- 
tions of human intelligence force it by an irresistible necessity, while the emotional 
nature equally presses to the same end for something supreme and immutable as an 
object worthy of worship. To explain this supreme being is the function ofephi- 
losophy and religion—the one revealing its aspects as related to nature, and the 
other as related to the moral aspects of man. 

To consider the necessity man feels of an adequate explanation, the unceas- 
ing struggle he has made to find one, and his repeated failures, is to be filled with. 
pity for his distressing situation and the misfortune that attends his struggles. As. 
the zenis fatuus lures the lost traveler into impenetrable darkness and mire,. 
nature leads man, bound by a spell he cannot break and lured by hopes it seems. 
he cannot realize, into the depths of impenetrable mystery. 

Mythology, having failed, has nearly vanished before the more definite forms 
and comprehensive scope and unity of theology. Theology, in offering no ex- 
planation of supreme being in itself and as related to nature, and only of its. 
relations to the moral aspects of man, is not adequate; and the explanations it. 
offers are distrusted by most, for how can relations be certainly explained and 
known until reality to which they relate is known? Philosophy, based upon the: 


necessary conditions of things, has been found inadequate in its most elaborate: 


and comprehensive forms, and does not satisfy. Hence the mystery remains. 
In this situation man has taken to the study of nature itself, hoping that by 
sitting as a little child humbly at her feet, and patiently learning the lessons she 


teaches, to find the desired solution. In this much progress has been made; all: 


ee 


departments of nature have been penetrated—astronomy, geology, chemistry, 
physics and naturalism in all their branches, and it is found that all teach the 
same lessons of infinite and immaculate laws, which reduce nature, with all its: 


330 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


apparent heterogeneity to a consistent unity. These laws, founded as they are 
upon the accepted inductions of science, must be accepted as true. They too, 
like mythology, theology and the philosophy of the necessary, point toa supreme 
being that is infinite and absolute. Upon the inductions of science, serving as 
foundation for these laws, has been founded, also, the evolution hypothesis, which, 
during the past century has been so widely accepted by scientific men. To unify 
and explain nature by these laws, and in accord with the evolution hypothesis, 
is the purpose of the Synthetic Philosophy of Mr. Herbert Spencer, of which a 
republication in this country has been made during the current year. To ex- 
amine this philosophy, as such, is the purpose of this paper. 

It begins with an analysis of the teachings of science and religion, in which 
it is shown that the ultimate idea of both is that there is absolute and infinite 
being. It then explains that all knowledge of which man is capable is relative, 
and hence, as absolute and infinite being is not relative, knowledge of it transcends 
human power. ‘Here the system might be charged with a grievous fault, for it is 
no explanation of a thing to say that itis unknowable. The conditions of philos- 
‘ophy are not complied with, and its function, which is to explain, is not dis- 
charged. Man’s longing for knowledge is not satisfied, and if the conclusion be 
true, he is condemned toa most cruel fate in being compelled perpetually to 
seek to know that which is unknowable. 

, But to dismiss the subject here, as might justly be done, would not do justice 
to the merits and demerits of the system, both of which it possesses in large 
measure. It next explains that our idea of space is an abstract of our experiences 
of co-existent, resisting position. That is, that we continually meet with things 
in nature that occupy positions and resist our energies, and that by mentally 
abstracting these things from the positions occupied and leaving positions that do 
not resist, we attain the idea of space, or position that offers no resistance. Ex- 
perience of force is, therefore, the foundation of our idea of space, whence it is 
concluded that force is the real being here met with. A similar analysis is made 
of our idea of time. Here the resisting positions, from experience with which the 
idea is derived, are successive instead of simultaneous. Hence here, also, our 
idea is an abstract of experience of force, and force is the being underlying it. 
Motion is shown to be only the sensible sign of something that moves, and as 
‘moving involves the exercise of force, force is here also the real being experi- 
‘enced, In regard to matter, it 1s shown that our knowledge of it arises from our 
‘experience of its resistance of our energy and its power to so affect us as to pro- 
duce sensation. ‘The ultimate reality in matter is, therefore, force. From these 
‘considerations it is concluded that the real being in nature, its ultimate, absolute 
principle, is force. That principle in man which is commonly known as the soul 
is manifest to us, it is claimed, asa force. It has activity, which implies force, 
and exhibits a form of motion which we know as intelligence. Therefore force 
is here the reality, and hence it is concluded that force is the ultimate principle 
of the universe, the real being that is infinite and absolute. 


SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AS A PHILOSOPHY. 331 


These inductions are presented as philosophy, not as science, and are not, 
therefore, to be classed with the accepted inductions of science which reveal the 
laws of phenomenal nature. They are super-scientific, and bring us up to the 
level of mythology and theology, which find in gods, or God, the ultimate, abso- 
lute and infinite principle of nature. It brings us also up to the level where 
philosophy finds its real problem—this ultimate, absolute, infinite first principle 
which it is its function to explain. But when we look to this evolution philoso- 
phy for such explanation we are disappointed. It tells us that force is inscrutable 
and thus, instead of satisfying the yearnings of humanity, it falls into absurdity 
by explaining all that is known into the unknown and unknowable, and thus 
makes the mystery it set itself to resolve, deeper and darker than it found it. 
Nor is this all; any system of philosophy must be consistent with itself. Here 
we are told on the one hand that force is wholly inscrutable, and on the other 
that it possesses activity, a number of most general laws of action, to explain 
which, as producing evolution, is the purpose of this philosophy. Now, if all 
knowledge is relative, it is necessary to think that being possessing these, or any 
other qualities, by which it may be known is not inscrutable. Either it is not un- 
knowable, or it does not possess relations whereby it is known. 

Here again it might be dismissed as philosophy were it not that it has not 
exhausted its material. There are inductions unmade that even an ordinary mind 
can supply, and perhaps many may supply to the detriment of truth. Let these 
be supplied and see if it will help it out of its absurdity. 

Force being the ultimate principle in man and the ultimate, absolute and 
infinite principle in nature, both are the same, except that the one is special and 
the other general. Whatever qualities it exhibits in its special form, it must 
possess in its general form, for the general form being absolute and infinite must 
be the source of all qualities of the special form; there is no other source from 
which they could be derived, -and to hold otherwise is absurd. Therefore when 
the special form exhibits a mode of motion that constitutes what we know as 
intelligence, will and emotion, that mode of motion must be exhibited also by 
the general form, and the conception at which we thus arrive is that of force as a 
personal deity infinite and absolute. 

But if it be held that the mode of motion we know as intelligence in man is 
a modified form of motion resulting from the interaction of different forms of 
force, then there are deductions that apply. Let these be supplied and see if 
they will help this philosophy out of its absurdity. If force be the ultimate 
principle in nature, that of which all other things are composed, it seems neces- 
Sary to conceive it as having existed in a pure state before things were evolved 
from it. In that case it seems equally necessary to conceive that force determined 
to organize things, and that it established laws that governthem. To have done 
this manifestly required the exercise of absolute will and infinite intelligence. 
And as will and intelligence cannot be conceived except as associated with 
conciousness, we find ourselves brought again to the conception of force as 
personal deity, infinite and absolute. 


’ 


So 


332 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


But as evolution denies creation, it may hold that there never was this. 
semblance of it, but that force has existed from all eternity in an organized 
form, oscillating between a definite heterogeneity as we see it now, and an indefinite 
comparative homogeneity as in the nebulous state. This appears to be the 
doctrine really taught. Let this be granted and a different deduction applies. 
‘For in that case force exhibits an infinite variety of conditions, qualities and 
determinations. As infinite and absolute being it must be held to determine 
from time to time, and from form to form, the conditions, qualities and determina- 
tions to be assumed, which necessarily involve the constant exercise of absolute 
will and intelligence, hence consciousness, hence personality, and hence the 
conception of force as personal deity, infinite and absolute. 

But it may be held that these conditions, qualities and determinations are 
not thus established, but are imposed upon force by the concrete and dependent 
forms it assumes, in which case we must conceive dependent being as having 
power to condition independent being, which is absurd. But if it were true, 
the conditions, qualities and determinations could be imposed only by consent 
of the independent being, and consent implies intelligence to consider and will 
to yield, hence consciousness, and hence a conception of force as personal deity 
infinite and absolute. 

Or it may be held that the conditions, qualities and determinations are not 
the result either of self-establishment or of establishment by the dependent 
forms, but are the result of inter-action between the different forms. If this 
were true, it would yield us the conception of a world ruled by chance, which is 
manifestly not true, or force us to abandon all conceptions of force as the ulti- 
mate principle of nature. 

But had this philosophy adopted any or all of these inductions and deductions, 
which are here shown to be possible to it, it would still be open to the fatal 
objection that force is known to be, not a thing in itself—a real entity—but only 
a quality of being. As motion is the sign of something that moves, so force 
is the quality that makes it move. Here the question arises, why is force 
of all the qualities of being, assumed as ultimate being itself? It is one of the 
best known of the qualities of being, as this philosophy shows in formulating its 
laws. Itis also one of the most variable qualities, for some forms of being 
possess it in high degree, as dynamite, while others possess it in such low degree 
that to determine that they have more than mere gravitation, it is necessary to 
put them through a metamorphosis, whereby we cannot be certain if the force 
we develop resided primarily in the thing or was communicated to it by the 
metamorphosis. It is far less constant than thé quality of existence, which 
belongs to all being equally, and it is less inscrutable, for existence can be defined 
only in terms of itself. To erect this quality into ultimate being would be as 
absurd as those primitive Grecian philosophies that thus erected fire, air, water — 
and number into ultimate being, but not so absurd as thus toregard force because 
force is so much less constant. 


SEWERAGE AND STREET PAVING IN KANSAS CITY. 330 


Hence, the conclusion that evolution as a philosophy isa failure, not only in the 
form presented by Mr. Spencer, but in all forms in which it may be presented, 
0 long as it presents force as the ultimate principle of nature, is irresistible. 
Yet it rests upon accepted induction of science, and upon laws that seem to 
explain and unify them. It is offered as a scientific doctrinejand as a reasonable 
and conceivable substitute for the creation hypothesis, which it holds to be of 
mythological origin and inexplicable and inconceivable in the light of modern 
science. To examine it in these aspects will be the purpose of another paper. 


EN Gian i ENG: 


SEWERAGE AND STREET PAVING IN KANSAS CITY. 
BY ERMINE CASE, JR. 


Epitor Revirw:—I see the questions of sewerage and of street paving are 
under serious discussion in Kansas City just now. ‘The first should not be 
difficult. The general system of sewers should be built at once; be built in the 
best manner and the cost not counted, only so far as to get good work done at 
jts real value. The district sewers should be ordered immediately thereafter, and 
every building required to make connections. There should be no hesitation or 
delay in this matter. Then only will the ponds, the noxious smells, malarial 
fevers and the cholera infantum disappear. 

The determination of the paving question is more difficult, as there will be 
greater diversity of opinion, less information and a comparatively small number 
to pay the bills. Information and discrimination as well as economy and honesty 
should be brought to bear upon its solution. In view of the fact that the material 

constitutes by far the largest part of the expense of paving, it should be iaid 
down as an axiom in the discussion of this matter, that a city should always use 
for paving purposes the material nearest at hand, if it be suitable. For this 
reason the attention of Kansas City is first directed to macadamizing with ordi- 
nary limestone. It should not be taken for granted that this is not the best 
paving for all our streéts, business and residence alike. It is certainly far the 
cheapest, for the material is immediately at hand, and repairing can be cheaply 
done, so that its durability may be easily maintained. Our macadamizing has 
thus far been badly done and has never been kept clean. No other paving with 
the same treatment would be satisfactory. It can not be answered that this 
method has gone into disuse, for there many prominent streets in London, Paris, 
Berlin and smaller cities of Europe simply macadamized, although the granite 
block may be had in almost every hill on the continent. 


334 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


However, I think there is a better material even than our hard limestone. 
The bed of the Osage river from the Trading Post to the Missouri, is full of a 
gravel that may be safely denominated perfect for the purposes of road-making. 
At every railroad crossing it may be had in unlimited quantities. It is not the 
dull, rotten stone-gravel of Ohio, but bright, hard flint, that rings like steel 
under a wheel, or the shoe of a horse. It does not require quarrying or even 
screening. There are several railroads crossing these beds, so that no one road — 
can have a monopoly; the best place, however, will probably be Warsaw, less 
than thirty miles south of Sedalia, the haul being from that point less than one 
hundred and twenty-five miles. Let our streets be prepared with the usual bed 
of limestone, and then covered with this gravel, and we shall have a roadway 
practically indestructible. It can be put down and repaired without the use of 
machinery or skilled labor. It will produce as little dust and be as readily 
cleaned as any other pavement. I have no doubt of its being the best for our 
purposes. 

Composition pavements, as used in the European cities, are made of Trinidad 
asphalt and crushed rock. They are delightful to ride over, and save the wear 
and tear of vehicle and animal to a very great extent. In icy weather this 
pavement is objectionably slippery. In Paris it isin use on many heavy busi- 
ness streets, while the Fleet and Cheapside, in London, on which are the heaviest 
iraffic of any streets on earth, are laid with asphalt pavement. It can then b2 
hardly called liable to the charge of want of durability. It would necessarily be 
more expensive than either of the pavements above mentioned, but the chief 
objection to it is that repairs are made with difficulty, a patch not being ordi- 
narily successful. 

The Granite pavement, or Belgian Block, I see is under consideration, but I 
do not understand how it can bear the test of comparison ‘The granite must 
first be quarried, then cut into blocks of even size, and afterward transported 
twelve hundred miles, each operation being peculiarly expensive. Experts must 
lay it on an expensive bed, and heavy curbings on each side are required to 
keep it in place. Nor is that the end, for in New York and all other cities we 
see as many groups of men at work repairing it as on any other pavement. The 
wear and tear on horses and vehicles is terrific, ten times more than on any other 
road, which is no inconsiderable item, while the noise in streets of heavy traffic 
isa thing to make one shudder. It is true this pavement is more in use in Eu 
ropean cities than any other, but that it is not universal, when it can be had, as I 
have said, in every hill, and labor so cheap, is one of the strongest argument$ 
against its use. For Kansas City to send so far for a material which is liable to 
such an indictment would seem to be the height of unreason. 

Wooden pavements have been discarded everywhere, and for many well 
known reasons are unworthy of discussion. 

If Kansas City must send away from her bluffs for material to make streets, 
let her bring the gravel from the Osage. 1am sure a drive down the Gravois 


ENGINEERING PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 335. 


over this bright ringing metal would settle the question for every one so doing. 
Whatever may be the pavement of the future in our city, even though it be of 
solid gold, it may as well be determined that cleaning is absolutely necessary to 
keep down mud in wet, and dust in windy weather. 
INTERLAKEN, Switzerland, 
Aug. 23d, 1880. 


ENGINEERING PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 


BY OCTAVE CHANUTE, V. P. 


Annual Address Read at the Twelfth Annual Convention of the Society of American Civil Engineers, held 
at St. Louis, Mo., May 25th, 1880. 


EXTRACTS. 


*K *k * *K *K * * sk * 

The first works in America for the supply of water to towns, were con- 
structed by Hans Christopher Christiansen, and put in operation on June 2oth, 
1754, at the Moravian settlement of Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania. 

The water from a spring, which is still used for the supply, was forced by a 
pump of lignum-vite of five inches bore, through hemlock logs into a wooden 
reservoir. 

The same ingenious Dane, eight years later, replaced this rude pump by 
three iron pumps of four inches bore and eighteen inches stroke, which for many 
years were the only machinery for water supply on the Continent, and for sev- 
enty years furnished the water for Bethlehem. 

Among the oldest, if not the very next in date to Bethlehem, is the Morris- 
town, N. J., Water Company, which was incorporated in 1791, and has ever 
since furnished the town with water collected from the neighboring hills. 

The first application of steam to pumping was in Philadelphia, in 1800, 
when the third steam engine of any considerable size in the United States was 
erected on the banks of the Schuylkill. It is believed that these works were the. 
first constructed by a municipality. The first cast iron water pipes were laid in 
Philadelphia in 1804. | 

New York was first supplied by a company which erected a small pumping 
engine about 1800. 

During the first thirty years of the century several small works were con- 
structed, among others, at Cincinnati, in 1817; at Detroit, in 1827; at Lynch- 
burgh, in 1828; Syracuse, in 1829; and Richmond, in 1830. Few of these 

works exhibited any great advance in engineering. The enlarged works for the 
supply of Philadelphia. by water power, constructed at Fairmount, in 1822, 
showed, however, a marked advance, and were for many years regarded as a 
model of efficient and economical works. The design and execution of the grav- 


306 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ity supply works for New York and for Boston, between 1830 and 1840, were 
such as can not be greatly improved, even at the present day, except in minor 
-details. 

About 1850 the substitution of light wrought iron pipe, lined inside and out 
with hydraulic cement, for cast iron, at greatly reduced cost, was found to be 
practicable in many cases, and the formation of companies to manufacture and 
lay such pipes, introduced a commercial element into the matter of water supply 
and led to the construction of many works. 

Improved forms of pumping machinery, which performed a fair duty at small 
expense for construction and maintenance, were designed and their manufac- 
ture became a special business. 

The careful analysis and investigation employed in the construction of the 
works for the supply of Brooklyn, between 1850 and 1860, resulted in a more 
decided advance, in both theoretical and practical science, than had hitherto 
been made, the effects of which were seen during the succeeding decade in im- 
provements in pipe manufacture, in engine building, in reservoir construction 
and in maintenance of works. 

Between 1860 and 1870, a further impetus to water works construction, was 
given by the vigorous prosecution of an enterprise for building entire works for 
direct supply, by pumping into the mains without the intervention of a reservoir. 
The success attending this enterprise, owing to the small first cost of construc- 
tion and to shrewd management, created competition, the result of which has 
been to force the adoption of scientific methods and the employment of skilled 
engineers, and as a consequence there has been great improvement in the types 
of machinery and in economical working. 

The pumping machinery of large cities has also been greatly improved; the 
duty now required, and uniformly maintained, being at least fifty per cent. 
greater than it was thought possible to obtain twenty years ago, or than is now 
furnished by the less costly ‘‘commercial engines,” of which two firms alone 
have built 242 for 168 towns, with an aggregate pumping capacity of 734 millions 
of gallons per day. 

The construction by Mr. Chesbrough of a submarine tunnel for two miles 
under Lake Michigan, to furnish water for Chicago, was one of the boldest en- 
gineering feats of this country. Its successful completion was followed by the 
construction of several similar works. 

On the Pacific coast, the use of unprotected wrought iron pipe for convey- 
ing great distances, and under great pressure, has proved very successful. 

During the past ten years, the most important work executed, has been the 
enlargement of the gravity supply for Boston, by the construction of a conduit 
of masonry, in the designing and erection of which the latest and most perfect 
methods have been followed. The subjects to which particular attention has 
been paid by engineers during this period have been the efficiency of pumping 
machinery, the capacity of gathering grounds, the preservation of the purity of 
water, and the prevention of waste by consumers. 


ENGINEERING PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 337 


All American works are constructed for a constant supply, and most of those 
first built had a capacity far in excess of the then demand, which caused the for- 
mation of habits of wastefulness which it has been found difficult to check when 
the limit of the capacity was nearly reached. 

The magnitude of the interests involved in this branch of engineering, may 
be judged from the fact that there are now in the United States and Canada 
569 towns with a public water supply, having a population of about twelve mill- 
ions, to whom there are daily distributed over six hundred millions of gallons of 
water, through thirteen thousand miles of pipes, of which about ten thousand 
miles are of cast iron. 

About one-half of these towns are supplied by gravity, many of them how- 
ever, having supplemental pumping power. ‘The total capacity of the pumping 
engines now in use being about 1 goo millions of gallons per day. 

Meanwhile improvements in plumbing and house distribution have greatly 
added to the convenience about our homes, and we now virtually have a spring 
of cold, and another of hot water, in almost every room of our city homes, to 
put on tap at will. * “3 Zs * a = ae 

RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. 

We have as yet done little toward regulating and improving our rivers. 
Blessed with a magnificent system of internal navigation, which, as Mr. Fink 
and Mr. Blanchard have recently shown, virtually compete with and regulate 
freight upon almost all of our railroads, we have directed our attention rather to 
the craft that navigate them than to the streams themselves. 

The further demand for cheaper transportation, however, as well as the 
higher spring floods and the lower summer waters, which come with the destruc- 
tion of the forests, make it necessary that we should within a few years begin ex- 
tensive river works. Colonel Mason, late member of this Society, showed us in 
building the St. Joseph Bridge that even the Missouri River was easily controlled, 
and made to flow wherever the engineer desired, by throwing out cheap and ap- 
parently frail brush dikes. A much greater and more original work has since 
been accomplished by the same simple means by our distinguished member, Cap- 
tain James B. Eads, who, taking in hand the smallest and most unpromising 
pass of the Mississippi River, with seven feet of water over its bar, bas in four 
years transformed it into the best access from the river to the sea, with thirty 
feet of water over the bar, at the cost to the nation of only $5.250,000, while 
‘the ship canal which had been proposed by other parties was estimated to cost 
$10,000,000. 

The same far-seeing engineer is now engaged in studying the remainder of 
the course of the Mississippi River, and devising plans for its control and im- 
provement. You have probably read the report to Congress of the board on 
which he has been acting, in which, differing widely from their predecessors, 
‘they propose to regulate the depth and flow of the river, by reducing its width 


at those points where it spreads into shallow sand bars. 
IV—22 


338 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The reasons by which these proposals are supported seem so sound, that it is 
to be hoped that our government will soon take steps to test the efficacy of the 
proposed methods upon an adequate scale. 

The first of what is likely to ‘prove a series of works to control the low water 
discharge of our rivers is being built upon the Ohio River at Davis’ Island dam, 
five miles below Pittsburg. It seems a movable dam, of which you will find a 
brief description in Scrzbner’s Monthly Magazine for this month (May, 1880). 

The French have preceded us in works for regulating the flow of their navi- 
gable rivers, and have designed a number of types of movable dams (which they 
call ‘‘barrages”), which are well worthy of study and possibly of imitation. 
We shall doubtless make some changes, and perhaps improvements in them, to 
adapt them to our necessities and to our constructive methods; and this class of 
works should hereafter attract the study and attention of the members of profes- 
sion more than has been the case hitherto. 

The boldest and most interesting harbor work now being carried on by our 
government is probably the removal of the rocky obstructions in the East River 
of New York, at Hell Gate. 

General Newton, as you know, sunk a shaft in the rock at Hallett’s Point to 
a depth of some 50 feet below low water, honeycombed the rock with 7 426 linea, 
feet of galleries in various directions, and charging 4 427 drill holes in the re- 
maining pillars and roof with 49 915 pounds of ‘‘rend rock,” ‘‘vulcan powder,” 
and ‘‘dynamite,” blew up the whole Point, extending over three acres, and con- 
taining 63 135 cubic yards of rock, on the 24th of September, 1876. So accu- 
rately were the explosives located and proportioned, by the mathematical form- 
ulz worked out for the occasion, that not the slightest damage was done to the 
surrounding houses and premises. ‘The debris has since been removed with a 
grapple to a depth of 26 feet below low water. 

General Newton is now engaged in undermining in a similar manner the 
rocky island of eight acres (mostly under water) known as ‘‘ Flood Rock,” in the 
same vicinity. He has sunk a shaft, and driven, to May 1, 1880, 5 273 lineal 
feet of galleries, from which he has removed 19 044 cubic yards of rock, leaving 
a roof varying from 8 to 19 feet in thickness between the top of the galleries and 
the water in the tide way, which is from 6 to 12 feet deep. The holes are ail 
bored by machine drills driven by compressed air. 


(To be continued). 
SHIPS ON WHEELS. 
CAPTAIN JAMES B. EADS. 


A special meeting of the Chamber of Commerce was held at San Francisco 
recently, to allow Capt. James B. Eads, the famous engineer, to present his views 
on the subject of a ship railway, instead of a canal, across the Isthmus. After 


SHIPS ON WHEELS. 339 


referring to the benefits accruing to the State from cheap transportation, Captain 
Eads said: The wheat surplus of last year, according to figures furnished me by 
Capt. Merry, was 600,000 tons, and it is estimated that this year the surplus will 
reach 800,000 tons. ‘The average rate of freight around the Horn is $15 per ton, 
and after careful investigation it was found that such cargo could be transported 
by the Nicaraguan Canal at an aggregate cost of $10 per ton, thus saving upon 
the total annual shipment the large sum of nearly $4,000,000, or fifteen cents per 
bushel. Iam told by some of your intelligent citizens, who have doubtless 
thought but little upon the subject, that they have grave doubts as to the value of 
a ship transit across the Isthmus, because it would probably lose to San Francisco 
the trade of the Orient. But must this trade, which nod ubt benefits this city to 
some extent, be enjoyed at the expense of the producers of the State? In the 
$4,000,000 of annual saving to the State to which I have alluded, reference is only 
made to your exports of wheat. If to this be added the increased value of that 
which is consumed in the State, and the saving on your other exports, the sum 
will be found great enough to pay for the cost of a ship railway in four years out 
of the benefits that will accrue to the people of this State alone. The railway 
which I propose will not cost more than one-half as much as the canal, and the 
fares being reduced, a further saving can be effected of $800,000 on wheat ship- 
ments alone. The canal would require eight years and the railway but four for con. 
struction, a saving in time whose money value to the State would be $20,000,000. 
The railway proposal may seem rather a wild dream to some, but I assure you it 
is perfectly practicable. It is not a novel one, having been employed for carrying 
canal-boats over the Alleghany mountains forty years ago. ‘There is at present in 
operation within a few miles of Washington a railway upon which canal-boats, 
heavily laden with their cargoes, are daily transported up a steep grade from the 
Potomac river to the canal above. In Europe'l know of at least two railways of 
a similar character now in operation. Surely if a railroad can be constructed of 
sufficient strength to carry a canal-boat, there is no reason why one could not be 
constructed strong enough to carry on ocean vessel. The work will necessarily 
be on a very large scale. 

The road bed must be very solid, and to distribute the great weight I pro- 
pose to use not less than twelve rails instead of two, with a multitude of wheels 
under each car _— One of the first objections presented to the mind by this plan, 
is the great weight to be borne by the road-bed. A cradle for a ship and cargo 
weighing 6,000 tons, would be about 350 feet long, and would rest on twelve 
rails spaced four feet apart; hence we would have a bearing forty-four feet wide . 
by 350 long, which is 15,400 square feet. This is equal to 780 pounds only on 
each square foot of the road-bed. A brick wall eight feet high will give the same 
pressure. On each of the twelve rails, under a cradle 350 feet long, we would 
have 115 wheels. Each rail would then carry one-twelfth of the 6,000 tons, or 
500 tons. This would be about four and one-third tons on each wheel. As the 
drivers of a large freight engine at rest give a pressure of over six tons each upon 


340 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the rail, it will be seen that we really need no heavier rails and ties than are used 
on first-class railways. With the pressure of the ship thus distributed it is plain 
that she cannot bend, twist or strain in any way, unless the earth gives way under 
her, and this is not likely to occur if ordinary care be used in building and main- 
taining the road-bed. Any inequality in the level of the track can be compen- 
sated for by a strong spiral steel spring, allowing several inches of play. To 
avoid bending the ship in changing from one grade to another, the cradle would 
be run on to what may be called a tipping-table, placed in the line of the railway. 
This would rest on a fulcrum at the middle and on hydraulic rams at each end, 
so that the ends could be raised or lowered to conform to the different grades. 
To avoid curves in the railway, turn-tables long enough to receive the cradle 
would be placed at necessary points in the main track, and on these the cradle 
would be turned to the right or left to change the direction of the ship. The 
cradle will be nothing more than a moveable dry dock. This cradle or dock 
upon wheels will be backed down upon the railway, on a grade of about one foot 
in roo, until it reaches a, sufficient depth of water to enable the vessel to be 
floated upon it. When the ship is in position she will be safely secured over the 
cradle, and then the car will be slowly drawn forward. As the water becomes 
more shallow, the vessel will naturally take her position upon the cradle; the 
supports will then be moved up against her hull, while still afloat, so that she can 
not move on the cradle, and she will be drawn up the incline until she reaches 
the level track above. Here two powerful engines will be attached, and the 
vessel will be at once started upon her journey across the Isthmus. At the end 
of her journey she will be put into the water in the same manner that she was 
taken out. The objection is urged with great pertinacity that it would be im- 
possible to carry a vessel in this way without straining or injuring her, but the ~ 
ablest engineers in the world, among them Hon. E. J. Reed, Chief Constructor 
of the British Navy, have declared that it can be done with perfect safety. The 
strain could not possibly be as severe as that experienced in rough weather at 
times at sea. If she bent at all in the direction in which she is most easily bent, 
longitudinally, she must bend the earth under her. A canal with locks would be 
a constant menace to your commerce, and an injury to one of the locks would 
suspend operations on the whole line. 

Another strong objection is that a canal, once constructed, can not be er- 
larged to meet the wants of increasing commerce. No one knows, in view of 
the progress of ship-building, what the ships of the future will be, and a number 
of canals constructed years ago, of supposed ample size, are now useless, or 
nearly so. A tide-level canal, such as M. De Lesseps proposes, would cost from 
$300, 000,000 to $400,000,000, and the cost of maintaining it would be beyond 
all reasonable estimate. In the report upon the Nicaraguan Canal, recently 
made to your Chamber of Commerce, it is estimated that 8 per cent per annum 
could be realized by the company, and the tolls not exceed $2 per ton. ‘This 
estimate is based upon $100,000, 000 as the aggregate cost of the work, which sum 


‘ 


SHIPS ON WHEELS. 341 


is less than one-third of that required to build the tide-level canal proposed by M. 
De Lesseps. The annual tonnage to be carried is placed at 1,000,000 tons below 
that estimated by De Lesseps—namely, at only 5,000,000 tons. Now, if the 
Nicaraguan Canal Company can pay an 8 per-cent dividend annually by the im- 
position of a toll of but $2 per ton, the same dividend can be declared by the 
ship railway upon the imposition of toll of but $1 per ton, for the reason that the 
cost of the ship railway will not exceed $50,000,000, or one-half the sum required 
for the construction of the canal; nor will its maintenance and operating expenses 
be in any greater proportion. I am convinced that the estimate of the cost of 
constructing the canal at Nicaragua is far below what it will actually cost, and 
that it can not possibly be built as proposed for less than $100,000,000. Should 
the proposed work be constructed, it will be found that the cost of improving the 
harbor at Greytown will far exceed any figure which the sanguine advocates of 
the scheme are now willing to place upon it. The cost of maintaining its har- 
bors when improved, that of dredging the canal and keeping it and its locks in 
repair, and a hundred other minor expenses, demand the attention of those by 
whose products and labor the necessary interest on the capital invested must be 
paid. 

Capt. Eads concludes as follows: ‘‘ Standing in your presence to-day, and 
conscious of the full import of my words, I declare to you, 

1. That a shin railway can be constructed at one-half the cost of a canal 
with locks, and in one-half the time. 

2. That when completed, the railway can be maintained and operated at a 
cost not exceeding that of a canal. 

3. That your largest vessels, with their cargoes, can be safely carried from 
ocean to ocean in one-half the time required for a passage through the canal. 
These considerations alone, it seems to me, should decide you at once in favor 
of the railway. But these are not the only ones. The railroad, when completed, 
can be enlarged from time to time, as the wants of commerce may demand. 
And should the commerce using the road demand a double instead of a single 
line of tracks, the work can be speedily done and at a reasonable expense, and 
without interfering with its traffic. Another matter which I desire to suggest is 
this: Wherever a canal is practicable, a railway is also practicable; and at some 
points a railway could be constructed where a canal would be out of the question. 
As you reduce the distance for the carrying of your freight you reduce the cost 
of transportation. ‘There can be no doubt a ship railway could be constructed at 
Tehuantepec, and if this route were selected almost 700 miles of transportation 
could be saved over that necessary if the transit was by Nicaragua.”—San Fran- 
cisco Chronicle. 


342 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF FORESTS. 


Considering the great importance of the preservation of forests, and the lam- 
entable want of foresight which permits their reckless destruction in nearly all 
parts of the world, but more particularly in our own continent, where forests will 
soon become scarcer and scarcer unless more practical measures are adopted for 
their preservation, it is satisfactory to be able to note that some Governments are 
recognizing the advisability of attempting the preservation of the forests they 
have under their charge. One of these, we are able to learn from a report pub- 
lished during the late Paris Exhibition, is the Government of France. The doc- 
ument in question, at the time it was issued, did not attract the attention it really 
deserves, and on that account we refer to it here somewhat fully. 

We learn from the report that a large proportion of forest land does not 
necessarily exclude a numerous population. Compared with Germany, France 
has a third less of forest-covered soil, at the same time that she has a population 
less dense by one-eighth. Belgium, Holland, Denmark, and Great Britain, being 
either countries with a proportionally large sea coast or else islands, with an es- 
pecially damp climate, may be left entirely out of the comparison, as they are 
able to exist without extensive forests. But there is no question that the retro- 
grade process of Spain, her less dense population, is due in no small degree to 
the absence of forests, more especially as the uniformly mountainous nature of 
her soil requires, more than any other county, the prevalence of forests. | Wher- 
ever this test is applied, it will be found (of course, speaking only of European 
countries) that fertility and density of population are closely connected with the 
presence of forests. It would form a generous undertaking for any Government 
to aim at an equalization in this direction. Whatever has been done in this re- 
spect in all countries has only been effected piecemeal; consequently it has been 
of but little influence on the whole. A common mode of procedure is what is 
wanted. 

The experience gained by the French Office of Woods and Forests with re- 
gard to the acclimatization of foreign, especially trans-oceanic forest trees, is par- 
ticularly valuable. The blue gum tree imported from Australia prospers in the 
South of France, and by its plantation at the mouth of the Var the marshes sur- 
rounding it have been drained, and the fevers formerly prevailing there banished. 
The trees prosper wonderfully in Algiers, as the section of a trunk not yet fifteen 
years old, of a diameter of one foot proves. But the wood is white, light, breaks 
easily, and cannot be compared with the durable, solid ship timber which the 
same tree produces in Australia. The same is the case with the American oak, 
which prospers in poor soil, grows quickly, and forms beautiful tops of foliage. 
But the wood is inferior, the bark contains less tannin than that of European 
oaks. Trees, consequently, can be planted in certain cases only as surrogates, 
principally to prepare the ground for better kinds. At present, experiments are 
also being made with the Californian theya tree, the wood of which is especially 


CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF FORESTS. 343 


suitable for better classes of furniture; it is doubtful, however, whether its wood 
will not deteriorate by cultivation in Europe. 

But the most important feature of the forest exhibition was the illustration of 
the planting of trees in places which require afforesting. This includes two very 
distinct categories, the afforesting of heights and the afforesting of dunes, as well 
as their turfing, for trees cannot prosper without the growth of grass. On the 
heights as well as on the sandy shores of the sea, the labors of the forest cultiva- 
tor meet with unusual obstacles. 

The bare lines of hills have, in winter, a superabundant of snow and water, 
while in summer they suffer from long-continued drought. By afforesting both 
evils are to be remedied, but the tree itself suffers most from them. The winds 
and storms to which the tops of mountains are exposed, and against which the 

“trees are to protect them, as well as the slopes and the valleys which they form, 
are also a great drawback to the growth of trees. The forester must consequent- 
ly apply especial means for attaining his object, the afforestation of lines of hills. 

There are many depressions in mountains where the evils indicated are not 
so pronounced, and some protection against wind and too great drought is found. 
But the water, or rather the masses of water which are collecting in these de- 
pressions when the snow melts, have always sought an exit, and as they are 
acting with continuous and, on that account, resistless force, have found it. Each 
depression, each sinking of the soil in mountains, has been formed, long before 
the existence of man, into channels and gorges, whence in spring enormous 
bodies of water have precipitated themselves into the plains below, carrying with 
them masses of stone, earth, and roots. The first step, therefore, is to provide 
the gorge, which very often has been expanded into a valley, with obstacles 
against the precipitation of water. Weirs are consequently constructed at suitable 
distances across it. They either consist of a row of strong piles, the intervals 
between which are filled up by hurdle-work, or a strong, well-constructed dike is 
built of blocks of rock. The weirs must be made stronger and multiplied accord- 
ing to the length of the gorge and the quantity of water to be met. They retain 
the water for some time, which forms by its own action a broad smooth course, a 
small lake; all the small stones and dissolved particles of earth settle down, and 
soon form a broad, deep layer of fertile soil, on which grow first, grasses, then 
bushes, and finally trees. Humidity is here longer preserved by the water kept 
back, and the edges of the gorge afford some protection against winds and a too 
powerful sun. 

As soon as bushes and trees have risen above the weirs, afforestation pro- 
ceeds and extends rapidly. More fertile soil and humus accumulate, the gorge © 
is gradually filled up, its slopes and edges become covered with grass, and upon 
grass follow regularly bush and tree. It becomes possible to lead the water from 
the weir by a horizontal channel over the edge upon the surface of the mountain, 
or rather the slope, where then the same series of growth is repeated. ‘The ver- 
dure and trees already existing afford protection and supply moisture to the plan- 


344 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


tations growing on both sides of the filled-up gorge. The mountain thus becomes 
gradually covered with wood from the gorges. The further bush and tree are 
extending the longer snow and moisture are kept back, the waters rushing to- 
ward the gorge decrease, lose in violence, whereby the matter they carry with 
them is precipitated, and kept back more completely, and, in a corresponding 
degree, more nourishment conveyed to the plants. The impetuous mountain 
torrent, which during the short term of its yearly existence only causes mischief 
and devastation, is gradually tamed, but it flows during a longer period, for the 
snow retained by the trees no longer melts all at once. The further afforestation 
advances the further this development proceeds. Finally, the mountain is trans- 
formed into a quiet forest brook, which fertilizes the gorge by degrees almost 
entirely filled up, and never dries up. The mountain covered with forest makes 
the precipitation of moisture possible; springs break forth, whose waters seek the 
bed of the old tumbling and plunging torrent. 

In the plain, also, this beneficial change makes itself felt. The never failing 
brook drives mill and machinery ; it serves for the irrigation of meadows, fields, 
and gardens. On the lower slopes, since afforestation has been effected, vine- 
yards, orchards, or fertile, if rugged, fields have sprung up. ‘The afforested 
mountain protects from cold, excessive humidity, and exceeding aridity alike, 
but, especially, also from inundations. It tempers winter, cools summer, and pre- 
vents especially, many of the late night frosts which are so destructive to many of 
the most fertile plantations. 

It is principally mountain chains of medium height where such works are 
possible as we have here pointed out. But lines of hills of small elevation, or 
swellings of the ground as we meet them in large plains, exert a similar influence 
on climate and weather if they are covered by forests. A great many will, at 
the present day, smile incredulously when they read how in the Middle Ages 
vineyards existed in all parts of Northern Germany, and a not inconsiderable 
trade was carried on with their products. And yet the explanation is as easy and 
as simple as it can possibly be. At that time nearly the whole country was still 
covered by large tracts of forest, the winters were consequently somewhat milder, 
frosts ceasing earlier in spring. As matter of fact, wherever the vine is cultivat- 
ed in Germany at the present day, there we find the largest forests. Examples 
are not rare that as late as this century villages have suffered injury in the culti- 
vation of the vine, or entirely lost it, because forests in the neighborhood have 
been destroyed. There is no protection in Germany against this wholesale de- 
struction of forests. It is true there is a Ministry of Agriculture, and there are 
Boards of Health, but there is an absence of legislative enactments for the pres- 
ervation of forests. It has been repeatedly suggested that existing German 
forests should be preserved, and, where practicable, schemes of afforestation 
carried out; at present, however, without any visible effect. 

In France the state of the question is in a no more advanced condition. Af 
forestation proceeds but slowly, and yet France is acknowledged to possess the 


CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF FORESTS. 345 


best law for afforesting mountains. From 1861-77 but 68,000 acres of mountain 
land were planted with trees, and further 3,700 acres turfed. The sum expended 
in those seventeen years was only £345,000, really an absurdly small amount 
for a country which has spent milliards on the improvement of Paris and other 
similar outlays, and which is on the point of expending other milliards on rail- 
ways the utility of which is at least problematical. Need we wonder that inunda- 
tions occur periodically, every time causing injury calculated by hundreds of 
millions ? 

The French law of afforestation already referred to, and passed in 1860, 
orders in its essential provisions that afforestation is to be promoted by public 
grants of seeds, young trees, money, and other means. Afforesting, if the state 
of the soil and other conditions make it appear necessary, may be made compul- 
sory. If landed proprietors, communes, and others interested should decline to 
undertake themselves a regulated system of afforestation, this may be effected by 
the State, which may take possession for this purpose of the land in question. If 
persons interested wish, after completed afforestation, to enter again into posses- 
sion of their soil, and consequently enter upon the enjoyment of the improve- 
ments effected by the State, they must repay to the latter the expenses incurred 
with interest, or cede instead half of the afforested soil. 

The solidification of dunes by means of the growth of grass and the planting 
of trees offers difficulties of another kind. The question here is to ‘‘fix” the 
sand hills and sand heaps, shifted and driven about by the waves like balls. The 
work must be very gradual. A whole series of dunes is marked out, the line 
being drawn, as near as possible, over their crests. The parting off is effected 
by means of a strong fencing over the crest of the dunes, toward which smaller 
cross fences lean herring-bone fashion. ‘The effect of this construction is the 
accumulation of ever increasing masses of sand in the places thus protected, 
which eventually form a bulwark for the space behind against the rush of the 
waves. The area thus inclosed is first planted with meadow grass, and next 
with coniferous trees, the latter being at first protected against sand drifts by 
means of brushwood. Sedges, broom, esparto grass also have been employed 
with advantage for first cultivation. The exhibition contained relief plans of the 
dune works and plantations of the dunes between the mouths of the Gironde and 
the Coubre. The soil reclaimed lies partly below the level of the sea, and 
amounts already to many thousand acres. Where, a hundred years ago, there was 
only a desolate and marshy expanse, there the eye now ranges over splendid 
forests, in which deciduous trees begin more and more to show themselves among 
firs and pines, while prosperous looking villages and large herds of cattle, gar- 
dens, and vineyards impart life toa landscape which was formerly a silent and 
dreary waste.— Zhe Builder. 


346 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY. 


This work was commenced a year or two ago as a government enterprise, but 
the Ministry have apparently become somewhat frightened at the magnitude of 
the task or have become discouraged by the absence of aid from the Imperial 
Government which was expected at the inception of the undertaking. Be the 
cause what it may, it has been determined, if the proper parties come forward, to 
hand over the work to a public company; assistance and inducements being offer- 
ed to promoters, as was done in the case of the transcontinental lines on the other 
side of the boundary. ‘The total length of the projected system is 2,200 miles, 
of which it may be said 600 miles are either completed or under construction. 
The Government it is announced, are prepared to grant asubsidy of $20,000,000 
in cash, payment to be spread over the period of ten years assumed to be neces- 
sary for the construction of the line, an amount equal to $10,000 per mile or 
about one-third of the estimated cost. A further grant will be made of 35,000,- 
ooo acres of land, to be located in alternate sections along the route, as was done 
in the case of the Union and Central Pacific companies. The 600 miles under 
construction will be handed over to the company without cost. 

The history of the undertaking, so far under the direct control of the Cana- 
dian Government is as follows: ‘The first expenditure on construction was toward 
the end of 1874. Contracts were then entered into for the telegraph from Lake 
Superior to British Columbia along the line of the railway, including the clearing 
of the forest land to a width of 132 feet. The line was divided into four sections, 
on three of which the work was prosecuted with vigor and the telegraph com- 
pleted from Fort William to Edmonton, 1,200 miles, so that messages could be 
transmitted. The remaining section across the mountains to British Columbia re- 
mains incomplete. In the same year (1874) the grading of the Pembina branch 
for sixty-three miles north of the international boundary was commenced. In 
1877 the grading was extended to Selkirk under the same contract, and in 1878 
the track was laid on the whole length—eighty-five miles. In 1874 the exten- 
sion of the Canada Central Railway to the eastern terminus, near Lake Nipissing, 
was subsidized. Early in 1875 the sections were placed under contract—the one 
from Fort William, thirty-three miles to Sunshine Creek, and the other east from 
Selkirk, seventy-six miles to Cross Lake, an extension east of Cross Lake, 
thirty-six miles to Keewatin, at the outlet of the Lake of the Woods, was 
placed under contract in January, 1877. In 1876 a contract was made 
for an extension from Sunshine Creek west to English River, eighty miles. 
In 1878 the Georgian Bay branch was undertaken; but this work was subsequent- 
ly abandoned. For the spring of 1879 the line between English River and Kee- 
watin, 185 miles was let in two contracts, and in the summer following a section 
of 100 miles west of Red River, including a branch from the main line to the city 
of Winnipeg, was placed under contract. At the British Columbia end of the 
line, ground was broken toward the close of last year, when the grading, bridg- 


THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY. 347 


ing, track-laying and ballasting, from near Yale to Savona’s Ferry, a distance of 
127 miles was placed under contract. 
The length now under construction is thus, as under: 


Miles. 
Fort William to Selkirk (main line) . Spa I Mibieh reels tubal ENE APART) 
Selkirk to Emerson (Pembina been) : SANs 
West of Red River (main line and AViNHpee raeO)) 100 
iim Tsieibsla Colmar, (Ganemn Mae) 5 Gc Se oO 8 og aS kaa 
Total under construction . . . 722 


A second too mile section west of the Red Rive Hae event pees let, mak_ 
ing a total of 822 miles under construction, consisting of main line 720 miles and 
Pembina and Winnipeg branches 102 miles. In April last the rails were laid 136 
miles west of Fort William and go miles east of Selkirk, and traffic trains are 
regularly run from Emerson to Cross Lake, 161 miles. 

The cost of the route will, it is said, bear favorable comparison with that 
of the other completed and projected lines. The general summit is lower and 
the gradients more moderate. While the Central Pacific in climbing the Sierras. 
attains a height of over 7,000 feet, and the Union Pacific passes the Rocky 
Mountains at an elevation of over 8,000 feet, the Canadian Pacific has but one 
summit on its route, at Yellow Head Pass, where a level of 3,050 feet is reached. 
The cost of the 406 miles from Fort William to Selkirk, approaching completion, 
will be about $17,000,000, and for the Pembina branch the outlay has been $1,- 
750,000. For the whole route from Lake Superior to the Pacific coast Mr. 
Sandford Fleming, the government engineer-in-chief, has made the following es- 
timate, including a fair allowance for rolling stock and engineering during con- 
struction : 


Miles. 

Horr wWallamitonselkink’..) ) jue eee a tAO6 $17,000,000 
Selkirkitomjaspar Valleys.) . mein een cy eCOO 13,000,000 
asparitol Wake: anlleops! 2) eee ae 335 15,500,000 
Wakenkeandloopsito wales) .7) 7s gee 125 10,000,000 
Nileston OrtelVloodhy: 4/17)... wpm Mi ail. go 3,500,000 
ENCCES A aie ie eet saree eee) = 1,000,000 

Motalsyis conus oy lease GCE 0) $60,000,000 


The above does not inehidle cost ae exploration and preliminary surveys over 

a wide extent of country between latitude 49° and 56°, along the route, amount- 

‘Ing to over $3,000,000, nor the cost of the Pembina branch, $1,750,000 nor other 

‘amounts with which the Pacific Railway account of the Government is already 
Breed. In the course of the surveys three alternative routes through the 
“mountains into British Columbia have been laid down in addition to the line as 

“finally fixed to Burrard Inlet. All of these are further to the north than the 
selected line, and average about 200 miles greater length. They follow respec- 


348 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


tively the Peace River Pass and the Pine River Pass, and it is recommended 
that one or the other be constructed when practicable on account of the value of 
the territory thus to be opened. 

The last report of Mr. Fleming also covers urgent recommendations as to 
the establishment of a Pacific submarine cable in connection with the Canadian 
Pacific Telegraph system. The cable, it is suggested, may start from one of the 
deep water inlets at the north end of Vancouver’s Island, and be sunk in a di- 
rect course to Japan, or it may touch about midway, Ambia, one of the Aleu- 
tian Islands. At Yeddo, in Japan, the connection would be made with the 
Asiatic telegraphs. As an alternative route the submarine may land on one of 
the Kurile Islands north of Japan, and thence extend direct to Hong Kong. 
Either course would complete the connection with the whole Eastern telegraph 
system and effect important results. Such a line would connect all the great 
business centers of America with China and the principal ports of Asia much 
more directly than by the present lines of telegraph by way of Europe. The new 
line would be employed for the most part by the English speaking people of both 
hemispheres, and the frequent mistakes of polyglot telegraph operators in Europe 
be avoided. The further inducement is held out that it would bring Great Bri- 
tain, Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and all the outer 
‘provinces and colonial possessions of Great Britain into unbroken telegraphic 
communication with each other in entire independence of the lines which pass 
through other European countries.—/V. Y. Herald. 


VS lin © IN@ WY: 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR OCTOBER, 1880. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY. 


Mercury sets on the 1st at 6 h. 03 m. p. m., and on the gist, 5 h. 53 m. p. 
m. It is unfavorably situated for observation during this month, owing to its 
being so far south in declination. | 

Venus sets on the 1st at 6 h. 34 m. p. m., and on the 31st at 6 h. 24 m. p. 
m., and like Mercury, is too far south of the sun to show to advantage. 

Mars is in conjunction with the sun and can not be seen. 

Jupiter isin the best position possible for observation, being on the 7th in) 
opposition or 180 degrees from the sun. It rises as follows: On the ist at 6 h. 
oo m. p. m., and on the 31st at 3 h. 52 m. p. m. 

The following is a brief summary of the phenomena presented by its four 
Moons, Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, the time used being Kansas City 
mean solar time. 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR OCTOBER, 788o. 349 


On the 1st at 9 h. 30 m. p. m., Io reappears after occultation. 

On the 5th at 11 h. 12 m. p. m., a small round black spot will appear on the 
eastern edge of the planet’s disk, it being the shadow of Ganymede, which satel- 
lite will follow in 18 minutes, and both will make a transit of the planet’s disk. 

On the 7th, at 11 h. 50 m. p. m., Io and its shadow will enter on the plan- 
et’s disk at the same time and pass across in transit. 

On the 8th at 11 h. 15 m. 27s., Io will suddenly reappear, coming out of 
Jupiter’s shadow, and will be very close to the eastern edge of the planet. 

On the oth at 7 h. 06 m. 22s. p. m., Europa reappears after being eclipsed. 

On the same day at 3h. 28 m. p. m., Io will pass off the western edge of 
‘the planets disk, followed in 5 minutes by its shadow. 

On the 14th at 11 h. 57 m. p. m., Europa will enter on the planet in transit, 
followed by its shadow in 23 minutes. 

On the 15th at ro h. 45 m. p. m., Io will disappear behind the planet’s 
disk. 

On the 16th at 7 h. 32 m. 07s. p. m., Ganymede will suddenly reappear at 
some distance to the east of the planet. 

@n the 17th at 7 h: 39 m. 26 s. p. m., To reappears to the east of the 
planet. ; 

On the 23d at 7 h. 26 m. p. m., Ganymede will disappear behind the west- 
ern edge of the planet, and at 8h. 45 m. p. m., Europa will likewise disappear 
and at 11 h. 33 m. 53s p. m., Ganymede will suddenly reappear at some distance 
from the planet on the east side. Europa will likewise reappear at 11 m. 50S. 
past midnight. 

On the 24th at 9 h. 34 m. 50s. p. m, Io will reappear after being eclipsed. 

On the 25th in the early evening two small round black spots may be seen 
near the western edge of Jupiter’s disk, and at 6 h. 51 m p. m., the one nearest 
to the edge will pass off followed by the other in 7 minutes. They are the 
shadows of Io and Europa. 

On the morning of the 31st at r h. ro m., Ganymede will reappear, coming 
from behind the planet and at 1 h. 16 m. 35 s., will plunge into Jupiter’s shadow 
and disappear, being visible a little more than 6 minutes. 

On the 31st at 8h. 50 m. p. m., Io will disappear by being occulted, and 
reappears from being eclipsed at 11 h. 30 m. 20s. p. m. 

Saturn rises as follows: On the 1st at6 h. 32 m. p m. On the 31st at 4 h. 
28m p. m., and for observation is favorably situated, being in opposition to the 
sun on the 18th at 6 h. a. m. 

This is one of the most remarkable planets in this solar system, being en- 
circled with a system of thin rings extending out in the plane of the planet’s 
equator to a distance of more than 83,000 miles from the planet’s center. On 
‘the 7th we are 14° 30’ above the plane of the southern surface of the rings, 
‘which elevation is slowly decreasing during the next two months, owing to the 
‘motion of the earth in its orbit. 


350 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Uranus rises on the 1st at3 h. 43 m.a.m. On the 31st, at 1h. 44 m. a. 
m. It can only be seen by morning observers. 

Neptune rises on the 1st at 7 h. 15 m. p. m. On the 31st, at 5 h. 14m. 
p. m. 

Our moon begins its monthly course by passing the sun on the 4th, and 
Mercury and Venus on the 5th. On the evening of the 7th it will pass 2° north 
of Antares, the brightest star in Scorpio. On the 17th, at 5 h. a.m., it will 
pass north of Jupiter 7° 1’ of arc, and on the 18th, at 4 h. a.m., it will pass north 
of Saturn 7° 44’ of arc. During the month it occultates 13 stars of the 3d to 6th 
magnitudes. 


AN ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERY. 


Professor E. C. Pickering, director of the Harvard Observatory, lately 
made a discovery which is regarded as one of the most important of the century 
in stellar physics. In the ordinary telescope a star appears as a point of light, 
brighter, but not larger than when looked at with the naked eye. Prof. Picker- 
ing finds that, on placing a prism between the object glass and the eyepiece of 
his telescope, the light of a star is drawn out into a continuous band. When, 
however, the telescope with the prism is directed to a planetary nebula, the light 
is collected into a star-like point without any band, enabling the astronomer to 
distinguish instantly between a star and a planetary nebula. This principle has. 
already enabled Prof. Pickering to discover several planetary nebule. On Thurs- 
day evening, August 26th, an object was observed which presented the appear- 
ance of two star-like points within the band in the modified telescope. It is dif- 
ferent from anything heretofore observed in the telescope, and is regarded as an 
important object for investigation. ( 


THE LIGHT OF JUPITER. 


There has been for some years a discussion as to whether the planet Jupiter 
shines to any perceptible extent by his own intrinsic light, or whether the ilumi- 
nation is altogether derived from the sun. Some facts ascertained from spectro- 
scopic observati n by Prof. Henry Draper, and communicated by him to the 
current number of the American Journal of Science and Arts, seem to point to the 
conclusion that it is not improbable that Jupiter is still hot enough to give out 
light, though perhaps only in a periodic or eruptive manner. Most of the photo- 
graphs hitherto made of the spectrum of Jupiter by Prof. Draper, bear so close a 
resemblance to those of the sun as to indicate that under the ordinary circum- 
stances of observation, almost all the light coming to the earth from Jupiter must 
be merely reflected light originating in the sun. But on one occasion—Sept. 27, 
1879—a spectrum of Jupiter with a comparison spectrum of the moon was 
obtained by him which showed a different state of things. ‘The photograph which 


NORDENSK/JOLD’S LABORS. 351 


was taken of this shows, not a change in the number or arrangement of the 
Fraunhofer lines, but a variation in the strength of the background. These 
modifications in the intensity of the background seem to Prof. Draper to point 
out two things that are occurring: (1.) An absorption of solar light in the equa- 
torial regions of the planet. (2.) A production of intrinsic light at the same 
place. These two apparently opposing statements can be reconciled on the 
hypothesis that the temperature of the incandescent substances producing light at 
the equatorial regions of Jupiter did not suffice for the emission of the more 
refrangible rays, and that there were present materials which absorbed those rays 
from the sunlight falling on the planet. The strengthening of the spectrum in 
the portions answering to the vicinity of the equatorial regions of Jupiter, says Prof. 
Draper, bears so directly on the problem of the physical condition of the planet 
as to incandescence that its importance cannot be overrated.—Sccentific American. 


IBMO Gur Ale tal Ne 


NORDENSKJOLD’S LABORS. 
BY JOHN RAE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.. LONDON, ENGLAND. 


Before entering upon the Arctic career—which has recently culminated in so 
grand a success—of the subject of this paper, it may not be out of place to give 
a very brief notice of his previous by no means uneventful life, for all, or nearly 
all, of which I am indebted to ‘‘The Arctic Voyages of Adolf Erick Nordens- 
kjold, 1858—1879,” published by Macmillan & Co., 1879. 

Nordenskjéld is a native of Finland, and was born at Helsingfors, in No- 
vember, 1832, of arace known for many generations to possess great qualities. 
Whilst yet a boy, he was an industrious collector of minerals and insects, and 
accompanied his father, a well-known naturalist, on many of his excursions, 
thus preparing himself, without being aware of it, for his future great work. At 
first he was extremely idle when at school, his free spirit refusing to be under due 
discipline; but when this discipline was relaxed, he became very industrious and 
attentive, and was soon among those who obtained the best reports. 

At this school—the Gymnasium at Borgo—a revolution took place, in 1848, 
among the pupils, in consequence of two of them being subjected to corporal 
punishment, and nearly half the young men had to leave the institution—among 
them Nordenskjéld. 

His chief studies in the University of Helsingfors—which he entered in 
1849—were Chemistry, Natural History, Mathematics, Physics, and, above all, 
Mineralogy and Geology. He had already acquired much skill in recognizing 
and collecting minerals during his father’s tours, so that he was at an early age 


302 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


found capable of taking charge of the fine mineral collection at Frugord. ‘‘ By 
these experiences he acquired a keen and certain eye for recognizing minerals.” 
After passing his examination, in 1853, he accompanied his father on a minera- 
logical excursion to Ural, and paid much attention to the iron and copper mines. 
On his return, he continued his favorite studies, and about the year 1855-56, 
wrote papers on the ‘‘Crystalline Forms of Graphite and Chondrodite,” ‘A 
Description of the Minerals found in Finland,” various articles on Mineralogy 
and Molecular Chemistry, etc.; and also, in conjunction with another gentle- 
man, ‘‘The Mollusca of Finland.” He was during this time appointed Curator 
of the Mathematico-Physical faculty, and Mining Engineer Extraordinary, to 
each of which a small salary was attached. 

He did not, however, long enjoy these his first paid appointments, having 
been removed before his second quarter’s salary was paid, because of some po- 
litical speeches made in ‘‘heedless fun and frolic’’ at a convivial dinner, where 
one of those present parodied, in a very effective manner, a famous speech of 
Palmerston’s about the taking of the Baltic fortresses. This difficulty ended in 
Nordenskjéld having to leave his native land and take up his quarters for a 
time at Berlin, where he continued his pet studies, and made the acquaintance 
of some distinguished men, to whom his father’s well-known name was a most 
favorable introduction. 

He returned to Finland, was offered positions of honor and emolument, but 
in consequence of an imprudent speech, had again to leave that country for a 
time; the Governor General, Von Berg, being evidently inimical to him. Dur- 
ing this period of exile he made his first Arctic voyage with Torell to Spitzbergen, 
in 1858, in the autumn of which he again visited Finland, and was offered a sit- 
uation of trust, but difficulties were raised by Von Berg, to whom he would not 
express regret for what he had done, and ‘‘ who told him he must bid good-bye 
to Finland.” He got his passport, and in fourteen days crossed the frontier into 
Sweden, of which country he became a naturalized citizen. Subsequent to 
1862, when Von Berg—who had cruelly denied Nordenskjéld the privilege of 
visiting his dying mother—had ceased to be Governor General, he was permitted 
to visit Finland whenever he pleased. 

In the season of 1858-9, he was appointed to take charge of the Mineralog- 
ical Department of Riks Museum at Stockholm, vacant by the death of the for- 
mer able Curator, Mosander. His whole history at this time is a continuous 
record of constant and useful scientific work, showing great capacity and en- 
ergy, both mental and physical. 

In 1864 he went on his first Arctic expedition under his own command, 
with very limited means, and in a small sailing vessel. The results were much 
less than were looked for (although during this summer the sea was very free 
from ice), in consequence of his meeting, when sailing northward, seven boats 
laden with walrus hunters, from vessels that had been wrecked, with whom he 
was compelled to return immediately to Norway. ‘The sales of animals, etc., 
killed during this expedition paid part of the expenses. 


NORDENSK/JOLD'S LABORS. 303 


A strenuous effort was made by Nordenskjéld, during the summer of 1868, 
to reach a high northern latitude in the iron steamer ‘‘Sofia,”’ * far too weak, 
both in build and steam power, to contend successfully with the ice-pack usually 
found north of Spitzbergen; nevertheless, he reached the very high latitude of 
81° 42’ N., on the 18th of September, this being the highest well authenticated 
latitude reached by any vessel (Parry’s boats in 1827 excepted) at this date. 
Later on in the season, the vessel leaked so badly, from a blow against an ice 
floe, that she was with difficulty brought back to her old anchorage in one of the 
Spitzbergen harbors, where she was beached and the damage patched up. 

On his return from this expedition, Nordenskjéld was awarded the Foun- 
ders’ gold medal by the Royal Geographical Society of London. . 

I am happy to find that this experienced, truthful, and distinguished ex- 
plorer is of opinion that, ‘‘in a not too unfavorable year, it would certainly be 
possible to reach, from the northwestern extremity of Spitzbergen, a far higher 
latitude than Sir George Nares’ vessel attained during the last English Polar Ex- 
pedition.” f 

In 1872, that admirably generous and public spirited gentleman, Mr. Oscar 
Dickson, again nobly volunteered the funds requisite for another Polar expedi- 
tion, with the same object as the last, but on this occasion sledging over the ice 
was to be attempted. 

Nordenskjéld closely discussed the question as to whether reindeer or dogs 
were best as draught animals, and to settle this question satisfactorily he paid 
Greenland a visit in 1870. So as to utilize this Greenland tour to the utmost, he 
made an excursion over the inland ice of this illnamed country, which is cer- 
tainly the reverse of ‘‘green.” He was accompanied on the ice by the botanist, 
Berggren, and on this of all places the most unlikely for a botanist to find any- 
thing worthy of notice in his own special science, the remarkable discovery was 
made that this ice was everywhere covered with a scanty vegetation of micro- 
scopic alge. Their progress was interrupted by many crevasses, so that they 
reached only about thirty miles inland. 

Nordenskjéld determined on taking with him reindeer instead of dogs, be- 
cause they would serve as food, each deer being counted upon as yielding up- 
ward of too lbs. venison; but the deer required so large a supply of mosses and 
lichens for food, that an extra vessel had to be hired for their transport. 

This year (1872) the state of the ice on the northern shores of Spitzbergen 
was found unusually rough and unfavorable, and, to make matters worse, the 
reindeer all escaped very soon after they were put on shore. The auxiliary ves- 
sel already mentioned and another which had been required, were to have re- 
turned to Sweden immediately after discharging their cargoes, but were unfor- 


* An iron steamer is not so good for Arctic service as one built of wood. The cold makes the iron brittle. 
—J. R. 

+ This line of route I have consistently advocated for more than a quarter of a century, chiefly on ac- 
‘count of Parry’s experience of 1827, and because there is, as far as yet known, a channel 300 miles wide for 
the ice to move freely in, instead of narrow straits leading northward, which, according to my own experi- 
_ -ence, and that of others, are impenetrably blocked up with ice, either at one end or the other.—J. R. 


IV—23 


304 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


tunately shut up by the ice in Mussel Bay—an unusual thing—and, not having 
provisions enough for wintering, the supply of food taken for the crew of one 
vessel was too small to feed so many mouths; the difficulties were further in- 
creased by their being obliged to receive and give rations toa number of ship- 
wrecked walrus hunters, who otherwise would have starved. 

The expedition, useful in other respects, was a perfect failure in its main ob- 
ject, that of getting far to north. 

As these two last expeditions were wholly with the object of making a great. 
progress Poleward, I shall offer a few remarks on the various routes to the Pole, 
either already attempted or in prospect, before describing Nordenskjéld’s most 
recent and grandly successful Arctic voyage to the northeast; thinking it may be 
of interest to those who have not made Arctic voyages especially their study, to 
point out the various routes to the North Pole that have been attempted, and to 
mention the difficulties that have been encountered, and their causes, in the ef- 
forts to make the northwest passage, which has been discovered, but has never 
been made in the true sense of the word, that is, by a vessel passing from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, or wice versa, northward of the American Conti- 
nent. 

Contrary to the theories of many presumably good Arctic authorites, who 
advocate narrow channels of the sea for Arctic navigation, such channels have, 
in practice, been found the worst possible for this purpose, especially when their 
direction lay in anything approaching to a north and south course, as they have 
always been blocked with impenetrable ice in one part or other. As examples 
of this, I may mention Smith Sound, which was found completely sealed up by 
the ice-pack at its northern outlet in 1875. In the narrow Fury and Hecla Strait, 
Parry’s advance westward was stopped by close packed ice at its western open- 
ing in 1823. 

Franklin’s northward progress through Wellington Channel must have been 
stopped in a similar manner in 1845, for he turned back the same year. In 
1846, '47, °48, the ships of the same good and noble but unfortunate navigator 
were shut up dy and abandoned zm the ice, near the south entrance of the some- 
what narrow channel, named by me Victoria Strait in 1851; the pressure of the 
ice-pack coming down from the northwest through McClintock Channel, and 
checked in its progress by King William’s Land, must, from my experience of it, 
have been immense. Franklin’s officers did not at that time know—a fact ascer- 
tained by me in 1854—that King William’s Land was an island, and that, by 
passing eastward of it, the ice pressure might in a great measure have been 
avoided. 

Bellot Strait, which bounds the extreme north point of America in latitude 
71° 57 N., was found impraeticable by the Fox, in 1858-9, in consequence of 
the ice-pack at its western end. 

Prince of Wales’s Strait—another narrow channel—separating Banks Land 
from Wollaston Land, was of easy access from the south, both by McClure in 


NORDENSKJOLD’S LABORS. 395 


1850, and by Collinson in 1851, but its northern entrance was completely sealed 
up by the ice floes. 

Finally, Banks Strait was a fatal obstruction—fatal I mean as regards the 
making of the northwest passage—to Parry sailing westward in 1819, and 
equally so to McClure in 1851, ’52, and ’53, going eastward from Behring Strait, 
when he had to abandon his ship in Mercy Bay, and with his crew take refuge 
on board Kellett’s vessels, which were also abandoned. ‘They then took pass- 
age in an auxiliary steamer to England wa. Lancaster Sound and Davis Straits, 
thus making or finding a northwest passage by walking one or two hundred miles 
over the ice-covered sea. 

Sea channels having an east and west direction, when of considerable length, 
are usually pretty free from obstruction, as the land to the north in a great meas- 
ure prevents ice pressure from that direction. 

An idea has recently been started, and papers have been read on the sub- 
ject, advocating an advance Pole-ward between the meridians of 50° and 60° 
east longitude to Franz Joseph Land, which is acknowledged to be fosséble of ap- 
proach about once in every five or six years. If this assumption is correct, as I 
presume it may be, because mentioned by the advocates of this route, it must be 
most dangerous, for, supposing a ship to reach the south portion of Franz Joseph 
Land in ¢he favorable year, she would in all probability be shut up and prevented 
from getting back for five or six years—a much longer detention than is either 
safe or desirable. 

I have already quoted Nordenskjéld’s favorable opinion of the northward 
route za the west shore of Spitzbergen, where we know there is a wide channel 
of sea as far as 83° north latitude, seen by Parry in 1827. That greatest of 
Arctic navigators, when in latitude 82° 45’ N., could not find an ice-floe suffi- 
ciently large and strong to haul his boats upon, so as to protect them from be- 
ing nipped, and remarks in his journal, ‘‘such was the state of the ice at this 
my extreme north point”’—the fact being that, the farther north he went the 
smaller and weaker the floes became. ‘This Spitzbergen route has never been 
attempted by large, well equipped, and powerful screw steamers such as those of 
Nares in 1875, or like the fine ships now almost universally used by the seal 
hunters from Dundee and Peterhead. 

Previous to his great undertaking which ended so gloriously, Nordenskjéld 
undertook two preliminary shorter voyages, as it were to feel the way. For this 
purpose he made a voyage eastward in 1875, with a small sailing sloop of 70 
tons burden, crossed the Kara Sea, and reached the Yeniessei River without dif- 
ficulty, the vessel returning the same season by the same route. Almost every- 
thing intended by this expedition was effected—something unusual in Arctic dis- 
covery. It beimg supposed that the cause of success in 1875 was an unusually 
favorable state of the ice, Nordenskjéld went the following year by nearly the 
same course in a steamer of 400 tons, and made the voyage with equal success— 
thus proving, as far as possible where such an uncertain element of obstruction 
as ice movement is concerned, the practicability of navigating these seas. 


356 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The earliest recorded attempt to find a northeast passage—that is, to take a 
vessel from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, north of Europe and Asia, wa 
Behring Strait—was that of Sir Hugh Willoughby, more than three hundred 
years ago. He and his whole crew were found frozen to death (probably starved), 
where they had been wintering on the shores of Russian Lapland. This expedi- 
tion, consisting of three small vessels, sailed in 1553. 

A number of other expeditions were sent out in the 16th and 17th centuries 
with the same object, under commanders whose names appear prominently in our 
more recent Arctic maps (see Stanford’s Circumpolar Maps), the most conspicuous 
being those of Barentz (a Dutchman) and Hudson. Later on, the Russians un- 
dertook the exploration of these seas, and sent out no fewer than eighteen expe- 
ditions, all of which failed in their main object. The last of these returned in 
1837, on which Von Baer, the Academician, asserted zt was an ice cellar. 

For Nordenskjéld’s great voyage, the patriotic and generous Mr. Oscar 
Dickson, already so frequently mentioned, contributed £12,000, including the 
purchase of the ‘‘ Vega,’’ a steam whaler of 500 tons and 60 horse-power, this be- 
ing a much finer vessel in every respect—apart from the great advantage of 
steam-power—than was ever previously employed for the contemplated work. 
By a grant from the king of Sweden of £2,200, and an equal amount from a 
Russian gentleman, Mr. Alexr. Sibiriakoff, with other subscriptions, the sum 
of £20,000 was obtained. 

The minor objects of this expedition were too numerous to mention in a 
notice so brief as this; it is sufficient to say that with so experienced and scien- 
tific a leader and an admirable staff of able men to support him, no single pur- 
suit that could tend either to the advancement of science or of industrial devel- 
opment was neglected. The expedition was extremely fortunate in having as 
captain of the ‘‘ Vega,’’ Lieut. Palander, who, although still young, had already 
had much experience of ice navigation. The crew of the ‘‘ Vega” consisted of 
thirty persons in all, of whom nine were officers and scientists, three Norwegian 
walrus hunters, and the remaining eighteen picked from about 200 volunteer sea- 
men of the Swedish navy. They were fully provisioned for two years. 

The ‘‘ Vega” sailed from Gottenborg on the 4th of July, 1878, and from 
Tromsoe on the 21st, accompanied from the latter place by the small steamer 
‘‘Tena,” bound for the river of that name. , 

On the 30th of the same month, the ‘‘ Vega” reached the shores of the 
Kara Sea, and anchored at Chabarova, a Samoyede village, near which the two 
vessels Fraser and Express had been at anchor since the 2oth, and had seen no 
ice all these ten days. ‘The Lena arrived on the 31st, and both she and the 
“Vega” took on board coals from the Express, and then sailed on the rst of 
August. The whole of the Kara Sea was traversed without seeing ice, except 
one ‘‘ drift” of floes too rotten or broken up to impede navigation. On the 6th 
of August they came near to anchor in Dickson’s Harbor, in lat. 73° 25’ N., 
long. 82° E. (?), having advanced more than 500 miles in six days. 


NORDENSK/JOLD’S LABORS. 357 


After spending a day in surveying the harbor, the vessels continued their 
eastward voyage. 

On the roth of August the first object of the expedition was accomplished, 
by its arrival at the extreme north point of the Old World, named variously 
Cape Chelyuskin, Cape Severo, or Northeast Cape, its latitude being 77° 41’ N., 
longitude 104° 1’ E. On this part of the voyage a good deal of detention had 
been caused by fogs, but the little ice met with had been either too much de- 
cayed or the floes too open to prevent the easy and safe passage of the steamers, 
being rather an advantage than otherwise, because the water was kept smooth. 

A day was spent at this interesting spot in taking bearings and collecting 
specimens of all kinds. The ships then resumed their route, steering nearly due 
east away from the land (instead of following the coast line, which here turned 
to the south), in the direction of the New Siberian Islands; but a dense ice-pack 
met with on the 22d put a stop to their advance in this direction, and they had to 
retrace their way, and by the evening of the 23d were again in open water; 
then, by keeping more to the southward, no more ice was met with up to the 
mouths of the river Lena, where the little vessel of that name parted company 
with her larger consort on the night of the 27th, the latter continuing her course 
toward Behring Strait. 

In three days, notwithstanding that there was much time lost in dredging 
and taking soundings, 360 miles were accomplished, showing how little obstruc- 
tion there had been by ice, which was, however, seen in greater or less quanti 
ties to the north. As they advanced, however, it was necessary to keep to the 
open channel along the coast, which they had to hug closely, as the strip of water 
became narrower every hour; yet no serious delay was caused as far as Cape 
Schelagskoi, which was arrived at on the 6th of September, being still about 500 
miles from Behring Strait. 

The ice was now found so closely packed, that it was requisite to approach 
still nearer the coast to find an open channel. Whilst attempting with much dif- 
ficulty to do this, two large skin boats, of the same build as the Oomiaks of the 
Eskimos, came off full of natives, the first people that had been seen since leav- 
ing Chabarova, about 2,500 miles to the east. These could speak neither Rus- 
sian nor any other language understood by the Swedes, One boy could count 
ten in English, showing that they had probably more communication with Amer- 
ican whalers than with the Russians. These Tchuktché were found still to use 
some implements of stone and bone, and their features have an undoubted re- 
semblance to the Mongols of the Old World, and the Eskimos and Indians (?) 
of the New. Evidently these Tchuktché resemble closely in habits the Eskimos, 
and preserve like them the contents of the reindeer paunch for food. + 

The winter quarters of the ‘‘ Vega” proved safe, and were in other respects 

j At page 385 of “ Nordenskjold’s Arctic Voyages,’’ he says of the Tchuktches—‘‘a tribe doubtless dle 
scended from the Eskimos of Greenland.”’ In my communications with the Eskimos at several positions on 


the American coast, I was led to believe, from what they told me, that they had migrated from the W’esz, and 
not from the £as¢, and therefore the Greenlanders were most probably descended from the Asiatics, 


358 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


favorable for comfort and health, being so little to the north, that even on the 
shortest day—21st December—they had four or five hours daylight. Villages of 
from five to fifteen tents or most friendly Tchuktches studded the coast, from 
whom reindeer venison and bear’s meat were obtained, being no doubt one of 
the causes why no symptoms of scurvy made their appearance. These people 
may he called Marine Tchuktches, in contradistinction to the Reindeer Tchukt- 
ches, who wander about from place to place with their herds of tame deer, and 
who supply the former by barter with the skins of this most useful animal, which 
form their winter dress. { 

It is to be regretted that here, as elsewhere, where the civilized man goes, 
the natives have been taught the love of alcohol, which is especially baneful 
where this demoralizing drink is used as an article of barter, an offense of which 
I am happy to find Nordenskjéld was not guilty—only giving ‘‘a drop now and 
then to encourage them.” The American whalers bring annually large quantities 
of spirits to this coast, notwithstanding the prohibition of the Russian govern- 
ment. 

The ‘‘Vega’’was liberated from her ice fetters on the 18th July, 1879; 
passed East Cape at the narrowest part of Behring Strait, and entered the Pacific 
on the 2zoth of July, thus completing the northeast passage—a glorious, and in 
all probability a most useful work, worthy of this distinguished explorer. The 
wonderful enthusiastic reception that the Swedish Arctic hero has met with, from 
the time of his reaching Japan until his arrival at Stockholm, the capital of his 
adopted country, expresses better than any writing can, how well and truly his 
work is appreciated. 

If I may be permitted to express a regret, it is that Nordenskjéld did not 
sail from Gottenborg ten or twelve days earlier than he did, because there seems 
little doubt that, had he done so, he would have completed the passage in the 
summer of 1878. The Kara Sea was certainly navigable ten days before he 
traversed it, and nearly all the ice met with was in a decayed state, capable of 
causing little obstruction in deep water. In fact, its decayed state during the 
latter part of the voyage, was in a great measure the cause of obstruction, be- 
cause it floated into much shallower water than the undecayed floes would do, 
and in aless depth than was required to float the ‘‘ Vega,’’ and thus her advance 
was obstructed, as was the case with Captain Collinson’s vessel in the autumn of 
1853, on the somewhat similar low, flat, Arctic shore of America, west of Mc- 
Kenzie River, when making his way from the east toward Behring Strait. 

Whilst on the eastward voyage, early in the seasons of 1850 and 1851, no 
difficulty was found in making a passage either by Collinson or McClure, because 
at that time of the year the floes were much thicker and larger, and took the 
ground in deeper water than was required to float their ships, thus leaving a nav- 
igable channel between the ice and the shore.—Zondon Journal of Education. 


{t Numerous graves with burnt human bones were found. These were covered first with turf, and then 
with small flat es. 


FRESHET OF JULY, 1880, 1N THE MISSOURI RIVER. 359 


DEATH OF PROF. S. S. HALDEMAN. 


Prof. S. S. Haldeman, A. M., the distinguished scientist, a Professor in 
Pennsylvania University, died at his home at Chickies, Lancaster county, Pa., 
September roth. He was born near Columbia, Pa., in 1812, and pursued his 
studies at Dickinson College until 1830. In 1836 he was chosen an assistant in 
the New Jersey Geological Survey, and held the same office in the ensuing year 
in the Pennsylvania Geological Survey. While engaged in this capacity there he 
discovered the oldest fossil known at that time, viz.: Scalithus incaris. In 1851 
‘he was chosen to the chair of natural history in the University of Pennsylvania 
and held it till 1855, when he entered upon the duties of corresponding professor- 
ship in Delaware College, and later in the same year became Professor of Geology 
and Chemistry at the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania. At the time of his 
death and for many years before he was the Professor of Comparative Philology 
in the University of Pennsylvania, and attended and took a prominent part in the 
recent meeting of the American Philological Association of Philadelphia. He 
was the author of numerous articles on conchology, entomology and palzon- 
tology, and among his principal papers was his Analytic Ornithological Mono- 
graph of the Fresh Water Univalve Mollusca, published in 1840 and 1845; Mon- 
ography du Genre Leploris, published in Paris in 1847, and papers on Linguistic 
Ethnology, 1849; Zodlogy of the Invertebrate Antaals, New York, 1839, and 
on the Relations of the English and Chinese Languages, published in 1856. 
His work entitled Analytic Orthography, which consists of investigations into 
the philosophy of language, obtained for him in England the highest Trevellyan 
prize in 1858, over eighteen competitors. 


® 


lela SIGs, 


FRESHET OF JULY 1880 IN THE MISSOURI RIVER. 


The high water of July 1880, was the largest body or accumulation of rain- 
water in the river at any one time in the last twenty-seven years, and yet in the 
counties of Lincoln and St. Charles it did not reach the ordinary high banks of 
the river by thirty inches, or the height of the high water of 1876 by twenty-eight 
“inches. , 

Many were of the opinion that the river did not have capacity to hold the 
floods coming down, even before it commenced raining between the Des Moines 
and Missouri Valleys, but when the series in near succession, of unusual heavy 
rains came at maximum height of flood, the general opinion was that the river 
‘would be higher than in the last three decades. 


360 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Why, admitting the causes stated, did not the river reach the height of ’76 
or the greater height of ’51? 

Simply that none of the snow-water mingled with the flood just past. In 1876 
from thirty to forty per cent. of the snow that fell during the winter of 1875 and 
1876 and drained into the Upper Mississippi, mingled with that flood, hence high- 
er than the flood of 1880. Again it may be asked, why the flood so destructive 
above, did not reach the danger line by more than two feet in Lincoln and St. 
Charles counties? The answer is, the greater capacity of the river, which is 
from one and three-fourths to two and a fourth miles wide in St. Charles, while at 
places above it is not half that width. And to this fact may be attributed the 
breaking of the Sny Levee, avarice crowding it out when reserve room should be 
left for high water. 

Most persons interested in the Mississippi Valley are familiar with its present 
condition, but the physical changes are forgotten, if ever understood by the mass- 
es, and that the change is a matter of general interest, will justify giving some of 
its causes. Twenty-five years back, or in 1855, very little of the land draining 
into the Upper Mississippi was improved, say between three and five per cent. 
At that time the population of Iowa was very small; Minnesota and Wisconsin 
were almost a wilderness, and the dense forests of those States were unbroken ex- 
cept by the bridle or foot-path of the Indians and very few small clearings on the 
principal streams. The chief physical changes in the last twenty-five years are 
the gradual lowering of the high water, the lessening of malarial fevers and the 
climatic changes of warmer summers and colder winters. 

The change of temperature of seasons is generally admitted to be caused by 
the destruction and cutting and clearing of the forests. |The decrease of fevers 
is owing to the increased cultivation of the land, making it porous and absorb- 
ent, and the general drainage of the land as cultivated. 

The gradual lowering of maximum high water embodies several causes, the 
chief of which is the cutting of the timber in the heavy snow-beltan the States of 
Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin, that drains into the Mississippi river. When 
these forests, that have furnished lumber for the valley and country west of the 
river for the last twenty years, were intact, the heavy snows were shaded and did 
not thaw until the spring heat got so strong that nearly all the snow was changed 
to water in a few days—and swelling the streams and rivers so rapidly, that when 
emptying into the Mississippi they had the appearance of crested waves. Heavy 
snows rapidly changed into water, and all, centering in the one channel, resulted 
in high water, and then such high waters reached the wide lower plateaus along 
the river, when the season was very wet, or in conjunction with very heavy rains, 
as happened at intervals of fifteen or twenty years, resulted in overflow. The 
doing away in chief with this cause has been the work of the lumberman 
and pioneer for the last twenty-five years, as slowly but surely they have been 
cutting away the great pineries at a rate varying from one to five per cent. a year, 
so that at this time not more than twenty-five per cent. of the original forest re- 


THE PHOTOPHONE. 361 


mains in the tributary snow-belt, and the result is, that as the snow is unshaded, 
the feeble warmth of early spring sun is admitted, it begins to thaw first slowly, 
but faster as the warmth increases, so that all the snow unshaded is thawed and 
passed into the streams and small rivers in March to find rest in the Mississippi 
the early part of April; and the snow thawing so gradually off the lands cleared 
that it now makes little perceptible change in the river below Keokuk—a fact well 
known to river men. The quarter of the snow-belt yet shaded (but gradually di- 
minishing) gets to the river about the first of May, to be shaded by the Missouri 
about the last of May. This gradual outcome of the snow-water is the chief 
cause of the gradual decrease of the average high water. Next, cause in impor- 
tance is the increase of the cultivation and draining of the land tributary as the 
surface is cultivated, the absorption is increased, and the ditches pass off quickly 
what is not absorbed; and as the streams conveying surplus surface water to the 
river, the lower emptying will keep out of the way of the upper, and the capacity 
of the river where one and a half to two miles wide, as it is below Cap au Gris, is 
sufficient to hold extraordinary rain-floods, as demonstrated in the last. Again, 
as the surface of the ground is cultivated or cleared the evaporation increases, 
which is no small matter in the extent of area that drains into the valley, and, 
lastly, the increase of current. In answer to the theory some persons have, that 
as the timber is cut off the floods are higher, and particularly refer to some rivers 
in Europe, let me say that such rivers head in mountains, in which the main 
channel and tributaries have rapid current, consequently rise and fall very rapidly. 


THE PHOTOPHONE. 


In May, 1878, Mr. Alexander Graham Bell, well known in connection ,with 
the telephone, announced before a scientific society in London, his belief that it 
would be possible to hear a shadow by interrupting the action of light upon sele- 
nium. At the recent meeting of the American Science Association in Boston, 
Mr. Bell read a paper describing at length his experiments in the production and 
reproduction of sound by light, and the invention by Mr. Sumner Tainter and 
himself of an instrument for the purpose. 

The influence of light upon the electric conducting power of selenium 1s 
well known. Mr. Bell found the electric resistence of some selenium cells of 
peculiar construction only one-fifteenth as much in the light as in the dark. It oc- 
curred to him that all the audible effects obtained in the telephone by variation 
of the electric current by sound waves, could also be produced by variations of 
light acting upon selenium; and that with suitable transmitting and receiving ap- 
paratus voices might be conveyed without a wire along a line of light. 

The fundamental idea on which rests the possibility of producing speech by 
the action of light is the conception of what Mr. Bell terms an undulatory beam 
of light in contradistinction to an interrupted beam; meaning by the former a 
beam that shines continuously, but is subject to rapid changes of intensity. 


362 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The apparatus used to give the required undulatory character to light con- 
sists of a flexible mirror of silvered mica or thin glass. The speaker’s voice is 
directed against the back of this mirror, as against the diaphragm of a telephone, 

and the light reflected from it is thereby thrown into corresponding undulations. 
In his experiments, chiefly with sunlight, Mr. Bell concentrates upon the dia- 
phragm mirror a beam of light, which, after reflection, is again rendered parallel 
by means of another lens. 

The beam proceeding from the transmitter is received at a distant station 
upon a parabolic reflector, in the center of which is a sensitive selenium cell con- 
nected in a local circuit with a battery and telephone. In a recent experiment, 
Mr. Bell’s associate operated the transmitting instrument, which was placed on 
the top of the Franklin school house, in‘Washington, about eight hundred feet 
distant’ from the receiver, placed in a window of Mr. Bell’s laboratory. 
Through this distance messages were distinctly conveyed by means of light. In 
his laboratory experiments Mr. Bell finds that articulate speech can be transmit- 
ted and reproduced by the light of an oxyhydrogen lamp, and even by the light 
of a kerosene lamp. 

The rapid interruption of the beam of light by a perforated disk gives rise 
to musical tones, siren fashion. With this apparatus silent motion produces 
sound, loud musical tones being emitted from the receiver when no sound is 
made at the transmitter. 

The importance of these investigations it is impossible now to estimate. That 
the photophone can practically take the place of the telephone is not likely, 
though it is likely to work radical changes in military and other signaling opera- 
tions. The heliograph, which has proved so useful in recent campaigns in the 
Afghan country and elsewhere, can now be made to talk orally yet silently over 
the heads of an enemy or across impassable streams or other low barriers. For 
rapid communication between distant exploring or surveying stations, the photo- 
phone also promises to be serviceable. 

Another result of Mr. Bell’s researches in this connection is the discovery 
that many other substances are sensitive to light. He has found this property in 
gold, silver, platinum, iron, steel, brass, copper, zinc, lead, antimony, German 
silver, Jenkins’ metal, Babbitt’s metal, ivory, celluloid, gutta percha, hard rub- 
ber, soft vulcanized rubber, papar, parchment, wood, mica, and silvered glass. 
The only substances found insensible to light are carbon and thin microscopic 
glass. —Sczentific American. 


DEEP SEA RESEARCHES. 


Dr. Carpenter, the great English physicist, has recently published some re- 
markable results of his elaborate studies of the latest deep sea explorations. The 
work of the scientific circumnavigation expedition in the Challenger, though com- 
pleted in 1876, has not until within a few months, if even now, been fully re- 


DEEP SEA RESEARCHES. 368 


duced, and some of its most important discoveries are now announced by Dr. 
‘Carpenter, its originator. One of the first questions its labors contribute to solve 
is the depth and configurations of the ocean basins. 

The prevailing notion of the sea-beds, Dr. Carpenter shows, needs consider- 
able modification, none of them having been carefully outlined, except that of the 
North Atlantic when sounded with a view to laying the first Atlantic cable. 
‘The form of the depressed area which lodges the water of the deep ocean,” he 
says, ‘‘is rather to be likened to that of a flat waiter or tea tray, surrounded by 
an elevated and steeply sloping rim, than that of the ‘basin’ with which it is 
commonly compared ;”” and he adds: ‘‘ The great continental platforms usually 
rise very abruptly from the margins of the real oceanic depressed areas.” 

The average depth of the ocean floors is now ascertained to be about 13,000 
feet. As the average height of the entire land mass of the globe above sea level 
is about 1,000 feet, and the sea area about two and three-fourths times that of the 
Jand, it follows that the total volume of ocean water is thirty-six times that of the 
land above the sea-level. These deductions, seemingly unimportant except to the 
votary of science, are destined perhaps to serve the highest practical purposes of 
deep sea telegraphy. The intelligence now quarried out of the enormous collec- 
tion of later ocean researches shows the modern engineer and capitalist the 
feasibility of depositing a telegraphic cable over almost any part of the ocean’s 
floor, and ought to give new confidence in the success of all such enterprises 
properly devised and equipped. When it is remembered that at the beginning of 
this century La Place, the great mathematician, calculated or assumed the aver- 
age depth of the ocean at four miles (or 8,o00 feet more than Dr. Carpenter de- 
termines it to be from actual survey), and that La Place’s conclusion was the 
received view among scientists until 1850, or later, we get some idea of the ad- 
vance made in this branch of terrestrial physics by modern research. Not less 
interesting is a deduction Dr. Carpenter makes from the deep sea temperature 
observations in the North Atlantic. 

In consequence of the evaporation produced by the long exposure of the 
equatorial Atlantic current, its water contains such an excess of salt as, in spite 
of its high temperature, to be specifically heavier than the colder underflows 
which reach the equator from the opposite Arctic and Antarctic basins; and, 
consequently, it substitutes itself by gravitation for the colder water to a depth of 


several hundred fathoms. ‘‘Thus it conveys the solar heat downward in such a 
manner as to make the North Atlantic between the parallels of 20° and 40°, a 
great reservoir of warmth.” The climatic effect of this vertical transfer of equa- 


torial heat is obvious. If the great heat-bearing currents which enter the North 
Atlantic traversed its bosom as surface currents, they would expend their warmth 
largely in the high latitudes. But, as their heavy and highly heated volumes in 
large measure descend to the deeper strata south of the fortieth parallel, then 
stores of tropical temperature are permanently arrested off our eastern coast, and 
ultimately made subservient to our climate.— Mineteenth Century. 


364 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Clb OGIEVAJe Isl Ve. 


ANNUAL ADDRESS BEFORE THE GEOGRAPHICAL SECTION OF 
THE BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, AUG. 26, 1880. 


BY< GENIE.) J. io LERROWV,) EacR: iS: 


In other regions geography was the pioneer of civilization and commerce. 
Here for the first time she had been outstripped, for the telegraph and the rail- 
way had tracked the forest or prairie, and traversed the mountains by paths before 
unknown to her. Within living memory no traveler known to fame had crossed 
the American continent from east to west, except Alexander Mackenzie, in 1793- 
No traveler had reached the American Polar Sea by land except the same illustri- 
ous explorer and Samuel Hearne. ‘The British Admiralty had not long before in- 
structed Captain Vancouver to search on the coast of the Pacific for some near 
communication with a river flowing into or out of the Lake of the Woods. ‘The 
fabulous Straits of Annian were to be found on maps of the last century. ‘‘ The 
sacred fires of Montezuma” were still burning in secluded valleys of Upper Cali- 
fornia when Her Majesty ascended the throne. 

After referring to the memorable expeditions of Franklin and Richardson, 
of Back, and Simpson and Rae, he proceeded to point out the many agencies of 
work of late years to open up the continent; the military operations, for example 
of the United States Government against Mexico; the discovery of the precious 
metals; the explorations for the Union Pacific and Canada Pacific Railways ; in- 
ternational boundary surveys; the geological surveys of the American and Cana- 
dian Governments. These had all resulted in a surprising extension of geographi- 
cal knowledge without any of them having it particularly in view. It was a bold 
figure of speech of Lord Dufferin’s which described the Rocky Mountains in 1877 
as being nearly ‘‘as full of theodolites as they could hold,” but the Dominion 
Government had spent about three-quarters of a million sterling on explorations 
or surveys for their railway, and we had only to glance at a recent map to discov- 
er nine sovereign States and seven Territories west of the Mississippi, bounded 
by right lines, which neither war nor diplomacy had determined, laid out like 
garden-plots, to see that neither Asia nor Africa had unfolded more of their secrets 
in our times than had the nobler continent where Britain has cast her swarms. 

With reference to the survey operations of the Canadian Government in the 
North-West, where the problem presented was to prepare a vast territory, wholly 
wanting in conspicuous points, for being laid out in townships of uniform area, 
and farms of uniform acreage, he said that the law required that the eastern and 
western boundaries of every township be true astronomical meridians; and that 
the sphericity of the earth’s figure be duly allowed for, so that the northern bound- 


ADDRESS BEFORE BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 365 


ary must be less in measurement than the southern. All lines are required to be 
gone over twice with chains of unequal length, and the land surveyors are check- 
ed by astronomical determinations. 

The sources of the Frazer river were first reached in February, 1875, and 
found in a semi-circular basin, completely closed in by glaciers and high bare 
peaks, at an elevation of 5,300 feet. The hardy discoverer, Mr. E. W. Jarvis, 
traveled in the course of that exploration 900 miles on snow-shoes, much of it 
with the thermometer below the temperature of freezing mercury, and lived for 
the last three days, as he expresses it, ‘‘on the anticipation of a meal at the jour- 
mey’s end.’”’ Mr. Jarvis describes how on one occasion, having walked into a 
hole concealed by snow, the current caught his snow-shoes, turning them upside 
down, and held him like a vise, so that it required the united efforts of all his 
party to extricate him. 

The final decision of the Canadian Government to adopt Burrard’s Inlet for 
the Pacific terminus of their railway relegated to the domain of pure geography 
a great deal of knowledge acquired in exploring other lines—explorations in 
which Messrs. Jarvis, Horetsky, Keefer, and others had displayed remarkable 
daring and endurance. They had forced their way from the interior to the sea- 
coast, or from the coast to the Peace river, Pine or Yellow Head passes, through 
country previously unknown, to Port Simpson, to Burke Channel, to the mouth 
of the Skeena, and to Bute Inlet, so that a region but recently almost a blank on 
our maps, which John Arrowsmith, our last great authority, left’'very imperfectly 
sketched, was now known in great detail, and, he regretted to add, the better 
known, the less admired. The botany had been reported on by Mr. Macoun, 
and the geology by Dr. Dawson, pari passu with its topography. 

A discourse on American geography would be incomplete without reference 
to the great design of piercing the Isthmus of Panama, with which Count Ferdi- 
nand de Lesseps had connected hisname. Out of the conflict of about ten com- 
peting lines the oldest and the youngest alone survive. The route by Lake Nica- 
ragua appeared possible even to Cortez. It was accurately surveyed nearly 
seventy years ago, and the estimates, although they have grown alarmingly, are 
still within practicable limits. It had the preference of the highest authorities in 
the United States. Its total length would be 180 miles, including 56 miles of 
lake navigation, with a summit level, to be attained by lockage, of 1074 feet. 
“The Panama route would shorten the canal to one-fourth of this length, and it 
was a cardinal point with its author to dispense altogether with locks. As they 
were favored by the presence of Lieutenant Bonaparte Wyse—M. de Lessep’s 
coadjutor—he need say no more, except that the enthusiastic reception given to 
M. de Lesseps in Swansea, not many weeks ago, was sure evidence that this great 
industrial center took a keen interest in his project from a commercial point of 
view ; and they might safely leave capitalists, engineers, and diplomatists to fight 
out their own battle, only concerned that by one route, if not by both, the world 
‘might reap in our day the vast benefit it already owed, in another quarter, to his 
genius and indomitable perseverance. 


366 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


After referring to other fields of geographical interest, he concluded by say- 
ing that when the British Association last met at Swansea a generation had pass- 
ed away. Of the eminent men then present in office, some half-dozen alone re- 
main, and in the retrospect it was so natural to take, the growth of geographical 
information stood out in remarkable prominence. Still— 

‘“The cosmographer doth the world survey,” 
and finds an illimitable field for the improvement of old, or the acquirement of 
new, knowledge. Better methods of instruction, better books, and, above all, 
better maps, are changing the aspect of the study to the young; every traveler 
who settles one question raises others for his successors, so that ‘‘no man can 
find out the work that God maketh from the beginning to the end.” Its perpet- 
ual youth was the charm of their science; might it also be his excuse. 

A vote of thanks was moved to the President for his admirable address. 

Sir Henry Barkly, in moving it, expressed his regret that the section would 
not have the advantage of Sir Henry Lefroy’s presence at any other sitting of 
the section, he being obliged to leave for London to prepare for his immediate 
departure to Tasmania, of which he had been appointed Governor. He was. 
sure they all wished him and his family a pleasant and prosperous voyage. 
[Cheers. | 

The motion was seconded by Mr. F. Galton and carried by acclamation. 


OTHER PROCEEDINGS. 


The President then read some letters of a very interesting character from 
Mr. Joseph Thomson, received by the Royal Geographical Society’s East African 
Expedition. The following are passages from this correspondence :— 

‘““KAREMA, OR MuSAMWIRA, LAKE TANGANYAKA, March 27, 1880. 

‘‘T have failed in my attempt to reach Jendwe by way of the Lukuga and 
Kabuire. I left Kasegna (or Mtowa) on the roth of January, with all the confi- 
dence of a young lion which had not yet known a reverse, and six weeks after I 
returned to the same place as meek asa lamb. From the very first I had great 
difficulties with the men, as they believed I was taking them to Namguena, where 
they would be eaten up. They tried every means in their power to throw obsta- 
cles in my way and retard my movements, two of them deserting near Meketo, 
and the others threatening to do the same. For six days I continued my course 
along the Lukuga, in spite of their opposition, but I was then obliged to give in. 
It flows in a general west-northwest direction to that place, and then about west 
into the great westerly bend of the Congo, all the way through a most charming 
valley, with hills rising from 600 to 2,000 feet in height. Above the lake the 
current is extremely rapid and quite unnavigable for boats or canoes of any de- 
scription, owing to the rapids and rocks. From Makalumbi I crossed the Lukuga 
into Urua, and struck southwest for the town of Kiyombo, who is the chief of 
all the Warna on the eastern side on the Congo. I found out, however, I had 
only escaped difficulties with my men to fall into ten times worse with the Warna.- 


ADDRESS BEFORE BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 367 


They turned out to be the most outrageous scoundrels and thieves I had yet met, 
It isimpossible to convey to you the miserable life we led during the five weeks 
we were in their country. They had not the slightest acquaintance with traders, 
and they had no respect for the white man. The chiefs demanded exorbitant 
mhongo, and made us stop wherever they took the fancy. The people were by 
no means loth to help themselves by tearing the clothes off the backs of the men, 
even in crowds. Several times they turned out to fight us. Arrows and spears. 
have been aimed at me within a few feet; at one village a crowd had got hold of 
one of my men, and I only forced my way in just in time to deflect a descending. 
axe which would have ended his days; and yet we had to show ourselves firm as 
well as pacific. ‘The slightest accident or blood drawn, and not a soul of us 
would have escaped. How we ever escaped with our lives I cannot comprehend. 
Imagine being awakened in the dead of the night in your tent by your blanket 
being torn from under you, just in time to catch hold of your azimuth compass 
and to find your watch gone. Such was one of my nights’ adventures. Fortu- 
nately they got frightened at the watch, and the chief brought it back next day. 
These facts will give you some faint notion of our troubles. We reached Mtowa 
on March to, destitute of almost everything. To my delight, however, I heard 
that Mr. Hore was expected every day on his way by canoe to the south end of 
the lake. On the 23d we started, crossed the lake to Kungwe, and reached Ka- 
rema on the right of the 26th. As weneared the shore we were hailed by the 
jolly voice of Captain Carter, whom we found gun in hand and bursting with sto- 
ries of his wonderful adventures in sport and war, keeping us fixed on our seats 
all night in his tent as he launched them forth. We went over to visit the Belgian 
international party at their temporary quarters to-day. Captain Carter had his 
elephant ready to take us across the marsh. Karema is one of the most extraor- 
dinary places for a station that could be found on the lake—a wide expanse of 
marsh, a small village, no shelter for boats, only shallow water dotted with 
stumps of rock, no room to be got, and natives hostile; far from any line of 
trade. The party have commenced building forts and walls, digging ditches in 
regular military fashion. At the tablethere sat down an Englishman, an Irish- 
man, a Scotchman, a Frenchman, a Belgian and a German, representing five ex- 
_peditions, and you will doubtless be pleased to learn that of all these (thanks to 
yourself) the Scotchman, though the smallest, and having to travel through en- 
tirely new country, had been the most successful of all. Afterleaving Karema 
we had a moderately good voyage across the lake to Jendwe, at which we ar-. 
rived on the 7th of April. I was much pleased to find everything in good order 
and the men all in pretty good health. What annoyed me more was the news 
that my projected route to Kedwa was impassable. Merere had recommenced 
the war with the Wabehe, and to pass from the one country to the other would be 
quite impossible. Under the circumstances there was nothing for it but to down 
helm and run before the wind with all sails set, with the result of landing me ona 
route which has now often resounded under the iron heel of the English traveler 


368 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


—nay, has even shaken under the ponderous weight of the civilized elephant. 
Still, though driven from my projected scheme, my march from Jendwe has not 
been valueless. Passing around the south end of Tanganyaka along the shore 
as far as the mouth of the Kilambo, then striking about N. NE. through Ulungu 
and Fipa, we reached by easy ascents the town of Kapufi, situated in lat. 8S and 
long. 32.25 E. Best of all, however, while at this place I had the honor to set- 
tle the problem of Lake Hikwa, or rather Likwa, and give it some shape and 
place in our maps. It has run itself in the hearsay accounts of successive trav- 
elers into various protoplasmic shapes, and, will-o’-the-wisp like, danced about on 
the map to the tunes of various geographers. I, of course, saw only a part of it, 
but from what I could gather it must be from 60 to 70 miles in length and 15 to 
20 in breadth. It lies two days east of Makapuli, in a deep depression of the 
Lambalimfipa Mountains. A large river called the Mkafa, which rises in Kawen- 
di, and which by its tributaries drains the greater part of Khonongo and Fipa and 
Mpimbwe, falls into it. I can almost say with certainty that it has no outlet, 
certainly not any toward the west. The Kilambo rises near Kapufi. I was sur- 
prised and pleased to find that my bearings and estimated distances, as laid down 
on my sketch map every two days, had actually brought me within one or two 
miles of Tabora as laid down by Speke and Cameron. I can hardly, however, 
call it anything but a curious coincidence.” 


‘¢ To the Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society. 

‘¢ ZANZIBAR, July 19. 

‘¢ Dear Sir—I have the honor and pleasure to inform you of the safe arrival 
of the Society’s expedition at Zanzibar, in all respects in good condition. Chuma, 
and my second headman, Makatuba, have worked like heroes, and I should, 
indeed, be but a poor mortal if I did not acknowledge the fact that the success 
of the expedition has been to a large extent due to them. Indeed, I can claim 
but little merit, as the men were all imbued with the idea that I was put specially 
under their care by the Baluya (Dr. Kirk) to be taken carefully and safely round 
‘Central Africa, and then returned safely to Dr. Kirk, to whom they considered 
themselves responsible for my well-being. As I am just following in the wake 
of this letter, I have not attempted to enter into any details, awaiting more leis- 
ure and the advice of competent men before attempting to put much of my work 
‘together. My caravan work has been too much to allow of my making any 
extensive collections in natural history, but I have still been able to gather a few 
plants and shells by the wayside, which Dr. Kirk thinks will prove to be inter- 
esting and valuable. I am now occupied in paying off my men and settling all 
accounts, previous to my departure for England, which will be by the mail 
leaving on the 28th. 

‘“Vours obediently, 
‘¢ JosEPH THOMSON.” 


Sir Henry added that any praise of commendation of the young traveler was 
almost superfluous. The brave and cheerful spirit in which he described his 


CHARNAY’S EXPLORATIONS IN MEXICO. 368 


adventures, his singular mastery over men, all probably older than himself, 
proved that he possessed the elements of a strong and vigorous character, from 
which a career of great distinction might be anticipated. Among the lessons that 
might be learned was that we might take a more favorable view of the native 
African character. That his men should have been so faithful to him in so many 
difficulties and temptations, and that they should have been amenable to disci- 
pline under such trying circumstances spoke as much for them as for his own 
character and power. Mr. Thomson would reach London in November, when 
he had no doubt he would receive a most satisfactory reception from the Royal 
Geographical Society. 

The last paper read consisted of notes of a journey to the Eastern Siberia 
across the Amur and Ussuri, by the Rev. H. Landsall, which gave a highly 
favorable view of prison life in the penal colonies of Russia. Mr. Landsall 
received a vote of thanks. 


CHARNAY’S EXPLORATIONS IN MEXICO. 


[Translated from ‘‘L’Exploration.”’] 


Late news from Mexico informs us that our fellow-citizen, Mr. Desiré Char - 
nay has signed a treaty with the Mexican government, whereby he is authorized 
to undertake his explorations and excavations among the ruins scattered some- 
what throughout the Mexican territory. Mr. Charnay has immediately com- 
menced his campaign, and a dispatch announces that he has already succeeded 
jn discovering, not far from Mexico, at a height of 4,000 meters above the level 
of the sea, some archzological riches, comprising tombs, vases and inscriptions 
of every kind. We have now some details on the problems to be solved :— 

A striking particularity of Central American architecture and its ornamenta- 
tion, is the resemblance, in many respects, to the styles well known to the an- 
cient world, particularly to Eastern Asia. ) 

According to Mr. Charnay, who has recently traveled in Java, the Mexiean 
teocalis (houses of God) present some characters almost identical with the temples 
of Java, and of Cambodge, and Mr. Ferguson, who partakes of this opinion, goes 
so far as to say that the resemblance between the Boro-Budor and the temple of 
Tochicalo, or between the pyramids of Suku and of Ojaca is too striking to be 
explained on the supposition of accidental coincidence. The palace of the 
governor of Uxmal displays some ornaments which have altogether the aspect of 
Greek designs. Some magnificent vases, reliefs and busts, Greek at least in 
style, have been found at Ojaca and in other places. At Palenque some Jéas- 
reliefs have a character decidedly Assyrian; at Izamal the base of a pyramid 
presents some gigantic figures which recall the Egyptian Sphinxes, and, in a 
great variety of forms, is also found the artistic spirit of China and India. 


To this accumulation and miscellany of styles is attributable the extreme va-» 
IV—24 


370 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


riety of theories projected for explaining the origin of American civilization. The 
idea of some grand emigration from the old world is contradicted by the fact that 
the primitive races of Central America had no domestic animals; knew but a 
single cereal and were wholly ignorant of alphabetical writing as well as the use 
of iron, although they lived where that mineral could be found in abundance. 
The conclusion to which each one comes depends on the objects which he has ex- 
clusively considered, and thus some persons have pronounced, without hesita- 
tion, for an indigenous civilization, while others have discerned the signs of an 
origin, Jewish, Egyptian, Chinese or Tartar, according as they have been im- 
pressed by different analogies. There exists but a single means for disentangling 
this difficulty, and that is direct exploration. The materials yet exist from which 
one can derive certain information, but the work done so far has been conducted 
with so little coherency that we do not know the totality of the materials. In 
directing, properly, the investigation of these places one can hope that it will be 
possible to determine the relations of the objects to each other, and to fix approx- 
imately so as finally to arrive at the essential points of similitude which may exist 
between the ancient monuments of Central America and those of the ancient 
world. The present scope of the expedition comprehends the greater part of 
Central America, so-called properly, or that part of the continent that extends 
from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Darien. It is here that the 
ancient civilization attained its highest degree, and where it has left the most 
imposing monuments of its grandeur. 

Squier inclines to the belief that this is the vast center whence primitive civ- 
ilization radiated. He regards it as the permanent home of the Toltecs, from 
whom he derives descendants in the Mayas of Yucatan, the Quiches, the Kachi- 
quels and the Chiapas of Guatemala. 

Diego De Landa speaking of the prosperous condition of Guatemala, at the 
epoch of the conquest, tells us that the whole peninsula seemed to form a con- 
tinuous city, which expression does not seem to pass for a figure of rhetoric, when 
we take into account the extraordinary number of monuments scattered over the 
entire extent of the soil. The expedition, in directing its route by way of Ojaca, 
will examine the sculptures of Mount Alban and the rich mines of that region. 
Thence it will return to Milta and examine the ornate and massive constructions 
which were reproduced, with so much delicacy, in aseries of large photographs 
published by Mr. Charnay in 1863. After having passed some time in the moun- 
tainous and almost unexplored district that borders Tehuantepec, it will arrive at 
Palenque. It is expected that this celebrated religious centre will furnish a rich 
harvest of inscriptions and das-reliefs. Entering Yucatan the expedition will ex- 
plore some new regions and will penetrate, if possible, into the mountainous 
country of the warlike Lacandones. A great interest also attaches to its sojourn 
among the Mayas, who, but a few years ago, made themselves masters of Yuca- 
tan and have, it is pretended, reconstructed the ancient cities with their forts and 


their temples, and have revived many of the customs, laws and idolatrous rites of 
a 


ITALIAN EXPEDITION IN THE SOUDAN. 371 


their ancestors. Every effort will be made to find some traces, if any yet re- 
main, of the tribes that preceded the Astecs—that is to say, the Otomes—the 
Chechimecs, and the Olmecs and even a people yet more ancient, of whom sufh- 
cient vestiges have been discovered to establish the truth of their existence. Don 
Manuel Orozco believes that the inhabitants of Mexico comprehend about 120 
tribes, and this number must have been more considerable in primitive times. 
Following the same authority, more than sixty idioms have perished within the 
limits of the Mexican Republic, and according to Frederic von Hellwaldit is very 
improbable that the inhabitants of the country, in the most remote period, formed 
a homogeneous population. Of some of the most ancient inhabitants, to whom is 
attached considerable ethnographic importance, we possess only the names and 
some traditions of little dependence. Among these iribes are the Olmecs, who, 
according to the legend, subdued the gigantic race of Quinames and of the 
Otomes, or Hia Hia, the language of whom has been perpetuated over a large 
part of Mexico until the present day. The expedition will make every research 
that can conduce to the object to be attained. It will excavate the tombs and the 
sacred marshes in which, it is supposed, the faithful have cast their offerings. 
UA de 


ITALIAN EXPEDITION IN THE SOUDAN. 


Further letters from Dr. Matteucci give some interesting details of the ob_ 
servations made by him in Kerdofan during the march of the expedition under 
Prince Borghese. In Kordofan, he says, water is as dear as the wine of Barletta. 
In the rainy season, however, things are different; from June to September al- 
most every inch of the country is covered with water, when if one may not die of 
thirst, there is a chance of his dying of malaria. Vegetation along the line of 
march of the expedition was as melancholy and infertile as it could well be; 
stunted skeleton acacias alternating with a few euphorbias in constant monotony ; 
neither mountains nor hills, and not even plains. In Kordofan the ground pre- 
sents continuous undulations, no doubt in consequence of the geological forma- 
tion of the soil, which is a bottom of sand slightly mixed with peroxide of iron. 
The water of the rainy season is husbanded in welis, but so valuable is it that 
the expedition had often to force the natives to give them access to these wells. 

At one station they found forty wells dug and others in process of being 
made. When the expedition arrived they found that the Arabs had closed up 
these wells by means of thorny branches, and had they not used force the whole 
expedition would have died of thirst. 

- Kordofan is about 600 meters above the level of the sea, and 380 above 
that of the Nile. Not a river, not a torrent, not a brook waters this immense 
territory, which is about 500 miles long and a little less broad. The mean tem- 
perature is not less than 92° At the surface the ground is so sandy that animals 

on the march sink io a depth of thirty centimeters. The rains are irregular and 


372 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. i 


never abundant. Some years ago there were no wells in Kordofan; the want of 
water was not felt, for the natives in the rainy season, collected the water in 
large reservoirs, and a sufficient quantity was found in them at each station and 
village. But the seasons even in Africa, tend to change. Eight years ago there 
was no rainy season in Kordofan, and for several months the people feared they 
would all die Of thirst. Then they thought of digging wells which gave very 
good results. Everywhere water was found at a depth of twenty inches. But 
things have sadly changed during the past eight years, and now, instead of find- 
ing water at a depth of twenty inches, it is often not found at a depth of roo feet. 
In all the wells Dr. Matteucci found the following succession or strata : From fifty 
to thirty meters of depth, sand with traces of sulphate of lime; above thirty ex- 
tends the granite, with a great abundance of quartz in proportion to feldspar and 
mica. The granite mass rarely extends one meter in thickness, and above is 
again found the sand. El Obeid, from which Dr. Matteucci writes, is a town of 
50,000 inhabitants; there are no Europeans but many Arab traders. Most of 
the people are natives of Kordofan or Dartur. It is a very lively town, as it is 
the center’ of the trade in gum, ostrich feathers and tamarinds. The houses, 
with the exception of the Governor’s, are of straw or earth. In the neighbor- 
hood of El Obeid two Roman Catholic missionaries, who seem to reside in the 
town, have established a station occupied by their married converts. It is a small 
village of only thirty houses and thirty small families. But Dr. Matteucci re- 
gards it as the most satisfactory result yet achieved by the Roman Catholic miss- 
ion, whose headquarters are at Khartoum. Malbes is the name of the village, 

and it Is situated in a territory where there are no Mussulman proselytes. Dr. 
Matteucci is of opinion that such agricultural colonies would make a far deeper 
impression on the surrounding heathen than any amount of preaching, and 
strongly advises the mission to develop the system. 


THE DUTCH ARCTIC EXPEDITION. 


On the third of June the little sailing vessel Willem Barents set out from 
Holland for the third time, to undertake a new exploration in the Arctic seas. 

The staff of the expedition, under the command of M. H. Van Broekhuy- 
sen, is composed of Lieuts. A. J. Frackers, S. A. Lanne, J. M. Calmeyer and 
Dr. N. Hamaker, surgeon. 

The crew includes a carpenter, a foreman, cook, five sailors and a cabin- 
boy. In addition, there is on board a marine painter of great talent, M. Louis 
Apol, who is commissioned to paint among other things a large picture of the 
Glacial sea for a panorama, which is now being prepared at Amsterdam. The 
officers, Van Broekhuysen and Calmeyer, the carpenter, Latjens, the sailor, 
Westerning, and the cabin-boy, Klaas Mantel, were on the Willem Barents in a 
previous voyage. Although a professional naturalist does not accompany the 
expedition, zodlogical researches will not, for that reason, be neglected. 


THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 373 


The object of this third expedition does not differ essentially from that of 
the two others. It is, in the first place, an enterprise for practice ; in the second 
place, it is a patriotic undertaking, its object being to continue the work of its 
ancestors and to render homage to their memory by raising modest monuments 
in the places which they have discovered and which bear their names; lastly, it 
does not lose sight of the interests of science, for it is intended to continue 
researches, discoveries, the operations of sounding, the meteorological and mag- 
netic observations so successfully inaugurated by other expeditions, and, if cir- 
cumstances will permit, the explorations will be pushed in the direction of 
Francis Joseph Land, at Barents Harbor, and of the Kara Sea, or in any other 
direction that is expedient. 

The Willem Barents left Amsterdam on the third of June by the new canal 
which connects this city with the North Sea. No news has yet been received 
from her. 


Ua IMU NaI Mes) 


THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 
BY PROF. S. H. TROWBRIDGE, GLASGOW, MO. 


The first and chief object of Scripture is to teach man his destiny and his 
relations and duties to God and his fellow men. While we recognize it to be 
man’s first and highest duty to study the Bible with this end in view, we see 
nothing irreverent—but rather a privilege and duty—in studying it secondarily, 
as an exponent of the purest history, rhetoric, literature, morality, principles of 
practical life, and also as a text-book of science. 

It is generally agreed that the Bible was not intended to teach science; and 
assuredly it was not primarily. But if we study it as a teacher of science we 
shall find that it yields us no inconsiderable information; and the more we search 
it for this purpose the more of brilliant and instructive scientific allusion shall 
we find lurking in it everywhere. And there is no danger that the correctly in- 
terpreted Word of God will mislead us into false science. 

While we admit that physical science, strictly, has to deal only with physical 
facts, and Scripture has for its object to teach man the plan of salvation through 
Jesus Christ, we would allow the widest range in a prescription of the legitimate 
sphere of each. Let the Bible student study nature to gain a more complete 
understanding of Scripture, and let the scientist study the Bible for clearer light 
upon the phenomena of nature. Yet due allowance must be made for the teach- 
ings of each out of his special line of study. His authority should be measured 
by knowledge and reason and not by dogmatic statement. The province of 


374 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


each—which is too often forgotten—is to teach ¢vufh and not to establish pet 
theories. The theologian may give us very poor science, and the scientist may 
give us very poor theology, and there is no lack of evidence that they actually 
do; but we must admit that the field of each is open to the other. Each of the 
revelations of God to man must be studied in the light of the other; and we 
dare to affirm that neither can be comprehended in all its fullness and richness 
without illumination from the other. 

There is no conflict, there is no possibility of conflict, between the Bible and 
science. That many of the interpretations and theories of reputed scientific 
men are not in harmony with the teachings of Scripture, is fully admitted. On 
the other hand, it must be admitted that many of the interpretations of Scrip- 
ture by Bible students are not in harmony with the revelations of science. We 
must distinguish carefully between our understanding of these two revelations and 
the correct understanding of them There is no less reverence than truth in the 
statement that either may be misinterpreted. But, true as this is on minor points, 
we have the authority of the sacred Word for it that no Aomes¢ searcher for truth 
can fail to find in that word light which, if followed, will lead him to salvation 
and heaven. 

That there is no conflict, but the greatest harmony and co-operation between 
science and Scripture, allow a few illustrations from the many. 

Only a few years ago it was almost universally accepted that the earth was 
only about 6,000 years old. But the discoveries of the geologist led him to con- 
clude that the successive strata of rocks, each containing remains of animals en- . 
tirely distinct from those in other strata, could not have been deposited in so short 
atime. And, by carefully studying the statements of Genesis and comparing 
them with the rocks, it was plainly seen that the Bible record had been misinter- 
preted; and now friends and foes of the Bible alike agree that the age of the 
world is indefinitely long, and that the six days of creation were not literal days 
but periods of vast duration. 

For a similar reason, the present estimate of the age of man upon the earth 
is, by many, being indefinitely lengthened. 

It is generally believed that all the races of men sprung from one common 
pair, in Asia Minor, about 4,000 years before Christ. Yet ethnologists find it 
extremely difficult to understand how this can be, when apparently unmistakable 
evidences of man are found in the farthest extremities of the earth, which bear 
witness that they have a greater antiquity than that assigned to Adam. The 
earliest records of men bearing on this point—which date back from 3,000 to 5,- 
ooo years—show that the different races had then as marked peculiarities of 
form, features and color as they now have. Hence some are beginning to con- 
clude that, on this point too, we have misinterpreted the Bible; and, on scrutin- 
izing more closely the Scripture record, they decide—as does Agassiz—that the 
narrative in Genesis is a history of the origin of only one of the varieties of the 
human race. 


THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 375 


Isaiah prophesied: ‘‘ And the Lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the 
Egyptian sea.” Surveyors for the Suez ship canal route learned the fact, un- 
known up to that time, that a bar or slight upheaval had become sufficiently ele- 
vated to cut off a large narrow body of water from the north end of the Red 
Sea, to which they saw evidence that it was originally joined. This elevation, 
which is about ten miles wide, was probably below the surface of the sea at the 
time Israel escaped from the bondage of Egypt; and, from the best evidence ac- 
cessible, it is in the immediate vicinity of the locality in which the Israelites 
crossed, and possibly furnished a highway for them. Thus science throws light 
upon the Bible. 

Christ spoke in parables because the prejudices of most of his hearers would 
not allow them to profit by undisguised truth. But when his disciples wanted to 
understand the parables, he clearly explained them. ‘There are many obscure 
references in the Bible to various points of physical science. If they were ex- 
pressed distinctly the world would not be prepared to receive them. Scientists 
are, through the study of nature, as we have seen, learning to see the force of 
some of them. But many scientists, like the most of Christ’s hearers, do not 
try to understand them, they seem to ignore them. Now, if we should as earn- 
estly desire to comprehend these dark allusions as the disciples did to under- 
stand Christ’s parables, would not the spirit—which Christ promised should teach 
us all things, and which directs us even in the temporal affairs of life—be given 
to enable us to comprehend the truths of science through the teachings of Scrip- 
ture? 

Many conclusions have been reached by students of nature which, if the 
Bible had been accepted as an instructor of science, might probably have been 
reached much earlier. According to the Nebular hypothesis, the earth was once 
in a molten state covered with a thin crust, aud this was so completely covered 
with water that no land appeared. Afterward, as the earth contracted, the crust 
sunk in some places and was thrust up in others, thus making mountains sepa- 
rated by valleys filled with water. This is clearly explained in Psalm CIV, 
where itreads; ‘‘Thou coverest the earth with the deep as with a garment; the 
waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled, at the voice of thy 
thunder (doubtless the rumbling thunder of an earthquake) they hasted away 
unto the place which thou hast founded for them.” 

It has been known for a brief term of years that there are wind currents from 
the poles to the equator and that counter currents carry the air back to the poles 
again. But not till more recently has it been known that thunder showers, _ 
storms extending across half a continent, and cyclones, are rotary, and that their 
winds move in a whirling, spiral motion toward the center. Both of these facts 
of recent science were, long ago, brought to light by the Preacher in these words: 
The wind goeth toward the south and turneth again unto the north; it whirleth 
about continually, and the wind returneth again according to its circuits. 

In the very next verse we read: ‘‘ All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea 


376 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come thence they return 
again.” David says: ‘‘The waters go up by the mountains, they go down by the 
valleys.” Another passage reads: ‘‘ He causeth the vapors to ascend from the 
ends of the earth; he maketh lightning for the rain; he bringeth the wind out of 
his treasuries.” Physicists, by laborious research, have learned that water is 
taken up in the atmosphere in a state of vapor, carried by the winds to the cold 
summit of mountains, there precipitated in rain, and brought down by the val- 
leys to the sea again. But they have learned, with all their study, little more 
than was plainly told them in the Bible thousands of years ago. ‘ 

It is now well known that the earth is the food of plants, and is in these so 
elaborated that they become food for animals. ‘These plants and animals which 
feed upon other plants too coarse for us, furnish food for men. Thus science 
has reached the conclusion that the food which forms man comes from the earth, 
and the earth is his nourishing mother. But 3,000 years before we learned this,. 
David said: ‘‘ My substance was not hid from thee when I was made in secret 
and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. Thine eye did see my 
substance yet being unperfect.”’ 

After Franklin determined that lightning was electricity, and had invented. 
the lightning rod, the beautiful idea was finally grasped that every pointed blade 
of grass, and leaf, and twig, directed sky-ward, was practically a lightning rod, 
and was continually conveying electricity from the clouds. But long ages ago 
we were told by God’s own word that He maketh ‘‘a way for the lightning of 
thunder.”’ 

Recent scientists claim credit for discovering what they call the law of evolu- 
tion. But it has been well suggested that the doctrine of evolution was first ad- 
vanced in these time-honored words: ‘‘The thing that hath been is that which 
shall be; and that which is done is that which shall ke done; and there is nonew | 
thing under the sun.” 

The sun’s heat is supposed to be the physical cause of the centrifugal force 
which keeps the members of the solar system from falling into that luminary. 
The Nebular hypothesis involves the supposition that the sun is losing its heat. 
Hence it must be losing its repulsive force; and the necessary result would be 
that planets, as they revolve around the sun, would slowly fall toward it, their 
orbits making a gradually diminished spiral till they finally reach the sun. The 
arresting of the enormous motion thus acquired would, it is supposed, produce 
sufficient heat to melt the whole mass and even dispel it into a Nebulous state 
again. Is not this quite consistent with the announcement of Scripture: ‘‘ All 
the heat of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled together 
hke a scroll; and all the host shall fall down as the leaf falleth from the vine, 
and as the falling fig from the fig tree;” and ‘‘the elements shall melt with fer- 
vent heat; the earth also and the works that are therein shall be burnt up.” 


a 


BOOK NOTICES, 377 


BOOT. INOW Ss, 


Ture New Text Book or Puysics: By Le Roy C. Cooley, Ph. D.: pp. 317, 12 

mo. : Chas. Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1880. 

Doctor Cooley is Professor of Physics and Chemistry in Vassar College, and 
this little work is the result of his experience as a teacher and an investigator. It 
is really a second edition of his Text Book of Natural Philosophy, published in 
1868. But he has so materially changed the tone of the work, by the introduc- 
tion of the ‘‘ principle of energy” into all departments, that he has deemed it 
proper to give it a new and distinctive title. At the same time much new matter 
has been introduced, bringing the work fully down to the most advanced scien- 
tific applications of electricity and the most recent discoveries in other depart- 
ments of science. 

The work seems to be thoroughly systematized and adapted to the wants of 
both teachers and pupils. A very noticeable feature is the summing of principal 
topics and problems at the close of each chapter, for use in reviewing. The 
illustrations are numerous and new, and the publishers have bestowed much pains 
upon the mechanical part of the work. 


THE UNITED STaTES GOVERNMENT; By George N. Lamphere: pp. 297, Octavo: 
‘J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1880; $3. 

The author of this valuable work has for several years occupied a position 
in the treasury department at Washington, which has given him excellent facili- 
ties for familiarizing himself with the workings of the various branches of the 
government, even in their minutest details, and the information thus gained he 
imparts to his readers through the pages of the above named volume, in a clear 
and succinct manner. He has exercised excellent judgment in selecting and ar- 
ranging the subjects treated, and has thereby compiled a work which contains 
interesting and useful information for all classes. Beginning with the Declara- 
tion of Independence and the Constitution of the United States, with its amend- 
ments, he takes up and describes fully the Legislative, Executive and Judiciary 
departments with all their sub-divisions, including the Department of State, of 
the Treasury, War, Navy, Interior, Post Office, Justice and Agriculture, the du- 
ties of all the principal officers, the organization of their offices, the manner of 
procedure in the different bureaus, the rules and regulations of the various 
branches, the origin and history of each department, the pay of officers, fees al- 
lowed and a multitude of facts on all points connected with the manner of trans- 
acting government business, far too numerous to be mentioned here. 

To give an idea of the scope of the work, we will say that over one hun- 
dred pages are devoted to a description of the Treasury department and the du- 


378 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ties of the various auditors; sixty to the War and Navy Li nearly forty 
to the Interior department, etc. 

It will be quite a surprise to most readers to obtain an adequate idea of the 
magnitude of the details and operations of the government offices as described in 
this work, and to be informed that they can learn more from it by a careful pe- 
tusal, which might occupy a few hours, than they could in many months of con- 
stant daily investigation in Washington City. 

Such a book is of great value to all classes of citizens, for every one has 
business with the departments which can be transacted just as well by direct cor- 
respondence as through an agent or attorney, did the applicant know whom to 
address. It would be a good text book for the higher classes in our schools, and 
if kept abreast of the changes in the different departments by means of success- 
ive editions, even congressmen and the officers in the different departments, 
themselves, would find it an important book of reference. 


ADAMS’ SYNCHRONOLOGICAL CHART OF History: By S. C. Adams; Published 
by Jay Andrews & Co., Chicago. For sale at Kansas City, by Rev. J. S. 
Card ng27 5: 

In these days of object teaching, nothing could be more apropos than the 
introduction of this work; a chart upon which in one picture is shown the his- 
tory of the world from B. C. 4004 to A. D. 1878. It isa chromo-lithograph, over 
twenty feet long and twenty-eight inches wide, yet so folded as to be as easily 
handled as an atlas, each fold turning over like the leaf of a book; or the whole, 
or any desired portion, can be spread out at a time for examination. 

The length of the chart is divided by perpendicular lines into the fifty-nine 
centuries and their decades; across these century spaces, pass from left to right, 
colored lines or streams that represent the different historic nations (and lives of 
the patriarchs), and change their color to indicate every change of rulers; these 
streams divide, sub-divide, unite or disappear according to the record of the 
nation represented; thus every nation with its consecutive rulers and all the lead- 
ing facts of history are placed upon a fixed scale and presented to the eye in their 
proper relations as to time, just as geographically a map locates towns, rivers, 
and countries. Meridians intersect places of the same longitude, in the same 
manner that century and decade lines on this chart mark contemporaneous na- 
tions, rulers and events. 

The origin of nations, their grand march through the centuries, and their 
final overthrow, are prominent features, while the confused mass of dates and 
events that ususlly comprise our knowledge of history, is so sifted and synchro- 
nized, so lighted with colors, models and illustrations, that the centuries of the 
past seem transformed into individual realities, marked with their peculiar char- 
acteristics. The plan of the chart is so simple that children can readily under- 


stand it, and so comprehensive that it is in itself a historical cyclopzedia for the 
mature scholar. 


BOOK NOTICES. O88 


So far as we know, this is the most comprehensive and complete work of the 
kind ever published, and as such it has received the commendations of some of 
the best scholars in the country, like Prof. McCloskie, Wendell Phillips, Gen. 
Noyes and Pres. C. H. Payne, D. D., all of whom concur in attributing to it 
correctness, convenience, and condensation of knowledge to a degree unsur- 
passed by any other work. 

For the use of teachers, students, writers, and for the home circle, nothing 


equal to it has ever come under our observation. A key, comprising over fifty 


pages octavo, accompanies each chart, and gives full explanations of the progress 


-of events in each century. 


Ray’s New HicHEer ARITHMETIC: By Joseph Ray, M. D.: pp. 408, 12 mo.: 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York, 1880. 


While Doctor Ray’s name remains upon the title page of this work, it has 


been so thoroughly changed by the late revision that it is really almost a new 


book, and should properly be credited to other sources. The complete revision 
was performed by our own fellow citizen, Professor J. M. Greenwood, to whom 
the publishers freely express their obligations. Nearly every chapter has been re- 
written and much new and original matter has been introduced, and all obsolete 
matter has been discarded. The result is that it is thoroughly modernized and 
practical, and just such a guide as the older scholars in the schools need to fit 
them for the ordinary avocations of business life. At the same time it is so ar- 
ranged and graded as to fit the student who wishes to do so to enter easily upon 


a course of higher mathematics. Prof. Greenwood is entitled to and has received 


the highest commendations for the faithfulness and capability he has displayed in 
this work. 


THe TRUE STORY OF THE ExopDUS OF ISRAEL, compiled by Francis H. Under- 
wood, 12mo., pp. 260. Boston, Lee & Shepard, $1.50. 


The positive declarations of Dr. Brugsch-Bey in regard to the route of the 


children of Israel in escaping from Egypt, not by crossing the Red Sea, but by 


passing northwardly far above the upper end of the Red Sea, between the Medi- 
terranean Sea and what was anciently known as Lake Serbonis, on the flat shores 


of which the disaster to the Egyptians occurred ; thence abruptly turning south- 


wardly at the eastern extremity of the last named lake and reaching Elim, in 
Palestine, by way of the bitter lakes of Suez and the eastern shore of the Gulf of 


_ Suez, have aroused quite a spirit of investigation and inquiry among Bible read- 
_ ers, as well as most other classes of readers, and the compilation prepared by Mr. 


Underwood from his costly volumes ($12,00) will be gladly received. 

It must not, however, be supposed that this question alone is discussed by 
the editor. He has very carefully extracted from these volumes a large amount 
of important information upon the origin of the Ancient Egyptians; the division 


380 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


of the country; the chronology of the pharaonic history; the early dynasties ; 
art and architecture ; Semites and Egyptians; the Pharaoh of the Oppression and 
of the Exodus, and finally the memoir upon the Exodus read by Dr. Brugsch-Bey 
before the International Congress of Orientalists in London, September 17, 1874. 

Dr. Brugsch-Bey has spent some thirty years in Egypt, and has devoted most 
of his time to explanations of ancient localities, roads, ruins, monuments and other 
relics of the earliest times, and has thus become an excellent authority on Orien- 
tal history. Still, while his conclusions seem to the reader to be based on correct 
data, and supported by many facts of modern history, they are not universally 
accepted by all travelers, nor are his claims to absolute correctness in hieroglyph- 
ical translation admitted without dispute by all scholars. 

Mr. Greville Chester, who was sent to Egypt by the Palestine Exploration 
Committee of the Royal Geographical Society, is reported to have discovered that 
the geographical and physical features of the Serbonis are in actual confl ct with 
Dr. Brugsch’s theory, while the well known scholar, Prof. G. Seyffarth, in his 
article upon Egyptian Theology, declares that Brugsch’s knowledge of the Egyp- 
tian language is very defective and that he is totally ignorant of the Hebrew. 

Leaving such questions, however, to be settled by still closer investigations, it 
cannot be gainsaid that Mr. Underwood’s book is one that contains much that is 
new to most readers nor that it will stimulate not only geographical exploration, 
but also Egyptological study from a new and powerful cause. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


Report to the Trustees of the James Lick Trust, of Observations made on 
Mt. Hamilton, with reference to the location of the Lick Observatory, by S. W. 
Burnham. ‘The Microscopist’s Annual, for 1879, with useful tables rules, formule 
and memoranda; Industrial Publication Company, 25 cents. Legal Rights of 
Children, by S. M. Wilcox, published by U. S. Bureau of Education. Progress 
of Western Education in China and Siam, and Vacation Colonies for Sickly School 
Children, published by same. The Western Farmer of America, a free trade tract, 
by Augustus Mongredien, London, published by Cassell, Petter & Galpin, N. Y. 
Amended Charter and By-Laws of the Missouri Historical Society, 1880. St. 
Joseph Medical and Surgical Reporter, Vol. 1, No. 3; J. P. Chesney, M. D.; 
$1.00 per annum. Daily Programmes of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, F. W. Putnam, Sec. 


PRACTICAL FORMULAS. 


SCUBIN UEC MOIS CRI AUN| Yo 


PRACTICAL FORMULAS. 


__ The following are kindly communicated by Mr. Robert W. 
city : 
AROMATIC MOUTH WASH. 
Tincture of rhatany . Cases 
Tincture of cinchona, compound . 
"TATOO 2 AA se a MSIE 6, 2 Guise MC me lau te 
SOD) 60.8) SOS Ue GAM MERIC AG a+ 3 ae Ura eey ea 
Simple syrup . p : ‘ 
Oil of wintergreen, and: Oil of Srceafas, af each 
DANDRUFF ERADICATOR. 
Tincture of cinchona, simple . 
Solution of potassa . 
Salt of tartar . 
Cologne water : 
Water, sufficient to make . ve 
Apply to the head twice or thrice a week. 
COUNTER IRRITANT EMBROCATION. 


Sweet oil . : 
Rectified oil of pe 
Oil of cloves. .... 


For whooping-cough and Bronehines To be applied over the 
well rubbed in. 
NEW MOWN HAY COLOGNE. 
Extract of new mown hay . 
Cologne spirit . 
Imperial cologne . 
Extract of patchouly . 
Water . 
Mix, and filter. 
VIOLET COLOGNE. 
Extract of violet . 
TSN CDS Oe wattle Neos clo 6 olomune 
CHE Ol OSS GGG Geueeee cos bie 
@oloomeyspiniteyry is) |... 1s) (eranemaened) pli 
Water . te 
Tincture of orris root. 
Carbonate of magnesia. . . BBA 2) a Gon temas 
Mix, shake, and filter till perfectly lage 


. *I12 


381 


Gardner, of this 


4 ounces. 
2 iG 


. 24 grains. 
- 80 


6é 


2 ounces. 
8 drops. 


. I ounce. 
. 2 drachms. 
ir drachm: 
ir ounce: 

. 8 ounces. 


. 2 ounces. 
. I ounce. 
. I drachm. 
shoulder blades, 


2 ounces. 
66 

I pint. 

4 drachms. 
8 ounces. 


2 ounces. 
4 drachms. 
2 drops. 


. 12 OUNCES. 


8% ounces. 
I ounce. 
1 drachm. 


382 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


RUM AND QUININE HAIR TONIC. 


(timeture of redtemchonavaeyaiy . ). 1) es nee ene ounces: 
GIy Cerne he ee eigen ef at 4) ce a cme ee aT ROTTS 
PATINATC!. TUN a Sak ROMINA a ew PONT NO a 
Aeraporney ge) 5 : Hi io ane irontrynEnniC roses ec Ys GNCEKEI NTC. 
Imperial coloenes cnouen to Bre. Pa es 1 8 - + g ounces. 


Mix, and if necessary, filter through carbonate af magnesia to obtain it clear. 
An excellent tonic ; to be applied twice a day, rubbing it well into the scalp. 


KISSINGEN WATER. 


Carbonate) ofjsoda. Vali omy.) =. .t ie Suede me ORO TeInISE 
Chilonidevofisodiumy yey aes. 5s een cee OUTees 
BhosphaterotSodal se tree 0s.) 5. antes ll.) bale OM eura Ine 
Sulphatevoivsodany  civegyieres <5 au le Ur We et od So lose 
Sulphatelofsmnagnesia yen.) oy aii yen op ua Oe 
Canbonateot/Miagmesialeayen el 2. 2.) eee) une Loosen 
G@arbonate OfMime sare er Oo sana eens Sesh TC ne 
Phosphate Oljhime Sal Tea. Tiauet ye eee OO Mamie 

ey Muriate of ammonia. . . Ee aN at WR ps | OS 

Mix in two pints of water, and it 

dantrate Olmronvand=potassamiwsl.). 01.) eave ie) 2 Oummiee 
Dissolved mniwaten! i Mem mmere "4 |.) 7c asaya ae lao moun ees 
Watters Honinuus > ss ys togallon: 


Charge the mixture aiehtiy with Rrtonic acd gas, fa let it stand over night. 
Then filter, make up to five gallons, and charge to a pressure of ninety pounds. 
— Druggists Circular. 


A VALUABLE DISCOVERY. 


The process, devised by Mr. Bower and perfected by his son, accomplishes 
the object of protecting the surface of iron, and at the same time produces a 
beautiful French gray tint, which obviates the necessity of painting the articles 
treated. The process, which is not secret, consists in heating the articles to be 
coated in a closed chamber by means of carbonic oxide, heated air being made 
to enter the chamber for the double purpose of burning the gas and for combin- 
ing with iron. The excess of air after burning the carbonic oxide gas, combines 
with the iron, forming first the magnetic oxide and then the hydrated sesquiox- 
ide, or common iron rust. By shutting off the supply of air until only enough 
is admitted to turn the carbonic oxide, the rust is converted into a magnetic ox- 
ide. ‘The process is repeated until the film is sufficiently thick for the purpose 
of protection. The application of this invention has been undertaken on a 
large scale, the chamber where the oxidation is now carried on being large 
enough to contain about a ton of miscellaneous articles. 


eee 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


3832, 


DORA IN © Ss: 


A LETTER has been received from Prof. E. 
A. Popenoe, Secretary of the Kansas Acade- 
my of Science, in reference to the coming 
annual meeting, which will be held at Tope- 
ka the second week in November. The 
academy has sustained severe losses in its 
membership in the removal by death of Profs. 
Mudge, Bardwell, Fraser and Kedzie, all of 
whom have been enthusiastic workers in the 
society. From the very first Prof. Mudge 
had sustained the most active relations to the 
academy. He was the first and last President, 
and his papers have nearly all been based on 
original observation, and have formed the 
most valuable acquisitions to science. Such 
men are good enough for any age or country, 
and make the world better by living in it. 
The academy feels the loss of these active 
workers severely, but is hoping to have a 
successful meeting at Topeka, and to send 
forth a creditable volume of Transactions next 
spring. The committee on programme will 
be glad to hear from scientific men in the 
State, who have anything new to offer in the 
way of observations or investigations. 


THE Boston meeting of the American As- 
sociation for the Advancement of Science, 
is spoken of by all returning members, as 
well as by many of the scientific magazines, 


as a most interesting and enjoyable one and 
will long be remembered with pleasure by 
those who were present. 


THE Missouri River Improvement Asso- 
ciation held a meeting in this city on Sept. 
21st and 22d, which was attended by dele- 
gates from Kansas, Nebraska and Missouri, 
the object being to arouse an interest in the 


matter of increased facilities for transport- 


ing the products of the New West to mar- 


_ket and to obtain congressional assistance. 


Many of the very best business men of these 
States were present, and doubtless their action 
will have the final effect desired. The rail- 


roads have opened the country, but are unable 
to do all the freighting. This movement is not 
intended to injure them, nor is it a local 
matter. The whole Northwest is interested 
in the movement, from Fort Benton to St. 
Louis. Col. R. T. Van Horn was elected 
permanent President,and W. H. Miller, Secre- 
tary, with Vice-Presidents from all the prom-. 
inent cities of the above named States. 


AN observer need go no farther than the 
the Kansas City and Bismarck Fairs to learn. 
by their immense exhibits of minerals, cere- 
als, vegetables, animals and machinery, what 
this region of country is doing in this stage 
of the world’s history, while such exhibits. 
of fossils as those of Professor Snow at Bis- 
marck, and of Sidney Hare, here, tell the 
story of animal or vegetable life in the re- 
mote past, before man’s influence upon pass- 
ing events was felt. 


Pror. T. BERRY SMITH, who has furnished 
several good articles for the REVIEW within 
the past year, has received the position of 
Professor of Natural Science, etc., in the 
Louisiana, (Mo.,) College. Besides being 
an excellent teacher, Prof. Berry is a writer 
of ability and taste. 


Rev. Mr. Carb, general agent for Adams’ 
Synchronological Chart of history, which is 
described in full on page 378 of this issue of 
the REVIEW, has concluded to make Kansas 
City his home hereafter, and to devote 
himself to building up a general subscrip- 
tion book business. He has other val- 
uable works, and expects to employ a num- 
ber of agents both in the city and the sur- 
rounding country. 


WE are in receipt of the Proceedings of 
the Saratoga meeting of the American Asso-. 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, 
published by Permanent Secretary, Prof. 
F. W. Putnam. This volume, comprisins- 


384 


five hundred and seventy-two pages octavo, 
is mostly made up of papers read at that 
meeting, though not more than half of those 
presented were published. 


THE following are the contents of the 
Popular Science Monthly for October: Fash- 
ion in Deformity, by Prof. W. H. Flower, 
F. R.5S., (illustrated); Codperation in Eng- 
land, by George Iles; Modern Aspects of 
the Life Question, by Prof. George F. Bar- 
ker; The Australian Ornithorhynchus, (illus- 
trated); The mysterious Sounds of Nature, 
by Robert Springer ; The English Precursors 
of Newton, II; Criticisms Corrected, by 
Herbert Spencer. I. Tait and Kirkman; In- 
dia-rubber Industries, by Thomas Bolas, (il- 
lustrated;) On the Production of Sound by 
Light, by Alexander Graham Bell; Educa- 
tion as an Aid to the Health of Women, by 
Elizabeth Cumings; On the Destruction of 
Infectious Germs, by Dr. A. Wernich; Pos- 
sible Efficiency of Heat engines, by Prof. W. 
A. Anthony; Sketch of George Boole, (with 
portrait); Editor’s Table; Literary Notices ; 
Popular Miscellany; Notes. 


THE Atlantic for November will contain 
the first installment of Mr, James’s new 
story, The Portrait of a Lady; and a timely 
paper (with reference to the recent death of 
General Myer, and the weather department) 
on the Future of Weather Prophecy, by 
Prof. N.S. Shaler. There will be contribu- 
tions by Miss Preston, Mr. Aldrich, Mr. 
Lathrop (on the Concord School of Philoso- 
phy), with many essays and criticisms. 


AMONG the notes on current scientific sub- 
jects in the American Naturalist, those of 
Prof. Otis T. Mason, of Columbia College, 
Washington, D. C., upon Anthropology, are 
always carefully and discriminately made, 
causing them to be a marked feature of that 
interesting journal, 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


THE articles in the Worth American Review 
most likely to be of interest to scientific 
readers, are The Success of the Electric 
Light, by Thomas A. Edison; The Ruins of 
Central America, Part II, by Desiré Char- 
ay, and Recent Progress in Astronomy, by 
Prof. E. 5. Holden. 


THE Sczentific American raises the question 
of the safety of New York and Brooklyn in 
case of an attack by foreign powers, urging 
that with the most improved modern ord- 
nance a war vessel can throw shot and shell 
into both cities from a distance of eleven 
miles and be entirely out of range of any 
gun now defending the harbor. 


The contents of Harpers Magazine for Oc- 
tober, 1880, are as follows: The Ascent of 
Fujiyama—C. F. Gordon-Cumming; Art- 
Needlework-—Lucretia P. Hale; Keats: a 
Sonnet—John Tabb; Reminiscences of John 
James Audubon—Thomas M. Brewer (with 
two illustrations); A Romance of the Heb- 
rides—Amelia E. Barr (with five illustra- 
tions); An Autumn Holiday--Sarah O. Jew- 
ett (with four illustrations); A Demon-Hunt 
with St. Hubert in Touraine—M. D. Conway 
(with nine illustrations); Does Farming Pay? 
A Poem—Henry S. Goodale (with six illus- 
trations); The Metropolis of the Prairies— 
A. A. Hayes, Jr. (with twenty-two illustra- 
tions; White Wings: a Yachting Romance— 
William Black (with two illustrations); The 
Throckmortons. A Story—Mary N. Prescott; 
Some Peculiarities of Turkish Politics; Wash- 
ington Square. Part IV—Henry James, Jr; 
Is It all There Still? A Poem—Z. B. Gus- 
tafson; ‘‘Bad Peppers.”” A Story—George 
Parsons Lathrop; A Buddhist Vision. A Poem 
—Francis L. Mace; Modern Bee Culture— 
M. Howland; Morning and Evening by the 
Sea. A Poem—James T. Fields; The ‘“So- 
phia Walker ’’—Captain John Codman; Edi- 
tor’s Easy Chair; Editor’s Literary Record ; 
Editor’s Historical Record ; Editor’s Drawer. 


KOAUN SAS C1 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


WOE. IV: NOVEMBER, 1880. NOP 7: 


ME 2Om@l OGY 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 


I. 


The death of Gen. Myer, the late Chief of the Signal Service, and the 
necessity of providing a competent successor, have drawn public attention to the 
Signal Bureau and to the details of the organization. 

The work of the Signal Corps during the late war is well known, but the 
manner in which the meteorological division of the service, as now constituted, 
came into existence and under control of the War Department, is not so generally 
known; and, as the paternity of the work is claimed by several persons, it 
is believed that the following compilation from official papers upon the subject 
will be of service in giving credit where it is properly due. 

On December 8, 1869, Prof. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, who 
had been for years a persistent advocate of the importance of some national sys- 
tem of weather reports, in which the telegraph was to play an important part, 
addressed the following memorial to the Hon. H. E. Paine, member of the House 
of Representatives from Wisconsin. The memorial was accompanied by a list of 
disasters upon the lakes, making thirty pages of printed matter, of which the 
summary only is given in this paper : 


MEMORIAL OF PROF. I. A. LAPHAM, OF MILWAUKEE, WIS. 
“Not only does the interest of commerce and navigation, but also that of 


humanity itself, demand that something should be done, if possible, to prevent 
TV—25 


386 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the fearful loss of life and property on our great lakes, such as has recently filled 
sO many newspaper columns with their appalling details. If we could have even 
a few hours’ notice of the approach of the great storms that bring these calamities 
upon us, much of their mischief might be avoided. The endeavor to predict the 
occurrence of storms has been attempted in England, by the late Captain Fitz- 
Roy, and in France, by LeVerrier, the astronomer; with what success will 
appear from the following extracts : 


‘©On the 2d of December, 1863, during the day-time, I received two dis- 
patches, stating that a severe storm was about to traverse France,” writes the 
President of the Toulon Chamber of Commerce to M. LeVerrier; ‘‘they were 
published and posted up immediately, and the merchant vessels in the roadstead 
had time to provide, and did provide, against all risks. The maritime prefecture, 
on its behalf, directed all officers who were on shore to hasten on board their 
vessels. The storm burst forth with all its fury about half-past three o’clock in the 
afternoon. The first telegram sent on the 2d, confirming that of the day before, 
had therefore gained four hours’ time ahead of the storm, and everything was 
ready to meet the emergency. TZhanks to the precautions thus taken, there was no 
damage, no disaster to deplore.” 

The Genoese Journal, of December 3, says that ‘‘ the prediction telegraphed 
by the Paris Observatory to Turin, and immediately communicated to the ports 
on the western coasts of Italy, on the 1st instant, was fully realized. The first 
signs of the storm were felt yesterday, about 7:30 p.m. During the night it 
raged furiously; but there appears, nevertheless, to have been no disastrous 
occurrence in our neighborhood. ‘The commandant of the port had hastened to 
take all proper measures, and we may be thankful for them.” 


Prof. J. P. Espy, in his second report on meteorology, makes, among many 
others, the following ‘‘ generalizations” from the observations made and collected 
up to the year 1850, the date of that report: 

‘« Storms in the United States, travel from the west toward the east. 

“¢ They are accompanied with a depression of the barometer near the central 
line of the storm. 

‘‘'They are generally of great length from north to south, and move side 
foremost toward the east. 

‘* Their velocity is such that they travel from the Mississippi to the Connec- 
ticut River in about twenty-four hours, and from thence to St. John, Newfound- 
land, in nearly the same time, or thirty-six miles an hour; and 

‘«'The force of the wind is in proportion to the suddenness and greatness of 
the depression of the barometer.” 

Subsequent observations have fully confirmed the truthfulness of these im- 
portant deductions, which may therefore be set down as established facts or prin- 
ciples in meteorological science. The storm of March 22, 1861, is known to 


have occupied eight hours in passing from Dubuque, on the Mississippi, to 
Milwaukee, on Lake Michigan. 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 387 


Now, it is quite clear that, if we could have the services of a competent 
meteorologist at some suitable point on the lakes, with the aid of a sufficient 
corps of observers with compared instruments, at stations located every two or 
three hundred miles toward the west, and the co-operation of the telegraph com: 
panies, the origin and progress of these great storms could be fully traced; their 
their velocity and direction of motion could be ascertained; their destructive 
force and other characteristics noted—all in time to give warning of their probable 
effects upon the lakes. 

Doubtless there would be failures, and mistakes made; and many experi- 
ments and repeated observations would be necessary before the system could be 
made to work with perfection. But is not the object sought of sufficient import- 
ance to justify such a sacrifice? If it should prove successful in even one case, 
it might be the means of saving property worth many times the cost of the 
experiment. 

But how shall all this be accomplished, and who will assume the burden of its 
cost? Perhaps the establishment of a meteorological department of the Chicago 
Academy of Science, with a proper organization and a sufficient endowment, would 
be the most likely to secure the desired results. ‘The money should come from 
those most likely to be benefited.” 


‘MILWAUKEE, Wis., December 8, 1869. 


Dear Sir: I take the liberty of calling your attention to the accompanying 
list of disasters to the commerce of our great lakes during the past year, and to 
ask whether its appalling magnitude does not make it the duty of the government 
to see whether anything can be done to prevent at least some portion of this sad. 
loss in future. Yours, very truly, 


I. A. LapHaM,” 
Hon. H. E. Paine, M. C. 


OUR LAKE MARINE—RECORD OF DISASTERS FOR 1869—-NUMBER OF DISASTERS 
REPORTED, 1,914—ESTIMATED DAMAGE TO PROPERTY, $4,100,000 
—INTERESTING TABULAR STATEMENTS. 


Navigation having practically closed for 1869, in accordance with our custom 
we lay before the readers of the Seztinel a record of the disasters which have been 
reported during the season. The list is very long, and the estimated damage to 

hulls and cargoes unusually heavy. According to our summary, the number of 
vessels which met with disaster is 1,914, against 1,164 last season—showing an 
increase of 750. In 1868, 103 vessels were totally wrecked, whose measurement 
aggregated 26,441 tons. ‘This season the number totally lost is 126, with a meas- 
urement of 33,892 tons—which is certainly a large increase. Up to the grst of 
_ October the amount of damage sustained by the shipping on the lakes was hardly 
 €qual to the average of seasons, and vessel owners and underwriters congratulated 
themselves upon their good fortune. But the storms of November, following in 


388 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


quick succession, and each even more violent than the preceding one, swept 
away all these bright prospects and burdened both owners and underwriters with 
heavy losses. The disasters reported in November number 403, involving dam- 
age to property of upward of $2,000,000. These are probably the highest figures 
ever reached in any one month since the navigation of the lakes began. ‘The loss 
of life during the season was considerably less than in 1868. The tables which 
complete our summary are valuable for future reference and should be preserved. 


RECAPITULATION AND COMPARISON. 


1869|1868 
December, 1868 ea Ma AN eee PMP CATON SRE oy Tih See Ail tones 
MAMMA YEN LOO je aero) Neb eauetn ened re (2) Wall eliotaye ne ieee ee I I 
February . aE Rak asi anon Stine ps 4 
Wine GNM (Ohi eT AA So | og fe 
Ne er i en brn Go| dl) | OL 
IMiaiyameiiieheccarreteustive sit tc (ase ma hla sco.) \Jethts8l Jet vac! oy Niel [Melty ha ic eae QW Aa 
UNS ee Se ae Reser Ct ep Tanm Tinoco | ESI aly 
Oia eo nae tS Me noe nme re oo | S| | Tai 
ANTIGADS S eertSa A a MAI Sanrio des Selb See GBs S) oc Tig ts ale 
SEO Gelatin Aes CMAN alice | Lay BS 
CEG at a eA ee NIE E yo | Bil Se 
INGEN aC ei A TM EEI Gs) 5 | Oo, Le 
December . eadcensiel] Nees een I I 
209| 321 


This memorial was accompanied by the following bill: (R. H. 602.) which 
was introduced in the House of Representatives December 16th, 1869, by the 
Hon. H. E. Paine, and referred to the Committee on Commerce and ordered to 
be printed. 


A BILL 


To authorize the Secretary of War to provide for taking meteorological obser- 
vations at the military stations in the interior of the continent, and for giving 
notice on the northern lakes and Atlantic seaboard of the approach and force of 
storms. 

Whereas the record of marine disasters on the northern lakes for the years 
eighteen hundred and sixty-eight and eighteen hundred and sixty-nine, shows 
that during the year eighteen hundred and sixty-eight one thousand one hundred 
and sixty-four casualties occurred, involving a loss of three hundred and twenty- 
one lives, and of property of the value of three million one hundred and fourteen 
thousand dollars, and that during the year eighteen hundred and sixty-nine, one 
thousand nine hundred and fourteen casualties occurred, involving a loss of two 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 389 


hundred and nine lives, and of the property of the value of four million one hun- 
dred and sixty thousand dollars; and that in eighteen hundred and sixty-eight 
one hundred and five vessels of the value of one million two hundred and seven 
thousand three hundred dollars were totally lost, and in eighteen hundred and 
sixty-nine, one hundred and twenty-six vessels of the value of one million four 
hundred and fourteen thousand two hundred dollars were totally lost; and 
whereas scientific observations have already shown that the course of storms in 
the United States is generally from west to east,.and made known their rate of 
progress, and the changes of the barometer which precede and accompany them ; 
and whereas a large proportion of the loss of life and property by marine disasters 
on the northern lakes might be avoided by timely notice to mariners of approach- 
ing storms ; therefore, 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of War be authorized and re- 
quired to take the necessary meteorological observations at the military stations 
in the interior of the continent and on the northern lakes, and to give notice on 
the lakes and Atlantic coast, by means of the electric telegraph, of the approach 
and force of storms. 

Gen. Paine was strongly impressed with the importance of the subject, and 
requested an expression of views from the Surgeon General of the Army, Prof. 
Henry, Prof. Loomis, and from the Chief Signal Officer of the Army. The 
replies from these gentlemen were received and submitted to the House as 
follows : 


War DEPARTMENT, SURGEON GENERAL’S OFFICE, 
Washington, January 5, 187o. 


Sir: I have the honor to state, in reply to your note of the 3d instant, that 
meteorological observations of barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, clearness of 
sky, and direction and force of winds, are now taken at all permanent military 
posts in the interior of the continent, as well as those on the seaboard and lakes- 
If means of rapid telegraphic communication with the most important points on 
the lakes and Atlantic seaboard could be secured, it would be entirely practicable 
for medical officers of the army, stationed in the interior, to give notice of the 
approach and force of storms passing from the direction of their respective 
stations. 

I am, sir, very respectfully your obedient servant, 

J. K. Barnes, 
Surgeon General U. S. Army. 
General H. E. Paine, M. C., 

Flouse of Representatives. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, D. C., January 10, 1870. 


Dear Sir: Your letter asking my opinion of the practicability and merits of 
the proposition to establish, under the direction of the War Department, a system 


590 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


of telegraphic dispatches to forecast the approach of storms, was duly received | 
but on account of a press of business and the late recess of Congress I have 
deferred my answer until to-day. 

There can be no doubt from the present state of meteorological science that 
a properly devised and intelligently conducted system of weather telegrams would 
be of great importance to the welfare of commerce as well as of much interest to 
the general public. 

The first application of the telegraph to the forecasting of the weather was in 
1856, by the Smithsonian Institution, and was continued sufficiently long to test 
the practicability of the enterprise, and indeed, use was constantly made of it 
during the winter to determine as to advertising lectures at the Institution. 

Systems of the kind are now in operation in England, France, Holland, 
Italy, and other countries, and are producing results of sufficient importance to 
justify their maintenance at the expense of the government. The Atlantic sea- 
board of the North American continent is much more favorably situated for 
receiving intelligence of approaching storms than the western coast of Europe, 
since, as a general rule, the storms that visit the latter coast are generated on the 
ocean, from which no telegraphic signals can be sent; while a large majority of 
those which prove disastrous to the shipping of our eastern coast, have their 
origin on the land, and moving eastward may consequently be telegraphed in 
advance to the principal commercial cities of the east. 

In order, however, that this system may be of practical value, it is necessary 
that, 1st. The points from which the telegrams are to be sent must be carefully 
selected and furnished with reliable instruments. 2d. These instruments must be 
in charge of persons properly trained to make the observations. 3d. The tele- 
grams must be transmitted regularly to some central point at fixed hours of the 
day. 4th. They must at this center be collated and their indications interpreted 
by persons having a competent knowledge of the laws to which the motions of 
the storms are subjected. 5th. I do not think the military posts as now estab- 
lished will be sufficient to carry out the plan ; additional stations would be 
required. 6th. An appropriation would be necessary for the pay of the tele- 
grams, furnishing the instruments, and the necessary superintendence. 

The Smithsonian Institution has for twenty years been engaged in collecting 
observations in regard to the climate and changes of the weather on the continent 
of North America, and has now a number of persons employed in reducing and 
discussing the materials which have been collected. It receives at the end of 
every month the records of simultaneous observations, made over the whole of 
the United States by about four hundred observers, and from these the laws of 
the phenomena, so far as it is possible to determine them, will in due time be 
made out. The cost of the application, however, of these laws to practical pur- 
poses, must be defrayed by the government or by the community which is most 
interested in the results. I may, however, be allowed to add that any assistance 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE, 391 


or suggestions which may be required in organizing the proposed system of 
weather telegrams will be cheerfully furnished by this institution. 
I have the honor to be, your obedient servant, 
JosEPpH HENRY. 
Hon. H. E. Paine, 
LFlouse of Representatives. 


YALE COLLEGE, January 10, 1870. 

Dear Sir: I have carefully read the memorial of Professor I. A. Lapham, 
recommending the establishment of a system of observations to give warning of 
the approach of violent storms, and heartily approve of the object of that memo- 
rial. It cannot be doubted that violent storms are subject to natural laws; that 
these laws have to some extent been discovered; and there is reason to believe 
that by patient investigation these laws may become still better known. One 
principle which has been derived by induction from a large number of cases is 
that over the United States violent storms do not long remain stationary in one 
locality, but travel from place to place; usually from west to east, or from south- 
west to northeast, and with a velocity varying from zero to forty miles per hour. 
What this direction is, and what is the velocity of its progress, can be ascertained 
in the case of any storm by a comparison of a sufficient number of recorded 
observations ; and if every storm for a few years were tracked in this manner, 
the laws which they obey would become pretty well known. After these laws 
had been fully discovered, it would be possible, whenever a storm was raging, to 
give warning of its approach to places toward which the storm was advancing, 
several hours before its violence was actually experienced. If all violent storms 
come from the west or southwest, then by a system of combined observations it 
would be possible to give warning, at the port of New York, of the approach of 
every violent storm; and such warning would unquestionably be the means of 
preventing many disasters to the commerce of that port. It is believed that our 
knowledge of storms is already sufficiently precise to enable a competent meteor- 
ologist to furnish information which would be of great value to commerce, pro- 
vided he had at his command a sufficient corps of observers scattered over a 
considerable area to the west and southwest, and also had the means of transmit- 
ting his warnings immediately by telegraph; and if such a system were pursued 
for several years, it could scarcely fail to conduct to more precise knowledge, 
which would render it possible to give more reliable and definite warning of the 
approach of dangerous storms. 

In order to secure the objects here contemplated, it would be indispensable 
to have observations from a pretty large number of stations at intervals not 
exceeding one or two hundred miles, and scattered over a region to the west and 
southwest of those points for which the warnings were regarded as specially 
important. These observations should include all the meteorological instru- 
ments, but more particularly the barometer with the direction and force of the 
wind. ‘The observations should be made daily at fixed hours, and should be 


392 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


reported by telegraph to some competent meteorologist, whose business it.should 
be to compare the reports without delay, and make the proper deductions from 
them, and whenever a violent storm was in progress, to decide in what direction 
and with what velocity it was traveling; determine what places it would visit, 
and at what hour it would arrive; and finally transmit the announcement immedi- 
ately by telegraph to those places specially interested. Such a system could not 
be expected to attain satisfactory results without a pretty large number of well 
selected stations, and especially without the services of a competent meteorologist 
to superintend the entire system. The superintendent should be well informed 
respecting the progress which has been already made in this department of science — 
—he should have strong faith in the practicability of attaining useful results by a 
system of storm-warnings; and he should have no other engagements which 
would prevent him from giving his whole attention to this subject, especially 
whenever a violent storm was raging in any part of the United States. 

A system of meteorological observations has been for many years in progress 
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, and this system now covers a 
large portion of the United States. By combining a selected number of these 
observers with the observations at our military posts, the whole country might be 
covered with a net-work of observations which would be tolerably complete. I 
have great confidence that a general system of observations might be organized 
which would not only be of great value to science, but which would, in a few 
years (if not in the first year), give such increased security to commerce as would 
more than compensate for the necessary observations. 

I am, with much respect, yours truly, 

Ev1as Loomis, 

Hon. HaBert E. PAIne. 


War DEPARTMENT, 
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER, 
Washington, D. C., January 18, 1870. 

Sir: I have examined with interest the bill you send me (H. R. 602), with 
the papers accompanying it, and I have submitted your communication to the 
honorable Secretary of War. 

The subject of storm telegraphy had attracted my attention at the time of the 
heavy gales of the last fall upon the northern lakes—one of these gales was fully 
reported some hours in advance, and might have been telegraphed and signaled 
—and, by a coincidence, I had caused some maps, showing possible coast tele- 
graphic and signal stations, to be arranged for the War Department, before the 
congressional papers reached me. 

I have been much impressed with the importance of the endeavor proposed 
in the bill prepared by you, as an aid and safeguard to navigation, and as a mode 
not before availed of in this country, of utilizing, in the interests of commerce, 
the posts and force which must be maintained for military purposes in the interior 
and upon the sea coast. 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 393 


No reason suggests itself to me to doubt that meteorological observations, 
sufficiently minute to be useful, can be made at different posts and points deter- 
mined upon. 

The transmission of such intelligence as is gained can be so systemized as to 
insure its certainty. Military posts are now scattered from the Pacific coast, 
throughout the interior, to the Atlantic. The branching lines of telegraph, 
increasing in number, are daily binding them more closely together, and bringing 
them in communicating range of the great business centers. Other points of 
observation and report could be established gradually. In time, even the ocean 
cables may be made to serve a part. Meteorological observations, statistics, and 
reports giving the presence, the course, and the extent of storms—the telegraph 
can announce their location, as stated, and their probable approach, as it would, 
in time of war, those of an enemy. 

It seemed fair to conclude that, with experience, the direction and range of 
many storms could be foretold with reasonable accuracy. It is certain they might 
be in some instances. As I write this letter, I quote, as a commonplace illus. 
tration, a storm report I find in the Washington Chronicle, of this morning (Jan. 
18), made as an item of newspaper news only, and probably without any care, 
concert, or haste as to its reporting. 

St. Louis, January 17.—A terrible storm of thunder and lightning, wind and 
hail, passed over the city /as¢ evening. 

This was the evening of January 16. 

Cuicaco, January 17.—During the thunder-storm J/ast night the mercury 
stood at 42°. 

This was the night of January 16. 

LOUISVILLE, January 17.—A terrible tornado visited Cave City Station, on 
the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, at an early hour ¢hzs morning. 

This was the early morning of January 17. 

CINCINNATI, January 17.—An unsually heavy storm of wind and hail, 
accompanied with thunder and lightning, occurred here ¢hzs morning. 

This was the morning of January 17. 

PITTSBURG, January 17.—A heavy rain storm, and thunder and lightning, 
visited this place at xoon to-day. 

It is fair to presume that the storm of lightning, hail, and rain, the outskirts 
of which passed over Washington about six o’clock last evening (the evening of 
January 17), and was noticed by many as usual, was a part of this storm tele- 
graphed at St. Louis on the evening of the 16th instant. If so, it could have been 
reported almost hourly in its course to this city. 

A single storm report, wisely made upon the plan suggested by you, might 
save, perhaps, many times the cost of the experiment. Sufficient successes of 
organized systems of reports, having similar ends in view, in England, France, 
and on the shores of the Mediterranean, are already of record to warrant the 

endeavor on this side of the Atlantic, and, to suggest the thought, it would be 


394 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


almost wrong to fail to make it in a country so extended and having such shipping 
interests as our own. 

Such information of storms as could be gained, once received at chosen points, 
could be collated, posted, and announced in merchants’ exchanges and to boards 
of trade in the principal seaport and lake cities, and plans of signals similar in 
effect to the coast-storm signals put in use some years ago on the coasts of England 
and France, shown on the seaboard forts and at selected stations, by men already 
in the employ of the United States, could communicate the possible danger to 
vessels passing in sight at sea or preparing for departure from their ports. 

The brief examination I have been able to give the subject seems to show 
that, with forty-four sea-coast stations already owned by the United States, intelli- 
gence of value could be notified in this way by day or at night for the use of 
vessels in the vicinity of each of our prominent ports. 

I do not doubt that the general plan of collecting and announcing storm 
reports you initiate, well executed, with the extended knowledge and improve- 
ment to which it would lead, would save, in frequent instances, both life and 
property. The measure, once placed by enactment in some organized form, will 
grow in importance. Insurance companies, boards of trade, and commercial 
bodies, and shippers will be prompt to see the attempted benefit, and give it the 
aid of their co-operation. I hope the bill, or one having the same ends in view, 
will become a law, and I think the results to follow its passage, though they may 
not be at once attained, nor had without time, labor, and trouble, will be grate- 
fully appreciated by the commercial world. 

I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

ALBERT J. MYER, 
Brevet Brigadier General and Chief Signal Officer of the Army. 
Hon. Hapert E. Paine, 
LTouse of Representatives, Washington, D. C. 


The letter of the Chief Signal Officer led to a personal interview with Gen. 
Paine, and the substitution of the following joint resolution for the bill as origi- 
nally drawn and presented : 


JOINT RESOLUTION 


To authorize the Secretary of War to provide for taking meteorological 
observations at the military stations and other points in the interior of the conti- 
nent, and for giving notice on the northern lakes and seaboard of the approach 
and force of storms. 


Be tt resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is, 
authorized and required to provide for taking meteorological observations at the 
military stations in the interior of the continent, and at other points in the States 
and Territories of the United States, and for giving notice on the northern lakes 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 399 


and seaboard, by magnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the approach and 
force of storms. 

This joint resolution was introduced February 2, 1870, by Gen. Paine, who 
asked and obtained its immediate consideration and passage. 

It reached the Senate the same day, and was referred to the Committee on 
Military Affairs, which reported it back without amendment, through its chair- 
man, Mr. Wilson, of Mass., on February 4th. It was passed by the Senate 
without opposition, and became a law through the President’s approval, February 
9, 1870. 

On February 28, 1870, the Chief Signal Officer was informed by the Secre- 
tary of War that he was charged with the duties to arise under the provisions of 
the law, subject to the general supervision of the War Department. 

In August, 1870, a small pamphlet was issued from the Signal Office, entitled. 


GOVERNMENT TELEGRAMS AND REPORTS FOR THE BENEFIT OF COMMERCE, 


from which the following extracts are made, as illustrative of the preliminary work 
of the signal office in the establishment of the new service : 


‘¢ Popular attention is at this time directed to the formal undertaking, for the 
first time on this continent, under Government auspices, of an organized system 
of weather reports to be made by telegraph, with the purpose of giving informa- 
tion in advance of the approach and force of storms for the benefit of commerce 
on the northern lakes and seaboard. The advantages to be gained, if success 
can be had, are so vast, and popular curiosity in reference to the subject is so 
general, that a brief statement of what has been undertaken in this regard in 
other countries, and of the steps which have led to the present action in our own, 
is thought worthy of publication. 

‘‘ The special characteristic of modern efforts, in the development of meteoro- 
logical science, consists in co-operation among observers laboring in different 
fields, and thus securing the data for determining the simultaneous condition of 
the atmosphere over extended regions of country. 

‘Tt is only by this means that the laws which govern the occurrence, motion, 
direction and propagation of atmospheric disturbances can be ascertained. As 
soon as this truth was recognized and acted upon, the important fact was devel- 
oped that storms moved in certain fixed directions, and at such rates of speed as 
permitted telegraphic notice of their approach to be given to places lying in their 
paths. 

‘‘The practicability of utilizing this knowledge for the benefit of the commer- 
cial interest became at once apparent, and resulted in the organization of systems 
of storm warnings in several of the European countries most interested in mari- 
time affairs. 

“<To the late Admiral Fitz-Roy, of the British Navy, belongs the honor of hav- 
ing been the first to put in operation a practical system of weather forecasts and 


396 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


storm signals, based on deductions made from numerous observations received by 
telegraph daily, at a central point. 

‘The first cautionary or storm-warning signals were made in England in Feb- 
ruary, 1861, and in August of the same year published forecasts of the weather 
were tried with such success, that by the spring of 1862 sufficient experience had 
been gained to justify the adoption of the system still in use. 

x Kates xk x x xk xk x 

‘‘The value of the forecasts given is shown ina statement made by General 
Sabine to the Board of Trade. He says that he had examined the warnings given 
during the two years ending 31st of March, 1865, and found that in the first year 
fifty per cent. and in the second year seventy three per cent. were right. Warn- 
ings of storms were sent by Admiral Fitz-Roy to the north and west coasts of 
France, and from comparison with the records for the two winters of 1864-65 and 
1865-66 it appears that of one hundred warnings sent during the first of these 
winters seventy-one were realized, and during the second winter seventy-six; and 
out of one hundred storms which occurred, eighty-nine were signaled during the 
first winter and ninety-four during the second winter. 

‘*In 1861 the Imperial Observatory of Paris commenced publishing, in the 
form of a daily bulletin, weather reports from different points in France, which 
proved so interesting to the scientific world, and useful to navigation, that the 
system was extended throughout Europe, reports from each principal city being 
received daily in Paris, where they are discussed and the results transmitted by 
mail to all parts of the world in the successive numbers of the International Bulle- 
letin. In 1863, the Observatory added to the bulletin a lithographic outline-map 
of Europe, upon which diagrams are drawn, showing the barometric curve of the 
previous day through the various stations reporting, together with the temperature 
and direction and force of the wind, so that one can see at a glance the condition 
of the atmosphere as it was all over Europe the day before. 

‘In carrying out this system of observations, France has been divided into 
districts, each consisting of a department, and in charge of a competent superin- 
tendent. By this arrangement much valuable material has been collected and 
many useful rules issued for the guidance of the agricultural community. 

‘‘In Russia, a system of meteorological observations bas been established, 
forming a net-work of stations throughout the empire, from which simultaneous 
daily reports are made to St. Petersburg, where they are collected and published 
for the benefit of commerce, and distributed throughout Europe. 

‘‘In Italy a similar system has been in operation forsome years, and valuable 
reports are also made from Holland, Austria, and Norway, but not issued daily 
in the bulletin form. 

‘‘In Austria alone, one hundred and eighteen stations are reported where 
observations are taken by scientific men, who labor without remuneration and the 
results of whose labors are annually published by the Government. 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 397 


“In Germany and Denmark, where the telegraphs are under Government 
control, telegraphic announcement of the approach of storms is sent to all seaports 
by the operators who are especially charged with the performance of this duty. 

‘«The importance of regular meteorological reports was early recognized in 
this country, for the Medical Department, United States army, commenced taking 
observations in 1819. The States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio fol- 
lowed in 1825, 1837, and 1842, respectively, and the Smithsonian reports in 1849. 
The observations, while valuable to the scientific world as studies for future 
application, or in reference to the sanitary condition of localities, were at first of 
no immediate benefit, and it was only when the introduction of the telegraph made 
their rapid transmission possible that attention was drawn to the possibility of 
practical storm warnings. In 1857 the Smithsonian Institution in Washington 
was in the daily receipt of weather telegrams, transmitted gratuitously by the 
telegraph companies, from various places east of the Mississippi and as far north 
as New York, and published in the Washington Evening Star. In 1858 a map 
was hung up in the Institution, on which was shown daily the changes of weather 
reported by telegraph from different parts of the country. Reference was fre- 
quently made by Professor Henry and the able correspondents of the Institute to 
the practicability of more extended plans of this description. 

‘‘TIn the same year the American Association for the Advancement of Science 
appointed a committee for the organization of a national system of meteorolog- 
ical observations, and a plan was presented, which provided for the appointment 
of a superintendent in each State, who was to collect and collate all observations 
within its boundaries, and forward them monthly to Washington. The expense 
of maintaining such a system was to be borne by the different States. No action 
was taken in the matter, however, and the daily publication of reports of the 
Smithsonian continued until the breaking out of the war in 1861, when it was 
suspended, but renewed again temporarily in 1862; but finally discontinued, 
owing to the cessation of observations in the southwest, and the constant use by 
the Government of the telegraph lines. In 1863 the newly appointed Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture commenced the monthly publication of a bulletin, giving 
the state of the weather and condition of the crops throughout the country from 
data furnished by correspondents. This publication is still continued, and is of 
value to the agricultural interests of the country. In 1869 a daily bulletin of the 
weather was published for three months in Cincinnati, Ohio, under the direction 
of Professor Cleveland Abbe, and the experiment proved so successful that it was 
renewed during the present year. Since 1863 several persons have endeavored 
to get congressional assistance in organizing the national system suggested by the - 
Association in 1858. Mr. A. Watson, of Washington, has been earnest in advo- 
cating in the papers a system of storm signals for the benefit of agriculture. 

‘* Professor I. A. Lapham, LL. D., of Milwaukee, has been a persistent and 
successful advocate of the importance of some national system of weather reports, 
in which the telegraph was to play an important part, and he brought powerful 


398 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


arguments to bear in the shape of statistics, showing the loss of shipping on our 
lakes alone for aseries of years. His views were brought strongly to the notice 
of Congress in 1869, in a memorial replete with interest. By a coincidence, 
papers and maps in reference to the same subject were prepared in the War De- 
partment at the time the memorial was submitted. 2 

The matter was finally brought to the attention of Congress by the Hon. H. 
E. Paine, of Wisconsin, who offered the joint resolution which became a law on 
the oth of February, 1870. 

re ok 2 * = * x * 

The fact that in the north temperate zone storms almost invariably come from 
some westerly point, and follow an easterly course, renders the application of 
storm warnings in the United States of more immediate utility than in Europe, 
where the principal points, being on the eastern coast, are first affected by the 
storms. Here, as soon as a storm appears in the territory bordering the Rocky 
Mountains, it becomes possible, 1n many cases, with proper arrangements, to 
telegraph its approach to eastern cities in time to enable preparations being made 
against its destructive influence. It is not absolutely necessary that the observers 
or reporters should be scientific men, though the higher their grade of education — 
the better, but that they should promptly announce the existence of a storm, 
with other meteorological facts, to the places lying within its probable path. It 
is essential they should be held to a proper responsibility, and be under strict 
official control. The form of report must be carefully devised and regulated. A 
series of reports of this kind will make possible in time the mapping out of each 
individual storm, and from this material can be deduced some general laws gov- 
erning their movement. For example, the great storm of March 13-17, 1859, was 
thus mapped out by Professor Lapham, and its course found to run from western 
Texas, where it first struck our coast, in a northeast direction, to Lake Michigan, 
which it reached in twenty-four hours, thence to the Atlantic coast in another 
twenty-four hours, and finally leaving the continent at St. Johns, Newfoundland, 
in ninety-six hours after its first announcement. Here was a regular movement 
about as rapid as a railroad train, and as easily kept under supervision. 

In a memorial to the Forty-First Congress, Professor Lapham says: ‘‘If we 
could have even a few hours’ notice of the approach of the great storms that bring 
these calamities upon us, much of their mischief might be avoided.”’ 

“Tt is quite clear,” writes an eminent meteorologist, referring to these and 
other premonitions seemingly established by meteorological statistics, ‘‘ that if we 
could have the services of a competent meteorologist at some suitable point on 
the lakes, with the aid of a sufficient corps of observers, with compared instru- 
ments, at stations located every two or three hundred miles toward the west, and 
the co-operation of the telegraph companies, the origin and progress of these 
great storms could be fully traced; their velocity and direction of motion ascer- 
tained; their destructive force and other characteristics noted, all in time to give 
warning of their probable effect upon the lakes.” 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 399 


It must be remembered, however, that ‘‘ there may be failures and mistakes 
made; and many experiments and repeated observations may be necessary before 
the system can be brought to work with perfection ; but is not the object sought 
of sufficient importance to justify such a sacrifice? If it should prove successful 
in even one case, it might be the means of saving property worth many times the 
cost of the experiment.” 

It should not be allowed to escape attention, that while such generalizations 
as those above are held by many of the wisest and most careful meteorologists, 
there are those of much research who have different views. The absolute truth, 
it seems, will be arrived at only when careful, systematic, and official observations 
shall have done away with many causes of error and difficulties in the way of 
truthful deductions which such observations solely can remove. 

The system inaugurated by Congress is designed for the protection of the 
seaboard as well as the lake districts, It is hoped to extend its benefits to all the 
coasts and, by the necessary stations, to the great navigable rivers of the United 
States. 

The plan so far determined upon by the War Department contemplates the 
simultaneous observation of atmospheric phenomena, the telegraphic transmission 
of reports of these observations, and the wide-spread publication of the reports at 
all points where they will be of service to the commercial interests of the country. 
What is proposed in the present and contemplated in the future is clearly stated 
in the following ‘‘memorandum,” issued from the department in Washington 
charged with the performance of the duty: 


1. Observation and Report of Atmospheric Phenomena. 


a. A semis ¢ of meteorological observations and reports will be made by careful 
observers under military control, and supplied with the best attainable instru- 
ments. All instruments will be adjusted to a standard at Washington. a 

6. The observers will be stationed at points throughout the United States, 
selected by competent authority, as those from which reports of observations will 
be most useful, as indicating the general condition of the atmosphere, or the 
approach and force of storms. 

It has been in view to so locate these stations that, the existence of a storm 
at one or more of them being determined, information of the facts may be had 
by the regular reports communicated by telegraph in advance of its probable 
movement. 

c. Synchronous observations will be taken, and reports made from the sta- 
tions three times a day, one about 8 a. m., one about 6 p. m., and one at mid- 
night. These observations and reports will be timed by Washington time. The 
office is in a measure led to this selection of hours by the press of business at 


other times upon the telegraphic lines. Other observations will be made for 
record. 


400 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


2. Lransmuission of Reports. 


a. The reports of observations are to be transmitted by telegraph, under a 
special arrangement with the telegraph companies whose lines connect the differ- 
ent points where stations will be established. 

6. By a combination of telegraphic circuits, the reports of observations made 
at different points synchronously will be rapidly transmitted to the different cities 
at which they are to be published. They will also be concentrated at Washing- 
ton. The whole time required to transmit, collate, and deliver the reports, from 
the extreme points of observation to the points of publication, will, it is hoped, 
not exceed one hour. 


3. Lublication of Reports. 


a. It is intended to give the widest publicity to these reports, in order to. 
make them useful to the greatest number. Copies of all reports will be furnished 
to the different papers for publication, and each report will be bulletined in the 
board of trade rooms, merchants’ exchanges, or other conspicuous places, imme- 
diately upon its receipt. 

6. So soon as the necessary arrangemements can be had, a meteorological map 
on which the changes can be noted as each report is received, will be displayed 
a: the board of trade rooms, or other business centers in each city receiving re- 
ports. Similar maps will be furnished the different scientific establishments co- 
operating with the department. 

c. The reports will be limited at the outside to the simple statement of meteoro- 
logical facts existing at the stations of observations. These facts, together with 
such general laws as seem to have been determined by meteorological observa- 
tions hitherto made and as may permit probable deductions to B€ made from the 
reports, will be published. 

d. It is not deemed advisable to attempt at the outset, further than in this way, 
predictions which must often be erroneous. 

e. Whenever experience has certainly determined what may be regarded for 
any section of country as premonitions of approaching storms, signal-stations will — 
be established as quickly as the necessary arrangements can be made, and signals 
will be displayed announcing their probable approach, with other information which 
may be possible. 

jf. The observer, when one is stationed in any ote will be constantly on duty 
during business hours, and every facility will be given to obtain copies of the 
bulletins, or other full and the latest information. 


\ 


4. Stations. 


The following have been designated as stations of observation and report, or of 
report alone, and will be occupied as rapidly as arrangements can be effected : 

Plaister Cove, N. S.; St. Johns, N. B.; Portland, Me.; Boston, Mass.; New 
Haven, Conn.; New York City, N. Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Baltimore, Md., Wash- 


METEOROLOGY AND THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 401 


ington, D.C.; Wilmington, N. C., Charleston, S. C.; Augusta, Ga.; Savannah, Ga.. 
sie City, Fla.; Key West, Fla.; Montgomery, alia. Mobile, Ane New Orleans, 

a.; Jackson. Migs. ; Memphis, ‘Panne: ; Nashville, Benne: Tenievalle, Ky.; Cincin- 
oe Ohio. ; Keneeille. denn: Albany, Ne»; Syracuse, N: Y.; Oswego, N. Y.- 
Rochester, N. Y.; Buffalo, N. Y., Cleveland, Ohio; Toledo, Ohio; Detroit, Mich.; 
Chicago, Ill.; Indianapolis, Ind.; St. Louis, Mo.; Milwaukee, Wis.; St. Paul, 
Minn.; Duluth, Minn.; Omaha, Neb.; Cheyenne, Dak.; Corinne, Utah.; Santa 
Fe, N. M.; Fort Benton, N. M., San Francisco, Cal.; Pittsburg, Pa. 

The staff of the signal office during the year 1870 and 1871, covering the 
period of organization, was composed of the following named officers : 

First Lt. L. B. Norton, Property and Disbursing officer, detailed April 7, 
1865, died, December 23d. 1871. Succeeded by 1st. Lt. Henry Jackson, who re- 
mained until August 12, 1876. 

_ Second Lt. H. W. Howgate, in charge of stations, detailed April 18, 1868, 
and who is still on duty. 

Capt. C. M. Pyne, Adjutant, detailed April 16, 1870, relieved December 15 
1870 and succeeded by Capt. Garrick Mallery, who remained until August 17, 
1876. 

In November 1870, Prof. Lapham, of Milwaukee, was employed as civilian 
assistant to the Chief Signal Officer and stationed at Chicago, with special reference 
to the supervision of the Signal Service on the lakes. 

The services of Prof. Cleveland Abbe, were secured January 3, 1871, since 
which date he has remained on duty in the Signal Office. 

Prof. Thompson B. Maury, entered upon service as assistant to the Chief 
Signal Office June 18, 1871, and remained until his resignation on November 30 
1875. 

First Lt. Robert Craig, was detailed February 1, 1871, and 2d. Lt. A. W. 
Greeley, July 6, 1871, and both officers were employed during the year upon the 
studies and preparation of the charts and papers necessary to fit them for duties 
in connection with this service. 

On November 1, 1870, at 7.35 a. m., the first systematized synchronous 
meteoric reports ever taken in the United States were read from the instruments 
by the observer-sergeants of. the sigtial service at twenty-four stations, and placed 
upon the telegraphic wires for transmission. 

With the delivery of these reports at Washington, and at other cities and 
ports to which it had been arranged they should be sent, which delivery was made 
by 9 a. m., commenced the practical working of this division of the signal service 
in this country. 

On the first day of report the tabular bulletin reports were bulletined and 
furnished at twenty- four cities. The organization and instructions seem to have 
been sufficiently minute to guard against accident or error. 

The issue of synopses and probabilities, as they are styled, was commenced by 
the office on February 19, 1871, and has been made thrice daily since that date. 


1V—26 


402 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The synopses consist of a synoptic view of the meteoric condition of the 
United States, collected from the data received at each regular report. 

The probabilities are the deductions made by the office, from the data in its 
possession at the time of each report, as to the meteoric conditions probably to oc- 
cur during the ensuing eight hours. 

The following extracts are from a report made from Professor I. A Lapham 
to the Chief Signal Office, January 16, 1871: 

‘* All papers, reports and instruments were placed subject to my inspection, 
and all facilities were directed to be afforded me in the discharge of these duties. 
My instructions were to furnish daily to the Chief Signal Officer for his consider- 
ation, as quickly as possible after receiving the morning reports, a brief sketch 
of the reports received for the twenty-four hours preceding (or for a longer 
period), as to facts bearing upon the probable weather, with a statement of the 
probable character of the weather for the next twenty-four hours; and in case of 
imminent danger the dispatches were to be immediately published along the lakes 
by the several observers, without awaiting orders from the Chief Signal Officer. 

In the prosecution of this work I have had occasion to suggest certain 
changes and improvements in the methods of doing this important work in hand, 
some of which have been adopted and have resulted in saving the time of the 
observers and of securing greater accuracy of results. 

*K *K *k *k *k *k *k kK 

‘‘In compliance with these instructions I proceeded each morning, with as 
little delay as possible, to construct a skeleton chart of the matter on a large sheet 
of paper, upon which the relative positions of the several stations had been 
marked, showing the height of the barometer above or below the mean (an- 
nounced to be thirty inches), the state of the matter, the temperature, the direc- 
tion and velocity of the wind, etc., at the several stations from which reports were 
received. ‘These items were so connected by lines (in different colors) as to show 
the districts where the barometer and the temperature were high or low, when 
rain or snow was falling, etc., thus representing to the eye in a comprehensive 
manner the condition of the weather over the whole country, from the Atlantic 
to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the great Northern 
Lakes. ; 

With the aid of the meteorological chart and the column showing the amount 
of change since the last preceding report, and with a general knowledge of the 
character and movement of storms over the interior of our continent, we can 
readily determine what predictions to send forward. 

Comparing one of these with the next preceding, the progress of weather 
changes as they move over the country can at once be seen, and their direction 
and velocity ascertained. 

The first dispatch of the signal service sent from Chicago was dated at noon 
on the 8th of November, 1870. 

* *k *K *k * *k *k ok 


CLOUDS. 408 


A glance at the skeleton-charts daily prepared to show the meteorological 
phenomena more readily to the eye, shows the magnificent extent of the atmos- 
pheric distances that then follow each other with such rapidity over the country. 
The several lines of equal barometic pressure seldom inclose a space within the 
region covered by the stations. aS ct es 

These lines are mostly in the form of curves of very great radius.  * ** 
Such far-spreading phenomena can surely not be produced by any local changes of 
temperature.” *K *K *K 

These extracts are teresting as showing the first steps taken by the Signal 
Service in the discussion of weather reports, the preparation of charts and the 
issue of forecasts. 

They also furnish valuable data in reference to the question of priority among 
the numerous applicants for the honor of originating the present system of weather 
work of the Signal Service. 

On January 1, 1874, in pursuance of an arrangement between Professor 
Henry and the Chief Signal Officer, the very extensive system of meteorological 
reports made by volunteer observers throughout the United States, under the su- 
pervision of the Smithsonian Institute, was transferred to the charge of the Signal 
Office. 

On June 19, 1874, the series of meteorological observations made at military 
posts and stations throughout the United States, were transferred to the Signal 
Office by the Surgeon General of the Army, thus concentrating the official mete- 
orological work of the country in one office and under one management, where it 
has since remained. 


CLOUDS. 
PROF. S. A. MAXWELL, MORRISON, ILL. 


__ Clouds are masses of aqueous vapor condensed to such an extent by a dimi- 
hution of temperature as to become visible. A given quantity of air will remain 
Wansparent so long as it is capable of absorbing watery vapor, and when it can 
absorb no more, it is said to be saturated. Even in this condition it 


is quite 
Jansparent; butif from any cause the temperature is lowered, a portion of the 
moisture is condensed, forming minute, though visible, vesicles of vapor, such as 


wre seen floating in the air during a fog. These vesicles are hollow spherules 


sufficiently opaque to render the clouds which they form able to exclude 


eg 


the sun’s 
Sy 5 5 
jays either wholly or in part. The temperature of a saturated portion of air may 


de diminished in two ways—a cold current of air may enter it, or it may itself rise 

ito a higher and colder stratum. The result of either of these conditions is 
sually the formation of clouds; and all or nearly all precipitation is due to the 
ooling of ascending currents at a vast height. 


i 
Ms 


404 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


There are seven distinct varieties of clouds, arranged in two groups, known as 
primary and secondary. ‘The primary group embraces the varieties called cumu- 
lus, stratus, cirrus, and nimbus ; the secondary, the forms designated cirro-cumu- 
lus, cirro-stratus and cumulo-stratus. This classification is quite faulty, as the 
words primary and secondary are not used in their true meaning. The word 
primary signifies pertaining to the first, hence primary clouds ought to mean the 
original or first forms of clouds—those forms which they assume at the beginning 
of their existence. Now, of the four varieties styled ‘‘przmary clouds,” but two, 
the stratus and the cumulus, can properly be called primary, as they only are 
original forms. A better classification is as follows: 


( Primary a. Stratus. 
Te or 
Original. 6. Cumulus. 
CLoups. 4 ( ¢. Cumulo-stratus. 
Secondary | @. Nimbus. 
JUNE or e. Cirro-stratus. 
Transformed. | / Cirro-cumulus. 
i ee @ireus: 


The processes of cloud formation and transformation are easily understood 
if we are sufficiently observing. ‘The manner in which primary clouds originate 
has been briefly stated already, or rather that part of the subject relative to the 
formation of the cumuli—an interesting phenomenon which may be witnessed 
during the forenoon of almost any day insummer. ‘The name, stratus, is applied 
to that form of cloud which often floats near the surface of the earth after a 
heavy rain-storm, also to those with which, in autumn and winter the entire hea- 
vens are often obscured. A third though less common form of the stratus is 
sometimes seen during the evening of the cooler days of summer, and is caused 
by the settling of cumuli to lower strata of air. The lower portion of a cloud 
when approaching the earth in this manner, is usually changed to invisible vapor, 
the air which it enters being warmer and consequently more capable of holding 
moisture. ‘The rounded or conical form of the cumulus is by this means made 
to resemble the stratus, and after a short time, a perfect form of the latter will be 
produced by lateral expansion caused by gravity. This form of the stratus is 
short-lived, never being converted into any other kind of cloud—but is soon dis- 
sipated into invisible vapor. That form of the stratus which is often seen just 
after a heavy rain (particularly if the latter be followed by a strong east or south- 
east wind), is produced when the lower stratum of air is, in its parts nearest the 
earth’s surface, too warm to be in a saturated condition, while at an elevation of a 
few hundred yards the temperature is so low as to cause the vapor to condense, 
When this phenomenon occurs there are usually two strata of clouds, one moving) 
diametrically opposite or at right angles to the other. This form of the stratus 1 
an original cloud while that previously described isa modification of the cumulus, 
The direction taken by these clouds, is dne of the best of weather indicators. 


CLOUDS, 405 


If, after a storm, they move foward the north-west, another storm is almost sure 
to follow. This circumstance generally indicates a large area of ‘‘low barome- 
ter,” the center of which is still to the westward of the place of observation, If 
on the contrary, these stratus clouds move /vom the west or north-west, it indi- 
cates rising barometer, fair weather and lowering of temperature. It takes com- 
paratively little experience in weather observation, for one to foretell the weather 
with tolerable accuracy whenever these clouds appear. ‘The stratus is never trans- 
formed into the nimbus as some meteorologists have supposed. It is true that 
mist sometimes falls from these clouds, but even then there is so wide a difference 
between them and true rain-clouds—both in form and origin—that it appears un- 
scientific to consider them rain-clouds. One reason why some have supposed 
that these forms yield rain or are transformed into rain-clouds, is doubtless due to 
the fact that the heavens being sometimes over-spread with them, rain begins to 
fall and continues to do so for a considerable time and in large quantities. The 
truth is simply this—the stratus floats low and obscures the storm-cloud which is 
at a much greater altitude. The rain falls chrowgh the stratus; not from it—the 
rain-drops beginning their descent from points varying in elevation from two to ten 
times that of the base of the lower (stratus) cloud. This feature was particularly 
noticeable on the occasion of the great storm which passed over large portions of 
Iowa and Illinois on July 1st 1878. 

The stratus more than any other form of cloud, has the power of absorbing 
light, or in other words it is a poor reflector. For this reason it always has a 
dark color, though its base is usually less dark than that of the cumulus. It is 
more uniform in color than the cumulus, while its edges are less sharply defined 
both of which facts are due to the difference in their densities. 

Let us now consider the cumulus. This is truly the cloud of day, its typical 
form never appearing in our latitude in the night, unless the weather is very warm 
for the season. The word cumulus, signifies a heap, and is therefore definitive; 
giving a very good idea of the form of the cloud. These clouds are formed 
chiefly during the forenoon of warm days of spring and summer by the conden- 
sation of the vapor contained in ascending currents of air. They attain their 
greatest height during the hottest portions of the day; at which time according to 
Flammarion, they are 10,000 feet above the surface of the earth. In fair weather 
their thickness is rarely more than 2,000 feet, though no figures can be given as 
even approximately correct at a/ times; for latitude and temperature greatly 
modify both their dimensions and their Hiveade. 

; The cumulus, proper, is always an original cloud, by which is meant one 
formed directly from invisible vapor. Its base has a dark or black color, but the 
portions illuminated by the sun are of a beautiful white, sometimes changing toa 
yellowish or ruddy tint—to the former when there is much moisture in the inter- 
vening air, and to the latter when the air is filled with smoke or the so- -called dry- 
og, characteristic of Indian summer. No cloud possesses more beauty than this 


406 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


—its clearly cut outlines and exquisite tints contrasting so admirably with the 
deep blue of the sky. 

For this reason artists attempt its representation in their paintings, but com- 
monly in a very imperfect manner, nature in this instance, defying Art with 
persistence and success. 

The cumulus generally floats in the surface stratum of air. This can be veri- 
fied by simple observation, the vane generally points foward the direction from 
which these clouds move. It is the cumulus which so often furnishes the tempo- 
rary but refreshing shade to the weary out-door laborer, the severity of whose task 
is thereby greatly mitigated. It is the function of the cumuli to act as watetr-car- 
riers, and in this capacity is their chief merit found. Millions of tons of water 
are daily conveyed in this manner with the speed of an express train from one por- 
tion of the country to another. Sometimes this water falls as rain and sometimes 
the clouds which it forms are dispersed and become again invisible vapor. 

The two forms of clouds known as cumulo-stratus and nimbus, are but the 
cumuli in its more advanced stages of existence. When there is /ow barometer 
with high temperature, the cumuli instead of dispersing, congregate in vast mass- 
es, sometimes disposed in ranges resembling mountains with domes and peaks 
rising grandly against the background of the sky. | These clouds rise to an im- 
mense height, their summits frequently being 25,000 feet from the surface of the 
earth. Their bases vary in elevation from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, consequently, their 
vertical thickness is very great. The apex of a thunder-cloud in hot weather, can 
be seen frequently on our western prairies, at a distance of two hundred miles. — 
This fact can be proved almost any summer’s day by means of the telegraph. 

In treating of causes we necessarily touch upon their effects, hence in speak- 
ing of clouds we must speak also of the phenomenon of precipitation. |Meteor- 
ologists hold different views concerning the direct causes which produce rain. 
Rozet and Kaemtz hold that, it is due to the commingling of cirrus and cumulus 
clouds ; the former being composed of frozen and the latter of vesicular vapor. 

Now, I do not regard the cirrus as a cause of rain so much as an effect. The 
cirrus if I may so term it, is the ashes of the storm-cloud, being only an incident- 
al product of the storm. If one of those scientists of Germany or France, who 
upholds the theory of Rozet, would spend one summer on our western prairies, he 
might see more than a dozen storms originate without a vestige of one of the cirri 
present in the visible heavens. It is a fact, however, that very soon after a cloud 
begins to yield rain, it assumes the so-called ‘‘ carded appearance” on its almost 
vertical sides and as the top becomes smooth a small horizontal fan of cirrus or 
cirro-stratus proceeds from near the summit gradually expanding laterally and in 
front until it covers manyfold more territory than the true rain cloud from which it 
was developed. If our scientific friend should continue his observations of this 
shower, he might possibly have the privilege of witnessing how ‘‘storms die,” 
for after the moisture of the cloud has mostly fallen as rain, he will notice the low- 
er parts dwindling away, until by and by there will be no more “ streaks of rain” 


CLOUDS. 407 


under the cloud, and all semblance to the original cumulus or later nimbus will 
have disappeared—all that remains being a flat cloud, a true cirrus or cirro-stra- 
tus, which may dissolve in a short time and leave no trace of the storm or shower 
to which it once belonged. I have seen many instances of all these transforma- 
tions, from cumulus to nimbus, from nimbus to cirro-stratus, from cirro-stratus to 
cirrus, and often the time required for these changes did not exceed an hour. It 
is rmuch more common for the cirro-stratus to exist for several, hours then change 
to the cirrus in which form it will float for days, moving in an easterly direction, 
at an immense height. The little white films of cirri, which pass over us nearly 
every day, especially in hot, dry weather, are the ashes of storm-clouds whose 
force was spent on the peaks of the Rocky mountains, or possibly on the briny 
waves of the distant Pacific. | 

The ascending currents which form the cumuli and carry them to great 
heights, sometimes impart to them sufficient inertia to cause their entrance into 
currents of air having a temperature considerably below 32° Fah. When this 
takes place vesicles of vapor in the upper portions of the cloud become suddenly 
converted into buoyant frost-crystals, many of which speed away on the wings of 
the wind—the cold current moving much more rapidly than that containing the 
lower portions of the cloud. A large number of these frost-crystals and spherules 
of ice, descend into the lower and denser portions of the cloud, diminishing its 
temperature, thereby tending to produce precipitation; and no doubt in many in- 
stances rain does result from these conditions ; though a far greater amount is 
caused by the cooling of ascending currents of humid air. 

With regard to their direction of motion, clouds must, of course, take the di- 
rection of the current of air in which they float. In the different parts of the 
earth the direction of the prevailing wind varies. The direction of the cumu- 
lus and the stratus will usually be the same as the surface wind, while the direc- 
tion taken by the other forms, is more or less independent of it. Of these the 
cumulo-stratus and nimbus, being formed from the cumulus, usually (at least dur- 
ing the day-time) take the direction of the surface wind; but the cirro-stratus and 
cirrus almost invariably move in an an easterly direction. 

The cumulus, proper, as stated heretofore, is an original form of cloud, but 
there is occasionally a cloud which greatly resembles it, though it is a transforma- 
tion. The cirro-stratus is a frozen cloud but sometimes becomes reduced to ves- 
icular vapor, and soon after it collects into little, rounded, fleecy masses called - 
cirro-cumuli. When this process continues for a considerable time all the distin- 
guishing characteristics of the cirro-stratus will become obliterated, and the cloud 
assumes the exact appearance of the cumulus. It never attains very great size 
and owing to its immense height, appears almost motionless. It forms only in 
hot weather; and is quite often the harbinger of a storm. 

The velocity with which clouds move depends mainly upon the velocity of 
the air-current in which they are suspended. The force of gravitation has a ten- 
dency to bring scattered clouds together ; and when they have a common altitude, 


408 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


this is frequently the result. A large cloud obtains great additions to its volume 
in this manner—the small ones in its vicinity being gradually incorporated with 
it. Ihave observed this phenomenon more especially in the cumulus, and its 
derivative, the cumulo-stratus. It is obvious that this mutual attraction would 
in some cases accelerate and in others retard the motion of clouds; yet, in no 
case would the effect be visibly perceptible. The velocity of clouds may often 
be very closely determined by noting the rate of speed with which their shadows 
move. The lower clouds which appear to move so very rapidly, frequently have a 
slower rate of speed than those apparently motionless ones far above them. This, 
of course, is due to the fact that the latter are from ten to twenty times more distant. 

Though the clouds are classified and the different forms named, it is never- 
theless true, that at certain seasons of the year, the typical forms are rarely seen 
in our latitude. It is a fact worth noticing that the rainstorms of winter, in the 
northern parts of the United States are ot local showers, but nearly all are great 
storms several hundred miles in extent, originating in a warmer latitude where 
the cumuli are the common day clouds in winter asin summer. ‘The cumuli are 
germs of rain-clouds, hence, where the former do not exist, the latter will not 
originate, 

It is not varying temperature alone that causes clouds to assume other than 
typical forms. As has been observed, there are frequent transformations, as the cu- 
mulus to the stratus, or the cirro-stratus to cirrus, therefore there is an infinite 
varietyof transitional forms, which are classed among those with which they 
bear theclosest resemblance. 

The study of clouds is of much importance. If in this brief article enough 
has been said to stimulate some thoughtful mind to examine into it still further 
and bring to light some more of the truths of science, the chief object of the 
writer will be accomplished. 

To persons of esthetic natures the study of the clouds is particularly delight- 
ful. Poets in all ages have adorned their verse with similes in which ‘‘the 
clouds” have constituted one element of the comparison. The same idea of 
cloud-beauty has often been used by the orator on the rostrum, and the divine in 
the sacred desk, when they wished to adorn their speech with a jewel of meta- 
phor. 

A better knowledge of the science of meteorology is developing among the 
people of our country; and this is due in part to the efficient management of our 
Signal Service Bureau, and in part to the publication of numerous well-written 
articles on the subject by observers in different sections of our country. It is to 
be regretted that so many statements (in reference to atmospheric phenomena) 
found in popular text books, should be so far from the truth as they are. That 
such errors should exist, is to be expected, since daylight has but just dawned in 
the science of meteorology. But it is encouraging to know that the misty theo- 
ries founded on ignorance and conjecture are rapidly giving place to those estab- 


lished by a careful study of the effects produced by the operation of natural laws. 
Morrison, Ill., Oct. 16, 1880. 


THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. 409 


GOGAT EY. 


THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. 


The Palestine exploration fund has just issued the first installment of the pub- 
lished results of its work on the Holy Land, consisting of a map, in twenty-six 
sheets, of Palestine west of the Jordan, to be shortly followed by volumes of 
memoirs containing all the information that has up to the present time been as- 
certained respecting the geography, history and archeology of the country. 

The importance of this map to the study of the bible can scarcely be exag- 
gerated. All previous maps have been constructed from the imperfect observa- 
tions of the individual travelers, and distances and names were given for the 
most part conjecturally and at random. Now we havea survey of the country 
executed by English Engineer officers, and setting forth the topography and no- 
menclature with as impartial accuracy as an Ordnance map of an English county. 
It is now for the first time possible to read the narrative of Joshua’s marches, of 
Judas Maccabzeus, etc., and to follow the Biblical histories generally, in an in- 
telligent way, mountains, valleys, roads, villages and towns being for the first 
time accurately laid down. 

About I0,ooo0 names incorporated in this map were found by Lieutenants 
Conder and Kitchener, the officers to whom the survey was intrusted, and the 
memoirs include a number of others discovered by the French and German ex- 
plorers Guérin, Renan, Sepp, and others. Among all these exist in some form 
or other all the Biblical names, only 622 in all, of Western Palestine. These 
older Hebrew, Canaanitish, and Phoenician names, although they never disappear 
and leave no trace behind, are often very difficult of recovery, and their satis- 
factory identification is impossible without the aid of a work like the present, 
where exact topography and authentic information as to the present nomenclature 
are available to supplement and verify the deductions of archzeological and phil- 
ological research. In some cases, and these are comparatively few, the old name 
has survived almost unaltered, such words as Beit-Lahm and Bethlehem, Akka 

(Acre) and Akko, Bir Seba and Beersheba being such obvious survivals that, 
taken in conjunction with the collateral evidence from topography, no doubt 
whatever can be left as to their identity. Sometimes the older name has locally 
survived a later, though still remote, attempt to change it, as in the case of the 
ancient Bethogabra, which, though known for centuries as Eleutheropolis, 1s still 
called by the inhabitants Beit-Jibrin, a form that is, if anything, older than 
Bethogabra itself. In other cases the identification is equally certain, 
though not by any means apparent to the uninitiated; for instance, Laish has in 
_ the Bible the superimposed name of Dan, meaning ‘‘ Judge,” and the spot where 


410 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


we should naturally look for the remains of the town, is called at the present day, 
Tell el Kadi, ‘‘the Judge’s mound.” So Paneas became Czsarea Philippi, but 
is yet known as Baneas. Sometimes an old name having an approximate signifi- 
cation in the ancient Semitic tongues is misunderstood by the modern Arabic-speak- 
ing population, the Hebrew zaA/, ‘‘a stream or water-course,” being always con- 
founded either with zakf/, ‘‘a palm-tree,” or nahla, ‘‘a bee.’ It will be readily 
understood that a study of the name lists will yield most interesting results to 
Biblical students. In spite of the previous identifications, some 200 out of 400 
known places have been proposed by the Survey officers. The rest will, no 
doubt, be recovered without much difficulty when the forms and meanings of the 
names here given have been thoroughly examined. 

The geography of Palestine can now be re-written, for the map of the Survey 
enables us to lay down the tribal boundaries, etc., accurately ; and as the physical 
features of the country are here exactly set forth, what was before mere con- 
jecture and hypothesis can now be stated as ascertained fact. It is not the relig- 
ious interest alone that makes the comparatively small territory of Palestine so 
worthy of deep and careful study. In ancient times the traffic between East and 
West went of necessity through the country, which became the highway of the 
world, the focus of trade, and the ground on which rival nations contended for 
pre-eminence. Here Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greek, Roman, and Moslem 
civilizations and religions by turn held sway, and traces of their influence and 
ruins of their magnificence are found at every step. Here is the origin not only 
of Christianity and Judaism, but of most of those ancient myths around which 
Grecian art, learning, and philosophy clustered. On the sea-coast by Joppa arose 
the cult and myth of the fish-god Dagon, which appears elsewhere in the legends 
of Perseus and Andromeda, of Set and Typhon, of St. George and the Dragon, and 
even of the Archangel Michael and the Devil. From the Tyrian shore, a little 
further to the north, set out Cadmus, who colonized Greece, and whose very 
name is perpetuated to day in that of the river Casimiyel and the little Moslem 
shrine of Neby Casim, the Prophet Cadmiel or Casmiel. Close by is the shrine 
of Neby Mashuk, the Prophet ‘‘ Beloved,” which is nothing more nor less than 
the Egyptian temple set up to the terrible Melkarth or Moloch, under the euphe- 
mistic title of Miamfin, or the beloved of Amon. On to the shore above Beirut 
flows the Nahr Ibrahim, the river of another “‘ Friend of God,” here identical with 
the well-beloved Tammftiz or Adonis. And not only the ruins and the names, 
but the people themselves are curious and interesting objects of study, and 
Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Hebrews, Tyrians are still to be easily identified 
among the Fellahin and Bedawin of the country; in fact, to the theologist, arch- 
eOlogist, ethnologist, and historian every foot of Palestine has matter for research 
and contemplation, and all this has for the first time been made available as a 
whole by the labors of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Of these most interest- 
ing departments of the subject we shall speak more fully when the promised vol- 
umes of the memoirs appear; to the present publication, the map of the Survey, 


THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. 411 


we can give unqualified praise. It is the joint work of Lieutenants Conder and 
Kitchener, and was completed in circumstances of exceptional difficulty, the dis- 
turbed state of the country in 1877 making it necessary to work day and night 
(Sundays included), often in the face of considerable personal danger. 

The survey was commenced in January, 1872, and finished in 1877; it has 
cost during that period about £20,000, of which a large sum was expended from 
time to time in printing reports, etc. The necessary money was raised _princi- 
pally through the energetic action of the Secretary, Mr. Walter Besant, but it 
must have been relinquished had not Mr. Morrison, the treasurer, himself ad- 
vanced funds from time to time to carry on the operations at certain critical pe- 
riods of the Fund’s finances. 

The earliest Palestine Exploration Society in this country was founded in 
1804, but attracted little support. In 1808 the committee published a volume 
entitled, ‘‘A Brief Account of the Countries Adjoining the Lake of Tiberias, 
the Jordan, and the Dead Sea” (Hatchard, Piccadilly), which was, however, only 
a translation of some rough notes made by the well-known traveler, Seetzen. 
Two travelers were then sent out by the society for the purpose of exploring the 
country, but owing to the accounts they received of the dangerous state of the 
country they did not proceed further than Malta. 

The society after this lapsed into inactivity and its very existence was for- 
gotten until 1834, when all the books, papers, and funds were handed over to 
the Geographical Society. In 1840 a fresh association was founded with no 
better results than the former; but in 1864 asurvey of Jerusalem was made under 
the direction of the Ordnance Survey Department by Captain (now Lieutenant- 
Colonel) Wilson, Baroness Burdett-Coutts supplying the required funds. This 
called general attention to the defective state of information respecting the coun- 
try, and in May, the next year, the present society was formally constituted, — 
principally through the efforts of Mr. George Grove, under the name it now 
bears, ‘‘ The Palestine Exploration Fund.” Captain Wilson, who had completed 
his survey, was again sent out, in company with Lieutenant Anderson, and the 
exploration of the country was commenced in earnest. In 1867 Captain Warren 
commenced the excavations in Jerusalem itself, the progress of which was watched 
with great interest by the public, and resulted in adding largely to our knowledge 
of the subject and deciding several weighty problems concerning the sites of the 
Holy Sepulchre and the Temple. In 1869-70 Mr. (now Professor) E. H. Palmer, 
accompanied by Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, made a journey of exploration 
through the Desert of the Exodus for and at the expense of the Fund. On his 
return the survey of Western Palestine was commenced and continued till its 
completion last year. Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, who had an extensive acquaintance 
with the Arabic language and manners, accompanied the officers in the field and 
afforded most valuable aid in obtaining the correct nomenclature and other in- 
formation from the natives ; his death at Jerusalem in 1874 was a great loss to 
the society and to geographical science. M. Clermont Ganneau, a well-known 


412 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


French archeologist, was also employed for a long time by the society and his 
labors in the country are of the greatest practical importance. The archzological 
and philological information obtained by these gentlemen is embodied in the work 
of the Society aud immensely increases its value. 
It must not be imagined that with the publication of the map and memoirs 
the work of the Society is at an end. Much that is very important remains to 
be done, especially the survey of the country east of the Jordan (of which an 
“American association has already completed a reconnaissance map), and the ex- 
ploration of the cities and remains of the Hittite Empire. The work produced 
by the Palestine exploration fund during the fourteen years of its existence is of 
such a character as to merit the continued support of all those who are interested 
in explorations that yield so much that is important to religion, history, and 
science. 


THE ASCENT OF CHIMBORAZO. 


The Panama Star and Herald of the 12th ult. publishes the subjoined trans- 
lation of a declaration made by one of two Ecuadorians who accompanied Mr. 
Whymper on his second trip up the mountain, which (says that journal), in ad- 
dition to the word of an English gentleman and the evidence of his companions, 
ought to be satisfactory to all doubters. The declaration, which was written 
in French, is interesting as containing a simple and easy account of a difficult jour- 
ney, as well as substantiating the verity of the first ascent: ‘‘I, Javier Campaiia, 
of Quito, hereby declare that upon July 3, 1880, I accompanied Mr. Whymper to 
the very highest point of the summit of Chimborazo. We were also accompanied 
by Jean-Antoine Carrel and by Louis Carrel (Mr. Whymper’s two Italian moun- 
taineers), and by David Beltram, of Machachi. Mr. Whymper placed his tent 
on July 2, 1880, on the northwest side of Chimborazo, at a height, so he tells 
me, of about 16,000 feet, and he provided for the use of myself and of David 
the things which were necessary for an ascent—namely, good, strong boots with 
large nails, warm gloves, spectacles to protect the eyes against the glare of the 
snow, and ice axes to help us along. We started from the tent at 5:15 on the 
morning of July 3, 1880, and at once commenced to ascend toward the summit. 
The way at first was over loose stones, but after we had ascended for about 1,000 
feet we came to snow, and the remainder of the ascent was entirely over snow, 
- with the exception of one or two little places, where rocks came through the 
snow. We stopped to eat on one of these little patches of rock at 8:35 a. m., 
and after Mr. Whymper had examined his mercurial barometer he en- 
couraged us to proceed by telling us that we had already got more than half way 
up from the tent. From this place we saw the sea. We went on again at 9:05 
a. m., and found the snow get steeper and steeper. We were all tied together 
with good strong rope in case any one should slip, and except for this and for 
things with which I had been provided we would not have been able to get along 


THE ASCENT OF CHIMBORAZO. 413 


at all. Sometimes it was very cold and there was much wind, but when we 
were in the sun it was very hot. Whether in the sun or in the shade the snow 
was very soft, and we sank in deeply, often up to the knees. This was very 
fatiguing, and it was owing to this that we took so much longer time in ascending 
the upper than the lower part of the mountain. To break the ascent we zig- 
zagged about, and at one time came round to the side fronting Guaranda, and 
then came back to above the place where the tent was pitched. At last we got 
on to the top and could see the two summits. The snow was very soft indeed 
here, and we went along very slowly, and had often to stop to get breath. The 
higher of the two summits was on our left hand—that is, upon the north side of 
the mountain—and we went to it, without going upon the lower one. As we ap- 
proached the very highest point we saw that there was something strange upon it, 
and when we got up we found the pole of the flag which Mr. Whymper had put 
up on January 4, 1880. It stood up about 14% varas above the snow, and very 
little of the flag remained, as it had been torn to pieces by the wind. I took a 
small piece of the flag to show to my friends below, and was filled with joy at 
being the first Ecuadorian to reach the summit of the great Chimborazo. We 
arrived at the very highest point of the summit at 1:20 p. m., and about the 
same time ashes from Cotopaxi began to fall. They filled our eyes, noses, mouths, 
and ears, and made the snow quite black. Mr, Whymper, however, prepared his 
instruments, and was at work during the whole time we were on the summit. He 
did not once sit down from the time we left the tent in the morning until the time 
that we returned to it in the evening. He took the height of the mountain with 
his barometers, and told us that the observations that he now made agreed very 
well with those which he made upon the first ascent of Chimborazo, on January 
4, 1880. At 2:30 p. m. we left the summit, and came down as fast as we could, 
only stopping a little from time to time to allow Mr. Whymper to collect rocks 
at various places. We arrived again at the tent at 5:10 p. m., and found it 
covered with the ashes from Cotopaxi, which were still falling, and filled the 
whole valley with a thick cloud. On the 4th of July we continued the tour of 
the mountain, and arrived at night close to Tortorillas; and on the 6th we re- 
turned to Riobamba, having had a most successful journey, without accidents of 
any sort whatever, not only having made the tour and the second ascent of 
Chimborazo, but having also made em route, on the 2gth of June, the first ascent 
of Carihuairazo. FRANcisco J. CampaNa.—Guayaquil, July 19, 1880.—Declared 
and subscribed at Guayaquil, this twentieth day of July, 1880, before me, GEORGE 
CuHampers, Her Britannic Majesty’s Consul, Guayaquil.” 


414 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCLENCE. 


SCHWATKA’S ARCTIC SEARCH. 
AMERICAN AND ENGLISH METHODS OF ARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


The Herald editorially sums up the results of Lieutenant Schwatka’s sledge 
journey over 3,000 miles of snow, as follows: 

‘‘Tn a field that seemed to have been already overworked, in which so many 
hardy adventurers before him had done their utmost to wrest the secret of Frank- 
lin’s fate from the icy grasp of the polar world, Schwatka went as a late gleaner, 
and gathered an amount of information that greatly increases the general capacity 
to understand the story of Franklin’s fate. Admiral McClintock, whose own 
name is famous in the story of Arctic exploration, puts his finger on an important 
point made clear by Schwatka’s experience. Admiral McClintock says: ‘ What 
I regard at this moment as the most striking feature of the report you have read 
for me is the success of Lieut. Schwatka’s plan of living on the produce of the land 
through which he traveled. It isthat that distinguishes his expedition from others. 
All other explorers making sledge journeys have relied chiefly on the supplies 
carried with them. The Schwatka party, according to this report, was nearly a 
year absent from its base of supplies, and took only one month’s food with it. In 
adapting themselves to the life of the natives, as they did, Lieut, Schwatka and 
his followers accomplished something remarkable. This point is fully worthy all 
the importance that the Admiral gives it. Hereis a party of men who go from an 
American city with infinitely less of the apparatus of Arctic adventure than is 
usual, making sledging the great element of their operation, live with the Esqui- 
maux as much as they can, accustom themselves to the habits of life and the diet 
of this mild savage, and they live and are at their ease, and come and go, and are 
ijn every way successful in that very district in which the last of Franklin’s men 
perished in the Arctic summer. This contrast presents in the most notable way 
the difference between two widely varying methods of exploration—methods that 
may be called respectively the English method and the American method. The 
Englishman starts with a resolute will to be all and do all; he has a robust seif- 
sufficiency that is the basis of great successes and the limits of whose usefulness he 
does not recognize. One may read a great many English volumes of Arctic dis- 
covery and rise from the perusal with the imagination that all that polar world is 
a void, an absolutely unpeopled region. On the other hand, the American is 
adaptable, and is ready to use for his purpose whatever elements present them- 
selves. He makes use of an encampment of Esquimaux to help him over a diff- 
culty just as he would make use of a turn of the tide to move his boat out of a bad 
place. He divides Nature and uses one part of her forces to overcome the other, 
and the Esquimaux are forces that Nature has put within his reach. And from 
an American narrative of how men get on in the Arctic world we rise with the im- 
agination, not that it is an uninhabitable region, but that it is only another part of 
the Indian country, and that the Esquimaux are unusually placid and tractable 


SCHWATKAS ARCTIC SEARCH. 415 


» 
Indians. In this contrast lies an important secret that should be kept in view in 
all future Arctic operations. 

‘‘After reaching from Hudson’s Bay, his destination on King William’s Land 
where Franklin’s party were known to have perished, the shore was minutely ex- 
amined by Lt. Schwatka, where the Erebus and Terror remained from September 
1846, until abandoned in April, 1848, and how much longer it is not possible to 
say precisely, though the correspondent recounts some now newly-discovered facts 
that bear on that point. On one of the ships there beset Sir John Franklin died 
in June, 1847, and in the weary eighteen months of icy desolation through which 
the ships were there held immovable the patience and hope of all on board gave 
way, until they were tempted to abandon the yet sound and well-provided ships 
and try a desperate homeward adventure by boat and sledge. They had actually 
made the discovery of the Northwest Passage; their ships were in a channel which 
when open was continuous from Behring’s strait ; but they had lost hope and heart 
and wandered away from their wooden walls to perish miserably on the shore. 

‘From an old Esquimau, of 65 or 70 years of age, the explorer obtained a 
clear account of the fate of at least one of the ships. This native reports his en- 
counter with a party of white men, who were apparently of the Franklin expedi- 
tion, and his subsequent visit to a ship frozen in the ice five miles west of Grant 
Point. She was watched for awhile, it appears, and no one was seen near her, 
and as the Esquimaux saw no signs of life they ventured near. They found one 
dead man in a bunk—the second time the speaker had seen a white man. ‘They 
used to go on board to steal small articles. Not knowing how to get down below 
they cut a hole in the side of the ship on a level with the ice, and through this the 
water got in the next summer and sent her to the bottom. That must have been 
the summer of 1848. In that year, therefore, within a few months after Frank- 
lin’s men had abandoned the ships, the ice around them broke up. 

‘¢The correspondent writing up the history of the journey states that during 
the. year 2,819 geographical miles, or 3,251 statute miles were traveled, for the 
most part over unexplored territory, constituting the longest sledge journey ever 
made, both as to time and distance. Indeed the journey stands conspicuous as 
the only one ever made through the entire course of an Arctic winter. The party 
successfully withstood the lowest temperature ever experienced by white men in 
the field, recording one observation of 71 degrees Fh.; 16 days whose average 
was 100 degrees below the freezing point, and 17 days which registered 60 
degrees Fh., during most of which the party traveled. In fact there was a halt 
of only one day on account of the cold. 

“Tt is claimed for this expedition that it was the first to make a summer 
search over the route of the lost crews of the Erebus and Terror, and while doing 
so buried the remains of every member of that fated party found above ground. 

The search, it is considered, has established the fact that the Franklin records 
have been irrecoverably lost at the boat place in Starvation cove. “The search for 
relics of Sir John Franklin’s party had one negative result of great importance, as 


416 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 
e 

it extinguishes the hope of any further discovery of written records. ‘They were 
told that the Natchilli Esquimaux had found a tin box, one foot square and two 
feet long, containing books, at a point near Back’s river, the place where the last 
of the Franklin party probably perished. ‘The box was found and opened by the 
natives not long after the death of the white men, that is to say, thirty years ago. 
The most careful search failed to bring to light any of its contents, which were 
most likely the written records of the Franklin expedition, and there is hardly a 
doubt that they were long since irreparably lost or destroyed. They ascertained 
that the cairn mentioned in Capt. Barry’s story has no existence. It is evident, 
then, that the history of the expedition up to the time of Sir John’s death, the 
particulars of his illness, the story of the wanderings of the crews after they de-_ 
serted the Erebus and Terror, and many other things that we would most like to 
know, must forever remain enveloped in mystery. 


CHEYNE’S PROPOSED EXHIBITION. 


Commander Cheyne is vigorously at work raising subscriptions for his pro- 
posed new expedition to the Pole, the cost of which he estimates will be about 
£30,000. According to the London Zzmes it is not improbable that the cvu-op- 
eration of Canada will be invited. By adopting a course of lectures, illustrating 
Arctic work by means of the lime light, Commander Cheyne has succeeded in 
establishing an influential central committee in London, and upward of sixty 
branch committees in England, Scotland, and Ireland, for carrying on a collection 
of subscriptions, the work being on a voluntary basis. The sum of £1,890 has 
been secured in London already, in cash and written promises; Captain Bailey, 
R. N., has brought into the fund £264, besides making a present of a six-man 
sledge; Messrs. Forrest, the boat-builders, have promised another sledge and 
#150 worth of limejuice, and limejuice biscuits have also been promised by 
Messrs. L. Rose & Co. Various other articles are forthcoming in the shape of 
medical comforts, etc., and Dr. B. W. Richardson, F. R. S., has undertaken to 
superintend the proper provisioning of the vessel. Mr. John M. Cook has gen- 
erously given the committee a commodious office, rent free, and has under his 
consideration a plan for sending a steamer as far as Disco, or Upernavik, taking 
a party of excursionists and conveying surplus stores across the Atlantic for the 
expedition, tnus saving the expense of hiring a vessel for transport service. 
Taking all these favorable circumstances into consideration, it has been determ- 
ined to give notice of a motion to be brought before Parliament early next session, 
asking for a small Parliamentary grant in aid of this volunteer movement. Sup- 
port of such a motion is already assured on both sides of the House, there being 
happily no political bias in the question of our Arctic prestige. 

A deputation of the London Central Arctic Committee waited, on the 27th of 
August, upon Sir John Macdonald, the Premier of the Canadian Dominion, who 
promised the members that the case of joint action should be submitted for fav- 


THE CRUISE OF THE STEAMER CORWIN IN ARCTIC WATERS. 417 


orable consideration upon his arrival in Canada, as the Canadians took a great 
interest in the enterprise. Moreover, Commander Cheyne 1s prepared, in the 
event of necessity, to reduce his estimate to £20,000, which could be accom 
plished by taking a smaller vessel, with a reduced complement of thirty officers 
and crew. With this end in view the Arctic Committee will endeavor to charter 
from Dr. Oscar Dickson the Vega, lately returned from a successful accomplish- 
ment of the northeast passage, under Professor Nordenskjold. This vessel has 
just been put into thorough repair, and may now have an opportunity of doub- 
ling her fame by the circumnavigation of Greenland, in addition to carrying the 
Union Jack for a contemplated installation at the Pole. 


THE CRUISE OF THE STEAMER CORWIN IN ARCTIC WATERS. 


The following is the text of a letter received at the Treasury Department 
from Captain Hooper, of the Corwin: 

“U.S. Revenue Marine, U. S. Steamer Corwin, St. Michael’s, Norton Sound, 
Alaska Territory, July 10, 1880.—Hon. John Sherman, Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, Washington, D. C.—Sir: I have the honor to report our arrival at this port 
on the 7th inst., after a short cruise in the Arctic ocean. We sailed from here 
on the 23d of June, and on account of large quantities of ice in the sound to the 
northward, worked out through the southward and crossed over Behring sea, 
along the north side of St. Lawrence Island, touching at several places on the 
Island to inquire into the condition of the natives, and at Plover Bay, Asia, 
where we took on board about twenty-five tons of coal belonging to the Russian 
Government. From there we proceeded north,.touching at several places on 
our way, and entered the Arctic ocean on the 28th of June. We have com- 
municated with the natives on the east and west side of Behring’s Straits, and as 
far north as Point Hope, on the American side, and Cape Serdze Kaman, on the 
Asiatic side. | We have also communicated with most of the Whalers now in the 
Arctic, but can get no tidings of the. missing ships. The whalers, without an 
exception, give as their opinion that nothing will ever be heard of them. We 
have followed the ice-pack around from Cape Serdze Kaman across the Arctic 
to Point Hope, and down to Cape Prince of Wales, getting as far north as sixty- 
nine degrees. The past winter, although very severe south of the straits, appears 
to have been comparatively mild within the Arctic circle. The whalers all pro- 
nounce the ice as unusually light. After following the ice-pack around and find- 
ing it impossible to get further north or approach the land near enough to find a 
harbor, we returned to this place on the 7th for the purpose of filling up with 

‘coal, cleaning boiler, etc. This*vork has been completed and we sail at me- 
ridian for the Arctic wa places on the north side of the sound, which we could 
not visit before on account of the ice. Kotzebue Sound was full of ice when we 
came out, but I hope to find it clear on our return. As soon as we can get in 
there I shall detail an officer, with an armed boat crew, to keep a sharp look out 

IV—27 


418 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


for whisky traders, and go north again as far as Herald Island to continue the 
search for the whalers. I hope to reach Wrangel Land by the middle of August 
or first of September. We were within 140 miles of it on our recent cruise. The 
Corwin works entirely satisfactorily in every way, and all hands are in good 
health and spirits, and everything on board harmonious. I shall mail this by the 
schooner, Western Home, belonging to the Western Fur and Trading Company, 
which leaves for San Francisco in a few days, touching at several places on the 
mainland and Aleutian Islands on the way down. Iam, very respectfully, your 
obedient servant, C. L. Hooper, Captain U2)Si eka 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 


The Arctic steamer, Gulnare, arrived at St. Johns, N. F., September 25, 
having turned back at Disco, Greenland. One of her officers reports as follows: 
“After leaving St. Johns the weather was fair until August 2, when we were 
caught in a southwest storm which drove us within a few miles of Cape Farewell. 
A large hole was smashed in the stern and the larboard boat swept away, the 
bulwarks stove in and the deck load of lumber, intended for the house to accom- 
modate the party to be left in the Arctic, was washed overboard. We arrived in 
Disco on September 8, and remained until the 21st, repairing damages. We 
went to the coal mines above Rittenbank, but found much difficulty in coaling 
on account of their being no anchorage and much ice in the Waigatt. We left 
for St. Johns with an insufficient supply of coal and sailed most of the way. All 
are well on board.” ; 

Dr. Pavy and Mr. Clay remained at Rittenbank, where they will winter and 
prepare for the work of next year. The whole ship’s company are in good 
health and condition, and suffering from nothing more serious than the natural 
disappointment that follows after baffled hopes. ; 


LIEUTENANT DOANE’S REPORT. 


St. Jouns, N. F., September 25, 1880.—Captain H. W. Howcatre: The 
Gulnare returned last evening. Lost one boat and all the deckload in a gale on 
the 31st of August. Reached Disco on the 8th with two planks loose, and stove 
in starboard quarter. ‘Till 21st repairing. Took two weeks to coal half supply. 
Came in here mostly by sail. Pavy and Clay remained at Rittenbank. No casu- 
alties. : Doane. 


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EXCURSION TO THE BIRTH-PLACE OF MONTEZUMA, 419 


IMEC IaLA ION OIG NG. 


A HOLIDAY EXCURSION BY RAIL TO THE BIRTH-PLACE OF 
MONTEZUMA. 


THEO. S. CASE, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


*K *K * *K *k ES * k ok *k kK *k *k 

Arrived at Baughl’s station, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 
rail road, which is no more than a siding where rail road ties are re- 
ceived and handled, and which simply consists of a boarding car and two 
saloons, we started on foot for the scene of our explorations, about one mile and 
a half distant. Before entering upon a description of the ruins found here, I will 
say that notwithstanding the volumes that have been written by the explorers of 
this central portion of the Western Hemisphere, descriptive of its past civiliza- 
tion, the vastness and perfection of that civilization have been by no means 
comprehended. Every day the hardy and venturesome prospectors of New Mexi- 
co, who, like the Spaniards of the sixteenth century, are urged on by an ardent 
quest of precious metals, discover new evidences of the existence in prehistoric 
times of a race of men who, in architecture, agriculture and metallurgy, possessed. 
a degree of knowledge and skill hardly surpassed in any age. 

The discoveries of these explorers also go far to prove that the land which 
is now so utterly unproductive, was once sufficiently arable and prolific of vegeta- 
tion to support a dense population, and that the various reasons which are pro- 
posed by the writers of the present day to account for the abandonment of the 
country by these people, such as superstitious fears, the aggressions of hostile 
tribes, etc., are futile and unsatisfactory. . 

It seems unquestionable that some vast change took place in the geological 
and physical condition of the country, causing its fountains to dry up, and 
changing its fertile valleys into arid wastes, thus literally starving the people out 
and forcing them to seek new homes. This idea brings to the front the theory 
and tradition of the Continent of Atlantis with more plausibility than almost any 
other: a theory which, if established, will enable us to account for the migration 
of ancient peoples from one continent to the other without tasking our credulity 
with the extremely doubtful one of the Behrings Straits route. 

Before we had proceeded more than half a mile we came into view 
of the church and ruins of Pecos, lying on a beautiful plateau on the further side 
of the Pecos river, and separated by a narrow valley from a commanding range 
of mountains several miles beyond. This plateau seemed to be completely sur- 


420 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


rounded by mountains; those on the west being grand in their outline and crown- 
ed by a bald peak, which appeared exactly adapted for a watch-tower for the peo- 
ple of the city on the plateau, and perhaps for an outlook for the priests of the 
sun, who from its lofty summit, could catch his earliest rays long before they 
would be visible to the people below. ‘The whole valley, from mountain range to 
mountain range, is about five or six miles, while it seems to be inclosed at both 
ends by purple ranges, about ten miles apart, with an occasional snow-capped peak. 
Thus apparently hemmed in on all sides, and in the midst of what was probably 
in the day of their prosperity a luxuriant and fertile plain, these ancient people 
built their singular houses and lived peaceful and quiet lives. The evidences of 
their civilization are found in abundance, in implements for grinding corn, pottery 
evincing various degrees of ski!l, and in some places in pictured rocks and decora- 
ted caves. 

These houses are very much alike in all the villages that are known, being 
built against. the sides of bluffs or rocky acclivities, one story above another to 
the height sometimes of five to six or seven stories. The material used is stone, 
cemented together and sometimes coated or plastered on the outside, with mud. 
The first story has no opening except at the top, which is reached with a ladder, 
while the other stories have doors opening from the roofs of those below. Within, 
or at least in the lower or basement stories, there are connecting openings from 
one to another, The stories are separated by floors of timbers laid together and 
sometimes bound together with withes. Remains of corner-posts made of pine 
and cedar poles are found abundantly in their proper position. 

The system of walls and outworks is very extensive, but whether it is all of the 
same age as the village, is more than I was able to determine. Commencing at 
the western end of the plateau, the first evidence of the hand of man that I dis: 
covered, wasa circular stone wall inciosing aspace thirty feet indiameter. (z in 
plate.) This is located upon a rocky point some fifty feet above the adjacent ground, 
and commands a view of the valleys on both sides, as well as of the plateau be- 
yond, upon which the village is built. From all indications this was a fort or lookout 
tower. (W. H. Holmes in Bulletin No. 1 of the United States Geological and 
Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. II, 1876, describes the ruins of a 
tower found in the Mancos cafion in Colorado, probably similar to this, whose 
outer dimensions were forty-five feet in diameter and twelve feet in height at the 
highest point of the wall yet standing, which is twenty one inches in thick- 
ness. It was doubled walled, with apartments between the outer and inner walls. 

On the mesa above the bed of the River McElmo, a square shaped tower 
was discovered standing in on the summit of a great block of sandstone, forty 
feet high and detatched from the bluff back of it. 

At another place on the McElmo, the ruins of a triple-walled tower were 
found, with sectional apartments between the outer and second walls, and such 
towers abound on prominent points all along the Gila, Chaco, Rio Grande and 
other rivers of Colorado and New Mexico.) Proceeding eastwardly, we descend 
from this point some twenty feet or more to a long and narrow passage of bare rock, 


EXCURSION TO THE BIRTA-PLACE OF MONTEZUMA, 421 


not less than 1000 feet long, by an average width of about one hundred feet. On 
the north side, this passage is defended by a stone wall running along the edge 
of the rock for a distance of about 300 feet. For the remainder of the distance 
to the foot of the bluff upon which the ruined village is built, there is no sign of 
any work done by man. | 

At the foot of the bluff just mentioned, we come upon the remains of a stone 
wall which runs around both sides of the plateau from village to church, being in its 
whole length not less than 2000 feet. This wall seems to have been intended for 
defense, as it is located on the extreme edge of the plateau, all around, just 
where the steep and almost perpendicular declivity begins. 

Commencing here, weare amazed at the size of these ruins. (4.) The buildings 
were commenced at the foot of the bluff, the rooms of the first story being, say, 8x10 
feet and about 7 feet in height. The rooms on this floor have no doors in the side- 
walls, but are entered from the roof, which is reached by a ladder. Upon this 
story another is built which sets back from the front of the first, and like it leans 
against the side of the bluff. This story has doors in the front of the rooms, 
which are entered from the roof of the lower story. In this way as many as six 
or seven stories are built one upon another, and the buildings are extended later- 
ally as far as the necessities of the community demand, all united as closely togeth- 
er as cells in a honey-comb. 


i PUEBLO VILLAGE AT TAOS, NEW MEXICO; NOW INHABITED. 


422 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


In this Pecos village there were not less than 1000 rooms, and probably many 
more. I could readily count two hundred rooms at the top, and from four to six 
stories on the sides of the bluff. The whole group seemed to consist of two ir- 
regular circles, the larger of which extended partially around the end of a rocky 
bluff about thirty feet high above the bare rock just described, rising two stories 
above its summit and completing the circle or oval upon the surface of the bluff. 
This circle is two hundred and twenty-five feet across in one direction, say east 
and west, and seventy in the other, with one opening or passage, say sixteen feet 
wide, leading down the face of the bluff on the northern side, and one into the 
inclosure on the east. 

This area contains two basin shaped, stone-lined reservoirs, probably for wa- 
ter, twenty-five feet in diameter and more than six feet deep, (2) as was proven by 
digging into them to that depth without finding the bottom of the stone-lining. 
They are filled with earth to within some three or four feet of the surface. Out- 
side of the circle of huts, at the foot of the bluff on the north side, but inside of 
the stone wall above named, are two similar stone-lined, basin shaped reservoirs, six- 
teen feet in diameter and filled within two or three feet of the surface. (3.) One of 
these is on each side of the passage-way before mentioned. A very singular thing 
is, that the western of these reservoirs seems to be connected with one of those in- 
side, by an aqueduct or conductor, constructed wholly of cement made of ashes 
and some other substance, possibly lime, though no lime or cement of any kind 
is found in any other part of the works. 

This aqueduct is exposed at the margin of the reservoir nearest the bluff and 
is at least two feet in diameter, with walls not less than eighteen or twenty inches 

»in thickness. It was constructed by making lumps and blocks of the cement, 
some rounded and some flat, varying from four to ten inches in diameter and lay- 
ing them upon each other like bricks and fastening them together with layers of 
similar cement, and finally smoothing the whole over with a coating of the same. 
I had no implement but an old hatchet, and could do but little in the way of ex- 
cavating this aqueduct, and may have been mistaken as to its object and purpose, 
but from its locality and shape, as disclosed by my cutting into it some two feet 
or more, I think I am correct. 

Adjoining the inclosure above described on the east, is a smail one, also built 
around with similar stone huts, two stories high, which is about sixty by seventy 
feet in diameter and has two gateways, one to the north-east and the other to the 
south-east., each ten feet wide and thirty-six feet long. To the southward of both 
of these inclosures and close to the rocky declivity, which is bold and command- 
ing, are several remains of walls and buildings, nothing being left but the foundations 
and some loose rock. ‘The first or western of these is 24x58 feet, the second 
24x27, and the third 10x30. Still further east and on the extreme point of the 
rock is a triangular shaped inclosure 54x69, the third side being made by the wall 
on the edge of the bluff. From the situation of these (5), especially the last nam- 
ed, they were evidently for the purposes of defense and outlook. 


EXCURSION TO THE BIRTH-PLACE OF MONTEZUMA. 423 


Just east of the huts last described, the ground slopes rapidly to the east and 
south, with ledges of bare rock making a kind of wall to the southward and west- 
ward. Still proceeding eastwardly we pass over some two hundred feet of bare, 
smooth rock when we come to two other groups of ruins (6), about four hundred 
feet in length, one on each side and overhanging the respective bluffs on the north 
and south sides of the plateau. There are about eighty huts in each of these 
groups on the summit, making probably about two hundred in all, when averaged 
at two stories high. They are similar to those just described, being made of stone 
cemented together with mud, and arranged in rooms of from six to ten feet 
square, those in the basement story being connected by openings underground. 
Between these groups of huts the space is nearly or quite two hundred feet wide. 

We did not find any rooms among them answering to the description given by 
several explorers of the Zs¢ufas, where the sacred fire was kept burning, unless 
the circular, stone-lined basins, within the court of the larger village, may have 
been originally covered over and used for such a purpose. 

Dr. Hammond, who accompanied Lieutenant Simpson in his United States 
military reconnoissance in New Mexico, in describing the ruins of Chaco, speaks 
of sacred Lstufas, circular in form, excavated several feet deep in the earth and 

Inclosed with circular walls. The fact that no water, except perhaps the drip- 
pings from the roofs of the upper tier of huts, could naturally find its way into 
these basins, gives probability to the suggestion that they may have been con- 
structed for Lstufas, instead of for storing water. 

On the south side of the plateau, about half-way between the first and second 
village, is a gateway in the outer wall, which in that part is six or seven feet high 
and from three to four feet thick. This gateway is about ten feet wide, and was 
apparently made to enable the inhabitants to pass out their stock to graze and to 
water in the inclosures which will be described a little later. 

Having now described nearly everything on the plateau that seems to be- 
long to the Aztec civilization, we will pass out of the gate just mentioned, on to 
the slope that descends gradually to the Pecos river, which winds its way along 
at a distance of a few hundred yards to the southwardly. 

The first thing which attracts our attention is a long stretch of ruined wall 
which extends in a south-westwardly direction from a point within about 120 feet 
from the gate to the bank of the river, 600 feet away. Just beyond the upper end 
of this wall we find an inclosure (8), walled all the way around, 390 feet by about 
120 feet, and banked up with earth at the lower part as if to retain water. Just 
at the lower corner there appears to have been an artificial outlet through the 
dam and wall for prudential purposes. Within this inclosure is a circular artifi- 
cial pond, also banked up with earth, about seventy-five feet in diameter. Just 
east of this inclosure and a little further up the slope is another (8), apparently con- 
structed for the same purpose, being nearly as large and banked up across the 
lower part in a similar manner. Within this, also, is a smaller circular pond 120 
feet across, which even at this time was muddy in the center, although it did not 
contain any water. 


424 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Still proceeding eastwardly, there are traces of walls and apparent foundations of 
buildings all along the slope, and on a little eminence about 200 yards southeast- 
wardly of the inclosure last described are the remains of two walls (10) inclosing 
spaces respectively 100 feet square and 125 x 140. 

On the opposite side of the Pecos river, between it and a small stream which 
empties into it, and 345 feet southeast of the water inclosure first above de- 
scribed is a kind of pentagonal inclosure 240 feet in diameter (9) and crossed by 
another wall which divides it into one large and one very narrow compartment. Just 
beyond and southeast of this are the remains of what has apparently been a forti- 
fication, situated just at the confluence of the two streams. 

This completes the description of the outside works. We will now return to 
the plateau. Passing from the groups of Aztec huts last described, we proceed 
eastwardly 180 feet and find ourselves face to face with the old Pecos church 
itself. Before describing this old building (7), we will refer to the history of the 
discovery of the village, which had its origin long before the Spanish invasion, 
and which is held by the Aztecs to have been the birth-place of Montezuma him- 
self. 

There seems to be no doubt that the Aztecs migrated from some more north- 
ern region, into Mexico, and the traditions of the present Pueblos, who are 
believed to be descendants of the original Aztecs, teach that this very spot was the 
birth-place of Montezuma. But Short, in his ‘‘ North Americans of Antiquity,” 
claims that this is a different civilization and that the culture-God Montezuma of 
the Pueblos and the Aztec monarch, Montezuma, are not to be confounded. Dr. 
Foster, in his ‘‘ Prehistoric Races of America,” does not speak of any such dis- 
tinction. At all events, all writers agree that Pecos is one of the most impor- 
tant of all the ancient ruins of this region, and that it was one of the sacred cities 
of the Pueblos. Here the everlasting fire, dedicated to their god Montezuma, was 
kept burning from time immemorial down to the abandonment of the town, which 
occurred, according to Short, some time during the second quarter of the present 
century. Other authorities fix the year at 1837. 

One tradition is that Montezuma was born at Acoma, and subsequently re- 
moved to Pecos, where he taught the people the arts of civilization, and that 
when he removed to the South he told them to keep the sacred fire burning until 
his return. But he never came. Warriors watched the fires and remained on 
duty by turns, until through decimation from one cause and another, the tribe be- 
came too much reduced in numbers to keep up the watch any longer. Then three 
warriors took the remains of the fire and carried it into the mountains, where 
Montezuma himself appeared and received it Thus relieved, they abandoned 
their village and joined their brothers west of the Rio Grande. 

‘¢ For generations,” as Short eloquently says, ‘‘ these strange architects and 
faithful priests waited for the return of their God—looked for him to come with 
the sun, and descend by the column of smoke which rose from the sacred fire. 
As of old the Israelitish watcher upon Mt. Seir replied to the inquiry: ‘‘ What of 


EXCURSION TO THE BIRTH-PLACE OF MONTEZUMA. 425 


the night ?” ‘‘The morning cometh,” so the Pueblo sentinel mounts the house- 
top at Pecos, and gazes wistfully into the East, for the golden appearance, for 
the rapturous vision of his redeemer, for Montezuma’s return, and though no ray 
of light meets his watching eye, his never failing faith, with cruel deception, replies 
‘¢The morning cometh.’’ ” 

In about 1540 Coronado, the Spanish governor of New Spain, lured by the 
resistless rumor of boundless wealth of gold and silver, which no Spaniard could 
withstand, led an expedition to this very village, then called Cicuyé. The Pecos 
river must have been a far larger stream than at present, as Coronado found it 
frozen over with ice strong enough to bear up his horses. He found the settle- 
ment of Cicuyé extending along the river for six miles, and the soil extensively 
cultivated by the Indians. It was from that time that the decline of the tribe 
commenced. The date of the building of the church is not_exactly known, but it 
was probably very soon after the invasion by Coronado, for zeal in religious mat- 
ters was next to lust of gold in the heart of the Castilian in all of his conquests. 

We may imagine that the gentle and tractable Pueblos were speedily induced 
by their enthusiastic conquerors, to embrace Christianity, and that the building of 
this church was a work of fear of temporal power, rather than of faith in and 
love of the deity represented by the Spaniards. It was constructed of adobes, 
which are about sixteen inches long, twelve inches wide and three inches thick, 
Its shape is that of the Latin cross, its walls six feet thick and its dimensions one 
hundred and forty feet long by forty feet wide; the transverse portion being fifty- 
seven by thirty-five feet, and its original height about thirty feet. There were 
several smaller rooms attached on each side, and possibly a building of consider- 
able dimensions on the west side, as there are traces of adobe walls which indi- 
cate either a building or an inclosure divided into several smaller rooms or lots. 
I have in my possession a book published in 1854, containing an engraving which 
represents the church as having a building on the west side. I could find noth- 
ing in the appearance of the ground to indicate anything of the kind, either in 
the way of rubbish or otherwise, and it seems to me, if the church itself could so 
well withstand the ravages of time, any adjoining buildings would have endured as 
well. The roof of the church has been nearly gone for many years, and the side- 
walls of the front end are also crumbled away nearly to the ground. The rear 
portion is nearly at its original height, and some of the cross-beams with their 
rude carvings, remain 27 szfu. The others have been cut away by curiosity hunters 

The adobes of which the building is constructed, are made of a reddish clay 
containing small pieces of pottery of a ruder and coarser order than that found 
about the Pueblo villages. In one of these inclosures just west of the church is 
a small excavation about twelve feet in diameter, evidently the remains of a wa- 
ter-reservoir. Immediately in front of the entrance and about forty feet from it, 
is what seems to be an old well, which had been walled up with stone and has 
been more recently filled up with earth. 

About seventy-five feet still further on, we come to the traces of an old wall term_ 


426 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


inating on the East in the ruins of several small rooms or inclosures, also of stone. 
About eighty feet still further and directly in front of the entrance to the church, 
is an inclosure about eighteen feet square, with a central stone heap about three feet 
square. Still further in the same direction we find a semi-circular declivity, which 
was probably originally the work of man, which terminates on the right at the wa’ 
ter inclosure described on page 423,and on the left at the stone inclosures 
described on the same page. 

In speaking of walls, it is to be remembered that most of them are ruins and 
many of them mere traces, although readily discernible as one walks over the 
ground. 

Leaving the church for the present, we will turn back to the ruined villages 
in search of relics. Broken pottery abounds on all hands, and it seemed to me 
that I could detect specimens representing at least three distinct periods of time: 
First and oldest, that found in the adobes of which the church is built, which is 
coarse and rough; second, that which is made of finer clay, but without ornament, 
and lastly, that which is painted; and perhaps fourthly, that which shows an effort 
at glazing. 

We found numerous flint arrow heads, all of which were small, none being 
over one and a half inches in length. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the larg- 
er ones have been picked up by earlier explorers. We also found several broken 
metatas, or grinding pestles, and in one of the large rocks near the upper village, 
I found three bowl-shaped cavities, about ten inches in diameter and from three 
to four inches deep, which I conceived to be the mortars in which the natives 
ground or beat their corn into meal. 

We also found numerous pieces of obsidian which appeared to have been 
split off in keen flakes for cutting purposes; also fragments of smoking pipes with 
more or less ornamentation cut or scratched upon them. Besides these things, 
we discovered smaller ornaments, in the way of shells pierced for suspension, 
pieces of selenite roughly carved into ornamental shapes and small bits of red 
paint. Not ascrap of iron or any kind of metallic weapon, tool or implement 
could be discovered in either church or village—not even a nail—though it is well ~ 
known that the natives understood the art of smelting ores, at least those of sil- 
ver and gold, and of working them most artistically. If other proof of this knowl- 
edge were wanting, we could supply it in the form of several pieces of slag picked 
up near the villages; and the people who reside near say that remains of old 
smelting works are still to be found in the mountains. 

Parts of three days were given to this exploration, in company with Mrs. 
Case, Major H. Inman of Kansas, and Mr. A. H. Whitmore of Las Vegas, all of 
us being greatly interested and more than willing to devote much longer time and 
labor to a more complete examination of these ruins, should another opportunity 
present itself when we were better prepared to do them justice. 

A great many more most interesting things were seen by us in New Mexico, 
but the limits of this paper have been reached, and an account of the remainder 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR NOVEMBER, 1880. 427 


must be postponed until another time, with the closing suggestion, that had these 
industrious and ingenious natives not been disturbed and driven out by the thrift- 
less and avaricious Spaniards, who have never improved any country by their 
conquest of it, they would in all probability have built up the ruling empire of 
North America, and thus at least have kept alive the fire of civilization kindled 


by Montezuma—the culture God—in their minds, until the day of his return, in 
the millenium. 


ASTRONOMY. 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR NOVEMBER, 1880. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY. 


Mercury sets on the 1st at 5 h., 54 m., p. m., and rises on the goth at 5 Ins 
50 m., a. m., and is in inferior conjunction with the sun on the 23d. 

Venus sets on the 1st at 6 h., 23 m., p. m., and on the 30th 6h., 57 m., 
p. m. 

Mars rises a few minutes before the sun, but is too near that luminary to be 
seen. 

Jupiter sets on 1st at 4 h. 10 m. a. m., and on the 3th at 2 h. 7 m. a. m. 

The following is a brief summary of the phenomena presented by its four 
moons, Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, the time used being Kansas City 
mean solar time: 

On the 1st, from 5 h. 52 m. to8 h. 6m. p. m. Io will be making a transit 
of Jupiter’s disk. 

On the same day from 6 h. 31 m. to 8 h. 45 m. p. m. Io’s shadow will 
. likewise pass in transit. 

On the same day from 7 h. 57 m. to 9 h. 37 m. p. m Europa’s shadow will 
be making a transit. Europa will egress from a transit at 8 h. 20 m. p. m. 

On the 2d at 5 h. 59 m. 17s. p. m. Io will reappear to the east of the planet 
at the end of the eclipse. 

On the 3d at 6 h. 51 m. p. m. the shadow of Ganymede will end a transit. 

On the 7th at 10 h. 26 m. p. m. Io is occultated and disappears. 

On the 8th from 7 h. 38 m. tog h. 52 m. p. m. Io will be making a transit. 
On the same day from 8 h. 26 m. to 10 h. 4o m. p. m. the shadow of Io will 
make a transit. 

On the same day from 8 h. 1 m. to 10 h. 4o m. p. m. Europa will be mak- 
ing a transit. 

On the same day at 9 h. 36 m. p. m. the shadow of Europa will commence 
a transit which will last until after midnight. | 


428 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


On the oth at 7h. 54m. 55s. p. m. Io reappears at the end of an eclipse. 

On the roth at 6 h. 28 m. p. m. Ganymede will egress from a transit. 

On the same day at 6 h. 45 m. 38 s. p. m. Europa will reappear at the end 
of an eclipse. 

On the same day from 7 h. 22 m. tog h. 52 m. p. m. the shadow of Gany- 
mede will be making a transit. 

On the rsth from 9 h. 26 m. to 11 h. 39 m. p. m. Io will be making a 
transit. 

On the same day at 10 h. 22 m. p. m. the shadow of Io begins a transit 
which lasts until after midnight. 

On the 16th at 6 h. 4o m. p. m. Io disappears by being occultated, and re- 
appears from being eclipsed at 9g h. 50 m. 38s. p. m. 

On the 17th at 6 h. 6 m. p. m. Io ends a transit, and at 7 h. 4 m. its shadow 
likewise leaves the disk of Jupiter. 

On the same day from 7 h. 27 m. to 10 h. p. m. Ganymede will be making 
a transit, and at 11 h. 25 m. its shadow will begin to make a transit. | 

On the 23d at 8h. 29 m. p. m. Io is occultated and disappears, and reappears 
after being eclipsed at 11 h. 46 m. 26s p. m. 

On the 24th from 5 h. 4o m. to 7 h. 55m. p. m. Io will be making a transit, 
and from 6 h. 46 m. to 8. h. 59 m. its shadow will likewise pass across the disk 
of Jupiter. 

On the same day at 7 h. tom. p. m. Europa will disappear by being occul- 
tated, and reappear from an eclipse at 11 h. 57 m. 19s. p. m. 

“On the same day Ganymede begins a transit at 10 h. 59 m. which lasts until 
after midnight. 

On the 25th at 6h. 15 m. 21 s. p. m. Io reappears at the end of an eclipse. 

On the 26th at 6 h. 54 m. p. m. the shadow of Europa ends a transit. 

On the 28th at 5 h. 27 m. 38s. p. m. Ganymede disappears by entering the 
shadow of Jupiter and reappears coming out of the same at 7 h. 4o m. 465. p. 
m. Both the disappearance and reappearance happen at some distance to the 
east of Jupiter. 

On the 30th at 10 h. 20 m. Io is occultated. 

Saturn sets on the rst at 5 h. 14 m. a. m., and cn the zoth at 3 h. 10 m. 
a. m. 

Uranus rises on the 1st at 1 h. 48 m. a. m., and on the 3oth at 11 h. 55 m. 
pap: 

Neptune rises on rst'5 h. 10 m. p. m., and on the 30th sets at 4 h. 51 
ma. 1. 

Our moon begins its monthly course by passing the Sun on the 2d and Mer- 
cury and Venus on the 5th. On the morning of the 13th it will pass north of 
NMitery 7 7, Ob arc: 

On the evening of the r5th at 5 h. 30 m. it passes north of Neptune 5° 41 
of arc. ; 

It also occultates eleven stars during the month visible at Kansas City. 


THE TELEGRAPH AS APPLIED TO THE FISHERIES IN NORWAY. 429 


INE Ie )D) SCs IN CIs, 


THE TELEGRAPH AS APPLIED TO THE FISHERIES IN NORWAY. 
TRANSLATED FROM LA LUMIERE ELECTRIQUE, BY MISS IDA HOWGATE. 


The International Fish Exhibition which has just closed at Berlin has called 
attention to the results obtained from the application recently made in Norway of 
the electric telegraph, for the benefit of the coast fisheries. 

The Revue de? Union des telegraphes anstro allemands has already spoken, in 
1866, page 298, of the commencement of this work; but, to-day we are able 
to give more fully, some details of its development and of the activity in business 
resulting from its introduction. 

All the telegraphic stations which are connected with the fisheries, and with 
the sale of their products, are situated at the north of Drontheim. The first tel- 
egraph for fishery was established in 1861. At first there was a single local line 
in Loffoden, but, in 1868 it was attached to the general telegraphic system by a 
wire 690 kilometers in length, going from Brettesnaes to Namsoes, and uniting 
with a line (Namsoes-Drontheim) already constructed. 

The Loffoden line was extended, in 1869, to Tromsoé, and, in 1870 it 
reached, in passing through the most northerly cities of the country, Hammer- 
fest, Vadsoe, and Vardoe, as far as the banks of the Glacial sea. From 1870 to_ 
1877 the principal line was completed by the addition of numerous lateral lines, 
and by a prolongation, passing by Vardoe, along the coast of the Glacial sea as 
far as Berlevaag. The entire length of the wire-work in the northern fishing dis- 
tricts comprises 3,595 kilometers of line, and 5,190 kilometers of cable, thereby 
increasing the expenditure to 2,600,000 crowns. 

In view of the serious accidents to which telegraphic conductors are liable 
in Arctic regions, on account of the climacteric influences, especial precautions 
have been taken to protect them from exposure. The operators at first use, as 
conductors, a group of three iron wires, three millimeters in diameter, twisted so 
as to represent one solid wire 5.2 millimeters in diameter. On the most inacces- 
sible mountains, a steel wire 0.7 millimeters in diameter, has been added to this 
conductor, to be used in case of accidents. The soldered points are made se- 
cure by strong joining muffs. 

Among the telegraphic lines mentioned, those found along the coasts near 
| Stavanger and Bergen are devoted principally, in winter and spring, to herring 
fishing, which, in these places, is from the middle of January or the beginning of 
February to the middle of March, and occupies about 40,000 men each year. 
During these months the herring, as is well known, come near the coast to deposit 
their spawn in the shallow waters and under the protection of the rocks. 


430 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The first indications of the arrival of the herring are seen shortly before their 
appearance. Innumerable numbers of fish are noticed coming from the high sea 
and approaching the shore; according to the popular language, a mountain of 
herring arrive, and is followed by cetaceans and myriads of birds. Inspectors 
belonging to the fisheries then send by telegraph, to all the telegraphic stations 
interested, regular information, which is published, so as to keep the fishermen 
constantly advised of the arrival of the fish: some extra telegraphic stations are, 
moreover, held ready to be installed at any point on the coast. From the moment 
the herring pass the entrance of the Gulf, the telegraph indicates their slightest 
movements, which are attentively observed on the two coasts. Warned by the 
telegraph, the fishermen soon hasten from all directions with their nets, boats, 
casks and salt; the purchasers and the traffickers accompany them, and all take 
the road to where the fishing is likely to be most fruitful.. The people on the coast 
know very well how to appreciate the important rdle which the telegraph plays 
in their industry, and in the frequent cases when the capture of fish has only 
been possible by the intervention of the telegraph, the name of ‘‘ haering du tel- 
egraph” is given to the captured fish. 

Up to 1870, the telegraphic stations established for the ‘‘ Vaar-haering” fish 
were by far the most important; but those which have been constructed since that 
period for the cod and fat herring (summer and autumn herring) have taken the 
first place, and now surpass the former as much in regard to extent as to import- 
ance. The cod and fat herring fishing is carried on in all the fishing grounds 
along the coast, from Aalesund to Christiansund, near the Loffoden islands, and 
on the coasts of the two sides of North Cape, as far as the Russian frontier. It - 
also employs about 40,000 men. ‘This fishery would evidently not be such 
a source of wealth to the thinly scattered population, if it were not for the tele- 
graph which continually apprises them of the approach of the shoals of fish. 
The importance of the telegraph is felt especially in autumn, when the fat herring 
enter the fiords in large numbers. 

Apart from the information given concerning the movements of the shoals 
of fish, the progress of the fishing, the price of the fish, etc., are also sent by tel- 
egraph to the different fisheries, and to the cities interested. Furthermore, then 
telegraph forwards, each day during the fishing season, meteorological bulletins, 
information concerning the direction and force of the wind, the state of the sea, 
the temperature, the probability of storms, etc., which is of inestimable value to 
the residents on the sea shore. 

The telegraph is in use three or four months of the year for cod fishing. 
There are nine telegraphic stations called de poisson, and four movable stations, 
which are transferred from Loffoden to Finmark, for this fishing alone. Besides 
these, six or nine telegraphic fish stations, and one or two extra stations in the 
districts of Bergen and Stavanger, remain in active service two or three months 
in each year, for the Waar-Haering fishery, in addition to which, more than 
twenty stations re in use during the whole year for the cod and large and fat 
herring fisheries. 


THE DOCTRINE OF THE UNKNOWABLE, 431 


If the principal telegraphic line connecting Drontheim to the northern cities 
is not taken into consideration, it is found that a capital of about two millions 
of crowns has been expended for the telegraphic stations, called de pichenis, in 
the fishing districts. The relative importance of this sum can be estimated by 
noticing that the capital which has been used for the establishment of all the tel- 
egraphic stations in Norway, does not exceed 5,300,000 crowns. The expenses 
of the telegraph for fisheries represent, then, more than a third of the capital of 
all the lines. It is unnecessary to say that the receipts of the fishing stations, in 
consequence of the situation of the fishing places, where often few families reside 
long, are far from covering the expenses which the working of the lines involves. 
The cost of establishing and keeping these lines in repair also draws heavily on 
the revenues of the administration of telegraphs in Norway. However, the 
assistance which these stations render is so important, the capital invested in the 
fisheries so considerable, and the benefit afforded to the inhabitants so great, that 
the government finds it to its advantage to aid, as much as possible, the develop- 
ment of this service along the Norwegian coasts. 


Pea SVN awe Pov OS@Ormy: 


THE DOCTRINE OF THE UNKNOWABLE. 


READ BEFORE THE KANSAS CITY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, SEPTEMBER 28th, 1880. 


BY W. H. MILLER, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


In a previous paper, we examined the ‘‘ Synthetic Philosophy,” of Mr. Her- 
bert Spencer, in its aspects as philosophy, and found fault with it, for its failure to 
make any attempt to explain the ultimate form of being, which it holds to be un- 
knowable ; for its absurdity in explaining the known into the unknowable; for its 
failure to supply certain inductions, which we found to follow necessarily from its 
premises, and which would have explained its unknowable as a personal God; 
and for setting up force as the ultimate form of being, which we found to be but 
that property of being by which it expresses itself in action. We also included 
certain deductions, which, like our inductions, show that this ultimate being is a 
personal God; but, as the philosophy holds that all such deductions are illegiti- 
mate, we propose here to put them to the test of examination, and determine if — 
this is the case. These deductions are denied, not only by this philosophy, but 
by all who adopt it, and by all who accept the modern hypothesis of evolution ; 
for both forbid us to assign any attributes, aspects or qualities whatever to ultimate 
being, upon the basis of which alone it can be held to be unknowable. Whether 
these deductions are legitimate or not, may be shown by a brief reference to the 
necessary conditions of thought. This involves an inquiry concerning these 


432 KANSAS CITY REVIEW. OF SCIENCE. 


conditions, and the limits and nature of human conceptions in the direction of the 
Infinite and Absolute. We cannot take a better point from which to project this 
inquiry than the deliverances of this philosophy, and its quotations from others 
upon which it relies for support. 

We find it quoting extensively from Sir William Hamilton and Mr. Mansel, 
certain of their conclusions on the subject, in which they have given their great 
names and high authority to grave errors, which underly that mysticism of modern 
times, which has corrupted philosophy in its sources, given to scientific truth a 
shadow of uncertainty, and to religion an unbelief that is a fruitful source of im- 
morality. : i 

Sir William Hamilton, in his essay on the ‘‘ Philosophy of the Uncondition- 
ed,” holds this language. ‘‘ The mind can conceive, and consequently can know, 
only the limited and the conditionally limited. The unconditionally unlimited, or 
the Infinite, the unconditionally limited, or the Absolute, can not be positively 
construed to the mind; they can be conceived only by thinking away from, or ab- 
straction of, those very conditions under which thought itself is realized. Conse- 
quently the notion of the unconditioned is only negative—negative of the con- 
ceivable itself.” To the doctrine that the mind can conceive of no more than 
‘<the limited and the conditionally limited ” all must subscribe; but the doctrine 
that the mind can attain to a conception of any kind whatever, by ‘‘ thinking 
away from, or abstraction of those very conditions under which thought itself is 
realized,” represent the mind as transcending its conditions, and is absurd. And 
that it can entertain a notion that is ‘‘ negative of the conceivable itself” is equal 
ly so, for it represents the mind as conceiving an inconceivable nothing. Again 
he says: ‘‘ As the conditionally limited (which we may briefly call the condition- 
ed), is thus the only possible object of knowledge and of positive thought—thought 
necessarily supposes conditions. To think is to condition; and conditional limi- 
tation is the fundamental law of the possibility of thought. For as the greyhound 
cannot outstrip his shadow, nor (by a more appropriate simile) the eagle outsoar 
the atmosphere in which he floats, and by which alone he is supported; so the 
mind cannot transcend that sphere of limitations, within and through which ex- 
clusively the possibility of thought is realized.” To this likewise, all must sub_ 
scribe, but, this being true, how can the mind, by ‘‘ thinking away from, or ab- 
straction of, those very conditions under which thought itself is realized,” attained 
to a notion that is the ‘‘ negative of the conceivable itself?” It is wonderful that 
so great a mind as that of Sir Wiliam Hamilton could have fallen into so grave 
and palpable a contradiction. But, to quote further, he says: ‘‘ The conditioned 
is the mean between two extremes, two inconditionates, exclusive of each other, 
neither of which can be conceived as possible, but of which, on the principles of 
contradiction and excluded middle, one must be admitted as necessary.” Can 
any thing be more wonderful than that so great a logician should thus apply a law 
of logic to prove that which this same law condemns as impossible? Can any- 
thing be more absurd than to hold that the law of the mind requires, it to admit 


THE DOCTRINE OF THE UNKNOWABLE. 433 


as necessary truth that of which it cannot possibly conceive, and which is contra- 
dicted by its conception? Sir William Hamilton himself seems to have had 
a suspicion of this, for he declares that ‘‘ by a wonderful revelation we are thus, 
in the very consciousness of our inability to conceive ought above the relatiye and 
finite, inspired with the belief in the existence of something unconditioned beyond 
the sphere of all comprehensible reality,’? which simply means that Sir William 
Hamilton, after having made a mistake in his application of the law of thought, 
whereby he had proved that infinite and absolute Being could not be, still could 
not rid himself, as others claimed to have done, of the conviction that there is 


such Being. | 
The quotations from Mr. Mansel are from his ‘‘ Limitations of Religious 
Thought,” and we copy: ‘‘The very conception of consciousness, in whatever 


mode it may be manifested, necessarily implies distinction between one object 
and another. To be conscious, we must be conscious of some thing, and some 
thing can only be known as that which it is by being distinguished from that which 
it is not. But distinction is necessarily limitation ; for, 1f one object is to be dis- 
tinguished from another, it must not possess some form which the other has. But 
it is obvious the infinite cannot be distinguished as such, from the finite by the 
absence of any quality the finite possesses, for such absence would be a limitation, 
Nor yet can it be distinguished by the presence of an attribute which the finite has 
not, for, as no finite part can be a constituent of an infinite whole, this differential 
characteristic must itself be infinite, and must at the same time have nothing in 
common with the finite. We are thus thrown back upon our former impossibility ; 
for this second infinite will be distinguished from the first by the absence of quali- 
ties which the latter possesses. Consciousness of the Infinite, as such, thus neces- 
sarily involves a self-contradiction, for it implies the recognition of a limitation 
and difference of that which can be given only as unlimited and indifferent.” This 
only proves that Mr. Mansel has wholly mistaken the nature of the conception he 
is discussing, holding that it must be something different from any thing that can 
be; and his mistake has led into a self-contradiction, which ought to have been suf- 
ficient to have warned him of his error. But to extricate himself he proceeds 
thus: ‘‘ This contradiction, which is utterly inexplicable on the supposition that 
the Infinite is a positive object of human thought, is at once accounted for when 
it isregarded as the mere negation of thought. If all thought is limitation—if what 
we conceive is, by the very act of conception, regarded as finite, the Infinite, 
from a human point of view, is merely a name for the absence of those condi- 
tions under which thought is possible.” That is to say in plain language, there 
is no Infinite; it is nothing. Yet Mr. Mansel holds that we are compelled by the 


conditions of our minds to believe in the existence ofthe Infinite, as the comple- 
ment of our consciousness of the finite; whereby he falls into the same absurdity 


that characterized the reasoning of Sir William Hamilton. 
To these proofs of an unknowable, such as they are, which Mr. Spencer ap- 
proves, he adds one of his own. Hissays: ‘‘ Every complete act of conscious- 


IV—28 


434 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


ness, besides distinction and relation, also implies likeness. Before it can become 
an idea, or constitute a piece of knowledge, a mental state must not only be known 
as separate in kind from certain foregoing states to which it is known as related by 
succession, but it must be known as of the same kind with certain foregoing 
states.’’ Not to quote unnecessarily, this doctrine is, that ideas, to beideas, must 
be classified; and he adds that ‘‘a true cognition is possible only through an ac™ 
companying recognition ”—that is, arecognition of preceding cognitions with which 
it may be classed. This Mr. Spencer foresees commits him to the absurdity of an 
unclassable first cognition, which is here held by him to be impossible ; in view of 
which, according to this doctrine, there can be no cognition at all, and thought 
and knowledge are shown to be impossible. But he endeavors to extricate him- 
self from this predicament by the argument ‘‘ that cognition proper arises gradually, 
that during the first stage of incipient intelligence, before the feelings produced 
by intercourse with the outer world have been put in order, there are no cogni- 
tions, strictly so-called; and that, as every infant shows us, these slowly emerge 
out of the confusion of unfolding consciousness as fast as the experiences are ar- 
ranged in groups.” Here it is sufficient to point out, that as no cognition can be 
according to this doctrine, until there is a preceding cognition sufficiently definite 
to class it with, the argument does not extricate him from the absurdity, however 
gradual the process may be. But the argument concerning the infinite, and the 
absolute as well, which he bases upon these fallacious premises, is: ‘‘ The First 
Cause, the Infinite, the Absolute, to be knownat all, must be classed. To be posi- 
tively thought of, it must be thought of as such or such—as of this or that kind. 
Can it be like in kind to anything of which we have sensible experience? Obvi- 
ously not. Between the creating and created there must be a distinction tran- 
scending any of the distinctions existing between any of the divisions of the cre- 
ated.”” This doctrine of the necessity of classification, as a prerequisite to cog- 
nition, is one of Mr. Spencer’s psychological doctrines, the validity of which will 
be examined in the proper place in these papers; suffice it to say for the present, 
that if it be true, we have noconception of Time nor Space, neither of which can 
be conceived as like any other thing in the universe. But inasmuch as we know 
certainly that we have conception of Time and Space, the argument does not prove 
that a conception of the Infinite is any less possible. 

In regard to these three doctrines upon this subject, it must be remarked that 
when we find our reasoning results in self-contradictions, it is not safe to conclude 
that reason is mendacious until we shall have proved that we have not erred in 
the application of itslaws. Such an occurrence should suggest to us the necessity 
of proving our process; as the school boy, when his multiplication fails to bring 
the answer laid down in his text book, proves his process by a division; and as he 
assumes that the error is in his process, and not in his book, so may we safely as- 
sume that the error is in our process and not in the constitution of the mind. 

If thus we find the doctrines of these great thinkers to be, upon this subject, 
contradictory and absurd, we may safely suspect that they have erred in their 


THE DOCTRINE OF THE UNKNOWABLE. 435 


process, and proceed to look elsewhere for the truth. That which has the ap- 
pearance of truth, in this particular, lies patent on the face of things, and it seems 
wonderful that trained and thinking minds should have overlooked it. It may be 
formulated thus: Whatever exists within the scope of our conceptions, that we 
can conceive as bounded only by itself, and which is not wholly embraced within 
our conceptions, must be held to be infinite; and that part of which we can con- 
ceive symbolizes to us that of which we cannot. An illustration wil! make this 
clear. Space and Time, and Quantity in its abstract sense, have been held by all 
thinkers and all mankind to be infinite. We can conceive of no Space as bounded 
without at the same time conceiving that there is other Space beyond the bound- 
ary. Wecan conceive of no Time as bounded, neither past nor future, without 
at the same time conceiving that there is other Time beyond the boundary. We 
can conceive of no Quantity so great that it might not be greater and if 
none so small thatit might not be less. Our conceptions cannot entertain 
any limits to any of these, except it be limits imposed by the same 
thing lying beyond the limitations; yet our conceptions will not embrace the 
unhmited. Mr. Spencer gets a faint shadow of this idea, and holds that we, of 
necessity, construct a mental symbol for the infinite and absolute which stands for 
it in our conceptions as the correlate of the finite; and he thus presents the best 
possible criticism upon his own doctrine,above quoted, for such symbol is certainly 
unclassed and unclassable. But from this idea of a symbol, which is a true idea, 
he falls into the surprising error of declaring that we should treat such symbolic 
notion as utterly without resemblance to that for which it stands.” Now, as the 
Space, Time and Quantity which we conceive to lie beyond the uttermost grasp of 
our conceptions, can be conceived only as being exactly like the Space, Time and 
Quantity lying within our conceptions, it follows that, if we treat that within as a 
symbol for that without, we must not only not regard our symbolas utterly unlike 
that for which it stands, but the conditions of consciousness leave us no choice 
but to conceive it as exactly like that for which it stands. Thus, as the Space, 
Time and Quantity within our conceptions stands as a correct and truthful repre- 
sentation of the Infinite Space, Time and Quantity, beyond they show us how 
our formula makes infinity comprehensible. 

In regard to the Absolute, we need not quote so extensively from these great 
thinkers as we have done in regard to the Infinite; yet we must make a few ex- 
tracts from their doctrines. Mr. Mansel writes: ‘‘A second characteristic of 
consciousness is that it is only possible in the form of a relation. There must be 
a subject or person conscious, and an object, or thing of which he is conscious 
** | The destruction of either is the destruction of consciousness itself. % * 
* To be conscious of the Absolute, as such, we must know that an object which 

is given in relation to our consciousness is identical with one, which exists in its 
own nature out of all relation to consciousness; but to know this identity, we 
must be able to compare the two together; and such a comparison is itself a con- 
tradiction. We are, in fact, required to compare that of which we are conscious 


436 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


with that of which we are not conscious; the comparison being an act of con- 
sciousness, and only possible through the consciousness of both its objects.” To 
escape this contradiction, Mr. Mansel has recourse to the same absurdity into 
which he fell in discussing the Infinite—that the Absolute is merely the negation of 
a conception. He writes: ‘‘The Absolute is a term expressing no object of 
thought, but a denial of the relation by which thought is constituted.” But this 
he holds ‘‘ does not imply that the Absolute cannot exist; but it implies, most 
certainly, that we cannot conceive it as existing.’”” Yet he holds that ‘‘ we are 
compelled, by the constitution of our minds, to believe in the existence of the 
absolute Being—a belief which appears forced upon us as the complement of our 
consciousness of the relative and the finite.” In this again he represents the mind 
as under the necessity of believing in the existence of that which his interpreta- 
tion of its laws shows that it must declare does not exist. 

Sir William Hamilton holds a like view, and falls into a like contradictory 
absurdity, which he expresses thus: ‘‘ The absolute is conceived merely by a 
negation of conceivability,” which represents the mind, as he did in discussing 
the Infinite, as acting without the conditions within which alone its action is pos- 
sible. 

Mr. Spencer apprehends an error in Mr. Mansel and Sir William Hamilton 
in the quotation he makes from them concerning the Absolute, and he seeks to 
correct it with an explanation of his own, more consistent in character but to the 
same effect. He holds, in opposition to them, that consciousness of the Absolute 
is positive and not negative, and that such a conception is _ constituted, 
not by any single mental act, but by many. He says: ‘‘In each concept 
there is an element which persists. * “** * The persistence of this element, 
under successive conditions, necessitates a sense of it as distinguished from the 
conditions, and independent of them.”” This sense of it he holds to be an in- 
definite consciousness, ‘‘ constituted by combining successive concepts deprived 
of their limits and conditions.” Were it possible for us thus to deprive our con- 
cepts of their limits and conditions, so as to combine them, it must be observed 
that, since concepts are constituted of limits and conditions, the process would 
deprive us of the concepts, and thus render such combination impossible. 

This doctrine of an indefinite consciousness upsets another of Mr. Spencer’s 
psychological doctrines, wherein he holds that consciousness is the product of defi- 
nite mental changes, without which it is impossible. Conflicting as this does with 
the nature of concepts, and with Mr. Spencer’s own doctrine concerning the 
character of consciousness, it comes close to a great truth, which he approaches 
still closer in comparing this notion of the conception of the Absolute to the notion 
of Time and Space beyond the limits of consciousness. He says: ‘‘ Though 
not contemplated as definite, it is yet contemplated as real,” and ‘‘ which, though 
we do not form of its concepts proper, since we do not bring it into bounds, it is 
yet in our minds the undeveloped material of a conception.” But instead of 
shaping this undeveloped material into a conception, he disappoints us by 


THE DOCTRINE OF THE UNKNOWABLE. 437 


holding that, while thus ‘‘the momentum of thought inevitably carries us beyond 
conditioned existence to an unconditioned existence,” ‘‘that ever persists in us 
as the body of a thought, we give it no shape;” and, in another place, he holds 
that we cannot shape it into a thought. 

Here may be included also the doctrines of Kant on this subject, which 
seem to have been adopted by Sir William Hamilton and Mr. Mansel, and to 
the ultimate conclusion of which, of an Unknowable, Mr. Spencer subscribes, while 
rejecting his argument. He found substantially the same self contradiction in 
thought when approaching the Absolute that we have seen in Sir William Hamil- 
ton and Mr. Mansel, the opposing factors of which he presented as natural. anti- 
nomies, between which thought expires before reaching a conception concerning 
the absolute. 

That all such self-contradictions must be false, seems self-evident. It is 
hardly believable that the mind contains within itself the elements of self-de- 
struction ; and we ought to find for the Absolute,as for the Infinite, some reason- 
able explanation. In the first place, it must be observed, as a truth taught by all 
these dinguished philosophers, that alleged Being, without aspects by which 
it may be known, cannot be held by the mind to be Being at all; but it 
is necessarily held to be nonenity. Man has no guide in philosophy 
save his own reason; from its dicta there is no appeal. Hence, when it is 
attempted to present to his conception Being without relations, character- 
istics, aspects, or attributes by which it may be known, the conditions of con- 
sciousness leave him no choice; he must declare such attempted representation 
of Being to be nothing. The doctrines here quoted from the most distinguished 
thinkers of modern times abundantly illustrate this fact. 

Yet that there is Absolute Being, without relations,is recognized by most 
‘philosophers and by all of mankind who have projected thought into these alti- 
tudes. Its existence is recognized by the four great thinkers whom we have quot- 
ed, although their misapplication of the laws of reason and their consequent self- 
contradictions present a conception of it which the mind must regard as not Be- 
ing at all but as nonenity. What then can be presented as Absolute Being? If 
we adopt the old idea of the unity of Nature we shall find that it helps us toa 
reasonable conception; it presents us all Being as the Absolute, which is also nec- 
essarily conceived to be the Infinite. It is being taken as a whole, and hence is 
not a supreme or chief being, not the active aspect or the passive aspect of Nature, 
not the energy it n.anifest nor the substance upon which energy is exerted. It 
is both; it is all. As such it is infinite and without relations to other being, for 
there is no ot’ er between which and itself there can be a relation even of differ-. 
ence. It is thus necessarily self-existent,and self-regulative. Asa whole ‘it is in- 
dependent, while its parts are dependent upon the whole. It is true that man’s 
conceptive powers will not embrace so stupendous a whole, but he must and al- 
ways has conceived that there issucha whole. Relations are the characteristics 
of its parts, and its parts are reliable symbols of the whole, for a part can only 


438 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


be conceived as implying that of which it is a part. Yet, Mr. Mansel writes: 
‘‘We can have no consciousness of Being in general which is not some being in 
particular ;”’ which, instead of showing, as he holds, that it ‘‘must be one thing 
out of many,” only discloses to us that condition of consciousness which compels 
us to conceive the Absolute as individual. Thus, instead of being compelled, by 
a law of the mind, to accept as truth a self-contradiction, as held by Sir William 
Hamilton; and instead of being under duty ‘‘to think of God as personal” and 
“to believe him infinite,” in the face of doctrines which show that we can do 
neither, as held by Mr. Mansel; we find that the conditions of consciousness 
leave us no choice but to conceive the Absolute and Infinite as individual. The 
conclusions of these philosophers show that, though we may blind ourselves with 
misconception and error, we still cannot escape this necessity. And here we see, 
without raising any question concerning revelation, that the Infinite and Ab- 
solute has so hedged around our minds as to make a failure to perceive it an 
impossibility. That the only; conception of the Absolute that can be formula- 
ted is the one here presented is shown, not only by the fact that all others fall in- 
to self contradiction and absurdity, but also by the fact that it 1s a necessary 
product of our consciousness. 

From the conception of absolute and infinite Being here presented, it fol- 
lows as a necessary conclusion, that the laws we find prevailing around us, are of 
its production; either as a whole or in some of its aspects, and their constant en- 
forcement are the expression of its potency. As law can be conceived only as the 
product of intelligence and its enforcement as the expression of Will, this 
conception demonstrates to us that, so far as Intelligence and Will are 
concerned, our former deductions are not only legitimate, but are the 
necessary product of consciousness. As law can be conceived only as expressing 
the nature from which it proceeds, and as we find laws expressing an emotional na- 
ture, we are left no choice but to conceive the Absolute and Infinite as an emo- 
tional Being. Intelligence, Will and Emotion, are found only in combination, and 
only when attended with Consciousness; and as these four constitute Personality 
we have no choice but to conceive the Infinite and Absolute as Personal. 

But how can such a conception as this reconcile the existence of the Abso- 
lute and Infinite with the existence of the relative and finite? How cana con- 
ception of the existencof one sole Being be reconciled with the multiplied forms 
of concrete Being, with which we are so familiar? This brings us face to face 
with a third great problem of philosophy, which has been discussed since the 
days of Aristotle, and about which volumes of elaborate error have been written, 
besides the fallacies of Mr. Spencer on this subject. This problem is no less 
than the relation of Subject and Object. Here we need not quote from 
the elaborate former discussions; a statement of what appears to be manifest truth, 
lying openly on the face of things, will we believe be found to make it so plain 
and comprehensible as to leave no room for discussion. Upon this subject, it 
must be observed, that past error has arisen from a misconception of what 


HE DOCTRINE OF THE UNKNOWABLE. 489 


is embraced under these two terms. The Subjective state has been defined 
as an active state, and the Objective state has been defined asa passive state. 
Hence the evolutionists have conceived the activity by which life is manifested to 
be the result of interaction between dynamic forces external to the living organism 
and static, or passive forces within; thus reducing manto a mere mechani- 
cal automaton, caused, manipulated and mollified by external forces, for 
the existence of which their philosophy can give no account. Now, the Sub- 
jective state is not an active state, but it 1s an acting state; the Objective, in re- 
lation toits own Subjective, is always passive, is always the recipient of acting 
power, and hence is always, within itself, in an active changing condition. The. 
Subjective state is one of constancy and unchange; the Objective is one of in- 
constancy and change. To illustrate:—Man, in his Subjective, acting state, 
has himself as the object of his activity; he may determine to become some- 
thing else than what he is—to become more learned, or more refined, or more 
moral; or he may determine to remove himself bodily from the place he is in to 
another. From his Subjective state proceeds, along with such determinations, 
the acting by which the result is to be brought about; and this acting, in reaching 
his Objective state, sets up the activity and change by which the determined 
result is realized. The Subjective aspect of man lies deep in his nature. It is 
revealed not directly and in itself but indirectly and in what it does. It is the 
soul: Thought, Will, Emotion, Imagination and Preception are its immediate 
manifestations and together with the physical body constitute the Objective As- 
pect. This is man’s primary Objective; Nature as Objective to him being so 
secondarily. 

Now to apply this doctrine and illustration to the infinite and absolute Being 
who we have seen is necessarily the sole Being in the universe. In its aspect 
as a stupendous whole, it presents the Subjective state, for, manifestly, a sole be- 
ing that fills all space cannot be conceived as a changeable aggregate, nor as Ob- 
jective to aught save itself, in respect to being made to act. It can be conceived 
only as eternally constant, eternally unchanged by any other. But in its aspect 
as Objective to itself, the acting proceeding from its Subjective aspect, produces a 
state of activity and continual change within itself. Hence arises the concrete, 
changing forms with which our observation and science make us so familiar. 
This Subjective, constant, acting aspect we call God; and this Objective, incon- 
stant, active changing state we call Nature. The 

—‘poor Indian, whose untutored mind, 
Sees God in the cloud and hears him in the wind.” 
has a great truth, which to formulate and explain, would make a modern philos- 
opher immortal. 

Thus we find that this conception of the Infinite and Absolute yields us, on 
the one hand, aconception of an acting constant immutable principle, which is 
the source of all the activity we see around us and which we call God. | The ac- 
tivity we see reveals to us the laws by which it proceeds, which are the express- 


440 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ions of the attributes of the acting principle. The attributes thus revealed to us 
we find to be immutable; and they also symbolize to us the principle to which 
they belong, which is thus made knowabie and known to the extent that we know 
‘them. On the other hand, it gives us a conception of a dependent active and 
changing form which we call Nature,and which is but the expression of the inde- 
pendent acting principle. It thus validates to reason the doctrine of a personal 
spiritual God, and it teaches the eternity of nature. Does not this make the In- 
finite and Absolute knowable to us, as well as the limited and relationals 

If we may entertain such a conception of the Infinite and Absolute, as it 
seems that we must, it dissipates all the sensation and ideal philosophies of the 
present and the past. It corrects the errors of the erring, some of whom have 
endeavored to teach mankind that there is no God, and some of whom have en- 
deavored to teach that there is no Nature. We find also that it purges philoso- 
phy of its contradictions; and it relieves science of its shadows of uncertainty, for 
it shows it to rest upon an immutable foundation; and that the phenomena which 
constitutes its data is the expression of Immutability and not the product of in- 
sensate and varying forces, whose existence is unaccountable. The immutable 
laws underlying the phenomena with which science is concerned reveals to us 
the immutable attributes of God upon which they are founded. These attributes, 
like the Principal to whom they belong, are infinite and apply everywhere alike 


throughout the sphere of their applicability. In this paper we are concerned 
with but three. 


The first of these is that by which effects in the Physical World, and Conse- 
quences in the Moral, are exactly proportioned to Causes. In the Moral World 
we call it Justice. In the domain of physical law, as we well know, effect inevi- 
tably follows cause. Here the only escape from the effects of violation is in in- 
voking the action of some law other than the one violated. So in the domain of 
moral law; for here, as in the physical, we have but to invoke a law other than 
the one violated, to escape the consequence of violation. This may be done with 
ease, almost without knowledge, and by each person for itself; by the most lowly 
and ignorant equally with the most lofty and learned. In the moral, as in the 
physical, the violation of law brings pain, which suggests the need of remedy ; 
and the experience of mankind shows that, in the moral, we have but to grieve 
for our offense, turn from the offending course, and resolve upon obedience to the 
law of our own natures, and the pain disappears and peace and strength come 
into the soul. This remedy requires no aid from man, and no elaborate knowl- 
edge ; whereas, in the domain of the physical, the remedy usually requires the in- 
tervention of another, and often demands great knowledge. ‘This brings to our 
view an Attribute which, while not in conflict but perfectly consistent with Justice 
can be interpreted only as an expression of Mercy for weak and erring sentient 
beings. Obedience brings, as its reward, the highest beatitude of which man can 
conceive, while disobedience brings his intensest pain. The existence of such 
wise and adequate provision for man’s moral welfare can not be conceived as 


GOOD EYES AND FREE SCHOOLS. 441 


springing from one who cares not for him. On the contrary, it reveals to usa 
Love for us of no mean degree, existing prior to our being. These attributes, 
like the Principal to whom they belong, must be conceived as positive and im- 
mutable; and on our part, they call for obedience to law, which is righteousness ; 
and for a responsive love and gratitude toward Him from whom we receive such 
blessings, which is positive worship ; and for a reflection of like attributes toward 
our fellows, which is positive virtue and humanity. And though the obedience 
to law may seem to require self-denial and pain, it is not really so; for the state 
of feeling from which obedience proceeds, raises the soul above the sense of such 
things, as all know who have obeyed in spirit as well as in name. Nay more, it 
mitigates the keener sense of physical pain, as is now explained by science and as 
is shown by the history of martyrs and the Cross. ‘This is the essence of the 
highest Religion, which this conception of the Absolute and Infinite relieves of 
that unbelief which has corrupted our morals and degraded our social relations. 
Religion is thus shown to be, not a matter of faith alone ; not validated to us by 
the dicta of the church alone, and not alone by the Divine Founder of the 
church; but as a matter of positive. knowledge, validated by our own reason, 
which shows it to be a necessary product of consciousness, founded upon the in- 
finite and immutable attributes of an Infinite, Immutable and Eternal God. 


MEE 1D L@iN ASN ID) Eby G LisN E: 


GOOD EYES AND FREE SCHOOLS. 
BY JOHN FEE, M. D. 


The idea, that the existence of free schools, in a country, is the evidence of 
a perfect civilization, has become so deeply rooted, that he who would contradict 
it, would subject himself to public reproach. Cheerfully accepting this public 
sentiment as a self-evident proposition, let us ask: is the highest state of civiliza- 
tion inimical to the physical or bodily welfare of mankind? In reply, we say 
yes, in one respect only, namely, in its effects on vision. Otherwise civilization 
is a perfect boon. The most highly civilized communities furnish the best speci- 
mens of beauty, of symmetry, and of strength and endurance. 

Civilized man has a power of adaptation unknown to the savage and bar- 
barian. He can endure the heat of the torrid zone as well as the African negro, 
and the extreme cold of the pole equal to the Esquimaux. It isa fact, however, 
that our public school system, while it is the corner stone of our republican in- 
stitutions, is inflicting, as conducted, a great injury on the vision of the rising 
generation and laying the foundation of a mental and physical misfortune to 


449 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


future generations. What the extent is of this deformity, can only be calculated 
by the value of the eyes as avenues of the soul. 

If total blindness is an indescribable calamity to the few, how much of a 
national calamity is that which narrows its field of vision down to a few inches, 
and shuts out forever the beauties of landscape and sky? The infliction of such 
wholesale misery is the mission of a higher education, as at present acquired, and 
the public school room is the popular instrument of its successful production. 
We are very particular to assert, however, that the successful pursuit of this 
higher scholarship does not, necessarily, require the sacrifice of perfect vision, or 
the enfeebling of that instrument of the mind that affords the most pleasure and 
instruction. pane 

To state our accusation plainly, we assert that the eyes of school children 
are undergoing a change of form whereby they are impaired as optical instru- 
ments, and that this deformity will, in time, become a regular and constant factor, 
fixed by the laws of heredity, so that what is now known as a deformed eye will 
be the normal eye. Let us illustrate: The normal eye is spherical in form, its 
axis or antero posterior diameter is about one inch in length, and its width, gen- 
erally, one-twelfth of an inch shorter than its length or axis. Its lens system, or 
cornea and crystalline lens, have such a focal distance that when the eye is fixed 
on an object more than twenty feet distant an image should be formed at the 
center of the eye, on the retina, without any effort at accommodation. When 
this is the case the axis of the eye and the lens system are said to correspond and 
the eye is normal. Our present system of school instruction destroys this per- 
fection of the eye, so that when a child has gone through the grammar school, 
and is ready for the high school, there is in many individuals, such a lengthen- 
ing of the axis of the eye that no object can be brought to a focus, unless it is 
brought up close to the face of the observer, and the person is said to be near 
sighted or myopic. We find then, that, although, the pupil entered the school 
room with a spherical eye, during a few years of school life the eye has under- 
gone a change, in which its length has been disproportionately increased and 
the eye has bulged backward, so that its focus is in front of the retina. This 
change has, obviously, been caused by continuous convergence of the eyes in 
the effort to bring to a focus rays of light from small print. This surrender of 
visual health for education is not made exclusively by the children of this coun- 
try; it is a tribute paid in all countries, where a higher mental development has 
been demanded. We get as proof from foreign lands the following figures : 
Vienna—near-sightedness, from 33 per cent. in the lowest grades of the school 
room to 60 per cent. in the highest. Breslau—myopes in the city schools—first 
grade 6.7 per cent.; second grade 10.5 per cent. In the normal schools 19.7 
per cent.; in the gymnasia 26.2 per cent. At K6nigsburg the percentage of 
myopia is rr.1 in the lowest grade, and the enormous amount of 62.10 per cent. 
in the highest. In St. Petersburg 13.6 per cent. in the lowest grade and 43.3 
per cent. in the highest. At Lucerne the rise of near-sightedness in pupils from 
seven to twenty-one years is from o to 61.5 per cent. 


GOOD EYES AND FREE SCHOOLS. 443 


For statistics of foreign schools I copy from Dr. E. G. Loring’s pamphlet, 
“<Ts the Human Eye Changing its Form under the Influence of Modern Educa- 
tion,” New York, 1878. 
Let us now turn to the researches in schools of the United States. Cincin- 
nati, 630 students examined: District schools, near-sighted 10 per cent.; inter- 
mediate, 14 per cent.; normal and high, 16 per cent. Brooklyn Polytechnic, 
300 students: Academic department, 1o per cent.; collegiate, 28 per cent. 
Buffalo Public Schools, 1,003 pupils: The percentage of near-sightedness in- 
creased from 5 per cent. at seven years of age, to 26 per cent. at eighteen years. 
It was further ascertained that one of every four graduates of the Buffalo high 
school was near-sighted. In New York a careful and exact examination of 2,265 
pupils by Drs. Derby and Loring showed the existence of near-sightedness of 3.5 
per cent. in children from six to seven years of age, with an increase of 26.78 
per cent. in students from twenty to twenty-one years of age, an increase of over 
seven-fold. At Dayton an examination of 765 pupils gave the following results: 
Myopia in the district schools, 15.35 per cent.; in the intermediate, 17.65 per 
cent.; in the high schools, 18.32 per cent. 
For statistics of schools of this country, I am indebted to Dr. W. J. Conk- 
lin’s pamphlet entitled, ‘‘ The Influence of School Life upon the Eye-Sight with 
Special Reference to the Public Schools of Dayton.” 
From the above statistical facts we learn that we are following fast the ex- 
ample of the ‘‘ effete cities of the old world”(?) in our success in impairing the 
visual apparatus of our children, and we only lack time and more constancy of 
habit on on the part of our. people, so that the laws of heredity may implant this 
visual deformity, permanently, into the race. Let us now inquire where there is 
aremedy for this forboding evil. Most writers on this subject have attributed 
this loss of vision to the following causes: Defective illumination of school 
buildings ; uncomfortable and faultily constructed seats ; insufficient nourishment 
and the vitiated atmosphere of the school room; too many studies and continu- 
ous attention to books. I am free to confess that these faults are auxiliary causes 
of near-sightedness; but they do not form the ground work of the malady. In 
this country, the buildings are generally well lighted, and the seats of the school 
room have been manufactured with due regard to the comfort and health of the 
pupils. Nor can we admit that the children are not sufficiently fed. As to the 
number of studies, these, generally, come at an age when near-sightedness could 
not be easily produced, when it either already exists to a considerable extent, or 
will not be developed, but can be intensified, if existing. We believe the cause 
of myopia to be the convergence and accommodation of the eye for small print. 
It is true that the eye of a child is a perfect optical instrument and has the 
greatest functional activity, but this very perfectness is a something that ought 
to be held in reserve. The constant strain on the eye for convergence compresses 

its coats,impairs its nutrition,weakens the resistance of the sclerotic until its spher 
icity is changed, and gives place to an elongated axisand myopia. The remedy, 


444 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


then, is in abandoning the primer and books for the first grades of the school 
room. Instead of these, use books printed on whole sheets of paper, in type as. 
large as those used for posters. These books could contain the alphabet and 
spelling lessons of two to four syllables, also the elementary lessons of arithmetic 
and geography, and should be hung up against the wall of the school room, and 
owned by the city and township organizations. ‘The letters would be so large 
that they could be seen at any distance within the school room, and would be 
considered at an infinite distance, so that the pencils of light from them would be 
practically parallel, and would require neither accommodation or convergence 
in order to bring them to a focus. 

Such an arrangement would enable the pupils to get their lessons and recite 
them without leaving their seats and without straining their eyes. The rule no 
convergence and no accommodation for the eye, for the first and second grades,. 
should be absolute. For the subsequent grades there should be a like improve- 
ment in the typography of the text books. 

The letters should be large so as to be brought easily to a focus and to make 
large images on the retina. The same object should be secured in the text books 
of the high school, and the largest text now used should take the place of notes 
and explanations, and correspondingly larger letters should be used for the gen- 
eral text. I am firmly convinced that these suggestions contain the corrective for 
the increasing deformity of near-sightedness. Every year brings a higher stand- 
ard of scholarship into our public schools, and demands increased application 
and time to text books, so that with the menace of impaired vision comes the re- 
sponsibility of so controlling the youthful studies, that with the patrimony of a 
well stored intellect, there shall not come a groping darkness as the penalty of 
nature’s violated law. 


SCAN Us WG MAS Cla EIA ING i 


RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST AROUND KANSAS CITY. 
t 


No. 2. 
BY WM. H. R. LYKINS. 


Out across the great bridge spanning the Missouri—out into the cool and 
quiet shadows resting on the clean yellow sands—is a pleasant change from the 
thronged and dusty streets of the busy city. The south wind murmurs pleasantly 
through the tall tree tops, and the air is fragrant with the perfume, not of flowers 
—but of a fungus. A small white mushroom, growing upon dead trees, evolves 
from the decaying timber a pleasant odor something like that of a ripe May ap- 
ple (podophyllum). Persons wandering through the woods often meet with the 


RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST AROUND KANSAS CITY. 445 


scent of this vegetable, but are not aware of the source from whence it comes, 
thinking that it is the perfume of some wild flower. This large and curious race 
of vegetation (the fungi) has met with but little attention from naturalists in this 
country. A contemptuous kick, and the epithet of ‘‘toadstool’”’ is generally the 
best treatment they receive. Yet, in these lowly forms are many of rare beauty 
of color and delicacy of organization, many valuable for their medicinal qualities, 
and many prized by epicures as an esculent. The difficulty of keeping them after 
being gathered, and the poisonous qualities of some, are the principal causes of 
this neglect. But while some are pleasant to the eye and taste, others are of a di- 
rectly opposite nature. In an old meadow in this vicinity we once met with a 
fine specimen of the Phadloidei—well named zmpudicus, a curious freak of nature 
which once seen or sme/¢ can never be forgotton. It is of round, obelisk form, about 
eight inches in height, and from a hole in the top exudes a greenish fluid which 
has the smell of putrid flesh, scenting the air with its disgusting odor for many 
rods in its vicinity. Fortunately they are not plentiful, or they would be an un- 
mitigated nuisance. The Cottonwood (Populus Canadensis) is par excellence the 
pioneer of vegetation. Its light cottony seeds are borne far and wide by the 
winds, and wherever they can find a lodgment they take root and flourish. Let 
but a tiny strip of sand bar show its surface above the water and it is preémpted 
by the Cottonwood and its humble companion the willow (sadx longifolia). 
Their foliage arrests the wind-drifted sands, the ground rises around them, and 
soon another island is wrested from the river. Far out on the plains in lonely ra- 
vines and on barren hillsides this tree may be found bravely battling with the ele- 
ments of wind, fire and lightning, and though often scarred and broken, it gener- 
ally manages to hold its ground. Then the birds come and rest in its branches, 
bringing other seeds, and soon a little grove springs up around it, overshadowing 
a pool of water—a veritable oasis in the desert. Although its timber is not as 
lasting and useful as the pine, it is an excellent substitute on the prairies of the 
West. . It is of quick growth, attains a large size and may be planted aud utilized 
while more lasting timber of slower growth is comingon. The young shoots and 
buds are excellent food for cattle and horses, and the Indians often save their 
ponies in hard winters by driving them into cottonwood bottoms and felling the 
young trees for them to feed upon. But the insatiable demands of civilization 
are fast using up the noble cottonwood forests of our river bottoms, denuding 
the banks of their protecting care and leaving them a prey to the ravages of the 
current. | 

Crossing the bottom, scarred and seared with the traces of the great flood of 
1844, when the Missouri resumed its ancient bed and ran from bluff to bluff, 
twenty feet deep on these low lands, we come to the hills on the northern side. 


At the extreme foot of these hills the collector will find a layer of shale from 


which many good specimens of fossil ferns of various species can be obtained. 
The shale is rather soft and must be carefully dried in the shade, then painted 


_ with some light transparent varnish to save the specimens in good condition. A 


446 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


great variety of trees clothe these hillsides—oaks, hickory, walnut, ash, hack- 
berry, linn, maple and many others of smaller growth; and if you would see a 
living chromo, painted in all the gorgeous and unerring tints of nature, come here 
when the first frosts of autumn have colored their foliage with crimson and gold, 
blue, brown and purple, and you will see one of rare beauty and excellence. 

As one stands upon the top of these bluffs and looks down upon the great 
valley below, with the great river winding through it like a silver thread, he is lost 
in the contemplation of ‘the vast time it must have taken to carve out this great 
water course, hundreds of feet deep, through masses of rock, shale and clay. 
But to the observer of Nature’s methods the process is plain and simple. Stand 
here when the last snows of winter are melting off under the influence of a hot 
afternoon sun and you will find every atom of this hillside in motion. Thou- 
sands of tiny streams and rivulets loaded with sediment are hurrying downward, 
great cliffs are undermined and plunge down the slope, carrying with them tons 
of loose rock and earth. By this process and the thawing out of the frost the 
surface is left in a soft and spongy condition; then comes a sudden thunder 
shower with its torrents of water, sweeping all this loose material into the river to 
be scattered along on a thousand sand bars; to be triturated and ground up by 
the swift current, and finally swept out into the great ocean to build up new co 
tinents and new worlds. And when you remember that this work has been 
going on for ages and ages, as constant as the rising and setting of the sun, you 
can easily imagine how these great valleys have been scooped out and widened 
in the process of time. 

We stand now in the angle of what is called the great bend of the Missouri. 
This noble river heading far up in the mountains in the northwest, after a 
southeasterly course of nearly two thousand miles, here makes a sudden turn to 
the east. On either hand of us is the valley of the Missouri, with its bold head- 
lands stretching far away in the distance, in front to the south, is the broad valley 
of the Kansas. It is a place to attract the lover of the sublime and beautiful in 
Nature. But others have been here long ages before us. Around us in the 
shadow of these great trees are the mounds of the dead—‘‘traces of lost and for- 
gotten races.” These mounds are generally placed in groups of three. Some 
are mere heaps of earth over a few calcined human bones, while others have 
within them a square, walled chamber with an opening to the South in which the 
bodies were laid in regular order. One large mound, which the writer assisted 
in opening, contained only a single skeleton which had apparently been placed in 
a sitting position. It was that of a huge-limbed, low-browed savage, probably 
such an one as Gen. Mitchell describes in his ‘‘Three Expeditions in the Interi- 
or of Australia.” He says: ‘‘As I wasreconnoitering the ground for a camp, I 
observed a native on the opposite bank, and without being seen by him, I stood 
awhile to watch the movements of a savage man ‘at home.’ His hands were 
ready to seize, his teeth to eat, any living thing; his step, light and noiseless as 
that of a shadow, gave no intimation of his approach; his walk suggested the 


Poe Wee 


FIRE-RESISTING POWER OF BUILDING MATERTALS. 447 


idea of the prowling of a beast of prey. Every little track or impression left on 
the earth by the lower animals caught his keen eye. The wind blew cold and 
keenly through the lofty trees on the margin of the river, yet that broad, brawny 
savage was entirely naked. Had I been unarmed I had much rather have met a 
lion than this simewy biped.” One chambered mound which we opened was filled 
with alternating layers of wood charcoal and burned human bones, as though a 
number of human bodies had been burned at the same time; perhaps the wives 
and slaves of some mighty chieftain sacrificed at his burial to attend him in 
the other world. What awful rites of human sacrifice or cannibal feasts have 
been enacted on these lofty hills, accompanied with the shouts and songs of the 
savage hosts and the smothered groans and screams of the victims as the blazing 
fires lit up the dark forests below and gleamed out over the rolling waters, we 
may never know. Nothing is left to tell who they were, whence they came or 
how they passed away. These mounds are scattered along the bluffs for miles 
up and down the river. ‘They are doubtless of great age, perhaps as old as the 
time when the river was yet cutting a new channel through the great deposit of 
Loess which once filled this valley. It is a puzzle to account for the fact that in 
some of these mounds of apparently the same age and construction the burials 
have been so different ; in some the bones being burned, in others, in a natural 
condition. In none of them have any implements of stone or pottery been 
found, which is evidence of their great antiquity. 


FIRE-RESISTING POWER OF BUILDING MATERIALS. 


According to experiments made by Dr. Cutting, State geologist of Vermont, 
with regard to the resisting power of building stones to fire, no known natural 
stone used for building purposes can be called fire-proof. Conglomerates and 
slates yield readily to the action of heat, and granite is injured beyond cheap and 
easy repair by a heat that would melt lead. Among the best resisting stones are 
the brown sandstone, used so largely in New York for fronts. Limestones and 
marbles are even better than these, but a heat of from goo° to 1200° is sufficient 
to calcine them at last into quicklime. In short, most stone buildings are as 
much damaged by fire as wooden structures are. Brick is, however, rather im- 
proved by heat, until the heat is sufficient to vitrify it. Dr. Cutting recommends 
brick, with soapstone trimmings, as the most fire-proof materials which can be 
used in buildings. 


WATERPROOF CEMENT. 


Dissolve guttapercha in bisulphide of carbon so as to form a syrupy mass. 
Apply this warm to the two surfaces to be joined, and dry if possible under 
pressure. Another: Guttapercha, 1 tb.; india rubber, 4 0z.; shellac, 1 oz.; lin- 
seed oil, 1 0z. Melt the materials together. The mass becomes solid on keeping, 
and must be melted before application. 


448 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


BOOK IN @ii@ias) 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO PALZONTOLOGY, Nos. 2-8: By C. A. White, M. D.: Extracted 
from 12th Annual Report of U. S. Geological Surveys of ‘Territories. 
printed July, 1880. Text 171 pages, plates 42. 

This is one among the most valuable contributions to Paleontology yet 
issued from the Government printing office. 

The plates are well executed and from my own observation are faithful copies 
of the organic remains figured, and embrace 18 plates of Cretaceous, 1 of Ter- 
tiary, 11 Laramie, 2 Triassic, 4 Carboniferous, 2 Jurassic, 3 of Sub-carboniferous 
and 1 of Coal Measure fossils. 

As the Carboniferous and Coal Measure fossils interest us most, I will 
briefly note their descriptions. 

Pl. 36, fig. 1, Productus giganteus. The figure calls to mind that this well 
known European fossil, from the mountain limestone of England and Russia, has 
heretofore been unknown in America. The figured specimen was collected by 
M. L. Kumlein, of U. S. fish commission, from the valley of McCloud river, 
Shasta Co., Cal. The transverse diameter of specimen measured five and a half 
inches across the hinge border. Its associated fossils were typical carboniferous 
(coal measure) fossils. Prof. White says that it is remarkable that this fossil has 
only been found on the western border of the continent and not the eastern. We 
know that most of the central portion and eastern border have becn carefully 
looked over for new fossils and rare ones. 

Plates 39 and 4o are of sub-carboniferous fossils, chiefly corals obtained from 
the top beds of what is known in Missouri geology as the Chouteau limestone, 
most of them being new and very interesting species. Some are from Iowa, but 
they are chiefly from Sedalia, Mo. A“ichilenia placenta White, Michelinia expansa 
White, Chonophyllum; Sedalience White and Lithostrotion Mycrostytum White, were 
obtained from Sedalia and are all new species. Others found in the same rocks 
at Sedalia, which have also been elsewhere found and here figured, are Lopho- 
phyllum expansum, Hadrophyllum glans, Zaphreutis Calceola, Z. elliptica. 

These fossils were chiefly obtained from a buff or drab shale at the top of 
the Chouteau limestone and just beneath the Burlington limestone. I have also 
occasionally found them lying loose on the hills of Pettis, Benton, St. Clair and 
Cedar counties, and they may also, probably, be found in other counties of South 
Missouri. 

The best locality for finding these corals at Sedalia was an apparently limited 
area now exhausted. The Zaphreutiform corals can still be obtained there. I 
had noticed this peculiarly interesting locality at Sedalia five years ago, and at that 
time obtained some very fine specimens from the quarries. The thick brownish- 
gray Burlington beds appear in fragmentary strata overlaid in most places by broken 


BOOK NOTICES. 449 


’ 
chert masses, some worn, as if drifted, but other beds are apparently broken in 
places, and from them some good fossils can be obtained. 

Prof. White speaks of the hitherto frequent occurrence of the Dob eenne in 
the Kinderhook and Burlington and Keokuk groups, and of the hitherto com- 
parative absence of other forms, the JLzthostrotion Mammillare ony having been 
hitherto found. 

Dr. White says ‘‘the discovery of four new forms of Wennadd corals is a 
matter of much interest, and the interest is also increased by the fact that they 
are all types which are unusual in at least American carboniferous strata.” Dr. 
White says conclusively ‘‘that such a group of corals is not without a certain 
Devonian facies.”’ 

The vertical range of these corals is small, indicating the short period of the 
age during the formation of the reef. It is certainly a well marked horizon. 

The following is a list of ten species of corals that have been found at this 
horizon in Missouri, Iowa and Illinois, as indicated by Prof. White: Zephreutis 
calceola and Z. acuta of White and Whitfield, Z. eliptica White, Chonophyllum 
Sedaliense White, Syringapora harveyu White, Favosites (Michelinia) divergens White, 
M. expansa White, M. placenta White, Lepidopora typa Winchell, Lithostrotion 
Microstylum White. 

Plate 42 is peculiarly interesting to amateur palzontologists of Kansas City, 
for two very interesting fossils were discovered at Kansas City and are here 
figured: Pheurotomaria Broadheadu White, the largest Pleurotomaria yet de- 
scribed from the coal measures. Smaller specimens of this species have been 
obtained from Pleasant Hill, Kansas City and from Northwest Missouri, but the 
typical specimen here figured was obtained from the bluffs of Kansas City. It 
somewhat resembles P. coxanus M. and W., but is specifically very different. 
It is a handsome fossil and beautifully ornamented; its full height, eighty-eight 
millimeters; length of aperture, fifty mm.; breadth of same, forty-nine mm. ; 
full diameter of last volution, including aperture, seventy-five mm. 

Another fossil figured here is Conularia crustrela White, which has only been 
found in Missouri in a six-inch stratum at Kansas City ; specimens of it can be 
seen in most cabinets of Kansas City. I have also found it at one locality in 
Montgomery county, Ill. Prof. White speaks of this fossil also having been 
obtained by Prof. E. D. Cope, from Taos, New Mexico. It is the only species 
of Conularia at present known from the coal measures of the Mississippi valley, 
although several species have been obtained from sub-carboniferous rocks. 

Another new species of Prof. White is the Waticopsis Morilifera, a pretty © 
form from No. 72 of upper coal measures at Pleasant Hill, Mo. I have foundit 
nowhere else. G. C. BROADHEAD. 


LEE CARPENTERS’ STEEL SQUARE AND ITs USES: By Fred. D. Hodgson. In- 
dustrial Publication Company, New York, 1880, pp. 68, 12 mo., 75¢. 


This little work consists of a description of the square a its uses in 


450 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


obtaining the lengths and bevels of all kinds of rafters, hips, groins, braces, 
brackets, purlins, collar beams and jack-rafters; also its application in obtaining 
the bevels and cuts for hoppers, springs, mouldings, octagons, stairs, diminished 
stiles, etc. It is illustrated by more than fifty wood cuts, of value to a practical 
workman, while the explanations and directions, being written by the editor of 
the Builder & Woodworker, are plain and clear. Every good carpenter will at 
once see that it is a valuable work in his line of business. 


SCHOOL AND INDUSTRIAL HycienE: By D. F. Lincoln, M. D., Philadelphia. 
Presley Blakiston, 1880, pp. 152, 12 mo., 50C. 


This is the twelfth of the American Health Primers, which have proved so 
popular and useful during the past year, and it will be found no less valuable to 
families and teachers than its predecessors. The author, Dr. Lincoln of Boston, 
occupies the prominent position of chairman of the Department of Health in 
the American Social Science Association, and writes from long experience and 
with a thorough acquaintance with his subject. The subject is treated under 
two separate heads: School Hygiene, in which such topics as food and sleep, 
bodily growth, amount of study, exercise, care of the eyes, model school room, 
etc., are fully and practically discussed: and /ndustrial Hygiene, under which head 
are treated the injurious effects of inhaling dusty and poisonous substances, 
injuries from atmospheric changes, injuries from over use of certain organs, regula- 
tion of hours of labor, duration of life in various occupations, etc. As we have 
said before, regarding other volumes in this series, the money it takes to buy each 
one is most usefully expended in any household. 


THE THEORY OF SOUND IN ITS RELATION TO Music: By Professor Pietro Bla- 
-serna, New York: J. Fitzgerald & Co., 1880, pp. 28, 4 to., 15c. 


This is number ten of the Humboldt Library, which still maintains its high 
standing as a popular science serial. The object of Professor Blaserna, who is 
one of the Faculty of the Royal University of Rome, is stated to be to expound 
briefly the fundamental principles of the relation of sound to music, and to point 
out its most important applications. This is an object worthy of the considera_ 
tion of the lovers of science as well as the lovers of art, and doubtless both 
classes will profit by a study of the work. It is abundantly illustrated, and is 
written in a style both lucid and attractive. 


THE NATURALIST ON THE RivER AMAZONS: By Henry Walter Bates, F. L. S., 
New York: J. Fitzgerald & Co., 1880, 2 vols. quarto, pp. 80, 30C¢. 


Two numbers of the Humboldt Library complete this whole narrative of an 
eleven years’ residence and travel in South America, which, in the usual shape, 
would fill a good sized volume and cost $2.00. Here we have a lengthy and 
entertaining account of adventures, habits of insects, animals, sketches of 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


451 


Brazilian and Indian life, and aspects of nature under the equator, printed in 
good style and on fair paper, all for thirty cents. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


The Protective System; What it costs the farmer : 


By Graham McAdam, 


N. Y. The Valley Naturalist, Oct., 1880; published by H. Skaer, St. Louis 


monthly, $1.50 per annum. 


The Specialist and Intelligencer, Oct., 1880: 


Edited by Chas. W. Dulles, M. D., Phila., Pa., monthly, $1.50 per annum, 


published by Presley Blakiston. 


the original Greek, by Thomas M. Johnson, Osceola, Mo. 


A Translation of three treatises of Plotinus from 


An examination of 


the Double-Star Measures of the Bedford Catalogue, by S. W. Burnham. 
Geological Report upon the Mineral Lands of Major R. H. Melton, by Prof. G. 


C. Broadhead. 


PDIMORAE NOEs: 


THE thirteenth annual meeting of the 
Kansas City Academy of Science will be 
held at Topeka, Thursday and Friday, No- 
vember I1th and 12th, 1880. The business 
meeting will be held at 3 o’clock p. m., of 
the 11th at the office of Dr. A. H. Thomp- 
son, No. 237 Kansas avenue, and the other 
meetings at the Senate chamber of the State 
House. The railroad ticket agents at Topeka 
will sell return tickets at reduced rates to 
persons in attendance who have paid full fare 
in coming. The usual reduction in hotel 
rates is expected. President Fairchild will 
deliver one of the two popular evening lec- 
tures; the other being given by Prof. Love- 
well, of Washburn College. The present 
indications are for a session of unusual in- 
terest. 


THE Bessemer method of dephosphorizing 
pig iron, in the opinion of some of the ablest 
metallurgic experts of the day, bids fair to 
supersede the laborious and unhealthy pro- 
cess of puddling and to materially cheapen 
finished iron, 


ProF. SWIFT, astronomer of the Warner 
Observatory, at Rochester, N. Y., discovered 


another large comet on the evening of Octo- 
ber roth. The fact was noted in the asso- 
ciated press dispatches, but some important 
and interesting details which could not be 
telegraphed are herewith given. The new 
celestial visitor is in the Constellation of 
Pegasus, right ascension, 21 hours, 30 min- 
utes, declination north 17 degrees, 30 min- 
utes. Its rate of motion is quite slow, being 
in a northwesterly direction, so that it is ap- 
proaching the sun. Ithas a very strong con- 
densation on one side of the center, in addi- 
tion to a star-like nucleus, which indicates 
that it is throwing off an extended tail. From 
the fact of its extraordinary size, we are war- 
ranted in presuming that it will be very bril- 
liant, and the additional fact that it is coming 
almost directly toward the earth, gives good 
promise that it will be one of the most re- 
markable comets of the present century. This 
is the fifth comet which Prof. Swift has dis- 
covered, and the increased facilities which 
Mr. H. H. Warner, the popular and wealthy 
medicine man, has given him, by erecting a 
magnificent observatory for his benefit, prom- 
ise much more for the future. There is a 
possibility that further developments may 
prove this to be the great comet of 1812, 


452 


which is being constantly expected, in which 
event astronomers will have an unusual op- 
portunity to test the spectroscope for the first 
time upon these eccentric bodies, and ascer- 
tain certainly what they are. 


THE Boston Journal of Commerce says : ‘‘The 
KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND IN- 
DUSTRY, with its original papers, selections 
and communications upon various topics, is 
one of the best filled magazines in its special- 
ty in this country.” 


_ Weare indebted to the well known pub- 
lishing house of Belford, Clarke & Co., of 
Chicago, for the loan of the cut of the Pueblo 
village at Taos, New Mexico, shown on page 
421 of this number of the REVIEW. 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


PATRONS of the REVIEW desiring to sub- 
scribe for any of the leading scientific or lit- 
erary periodicals of this country or Europe 
can obtain them at reduced prices through 
this office. 


HARPER’s MAGAZINE enters upon its sixty- 
second volume with the December number. 
During all those years it has been the most 
popular periodical of its class, having some- 
times reached a circulation of 135,000 copies 
and never fallen below 100,000. — It has 
grown with the growth of the literature and 
art of the last thirty years on both sides of 
the Atlantic; so much so that hereafter it 
will be published in London as well asin 
New York. It seems that it has almost reach- 
ed perfection in the work of its writers, art- 
ists and printers, and that it is an indispensa- 
ble thing to the general reading public. 

SUBSCRIBERS of the REVIEW can obtain it 
through this office at reduced rates. 


ONE of the most apropos and practical ar- 
ticles in Van Nostrana’s Magazine for No- 
vember is that of Dr. Henry Wurtz, on 
“Fuel, Gas and the Stong Water Gas Sys- 
tem.”” This magazine continues to be the 
organ of the engineering fraternity and is 
deservedly popular with them all. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THE Literary World, published in Boston, 
has almost finished its eleventh volume, and 
as acritical reviewer of current literature, 
has no superior in its class. Besides this it is 
handsome, well printed, carefully edited pe- 
riodical which is a welcome visitor wherever 
it is received. 


In the Worth American Review for Novem- 
ber we find, in addition to the ‘‘ Discussion 
of the Political Situation,” by some of the 
best financiers of the country, the third ar- 
ticle, by M. Charnay, upon the ‘‘Ruins of 
Central America; the Nicaragua Route to the 
Pacific,”’ by Rear Admiral Ammen, and one 
by Rev. Howard Crosby on the ‘‘ Coming 
Revision of the Bible.” 


THE Adlantic Monthly has two articles of 
scientific character, in addition to the usual 
interesting table of contents, viz.: ‘‘ The Silk 
Industry of the United States,” by S. J. Bar. 
rows, and ‘‘The Future of Weather Fore- 
telling,’ by Prof. N. S. Shaler. 


THE American Antiquarian commences. its 
third volume with the October number, the 
leading article of which is on ‘‘Emblematic 
Mounds, and the Totem system of the Indian 
Tribes,’ by the accomplished editor, Dr. S. 
D. Peet. It is well filled with archeological 
articles from some of the best writers in the 
country, and is deserving of the most liberal 
patronage. 


POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY presents an 
unusually full and varied list of articles in 
its initial number of the eighteenth volume, 
from the pens of such scientists as Prof. C. 
A, Young, B. F. De Costa, Dr. Gardner, 
Professor Alfred B. Mayer, Herbert Spencer, 
etc., etc. 


THE November numbers of Zhe American 
Journal of Science and Art and the Journal of 
the Franklin Institute have not yet been re- 
ceived, 
valued exchanges, 
month. 


They will, with several more of our 
be fully noticed next 


KANSAS) CIN, 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOLE. IN. DECEMBER, 1880. NO. 8. 


MVOC EE DINGS OF SOCIaWTES: 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE KANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: 
13th ANNUAL MEETING. 


REPORTED BY PROF. J. D. PARKER. 


The Kansas Academy convened in Topeka on Thursday, November 11th, and 
held a business meeting in Dr. Thompson’s office at 3 o’clock. There was a good 
attendance of the scientific men of the State; also quite a number from Missouri. 
Although the Academy has met with severe loss in the death of Professors Mudge, 
Fraser, Bardwell and Kedzie, their mantles have fallen upon others, who come 
forward with alacrity to fill their places. The following officers for the ensuing 
year were elected: President, J. T. Lovewell of Topeka; first vice-president, 
Jos. Savage of Lawrence; second vice-president, J. H. Carruth of Lawrence; 
secretary, E. A. Popenoe of Manhattan, and treasurer, R. J. Brown of Leaven- 
worth. 

The collections of the Academy have grown to such an extent that a commit- 
tee was appointed to secure a separate room for them in the new Capitol building. 
Fifty dollars were voted from the funds of the society to the Mudge Memorial — 
Fund, and a committee was appointed to superintend the erection of the monu- 
ment. Mr. Joseph Savage made a report in reference to the fund, indicating that 
a general interest all over the country has been taken in doing honor to this 
distinguished geologist. The Academy resolved to take up the geological survey 
-of the State, and appointed a committee to memorialize the legislature on this 
subject. 

IV—30 


454 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The Academy met in the Hall ofRepresentatives in the evening at 7:30 o’clock, 
and listened to a lecture by President Fairchild, of the Kansas Agricultural 
College, entitled ‘‘ Science in Every Day Life,” of which we can give at present 
but a brief abstract. The lecturer did not claim to be a specialist in science. 
He, however, showed that he was thoroughly familiar with the workings and 
achievements of science, and took up the various departments of life and showed 
what great benefits had been conferred upon the world through this means. 
Science has conferred great benefits upon commerce. The ocean, full of dangers, 
has become through science the safest and cheapest of thoroughfares. Science 
has not only warned navigators of danger, but has removed them. Even Hell 
Gate has not prevailed, the Mississippi has opened her mouths to commerce, and 
the Alps have been tunneled. Science has made war terrible, and thus reduced 
its victims. ‘The range of art has increased indefinitely. Men use the results of 
science without being thoroughly acquainted with theoretical science, and some 
enjoy the blessings without acknowledgment to those who confer them. All forms of 
industry have been aided by science, and the lecturer gave many examples, 
instancing the farmer, manufacturer, etc. In farming, men were getting out of 
the mere rut of imitation, and by applying science were now on the highway of 
progress. In our homes, science is testing the food we eat, the water we drink, 
and the air we breathe. Science finds ‘‘death in the pot,” where men least 
expect it. Science discovers poisons in various directions and warns men of 
the danger. Science has done much in the way of giving us the necessaries of 
life and has bestowed upon us many of our luxuries. The day of mere muscle 
among the nations has passed, and the day of mind has dawned. The powers of 
men are developed and enlarged, and they have acquired skill. All labor becomes 
ennobled as it uses mind and involves thought. The American watchmaker 
excels the Swiss watchmaker, not in greater skill, but in superior knowledge of 
general principles. 

Our morals touch, also, on the principles of physical science, and moral 
teachers must understand these. Wisdom does not consist simply in knowing 
facts, but in knowing the bearing relations of facts. Men must learn to receive 
sensations without bias, and interpret them aright. A true interpretation of the 
principles of nature is the basis of wise living. 

But science reaches beyond mere physical forces and touches the infinite, 
and true science leads us to know and honor the Cause of all things. Science 
exalts many lines of drudgery into callings that are noble and useful. The prog- 
ress of the world is in the line of its wants. The growth of invention has 
followed the growth of our wants. The sounds of the telephone were first heard 
from a bath tub. From the time that Adam and Eve learned that they needed 
clothing scientific skill has been supplying our wants. 

An accurate science is the greatest stimulus to real progress. The cultivated 
races meet their own wants the best, and supply something for other races. The 
man or race whose wants increase more and more every year are on the highway 


KANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 455 


to immortality. The masses of mankind reap the benefits of science in spite of 
themselves. The lecturer believed that most of the strictly scientific truths would 
always find their way through the world by experience and life as one jostles 
against another. Science maintained at the expense of the world returns a 
hundred fold. 

The whole lecture was replete with facts which no synopsis can reproduce, 
and was received with great interest by the audience. 

At 9 o'clock, Friday,the Academy convened in the Senate chamber and the fol- 
lowing papers were read : The Judith River Group, by Charles Sternberg. This was 
an original and valuable paper. Tornadoes, by John D. Parker. The Irving 
Tornado swept over a large extent of country, displaying seven or eight funnels 
along its course. The author preferred to make the term tornado comprehensive 
enough to embrace the whole storm, including all the funnels, instead of making 
several tornadoes. The paper advocated the thermal theory. Artificial Propa- 
gation of Food Fishes, by D. B. Long. The author of this paper spoke of the 
processes for the artificial propagation of fishes, and gave a list of those food 
fishes which are best adapted to Kansas. The preliminary List of the Reptiles 
of Kansas, by Frank W. Cragin. This was the first contribution to this depart- 
ment of science in Kansas and showed original work. ‘Traces of the Aborigines 
in Riley county, by Prof. G. H. Failyer. Archeology has become one of the 
most interesting of all branches of natural science, and the author of this paper 
has collected considerable material which was of absorbing interest to the mem- 
bers of the Academy. The paper was characterized by the presentation of 
facts more than theories. The Burlington Gravel Beds, by Robert Gillham. 
Since the discovery of the Burlington gravel beds, ten years ago, they have 
become pretty well known. The beds are probably the result of modified drift. 
No better material for macadamizing streets can be found than this beautiful 
chert, which possesses all the characteristics for such purposes. Mr. Gillham is a 
practical engineer in Kansas City, and he went down to Burlington professionally 
to examine the beds. His report is as favorable as could be desired, and this 
gravel will now probably come into more general use as a macadam. The morn- 
Ing session was well attended and of unusual interest. The papers were thor- 
oughly discussed by the members, and the Academy is evidently increasing in 
members and power. The Academy is doing a large amount of original work 
from year to year, and the results have already become known throughout the 
scientific world. 

At the afternoon session a large number of commissioners were appointed 
for the coming year, covering the whole field of science. 

Dr. John Fee, of Kansas City, then read an important paper on Color-blind- 
ness, based on original observation. The paper discussed the various theories of 
color-blindness and found them unsatisfactory. The most probable cause of 
color-blindness is a congenital defect. The paper then considered the relation of 
this subject to railroad accidents. Railroad employees sometimes cannot distin- 


456 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


guish colors in lights used for signals, hence railroad accidents. Dr. Fee illus- 
trated his paper by worsteds, used for Holmgren’s tests of the various colors, and 
held that railroads should examine their employees in regard to this matter. He 
hoped Kansas would, by legislative action, cause such examinations to be made, 
and thus follow the example of some of the eastern States. 

Professor Snow then read a paper giving ‘‘ Additions to the Catalogue of 
Kansas Lepidoptera.” One hundred species have been determined during the 
year. 

Professor Parker read a memorial paper of Professor Mudge, giving a brief 
narrative of his life and labors. Professor Mudge was the first president of the 
Kansas Academy of Science, and was president when he died. During all the 
twelve years he was connected with the Academy, he was indefatigable in his 
labors for its success. His papers are all based on original observation and 
experiment, and are most valuable contributions to science. He discovered the 
ichthyornis dispar, or the bird having teeth, which is now kept for safety in a fire 
proof safe, being the only specimen ever discovered. He discovered the so-called 
bird tracks in the Osage valley, which would have made a reputation for any 
geologist. On the day of his death he spoke of eighty new species which he had 
discovered, many of which bear his name, and it is probable he discovered many 
more, as Professor Mudge was very modest in speaking of his own labors, 
although he was always prompt in noticing the labors of others. 

Professor Mudge possessed personal qualities which made him a valuable 
friend and neighbor. He was loved by all his pupils and by his neighbors: a 
sure test of a good man. He died at his home, November 21, 1879, of apoplexy. 
Scientific men from various portions of the State and from other States were 
present at his funeral to aid in doing honor to him who had done so much for the 
New West. Although Professor Mudge never claimed the honor of originating the 
Kansas Academy of Science, and in his report on the organization of the society 
published in the Transactions of the Academy for 1870, gave this honor to another, 
yet he was the first and last president of the Academy, and his services to the 
society were invaluable. As long as science has a votary in the great central 
plains of the North American continent, Professor Mudge will not be forgotten. 

Mr. Joseph Savage then read an interesting paper on Concretionary Forms, 
which was amply illustrated by specimens from all portions of the State. 

Professor Lovewell next read a paper on Weather Observations in Kansas. 
The Professor has recently inaugurated a system of State meteorological observa- 
tions, similar to those of Professor Nipher in Missouri, and of Professor Hinrichs 
in Iowa, and has enlisted in its behalf a large number of observers at various 
points. He expects shortly to have reports from every county in the State. The 
object of this paper was to indicate the general scope and purpose of the Kansas 
Weather Service. 

Mr. Eli H. Chandler, of Topeka, discussed in an illustrated paper the 
Feldspar Groups of Minerals. The paper was a contribution based on original 


KANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 457 


observations. Professor Snow then read a paper on ‘‘ The Last New Kansas 
Bird.” Since the last meeting only one species has been discovered. This 
makes 303 species known in Kansas. This bird isthe Ibis. In Egypt the sacred 
Ibis was embalmed and formed in ancient times an object of worship. ‘The 
specimen was taken near Lawrence by Mr. W. S. Bullene. Professor Snow 
thinks there may be twenty-five or thirty species of birds in Kansas not yet 
discovered, and wishes to learn of any new bird that may be found. A prelimi- 
nary list of reptiles of Kansas was read by F. M. Crozier. The author enumerates 
eighty-seven species, including twelve species of tortoise, thirteen of lizards, 
forty-two of harmless snakes, five of salamanders, and five of poisonous snakes. 
Among the latter the copperhead has been found in a few counties. This paper 
formed an important contribution to this branch of science. 

Judge Adams discussed Irrigation. He said the papers had all been on dry 
subjects ; he would read on a wet one. The paper gave original observations and 
valuable suggestions. The paper referred more particularly to irrigation in 
Western Kansas, to Sequoyah county, and counties lying round about. It would 
pay the State of Kansas to make a careful survey of those portions of the State 
that need irrigation. 

Mr. H. R. Hilton, of Topeka, read a paper on Rainfall in its Relation to 
Kansas Farming. The paper discussed the different soils of the State and their 
power of absorbing moisture. When Kansas was first settled it was thought the 
State could not be cultivated west of Topeka except along the valleys. Now 
good crops are raised 300 miles west of the east line of the State. Cultivation, 
planting forests, stopping devastating prairie fires, and a change of grasses, with 
mulching have been the principal means of these great changes. 

A dry stratum of air near the earth prevents precipitation of moisture, and 
the storms have a tendency to pass over us. Storms have become less violent and 
more general. The changes going on have tended to establish a connection 
between the earth and the clouds. We must prevent radiation and increase 
deposition of moisture. Asan evidence that our former dry climate is passing 
away, the mirage formerly so common, and a result of a dry climate, is now 
seldom seen. Western Kansas may never have as much rain as Eastern Kansas, 
but the soil does not require it. In Western Kansas wheat can be surely raised 
three years out of four. Stock should be raised in Western Kansas, and farmers 
should learn to plow deep. The author believed that Kansas can, by applied 
science, be made one of the best agricultural States in the Union. 

A very large audience gathered in the senate chamber in the evening and 
Professor Lovewell gave a lecture on ‘‘ Science in the Common Schools.” The 
lecturer gave a brief survey of science instruction in the schools he had been 
connected with for the twenty-five years during which he had been a teacher. 
Twenty-five years ago, science was subordinated to the classics and other studies. 
The programme of school studies was left very much to the teacher. Botany 
was taught by ladies, and boys were not expected to study botany any more than 


458 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


they would embroidery. Pupils were never allowed to see how experiments 
were prepared. When Agassiz came over there was a great change, as indicated 
by such schools of science as the Sheffield school, at Yale, and the Chandler 
school, at Harvard. The lecturer gave some recent personal observations of 
science teaching in the East. He spoke of science literature. Harpers’ science 
department was read and relished as much as any other department of the magazine. 
The leading journals now are called upon to furnish scientific literature, edited 
by men trained in this department. The teaching in our public schools has 
changed very much in twenty five years and science is gaining ground. 

The lecturer then considered how science is taught in our schools. The 
methods are very much improved, still there is too much of books and too little 
of nature. There is a lack of originality. The grades have been an obstruction. 
Public schools have too much of statistics and too little of apparatus. The 
laboratory of public schools is often a rubbish room. Specimens have been 
considered as mere curiosities. Teachers need to be trained to scientific methods. 
The laboratory should be a place of work and investigation. T:wo things have 
worked against the study of science. Experiments cost something and science 
requires hard study. There are many means of scientific illustration in every 
day life in manufactories. Professors in our schools have often been on the 
best terms with the superintendents of manufactories, realizing that they often 
furnish the best illustrations of scientific processes. The lecture concluded with 
valuable suggestions in reference to the improvement of our schools in teaching 
science. The votaries, however, in looking over results, can thank God and 
take courage. 

Col. Theo. S. Case was then introduced and delivered his lecture on the 
ancient city of Pecos, New Mexico. This lecture was recently delivered in 
Kansas City where, as well as at Topeka, it was well received. 

The Academy met in the Senate chamber on Saturday morning, the abun- 
dance of material furnished in the programme, overflowing the limit of two days. 
Mr. B. B. Smyth, of Great Bend, read a paper on The Plants of Central and 
Southwestern Kansas. The paper was illustrated with a beautiful herbarium of 
the plants described. The author said he had traced the roots of the Amorpha 
canescens twenty-six feet deep in the ground, where they were uncovered in dig- 
ging a well. The paper showed original work. 

Professor Sadler, of Emporia, was called upon to explain a pinch-cock, with 
a tangent screw, which he had invented to aid in chemical manipulation. With 
this ingenious device half a drop can be obtained in a given time, a supply very 
satisfactory in laboratory processes. 

Mr. D. C. Tillotson, of North Topeka, read an interesting paper on 
‘‘Fragments of Pottery on the Upper Solomon.”’ Some of the pottery was 
found in a mound partly washed away, and was attributed to the Mound-builders, 
and some of the pottery to the Indians. 

Mr. J. C, Cooper gave, by invitation of the president, a narrative of his 


ST. LOUIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 459 


observations relative to some Mineral Formations in Colorado. He spoke partic- 
ularly of the natural processes by which minerals have been deposited; and 
favored the theory of infiltration, by which minerals have been deposited from 
solution. Minerals may have also been deposited by vaporous action from 
below. ‘The processes of mineral deposition were so various that he thought it 
was safer not to be too positive in our theories. 

President Lovewell gave a narrative of a visit to the laboratory of the 
medical college of Harvard University, and of some new and very interesting 
experiments with the platysmagraph. This ingenious instrument shows the 
influence of the mind on the muscles. 

A student had said he could translate Latin and Greek with equal facility, 
but the instrument showed that the translation of Greek affected the muscles the 
more. 

Professor Snow read a paper making valuable additions to our knowledge of 
the Coleoptera of Kansas. 

Prof. G. H. Failyer read a paper, with illustrations, on the Skeleton of an 
Elephant found near Manhattan. 

Mr. Savage read a paper on Some Implements found in Trego county. 

Judge Adams read a paper on Science Teaching in common schools. This 
paper contained many most excellent suggestions. The author claimed that more 
science should be taught in our public schools. 

Professor Carruth read a paper making valuable additions to the plants of 
‘Kansas. 

Several papers were not read for want of time, but will be printed in the 
Transactions of the Academy. 

The Kansas Citv Review or SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY was highly compli- 
mented by the president and several members of the Academy, and its editor 
elected an honorary member. i 

After the transaction of some routine business the Academy adjourned subject 
to the call of the executive committee. 


ST. LOUIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 


A meeting of the Academy of Science was held November 15th at Polytech- 
nic Hall, Mr. Albert Todd in the Chair and Professor Nipher acting as secretary. 

Professor Nipher made a report on the proposition to change the place of 
meeting to Washington University, and stated that two large rooms could be 
secured in the third story of the old Academy building. The cases for the library 
‘will cost $175, and the furniture about $25. Owing to the absence of Dr. 
Engelman, the committee was granted further time to complete arrangements 
‘for the removal. 

Corresponding Secretary Holmes read several letters, and presented a large 
mumber of publications received since the last meeting. He also spoke of 


460 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Dawkins’ work on the Antiquity of Man, and concurred in the opinion that the 
race existed in the middle pliocene period. 

Professor Nipher explained Bell’s method of transmitting light, and showed 
by a diagram on the blackboard how rays of light may be made the medium of 
speech through the photophone. 

There being no further business, the meeting adjourned until next month. 


LEAVENWORTH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 


The Academy of Science held its first meeting of the season at the Academy 
hall November 17, and was well attended. The lecture of the evening was by. 
Judge Crozier, on ‘‘Chief Justice Marshall.” The programme for the remainder 
of the season is as follows: December 16th, Dr. Tiffin Sinks, ‘‘A Visit to 
Rome illustrated;” January 13th, Dr. W. W. Backus, ‘‘ An Old Egyptian Theory 
of Creation;” February roth, Prof. F. A. Fitzpatrick, ‘‘ Working of the Signal 
Service;” March roth, Prof. W. W. Grant, ‘¢ Utility the Test of Education ;” 
April 7th, W. S. Burke, ‘‘Fossils;’? May 5th, Dr. R. J. Brown, ‘‘ Medicinal 
Plants of Kansas.” There will be a meeting between every two of the above 
dates, when lectures will be delivered by parties from abroad who have agreed to: 
speak, but were not prepared to give dates. 


CEOGRARHIOAE N@@is: 


MR. B. LEIGH SMITH’S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. 


The following particulars of the voyage of the steam yacht Eira, of Peter- 
head, belonging to Mr. B. Leigh Smith, of London, to and from the Arctic 
regions, have been furnished the London Zimes. Mr. Smith, as is well known, 
has had considerable experience in Arctic navigation, and has done a great deal 
in the way of helping to clear up the mystery attaching to the unknown quarter 
of the globe near the North Pole. The Eira is a steam vessel of 350 tons gross, 
measuring 135 ft. in length by 25 ft. of beam. She sailed from Peterhead on the 
19th of June, with a crew of 25, all told, including Mr. Leigh Smith, owner of 
the yacht; Mr. W. J. A. Grant, photographer; Dr. Neale, physician; and Cap- 
tain W. Lofley, as ice master. The object of the expedition was to follow up the 
discoveries already made in the direction of the North Pole, and to obtain as 
high a latitude as circumstances would permit. After shipping the remainder of the 
crew at Lerwick, the Eira sailed on the 22d of June, and a week later reached 
Jan Mayen Island. They found the ice almost encircling the island—a some- 
what rare occurrence at that late season of the year, as it is an unusual thing to. 


MR. B. LEIGH SMITA’S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. 461 


come up to the floes so far south. They anchored near Egg Island at 4 a. m. in 
nine fathoms of water. That morning Mr. Grant and others went ashore with 
the intention of collecting specimens and obtaining photographs of the place, 
but by noon they saw the ice drifting down and surrounding the ship, and thought 
it prudent to return on board. The ice continuing to come into the bay, they 
steamed away to the north-east, but were confronted by the main pack, which 
caused them to alter the course to a south-easterly direction to avoid being beset 
by the ice. On the 2d and 3d of July they got among the bladder-nosed seals,. 
and shot over 300 of these animals. They followed the ridge of the main pack 
among loose ice until July 6th, when they made an attempt to reach the east 
coast of Greeland, near Cape Bismarck—the farthest point that the Germans 
reached. Land had been seen about too miles north of Cape Bismarck, and 
Mr. Leigh Smith’s intention was to explore northward toward the point marked 
on the chart. ‘They worked in toward the west until the gth in 75 40 latitude ; 
but the weather was foggy, and all the time the ice was getting closer and heavier, 
some of the floes met with being very large. On the 9th nothing could be seen 
from the crow’s nest but ice closely packed, and the idea of going further west 
had to be given up. It was very discouraging to have to work their way back 
again; but it had to be done. They reached the open sea again on the 11th. 
On the evening of that date they sighted two whalers—the Eclipse and the Hope, 
of Peterhead. The three ships remained in company until the 13th, on the morn- 
ing of which day the Eira was steered northward through loose ice. On the 16th 
they came upon block ice in 75 50 north latitude, and about 5 east longitude, and 
had to go eastward toward Cloven Point—a well-known landmark to the north- 
west of Spitzbergen. Passing that point they anchored to a floe of land ice off 
Welcome point on the 18th. The intention at this point was to steer north; but 
after more battling with the ice they had again to bout ship and make the best of 
their way to the open sea. It is mentioned as an unusual circumstance that 
the islands known as the Norways and Fair Haven were closed with ice. ‘They 
anchored at the head of Smeerenburg Bay and took in water on the 20th; and, 
having sailed at once, were taken in a strong gale and had to seek shelter in 
Magdalen Bay. ‘They lay there three days. ‘The gale over, they sailed south- 
ward, and cleared the South Cape of Spitzbergen at midnight on the 3oth of July, 
and next day came upon loose floating ice, which as they advanced, got much 
closer; and about 9 p. m., when within 24 miles of Hope Island, they had to take 
a southwesterly course to, get clear of the ice. They reached a point 76 latitude 
and 25 longitude, and wanted to work northward after rounding the ice toward 
Wiches or King Charles Land, but finding this impossible, they took a north- 
easterly course with the idea of getting to Franz Josef Land. ‘They reached the 
pack ice on the 6th of August in 77 14 latitude, and the course had again to be 
changed. Thence they continued in a northeasterly course, leaving the ice to 
the west, until the 8th, when they reached 79 4 latitude. and 45 38 east longitude, 
and met with ice again. From this point they took a northerly course, and 


462 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


encountered very misty weather. On August 10 they reached 79 40 latitude and 
about 46 50 east longitude—the farthest point yet reached in this direction. 
Nothing could be seen but ice in very large and heavy floes, although it was 
expected that land would have been in sight. They returned in the afternoon 
with the intention of making for Franz Josef Land, and after getting clear on the 
11th were caught in a strong gale and driven south as far as 78 17 latitude and 
46 19 east longitude. From this point they steamed right up, and on the 14th, 
at 8 a. m., they sighted the land. In the afternoon they anchored to a land floe, 
attached to an island off the mainland—some 1% miles long. Here they found 
large numbers of walruses, and that evening the party shot no fewer than 17 of 
them. They tried hard to capture a young walrus alive, but failed. They 
caught seven young snow birds with the intention of bringing them home, but 
only one survived the passage, and it was dispatched to the Zodlogical Gardens 
along with two live bears on Saturday. Next day they had to shift on 
account of the drifting of the ice, and in the afternoon anchored to a floe some 
two miles long ata distance of ten miles from the land. Far ‘‘inland” they 
found an enormous tree with branches and roots apparently complete as it had 
been torn out of the ground. It is a common thing to find drift wood in these 
regions, but an entire tree is a rare sight. It is likely that the tree was a Siberian 
larch, and that it had been washed down by some of the Siberian rivers. 

On the 16th they came upon another island, on which they landed, and 
erected a staff on a cairn, in the center of which they left a record. On these 
islands a number of curious specimens were found. The last Dutch expedition 
sighted land westward of this, and called it Barents Hook. ‘This point was also 
seen by Mr. Smith, and the Eira was steered toward the land. ‘They passed the 
point close to the land in foggy weather. Early one morning they landed on the 
island some 20 miles from the easternmost point, and found luxuriant vegetation. 
While off this island they sounded and found the average depth to be from 15 to 
20 fathoms about a mile off the coast. At noon on the 18th they discovered a 
new harbor, which they had no hesitation in naming Eira Harbor, after their 
vessel. It is formed by two islands, and affords good anchorage of from five to 
seven fathoms. It is well sheltered from all sides. It lies in 80 5 25 north lati- 
tude, and about 48 50 east longitude. This harbor was made a rendezvous, 
from which for the next few days, numerous trips were made up the numerous 
fjords which pierce the main land to the north and northwest. From the point 
named by the Dutch Barents Hook they traced the land westward some 110 miles, 
and from the extreme northwest point reached sighted land 4o miles further to 
northwest. They found that this land was divided from the newly-discovered 
islands by a sound, which seems to be an extension of Markman’s Sound. Lying 
in this hitherto unexplored tract of sea they discovered seven small islands, each 
measuring four to five miles long, and four larger islands—these latter being in 
the vicinity of Eira Harbour—the largest from 18 to 20 miles long, and the 
smallest from six to seven miles long. They are all covered with glaciers and 


MR. B. LEIGH SMITH’S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. 463 


snowfields, with bluff, black headlands on the southern exposures, whereon was 
vegetation. A large quantity of Arctic flowers and other specimens was col- 
lected and brought home. On one of these islands close to the harbor were hills 
1200 feet above the level of the sea, but large tracts of flats were seen stretching 
from the foot of the hills. On one of these islands they caught the two bears 
which, as mentioned above, were sent to the Zodiogical Gardens. The 
final trip from Eira Harbor was made on August 24, and it was on that day 
that they reached the most northerly point yet attained in that direction—8o zo 
north latitude, and about 4o east longitude. From that point they could see 
land to the northwest, some 40 miles off, and it was supposed that this was but a 
continuance of the same coast line. ‘This they intended to follow up, but they 
had again to give up the attempt in consequence of the ice driving along the 
shore and carrying the ship along with it. Mr. Leigh Smith’s opinion is that, 
whether this land extends in a continuous line northwest or forms the outline of 
separate islands, it forms a very good basis whence to prosecute researches further 
northward. When they found further progress impossible they returned, and 
experienced very bad weather. In one of the deep bays which indent the coast 
they sighted two Greenland whales, in about the same latitude as the furthest 
north point attained. They made for Eira Harbor again, but found it full of 
louse ice. Proceeding eastward, they anchored in a small bay to the west of 
‘Barents Hook. From that point they steamed south a little to clear a large quan- 
tity of ice that had come out of the fjords, and on the 30th of August they found 
themselves close to Cape Tegetthoff, which had been discovered by the Austrian 
expedition in 1873. In that expedition their vessel, the Tegetthoff, was aban- 
doned, and the explorers persevered in their mission by means of sledges; but 
though they succeeded in establishing the existence of the land, they had to 
return and make for Nova Zembla in a boat. Mr. Smith made a search for any 
traces of the abandoned vessel, but found nothing except a ‘‘can” on Wilczek 
Island. They found fast ice between Hall Island and Salm Island, and also 
between the latter island and Lamont Island, so that there was no means of getting 
out to the east or northeast, and as the ice was coming down they resolved to try 
to cut across by Spitzbergen to Wiches Land, or, as otherwise called, King 
Charles Land. In this endeavor their common enemy, the ice, confronted them 
and compelled them to alter their course. They sailed close to the edge of 
the ice as far as 75% north and 46% east before they could get west. They 
reached Hope Island on September 10, and again endeavored to work northward 
up the east coast of Spitzbergen, but on the 11th the weather became very rough, 
~and for three days the ship was tossed about in strong gales. They encountered 
“numerous small icebergs. Seeing that nothing could be done in this direction— 
a pack of ice being discernible in the distance—they took a westerly course until 
they sighted the South Cape, and then steamed up Storfjord and anchored on the 
~x7th near Ginevra Bay. From a hill here they could see the sea to the eastward 
awas clear of block ice, although icebergs could be seen floating about. From 


64 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


this point Wiches Land could be distinctly seen. Hinlopen Straits also seemed 
to be free of ice. On the zoth they anchored at the entrance of Walter Thymen’s. 
Straits—where they took in ballast--which were also clear of ice. On the 22d 
they were off Wales Point, and from there they sailed with a fair wind to Ham- 
merfest, in Norway, which they reached on the 25th of September. From that 
they steamed through the fjords to Tromsoe, and thence to Bodoe. On the way 
from Tromsoe the Eira went ashore, while under the charge of a pilot, on a reef 
at the entrance to Tiel Sound, about 11 o’clock at night and just as they were 
drawing up to the anchorage. The crew made great efforts to release the vessel, 
but in vain, until on the 4th, when the Norwegian steamer Nordsjerne, which 
happened to be passing, towed her off with some difficulty. They left Bodoe on 
the 7th, and, after touching at Lerwick on the 11th, reached Peterhead on 
the 12th of October. In the course of the voyage some enormous icebergs were 
seen, measuring from ro to 12 miles long, having flat ‘‘table lands’’ on the top 
rising to the height of about 200 feet. They shot 15 bears and 27 walruses, and 
saw great quantities of saddle-back seals in the water. No reindeer were seen, 
but snow-hwite foxes were abundant. Careful observations were taken of the 
temperature and other meteorological tests. Mr. Grant also took numerous pho- 
tographs of the places visited, and some very interesting specimens’ of fishes and 
animals were dredged up and preserved for inspection by scientists in this country. 
Efforts were made to capture young walruses, but they were unsuccessful, and on 
one occasion one of the boats was stove in in the attempt. It is gratifying to 
have to state that no serious case of illness occurred during the voyage. The 
Eira is to remain at Peterhead until the opening month of next year, when it is 
understood Mr. Smith will renew his researches. 


THE FRANKLIN SEARCH. 


We announced yesterday the return in safety of the latest Arctic expedition. 
Lieutenant Schwatka, of the United States Navy, and his gallant companions, 
who reached this week the whaling metropolis of Massachusetts, were commis- 
sioned, not to make independent discoveries in the region of the North Pole, but 
to search for relics of the Erebus and Terror. In the process of tracking the foot- 
steps of earlier explorers they have, however, probably undergone as many hard- 
ships and had to face as many new difficulties as if the way had never been 
pioneered before. Expeditions such as this are games of ‘‘ follow my leader,” 
in which no peril may be circumvented which has once been encountered, and no 
easy alternative may be adopted. The common type of Arctic journeys presup- 
poses permanent quarters in ships specially constructed and equipped to repro- 
duce as much as may be the comforts of civilized life and a temperate climate in 
the frigid North. Dr. Kane and other Arctic voyagers have told how possible it 
is, when the ship is arranged for the night, to look around the warm cabin and al- 
most forget the surrounding waste of savage desolation. Dangers and difficulties 


THE FRANKLIN SEARCH. 465 


and miseries can never be excluded in this kingdom of darkness and winter. No 
ship can be so well found as to be secure from them. But in a land expedition, 
such as Lieutenant Schwatka commanded, while the dangers are as many, the 
tribulations of daily existence are multiplied a hundredfold. The records of 
Franklin’s land expeditions, sixty-one and fifty-five years ago, and of Back’s, 
eight years later, demonstrate what these are. The American members of the 
Franklin Search Expedition might repeat those ancient tales of continual conflict 
with numbing cold and privation with variations of theirown. Experiences like 
theirs of a sledge journey of eleven months it would be difficult to match even in 
the painful reminiscences of Arctic labors. Always conscious of an enemy on 
the watch about their path they must at intervals have felt his sword at their very 
hearts. None who have not braved an Arctic winter can rightly understand the 
mere meaning of a temperature a hundred degrees below freezing-point. How 
human frames endured such an ordeal it is hard to imagine. Only the human 
sense of power to bear what others have borne, and the instinct of an obligation 
to let no scattered clues of hapless generous endeavor perish unrecorded, could have 
sustained this little company of dauntless sailors amid the warning evidences of 
Polar remorselessness. 

Confronted with Arctic mysteries men forget the minor distinctions of race 
and country. ‘They appreciate one another’s perplexities; they take up the task 
at the point at which their forerunner has been compelled to relinquish it; and 
they award him his full share in the glory of final success. Praise is not grudged 
to the hand which has passed on the torch, though it could not fire the beacon. 
There is no stint of tears from the survivors, whatever their nation, for lives sacri- 
ficed to the attainment of an end, but left without the prize. Citizens of the 
United States and Englishmen, Danes and Swedes, North Germans, and Austrians 
are emulous, not envious of a courageous example which has been set by aliens in 
blood ; they acknowledge the common burden of a duty to bear testimony to 
victories which those aliens have won, and to the cost they have paid. No page 
is brighter in the history of human enterprise than that which enumerates the 
ceaseless efforts of a succession of explorers differing in blood and allegiance to 
rescue from oblivion the work of Sir John Franklin and his comrades. The 
veteran Arctic explorers whose letters we publish to-day express a natural regret 
that the success which Lieutenant Schwatka has won should not have been 
achieved by their own countrymen. But Englishmen may rejoice that in the long 
and glorious chronicle of these expeditions their kinsmen from the great American 
Republic share no unequal space with themselves. The munificence of citizens 
of the United States went hand in hand with the affection of Lady Franklin and — 
the conscience of the British nation in the resolve to bring succor or to build a 
tomb. If it was given to M’Clintock to disperse the clouds which enveloped the 
fate of the vessels and their crews, Kane in the Advance had helped to penetrate 
the darkness. Lieutenant Schwatka has now resoived the last doubts which 
could have been felt. He has traced the one untraced ship to its grave beneath 


466 KANSAS C1ITV REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the ocean, and cleared the reputation of a harmless people from an undeserved 
reproach. He has given to the unburied bones of the crews probably the only 
safeguard against desecration by wandering wild beasts and heedless Esquimaux 
which that frozen land allowed. He has brought home for reverent sepulture in 
a kindlier soil the one body which bore transport. Over the rest he has set up 
monuments to emphasize the undying memory of their sufferings and their exploit. 
He has gathered tokens by which friends and relatives may identify their dead, 
and revisit in imagination the spots in which the ashes lie. Lastly, he has carried 
home with him material evidence to complete the annals of Arctic exploration. 
Sir Leopold M’Clintock found that the brave men who perished on their terrible 
retreat before the legions of cold and disease toward Back’s River had before 
they acknowledged defeat done their work. The Franklin Search Expedition 
adds the concluding link to the chain. ‘There are skilful eyes and shrewd wits in 
the dockyard whence the Erebus and Terror were commissioned, which will soon, 
with the proof which Lieutenant Schwatka supplies, put beyond controversy the 
question of the right of the especial ship of the two to the fame of having first 
pierced the awful barrier of the North-West. 

It has been a point of honor with sailors and science to collect the uttermost 
vestiges of the fate and acts of Franklin and his companions. The task is at 
length finished. Lieutenant Schwatka asserts, on grounds which at present no 
means exist of examining, that the records of the expedition are lost beyond re- 
covery. Captain Parker Snow, on the other hand, is of opinion that the records 
may yet be found. However this may be, there is no longer any secret when and 
where the admiral, his officers, and his men sickened, fell down, and died. The 
sad details are given in another column this morning and will be read with pain- 
ful interest. What the unfortunate explorers did is known, and how they did it. 
Perhaps it may be thought that, now the book of Sir John Franklin’s romantic 
tragedy can be closed, the fruitless, ungrateful, sullen Polar seas may be left to 
their dead and dull repose. Rather, as it seems from our correspondence of to- 
day, the sense that the obscurity of a long past incident has been dissipated wall 
nerve seamen eager for honor and careers to push the boundaries of Arctic im_ 
possibilities yet further forward. They will forget at what a price the North- 
West passage was completed. They will make the graveyard of the explorers of 
1845 their starting and rallying point, as men build their homes on the walls of 
cemeteries. What is to be gained by making a habit of achieving the North- 
West or the North-East passage it is held in some quarters profane to question. 
We aré the less disposed to incur the reproach that we admit the uselessness 
of resisting an impulse which works as powerfully in Austrian and German and 
Swedish as in British and American breasts. The praise of courage is not the 
main inspiring motive. Still less is it the craving for admiration, or the hope of 
rewards. Men, especially those of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinaivan blood, love to 
match themselves against the caprices of the elements, and to learn thereby their 
own capacity to do and to endure. Against such a temperament the arguments of 


SCHWATKAS FRANKLIN SEARCH EXPEDITION. 467 


danger and hardship are of no avail. Only when the Polar seas and lands are 
mapped, and all their pitfalls numbered and banked up, American sailors will 
cease from importuning native millionaires to dispatch them northward, and 
English sailors from fretting at Lords of the Admiralty for economizing seaman’s 
lives. Huge as are the ramparts to be assaulted, and obstinate as are Arctic ele- 
ments in repairing the slightest breaches ever made, that period will arrive at last. 
By that time also new perils at least as apparently insurmountable will have been 
discovered elsewhere to tempt and recompense nautical audacity.— London Times, 
September 25th, 1880. 


RETURN OF LIEUTENANT SCHWATKA’S FRANKLIN SEARCH EX- 
PEDITION. 


The members of the Franklin search party, under the command of Lieuten- 
ant Frederick Schwatka, United States Army, reached New Bedford, Mass. Sep- 
tember 22, 1880, having been picked up by Captain Michael Baker, of the bark 
George and Mary, of New Bedford, at Depot Island, on the 1st of August, they 
having returned to that point from their sledge journey to King William Land on 
the 4th of March of the present year. The sledge journey was the longest ever 
made through the unexplored Arctic region, both as to the time and distance, the 
party having been absent from their base of operations in Hudson Bay, eleven 
months and four days. During that time they traveled 2,819 geographical, or 
3,251 statute miles. It was the only sledge journey ever made, that covered an 
entire Arctic winter. 

During the summer and fall of 1879 they made a complete search of King 
William Land and the adjacent mainland, traveling over the route pursued by the 
crews of the Erebus and Terror upon their retreat toward Back’s River, and while 
so engaged the party buried the bones of all those unfortunates remaining above 
ground and erected monuments to the memory of the fallen heroes. Their re- 
search established the mournful fact that the records of Franklin’s expedition are 
lost beyond recovery. 

The Natchilli Esquimaux, who had found a sealed tin box about two feet long 
and one foot square, filled with books, at a point on the mainland near Backs. 
River, where the last of the survivors of Franklin’s party are supposed to have 
finally perished, were interviewed by Lieutenant Schwatka. ‘These natives broke 
open the box and threw out the precious records, which were then either scattered 
to the winds of thirty Arctic winters, or destroyed by the children, who took them ~ 
to their tents for playthings. This point was not only searched by Lieutenant 
Schwatka’s party, but by nearly the entire Natchilli nation, inspired by a promise 
of a great reward for the discovery of any remnant of books or papers no matter 
_ what was their present condition. This search failed to discover any of the records. 
but resulted in the finding of a skeleton of a sailor about five miles inland. Its 
existence was previously unknown, even to local tribes. Every native who could. 


468 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


impart any information concerning the lost crews were hunted up and interviewed. 
Some of them had not seen a white man since Captain Crozier’s party was there. 
‘The interviews were made through the medium of a competent interpreter, and in 
this way much valuable information as to the loss of the Franklin records was 
compiled, Italso made known the fact that one of Franklin’s ships drifted down 
the Victoria Straits and was unwittingly scuttled by the Ookjoolik Esquimaux, 
who found it near an island off Grant Point during the spring of 1849. At that 
time one man was lying dead in the steerage, and during the same year the na- 
tives saw tracks of four white men in the spring snows on the mainland. 

The expedition started from the base of operationsin Hudson’s Bay with but 
one month’s rations of ‘‘civilized’’ food upon their sledges, thus voluntarily 
submitting to a dependence upon the game of the country through which they 
passed. The white men of the party began living upon the same fare and conform- 
ing to a mode of life strictly in accordance with that of their Esquimaux assis- 
tants. The result is shown that it is feasible for white men to adapt themselves to 
the climate and life of the Esquimaux in prosecuting journeys in Polar regions, 
and that they are not necessarily restricted to any particular season of the year 
for that purpose, but can travel at any time and in the same way in which the 
natives travel. A large quantity of relics has been gathered by the party, not to 
gratify morbid curiosity, but to illustrate the last chapter of the history of Sir John 
Franklin’s expedition. From each spot where the graves were found a few tokens 
were selected that may serve to identify those who perished there. A piece of 
each of the boats found and destroyed by the natives has been brought away, to- 
gether with interesting though mournful relics in the shape of the prow of one of 
their boats, the sledge upon which it was transported and part of the drag rope 
upon which these poor fellows tugged until they fell down and died in their tracks. 
In addition to these the party secured a board which may serve to identify the 
ship which completed the northwest passage. 

They have also brought the remains of an officer, Lieutenant John Irving, 
third officer of the Terror, which were identified by a prize medal found in his 
open grave. The party endured many hardships and were once threatened with 
starvation, not, as might be supposed, in the course of the sledge journey, but 
after their return to Hudson’s Bay. When the party reached Depot Island there was 
but one saddle of meat on the sledges, although the return journey was made 
through a country where game could be procured. This was due to the fact that 
before the expedition set out, an ample supply of provisions was left in the care of 
Captain Barry, of the schooner Eothen. He had retained the food on board his 
vessel, stating that he could take better care of it, and promised to leave it at 
Depot Island before returning home. 

Instead of finding the provisions the party found the natives short of food, as 
they had been twice before during the same winter, when they were compelled to 
eat their dogs. Successive storms prevented the hunting of walrus, which is their 
main dependence at thisseason. Lieutenant Schwatka’s party were consequently 


STANLEY AND THE CONGO. 469 


f 
‘for several days without food, and were reduced to the necessity of eating seal 
skins, walrus hides and other refuse. The conclusion was forced upon the ex- 
pedition that Captain Barry, for whatever unexplained cause, had left for home, 
carrying with him the much needed supplies. No material sickness occurred 
during the absence of the expedition in the field and no severe frost bites were 
experienced by any of the party. 


STANLEY AND THE CONGO. 


While nearly all the States of Europe are represented by their explorers in 
the Dark Continent, America may well be proud that the most important of all 
the expeditions, the great Congo mission, is under the command of her own 
representatives, Henry M. Stanley, or rather Dr. Stanley, as he should be called 
now, since the Imperial Leopold-Carolinian University at Vienna conferred this 
honorary title on the greatest of all African explorers for his invaluable services 
to science and civilization. There is but little news from Stanley’s expedition, 
which is still in the camp at Vivi, on the Congo, 130 miles from its mouth and 
near the second cataract. It is reported that of his eight European companions 
one has deserted, while three others have already succumbed to the bad climate 
and exhausting work. One of these was Alexander S. Deane, the engineer of 
the small steamer, passing up and down the river with stores and mails for 
Stanley’s station. He died suddenly of fever on May 14, at Dutch House, 
Banana Point, mouth of Congo. Of Stanley’s five boats three were temporarily 
disabled, one large iron launch had sunk, and the chief steamer Belgigne, was at 
Banana being repaired. Still Stanley’s energy is reported to be unimpaired and 
ample reinforcements are being sent out to him by his employers, the Belgian 
International Association. Adolph Gilles, who for six years was agent at Cape 
Palmas and Grand Bassam for a Dutch trading house, left Antwerp on March 25 
last, accompanied by Engineer Geoffroy. ‘They expected to join Stanley in 
fifty days, and will then superintend the erection of his trading stations on the 
Congo. The chief party of reinforcements, however, was to leave Liverpool 
before the end of last month. It consists of five Belgian officers, namely :— 
The leader, Lieutenant Braconnier, of the cavalry; Lieutenants Haron and 
Valcke, of the Engineers; Paul Neva, of the road and bridge service, and Lieu- 
tenant von Hesse, of the Royal Navy. ‘Their exertions will be chiefly devoted 
to assisting Stanley’s efforts in building a road through the wild coast range of 
mountains, on which he can transport his boats and supplies overland past the 
terrible series of the thirty-two Livingstone falls. Lieutenant Haron, however, 
will not join his companions till later on the Upper Congo, as he has been charged 
‘by the King of Belgium, who is president of the International Association, with 
_.a secret mission to Africa which may occupy him for ten months, whereupon he 
_ will join Stanley. He sailed August 23 for his new destination. 

IV—81 


470 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


OTHER CONGO EXPEDITIONS. 


Besides Stanley’s expedition some other attempts are also being made to 
explore the great Congo. Mr. McCaul, of the Congressional Inland Mission, 
has already left England for the west coast in order to make his way into the 
interior by the northern bank of that river, while the Baptist Missionary Society 
have sent out Mr. W. Comber. He left England on April 26, 1879, landed at 
Mussuka, on the Congo, July 2, and reached San Salvador south of that stream. 
He there established a depot, leaving two of his companions, and went on with 
a third to Stanley Pool, above the falls, in order to establish there a second 
station. If he succeeds the mission will attempt to transport a small steamship 
to that navigable part of the Congo, Robert Arthington, of Leeds, having offered 
the society $20,000 in aid of this Congo special mission, and particularly for the 
purchase and perpetual maintenance of a steamer on that river and its affluents. 
He also stipulates for the establishment of mission stations at the mouths of the 
great tributaries, Ukuta and Ikelemba. 


PROPOSED AUSTRIAN EXPEDITION. 


The Vienna Geographical Society has issued an appeal for subscriptions for 
an Austrian expedition, which Dr. Emil Holub has decided on undertaking. Dr. 
Holub intends crossing the whole length of Africa, from south to north. He will 
start from the Cape of Good Hope and penetrate to the Zambesi, thence explore 
the Maruthemambunda territory, the water-shed district between the Zambesi and 
the Congo, visit the lake sources of the Congo, and from there through Danfur 
he will try to reach Egypt. Dr. Holub expects the journey to extend over three 
years. The expenses, he reckons, will amount to about 50,000 florins, 5,000 of 
which he can himself supply. 


M. SIBERIAKOV’S EXPEDITION TO THE YENISEI. 


News has been received from the steamer Oscar Dickson, which, with its. 
proprietor, Siberiakov, on board, set out some time ago to penetrate through the 
Arctic Sea to the Yenisei. The ship and crew on the 19th of September were in 
excellent condition at Kabarova. They had met with great difficulties, and had 
so far been unsuccessful in their object, but were on the following day to make 
a fresh attempt to find a passage through the Sea of Kara. 


A PRIVATE ARCTIC VOYAGER’S EXPLORATIONS. 


A telegram dated Hammersfest, September 25, has been received from Mr. 
Leigh Smith, a private gentleman, on a summer voyage in the Arctic regions in: 
his own steamer. He states that he made Franz Joseph’s land August 14, and. 


THE C., B. & Q. RAILROAD BRIDGE AT PLATTSMOUTH, NEB. A771 


explored the west coast to 80° 30’ north latitude and 40° east longitude. He 
could see land forty miles beyond Markham; says this is the best done yet in 
this direction. Mr. Smith closes his dispatch with the statement that the explo- 
ration of the Pole is not impossible. 


EIN GME Ey vlING: 


THE C., B. & Q. RAILROAD BRIDGE AT PLATTSMOUTH, NEB. 
BY A. L. CHILD, M. D. 


We approach this bridge from Plattsmouth on the west bank of the Missouri 
river by a side hill cut and embankment, down the river one-half mile, and then 
enter a cut through the river bluffs of another half mile ranging from eighty-five 
feet as a maximum depth, downward. 

This cut exhibits several features of interest to the geologist. 

It is entirely within the loess formation, the whole body of which, in this 
cut, is permeated with cracks of from one-fourth inch to four inches in width, 
running in various directions, which have been filled with a carbonate of lime. 
This lime hardens to a strong crusty substance on exposure to the atmosphere, 
and then, as the surface of the cut disintegrates and falls away, these seams of 
lime are left projecting beyond the surface. 

These cracks are probably the result of earthquake action in some past time. 

Again, the sides of the cut, under an almost continued change of direction, 
offer exposures to any and every point of compass; and thus, in its different 
parts, itis subject to all grades of storm action. And as these storms act with 
more or less force upon the surface, they leave different but very positive evi- 
dences of stratification and consequently of subaqueous deposits. 

As we approach the east end of the cut, we pass the debris of an iceberg 
which stranded here in the earlier ages of the loess deposition. 

We now enter upon the west end viaduct, an iron structure of one hundred 
and twenty feet in length, and some fifty feet in height. 

This short viaduct bears us to pier No. 1, on the west bank of the river. 
This pier is founded on rock thirty feet below low water mark. The excavation 
for it was made in a coffer dam through sand, blue clay andboulders. The coffer 
dam was filled with beton and rubble stone; and masonry began at two feet 
below low water and was raised sixty-two feet above. 

The bridge proper, of two spans, each of four hundred feet, commences here ; 
the eight hundred feet reaching the east bank of the river at ordinary stages of 
water. The bridge of steel and iron is elevated on its three piers sixty-two feet above 
low water, and with its network of posts, webs, ties, struts, etc., the superstruc 


472 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


ture rises fifty feet above the piers. It is a Pratt or Whipple truss structure with 
inclined end posts, the web being arranged with double intersections. 

Each span has sixteen panels of twenty-five feet each. 

The ties are in two lengths and couple on pins passing through centers of 
the posts. Attached to these pins a strut extends between each pair of posts, 
and a system of diagonal wind bracing connects these struts with the top lateral 
struts. 

The middle of each inclined end post is supported by a horizontal lattice 
work strut, which reaches to the first vertical post. 

The floor beams are riveted to the posts immediately above the bottom chords, 
and act as lateral struts, the lateral ties being coupled on pins passing through 
jawnuts screwed on ends of the lower chord pins. 

The stringers are riveted to the webs of the floor beams. 

From pier No. 1 we pass to pier No. 2. This pier is midway over the 
river, four hundred feet from pier No. one, on the west bank, and the same from 
No. three, on the east. This pier is based on rock thirty-twoand a half feet below 
low water, by sinking a pneumatic caisson, twenty-one by fifty-one feet, through 
fifteen feet of sand. This is surmounted by a timber crib-work filled with beton. 
The masonry was begun at two feet below low water. Like numbers 1 and 3, 
this pier rises sixty-two feet above low water to the railroad bank. 

Another four hundred feet and we reach pier No. 3, on the east bank of 
the river. This pier is based on rock fifty-two feet below low water, and was 
built in a pneumatic caisson, the same as No. 2. The masonry was begun six 
feet below low water. At this point the entire height, from the base of the pier 
up to the top of the bridge, is one hundred and sixty-four feet. 

These piers, one, two and three, have all the same general form, their 
several tops the same sixty-two feet above low water. Under the coping courses 
they measure eight by thirty-three feet, the ends being circles of four feet radius. 
They are built with a batter, or slope, of one-half inch to the foot on sides and 
ends. At thirty-four feet below the coping courses, the ends are changed to a 
pointed form, the lines being arcs of circles, struck from points seven feet apart. 
At the foot of the battered work the piers are thirteen by forty-four feet. 
They are of first class rock-faced masonry, laid in Portland cement and 
backed with béton. We now leave the channel of the river and pass on over 
the three deck spans, of two hundred feet each. At two hundred feet from pier 
No. 3. we reach pier No. 4., which is based on rock fifty-four feet below low wa- 
ter and built as two and three, in a caisson eighteen by forty feet, through sixty- 
five feet of sand. The masonry of No. 4 begins at one foot above low water, on 
the top of fifty-five feet of béton. 

Pier No. 5 rests on seventy-eight piles driven inside of a curb eighteen by 
forty feet to an average depth of thirty feet below low water. These piles are 
capped by a grillage, and bedded inside the curb in béton; the masonry begins 
at low water. 


THE C., B. & 0. RAILROAD BRIDGE AT PLAT TSMOUTH, NEB. 473 


Pier No. 6, is founded on concrete twelve by thirty-three, and three feet 
deep. The masonry of piers four, five and six measures seven by twenty-seven 
feet under the coping. Each has semi-circular ends, and is about thirty feet in 
height. The three deck spars rise on these piers to a height of about thirty feet, 
they are of the ‘‘Pratt”’ truss, with single intersection-webs and inclined end- 
posts, and have eight panels, each of twenty-five feet. The floor beams rest on 
the top chords, and the track stringers are riveted to the webs of the floor beams. 

Leaving the six hundred feet of deck spans behind, we pass on to an iron 
viaduct of fourteen hundred and forty feet in length, and ranging from thirty to 
twenty-five feet in height; consisting of forty-eight spans of thirty feet each. 
On this viaduct the floor system is uniform with that of the preceding five spans, 
viz: The track stringers are spaced nine feet between centers, thereon rest nine 
by nine inch oak ties, spaced fifteen inches from center to center, leaving open 
spaces of six inches. ‘These ties are generally twelve feet long, and locked on 
each end by roxio inch guard rails. At intervals of five feet a sixteen foot tie 
projects on each side of the track to support a foot-walk, and at intervals of 
twenty-five feet ties of eighteen feet length are introduced to support at each end 
an iron stanchion, through an eye in the top of which a three-fourths inch wire 
cable traverses the nineteen hundred and sixty feet of iron and steel work, for 
hand rails. Three by four inch guard angle irons are also bolted to the ties six 
inches inside of the track rails, to guide trains accidentally leaving the rails. 

Having passed the viaduct, we enter upon a temporary wooden trestle work 
of two thousand feet in length, containing one hundred spans of twenty feet 
each from twenty to thirty feet in height. This trestle work is for temporary use 
until it is buried in an embankment which is rapidly progressing. Beyond this 
trestle work an embankment extends about one and a half miles, ranging from 
twenty-five five to feet in height. 

A summary of the whole work, cut, bridge work and embankment, makes it 
about three and a half miles long. Iron and steel structure, twenty-nine hun- 
dred and sixty feet, and wood two thousand feet. Of the two four hundred feet 
spans, the top and bottom chords, inclined end posts, main and counter ties, lat- 
eral rods, pedestals, rollers, and all chord and lateral pins are of steel. The 
intermediate posts, end suspenders, lateral struts, portals, stringers and floor beams 
are of iron. The three deck spans are entirely of iron except the pins, which are 
steel. 

It requires considerable thought to realize the value of the numbers repre- 
senting the quantity of material required for the entire work. Of steel five hun- 
hundred tons were used. Iron in the viaduct, four hundred and forty tons; deck 
spans, four hundred and eight tons; bridge proper, three hundred and twenty 
tons. Total, eleven hundred and sixty-eight tons. Timber, in wood trestle, four 
hundred and forty thousand feet, (board measure); foundation of bridge, five 
hundred thousand feet; oak in bridge floor, three hundred and seventy-five 
thousand. Total, one million, three hundred and fifteen thousand feet, besides a 


474 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


large amount of piling, false or temporary supports, etc. Masonry in the six 
piers, twenty-seven hundred yards; in abutments and trestle work, eleven hun- 
dred yards. ‘Total, thirty-eight hundred cubic yards. Béton work, six hundred 
and fifty cubic yards. 

The entire structure was designed by Chief Engineer George S. Morrison 
and executed under his direction, assisted by First Ass’t Engineer, H. W. Park- 
hurst and Ass’t Engineers, C. C. Schneider, B. L. Crosby and W. G. Dilworth. 
The two four hundred foot bridge spans were manufactured and erected by the 
Keystone Bridge Company of Pittsburg, Pa. 

The entire cost of the whole structure when completed, will be under seven 
hundred thousand dollars. 

On August 30th, 1880, the strength of the bridge was tested by running on 
each of the two four hundred foot spans alternately, and over the entire structure 
eight locomotives loaded with coal and water, and concentrating a total weight 
on each bridge span of about four hundred and fifty tons, under which a deflec- 
tion of three inches only was produced. 

For the foregoing description I am largely indebted to Messrs. Geo. S. Mor- 
sison and H. W. Parkhurst, Chief and Ass’t Engineers on the bridge, and to ar- 


ticles published by them in the ‘‘ Angéneering News,” from which I have freely 
quoted. 


RAILROAD BUILDING IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 


The Denver & Rio Grande Company is at present engaged in constructing ex- 
tensions in seven directions: from Alamosa to Silverton ; from San Antonio to Santa 
Cruz, New Mexico; from Cafion City to Silver Cliff; from Leadville to Kokomo ; 
from South Arkansas to Gunnison ; from Poncho to Maysville, and from Malta to. 
Eagle River. These extensions aggregate new track, four hundred and forty-six 
miles in length. For the reasons that it has to be accomplished in the face of 
great natural difficulties, through an exceedingly mountainous region and will 
open and make of easy access a region of vast mineral wealth beyond the Conti- 
nental divide; for these reasons the extension to the San Juan has aroused a more 
general and lively interest than the others. » 

From Alamosa the Rio Grande track proceeds to San Antonio, a station 
about two miles from the town of Conejos. At this point the New Mexico branch 
reaches out southward and the San Juan branchjturns toward the west. The dis- 
tance from Alamosa to San Antonio is ieee: miles. The latter station is 
practically the material camp of the Extension company, and the not very thickly 
populated lots and blocks of the town are covered with fields of steel rails, bolts, 
bars, etc., waiting for the demands of the contractors at the front. There are at 
this point or on the line of the road ready to be forwarded, rails sufficient to iron 
sixty miles of track. At present iron is being received at Denver for reshipment 
south, at the rate of one mile per day. 

It is between this point and the Pinos Chama divide, the terminus, that the 


RAILROAD BUILDING IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 475 


Extension company has accomplished the most difficult work on the branch. The 
distance from Boydville to what is called Los Pinos cafion, beside which the iron 
is now being extended toward Chama Peak, is fifteen miles, and the construc- 
tion of the rail route has required not only a vast outlay of money, but the ser- 
vices of the most skillful engineers, sustained and directed by the greater courage 
and sagacity on the part of the company, and the employment of thousands of 
mechanics and laborers, In making the distance between Boydville and the 
terminus, three low ranges and as many deep valleys have to be crossed. To 
ascend these mountains, then reach the valley and climb again the steep beyond 
would have been impracticable, and to surmount the difficulty it has been neces- 
sary to follow along the side of the mountain on a uniform rising grade, skirting 
the valleys, and gradually gaining a higher altitude until the last level before the 
great divide has been reached. It is along this portion of the road that the 
most enchanting view of glade and cliff and torrent, of creek, of valley and of 
mountain top, is presented. 

There are two tunnels on this piece of road ; one through what has the form 
of an immense concrete hill and the other through solid rock. An idea of the 
magnitude of this achievement in railroad building may be gathered from the 
knowledge that to cover a distance of one-half mile in a straight line, it has been 
necessary to construct two and one-half miles of track, trestle and embankment, 
and one mile of this cost $140,000. The curves in some instances are very 
sharp, but the steel rails were shaped according to minute specifications before 
they reached the place where they were to be laid, which required the utmost 
exactness. The outside of each curve is closely and firmly secured by brace 
chairs, while the inside is as strongly supported and secured as possible. But 
perhaps the most noteworthy feature of this piece of track, which has been called 
the ‘‘ Three-Ply,’”’ is the uniformity of the grade. There is no doubt that an 
operative route from the San Luis to Pinos Chama could have been laid with 
shorter distance and far less expense, but the easy grade would not have been 
gained. As it is, the forty miles between San Antonio and Pinos cafion is, if any- 
thing, less inclined than the grade between Denver and Pueblo, and the same 
weight of train can be hauled over these mountains as can be carried along the 
Denver division. 

The present objective point of the San Juan extension is Silverton via Ant- 
mas City. By far the most difficult portion of the route has been accomplished 
-and beyond the terminus now gained, over forty miles of road-bed is practically 
ready for iron, which is being stretched at the rate of one mile per day. Just 
‘beyond, perhaps five miles from the tunnel, on the Pinos Chama divide, the rail- 
road crosses or meets the Los Pinos toll-road, and the point will be known as the 
‘Toll Gate. This is the regular wagon road to the San Juan, and will be the first 
transportation conjunction between steam and mule power. After Chama is 
reached work on the extension will not be in the least delayed by snows or winter 
weather. By the middle of January the track will be in the valley of the San 
Juan and in the early spring the locomotive will steam into Animas City. 


476 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The San Juan extension, or branch reaching from Alamosa to Silverton, will 
be 228 miles in length. The line of the road enters New Mexico three times, the 
second entrance making a run of about thirteen miles. The branch also passes 
through a portion of the Ute reservation, the entrance upon Indian ground being 
at a distance of thirty miles probably from Chama summit, or forty miles from the 
present terminus. 

The grade from Animas to Silverton ; over a line nearly due north, is natural 
and easy and will require but very little work as compared with other portions of 
the route. There is one cafion near Silverton somewhat difficult of passage and 
a force of men has been at work there for some time making ready thus far in 
advance for the grading party, which is rapidly and persistently going ahead. It 
is now confidently believed that Silverton will be reached before the autumn 
leaves fall next year. 

Regarding the other extensions, it will be appropriate, as showing the extent 
of advancement now being made by the Rio Grande, to refer to them in this con- 
nection. The New Mexico line anticipated a length of ninety-one miles due south 
from San Antonio to Santa Cruz. The latter point is twenty-four miles west of 
Santa Fe, which places the narrow-gauge within a few hours’ stage ride of the 
New Mexican capital. Of this distance, sixty-five miles have already been ironed, 
and the entire length of this branch will be in operation by November roth. 
Three hundred track-layers are now at work on this extension, and all the grad- 
ing has practically been done. Track is going down at the rate of half a mile a 
day, and if a deep and difficult rock cut had been completed the Rio Grande 
would have been reached before this. 

The Gunnison branch starts out from Cleora, or South Arkansas, proceeding 
to Poncha, a distance of five miles. Here the road parts, one branch leading up: 
to Maysville, eight miles, and the other or main line going via Marshall Pass to- 
Gunnison City, sixty-five miles. The grading on the Maysville branch is very 
light, as cheap as the Platte valley. The Gunnison line is more difficult, but 
nothing as compared with other achievements of the company. It is expected 
that track laying will begin on this line within ten days and it will be pushed 
with all speed. 

The branch from Leadville to Kokomo is nearly completed, and within 
twenty days trains will be in operation. This branch is twenty miles long and 
will be extended to Breckinridge right away. 

Two hundred men are at work on the branch from Malta to Eagle river, 
which will be thirty-one miles long, the objective station being Red Cliff. It is. 
confidently believed that the line will be in operation early in the Spring. 

On the Silver Cliff extension from Cafion City, three hundred men are em- 
ployed, and every exertion is being made to complete the road as early as possi- 
ble. The line has been graded for nearly twenty miles, and as there is little fear 
that the snow will halt the work, the entire distance of thirty-one miles will doubt- 
less be accomplished some time during the month of January.—ZaFlatz Miner. — 


VELOCITY OF SHOT, WITH SUGGESTIONS TO SPORTSMEN. 4 


of 
“I 


VELOCITY OF SHOT, WITH SUGGESTIONS TO SPORTSMEN. 


As a result of laborious and scientific experiments, Professor Mayer, in his 
paper on this subject before the American Science Association, presented the 
following tables : 


I. ro Colt gun, 5 drs. Curtis & Harvey powder, 11% oz. of shot. 


Size of shot. Vel. at 30 yds. Vel. 40 yds. ‘Veil. 50 yds. 
INomEb CK penta eselsy .) ) o Bap eaamemporee nid hy LA 1,132 = 
IENeerea areas anaY a'sret sod Sep eee o's S25 Ly LAO 1,126 — 
TERTBS go NR ga ur NG PUN ec oe a Ree Ce SEL ML 1,067 — 
IN(Op moments eke S)c ee! al Cae em Bee OOO 1,015 928. 
(Fd sere AD ice hole ates ey ea ea Toric An sm wou aad BO 3 963 859: 
SPM a bent igean ts! 1.0 oC ia te, 1 OOS 880 775 
ROMP Asay fre tesee gaan eel etn 2a See aa 908 803 716 

II. ro Colt gun, 4 drs. Curtis & Harvey powder, 14 oz. of shot. 
INOGIIDUCKIL Wits e ti. 2s. 2 see tee he F007 1,018 = 
JETUE S07" age fn) vy A Be a UR ess 3r cae Of T,009 967 
TBS]BS Gi py $0 ca SA I Ai uN A\Gy “Ss rea nee a 9160) 967 897 
INR te a alt Meters ts. OSS gil 872 
Be) ole Noeinh ey ae acer Re Eseries OOO 883 806 
QU a Mae Mania entail tiaes nea aneNeS Sek ray O2O) 874 776 
EO: 848 756 669 


III. 12 Colt gun, 34% drs. Curtis & Harvey powder, 1% oz. of shot. 
INR MU Chen Fly ne ies’ ; ae 


sake es — 703 = 
TEE 22S blind aed IN eve eo mga Mme Sy OU fer aren — — 706 
TRIB oi A RD Seren or ct ean mS OP 795 667 
INCOM ec eihy edi! cal on a alee elie OA 754 696 
CRT Be Ca ck da do EA, 2G | 739 600 — 
CPi ei oon ve (GEO 749 607 
Og Dated cos cae ou ca nee 796 6380 610 
1V. 12 Colt gun, 4 drs. Curtis & Harvey powder, 1% oz. of shot. 
Sip een ieee ki )h.5 ts AUR ee an raul Den! AY D2 671 
ROR CE enn ote ie 00 1355) a eR ERE A 657 596 


A glance at these tables at once shows the rapid increase in the velocity of 
gunshot from No. 10 up to No. 3. With the heavier pellets the increase in 
velocity is less marked. Thus, the table headed ‘‘12 Colt gun, 4 drs. Curtis & 
Harvey, 1% oz. shot,’”’ shows that No. 8 shot has 71 feet per second velocity 
over No. ro shot, and No. 6 has 47 feet over No. 8, while No. 3 has only 23 
over No. 6, and BB shot gains only 11 feet over No. 3. The relations between 
velocity and weight of pellet shown in this table may be taken as a type of all the 
experiments, and I have projected them into the accompanying curve, the units. 
of whose axis of abscissz are units of weight, and the units on the axis of ordi- 


478 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


nates equal four feet of flight of pellet. The next fact, and an important one to 
sportsmen, which is shown by these experiments is this: If the same charges of 
powder and shot (4 drs. powder and 14 oz. shot) be fired from a 10 gauge and 
from a 12 gauge gun weget a velocity of 100 feet per second in favor of the 10 gauge. 
This is conclusively shown in the comparison of the figures in the tables headed 
‘ro Colt gun, 4 drs. C. & H., and 12 Colt gun, 4 drs. ©. & Hi, 1 4 ozashotim 
With No. 10 shot the mean velocity over the first 30 yards given by the 1o gauge 
gun is 848 feet; with the same shot and charge in the 12 gauge the velocity is 
748 feet, a difference of 100 feet in favor of gauge No. 10. With No. 8 shot the 
difference is 72 feet. The average difference in favor of the 10 gauge in the 
flight of No. 8 and 10 shot over 40 yards and 50 yards amounts to 110 feet. 

I trust that these results will show to sportsmen and the makers of guns that the 
recent movement in favor of small bore guns is one in the wrong direction. If 
any gunmaker will make a ro or even an 8 gauge gun, weighing about 7% 
pounds, the sportsman will have the best fowling piece for upland shooting. The 
reason why a 1o guage shows such superiority over a 12 gauge is that the same 
charge of powder and shot occupies less /eng/h in a 10 than in a 12 gauge, hence 
there are fewer pellets of shot in contact with the barrel of the 10 gauge to oppose 
by their friction the projectile force of the powder ; and, secondly, the powder in 
a 1o gauge gun is exploded nearer to the center of its volume, and thus the 
powder first exploded does not have so much chance of blasting before the unburnt 
powder contained in the charge is removed from the point of ignition. I also ven- 
ture to predict that, with the same weight of barrels, the 10 gauge will not heat 
as much as the 12, because the motion of the shot lost by the greater resistance 
it opposes in a 12 gauge cartridge must appear in the form of heat. The third 
fact which these experiments show is that the proper charge of shot in a 12 
gauge gun for upland shooting is 14% oz., and not 14 oz., as has of late years 
been the practice to use; for the tables show that with 138 oz. of shot and 3% 
drs. of powder an average velocity is obtained, which requires 4 drs. of powder 
to give to 1% oz. of shot a velocity equal to that given by 34 drs. to 1% oz. Now 
4 drs. of powder, if not fired from a gun weighing at least 9 lbs., and from a 
good, strong, muscular shoulder, is disagreeable. The effect on the body, and 
especially on the brain, is neither conducive to pleasant or good shooting. ‘The 
number of pellets in a charge of 114 0z. of No. 8 shot is 499. In a charge of 
1¥% oz. of the same shot there are 449, therefore only fifty pellets more in a 
charge of 14 oz. than in a charge of 1 oz., and surely the want of the 50 will 
not cause a good shot to miss his bird with 449 pellets, nor will the addition of the 
50 give a bad shot more chance of bringing his bird to bag with his 449 pellets. 

I wish now to show to the Association, and especially to those members of it 
who are sportsmen, other applications of these experiments to the art of shooting 
on the wing. ‘There are two styles of shooting on the wing. One is called 
“snap shooting,”’ when the shooter, on selecting the bird which he wishes to bag, 
quietly brings the gun to his shoulder, and at the instant it is in place fires. If 


VELOCITY OF SHOT, WITH SUGGESTIONS TO SPORTSMEN. 479 


the bird is a cross-shot, he determines at the moment of fire the distance to which 
he should direct his gun ahead of its flight, this distance depending on the veloc 
ity of the bird’s flight and on his distance from it. This manner of shooting 
practiced the more generally by upland gunners in shooting quail, grouse, and 
woodcock. The other style of shooting may be designated as ‘‘ the swing shot,” 
in which the gunner swings his gun ahead of the cross flight of the bird till he 
attains the proper distance ahead of it, and then fires, but keeps his gun moving 
with a regular angular velocity till even after its discharge. This method of 
shooting is, in my opinion, and from my experience, the proper method; and is 
certainly the only one which has been found successful with shooting of bay fowl 
—as ducks, brant and wild geese. Yet there are sportsmen who will contend 
that they merely follow the bird with the gun, and discharge it while it is pointing 
at the bird. I put this opinion to the test this summer in the following manner: 
Four willets came over the decoys, flying in line with a good speed. With my 
gun I followed the first bird, coolly and accurately, and kept the gun moving 
regularly after its discharge. Instead of killing the first bird, the third from the 
Jeader dropped dead. To give a ruleapplicable to all gunners as to the distance at 
which a gun should be pointed ahead of a bird, is not possible. Some sportsmen 
follow a bird, and then, after reaching before it the proper distance, suddenly 
stop the angular motion of the gun and then fire. Others, after following the bird 
a short distance, give a quick lateral motion to the gun and then fire. Others, 
again, bring the gun with a lateral motion ahead of the bird, and keep the gun 
moving till their experience decides the proper distance ahead of its flight, and 
fire while the gun is keeping its previous regular velocity. For the simple illus- 
tration of the bearing of these experiments on the art of shooting on the wing, 
I will suppose that at the moment of fire the gun is stationary; in other words, 
that we are firing ‘‘snap shots.”” If the bird has a velocity across the line of 
flight of 30 miles an hour, and we are using charges in a 12 gauge gun of 3% 
drs. of Curtis & Harvey powder and 1% oz. shot, we will have to shoot about 5 
feet ahead of the bird if it is flying at a distance of 30 yards at 7 feet ahead ; if 
at a distance of qo yards, and 11 feet ahead of the bird if at a distance of 50 
yards. These distances ahead for cross shots at birds flying at the rate of 30 
miles an hour may appear out of all reason with the experience of many sports- 
men; yet if you will place a stick 5 feet long at 40 yards and ask the same 
gunners if they would hold ahead of a bird by that distance if it were going with 
a velocity of thirty miles, I venture to say, from my experiments with them, 
that they will say, ‘‘ Of course, that is only about 18 inches;”’ so difficult is it - 
to determine a length at a distance while sighting along the barrel of agun. I 
_ will conclude with the remark that this paper will not make a good shot on the 
‘wing, no more than a description of how to perform on the violin will make an 
accomplished violinist. It has been said, perhaps rather strongly, that a ‘‘ peda- 
gogue can teach to read and write, but a crack shot is the gift of the gods.”— 
Scientific American. 


480 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Mele VD Si Clus IN Cle, 


THE NATURAL SCIENCES: THEIR NEWNESS AND VALUE. 
PROF. T. BERRY SMITH, LOUISIANA COLLEGE, LOUISIANA, MO. 


Science is classified knowledge. We may know never so many isolated facts, 
and yet our knowledge be unscientific. In fact, we all do know a great deal 
about ourselves and our surroundings, and yet, because we do not understand 
the relations existing between the facts with which we are familiar, we cannot say 
we are versed in science. Now, natural science is the classified knowledge of the 
material world—it deals with matter, the phenomena exhibited by and in matter, 
and forces, or the causes of phenomena. Natural science may be discussed from 
several standpoints, but in this paper, the subject of the newness and the value 
of the natural sciences will be considered. 

Knowledge is a thing of growth. The new-born babe is utterly ignorant 
and acts only as impelled by instinct. But within this same infant brain are in- 
finite capacities for acquiring knowledge. Newton, Galileo, Agassiz, all the 
proudest masters of the human race, were once helpless babes. And yet, in the 
course of four score years they comprehended much of the mighty forces of the 
universe, and understood a multitude of the facts and phenomena of matter. 

Now, just as any individual of the human race grows from infancy and igno- 
rance to old age and some degree of knowledge, so the human race itself must 
have had its period of infancy and ignorance, and has been, and is yet, growing 
toward seniority and a wider acquaintance with the universe. If this be true, then 
if we can find the order in which an individual acquires knowledge, we will also 
know the order of the growth of knowledge among the human race. 

During its earliest years the child learns to eat, to laugh, to cry, to walk, to 
talk, to sing, to climb, and to do numerous other acts by imitating the example 
of the elders about it. Ideas of distance, size, surface and other qualities of 
matter are not acquired until several years are past. Proper conceptions as to. 
them must be gotten by personal experience. Then, as years of maturity ap- 
proach, ideas of relation and of laws begin to come to the mind through inductive 
processes Hence knowledge may be classified as (1) Imitative, (2) Experimental, 
(3) Inductive. 

Let us apply this order of advancement to the human race. After the birth 
of the human race, there were long ages which we may term its infancy, during 
which the struggle for existence dominated and curbed all mental advancement. 
Means for defense against savage men and still more savage beasts, and methods 
of procuring sustenance and bodily comfort occupied the entire thoughts of men 
and left them time for nothing else. 


THE NATURAL SCIENCIES: THEIR NEWNESS AND VALUE. 481 


Gradually, however, this period passed away, and the era of imitation began 
to develop itself. What constitutes the knowledge of man which may be called 
imitative? For answer let us look to history. Out of the dim mists of the past 
we gather the grandest forms of poetry, oratory, sculpture, architecture, etc., that 
the world has ever seen or can see. And why? Because they are all imitative 
in their origin, and employed the minds of men during the childhood days of the 
human race. For instance, let us consider sculpture. From the hands of the 
Creator—the Master of the universe—came models as perfect as could be. Forms 
of men, of animals, of trees, of all natural objects were perfect. There was only 
required in man genius with suitable materials placed at its disposal to produce 
an imitation as nearly as possible like the original model, and afterward it would 
be impossible to go any further in this line. As to painting, nature showed the 
landscapes, the light and shadow to colors, and the artist must only copy the 
objects correctly and color them properly, and human hand could do no more. 

In architecture, the growth was somewhat slower, and yet the noblest forms 
and most admirable styles were early reached. Language was another imitative 
acquirement. The earliest words, I doubt not, were articulated in imitation of 
sounds produced by various animals or various phenomena. Soon all the more 
noticeable objects and acts in any locality had received names, and these names 
became fixed for that locality. ‘They descended from father to son and were 
carried in their migrations from one country to another. Thus spoken language 
began. Written language was a thing of later birth, and grew out of signs and 
symbols made to represent things. The earliest written language of human 
origin is hieroglyphic. The multiplication of symbols, as knowledge increased, led 
to the adoption of a few artificial characters as symbols of sounds, which, being 
combined, would represent all objects and phenomena whatsoever. ‘Then as 
soon as possible came the poets and historians, who gathered up the traditions of 
their peoples and wrote them down, ‘They appropriated all the imagery and 
tropes and figures of earliest speech, and left behind them works which lose no 
luster with the flight of years. After them, everything must be taken second- 
hand—the best had been done. Out of the written language arose grammar, 
rhetoric, etc., as the laws of both spoken and written language. The science of 
numbers arose partly from imitation and partly from experiment. ‘The rise and 
set of the sun would naturally become the unit of measure of time. The course 
of the four seasons, and their constant recurrence in the same order would fix the 
length of the year. In measuring magnitudes, what more easy of access than the 
hand, or arm, or foot, or stride, or height? Men having become accustomed to the 
use of these, the need of uniformity would lead them to adopt a measure taken from 

the arm or foot of a king or leading man. A unit once adopted would be handed 
down, as our yardstick, which dates from the reign and arm of Henry I. of Eng- 
land (1120 A. D.) The origination of a system of notation and numeration soon 
followed, to be transmitted from generation to generation. 

Now, the sciences we have thus far glanced at were to a greater or less de- 


82 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


gree imitative; and the fundamentals of them were such that, once established, 
they became enduring. As the purposes they served were equally applicable in 
all places and times, by migration they spread over the earth and by transmission 
passed down from father to son. And to-day we make use of artificial standards, 
of artificial letters, of words long coined, of much imitative knowledge, nor ever 
spend more time upon them than is necessary to fix their names and meaning in 
our minds. 

But now let us turn to the second kind of knowledge—the experimental— 
and trace its origin and growth among the human race. 

Just as the experimental knowledge of the child arises mostly from contact 
with Nature, so the experimental knowledge of the race must be, for the most 
part, a knowledge arising from contact with Nature. Now, though the fundamental 
ideas in the natural world are few and everywhere the same, yet in the execution 
of these few ideas there is such endless variety that the natural conclusion in regard 
to them would be, especially to a casual observer, ‘‘ There is no law in Nature—all 
is confusion and chance.” ‘The people of one region, migrating to another more 
or less remote, would find an almost entirely different phase in Nature and the 
phenomena it exhibited—especially of plant and animal life, which lends so much 
to the formation of variety in nature as presented to us in various places. Varie- 
ties of climate, differences of heat and cold, of rain and wind and length of day 
and night—all these and many other things would lend very little encouragement 
to the student of Nature. Had an observer lived long enough in one place to 
know well by experience the general features of that locality, yet removal to an- 
other might present such contradictions as to shake his confidence in his former 
observations. All such experience rendered the knowledge of nature a thing of 
slow growth. Before it could be found that under all the variety of external 
nature ran an undercurrent of unvarying sameness and that all phenomena oc- 
curred in obedience to inexorable law, it was necessary that ages should pass 
away, that the human race should inhabit the whole world, that easy means of 
communication should be invented, that civilization should spread abroad its 
benign influences, that peace should link in friendly communion the nations of 
earth, that life should grow less imburdened with the struggle for existence and 
have more of leisure, and lastly, that multitudes of observers in all quarters of the 
globe must carefully and faithfully record their observations from year to year 
through many generations. But none cf these conditions existed during the early 
ages of the human family. And therefore the sciences of nature were of very 
slow growth. Because very much of the heavens above us is always visible at 
night, and because the stars are always beautiful and attract attention, it was very 
natural that the science of astronomy should take some form at a very early date. 
Except astronomy, however, none of the natural sciences assumed any valuable 
form until within the most recent times. The last three centuries have witnessed 
the birth and growth of nearly all that we call natural sciences. Even our own 
lives are contemporary with constant advances, conquests and developments in. 


THE NATURAL SCIENCES: THEIR NEWNESS AND VALUE. 483 


the domain of nature ; while the sciences of language, figures and so forth have 
grown hoary with years of maturity. 

The order of development of the various branches of natural science would 
be from those of tangible matter, as physiology, zodlogy, botany, mineralogy, to 
those of intangible matter and the phenomena and forces of matter—for which 
reason chemistry is hardly a century old and meteorology is yet in its childhood. 
The course of progress has been from molar to molecular—from worlds to atoms. 
—from simple to complex: evolution is the term to apply to the growth of knowl- 
edge as well as to the growth of material order. Hence the natural sciences are 
new—and are new of necessity. 

And just here let me throw in a word on the subject of the inspiration of the 
Scriptures. Modern research as to the history of the earth has developed facts. 
which most harmoniously agree with the record of creation as given in the first 
chapter of Genesis. If it be acknowledged that all the observations of many men. 
for many years were necessary to unfold the order of development of the earth, 
and that the facts in the case have only lately come to be known, viewed from a 
natural standpoint, then whence came the wonderful information of the writer of 
the book of Genesis? Certainly it was not of human origin. Therefore we are 
driven to the conclusion that it was of divine origin. I think this a very power. 
ful argument in favor of the inspiration of the Scriptures. 

Having discoursed at some length on the newness of the Natural Sciences, 
let us come now to the subject of their value. We now enter upon ground over 
which many mighty and stubborn conflicts have been waged, the combatants 
being the adherents of Imitative Knowledge against the followers of Nature. 
Because the [mitative Sciences are almost as old as the race of man, of course 
they have almost up to the present time been foremost in the minds of men. It 
is a well-known fact that any party in power has always struggled to keep down 
an opponent, though the success of either meant the same good for all. Follow- 
ing this law, the advocates of Imitative Knowledge have beheld with jealous eye 
the growing favor of the Natural Sciences; and the war yet goes on, though with 
diminished fierceness. 

To-day I plead the cause of Nature, and claim for its sciences as important 
places in our schools as are now occupied by the sciences of language, figures, ~ 
etc. Please note well that I do not ask for them more prominence, but equality 
only. 
Let us compare briefly the methods of study and results obtained in each, 
course, and then we can better compare the value of them in their influence upon 
the human mind. 

Here is an old fashioned school. The principal duties are spelling, reading, 
arithmetic, grammar, etc. Day after day and year after year the children gather 
in with their printed books and con over the pages of uninteresting matter. 
Long wordy rules are memorized and recited, but the recitation is. that of the 
parrot; the philosophy of them is not understood at all. How well we all remem- 


484 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ber the rules of common fractions, of square and cube root, of syntax! And to- 
day the majority of children are ground through the educational machine in the 
same old way; and when they are asked for reasons for the answers given when 
questions are propounded, they are sure to reply ‘‘the books say so.” The old 
system has very little in it to make independent thinkers. It is no wonder that 
for ages in the olden times only one system of medicine was in vogue—public 
‘opinion compelled all to follow in the footsteps of Hippocrates and Galen. It is 
no wonder that the masses of the people at the present day are startled into open- 
mouthed wonder by the veriest knaves, and are led off after will-o’-the-wisps 
because they appear to be something of worth. The majority of people are 
guided by external appearances—just as they were in going through their text- 
books—nor ever seek for undercurrents or causes. 

But now let us look in upon a school where Nature is unfolded to the chil- 
dren—or rather by the children. No text-books are used in the lower grades— 
only the wide-spread volume of Nature is kept before them. They are directed 
to bring in leaves, or flowers, or insects, or rocks, or anything else of manifold 
Nature. Attention is directed to differences and resemblances. 

A fundamental idea or two is given to them by the teacher, and then they 
fully verify these ideas by examining the objects in hand. The fact becomes each 
child’s personal property, not because book or teacher says so, but because they 
themselves, by personal experience, have proven it to be true. It has become 
verily a part of the child—a solid growth. Having grasped in this way a few 
fundamental ideas, the process of sub-dividing according to some prominent 
characteristic, apparent in many of the objects at hand, easily follows; and soon 
analytic and synthetic processes, based on personal observation and thoroughly to 
be relied on, because matters of personal experience, produce a strength of mind 
and independence of thought not to be acquired in any other way. As far as 
anything pertaining to the material world goes, they become strangers to credulity, 
and only that is accepted as truth which has been tried and stood the test. I 
grant some may drift into infidelity because they attempt to prove all things both 
finite and infinite, and fail; but I would rather have some infidelity among much 
strong wisdom, than all-abounding credulity. 

Thus far I have considered the value of the Natural Sciences as subjects of 
mental discipline in our schools. But the study of Nature has other points of 
value. It affects our personal welfare. Nature is all about us—ourselves the 
highest and noblest factors in it. To make our personal welfare the best possible, 
we should know ourselves; but a full knowledge of ourselves demands acquaint- 
ance with all that can affect us in any way: we are affected by universal Nature. 
We live continually in the presence of Nature and behold constantly its phe- 
nomena. If we know not the relations existing between ourselves and the phe- 
nomena we behold, then we are apt to be like the people of old—superstitious 
and forever in dread. But beyond the mental effects we may experience, there 
are others of much more importance—even physiological ones. 


A eS - 


THE NATURAL SCIENCES: THEIR NEWNESS AND VALUE. 485 


This human body is strangely and wonderfully constructed. A grain of one 
substance may nourish, of another cause instant death; one plant may furnish 
delicious food, another deadly poison. We should all certainly know the value 
of one organ of the body above another. We should all know how murderously 
ruinous it is to constrict the organs upon which the very life depends. We 
should all know enough of human physiology to understand that the cramping 
of the Chinese foot is less suicidal and barbarous than the constriction of the 
American chest. We should all understand Nature well enough to know that 
violation of her laws will surely be punished—that she permits no sinning on her 
estates. Were all properly versed in Nature and her laws, ‘‘ perpetual motion ”’ 
and kindred topics would drop into utter oblivion. But we must pass on. From 
a social standpoint, the study of Natural Science is valuable. Nature presents 
herself in multitudinous aspects, and no two eyes ever see just the same aspect. 
Hence the experience of each mortal observer is different, in a greater or less 
degree, from that of all others of his human kind. Hence if all should be tutored 
in the great fundamentals of Nature, then when the social company was assem- 
bled, subject for conversation need never fail. There would need be no silent 
sitters because the topic in hand was one never studied—was one of which they 
had no experience. Of a natural tendency to use Nature as a subject of conver. 
sation, note how people universally say ‘‘good morning,” ‘‘rainy day,” ‘‘disa- 
greeable night,” etc., when greeting each other. 

Again the study of Natural Science has its value to the teacher. All through 
the country, in every district school, what a glorious chance for the teacher to 
lead the children away from the dry tasks of text-books and regale them at the 
feast of Nature forever and unstintedly spread out around the door! In Summer 
and Autumn, in Winter and Spring, an endless profusion of objects and changes 
invite to their study—a study that is a pleasure and not a task. 

Lastly, and rising in value far above all things we have mentioned, the study 
of Nature expands our souls as well as our intellects. Studying Nature, how 
easy it becomes to look for and adore Nature’s God—the Creator of all! What 
study of letters, or grammar, or figures, or problems, ever appeals to anything 
but the intellect? But the study of Nature presents such evidences of beautiful 
design and such unapproachable wisdom that the intellect bows down before it 
and sends its high priest—the Spirit—into the Holy of Holies to worship at the 
shrine of the Omnipotent One. After that we live nobler lives and pay deeper 
devotions to ‘‘ Our Father who art in Heaven.” 

I sum up as follows :— 

Science is classified knowledge, and may be divided into 

Imitative Science ; 
2. Experimental Science ; 
Inductive Science. 

Natural Science is mez 

1. Because classified knowledge of Nature is of recent origin ; 


IV—32 


A486 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


2. Because new phases are ever being unfolded to us; 
Because Nature, as a whole, never grows old. 

Natural Science has value. 

1. It develops the analytic and synthetic powers of the mind, and makes inde- 
pendent thinkers ; 

2. It affects us personally, keeping us from superstition and helping us to know 
and preserve our frame; 

3. It affects us socially ; 

It aids the teacher in teaching; 

5. It reaches the soul as well as the intellect, and leads us to God. 


= 


HISTORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE. 


FROM PRESIDENT R. H. THURSTON’S INAUGURAL ADDRESS BEFORE THE AMERICAN 
SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, NOV. 4, 1880. 


As an illustration of the method in which advancement occurs, and as an 
example of the kind of work which remains for us to do, let us glance, very 
briefly, at the history of that greatest of modern triumphs of mechanism, the 
steam engine. 

Away back, twenty centuries and more, in the dim past, among the first 
faint gleams of historic civilization, we see the germ of the invention which has 
done so much to annihilate space and give man illimitable power over all the 
forces and treasures of nature—a toy in the museum at Alexandria. A toy it 
remained many centuries, until, in the grand awakening of three centuries ago, 
its latent power was discovered, and Papin, and Worcester, and Leibnitz, and 
Huyghens each contributed a thought in the progress which they thus inaugu- 
rated. A hundred and fifty years ago the ‘‘steam giant’ was at work under the 
direction of the intelligent blacksmith and his comrade, the ‘‘ tinker,” doing 
much for the mining industry, but nothing elsewhere, and, hampered by igno- 
rance, and ill-cared for by his masters, wasting a vast deal of now utilized power. 

Then came forward a genius of the brightest intellect, a mechanic, such as 
the world rarely produces—James Watt—and, adopting the truly philosophic 
method, the great master soon taught the mighty servant to do a thousand times 
more for the world, and to labor with wonderfully greater ease and economy. 
Watt first collected his facts. He dissected the model of the Newcomen and 
Calley engine, which had been placed in his hands for repair, ascertained the 
method of its operation, learned what were the advantages of that form of engine, 
discovered the cause and extent of its losses of power and efficiency, and, once 
these were known, his grand intellect promptly devised remedies and improve- 
ments, and the steam engine of to-day is simply the steam engine of James Watt, 
in all its leading features and in all the principal details ot design. Its steam- 
jacketed cylinder is Watt’s; its parallel motion and its guides; its crank motion, 


~ 


HISTORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE. 487 


although an invention usually ascribed to another, were invented by Watt, and 
the condensing apparatus, the expansion gear, the governor, and even that won- 
derful little instrument, the ‘‘indicator’”—the engineer’s stethoscope—all came: 
down to us from the same source. 

Watt learned the leading facts and made the greatest modifications of plan, 
while it was reserved for our contemporaries to contribute the refinements of its. 
design and of its manufacture, and to study the more deeply hidden principles of 
its philosophy, and to determine more definite rules for its construction and man- 
agement. 

Those of you who have been familiar with the design and construction of 
steam engines during the past twenty or thirty years, f and those of you who have 
been for a generation past accustomed to handle this miracle of art will remember, 
as I remember well, how we learned at a very early period in our experience cer- 
tain cardinal points of practice which were very strongly impressed upon us. We 
soon learned by experience that efficiency was gained only as we learned to 
_ handle higher steam with properly adjusted expansion, to work our engines up 
to higher piston speeds, to cushion heavily when we had large clearance, to 
reduce that clearance to a minimum, to adjust the size of our engine to its work, 
and to determine the point of cut-off, under proper conditions otherwise, by the 
governor.{ We learned that the now well-known ‘‘ American Automatic Cut-off 
Engine,” with its high steam and moderately large expansion, as exemplified by 
the ‘‘ Corliss Engine,” which is now built all over the world, was the representa- 
tive of the best general practice. 

But we were not satisfied. Twenty years ago we began to understand that 
we had yet to perfect the phylosophy of the steam engine, and that it was still 
apparently far from perfect efficiency. We then discovered that while our best 
engines were consuming from twenty-five to thirty pounds of dry steam per horse 
power per hour, the mechanical equivalent of the heat supplied in the steam in 
boiler was sufficient to give about a horse power for each two pounds of high- 
pressure steam per hour, and hence that we were utilizing but one tenth or 
one-fifteenth of the heat we were paying for when we settled our coal bills, 

Next, we found that, owing to the fact that we can not practically expand 
down to a pressure lower than that due approximately to the temperature of 
surrounding bodies, we must therefore discharge heat unutilized, that the lar- 
ger part of this waste is unavoidable and that an engine, perfect mechanically, 
and working within the usually practicable maximum limits, must waste three- 
fourths, and can return useful effect from but one-fourth, of the heat supplied, 
thus placing the practical limit under known conditions at about eight or ten 
pounds of steam per hour and per horse power. 

And here we stand to-day with the steam engine, mechanically almost perfect, 
yet with a theoretical economy of about eight or ten pounds of steam per horse 


+ Reports on Machinery and Manufacturers at Vienna, 1873, by R. H. Thurston, etc., ete., Wash., 1875. 
} History of the Growth of the Steam Engine; International Series; N. Y., 1878, p. 473. 


488 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


power per hour, while consurning actually, in the best examples, about fifteen, 
z. é., with an efficiency of sixty or seventy per cent. 

In hot-air engines we are not making much more progress, and our field of 
promise seems to be still in the improvement of the steam engine. 

We are slowly learning other facts. We know that the great obstacle in the 
way of attaining nearly theoretical efficiency is the transfer of heat from the 
steam to the exhaust side by initial condensation and re-evaporation ; we are 
discovering that high speed and steam jacketing tend to lose their efficiency at 
extremely high pressure with wide ranges of expansion, that it seems possible to 
reach a point in steam-jacketed cylinders at which lower speed may tend to se- 
cure efficient working of the steam; that with well-jacketed cylinders we may 
get good performance, as we to-day judge it, with slow pistons; that we have bet- 
ter work claimed to-day for single than for ‘‘compound ” engines by ten or fifteen 
per cent., §$the minimum yet reached under fair conditions for economy being 
stated to be by experiment as 1.54 is to 1.75, while, assuming the very best con- 
ditiovs for each, it seems certain that both types should give about equally good 
results. | 

Here is where we stand to-day, and it is from this point that we are to work for- 
ward. We need to collect more facts by means of carefully-devised experiments 
like those of Hirn and Hallauer abroad, and of Emery and the Navy Department 
at home; we need careful and systematic study of the results and finally the de- 
termination of the laws of steam engine efficiency as affected by steam pressure 
and temperature, rates of expansion and compression, character of steam jackets, 
rate of piston speed, and every other circumstance influencing economy. 


INS NIE OUNIO) IMIG, 


PLANETARY AND STELLAR PHENOMENA FOR DECEMBER, 188o. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER. 


Mercury rises on the 1st at 5 h. 44 m. a. m. and on the 31st 6 h. 21 m.a. m. 
and is at its western elongation on the 21st, at which time it can be best observed, 
being then in the constellation Scorpius about 7° north of Antares. 

Venus sets on the 31st at 6 h. §8 m. p. m. and on the 31st at 8h. 03 m. p. 
m., and is fast increasing in size and brilliancy. 

Mars rises on the 1st at 6 h. tom. a. m. and on the 31st at 5 h. 56 m. a. 


2 Abstracts of Papers, No. 1602; Proc. Brit. Inst. C. E., Vols. LIII, LIV. It would seem that where 
slow piston-speed is demanded, as usually with pumping engines or where two cylinders are needed as with ma- 
rine engines, the ‘‘ Compound” engine is unmistakably best; while where high-speed engines are permitted, as 
in mills, the single-cylinder may still hold its own in this competition. 


PLANETARY AND STELLAR PHENOMENA FOR DECEMBER, 1880 489 


m. It is in conjunction with Mercury on the morning of the 23d, distance 1° 5’ 


south. 

Jupiter sets on the 1st at 2h. 03 m. a. m. and on the 31st ooh. 11 m. a. m. 
Owing to its increased distance from the earth I omit the phenomena of its 
moons. 

Saturn sets on the 1st at 3 h. 7 m. a. m. and on the 31st at 1 h. 08 m. a. m. 

Uranus rises on the ist 11 h. 51 m. p. m. and on the 31st at 9 h. 5 m. p. m. 

LVeptune sets on the 1st at 4 h. 47 m. a. m. and on the 31st at 2h. 46 m. 
a. m. 

The d/oon will first appear low down in the southwest on the 2d and will be 
in conjunction with Venus on the 4th; on the sth and 6th it will be in the con- 
stellation Capricornus; on the 7th and 8th it will pass through Aquarius; on the 
gth and roth it will be in Pisces, the present location of Saturn and Jupiter, from 
thence it will pass through Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, 
and on the 28th and zoth it will be in Scorpius, the present location of Mercury. 

The following is the position of the constellation, on the 15th at 6 h. 30 m p. 
m. and will nearly be correct for the entire month. 

Beginning in the north at the horizon we have Ursa Major, drawing aline from 
thence up toward the zenith it will cross Draco, Ursa Minor and the eastern edge 
of Cepheus and then comes Cassiopza situated in the Milky Way, following 
which westward we shall cross Cepheus, Cygnus, Lyra, and Aquila, while toward 
the east Perseus and Auriga. Inthe south Pegasus the Flying Horse is the most 
prominent constellation. It is marked by four stars of the second magnitude 
which form a large square, each side of which is about fourteen degrees. 

Andromeda, her hands in chains, lies northeast from the northeast corner of 
Pegasus in the direction of Perseus, and contains three bright stars nearly in a 
row. 

Cetus, the whale, occupies the south, extending from the meridian to a point 
three hours east of it. 


A very slight declivity suffices to give the running motion to water. Three 
inches per mile in a smooth, straight channel gives a velocity of about three miles 
an hour. The Ganges, which gathers the waters of the Himalaya Mountains, the 
loftiest in the world, is, at too miles from its mouth, only 300 feet above the level 
of the sea, and to fall 300 feet, in its long course, the water requires more than a 
month. The great river Magdalena, in South America, running for 1,000 miles 
between two ridges of the Andes, falls only 500 feet in all that distance. Above 
the distance of 1,000 miles, it is seen descendiag in rapids and cataracts from the 
mountains. The gigantic Rio de la Plata has so gentle a descent to the ocean 
that, in Paraguay, 1,500 miles from its mouth, large ships are seen which have 
sailed against the current all the way by the force of the wind alone—that is to 
say, which, on the beautiful inclined plane of the stream, have been gradually 
lifted by the soft wind, and even against the current, to an elevation greater than 
_ Our loftiest spires. 


490 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


EXPLORATION. 


LOG OF THE STEAMSHIP ‘‘GULNARE” FROM ST. JOHNS, N. F., 
TO DISCO AND RETURN. 


Friday, July 30, 1880.—Fresh breeze from the south. Started the fires, and 
at 3:30 p. m. took up our anchor and put out to sea. ‘Two of the sailors were 
missing and two deserted. Gales and thick fog. Distance by log seventy-five 
and three-quarter miles. 

Saturday, July 31st, 1880.—Strong breeze from the south during the first 
part of the day. Steering east. Thick fog and rain. Fog lifted at 1 p. m.. 
Saw an iceberg to the east of us. Running under F. G. sail and half steam. 
Distance by log 253 miles. Course East by N. 

Sunday, Aug. rst.—During the first part of the day light winds from SE. 
Steering E. SE. Later, wind from the west with rain. Saw a steamer steering 
SE., also a small iceberg. Lat. 53° 47’ N., Long. 40° 29’ W. Distance by log 
204 miles. 

Monday, Aug. 2d.—Light wind from the south. Steering NE. by E. All 
sail set. Distance by log 207 miles. 

Tuesday, Aug. 3d.—During the first part of the day strong wind from S. 
SW. Steering NE. by E. At 4p. m. furled F. top-sail and G. gallant sail and 
jibs. Thick fog and rain. At 3 p. m. slowed up and headed the ship to the 
SE. under close reefed sail. Gale increased and we shipped much water.  Dis- 
tance by log go miles. 

Wednesday, Aug. 4th.—Heavy gales from S. SW. and the sea running high. 
At 2:30 p. m. the larboard boat washed away. ‘Threw a part of the deck-load 
overboard to save the ship. Madea break in the bulwark to let the water off 
deck; this eased the ship very much. The gale still continued with rain and fog. 
At 9 p. m. began to moderate. A high sea running, kept off to the NW. run- 
ning at half speed. At six in the morning saw land, Cape Farewell, about 
twelve miles distant. A large number of icebergs to be seen, occasional fog. 
Distance by log 74 miles. 

Thursday, Aug. 5th.—Fresh breeze from SW. with fog and rain. Steering 
NW. At five in the evening saw Cape Desolation, distant ten miles. Wind 
now fresh from W. to W. NW. with light rain. At night strong wind from south 
and sky overcast. Steering north. Distance by log 180 miles. 

Friday, Aug. 6th—Fine weather with fresh breeze from the south. Steering 
NE. by N. following the coast. All sail set. Saw a few icebergs. Distance by 
log 180 miles. Lat. 64° 56’ N. 

Saturday, Aug. 7th.—A fresh breeze from the NE. during the first part of 


LOG OF THE STEAMER ** GULNARE.” 491 


day. Steering NE. by N. still following the coast. Later, strong wind and 
thick fog. Distance by log 144 miles. 

Sunday, Aug. 8th.—Strong wind from E. NE., fog and light rain. Steering 
along the land. Saw several icebergs. Distance by log 158 miles. 

_ Monday, Aug. 9th.—Strong wind from the east with fog. At 5:30 p. m. 
came to anchor in Disco Harbor. Discovered a plank split and broken off under 
the starboard quarter. ‘The ship’s carpenter and one from shore set to work to 
repair the damages. The crew employed in getting fresh water and in various 
duties about the ship. 

Tuesday, Aug. 1oth.—Fine weather. Carpenters at work on the ship, aided 
by part of the crew. 

Wednesday, Aug. r1th.—Weather remains fine. Employed in various jobs 
about the ship. Carpenters still at work. 

Thursday, Aug. 12th.—Fine weather. Carpenters and crew all busy about 
the ship. During the latter part of the day light rain and fog. 

Friday, Aug. 13th.—Fresh wind from the east with light rain and fog. Car- 
penters at work on the ship. Crew employed in landing lumber, etc. Later, 
pleasant with light wind from the west. 

Saturday, Aug. 14th.—Pleasant, with light wind. Later, a fresh breeze 
from the SE. with fog. Carpenters at work on the ship, and the crew employed 
in breaking out and landing lumber. 

Sunday, Aug. 15th.—Strong wind from the NE. with rain and fog. At 
night wind changes to SW. 

Monday, Aug. 16th.—During the first part of the day strong wind from the 
SE. with light rain and fog. Later, the wind shifts to SW. Carpenters still at 
work. Crew getting rocks on shore for ballast. 

Tuesday, Aug. 17th.—Strong wind from the NW., rain and fog. Later, 
wind still fresh and snowing hard. 

Wednesday, Aug. 18th.—Wind from SW., snow, rain and fog. Carpenters 
and crew still busy. 

Thursday, Aug. r9th.—Weather fine and pleasant. All hands employed. 
Have put on board twenty tons of rock for ballast. 

Friday, Aug. 20th.—Weather fine. Carpenters finished work on the ship, 
and we are ready for the sea. 

Friday, Aug. 21st.—Light winds from SW., cloudy. Later, snow and 
rain. At 9.30 a. m. shipped our anchor and steamed out to sea, bound for 
Rittenbank. Passed a large number of icebergs. Took a small schooner in tow 
and a party of ten on board the ship. Light rain squalls at night. 

Sunday, Aug. 22d.—Pleasant, with light wind from the west. At 5.30 came 
to anchor at Rittenbank in thirteen fathoms of water. 

Monday, Aug. 23d.—Weather fine. Employed in landing provisions, etc., 
for Dr. Pavy and Mr. Clay, who are to spend the coming winter here. At night 
a strong wind from the NW. 


A492 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Tuesday, Aug. 24th.—Strong wind from the NW. At 6.30 p. m. took up 
our anchor and steamed out of the harbor for Sakka in search of natives to assist 
in getting coal. At 11.30 p. m. came to anchor at Sakka in four fathoms of 
water. 

Wednesday, Aug. 25th.—Calm and pleasant during the first part of the day. 
Later, a strong wind from the N. W. ‘Took a run over to the coal bed but could 
not land on account of the breakers. Crew employed about the ship. 

Thursday, Aug. 26th.—Clear and pleasant with wind from the NW. Took 
up the anchor and ran over to the coal bed, but again could not land. Strong 
gales in the straits. Came back to Sakka and anchored in eleven fathoms of 
water. 

Friday, Aug. 27th.—A strong gale blowing from the NW., sky overcast. 
At 4a. m. took up our anchor and steamed across to the coal beds. At 7.30 
put the second mate with all the crew and thirteen natives ashore, with provisions 
for two weeks. Capt. Palmer and Lieut. Doane on shore prospecting. Anchored 
in eleven fathoms of water. A large number of icebergs to be seen. At noon 
we had taken on board eight tons of coal. Light wind from the SE. at night. 

Saturday, Aug. 28th.—Light wind from the SE. and sky overcast. At 
3.30 slipped our anchor, as it was impossible to get it clear of the icebergs. 
Twenty tons of coal on board. Left eight of the crew and twelve natives on shore 
and steamed back to Sakka. At 11 p. m. cast the lead in seventeen fathoms of 
water, and at the next cast we were aground on a soft, muddy bottom. At 1 
a. m. came off and anchored in seven fathoms of water. Strong wind from the 
SE. with snow and rain. At 6a. m. lowered a boat and sounded. Found the 
bottom muddy and very uneven. i 

Sunday, Aug. 29th.—During the early part of the day light rain and wind 
from the SE. At 1p. m. steamed over to the coal beds. Picked up the anchor 
we had slipped the day before and went to work getting off coal. 

Monday, Aug. 30th.—Weather fine. Employed in getting off coal. 

Tuesday, Aug. 31st.—Weather continues fine. Finished coaling, took every- 
thing on board, and at 7 p. m. returned to Sakka, where we came to anchor at 
II p. m. 

Wednesday, Sept. 1st.—Weather fine. Paid off the natives, 300 pounds of 
salt beef, and forty pounds of bread. At ro a. m. took up our anchor and 
steamed down to Rittenbank. 

Thursday, Sept. 2d.—Weather fine. At 2:30 p. m. landed Dr. Pavy and 
Mr. Clay, with bed and bedding and left for Disco. 

Friday, Sept. 3d.—Weather fine with light wind from the SE. Crew em- 
ployed about the ship. Took on board eight tons of rock for ballast. Carpen- 
ters at work on the ship, making repairs, etc. 

Saturday, Sept. 4th.—During the first part of the day fresh wind from the 
SW. and slightly overcast. Later, pleasant with wind from SE. Employed in 
ballasting the ship, getting water, and various other jobs. 


LOG OF THE STEAMER ‘“‘GULNARE.” 498 


Sunday, Sept. 5th.—Weather cloudy with light wind from the SE. Later 
in the day, snow and rain with strong wind from the west. 

Monday, Sept. 6th.—Fresh wind from the SW. with rain. Crew employed 
getting aboard water and ballast. Carpenters at work on the ship. 

Tuesday, Sept. 7th.—Fresh wind from the NW. with snow. Employed in 
bringing aboard water and ballast, and scraping spars, etc. Later in the day, 
light snow and calm. 

Wednesday, Sept. 8th.—Clear and pleasant, with light wind from the SW. 
Busy storing lumber and getting water. At 9 p. m. a Danish barque came to 
anchor in the harbor. Later, a fresh wind from the NE. and slightly overcast. 
Finished ballasting the ship, bent the sails, and made ready for sea. 

Thursday, Sept. 9th.—During the first part of the day a fresh breeze from 
the SE. At 3 p. m. took up our anchor and steamed out of the harbor, bound 
for St. John’s, Newfoundland. It was too late in the season to proceed farther 
north. At 6:30 p. m. called all hands to shorten sail, close-reefed the mainsail 
and top-sail, banked the fires and hove the ship to with her head to the SW., on 
the port tack. Gale increasing and a high sea running. Snow and rain. Dis- 
tance by log 96 miles. 

Friday, Sept. roth—Gale still continues, with snow, hail and rain, and a very 
high sea. At ro p. m. clear starlight, barometer still falling. At 1a. m. began 
to moderate, and rain commenced falling soon after. At six in the morning 
started fires and began to run again, steering SW. A little later wind hauled to 
SW. and we furled all the sails. Light rain and mist, barometer rising. Lat. 
67> 50° N., Long: 58° 30’ W. 

Saturday, Sept. 11th.—Light wind from the NW. and a heavy swell from 
the SE. Steering SW. At 4p. m. called all hands and shortened sail, and furled 
all but the fore top-sail. At 8p. m., weather moderating, saw several large ice- 
bergs. At 1 a. m. furled top-sail. Sky slightly overcast with a fresh wind from the 
west. Steering SW. by S. Distance by log 155 miles. 

Sunday, September 12th.—Strong wind from SW., snow and hail and a 
very highsea. At 6p. m. banked the fires. At 7p. m. wind changed to NW., 
with very heavy squalls. Toward morning the weather moderated, kept off S. 
SW., set the fore topsail and jibs and began steaming again. Strong wind and 
snow squalls. Distance run by log, from 5.30 a. m. until noon, 58 miles. 

Monday, September 13th.—Strong wind from N. NW. and snow squalls. 
Steering SW., steam and sail. In the middle of the day, light wind from SW. 
and mist. Furled all sail. Later, strong wind and a driving snow storm. 
Distance by log, 144 miles. 

Tuesday, September 14th.—During the first part of the day light wind from 
the SW. with rain. In the afternoon wind changes toSE. Atz1a.m. stopped 
steaming, being short of coal. At 8 a. m. a strong wind from the west with rain. 
Steering S. SW. Lat. 60° 6’ N., Long. 56° 36’ W. 

Wednesday, September 15th.—Fresh wind from the west during the early 


494 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


part of the day. Steering S. SW. with all sailsset. At 2 p. m. strong gales with 
heavy squalls. Wind W. NW. with a heavy sea; broke the main boom, but rigged 
it again and set the sails. Steering S. SW. Lat. 58° N., Long. 55° 30’ W. 

Thursday, September 16th.—Early in the day a light breeze from the north. 
Steering S. SW. Middle of the day calm. Later, light wind from the east. All 
salluset. Wate S77 sn iN 4) Woneensigenns iW 

Friday, September 17th.—Weather fair, a light wind from the SE. Ship 
heading S. SW. At gp. m. furled light sails, a little later, close reefed the main 
sail. Wind blowing heavily. At 12.30 a. m. gale increasing, close reefed the 
fore-topsail and furled the jib. At four inthe morning hove the ship to. <A very 
high sea running and heavy gales. 

Saturday, September 18th.—Gale continues with squalls of rain and hail. 
Moderates in the afternoon. At 4 p. m. set the jib and fore-topsail. Heading S. 
by W., wind light and a very high sea. At 7 a. m. light wind from the NW. 
Saw several icebergs. Made all sail, steering south. Lat. 53° 31’ N., Long. 
Oe 20. Wi. 

Sunday, September r9th.—Weather fine with a light breeze from the west. 
All sails set and steering south. Crew employed about the ship. Later in the 
day, wind from SW., with thin fog. Saw a brig steering SE. 

Monday, September zoth.—Calm and cloudy. At 4 p. m. started the fires 
and began to steam, steering SW. by S. Furled all sail. At 1a. m. fresh breeze 
from the NW. and thin fog. Set the jib and fore-topsail. At 3 a. m. a strong 
gale and a very heavy sea; stopped steaming and banked the fires. At1o a.m. 
more moderate. Land in sight, Cape. Lat. 52° 12’ N., Long. 54° 57’ W. 

Tuesday, Sept. 21st.—Fresh wind from N. NW. and thin fog. Steering S. SW. 
All drawing sail set. Saw a barque and brig steering north. At 11.30 p. m. 
tacked the ship, heading S. SE. Light wind from SW. Lat. 51° 33’ N., Long. 
54° 42’ W. 

Wednesday, Sept. 22d.—During the first part of the day light wind from the 
SW. Heading S. SE. Later, strong wind with fog and mist. Reefed mainsail 
and fore-topsail. Saw a brig heading SE. 

Thursday, Sept. 23d.—Strong wind from the SW., with rain. The rain in- 
creases. At 3 a. m. light wind from the NW. and fog. Made all sail, steering 
SO Wee) lat icinor sion iN Wongears2nn2o awe 

Friday, Sept. 24th.—Early in the day light wind from WNW., thin fog and 
rain. Steering S. SW., all sail set. Saw a large iceberg to the north. Island in 
sight, about eight miles distant. Land ahead on the starboard bow. . 

Saturday, Sept. 25th.—Strong wind from NW., with squalls of rain and hail. 
Steaming along the land, all sail set. At 8 p. m. took in sail and half an hour 
later came to anchor in St. John’s Harbor. 

Sunday, Sept. 26th.— During the first part of the day strong wind from NW. 
Later, wind light from the east with rain. 

Monday, Sept. 27th.—Wind continues from the east, with rain. Crew set- 
ting up rigging, etc. 


LOG OF THE STEAMER *“ GULNARE.” 495 


Tuesday, Sept. 28th.—Strong wind from the south. At 9 a. m. took up our 
anchor and steamed in to the wharf to get on coal. 

Wednesday, Sept. 29th.—Overcast, with fresh breeze from the east. Em- 
ployed in coaling the ship ; hired some hands to assisst. 

Thursday, Sept. 30oth.—Fresh breeze from the south. At 4 p. m. took a tug 
and dropped into the stream. LEighty-three tons of coal on board. Three hands 
came aboard to work their passage to the States. All ready for sea. The day 
closes with heavy gales and rain. 

Friday, Oct. 1st.—The weather cleared early in the morning. The Mail boat 
arrived at 9.30 a. m. and after getting our mail, took up the anchor and steamed 
out to sea. One seaman and one fireman deserted. Found a stowaway on board 
and sent him ashore. 

Saturday, Oct. 2d, 1880.— Weather fine and a heavy seaon. At 3p. m. 
had to stop to get up steam. Saw several vessels. Later, a fine breeze from the 
NW. All sails set and steaming. Steering W. SW. Crew employed in washing 
Bimpsweten wate 45°48) Ne, Longs i54c04o Wi: 

Sunday, Oct. 3d.—Fine weather, with light wind from NW. Steering W. 
by S. All drawing sail set and steaming. Saw several sails going east. Coal 
burning better to-day. 

Monday, Oct. 4th.—During the early part of the day a light wind from the 
east. Steaming W. SW. Later, wind strong from the south. Furled the fore- 
top sail and reefed the main sail. Lat. 44° 7’ N., Long. 63° 48’ W. 

Tuesday, Oct. 5th.—Fresh wind from the SE., which continues all day. 
Steering S. SW., using steam and sail. Crew employed in washing ship, etc. 
Saw four sails. Lat. 42° 7’ N., Long. 64° 46’ W. 

Wednesday, Oct. 6th.—During the first part of the day fresh wind from the 
S. SE., and cloudy. At 1 p. m., changed the course to SW. by S., and made 
all sail, At 4 p. m., light squalls from the west. Took in and furled all sails. 
A little later set fore and aft sails. Heavy rain and thick fog. Steering SW. by 
W. At ro, cleared off and the wind shifted to W. NW., blowing heavily. Lat. 
41° 39’ N., Long. 68° 50’ W. 

Thursday, Oct. 7th.—Clear and pleasant, with strong wind from W. NW. 
Changed the course to S. by E., and made all sail. The compass has carried the 
ship two points north of her true course. Later, the wind increased, steering 
SW. by south., fore and aft sails set. At 4 a. m. passed a steamer bearing east. 
Bacat..35. 35 N:, Long. 69° 55’ W. 

Friday, Oct. 8th.—Weather fine and a strong wind from the W. SW. Steer- 
ing SW. with all sails set. At 4:30 p. m. wind hauled to west; furled the square 
sails. Saw several ships going east. At 2a. m. a light breeze from the NE. Set 
Palivsanle Wate signa Ne. Longe 74g lou). 

Saturday, Oct. 9th —Fine weather, with light breeze from E. NE. Steering 
S. by W., using steam and sail. Ati a.m. made Cape Charles Light. Close 
reefed the sails and headed the ship south. At 5:30 kept off W. SW., and ran 


} 

A496 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. | 

for three hours. Saw a barge and schooner, both bound for the bay. Later, | 

strong gales and a heavy sea. At noon Cape Henry in sight, four miles distant. | 

Sunday, Oct. roth.—Strong gales from the east, all drawing sail set. Steam-| | 

ing up the bay. At 1:45 p. m. took upa pilot. At 3 p. m. furled all sail, wind | 

strong from the N. NE. Anchored off Smith’s point, at 12:30 a. m., and at SIX | 
took a river pilot and proceeded up the river. Weather pleasant. 

Monday, Oct. 11th.—Steaming up the river. At 7:30 p. m. came to anchor 


| 
| 
at Washington. 


IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES IN MEXICO. 


M. Charnay, now in Mexico, has written the following letter to the Z7vaz 

a’ Union: 
TuLu, Aug. 28th, 1880. 

Mr. EpiTtor:—Since the telegram which I had the honor to send you on 
the subject of my discovery, I have succeeded in uncovering a Toltec dwelling, 
of which I write you. To compare Tulu, capital of the Toltecs, to the Roman 
city is not simply metaphorical; like her she has been buried long centuries, less 
numerous, it is true; but the Indian (Mexican) Pompeii, though less ancient, 
is none the less interesting, for she reveals a world unknown, and brings to 
science and history documents altogether new. ‘Take notice that I do not <laim, 
in any manner, to have discovered Tulu, but I am happy in having been the first 
person to make intelligent excavations in it. You will judge of the originality of 
my labors, when I tell you that this Toltec habitation, exhumed to-day from its 
burial of ten centuries, is composed of twenty-four apartments, two cisterns, 
twelve corridors, and fifteen small stairways, being altogether of extraordinary 
architecture and possessed of intense interest. One thing more important, and 
which will puzzle all tradition. I have found some bones of gigantic ruminants 
(of bisons perhaps), the tibias of which are 0.35 (metres) in length and o.10 in 
thickness, and a femur, the head of which measures 0.14 in length. This is not 
all; in the midst of samples of every kind of baked earth, from the largest sort, 
such as bricks, tiles and gutters, to the smaller kind serving for domestic use, I 
have found some enamels, some porcelain ware, and something still more remark- 
able ; I have found the glass neck of a bottle, ornamented with the colors of an- 
cient Roman glassware. Are these Asiatic keepsakes, or original products ? 
The question is neither new nor the less worthy of the attention of specialists. 
We have a surprise on the subject of Toltec industry, or a solution of their origin. 
I make no commentary, leaving to others the care of destroying the consequences 
of these important documents. As for me, I work, dig, make collections, and 
reserve my opinions. “3 59 *k 

DESIRE CHARNAY. 


—Translated from L’ 2xploration by J. F. 


NORTHERN PACIFIC COAL FIELDS WEST OF THE MISSOURI. 497 


NORTHERN PACIFIC COAL FIELDS WEST OF THE MISSOURI. 


From the best information we can obtain, one of the most extensive coal 
fields on the globe is located west of Missouri river, and along the line of the 
Northern Pacific R. R. The first outcropping of this deposit is about twenty- 
six miles west of Mandan, commonly called the Coal Banks; but, so far as pros- 
pected, only a three foot vein has been struck. This vein is a lignite—when first 
exposed—burning with a clear flame, developing somewhat in combustion the 
characteristics of cannel and bituminous, but not so good as the Pennsylvania or 
Ohio coal. This is the quality of all the coal undoubtedly in this whole region of 
country. Forty miles west of Mandan is the extensive mine of Mr. E. H. Bly, 
proprietor of the Sheridan House, Bismarck, who prospected a large section of 
country on the line of the railroad last spring. This mine is a seven foot vein, 
thirty feet below the level of the railroad grade, and dips about this distance in 
4oo. Over this is a four foot vein, and still another above this corresponding 
with the level at the Coal Banks of three feet. At Green river, 107 miles west of 
Mandan, is a monster vein of coal of thirteen feet. Mr. Bly in his explorations 
discovered numerous veins of coal from three to seven feet in thickness, and 
claims that anywhere in this great area in’the bend of the Missouri, to and includ- 
ing the Bad Lands, on the same level, the same veins may be struck. On the 
south side of the Missouri river, hear Fort Stevenson, a subterranean fire has been 
burning coal for years. Even the Indians have no knowledge of how long, but 
by report, extending far back, making there miniature Bad Lands like those west 
of the Green river, where the fires are extinct. There is no doubt that the so- 
called Bad Lands were underlaid with extensive layers of coal, and that upon 
burning out the surface settled down, leaving the peculiar characteristics which 
constitute their present formation. This is at least the accepted theory with those 
who have seen the process going on in northern Dakota. The question of coal 
for fuel, for all ages to come, and at cheap rates too, for the treeless prairies of 
the Great Northwest is settled—and permanently settled. There is enough for 
all. Mr. Bly has already contracted to get out 25,000 tons the coming season. 
These coal lands can be purchased of the Government at $20 per acre, and the 
Railroad Company will sell at the same price. One thing is certain, that no one 
man or company can ever monopolize this busines. There is too much of it. 
There will be coal on every 160 acres for 200 miles west and 200 miles south of 
the Missouri river—in western Dakota.—Sismarck Tribune. 


Large quantities of pottery are manufactured in Brazil from the hard, silici- 
ous bark of the caraipe tree. In the process, the ashes of the bark are powdered 


and mixed with the purest clay that can be obtained from the beds of the rivers— 


ee a 


this kind being preferred, as it takes up a larger quantity of the ashes, and thus 
peserees a stronger kind of ware. 


- 98 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


CORR ESEONDENCE: 


SCHWATKA’S SLEDGE JOURNEY. 
(Copy furnished by the Author.) 


2 ADDISON GARDENS, KENSINGTON, Nov. 6th, 1880. 

My Lorp :—In the brief account of Lieutenant Schwatka’s sledge journey to 
King William’s island, by Mr. C. R. Markham, in the November number of the 
Proceedings of the Geographical Society, my name is mentioned, but in such a 
manner that I feel entitled to be permitted to offer some explanation. 

It is said that ‘‘several relics of the Franklin Expedition were bought by 
Dr. Rae in 1854 from the natives and sent home.” 

What Mr. Markham, with that propensity for unfairness for which he is 
notorious, is pleased to call ‘‘ several relics,” not sent, but brought, home by me, 
consisted of more than seventy articles, among them twenty-three silver spoons 
and forks, nine pieces of silver watch cases, one case of a silver-gilt chronometer 
and dial, two pieces gold watch cases, two pieces gold watch chain, sovereigns, 
half-crowns, shillings, etc. On some of these articles were the initials or crests 
of thirteen of the officers (there were sixteen officers in all) and the names of 
two of the men, ‘‘ Hickey” and ‘‘ Fowler.” 

In addition to these was a cross of the Hanoverian Order of Knighthood, 
and a small silver plate with Sir John Franklin, K. C. H., engraved upon it. 

These relics are deposited in the painted hall at Greenwich Hospital, and 
taken altogether are, with the exception of the record obtained by the Fox Expe- 
dition of 1858-9, equal, at least, in importance to all that has been brought home 
by subsequent explorers, and were sufficient, in combination with my plain, 
unvarnished report, to elicit from the Lords of the Admiralty a letter by their 
Secretary, dated 24th of October, 1854, in which the following paragraph occurs : 
‘¢T have to request you will inform Dr. Rae of their Lordships’ high approval of 
the services of Dr. Rae, who has set at rest the unfortunate fate of Sir John Frank- 
lin and his party.” (See letter No. 4, page 834, Arctic blue book 1855.) 

As regards the more painful part of the information obtained by me; had 
any one heard and seen as I did, the Eskimos tell what they had to say, they 
could not, zf zmpartial, have failed to believe that they spoke the truth. Had I 
not reported a/ that was told me, my men would have done so, and aid, and | 
might have been justly accused of withholding a part. I found on my return 
from my fifty-six days’ sledge journey, that the three men left in charge at 
Repulse Bay—none of whom could understand or speak a word of the language— 
had been already informed by natives, who had been for some time occupied 
near them, of all the most important sad details by pantomime or dumb show. 


SCHWATKAS SLEDGE ,OURNEY, 499 


I may have added that these strangers, twelve strong men, some of them 
from the West, had lived on the most friendly terms with my three fellows (who 
had constantly to be separated one from the other) and had not stolen or attempted 
to steal a single article, although some guns, boxes of saws, knives, files, daggers» 
etc., were lying on the rocks, covered and protected by only an oil cloth. Had 
these Eskimos been so inclined, they could have easily murdered my men, 
destroyed our boat, and carried all our property away beyond my reach, and left 
us 1N a very precarious position, as I was not placed as Hall and Schwatka were, 
namely, within a few days’ journey of a ship, but 700 or 800 miles distant from 
any assistance. Had they murdered any of Franklin’s people, as has been 
hinted, would they not have done the same to my men, where the temptation 
must have been very great ? 

We are given an extract from the writings of Admiral Shevard Osborn, as 
follows: ‘‘ We know that the surmises and assertions of savages are false.” This 
may be true of many savages—especially those who have come in contact with 
civilization—but it is not so with the Eskimos, for my own experience and that 

of men who have seen much of these people at Labrador, East Main and Church- 
ill lead me to think that it would be unjust, nay, almost an insult, to the poor 
‘‘Tnnuit ” to class him with the average Englishman for untruthfulness. Were it 
convenient to do so, I could give some striking illustrations of what I state; yet 
no further proof seems wanting than the disgraceful disclosures of bribery, false- 
hood and corruption at present being brought to light in connection with recent 
elections of certain Members of Parliament, among men from whom something 
better was to have been expected. 

_ The cravings of hunger become as irrepressibly painful to some men as the 
irresistible desire for alcohol by the drunkard or for opium by the opium-eater, 
both of whom know to what misery their excesses must lead, yet they cannot ab- 
stain. ‘These failings are certainly a disgrace and reproach to those possessed of 
them, whereas to have recourse to the most repulsive of food, in a few of many 
cases of starving men, when the craving amounts to a kind of madness, is as- 
suredly a misfortune, rather than a reproach. Had some of my dearest friends 
been among the Franklin party, I should have felt bound, in honesty, to tell the 
story as I told it. 

I have myself witnessed this painful craving for food in one or two cases 
when provisions ran short, and the most objectionable food would have been 
eaten, although I never had this terrible feeling myself, even when forced to ‘‘chew 
up” pieces of skin and ptarmigan bones up to the beak and down to the toe-nails. 
It is further stated that one of the officers seen alive was a ‘‘ Doctor.” This is 
probable enough, but the evidence on which Lieut. Schwatka founds this belief 
is envious, and possibly not quite reliable. The Eskimos told him that the word 

-Dook-dook was spoken by one of the white men, ‘‘an officer,” and this was in- 
terpreted to mean ‘‘ Doctor.” Now Dook-dook or Took-took is the Eskimo name 
for ‘‘ deer,” and was reported to me, in 1854, to be used in this meaning, when 


500 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


one of the white men, ‘‘a chief,” was attempting to tell the natives that they 
were going to the great land to the south to shoot deer—thus: ‘‘ Took-took-pung 


—imitating the report of fire-arms and pointing to his gun.” This is the note I 
find in my original journal: Which is the right interpretation, ‘‘ Doctor” or 
ecMeer 2? 


The date of the white man having been seen is given by Lieut. Schwatka as 
1849; whereas, the record found by McClintock shows clearly that the date of leay- 
ing the ships was April 1848. How Schwatka or anyone else could get a date with 
any degree of accuracy from the Eskimos after a lapse of thirty years, lam ata 
loss to understand, and equally so, why these poor suffering men, if alive in 1849, 
should have remained on King Williams Island or on the main land northwest 
of Backs River, instead of embarking in their boat or boats and pushing south- 
ward on the open water that it is reasonable to suppose must have existed some 
time during the summer of 1848. 

My opinion is that the expectations of these unfortunate men, were vainly 
founded on the belief that the ice would break up and that the Back River weuld 
be navigable much earlier than was really the case; such opinion being formed 
by them on a knowledge of the breaking up of the ice and navigability of the 
Coppermine River, 20 degrees further west, which occurs a fortnight or three 
weeks earlier than at the Republic Bay, or at the Back River. A detention of three 
weeks would cause, in all likelihood, a fatal and unexpected expenditure of provis- 
ions and strength. 

Even were it true, as a writer on the Zzmes says, that six months or even a 
years’ rations might have been saved out of the three years stock on board—a 
most unlikely thing—it is very evident that however much provisions were on 
board, the quantity taken on tne sledge journey would be limited to the amount 
the poor fellows were able to haul or carry, and when that was nearly or wholly 
expended, they would not be in a very fit condition to go perhaps 140 miles back 
to the ship for more. 

When I was at Republic Bay in 1854, the Eskimos had heard nothing of the 
ship-said to have sank near Point Grant, nor did they know anything of the white 
men found in 1859, (five years afterward) on King Williams Island by Hobson 
and McClintock, because the many articles found in the boat would have been 
removed and the boat broken up, as was afterward done. 

The only white men I heard of were the ‘‘at least forty” who reached the 
low, flat shore of the main land, about a long day’s sledge journey with dogs, 
northwest of the mouth of Back River. These men hauled one or two boats 
with them, were making very short days’ marches, pitched tents to sleep in, and 
were all looking thin, and were probably the last survivors of the ill-fated expedi- 
tion. 

It was from the place where these dead were found that all the relics brought 
home by me were taken; it was here also where ten or twelve books were seen, 


) 


* The Eskimos have a frequent practice of introducing themselves by patting their breasts and telling their 
names. They may have thought that the white chief was doing the same. 


SCHWATKA'S SLEDGE JOURNEY. 501 


which being for no use, were given to the children to play with and torn up and 
destroyed.* 

The Eskimos (in 1854) said it was curious that although sledges had been 
seen with the party when traveling, and their tracks on the ice noticed, no sledges 
were found where the dead men were, although the boat or boats were there. I 
asked if there were any signs of fire. They replied: Yes. I then explained that 
as the white men had reached the mainland ‘‘Noo Nah” at no great distance 
from the river they wished to ascend, they did not require the sledges any more, 
and probably used them for fuel. The explanation seemed satisfactory, as certi- 
fied by a bright look of intelligence. To us the absence of the sledges would ap- 
pear of slight importance, but to an Eskimo a large wooden sledge is a grand 
prize; hence, their absence puzzled them. 

I have now to apologize for troubling your lordship with this very long letter, 
a penalty imposed in consequence of the high position you so worthily hold as 
President of the Royal Geographical Society. I have the honor to be 

Yours respectfully, [Signed. ] JOHN RAE. 

The President Royal Geographical Society. 


Note to the Editor of the Kansas City REVIEW. 

Two of the instances of falsehood, (both told with the laudable (?) object 
of exalting the position of the men and officers of her majesty’s navy, at the 
expense of others who have explored on the Arctic coasts), I think it now con- 
venient to add to the foregoing letter. ‘The author of the Northwest passage by 
McClure, (McClure himself is not responsible) an Admiral in the navy, not long 
dead, filled a page of the book with a notice of the Arctic work of myself and my 
Hudson’s Bay voyagers, every word of which is false, and willfully so, because 
this man was informed that his statements were erroneous and proof given to that 
effect, yet he refused to make a correction in the second edition of the work. 
Another Admiral who not very long ago was hydrographer to the admiralty 
and is still living, stated plainly to a very large meeting of our geograpical society, 
that no Arctic explorers, except those of Her Majesty’s service, had ever done 
any good geographical work!! At the time that this statement was made, five 
gentlemen, having no connection with the English navy, had received the highest 
honor that could be bestowed for their Arctic researches—namely : 

Thomas Simpson—Founders’ Medal 1839, for less han half his Arctic work 
accomplished at that date. 

John Rae—Founders’ Medal in 1852, who did nearly as much more work 
afterward. His survey of Wollaston and Victoria Lands were found so much 
more accurate than the subsequent survey of Captain Collinson, that his survey 
was not only adopted on the admiralty charts—names and all, but was used to 
illustrate Collinson’s report in the Arctic blue book. 

Dr. Kane—Founders’ Medal, 1856. 

* This story is repeated to Schwatka exactly as it was told to me twenty-five years before. 


IV—33 


502 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


Dr. Hayes—Patrons’ Medal, 1867. 

Professor Nordenskjold—Founders’ Medal, 1869. 

Here we find four of the above five names, obtaining the Founders’ or first 
gold medal for their Arctic work, in precedence of distinguished explorers in other 
parts of the world. 

There can be only one of two conclusions that must be come to; either this 
Admiral must have said what he knew to be false, or the council of the Royal 
Geographical Society, probably as just and as competent a tribunal as is to be 
found in the world, has given its decision unjustly and foolishly to men of whom 
they had little personal knowledge—for Simpson and Rae had lived half their 
lives in the wilds of Hudson’s Bay, whilst Doctors Kane and Hayes were Ameri- 
cans. 

Here are two instances of direct untruths, told with a very paltry and mean 
object, by men holding the highest position in our navy, yet these very men, for- 
sooth, accuse the Eskimos of falsehood, cf surmise and assertion. J. RAE. 


THE OLD IN NEW MEXICO. 


SanTA Fe., N. M., Oct. 10, 1880. 

The trip to New Mexico, which, within the memory of very young men, 
was a three months’ toilsome journey from Kansas City, in ‘‘ prairie schooners ” 
drawn by diminutive mules or broad horned oxen, is now a matter of romance as 
one glides along over the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, and gazes out 
of the windows of his Pullman car upon lovely prairies, well cultivated farms, 
herds of blooded cattle and sheep, and searches in vain for that zgnzs fatuus of 
of geographers, the Great American Desert. 

Without rehearsing the well known story of the attractions and advantages 
of Kansas, and the boundless mineral wealth of Colorado, we will at once take 
up that of New Mexico, which territory, as some writer has aptly said, ‘‘is 
entered through a hole in the ground,” meaning the tunnel through the Raton 
Mountains, at whose mouth runs the boundary line between Colorado and New 
Mexico. This tunnel is 2,000 feet long, through the hardest of granite, and is a 
fine specimen of engineering enterprise and success. 

From the tunnel we pass swiftly to the plains of New Mexico, and over an 
almost level road, we descend in clear view of the snow-clad Mexican Cordilleras in 
the distance, and the nearer foot-hills, often capped in fantastic shapes with 
pyramids, and cones, and abrupt steeps. 

We pass several Mexican hamlets, from which the ever-curious, tawny-faced 
women and children, dressed in bright colors or in plain black, look out from 
their abodes in huts upon the passing wonder. And it is indeed a wonder to see 
a long, full train of cars, with Pullman sleepers, traversing the ancient plains of 
the Pueblos, the realm of the Montezumas. About noon we cross miles of lava 
beds, whose black, broken masses cover the ground; and, at a distance to the 
west, we see the walls of a mighty mountain-crater, with the side open to the 


THE OLD IN NEW MEXICO. 503 


east, from which the melted torrent evidently flowed. Ordinarily this plain is 
covered with a fair growth of a very nutritious bunch-grass, which affords pastur- 
age to vast herds of cattle and sheep, but owing to the total failure of the summer 
rains, there was no grass crop this year nor vegetation of any other kind. As 
an example of the truth of the adage that ‘‘it never rains but it pours,” the 
rainfall for the month of August, 1880, at Las Vegas, was eighteen inches. All 
the settled portions of the country are traversed by irrigating ditches, which are 
now as dry as the plains, but which show the traveler how farming is conducted 
here in ordinary years. Little patches of wheat and potatoes can be raised, by 
careful and patient tending, where a sufficient water supply can be had for irrigat- 
ing purposes, but a farmer of Illinois, Missouri or Kansas can raise a bushel of 
grain and ship it into the Territory cheaper than a New Mexican farmer can raise 
the same quantity under the most favorable conditions,. This fact settles the 
agricultural status of the Territory, and proves that New Mexico, as well as 
Colorado, must always depend for its bread and provisions upon the great agri- 
cultural district embraced within the limits of Illinois, Missouri, Iowa and Kansas. 
The people of all this vast mineral belt in the Rocky Mountains must inevitably 
be fed by the great agricultural States of the West. 

The mineral resources of New Mexico, however, are practically inexhausti- 
ble, and though the Americans have only just begun to invade the Territory, 
discoveries of gold and silver are reported every day, and in every part 
of the country. The character of the mineral deposits, in all sections of 
the Territory, is such as to render considerable capital necessary in order to work 
the mines with any degree of success. 

The towns of New Mexico are curiosities to the American. Las Vegas, for 
instance, is a place of about 5,000 people—or more properly, two places of about 
2,500 each, for it is, in fact, two distinct towns, thoroughly dissimilar in every 
particular. The ‘‘new town” is on the railroad, has broad streets running at 
right angles, its houses are of frame, generally painted white, and the place has a 
familiar American look, while the people are all Americans. The ‘‘ old town,”’ 
situated about a mile from the road, is different in every aspect, is inhabited by a 
different kind of people, and looks as though it belonged to an entirely different 
race and age. Like all the other towns in the Territory, except the three or four 
that have been put up by the Americans since the railroad came in, it is built 
around a public square, or plaza ; the business of the town is all done on the four 
sides of the square; narrow streets, or roads, diverge from each corner of the 
square and lead out into the country, but these, like the cross streets, where 
there are any, are not more than twenty-five feet wide, are without sidewalks, and 
are alleys rather than streets. All the houses—business houses as well as resi- 
dences—are built of adobes—sun dried brick—are one story high, with walls 
usually about three feet thick, and with flat roofs covered with earth. All the 
business houses are on the Plaza, while on the alleys or roads leading out from 
this the residences are situated. 


504 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


At Las Vegas (the Meadows) we took a carriage for the famous Hot Springs, 
five miles distant; and, passing directly through the old Mexican city, which 
still divides with Santa Fe the trade of Northern New Mexico, and which com- 
mands the bulk of the enormous wool business, we made our way past several 
ranch-villages belonging to the old and aristocratic Baca family, to the cool and 
beautiful cafion in which the springs are located, and were soon domiciled in the 
excellent hotel there. As these springs are worthy of especial mention, and are 
not generally known at the East, I will devote some space to their description. 
The springs are twenty-two in number, and are all found within an area of about 
ten acres, near the left branch of the Gallinas River, and perhaps half a mile 
from the mouth of the cafion. They have been, from the time ‘‘ whence the 
memory of man runneth not to the contrary,” a famous sanitary resort among 
the Castilian, Mexican, and Indian races inhabiting this region. 

These springs rise not far from the mouth of a beautiful cafion, which opens 
upon the plains four miles above the city of Las Vegas, and from that point 
winds romantically into the Spanish Range of the Rocky Mountains, the latter 
extending one hundred and fifty miles southward from the Colorado line into 
New Mexico. The Springs have an altitude of 6,400 feet—the elevation which 
has made Colorado such a favorite resort for those affected with pulmonary com- 
plaints—with a decided advantage over some of the northern resorts as to latitude 
and health-giving climate. The character of the waters is similar to that of the 
famous Hot Springs of Arkansas, as shown by the following chemical analysis, 
made by Prof. F. V. Hayden, United States Geologist : 


CONSTITUENTS. SPRING No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
Soditine Carbonate sir iieiiagy elie) tether enlarge Togs 5.00 
Calcium Carbonate, ie 6 
Magnesium Carbonate, ray ine Bina 
Sogn Suliphatery Siena imine nye iile! yest hel Angle 15.43 16.21 
Soaimm s@hlonide rons cues So aemusied ail i.) alti iamait nie 24.37 27.34 
JEOEISSNON TY ha RANI MAGS a ome hela Glee Jy Oa eMer aC es Trace. Trace. 
TL OM aad SEEM UE ERM eA atc to meat G ", Strong trace. Strong trace. Strong trace. 
Silvere VXcid WAVE ey ie Mei Meet mae ial es el ie EO Trace. Zuo 
OCHA Se Say sar ena re ce ena tran a ge Date os © airace: Trace. 
SEOMMIMC ue Neer ae eet Pot enicenn sides niall ell ie . Trace. Trace. Trace: 
diemperature .)2))/.) 2 CHT ee heats ie pinay eS Omit 123k T2395: 


Fifty miles from ies Vegas we come to Baughl’s station, where we stop over 
to explore the ruins of the Pecos church and village (described in the November 
number of the Review). After spending nearly three days in this interesting 
work, we again take the train and move on to Santa Fe. The scenery along the 
whole line, from the Raton tunnel to Santa Fe, with its charming pine-decked 
valleys and hill sides, its distant purple ranges of mountains and its occasional 
snow-clad peaks, is very beautiful, while such special objects as the Raton Pass, 
the Moro Cafion and the Apache Pass are grand and striking. 

Santa Fe ‘is about eighteen miles off the main line of the A., T. &S. F. 
R. R., and is reached by a branch road which has some remarkably steep grades 


THE OLD IN NEW MEXICO. 505 


This old town is probable the oldest in the United States, having been a populous 
place when the Spaniards found it in 1542. Its citizens claim that it was then 
known as Cicuyé, but other authorities believe that the old Pecos village was the 
true site of Cicuyé. Schoolcraft makes no doubt of this, and gives, in his 
history of the North-American Indians, an engraving of the old church and 
surroundings under the title of ‘‘Cicuyé or Pecos.” 

The city lies on the edge of a basin of the mountains, and viewed from the 
summit of a neighboring peak, looks like a vast collection of brick kilns. The 
houses are mostly of adobe, one-storied, squarely built, and the smoke curling 
from their tops assists the appearance named. The Santa Fe river—called river 
by courtesy, for the stream is no wider than you can leap across—flows through 
its midst. 

Its early name was ‘‘the city of San Francisco Asis de Santa Fe,” Saint 
Francis being the patron saint. Later it was called ‘* La Ville Real de Santa Fe,” 
which has been reduced to simple Santa Fe, ‘‘ Holy Faith.” Its population now 
is about 6,000. Its latitude is 35 deg., 41 min., its longitude 106 deg., 10 min., 
and its altitude 7,000 feet. Its time is one hour, fifty-six minutes and four 
seconds slower than Washington time. 

Among the objects of interest is the Governor’s palace, which was erected 
previous to 1581, from the material of the old town, one story in height and some 
two hundred feet long, with a piazza along its whole front. It has the appear- 
ance of an adobe structure whitened with lime wash. It is nearly two hundred 
years older than Independence Hall in Philadelphia, and is to this time occupied 
by the Governor of the Territory. Another attractive object is the San Miguel 
church, also built of adobes, and more than two hundred and fifty years old. 
Across the street is the oldest dwelling house in Santa Fe, said to have been built 
before the visit of Coronado, in 1540. It is of adobe, 60 feet long, 12 high and 
15 wide, and is still occupied by several families. The Bishop’s Cathedral is now 
being constructed in modern style, and incloses the old adobe church which will 
be torn away when the Cathedral is finished. 

Guadalupe chapel is another relic of the past, being an adobe building with 
smooth walls, and surmounted by a diminishing tower formed of mud pillars and 
containing an antique bell. 

Everything about Santa Fe except the railroad and the plaza, which is 
planted with shade trees and inclosed by a neat fence, is antiquated and foreign. 

At Albuquerque we strike the Rio Grande, and along its narrow valley, by 
means of irrigating canals, the various cereals are raised, as well as apples, peaches 
and grapes, the last named being of very superior quality. 

Near Alamilla station, about fifty miles below Albuquerque, is a Pueblo 
village consisting of a hundred or more huts. Close by is an immense lava rock 
profusely decorated with rude drawings of animals, boats, etc., and in a cave 
near are paintings in black, red and yellow colors representing, among other 


506 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


things, a human figure shooting lightning from his mouth upon the head of another 
who seems to be prostrated and stunned by it. 

The whole region tells of a civilization which was, in its day, far superior to 
that of the present, and nearly every day new discoveries are made by the hardy 
prospectors that would delight the archzologist’s heart. (CE 


SOME IN WWE KE MMS ClO LAIN YZ, 


AMERICA’S RIVER SYSTEM ARTIFICIALLY DEVELOPED. 


Has any fanciful person, with a commercial turn of mind, and with a deeper 
interest in the development of the great trade avenues which nature has marked 
out than in the highways constructed wholly by human art and mechanism, ever 
taken the trouble to imagine what the river system of America will be when 
perfected as it may be, and as it doubtless will be, when the lapse of centuries 
shall make this the populous country of the world and masterful in art, commerce, 
and all science ? 

To map out in fancy all the schemes which must seem not only feasible, 
but likely to be accomplished as time passes—unless a new motive power be 
discovered which shall vastly cheapen all present modes of transportation—cannot 
but seem Quixotic to the ordinary and unfanciful observer, while, in fact, their 
accomplishment would not embody a tithe of the extraordinary features that have 
been contained in the modern application of steam, and the utilization of many 
other recent expositions of science. Probably no fact was ever developed which 
long anterior to that development did not have its counterpart in fancy, and, 
therefore, no picture which plain natural law does not declare to be outside of 
the realms of the possible, should be thought an exaggeration—a mere vision, 
possessing no phase possible of fulfillment. 

If, therefore, any enthusiast be heard to prophecy that the United States— 
which will then doubtless include all of North America—will one day be traversed 
by steamships from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the lakes of British 
America, the great lakes, the eastern rivers, and the streams running down the 
western mountains of the Gulf, he should not be condemned as a fool or a 
visionary without a close examination of the map of North America, and without 
indulging in serious speculation as to what engineering, in its wonderful progress, 
is capable of accomplishing. 

Let such an enthusiast have full sway, and he will explain to his audience 
first how the rivers of the East may be utilized for steam navigation. New 
England has several rivers which might be improved so that navigation would be 
extended much farther into the interior than at this time. In New York the 
Hudson, with its broad expanse, rolls down from the beautiful lakes which lie 


AMERICA’S RIVER SYSTEM ARTIFICIALLY DEVELOPED. 507 


adjacent to the St. Lawrence, and these in turn have streams flowing into them 
which could be easily made a connecting link between the river which is the 
pride of New York and that greater one which carries the waters of our vast 
inland seas through British territory to the Atlantic Ocean. 

Coming to Pennsylvania, we find a vast field for the exercise of that theoreti- 
cal river improvement which may one day become a fact. The Delaware and 
Schuylkill could be utilized to a far greater extent than at present, though they 
could not be transformed into important connecting links with other waters, as 
some of their sister rivers may be. The Susquehanna offers the most splendid 
inducements to the theorist. Its head waters lie so near the smaller lakes of New 
York, which might easily be connected with the great lakes, that any one can see 
what a grand commercial avenue it could be made. If its own waters, by judi- 
cious conservation, should be found insufficient for the use of vessels, an ample 
supply could be had from the lakes, which would be tapped. Again, the Sus- 
quehanna could be wedded to the waters flowing to the Gulf by the route pro- 
posed by General Harry White, or by some other way which a survey would 
discover to be feasible. Any who have traversed the line of the Pennsylvania 
Railroad will doubtless know how readily the waters of the Juniata and Cone- 
baugh could be united, the former leading to the Susquehanna, and the latter to 
the Allegheny by way of the Kiskeminitas. 

Again, the Allegheny, with its great volume could easily be made a connect- 
ing link between the Ohio and the great lakes, first by tapping Chautauqua Lake 
to mingle with its head waters, and then by uniting Chautauqua with Erie by a 
canal of eight or ten miles in length. This could be made one of the most 
magnificent water ways in the country, and would bea great avenue for com- 
merce. 

There are several other schemes besides the one mentioned for joining the 
Atlantic with the Gulf waters. One contemplates a union of the head waters of 
the Youghiogheny and the Potomac, another the connection of the Monongahela 
with another branch of the same stream, another a junction of the Kanawha 
with headers flowing into the Atlantic. All of these schemes look to the grand 
desideratum of uniting the navigation of the western rivers with that of the 
Atlantic Ocean. Of course, before this is done, or before such a brilliant inter- 
marriage of rivers could be made to bear fruit, the Ohio, at least, if not the 
Mississippi, would have to be improved, so thatit could be utilized at other times 
than when the spring freshets, the summer solstice, or the summer equinox, 
furnish a sufficient supply of water to float a flatboat laden with coal. 

Going west to the Mississippi, examination of its northern course shows how 
readily, in a day of great engineering, that Father of Waters might be connected 
with the greatest lake in the world, thus completing a grand avenue for commerce 
between the North Atlantic and the vast agricultural regions of the South and 
West. West of the Mississippi the powerful mind wiil not lack for similar food 
for speculation in tracing the possibilities of uniting the waters of the Missouri, 


508 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Red, Rio Grande, and other rivers, with those of streams having their origin high 
up on the Pacific water shed. 

Those interested in these matters, and others not immediately or practically 
interested, may find instruction and diversion in an examination of a map clearly 
defining the rivers of North America, and estimating the work necessary for 
uniting them to form a network of avenues for steam navigation extending over 
the whole country. It is a work for centuries, though, and not for years—we 
had almost said for eternity, and not for time. Yet we can hardly avoid feeling 
that this is a part of the America of the future. When the great railway lines ar€ 
all completed, and there are several of what are, by way of distinction, called 
‘*competing lines”? between the Atlantic and the Pacific, and between the far 
North and the far South, and when the railway kings of a half century or a 
century hence ‘‘ pool their issues’ to fleece the public, then that public, three 
times as numerous and as wealthy as.now, will begin to realize, if not before, that 
there must be some method of transportation of freight which will check the 
action of railway companies in imposing onerous tariffs. These modes of trans- 
portation will necessitate the employment of either water or air, and as the latter 
element does not promise richly in this particular, the development of rival 
methods will doubtless be confined to the water. 

The keenly-observant reader may see in all this speculation a satire upon 
river improvement, and when it is considered how the government temporizes in 
the matter of river improvement the person who indulges in a fancy so far 
extended beyond that which is at presenta subject for somuch discussion and so lit- 
tle action, may well be accused of attempting a satire. But we believe that the public 
mind will wake in the near future to the advisability of great improvements in our 
water ways, and that, as the years now far distant roll by, the increased wealth, 
population, and energy of America will bring about the perfection of the system 
for steam navigation which we have fairly outlined, and which now seems a mere 
figment of the imagination.— River Record. 


THE SUCCESSOR OF GENERAL MYER. 


As yet President Hayes has given no indication of his purpose with regard 
to the choice of a successor for General Myer as Chief of the Signal Service. It 
is stated, however, on apparently good authority, that the position is to be given 
to one of two or three regular army officers, who have never had any connection 
with the bureau, and who strive for the place as a pleasant and easy berth rather 
than as a post of great capacity for useful and eminent service. The President 
will make a great mistake if he allows the Signal Bureau to lose any part of its 
usefulness, and by putting it in charge of any one whom the newspapers have 
recently named for it he will do this very thing. He will make it a sort of brevet 
pension office. The right way to fill the vacancy would be to promote the best 
of the subordinates of the late General Myer, whoever may prove upon a thore 


DECEASED, 1880. 509 


ough review of the situation to be entitled to this designation. There are men 
in this branch of the service who have been there from the beginning—who 
aided General Myer while he lived and who are entitled to divide with that 
eminent gentleman all the honors earned by the bureau as a whole. It is idle to 
say that among these can not be found one who is better qualified than any 
merely military man can be to fill the vacancy now existing. The Signal Service 
has done great good in the past and is capable of immensely greater good in the 
future. To be worthy of its past or hopeful as to its future, however, it must be 
managed and directed on correct business principles—the very first of which is 
that the man best fitted for its control shall be intrusted with its control, and that 
it shall not be treated as a prize to he bestowed upon a personal friend or as a 
reward for merit, however great, in some department of public service entirely 
disconnected with its duties. —S¢. Louis Globe-Democrat. 


NEGROLOGY: 


DECEASED 1880. 


AnpreEws, Pror. E. B., Lancaster, Ohio. Died Aug. 21, 1880. 

Anprews, Kittie GaLiup, Vineland, N. J. Died May 10, 1880. 

Musmina ©) ts, Closter, Ni J. Died May 18; 1880: 

Barker, Dantet, Norfolk, Va. Died Aug. 23, 1879. 

Bowers, Mrs. STEPHEN, Santa Barbara, Cal. Died Sept. 1879. 

BREWER, THomas M., 233 Beacon St., Boston. 

BREWSTER, CuHas. G., Boston, Mass. Died 1880. 

BUMSTEAD, FREEMAN J., M. D., New York. Died May 28, 1879. 

BurBank, L. S., Woburn, Mass. Died Aug., 1880. 

CassELs, J. L., Western Reserve Coll., Hudson, Ohio. 

Cuapman, W. B., Cincinnati College, Cincinnati, Ohio. Died 1874. 

Cooke, Cates, Peabody Acad. Sci., Salem, Mass. Died June 5, 1880. 

EserRSOL, D. S., Sec. Acad. Nat. Sci., Ottawa, Ill. Died April 10, 1880. 

Frost, Cuas. C., Brattleboro, Vt. Died March 16, 1880. 

GuNTHER, O. R., Curator Nat. Hist. Soc., Worcester, Mass., Died 1880. 

Hatpeman, Dr. S. S., LL. D., Prof. Comp. Philol., Univ. of Pa., Chickies, 
Pa. Died Sept. 10, 1880. 

Hunt, Epwin, Ph. D., Utica, N. Y. Died 1880. 

Jounston, JoHN, Prof. Chem., Wesleyan Univ., Middleton, Conn. Dec., 1879. 

Kepzir, Pror. W. K., Oberlin College, 1880. 

Lane, J. Homer, Coast Survey, Washington, D.C. Died April 24, 1880. 

LasseL, WiiL1AMs, F. R. S., Astronomer, died Oct. 4, 1880. 

LINDHEIMER, FERDINAND, New Braunfels, Tex. Died Dec., 1879. 

Meics, Pror. J. H., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Mitner, J. W., Waukegan, Illinois. 


510 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Mupce, Benj. F., A. M., Manhattan, Riley Co., Kansas. Died Nov. 22, 1879. 

Mver, Gen. A. J., Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A. Died April 24, 1880. 

PatcH, Harry H., Salem, Mass. Died Aug. 16, 1880. 

PourTALes, L. F., Mus. Comp. Zo6l., Cambridge, Mass. Died July 17, 1880. 

SMITH, GREENE, A. M., Peterboro’, Madison Co., N. Y. 

STAUFFER, Jacos, Lancaster, Pa. 

TREADWELL, Howarpb, M. D., Ph. D., New York. 

Watson, Pror. James C., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Died Nov. 
23, 1880. 

WELLINGTON, C. W. W., Hyde Park, Mass. Died Aug., 1880. 

WoopwortTH, JoHN M., M. D., Washington, D. C. 


BENJAMIN PEIRCE: ASTRONOMER, MATHEMATICIAN. 
1809-1880. 
BY OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. 


For him the Architect of all 

Unroofed our planet’s starlit hall ; 
Through voids unknown to worlds unseen 
His clearer vision rose serene. 


With us on earth he walked by day, 

His midnight path how far away! 

We knew him not so well who knew 

The patient eyes his soul looked through ; 


For who his untrod realm could share 
Of us that breathe this mortal air, 

Or camp in that celestial tent 

Whose fringes gild our firmament ? 


How vast the workroom where he brought 
The viewless implements of thought! 

The wit how subtle, how profound, 

That Nature’s tangled webs unwound ; 


That through the clouded matrix saw 

The crystal planes of shaping law, 

Through these the sovereign skill that planned,— 
The Father’s care, the Master’s hand! 


To him the wandering stars revealed 
The secrets in their cradle sealed : 
The far-off, frozen sphere that swings 
Through ether, zoned with lucid rings; 


BOOK NOTICES, 511 


The orb that rolls in dim eclipse 

Wide wheeling round its Jong eclipse, — 
His name Urania writes with these 
And stamps it on her Pleiades. 


We knew him not? Ah, well we knew 
The manly soul, so brave, so true, 
The cheerful heart that conquered age, 
The child-like, silver-bearded sage. 


No more his tireless thought explores 
The azure sea with golden shores ; 

Rest, wearied frame! the stars shall keep 
A loving watch where thou shalt sleep. 


Farewell! the spirit needs must rise, 
So long a tenant of the skies, — 
Rise to that home all worlds above 
Whose sun is God, whose light is love. 
Atlantic Monthly, December, 1880. 


BOOGEN@MICE Ss: 


*¢ BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE DE GEOGRAPHIC D’ ANVERS.”’ 

We have before us three elegant numbers of the Transactions of the Belgian 
Geographical Society at Antwerp. This society, though established as recently 
as October, 1876, seems to be one of the best working institutions of the kind in 
the world, and scarcely equaled in the long lists of distinguished scientists, who 
are its active or corresponding members, by any other geographical organization. 
Among the numerous interesting subjects discussed, we notice Mural Geographi- 
cal Paintings, Transportation from the Commercial Centers of Equatorial Africa, 
A Conference with Mr. De Lesseps on the Panama Canal; also, a most attractive 
article on the Chartography of the Ancients, or the Map-making and Geographical 
Knowledge of the Ancients. In this article, we find reproduced the rude maps 
of the Assyrians, Egyptians and Greeks. The pleasure we experience in looking 
over these transactions leads us to hope we shall be favored with the perusal of 
the future publications of the Geographical Society of Antwerp.—(J. F.) 


BULLETIN OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, vols. I, 11, 111. Wash- 
ington: Government Printing Office. 


This society was organized March 13, 1871, and Prof. Joseph Henry wa 
elected its first president. The objects of the society were stated by him to em 
brace the study of all those branches of knowledge that relate to the positive facts 
and laws of the physical and moral universe, and accordingly we find in the pro- 


512 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ceedings articles and abstracts of articles upon astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
biology and natural history, contributed by most of the learned scientists of the 
national capital. 

The present officers are: Simon Newcomb, President; J. K. Barnes, J. E. 
Hilgard, W. B. Taylor and J. C. Welling, Vice-Presidents; Cleveland Abbe, 
Treasurer ; C. E. Dutton and Theo. N. Gill, Secretaries. 


THE STUDENTS’ GuIDE TO PRacticaL DRraucutTinc: By T. P. Pemberton. In- 
dustrial Publication Co., New York, 1880, pp. 112, 12 mo., $1.00. 


This is a small, but thoroughly practical work, by an expert of many years’ 
actual experience, who knows just what beginners need. His directions regard- 
ing the necessary instruments and appliances are careful, precise and full, his sug- 
gestions practical and valuable, and the whole book will be found eminently use- 
ful to machinists, mechanics, apprentices and students. 


THE NATURALISTS’ DIRECTORY FOR 1880: Edited and published by S. E. Cassino, 
Boston, 1880: 12 mo., pp. 152, $1.00. 


This well-known work is presented this year in an enlarged form, and con- 
tains the names, addresses, special departments of study, etc., of more than four 
thousand naturalists, chemists, physicists, astronomers, etc.; also, lists of the 
prominent scientific societies, periodicals and books of the United States and 
Canada, revised and perfected to October, 1880. Mr. Cassino has done this 
work well, and has made the Directory almost indispensable to naturalists of 
all classes. Next year he expects to enlarge it, to include, as far as possible, the 
scientific men and periodicals of the whole world. 


Minp aND Bopy; THE THEORIES oF THEIR RELATION: By Alex. Bain, LL.D. 
‘tHE WONDERS OF THE HEaveNS: By Camille Flammarion. Translated by Mrs. 

Norman Lockyer. 

These two valuable works constitute numbers xm and xiv of the Humboldt 
Library, published by J. Fitzgerald & Co., New York. It is unnecessary to 
speak especially of them, as the authors’ names and the titles of the works are 
sufficient to guarantee them a rapid sale at the low price of fifteen cents each. 


QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE Kansas BoaRD OF AGRICULTURE: By Joseph K. 
Hudson, Secretary, Topeka, Kans. Octavo, pp. 156. 


As heretofore, this report contains valuable statistics relative to population, 
wealth, acreage of crops, condition of farm animals, crops, orchards, meteoro- 
logical data, etc., together with papers by well-known writers on the breeding, 
management, feeding and grazing of cattle in Kansas; information on the treat- 
ment of milk cows, manufacture of butter and cheese, etc. 

No better means of advertising can be adopted by any State than this, and very 


KANSAS WEATHER SERVICE, 513 


few men are as well calculated to prepare suitable statistics for the reading immi- 
grant as Major Hudson. 


PROCEEDINGS OE THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, Part I, 
April to September, 1880: Octavo, pp. 352. 


This volume is unusually full of articles based on original work and investi- 
gation by the members of this, one of the oldest academies in the United States. 
Among them we find the well-known names of Professors Leidy, Rand, Lewis, 
Meehan, Jefferis, Drs. Chapman, Hartman, Allen, etc., etc. 


ATTI DELLA SOCIETA TOSCANA DI SCIENZE NATURALI, Residente in Pisa. 

We have before us the 4th volume of the Transactions of the Tuscan Society 
for the Natural Sciences of Pisa. It is taken up with the discussion of pure 
science, or such topics as can only interest specialists. Among the numerous 
subjects presented, we notice Fossils of the Lower Lias of the Central Appen- 
nines ; Chemical Study of Heulandite and Stilbite; Action of Heat on the Mix- 
ture of Iso-butyrate and Formate of Calcium; New Fossil Teeth of the Notidanus. 
Histological Study of the Complementary Sexual Organs of some terrestial 
Mollusks; Odlitic Fossils of Mount Pastello in the Province of Verona; Pliocene 
Fossils of the Echinodermi, etc., etc. These papers are beautifully illustrated, 
and as specimens of typography and lithography can scarcely be equaled. The 
Transactions of this Italian society will be perused with intense interest by all 
specialists in the study of Natural Science. ane 


MED ROR@OLOGN: 


KANSAS WEATHER SERVICE—STATION, TOPEKA. 
OBSERVER, PROF. J. T. LOVEWELL. 


The meteorological record herewith submitted is for the month beginning 
October zoth and ending November 2oth. The tables below present the sum- 
mary by decades, as well as the mean daily average for the whole period of thirty- 
one days. 

It will be noticed that the temperature of the second decade in November is 
much lower than the two previous decades. The rainfall has been very light, 1,83, 
inches, and no snow, except enough to whiten the ground, on the 16th. 

The prevailing winds have been northwest and north. Brilliant solar and lunar 
halos were seen on the 18th. ‘The barometric readings are reduced to sea level 
and zero temperature. The highest barometer occurred November 17th, when 
the record was 30.65. The lowest was 29.70,0n the 9th. The highest tempera- 

ture occurred October 26th, 74°, and the lowest November 18th, 3°. 


514 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The self-recording anemometer, from which the wind record is obtained, is ex- 
posed to the unobstructed blast as it comes from the prairies and strikes the tower 
of Washburn College, where the imstrument is placed. ‘The velocity of the wind 


has several times reached 40 miles per 
the day. 


hour, and on the 4th was 41 miles part of 


We have had no giles so violent as occurred in the first part of Octo- 


ber, but the total miles traveled by wind has been as great. 


Last 11 days First 10 days Second 10 days From Oct 20 
of Oct. of Nov of Nov. to Nov. 20. 

TEMPERATURE. y 

TILT hs Sc PASS ee 32 6 33.4 14.9 27-0 

Teaco NU NU hha Rua y tO IE 61.3 54 4 34.1 49.9 

WWieamiecana Audie Lee aah ii 45.9 43.8 24.8 88.2 

ATO ene Nhe aan 29 9 21.0 19.2 29.4 

GP Gin cirri a lc AN MeN LVR Eaten 35.2 BH) J W383 29.5 

Droid Sen Ader en Renee SE 53.6 49.2 29.1 44.6 

Oo esratc Pa MoUe eR eon Sie 43.1 38.9 18.9 33 6 

itech ite are atest istic eteaiis 44.0 41.5 22.0 39.8 
Ret. HumMIpITy. 

RAAT Saree als ouhtaditedt re puat i stals .718 .729 687 61L 

Che VU eeu ee VANDA pi - 655 . 666 648 656 

Oreste ee nS) ia at pg er . 698 . 683 679 687 

Nearer tio a CPSU Leste sis 692 . 689 663 . 681 
PRESSURE. (32); b. 

TAME MOA e lh atirc ty vba ndeeae 30.14 29 94 30 08 30.05 

OY Ta). Fras ton eee DUNG EU A eH ea 30.01 29.86 30 24 30. 04 

a) ray ani eH aA Gila ul ean eau ato Na 30.01 29. 91 30. 36 30 09 

Ngee urn ay CanEN ee Me UR BLN 30. 01 29.90 30.37 30.09 
WIND. 

Mulesumirayeleds soe | 8,565 | 4,127 3, 461 | 11,153 
RAINFALL. 

Inehiesizen G. Dee | Glico voanao 26 | bho oo obo 6° es 5 1.61 


ELT OMe, INC ues, 


THE October meeting of the Kansas City 
Academy of Science was largely attended. 
Dr. Joshua Thorne read a carefully prepared 
and brilliant essay upon ‘ Intellectual De- 
velopment,” which was followed by an ac- 
count by Theo. S. Case of an ‘¢ Excursion to 
the Birth-place of Montezuma.”’ 

The November meeting was also well at- 
tended and the audience amply repaid by 
hearing the third paper of Mr. W. H. Miller 
upon Herbert Spencer’s philosophy, and that 
of Prof. E. C. Crosby upon the Barometer. 

At the December meeting, Col. R. T. Van 
Horne will read an essay upon the origin of 
life, under the title of “*« A New Hypothesis.” 


THE annual session of the Kansas State 
Academy of Science was held at Topeka, 


Kansas, on the 12th, 13th and 14th ult. It 
was a most interesting and enjoyable meeting 
in every way, most of the papers read being 
the results of original investigation, and show- 
ing much zeal and research. A full report 
by Professor J. D. Parker will be found in 
this number of the Revzew, and it is hoped 
that most of the papers will be sent us for 
publication in full. 

The Kansas Academy is an honor to the 
State, and its recommendations should receive 
the careful attention of the Legislature. 


Now that the President of our Academy of 
Science has ‘been elected to Congress, we 
may expect that its library will be the recipi- 
ent of all the valuable publications by the 
various departments of the Government. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


WE are promised the monthly summary of | 
the meteorological observations of the Kansas 
Weather Service by Prof. Lovewell, of Wash- 
burn College, Topeka. They will be made 
up especially for the Review, from the 20th 
of each month to the 20th of the next, so that 
we can give our readers, almost to the day of 
going to press, the results just tabulated from 
simultaneous observations made all over the 
State. Hitherto, we have received such a 
summary from both Professor Snow of Kan- 
sas, and Professor Nipher of Missouri; also, 
from Signal Service Observer C. A. Shaw 
of Wisconsin; but, as they did not reach us 
until after our day of publication, they had 
lost their interest to the genera! reader before 
the next issue. 


PROFESSOR PRITCHETT, of Morrison Ob- 
servatory, made us a brief call a few days 
since. He visited Kansas City to complete 
arrangements for establishing an electric time 
ball here. 


THE weather of November was exception- 
ally cold all over the country, but the reports 
from Colorado were almost incredible. On 
the 15th, at Denver, the mercury stood at 
—15°in the morning, and remained below zero 
all day ; at Leadville it reached —25° on the 
same day, and at Breckenridge —39°, an al- 
most unheard-of thing, for November, espe- 
cially. In this city, the lowest point reached 
was 6° above zero, on the morning of the 2ist. 
This is the coldest November weather remem- 
bered here since 1857, when the Missouri was 
frozen Over and navigation closed as early as 
the 20th. However, it lasted less than two 
weeks, after which the weather was so moder- 
ate that no ice was put up, and most of the 
time it was like April. 


_ THE fall meeting of the National Academy 
of Science, at New York, was a most success- 
ful one. About thirty papers were read by 
such scientists as Professors Marsh, Langley, 
Draper, Cope, Gibbs, Agassiz, Barker, Peirce, 
Rood, etc. 


WE are indebted to Principal J. W. Daw- 
son for copies of his recent articles on ‘¢ The 
Origin of Man” and * Revision of the Land 


515 


Snails of the Paleozoic Era,” published in 
the Princeton Review and American Journal of 
Sczence, respectively. 


THE State Agricultural College of Kansas is 
in a more thriving condition than ever before, 
owing, as we believe, mainly to the influence 
and efforts of such able and energetic men as 
President Fairchild, Professors Failyer and 
Popenoe, and others, who are widely known 
as able scientists and liberal minded and pro. 
gressive teachers. 


Major B. S. HENNING, well known to all 
Kansas and Kansas City people, writes from 
New York to say of the REVIEW that ‘‘its 
success is a great gratification to me, and I 
want tocheer you on in your good work.” 


On November 7th, Mr. Powers, of Lexing- 
ton, Ind., discovered, in a ravine near Eldo- 
rado, Kansas, a shoulder blade and tusk of 
an unknown monster, supposed, however, 
from the unusual shape of the latter, to belong 
not to the mastodon, but to the American 
elephant. 


A SHARP earthquake was experienced in 
Panama and in Callao, on the 15th Oct., at 
9:25 Pp. M. The shock was heavy. It lasted 
about eighteen seconds, commencing with a 
slight trembling and terminating with a mo- 
tion which frightened every one. No dam- 
age was done. 


SITKA advices, via Port Townsend, say that 
the town was visited by a severe cyclone and 
a heavy shock of an earthquake October 26th. 


Pror. R. H. THuRSTON, of the Stevens In- 
stitute of Technology, says of the REVIEW: 
‘¢J think the magazine an excellent journal 
of the class, and admire the manner in which 
it is conducted.” 


A LETTER received from Prof. Richard A. 
Proctor, the distinguished English astrono- 
mer, who is now in Australia, states that he 
will return to England by way of San Fran- 
cisco and New York, instead of going via the 
Indian Ocean, as was his previous intention. 


516 


Major J. W. PowE Lt, Chief of the Bureau 
of Ethnology, has gone to the Pacific Coast 
to ascertain in person how this work is pro- 
gressing. He has eight parties in the field, en- 
gaged in making a study of the North Amer- 
ican Indians—their condition, their habits 
of life, their languages, their history, etc., as 
well as taking a census of them. One of 
Major Powell’s parties has just discovered, 
in New Mexico and Arizona, a number of old 
ruins and pueblos. These are now being 
carefully explored. In New Mexico they 
have discovered, west of Santa Fe, the largest 
collection of ruins ever found on this continent. 


W. H. Simpson, Secretary of the University 
of Kansas, says: ‘‘Our roll now shows 394 
students, of whom 15 are from our sister 
State, Missouri. Never before was the Insti- 
tution so prosperous and seemingly so thor- 
oughly appreciated by the people generally. 
We are just beginning to be known and felt.” 


Mr. H. R. Hitton’s able and suggestive 
paper on The Rainfall inits Relation to Kan- 
sas Farming, read before the Kansas Acad- 
emy of Science last month, is one that should 
have a wide circulation in those eastern pa- 
pers that nowadays only publish articles on the 
arid soil and the famine-stricken people of 
Western Kansas. 


WE have had on our exchange list since its 
commencement that very interesting and val- 
uable scientific journal, the Kansas City RE- 
YIEW, and we take this special occasion for 
urging upon our western readers the propriety 
of supporting, by their subscription, a journal 
that embraces so much interesting material, 
and isso creditable a medium for the exchange 
of scientific intelligence. —Wew Remedies, Nov. 
1880. 


WE have received a copy of Rowell’s News- 
paper Directory for 1880, and can conscien- 
tiously say that, in our judgment, it is the 
most complete, correct and comprehensive 
work of the kind ever published in the United 
States. 


THE funeral cf the late Prof. J. C. Watson, 
Astronomer at the Wisconsin University, who 


KANSAS CIT V REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


died on Noy. 23:3, took place at Ann Arbor 
on the 26th. The will of the deceased as- 
tronomer, after providing for his wife and 
mother, leaves the remainder of his property 
to the National Academy of Science of the 
United States. The will further provides that 
gold medals to the value of one hundred dol- 
lars be given to those who shall from time to 
time make astronomical discoveries, or pro- 
duce astronomical work worthy of special re- 
ward as contributors to science. 


Prof. F. V. HAYDEN, the geologist, has 
just received a cablegram from the president 
of the Topographical Society of Paris, an- 
nouncing that the society had conferred on 
him the grand medal of honor. 


THE recent earthquake shocks in British 
Columbia were very viol.nt. Glaciers were 
split from base to summit, and great masses 
cast into the valleys and creeks, completely 
filling them up. 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


SUBSCRIBERS to the REVIEW can obtain any 
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THE Popular Screntific Monthly for Decem- 
ber presents the following choice array of 
valuablematter: The Development of Politi- 
cal Institutions, and Political Organization 
in General, by Herbert Spencer. Science 
and Culture, by Prof. T. H. Huxley, F. R.S. 
Experiments with the ‘‘ Jumpers” of Maine, 
by George M. Beard, M. D. The August 
Meteors, by W. F. Denning. (lIllustrated.) 
The Early Practice of Medicine by Women, 
by Prof. H. Carrington Bolton, Ph. D. 
Methods in Industrial Education, by Prof. 
S. P. Thompson. The Migrationsof Fishes, 
by Dr. Friedrich Heincke. Domestic Mo- 
tors. I. Wind and Water Power. By Chas- 
M. Lungren. (Illustrated.) Indigestion as 
a Cause of Nervous Depression, by T. Lauder 
Brunton, M. D., F. R. S. Oriental Music, 
by S. Austen Pearce, Mus. D., Oxon. The 
Sabbath, I. By Prof. John Tyndall, F. R. S. 
Sketch of Professor Dumas, by A. W. Hof- 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


Correspondence. 
Popular 


mann. (With Portrait.) 
Editor’s Table. Literary Notices. 
Miscellany. Notes. 


THE Journal of the Franklin Institute com- 
pleted its one hundred and ninth volume in 
June, 1880, and is now in the fifty-ffth year 
of its existence. Under the direction of the 
Committee on Publication, with its list of 
able scientists and engineers, as contributors, 
largely increased, and with the fact that it is 
the only technological journal published in 
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that it will maintain its high position as a 
leading organ of technology and a standard 
$5 per annum. 


work of reference. 


THE American Journal of Science, now in the 
twentieth volume of the third series, or the 
one hundred and twentieth from the com- 
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entific periodical literature all over the world. 
The names of its edltors, Professors J. D. and 
EK. S. Dana and B. Silliman, are synonyms 
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associate editors, Professors Asa Gray, Josiah 
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THE Engineering aud Mining Journal, edit- 
ed by Professors Richard P. Rothwell, C. E., 
M. E. and R. W. Raymond, Ph. D., and pub- 
lished by the Scientific Publishing Company 
of New York, is now in its thirtieth volume, 
and has justly earned the reputation of being 
the most reliable periodical devoted to these 
subjects in the country. 


Pror. S. N. FELLows, of the State Uni. 
versity of Iowa, has a short and sensible arti- 
cle in the latest issue of the Vatzonal Journal 
of Education, upon ‘*Didactics vs. Pedagog- 
ics,”’.in which he proposes to substitute the 
former word for the latter in college curricula, 
on the ground that it is euphonious, has a re- 


O17 


spectable origin and expresses better the 
meaning that is intended to be conveyed by 
the term. The Professor has our sympathy 
in his effort to rid the English language of a 
barbarous, cacophonous and_ inexpressive 
word, and the /ournal of Education should 
exercise its usual good taste and correct judg- 
ment in aiding the effort. 


THE Western Educational Review for Octo- 
ber contains, as usual, many good and appro- 
priate articles, among which we notice two 
by Kansas City writers, the first upon Pre- 
historic Man, by Miss Fanny E. Hall, and 
the other on The Education of the Judgment, 
by Prof. E. C. Crosby. The Revdew is well 
conducted and deserves success. 


ACCORDING to the Monthly Weather Review, 
published by the Signal Service Bureau, the 
verification of weather predictions for Octo- 
ber amounted to the very creditable and 
gratifying percentage of 88.9. 


THE Sczentific American of Oct. 13 contains 
two full page illustrations of Capt. Eads’ pro- 
posed railway for transporting ships, with 
their cargo, across continents. Capt. Eads 
claims, by his plan, to be able to take loaded 
ships of the largest tonnage from one ocean 
to the other across the Isthmus of Panama, as 
readily as can be done by a canal after the 
Lesseps plan, and at a much less cost for en- 
gineering construction. The project is cer- 
tainly bold and ingenious, and the projector 
anticipates no serious difficulties in carrying 
forward his enterprise. The engravings re- 


ferred to in the Sczentzjic American show the 


proposed construction of not only the rail- 
road, but the appliances for transferring the 
ships from the water to the rail. 


WE have received the prospectus of The 
Platonést, a monthly periodical, devoted chief, 
ly to the dissemination of the platonic phi- 
losophy in allits phases. The editor, Thos. 
M. Johnson, of Osceola, Mo., is a ripe scholar, 
who has recently published translations of 
several of the Treatises of Plotinus, and who 
possesses an eminently philosophic mind. 
The subscription price of the Platonzs¢ is $2 
per annum. 


518 


Houcuton, Mifflin & Co. publish, besides 
the Atlantic Monthly, of whose excellence we 
have spoken so often, Dwight’s Journal of 
Music, fortnightly, $2.50; the Boston (weekly) 
Medical Journal, now in its one hundred and 
third volume, $5 per annum; the United 
Statcs Postal Guide, monthly, $1.50 per an- 
the Law Reporter, weekly, $10, and the 
American Architect and Building News—all 
first-class magazines, and all of which can be 
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REVIEW. 


num ; 


THE Sczence Observer, of Boston, now in its 
third volume, maintains its high standard of 
excellence in its special department and bids 
fair to become the organ of the astronomers 
of this country. 


WE have received the December number, 
being No. 2, vol. 1, of ‘* Our Little Ones,” 
an illustrated magazine for children, pub- 
lished monthly at Boston, by the Russell 
Publishing Co., at $1.50 per annum. The 
engravings are unsurpassed, the paper and 
print first-rate, while the fact that ‘‘ Oliver 
Optic” is the editor guarantees uniform ex- 
cellence in the matter. We shall be disap- 
pointed if it does not become a leader among 
the juvenile periodicals 


Tue Santa Domingo Congress has passed 
a decree that, considering the proofs sufiicient 
that the remains found in the cathedral Sept. 
10, 1877, are the remains of Christopher Co- 
lumbus, a monument to enshrine them shall 
be erected at the capital. All American goy- 


ernments are solicited to contribute to the 


| 
THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 


An Illustrated Quarterly Published by 
J&MESCN & MORSE, 164 Clark Street, Chicago, Illinois, 
Rev. STEPHEN D. PEET, Editor, Clinton, Wisconsin. 
The 3d Vol. commenced with the Oct. Number. 


Epitors oF DrEprarTMENTs.—Early History and 
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Evidences, Prof T. C. Chamberlin, Beloit, Wis. ; 
FOREION ConTRIBUTORS, Rev. A. H. Sayce, D. Dy 
F. R. S. Oxford, England, on Assyriology ; Prof. 
OD aN Steentrup, Stockholm, Denmark, and Prof. 
Luciano Cordeiro, Lisbon, Portugal. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


fund. The government of Santa Dominga 
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HARPER’S MAGAZINE, for December, con- 
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Reinhardt ; Fancy Chances, a poem, Rose 
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C. Baldwin, Cleveland. O.; Dr. J. D. Moody, Men- 
dota, Ill. ; Hon. R. S. Robertson, Fort Wayne, Ind. ; 
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Ter.; Rev. M. Eells, Shokomish, Wash. Ter. ; Col. 
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RANSAS: CLT y 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOL. IV. JANUARY, 1881. NO. 9. 


CEOLOGY AN DEAL AT ONT@LO GN 


THE MASTODON. 


BY. PROF. G. C. BROADHEAD. 


During the winter of 1879-80, Mr. R. A. Blair, of Sedalia, Mo., has, through 
jhis industry and perseverance, his own personal labor and the expenditure of some 
money, become the possessor, in his own right, of a very fine collection of masto- 
don remains. ‘They were obtained from a spring at Mr. Wade Mosby’s, seven 
miles southeast of Sedalia. About fifteen years ago Mr. M., in placing a ‘‘gum,” 
or section of a hollow log, in his spring, found a few large bones and the frag: 
ments of a tusk. But until the fall of 1879 no examinations or searchings for 
bones were made. At that time Mr. R. A. Blair, becoming interested in the 
matter, began to work in earnest, and the result was the finding of the large col- 
lection now in his possession. 

The surface of the ground at the spring, where the bones were obtained, is 
about fifteen feet above the creek, which is about four hundred feet distant. The 
upper spring is about five feet higher than the other spring and ninety feet distant. 
‘They lie about two hundred feet from the base of the hill, just back which 
Tises up by gentle slopes. Mr. Blair dug a ditch from the spring toward the creek, 
passing through alluvial loam to a bed of gravel, which seems to lie nearly level 
and to pass beneath the spring, or six to eight feet from the surface, approaching 
the surface toward the creek. The gravel was not passed through. Blue clay 
“rested upon the gravel. The diameter of the spring and bog seemed to be about 


twenty feet. It may originally have been a little larger. The material within 
IV—35 


520 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


this diameter was a light spongy, peaty humus, containing the mastodon bones: 
and pieces of wood resembling cypress. A fine gray sand occurred at the bottom 
and bright blue sand would boil up toward the top. Only in this funnel-shaped 
space of fifteen feet in diameter at top were found the mastodon remains, occurring 
from three to eight feet in depth and including fragments of both large and small 
individuals, and in number about eight skeletons. Perfect heads, with the teeth 
attached, were obtained. The tusks were much broken. Other bones, both of 
the leg and ribs, were obtained, and also vertebree. The largest tusks indicated 
about seven feet length, the hollow portions of which were filled with black clay. 
Some of the older teeth were nearly entire, while those of younger individuals 
were much worn. Some jaws show young teeth in front of old ones, as if shed- 
ding and replacing others. The jaws had from two to four teeth on a side, some 
2 inches square to 44%4x8. A jaw with only two teeth has one of them 4x8 inches, 
the other 4x34%4 inches. The largest tusk observed was about five inches in diam- 
eter at large end, the whole gently curved. A few flint implements (spear heads), 
and one stone club were found with the bones. 

Mr. Blair has preserved the remains, and placed them in cases so they can 
be well seen. His is the Mastodon Americanus cuvier. 

Dr. Albert Koch was the first person who made explorations by digging 
for mastodon remains in Missouri. In 1839 he exhumed certain bones from a 
spring on the Bourbeuse river, in Gasconade county, Missouri. Dr. K. thought 
these bones had been partially burned; this, however, has been disbelieved by 
others, so it remains in doubt. Arrow heads of flint, and stone axes, were also 
found. In the material at the bottom, which Dr. K. considered ashes, there was 
much gravel, above this was eight feet of clay and sand, from which flowed the 
spring and in which lay the bones. 

About 1840 Dr. Koch dug out the bones of another mastodon, in the valley of 
Pomme de Terre river, ten miles southwest of Warsaw. Dr. K. states that an 
arrow head was here found beneath the thigh bone of the animal. With them 
was also found fragments of wood and roots, with logs and cones of the cypress, 
together with flint implements. The bones were overlaid by distinct layers of 
clay, sand and gravel, to the thickness of twenty feet, which sustained above a 
growth of old trees. 

Lay, in his history of Benton county, speaks of these bones and states that 
they have been found in two places in the county; one on the farm of the heirs 
of Charles Wickliffe, on the Osage, the other near the farm of Alexander Brashears, 
on the Big Pomme de Terre. From the Wickliffe farm nearly a whole skeleton 
was taken to Cincinnati, of which a tusk was said to be nine feet long. Other 
bones were also obtained at the same place. 

The Messrs. Bradley, of Boone county, kept fifteen or twenty hands at work 
for several months on the Brashears place, and took out a great many bones. But 
they were so much decomposed, that after exposure they fell to pieces, and the 
men lost money by the venture. | 


THE MASTODON. 521 


Dr. Koch states that, at one time, he had six hundred teeth of mastodon, all 
found in Missouri, and nearly an entire skeleton was obtained from Benton county, 
which was afterward sold to the British museum. This he called the ‘‘Missourium.” 
It is the Mastodon Americanus (giganteus). Its extreme length was 20 feet 2 inches; 
height, 9 feet 634 inches; length of cranium, 3% feet; its vertical dimensions 4 
feet, width 2 feet 11 inches; width of pelvis, 5 feet 8 inches; extreme length of 
tusks 7 feet 2 inches, projection of same 5 feet 2 inches, circumference at base, 
27 inches. 

On the Osage and its tributaries are extensive deposits of clay resting on sand 
and gravel; at the bottom of the clay there are occasionally found remains of ex- 
tinct mammalia, the mastodon, horse, ox, etc. On the Marais des Cygnes, at 
Papinville, we find these beds as follows, counting from top: 

1.—30 feet 10 inches yellow clay ; 

2.—4 inches blue clay and gravel; 

3.—5 feet sand and gravel, the latter sometimes partially cemented together. 

At Burnett's ferry, Bates county, we find— 

1.—10o feet sandy clay ; 

2.—Io feet blue clay with pebbles. 

In the gravel beds at Papinville, a tooth of an extinct species of horse was 
found, together with fresh water shells. On the river bluff near by, a mastodon 
tusk 7 feet 4 inches long was found in the gravel. 

Mr. H. H. West discovered, in the Loess of Kansas City, a portion of the 
tusk of a mastodon, an account of which he published in the Review. This 
may have drifted from deposits a little older, or more probably washed into the 
Loess lake from the adjacent shore. 

Mr. J. C, Evans obtained a large tooth of a mastodon from Line creek, Platte 
county. This was probably washed out from the’ later glacial clay. 

A mastodon tooth has also been obtained in Caldwell county. 

The Kansas City Review for March, 1880, gives an account by Dr. Ballard 
of the discovery of mastodon remains in the Eastern part of Jackson county. Dr. 
B. gives the size of tusk as r4 inches in diameter(!)—from imprint in clay—and 
12 feet long. ‘This is of greater dimensions than any I have ever seen or heard 
of before. 

The above are notices of such remains that I know of having been found in 
Missouri. We will now speak of mastodon remains in other states. 

In the Revikw for September, 1877, is a brief notice? of remains on 
Bijou creek, in Colorado. Only leg bones were obtained, but were of large 

' dimensions, measuring 29% inches in circumference at upper end. 
Remains have been found at several places in Kansas, chiefly in valley of 
_ Marais des Cygnes, some in Miami county, and some in Franklin county. Other 
- bones have been found near Emporia. 
Prof. Woodman exhumed a mastodon at Melton, Iowa, twenty-five miles 
_ west of Davenport, from the bank of a stream, in an excellent state of preserva- 
tion. It indicated a height of fourteen feet. 


522 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The Wheaton mastodon, found in Du Page county, Illinois, was obtained 
four feet below the surface in a boggy place. It was probably 14 feet in height 
and 20 feet long. 

From Big Bone Lick, Boone county, Ky., it is said that fragments of one 
hundred skeletons of the mastodon have been exhumed. It is a fact connected 
with the occurrence of these bones, as well as those found on the Osage and in 
all boggy places, that they seem as if the animals had come there to drink or lick, 
and had stuck in the mud so as to be unable to extricate themselves. To this fact 
science is indebted for the excellent state of preservation in which the remains 
occur. 

In various parts of North America we find marshy tracts abounding in salt 
or brackish waters, which, during the present generation, are much resorted to 
by the deer and other animals. These places are called ‘‘ licks,” and are found 
at many places in Missouri. 

The Big Bone Lick, Kentucky, is traversed by a small stream of brackish 
water. Its bottom consists of black, fetid mud, intermingled with sand and traces 
of vegetable matter. In this bog, bones of great magnitude have been found in 
great numbers. Mantell informs us that a fine skull with teeth, from the Big 
Bone Lick, had been placed in the British museum at a cost of 150 guineas. The 
length of the skull is 36 inches. 

Mastodon bones have been found in several other portions of Kentucky, 
some in Henry, and also in Owen county. Skeletons of the great Mastodon have 
also been found in bogs in Louisiana. in a vertical position, as if they had sunk 
in the mire; and one found in New Jersey, forty miles south of New York, was 
found in black earth, in the same position, as if it had sunk in the mire. The 
remains of the JZastodon Americanus have been found at several other localities 
n the more recent bog and lacustrine deposits of New Jersey. The most remark- 
able of these were found on the farm of William Ayers, half way between Vienna 
and Hackettstown, in Warren county. Six skeletons were found in this bog, and 
they were covered by six feet of mud. A small pond now occupies the place of 
this bog. Lyell informs us that five skeletons were lying together, and that many 
of the bones crumbled very much upon exposure. But nearly the whole of the 
other skeleton, which lay ten feet apart from the rest, was preserved entire, and 
had twenty ribs, like the elephant. From the clay in the interior, or where the | 
contents of the stomach should be, seven bushels of vegetable matter were 
extracted. A microscopic examination showed it to consist of pieces of small 
twigs of a coniferous tree, of the cypress family, probably the shvots of Zhwa 
occidentalis (Am. arbor vile). 

Another tooth was also found half a mile northeast of this; also in same 
county, on farm of Charles Howell, an imperfect skeleton. These remains were | 
probably taken to New York. Other remains were obtained near Greensville, | 
Sussex county ; also at three places in Monmouth county, and a portion of a jaw 
in a mill-race near Marlbro, at Hartshorn’s mill, and near Freehold, and a very | 
perfect tooth near Verona, Essex county. | 


THE MASTODON. 523 


Bones of the Mastodon have been found at numerous places in the State of 
New York, especially in the western part. We quote from the New York Geo- 
logical Reports: ‘‘In the bank of a stream, in gravel and sand, near the town of 
Perrinton, and now in the Rochester Museum. 

‘In 1838, during the excavation of the Genesee Valley canal in the city of 
Rochester, a tusk, some bones of the head, several ribs and other bones were 
found, intermingled with gravel and sand, and covered by clay and loam, and 
above these a deposit of shell marl, The tusk was nine feet long. 

‘‘During the excavation of the Erie canal, a large molar tooth was found in 
a swamp near Holley, Orleans county. 

- ‘Tn the fine gravel and loam, containing fresh water shells, and evidently a 
fluviatile deposit, at Niagara Falls, a molar tooth was found. 

‘‘In a muck swamp in Stafford, Genesee county, a small molar tooth was 
found. In 1841, a molar tooth, weighing two pounds, was found in a bed of 
marl three miles south of Leroy. At Geneseo, in Livingston county, a large 
number of bones and several teeth were found in a swamp, beneath a deposit of 
muck, intermingled with a sandy, calcareous marl. 

‘© At Hinsdale, Cattaraugus county, a tusk, with some horns of deer, were 
found, sixteen feet below the surface, in gravel and sand. 

‘©At Jamestown, Chautauqua county, a tooth of a Mastodon was found, 
several feet beneath the surface, in gravel. 

“(In speaking of the occurrence of these bones, Prof. James Hall says that 
these bones often occur imbedded in gravel and sand of the nature of the ordinary 
drift; but, in such instances, it can usually be shown that they have been trans- 
ported and the deposit in which they occur is one of very modern origin.* 

The marl beds and muck swamps rest upon the drift. ‘The gravel beds occur- 
ting with the bones are evidently of transported drift. 

‘©The earliest records that we have of the bones of the Mastodon is a letter 
from Cotton or Increase Mather to the Royal Society of London, between 1650 
and 1700, describing the bones of one of these animals found near Albany.f 

‘¢The bones of the Mastodon are frequently found in the peat bogs of Orange 
and Ulster counties. Bones of Mastodon were found in 1790—’91, and in 1800, 
in the town of Montgomery, twelve miles from Newburgh, Orange county. 
They were ten feet below the surface, in a peat bog. One of the leg bones meas- 

‘ured more than forty inches around the joint, and thirty-six on the cylindrical 
part of the bone, and nearly five feet long; the teeth, nearly seven inches long 
and four broad, were found white, fast in the jaw, and with no appearance of 
decay. The orifice in the back bone, where the marrow was, was three and a 
half inches in diameter. Eight similar skeletons have been discovered within 
eight or ten miles of this, some of them fifteen to twenty feet below the surface. 
A Mastodon, exhumed at Newburgh in 1845, indicated the following dimensions: 
Height, 11 feet; length to base of tail, 17 feet; tusks, 12 feet long—2¥ feet 


 *Nat. His. N. Y., part 4, Geology, 4th Dis. p. 365. 
f{ Ibid. Geology, Ist Dist., p. 47. 


524 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


inserted in sockets. When alive, it must have been twelve or thirteen feet high, 
and length, including seven feet for tusks, twenty-five feet.* It was found in peat, 
with a thin layer of fresh water marl above it. 

Prof. H. A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y., has in his museum twenty-seven 
casts of Mastodon, embracing nine species, of which 47. Arvernensis, of Europe, 
and MZ. Americanus, of America, are from the Pleistocene or Quaternary. JZ. 
borsont, M. affinis, M. atssimilis, M. insignis, are from Pliocene, of France. J. 
longivostris, from Miocene of France. MV. elephantoides, M. andium, from Miocene 
of India. 

In the twenty-first annual report of the Board of Regents of the New York 
University, Prof. James Hall furnishes an interesting account of the discovery of 
the bones of Mastodon giganteus (M. Americanus) at Cohoes, in the valley of the 
Mohawk river, State of New York, in September, 1866. 

The bones were found in a pot-hole, which was sounded and found to be 
over sixty feet in depth, filled with clay and soil on top, and peaty clay, with 
branches and trunks of trees below. The lower jaw was found about twenty-five 
feet from the surface; the other bones below. This ‘‘pot-hole” showed that, 
previous to the deposition of the mastodon remains and the subsequent filling up 
of the ‘“‘hole,” powerful agencies had been at work. Subsequent explorations 
revealed portions of the skeleton sixty feet distant and 20 feet higher than the 
bones in the pot-hole, but by comparison it proved to be part of the same 
skeleton. Prof. Hall reasons that the mastodon had floated down the Mohawk 
when its bed was more than one hundred feet above its present level, and lodging 
upon its rocks had gradually become’ dismembered and its parts transported to 
different points, and there deposited upon the disintegration and melting away of 
the glacier. 

It would further appear that, during the glacial period, the surface water, 
falling through the crevices in the vast ice mass, had eroded deep cavities in the 
rocks below. Into these, fragments of rocks fell, and, being continually acted 
upon by the water for a long time, kept the fragments in motion, wearing around 
the incipient pot-hole. Toward the close of the glacial period, a mastodon which 
had become frozen into the ice mass, became disengaged and fell into these 
holes. 

A few measurements of the Cohoes Mastodon are as follows: 


Circumference of tuslee yy). 2!) Nh i nee bene 7 nines 
Length AACR mene cna tancuienteiv Nails, iG) is, 
Meng th frst rubies ems ine glean Neen ee a i teat 
Circumfcrence)ofmibiat (Middle: .)). 72 eve sine eleetGlt/Aamal 
aeneth Of Ulin.) tie Mea CNC Ti Nets Coa Anh 

i Rahs. a) Ai MaMa ramen elilen. fou 1-1 al anne aiC Med men aU OEE tg aN 

it Tee DTI A) LS A MMMM OU SINR REG. ry 

Hs Tata co ey aia iaselic (ics aia aan ana ne 

of SPU ea 1s bi iene tert 2/2 (lh a ean abe Ren Aaa 


Dana, p, 567. 


THE MASTODON. 525 


The Warren skeleton (from near Newburgh) is of maximum size, suppo ing 
unusually long and large tusks, armed with inferior canine teeth and exhibiv.ig 
a small pelvic aperture; is undoubtedly a male. The Cambridge Mastodon is 
much smaller, though nearly as old, with short and slender tusks above and none 
below, and a large pelvic aperture; is a female. The Cohoes skeleton, of the 
same age of the Cambridge, has a comparative small pelvic aperture, proving it 
to be a male, 

A few bones of the Mastodon have been found near New Britain and 
Cheshire, Connecticut. 

Mastodon teeth were found at Pittstown, Luzerne county, Pa., associated 
with teeth of Aguus major and Bison latifrons. 

A tooth of a Mastodon found in Quaternary, of Niagara, indicates that six 
miles of the gorge have been excavated since he existed. (Dana, p. 510.) 

Four grinders of a Mastodon—one sixteen inches in circumference—were 
found in Kishaco, Quillas Valley, Pennsylvainia, resting upon rounded pebbles 
and covered with a few feet of alluvium. 

Prof. H. D. Rogers informs us that the pleistocene beds of shelly sands 
cover a broad belt of country on the Atlantic coast of Virginia and North Caro- 
lina as far as Pamlico sound. ‘These beds contain many shells identical with 
species now occurring on the Atlantic coast and one or two now only living in 
the warmer waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Mixed with these shells are the bones 
and teeth of several extinct land quadrupeds, including the fossil elephant and the 
Mastodon giganteus and a large species of extinct horse. 

Prof. Emmons informs us that the bones of the Mastodon are not uncommon 
in the miocene marl of North Carolina and instances localities in Halifax county, 
in a marl pit in Nash, upon the Cape Fear, and at other places. 

Prof. Kerr informs us that the whole eastern portion of North Carolina, a 
tract extending more than a hundred miles from the coast and rising 500 feet 
above the-sea along its western margin, is covered chiefly with a deposit of shingle, 
gravel, sand and clay, the coarser to the west, the finer near the coast. This 
covers nearly the whole of the Tertiary and Cretaceous, a considerable part of the 
Triassic and part of the Archean. The eastern band of this, rising to 100 feet 
elevation above tide, is assigned to the Glacial period or early Quaternary, con- 
sisting in the lower part especially, of coarse pebbles associated with fossils in the 
form of sharks’ teeth, coprolites and bones, and here have been found the best 
preserved Mastodon teeth and bones. Prof. Hilgard, maintaining the occurrence 
of Mastodon bones in the Loess of Mississippi, says they are generally found 
singly, but that portions of the skeleton have been found in spots where ponds 
existed, as though the animal had perished there. In such places the bones are 
frequently in contact with masses of black fatty earth, probably decomposed ani- 
_ mal matter. 

In Martin county, Indiana, bones of the Mammoth and the Mastodon have 
been found in marsh clay, resting on the drift. In Michigan, according to Winch- 


526 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ell, in accumulations 6f marl and peat are found the remains of the elephant, 
Mastodon and elk. A fragment of the molar of a Mastodon was found at Green 
Oak, Livingston county. Mr. Shattuck has exhumed nearly an entire set of 
Mastodon teeth, including a piece of a tusk in Plymouth, Wayne county. The 
teeth are all perfect and still retaining their glossy enamel and most of the fangs 
pertaining to molar teeth. 

A nearly perfect skeleton of a Mastodon was exhumed near Bucyrus in Craw- 
ford county, Ohio, many years ago from the muck and marl of aswamp, and is now 
in possession of the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College. The ‘‘ Erie clay ” 
is the lower drift near the lakes, and is sometimes as much as 280 feet thick. 
Above it lies the ‘‘ Delia sand,” separated about Cleveland from the Erie clay by 
one to two feet of carbonaceous matter with trunks of trees. This ‘‘ forest bed,’” 
as it is called by Prof. Newberry, extends through a large part of Ohio and into 
many other of the Western states; traces of it exist in Illinois, Missouri and Ne- 
braska. Prof. Newberry informs us that the Delta sand deposit near Cleveland has: 
yielded numerous portions of the skeleton of the elephant and Mastodon. In 
other parts of Ohio they are found in the forest bed, and in the overlying drift and 
in the recent peat marshes. 

Remains of the Mastodon are found in the post glacial beds of the Maumee 

valley. Part of a skeleton was obtained from a peat swamp near St. Johns, Au- 
slaize county, The appearances indicate that the animal had mired and died 
where found. Prof. Gilbert carefully examined the locality and was confirmed in 
this opinion; also that the animal lived and died after the deposition of the drift, 
and that the overlying peat had since been formed. The depth of the swamp is 
eight feet, of which the upper one-third is peat. 

Passing to the Pacific slope, Whitney informs us of the occurrence near Benicia, 
California, of a Post-Tertiary deposit made up of beds of gravel, sand, clay and 
oyster shells, and containing fragments of bones of large animals and rolled Ter- 
tiary shells. At Bottle Hill, near Benicia, these beds contain boulders of gray 
sandstone, also bones of the Mastodon and horse. In the Gaviota pass, in the 
superficial detritus at the bottom of a layer of clay four feet thick and resting on 
sand, were found Mastodon bones. {n Tuolumne county, on the southern bank 
of the Stanislaus, there is a vast accumulation of calcareous tufa which assumes 
a most picturesque appearance, sometimes rising in cliffs like coral reefs. In this 
deposit are found many fragments of mammalian bones, including the Mastodon, 
Elephant and horse; also both land and fresh water shells All through the re- 
gion northwest of Columbia, as far as Abby’s ferry, the remains of the elephant 
and Mastodon are very abundant. 

Quoting from Whitney’s Geology of California, he says: Among the animals 
of the Pliocene we recognize the rhinoceros, a species of horse, an animal resem- 
bling the camel and one resembling the hippopotamus, and they are peculiar to 
the deposits under the lava. The lava flow destroyed them. After that was the 
Post Pliocene epoch appearing on the foot hills and slopes of the Sierra. This 


THE MASTODON. 527 


passes gradually into that of the present day, or the recent. Prominent among 
the animals of that time were the Mastodon and elephant, whose remains are 
found in the detritus of the gold region. Associated with them were the tapir, 
the bison and the horse—two species—one of them scarcely distinguishable from: 
the present mustang. 

From the Tertiary of North America Prof. Leidy names three species, in- 
cluding the South American species Mastodon andium, also found in Central 
America, Af. mirificus in the Pliocene of the Loup fork of Nebraska. 

The M. obscurus was first noticed from the Miocene of Maryland. 

Dr. Lorenzo G. Yates, of Centreville, Cal., has discovered a number of 
Mastodons in California which are referred to this species, notably the lower jaw 
and upper molar at Oak Springs, Contra Costa county, Cal., in the Pliocene Ter- 
tiary ; the fragment of a tusk from Stanislaus county. 

Remains of this species from near Santa Fe, New Mexico, are found associ- 
ated with Elephas americanus, the cancellated structure of the bones filled with 
crystalline Calcite. The J/. miriicus has been obtained from Sinker creek, Ida- 
ho, and the Niobrara, Nebraska. 

Von Meyer describes the jaw ofa Mastodon from Michvasan, Mexico,as M.hum- 
boldtt, but Prof. Leidy thinks this must be A/. obscurus. We thus find that the 
Mastodon first appeared in America in Miocene times; was abundant in the Plio- 
cene, and lingered until the close of the Glacial period and disappeared in the early 
Loess. We also find that he roamed at will, from Canada to South America, be- 
ing found as far North as 66° N. Lat. on our Western coast ; and either entire 
skeletons or portions have been found in nearly every State and in some of the 
Territories. The 44. arvernensis has been found in the Pliocene of England, 
(Red Crag,) associated with the Azppopotamus major; in Val d’Arno, in Pied- 
mont and Montpelier. The M. angustidens is from the Miocene of Lonans, of 
Touraine, and from Gers, near the base of the Pyrenees, associated with Dzno- 
thertum. Mastodons have been found in the Miocene of Switzerland, of Greece and. 
M. longirostris is found at Vienna, associated with Dinothertum, Rhinoceros, etc. 

Humboldt discovered the tooth of a Mastodon near the volcano of Imba- 
burra, at an elevation of 7200 feet. Mantell informs us that the Turquois of 
Simone are composed of mammoth bones, impregnated with a metallic oxide. 

A species named MW. elephantoides was obtained by Mr. Cranford from the: 
banks of the Irrawaddi in the Birman Empire. The bones were here invested. 
with a hard calcareo-silicious conglomerate. 

In the foot-hills of the Himalayas the bones of a Mastodon are found asso-- 
ciated with those of seven species of the elephant, four of hippopotamus, five spe- 
cies of rhinoceros, three of horse, elk, camel, giraffe, sheep and the wonderful: 
Sivatherium. There is also here found an ostrich, an ox and a tortoise with a shell 
twelve feet in length. The Sewalik hills where these are found, rise 2000 to 3000: 
feet above the sea, and contain the most remarkable deposits of Miocene animals. 
in the world. The Z/ephas Ganesi here found have tusks ten and a half feet long,. 


528 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and twenty-six inches in circumference at the base. 

A species of Mastodon, related to AZ. augustidens has left its remains in the 
ossiferous caves of Australia and probably the same species has been found in 
enue 

Nicholson’s Paleontology pp. 442 gives order Prodboscidea including three 
genera “lephas, Dinothertum and Mastodon, characterized by total absence of 
canine teeth, few molar teeth, large and transversely ribbed or tuberculate ; in- 
cisors always present and grow from persistent pulps, constituting long tusks. In 
all the elephants there are two of these tusks like incisors in the upper jaw, the 
lower jaw without incisor teeth. In the Dinotherium this is reversed, being two 
tusk-like lower incisors and no upper incisors. In the Mastodon the incisors are 
usually developed in the upper jaw and form tusks as in the elephant; but some- 
times there are upper and lower incisors movable in every direction, highly sen- 
sitive and terminating in a finger-like prehensile lobe. The nostrils are placed 
at the extremity of the proboscis. The feet are furnished with five toes each, but 
these are only partly indicated externally by the divisions of the hoof. ‘The feet 
are furnished with a thick pad or integument, forming the palms of the hand and 
the soles of the feet. There are no clavicles and the tusks are abdominal through 
life. There are two teats, and these are placed upon the chest. 

In the elephant whether living or extinct, the tusks are formed by an enor- 
mous development of upper incisors. The milk-tusks are early sned and never 
attain a great size. ‘The permanent teeth, however, grow from persistent pulps 
attaining an enormous size in old males. The lower incisors are absent and there 
are no other teeth in the jaws except the large molars, which are usually two in 
number, on each side of the jaw. The molar teeth are of very large size and are 
composed of a number of transverse plates of enamel, united by dentine. ‘The 
surfaces of the molars are approximately flat. There are six species of A/ephas in 
the Miocene of Asia. The Zlephas antiguus is a southern form of Pliocene age. 
The Elephas primigenius is a northern form of Post-pliocene age, and is the hairy 
mammoth occurring in Siberia in Northern Europe and the northern portion of 
North America. It did not occur, (according to Dawkins, ) South of a line pass- 
ing through the Pyrenees, the Alps, northern shores of the Caspian, Lake Baikal | 
and Kamschatka. It survived the Glacial period and is found abundantly in Post- 
glacial deposits of France, Germany, Britain, Russia in Europe, Asia and North 
America. It survived into the earlier portion of the human period, its remains 
being found in a great number of instances associated with implements of human 
manufacture ; while in one instance a recognizable portrait of it has been discov- 
ered, carved on bone. 

The Llephas Malitensts of Malta was scarcely four and a half feet high; 
another the 4. faloneri was still smaller, being two and a half to three feet. 

But little was known of the Lznotherium, only found in the Miocene. Its 
skull was enormous, the molars and pre-molars were present in each jaw, the 
upper jaw destitute of canine and incisors. In the lower jaw were two long tusk- 
‘dike incisors bent downward like hooks. 


THE MASTODON. 529 


The Mastodons in most respects closely resemble the true elephants, from 
which they are distinguished by their dentition. As in the elephants the upper 
incisors grow from prominent pulps and constitute long tusks; but in the majority 
of cases the Mastodons also possess lower incisors as well. The lower incisors, 
however, though tusk-shaped, did not develop themselves to any extent, and often 
disappeared in adult life. A more important distinction between the elephants 
and Mastodons is, that the molar teeth of the latter are not only more numerous, 
but have the peculiarity that their crowns are furnished with nipple-shaped emi- 
nences or tubercles placed in pairs, (its name derived from the Greek JVasios, a 
teat, and odous a tooth). 

In the Mastodon the dentine or principal substance of the tooth is covered 
by a very thick coat of dense and brittle enamel, a thin coat of cement is contin- 
ued from the fangs upon the crowa of the tooth, but this third substance does not 
fill up the inter-spaces of the division of the crown as in the elephant’s grinder. 

In the AL, ohivoticus (MM. americanus) the lower jaw has two tusks in the 
young of both sexes; these are soon shed in the female, but one of them is 
retained in the male. The upper tusks are long and retained in both sexes. The 
Mastodons were elephants with the grinding teeth less complex in structure and 
adapted for bruising tender and coarser vegetable substances, roots and aquatic 
plants. The large eminences of the grinding teeth, the unusual thickness of the 
enamel and almost entire absence of the softer cement from the grinding surface 
of the crown would indicate their adaptation to crushing harder and coarser sub- 
stances than the more complex but weaker teeth of the elephant. Their limbs 
are proportionally shorter than the elephant though constructed on the same type, 
but the leg bones are stronger, cranium flatter, and from the smaller development 
of the frontal air cells, it presents a less intelligent character. 

Other Mastodon remains discovered in Asia present the transitional charac- 
ter of the teeth of the elephant and the Mastodon. For the Mastodons with 
three-ridged penultimate and ante-penultimate grinders, Dr. Falconer proposed 
the name 77zlophodon. The species Mastodon americanus of Cuvier was described in 
1798; M. ohioticus in 1799; AM. giganteus in 1817. Both the latter are the J. 
americanus Cuvier, which is the proper name by priority. 

The Mastodon first appeared in the Miocene, being there represented by four 
European and three Indian species; occurring also in the Pliocene and Post- 
Pliocene. 

The Mastodon bones first found were supposed to be the same as the Siberian 
Mammoth. He was called the ‘‘Big Buffalo” by the Indians, and they had 
traditions of his former life here. In Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia a Delaware — 
chief informed the Governor of Virginia ‘‘ that in ancient times a herd of these 
tremendous animals came to the Big-Bone licks, and began a universal destruc- 
tion of the bear, deer, elks, buffaloes and other animals which had been created 
for the use of the Indians; that the Great Man above, looking down and seeing 
this, was so enraged that he seized his lightning, descended on the earth, seated 


530 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


himself on a neighboring mountain, on a rock on which his seat and the print of 
his feet are still to be seen, and hurled his bolts among them till the whole were: 
slaughtered, except the Big Bull, who, presenting his forehead to the shafts, 
shook them off as they fell; but missing one at length, it wounded him in the 
side; whereon springing round, he bounded over the Ohio, over the Wabash, the 
Illinois, and finally over the great lakes, where he is living at this day.” 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 


BY PRINCIPAL J. Ww. DAWSON, MONTREAL, P. Q. 


Among the numerous books and articles constantly inviting the attention 
of readers to the subjects of evolution and the antiquity and origin of man, some 
are rather of an argumentative and polemical character than of the nature of origi- 
nal investigation; others relate to new facts, and constitute actual contributions to 
the data of questions as yet too scantily supplied with fundamental truths. Of 
the former class many are interesting, able, and suggestive; but it is on work of 
the second class that the actual settlement of these disputes must depend, though in 
the meantime this may be comparatively unknown to the general reader, whose 
ideas as to the present state of these questions are likely to be derived rather 
from the confident assertions and well-put arguments of popular writers than from 
the more solid though less showy and far less startling andless assured conclusions. 
of actual painstaking work. 

Of works which may claim to contain results of original and useful investiga- 
tion, the following, which are now in the hands of scientific men and embrace a 
very wide range of inquiry, may afford the material for profitable discussion in 
this Review: Dawkins on ‘‘ Early Man in Britain’’ is a work limited in its 
range, but embracing the results of the investigations of an acute obsever, well 
up in the paleontology of the more recent formations. Barrande’s ‘‘ Brachio- 
pods,” extracted from the great work on the Silurian System of Bohemia, is the 
production of the first paleozoic paleontologist of our age, and with regard to the 
group to which it relates, as well as to the cephalopods and trilobites previously 
treated by the author in the same manner, is an exhaustive inquiry as to what. 
they have to say for and against evolution. ‘‘ Les Enchainements du Monde 
Animal,” by Gaudry, may be regarded as a popular book; but it is the work of 
one of the most successful collectors and expositors of the Tertiary mammalia.. 
‘¢Le Monde des Plantes,’’ by Saporta, is also in some degree popular in its scope, 
but is replete with scientific facts admirably put together by a most successful 
and able paleo-botanist. Of the above writers Barrande is an uncompromising 
opponent of evolution as ordinarily held. In other words, he finds that the facts 
of the history of life in the Paleozoic period lend no countenance to this hypothe- 
sis. The others are theistic evolutionists, holding the doctrine of derivation with 
more or less of modification, but not descending to the special pleading and one- 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 531 


sided presentation of facts so common with the more advanced advocates of the 
‘doctrine. Perhaps we may most clearly present the salient points brought out in 
these works by noticing first the successive Tertiary periods and their life, cul- 
minating in the introduction of man, and secondly the facts as to the introduction 
of those earlier creatures which swarmed in the Paleozoic seas. 

The Tertiary or Kainozoic period, the last of the four great ‘‘ times” into 
which the earth’s geological history is usually divided, and that to which man 
and the mammalia belong, was ingeniously subdivided by Lyell, on the ground 
of percentages of marine shells and other invertebrates of the sea. .\ccording to 
this method, which with some modification in details is still accepted, the Zocene, 
or dawn of the recent, includes those formations in which the percentage of 
modern species of marine animals does not exceed 3%, all the other species 
found being extinct. The Mzocene (less recent) includes formations in which the 
percentage of living species does not exceed 35, and the /izocene (more recent) 
contains formations having more than 35 per cent of recent species. To these 
three may be added the Pleistocene, in which the great majority of the species are 
recent, and the Modern, in which all may be said to be living. Dawkins and 
Gaudry give us a division substantially the same with Lyell’s, except that they 
prefer to take the evidence of the higher animals instead of the marine shells. 
The Eocene thus includes those formations in which there are remains of mam- 
mals or ordinary land quadrupeds, but none of these belong to recent species or 
genera, though they may be included in the same families and orders with the 
recent mammals. This is a most important fact, as we shall see, and the only 
exception to it is that Gaudry and others hold that a few living genera, as those 
of the dog, civet, and marten, are actually found in the later Eocene. In the 
case of plants, as we shall find, Saporta shows that modern genera of land plants 
occur before the Eocene, in the last great group of the preceding period, and we 
have abundant American evidence of the same fact. As in the Mosaic narrative 
of creation, the higher plants precede by a long time the higher animals. The 
Miocene, on the same mammalian evidence, will include formations in which 
there are living genera of mammals, but no species which survive to the present 
time. ‘The Pliocene and Pleistocene show living species, though in the former 
these are very few and exceptional, while in the latter they become the majority. 

With regard to the geological antiquity of man no geologist expects to find 
any human remains in beds older than the Tertiary, because in the older periods 
the conditions of the world do not seem to have been suitable to man, and be- 
cause in these periods no animals nearly akin to man are known. On entering 
into the Eocene Tertiary we fail in like manner to find any human remains; and 
and we do not expect to find any, because no living species and scarcely any 
living genera of mammals are known in the Eocene; nor do we find in it remains 
of any of the animals, as the anthropoid apes for instance, most nearly allied to 
man. In the Miocene the case is somewhat different. Here we have living gen- 


032 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


era at least, and we have large species of apes; but no remains of man have been 
discovered, if we except some splinters of flint found in beds of this age at Then- 
ay in France, and a notched rib-bone. Supposing these objects to have been 
chipped or notched by animals, which is by no means certain or even likely, the 
question remains, was this done by man? Gaudry and Dawkins prefer to sup- 
pose that the artificer was one of the anthropoid apes of the period. It is true 
that no apes are known todo such work now; but then other animals, as beavers 
and birds, are artificers, and some extinct animals were of higher powers than 
their modern representatives. But if there were Miocene apes which chipped 
flints and cut bones, this would, either on the hypothesis of evolution or that of 
creation by law, render the occurrence of man still less likely than if there were 
no such apes. For these reasons neither Dawkins nor Gaudry, nor indeed any 
geologists of authority in the Tertiary fauna, believe in Miocene man. 

In the Pliocene, as Dawkins points out, though the facies of the mammalian 
fauna of Europe becomes more modern and a few modern species occur, the cli- 
mate becomes colder, and in consequence the apes disappear, so that the chances 
of finding fossil men are lessened rather than increased in so far as the temperate 
regions are concerned. In Italy, however, Capellini has described a skull, an 
implement, and a notched bone supposed to have come from Pliocene beds. To 
this Dawkins objects that the skull and the implement are of recent type, and prob- 
ably mixed with the Pliocene stuff by some slip of the ground. As the writer has 
elsewhere pointed out,* similar and apparently fatal objections apply to the skull 
and implements alleged to have been found in Pliocene gravels in California. 
Dawkins further informs us that in the Italian Pliocene beds, supposed to hold 
remains of man, of twenty-one mammalia whose bones occur, all are extinct 
species except possibly one, a hippopotamus. This of course renders very un- 
likely in a geological point of view the occurrence of human remains in these 
beds. 

In the Pleistocene deposits of Europe—and this applies also to America—we 
for the first time find a predominance of recent species of land animals. Here, 
therefore, we may look with some hope for remains of man and his works, and 
here, according to Dawkins, in the later Pleistocene they are actually found. 
When we speak, however, of Pleistocene man, there arise some questions as to 
the classification of the deposits, which it seems to the writer Dawkins and other 
British geologists have not answered in accordance with geological facts, and a 
misunderstanding as to which may lead to serious error. This will be best under- 
stood by presenting the arrangement adopted by Dawkins with a few explanatory 
notes, and then pointing out its defects. ‘The following may be stated to be his 
classification of the later Tertiary : 

I. PLEISTOCENE PERiop: the fourth epoch of the Tertiary, in which living 


species of mammals are more abundant than the extinct, and man appears. It 
may be divided into— 


*<« Fossil Men,”’ 1880. 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 633: 


(a) Early Pleistocene, in which the European land was more elevated and ex- 
tensive than at present (First Continental Period of Lyell), and in which Europe: 
was colonized by animals suitable to a temperate climate. No good evidence of 
the presence of man. 

(6) Atid Pletstocene. In this period there was a great extension of cold climate 
and glaciers over Europe, and mammals of arctic species began to replace those 
previously existing. There was alsoa great subsidence of the land, finally reducing 
Europe toa group of islands in a cold sea, often ice-laden. Two flint flakes found. 
in brick earth at Crayford and Erith in England are the only known evidences of. 
man at this period. 

(c) Late Pleistocene. The land was again elevated, so that Great Britain and: 
Ireland were united to each other and to the continent (Second Continental Period. 
of Lyell). The ice and cold diminished. Modern land animals largely predomi- 
nate, though there are several species now extinct. Undoubted evidences of man, 
of the so-called ‘‘ Paleolithic race,” ‘‘ Riverdrift and Cave men,” ‘‘Men of the 
Mammoth and Reindeer periods.” 

II. Preuistoric Periop: In which domestic animals and cultivated fruits. 
appear; the land of Europe shrinks to its present dimensions. Man abounds, and 
is similar to races still extant in Europe. Men of ‘‘Neolithic age,” ‘‘ Bronze 
age,” ‘‘ Prehistoric Irgn age.” 

Ill. Hisroric Periop: In which events are recorded in history. 

I have given this classification fully, in order to point out in the first place- 
certain serious defects in its latter portion, and in the second place what it actually 
shows as to the appearance of man in Europe. 

In point of logical arrangement, and especially of geological classification, 
the two last periods are decidedly objectionable. Even in Europe the historic age: 
of the south is altogether a different thing from that of the north, and to speak of 
the prehistoric period in Greece and in Britain or Norway as indicating the same 
portion of time is altogether illusory. Hence a large portion of the discussion of 
this subject has to be called by our author ‘‘the overlap of history.” Further, the- 
mere accident of the presence or absence of historical documents cannot constitute 
a geological period comparable with such periods as the Pleistocene and Pliocene, 
and the assumption of such a criterion of time merely confuses our ideas. On the one: 
hand, while the whole Tertiary or Kainozoic, up to the present day, is one great 
geological period, characterized by a continuous though gradually changing fauna: 
and series of physical conditions, and there is consequently no good basis for set-- 
ting apart, as some geologists do, a Quarternary as distinct from the Tertiary 
period; on the other hand there is a distinct physical break between the Pleisto- 
cene andthe Modern in the great glacial age. ‘This in its arctic climate and 
enormous submergence of the land, though it did not exterminate the fauna of 
the Northern Hemisphere, greatly reduced it, and at the close of this age many 
new forms came in. For this reason the division should be made not where- 
Dawkins makes it, but at or about the end of his ‘‘ Mid Pleistocene.” The natur- 
al division would thus be: 


I, PLEISTOCENE, including— 


(2) Early Pleistocene, or First Continental period. Land very extensive,. 
moderate climate. 


O34 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


(6) Later Pleistocene, or glacial, including Dawkins’ ‘‘ Mid Pleistocene.” In 
this there was a great prevalence of cold and glacial conditions, and a great sub- 
amergence of the northern land. 

II. Moperv, or Period of Man and Modern Mammals, including— 

(a) Post-glacial, or Second Continental period,in which the land was again very 
extensive, and Paleocosmic man was contemporary with some great mammals, as 
ithe mammoth, now extinct, and the area of land in the Northern Hemisphere was 
greater than at present. This represents the Late Pleistocene of Dawkins. It was 
terminated by a great and very general subsidence accompanied by the disappear- 
ance of Paleocosmic man and some large mammalia, and which may be identical 
with the historical deluge. 


(6) Recent, when the continents attained their present levels, existing races 
of men colonized Europe, and living species of mammals. ‘This includes both the 
Prehistoric and Historic periods. 

On geological grounds the above should clearly be our arrangement, though 
of course there need be no objection to such other subdivisions as historians and 
antiquarians may find desirable for their purposes. On this classification ¢he earlt- 
est certain indications of the presence of man in Europe, Asia, or America, so far as 
yet known, belong to the Modern period alone. That man may have existed previ- 
ously no one need deny, but no onecan positively affirm it on any ground of actual 
fact. I do not reckou here the two flint flakes of Crayford and Erith already 
mentioned, because even if they are of human workmanship, the actual age of 
the bed in which they occur, as to its being glacial or post-glacial, is not beyond 
doubt. Flint flakes or even flint chips may be safely referred to man when they 
are found with human remains, but when found alone they are by no means cer- 
tain evidence. The clays of the Thames valley have been held by some good 
geologists to be pre-glacial, but by others to be much later, and the question is still 
under discussion. Dawkins thinks they may be ‘‘ Mid Pleistocene,” equivalent to 
““ Later Pleistocene” of the second table above, and that they are the oldest traces 
of man certainly known, but in the mean time they should evidently be put to 
what has been called ‘‘ the suspense account.’’ 

Inasmuch, however, as the human remains of the post-glacial epoch are those 
of fully developed men of high type, it may be said, and has often been said, that 
man in some lower stage of development must have existed at a far earlier period. 
That is, he must if certain theories as to his evolution from lower animals are to be 
sustained. ‘This, however, is not a mode of reasoning in accordance with the 
methods of science. When facts fail to sustain certain theories we are usually in 
the habit of saying ‘‘so much the worse for the theories,” not ‘‘ so much the worse 
for the facts,” or at least we claim the right to hold our judgment in suspense till 
some confirmatory facts are forthcoming. 

Before leaving this part of the subject it may be well to remark the grand 
procession of mammalian life, beginning with the marsupial and semi-marsupial 
beasts of prey and low-browed and small-brained but gigantic ungulates of 
the Eocene, and ending with man. There is here unquestionable elevation in rank, 
by whatever means effected. Gaudry inclines to some form of evolution, though 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 530 


the piously refers it to the operation of the Creator. He thinks he can see traces 
of such evolution in the carnivorous animals, as derived from marsupials, and in 
the antelope and deer tribe, more especially in the development of horn and antler ; 
-and he traces the horse through a supposed ancestry of hipparia, etc., differing, 
however, from English and American evolutionists in making the Faleotherium 
the initial link. This is, however, a matter of taste, as these genealogies may 
usually be traced with equal probability or improbability through any one of half 
a dozen lines. But in the case of some groups of animals, and these of the high- 
est importance, he freely admits that derivation is at fault. The elephants and 
their allies the deinotheres and mastodons, for example, appear all at once in the 
Miocene period and in many countries, and they only dwindle in magnitude and 
mumbers as they approach the modern. Gaudry frankly says: ‘‘ D’ot sont-ils 
venus, de quels quadrupédes ont-ils été dérivés? Nous lignorons encore.” The 
edentates, the rodents, the bats, the manatees are equally mysterious, and so are 
the cetaceans, those great mammalian monsters of the deep, which leap into ex- 
astence in grand and highly developed forms in the Eocene, and which surely 
should have left some trace of their previous development in the sea. ‘‘ We 
have,’’ says Gaudry, ‘‘ questioned these strange and gigantic sovereigns of the 
Tertiary oceans as to their progenitors, but they leave us without reply,” and he 
goes on to refer to several things in connection with their habitat, their reproduc- 
tion, and their dentition or want of it, which make their sudden appearance still 
more inscrutable. It is refreshing to find a naturalist who, while honestly and 
even enthusiastically seeking to establish the derivation of animals, gives due 
prominence to the facts which, in the present state of knowledge at least, refuse “ 
to be explained by his theory. The reader may note here that the appearance 

of man fully developed in the Modern period is parallel with that of the elephan- 

‘tine animals in the Miocene and the whales in the Eocene, as well as with a vast 

multitude of other cases which meet the paleontologists in every direction. 

In the world of plants, Sarporta has a strangely different story to tell, though 
ats general plan evidently harmonizes with the history of mammalian life. If we 
keep out of view the few species of small marsupials that exist in the Mesozoic period, 
mammalian life in all its grandeur comes into existence at a bound in the Eocene. 
But it had been preceded for at least one great geological period by a vegetation 
similar to that now living. It can scarcely be questioned that the vegetation of 
the older geological periods, however rank and abundant, was not well suited to 
‘sustain the higher herbivorous animals. Accordingly, no such animals are known 
an these periods. But in the cretaceous age we find in the lower beds of that 
‘series some coniferous plants of living genera, and in the upper cretaceous modern 
generic forms come in, both in Europe and America, in great force. We have 
magnolias, oaks, beeches, ivies, ginsengs, plane-trees, poplars, palms, and a host 
of familiar forms, and some of these so closely resembling existing species that it 
‘scarcely requires the eyes of an evolutionist to see in them the ancestors of our 
modern trees. Thus an ample and long-continued preparation was made not 


IV—36 


536 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


only for the introduction of mammalian life, but even for giving to the landscape: 
its existing features. It seems indeed strange that no precursors of the Eocene 
mammals have yet been found in connection with these plant remains of the newer 
cretaceous. There is a gap here in animal life which we may expect at some 
time to be filled. There seems, however, notwithstanding the great changes in 
climate and physical geography, to have been much less change from the creta- 
ceous onward in the plant world than in the world of higher animal life, so that 
Saporta can figure series of leaves of plants of modern genera from the Eocene 
upward, showing so little modification that they may in some cases be regarded 
as scarcely more than varietal forms, while some of the species have undoubtedly 
survived without change through all the long ages extending from the beginning 
of the Kainozoic to the present day. Plant-life is in this analogous to the lower 
animal life of the sea, which presents the same unchanged characteristics in 
Eocene and Modern species. 
(Zo be continued.) 


ARTESIAN WELLS IN COLORADO. 


CAPT. E. L. BERTHOUD. 


An artesian well is one that is sunk through an inclined stratum of rock or 
clay, or slate impervious to water, to more porous or pervious strata underneath. 
_ Hence, unless we have inclined strata, or those inclined qua-quaversally, thus. 
forming boat-shaped or saucer-shaped depressions, we cannot hope to succeed in 
sinking an artesian or water pressure well. 

The increasing volume of population that is surging west of the Missouri 
river into what Professor Powell justly calls the arid regions of the United States, 
and the increasing and imperative demand that this swelling tide has for an 
abundant and perennial supply of water, is one that justly demands immediate 
and paramount attention on the part of State, local, and (above all) general gov- 
ernment authorities. 

It is not the design here to enter into any details of where and how we must 
or do use water, but simply to discuss the subject of water supply in its various 
forms as evident to us—the causes that affect its volume and distribution, and the 
methods that in future may be used to enhance its supply and to render desert 
wastes habitable and of economic value. 

Prominently before the people of Colorado is Senator Hill’s appropriation 
(for to his efforts this is mainly due) that has been made for the purpose of sink- 
ing artesian wells in Colorado, as a trial experiment. 

We will not in this sketch pretend to criticise the action of the ‘‘ experts” 
who have decided upon the localities where our wells are to be sunk—nor do we 
design these remarks in any unfair spirit of criticism. The gentlemen, who have 
for the department in Washington the care and responsibility of this work, must 


ARTESIAN WELLS IN COLORADO. 537 


have a fair chance to carry out their theories and ideas—they have publicly an- 
nounced them, and until their failure or success proves them right or wrong, it is 
not fair to find fault. But while anxiously awaiting the final result that their bor- 
ings will develop, we will examine the question of such wells in the abstract, and 
discuss not only the origin of the underground supplies of water we may expect 
to reach in Colorado, east of the main mass of the Rocky Mountains, but the 
constant proportion that the subterranean supply of water bears to the total mete- 
-oric supply—the amount that is carried out into the open plains country by evap- 
oration and the streams, and lastly the topographical and geological features, fa- 
vorable or unfavorable, to the project of a water supply from artesian wells. 

Originally, we conceive that as late as the lower Eocene or upper Cretaceous 
ages, the whole region between the South Platte and Wahsatch Mountains was then 
an undulating surface, unbroken by any mountain range. The Rocky Mountains 
were then elevated, and on their flanks to the east and from the central range 
westward to the great basin the cretaceous strata were tilted and uplifted in great 
confusion. This continuous movement of elevation raised up on the east foot-hills 
into the jurassic and triassic and carboniferous strata existing underneath the Cre- 
taceous, so that we can to-day walk over and examine each outcrop from the 
Eocene to the Carboniferous without difficulty, and each lying in a highly inclined 
position from the thirty-fifth to the seventieth dip. / 

Most prominent among the successive outcrops that we find parallel to, and 
continuous from the North Platte to the Spanish peaks, are the various high pic- 
turesque ridges of cretaceous sandstones and slates that like vast waves follow the 
contour of the granite and mica slate foot-hills, whose elevation originally disturb- 
ed their normal level with the most recent Cretaceous—or we might better say at 
the point of passage from the upper Cretaceous to the lower Eocene we find a series 
of formations, essentially fresh water, or estuary too in part, in which are devel- 
oped a large succession of coal veins, accompanied with a large development of 
fire-clay and potters-clay beds, and finally overspread with a very thick deposit of 
green Tertiary clay, lying uncomformably upon the coal measures. 

Now the inclination of the successive strata from the metamorphic eastward 
to the tertiary is excessive, and the ends of the strata form the general surface of 
the ground in the valleys and the foot-hills, each branch or affluent of the Platte 
cutting a bed through the upturned strata until it reaches the more horizontal 
formations that constitute the Missouri and Platte river prairies, while a large 
portion of the water that comes from the central range in the shape of melted 
snow or summer rains is taken up and stopped by the more porous and open | 
sandstone strata that form the beds of the streams when they leave the mountain 
cafions on their way to the South Platte, the North Platte, and the Arkansas. 
This amount of water from the streams whose supply comes from the central 
range, joined to that which, as melted snow and as rain, is taken up and absorbed 
all over the foot ranges of our mountains, finally reaches our porous sedimentary 
strata at the foot of the mountains, and follows down their fissures and faults 
until they either reach the impenetrable fire-clay walls of our coal formation, or 


038 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


else the great clay deposit overlying the coal, and east of the coal veins, either of 
these clay deposits being sufficient to arrest the outward flow of the drainage of 
our mountain range, thus acting as an impervious wall or dam, and forcing into’ 
the low-lying porous strata, under the clay, a vast volume of water, which is totally 
lost for any available purpose. It is evident, however, that in Jefferson and Boul- 
der counties, where the coal formation is extensively developed, that the amount 
of water absorbed and which passes under the great clay deposit that overlies the 
cual, is of very small volume compared to that which is stopped by the fire clay 
beds in the coal deposits against whose face the whole mountain drainage is finally 
accumulated, and which it follows to an almost unknown depth. 

We have been, perhaps, too particular in our local remarks touching the 
sequence of our geological deposits, and their situation in respect to the configura- 
tion and drainage of our mountain range, and its outliers to the East, formed of 
sedimentary rocks, but we consider these details as absolute, not only in general 
accuracy, but as necessary to develop the theory we have formed, based on their 
sequence and position. 

In accordance, then, with the preceding description of the geological and 
lithological formation of the strata adjacent to the Rocky Mountains, between the 
thirty-eighth and forty-first degrees of latitude, we believe to make ethe boring 
of ‘an artesian well a success, that we must select a point for that undertaking 
immediately east of the outcrop of the coal formation, or failing to find and iden- 
tify in any one spot the presence of the great lignite beds bordering the foot-hills, 
we must sink down through the great green clay deposit that overlies this forma- 
tion, until we reach the sandstone strata beneath it. For whenever the vertical 
boring in the coal formation reaches the sandstone and slates beneath the coal, 
we will find abundant supplies of water derived from the higher lands west of 
them. The same, but in a lessened degree, will be the case when we bore the 
great tertiary clay deposit overlying the coal measures unconformably. 

Now it has been shown from the result of the artesian well borings made by 
Captain Pope in the Zlano Estacado and also in New Mexico—by the borings 
made near Carson, in Arapahoe county, and also by one or two attempts made 
between the South Platte and the foot-hills near Golden—that although water was 
found in boring down in every instance, yet it signally faded to reach the surface 
by hydrostatic pressure. We believe this is due to two causes: 

1. That until such borings have been extended downward sufficiently to 
reach either the Tertiary clay, or cretaceous coal shales or clays, the fillets of 
water that are found are due either to local drainage, or— 

2. They are obtained from the scattered crevices or cleavage planes exist- 
ing everywhere in the porous sandstone and slates underlying the whole region 
embraced in our remarks—and that this universal diffusion of small underground 
veins, not derived from the higher mountains to the west, is the reason of their 
failure to reach the surface, or to overflow above it. 

We need not here allude to the well-known fact of the scarcity of springs 


ARTESIAN WELLS IN COLORADO. 539 


everywhere in the prairie region of Colorado, and to their comparatively reduced 
numbers everywhere in the foot-hills, where we find the upturned ‘‘ hog-backs” 
are formed of sandstone, limestone or slate, while we find them always beyond 
the upturned coal measures. 

The writer of this article was the witness, some eighteen years ago, of an 
effort made by the war department to obtain water near Fort Lyon for the quarter- 
master’s herd, north of the Arkansas river. A well was dug some thirty feet in 
tenacious clay, then borings were carried on some thirty or forty feet deeper. 
The clay continued the same at the farthest depth attained, but not one drop of 
water was obtained, and the effort was given up as wholly useless, although begun 
in the bed of a dry affluent of the Arkansas. 

To make an artesian well practically and fully useful, we must draw from the 
underground resources that are derived from our vast mountain ranges. The 
local rainfalls of the great plains west of 100 degrees west longitude are too scanty 
in amount to ever be of much practical benefit, the rapid slope of the plains and 
the excessive evaporation from their treeless surfaces rendering that supply pre- 
carious and the effect of but short duration. The effect of hard rain in this part 
of Colorado is to drain away rapidly into the Arkansas, Smoky Hill and Repub- 
lican rivers, by the numerous dry ravines that radiate from those rivers. Their 
waters rise very high in a few hours, the water drains rapidly away, but its reten- 
tion on the surface is very light in amount from the scanty nature of the herbage 
clothing the ever parched prairies. 

From observations taken at Fort Sedgwick, Fort Russell, Cheyenne, Denver, 
Fort Reynolds and Fort Lyon, on the Arkansas, the yearly rain fall will average 
over that region about 13.21 inches. 

The average along the Colorado foot-hills is about 17.30 inches. 

The average for Clear Creek valley in the mountains, as far as Georgetown, 
Bakerville, Black Hawk and Central, is about 18.75 inches. 

The rain fall and melted snow for the higher points above these, including 
the central range, will give yearly an approximate amount of 31.50 inches; or for 
the whole area of Clear Creek valley west of the range line, between ranges 69 
and 70 west, amounting*to about 400 square miles, we have a mean approximate 
amount yearly of rain and melted snow of 20.62 inches. 

This gives us then for the Clear Creek water shed of 400 square miles a yearly 
amount of 19,068,800,000 cubic feet of water. 

Now Clear Creek gives us from a series of measurements begun in Septem- 
ber, 1860, and extended to March, 1880, an average discharge at Golden, Colo- 
rado, of 5,850,000,000 cubic feet per year. This amount, subtracted from 19,- 
068,800,000, gives uS 13,213,300,000 cubic feet of water that is lost to us by 
evaporation, or which, settling into the ground, is practically lost, unless sought 
for by digging, or returned to us through artesian wells in the foot-hills.. 

In other words, of all the rain and snow-fall received in the Clear Creek 
water-shed sixty-eight per cent. is lost to us and thirty-two per cent. is discharged 
by Clear Creek where it enters the plains. 


540 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Hence for Denver and South Platte valley, of the 13.77 inches rainfall at 
Denver, 9.37 inches of water are lost by evaporation, or sinks into the ground. 

At Cheyenne 6.9 inches are accounted for in the same way, from a yearly 
fall of 10.14 inches. 

At Fort Lyon, on the Arkansas river, the yearly rain and melted snow is 
12.50 inches, of which 8.54 inches are lost from the same causes. 

Basing the above figures on the same percentage as Clear Creek valley, we 
are inclined to believe that the chances of obtaining subterranean supplies of 
water from artesian wells are zuversely proportioned to their distance from the 
mountain range, and that the great diminution of rainfall from the main range 
eastward, already so much noted at Denver, is still more apparent as we go to- 
ward 1oz2 and ro: degrees of west longitude in the Platte and Arkansas valleys. 

And that to attempt to bore for permanent supplies of water east of parallel 
105, in Boulder, Jefferson, Arapahoe, Douglas, Bent or Larimer counties, will be 
infructious or unsatisfactory, and cannot, we believe, lead to the discovery and 
delivery of large, permanent supplies of water. 

The figures given for the rainfall for Clear Creek valley, the supply of water, 
etc., etc., are solely from the writer’s own data. For the outside localities they 
are obtained from the United States signal service office, Smithsonian Institute, 
Prof. Powell’s ‘‘ Arid Regions,” etc. 


THE MIOCENE BEDS OF THE JOHN DAY RIVER, OREGON. 
CHARLES H. STERNBERG, ELLSWORTH, KANSAS. 


These beds consist principally of clay, with here and there a stratum of 
green sandstone. ‘They are often covered with a cherty clay rock, that has been 
subjected to a great heat. Twelve or fifteen hundred feet of lava cover the 
deposit, and in many places dykes run across the country and through the 
tertiary beds. Here the earth has cracked and poured out its oceans of lava, 
where these dikes are exposed; they resemble rows of~cord wood, the basaltic 
columns lying horizontal. The clay beds are of various colors, red, green and 
yellow, withall the intermediate shades. These bright colors form a pleasing 
landscape, especially where the elements have worn the beds into Bad Land 
scenery, while above, rises escarpment after escarpment of basaltic columns. The 
distant summits are crowned with forests of pine. The rocks, as I have said, are 
chiefly clay, which have been softened on the surface by rain and frost into soft 
earth, into one sinks a foot or more. Beneath this the rock is solid and hard to 
work. Great numbers of coneretions are scattered through the beds. They are 
from a few inches to several feet in diameter. In places these concretions are 
arranged in rows one above the other one hundred feet in height, and the bed 
looks as if the rock had been faced with mortar and cannon balls six inches in 
diameter stuck into it in regular rows. Through the clay beds are often found 


THE MIOCENE BEDS OF THE JOHN DAY RIVER, OREGON. 541 


‘vertical seams of carbonate of lime. The beds are hard to explore, as they are 
almost perpendicular, with here and there a narrow projecting shelf that gives a 
precarious foothold. Only persons who have had long experience in collecting, 
and who have enthusiasm enough to risk their lives for science, can hope,to meet 
with success; otherwise they will go away with no specimens, or only fragments 
some friendly wash has carried to a level place. The beds differ from any that 
I have ever explored, and a day’s climbing among them would convince any 
but an experienced collector that they were destitute of fossils. The amount of 
labor required to wrest from Dame Nature her hidden treasures is great, but she 
always rewards persistent effort. I have more than once explored a locality for 
two weeks without success, and then found a splendid specimen in the very 
ground I had gone over again and again. 

For nine or ten years these beds have been explored, and each year an 
equally rich harvest has been gathered. The fossil remains are often in concre- 
tions with eye rim, or the point of a tooth, or small portion of some other bone 
exposed, and you can easily see how carefully one must look, when hardly one 
concretion in a thousand contains anything of value. Of course, the smaller the 
amount of the skull that is exposed, the more perfect will be the specimens 
imprisoned in the friendly concretion. In the two years I worked in these beds 
I found great numbers of perfect skulls and many more or less perfect skeletons 
of various mammals, and in all my explorations in the fossil beds of the North- 
west I never found such perfect specimens. At one time I got a nearly perfect 
skeleton of a large mammal unfortunately the skull was missing. It proved to 
be a new species belonging to a new genus: Cope called it boocherus humerosus, 
on account of a huge projection on the humerus. It was as large as a rhinoceros, 
with great pillar like limbs. 

One great trouble we found in collecting was the dazzling surface of the 
beds we had to examine, the eyes soon becoming tired. We often had the 
sensation of snow blindness: five hours constant looking was a good day’s work. 
The most abundant fossil found was the oveoclon, or the extinct hog, as they 
closely resembled that family. Three or four species were discovered, some 
‘about the size of the Texas peccary, others as large as the wild boar of Europe. 
I have been enabled to furnish Professor Cope a number of perfect skeletons of 
this genus, as their anatomy is well made out. The animals found belong to 
tropical countries. The rhinocerous is quite common, three or more species, one 
has a horn on each side of the end of the nose. The /zpparion and other ances- 
tors of the horse are found. One peculiar new genus I discovered was an an- 
cestor of the South American Llama; Cope calls it Probotherium sternbergit. Instead 
of there being but one metacarpal as on the Llama, there are two pressed closely 
together, and, reasoning from the evolution theory, we would expect this to be 
the case in the ancestor of the Llama, because, in the metacarpal of the Llama, 
there are two projecting articulations for the attachment of two toes, and from 
each articulation a medullary canal extends back the whole length of the bone. 


542 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Just as Darwin reasoned, that in the early history of the horse, it must have hadi 
three toes, and that the two splint bones were the rudiments of those toes. The 
Oregon beds prove Darwin to be right, as horses with three toes have been found- 

Among the carnivora, over ten species of dogs and tigers were discovered. 
One large dog had terrible fangs, longer than a tiger’s, that were sharply serrate 
edged like a shark’s. Another peculiar species had a shoulder on the lower 
canine, against which the point of the upper struck. This large number of 
carnivorous beasts show that herbivora were abundant, which we found to be the 
case. 

Although these beds have been explored a great many years, we found new 
species and a number of new genera. The first year I worked in the beds I got 
thirteen new species. They will all be described and figured in a work by 
Professor Cope on the Miocene of Oregon, to be published by the Government. 

Among the gnawers or rodents great numbers of species were found, from 
a small mouse to a beaver. I found fossil bones bearing the marks of these 
little rodents’ teeth. 

Hard-shelled turtles were the only reptiles found: they varied in size from 
six inches in diameter to two feet. Fresh water wa#os and other shells were 
abundant. The miocene beds of Oregon extend over the greater part of the 
eastern part of the State. Only the John Day and Crooked river have been 
explored. Rich harvests await the future explorer. 


CORRESEON DEN CE: 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 


November 20, 1880. 

M. Deherain, in studying the origin of carbon in plants, points out the fact, 
that the seed retains the larger part of its reserved food for the development of 
the leaves, to enable them to take in at the earliest period a supply of carbonic 
acid. But if the seed germinates in a sterile soil, the root will become immeas- 
urably long, just as when a plant vegetates in obscurity, the stem lengthens out 
in search of light, at the expense of the leaves, which, deprived of lights, can 
perform no function. Chlorophyll, or the green coloring matter of plants, con- 
sists according to M. Frémy, of two different susbtances, yellow and green; 
chlorophyll proper, is a highly agatized body, as is evident from the vigor with 
which wheat or grass in certain parts of a field accidently overmanured, spring 
up in rank green tufts during spring. Place a plant of tobacco ina poor soil, 
the leaves will commence to turn yellow, but add a dose of nitrogenous manures, 
and they will rapidly become a deep green. Light, whether it proceed from the 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 548: 


sun or artificially, by means of electricity, is necessary for the production of 
chlorophyll; but M. Boehm has demonstrated by experiments on young pines, 

that unless a certain degree of temperature exists, the influence of the light will 

be next to nugatory. Chlorophyll does not allow all the rays of light to pass 
through its mass indifferently ; some traverse it, but others are retained, absorbed, 

and extinguished. The intense action of sunlight, if prolonged, induces a 
partial decoloration of the leaves, for the chlorophyll cells, which ordinarily 
run together like a string of beads, coalesce and seek the edges of the leaf as if 
for shade from the too powerful solar action. The chlorophyll cells are the seat of 
one of the most important phenomena of vegetation; it is therein where takes 
place the decomposition of carbonic acid; it is by that intermediary that vegeta- 
tion receives and augments its mass of carbonaceous matter. The air is the 
grand source of carbon; for example, the immense regions of sandy soil in the 
southwestern and northern shores of France are barren of carbon, yet pine forests 
flourish there not the less. ‘The carbon comes from the air, similarly as Boussin- 

gault caused plants to grow in sterile sand by merely keeping the roots in contact 
with water. Priestly in 1771 demonstrated, that an atmosphere in which a candle 

became extinguished, enabled a plant to exist, and later, when a second candle 
had been introduced, it burned as usual. The plant had absorbed and appropri- 
ated the carbon of the carbonic acid produced by the combustion of the first 
taper, giving off in return, oxygen to enable the second to burn. It was Housz, 

however, who showed that the leaves decomposed carbonic acid under the 
influence of light. If the living leaves be deprived, pending some days, of the 
action of air, or plunged for a relatively short time into an inert gas, they will 
become incapable to decompose carbonic acid—will perish—they are simply 
suffocated. Some substances, mercury for example, act on the leaves so as to 
render them incapable of decomposing the carbonid acid; they are literally 
paralyzed. 

Cerebral always succeeds articulate rheumatism, and invariably terminates in 
death. When the disease gains the head, the pains in the articulations disappear.. 
Rheumatism of the brain commences by delirium, continues by a succession of 
crises—ending in about twenty-four hours, and fatally—for the rare cases of cure: 
do not count in the struggle. The highest medical authority in France, M. 
Woillez, asserts the affection of cerebral rheumatism can be successfully treated,. 
and without danger to any other existing disease of the heart or lungs—that a 
patient may be suffering from, by means of cold immersions, in a bath reduced 
to sixty-eight degrees Fahr. by means of ice, maintaining the patient therein till _ 
the first symptoms of shivering appear. The bath is to be renewed every three 
hours, and generally three will suffice. It is vitally important to remember that. 
on the first appearance of the symptoms medical aid should be called in, and 
action at once taken; each minute’s delay is a chance removed for success. 
Nothing but immersion must be practiced, as nothing can replace the ice bath,, 
neither local applications of ice, nor lotions, nor wet sheets. These are only 


D44 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


auxiliaries of the cold bath. As there is no uncertainty respecting the happy 
results, so there should be no hesitation to adopt the remedy. The time for the 
patient to remain in the bath, till the shivering sets in, may vary from ten minutes 
to one hour and a half. Sometimes the bath is commenced at eighty-six degrees 
Fahr., and cooled down to the sixty-eight and even sixty-four degrees. A bath 
‘at eighty-two degrees has occasionally sufficed to ward off the mortal symptoms, 
commencement of asphyxia. The delirium resulting from cerebral rheumatism 
manifests itself under the form of hallucinations, melancholy, stupor, persecution 
and total perversion of character, ending in coma; other symptoms are, sleep- 
llessness, convulsions and tremblings, the last stage being asphyxia. No treat- 
ment in the history of medicine produces such prodigious results in so short a 
time, as immersion in the cold bath; it takes the patient in the moment of inert 
agony, deprived of all sentiment and reason, and in the twinkling of an eye, 
restores him to life. First, the danger imminent from asphyxia is conjured by 
‘respiration being established, the muscular tremblings are calmed and disappear. 
The delirium may not have departed—a circumstance not very important, as the 
primary point is attained—the living of the patient. Often the delirium will have 
vanished with the first bath, returning in the interval before the second; the 
‘pulse, after the bath, will have been found to have descended from 160 to 108, 
Pending the four or seven hours that may elapse after the bath, the patient will 
gradually become warm, experience a general sense of relief, then suddenly the 
temperature of the body will mount, but never will attain the number of degrees 
as before the immersion. 

There is no physical theory about electricity. Neither Faraday nor Thomp- 
‘son attempted such; hence, why the question is being discussed. Is electricity a 
form of matter, or a form of force like heat and light ? Clearly it must be either. 
Matter is all that can be perceived by the senses or put in movement be force ; 
its properties are weight, inertia, elasticity. Force is all that which produces or 
tends to produce movement of matter either by pressure, tension, attraction or 
repulsion, so as to effect a change in the repose of matter or to modify its 
movement. Matter is represented by sixty-four elements, and which have up to 
the present resisted all means of analysis; it occupies space, and is to be met — 
with under four forms, solid, liquid, gaseous and ultra gaseous; it is composed of 
molecules and atoms. An atom is the most tiny indivisible part of an element; 
a group of atoms of the same element, or of different elements, constitutes a 
molecule, and which has defined dimensions, and remains always invariably in 
ats form for each substance. The mass of a substance is the reunion of the 
molecules of which it is composed. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed ; 
hence, matter is indestructible. We can only form an approximate idea of the 
dimensions of a molecule. According to Sir W. Thompson, if a sphere of 
water, large as a pea, were magnified to equal the volume of the earth, each 
molecule proportionally augmented would be of a volume between the sizes of | 
ca small ball of lead and an ordinary cricket ball; fifty millions of molecules 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 045 


placed in line, would extend to an inch. Molecules are very elastic, and when 
unopposed by obstacles, move rapidly and in aright line ; when they move freely, 
they represent the w/tra gaseous state of matter, as obtained by Crookes in almost 
a vacuum; when they knock against each other, following the law of elastic 
bodies, thus putting an obstacle reciprocally to their own movement—gas is the 
result ; when the field of the movement of the atoms is restrained, but not wholly 
stopped, a /zguzd is the product, and when the attraction is sufficient to produce 
cohesion, to keep the molecules confined to their proper sphere, that state of 
matter is called sold. All that changes the movement of matter, or the mole- 
cules which compose it, is a form of force: Thus weight, attracting matter to the 
center of the globe, is a form of force; so is heat, for it determines in the 
molecules of matter violent vibrations, or augments the rapidity of their move- 
ments in a right line—that which products the measure of heat, called—tempera- 
ture. Light is also a form of force, being the product of the undulations of the 
molecules of matter, transmitted by the undulations of that mzliew which fills all 
space—ether. No person has ever seen a molecule, and the mind’s eye can 
form no idea of force. All that is mysterious and incomprehensible in nature is 
attributed to things not less mysterious and also as incomprehensible. This has 
ever been the case with such phenomena as life, heat, magnetism and electricity. 
For the Greeks, heat was an animal which bit, later it was accepted asa fluid, 
which permeated and inflamed bodies, till Rumford demonstrated it was merely 
a movement, and Joule a quantitative form of energy. Thalesand Milet imagined 
‘the lodestone was endowed with a sort of immaterial spirit, and the Greeks con- 
cluded amber was possessed of vitality because it attracted morsels of straw. 
Boyle held that amber emitted a kind of glutinous fluid which carried off light 
objects by attracting them toward the excited body. Du Fay imagined the 
theory of two fluids, Franklin of one, and that Cavendish completed, but it was 
Faraday who discovered the molecular theory of electricity, and Grove ranked it 
with light and heat as being a force of the same nature and simply a mode of 
movement. Deprived of dimension, inertia and elasticity, electricity cannot be 
a form of matter; consequently it is a form of force lke sound, light and heat. 
‘The analogy between the conductibility of the different metals for heat and 
electricity is such, that were th€ metals pure, their manner of conductibility 
would be the same. When an electric current passes through a metallic wire, it 
heats the metal, and to a degree proportionate to the intensity of the current, till 
the wire becomes incandescent. All electric discharge is but a violent molecular 
movement, and this view is corroborated by the fact, that in vacuum, the dis- 
charge cannot take place. M. Plouké has shown that fine wires, traversed by 
powerful currents, present regular ripples, some peculiar crackings, causing the 
‘metal to become peculiarly brittle; hence, the vibratory movement of the 
molecules. M. Siemens calculates that New York could be illuminated by the 
force of the water falling at Niagara, and that a plow could be worked—the writer 
hhas seen such on the estate of M. Menier, as well as cranes worked for unloading 


546 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


barges—by the transmission of electricity along an ordinary wire, generated by a 
machine one-third of a mile distant from the implement. Science can determine 
the quality of steam necessary to produce an electric current of a certain inten- 
sity, to yield a certain quantity of light; to determine the volume of a cable 
necessary to transmit instantly to the other side of the world a fixed number of 
words, and even when a break occurs in a cable, the point of interruption can 
be calculated to within a few yards. All this energy, all this power, is clearly a 
form of force. 

No precise ideas exist respecting ozone, it is only of late that the attempt 
has been made to distinguish it from oxygen; the truth is, the physical properties. 
of ozone are, up to the present, hardly known and cannot be distinguished from: 
those of oxygen. Messrs. Hautefeuille and Chapus have just prepared by low 
temperature and strong pressure, a mixture very rich in ozone, and peculiarly 
characterised by a blue or azure color. The same gentlemen are at present. 
occupied examining the vole of that coloring gas in the atmosphere and its influ- 
ence in diverse radiations. 

There is nothing positively known by Science respecting the cause of whoop- 
ing-cough, its evolutions, or its remedy. Doctors at best can only prescribe 
palliatives. It is an affection grave, entailing a mortality of five to ten per cent. 
It was generally considered that the inhalation of the vapors in the atmosphere: 
around gas works was an infallible remedy, but M. Roger has gone into the 
matter with the gas companies, who conclude, the children who do not return 
have been cured. The inhalation neither lessens the period of evolution of the 
disease, nor amends its nervous, febrile stages. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIEiiEsS: 


FINAL PAPERS READ AT THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 
MEETING. 


The fall meeting of the National Academy of Sciences closed with five of the 
most brilliant papers on the list, and the Academy was declared adjourned by 
Prof. Marsh without a farewell address or other literary entertainment. Includ- 
ing the biographical notes by Prof. Cope, the Canids and Mimoravids of the 
Miocene formation of the West, and the memorandum of Prof. James Hall on 
the Relation of the Oneonta and Montrose sandstones to the sandstones of the 
Catskill Mountains, some twenty-seven papers have been read, many of them of 
permanent value, and some of them (such as Prof. Langley on the thermal bal- 
ance, and that of Prof. Wolcott Gibbs on the application of electrolysis to the 
quantitative determination of metals in (solutions) constituting landmarks of prog— 


PAPERS READ AT THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 547 


wess in their respective fields. Prof. Henry Draper’s photographs of the nebulze 
of Orion must also be mentioned as contributions of the highest significance in 
physical astronomy, although not ranking, perhaps, with his brilliant discoveries 
from study of the solar spectrum. The objective lens with which this remarkable 
feat in photography was accomplished, was one of four which were manufactured 
according to a formula devised by Mr. Lewis M. Rutherford, of this city. It was 
originally manufactured to order for the Portuguese Government, and Mr. Ruth- 
erford was decorated a Knight of the Order of St. Ignacio in rcognition of his 
services. It differs from ordinary telescopic objectives in forming the image 
from the rays employed in photographing, not from those that are transmitted to the 
eye by a lens of the common pattern. Without this lens it would be impossible 
to obtain a photograph of the nebule of Orion. ‘The several memoirs of Prof. 
Agassiz have dealt, in one way or another, with the results obtained by the last 
expedition of the steamer Blake, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey. As JVature for September 30 remarks, the work performed by the Coast 
Survey has received too little attention from the scientific classes in this country, 
and its brilliant results are but vaguely appreciated. An official report of the 
work done by the Blake under the superintendence of the Hon. Carlile P. Patter- 
son, not, however, embracing its results in natural history, has recently gone 
through the government printing office at Washington. It was prepared by Lieu- 
tenant Commander Charles D. Sigsbee, of the Blake, to whose invention and fer- 
tility of resources the expedition owes a large part of its success. The work of 
the Bibb and Hassler, which preceded the Blake in this field, has been rendered 
familiar to naturalists through the memoirs of the late Count Pourtales; but the 
biological observations more recently obtained by the Blake have not yet been 
rendered fully accessible. They are in course of publication under the direction 
of Prof. Agassiz, but only a part of the series has yet appeared. The memoir of 
Prof. Marsh on the dimensions of the brain and spinal cord in extinct reptiles, as 
compared with living representatives of the same genera and species, and Prof. 
Ogden N. Rood’s extraordinary paper on high vacua, must also be reckoned as 
contributions of which American scientists may well speak with pride. On the 
whole, the volume of transactions for 1880 will compare favorably with any pre- 
ceding volume since the National Academy of Sciences was founded, and will be 
sought with avidity and treasured with solicitude by the ablest representatives of 
science in Europe as well as in the United States. There has been absolutely no 
padding in the papers read; few have exceeded twenty minutes in delivery ; the 
majority have occupied not more than ten or fifteen minutes. 

The first paper on the list was by Prof. Henry Draper, on ‘‘ Photographing 
the Nebule of Orion,” the text of which was as follows: ‘‘ The gaseous nebu_ 
lee are bodies of interest, because they may be representing an early stage in the 
genesis of stellar or solar systems. Matter appears to exist in them in a simple 
form, as indicated by the simple spectrum of three or four lines. It is desirable, 
therefore, to ascertain what changes occur in the nebulz, and to determine, if 


548 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


possible, the laws regulating their internal movements. Drawings have been 
made of some of the nebule, and especially of the nebule in Orion, for upward 
of 200 years. But drawings are open to the objection that fancy or bias may 
distort the picture, and it is therefore difficult to depend upon the result and 
compare the drawing of one man with that of another. To apply photography to 
depicting the nebulee is difficult, because these bodies are very faint,and, of course, 
owing to the earth’s motion and other causes, they seem not to be at rest. They 
require a large telescope of special construction, and it must be driven by clock- 
work with the greatest precision. All such difficulties as those arising from re- 
fraction, flexure of the telescope tube, slips of loose bearings, atmospheric tremor, 
wind, irregularities of the clock-work, foggy or yellow state of the air, have to be 
encountered. The photographic exposure needed is nearly an hour, and a slip 
or movement of a very small fraction of an inch is easily seen in the photograph 
when it is subjected to a magnifier. 

‘The means I have used to obtain what is now presented to the Academy 
are as follows: First, a triple achromatic objective of eleven inches aperture mark 
according to the plan of Mr. Lewis M. Rutherford, for correcting the rays es- 
pecially used in photographing. This telescope is mounted on an equatorial 
stand, and driven by clock-work that I have made myself. The photographic 
plates are bromo-gelatine, and are about eight times as sensitive as the collodion 
formerly employed. As to the picture itself, it will be observed in the copies be- 
fore you that the nebula is very distinct in its bright position. The stars of the 
trapezium, and some others, are so greatly over-exposed that under the magnily- 
ing power employed, namely, 165 times, they assume a large size, partly from at- 
mospheric tremor and partly from other causes. In the lower right hand corner 
of the picture is a photograph of the trapezium of only five minutes’ exposure, 
and this shows the individual stars plainly. The nebule present a knotted struct- 
ure, as if a process of aggregation was going on, but on this topic I will not make 
any statement until I have a larger collection of original negatives, so as to de- 
termine what effects different lengths of exposure will produce. I should add 
that itis more probable that much more of the nebulz will be obtained in the 
pictures taken in the clear winter weather. This photograph was made at the end 
of September, when there was some fog and yellowness in the air, but, neverthe- 
less, the original shows traces of the outlying streamers seen in the drawings of 
Lord Ross, Trewvalet, Band, Lassell and others. A series of photographs taken 
during various parts of the winter season, and in different years, will give the 
means of determining with some precision what changes, if any, are taking place 
in this body.” . 

Copies of the photograph in the form of an artotype enlargement were pre- 
sented, which will be preserved by the recipients as the first ever successfully 
executed. The negative was taken on September 30, the exposure being fifty-one 
minutes. The large stars of the constellation are somewhat indistinct from the 
over-exposure necessary to obtain an impression of the nebule. In the lower 


PAPERS READ AT THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 549 


right hand corner appears a small photograph of the trapezium alone, with only 
five minutes’ exposure. 

The second paper on the list was an extremely abstruse dissertation by Prof. 
George F. Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, on ‘‘Condensers for Cur- 
rents of High Potential.”” The reading occupied fifteen minutes, and was followed 
by the memoir of Prof. C. S. Peirce, of the United States Coast and Geodetic 
Survey, on the ‘‘Ellipticity of the Earth as deduced from Pendulum Experi- 
ments’”—a work upon which the author has been for many years engaged, and in 
the course of which he he has arrived at some new conclusions. The experiments, 
were undertaken at the instance of Superintendent Patterson, of the Coast Survey, 
and their results, as communicated to the scientific world from time to time, have 
been highly commended by European mathematicians. Prof. Peirce began by 
alluding to some of the difficulties connected with pendulum investigations, par-- 
ticularly those relating to the coefficients of the effect of temperature and that of 
atmospheric pressure. The latter was determined in 1829 by Sabine, and still 
later, Baily, .in his review of Foster’s experiments, undertook to correct all former 
results and to construct a coherent table. The first determination of the coeffi- 
cient of the effect of temperature was that of Kater, which has long been an au- 
thority among men of science. When Prof. Peirce undertook his work, at the 
suggestion of Superintendent Patterson, he had before him the results of previous 
experimentalists. His observations have extended over a series of years, and 
have been conducted with appliances of extreme delicacy. Some of his conclu- 
sions are at variance with accepted doctrines. He finds, for example, that the 
correction hitherto made for the attraction of elevations is without actual founda- 
tion in fact. An island in the ocean, instead of making necessary a correction 
for its elevation above the general level, is without such influence as has previ- 
ously been supposed on the vibration of the pendulum, and the same principle 
applies to elevations of other descriptions. In his memoir Prof. Peirce submits. 
extensive tables of his results at different points. The paper was. discussed by, 
Prof. Peters and others. 

Prof. Agassiz followed Prof. Peirce in a description of Sigsbee’s gravitating 
trap for bringing up organisms from different sea depths and investigating the 
strata of marine life. Prof. Agassiz first described the instrument and compared. 
it with the unsatisfactory big formerly use. It consists essentially of a cylinder 
furnished with a sieve and valve at the bottom, which is sunk to the required. 
depth—1oo, 500 or 1,000 fathoms, as the case may be—filled with water. When. 
at the proper point for taking a haul a heavy ring is liberated and slides down the: 
cable until it comes in contact with a device for opening the valve. The latter 
opens and the water flows in, displacing the volume of water contained in the 
cylinder, and carrying with it marine organisms living in the stratum under inves-- 
tigation, which are arrested by the sieve and thus lifted to the surface. The result 
had then, Prof. Agassiz said, was to prove there was actually no difference be- 


tween the organisms at the surface and those living at a depth of fifty fathoms.. 


2550 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


In sections of the Atlantic, so abundant at the surface in tunicate that the sea 
-seemed actually like a moving mass of life, genera and species were as numerous 
and varied at fifty fathoms as they were upon the immediate surface. The next 
fifty fathoms contained the same types, but the genera were less numerous. They 
-counted seventeen genera of pelagic organism upon the immediate surface in one 
-of those investigations, but only five of them were brought up when the trap was 
det down to a depth of too fathoms. Prof. Agassiz concluded with a high com- 
pliment to the ingenuity of Commander Sigsbee, whose invention had surmounted 
‘so many difficulties connected with the study of submarine biology. He believed 
that the bodies of pelagic organisms brought up from great depth were the car- 
-casses of animals that had perished of age or accident upon the surface, and had 
slowly settled to the bottom to furnish food for its living hosts. It required from 
‘three to four days for a dead tunicate to sink to a depth of 1,000 fathoms. 

With the paper of Prof. Marsh on the ‘‘ Dimensions of the Brain and Spinal 
‘Cord in Some Extinct Reptiles,” the work of the season was closed. Prof. Marsh 
reminded the members of the academy by way of introduction that some five 
years ago he had contributed a paper on the dimensions of the brain in extinct 
‘mammals, and had then established the proposition that the older the type the 
‘smaller was the dimensions of the brain. Among the mammals of the Tertiary 
period there had been a gradual increase in the capacity of the brain-box and in 
ithe volume of the contained nervous tissue. Moreover, this increase in volume 
had mainly concerned the cerebral or intellectual portion of the encephalon, so 
that it might be urged that there had been a gradual advance in intelligence asso- 
‘ciated with this advance in brain development. Since laying before the academy 
his memoir on the mammalian brain he made many more observations, and in 
April last last, as his hearers would remember, he had the honor of laying before 
the academy evidence of the fact that the same law of progressive increase in 
‘cerebral volume was followed by reptiles and fishes by comparing the brains of 
extinct with those of surviving genera and species. In general the brains of the 
earlier types were not more thon one-third as large as those of the corresponding 
‘types of the Tertiary period, and this was true of all the different groups he had 
examined, embracing the crocodiles, dinosaurs, as well as the higher forms. He 
should call attention at present to the small brain of a gigantic reptilian of the 
jurassic formation which he had recently examined. This immense animal, 
though thirty feet in length, possessed a brain scarcely as large as that of an or- 
dinary dog, as judged from the capacity of the brain cavity. But the most re- 
markable feature of its nervous system was an immense enlargement of the spinal 
cord in the sacral region, where the bone was so excavated as to form an immense 
vaulted receptacle several larger than the brain cavity. ‘The sacrum consisted of 
four vertebree, which were well ossified and of great solidity, and within this was 
contained, during the life of the animal, a posterior brain—if he might use the 
term—which was eight times as Jarge as the encephalon. ‘The point was of very 
‘curious interest, not only as a fact of fossil anatomy, but in respect to the physio- 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION, 551 


* logical inferences that might be drawn from it, into which he did not propose to 
enter. It was so remarkable, indeed, that he took occasion to examine other 
examples of the same species before accepting it as a general fact of extensive ap- 
plication. Upon recurring to some younger specimens of the same gigantic sauri- 
an, he was enabled to verify the existence of the cavity in every instance, and to 
prove that sacral enlargement of the cord in extinct reptilians was an extraordinary 
fact. If it had appeared in a single instance in must, of course, have been re- 
garded as a phenomenon due to injury or disease ; but in all cases since his at- 
tention was attracted to the point by this enormous creature he had found the 
posterior cavity in extinct reptiles. 

There was nothing analagous to this sacral enlargement, Prof. Marsh con- 
tinued, in existing vertebrates. The aurphiax had absolutely no brain—that is no 
cerebral enlargement of the cord at the anterior extremity, but there was an en- 
largement of the spinal cavity at the sacrum which answered to what he had ob- 
served in extinct species. He would not take the time of his colleages by draw- 
ing any conclusion from the facts he had stated. Prof. Rood inquired if the sacral 
enlargement was in such a position as to furnish a point of origin for the nerves 
of the leg. Prof. Marsh replied that such was the case, and that the creature had 
very powerful hind legs. But the fore legs were equally strong, and there was no 
corresponding enlargement. 

After concluding his paper, Prof. Marsh read the necrological roll for 1880. 
Three members had, he said, been removed by death, namely: J. Homer Lane, 
of Washington; Count Pourtales, whose name was so familiar from contributions 
to the literature of the Coast Survey; and Prof. S. S. Haldeman. He appointed 
Prof. J. E. Hilgard, Prof. Alexander Agassiz and Prof. J. J. Le Conte to prepare 
memorials of the deceased members. The meeting was then adjourned. 


CH@ Gina Plc Ak: 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 


INSTRUCTIONS TO THE COMMANDER. 


WasHINGTON, D. C., June 22, 80 


Lr. G. C. Doane, U. S. A.—Sir: I take pleasure in assigning you to the 
command of the permanent party of the expeditionary force now on its way to 
Lady Franklin Bay, in the Arctic region, and I shall expect each member of said 
party to render full and prompt obedience to your directions. 

The short time at my disposal since receiving notice of your intention to join 
the party, prevents me from entering into detail, and I shall, therefore, limit my- 


a 


IV—37 


502 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


self to a few general directions, leaving the details to be arranged in accordance » 
with your own judgment, after reaching the location of the permanent station. 

rst. If unable to reach the latitude of Lady Franklin Bay, and being forced 
to return to the United States during the year, you will Jamd the material for the 
house, and also the pemmican, at the farthest northing made, taking such note of 
the location as will enable it to be readily found by any succeeding party. 

2d. On reaching Lady Franklin Bay, your first care will be to examine the 
coal bed reported by the British Expedition, and ascertain if coalcan be easily 
secured in sufficient quantities to supply your party with all necessary fuel. If 
satisfied of this, you will make a statement of the fact in writing, and having this 
paper signed by a// the members of the party proposing to remain, will send it to 
me by the captain of the Gulnare. You will then leave the house, lumber, pem- 
mican and other stores, for use of the party landed, together with sufficient pro- 
visions to last you until September rst, 1881, provided such provision can be 
spared by the capain of the Gulnare. If he reports that all the provision will be 
needed for use of the ship, you will then simply land the other supplies, and re- 
turn with the vessel to the United States, bringing, of course, your party with you. 

I do not wish you to run any unnecessary risk, and prefer to have you return 
the present season, if you are not satisfied, on reaching the station, that you can 
remain there and prosecute the work with entire safety and as much comfort as 
can be reasonably expected in such a climate. 

You will please read these instructions to the members of the party, in order 
that they may understand their relations to you. Wishing you success and a safe 


return, I am, Very truly yours, 
H. W. Howeate. 


NARRATIVE OF HENRY CLAY. 


The following letter from Henry Clay, Esq., to friends in this city, has been 
kindly furnished us for publication. Mr. Clay will remain at Rittenbenk all 
winter. 

On Board Steamship ‘‘Gulnare,” Rittenbenk, Greenland, Aug. 22.—As I 
will remain here in Greenland this winter, I will now begin a letter to you, in or- 
der to have it ready to be sent by the ‘‘Gulnare,” on her return to Washington. 
Owing toa series of adverse circumstances our expedition has been a failure, and. 
as soon as a sufficient supply of coal can be obtained, the whole party, with the 
exception of Dr. Pavy and myself, will return to the United States. 

When I last wrote to you, we were at St. Johns, N. F. 

“kK *K *k *K *K *K *k 

At last, on the 30th of July, about 4 o’clock, a. m., we weighed anchor and 
steamed outto sea. We had rain in the morning and a dense fog all day, which 
prevented our taking an observation. Our course was E. NE., and we made 
good time; about ten knots an hour. 

The next day, the 31st, after running about 230 miles, we changed our course 
to the north. We had no fog, but it was so cloudy all day that we could not see 


© THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 503 


the sun, and hence could take no observation with the sextant. We calculated 
our position at noon, however, by ‘‘dead reckoning,” and found it to be about 
52° N., longitude 50° W. 

August 1st was clear and beautiful. Our position at noon was lat. 53° 47’N., 
lon. 46° 50’ W. At night we had rain and fog. 

The next day was so cloudy that we could take no observation. It was the 
first Monday in August, election day in Kentucky, and I could not help thinking 
of what was transpiring in Louisville. I wondered who would be elected prose- 
cuting attorney ; if Gen. Duke would be re-elected ; if Humphrey would be elect- 
ed, and all the other candidates. I believe I am personally acquainted with them 
all. But I was soon roused from these meditations, for about 2 p. m., a terrific 
gale sprung up from the northeast. The sea ran very high, and the vessel rolled 
and pitched at a fearful rate. For the first time in my life, I felt a little sea sick, 
but I managed to hold my own, and was soon all right again. The storm con- 
tinued all night, and the next morning increased in violence. Our captain and 
mate, both old whalers, said it was the severest gale they had ever encountered 
in that latitude. The waves seemed literally mountains in height and every few 
minutes broke over the deck with a noise like thunder, shaking the vessel from 
stem to stern. Half the time our deck was under water. ‘The captain looked se- 
rious, but said nothing, except to give orders to the crew. One of our whale- 
boats was washed away, the bulwarks on our quarter-deck were stove in and we 
leaked badly. The water came into the cabin and flooded everything and every- 
body. A large part of the material for our house had been stored away on deck, 
which rendered the vessel somewhat top-heavy, and prevented her from righting 
herself when a wave dashed over her. All this had to be cast overboard, and as. 
I saw it leave, plank by plank, I felt that the colony at Lady Franklin Bay was 
a dream of the past. 

All this time the water came pouring in streams into the cabin. We knew 
that something was wrong, but not until we arrived at Godhaven did we ascer. 
tain the cause. We then found that a large plank, nine feet long by fourteen 
inches wide, had been torn from our starboard quarter, and several others loos- 
ened. This was above the water-line, but every wave that dashed against it 
poured a stream of water into the cabin. The gale continued with unabated 
strength until 2 o’clock on the morning of the 4th, when it died away as suddenly 
as it had come. When I went on deck at 7 o’clock the sea was perfectly smooth, 
with just enough swell to give a gentle motion to the ship. We seemed to glide 
almost instantaneously from a rough sea into smooth water. We had passed Cape 
Farewell, and I think the coast of Greenland protected us from the gale. This 
is the only way I can account for the sudden change. 

Though we did not get a sight of the cape, we saw some of the icebergs 
which usually hang about it. They were so numerous that on the horizon they 
appeared like a continuous, impenetrable line of ice. Some of them were very 
large, and they assumed almost every conceivable shape. About 7 o’clock we 


504 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ¢ 


caught a glimpse of land, and at 12:30 we passed in sight of Cape Desolation, 
most appropriately named. 

We steamed along all day, August 5, in sight of the coast of Greenland, 
which was not more than ten miles off. I will not say anything about ‘‘Green- 
Jand’s icy mountains,” the hackneyed phrase repeated by so many travelers, but 
most of the coast was mountainous, and nearly every mountain was crowned with 
ice and snow. Between the mountains were deep ravines, and the ravines were 
filled with glaciers extending inland as far as the eye could reach. The sea was 
smooth and the weather pleasant, so I spent most of the time on deck. 

The days had been gradually growing longer as we proceeded north. This 
night (August 5) the sun set about 9 o’clock, but there was really no darkness—it 
was twilight all night. At 12 o’clock I was able to read the writing in my diary. 
We could follow the course of the sun after it set by a broad streak of brilliant 
red on the horizon, which increased in brilliancy and dimensions until the sun 
reappeared at 3 A. M. It was the most beautiful sight I ever saw. ‘The weather 
was mild and pleasant and the sea as smooth as glass, I was on deck until very 
late, or, rather, early. Indeed, the deck was at that time decidedly more com- 
fortable than my state-room, for my bed had been saturated with water during the 
storm. 

An aurora tried to display itself, but made such a poor show in the bright 
twilight that it soon retired in shame. 

The following day was clear and pleasant in the morning, but a fog settled 
down about 4 P. M., and the sea became quite rough. One of the sailors, Peter 
Du Prince, an old salt, attributed the bad weather to the fact that Stein, our 
engineer, had shot several gulls the day before. ‘This is a very common super- 
stition among sailors. Peter said he had noticed it ever since he was a boy, and 
found that bad weather invariably followed when birds were shot from the ship. 
This ‘ancient mariner,” Peter, is a wonderful character, but I have no time to 
devote to him. He says he cannot tell exactly how old he is, as he lost his papers 
when he was shipwrecked off Cape Horn. 

On Saturday, August 8, at 5:15 Pp. M., we dropped anchor in the harbor of 
Godhaven. It is a small harbor, about 600 yards long by 400 wide, with a very 
narrow entrance, which cannot be seen until you are almost on it. It is, how- 
ever, very safe and secure, and we were glad to rest there after our stormy 
passage. 

Kipuiset Coat Mine, Disco IsLanp, August 30.—I have had no opportu- 
nity to write anything since the 23d, but will now have to finish my letter, as the 
vessel will leave to day or to-morrow. 

When I left off, we had just anchored at Godhaven. Iam sorry that I have 
not time to give any adequate description of it or its inhabitants. The population 
consists of the Inspector and Governor and their families, two or three other 
Danes and about 130 Esquimaux. The Inspector is the chief man. He has 
charge not only of Godhaven, but of the whole of North Greenland. He is an 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 505 


educated and polished gentleman. He and his family were very kind and hospi- 
table, as indeed were all the Danes we have met. We have received nothing 
but kindness from them since we have been in Greenland. The Inspector’s wife 
is arefined and cultivated lady. She speaks English more fluently than her hus- 
band, and in conversing with us he had frequently to refer to her when at a loss 
fora word. Their house, the best one in the place, is well furnished, and they 
evidently live in a somewhat luxurious style. They invited Dr. Pavy and myself 
to visit them this winter, which we will certainly do if we have an opportunity. 
Though he has a very common name—Smith—the Inspector is somewhat aristo- 
cratic and exclusive. He and his family keep themselves aloof from the other 
inhabitants, and have no social relations even with the Governor. Dr. Pavy and 
I had to apply to him for permission to remain in Greenland. At first he was a 
little inclined to refuse us. He could not exactly understand why we wanted to 
remain. He had heard of my grandfather, and thought that our remaining might 
have some political significance. He thought, perhaps, that the United States 
had some designs on Greenland, and had sent me as a kind of spy. But when 
we assured him that we were merely two enthusiasts on the subject of the North 
pole, and that we desired to remain here this winter for the purpose of gaining 
arctic experiences, etc., he very promptly acceded to our request. He advised 
us to stop at Rittenbenk, where there are ample accommodations, and gave us a 
letter to the Governor of that place, directing him to receive us. 

Every little settlement in Greenland has its Governor, who is, in reality, 
nothing more than a trader. Most of them are uneducated, but all we have seen 
are polite and hospitable. 

The natives are mostly half-breeds, there being very few pure-blooded Esqui- 
maux in any of the settlements we have visited. Those of Godhaven do a lively 
trade in seal-skin slippers and other articles. They trade for provisions, clothing 
etc. About the only things we had to trade with were stockings, and I believe 
we left a supply for several years. One of the Esquimaux, named Frederick, a 
consummate rascal, who can speak little English, was quite facetious on the 
subject of our stock in trade. He said he believed we had nothing but stockings 
on board, we ate stockings, the name of our ship was Stockinus, etc. 

I send you some pressed flowers. They are not well pressed and do not 
look very pretty now, but they were beautiful when growing, and you can see 
from them that this is not altogether a landscape of desolation. While there are 
no trees, and nothing similar to them, other vegetation is quite luxuriant. The 
hillsides and the valleys—the country is nothing but a series of hills and valleys— 
are liberally covered with verdure, and I can now well understand why this land 
is called Greenland. 

At Godhaven we had some fine sport shooting eider-ducks, which were quite 
numerous. By the way, I must not forget to tell you that we met Hans Chris- 
tian, the Esquimau who was with Kane, and who stole a team of dogs and 


556 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


deserted him at Etah. He is now quite old, and is generally considered a lazy, 
trifling kind of a fellow. 

On August 17 we had a snow storm, the snow falling to the depth of seven 
or eight inches. 

The repairs on our ship were completed August 20, and the next day we left 
at 9:30 A. M. for the coal mine. We arrived at Rittenbenk—my future home— 
at 5:15 Pp. M. the same day. 

Rittenbenk is situated on a small island about fifty-five miles, in a direct 
line, east of Godhaven. It is about the same size as the latter, and, though 
further from the sea, is almost as important a place. The inhabitants are all 
Esquimaux except the Governor (an old bachelor), his secretary and another 
Dane. The Governor, unlike most Governors of North Greenland, is an edu- 
cated gentleman, and is very kind and hospitable. He gave us a good house, 
with two rooms and a kitchen, and promised to do everything in his power to 
make us comfortable. He can speak English pretty well, and seems to look 
forward with a great deal of pleasure to our company this winter. 

The following day, Sunday, we took breakfast with the Governor, and I 
tasted reindeer and ptarmigan, for the first time, both of which were delicious. 
At night the natives had a dance, and, though it was Sunday, I could not resist ~ 
the temptation to see it. The music was furnished by two violins in the hands 
of twoold Esquimaux. All the modern dances were indulged in, from a quadrille 
to a waltz. The native ladies danced and acted the same as our fashionable ladies 
do on similar occasions—if anything, they danced more gracefully, as they had 
no dresses and skirts to encumber their motions. The men, too, were more at 
ease, as they were not in perpetual fear of treading on their partners’ skirts. Of 
course, as I do not dance, I remained an idle spectator, but most of our party 
indulged in the sport. Indeed, the native gentlemen were kept completely in 
the shade, and could find no partners until our party left. 

On Monday, August 23, we landed stores for Dr. Pavy and myself—every- 
thing to make us comfortable—provisions, clothing, cooking utensils, etc., and, 
besides, a great many books and other reading matter. 

After landing our stores we left Rittenbenk for the coal mine of Kidliset, 
about forty miles distant. We dropped anchor that night about 10:30 in a small 
exposed bay, three miles north of Sakkak. The bay was very shallow, and we 
came near running aground. Sakkak, a small settlement, is situated on the 
peninsula of Nomsoak, part of the main land of Greenland. It is separated 
from Disco Island by Waigat Strait, about sixteen miles wide. 

On the morning of the 24th, the Governor of Sakkak came on board, from 
whom we obtained seven natives to assist in mining coal, and at 11:30 A. M. we 
started across the strait to the coal mine. The wind was blowing hard and the 
strait was quite rough, so as there is no harbor at the mine, we were forced to put 
back. But, instead of going to our anchorage of the night before, we put into the 
harbor of Sakkak, very shallow and scarcely wide enough for a ship to swing 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION. 507 


with the tide. The Governor is the only Dane in Sakkak, and he is married to 
an Esquimaux. After supper I went hunting with our two engineers. After 
walking a long distance we succeeded in bagging nine ptarmigans, and returned 
to the vessel about half-past eleven o’clock. Think of shooting partridge at ten 
o'clock at night! We went hunting several times in this neighborhood with much 
better success. One day I killed fifteen and another day thirteen ptarmigans. 
They are similar to the pheasants or partridges we used to get in Montreal, and 
are delicious eating. 

The next day, the 25th, we made another start for the coal mine, but the 
sea was still too rough for us to land, so we put back into the small bay where we 
had anchored Monday night. We waited there until Friday, the 27th, when, at 
4 A. M., we again made the attempt to reach the mine, this time with success. 
The coal is found in the face of a bluff about sixty feet high, which rises abruptly 
from the beach. The vein of coal is about two feet thick, and extends for some 
distance along the face of the bluff, forty feet from the base. The coal is of an 
inferior quality, but burns well in our furnaces and stoves. It does not give us 
much heat as our bituminous coal, and burns out much quicker, but still it is 
much better than no coal at all. 

As soon as we dropped anchor we landed a party of men and set them to 
mining. By supper-time we had landed on board about eighteen tons, —a pretty 
good day’s work. We then weighed anchor and went back to our old harbor, 
leaving the miners, with tents and provisions, on shore. We were forced to do 
this on account of the insecurity of our anchorage at the mines. There was no 
bay or harbor of any kind, and it was exposed to the least wind that might 
spring up. Besides, the icebergs were a constant source of danger. ‘The straits 
were full of them, and there were several large ones in our immediate vicinity. 
We had some narrow escapes from these, as they were borne toward us by the 
current or the tide. Several of them came in contact with us, and one of them 
carried away our anchor. Altogether, they were not agreeable companions, and 
we were not solicitous of forming an intimate acquaintance with them. But it 
seems that in avoiding them we were ‘‘ jumping from the frying pan into the fire,” 
for no sooner had we entered our harbor than we ran aground. Fortunately, 
however, the bottom was of mud instead of rock, and so no serious injury was 
done to the vessel, and at high tide we easily got afloat again. 

On the 28th it snowed and rained all day, and was so cold and disagreeable 
that we remained at anchor. I pitied the poor fellows we had left on shore, but 
it seems they were very comfortable in their tents. Of course they were unable 
to do any mining. 

Yesterday, Sunday, was mild and pleasant. We remained all day in our 
harbor, but the men on shore made up for the lost time on Saturday, and worked 
in the mine. They were excusable, I think, for it was a case of necessity. 
When we arrived here this morning we found about ten tons of coal already 
mined and sacked, ready to be taken on board. The men are now hard at work 


558 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


mining and loading the vessel, and the Captain expects to get off to-night. Dr. 
Pavy and myself will be left, either at Sakkak or Rittenbenk, and the ship will 
start on her return voyage. 

Yesterday we purchased two seals which had just been killed by the Esqui- 
maux, and this morning I tasted my first seal meat. It is much better than I 
expected it would be, and I have no doubt I will soon acquire a fondness for it. 
They are very abundant in the winter and can be purchased for about fiften cents 
apiece. 

I will get one of our party to mail this in the States, and to send the flowers 
and slippers by express. I will get you all sorts of curiosities this winter and next 
spring, and will also gather more flowers and have Dr. Pavy press them for me. 

You can write to me next spring. Direct to Rittenbenk, North Greenland, 
care of Inspector Smith, Godhaven, and send via Copenhagen, Denmark. A 
Danish vessel will start out about the 1st of April, which will carry the mails. 
If you can, seid me some newspapers. The Courier-Journal for January 1st con- 
tains an abstract of events the previous year. If possible, please send me that. 

I will keep an elaborate journal this winter, and send it to you next spring. 
I do no‘ think Capt. Howgate will be disheartened by this failure, but will send 
out another expedition next year. By remaining here this winter I can learn the 
habits and customs of the natives, especially their manner of sledge-travel, and 
obtain other information which will be useful to me in the future. If no arctic 
expedition sets out next year, I will return to the United States in the fall, via 
Denmark. 

I must now close, as I have a great deal of writing to do yet. I am secre- 
tary of the expedition, and have to get my papers in order and make a written 
report before I leave. — Courier-Journal. 


THE CORWIN’S CRUISE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 


Capt. C. L. Hooper of the United States revenue steamer Corwin has just 
submitted to the Secretary of the Treasury a report of the cruise made by the 
Corwin in Behring Sea and the Arctic Ocean, in obedience to Department orders 
of May 1sth last. The vessel made three trips into the Arctic regions, and its 
course covered the whole of the Arctic Ocean from Point Barrow on the Ameri- 
can coast, to a point within twenty-five miles of Wrangel Land. Capt. Hooper 
was within three or four miles of Herald Island, and cruised on three sides of it. 
He was convinced that there was no human life on the island. He neither saw 
nor heard anything of the missing whalers. The following is a synopsis of the 
report: 

The vessel sailed from San Francisco on May 22d, and arrived at Ounalaska 
on June 3d. As far north as information could be obtained it was learned, that 
the previous winter had been mild and pleasant. After giving in detail the move- 


THE CORWIN’S CRUISE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 559 


ments of the vessel and the trouble occasioned by the heavy ice, the report says 
that the Corwin got under way from St. Michael’s on June 23d, with the hope of 
working north inside of the ice on the Asiatic side. A stop was made at Law- 
rence Island to investigate the reports of the deaths of natives by starvation. At 
the first village about fifty had died, at the second fifty-four dead bodies were 
counted, and it is estimated that one hundred and fifty died at this village. At 
the third village twelve dead bodies were found, and the deaths are estimated at 
thirty. At the fourth settlement there were found three hundred alive. It was 
ascertained that two hundred had died there. This general starvation occurred 
last winter. Capt. Hooper estimates that more than four hundred natives died of 
starvation on this island. ‘The cause he attributes to the continued cold and 
stormy weather, with quantities of ice and snow which prevented the hunting of 
walrus and seal, as well as to the improvident habits of the natives, who are 
slaves to rum. 

The vessel entered the Arctic Ocean on June 28th, and returned to St. 
Michael’s on July 3d, for coal. On the 4th, the whaler Helen Mar was boarded, 
and from this vessel it was learned, that the missing whalers were forty miles 
southeast of Herald Island, in the clear water to the northward. The Corwin 
started north from St. Michael’s on July roth. On July 26th, the Corwin was in 
latitude 70° 50’ west, longtitude 175° 03’ west, only thirty-five miles from Herald 
Island, where a solid pack of ice was encountered, and no further progress could 
be made. Polar bears and two walrus were seen north of latitude 70°. The ves- 
sel returned to Cape Thompson to pick up Lieut. Burke. Returning north, Her- 
ald Island was sighted on August 4th, thirty-five miles distant. After working 
through the ice the distance was decreased to twenty miles. No signs of the 
missing whalers or of life were visible,:and the weather becoming unfavorable, the 
vessel was obliged to turn southward again, arriving at Plover Bay on August 
toth. On the 16th she returned to thirty miles east of Herald island, and on the 
17th was within seven miles of the island, which bore south-southwest. On the 
2oth Herald Island bore northwest a distance of ten miles. The vessel made for 
it and got within three or four miles, when she was stopped by ice from twelve to 
forty feet high. A close examination was made of the island with a glass, while 
the Corwin lay so near, and Capt. Hooper says he was sure there were no human 
inhabitants on it. It is his opinion that the ice around Herald Island was old, 
that for two and three years it does not leave the island free, and that the ice rare- 
ly breaks up between the island and Wrangel Land. 

On August 25th the Corwin reached Point Barrow, which is the most north-_ 
ern point of Alaska, and lacks only twenty-five miles of being the most northern 
point of the continent. ‘‘On the 11th of September,” continues the report, ‘‘ we 
saw the high hills of Wrangel Land, bearing W. % E. (true). We ran in toward 
it until we came to the solid pack, the ice having the same general appearance as 
that we had previously encountered in the vicinity of Herald island, except in 
being covered with newly fallen snow, and being consequently white. We judged 


560 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


the land to be about twenty-five miles away. The highest hills which seemed 
to be more distant, were covered with snow; others were partly covered, and still 
lower ones were almost entirely bare. The sight of this land repaid us to a cer- 
tain extent for our disappointment in not finding Herald Island clear of ice, as 
we had hoped to do, in order that we might run lines of sounding and make a 
plan of the island. 

That part of Wrangel Land which we saw, covered an arc of the horizon of 
about fifty degrees from N. W. 4% N., to W. ¥ S., (true,) and was distant from 
twenty-five miles, on the former bearing, to thirty-five or forty miles on the latter. 
On the south were three mountains, probably 3,000 feet high, entirely covered 
with snow, the central one presenting a conical appearance, and the others show- 
ing rounded tops. To the northward of these mountains was a chain of rounded 
hiils, those near the sea being lower and nearly free from snow, while the back 
hills, which probably reach an elevation of 2,000 feet, were quite white. To the 
north of the northern bearing given, the land ends entirely or becomes very low. 
The atmosphere was very clear, and we could easily have seen any land above the 
horizon within a distance of sixty or seventy miles, but none could be seen from 
the masthead. 

There is a report that Sergeant Andrejew, a Cossack, reached this land in 
1762 by crossing over from the main land on the ice with dog teams, and that he 
found it to be inhabited by a race of nomads called Krahayo. ‘This report, how- 
ever, is probably without foundation. Admiral Wrangel, who was the first to 
report the existence of this land, says: ‘‘ They (the inhabitants of Nishne-Kol- 
ymsk,) knew a great deal about the three officers who were here in 1767, but could 
tell us very little about Sergeant Andrejew, who was here only five years before. 
They had learned generally that he had been to the Indigirka and afterward to the 
Bear islands, but were ignorant of his supposed discoveries, which were included 
in our most recent charts, and when we spoke of a land north of the Bear islands 
and traces of a nomad race in that direction, they treated it as a fable.’ I mention 
this, not to prove that Wrangel Land is not inhabited, but to show, that if the Arc- 
tic exploring steamer Jeannette has been fortunate enough to reach that country, as 
we have reason to suppose and to hope, she is the first to do so, and her brave 
officers and crew should have the credit of it. Admiral Wrangel himself did not 
even see this land. He made his report of its existence from information obtain- 
ed from the natives at Cape Joctan, that on very clear days the tops of high 
mountains could be seen to the northward. Capt. Kellett, Royal Navy, while 
cruising in the Arctic Ocean in 184s, claims to have seen Wrangel Land on 
August 16th. From his own statement, however, it appears that he merely caught 
an occasional glimpse of it through the clouds, which covered it in immense 
masses. Under such circumstances, as he himself admits, a mistake could easily 
be made. He describes the land seen by him, as being from twenty-five to sixty 
miles distant, and speaks of seeing distinctly the columns and pillars which char- 
acterize the higher headlands in the Arctic Ocean. If what he saw, was really 


THE CORWIN’S CRUISE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 561 


land, the impossibility of distinguishing more than its general outline at such a 
distance must be apparent. 

‘¢T am of the opinion that Wrangel Land is a large island, possibly one of 
the chain that passes entirely through the polar regions to Greenland. That there 
is other land to the northward there can be no doubt. Capt. Keenan, then com- 
manding the bark James Allen, reports having seen land to the northward of 
Harrison’s Bay, a few degrees east of Point Barrow. Large numbers of geese 
and other aquatic birds pass Point Barrow, going north in the spring and return 
in August and September with their young. As it is well known that these birds 
breed only on land, this fact alone must be regarded as proof positive of the exist- 
ence of land in the north. Another reason for supposing that there is either a 
continent or a chain of islands passing through the polar regions is the fact, that 
notwithstanding the vast amount of heat diffused by the warm current passing 
through Behrings Straits, the icy barrier is from six and a half to eight degrees 
further south on this side than on the Greenland side of the Arctic Ocean, where the 
temperature is much lower. As already stated, the nearest point of this land was fully 
twenty-five miles within the ice pack, and as the new ice had already begun to 
form, there appeared no possibility of reaching it. Even to remain in sight of it 
was to expose the vessel to great danger of becoming embayed in the ice, as the 
large quantity of drift ice which lay outside of us was likely to close in at any 
time, and remain in the pack all winter. We therefore worked out into clear 
water and headed to the eastward. 

‘¢ Having visited every part of the Arctic that it was possible for a vessel to 
reach, penetrating the icy regions in all directions fifty to one hundred miles fur- 
ther than any vessel succeeded in doing last year, without being able to find the 
slightest trace or gain the least tidings of the missing whalers, we were forced to 
the conclusion that they had been crushed and carried north in the pack, and 
that their crews had perished. Had any of them survived the winter, it seems 
almost certain that they would have been found, either by the Corwin or by some 
of the whalers, all of whom were on the outlook for them during the summer. It 
was thought probable that the crew might have escaped over the ice and reached 
Herald Island, but a sight of the perpendicular sides of that most inhospitable- 
looking place soon banished even this small hope. As already stated, Herald 
Island is inaccessible to all but the birds of the air, and even were it possible for 
men poorly provided for such work as they were to reach the island, and to find 
shelter on it, starvation would be sure to follow. 

Capt. Hooper reports that he learned nothing as to the whereabouts of the 
exploring steamer Jeannette. The report that she had been seen by the whalers 
entering a ‘‘ pocket ” in the northern pack to the northeast of Herald Island, which 
soon afterward closed and shut her in, was calculated to give the impression that 
she too had gone north in the pack. Capt. Hooper investigated this report and, 
it proved to be without foundation. Capt. Barnes of the whaling bark Sea Breeze 
reports having seen the Jeannette on Sept. 2, eighty miles south of Herald Is- 


562 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


land. ‘This was only five days subsequent to her arrival at Cape Leidze, from 
which point Capt. De Long wrote that he should attempt to reach Wrangel Land 
via Kollutchin Bay. ‘‘ This being the case,” says Capt. Hooper, ‘‘ he would not 
be likely to go in an entirely different direction, and put his ship into the pack as. 
early as Sept. 2. His most natural course would be to keep to the westward, 
and, taking advantage of every lead, work in and try to reach some point on the 
southern end of Wrangel Land, keeping his vessel out of the pack as long as pos- 
sible, in order to profit by a favorable break in the ice, and gain even a few miles 
in the direction in which he wished to go. Failing to get sufficiently near Wran- 
gel Land to find safe winter quarters, he might push on and endeavor to reach 
the New Siberian Islands, which, although some degrees further north, are often 
accessible, owing to more favorable location.”’ 

Capt. Hooper says that the Jeannette is a strong vessel, well fitted for en- 
countering ice, and her crew were thoroughly equipped for traveling over the ice, 
if necessary, and he believes that. even though the vessel should be embayed in 
the ice and her crew compelled to abandon her, there would be no difficulty in 
reaching the mainland; or, if in the vicinity of Wrangel Land, in crossing over 
the ice with boats and reaching the whaling fleet. This, however, Capt. Hooper 
thinks would not likely be done until the completion of explorations, which he is 
convinced will have to be made in dog sleds, judging from what he has seen of 
the wees) lle says: 

‘¢To attain a high latitude with a vessel in this part of the Arctic is impossi- 
ble. The whalers follow the ice pack very closely between Herald Island and 
Point Barrow, and never have been able to reach the 74th degree of latitude as 
yet, while only one or two claim to have been as far north as 73 degrees. In 
the Greenland seas, on the contrary, it is no uncommon thing for whalers to reach 
the 78th degree or even higher. I believe that nowhere else within the Arctic 
Circle does the ice remain permanently so far south as between Wrangel Land 
and Point Barrow. I have no fears for the safety of the officers and crew of the 
Jeannette. The fact that they have not been heard from seems to indicate that 
the vessel is safe and that they consider themselves able to remain another year 
at least. Should they be compelled to abandon the vessel and cross over to the 
mainland during the winter, they would find no difficulty in reaching Plover or 
St. Lawrence Bay, where they would be well cared for by the ‘chuktchis, as, in 
fact, would be the case at any place on the Asiatic or Alaskan coast.” 


EXTRACTS AND NOTES FROM AN OLD BOOK. 063 


EXTRACTS AND NOTES FROM AN OLD BOOK. 


THREE YEARS’ TRAVEL—1763-1776—THROUGH THE INTERIOR PARTS OF NORTH 
AMERICA FOR MORE THAN 5,000 MILES, BY CAPT. JONATHAN CARVER, GLAS- 
Gow, 1805. 


The Ottawa Indians eat a kind of bread made of corn when in the milk; they 
slice the kernels from the cob and knead them into paste. For this no water is 
needed, as the milk in corn is sufficient. They then parcel it into cakes which are 
inclosed in basswood leaves, place them in hot embers, when they are soon baked ; 
the flavor is excellent. 

Green Bay was called by the French the Bay of Puants or Stinking Bay.” 
‘Carver remarks that the French had a different name for lakes or rivers, etc., 
from that used by the Indians, for, if in the presence of the Indians they were 
named, or a place named which they knew, they would be very jealous, for not 
understanding the conversation, they would become suspicious. From this, per- 
sons have since become perplexed with two or more names for the same place or 
object. 

Carver mentions that sumach grew in plenty, the leaf of which, gathered at 
Michaelmas, when it turns red, is much esteemed by the natives. They mix 
about an equal quantity of it with their tobacco, which causes it to smoke pleas- 
antly. He also speaks of a kind of willow (probably dogwood, or cornus sericea) 
termed by the French dos rouge, in English, red wood. Its bark, of one year’s 
growth, is a fine scarlet, becoming gray is it grows older. The bark, scraped 
from the sticks, dried and powdered, is also mixed by the Indians with their to- 
bacco, and held by them in the highest estimation for their winter smoking. The 
Indians also used leaves of another plant called by them Legockimac, to mix with 
their tobacco. 

Carver concludes that the Winnebagoes originally resided in New Mexico, 
and being driven out took refuge in more northern parts about 1660. His rea- 
sons for believing this are: First. Their inalienable attachment to the Nandowessie 
Indians, who now (then) live 600 miles distant. The Nandowessie Indians, I 
suppose to be a branch of Dacotah or Sioux. Second. Their dialect differs to- 
tally from every Indian nation yet discovered—being uncouth guttural jargon, 
which none of their neighbors will attempt to learn. They converse with other 
nations in the Chippewa language, which is the prevailing language from the Mo- 
hawks of Canada to those who inhabit the borders of the Mississippi. Third. Their 
inveterate hatred of the Spaniard! and an elderly chief informed Carver that forty- — 
six winters ago (forty-six years prior to 1763) he marched at the head of fifty war- 
riors toward southwest for three moons; that during this expedition, in crossing a 
plain, they discovered a body of men on horseback who belonged to the black 
people—for so they called the Spaniards; further states that, fearing a defeat, they 
waited until night and rushed upon them and killed most of them, and they took 


564 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


eighty horses loaded with what they termed white stone; this was probably silver 
and their horses were shod with it and bridles also ornamented with it. This 
affair probably took place on the head of Rio del Norte. The town of the Win- 
nebagoes consisted of fifty houses, strongly built, with palisades, located on an 
island of nearly fifty acres. The Winnebagoes raised corn, beans, pumpkins, 
squashes and water melons, with some tobacco. 

Carver next visited a town of the Sankies containing ninety houses, each 
large enough for several families. These were built of hewn planks, neatly jointed, 
and covered with bark so compactly as to keep out the most penetrating rain. 
Before the doors are sheds, where the people sit and smoke. ‘The streets are 
regular and spacious. ‘Their plantations are neatly laid out. 

He next visited the Ottagammies, whom the French named Des Reynards 
or ‘‘ the Foxes.” About five miles from the junction of Wisconsin (spelled Ouis- 
consin) with the Mississippi, he observed remarkable ruins of a large town re- 
cently inhabited by the Indians. On the Mississippi, some miles below Lake Pepin, 
he perceived what seemed to have been an intrenchment or earth-work thrown 
up four feet high and nearly a mile in extent, and sufficiently capacious to cover 
5,000 men. In form, circular, its flanks reaching the river. Though much de- 
faced by time, every angle was distinguishable and appeared regular and fashion- 
ed with great military skill. 

Near the River St. Croix there resided at that time three bands of Nando- 
wessie Indians, called the river bands, for they chiefly dwelt near the Mississippi, 
and were then composed of eleven bands. Originally there were twelve, but the 
Assinipoils had some years previous revolted. ‘Three bands reside near the river ; 
the other eight were called Nandowessies of the plains, and dwelt to the west- 
ward. The names of the three river bands were Nehogatawonahs, Mawtawbaun- 
towahs, and the Shahsiveentowas. 

About thirty miles below the Falls of St. Anthony he notes a remarkable 
cave containing a transparent lake. He observed many rude hieroglyphics cut 
upon the inside of the walls. 

The River St. Pierre (St. Peters) falls into the Mississippi ten miles below 
the Falls of St. Anthony, and was called by the natives Waddapawmencsotor. 

At the Falls of St. Anthony a young prince of the Winnebagoes made an offer- 
ing and address to the Great Spirit, and he considered the falls to be one of his 
residences. He first made an address to the Great Spirit, then threw his pipe into 
the stream; then the roll that contained his tobacco; next the bracelets of his arms 
and wrists; then a necklace of beads and wires from his neck; then his ear rings, 
during all of which he frequently smote his breast with great violence, threw his 
arms about, and appeared much agitated. He invoked that the Great Spirit 
would constantly afford Carver a bright sun, a blue sky, and clear and untroubled 
waters. 

Carver passed up St. Pierre’s river two hundred miles to the couutry of the 
Nandowessies of the plains. Among some of these he resided seven months. They 


EXTRACTS AND NOTES FROM AN OLD BOOK. 565 


are termed the Wawpeentowahs, the Tintons, the Arahcootans, the Mawhaws, 
and the Schians. The other three are the Schianese, the Chongonsceton, and 
the Waddapawijestin, and they dwell higher up to the west of the River St. Pierre, 
on unbounded plains. The Nandowessies, united, consist of over 2000 warriors. 
Some of them drew plans of countries, with a piece of charcoal, upon the inside 
of the birch tree bank. He says, never did he travel in so cheerful and happy a com- 
pany. Carver states that on a branch of St. Pierre’s river, called Marble river, is 
a mountain from which the Indians get a sort of red stone, out of which they 
make the bowls of their pipes. A white clay also abounds, suitable for pottery, 
and a blue clay that the Indians use for paint. The latter they mix with the red 
stone and paint themselves of different colors. 

The Chippeways, he speaks of as being the nastiest people he ever saw, and 
speaks of a custom, named by others, of searching each other’s heads and eating 
the prey there found. 

Carver particularly describes the lakes and streams west of Lake Superior. 
Lake Winnepeg he spells Winnepeek, and the Missouri river he speaks of as the 
Messorie. He relates that it is said that in the country of the Pawnees and Man- 
drakes are found a species of root resembling human beings of both sexes! He 
also states that a little to the northwest of the head of the Messorie (Missouri) and 
St. Pierre (St. Peters) the Indians told him that there was a nation smaller and 
whiter than the neighboring tribes, who cultivated the ground. 

He speaks of the Shining Mountains far West, probably the Rocky Mountains, 
and the natives there have plenty of gold. Further on he speaks prophetically of 
these mountains, of which time has proved much, and says, ‘‘ These mountains 
are more than 3000 miles long. Probably in future ages they may be found to 
contain more riches in their bowels than those of Industan, Malabar, or are pro- 
duced from the golden coast of Guinea, nor will I except even the Peruvian mines. 
West of these mountains future generations may find an asylum, whether driven 
from their country by the ravages of lawless tyrants, or by religious persecutions, 
or reluctantly leaving to remedy the inconveniences arising from a superabundant 
increase of inhabitants.” 

Carver mentions aremarkable phenomenon connected with the straits of Mich- 
illimackinack. ‘‘In seven and a half years they rise three feet, and the next 
seven and a half years they decrease three feet.” He had no opportunity to 
prove it, but something was taking place. 

_ The book contains additional information concerning the origin, customs, 
etc., of the Indians of the Northwest; also botanical and geological information, 
all interesting. (Ge (18, 


566 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


IMEUD SON OSU IG Tals bOS Oli. 


ITS THEORY OF EVOLUTION. 


One of the fundamental assumptions of Mr. Spencer’s Synthetic Philosophy 
is that Nature, as man knows it, with its myriad forms, and these with their vari- 
ous faculties, is the product of a process of evolution. Evolution he defines as 
an integration of matter and a dissipation of motion. ‘That is to say, the growth 
of any thing is the accumulation together, into a definite concentrated form, of 
matter, which previously existed in a more diffused and mobile state. This is 
applied to the celestial bodies as well as animal vegetable and inorganic forms on 
earth. This fairly represents the universal process of growth, but it fails utterly 
to account for either the matter that is integrated, or the force which is the cause 
of the motion dissipated. It fails likewise to account for the laws by which the 
matter in becoming thus integrated assumes certain definite forms, and repeats 
these forms generation after generation. ; 

Evolution, however, is chiefly distinguished as such, by its explanations of 
the facts of Biological Science. Though Mr. Spencer has sought to elaborate 
it into an account of all things, it is by its account of the origin of species and the 
descent of man, through gradual differentiations and modifications of previously 
existing forms, that it gets its name; and by reason of the greater familiarity of 
readers with the writings of such evolutionists as Darwin and Haeckel, the word 
usually awakens in the mind this idea of the origin of vegetable and animal forms. 
It is here that the facts upon which it is founded are to be found; and it is in 
this department of scientific research, that the laws upon which it relies for sup- 
port have been disclosed. Mr. Spencer, in discussing this branch of the subject, 
has grouped together a great mass of facts and laws, gathered from many different 
sources and verified by many observers and experimenters. These may therefore 
be fully accepted as ascertained truth; and a statement of the leading ones, quoted 
from Mr. Spencer’s books, will show their real significance. 

The theory being that all existing species are modifications of previously 
existing forms, running from man back to matter, it will be well to examine first 
how, and under what conditions such modifications can occur. In treating of 
adaptation of forms of organisms to their environment, Mr. Spencer says: ‘‘ Since 
the function of any organ is dependent on the functions of the organs which 
supply it with materials and forces; and since the functions of these subsidiary 
organs are dependent on the functions of organs which supply them with materi- 
als and forces, it follows that before any great extra power of discharging its func- 
tions can be gained by a specially exercised organ, considerable extra power 
must be gained by a series of immediately subservient organs, and some extra 
power by a secondary series of remotely-subservient organs. Thus there are 


THE SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY: ITS THEORY OF EVOLUTION. 567 


_ required numerous and wide-spread modifications.”” Mr. Spencer illustrates this 
fact quite fully, showing that to establish any such modifications of a part involves 
a modification of the whole organism, which, at best, he concludes, is necessari- 
ly a slow process and one requiring great time for its accomplishment. 

Concerning the limit to which such modifications may be extended, he says: 
«<The general truth, that extra functions are followed by extra growth, must be 
supplemented by the equally general truth, that beyond a limit, usually soon 
reached, very little, if any, further modification can be produced. The experi- 
ences from which we draw the one induction, thrust the other upon us.” After 
somewhat fully illustrating this truth he proceeds: ‘‘ Thus the general fact appears 
to be, that while in each individual certain changes in the proportion of parts may 
be caused by the variation of functions, the congenital structure of each individ- 
ual puts a limit to the modifiability of every part. Nor is this true in individuals 
only ; it holds in a sense, of the species. Leaving open the question, whether 
in indefinite time, indefinite modifications may not be produced, experience 
proves that within assigned times, the changes wrought in races of organisms by 
changes of condition fall within narrow limits.” In view of the great difficulty 
of affecting such modifications at all and in the long time required at best; and in 
view of the fact that they are limited to the congenital structure of the individual, 
and in view of the fact that the same holds true of species, it seems necessary to 
think that the type of the race cannot change, hence that there cannot be evolu- 
tion; for if the modifiability of both species and individuals is limited within the 
congenital structure of the individual, it is impossible to conceive how that con- 
genital structure, which is the type of the race, can become changed. 

Yet, that there may be and are, variations within the limits of the type of any 
race of organisms, is a fact patent to common observation and recognized by 
science. Mr. Spencer thus refers to it: ‘‘ It seems that in each species of organ- 
isms there is a margin for functional oscilations on all sides of a mean state, and 
a consequent margin for structural variations; that it is possible rapidly to push 
functional and structural changes toward the extreme of this margin in any direc- 
tion, both in an individual and ina race; but that to push these changes farther 
in any direction and so alter the organism as to bring its mean state up to the 
extreme of the margin in that direction, is a comparatively slow process. 

Change of type, then, could result only from so pushing an individual organ- 
ism up to this limit, and pushing those of its offspring beyond. The facts of 
heredity will illustrate the feasibility of this. In treating of heredity, Mr. Spencer 
states these facts: ‘‘First in order of importance comes the fact that not only 
are there uniformly transmitted, from an organism to its offspring, those traits of 
structure which distinguish the class, order, genus and species, but also those 
which distinguish the variety. We have numerous cases among both plants and 
animals, where, by natural or artificial conditions, there have been produced 
divergent modifications of the same species, and abundant proof exists that the 
members of any sub-species, habitually transmit their distinctive peculiarities to 


IV—3s 


568 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


their descendants.” Again, it seems necessary to think that if organisms habitu- 
ally transmit the detailed peculiarities of their variety, as well as the greater 
peculiarities of their class, order, genus, and species ; that there can be no modi- 
fication of the type, no matter how many divergent modifications may be made, 
for if the typical peculiarities, as well as the minor details of the variety, are thus 
transmitted, it is perfectly manifest that, however many modifications may be 
transmitted, or however often, any change of type, under such circumstances, is 
wholly impossible. It is equally manifest that individual peculiarities, as well as 
peculiarities of the variety, cannot effect such modification, but it will be well to 
close the argument here, with a statement of facts from Mr. Spencer, he says: 
‘‘While, however, the general truth that organisms of a given type, uniformly 
descend from organisms of the same type, is so well established by infinite 
illustrations, as to have assumed the character of an axiom, it is not universally 
admitted that non-typical peculiarities are inherited.” Mr. Spencer, as will be 
seen in the quotations already made, believes that such non-typical peculiarities 
are transmitted, but here he shows that, while there is no dispute among biologists 
about the transmission of typical peculiarities, such transmission of non-typical 
peculiarities, by which alone evolution could be effected, is disputed. Therefore, 
it seems perfectly safe to think that in the face of such dispute, in the absence of 
universally admitted facts, showing that such peculiarities are transmitted, and 
with the transmission of typical peculiarities so infinitely illustrated that the fact 
of its occurrence has assumed the character of an axiom, there is no warrant for 
asserting any change of type resulting from heredity, while, as already shown, 
established facts show it to be impossible. 

But if in view of such considerations, it were possible to conceive of such 
modifications being effected in the inheritance of individual variations, the 
question of the permanence of such changes would become an interesting one, 
and it may be well to examine the facts of biological science on this branch of 
the subject ; and Mr. Spencer’s Biology furnishes all that are needed. He says: 
‘Pursuing the argument further, we reach an explanation of the third general 
truth, namely: that organisms and species of organisms, which, under new con- 
ditions, have undergone adaptive modifications, soon return to something like 
their original structures, when restored to their original conditions. Seeing, as 
we have, how excess of action and excess of nutrition in any part of an organism, 
must affect action and nutrition in subservient parts, and these again in other 
parts, until the reaction has divided and sub-divided itself throughout the or- 
ganism, affecting in decreasing degrees the more and more minute parts, 
more and more remotely implicated, we see that the consequent changes 
in the great mass of the organism must be extremely slow. Hence, if the 
need for the adaptive modification ceases, before the great mass of the organ- 
ism has been much altered in its structure by these ramified but minute reac- 
tions, we shall have a condition in the specially modified part that is not in 
equilibrium with the rest. All the remotely affected organs, as yet but little 


THE SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY: ITS THEORY OF EVOLUTION. 569 


changed, will, in the absence of the perturbing cause, resume very nearly 
their previous actions. The parts that depend on them will consequently, 
by and by, do the same, until, at length, by the reversal of the adaptive process, 
the organ at first affected will be brought back almost to its original state. 
This is a somewhat elaborate explanation of the process by which a commonly 
observed fact is brought about. It is not a new idea to people who have had 
experience with either vegetable or animal life that any changes wrought in either, 
by culture or breeding, are speedily lost if the artificial conditions be withdrawn. 
It is equally true in whatever direction the modifications have been wrought, for 
they will soon rise from a lower state to a higher, as well as fall from a higher toa 
lower when natural conditions are restored. How difficult it is to effect, and 
what sedulous care it requires to maintain such changes, is well known both in 
vegetables and animals. If, then, it is so difficult, and involves so many resisted 
changes to effect such modifications; if they are possible only within such 
narrow limits, never affecting the type; if they are of such doubtful transmission 
to posterity, while typical peculiarities are certainly transmitted, and if they are 
so difficult to maintain in the individual and so easily lost, it is difficult to see 
how species can have arisen in the way alleged. 

These facts might be held to dissipate the evolution theory in this part of na- 
ture, but there are further well established facts of science that have an important 
bearing upon this subject. The origin and form and composition of the germs of 
which all forms of life, vegetable and animal, are developed into embryos and sub- 
sequently into adult organisms, is pretty well known ; and Mr. Spencer presents a fair 
statement of the facts so faras he uses them. He says: ‘‘ The germ out of which a 
human being is evolved, differs in no visible respect from the germ out of which 
every animal and plant is evolved.” Mr. Spencer follows this with a statement 
of the process of germ development, showing that germs, indistinguishable in 
character if not indentically the same, in developing, travel a little way together 
and separate by degrees into the myriad forms of vegetable and animal life. These 
germs, in their ultimate state as germs, are but nucleated cells of protoplasmic 
matter, a description of which is given by Mr. Spencer in an appendix to his first 
volume of biology. He says: ‘‘In the early world, as in the modern laboratory, 
inferior types of organic substances, by their natural action, under fit conditions, 
evolved the superior types of organic substances, ending in organizable proto- 
plasm ; and it can hardly be doubted that the shaping of organizable protoplasm, 
which is a substance modifiable in multitudinous ways with extreme facility, went 
on after the same manner. As I learned from one of our first chemists, Prof. 
Frankland, protein is capable of existing under probably at least a thousand dif- 
ferent isomeric forms; and, as we shall presently see, is capable of forming, with 
itself and other elements, yet more intricate, compositions that are practically 
infinite in their varieties. Exposed to those innumerable modifications of condi- 
tions which the earth’s surface afforded, here in the amount of light, there in amount 
of heat, and elsewhere in the mineral quality of its aqueous medium, this extreme- 


570 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ly changeable substance must have undergone, now one, now another, of its 
countless metamorphoses.” 

This is a brief, but adequate statement of most important scientific facts. It 
brings to view the character of protoplasmic matter, from which the primordial 
cells from which all living organisms, vegetable and animal, spring ; and of which 
they are chiefly composed. It shows us that it can be, and now is, produced in 
laboratory, which warrants Mr. Spencer’s induction, that during the period in 
which things were being formed, the conditions of the laboratory were more than 
fully realized in nature, for the laboratory has not yet demonstrably developed pro- 
toplasm into an organism, while nature has. It shows the exceeding modifiability 
of this matter and its susceptibility of being developed into all-most infinite forms 
of organisms and it warrants the conclusion that it was formed/in the great labora- 
tory of nature, over a long period of time, and under many various conditions, 
and hence would most likely be developed into many varieties of organisms, in- 
stead of one primordial form from which all others were subsequently evolved. 
It gives also the history of all living forms, from organic matter up to the germs, 
and the history of the germs, through the embryonic stages has just been noticed. 

Here arises the question, by what agency has inorganic matter been thus de- 
veloped into organic matter, then into protoplasm, then into germs, then into 
embryos, and then into adult individuals? Mr. Spencer attributes this work to 
force, which as expressed in motion he says follows the line of least resistance. 
Here recall the facts already quoted concerning the great difficulty of effecting 
changes in developed organisms, and the extreme modifiability of protoplasmic 
matter, and the question as to which appears the line of least resistance can be 
answered only in one way, which is unfavorable to the evolution theory. The 
unfailing transmission of the typical peculiarities, it has already been shown, 
makes the origin of species, in the way alleged, inconceivable ; and it is seen that 
the character of protoplasm and the law of force show quite a different origin from 
that alleged. The creation theory as it is presented in the Bible, contemplates 
that all species had a common origin in the great laboratory of nature. Science, as 
formulated by the evolutionists, shows that this common origin was in protoplasm. 
It shows also that the origin of the individual is, and always have been, in this el- 
ement, the laboratory of nature being confined, subsequent to the formation of 
organisms, to the bodies of the organisms. Evolution breaks this order of nature 
in assuming one origin for the individual and a different one for the species. 

The next question that presents itself for consideration is, why do protoplasmic 
cells, indistinguishable from each other, develop into such varied forms, and al- 
ways in the same form as the parent organisms? Mr. Spencer offers an explana- 
tion of this phenomenon, but it is too long for quotation. _ It is to the effect that 
protoplasmic matter is composed of molecules, each of which is constructed of 
many atoms; and that the complexity of the molecules arising from such forma- 
tion is attended with a like complexity of polarity, which gives to the cell germs 
a tendency thus to develop ina certain way. ‘This, it must be observed, is a 
theory based upon several other theories. In the first place, the atomic constitu- 


TLE S VINEE TMC Leite OSOMMVa TLS LHLORV OF HVOLOLION:: (Sil 


tion of matter is a theory; and the polarity of such atoms is also a theory; both 
of which appear to be true, but neither of which has been demonstrated by ex- 
periment. To these Mr. Spencer adds the additional theory that these atoms are 
unlike, and that their polarity is unlike ; for in no other way could their combi- 
nation produce a complex molecule, or their polarity thus combined constitute a 
complex polarity. This assumed unlikeness of atoms, and of polarity of atoms, 
is unaccounted for. It is not embraced in his definition of exolution—and inte- 
gration of matter and a dissipation of motion—for it is an integration of some- 
thing else than matter—an integration of polarity. These complex molecules he 
calls ‘‘Physiological Units.” From what has already been said of them, it would 
seem that they rest upon a very doubtful basis; but if this weakness be over- 
looked, and their existence and adequacy be conceded, it will be found that other 
and greater difficulties are encountered. If it be conceded that there are such 
units, and that to their existence is due the tendency of matter to grow into 
certain defined forms, the mystery is removed one step further back, and 
there occurs the question, why does organic matter form itself into such 

complex units? If this be accounted for by the same principle, which it 
seems must be done, because all the laws of evolution are general and, 
with appropriate modification, apply alike to all parts of the process, the 
mystery is again removed, and the question occurs: why does inorganic 
matter have a tendency to form itself into organic matter? This question 
cannot be answered by the same principle, for there is no form of matter behind 
the inorganic form. These physiological units, therefore, appear to lead to an 
unanswerable question, and explain the fact in explanation of which it is offered, 
only by a removal of the mystery supposed to be explained. 

If, then, the only theory advanced by Mr. Spencer to explain this phe- 
nomenon, which lies at the foundation of all animal and vegetable forms, fails to 
explain it, it is safe to assume that an explanation must be sought elsewhere. In 
a recent paper on the ‘‘ Unity of Nature,” it is referred to the Duke of Argyll, 
whose book on ‘‘ The Reign of Law” sufficiently establishes his standing as a 
scientist and thinker. He says: ‘‘ There are structures in nature which can be 
seen in the process of construction. ‘There are conditions of matter in which its 
particles can be seen rushing, under the impulse of invisible forces, to take their 
appointed places in the form which is to them a law. Such are the facts visible 
in the process of crystallization. In these we see the particles of matter passing 
from one ‘molecular condition’ into another; and it is impossible that this 
passage can be ascribed either to the old arrangement, which is broken up, or the 
new arrangement which is formed in its stead. Both structures have been built 
up out of elementary materials by some constructive Agency which is the master 
and not the servant—the cause and not the consequence of the movements 
which are effected, and of the arrangement which is the result. And if this be 
true of crystalline forms in the mineral kingdom, much more is it true of organic 
forms in the animal kingdom.” P 

In some form and under some name all creeds and philosophies have recog- 


572 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


nized this Agency in nature. It lies below the forms and laws of nature. As 
such every science recognizes it and knows it by its methods of working, which 
constitutes the laws of science. That it is a unity there isno longer a doubt, for 
it is found all sciences harmonize with each other, and classifications in nature 
are not sharply definite but arbitrary distinctions made for the convenience of 
knowledge. Of its limitation in space, if it have any, man can gain no informa- 
tion; for it shapes not only all earthly forms, inorganic and organic, but itshaped 
the earth itself, and the stars, and systems of stars, and binds them together in 
unity and harmony of movement. A place in nature where it is not is incon- 
ceivable; it is the author of all phenomena. Wherever phenomena occur, there 
it is present and at work. It penetrates and permeates all things. It has been 
observed of the ether, that it isso subtile that it might float through the most solid 
substances with the ease with which air floats through a grove of trees; but this 
Agency is so much more subtle that it penetrates the ether and givesit its vibratory 
power. It is the same that the atheist has called the ‘‘ potentiality of matter,” 
and that Mr. Spencer calls unknowable force. 

Since it is such Agency that breaks up and forms combinations of matter, 
what must reason conceive to be its character? ‘The structures it forms are of 
definite construction and adapted to the performance of definite functions, which 
thrusts upon us the induction of design and purpose. Design and purpose, and 
the form of the structure through which they are expressed anterior to its forma- 
tion, can be only conceptions in a thinking mind. Their enforcement through 
a material structure can be conceived only as an expression of will. And it is 
manifest that forms cannot be thus constructed in a definite way and for a definite 
purpose by a constructive Agency that is not conscious of the purpose and design 
and the structure, which implies that this Agency is possessed of what man has 
called feeling. These qualities constitute personality, which shows that this 
agency in nature, apprehended by science, is the same as had been previously 
apprehended by religion and worshiped under the name of God. However it 
may be defined, and by whatever name it may known, the mind necessarily 
ascribes to it the same qualities, the same characteristics and the same functions 
in nature. It rules and guides the universe, and is the power that gives it action. 
It is not in physics alone that it is apparent, but its hand is perceptible also in 
the world of morals and of mind. Ever present everywhere, the movement 
of an atom or a world, the slightest shade of thought and feeling or the most 
momentous events are alike matter of its knowledge. There is no abyss of dark- 
ness and mystery between it and man. Little as man knows of its infinite ways, 
it is nevertheless as much a present reality as himself. It is his constant com- 
panion in his joys and sorrows, in his trials and triumphs, and in his beneficiencies 
and his crimes; and, doubtless, conscious of many of his motives of which he 
takes no cognizance himself. It requires of him obedience to the laws of his 


own being as the condition of his highest happiness, and has affixed to disobe- 
dience the penalty of pain. | 


A NEW CHRONOGRAPH. 573 


ASTRONOMY. 


A NEW CHRONOGRAPH. 
BY THE EDITOR. 


Mr. W. W. Alexander, of this city, has in use a chronograph, of his own 
design and construction, by the use of which he is enabled to determine the time 
of a star’s passage across the meridian, or, more exactly, across the five vertical 
wires of his transit, and to note the time the star is bisected by the wire, to the 
tenth or the hundreth part of a second by merely pressing a spring. 

The principle is as follows: A round disk of paper, placed upon a horizontal 
block of wood four inches in diameter, is made by accurately running clock-work 
to turn around once in a minute of sidereal time, or nearly so, (a slight variation 
may be corrected). A needle point is arranged at a short distance above the 
moving disk, which simultaneously with the pressing of the spring, makes a hole 
_ in the paper and readjusts itself in position in less than the hundredth part of a 
second. At each round of the disk, the needle point moves in toward the center 
of the paper the sixteenth part of an inch, which prevents confusion in distin- 
guishing the punches. To illustrate its use, take the following example: 

Suppose an occultation of a star by the moon, or an eclipse (the time of which 
is desired to be known) takes place at about 8 h. and 5m. ‘Then at five or ten 
minutes before that time, arrange and place the disk of paperin position and start 
the Chronograph running; then observe by a standard clock or chronometer 
the end or beginning of some exact minute; then touch the spring, which marks 
the paper; then go to where the observation is to be made, and simultaneously 
with the occurrence again press the spring, and another mark is left on the paper 
disk. Then remove the disk and place it on the reading dial, which will show, 
by the relative positions of the marks, the interval from the time of the first mark 
made to the one made at the time to be noted, to the tenth or one hundredth of 
asecond. In this case suppose it showed 4 m. 12.7 s.; add this to the time of 
the first mark, 8 h. 1 m., which gives 8h. 5 m. 12.7 s., the time by clock or 
chronometer at which the occurrence took place. Then by knowing the error of 
the clock or chronometer, from previous observations with the chronograph and 
transit, the observation may be made exactly correct, in time, by adding or sub- 
tracting this difference (ze. aside from personal equation). 

Another feature in its favor is this, that the marks on the disk are permanent, 
and can be preserved and read at leisure, thus obviating the necessity of using 
bright lights for night work and careful scrutiny of delicate lines and points at 
the instant of observation. 

Mr. Alexander is a close and careful observer, and invented this instrument 
merely for his own use and convenience, but on account of its simplicity, dura- 
bility and accuracy, it will doubtless be found so highly useful as to be speedily 
adopted by other astronomers. 


574 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


THE SUN AND PLANETS FOR JANUARY, 1881. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER, OF KANSAS CITY. 


The Sun on the rst culminates or passes the meridian at oo h. 4 m. 6.82 s., at 
an elevation of 27° 57’, and on the 31st at oo h. 13 m, 47.31 S., at an elevation 
Oleg 42: 

The sidereal time of mean noon on the 1st is 18 h. 46 m. 07.97 s., and on 
the 31st 20 h. 44 m. 24.69 s. 

Mercury on the 1st will culminate at 11 h. 2 m., a. m., atan elevation of 27° 
07’, andon the 31st at oo h. 33 m. p. m., at an elevation of 32° 56’. On the 
26th it is in superior conjunction with the Sun. 

Venus on the 1st will culminate at 2 h. 57 m. p. m., at an elevation of 35° 
23’, and on the 31st at 3h. o7 m. p. m., at an elevation of 49° 56’. Its appar- 
ent diameter on the 1st is 16”, and on the 31st 20”. It is fast increasing in ap- 
parent size and brilliancy. 

Mars on the 1st will culminate 1o h. 33 m. a. m. at an elevation 27° 26’, 
andvonythe 31st at xo h! 12%m- a.m), at~an elevation of 27° 252) ) liteisma@mine 
small and hard to see, but is slowly enlarging. 

Jupiter on the 1st will culminate at 5 h. 55 m. p. m., at an elevationof 54° 
os’, and on the 31st at 4 h. 12 m. p. m., at an elevation of 55° 46’. It is slow- 
ly decreasing in size and splendor. 

Saturn on the rst will culminate at 6 h. 38 m. p. m., at an elevation of 57° 
13’, andon the 31st at 4 h. 45 m. p. m., at an elevation of 57° 48’. Its rings 
are again slowly opening out to view, but its size and brilliancy is decreasing. 

Uranus on the rst will culminate at 4h 16 m. a. m., at an elevation of 58° 
o4’, and onthe 31st at 2h. 15 ma. m., at an elevation of 58° 22’. 

Neptune on the rst will culminate at 7 h. 51m p. m., at an elevation of 64° 
32’, and on the 31st at 5h. 53 m. p. m., at an elevation of 64° 33’. 

The Moon on the 1st culminates at 1 h. 16m. p. m., and onthe gist at 1 h. 
44m. p.m. Onthegzd itis a little south of Venus, and on the 6th and 7thit is 
a little north of Jupiter and Saturn, and on the 27th it is very close to Mars. 


IO OLE INOW UCIEaS, 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR THE YEAR 1878: Hon. John 
Eaton, Commissioner. Government Printing Office: 1880; pp. 730, octavo. 


We have heretofore referred to the work accomplished by General Eaton as © 
most valuable and useful in matter as well as creditable in form, both to the Gov- 
ernment and to himself, and we can only at present repeat this conviction, though 
an abstract of the volume before us would be far more satisfactory, had we the 
space for it. 


BOOK NOTICES. 575 


The sources of information from which:the matter of the Report is derived 
are Reports from States, Territories, and cities, from schools of all classes, and 
from all other institutions of an educational character, as libraries and museums. 
This material has increased more than eight-fold since 1870. To this must be 
added the foreign material, reports and periodicals which are examined and the 
most important information they contain summarized by the translator. 

The Report is full and comprehensive, including information on almost every 
point connected with the education, not only of the children of each State, but 
of its teachers, its deaf and dumb, and blind, its medical, theological and law 
students; also its libraries, educational benefactions, its colleges and universities, 
schools of science, and the educational publications and patents. Following this 
is an account of education in foreign countries, and finally of the representation 
of education in the United States in the Paris Exposition of 1878, where 121 
premiums were taken as awards in various classes, besides a gold palm to Gen. 
Eaton, the cross of the Legion of Honor to Dr. John D. Philbrick, the superin- 
tendent, and three silver palms to Messrs. Harris, Kiddle and Wilson, being nearly 
one-sixth of the whole number of awards made in this department of the Expo- 
sition. This shows how highly the world regards the school system of the United 
States. , 


THE RHYME OF THE BORDER WAR: By Thomas Brower Peacock. New York: 

G. W. Carleton & Co, 1880, pp. 162, 12 mo, $1.00. 

This is a handsomely printed volume, by a gentleman of Topeka who has 
already acquired a fair reputation as a writer of poetry. This reputation will be 
in no wise lessened by his latest effort, which contains many genuinely poetic 
fancies and lofty passages. The introductory lines are especially good, and many 
of the descriptions of scenery and character are finely conceived and delicately 
portrayed. Among these we can only take time to mention the Poet and Song 
which abounds in such gems. 

The poem will doubtless meet with a better reception in localities more 
remote from the scenes of the events described than in their vicinity, since it will 
be almost impossible to arouse any enthusiasm in the minds of those who partici- 
pated in them or of those who knew the outlaws that are made prominent in this 
book, on either side, regarding their characters or deeds. Civil war is not the 
most exalted theme for the poet, at best, and the warfare of this Border lacked 
nearly all the elements of true poetry. Still, we must give Mr. Peacock credit 
for having made the most of his material and for having much of the imagination 
and descriptive power that belong to the poet. Experience and cultivation of his 
naturally fine qualifications will correct the defects in versification common to all 
young writers, and we may expect to see him, in riper years, attain an enviable 
position among western authors. 


O76 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ON THE ORIGIN OF SpeciIES: By Thomas H. Huxley, F. R. S., F. L. S., pp. 26, 
Quarto. J. Fitzgerald & Co., New York, 1880, 15¢. 

This re-print of the six lectures of Prof. Huxley, on the causes of the phenom- 
ena of organic nature, makes up Number Sixteen of the well-known and popular 
Humboldt Library. No more interesting lectures were ever delivered, and whether 
one agrees with the author in all of his conclusions or not, he cannot help being 
attracted and instructed by the graceful style and multitude of facts presented. 

To those who want such works in a cheap form, the Humboldt Library offers 


a tempting prize. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


Annual Report and Statistics of the Meteorology and Mortality of the City 
of Oakland, California, by J. B. Trembly, M. D.; Longevity, No. 15 Humboldt 
Library series, J. Fitzgerald & Co., New York; Abridgement of the Nautical 
Almanac for 1881, Riggs & Bro., Phila.; Maritime Meteorology, by Thompson 
B. Maury, Phila.; Quarterly Botanical Index, L. B. Case, Richmond, Ind. ; 
Anthony Republican, A. S. Lyndsay, Anthony, Ks.; Weekly Herald, Dr. Stephen 
Bowers, Clinton, Wis. 

The Literary Mews, published by F. Leypoldt, New York, will be found a 
most useful periodical to all persons desirous of keeping up with the literary prog- 
ress of the day, or who require assistance in building up either private or public 
libraries. 


METEOROLOGY. 


METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT WASHBURN COLLEGE 
TOPEKA, KANSAS. 


PROF. J. T. LOVEWELL. 


From November 20 to December 20, 1880, the period embraced in this report, 
has been characterized by a continuance of the cold, dry weather which prevailed 
in the first twenty days of November. By reference to the tables below, it will 
be seen, that during the last ten days the temperature has averaged more than ten 
degrees higher than in the two decades previous. ‘The relative humidity has also 
been greater and the barometric pressure lesss The temperature has fallen below 
zero but once—December 6th, when it was -03°. This followed the night after a 
violent gale of wind which blew from the NW. for five hours, with a velocity of 
nearly fifty miles per hour. The same storm brought snow in many other places 


GENERAL WILLIAM B. HAZEN. 577 


further east and north. Snow has fallen here on three days: November 24th 
and 25th and December 16th. Not more than one inch remained on the ground 
at one time. The highest temperature reached was 61°, on December 13th. The 
greatest pressure was, reduced to sea-level and 32° F., 30.68 inches, Nov. 21st; 
the lowest was 29.32 inches, December 4th, preceding the gale mentioned above. 

The rain-fall has been very light but the air has been moist, especially during 
the last ten days, preventing excessive evaporation. Ice has formed abundantly 
on the river and a large supply is being gathered for the ice houses. 

The miles traveled by the wind has been more than one thousand less than 
the previous month, and on the day before the gale, December 4th, the total num- 
ber of miles traveled was but seventy-four, the smallest distance in one day recorded 
by the anemometer since it was set up last May. 


RECORDS DEDUCED FROM AVERAGES OF DAILY OBSERVATIONS. 


Nov. 20th Dec. Ist Dec. 11th From Nov. 20 


to 30th. to 10th. to 20th. to Dec. 20. 

TEMPERATURE. EUR S Oe all a a SRE Rae 

IN ETS se ean ea estan ee eer a 12.9 12.3 26.7 17.3 

NVA ae UEP Rea a ne Fos ae 26.6 33.4 44.0 34.7 

WEE Waly UY ite Sete sg hae 19.7 21.8 35.1 25.5 

RATE CHa veniaianieceenienie dis nielnts 13.6 22.2 17.6 17.8 

RAMU TIN GE pee etre Mates a tet res onli ats 13.2 12.8 28.6 18.2 

OD aT en Area SAW ete a NaN) otd coe 24.5 31.2 39.6 81.8 

Oster rem nee een chen oy ole 18.4 19.9 3L.7 23 3 

Wieanisieu lien: suneienie! ePenvaacits 19.8 22.4 32.8 25.0 
Rei. Humipity. , 

HTgabamenrainy aie an Ma LSiyaey acMa tell isi aes +02 -70 77 66 

Osa Tres U NUNS et teamnce en oa 69 17 67 68 

Oiparmer ane ane audit iaelntae sce 04 -70 69 64 

IViami wich sitcn weet teu Csn arrears .00 71 72 66 
PRESSURE, sea-level, 32° F. 

TRU TT eee ee ee eer 30.40 30.25 29.28 29.98 

DhDAtMsstreivel eetee ee rsieenieience Ss ae 30.32 30,16 29.92 30.13 

Oia aprTiia cede ca nbuwinetrauisine erie as 30.30 30.18 29. 86 30 11 

IMIR S ha yolia sO LOUD Oeo GAC eOnD 30. 37 30. 20 29.97 30.15 
WIND. 

Miles Traveled ........ | 2,533 | 2,937 3, 611 | 9,081 
RAINFALL. 

Inches... 08 | 


SCHUDNMUIC MISO IE AINNG 


GENERAL WILLIAM B. HAZEN. 


General Hazen, the newly appointed successor to the late General Myer as 
Chief Signal Officer of the army, was born in Vermont, appointed a cadet at 
West Point from Ohio, and is now a little more than fifty years of age. His 
original entry into the army was in 1855, as Brevet Second Lieutenant of the 
4th Infantry. He was made Captain in the 8th Infantry in May, 1861. At the 
commencement of the War of the Rebellion he was on duty at West Point as an 
instructor in Infantry Tactics, which position he gave up to accept the Colonelcy 


578 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


of the 41st Ohio Volunteers in November, 1861. His distinguished services 
caused his rapid promotion, being placed in charge of a brigade early in January, 
1862, and appointed Brigadier General of Volunteers in November, 1862. He 
was highly complimented for his ability and gallantry at Murfreesboro by General 
Rosecrans, and afterward, for similar services at Chicamauga and Chattanooga, 
by General Thomas. In April, 1865, he was commissioned Major General of 
Volunteers ‘‘for long and continued service of the highest character and for 
special acts of gallantry and service at Fort McAllister.” 

Since the war he has continued to serve his country as Colonel in the regular 
army, and has written several works as the results of his observations at home 
and abroad. After his return from Prussia, where he accompanied the army in 
the campaign against France and was present with it during its investment of 
Paris, he wrote ‘‘The School and the Army in Germany and France,” in which 
he gave the credit of the superiority cf the German soldiers to their thorough 
training in the public schools of their country. Later he published a report on 
the ‘‘Barren Lands of the Interior of the United States,’’ besides numerous 
magazine articles at different times. His confirmation was made by the unani- 
mous vote of the senate, and it is the universal verdict of the press, so far as we 
have seen, that the appointment was one of the best that could have been made 
from the regular army. 


A writer in a London paper, in discussing the photophone, says: The prob- 
lem which Prof. Bell has attacked is that of the transmission of speech, not by 
wires, electricity or any mechanical medium, but by the agency of light. The 
instrument which embodies the solution of this problem he has named the photo- 
phone. It bears the same relation to the telephone as the heliograph bears to the 
telegraph. You speak to a transmitting instrument which flashes the vibrations 
along a beam of light to a distant station, where a receiving instrument reconverts 
the light into audible speech. As in the case of that exquisite instrument, the 
telephone, so in the case of the photophone, the means to accomplish this end 
are of the most ridiculous simplicity. The transmitter consists of a plain silvered 
mirror of thin glass or mica. Against the back of this flexible mirror the speaker’s 
voice is directed. A powerful beam of light is caught from the sun and directed 
upon the mirror so as to be reflected straight to the distant station. This beam 
of light is caused by the speaker’s voice to be thrown into corresponding vibra- 
tions. At the distant station the beam is received by another mirror and con- 
centrated upon a simple disk of hard rubber, fixed as a diaphragm across the end 
of a hearing tube. ‘The intermittent rays throw the disk into vibration in a way 
not yet explained, yet with sufficient power to produce an audible result, thus 
reproducing the very tones of the speaker. Other receivers may be used, in 
which the variation in electrical resistance of selenium under varying illumination 
is the essential principle. Other substances beside hard rubber—gold, selenium, 
silver, iron, paper, and notably antimony—are similarly sensitive to light. 


POPULATION OF THE GLOBE. 579 


POPULATION OF THE GLOBE. 


According to ‘‘ Die Bevolkerung der Erde,” published by Messrs. Behm and 
Wagner, Europe has a population of 315,929,000 inhabitants; Asia has 834,707,- 
ooo; Africa has 205,679,000; America, 95,495,000; Australia and Polynesia, 
431,000; the Polar regions, 82,000, which give altogether a total of 1,455,923,- 
ooo, an augmentation of 16,778,o0c over the last known census. At the close 
of 1877, Germany reckoned a population of 43,943,000; Austria and Hun- 
gary, in 1879, estimated 38,000,000; Great Britain and Ireland, in 1879, 34,500,- 
ooo; and France, in 1876, 36,900,000; Turkey in Europe, 8,860,000; and the 
Russian Empire, 87,900,000. 

China has in Asia, in all her dependencies, an extent of 11,814,000 square 
kilometers, on which there are 434,600,000 inhabitants; Hong Kong has 139,- 
144 inhabitants; Japan, according to the official census of 1878, had 34,300,000 
inhabitants. The English possessions in India have a population of 240,200,000; 
the French possessions in India have 280,000 inhabitants ; Cochin China has 
1,600,000 inhabitants; Chinese India has 36,900,000; the East India islands 
have 34,800,000; and the islands of Oceanica, 879,000. 

According to’ Dr. Nachtigal, Africa has an extent of 26,283,000 square kilo- 
meters, which are thus divided: Forests and uncultivated lands, 6,300,000 square 
kilometers; plains, 6,225,000 square kilometers ; deserts, 10,600,000 square kilo- 
meters; steppes, 4,200,000 square kilometers. The English possessions in North 
America have a population of 3,800,000; the United States have 48,500,000 ; 
and Mexico has 9,485,000; and Brazil has 11,100,000. As to the Polar regions, 
they have an extent of 3,859,000 square kilometers around the Arctic circle, and 
are scarcely inhabited, except in Iceland, where there are 72,000 inhabitants, and 
in Greenland, where there are 10,000 inhabitants. The Antarctic regions have 
an approximate extent of 660,000 square kilometers. —Translated from ‘‘ Z’ Expo- 
ration” by J. F. 


The vectrician tells this story: A number of gentlemen were the other day 
about to dine, and one of the dishes was especially cared for, containing, as it 
was seriously averred, a ‘‘gymnotus,” fresh from the rivers of South America, 
which was to forma part of therepast. Usually, electricians scrupulously observe 
decorum, but the chairman, instead of pronouncing the benediction, turned to 
the dish containing the eel and solemnly requested grace, when, with a sweet 
cadence, as if from a mermaid in cavernous regions, was heard all over the place, 
‘¢Be present at our table, Lord,” etc. ‘The cover was then raised, and the 
anticipated electric eel turned out to be a telephone which had been ingeniously 
connected to a distant room, and which, being a religiously good telephone, not 
only produced a pleasing sensation to all present, but afterward returned thanks 
in a powerful but well-known voice to the admiring listeners. 


580 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THE GULF STREAM. 


The papers read before the National Academy of Sciences yesterday were of 
much more general interest than most of those read on Tuesday. The morning 
session was devoted to reading and discussion of two contributions upon allied 
topics, ‘‘ The Basin of the Gulf Stream,” by Prof. J. E. Hilgard, and ‘‘ The Ori- 
gin of the Coral Reefs of the Yucatan and Florida Banks,” by Prof. Alexander 
Agassiz. Recent surveys under Superintendent C. P. Patterson, of the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, show that fully one-third of the Gulf of Mexico 
is less than 100 fathoms deep, the depth increasing very rapidly at about the 100- 
fathom line to a flat central basin, about 2,000 fathoms in depth. ‘The two large 
plateaus, less than 100 fathoms beneath the surface of the water, are along the 
west coast of Florida, about 130 miles broad, and to the north of Yucatan, about 
1oo miles broad. These plateaus show the actual continental outline to be very 
different from the shore lines of the Gulf. Prof. Agassiz, in his paper, showed 
that these plateaus, whatever may have been their primal origin, are very largely 
composed of limestone, formed of the osseous carcasses of submarine life, and 
that whereas they had been in this way built up to the depth at which coral atolls 
or reefs begin to form—twenty-seven fathoms—as in the case of the Florida Keys 
and the coral islands north-west of Yucatan, coral atolls exactly similar to those 
in the Pacific described by Darwin were found. But Darwin had explained the 
Pacific atolls by a gradual, general subsidence of the bed of the ocean, and his 
theory was that all reef formations were accompanied by subsidence. Here in 
the Gulf the formation accompanies an elevation, and as similar plateaus are 
found in the coral regions of the Pacific, it is concluded that Darwin was all 
wrong, and that coral reef formations accompany elevations of ocean beds, instead 
of subsidence. During the discussion, the interesting fact was developed that the 
Gulf Stream, so called, does not come from the Gulf, as is represented in the 
physical geographies, but is an equatorial current which comes through the Car- 
ibbean Sea from the African coast, is turned north-east upon striking the coast of 
Yucatan, passes through the Straits of Yucatan and Florida and out into the At- 
lantic, without really entering the Gulf of Mexico at all. The currents in the 
Gulf are not connected with this great stream, and are very slow. The mouths 
of the Mississippi have already projected so far beyond the general coast line as 
to have nearly reached the precipitous declivities of the deep Gulf Basin, so there 
is no danger that the channel will ever be stopped again, or that the jetty system 
will have to be extended further into the Gulf than at present.—/V. Y. World. 


A California inventor has devised a process for pressing and drying potatoes 
so that they will keep for years without loss of flavor. 


THE PREHISTORIC CAT. 581 


TEE PRE Sd © Ral € (CAT: 


The editor of the /dustrialist, published at the Agricultural College of Kan- 
sas, gravely makes the following ‘‘forecast’’: ‘‘ The December number of the 
American Naturalist, it is announced, will contain an article, ‘ copiously ilus- 
trated,’ on the ‘Extinct Cats of America.’ We shall await the appearance of 
this number of the Va/uralist with intense interest, feeling confident that this 
‘leading article’ will lead to the solution of one of the great problems of science. 
Reasoning @ griori—that surest road to truth in natural science—it must be plain 
to the dullest intellect that, where the ‘ extinct cat’ is found, there will also be 
numerous billets of wood and boot-jacks, and possibly an occasional soap dish ; 
and that all will be found in the neighborhood of a ‘back fence,’ we cannot for 
an instant doubt. Again, that a fossil bedroom window will be found near this 
back fence, opening upon it, we as surely believe as that the ‘ extinct cat’ was 
ever a live one. Fortunately, science disdains not the meanest object of study, 
and to it we commend this bedroom window, leaving it wide open, so to speak, 
and feeling confident that near it will be found the prehistoric man, if not the ‘ miss- 
ing link’ itself.’’ 


The one unfortunate thing in house decorations nowadays, in the opinion of 
Mr. R. W. Edis, is the everlasting seeking after some novelty in papers, curtains, 
or other hangings. Everybody wants to have a room different from her neigh- 
bor. Decoration is being done as a fashion, not from any real love of it. Of 
course, we should not like to see room after room repeating itself in decoration, 
but why a few really good papers should not be the ground-work of true artistic 
decoration—when the narrowness of worldly circumstances prevents the more 
elaborate and more expensive hand decoration in paint or distemper—and let the 
rest follow from the design, there is no good reason. If that suggestion should 
be adopted, there might be hope for real art decoration instead of the cold formal- 
ity and everlasting interchange of two or three colors. As a critical writer on 
art decoration has said: ‘‘If the papers on our walls and the curtains we hang 
in Our rooms were, even at second hand, but the record of the fresh impressions 
and the graceful fancies of artists of our own day instead of being incumbered 
with mechanical pattern work struggling to be artistic, it would be better than all 
the present miserable striving after novelty.” Not to have what your neighbor 
possesses is the bane of decorative art. 


——— " 


Celluloid Veneer is gaining favor as anornament for furniture. As an imita- 
tion marble or malachite top for tables it shows most admirable fitness, and for 
panels in imitation of tortoise shell, etc., it is a handsome addition for chamber 
sets. 


582 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


BDIMORTAL IN@ Es: 


SUBSCRIBERS to the REVIEW can obtain any 
book or periodical published in this country 
or Great Britain, or the publications of any 
of the prominent publishers of the United 
States, at reduced rates, by applying at this 
office. 


A most important bill has just passed both 
houses of Congress, appropriating all the pro- 
ceeds derived from the sales of public lands 
hereafter, to educational purposes. For the 
first ten years the funds are to be distributed 
on the basis of illiteracy, after that on the 
basis of population. The bill devotes thirty 
per cent to the higher education. Congress 
passed the bill without dissent, and it will 
undoubtedly become a law asit is in full accord 
with the genius of the American people and 
the spirit of the age. And there is true wis- 
dom shown in carrying forward the higher and 
common school education far passu, as they 
are mutually dependent on each other—the 
common schools sending forward students 
prepared for the higher grades, while the 
colleges and training schools return text-books 
and teachers. 


THE Royal Geographical Society is consid- 
ering the advisability of fitting out another 
Arctic expedition, not, however, with the de- 
sign of making another attempt to reach the 
North Pole. It is to be devoted to an ex- 
amination of the accessible polar regions, in 
the interest of science, and for the elucida- 
tion of certain questions in the physical 
geography of the globe. 


Tue Emperor William, of Germany, has 
been, during the last year, earning the grati- 
tude of the archeologists. | He has defrayed 
from his own private purse the expenses of the 
excavations at Olympia. 


A MonsIEuR LOITEL has been recently 
dredging in the Sea of Galilee. It has a 
depth of 800 feet and contains twelve species 


of fish. The majority of these species have 
the singular habit of hatching their eggs and 
sheltering their young in their mouths. 


Dr. JNo. RAE, F. G. S., the noted Arctic 
explorer of England, says in a note dated 
Nov. 11, 1880, ‘‘ I read many articles in your 
REVIEW with much pleasure.” 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


THE Atlantic Monthly numbers the ablest 
and best American writers among its contribu- 
tors.—Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Low- 
ell, Stedman and other renowned poets; Mrs. 
Stowe, Howells, Aldrich, James, Bishop, Rose 
Terry Cooke, Miss Woolson and other admi- 
rable writers of novels and short stories; W. 
W. Story, Norton, Warner Waring, and other 
skillful writers of travel and foreign life; 
Whipple, Fiske, Perry, Miss Preston and 
other careful and discriminating critics. 

Since January, 1880, Zhe Atlantic has been 
printed in new and larger type, on a larger 
page, and each number increased to contain 
one hundred and forty-four pages. 

The number for February, will have an in- 
teresting and important article on German 
Credit-Unions, and a noteworthy paper on 
American Shipbuilding. Mr. John Fiske will 
contribute the first of his essays on our Ary- 
an Ancestors; and Major Ben. Perley Poore 
an interesting chapter of his Reminiscences 
of Washington. There will be installments 
of Miss Phelps’s and Mr. James’s stories, and 
a short story, with the usual variety of essays, 
criticisms and poems. 


THE Manufacturer and Builder, of New 
York, enters upon its thirteenth volume with 
the January number, and, under the editore 
ship of Prof. W. H. Wahl has become one of 
the best journals of the class in this country. 
Monthly, 24 pages quarto, $2.00 per annum. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


THE sixty-second Volume of Harper's Maga- 
zine began with the December Number. The 
February Number will contain an able paper. 
by the Rev. HENRY J. VAN DYKE Jr., on the 
Gospel History in Italian Painting, with a 
large number of fine illustrations; the con- 
clusion of MoncurE D. Conway’s ‘The 
English Lakes and their Genii,” with illustra- 
tions by ABBEY and PARSONS; asecond paper 
on the Old New York Volunteer Fire Depart- 
ment, by G. W. SHELDON, illustrated; an 
illustrated article on Pottery in the United 
States; a paperentitled ‘‘ Literary and Social 
Boston,” by Gro. P. LATHROP, with eighteen 
illustrations; the third part of Miss WooL- 
SON’S serial story, ‘‘ Anne,” with an illustra- 
tion by REINHART; the second part of THos. 
HARDy’s new novel, “A Laodicean,” (pub- 
lished exclusively in Harper's Magazine,) with 
an illustration by DU MAURIER; a paper en- 
titled ‘‘ The Early History of Charles James 
Fox,” by the Hon. JOHN BIGELOW, a charac- 
teristic Georgia sketch, ‘‘Puss Franklin’s 
Defense,” by R. M. JOHNSTON; and other 
interesting reading-matter—--poems, short sto- 
ries, etc. 


Goop Company, Number Fifteen, has an 
account of a steamboat trip to the head of 
navigation on the Missouri river by Mr. Her- 
bert Hall Winslow, which happily contains 
information and incident, and is not wanting 
in graphic description of scenery and experi- 
ences with Indians, etc. in that little-known 
region of our vast Northwest. One of the 
novel and characteristic occurrences on the 
trip was a free fight among some of the steam- 
boat hands. 

Apropos of Dora d’Istria’s recent visit to 
the United States, the story of that most re- 
markable woman’s life is given, Mrs. M. S. 
Bull writes of the noble philanthropist Gerrit 
Smith. 

Thereisan account of the origin and growth 
of the United States Life-saving Service, in- 
cluding some vivid descriptions of its mem- 
bers’ experiences with wrecks; a paper on 
Eskimo traditions ; an account of the Chinese 
professor and his family at Cambridge; and 
«Autumn Leaves,”’ by E. S. Gilbert. 

IV—39 


583 


For fiction there is an installment of Ellen 
W. Olney’s serial and several complete stories. 

One or two shorter articles, with poems 
and the department of ‘‘ Discussion and Sug- 
gestion,”’ fill out the number. 


WE learn from the New York Odserver that 
Principal Dawson of McGill College, Mon- 
treal, delivered a course of lectures last month 
to the students of Auburn Theological Semi- 
nary, on the ‘‘Geological Features of Bible 
Lands, Illustrative of Bible History.” The 
special topics embraced in the six lectures 
were: ‘Parallelism of Geological Chronol- 
ogy;’”? ‘‘Early Bible History;” ‘‘Geology of 
Egypt in Relation to the Hebrew Sojourn ;”’ 
‘¢ The Sinaitic Peninsula and the Exodus ;” 
<¢ General Geological Structure of Palestine ;”” 
‘¢The Dead Sea and its Geological History ;” 
‘‘Pre-historic Palestine-General Conclusions.” 


— — 


Pror. ASAPH HALL continues his articles 
upon the Advance of Astronomy, in the Od- 
servatory ; also Prof. C. A. Young, of Prince- 
ton, who contributes an article upon the 
Spectrum of Hasting’s Comet. 


No magazine published in the United States 
has made more brilliant progress within the 
past few years than the Worth American Review. 
It enters on its sixty-sixth year with the Jan- 
uary number, which is full of excellent 
articles by some of the ablest writers of the 
present day in America. Its contents are as 
follows : 

‘¢ The Philosophy of Persecution,” by Prof. 
Joun Fiske; ‘‘ Controlling Forces in Ameri- 
can Politics,’’ by Senator GEO. F. EDMUDES ; 
‘¢ Atheism in Colleges,” by JoHN Bascom, D. 
D., LL. D., President of the University of 
Wisconsin; ‘‘The Ruins of Central Ameri- 
ca,” Part V., by DESIRE CHARNAY ; ‘¢Parti- 
ran Government,” by Wm. D. LE SUEUR; 
‘¢ Popular Art Education,” by Prof. JOHN F. 
WEIR, Director of the School of Fine Arts, 
Yale College; ‘‘The Limitations of Sex,” by 
Nina Morais; ‘‘ The Mission of the Demo- 
cratic Party,”’ by Senator Wm. A. WALLACE; 
«Recent Philological Works,” by Prof. F. A. 
MARCH. 


584 


Mr. WILLIAM FARNELL in a short article 
in the American Microscopical Journal denies 
that the Drosera brevifoléa and the Saracenza 
varioloris are insectivorous plants, claiming 
that he has gathered them at all proper sea- 
sons and never found any insect caught in the 
first, and that whenever he found any remains 
of them in the second he invariably found at 
the bottom of the tube a white worm with 
strong black mandibles, which was evidently 
the insectivore. 


THE Scientific American, for Dec. 25, has 
a communication from Andrew Van Bibber, 
combating the popular idea that rain always 
follows heavy cannonading, and giving sever- 
al instances in his own experience, for in- 
stance, at the battles of Shiloh, Corinth, 
Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Ridge, 
where no rain followed the heaviest artillery 
explosions. 


We give a table showing the coldest day of 
December in each year since 1875. 


Tam. |2pm. l0pm 
Ith IDEs, Ws ooo 60 -2 11 9 
1G 8 Ps 5 Bo 9 6 4 4 -3 
eye © Le iice ace nsene as 10 29 24 
STS ns Doo dard: 06 -4 2 3 
Wee) OE eo) ani OL o -7 2 -7 
TSSON ics Ooo G6 0.8 |; 6 -2 -10 


THE subcutaneous injection of sulphuric 
ether in three-drop doses, at intervals of 
twelve hours, is recommended by Dr. Comegys 
for the successful treatment of sciatica; and 
he thinks that the substitution of ether for 
ergotine in dealing with tic-doloreux would 
give good results. 


THE weather for the last few days of De- 
cember was remarkably cold. On the 28th 
at Chicago, the mercury fell to —18°, at St. 
Louis to —10°, at Minneapolis —28°, at Fort 
Garry —-41°, at St. Paul —25°, at La Crosse 
—20°, at Milwaukee —19°, at Leavenworth 
—16°, at Kansas City —10°. 


Mr. Frank Buckland, the well-known natu- 
ralist and pisciculturist, is suffering from a 
severe attack of dropsy, and now lies in a 
very critical condition. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


THE December meeting of the Kansas City 
Academy of Science was held on the 28th 
ultimo, and there was a good attendance not- 
withstanding the extreme coldness of the 
weather. Mr. W. H. Miller read his third 
paper on the Synthetic Philosophy of Herbert 
Spencer, which was well received by the 
Academy, and is published in this number of 
the REVIEW. 

Col. R. T. Van Horn read a paper on “fA 
New Hypothesis of Life,’’ in which he took 
up and treated the radiant form, or fourth 
form of matter, suggesting that possibly this 
form of matter might present the primordial 
environment and conditions of life, of whose 
origin, science so far has made no revelations. 
There is no physical basis of life, material 
forms only giving its conditions and environ- 
ment. The paper was original, fresh and 
cogent, but as it will appear in the February. 
number of the REVIEW in full, we will at- 
tempt no abstract of it now. 


PRor. J. S. Newberry, an unquestioned 
authority on the subject, said in a recent ad- 
dress before the National Academy of Sciences 
that the quantity of iron in Utah is such as 
to throw into the shade all other known de- 
posits in this country. 


OF late the electric light has been employed 
by naturalists to attract insects, which they 
desire to collect for examination or to pre- 
serve as specimens. 


Geological explorations have shown the 
probability that Russia contains beds of phos- 
phate of lime of sufficient extent, to supply 
Europe for an indefinite period. 


Pror. Strasburger, of Jena, holds that the 
attributing of all the functions of life to pro- 
toplasm, is to be looked upon asa great ad- 
vance in science, although it is impossible 
thus far even to form hypotheses with regard 
to the forces which are at work in the proto- 
plasm. 


ERGCAINSAS Clpy 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


MONE. IV. FEBRUARY, 1881. NO. 10. 


PEREOSO@Or iY: 


THE NEW HYPOTHBSIS. 
BY HON. R. T. VAN HORN, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


The mind of man is so constituted that it is not content with mere formula, 
but is always searching for facts. Each new discovery is but a point of depart- 
ure in the ultimate inquiry, whence are we? And while this question has been 
the one of all ages and of all research, it remains unanswered. It is unlike that 
other universal question: ‘‘If a man die shall he live again?” the answers to 
which are as voluminous as religions and supernatural literature. Upon this 
question rests the ecclesiastical structures of the world in all ages, as well as the 
occult teachings of the mystics of every degree in all time. Its affirmation is 
woven into all systems of jurisprudence and underlies the laws of all civilized 
nations, as well as the customs of barbarous races and tribes of men. That it is 
not proved by methods that afford demonstration matters not; mankind rests 
upon it to-day, always has so rested, and it is but logical to conclude, will make it 
the one fundamental idea of their moral government while humanity endures. 

The question of life, however, is treated from a different standpoint, and, 
depending less upon mere dogma, its solution has been sought by scientific meth- 
ods; facts have ,been found from which hypotheses have been born, and the 
tules of philosophic induction applied to discover the secret. Or, in other 
words, the origin of life has been sought by physical research and the physical 
basis of life has become a thing of the schools. This may be called the modern 
method, for it has only been possible since chemistry and the microscope have 
been the familiar agents of investigation. Much of the literature of science has 

IV—40 


586 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


been misdirected, in that in addition to its search for facts it has used those facts 
in a controversial sense, as against dogma—as if it made any difference to the 
fact what dogma taught. It does not change the fact of existence or destination one 
way or the other whether dogma be right or wrong—the result of the fact is purely 
intellectual freedom. 

It matters not to knowledge whether dogma preaches a delusion, and it is a 
mistake in science, while denying to dogma the right to make a god, to copy its 
assumption by making him through a furnace or defining his attributes through 
optics. God-making is the by-path in all times that has led aside from the royal 
highway of knowledge, and the disciples of science can only follow it to the fail- 
ure of their true mission. 

In a former paper which I had the honor of reading before you, about life 
theories, after summing up all that had been then discovered, the result was given 
in these words: ‘‘ There is no physical basis upon which a knowledge of how life 
came can rest. So far as those who assume to answer for science, there has been 
no answer.’’ And the same must be said to-day. Since then much has been 
written, but no change in the verdict. The declaration of Tyndall still stands: 
that there is nothing living that did not derive its life from a pre-existing hving 
thing. And M. Quatrefages, the most eminent of anthropologists, in a work since 
published, sums up the result of his life’s labor, of his investigations and those of 
his co-laborers in this special field, in the all conclusive declaration: ‘‘I do not 
know.” 

Still the inquiry goes on, and the best minds in science, the most skilled in 
special investigation are as unceasing as ever, and the work of interrogating 
nature goes forward with zeal unabated and with vigor unrelaxed. The question 
of method is now the one that engages most attention, and what we may call the 
new hypothesis is that to which the highest skill and choicest learning are devoted. 

In science, as in everything else, the phenomena of the human mind are 
manifest. We find those who are prone to rest on every new fact as final and 
covering the limit of what is knowable—counterparts of what we call the “‘ con- 
servative” in social Science. Newton never supposed that he knew everything, 
yet there are multitudes who think he did, and these are always pulling back on 
the wheels of progress and new discovery. And itis these men who cry out: 
‘¢away with hypothesis, give us facts,”’ while all that Newton ever discovered 
was the fruit of hypothesis. Science to-day is but a grain of fact in a measure 
of hypothesis, and our scientific literature is a volume of hypothesis from a 
chapter of facts. Hypotheses are to science what fertilizers are to the soil—the 
cause of the crop of fact. 

One of the greatest obstacles to the presentation of philosophic truth is the 
necessity of using names, since the words employed to express abstract ideas of 
conditions by the mere force of repetition come to be associated in the mind as 
tangible things, and form a sort of intellectual furniture, only to hinder the clear 
conception and expression of things that have no tangibility, and, to be clearly 
understood, must be thought of aside from any material comparisons. 


THE NEW HYPOTHESIS. 587 


Thus, when we think of gravity, we call it a law, when it is only a conception 
of a state or relation between parts of a whole, that we call the universe. And 
there is connected with the word law a finite, a restricted idea, whi h, borrowing 
a coloring from our own methods, dwarfs the impression of its infinity, its eternity 
and its expression. We cannot dissociate the idea of its governing the move- 
ments of worlds, when it is only part of the universal whole which cannot be 
suspended, as there never has been a time or a conception of a time when it was 
not—because gravity is creation. We speak of matter under the same disabilities, 
and one of the most difficult things for the mind to do, and we might say impos- 
sible for it to do, is to think of matter without the association of something that is 
tangible to the material sense, something that has substance, form and dimension, 
whereas matter is only the name of the tool for handling an idea. We know 
matter is not the thing we associate it within the mind, for there is no form of 
visible matter that, by methods known to us, cannot be made to disappear from 
all sense. Wecan attain to an intellectual recognition of matter in this con- 
ception, measurably, but as soon as we attempt to speak of it, the forms of speech 
dissipate the true conception again. ‘This disabling obstacle interposes in all 
discussion from facts, and intrudes the physical basis of life asa theory, when 
in the nature of things, as we understand the word, there can be no such thing 
as the physical basis of life. To deal with the subject at all, we must do so by 
hypothesis, and the use of facts is to illustrate or to approve or disapprove the 
theory advanced. And why not? 

Take for example the theory of evolution, to which the school that assumes 
to be pre-eminently scientific seems to hold as the ultimate of science in the 
direction of the origin of life. It is not fact, but only a hypothesis based on a 
hypothesis. ‘The entire structure of materialism and its science, as related to the 
origin of life and the development of living things, rests on the nebular hypoth- 
esis. If that should be discovered not to be well founded, not only evolution, but 
many other far more generally received theories and systems would fall with it. 
Is it not then best to be respectful to hypothesis ? 

And just here allow me to digress and to make an observation pertinent to 
the argument to follow. It has always been a mystery how the advocate of the 
physical basis of life, or the materialist, can ignore the oneness of matter and 
the hypotheses that follow that idea, when the very foundation, the central fact 
upon which his entire theory rests, is that the solar system, the eternal basis of 
all things in his system, was at one time nothing—a mere expression—void. If 
it was so before the beginning, why not so now? Did the evolution into the 
nebulee, and from the nebulee into worlds necessarily change the original order of 
all matter in space? We know it has left an atmosphere as intangible, when at 
rest, as vacuity itself, and why not have left space still more ethereally occupied ? 
In fact it has been negatively demonstrated that space is pervaded by a medium 
that transmits light, heat, and what we call the chemical rays of the sun. What 
are these chemical rays? Why not this very principle of life that we are in search 


588 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


of, and which, from a wrong conception as to matter, has lain, so to speak, under 
our very feet for all the ages? The universe is not a thing, a machine, made for 
us to look at and wonder how we would have gone to work to make it, but we 
are part of it, as actually as though we were a planet or arock. We are but an 
expression of matter, as the rock or the tree; our bones and tissues are but expres- 
sions of matter, yet they have assumed form and substance, so far as our methods 
of inquiry go, from the same source that comes the faculty that describes them. 
But they are not necessary for life, as life exists without them, but they are 
necessary to the uses of the life that employs them. And here again we come 
to the inquiry which humanity has always been making. 

And here, once for all, it may as well be said, that the ‘‘ origin” of life is a 
misnomer, an assumption. The true philosophic inquiry is, how and when did 
life, as we know it or as we understand it, manifest itself upon our earth, and 
how? For the origin of life is with the infinite, and we cannot even form a 
conception of its beginning; it may never have had an origin. It may be the 
eternal principle itself, without beginning or ending, and knowable only by itself. 
It is egotism for humanity to assume itself the one perfect manifestation of life. 
We may be as low in the scale compared with other forms as are the merest rudi_ 
mentary organisms of our own planet. Let not then this egotism overtask our 
powers of conception. It is enough, and to us godlike, to study its manifesta- 
tions and to trace its processes as far only as the ultimate forms of matter and its 
phenomena may enable us to understand this principle, which to the universe of 
soul and sense is as that of gravity to the universe of material worlds. 

We are now engaged in a new line of inquiry. When science began the 
study of the problem of life, it commenced a‘ the foundation of things, the forma- 
tion of the solar system, and thence to our house, the planet which we inhabit. 
The theory of the rocks grew from the nebular hypothesis, and the examination 
of therocks supported the theory. The fossils in the rocks told the story of a 
once differing form of life to ours, of many epochs of differing forms, and so grew 
demonstration out of theory. That book of the rocks has been variously read, 
the last reading being by the light of comparative anatomy, until the hypothesis of 
spontaneous generation and evolution became the solution of science. But it has not 
so far, stood all tests. | Thus we read up from the past, and we have the advan- 
tage of the wondrous store of knowledge obtained. If not conclusive, the mind 
of man is immensely the richer in its possessions for it. 

The present method, however, is entirely different. It is from small things— 
going up from particles to aggregates and systems. We take now, instead of a 
stratum of rock, a molecule, and we learn its lesson. And this lesson is that all 
life is in its phenomena and appearance the same—whether of plant or animal. 
There is no difference in the appearance or action of the molecules of an oak and 
ofaman. Andso far as we can determine this little mass actually performs the work 
of growth as perfectly, and seemingly as intelligently, as does the bee its material 
work. So far as we can see it works consciously and with intelligent plan, pur- 


THE NEW HYPOTHESIS. 089 


pose, and as we know, to uniform results. We call all this ‘‘ force,” but it is only 
a confusion induced by the necessity of words. In our mechanical contact with 
material objects, that we employ to control them we call force, and so in the 
barrenness of physical speech we apply the same term to this work of the creative 
energy, and this manifestation of an eternal and infinite purpose. But in the case 
of a tree we find the same as in that of the bones—the trunk, the wood, the bark 
and the leaves are forms of matter, but they are not necessary to the perpetuation 
of the life of the tree—that isin the seed. What isin the seed? That is just what 
we have never been able to discover. Here lies the mystery, and if we cannot 
grasp its presence, why try before we gain that secret, to question it as to its origin? 

Now let us turn to a wider field. Many years ago the furnace and retort of 
the chemist fournd.certain substances that were obdurate and refused to obey cer- 
tain so-called laws that other substances did obey. These were called elements, 
and they were called so as forming the original substances of our world. Then 
came the discovery of the spectroscope, and it was found that some of these ele- 
ments, many of them, existed in the sun. Then came the hypothesis, or scien- 
tific deduction, that the sun, earth and all the family of the solar system were of 
like composition—the same elements of matter. It is strange that with the nebu- 
lar hypothesis as the basis of the solar system, this fact had not been accepted be- 
fore. Itis hard to conceive how it could be otherwise, if we place law over all. 
But is it not equally strange, that the other presumption was not considered ? that 
as all were once mere nebulz, that as the matter composing sun and worlds was 
in different states than in the beginning, that these differing states were only the 
different aspects of the same original nebulous mass; and it is still more strange, 
when we reflect that science held all the time to the theory of atoms and knew the 
law of atomic combination. The world had not then, nor has it now, got beyond 
the idea of matter, that it is something you can eat or kick. 

But after the spectroscope came, the men with hypotheses began to investigate, 
and they found one line merging into another, one part, for example, of the sun’s 
rays or atmosphere, or what they may be called, gave less lines or elements than 
another, until at one culminating point in the wondrous laboratory of our central 
orb, all disappear but the hydrogen line; or that all forms of matter, all elements, 
are but differing conditions of hydrogen. Still there are men, who having follow- 
ed the study of matter from the supposed simples of the elements of our globe, 
up to this generalization of all substances into one, who yet deny the inevitable 
conclusion—the unity of matter. It is this class of conservatives who have plac- 
ed, always, the barriers and finalities to knowledge, who seem afraid to face the 
tremendous fact that these discoveries suggest. And here they stop, and instead 
of a god of fossils and evolution, they make a hydrogen god, and shut the door 
in the face of the hypothesis, that there is still a God beyond the veil of hydrogen ; 
that matter is still capable of a condition beyond that burning atmosphere which 
has absorbed all known forms of matter into its own. 

But it may be asked in view of this criticism: Are we to give up scientific 


iA 


590 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


research in this direction ? By no means, for science is surely tracing out the path 
of inquiry that leads in the direction of the unknown. What is complained of, 
is that its disciples are too prone to stop at each step in advance, as if there was 
nothing beyond. Or it may be stated in another form: Science has so long com- 
batted mere dogma, and soo utterly dethroned special providence, miracle and 
chance, that itself has become timid before the idea of the supernatural, and like 
the old creed builders who trembled at a fact, these scientists dread anything that 
suggests itself beyond the forces of the laboratory. They are almost as free to 
burn a heretic as were their persecutors inthe past. If research leads to the bor- 
der land between science, as we deal with it, and something beyond our methods, 
we must face it, and follow it as we may. 

And now, leaving spectroscopic science on its hydrogen frontier, let us see 
what has been done in the laboratory. Here the progress has been greater than 
in the other field, but in the same direction. Of course reference is made to the 
experiments of Prof. Crookes, in what he calls, after Faraday, ‘‘ radiant matter.” 
And allow a digression here, for the benefit of those who have refused to accept 
what they may choose to call the unsupported testimony of Crookes, to say that 
within the month his experiments have been repeated and the truth of his theory 
demonstrated by our own great countryman, Henry Draper, before a large num- 
ber of the members of the National Academy of Sciences. 

This radiant, or as it is usually termed, the fourth state of matter, suggests 
another plea for hypothesis. What has now been demonstrated to the eye is but 
the proof by experiment of the hypothesis of Faraday, suggested sixty-five years 
ago, so that it cannot be said to be entirely new, but which men who did not want 
to think or who could not think, have ever since regarded as a vagary of that 
great mind. The formula for matter has been solid, liquid, gaseous, and to these 
Faraday had added radiant. Now science took no note, when it rejected this 
fourth condition, of the fact that it had stopped for a long period at the dual char- 
acter of matter—solid and fluid—and that the gaseous was only a comparatively 
modern innovator. Still this did not prevent an incredulous, not to say a pitying, 
sympathetic smile, at this vagary of Faraday. Yet despite the still slow accept- 
ance of it, it is a fact, proven to the’eye before the British Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, the French Academy and, as noticed above, before our 
own American Society. 

It is not the purpose here to describe the phenomena attending the experi- 
ments that demonstrate the existence of this fourth state of matter; only to note 
that in some of them the phenomena are in conflict with the accepted laws of 
matter heretofore recognized as immutable, and that it has different properties 
from any of the three. It evolves colors, and when intercepted by a solid body 
casts a shadow ; it is deflected from a straight line by a magnet, moves spirally, 
it exerts mechanical action where it strikes, and produces heat when its motion is 
arrested. 


Now, these phenomena show, some of them, that what the experimenter was 


THE NEW HYPOTZESIS. 591 


dealing with was matter, for it manifested the phenomena of matter under under- 
stood laws, while others show that it has phenomena peculiar to its condition, or 
which do not manifest themselves to our cognizance in any of the forms below it. 
Notably is this so as to colors. And by colors is not meant hues, merely, but 
colors that radiate and illuminate. This is something that no other form of mat- 
ter known displays; and it casts a shadow. What a startling suggestion. 

Now, crossing over from this disclosure of the vacuum tubes, let us take 
again the spectroscope, and we find that in one sphere of the emanations from 
the sun or its atmosphere, it bursts, so to speak, into a stupendous zone of color, 
and which in our barrenness of description is called the chromosphere. Is it then 
illogical to conclude that the radiant matter of the vacuum tube and the chromo- 
sphere of the sun are both but matter in the samestate or condition? And thus 
do we, in strict accord with scientific methods demonstrate the truth of the 
hypothesis. 

Now we get to a state of matter by two processes of analysis that present 
the same phenomenon—color—and we are for the first time, by physical methods, 
compelled to admit color into the family of entities, things, elements, or forces. 
Here then by regular methods of practical science, we are face to face with some- 
thing heretofore unrecognized and uncatalogued, and we must take a new depart- 
ure in investigation. We have reached a new continent and must push our ex- 
plorations from a new base of observation, and with a new element of interpreta- 
tion. 

As yet we have discovered nothing that contradicts the atomic theory, and 
all these experiments as to radiant matter are based upon that theory and all 
results are in harmony with it. Then we conclude that in one state or relation or 
combination of atoms, the result is color, and that modifications of color are 
only variations, so to speak, of the normal relation or state of atomic combina- 
tion that produces color; these colors of the vacuum tube, in one case, and the 
supreme glory of the chromosphere in the other. And now what? 

As this refined condition of matter must be before colors become its expres- 
sion, does not this refined matter interpenetrate everything and thus give to 
grosser matter, mineral, vegetable and animal, what we call their permanent tints, 
by which we read their nature as we read a book? And is not this refined matter 
but an expression of one of the phenomena of life, without which life cannot be? 
It must be so. 

And now, with these two states of matter, or rather matter reduced by the 
two methods of investigation to a condition that discloses not only its homogen- 
eous property, but its attenuation to a millionth part only of the density of air, 
what does it suggest? We refer next to the facts recited in the last paper already 
referred to, as disclosed by the microscope: that the molecules of living matter 
in the organisms of living beings, are simple, formless, colorless particles, that 
obey no known physical law, but as from some unknown source of power and 
store-house, build up the organism from a mere dimensionless point, endowed 


° 


592 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


with a force and function that had no knowable origin or cause. Why not find 
it here in this condition of matter so ethereal in its refinement as to baffle the mind 
in its effort to realize it, but having a force to which nothing ponderable can be 
compared? Or, if even this, as we have tested it, is too crude to respond to 
the uses of the complex and wondrous thing we call life, why not follow it still 
farther to a yet more exalted state, through which the divine essence may quicken 
the forms of matter by which we recognize the phenomena of life? Is this 
hypothesis any more strained from the point of to-day than was that of Faraday 
from that of sixty-five years ago, with the testimony of both spectroscope and 
microscope added? Or must we, like the worshippers of the fossil god and the 
hydrogen god, set up this radiant molecular image and worship it, until some 
daring investigator with new appliances breaks the image and advances us another 
step in physical facts. 

Our lame methods of illustration at best give but an unsatisfactory idea of 
the immense force and activity of this matter in the radiant state, but Flammarion’s 
words may help in a degree to its realization. Speaking of Crookes’ experiments 
before the French Academy, this eminent authority says: ‘‘ The ball which Mr. 
Crookes uses, of four inches diameter, when exhausted to one-millionth of an 
atmosphere, still contains a quintillion of molecules, and its capacity a septillion. 
Now, pierce this globe with the aid of an electric spark, which traverses it 
through an opening entirely microscopic, nevertheless sufficient to permit air 
to enter it. If in this opening the molecules enter at the rate of a hundred 
millions per second, it would require more than four hundred millions of years to 
fill the ball, yet it is actually filled in an hour through the microscopic opening.” 
The mind cannot grasp such numbers, nor is it flexible enough to sense such 
infinitely small particles. But it enables it in some degree to imagine the force, 
activity and power of matter in its ultimate forms, and to satisfy the mind that 
life, through the still larger comparative masses of protoplasm, as quickened by 
this inconceivable energy, is possible. 

Here, then, we find the basis for a new hypothesis as to life, not as to the 
origin of life; for that lies still behind, but as to the union between life and- 
organic development, for here all seeming necessary conditions meet, and we 
can conceive how such tremendous and exalted forces, operating through this 
plastic material, may create the environment for the production of living phe- 
nomena. It seems indeed as if here must end the inquiry into the phenomena of 
life in this direction, as it is difficult to imagine how a farther refinement of 
matter by physical methods is possible, or how it could aid what appears so clear 
—that life as we see it must thus find its expression through organic forms. We 
have followed it with sure footsteps to this border land, and we know it cannot 
come in any other way. So far the hard demand for facts has been met. This 
much seems to have been necessary for physical science to do, for without it 
superstition, dogma, or credulity had no limit; the infinite was simply chaos, 
stirred by any vagrant force that, surrounded by its own agitation, called itself 


THE NEW HYPOTHESIS. 593: 


the all. But this has given a basis on which the mind can rest and from which 
reason can reach out toward the final cause; it has led us to the shores of 
the mysterious ocean, upon which the explorer may launch his barque, with the 
compass of ultimate facts to direct his voyage in search of the still unknown. If 
life is from the gestation of nature, here is the point from which to question her. 
If being, consciousness, and the immortal longing of humanity is from the ever 
living source of the great first cause, here is where the quickening power is first 
manifest, and from which we must reach out and find food to satisfy that infinite 
hunger which has ever been the burden of the soul. It cannot be found by 
following in by-paths, only by traveling the road as it lengthens beyond. 

The inquiry is very old: ‘‘ Who by searching can find out God?” And itis. 
as apt to-day as then. Searching by analysis can never discover Him, nor can 
it satisfy the reason or the imagination. It can dispel illusion, expose fallacy, 
confound dogma and instruct faith, because it can show what is not and what 
cannot be. But analysis is always negative; it does not create, only explains 
what is created. The higher knowledge comes from the synthetic; it takes up 
these parts from the hand of analysis and with them builds the tower of wisdom, 
whose summit basks in the sunlight of infinite truth. And by this method, ‘‘the 
immortal white flower of all reason,” we may cross this border land and explore 
that which is still hidden. 

In all that has been seen, there is not a suggestion of evidence that matter 
itself is life—it is only the medium of a force that as yet has evaded all challenge 
by our methods, of its presence. But what is it that like an open book lies before 
us, from the rudimentary rock to the inconceivable forces of matter in these ulti- 
mate forms? It is that there is a dual principle, an active and a passive; that 
the one controls, molds, quickens, and the other responds, adapts, lives. This 
fact is ever present, as constant as law—it is the law. 

If, then, there is, as all fact demonstrates, this dual force, there is one more 
refined which constitutes life, and must have a kindred force or energy by which 
it can manifest itself in the world of organized forms. And here is where it meets 
matter in the dual office; here is where, in other words, life marries matter for 
the uses of the infinite in the worlds of created substance throughout the universe. 
It cannot be otherwise. We must here find the heart of the great mystery. 

And, now, by the light of these new facts, and the suggested hypothesis, how 
beautiful do the processes of nature become, joined as it is by its own ultimate 
states to the sources and quickening forces of the infinite. Matter assumes a new 
beauty, the beauty of use. The esthetic sense is no longer repelled by the crude | 
suggestion that the flower, a rose and its perfume, is only matter, for it can under- 
stand the wondrous work of these invisible forces that from the intangible air 
distils such marvelous odors and from the rains and dews evolves the wondrou-_ 
fabric of the rose leaf and its color. It feels that matter as we see it, as we feel 

‘it, is only the garniture of the soul within, that loves it for what it expresses. It 
feels that it is but the very dross of materialism, born of this material sense, to 


594 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


make the faculty of mind, consciousness, imagination and soul but the accident, 
the factory work of mere physical phenomena, which is by courtesy called law. 
And science, though it may never solve the mystery of life, has by these later 
discoveries, forever overthrown the hideous nightmare which in its name has been 
brooding over the human soul and crushing out its aspirations, toward the immortal 
and unknown, by the benumbing weight of materialistic annihilation; that the 
soul of man was but a phantom of chemistry that expired with the fires of its con- 
taining crucible. Because, what from its minutest form and phenomena to its 
aggregation in worlds and systems of worlds is all under law and controlled by 
cause, cannot itself be without cause. This must be, or mind is causeless and 
without existence. How that cause works to produce life is what we are in search 
of, and the hypothesis that is sustained by the facts must be the true one. 

We must, then, in the light of these discoveries, revise the methods of dis- 
cussion, dismissing the old questions and formule, for they constitute a point of 
departure back of which the dogmas of the schools are useles. The materialist 
must revise his theories, for he can no longer borrow from the geologist, nor for- 
tify himself from the earlier teachings of the astronomer. The sun is no longer 
a mere furnace, stoked by meteors and cometic fuel; this old earth of ours is no 
more a mass of cooled slag, nor is space a void where eternal cold is only dis- 
turbed by the swift rush of planets as they swing their eternal round, the first 
worshipers of the inevitable fire that will go out when all are consumed. The 
evolutionist, too, must seek elsewhere than in the festering ferments of primeval 
slime for that divine spark, which first chambered in a sponge now questions the 
mysteries of the first cause from this borderland between the living and the life; 
that has laid its hand upon the forces that grasp the solar system and keeps the 
stars and worlds in their places; that finds in space the same materials that com- 
pose the rocks, the water, the air, and that makes planet responsive to planet, 
each giving and receiving that which in common phenomena proclaims them 
all akin. He must find, not a life animal and vegetable alone, existing where 
all else is dead, but a universe instinct with a life far beyond that of any of its 
parts, of which our life on this little globe is but a result, a mere expression of the 
all pervading source of life from which the worlds were born, and in which the 
universe exists. 


Prof. E. S. Holden, of the Naval Observatory at Washington, has accepted 
the managership of Washburn Observatory at Madison, Wisconsin, made vacant 
by the death of Prof. Watson, and will enter upon his duties within a few weeks. 


TdkE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 595 


GEOLOGY AND PAL AON TOLOGY. 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 


PRINCIPAL J. W. DAWSON, MONTREAL, P. Q. 
( Concluded. ) 


To return to primitive man and the date of his appearance in Europe, an 
important question is raised by Dawkins in the attempt which he makes to dis-: 
criminate between two races of men supposed to have existed successively in 
Europe in postglacial times or in the Second Continental period. These he calls 
respectively ‘‘men of the river gravels” and ‘‘cave men.” The idea of such 
distinction seems to have arisen in his mind from the fact that in certain caverns 
in England the lowest stratum containing human remains affords only rude imple- 
ments, while an upper stratum appears to testify toimproved manufacture of stone 
tools and weapons ; both strata being of so-called “‘ paleolithic”” age—that is, be- 
longing to the time when certain mammalia now extinct survived. Such facts, 
however, would rather seem to testify to local improvement in the condition of 
certain tribes than to any change of race. Such local improvement would be 
very likely to occur wherever a new locality was taken possession of by a small 
and wandering tribe, which in process of time might increase in numbers and in 
wealth, as well as in means of intercourse with other tribes. A similar succession 
would occur when caves used at first as temporary places of rendezvous by savage 
tribes became afterward places of residence, or were acquired by conquest on the 
part of tribes a little more advanced, in the manner in which such changes are 
constantly taking place in rude communities. Yet on this slender foundation he 
builds an extensive generalization as to a race of river-drift men, in a low and 
savage condition, replaced after the lapse of ages by a people somewhat more 
advanced in the arts and specially addicted to a cavern life; and this conclusion 
he extends to Europe and Asia, finding everywhere and in every case where rude 
flint implements exist in river gravels, evidence of the earlier of these races. 
But his own statements are sufficient to show the baselessness of the distinction. 
He admits that no physical break separates the two periods, that the fauna re- 
mained the same; that the skulls, so far as known, present no differences; and 
that even in works of art the distinction is invalidated by grave exceptions, which 
are intensified by the fact, which the writer has elsewhere illustrated, that in the 
case of the same people, their residences in caves, etc., and their places of burial 
are likely to contain very different objects from those which they leave in river 
gravels. Perhaps one of the most curious examples of this, referred to by our 
author, is the cave of Duruthy in the western Pyrenees. On the floor of this 
cave lay a human skull covered with fallen blocks of stone. With it were found 
forty canine teeth of the bear and three of the lion, perforated for suspension, 


596 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and several of these teeth are skillfully engraved with figures of animals, one 
bearing the engraved figure of an embroidered glove. ‘This necklace, no doubt 
just such a trophy of the chase as would now be worn by a red Indian hunter, 
though more elaborate, must have belonged to the owner of the skull, who would 
appear to have perished by a fall of rock, or to have had his body covered after 
death with stones. In the deposit near and under these remains were flint flakes. 
Above the skull were several feet of refuse, stones, and bones of the horse, rein- 
deer, etc., and ‘‘ paleolithic” flint implements, and above all were placed several 
skulls and skeletons with ‘‘ beautifully chipped” flint implements. After the 
burial of these the cave seems to have been finally closed with large stones. The 
French explorers of this cave refer the lower and upper skulls to the same race; 
but Dawkins, in consistency with his theory, has to consider the upper remains 
as ‘‘ Neolithic,” though there is no conceivable reason why a man who possessed 
a necklace of beautifully carved teeth should not have belonged to a tribe which 
used well-made stone implements, or why the weapons buried with the dead 
should have been no better than the chips and flakes left by the same people im 
their rubbish-heaps. = 

The reasoning by which the author supports this distinction is throughout 
scarcely worthy of his reputation, and implies great carelessness as to modern 
analogies. The same remark may be made as to his identification of the cave 
men with the Esquimaux. What he says on this head would serve quite as well 
to identify them with other hunting and fishing people; with the Haidas of the 
Queen Charlotte Islands, for example, the Micmacs of Nova Scotia, or even the 
Fuegians. He exposes, however, the folly of the minute distinctions made by 
some French archeologists as to the ages of the remains in different caves, and 
which, as Lyell and others have insisted, prove no more than slight differences of 
wealth and culture among contemporary or immediately successive tribes. 

Another point on which he well insists, and which he has admirably illus- 
trated, is the marked distinction between the old paleocosmic men of the gravels 
and caves and the smaller race with somewhat differently formed skulls which 
succeeded them, after the great subsidence which terminated the Second Conti- 
nental period and inaugurated the Modern epoch. ‘The latter race he identifies 
with the Basques and ancient Iberians, a non-Aryan or Turanian people who once 
possessed nearly the whole of Europe, and included the rude Ugrians and Laps 
of the north, the civilized Etruscans of the south, and the Iberians of the west, 
with allied tribes occupying the British Islands. This race, scattered and over- 
thrown before the dawn of authentic history in Europe by the Celts and other 
intrusive peoples, was unquestionably that which succeeded the now extinct 
paleocosmic race and constituted the men of the so-called ‘‘ Neolithic period,” 
which thus connects itself with the modern history of Europe, from which it is 
not separated by any physical catastrophe like that which divides the older men of 
the mammoth age and the widely spread continents of the post-glacial period from 
our modern days. ‘This identification of the Neolithic men with the Iberians, 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 597 


which the writer has also insisted on, Dawkins deserves credit for fully elucidating, 
and he might have carried it farther to the identification of these same Iberians 
with the Berbers, the Guanches of the Canary Islands, and the Caribbean and 
other tribes of eastern and central America. On these hitherto dark subjects, 
light is now rapidly breaking, and we may hope that much of the present obscurity 
will soon be cleared away. 

Ancther curious point illustrated by Dawkins, with the aid of the recent 
re-discovery of the tin-mines of Tuscany, is the connection of the Etruscans with 
the introduction of the bronze age into central Europe. This, when viewed in 
relation to the probable ethnic affinities of the Etruscans with the ‘‘ Neolithic” 
and Iberian races, remarkably welds together the stone and bronze ages in Europe, 
and explains their intermixture and ‘‘ overlap” in the earlier lake habitations of 
Swizerland and elsewhere. 

We are also indebted to our author for a suggestion as to the linguistic con- 
nection of the Neocosmic and Modern periods, which is deserving the attention 
of philologists. He quotes from Abbé Inchaurpé, the following Basque words: 


CALZCOLE sn ——WINOKE = Stone lifted up or handled. 
Altsurra = Pick = Stone to tear asunder. 
Aizttoa —=Knife = Stone, little or small. 
Aizturrac = Scissors = Little stones for tearing. 


He remarks that all these words are derived from the word aéza, atcha, stone, 
though now applied to implements of metal. The same thing occurs in many 
American languages, in which the word for stone, with appropriate additions, is 
applied to different kinds of tools. It is also curious that in some of the American 
languages the word for stone is almost identical with that in Basque ; but this ap- 
plies to some other Basque roots as well. Still it is not unlikely that the onomat- 
opoietic sounds, zz, aiz and the like, applied to stones and cutting instruments in 
many languages, in all cases arose from the use of sharpened stones in cutting 
and rending. 

A still more important speculation arising from the facts recently developed 
as to prehistoric men is the possible equivalency with the historical deluge of the 
great subsidence which closed the residence of paleocosmic men in Europe, as 
well as that of several of the large mammalia. Lenormant and others have 
shown that the wide and ancient acceptance of the tradition of the deluge among 
all the great branches of the human family necessitates the belief that, inde- 
pendently of the biblical history, this great event must be accepted as an histor- 
ical fact which very deeply impressed itself upon the minds of all the early nations. 
Now, if the deluge is to be accepted as historical, and if a similar break interrupts 
the geological history of man, separating extinct races from those which still sur- 
vive, why may we not correlate the two. The misuse of the deluge in the early 
history of geology, in employing it to account for changes that took place long 
before the advent of man, certainly should not cause us to neglect its legitimate 
uses, when these arise in the progress of investigation. It is evident that if this 


598 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


correlation be accepted as probable, it must modify many views now held as to 
the antiquity of man. In that case, the modern gravels spread over plateaus and 
in river valleys, far above the reach of the present floods, may be accounted for, 
not by the ordinary action of the existing streams, but by the abnormal action of 
currents of water diluvial in their character. Further, since the historical deluge 
cannot have been of very long duration, the physical changes separating the de- 
posits containing the remains of paleocosmic men from those of later date would 
in like manner be accounted for, not by slow processes of subsidence, elevation, 
and erosion, but by causes of more abrupt and cataclysmic character. This sub- 
ject the writer has referred to in previous publications,* and he is glad to see that 
prominence has recently been given to it by so good a geologist as the Duke of 
Argyll, in a late number of the Contemporary Review. 

It is a great leap backward to pass from the bronze age of Europe to the 
Paleozoic brachiopods of Bohemia; but both may furnish illustrations of the same 
natural laws, as both belong to the same long-continued creative work. Barrande, 
like some other eminent paleontologists, has the misfortune to be an unbeliever in 
the modern gospel of evolution, but he has certainly labored to overcome his 
doubts with greater assiduity than even many of the apostles of the new doc- 
trine; and if he is not convinced, the stubbornness of the facts he has had to deal 
with must bear the blame. In connection with his great and classical work on 
the Silurian fossils of Bohemia, it has been necessary for him to study the similar 
remains of every other country, and he has used this immense mass of material 
in preparing statistics of the population of the Paleozoic world more perfect than 
any other naturalist has been able to produce. In previous publications he has 
applied these statistical results to the elucidation of the history of the oldest group 
of crustaceans, the trilobites, and the highest group of the mollusks, the cephalo- 
pods In his latest memoir of this kind he takes up the brachiopods, or 
lamp-shells, a group of bivalve shellfishes, very ancient and very abundantly repre- 
sented in all the older formations of every part of the world, and which thus 
affords the most ample material for tracing its evolution, with the least possible 
difficulty in the nature of ‘‘imperfection of the record.” 

Barrande, in the publication before us, discusses the brachiopods with refer- 
ence, first, to the variations observed within the limits of the species, eliminating 
in this way mere synonyms and varieties mistaken for species. He also arrives 
at various important conclusions with reference to the origin of species and varietal | 
forms, which apply to the cephalopods and trilobites as well as to the brachiopods, 
and some of which, as the writer has elsewhere shown, apply very generally to 
fossil animals and plants. One of these is that different contemporaneous species, 
living under the same conditions, exhibit very different degrees of vitality and 
variability. Another is the sudden appearance at certain horizons of a great 
nuinber of species, each manifesting its complete specific characters. With very 
rare exceptions, also, varietal forms are contemporaneous with the normal form 
of their specific type, and occur in the same localities. Only in a very few cases 


* «Origin of the World,” Fossil Men.” 


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. 599 


do they survive it. This and the previous results, as well asthe fact that parallel 
changes go on in groups having no direct reaction on each other, prove that 
variation is not a progressive influence, and that specific distinctions are not 
dependent on it, but on the ‘‘sovereign action of one and the same creative 
cause,” as Barrande expresses it. These conclusions, it may be observed, are not 
arrived at by that slap-dash method of mere assertion so often followed on the 
other side of these questions, but by the most severe and painstaking induction, 
and with careful elaboration of a few apparent exceptions and doubtful cases. 

His second heading relates to the distribution in time of the genera and 
species of brachiopods. This he illustrates with a series of elaborate tables, 
accompanied by explanation. He then proceeds to consider the animal popula- 
tion of each formation, in so far as brachiopods, cephalopods and trilobites are 
concerned, with reference to the following questions: (1) How many species are 
continued from the previous formation unchanged? (2) How many may be 
regarded as modifications of previous species? (3) How many are migrants from 
other regions where they have been known to exist previously? (4) How many 
are absolutely new species? ‘These questions are applied to each of fourteen 
successive formations included in the Silurian of Bohemia. The total number of 
species of brachiopods in these formations is 640, giving an average of 45.71 to 
each, and the results of accurate study of each species in its characters, its varie- 
ties, its geographical and geological range, are expressed in the following short 
statement, which should somewhat astonish those gentlemen who are so fond of 
asserting that derivation is ‘‘ demonstrated” by geological facts: 


IO pecies Continued whemameed) =) 40). 21 '28) per cent: 
24 Species migrated iromabroad). 2 15.77 ss 
3. Species continued with modification. o ‘“ 
4. New species without known ancestors. 65 us 


100 per cent. 


He shows that the same or very similar proportions hold with respect to the 
cephalopods and trilobites, and in fact that the proportion of species in the suc- 
cessive Silurian faunze, which can be attributed to descent with modification, is 
absolutely z/. He may well remark that in the face of such facts the origin of 
species is not explained by what he terms ‘‘les élans poétiques de limagination.” 

The third part of Barrande’s memoir, relating to the comparison of the 
Silurian brachiopods of Bohemia with those of other countries, though of great 
scientific interest and important in extending the conclusions of his previous 
chapters, does not concern so nearly our present subject. 

I have thought it well to direct attention to these memoirs of Barrande, 
because they form a specimen of conscientious work, with the view of ascer- 
taining if there is any basis in nature for the doctrine of spontaneous evolution of 
species, and, I am sorry to say, form a striking contrast to the mixture of fact and 
fancy on this subject which too often passes current for science in England, 


600 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


America, and Germany. Barrande’s studies are also well deserving the attention 
of our younger men of science, as they have before them, more especially in the 
widely spread Paleozoic formations of America, an admirable field for similar 
work. In an appendix to his first chapter, Barrande mentions that the three men 
who in their respective countries are the highest authorities on Paleozoic brachi- 
opods, Hall, Davidson, and De Koninck, agree with him in the main in his 
conclusions, and he refers to an able memoir by D’Archiac in the same sense, on 
the cretaceous brachiopods. 

It should be especially satisfactory to those naturalists who, like the writer, 
have failed to see in the paleontological record any good evidence for the pro- 
duction of species by those simple and ready methods in vogue with most 
evolutionists, to note the extension of actual facts with respect to the geological 
dates and precise conditions of the introduction of new forms, and to find that 
these are more and more tending to prove the existence of highly complex 
creative laws in connection with the great plan of the Creator as carried out in 
geological time. These new facts should also warn the ordinary reader of the 
danger of receiving without due caution those general and often boastful assertions 
respecting these great and intricate questions, made by persons not acquainted 
with their actual difficulty, or by enthusiastic speculators disposed to overlook 
everything not in accordance with their preconceived ideas.—Princeton Review. 


THE PLIOCENE BEDS OF SOUTHERN OREGON. 
BY CHAS. H. STERNBERG. 


In the year 1877, while at work in the fossil fields of Western Kansas, I re- 
ceived orders from Prof. Cope, in whose employ I was, to go at once to a new 
locality, discovered in the Desert of Southern Oregon and said to be very rich 
in fossil remains. A few days were sufficient to make all needful preparation, 
and I was on my way by rail through the grand and impressive scenery of Weber 
and Echo Cafions of the Rocky Mountains. Among the towering peaks of the 
Sierras, by stage, past Castle Rock and old Mount Shasta, in California, and on 
to Fort Klamath, Oregon, where I procured pack animals and hired an assistant. 
After various adventures I reached Silver Lake, near which I expected to find 
the bone yard, as the people called it. A guide led us through an alkaline desert 
covered with sage brush and greasewood. A journey of twenty-eight miles 
brought us to a small alkaline lake, on the margin of which lay the remains of ex- 
tinct animals, on a bed of clay, all exposed. The volcanic ashes and sand that 
had covered them had been blown away. As night was fast approaching when we 
reached the fossil field, we gathered a huge pile of sage brush, pitched our tent, 
and soon had a comfortable fire, and after a hearty meal, we stretched ourselves 
on our blankets and listened with lighted pipes to the stories of our guide; and 
hough we were twenty-eight miles from human habitations, and in spite of the 


THE PLIOCENE BEDS OF SOUTHERN COLORADO. 601 


howling of the wolves, we made ourselves comfortable. In the morning we were 
early astir, and during the day made the largest collection of fossil bones I ever 
got in the same length of time. They were in a fine state of preservation. One 
unfortunate thing was the absence of perfect skeletons. The skulls had been 
broken to pieces, doubtless beneath the feet of herds of antelope and deer, that 
came daily to the lake for water. ‘Teeth, limb bones and vertebrze were common. 
We found great quantities of fish bones, which were usually detached and repre- 
sented animals from the size of a trout to a large salmon. About two thirds were 
of existing species. Birds, also, were abundant, in size from a sandpiper to a 
stork. They were all of existing species. Great piles of P/znsrbis and other 
species of fresh water shells looked like snow drifts. Among mammals the horse 
and llama were most common, three species of each. Azuus mayor was as large 
as our American stock, though with rounder limb bones. JZ. occidentalis was 
about the size of a small Indian pony. Of the Llama the species were ancherria 
hesternia, A. major and A. vitakeriana. Specimens were found of a great sloth, 
Mylodon. Elephas primigenius left its bones in profusion. They were usually 
broken, especially the tusks. A few days exploration convinced me that great 
numbers of animals had been destroyed at once, and an examination of the vol- 
canic sand and ashes that had covered them proved that they had sought shelter 
from a fierce storm of sand and ashes, from an active volcano in the vicinity, and 
beasts of all descriptions forgot their natural instincts, and rushed together to the 
cooling waters of the lake. The gigantic elephant, the horse, llama, deer, wolf 
and other smaller animals awaited with fear the storm that must overtake and 
bury them beneath the accumulating deérts. 

One reason for this opinion is the great profusion of remains around the lake. 
Another is that only isolated bones are found at a distance, showing where some 
animals had been overtaken by the storm before it reached the lake. Whata 
commotion there must have been on that fearful day, when all the beasts of 
Southern Oregon found death and burial. Great piles of sand and ashes are 
found near the lake, carried there by the wind, into which ones horse sinks a 
foot or more. Among these heaps of sand I found an old Indian village, with 
old mortars and pestles lying around. Also numerous arrow and spear heads of 
obsidian. Here and there were heaps of obsidian chips, showing where the old 
arrow makers had had their shops. Who knows but what man was a witness of 
the scenes we have described, and perished amidst the storm of burning ashes, 


« 


THE QUATERNARY OF WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 
| BY CHAS. H. STERNBERG. 


Prof. Broadhead’s interesting article on the Mastodon puts me in mind of some 
explorations I made in the Winter of 1877-78. While traveling on the Columbia 
river I met an army surgeon, who told me of mastodon bones being found on 


Pine creek, Washington Territory. I resolved to go there at once, and went to 
Iv—41 


602 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Walla Walla to outfit, and with two assistants, went to Pine creek, where I met 
Mr. Copeland who had made large collections of remains of the Hairy Mammoth. 
He had felt a large skull in a spring on his farm, and with grappling irons hauled 
it to the surface. It proved a perfect specimen and excited his desire to obtain 
more. He therefore hired a number of men and proceeded to drain and dig out 
the spring. He first went through a bed of peat, then of clay and found a great 
many bones in a bed of gravel below, about twelve feet from the surface. He 
obtained a large collection of mammoth bones, as well as those of the bison and 
smaller animals. Mingled with the bones were pieces of charred wood. I dis- 
covered a spring near the head of Pine creek that promised well, as I could feel 
bones with a long pole. It was 100 yards from the creek and on about the same 
level. I first dug a ditch from the spring to the creek, which lowered the water 
about three feet. Then we dug down on the margin of the spring, through a bed 
of peat five feet in thickness, and through five feet of clay, hauling up the soft 
mud and water with buckets. Every night the hole we ma@e during the day was 
filled with water and it had to be bailed out in the morning. At last we found 
the bed of gravel, with numerous bones lying on and throughit. But, unfortun- 
ately, they did not belong to the mammoth, but to the North American bison, deer 
and other small animals of existing species. | One interesting fact was, we found 
flint arrow heads and an instrument of bone mingled with the bones. ‘This fact 
taken alone would only prove that man existed with the common bison. But 
taken in coniection with Mr. Copeland’s discoveries, it would prove that both 
man and the bison were contemporary with the mammoth, as man’s implements 
associated with remains of the bison, were found under the same circumstances 
and vicinity with Mr. Copeland’s specimens. Another proof of the great age of 
the bison is from the fact that its remains are found in various parts of Washington 
Territory and Oregon in beds of gravel, under twelve feet of lava. Hence, I sup- 
pose that if man, the mammoth and bison were contemporary, they were doubt- 
less destroyed by an outflow of lava that covered most of eastern Washington 
Territory and Oregon. 


ARCH ADOVOGY SAND, ANDER OF OL @EsE | 


ORIENTAL RESEMBLANCES IN NEW MEXICO. 


BY C. N. HOLFORD. 


* *K *K *K * en *K *K * 

But there is to be seen here in New Mexico the impress of a civilization (the 
Arabic) older than that of Europe, older than that of Ancient Rome. And there 
are some grounds for believing that the ancient Pueblo civilization which the 
Spanish conquerors found here, and to a great extent displaced, is, if not the 


ORIENTAL RESEMBLANCES IN NEW MEXICO. 603 


() 


direct offspring, at least the kindred of the civilization of the Egypt of four 
thousand years ago. The character of many of the ancient ruins from Zuni to 
Palenque and Copan, the type of heads and features sculptured thereon, the 
pottery of the Pueblos and Navajos—all, if not exactly resembling those of an- 
cient Egypt, resemble nothing else in the world so much. The wooden plow 
used by the Indians of this Territory to-day is of the exact type found sculptured 
upon monuments that were old before the walls of Troy were built. The char- 
acter of the country and climate considerably heightens these resemblances. 
Standing near one of these Indian pueblos and reading a page of Bayard Taylor’s 
journey up the Nile, you might easily fancy as you looked around that the great 
traveler was describing the scene before you. The rude houses of sun-baked 
mud with occasional bits of vineyard about them; in the back-ground the barren 
flats or the low yellow sandhills; in front the broad river, its turbid waters changed 
to gleaming silver by the slanting rays of the blazing sun; and over all the pale, 
hot, quiet, cloudless sky. The dusky inhabitants in their scanty white cotton 
garments moving languidly about, the asses plodding afield or standing with 
mournfully drooping heads, and the rude, antique-looking implements seen here 
and there, harmonize well with the rest of this picture of ancient Egypt, as it 
were. 

I have said that Spanish New Mexico bears tokens of the influence of the 
Arabian civilization, and it may not be clear at first sight how it can be so. It 
will be remembered that the immediate successors of the great Arab prophet 
carried their conquering arms and fanatic faith, not only to the walls of Vienna 
on the north, but along the whole southern coast of the Mediterranean, then 
swarmed up into Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and overran half of France. Though 
the mace of Charles Martel crushed their front at Poitiers and the swords of the 
Paladins scourged them back across the mountains, they held possession of more 
or less of Spain for nearly eight hundred years. Not only did this long domin- 
ion of so energetic a race deeply impress Spanish customs and architecture, and 
mingle, no doubt, much of its blood with the Spanish race, but when the last king 
of the Spanish Moors yielded the keys of his capital to the consort sovereigns of 
Aragon and Castile and bade adieu forever to the Alhambra’s marble halls, many 
thousands of the Moors remained behind to still further impress their characteris- 
tics upon Spain. When they were finally expelled eighty years later by the foolish 
bigotry of Philip II Spain lost in them her most substantial citizens-her most skillful 
mechanics and enterprising traders. But, even thus, it is estimated that there are 
60,000 A/orescos, or persons of Moorish descent, in Spain. It is highly probable 
that so fine an opportunity for adventure as was opened by the discovery of the 
New World was embraced by thousands of an adventurous race whose ancestors 
carried their banners over two thousand leagues of conquest in Europe and Africa, 
and it is not unlikely that many of these AZorescos were in the vanguard of the 
Conquistadores. 

Santa Fe, except in its new American features, is a type of the remote, half- 


604 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Moorish towns of Estramadura three hundred years ago. The influence of the 
rest of Europe has greatly changed Spain since the days of Charles V, but that 
influence fell far short of New Mexico. In a few nooks of Spain a hundred years 
ago were remnants of these things which had already vanished from the more 
accessible localities. Cadalso, in his Cartas Marruecas, writing from one of these 
nooks, says: ‘‘ The somber costumes, the women secluded in the houses or appear- 
ing on the streets only with faces muffled in black shawls, the houses with their 
blank street walls jealously hiding the inner courts “3 * * * ** 
and many other things, have made me look into the almanac to see if it was really 
the year 1765, or the year 1500.” Many of these things, to be seen only inthe nooks 
of Spain a hundred years ago, can be seen in some New Mexican towns in the 
year 1880. 

The ancient architecture of New Mexico is decidedly Moorish—though in 
the matter of public buildings, in the palmy days of the Moors in Spain, the 
Moors built of marble where the Mexicans have built of mud, yet in their less 
pretentious buildings adobe formed the principal building materiel of both people. 

Lately I met a Frenchman who had spent twelve ycars in northern Africa 
and Arabia, and he said that for appearance of country, buildings, people, ani- 
mals, climate, etc., the Rio Grande valley might seem to be a slice taken out of 
Algiers or Arabia—at least if the Gringo were taken out and the camel put in. 

Had I space and access to books, to illustrate the resemblance of this country 
to orient lands I might quote from the writings of many observers, from the 
wonderful narrative of Moses, read by more than a hundred generations, to the 
pages of Bayard Taylor which, fresh from the writer’s hand, charmed me when a 
boy. ‘The Soil, the sky, the animals, the implements, the pursuits and the manu- 
factures — what a wonderful resemblance in those of the two regions. The rude 
Mexican cart with its ponderous wooden wheels and wicker boxes of cane or 
willow rods, drawn by oxen whose yoke is a straight stick lashed to their horns 
with rawhide thongs—just such carts are pictured in the most ancient bas-reliefs 
of the Orient —just such carts bore Jacob and his very numerous family from 
famine-stricken Canaan to meet his long-lost son, the viceroy of Egypt—just such 
carts bore the plunder of the Israelites on their long journey from the pastures of 
Goshen to the fords of Jordan—just such carts bore the baggage of Mohammed’s 
lieutenants, toiling and creaking through three thousand miles of desert sands, 
from the Red Sea coast of Arabia to the Atlantic coast of Morocco. 

The manner of threshing, cleaning and grinding grain, (and, it may be said, 
of growing and gathering it) in this region is the same as is described in the earliest 
records of the oriental nations. Moses wrote concerning ‘‘the ox that treadeth 
out the corn,” and the ox is yet used, along with the ass and the goat, for tread- 
ing out the grain of New Mexico. The Mexican threshing-floor is of the same 
description as that which David bought of Araunah the Jebusite, and the Mexican 
now winnows out his wheat in exactly the same manner as Boaz the Moabite was 
winnowing out barley the breezy evening that Ruth came acourting him. ‘‘ Two 


ANCIENT WORKS IN NEW MEXICO. 605 


women shall be grinding at the mill,” says the Hebrew prophecy, and it is said 
that in some parts of this territory to-day two women together grind wheat betwen 
flat stones—the one partly grinding it and the other completing the operation. 

The ‘‘ bottles” for wine mentioned in ancient records are known to have 
been goat-skin flasks, and such are in use to-day in this country; and so are the 
rawhide wine vats, such as were used by the wine makers of Syria ages ago, and 
perhaps even by the sons of Noah. Our native adobe-makers would probably 
find making ‘‘ bricks without straw” as unsatisfactory as did the Hebrew slaves 
of the Egyptians thirty-four hundred years ago. 

The ass and the goat, the ‘‘ flocks and herds” of sheep, and the ‘cattle 
upon a thousand hills,” are features upon almost every page of the literature of 
‘‘the children of Shem dwelling in tents,” from the day of Abraham to this day, 
as they would be in a literature descriptive of every-day life in the Mexican 
‘* plaza” or on the lonely ranch. In fact, the American tourist who is unable to 
visit Syria, Arabia, Egypt and Barbary, but who wishes to realize in the sight of 
living forms and actual landscapes what he has read of these ‘‘cradle lands,” 
should come to New Mexico before the Gringo with his steam and electricity shall 
have swept away all these oriental resemblances except the landscape and the 
climate. — Thirty-Four. 


ANCIENT WORKS IN NEW MEXICO. 


New Mexico is perhaps the most noted country in the world for research. 
The historian, the wealth seeker and the ‘‘ curious” can here find a rich field and 
reward for their labor. The Abo and Gran Quivira counties are perhaps the 
most renowned in the Territory for research. In the former there are evidences 
of great volcanic eruptions which overwhelmed cities and buried the inhabitants 
in ashes and lava long ages ago. It is evident that these people, who are per- 
haps older than the Aztecs, were a prosperous race, with not a little advance in 
civilization, as the Abo ruins in the Manzana Mountains indicate; also some in- 
dications of fine art; rude figures and the images of animals being found upon 
the interior of the walls of the structures beneath the debris. 

It is evident that this non-historic race were seekers after mineral, and evi- 
dences also exist that mineral was obtained by them in paying quantities, there 
being the ruins of many old smelters and acres of slag found near Abo. Here mines 
are found with the timbers so rotten with age that great difficulty is experienced 
and danger incurred in going down into the old shafts, where shafts are formed. 

One of our informants gave as his belief that either the flow of lava or fall- 
ing leaves and dust had filled many of the shafts up, and the sand, earth and 
leaves so completely covered the ground that great care is required to find them, 
with but one or two exceptions—the Mount of the Holy Cross (so named) being 
- about the only one that could be easily discovered. 


606 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


One especially was found where human hands or lava or falling leaves and 
dust had filled it level with the earth, no shaft being discernible, and would not 
have been found, perhaps, had not an old trail been discovered. This was dug 
into and at a depth of twelve feet a man could, in places, thrust his arm in up to 
the elbow between the granite walls of the mine and the earth which filled the 
old shaft. The mineral, unlike our White Oaks country, does not seem to out- 
crop, but seems to be deep in the earth; no float having been found as yet except 
near the shafts or around the old smelters. On the eastern slope of the Manzana 
Mountains no quartz has been found excepting in a very burned and blackened 
condition. This part of the country will perhaps yield immense mineral wealth 
in time, and further developments and prospecting is awaited with great interest 
to many. 

The walls of some of the old ruins at Abo are six feet of solid stone—lime and 
red sand—the walls in places are yet six feet in height and in a state of perfect 
preservation. In the ruins are found vessels of various designs and sizes made 
of pottery—some representing birds and animals. Stone hammers are found 
here, but no indications that sharp-edged tools were used in this ancient period. 
In digging down in one place the remains of an old aqueduct was found, which 
was probably used, as in the present day by the Mexicans for supplying the 
inhabitants with water. 

It is thought and believed, by specimens of ore found, that gold, silver and 
copper were found in paying quantities. All the rock is more or less copper 
stained and some of it is so much so that some of the ‘‘country’’ rock has run 
as high as 37 per cent. copper. 

. Surely our bright, sunny land has been enjoyed long before the Anglo Saxon 
made his appearance upon the scene. The future of New Mexico can only be 
surmised. Every day new evidences of untold wealth are thrust upon us, and 
the day is not far distant when the multitudes of the East will flock to our bor- 
ders and assist in the development of the greatest mineral region in the world.— 

Era. 


CVE MITSTRY. 


CHEMISTRY IN 1727. 
PROFESSOR T. BERRY SMITH, LOUISIANA COLLEGE, MO. 


I have been reading a book—very large book—whose title page reads thus: 
‘¢ A New Method of Chemistry, written by the very learned H. Boerhaave, Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry, Botany and Medicine in the University of Leyden, etc., 
etc., translated by P. Shaw, M.D., and E. Chambers, Gent, London, MDXXVII 
CCX TIE 


CHEMISTRY IN 1727. 607 


I have found such curious ideas, statements, hypotheses, reasonings and 
conclusions in it, that I have deemed it would be interesting to the readers of the 
REVIEW to write down a few of them and have them again set in type. Of 
- course, they will not now be printed with ‘‘f” for ‘¢s” and ‘‘em” for ‘‘ them” 
and such other ancient modes for putting things; but, nevertheless, the words 
corrected and ideas will be interesting. Icull out only a few of the most strange 
statements, though the whole book is a curiosity. 

I quote first the definition of Chemistry: ‘‘ Chemistry is an art, whereby 
sensible bodies contained in vessels (or at least capable of being contained therein 
and rendered sensible; ) are so changed by means of certain instruments, and 
especially fire, that their several powers and virtues are thereby discovered; with 
a view to the uses of Medicine, Natural Philosophy and other arts and occasions 
of life.” y 

The author then proceeds to explain the various parts of the definition some- 
what as follows : 

It deals with senszble bodies. Bodies are sensible when they affect our 
senses ; insensible when so smad/ or so remote that they work no notable change 
on our organs of sense. Thus the air is full of an infinite number of hetero- 
geneous corpuscles which have,indeed an effect on our bodies, but it 1s such as 
our senses take no cognizance of. 

They must be sensible bodies capable of being contained in vessels. The 
moon, though a sensible body, is no object of chemistry, for it is not capable 
of being contained in vessels. Gases are insensible aura or exhalations that 
would fly away unperceived; but being caught in alembics and retorts, come 
under the notice of our senses. 

The ‘‘very learned” author then goes on to™divide the world into three 
kingdoms much the same as we do at the present time; save that he uses the 
word ‘‘ fossil” as we do ‘‘mineral.” His definitions are these: Fossils grow 
adhering to the earth, and without distinction of parts. Vegetables grow adhering 
to the earth, and with distinction of parts. Amdmals grow without adhering to 
the earth at all. 

He is very profuse in explanation. Passing on, we come to his divisions of 
the fossil kingdom ; and the first isa metal. He says: 

A metal is a simple fossil body that fuses and becomes fluid by fire; and by 
cold coagulates and hardens into a solid mass capable of distending under the 
hammer. 

There are but six metals in all nature, viz.: Gold, lead, silver, copper, iron 
and tin. Some add mercury, but it does not agree with our definition in any 
respect. It is neither dissoluble by fire, malleable nor fixed. Yet the chemists 
hold that it is the basis of all metals, for by throwing in sulphur it becomes fixed 
into a metal. Hence as it is only a circumstance that is wanting to make quick- 
silver a metal, there is warrant for calling it by that name. 

The symbols for the different elements used in those days were those which 
at present are used in our almanacs to represent the sun, moon and planets. It 


608 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


seems the metals had received a kind of apotheosis or translation into heavenly 
bodies. The explanation is somewhat as follows : 

Sol, the Sun—Gold. 

Luna, the Moon—Silver. 

Venus—Copper. 

Mercury— Quicksilver. 

Gold is a circle because it is perfection. 

Silver. This figure would be a perfect circle if the inner part were properly 
applied to the outer. Now the chemists all agree that silver is half gold; but 
the gold lies hid. And they say if you could turn the gold part outward, your 
silver would be converted into gold, and the crescent signifies as much. 

Copper is a circle with a cross underneath, 7. e., Gold with some corro- 
sive menstruum. . 

The cross was the symbol of fire, aqua fortis, vinegar, etc. As the cross 
was to crucify or torture men, so these things serve, so to speak, to torture gold 
into other metals. 

Mercury, the sign for quicksilver, shows gold in the middle, silver at 
the top, and a corrosive at the bottom; accordingly all the adefts say of Mercury, 
that it is gold at heart, whence its heaviness; silyer on the outside, whence its 
whiteness; but there is a pernicious corrosive sulphur adhering to it denoted by 
the cross. So if it were perfectly calcined and purified, and its color changed, it 
would be gold. Take away the corrosive and the silver, and the gold will be left. 
Hence that maxim on mercury: Strip me of my clothes, and turn me inside 
out, and all the secrets of the world will come forth. 

He then takes up the subject of specific gravity. He says: The character 
of the air influences specificegravity. There would be great difference between 
the pure fine air of London or Paris and the grosser air in most parts of Holland. 

The specific gravity of metals is very great, the lightest of them being more 
than six times the weight of water. Hence this might be added to our definition 
of a metal: it is at least six times heavier than water. This fact is very useful 
in the business of mining. If in digging you find a glebe or mineral whose 
weight is six times as great as water, you may safely conclude there is a metal 
therein. 

In a discussion of the properties of elementary bodies, his remarks are of 
the following nature: 


It was a common saying of the ancient chemists that the SUN and SALT con- 
tain all things. 


The truth is, sea salt is a thing of so beneficial a nature that we had better 
be without gold than salt. 

Because gold is so little influenced by fire, some have argued that gold alone 
has its just proportion of fire, and is itself no other than fire perfectly concen- 
trated. Gold is not sonorous. Hence the chemists hold that whoever would 
convert another metal into gold, must first take away the sound. 


CHEMISTRY IN 1727. 609 


People who work in quicksilver mines all die in a little time. One man 
after six years was so full of it that, holding a piece of gold in his mouth a little 
while, it became of a silver color and heavier than before. 

With reference to stones, he speaks thus: 

Stones are popularly divided into two classes, vulgar and precious; or, 
which amounts to the same thing, opaque and transparent. The distinguishing 
mark of precious stones, as of metals, is the weight. Whatever stone has the 
weight of a diamond is really a diamond. 

He explained what we call ‘“ fossils,’’ in the following manner : 

Stones grow like plants. When the seed of a stone gets into a shell of an 
animal, it grows and is molded ,into the shape of the shell; for example, cornua. 
ammonis, our ammonite. 

The stones most opposite hereto, as chalk and boles, are little else than 
earth ill bound together by a very small quantity of crystalline juice. If this 
crystalline juice found its way in quantity into the midst of any concretion and 
evaporated, the result was an agate or onyx. 

Under the head of sulphur he speaks of Arsenic: 

The second is arsenic, the most fatal of the whole tribe. It destroys all 
animals and man as the name indicates: Amer, man, and nkao, to conquer. In 
an ancient MS. ascribed to the Sibyls i is a verse which plainly indicates Arsenic : 

Tetrasyllabus sum; prima pars met virum, secunda victoriam significat. 

Coral was considered a plant. Thus I might multiply examples; but I have 
already gone too far. Such were the lessons taught by ‘‘ very learned ” men about. 
one hundred and fifty years ago! And yet I have heard people declare that the 
world was not advancing in knowledge; that there ‘‘ was nothing new under the 
sun ;” and such like expressions. 

In conclusion take this—an item from physiological chemistry : 

The component parts of animals are spirit, water, salt, oil and earth. Spirit 
is an oily or sulphureous matter so subtilized as to be volatile by the smallest fire, 
and miscible with water. That there is such a spirit and a peculiar one, too, in 
every man, is evident from dogs. They track any one man or beast among a 
thousand; ergo some specific matter distinguishes the dog’s master from the 
effluvia of all others. 

Hippocrates would indeed presently pronounce the sentence of death upon 
any one sick of an unknown distemper wherein the secretions were obstructed 
and the skin appeared squalid, dry and parched. Butachemist would go deeper 
into the thing and show you that the aqueous and spirituous parts of the blood 
being here wanting, the salts which are now rendered more corrosive and sharp, 
are brought by the laws of circulation to the fine tender vessels of the cerebrum 
and cerebellum, which they either wound or tear, or else prevent the secretion 
of animal and vital spirits therein; whence death must necessarily ensue, which 
is saying something that satisfies the mind and rationally accounts for the thing. 


610 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


JPEGs UC S: 


THE ELECTRIC TIME BALL AT KANSAS CITY. 
BY THE EDITOR. 


More than a year ago some correspondence was had between Prof. C. 
W. Pritchett, of Morrison Observatory, George H. Nettleton, President of the 
Union Depot Company, of this city, and the editor of the Review, in regard to 
the establishment of an electric time ball at the Union Depot here, which resulted 
in an agreement by Mr. Nettleton to furnish the necessary funds to put it in oper- 
ation at once. But for some reason not made known, the managers of the 
Chicago & Alton Railroad, over whose wires the signals were to have been sent, 
failed to join in the enterprise, and it was dropped temporarily. 

Within the past month or two the matter has been taken up again, and prin- 
cipally through the efforts of Prof. H. S. Pritchett, Dr. E. R. Lewis and Mr. T. 
B. Bullene, the scheme has been successfully accomplished. The city council 
appropriated a portion of the necessary money, and the remainder was made up 
by private contribution. The time ball and accompanying apparatus were placed 
upon the new building of Messrs. Bullene and Sheidley, corner of Seventh and 
Delaware streets, the tallest and one of the finest structures in the city; and on 
January 5, at exact noon, the first signal was given. Since then it has been of 
daily occurrence. Connection has also been made with the city engine house, on 
Walnut street, where the fire alarm bell gives twelve taps simultaneously with the 
dropping of the ball; also with an electric clock at the jewelry store of Cady & 
Olmstead, and with the forty telegraphic stations in various parts of the city; so 
that absolutely true time is now therule. As this is the fourth city in the United 
States where such signals have been adopted—the others being Washington, 
Boston and New York—our citizens feel quite elated, as well as indebted to 
Professor Pritchett for inaugurating an enterprise which is of great service to us 
and no little trouble to him, especially since he makes no charge for his services. 

To give our readers a comprehensive idea of the working of the electrical 
apparatus, we append some extracts from a communication to the Kansas City 
Times, by Prof. H. S. Pritchett: 

‘‘The need of accurate time increases, of course, in proportion, as the busi- 
ness of a country becomes more intricate. The business of the country is so vast 
and complicated, and all the adjustments of life are to be made with so much 
greater nicety, that accurate time is a necessity for every city—and especially for 
every business city. 

‘‘ Before accurate time signals can be distributed, however, to railroads or 
cities, it is necessary in the first place to have good instruments for the determi- 
nition of time and good clocks. It may be of interest to our readers to know 


THE ELECTRIC TIME BALL AT KANSAS CITY. 611 


something of the equipment of the observatory and the nature of the instruments 
upon which depends the accuracy of the time now being distributed each day to 
Kansas City. 

‘«In the accurate determination of time there is necessary, in the first place, 
a good telescope, mounted firmly in the meridian, and known as a transit instru- 
ment. Fixed in the focus of this firmly mounted telescope are fine spider lines 
set perpendicular to the daily motion of the stars. The telescope being set upon 
a star, the daily revolution of our earth upon its own axis causes the stars to appear 
to move across the field of the instrument, and an observation of its transit across 
the threads of the transit instrument, after being corrected for the small instru- 
mental errors, affords the most accurate means known for the determination of 
the clock errors, or, in other words, of the time. The standard clock itself is 
rarely changed, but its error is allowed to accumulate slowly from month to month. 
In sending the time, however, a different time-piece is used, which is compared 
with the standard clock just before the time of sending. In addition to the transit 
instrument and clock, most well equipped observatories of the present time are 
provided with a chronograph—an instrument for automatically registering by 
means of electricity both clock-beats and observations of star transits. The one 
in use in the Morrison Observatory was made by Alvan Clark & Sons, Cambridge, 
Mass., and the observations of transits are read off to the one hundredth part of a 
second, and time determinations are made to within that limit of error. The 
instrumental equipment used in Morrison Observatory time determinations is not 
surpassed by any observatory in America. The transit instrument itself is one 
of the largest and most firmly mounted. It is in most respects a duplicate of the 
instrument in use at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, and was made 
by the same makers. Its cost in the shop in London was $4,500 in gold. The 
standard clock by Frodsham, London, and the chronograph, by Clark, cost in 
addition $1,000. These instruments—as good as can be made by modern scien- 
tific appliances—are capable of determining time as accurately as is possible in any 
observatory in the world, which may readily be distributed to any railroad or city 
in the west. 

_ ‘The errors of the clock having been once determined, the distribution of 
correct time over the railroads and to telegraph offices is a very simple matter. 
In the method now pursued the local time is first changed into Kansas City time 
by applying the difference of longitude. At thirty seconds before 12 m., Kansas 
City time, each day, one of the break circuit clocks of the observatory is made to 
beat simply by turning a switch on the main line of the Western Union telegraph 
and the clock instantly commences to beat seconds in every telegraph office in 
Kansas City and along the line. At exactly 12 o’clock a double beat is given 
and the clock continues to beat till thirty seconds after, when it is shut off. The 
operators or any who may come to the offices to compare time-pieces, have thus 
three separate seconds which they can identify—the beginning second, which is 
thirty seconds before 12 o’clock ; the double tick exactly at 12, and the last second 


612 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


beat, which is thirty seconds after 12, So that any astronomer or any clock 
maker in any town into which these signals go may easily compare his clock with 
the standard clock of the observatory once each day by simply carrying a watch 
or chronometer to the telegraph offices, taking the precaution to compare his watch 
with his regulator before and after. 

‘« These signals are amply sufficient for all connected with railroads or who 
can readily go to telegraph offices. In order to furnish time to a large city, how- 
ever, it is necesssary to establish some signal which may reach the majority of 
business men in or near their places of business. There are but two methods in 
use which have been found to be practicable and efficient. One is the firing of 
a gun by electricity at some moment previously agreed upon. ‘The Royal obsery- 
atory at Greenwich fires several time guns in this: manner—one very large one at 
Edinburgh, which can be heard for miles around. There are several objections to 
this method which readily suggest themselves. If nothing else, the expense of 
purchasing and the danger of firing a large piece of artillery would prevent the 
adoption of such a plan in most cities. 

‘« The second plan and the one most generally adopted, consists in the instanta- 
neous dropping by means of electricity of a ball attached to a staff placed in the 
most prominent point accessible. The Greenwich Observatory drops a ball at 
Liverpool at one o’clock each day—the ball being so placed as not only to give 
the time to the city but also to the shipping in the harbor. 

‘¢The ball dropped at Kansas City, and which signalizes the first attempt of 
this kind in western cities, is equipped in much the same manner as the one in 
use in New York, the apparatus used in dropping it being simpler and more easily 
managed, and not liable to get out of order. ‘The ball is dropped in the following 
manner: At just five minutes before noon the ball is hoisted into position at the 
top of the staff. It is held in place by a rope attached to an arm and supported 
by an armature of a relay on a local circuit, which is closed in turn by the relay 
in the main office at Kansas City, which is in direct communication with the 
observatory. The closing of the main circuit at noon causes the ball to drop— 
sliding instantly down the staff—the instant when it leaves the top being exact — 
noon. 

‘There is another matter in connection with these time signals to which the 
business men of Kansas City might well give some attention. The observatory 
clock-beats go out over the lines and into the various offices of Kansas City one 
each day, and might be sent more frequently if needed. This is Kansas City 
time, and is as accurate as all the appliances of modern astronomy can make it, 
and its preparation costs time and labor. We are anxious therefore that it should 
benefit as many people as possible. Now these signals which go into Kansas City 
might just as well go into every railroad office of every road running into the city, 
and thus at the same instant the same clock would beat Kansas City time in every 
village of every road centering at Kansas City—from Omaha to Galveston and 
from the Mississippi to Denver. The thought itself is one very flattering to the 


THE ELECTRIC TIME BALL AT KANSAS CITY. 613 


enterprise of Kansas City, and its accomplishment would be of great material 
benefit to her. All that is necessary to accomplish this is to lead the different 
lines which already come into the same office into one relay, and it is accom- 
plished at an expense of almost nothing. The wires could be so arranged that by 
simply turning on a switch two or three minutes before the signals are to come 
through, the clock-beats would go out on each line, and any interruption on one 
would not affect the others. The immense benefit to the railroads themselves, as 
well as to all business men generally, which would result from the adoption of 
such a system over the roads tributary to Kansas City, is almost incalculable— 
while all amateur astronomers who are in need of accurate time would be placed 
under lasting obligations. To bring about this result it is simply necessary for 
the managers of the roads centering in Kansas City to come to some agreement 
about the matter. 

‘‘At the last meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science held in Boston in August, the question of a uniform time system was 
brought up anda committee of astronomers was appointed to work up the sub- 
ject for the ensuing year. Among the members of the committee were two of the 
astronomers of the Naval Observatory, the astronomers of the Cincinnati Ob- 
servatory, Alleghany Observatory, Harvard Observatory, Morrison Observatory, 
New Haven Observatory, and others. Nothing definite was agreed upon, but one 
of the most favorable plans proposed by different persons was that which recom- 
mends the adoption of three meridians for the whole country, the time of the 
first meridian being from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, that of the second from 
the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and of the third from the Rocky Moun- 
tains to the Pacific coast. 

‘* Whatever plan may be finally age it is quite sure that with the 
constantly increasing railroad traffic some such general plan must be adopted in 
the course of time—there is no place better suited than Kansas City for distrib- 
uting time to the whole of the Mississippi valley, and there seems to be no good 
reason why she should not inaugurate such a system as will make her permanently 
one of the great time centers of the country as she already has become one of its 
great business centers.”’ 

Since the adoption of the electric time ball signal at Kansas City, we observe 
that the people of St. Louis are moving in the same matter, and that at a recent 
meeting of citizens it was determined to raise $1,500 for the purpose. 


614 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


MOS D IEC JUN IS) NING) Jel SOG rts IN) Jet, 


MALARIA. 
DR. W. B. SAWYER, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


The term Malaria as applied by those outside the profession of medicine to 
disease is vague and often meaningless. It has been in certain localities quite 
the fashion to speak of many ailments of a more or less trifling nature as 
‘¢malaria,” and, with indifference to the appropriate use of terms, to call that a 
disease which is only a name for its cause. The primal and derivative significa- 
tion of the word malaria is ‘‘bad air.” Strictly speaking, however, ail air vitiated 
by any substance poisonous in its action upon the body is bad air. The atmos- 
phere of a closely packed audience room, loaded with carbonic acid, is clearly 
bad, while the stifling gases formed in the combustion of coal render the air of 
many family rooms anything but pure and good. 

Malaria properly and in the signification given it by custom is an air poisoned 
by a definite something called miasm, the effects of which when taken into the 
body are manifested in a class of diseases of which ‘‘ague,” or ‘‘ chills and 
fever,” is the type. Theories are numerous and discussion is endless as to the 
true nature of this miasm, but all theories and all discussions are based upon a 
few facts which the mass of human experience has shown to be incontrovertible. 
Leaving, then, to the medical profession to discuss the theories in detail as they 
are advanced, and to follow out minutely inquiries into the more scientific and 
difficult problems connected with the subject, there is still much to be learned in 
a broad and general way from the simple facts themselves. 

In the first place this poisonous element exists in, and, under favoring condi- 
tions, emanates from the soil. At sea it is unknown or shows its presence only 
when a near approach to land brings it with the wind. Sleeping apartments on. 
the ground floor are more often and more strongly contaminated than those 
above. 

But though in and from the soil, it is only such soil as contains vegetable 
and perhaps mineral decomposing matter, and with the allied conditions of 
warmth and moisture. Marshy lands in warm climates are its most prolific 
sources, and in proportion as either one of the factors, water or heat, is dimin- 
ished, so does its potency and virulence diminish. 

The Pontine marshes and Jersey flats, in which latter locality an admixture 
of salt water seems to aid its generation, have always been covered with malaria, 
and similar tracts of moist country in warm latitudes are of like bad repute. 
Draining or flooding such a tract has an equally good effect in reducing miasm; 


MALARIA. ; 615 


the former because one of the factors in its production is removed, and the 
latter because an excess of water either absorbs or prevents the dissemination of 
the poison. It follows also that high latitudes and high geographical elevations 
are less affected than the low, the other factor, of heat, being to a greater or less 
extent eliminated. 

Stirring up soil that had previously been considered innocuous has in many 
cases, notably in parts of New York City, produced malaria from the exposure to 
sunlight and air of earth loaded with wet and effete matter; and, in the same 
way, withdrawing the water from lakes and ponds and its lowering in rivers give 
rise to similar results. 

The noxious element gets into the atmosphere from direct contiguity, by 
wind currents, and by water courses in which it is carried, if not in solution at 
least in mechanical union, from one point to another. 

Strictly speaking it is neither infectious nor contagious, and only produces 
its evil effects when taken into the body directly. It gains its access here chiefly 
through the respiratory process, though drinking water contaminated with it, or 
bathing in the same gives it some additional means of entrance. 

When a person lives constantly in malaria or its neighborhood, especially if 
it be rich in miasm, disease is pretty sure to follow. Often, indeed, and perhaps 
usually, the trouble takes the form of some of the malarial diseases, so-called, 
whose chief characteristic symptom is a periodic disturbance of the heat-producing 
and regulating function. But it is a mistake to suppose that if this does not 
occur the system has become inured to miasm and tolerant of it. The whole 
constitution is more or less weakened and is rendered more easily a prey to every 
form of ailment; and when a sickness does come, if indeed it does not at once, 
no matter what its name or class, assume the malarial periodicity, it will give 
evidence by its greater virulence and: obstinacy, of the evil influence that has 
gone before. Convalescence from even slight illnesses becomes slow and subject 
to relapses, and the appropriate remedies in such cases are found to be inefficient 
until fortified by the specific—and if any drug deserves the name, it does for 
malarial infection—quinine. 

Woodlands are much more free from miasm than open country. This is 
doubtless due in a great measure to the drainage which the roots of large or 
thickly growing trees keep up, and possibly to the absorbing action of their 
foliage. The fall, too, the season when all verdure is dead or dying, and hence 
less actively engaged in its process of respiration, is the time when this poison 
is most prevalent. Doubtless also the mechanical action of foliage is a factor in 
the protective influence of trees, since a widespread shade must tend to hinder 
the formation of the evil principle and retard its diffusion. Night is more dan- 
gerous than day, since then the earth radiates the heat absorbed during the hours 
of light and with it sends forth its pestilential child. 

Now, while no thinking person will undertake the care of his health without 
the advice of his medical man, when it is once clearly broken by this or any 


616 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


other cause, every one may, by taking heed to a few simple matters suggested by 
the foregoing cursory review, greatly diminish his risks. If within his power he 
may select for his permanent abiding place a northern latitude, a high elevation, 
and a region of well timbered country. This done, though he is fairly out of the 
circle of ordinary malarial influence and is comparatively safe, his security is still 
not absolute, as some cause unforseen and not easily forecast may be in operation 
even in these conditions. But should circumstances compel a residence in a 
suspicious locality, even more care should be exercised. ‘The house should be 
upon high, dry ground ; the land about it turfed and not subject to be deeply or 
widely stirred; the drainage good, and if possible into running water. ‘Trees of 
good size and abundant leafage should surround the house, and if it is desired to 
do all that theory has suggested the Eucalyptus globulus may be planted. It has 
been thought to possess certain specific properties against miasm, though its good 
effects must be due in great measure to its wonderful activity as an absorbent of 
water. The house should be built with special reference to free ventilation and 
its plumbing perfected in every way possible to prevent the entrance of foul air 
from the main sewer pipes without. The sleeping apartments ought to be upon 
the second floor, and neither thickly carpeted nor hung with heavy curtains. In 
selecting a water supply, cistern or surface water may be avoided if possible, a 
deep, clean well in high ground being best and safest. 

But of more importance than these matters even, is the care to be exercised 
by the individual over the details of his own bodily health. All the rules of 
hygiene necessary everywhere for the promotion and continuation of good health 
are of paramount necessity where, in spite of all precautions, the body is forced 
to sustain the presence of a dangerous and unhealthy element. Every function 
—those of skin, lungs, muscles, nerves and bowels—should be watched and kept 
in the proper condition of action and reaction by careful scrutiny and the ha- 
bitual application of the appropriate stimulant for each. To get away from malaria 
is the best way to cure it and prevent it, hence a trip to the north or into the 
mountains once or twice a year, if for a few days or weeks only, may prevent 
altogether an incipient malarial fever, or render less severe and of shorter dura- 
tion the customary fall attack of ‘‘chills.” The night air should be shunned, 
the morning bath of cold or chilly water never forgotten; outdoor exercise, to the 
point of exhilaration but never of exhaustion, daily obtained; a selection of 
nutritious, well cooked food, not highly seasoned but made savory and to relish, 
eaten; some form of coarse food taken also from time to time, and the native 
fruits, when ripe, in their season, and imported figs, oranges, grapes and prunes 
in the winter months. Add to these precautions plenty of sleep and a clear 
conscience and the risk of malaria is reduced to the minimum. 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 617 


BCT SING 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
REV. L. J. TEMPLIN, HUTCHINSON, KAS. 


In tracing the history of the Vegetable Kingdom to its origin, we are carried 
back through a long series of fossil forms till we reach a point beyond which these 
forms cease to record the existence of vegetable. organisms. But here it is 
evident we cannot stop. As in the history of human nations, we trace it back 
through authentic history till this will carry us no further; we then resort to 
tradition till it can guide us no further and we are left to grope our way in the 
darkness of conjecture and speculation. So in tracing the history of plants, we 
finally reach a point beyond which the stony record cannot guide us by the light 
of fossil foot-prints. But we are assured that we have not yet reached the begin- 
ning of these organic forms, and we are compelled to resort to other modes of 
inquiry to approach nearer to the source which at best we cannot hope ever fully 
to reach. The earliest records of plant history have probably utterly perished 
without leaving so much as a trace of their existence behind. The oldest fossil 
plants are found in Lower Silurian rocks, and these, with one or two doubtful 
exceptions, are all marine plants. 

Below what has generally been regarded as the oldest fossil bearing rocks— 
the Silurian—is an extensive formation known as the Laurentian system. Until 
quite recently these rocks were considered azoic in character; but quite recently 
what is held by some as a fossil animal has been discovered in rocks of this 
formation in Canada, where they are enormously developed. Wide difference 
of opinion exists among scientific men as to whether this Hozoon Canadense is 
really of organic origin, and much discussion has been the result. But whatever 
may be the fate of this much disputed form, which was probably only one of 
many forms of protozoa that existed at that early period in the world’s history, 
we have very strong reasons for believing that organic forms did exist in great 
abundance at the time these rocks were deposited. As the animal system is 
incapable of digesting or assimilating inorganic matter, it is wholly dependent on 
the organizing agency of the vegetable kingdom to organize the elements of earth, 
air, and water, into forms that will build up and repair the wastes of the animal 
system. From this consideration it is evident that plants must have preceded, 
or, at least, have been contemporary with the earliest animal existence. The 
‘existence of animals would, therefore, prove the parallel existence of plants, even 
in the absence of all other evidence of this fact. 

If the animal nature of the cozoon, referred to above, be admitted, the 
existence of plants at the same time is established. But we have other proofs of 
the existence of plants during the period of the deposition of the Laurentian 
rocks. The first of these is the existence of extensive limestone deposits as form- 


IV—42 


618 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ing a part of the rocks of this formation. ‘These limestones are in the form of 
marble, but all the rocks of the Laurentian system are highly metamorphic. 
These limestone beds are of great thickness and of vast geographical extent. 
Three bands of these, varying in thickness from 60 to 1500 feet, have been 
traced in Canada for more than 100 miles, and they are doubtless of much greater 
extent. 

It is almost universally conceded that limestones, in all ages of the world, 
are of organic origin, having been built up from the stony forms of polyps and 
the shells of mollusks and crustaceans. That this is the manner in which the 
limestones of later ages have been built up does not admit of question, and we 
know of no good reason for assigning any other origin to those of this very early 
period. If, therefore, these extensive beds of limestone were produced by animal 
agency, it would necessarily demand the contemporaneous existence of enormous 
quantities of vegetation. Another fact that seems to demand a similar cause for 
its explanation is the existence of large quantities of carbonic acid in combination 
with the lime in these rocks. There is strong reason to believe that all carbonic 
acid originally existed in the air, as we find it still so existing to the extent of 
about .o4 per cent. It is through vegetable agency that this gas is abstracted 
from the air and fixed in a solid form. It is held in this form till by the decay 
or combustion of the organic substance it is liberated again to enter into the 
atmosphere in a gaseous state. It was doubtless through vegetable agency that 
this substance was withdrawn from the air that it might be laid up in the stones. 
Admitting the correctness of this view, it would indicate a very abundant vegeta- 
tion during the time these rocks were forming. That these limestones were of 
organic origin is further rendered probable by the fact that they are associated 
with hydrous silicates; especially serpentine and loganite, which may arise from 
the facility with which silica combines with bases in the presence of organic 
matters, or from the abundance of soluble silica in the hard parts of diatoms 
which probably formed the chief food of those animals that build their own 
skeletons of carbonate of lime. ‘These facts create an almost irresistible presump- 
tion that the limestones of this period were of organic origin, which, if true, proves 
beyond question the prevalence of plants at, and probably long prior to, the time 
of their deposition. 

A second indication of the existence of vegetation during the Laurentian 
period, is found in the existence of abundance of carbon besides that which 
exists in combination with lime in the limestones. This is found in the form of 
graphite or plumbago. This is simply one stage of coal, having probably existed 
in the form of ordinary coal at an earlier period of its existence. Coal exists in 
all degrees of carbonization, from the poorest quality of lignite to the pure sub- 
stance in the form of graphite. The various stages of progress through which 
this process is carried on are indicated by lignite, bituminous and anthracite coals 
and graphite. ‘The stage reached seems to depend on the extent of metamorphic 
agencies to which it has been exposed. In those regions, as in Northern Kansas, 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 619 


where the heat and pressure have been very limited, we find an impure lignite; 
in those places, as the Western coal flelds, where these agencies acted with greater 
but yet with moderate energy, the coal is bituminous; while in others, as in the 
Appalachian coal beds, where these metamorphic forces have operated with intense 
power, the coal is of that compact, highly carbonized character known as anthra- 
cite. But where the heat has been intense enough to fuse the rocks and the 
pressure so great as to force out all the lighter gases, leaving only the pure carbon, 
it becomes graphite. That this is the process by which graphite has been formed 
is evident from the fact that in the vicinity of fissures where the heat has been 
intense enough to metamorphose the rock, the bituminous coal has been changed 
into anthracite, and anthracite has passed into plumbago. Thus, at Worcester, 
Mass., a bed of graphite and pure anthracite occurs, interstratified with mica 
schist. It has been employed for both fuel and lead pencils. Thirty miles from 
this, in Rhode Island, an impure anthracite is found, containing impressions of 
leaves of coal plants. This is intermediate between the anthracite of Pennsyl- 
vania and the graphite of Worcester. From these facts it appears that graphite 
is only an extreme metamorphic condition of coal. When, therefore, we find 
large deposits of graphite in highly metamorphic rocks of the Laurentian period, 
the conclusion is irresistible that vast quantities of vegetation must have existed 
at the time they were laid down. 

Still another evidence of the same fact is found in the existence of iron ore in 
these rocks, It appears that iron originally existed in a distributed condition in 
the clays and other rocks of the earth. Thus we find where iron ore deposits 
are found, the iron has been leached out of the adjacent rocks and they are des- 
titute of any red color, while in red colored rocks, the iron still being distributed 
through them, no beds of ore appear. When the iron has been so taken from 
the rocks and gathered into deposits, it appears either in the form of ferric acid or 
carbonate of iron. We see this process in operation at the present day in the 
formation of bog iron ore. The manner in which this iron is collected is of 
much interest in connection with the question of the existence of vegetable mat- 
ter in the adjacent rocks, for it will appear that such matter is an important 
agency in producing such deposits. The iron as it exists diffused through the 
rocks and soils is in the form of peroxide of iron, or ferric oxide, which is insolu- 
ble in water, and consequently cannot be washed out by percolating waters. 
Some deoxodizing agent is needed to bring about this result. This is found in 
decaying vegetable matter. Such decay is an oxidizing process, and when it 
takes place in the presence of peroxide of iron, the effect is to deoxidize it, re- 
ducing it to protoxide, by combining with a portion of the oxygen held in com- 
bination by the iron. Carbonic acid then combines with this protoxide, forming 
carbonate of iron, which, being soluble, is dissolved by percolating waters, which 
come to the surface as chalybeate springs. But when these chalybeate waters 
come to the surface, and are exposed to the atmosphere, the iron reabsorbs Oxy- 
gen, and is converted back to peroxide, which is deposited at the bottom of any 


620 KANSAS ClTY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


basin where the waters may be retained for a time. But should there be an 
excess of decomposing vegetation present, as in peat bogs, this reoxidation can- 
not take place, and the metal is deposited in the form of carbonate of iron. The 
former of these methods is the more usual, though the latter is not infrequent. 
But the existence of iron ore in either of these forms proves the existence of veg- 
etation at the time of its accumulation. Now, the Laurentian period was remark- 
able for the extensive beds of iron ore that were accumulated in its rocks. The 
vast deposits of iron found in the Iron Mountain regions of Missouri, the Lake 
Superior regions of New Jersey, and Sweden, all are found in the rocks of this 
period. Now, taking the above facts, either singly or in combination, they seem 
to establish beyond a doubt the existence, even during this time, of enormous 
quantities of vegetation, although not a vestige of it may exist in the form of 
fossils at the present time. The fact of the disappearance of all these organic 
forms may be easily accounted for in the extremely fragile character of all those 
primitive organisms. And while the above are only circumstantial evidences of 
their existence, they.are of such a nature as to carry all the weight that belongs 
to ordinary direct evidence. We conclude, therefore, that the existence of lime- 
stones, graphite and iron, in the rocks of the Laurentian period, prove the 
existence of vegetation during the time of their formation, while the enor- 
mous extent of their existence is to be taken as the measure of its abundance. 
While we are thus positive of the existence, during the early period, of vast 
quantities of vegetable matter, in regard to the form in which it flourished we are 
left entirely to conjecture. But of one thing we are assured, and that is that no 
land plants existed at that day, for the very good reason that no dry land had yet 
appeared above the universal ocean that covered all the face of the whole earth, 
and consequently this class of vegetation could not have had any influence in 
bringing about the above results. All the vegetation of that age was doubtless 
of that simple yet extensive class of marine plants known as fucoids. The 
Archzean age, of which we have been treating, was followed by the Silurian ; 
but, between the closing of the former and the beginning of the latter, there 
seems to have been a considerable lapse of time of which we have norecord. As 
to the length of this unrecorded time, or as to what did or did not take place 
during its lapse, we are left wholly to conjecture, and the assumption that great 
changes had taken place in the organic development of higher from lower specific 
form, is a begging of the question, inconsistent with scientific methods of inquiry. 
With the incoming of the Silurian age, there was the sudden appearance of a 
wonderful variety of somewhat highly developed living organisms, especially of 
the animal series. The fossil remains of more than 10,000 different species of 
animals have been discovered in the rocks of this age, and others are almost con- 
stantly coming to light. Every class of the animal kingdom, except vertebrates, 
was numerously represented in the fauna of that age, while the individuals be- 
longing to many of these species was above computation or even conception. 
Now some of these, as the Trilobites, that came in with the very beginning of 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, 621 


the age, were of highly specialized types. I do not say that these were not 
evolved from the low, protozoan types, that probably existed during eozoic times. 
I do not know how they were introduced. It may have been by evolution, but of 
this we have no evidence worthy of being called scientific. But, according to a 
principle already stated, we know the existence of such an extensive fauna de- 
manded an enormous development of the vegetable kingdom to furnish, either 
directly or indirectly, sustenance for the numerous animals that thronged the Si- 
lurian seas. Unlike the previous age, we have in the rocks of the Silurian age 
numerous fossil vegetables, not only furnishing positive proof that they existed 
in that age, but also giving us an idea of their forms and structure. The plants of 
this age were, with very few exceptions, marine algee. -There are a few examples 
of land plants, the remains of which have been found in rocks belonging to this 
age. Recently two fossils from the lower Silurian in Ohio have been described as 
land plants of the genus Sigillaria ; but the correctness of this conclusion has been 
called in question by very high authority, so that they are not to be permitted, for 
the present, to testify to the existence of such highly specialized plants at that early 
day. The only objection to giving these fossils their high position is their lack of 
decided characteristics to justify their claims to such honor. The remains of what 
are claimed to be land plants have been found in the rocks of this age in Sweden. 
All geologists claim that they are not algz, and they are referred to as vascular 
cryptogams and monocotyledons. If this be their true character, we have here, 
even inthe lower Cambrian, quite highly developed land plants. The trouble 
with all these specimens is, they are so void of distinguishing characteristics that we 
are liable to mistake a Thallogen for some ofthe more highly differentiated orders 
of plants. In Scotland there are traces of the remains of land plants in the lower 
Silurian ; but their characteristics are not very positive, and, at best, they must 
have belonged to some humble class of endogenous plants. Undoubted land 
plants have been found in Canada, where, with a large number of fucoids, 
a few specimens of club-mosses have been discovered, that are referred to Prof. 
Dawson’s genus Psdlophyton. 

In these both the fibrous bark and the scatariform axis remain and serve to 
guide to a proper classification. Such are all the evidences known of the exist- 
ence of land plants during the Silurian age, and it must be confessed they are 
exceedingly meager, though in view of the fact that there was a large V shaped 
tract of land above the ocean between what are now the St. Lawrence river and 
Hudson’s Bay, it is extremely probable that during the long time that intervened 
between the elevation of this land and the close of the Silurian age many land 
plants flourished, considerable numbers of which would be floated off and buried 
in thesediment of the Silurian seas. Much ofthis doubtless remains to be discovered. 

“Next above the Silurian comes the Devonian Age in which, in addition to the 
humble plants noticed above, we find those of higher organization and more 
complex structure. These include all the orders of vascular cryptogams, viz: 
ferns, lycopods and equisetae. The Ferns were represented by a number of gen- 


622 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


era, as Cyclopteris and Neuropterous; the Club-mosses by the Psilophyton intro- 
duced at an earlier time, and also by those giant vegetable organisms that pre- 
vailed tosuch an extent during the following age—-the Sigillarids and Lepido- 
dendrids ; and the Equisetae by Calamites and Asterophyllites. 

And here, in this early age, and certainly long before we should expect them 
according to the hypothesis of evolution, first appear true gymnospermous trees 
(Confers), in the genus Protaxites. The true coniferous character of these trees 
is proved by the well known gymnospermous tissue and concentric rings of 
growth. 

These were not simply shrubs, but trees of good size; some having been 
found eighteen inches, and others even as much as three feet in diameter. 

It seems somewhat difficult to understand how, according to the doctrine of 
evolution, these highly differentiated organisms should appear at so early a 
period, and with so little preparation, in any of the forms that are known to have 
preceded them. These advanced forms would seem to indicate that if produced 
by evolution, it must have operated by “jumps” and not by ‘‘gradual modifica- 
tion,” or as some have it, ‘‘That the steps of evolution were just at this point 
somewhat rapid.” 

While such assumptions are purely gratuitous, it is admitted they are abso- 
lutely essential to the existence of the theory. A large number of Devonian 
plants have been found; fifty or more species having been discovered in Nova 
Scotia alone. The sudden appearance of such a numerous and highly developed 
flora at the beginning of this age, is difficult to account for in harmony with the 
doctrine of evolution, except by the position assumed above of extraordinarily 
rapid advance at special times, or of a lapse of immense time between the close 
of the Silurian and the beginning of the Devonian ages. Either of these hy- 


potheses might answer, but unfortunately neither has any foundation of proof on 
which to rest. 


(Zo be continued. ) 


INS IOIEKOQUN| OI, 


ANCIENT ECLIPSES. 
WM. DAWSON, SPICELAND, IND. 


EXTRACTS. 

* * *k ** *k * *K KO * * *k * 

Our most ancient record of an observed eclipse is found in Chinese history 
as having occurred in the reign of Emperor Chow-Kang. A little uncertainty 
still exists as to the exact time when this solar eclipse took place, but the most 
probable date is that of October 13, 2127 B. C.—about 4,007 years ago. On 


ANCIENT ECLIPSES. 623 


Assyrian tablets in the British Museum, is found a record of a solar eclipse, total 
at Nineveh, June 15, 763 B. C. Uzziah, king of Judah, and the prophet Isaiah 
both flourished about this time It was also near this date that the shadow went 
back on the dial of Ahaz. One of the most interesting and important eclipses of 
ancient times is the one predicted with the saros by Thales, of Miletus. It oc- 
curred May 28, 585 B. C., and put an end to a long and bloody war between 
the Medes and Lydians. A battle was raging high near two hours before sun- 
down of that eventful day, when the sun was suddenly darkened and day turned 
into gloomy night. ‘This great change in the face of nature produced such an im- 
pression on the contending armies that they were both anxious to make peace, 
which was confirmed by a twofold marriage, in order to make it the more binding, 
“‘For without some strong bond there is little security to be found in men’s coy- 
enants.”” The exact time and spot on the earth where this noted battle took 
place was for many ages a matter of doubt and contention among historians. 
But the accuracy of modern computations has settled the date (B. C. 585, May 
28th, in the evening), and pointed out Asia Minor, near the northeast corner of 
the Mediterranean as the place. 

About five and a half centuries before the Christian Era a king besieged the 
Median city of Larissa. ‘The Medes held their own full well for sometime; but 
in 557 B. C., May 19, an eclipse of the sun so overpowered them that they 
gave way, and the Persians took the city without further trouble. A total eclipse 
of the moon, recorded by Pliny and Plutarch, occurred September 30, 331, B. 
C., eleven days before the celebrated battle of Arbela, in which Alexander gain 
ed a signal victory over Darius. There was a partial eclipse of the moon about 
two or three hours after midnight, March 13, 4 B. C.; and also a total lunar 
eclipse near midnight, January 9, 1 B. C. Now according to Josephus, the 
the death of Herod took place about the time of one of these eclipses, but which 
one does not seem very clear, as (it is said) he only speaks of one eclipse in all 
his writings. Herod died a short time, probably three months, after the birth 
of Jesus Christ. Hence it would seem uncertain whether our Savior was born 
about December 13, 5 B. C., or October 9, 2 B. C. It has long been supposed 
that his birth preceded the Christian era by four years. Although there seems 
to be evidence in favor of the latter eclipse, making the birth of Christ early in 
October, 2 B. C., yet it may be safer to adopt the eclipse of March 13, 4 B. C., 
as the one to which Josephus alludes, and consequently the date December 13 
(or probably 25) as being the time of birth of Christ. It has been claimed by 
some that an eclipse of the sun caused the darkness which attended the cruci- 
fixion of our Lord; but that event occurred at the time of full moon, and, of 
course, there could be no eclipse of the sun. Besides, the darkness continued 
many times longer than that of a solar eclipse. 

An eclipse of the sun which was central and total some distance north of Jeru- 
salem occurred November 24, 29 A. D. Andon January 1, 47, a total eclipse 
was seen at Rome, and it is said in the same night an island rose up in the A’gean 
sea. 


624 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


It being my purpose to give some account of a few of the most interesting 
eclipses among the many that have been seen and recorded in the past; I wish 
to mention a few in the earlier and middle ages of our own era. A total eclipse 
passed over Northern Italy in A. D. 237, Aprili2. ‘‘Sogreat was the eclipse of the 
sun that people thought it was night, and nothing could be done without lights.” 
During a total eclipse of the sun July 19, 418, not only stars became visible, but 
a great comet was discovered, which continued visible for four months after- 
wards. In 810, May 5, a total eclipse of the sun frightened Louis ‘‘the pious’’ 
emperor of the West. He died a little while after it, and seems never to have 
recovered the fright he received from the eclipse.” A total solar eclipse came 
over London in the time of King Alfred, 878, October 29, at 1:16 P.M. It was 
not till 1715, after the long interval of 837 years, that another total eclipse of 
the sun occurred at London. An eclipse of the sun was observed at Cairo, 
December 13, 977; and another at the same place June 8, 978. A comparison 
of these two eclipses with the dates of some others seem to prove that the moon’s 
orbital velocity is now a little faster than it was in ancient days. In other words, 
that it revolves around the earth in rather less time than it did in former ages. 
In 1033, 29th of June, a solar eclipse is described by a writer of the time as ‘‘ex- 
ceedingly terrible, for the very sun became of a sapphire color.’’ Computation in- 
dicates a great eclipse of the sun in England, August 2, 1133, which was consid- 
ered a presage of misfortune to Henry I; and is thus alluded to by William of 
Malmesbury: ‘‘The elements manifested their sorrow at this great man’s 
last departure, for the sun, on that day at the sixth hour, shrouded his glo- 
rious face, as the poets say, in hideous darkness, agitating the hearts of men by 
an eclipse.” A great earthquake with horrid noise and a sinking of the ground is 
said to have happened about this time. But other accounts say that Henry died 
in 1135, December rst. I look at both records (the eclipse and history) as high 
authority, and in this case feel quite unable to decide which is correct. On May 
14, 1230, a total eclipse of the sun near sunrise seemed to prolong night into 
day. An eclipse of the sun was total in the south of France, January 1, 1386. 
A noted eclipse of the sun passed over Scotland June 17, 1433. ‘The totality con- 
tinued long at Edinburg about 3 in the afternoon. It was called the ‘‘black 
hour” for many ages afterward. In 1598, February 25, in the morning, was an- 
other total eclipse of the sun at Edinburg, and for generations following it went 
by the name of ‘‘Black Saturday.” In 1560, August 21, a total eclipse of great 
duration occurred at Coimbra, Portugal, about which is said: ‘‘There was dark- 
ness greater than that of night; the stars shone very bright in the sky; women 
screamed and cried out that the last day of the world had arrived; and the birds. 
fell down to the ground in fright at such startling darkness.” 

An account of the Columbus eclipse will be given in the words of another: 

“An eclipse of the moon which happened on March 1, 1504, proved of much 
service to Columbus. His fleet was in great straits owing to want of supplies, ~ 
which the inhabitants of Jamaica refused to give. He accordingly threatened to 


ASTRONOMICAL NOTES FOR FEBRUARY, 7881. 625 


deprive them of the moon’s light as a punishment. His threat was treated at first 
with indifference, but when the eclipse actually commenced, the natives, struck 
with terror, instantly commenced to collect provisions for the Spanish fleet, and 
thenceforward treated their visitors with profound respect’’ and plenty of food. 
From a list of eighty solar eclipses already computed for England, I select a 
few which will be very large, and many of them total. ~ In the early morning of 


August 3, 1887, a total eclipse in Germany and eastward. ‘‘The lovely orb of 
day having risen upon the summer scene, will appear to sink back into the arms 
of night, while the stars of heaven resume their twinkling.”” Another in 1900, 


May 28, 4 P. M.; 1905, August 30, 1 P.M. ; 1912, April 17, at noon; 1927, June 
29, 5P. M.; 1951, February 15, 7 A. M.; 1999, August 11, near noon; 2026, Au- 
gust 12, 6 P. M.; 2081, September 3, 8 A. M.; 2093, July 23, noon; 2135, Oc- 
tober 7, 8 A. M.; 2151, June 14, 6P.M. Inthe twenty-third century a large to- 
tal eclipse of the sun will occur every nine years, in the month of May, from 
2227 to 2254. i 

In just 500 years from July 21, 1881, there will be a fine solar eclipse soon 
after ro in the morning. 

Whether or not the present economy of worlds be continued for thousands of 
years to come, ‘‘of this we may be certain, that as the phenomena we have de- 
scribed have excited men’s marked attention from the earliest days, so they will 
continue to do till the end of time.” 


ASTRONOMICAL NOTES FOR FEBRUARY, 1881. 


BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY. 


The Sun on the tst will rise at 7 h. to m. a. m., pass the meridian at oo 
h. 13 m. 55.24 s, p. m. and set at 5 h. 17 m. p. m., and on the 28th it will rise 
at 6 h. 38 m. a. m., and pass the meridian at oo h. 13 m. 36.80 s. p. m. and set 
2G Gk, Ag] aE TOL Ta 

Mercury on the ‘rst will pass the meridian at oo h. 36 m. p. m, and set at 5 h. 
39m. p. m. On the 28th it will pass the meridian at 1 h. 6 m. p. m., and set at 
7h. ogm. p.m. The 22nd presents a very favorable time to see this planet, it 
being 18° 08 east of the Sun. | 

Venus on the rst will pass the meridian at 3 h. 07 m. p. m., and set at g h. 
07m. p.m. Its apparent size and brilliancy are fast increasing. During this 
month it may be seen by a good eye in daylight, if the atmosphere is clear. 
About 3 h. p. m. it is in the south and in the best position to be seen. On'the 
22nd it is in conjunction with Jupiter, being 3° 20’ north of that planet. 

Mars on the 1st will rise at 5 h. 33 m. a. m., and will pass the meridian at 
10 h. 11 m. a. m., and on the 28th it will rise at 5 h. oo m. a. m., and will pass 
the meridian at 9g h. 51 m._ It is quite small and difficult to find. 


626 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Jupiter on the 1st will pass the meridian at 4h. 08 m. p. m., and set at 10. 
h. 24 m. p. m., and on the 28th it will pass the meridian at 2 h. 41 m. p. m., | 
and set atg h. 04 m. p. m. On the 22nd it will be in conjunction with Venus, | 
passing south of that planet 3° 20’. 

Saturn on the 1st will pass the meridian at 4 h. 41 m. p. m., and sets at 11 | 
h. 04 m. p. m., andon the 28th it will pass the meridian at 3 h. 04 m. p. m., and 
will set at 9 h. 30 m. p. m. 

Uranus on the rst will pass the meridian at 2h. 11 m. p. m., and on the 
28th ato h 21 m. a. m. 

Neptune on the rst will pass the meridian at 5 h. 49 m. p. m., and on the 
28th at 4h. 4 m. p. m. 

The Moon on the 2nd is in conjunction with Venus, passing north of that 
planet 5° 28’. On the 3rd it will pass Saturn and Jupiter. On the 5th it will 
pass Neptune and will be in conjunction with Uranus on the 15th. It will also 
pass Mars on the 25th. 


Mii ORO OGY: 


CLOUDS. 
PROF. BY S. A. MAXWELL. 


In this article I propose to say a few words concerning popular errors in ref- 
erence to clouds and storms. The first of these which I shall notice is the so- 
called return of a storm, after it has passed. Some people tell us that a storm 
frequently makes a retrograde movement, z.e. having passed in an easterly 
direction, it stops, changes its course, and returns toward the west. NowI do not 
wish to dispute any one, for I do not know what persons may have seen in othe 
lands, but, so far as our locality is concerned, this particular phenomenon has 
never occurred during the last fifteen years. I know that many times there 
appears to be such a motion; but such motion is apparent, not real. After 2 
shower has passed there is very often a large area in the track of the storm, over 
which are floating clouds which are just ready to discharge their vapors in thi 
form of rain. These clouds suddenly begin to precipitate rain, and the casuai 
observer would remark, that the storm was returning from the east. Let those 
who harbor the idea that a storm ever retraces its course, please to observe in 
which direction the clearing up commences and the sky first appears; in 
all cases it will prove to be very nearly in the same direction as the storm came 
up. The deception is often rendered still more complete by the direction of the 


wind; and this leads us to the consideration of the second error, which we sha! 
notice, viz.: that the direction of the wind at the earth's surface ts not the same as in 
the higher regions of the air, where the storm clouds float. It is a very common 
belief that the snow storms, called Northeasters, come from the northeast; but it 


THE WEATHER PROPHECIES (?) OF VENNOR. 627 


is the surface wind only which comes from that direction; the storm-clouds them- 
selves always moving from the west or southwest. This fact has been known to 
scientific observers ever since the researches of Benjamin Franklin established it 
as a fact. A storm of this character which rages one day in Missouri or Iowa- 
will, on the next, be found in the regions of Lake Erie. Numerous cases like 
this have been noted in the Weather Review; and what is perhaps the main point 
to be observed is, that no record has yet been made of any great storm moving 
in the contrary direction 7. ¢., from the east or northeast. 

Another error which deserves notice all the more, since meteorologists of some 
repute hold to it, in common with the. general public, is, that tornadoes which 
occur on the same date are identical; for instance, it is maintained that the Marsh, 
field tornado and the one in Southern Illinois on the same date, were one and the 
same. Now, though these occurred less than four hours apart in point of 
time, it is hardly probable that they were identical, since the localities where 
they occurred are so widely separated that a storm could not possibly have 
passed from one to the other in so short a space of time; and further, since 
another storm happened the same afternoon in Kentucky, and still another in 
Northern Illinois, it looks more as if there were certain physical conditions oper- 
ating, which made tornadoes possible; and, indeed, this was the case throughout 
a large portion of the Mississippi basin. These conditions were in brief: 

1st. Low barometric pressure. 

2nd. High temperature. 

3rd. Strong southerly winds. 

4th. Probably, favorable electrical conditions. 

These are the combinations of circumstances which produce tornadoes, and 

“Tare seen to co-exist on days when these storms are numerous; as on May 6, 
*’ 1875, when there were tornadoes in Kansas, Missouri and Illinois, or the date of 
‘ the Mineral Point storm, on which day numerous similar storms were reported 
® from different localities. 

These facts seem to prove that tornadoes are the result of certain atmos- 

* pheric conditions, and that they are not necessarily identical, even though they 
1. occur on the same date, and at places not very distant from one another. 
3 Morrison, Ill., Jan. 8, 1881. 


ie 


THE WEATHER PROPHECIES (?) OF VENNOR. 
ISAAC P. NOYES, WASHINGTON, D. C. 


i A person who makes himself so conspicuous before the world as Mr. Vennor 
. has done during the past year by his attempted prophecies of the weather, must 
expect to invite criticism; especially so when his pretensions are so at variance 
with science and common sense. 
_ In the absence of facts it is not surprising that there is great ignorance—be 
the subject what it may. Only within a few years have sufficient facts been 


628 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


obtained to enlighten us in regard to the weather. These facts have all been 
gathered and put into shape by our complete Weather Bureau, and are daily 
spread before us on the Weather map. He who will learn to read and understand 
this simple yet wonderful contribution to the scientific knowledge of the world 
will see more and more beauty and wonder in the works of nature than was ever 
dreamed of in the days of the old Farmer’s Almanac. With all this we have a 
man now attempting to revive and compete with the old Farmers’ Almanac— 
endeavoring to make the people believe that it is something wonderful to guess 
what the weather will be months in advance. If this man would only come out 
boldly and proclaim that his efforts are all guess work, founded upon the weather 
of previous years, and say that from facts recorded there is a possibility of the 
weather repeating itself occasionally, and therefore we may possibly, at a certain 
time, have a certain kind of weather, all well and good. But the weather does 
not repeat itself wholly. There is a similarity at times, but nothing regular 
enough to warrant any fixed statement that can be depended upon. 

The storms which have occurred in the United States the last half of this 
month, December, 1880, well illustrate and may well be taken as a good example 
of the dependence that may be placed on the weather prophecies (?) of Mr. Ven- 
nor. 

If the public were better informed as to the laws governing the weather of 
the globe, instead of creating a surprise that so many have faith in such state- 
ments and claims, the surprise would be that any man of scientific knowledge 
would have the least respect for them, at least unless Mr. Vennor world distinctly 
put them on the basis of mere guess-work and let them be understood to be 
such. It is no new thing, nor anything patented to Mr. Vennor, that there is a 
similarity between the weather of the months of the different years; but though 
there may be this similarity in the weather, it never wholly repeats itself. Yet, 
with all this, people wonder, and even demand, why the U. S. Weather Bureau 
does not compete with this man. If people will only study the Weather map 
sufficiently to understand the laws that govern the weather, they will readily tell 
why. But this they will not do, but, instead, prefer to remain in ignorance, and 
then foolishly demand of the Weather Bureau a physical impossibility. The 
Weather Bureau could guess at the weather for ten or even a hundred years ahead; 
but suppose they should attempt it, would these people be one-tenth as charitable 
toward it, as a government institution, as they are now toward a private indi- 
vidual? One can safely say that they would not be. Then no sensible man, 
with full knowledge of the laws of meteorology, would want to attempt such a 
thing, for he well knows that there is no certainty in the weather of different 
years repeating itself. There may be a similarity, but that is all. 

Mr. Vennor pretends to forecast the weather. His pretensions consist in 
statements as to great storms and very general comments as to what will be. 
Does it not strike sensible men as absurd that a man should only be able to fore- 
tell great snow storms and great commotions generally, and not specifically ? 


THE WEATHER PROPHECIES (?) OF VENNOR. 629 


Would it not seem that if he Avez anything about the weather, he would not 
only be able to tell for every day in the year, but for every locality—say for every 
square of fifty or a hundred miles—and able to tell it every time. What would 
the public think of a doctor who was only able to treat a few of the most difficult 
complaints and quite ignorant of the human system and the great majority of the 
ordinary diseases which afflict the human race? Able to treat severe cases one 
day and unable to treat them the next? It would seem that if a doctor was able 
to treat phthisis and typhoid fever, he would know a little about measles and be 
able to treat patients for boils and colds. It would seem queer if a person 
regarded as a scholar knew only a few ‘‘big words” and was quite ignorant of 
the ordinary words used in every day life, and only knew these ‘‘ big words” at 
times. What would we think of a person who pretended to be a teacher of 
geography and could only impart information in regard to a few of the largest 
rivers and mountains of the world, and knew nothing about the geography of 
every-day life ?—would not know in which direction to travel to reach Chicago, 
St. Louis or New York? It is impossible to imagine such a teacher holding any 
rank in society or commanding any influence among his fellow men. 

What would the captains of the ocean steamers think of a man who pretended 
to tell them what kind of weather they would have every voyage? ‘To be sure, 
a person might make a study of voyages and the months of the year and venture 
a guess, but even then he would be no wiser than the captains and their crews. 
No captain would be foolish enough to put faith in such forecasting of his voyage, 
for he knows very well that, though the voyages of the same seasons may resem- 
ble each other, they are not wholly alike. But if he could have daily commu- 
nications from all about him while on the voyage, and from day to day, or at 
times, receive information for three or four days in advance, he would have 
something that would be of advantage to him. But this, at least at present, is 
impossible to have on the sea, but its equivalent we do have on the land. We 
have stations all over the country. The information is collected at a central 
point and then distributed over the whole country for the benefit of all. This 
‘information can only be gathered from day to day—it cannot be gathered in 
advance; still oftentimes we have the weather for three or four days ahead quite 
well defined or indicated. This does not always happen and cannot be depended 
upon, neither can dependence be placed in the idea that it will repeat itself; for 
it never wholly does so. It may in part, but if we cannot have it complete, what 
use is there in a mere similarity in parts? The dissimilarity of other parts will 
change the face of the whole. ‘This fact is evident every day. We often times 
have a weather map similar for different days, but the dissimilarity makes quite 
another thing of the weather of the United States as a whole. 

Because it was reported that Mr. Vennor ‘‘ prophesied’’ that we were to 
have an immense snow storm generally over the United States on the 22d of De- 
cember, the storms that have passed over the country from the 16th to the end of 
December are credited to him. ‘The storm of the 17th was telegraphed over the 


630 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


country from Chicago, ‘‘ Vennor’s storm coming,” and people who do not know 
any better think that all the storms that have passed over the United States since 
the 16th inst. are only parts of ‘‘his storm.” On the 16th of December Zow, or 
the storm center, was in the Indian Territory and Texas. On the 17th it moved 
over Missouri and Arkansas, and on the 18th passed off the North Carolina coast. 
The results of this storm were very light snows north of the Ohio river, Iowa to 
Ohio, and to the south light rains, and very light snow on the 18th in the North 
United States and Canada. 

On the roth a new Jow in the Southwest: It followed a usual course and 
yet not a fixed course. As it advanced it took nearly a northeast direction, and 
passed off the coast on the 21st with the center about on a line with the mouth 
of the Chesapeake Bay. This, of course, caused an area of snow-fall within a 
circular line, taking in the southern part of Connecticut, sweeping around to 
Maryland and Virginia. It was not general throughout the United States. It 
was not what might be termed a very heavy fall of snow—nine inches on a level 
is all that can be claimed for it at Washington, and hardly that. 

To all fair-minded persons it would seem that a fair interpretation of the 
“prophecies” would have been to have had even a heavy fall of snow generally 
over the northern portion of the United States and Canada. Instead, the area 
of this storm was very limited, being confined to a very small section of the 
United States along the Atlantic coast, and was all over before the day claimed 
for it, and a new one on the way. On the 24th a new /ow, or storm center, 
developed in Central Southern Mississippi. On the 25th it moved to the North 
Carolina coast and thence up along the Atlantic coast toward Boston, where, on 
the 27th, about nine inches of snow fell; thence this area of Jow passed off the 
coast and toward Nova Scotia. It will be seen that the track of this storm was 
similar to the one that preceded it and produced similar results, yet not extend- 
ing into the interior as far even as the other ; merely touching the coast—yet a 
good example of how one storm may resemble another and still not produce the 
same results. 

On the 28th still another /ow passed over the Gulf, and on the 29th disap- 
peared, northeast into the Atlantic, giving rain on the immediate South Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts, and snow in the interior, and light snows thence to the Ohio 
Valley and New Jersey. With all these snow storms very little fell generally 
throughout the United States. Most,of the snow fell in and about the immediate 
Atlantic coast from Boston to Washington, while in Maine, and even in the east- 
ern parts of Canada, it has been relatively warm, with rain; at Providence, 
R. I., very little snow, none to speak of at Albany, and very little throughout 
the West. While these snow storms were mostly concentrated, as here stated, 
along the Atlantic coasts, the temperature was warm in upper New England 
territory and Eastern Canada, while it was severely cold all to the west of these 
storm centers, generally over the United States and Western Canada, and even 
at times to the extreme South. 


METEOROLOGICAL SUMMARY FOR THE VEAR 1880. 631 


The simple reason of this was that, as heretofore stated in these papers, the 
wind is always toward the center of the area of low barometer. As all of these 
lows, excepting that of the 16th to the 18th, traveled on a low line of latitude, 
the wind was generally from the north—that is, from the north at first and then 
from the west and northwest. This continuing for so many days created an 
intense cold throughout the greater portion of the United States and Canada, the 
northeast corner being the only warm section of the country for the time being. 

As to the hitting of dates when a storm will pass over the country, when it 
is known that an area of low barometer generally passes over the United States 
from every three to four days, it is not at all surprising that one may venture a 
guess and get within a day or two of when a storm will pass over some portion of 
our vast territory. ‘Then this is the season of snow storms for the Northern 
Hemisphere. Because we have had these snow storms, thoughtless people in the 
neighborhood where these storms have occurred give all the credit to Mr. 
Vennor. Suppose these same people lived in Maine, New York State, or any- 
where in the West, north of the Ohio Valley, where they might have expected 
snow and had none to speak of, what would they think of prophecies which were 
not fulfilled any better for their vast districts? Nothing can be more absurd than 
these attempts at forecasting the weather. ‘There is nothing certain, scientific, 
or reliable about it. 

If Mr. Vennor will go back to the ‘‘ first principles’”’ and tell us where the 
storm center will be months in advance, then we will think that he has some 
superior knowledge; but until he can do this he had better not venture any 
more guesses in regard to the effects which follow these first principles. 

WasHINGTON, D. C., Dec. 31, 1880. 


METEOROLOGICAL SUMMARY FOR THE YEAR 1880. 


FROM OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT LAWRENCE, KANSAS, BY PROF. F. H. SNOW, OF 
THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS. 


The year 1880 surpassed all previous years of our record in the warmth 
of its January, the coldness of its November, its maximum monthly and hourly 
velocity of wind, and the earliness of its spring and winter. Maples were in 
blossom February 11th, and genuine winter weather began November 11th, con- 
tinuing without interruption to the end of the year. 

The temperature, wind velocity and relative humidity were adove, while the 
the fall of rain and snow and the cloudiness were delow the annual averages. 

The most remarkable meteorological event of the year was the wind storm of 
March 27th, which filled the air to a great height with an almost impalpable dust, 
and obscured the sun during the entire day after 10 a. M. 

Mean temperature of the year, 54.01 deg., which is 0.72 deg. above the 
mean of the twelve preceding years. The highest temperature was ror deg., 
on August 18th; the lowest was 12 deg. below zero, on the 29th of December, 


632 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


giving a yearly range of 113 deg. Mean at 7 A. M., 48.10 deg.; at 2 P. M., 
63.55 deg.; at 9 P. M., 52.20 degrees. 

Mean temperature of the winter months, 34.88 deg., which is 5.17 deg. 
above the average winter temperature; of the spring, 56.63 deg., which is 0.33 
below the average; of the summer, 74.92 deg., which is 1.60 deg. below the 
average ; of the autumn, 49.56 deg., which is 3.58 deg. below the average. 

The coldest month of the year was December, with mean temperature, 25.84 
deg.; the coldest week was December 25th to 31st, with mean temperature, 9.41 
deg.; the coldest day was December 28th, with mean temperature 2.7 degrees 
below zero. The mercury fell below zero only twice during the year, on Decem- 
ber 28th and 2oth. 

The warmest month was July, with mean temperature 75.75 deg.; the 
warmest week was August 13th to 19th, with mean temperature 82.61 deg.; the 
warmest day was August 18th, with mean temperature 86 deg. The mercury 
reached or exceeded go deg. on 41 days, viz.: 1 in April; 7 in May; 8 in June; 
13 in July; and 12 in August. 

The last light frost of spring was on April 30th; the first light frost of autumn 
was on September 13th, giving an interval of 136 days (nearly 5 months), entirely 
without frost. The last severe frost of spring was on March 2oth; the first 
severe frost of autumn was on October 17th, giving an interval of 211 days 
(nearly 7 months), without severe frost. No frost or cold weather during the 
year did any damage to fruit buds or trees. Both large and small fruits were 
produced abundantly. 

The entire amount of rain, including melted snow, was 32.65 inches, which 
is 3.34 inches below the average annual amount for the twelve preceding years. 
Hither rain or snow fell on 89 days—12 less than the average. On 11 of these 
days the quantity was too small for measurement. The longest interval without 
rain during the growing season (March 1st to October 1st) was 18 days—from 
August 2d to rg9th. The number of thunder showers was 29. ‘There were 4 
light hail storms, all of which occurred in March, April and May. 

The entire depth of snow was 7 inches, which is about one-third of the aver- 
age. Of this amount 3 inches fell in March, 214 inches in November, and 114 
inchesin December. The last snow of spring was on March 15th; the first snow 
of autumn was on November 16th. 

The average cloudiness of the year was 40.15 per cent., which is 4.18 per 
cent. below the average. The number of clear days (less than one-third cloudy) 
was 196; half clear days (from one-third to two-thirds cloudy), 87; cloudy 
(more than two-thirds), 83. There were 65 days on which the cloudiness aver- 
aged .8 or more. There were 51 entirely clear and 33 entirely cloudy days. 
The clearest month was February, with an average cloudiness of 24.94 per cent. 
The cloudiest month was December, with an average of 54.08 percent. The 


mean cloudiness at 7 A. M. was 44.79 per cent.; at 2 P. M., 44.20 per cent.; at 9 
Pa M53 1j40) per cent: 


METEOROLOGICAL SUMMARY FOR THE YEAR 788o. 633 


During the year, three observations daily, the wind was from the sw. 324 
ines Wenn 242m times) "See TGoN timen a s\. Elsi times ime Log) times 6.1 OF 
times; n., 55 times; w., 37 times; calm, once. The south winds (including 
southwest, south and southeast) outnumbered the {north winds (including north- 
west, north and northeast), in the ratio of 595 to 404. 

The number of miles traveled by the wind during the year was 146,039, 
which is 9,154 miles above the annual average for the 7 preceding years. This 
gives a mean daily velocity of 389.01 miles, and a mean hourly velocity of 16.62 
miles. The highest velocity was at the rate of 80 miles an hour, from 3:30 
to 3:45 A. M., on April 25th. The highest daily velocity was 1,121 miles, on 
March 27th and April 18th; the highest monthly velocity was 16,709 miles, in 
April. The three windiest months were March, April and May; the three calmest 
months were July, August and September. ‘The average hourly velocity at 7 
A. M. was 15.30 miles; at 2 P. M., 18.44 miles; at 9 P. M., 15.70 miles. 

Mean height of barometer column, 29.123 inches; at 7 A. M., 29.148 in.; 
at 2 P. M., 29.099 in.; at 9 P. M., 29.123 in.; maximum, 29.791 in., on Novem- 
ber 21st; minimum, 28.303 in., on April 18th; yearly range, 1.488 inches. The 
highest monthly mean was 29.295 in., in November; the lowest was 29.019 in., 
in May. The barometer observations are corrected for temperature and instru- 
mental error. 

The average atmospheric humidity for the year was 67.9; at.7’A. M., 79.23 
at 2P.M., 49.9; atg P. M., 74.6. The dampest month was December—mean 
humidity, 76.5; the dryest month was April—mean humidity, 53.4. There were 
18 fogs, of which 9 were in January and 4 in December. The lowest humidity 
for any single observation was 11.8, at 2 P. M. on April r4th—less than one- 
eighth of saturation. 

The following tables give the mean temperature, the extremes of tempera- 
ture, the velocity of the wind, the per cent. of cloudiness, the relative humidity, 


the rainfall (including melted snow), and the depth of snow for each month of 
the year 1880, and a comparison with the 12 preceding years: 


880) menstura|templuc|temsewer ewe | coi, |aaaug | mean 
January....| 41.23 67.0 ZONE T25500 (9) 4554.0 WB e) Ml Biexsys) || (0.0) 
February.. | 37.58 69.0 SiO MEL, SOL) | 24.04 OA SSO 3) O10 
March H AGREE 42.38 79.0 Zak 13,841 44.94 O23 AE 2E Oss 20 
JEN OVI ls, Seonne 56.92 93-0 BNO || LOW yuo Roa) | Mes [eee 
IMI WVe6 Baageo | 70.59 94.0 52-0 els. Los) 40.43 OH zilgatst | (o( 
Jitlingepeeasan Rea sul 96.0 Ouse 2,029.1, A700 OSH TAs Oh Oso 
Saunlyabeanen. Seis 98.0 54.0 Oyu ee Ae. Be GSesi | 252 Aa MOnO 
August..... aS adls ) TKO) 50.5 8,863 | 45.70 OE Ont: O32) Ose 
September.| 64.59 85.0 AZ ROMEO). 241) 1424 00 Bele 284 0 ero 
Octover ens Ns2e 52 81.0 BO) |) Tease FAs | XQ). CONS 227, 3h lose 
November.| 31.58 65.5 oS, |) IL eI Ns 18/9) ALAS?) 202) Ass 251 
December. | 25.84 61.0 | —12.0 11,661 54.08 HOSO On 4 Qui mtas 
Means......| 54.01 82.5 ZT OM ieli2), TOO | 40.15 (OO) ZT enone 


634 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS YEARS: 


WEAR. (fg ene | peesinurs | Mipamuay | Rel of | Mea eae eee eee 
1868 Baad ||) HOI) |) aWd.8 |ooocasnedes Az Aa Cilecelctt cise 3742) 27 5 50 aren 
1869 50.99 OLS) || = 35) |loodsaosacne overex eats dis 38.51 |18.00] 105 
1870 Asi) |p WOO | —1KO,© |basceadcooe 47.88 | 68.4 |21.38] Ou50lm1oo 
1871 BAMA TOs ON lea tOBO! liseloia. «/sis-t MeO lane eceo 22.2220. 7/5 (a2 
1872 51.90 OF OW | VOsON le cee aslessls 44.33 | 64.4 |32.63/22.25) 116 
1873 52.71 104.0 | —26.0 | 154,508] 42.46 | 64.0 |32.94|26.50| Ior 
1874 54.20 | 108.0 | — 3.0 | 145,865| 45.54 | 65.5 |28.87|43.00] 99 
1875 50.60 99.0 | —16.5 | 145,316] 44.81 | 65.5 |28.87] 5.00] 106 
1876 52.76 98.0 | — 5.0 | 148,120] 41.27 | 66.8 |44.18)24.75) 102 
1877 54.16 99.0 | — 9.0 | 113,967| 47.12 | 72.6 |41.09|15.50| 126 
1878 55:33 98.0 | — 6.0 | 125,793} 40.65 | 70.4 |38.39)25.50| 107 
1879 54-67 99.5 | -16.0 | 124,768] 40.01 | 67.1 |32.68|10.35,; 90 
18380 54.01 IOI.0 | —12.0 | 146,039] 40.15 | 67.9 |32.65| 7.00] 89 
Mean 13 yrs|__ 53-34 | 100-4 | -13-0 | 138,047| 41.09 | 67.2 |34.83|20.43] 103 


METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT WASHBURN COLLEGE, 
TOPEKA, KANSAS. 


PROF, J. T. LOVEWELL. 


Our last report closed December 20th. From the 27th to end of month the 
weather was very cold, the mean daily temperature on the 27th, 28th and 2ogth 
being respectively,-3.3°, -6.2° and -3.2°. The minimum thermometer on the 29th 
recorded 2134 degrees below zero. This cold period has extended into January 
and the temperature has fallen below zero on five days—the 3rd, gth, roth, 13th 
and 14th. On the 9th it was 15° below zero. The last decade has been some- 
what warmer than the two previous, as will beseen by the tables below. There 
has been but little snow, not enough for sleighing any time, but on more than 
half the days embraced in this report the cloudiness has averaged eight-tenths and 
more. Lunar halos and parhelia have been frequent. The prevalence of north 
winds has been noticeable, nearly two-thirds of the observations being north and 
north-west. The air has been moist and the evaporation therefore light, which 
lessens the danger to crops from the continued absence of rain. The barometric 
pressure has been high as is usual here when north winds prevail, and the fluctua- 
tions of pressure have been less than usual. 


*The Minus sign denotes temperature below zero. 


SOLAR HALOS, 635 


RECORDS DEDUCED FROM AVERAGES OF DAILY OBSERVATIONS. 


ne 


Dec. 20th Jan. Ist Jan. 10th 
to Jan. Ist. to 10th, to 20th. Mean. 

TEMPERATURE. ac) E Teh Z ee | ese 

Vireo yesptetna gue ect iors Sar bac tacts . : 9.4 4.6 

Nesey Ay RNAS OO ine tee 19.7 245 30.8 25.C 

Mean of Max and Min..... 11.6 12.7 20.4 14.9 

IRE HTS eG LRU Giiaa Beir omens 151 23.7 21.4 20.1 

Tis Ty eA oe bate eae aR ane 6.6 48 14.5 8.6 

D2 re). Gans US ull aye NCR Re 17.3 13.7 23.9 20.0 

(ja, Jats WEG ae Ma aE SR ee eee 1.1 11.9 19.0 14.0 

TLE Sa Beene None e a aa 11.5 11.8 19.1 14.1 
Ret. Humipity. 

Of Bis Welgllig Mabe cece tO HOI On Om ISIOnIE ae ORIACOSIMMRI Tiny ye iceesse ct) Li aU I oan Tene De a 

RW. Bs 5 5 619 00 6 050-0 6 OP TAMIR SMR yeti fesseeet re IE MO MTN St al nat re eee 

G) Fata Le FC 0.77 Bae ate oe 

Micanien cance ulcapenlcmeueis hatmenveies OE ACR iamemn me | 4 usstece gil UNSC Wats Ue espn he toe tal a 
PRESSURE, sea-level, 32° F. 

Teg nTAG aielieltte rene Une e 30.4 30.2 30.1 30.2 

A Fa). fabs Nis NSU ey CaS RRR eS 30.3 30.2 30.1 30.2 

Ol Tower tee aeayotriglicieteed vat tay oy ees 30 3 30.2 30.1 30.2 

Vike aya eeue ee eur veel 30.3 30.2 30.1 30.2 
WIND. 

Milestiraveled) 4 0s + oe. 3,014 | 2,824 8, 490 | 9,328 
RAINFALL. 

Inches ain ye: sos | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 1.00 


SOLAR HALOS. 


BY PROF. S. A. MAXWELL. 


On the zg9th of last month, at eight o’clock in the morning, a most beautiful 
solar halo was observed from this locality. The mercury at the time indicated 
—12°, and the air was filled with particles of frost. The halo consisted of: First, 
a circle, 45 degrees in diameter, of white light, the sun being in the center; sec- 
ond, another circle of white light, parallel with the horizon, at the same altitude 
as the sun, and at right angles to the first circle; third, an iridescent arc of 
perhaps go degrees, belonging to a circle of 45 degrees diameter, and having the 
zenith for its center ; fourth, a vertical column of white light, with the sun for its 
base. 

The points of intersection of the first and second circles were adorned with 
two splendid parhelia of prismatic colors. The colors in the arc near the zenith 
were arranged as in the primary rainbow, the red being on the outer, or convex 
side. 

A similar halo occurred on the morning of March 16th, 1870, when the 
temperature was 12° above zero; though, in this case the zenith circle was com- 
plete, but not prismatic, and the second circle was adorned at the cardinal points 
by mock-suns of surpassing brilliancy. 

Morrison, Ill., Jan. roth, 1881. 


636 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


PARHELION IN KANSAS CITY. 


BY WM. H. R. LYKINS. 


A phenomenon of rare occurrence in this latitude was observed in this city 
on the morning of the 7th of January. Just before sunrise a well defined image 
of the sun, apparently about fifteen minutes high, appeared shining at the inter- 
section of two broad bands of light crossing each other at right angles. As the 
sun rose the image brightened until the brilliant spectacle was presented of two 
suns shining together in the eastern horizon. Gradually the true sun seemed to 
eclipse its double, and when the obscuration was complete the splendid pageant 
had vanished. Had the sun been higher in the heavens we should doubtless 
have had a fine display of parhelia, or mock suns, in which the sun is surrounded 
by circles and arcs of circles, and two, three, five or seven images are seen where 
the bands touch the corone. 

Parhelia are very common in high latitudes and have been described by all 
Arctic travelers. ‘They have also been mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny and other 
ancient writers. Pliny, not to be outdone, says that stars have been seen sur- 
rounding the sun at mid-day. Parasalenz, or images of the moon, are also seen 
under similar circumstances as the parhelia, and are doubtless produced by the 
same causes. 


BOOM IN@UICGES, 


Burr’s Liprary INDEX. Quarto, pp. 320. Half Russia. J. B. Burr Publish- 
ing Co., Hartford, Conn. $3.50. 


When attending college, some twenty-five years since, we deemed Todd’s 
Index Rerum an invaluable aid in recording and classifying items of various 
kinds picked up in our reading. Since that day we have adopted several plans 
of our own for preserving for subsequent reference such matters of historical, 
political and editorial value as we considered might be found useful in our 
work. Many an hour of tedious searching has been saved by this, and many a 
tedious hour has been spent by us in searching for some article or passage which 
would have been found in five minutes if we had taken the pains at the proper 
time to enter its page and volume in our Index. 

The Burr Publishing Company has brought out a ‘‘ Library Index” which 
is far superior to anything of the kind we have ever seen, and which will be found 
of the greatest value to ministers, teachers, editors, authors and all others who 
cannot store up in their memories all that they read and who are compelled fre- 
quently to look up facts for comparison and generalization in their respective 
vocations. We have been accustomed in our editorial work to keep memoranda 
of valuable and important articles found in our exchanges in a blank book with 


BOOK NOTICES. 637 


an ordinary index cut in the side. We have also adopted the plan of cutting out 
and preserving within easy reach the printed indexes of such exchanges, so that 
when we desired to cram for a certain subject we could look up all that had been 
published in any of them without much trouble. But it will be seen that either 
of these plans is troublesome and unsatisfactory, while the use of Burr’s publica- 
tion, with its double and treble indexes, saves a great part of the labor and gives 
just what is needed, in a classified and condensed form, and preserves it in a 
handsome volume, easy to handle and an ornament to any book-shelf or library 
table. A very good description of this work is further given in our advertising 
columns. 


THE PROBLEM OF Human Lire. By A. Wilford Hall: Octavo, pp. 524. Hall 
& Co., New York, 1880. $2.00. 


This work is offered as an explanation of the quality and operation of the 
life principle on the basis of its assumed necessary substantiality, as an annihila- 
tion of evolution, and as a destructive review of Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, 
Haeckel, Helmholtz and Mayer. Several chapters are devoted to a consideration 
of matter, substance, force, life, mind, soul, spirit, God. The fifth and sixth, 
constituting more than one-third of the volume, to that of the Nature of Sound, 
and the remainder to Evolution. 

The author writes succinctly and forcibly, and carries with him a kind of 
magnetism which attracts the reader if it does not convince him. His introduc- 
tion contains the gist of his argument against a ‘‘ theistic evolution,” and it must 
be admitted that he meets those portions which he quotes of the statements of 
such writers as Dr. McCosh, Rev. Joseph Cook, etc., fairly and with great appo- 
siteness ; charging that this view of evolution is the same as Darwinism, except 
that Darwin takes no account of God after the miraculous creation of the first 
simple form, while the theistic evolutionists claim that every variation of one 
species into another is produced and nurtured under the supervising direction 
of God’s providence. He is aggressive in his manner, and ridicules Joseph 
Cook’s physiological statements unsparingly, and at the same time sarcastically 
terms it ‘‘ obsequious absurdity” in Dr. McCosh to admit that there is nothing 
antagonistic between spontaneous generation and a religious belief in the exist- 
ence of God. 

To give the reader a better idea of his theory of the forces that exist in man 
and nature analogous to those exerted by God himself and that possess a sub- 
stantial, or, as he expresses it, an entitative nature, as opposed to an ethereal or im- 
palpable form, we quote a brief passage from the first chapter: ‘‘And whenever 
we can grasp the thought that man is a dual being, possessing a double organism, 
the one structure being corporeal, visible, tangible, the other incorporeal, invisi- 
ble, and intangible; and when we can further recognise the fact that man, 
through the aid of his senses, can really and truly extend his personal presence 
to a limited distance beyond that of his corporeal form, we can then conceive of 


638 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


an infinite personality who may exist upon his throne in one part of the Uni- 
verse, and whose all-pervading substantial! or entitative attributes, analogous to 
our senses, but infinitely surpassing them, may make Him literally omnipresent, 
causing his actual being to extend through all extent.” 

This quotation gives, as well as any single passage can, a condensed state- 
ment of the author’s theory of the Problem of Life, its origin, sustaining principle 
and connection with the future life; yet he denies that it is in any sense ma- 
terialistic. 

The chapters on the Nature of Sound were reviewed in these pages last year, 
and we find no reason to change our views then expressed, which were, in brief, 
that the experiments of the most learned, patient, pains-taking, catholic investi- 
gators of the world, repeated in every imaginable form and manner, and corrobo- 
rated in each instance, are not to be given up until after they have been met and 
controverted by equally careful and successful experiments based upon other 
hypotheses, which has not been done so far. Our author may succeed in over- 
turning evolution, but we do not think he has applied his lever at the right point 
this time. The book has its crudities and errors of logic, as all theoretic works 
are liable to have, but it has its corresponding attractions and will prove deeply 
interesting to popular readers of all classes. 


JouN SwintTon’s TRAVELS: By John Swinton. G. W. Carleton & Co., N. Y.; 

T2 NOL PP. 74 OPA pe menc: 

This little volume consists of ‘‘current views and notes of forty days in 
France and England,” in August and September, 1880 The author states in his 
preface that his reasons for publishing them will be found by those who properly 
read them; but after reading the book with some care, if he had any other object 
in view than to glorify the civilization and republican institutions of France to 
the disparagement of his own country, we have failed to ‘‘read properly.” 


THE EpEeN TasLEau: By Charles Beecher. 12mo. pp. 163. ea & Shep- 
ard, Boston, 1880; cloth, $1.50. 


In this work we find what the author terms ‘‘ an attempt at a more thorough 
and consistent application of the laws of analogic interpretation to one of the 
most interesting and vital portions of the Bible,” referring to the Mosaic legend 
of Paradise. In his preface Mr. Beecher favors his readers with a concise but 
comprehensive review of the various ethnic religions, including those of the 
Chinese, Japanese, Brahmins, Persians and Egyptians, in all of which he points 
out the idea of the spiritual origin of all things—the priority of the spiritual 
world over the material. In metempsychosis, which was the belief of the majority 
of mankind and from which sprang all religions, he finds but a corruption of the 
primitive doctrine of a celestial pre-existence, which was the original faith of 
Israel, and which was bequeathed to the early Christians. 


BOOK NOTICES, 639 


Discussing the priority of religions, he urges that faith in a primeval paradise, 
either terrestrial or celestial, or both, has been the universal heritage of man, 
recording itself not merely in uncial manuscripts, but in letters of stone and 
earth, big as pyramids and mountains, and perpetuated in arbitrary emblems and 
rites and sacrificial ceremonies, from age to age, among peoples the widest apart 
in locality, lineage and language; claiming, finally, that of all paradisaic legends, 
that of Moses is simplest, purest, most in accordance with good taste and most 
readily yields a consistent and lofty spiritual meaning under the application of the 
simple laws of analogy. It must be, therefore, presumptively the true one and 
studied with reverence as throwing light upon the mysterious question of the past 
history of the spiritual universe. 

In the body of the book are taken up and analyzed successively the Garden 
of Eden as an emblematic whole, the Tree of Life, the Tree of Knowledge, the 
First Adam, the Second Adam, the Serpent, the Attack, the Examination, the- 
Sentence on the Serpent, the Sentence on Man and Woman, etc.; closing with 
the Eden Tabernacle, the Cherubim, the Four Rivers, Comparative Theology. 
It is a remarkably suggestive book and will be a world of consolation to doubting 
Christians and a source of gratification and pleasure to all scholarly readers. 


THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT Ecypr. By P. Le Page Renouf: 12mo. pp. 270: 
Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1880. $1.50. 


This work is made up of the Hibbert series of lectures for 1879, and is an 
account of the origin and growth of religion, as illustrated by the religion of 


ancient Egypt. The six lectures are on the following topics, viz: ‘‘The Sources 
of Information respecting the Ancient Egyptian Religion,” ‘‘ The Antiquity and 
Characteristics of Egyptian Civilization,” ‘‘The Gods of Egypt,” ‘‘Communion 


with the Unseen World,” ‘‘ The Religious Books of Egypt,” ‘‘ Henotheism, Pan- 
theism and Materialism ;” and no one can read them without being convinced 
that their distinguished author has given a vast amount of personal observation 
and study to the subject and has drawn conclusions that must be acceptable to 
the majority of thinkers. 

Beginning with the ancient heathen writers, he traces the religious beliefs of 
the Egyptians, through the hieroglyphic writings as deciphered and translated by 
Champollion and his successors, the monuments of the Rameses, the tablets of 
Abydos and SaqAra, the transcriptions of Manetho, and the moral code of Ameni. 

The conclusion seems to be that the religion of Egypt was not from the first 
the mere worship of brutes which strangers imagined it to be from its practices in 
the days of its decline; the worship of animals being a consequence only and not 
a foundation principle. The elements of it were a sense of the infinite and 
eternal, holy and good, governing the world, and upon which we are dependent 
—of right and wrong, holiness and virtue, immortality and retribution. 

The author fails to find the impress of Egyptian influences upon Hebrew 


640 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


institutions, or that any of the idolatries or superstitions of the Israelites were 
derived from Egyptian sources, and sustains his position on this point ably. The 
book will be found most interesting and instructive to the best scholars as well as 
to merely popular readers. 


OTHER. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


Laboratory Notes from the University of Cincinnati, by Prof. F. W. Clarke 
and some of the members of his classes. —Studies of the Food of Birds, Insects 
and Fishes, made at the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, at Normal, 
Ill., by S. A. Forbes, Director.—History of the Leavenworth Z7zmes, by D. R. 
Anthony, proprietor.—Indications of Character in the Head and Face.  Illus- 
trated. By H. S. Drayton, A. M. Fowler & Wells, publishers, New York. 
15c.—Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Marietta College, Ohio, 1880-81. 
—Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Control of the State Public Schools 
for Dependent Children, 1880: by Lyman P. Alden, Superintendent.—Circular 
of the State School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, 1880-81.—Hamilton College, 
Sixty-ninth Annual Catalogue of Officers and Students, 1880-81, from Prof. Oren 
Root, Jr., Ass’t Professor of Mathematics. 


SGI IN es UO MOL Cie ALAIN, 


KANSAS SCIENTIFIC SURVEY. 
PROF. J. D. PARKER, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


The Kansas Academy of Science, at their November meeting, appointed a 
Commission to memorialize the Legislature in reference to a State Scientific 
Survey. Two preliminary surveys under Profs. Mudge and Swallow have already 
been made. A considerable amount of work has also been done, under the auspices 
of the Academy of Science, whose results need to be gathered up and put in 
permanent form. The Academy of Science has nearly completed a determina- 
tion of the plants of the State, a large amount of the work having been prosecuted 
by that veteran botanist, Prof. Carruth, without any remuneration. In the pro- 
posed survey would it not be most fitting to place the necessary means in the 
hands of Prof. Carruth to complete his determination of the flora of Kansas and 
prepare a herbarium of the plants of the State, as complete as may be possible, to 
be placed in the Capitol building? This work would form the crown of a life 
devoted with singular disinterestedness to scientific pursuits, and Kansas would 
honor a citizen worthy of being remembered. A complete herbarium of the 
plants of the State placed in the Capitol, would be a treasure which few States. 
possess. 

Prof. Mudge accomplished before his death a large amount of geological 
work for Kansas. The Mudge Cabinet, bestowed with princely liberality upon 


KANSAS SCIENTIFIC SURVEY. 642 


the Agricultural College was a monument worthy of any geologist. All his papers 
read before the Academy were based upon original observation and research and 
were real and substantial contributions to science. Prof. Snow is many-sided, 
and has contributed to our scientific knowledge in several departments. His. 
contributions to botany are valuable; he has given usa nearly complete catalogue 
of the birds of Kansas; he has made large determinations among the insects; he 
has determined the species of fish in the Kansas river at Lawrence, and has kept 
a meteorological journal covering many years, which is recognized and referred to 
by meteorologists everywhere. Prof. Popenoe has been a valuable co-laborer in 
entomology and his labors are full of promise. The Government has placed a 
full set of self-registering meteorological instruments under the charge of Prof. 
Lovewell, of Topeka, who is now keeping a valuable weather journal. 

Prof. O. St. John has, during his leisure time, extending over two years, 
completed a stratigraphical survey of the geological formations from the mouth 
of the Kansas river to Manhattan. This work has been accomplished with all 
the accuracy and perfection characteristic of the United States survey, of which 
Prof. St. John has been the paleontologist. Prof. St. John was with Prof. 
Agassiz in his expedition to South America, and has had a wide and varied 
experience in scientific pursuits. Kansas would be fortunate indeed to secure 
his services as Director of the proposed scientific survey. Prof. Bardwell did 
something in the way of triangulation, and by his death science lost a most valua- 
ble worker. Prof. Kedzie before his death, and Prof. Patrick have both done 
something in the way of determination of soils and minerals. There have been 
other laborers in various departments, valuable auxiliaries in the prosecution of 
the work, whose services have been cheerfully rendered without reward. Aside 
from the two preliminary surveys, all of this work has been accomplished for 
Kansas without asking a dollar from the State, except in the bare publication of 
the results. If there ever was a society that has been abundant in labors, extend- 
ing over more than a decade of years, whose services have been rendered ‘‘with- 
out money and without price,” it is the Kansas Academy of Science. In view 
of all those disinterested services in the cause of science, an appeal from the 
Academy for the State to gather up these results, and carry forward the survey, 
will surely not be unheeded. 

There are cogent reasons why Kansas should resume the State Scientific 
Survey at the present session of the Legislature. Shouldthe survey be put off two. 
years, until the next biennial session of the Legislature, it would seem almost 
like a calamity. Nothing would more powerfully attract immigration than to 
ascertain and make known the vast natural resources of the State. A thorough 
scientific survey appeals to and attracts the more intelligent classes so desirable 
in any State. Kansas has been a leader in many things, and she cannot afford to 
lose her prestige. In our civil war the fires of liberty burned the brightest on 
Kansas soil. She hasadouble land grant for educational purposes, and the 
school fund, when all the lands are sold, will probably aggregate ten millions of 


642 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


dollars. She has passed a law creating institutes for the normal training of 
teachers in every county—a feature already yielding good results, which has 
attracted the attention of educators from other States. She is the first of all the 
states to put prohibition in the state constitution, making temperance the organic 
law of the land. Kansas cannot afford to lose her leadership among the states 
in the onward progress of ideas. New York has spent half a million dollars on 
her scientific survey, and has become known as classic ground throughout the 
scientific world. The thorough development of the coal fields of Kansas would 
pay the State the entire cost of a geological survey many times. ‘There are vast 
deposits of lead and zinc in the southeastern part of the State which need 
to be explored thoroughly. No other State has such wonderful beds of gypsum 
as Kansas which occur in those portions of the State where it is needed. The 
strata lie like the leaves of a book laid on its side which is shaved off from its upper 
northwest corner to its under southeast corner. Over the edges of these out- 
cropping rocks pour the rivers of the State with rapid flow in an eastern or south- 
eastern direction. Here is a vast system of rivers whose capacity for hydraulic 
power is almost unlimited, and yet no engineering skill has revealed the latent 
forces which nature designed to be employed by man. With immense cotton 
fields on the South, mountains of iron on the Southeast, and unlimited deposits of 
precious ores on the West, with thousands of square miles of coal and an almost 
unlimited hydraulic power from rapidly flowing rivers, it would be a shame for 
Kansas very much longer toimport her cotton fabrics from New England, much 
of her railroad iron from Pennsylvania, and her agricultural implements from 
other more enterprising communities. Several counties in the western portion of 
the State would be benefited vastly by a system of irrigation which a State survey 
could easily devise. ‘lhe comparative excellence of the immense beds of lime- 
stone and freestone should be accurately determined. A careful analysis of soils 
in various portions of the State would not be without its benefits to the farmer. 
Kansas is a paradise for scientific explorers and she cannot afford to wait and let 
her finest fossils be carried off to enrich the cabinets of eastern institutions of 
learning. The bare freight on vertebrates alone sent to Yale College from Kansas 
and Colorado has amounted to as much as a thousand dollars a year. There is 
considerable probability that artesian wells would flow from the eastern dipping 
strata in the western portion of the State, where they are so much needed. Our 
knowledge of the rainfall of the State needs to be based on wider observations. 

If a proper proportion of Kansas were planted in forests, which the fostering 
hand of the State can accomplish, she would be for agricultural purposes the best, 
and soon the richest State inthe Union. Her three greatest enemies would be 
subdued which now triumph over her more or less one after another from year to 
year. The State would not be subject to drouth, the grasshopper would cease to 
be a burden, and destructive winds would be driven into the upper regions of the 
atmosphere, and thus, as in all forest countries, pass over the State. The power 
of the terrible tornado would also be broken. A scientific survey for Kansas, 


IMPROVEMENT OF MISSOURI RIVER AT KANSAS CITY IN 1880. 643 


possessing a wider scope than ordinary geological surveys, should determine the 
kind of trees best adapted to different portions of the State. 

Kansas has the greatest possibilities for good and liabilities for evil. The 
first can only be developed, and the latter averted by a knowledge of her resources 
and capacities resulting from a thorough scientific exploration. Such a survey 
would pay in a thousand ways. In prosecuting her geological survey, Michigan 
discovered her immense deposits of salt, which yield a revenue to the State annually 
of half a million dollars. And yet Illinois prosecuted her geological survey at 
an expense only of five thousand dollars a year, as such a survey calls forth almost 
an equal additional amount from benevolently disposed individuals and from the 
‘courtesies of railroad companies. Kansas cannot delay any longer her geological 
survey without great injury to the State. Nothing could grace the new wing of 
the Capitol building so well asa full collection representing the minerals and rocks, 
the fossils, animals and plants, of the State. Sucha collection would present an 
irresistible attraction, and afford the materials for a thorough knowledge of the 
resources of the State which Kansas does not now possess. 


IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSOURI RIVER AT KANSAS CITY, MO., 
1880. 


The imperative necessity of checking the erosive action of the river in the 
bend above the city of Wyandotte, which so seriously threatened the safety of 
the Kansas City bridge and the levee front of this city, was brought to the notice 
of the government engineers in the fall of 1878. The Representative from this 
district placed the matter before Congress, which appropriated thirty thousand 
dollars for works of improvement designed to prevent the river from leaving 
Kansas City, with its bridge, inland. The appropriation became available in 
April, 1879, and work was immediately begun, in accordance with a plan laid 
out by Major C. R. Sutes, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. The amount given 
being less than one-third what was asked to complete the work, and which it was 
contemplated should be expended in one year, it became necessary that the 
money be expended in constructing works of protection, leaving those of control 
to be completed at some future time. 

The work done consisted in the construction of a ‘‘ weed dyke,” 650 feet 
long, and a continuous brush mattress, 5,042 feet long and 92 feet wide, with a 
thickness of about 6 inches—both devices being modifications, or improvements 
of such as had been used successfully in the rivers of India. These were built 
on the left bank above Wyandotte. The first was designed to deflect the course 
of the river, while the last, being laid along the bank, was intended to prevent 
further cutting. With their completion the appropriation was expended, and 
work suspended. 


644 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


The immediate effect was all that could be desired; a very considerable 
shifting of the channel was secured, the erosion checked, and the threatened 
‘“cut off” prevented. 

During the next session Congress made a second appropriation of twenty- 
five thousand dollars for the continuance of the work in accordance with the origi- 
nal plan, which sum has not yet been expended. 

With the opening of the river in the spring, active operations will be re- 
sumed. The general plan under which the work is to be done contemplates. 
shore protection, and the development of new shore lines from Quindaro to Wy- 
andotte, by the building up of bars and the straightening of the river on the 
crossings. Lengthening, rather than shortening of the river is designed, while 
the stream is to be kept within its present shore lines. 

Attempts by corporations to control the Missouri river and improve it have 
been heretofore abortive, giving rise to the popular notion that the stream is be- 
yond control, but the work done by the government during the past two years. 
shows conclusively that the river can be improved, that permanent shore lines. 
can be secured and a permanent channel maintained, and this at a trifling cost, 
when its importance is considered. 

The United States engineer now stationed here, Mr. J. W. Nier, in pur- 
suance of orders received by him from the Government, will at once proceed to: 
construct two scows to be used in the Missouri river improvement, in the bend 
above Wyandotte, the coming season. The boats are to be about 100 feet in 
length and 22 feet wide, and will be built at the Wyandotte levee. The ma- 
_chinery for the boats is now on the way. Each craft will be outfitted with a large 
boiler thirty feet in length, weighing sixteen and a half tons, a compound Worth- 
ington duplex grading pump, a pair of shears and a steam capstan. 

The Worthington pumps have been used with success at Omaha and other 
places. With an ordinary head of steam 750 gallons of water are discharged per 
minute. This stream thrown against a bank will remove more earth in a given 
time than 200 laborers. Last year, on account of the scarcity of labor and the 
refusal of men to work at the prices paid, work on the river improvements was 
for a time suspended. By means of the new appliances the engineers will be 
rendered comparatively independent. The cost of grading will also be greatly 
lessened. . ° 

It is expected that the boats will be completed within three months, and 
that the work done in 1881 will not only be preventive, but fully and perma- 
nently protective. i 


THE ALMACANTAR. 
S. C. CHANDLER, JR. 


I desire to call the attention of practical astronomers to a new instrument 
for the determination of time and latitude, the principles of the construction of 
which are, I believe, novel, and which seems to possess advantages entitling it 


KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 645 


to consideration. From the results attained with an experimental instrument, 
which has been very neatly constructed for me by John Clacey, of this city, I 
feel justified in claiming that in accuracy, efficiency and convenience, this con- 
struction, for moderate-sized instruments, is superior to the transit instrument, 
while it is very much cheaper. The principle involved is the same as that of 
Kater’s floating collimator for determining the zenith point of a graduated circle. 
Beyond this, however, there is no resemblance. 

The following brief description of the instrument may be easily understood, 
by reference to the illustration. It consists of a heavy base, with approximate 
leveling screws at the corners, from the center of which arises an upright cylin- 
drical pillar surmounted by a cap of hard brass, and encircled at the middle and 
base by brass collars. These serve as the bearings for a hollow, brass sleeve, 
fitting closely to the pillar and turning smoothly upon it. This sleeve is provided 
with a cross-head and lateral, diagonal braces which support a shallow trough in 
the form of a hollow rectangle. In this trough is contained mercury to the 
depth of about one-eighth of an inch, upon which swims a float of wood or iron, 
also in the form,of a hollow rectangle, a little smaller than the trough. By 
means of two pins, projecting from the sides of the trough and playing in vertical 
slots in the sides of the float, the latter is kept in place, while it is free to seek its 
equilibrium. From the middle of the inside edges of the float project two bent 
arms of brass, the lower ends of which support the horizontal axis of the tele- 
scope. ‘The axis is provided at one end with a clamp, and at the other end with 
an illuminating contrivance, and the telescope has a reticule of five horizontal 
spider lines. | 

If the telescope is turned on its axis and clamped at any desired altitude, and 
the whole instrument revolved around the upright axis, the sight line will describe 
a small circle in the heavens, parallel to the horizon. It is evident that the 
transit of stars, as they rise or fall over this horizontal circle, may be observed, 
and will furnish the means of finding the clock error, and also the latitude by a 
proper selection of the stars in different azimuths. —Sczence Observer. 


KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 


Last summer, Prof. Snow, in company with Mr. L. L. Dyche and Miss 
Anna Mozley, spent four or five weeks in Santa Fe cafion, N. M., collecting 
beetles, moths and plants. It was in a country that had never been explored with 
a similar purpose, and a rich harvest was obtained. Several thousand specimens 
were brought home. Of those only the Coleoptera have been examined and 
twelve new species have been found. Of one of these Dr. LeConte, late president 
of the American Academy for the Advancement of Science, writes, that it is ‘‘the 
most extraordinary addition to our fauna that has been made for a long time,”’ 
and the Doctor is usually sparing of adjectives. Speaking of the Colorado expe- 
‘dition two years ago, Prof. A. R. Grote says: ‘‘ Such labors have a permanent 


646 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


value in the field of Natural History in America and their continuance is greatly 


to be hoped for in the interest of science.”’ 


In addition to this both LeConte 


and Horn have described several of the new species for the Kansas Academy 
of Science, an honor never before granted to Kansas. 

The University does well to encourage scientific research, and the State 
should feel proud of the men who are bringing Kansas to the front in the realm 


of science. 
nent in the company. 


Professors B. F. Mudge, F. H. Snow and G. E. Patrick are promi- 
Prof. Mudge has ceased his labors, but the others are 


carrying the work on with enthusiasm that has and will merit success.— Lawrence 


Journal. 


DUT ORI, IN OWS, 


SINCE the last regular meeting of the Kan- 
sas City Academy of Science our citizens 
have had the rare pleasure of a lecture by 
the well known artist, Col. James Fairman, 
of Chicago, upon the ‘‘Study of Fine Art.” 
It was an eloquent, discriminative and class- 
ical effort—one of the most instructive and 
entertaining lectures yet offered our people 
under the auspices of the Academy. It is 
hoped that Col. Fairman may return here 
and deliver his full course. 


THE Historical Society of New Mexico, 
which was organized in 1857 and flourished 
until the commencement of the war of 1861, 
when it died out on account of the dispersion 
of its members, has lately been revived and 
reorganized, with acting Governor W. G. 
Ritch for President; Judge L. B. Prince, 
Vice-President; David J. Miller, Corre- 
sponding Secretary; Wm. M. Berger, Re- 
cording Secretary; Lehman Spiegelberg, 
Treasurer, and J. C. Pearce, Curator. 

Mr. Miller informs us that ‘‘ while dormant 
its excellent and valuable collection of Span- 
ish, Mexican and Indian relics, curiosities and 
remarkable natural productions of New Mex- 
ico disappeared irrecoverably. There is a 
fine field (he says) open to us yet, however, 
and I am sure the reorganization will duly 
utilize it in the acquisition and preservation 
of interesting and valuable information with- 
in and concerning historic old New Mexico.” 


FROM the report of the annual meeting of 
the Davenport Academy of Science, held 
Jan. 5, 1881, we learn that this best known 
of Western institutions has been in opera- 
tion for thirteen years, owns its building, 
has about 4,000 volumes in its library, thou- 
sands of mound relics in its cabinets, com- 
prising inscribed tablets, tools of copper, 
flint implements, etc., etc., besides geolog- 
ical and mineralogical specimens in great 
abundance. Its principal officers and J. 
Duncan Putnam, President; Dr. C. C. Parry, 
Corresponding Secretary, and C. E. Putnam, 
Treasurer. 


Pror. F. E. NipHer, the distinguished 
physicist of Washington University, St. 
Louis, has sent us his beautiful photographic 
map of Equal Magnetic Declinations, pre- 
pared from the numerous and laborious mag- 
netic surveys made by him during the past 
three years. It is a wonderful example of 
patient and skilled scientific labor on his 
part, and the results will undoubtedly be a 
great surprise to all who examine it. 

At the St, Louis Academy of Science, on 
the 19th ult., Prof. Nipher displayed a plas- 
ter cast of a raised map of the State of Mis- 
souri, showing the magnetic lines in das re- 
“zef on a scale of twenty miles to the inch 
in the area of the State. This, he informs 
us by private letter, it is his intention to 
have photographed, or artotyped, and sent 
to various portions of the State for sale. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


They will be ‘found very interesting to all 
and very valuable to many of our citizens, 
and we bespeak for him a liberal patronage. 
Though Prof. Nipher has made these sur- 
veys at his own personal expense so far, it is 
believed that by proper effort on the part of 
intelligent citizens of the State the Legis- 
lature may be induced to make the necessary 
appropriation to finish this important work, 
which will require about three years longer. 


WE learn from the Catalogue of officers and 
students of Washburn College, Topeka, Kan- 
sas, for 1880-1, that there are 132 students 
of all grades, that the faculty is fully and 
comprehensively organized, that the curricu- 
lum of study is arranged with a view toa 
broad and liberal culture, in aid of which 
there is a choice library, a well equipped 
laboratory and cabinets of minerals, an assay- 
ing department, and very complete outfit of 
meteorological instruments. The college is 
not conducted in the interest of any religious 
denomination, but has for its object the pro- 
motion of the highest and best culture— 
mental, moral, social and religious. 


WE are indebted to Mr. E. E. Richardson, 
assistant Secretary, for a copy of the tenth 
annual live stock report of the Kansas City 
Stock Yards, by which it appears that the 
increase in the number of cattle handled in 
the ten years is from about 121,000 to over 
244,000; in hogs from about 41,000 to more 
than 676,000; in sheep from about 4,500 to 
nearly 51,000, and in horses from less than 
goo to over 14,000. 


WE present herewith a table showing the 
degree of cold here on the coldest day of each 
January since 1875: 


Jan. 7A.M. 2P. M. IOP. M. 
1875 9 —18° 9° or 
1876 10 11° 20° 20° 
1877 16 -12° 5° 4° 
1878 6 of 18° 12° 
1879 3 ~14° os fe 
1880 30 23° gl? 25° 
1881 9 -7° 4° 2° 


647 


THE Kansas City Electrical Society, re- 
cently organized, is a valuable acquisition to 
the list of scientific and social organizations 
of the city. The objects for which the soci- 
ety was formed are for the practical and the 
theoretical study of electricity, the examina- 
tion and study of electrical apparatus and 
appliances. The following officers have 
been elected for the first year: 

President, W. H. Woodring; Vice-Presi- 
dent, T. F. Clohesey ; Secretary, J. J. Burns; 
Treasurer, G. M. Myers; Executive Commit- 
tee, Messrs. W. H. Woodring, J. J. Burns, 
Dr. Joshua Thorne, M. D. Wood and W. C. 
Stewart. 


Capt. Howgate writes, Jan. 22d: ‘<The 
outlook for the continuance of work in the 
direction of Lady Franklin Bay this year is 
quite encouraging. Dr. Rae writes me that 
there is a prospect of English arctic work via 
Franz Joseph Land, but it will not be done 
before 1882. All the European countries 
interested in Arctic maiters are awaiting the 
result of our labors here. If we succeed, 
there will be no lack of foreign followers.” 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


It is wonderful how rapidly, though almost 
imperceptibly, a man who takes the leading 


periodicals of the country can build upa 
large and valuable library. Being crowded 
for space in our book shelves lately we were 
almost surprised to find so many volumes of 
Harper's Monthly, North American Review and 
Atlantic, all of which we have been receiving 
almost continuously for more than twenty-five 
years, except the latter, which has not been 
published quite so long. In these volumes 
can be found an epitome of all that has 
transpired in the literature, art, biography 
and science of the world during all that pe- 
riod, as well as reproductions of what has 
occurred in the past in these departments. 
A man in any avocation requiring constant 
reference to the labors of others, for instance 
an editor, could better afford to lose all the 
rest of his library than such volumesas these 
and a few other similarly comprehensive pe- 
riodicals. 


648 


THE Princeton Review for January presents 
its usual massive array of original articles. 
That of Prof. William G. Sloan upon “ The 
Public Schools of England,” and of Dr. 
George P. Fisher, of Yale College, upon 
‘* The Historical Proofs of Christianity,’’ be- 
ing a consideration of the miracles of Christ, 
are the most attractive and readable in a 
popular sense, without the least disparage- 
ment of any of the others. This magazine is 
now in its fifty-seventh year, and is pub- 
lished in bi-monthly numbers of 148 pages at 
only $2 per annum. 


HAVING arranged clubbing terms with the 
North American Review, we are enabled to 
offer that foremost of American periodicals, 
together with the KAnsAs City REVIEW, at 
The Worth 
American is the organ of the best minds of 


the low price of $6 per year. 


America, nearly every writer of note in the 
country being a contributor to it. It dis- 
cusses the subjects that are most prominent 
in the public thought at the time, and pre- 
sents both sides of all important questions. 
It combines to a considerable extent the 
thoroughness of the Cyclopzdia with the 
timeliness of the daily paper. It should be 
read by the professional man, the student, 
the merchant, the manufacturer, the farmer ; 
in fact, by every one who wishes to form in- 
telligent opinions on the events of the day. 


NuMBER 17 of the Humboldt Library pre- 
sents this month one of the best of Herbert 
Spencer’s works ‘*Progress’’—-one which every 
intelligent person can read with pleasure and 
profit, whether he adopts the peculiar views 
set forth or not. 

The selections so far made by the editor of 
this popular series have been unusually judi- 
cious and well varied, having comprised geol- 
ogy, astronomy, metaphysics, education, nat- 
ural history and physics. Six more numbers 
will be included in the first year, which, 
when bound together, will make a most val- 
uable and comprehensive volume for the 
price. 


THE Phrenological Journal of New York is 
the only periodical devoted to the subject, 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


and it includes with this all that relates to 
Human Nature and the improvement of men 
physically, mentally and morally. In the 
prospectus of 1881 the publishers make lib- 
eral propositions to subscribers. The price 
has been reduced to two dollars a year, and 
to each subscriber is offered a new phrenolog- 
ical bust. 


Capt. F. M. PosEGATE, a prominent citi- 
zen and postmaster of St. Joseph, Missouri, 
recently delivered a lecture at Maryville 
upon the “ Lights and Shadows of Life,” of 
which the Republican of that place speaks in 
the highest terms as ‘‘a beautiful picture 
drawn with delicate fineness and a keen in- 
sight into human nature.” 


ProF, C. V. RILEY, who has been added 
recently to the editorial corps of the Amevi- 
can Naturalist, writes that he has a few sets 
of the Zxtomologist to spare, which he will 
sell at $1,50 per volume, post-paid, 


The Age of Steel, formerly the St. Louis 
Journal of Commerce, is one of the oldest com- 
mercial and manufacturing papers in the 
West, being now in its forty-ninth volume. 
It is also one of the best, and we have fre- 
quently availed ourselves of information de- 
rived from its columns in working up mat- 
ter for the Reveew. It is published in St. 
Louis and furnished to subscribers at $3 for 
the weekly edition and $1 for the monthly 
edition. 


WE have reeeived ‘‘Annual Reviews” 
from a number of sources, showing com- 
mendable enterprise on the part of editors 
of Western papers and wonderful growth in 
Western cities. Most prominent among these 
are the Commercial Indicator of Kansas City, 
the Dazly Bee of Omaha, Nebraska, and the 
Tribune, published at Denver, Colorado. 

Each of these papers is a marvel of good 
printing and laborious, accurate and valua- 
ble editorial work, creditable in every respect 
to its proprietor and certain to be of inesti- 
mable value to the city and district whose 
business growth and importance it publishes 
to the country. 


‘EDITORIAL NOTES. 


AMONG other newspapers offering to club 
with the REVIEW is the Boston Journal of 
Commerce, one of the very best commercial 
papers in the United States, a very large, 
handsome weekly, filled to overflowing with 
market reports from all over the world, 
mining news, the latest inventions and im- 
provements in machinery, technology, etc., 
etc. Theregular price is $3 per annum, but 
to any subscriber to the REVIEW we can 
furnish it for $2.40, post-paid. 


649 


THE article by our fellow-citizen, James 
Taylor, Esq., on ‘¢Our City Sewerage,” in 
the Journal of Jan. 8th, was a plain, prac- 
tical paper, full of excellent suggestions and 
worthy of the careful consideration of the 
City Council and of all property owners put- 
ting drain pipes into their houses. 

It is conceded by the best medical author- 
ities that disease is bred and fostered in 
an atmosphere poisoned by sewer gases, and 
we cannot be too careful to avoid them. 


The Kansas City Review of Science and Industry 


Enters upon its fifth year with the May issue, 1881, and is offered to the intelligent people 


of the country as an exponent of Western thought and a medium of communicating Western 


discoveries, inventions and theories. 


64 PAGES, LARGE OCTAVO. $2.50 PER ANNUM: SINGLE NUMBERS 25c. 


The REVIEW numbers among its CONTRIBUTORS some of the most earnest and capable 


workers and thinkers in the West, as well as many Eastern scientists of prominence, and has 


been highly commended in all directions, for the freshness and originality of its articles and 


the promptness with which it publishes new discoveries and inventions, 


CONTRIBUTORS WITHIN THE PAST YEAR: 


Prof. G. C, Broadhead, late State Geologist of Mo. 
Prof. G. C. Swallow, of the University of Missouri. 
Prof, F. H. Snow, of the University of Kansas. 
Prof. E. A. Popenoe, State Agricultural College, Kas. 
Dr. F_ A. Ballard, Independence, Mo. 

Rev. L. J. Templin, Hutchinson, Kansas. 

Prof. E. L. Berthoud, Colorado School of Mines, 
Prof. H. S. Pritchett, of the Morrison Observatory. 
William Dawson, the Quaker Shoe-maker Astronomer. 
Prof. A. J. Conant, St. Louis, Missouri. 

Prof. T. B. Smith, Louisiana College, Mo. 

Prof. F. W. Clarke, of the Cincinnati University. 
Prof. F. E. Nipher, of the Washington University. 
J. A. Smith, Paola, Kansas. 

Mrs. M. W. Hudson, Topeka, Kas. 

Prof. J. M. Long, Richmond, Mo. 

Dr. Ivon D, Heath, Wyandotte, Kas. 

Rev. T. L. Lewis, Bolivar, Mo. 

Edgar L. Larkin, New Windsor, III. 

Sam’l J. Wallace, Silver Cliff, Col, 

Prof. E. T. Nelson, Ohio Wesleyan University. 

A. L. Child, M. D., Plattsmouth, Neb. 

Prof. Jno. B. Dunbar, Deposit, N. Y. 

Prof. J. T. Lovewell, Washburn College. 

Dr Chas. H. Sternberg, Ellsworth, Kas. 

Prof. S. H. Trowbridge, Glasgow, Mo. 

Prof. S. A. Maxwell, Morrison, Ill. 


Hon. R. T. Van Horn, Kansas City, Mo. 


Prof. John D. Parker, EG Od 
Prof. George Halley, M.D., <‘‘ it 
V.W. Coddington, — «e as 
Robt. Gillham, C. E., we dg 
W. W. Alexander, sie dd 
Dr. W. A. Drowne, she Sg 
Prof. E. C. Crosby, ae ag 
Ermine Case, Jr., ste ue 
W. H.R. Lykins, ste as 
Dr. R. Wood Brown, <a OG 
Dr. W. B. Sawyer. ss GG 
John Fee, M. D., oe se 
W. H. Miller. s ag 


Of Eastern Scientists who have, during 
the past yéar, contributed to the REvIEw, 
we may mention Prof. H. C. Bolton, Trinity 
College, Hartford, Conn. ; Prof. C. V. Riley, 
Washington, D. C.; Dr. S, W. Williston, 
New Haven, Conn.; Capt. H. W. Howgate, 
U. S. A.; Isaac P. Noyes, Rhode Island; 
Prof. O. T. Mason, Columbian College ; Prof. 
John Rae, F. G. S:, London, England; M. 
F. Connor, Paris, France. 


We have determined to continue the plan 
which proved so appropriate and acceptable 
last year, for giving premiums to our subscri- 


bers, viz. : 

To any person who sends us $3.50 we will 
send the REview for one year, and any $1.50 
book published by D. Appleton & Co., S. C. 
Griggs & Co., Robert Clark & Co., Hough- 
ton, Miffln & Co,, Harper Bros., Roberts 
Brothers, J. B. Lippincott & Co., John Wiley 
& Sons, Henry C. Lea, S. R. Wells & Co., 
Ivison, Blakenan, Taylor & Co., Orange, 
Judd & Co., etc. 

To any one sending us $3.75 we will send 
the Review for one year and any $2.00 
book pubiished by any of the above firms. 

Persons desiring to subscribe for the RE- 
viEW and purchase any book or books, or 
subscribe for any other periodical, published 
or obtainable in this country, can obtain 
special rates by applying to the editor in 
person or by letter. 

Clubs desirous of subscribing for the RE- 
VIEW can have the same privilege as single 
individuals, besides the advantage of re- 
duced rates of subscription. 

To persons who wish to purchase law, 
medical, scientific or miscellaneous books, 
and at the same time subscribe for a periodi- 
cal which includes within its scope popular 
articles upon all branches of science, me- 
chanical arts and literature, we deem this a 
particularly favorable offer. 

Back NuMBERS.—To any subscriber for 
the fifth year we will furnish the back num- 
bers of the first and second year for $2.25 
each set, bound, or $1.25 each, unbound ; 
and of the third and fourth years at $3.00 
each, bound, or $2.00 unbound. 


As the fourth volume of the REVIEW will 
close soon, and we shall be asking our 
friends to renew their subscriptions, it may 
be well enough, by showing the estimation 
in which it is held by scientific men and pe- 
riodicals in different parts of the country, to 
publish extracts from some of the encour- 
aging letters and notices we have recently 
received. From them it will be observed 
that the Review has met with favor not less 
in the East than in the West, and even in 
Europe it has found some readers of note 
who have been kind enough to express their 
appreciation of it and its management: 

University of the State of Missouri, \ 
Columbia, Mo., May 13, 1879. 
THEO. S. CASE, Esq. : 

My Dear Sir: I can but congratulate 
you on the excellence of your journal, and 
I will try and aid you with an occasional ar- 
ticle, 

Yours truly, 
G, C. SWALLow. 


Prof. O. T. Mason, Columbian College, 
D. C., the distinguished anthropologist, 
writes : 

‘‘T have frequently promised myself the 
pleasure of showing my appreciation of your 
very creditable journal by sending you some- 
thing from the foreign field, &c.”’ 


Boston Scientific Society, 
January 31, 1879. } 

With thanks for kindness in sending your 
REVIEW to our Society, and congratulations 
upon the high standard it has reached, I am, 

Ever yours, 
J. RITCHIE, JR., Sec’y. 
Osage City, Kansas. 

I am much pleased with the articles in the 
number before me, and I deem it a better 
work for the general reader than most of the 
scientific journals of the present day. 

Yours, &c., J. W. JACKSON. 
New York, October 8, 1879. 

I have offered to send the REVIEW to the 
library of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 
of which Gen. L. P. di Cesnola is director, 
as its archeological papers will there be ap- 
preciated, and would like, therefore, a full 
set from the commencement. 

Very sincerely, 
Dr. F. A. CASTLE, 


* # %* The REVIEW is a very useful 
publication, and must contribute very sensi- 
bly to the material development of this sec- 
tion of the country, a record of whose _his- 
tory and development it is the object of the 
society to make up. Yours very truly, 

; F. G. ADAMS, 
Sec. Kansas Hist. Society. 


Washington, Jan. 20, 1879. 
* * * * * # * 

I look upon your REVIEW as a very valua- 
ble addition to scientific journalism, and one 
especially interesting to the growing West. 

Very truly yours, 
H. W. HowearteE, U. S. A. 


PROFESSOR WILLIAM H. WAHL, of Phila- 
delphia, associate editor of the Lugineering 
and Mining News, published in New York 
City, writes, August 5th, as follows: “** * 
* JT take much pleasure in reading your 
REVIEW, and trust that you are succeeding 
with it.” 


There are several other articles by home 
and Western authors, which keep up the pe- 
culiarly distinctive character of the maga- 
zine as the organ of Western thought, while 
its miscellany is of the latest authority and 
choicest character. We grow moreand more 
proud of our home publication.— Kansas 
City Journal. 


LeAN SAS, Cll Ny, 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. 


VOEs) Ve MARCH, 1881. NO. ut. 


PRIEOS@OPrY. 


THE SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AN ORGANON OF THE SCIENCES. 


BY PROF. J. M. LONG. 


Philosophy, from whatever point of view it may begin its investigations, 
attempts the solution of the most difficult problem which can possibly engage the 
thought of the human mind. It attempts to construct a rational theory of the 
universe by the formulation of some all-embracing truth or principle which shall 
serve as the ground and explanation of all things as these appear in the bounds 
of space and in the evolutions of time. Of the deep interest which man must 
ever feel in the question of his relation to the universe, Schelling has truly said, 
‘¢Would man strive to fathom this relation? I answer, if he would not, still he 
must. He always has striven after it; and, in the future, he always will strive 
aitem tte 

The problem which philosophy attempts to solve is altogether of a different 
order from those which science deals. Science is satisfied when it can discover 
the nature of the phenomena belonging to a special province of nature, and can 
formulate the laws regulating their co-existences and sequences. Science ana- 
lizes nature into parts, in order that man may attain a point of attack by which to 
gain control over her laws and forces. On the other hand, philosophy aims to 
reduce the thought-world to unity, which has been destroyed by the analytic pro- 
cesses of science. As the mind, in order to the harmony and completeness of 
thought, demands both analysis and synthesis, so we must have both science and 
philosophy. Philosophy justifies itself to science by showing that the methods 
and fundamental ideas of the latter are inadequate to their own explanation. 


IV—44 


650 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Hence, philosophy is defined by Hamilton as ¢he science of first principles, and by 
Spencer as completely unified knowledge. 

Having briefly stated the aim and scope of philosophy in general, we will be 
the better enabled to understand the special aims and scope of the Synthetic 
Philosophy as set forth by Herbert Spencer. In this system of philosophy we 
find exemplified the strongest intellectual tendencies of the age. If we would 
know what class of questions is stirring most deeply the minds of thoughtful 
persons; if we would know in what direction the thought of many of the leading 
minds of the age is traveling, then we must study the Synthetic Philosophy. It 
is not too much to say that the man who has not done this cannot properly esti- 
mate the intellectual characteristics and tendencies of the age. Philosophy, as 
we have seen, aims to reduce all causes to one cause, all laws to one law, and all 
phenomena to one primordial source of being, that man may see the many in the 
one, and the one inthe many. The Synthetic Philosophy claims to have done 
this by establishing the universal law of Evolution. For this reason Mr. Spencer 
has termed his system the Synthetic Philosophy, because it aims to construct by 
means of the law of Evolution a harmonious and consistent ovganon out of all 
the departments of knowledge. 

To one not correctly informed, the word Byoludent is full of materialistic 
and atheistic associations, as though it were a denial of the spirituality of man 
and the existence of God. Nothing can be farther from the truth than such an 
idea. Evolution, so far from aiming to set aside the idea of a first Creative Cause, 
claims to be the manifestation of a Power which no human thought can fully 
comprehend. It teaches that the postulate of Absolute Beis is alike essential to 
doth science and religion. ‘‘ Both religion and science,” says Mr. Spencer, ‘‘ are 
obliged to assert the existence of an Ultimate Reality. Without this religion has 
no subject matter; and without this science, subjective and objective, lacks its 
indispensable datum.” Persons having only a partial knowledge of the Synthetic 
Philosophy have made the mistake of supposing that it makes /ovce its ultimate 
postulate, and. that hence the idea of Absolute Being or God is rejected. This 
mistake is less excusable from the fact that Mr. Spencer has used great clearness 
and fullness of statement to prevent his readers from falling into this very error. 
He says, ‘‘Over and over again, it has been shown in various ways that the 
deepest truths we can reach, are simply statements of the widest uniformities in 
our experience of the relations of matter, motion and force; and that matter, 
motion and force are but symbols of the Unknown Reality.” We thus see that 
force is not the Ultimate Reality, but the symbol of the Ultimate Power which 
ever works throughout all nature, and ‘‘in which we live and move and have our 
being.” No philosopher goes beyond Mr. Spencer in emphasizing Absolute Being 
as the ultimate datum of all science, philosophy and religion. He says: ‘‘ By 
the very conditions of thought we are prevented from knowing anything but rela- 
tive being; yet by these very conditions of thought, an indefinite consciousness of 
Absolute Being is necessitated.” He, in common with all other philosophers, 


THE SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AN ORGANON OF THE SCIENCES. 651 


makes Absolute Being the ultimate principle of philosophy; the only difference 
being that while they ascribe to this Ultimate Power personal attributes, he regards 
this as unknowable, and hence as not admitting of the predication of such attri- 
butes. He says: ‘All philosophers avowedly or tacitly recognize this same 
ultimate truth :—that while the Relativist rightly repudiates these definite asser- 
tions which the Absolute makes respecting existence transcending perception, he 
is yet at least compelled to unite with him in predicating existence transcending 
perception.” While regarding Absolute Being as only indefinitely apprehended 
by consciousness, its existence is with him none the less certain. He says: ‘‘The 
existence of this inscrutable Power is the most certain of all truths.” 

In developing his comprehensive system of philosophy, it devolved upon Mr. 
Spencer, at the outset, to define what he regards as the true scope of philosophy. 
Regarding philosophy as a synthesis of the most general truths of science, while 
science itself deals solely with proximate, not ultimate causes, it follows that the 
findings of philosophy from his stdnd-point are confined to the sphere of such 
causes as are manifested in the uniformities of cosmical phenomena. Hence, the 
Synthetic Philosophy does not, like the German Philosophy, enter the sphere of 
Ontology, and attempt to explain the mysteries of Absolute Being. Regarding 
such a task as beyond the powers of the human mind, it confines itself to the 
sphere of the finite and relative. It attempts through the law of Evolution to 
unify the various orders of cosmic phenomena—to show how the different sci- 
ences, such as astronomy, geology, biology, psychology and sociology, can be 
logically articulated into a single harmonious and consistent body of established 
truth through one fundamental and all-pervading law or principle. Hence, the 
merits of this philosophy must be judged solely by its success in bringing within 
this comprehensive synthesis all the various ranks and orders of cosmic phenom- 
ena. Mr. Spencer terms his system the Synthetic Philosophy for the reason that 
its great organizing law is Evolution, within the comprehensive synthesis of which 
all cosmic phenomena find their unity and explanation. Prof. Fiske, the able 
expounder of this system, prefers the term Cosmuc, for the reason that it distin- 
guishes this system from those ontological forms of philosophy which treat of 
Absolute Being. Any one is at liberty to raise with Mr. Spencer an issue regard- 
ing the possibility of constructing an Ontology; but this would be a psychological 
question concerning the powers of the human mind. Such a question would no 
more involve either the truth or the untruth of the evolution philosophy than the 
old question concerning the nature of gravitation—whether it is due to action ata 
distance or to ethereal pressure, involves the truth of the Newtonian system of 
astronomy. Modern astronomy rests on the /vuth of gravitation as the great law 
of space, and not on any theory concerning its ultimate nature. In like manner, 
Evolution as the great law of time, rests on the persistence or indestructibility of 
force, regardless of any theory we may hold concerning the nature of Absolute 
Being, of which force and motion are to us but the sensible symbols. We may 
agree with Mr. Spencer in denying that personal attributes can be predicated of 


652 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


this Power, or we may, in common with many evolutionists, predicate of this 
Power such attributes, and still hold to the theory of Evolution. ‘This theory 
concerning the relativity of knowledge was borrowed by Spencer from Hamilton, 
and hence does not enter as a logical element into the formula of Evolution. 

These are distinctions which need to be made if we would form a just 
estimate of the merits of the Synthetic Philosophy. Evolution claims to be an 
explanation of proximate causes, laws and origins, not of ultimate ones. The 
opponents of evolution seem utterly unable or unwilling to understand this dis- 
tinction. Even Agassiz, who ought to have understood this, failed to do so in 
his latest utterances. He says: ‘‘ How the world originated is the great question, 
and Darwin’s theory, like all other attempts to explain the origin of life, is thus 
far merely conjectural.” Darwin’s theory, which is a special phase of evolution, 
does not attempt to explain the origin of life, but the ovigén of species. Again, it 
is manifestly unfair to criticise adversely the Synthetic Philosophy for its failure 
to construct an ontology which shall explain ultimate causes and origins. The 
merits of a science or philosophy should be judged solely by its success in dealing 
with those questions which belong to its own self-chosen sphere of thought. 
Such a confusing of the question is to be regretted, both for the sake of science 
and theology. It brings issues into scientific discussion which have no business 
there, by confounding proximate and ultimate causes. It does harm to theology 
by exciting in the minds of religious people needless fears, causing them to regard 
science, and especially evolution, as hostile to their religion. 

Now, to properly understand Evolution, we must view it as the law which 
formulates successions in time. Whether it is the savage or the philosopher who 
looks out upon the face of nature, the most imposing and impressive feature is 
motion, or ceaseless activity. All Nature is one vast rhythm of action and reac- 
tion, endless processions and recessions. Amid this perpetual conflict of forces, 
this continual becoming and ceasing to be, land and sea are ever striving for the 
mastery. The sea is ever being carried away in the form of vapor to the tops 
of the hills and the mountains, while the hills and the mountains, the symbols 
of durability, are slowly but surely traveling to the sea. Nature, ‘‘red of tooth 
and claw,” has ever been hunting down without pity or remorse the living forms 
which make up the long procession of life. Man and his works, like all below 
him, are ever whirled onward in this mighty torrent of change which allows 
nothing to endure in fixed and stable form. We mark the ages of history by the 
different types of men and civilizations which have risen and flourished during 
their brief day, and then disappeared to be succeeded by new phases in the 
movement of Humanity. We thus see event following event, the cause ever 
passing into the effect, and the antecedent becoming incorporated into the conse- 
quent amid the ceaseless successions of time. 

But the savage and the philosopher assume toward these ceaseless changes 
of nature very unlike mental attitudes. In the mind of the one those varied 
phases of nature form an undiscriminated congeries of impressions, with no fixed 


iS 
THE SVNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AN ORGANON OF THE SCIENCES. 6538 


law or order; in the mind of the other there is an abiding conviction that amid 
all the manifold changes which make up the world of phenomena, there is in the 
innermost determination of things a unity of plan ever working toward the reali- 
zation of definite ends. To the savage, nature is a Sibyl whose scattered leaves 
have no meaning; to the philosopher who carefully collects her leaves and places 
them in their true connection, she reveals the mysteries of ancient time. To 
trace out the genetic successions and correlations in cosmic phenomena, to show 
how one stage or epoch has unfolded out of its antecedent, and how this, in turn, 
will unfold into its consequent—in a word, to formulate the universal law of 
seguence which holds in all orders of phenomena, is the object of the law of Evo- 
lution. We agree with Prof. Le Conte in regarding Evolution as the grandest 
idea of modern science, embracing, as it does, at least one-half of all science, 
and this by far the most interesting and important half. ‘‘A most valuable 
habit,” says Mr. J. J. Murphy, ‘‘has become general among men of mental 
cultivation, of regarding every object, not as if it were alone and isolated, but in 
its connection with other objects.” Man as a being ‘‘looking before and after,” 
in order to satisfy the demands of his mental nature, earnestly desires to know 
the causes which have operated to produce the present order and relation of 
things. The mind accepts as a satisfactory explanation of any class of phenom- 
ena when it knows the dynamic laws, by the operation of which cognizable objects 
acquire and lose the sensible forms under which they assert themselves to con- 
sciousness. ‘This manner of investigation, made familiar by Evolution, is termed 
the gewetic method, because it investigates phenomena in their historic successions 
as manifested in the relations of each phase of a subject to preceding and suc- 
ceeding phases. ‘The phenomenon which at a particular period of time manifests 
itself to us does not reveal the totality of its nature, properties and relations. 
The genetic method, going back by amadysis, tends to reduce diversities to a 
primitive identity, and advancing forward by sywéhes¢s finds the primitive identity 
disappearing in diversity. By the former process science reconstructs the past; — 
by the latter it constructs the future. By this method we interpret the present by 
the past, the complex by the simple, and the fully developed product by the 
rudimentary form. 

This desire of man to know the past and to connect it organically with the 
present accounts for the fact that Evolution has been so generally received by 
the thinking class of persons. This law offers the only rational solution which 
our faculties permit us to perceive as to the mode of origin of the present cosmical 
order from primitive, antecedent conditions. From the time that Newton taught 
mankind to modify their idea of cause into the conception of mechanical force, 
and thence to look at nature from a dynamic point of view, the scientific mind 
has been advancing with sure step to Evolution as the final, logical outcome. 
To understand Evolution, we must study its fundamental characteristics. But it 
is from biology, the fundamental category of which is ovganism, that we get our 
clearest conception of those essential characteristics which constitute evolution, 


654 @ KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


or development. The growth of a plant or an animal from the simple germ ‘‘is 
the typical specimen of a phenomenon which rules through the whole course 
of the history of man and society—increase of function through expansion and 
differentiation of structure by internal forces.” It will then be best to define and 
illustrate the fundamental characteristics of Evolution from the standpoint of 
organic phenomena. 

1. Zhe homogeneous :—Embryology has revealed the fact that the complex 
animal organism is developed from a simple germ which, because of a sameness 
o° structure, is characterized by the term homogeneous. ‘‘ However much,’’ says 
Beale, ‘‘organs and their tissues in the fully formed state may vary as regards the 
character, properties and compositions of the formed material, all were first in 
the condition of clear, transparent, structureless living matter.” But this homo- 
geneous, structureless protoplasm is unstable, and must therefore differentiate 
itself, or develop into an unlikeness of parts, because of the vast amount of locked 
up energy which it contains. Hence, it assumes a dynamic relation to itself, in 
order that it may unfold into its higher self, and realize the ideal of growth and 
development stamped upon its inmost constitution, and which is but the full 
unfolding of the promise and potency enfolded in the original germ. 

2. The heterogeneous:—The final state into which the homogeneous and 
structureless matter of life unfolds is characterized as heterogeneous. ‘This final 
state, in contrast to the primitive simplicity out of which evolution arises, is char- 
acterized by a stiuctural difference among the coéxistent parts which become 
endowed with diverse functions. In the primitive homogeneous state there is no 
definite and coherent relation among the parts. In the final heterogeneous state, 
sameness has developed into diversity, simplicity into complexity, in which there 
is a definite and coherent relation among the parts. 

The vital movement by which life passes from this ariMGue simplicity to its 
final complexity is a doubie movement, and is expressed by the terms cnéegration 
and differentiation. . 

3.  JLntegration :—By integration is meant in Evolution the process by which 
the different parts of a structure or organsm are knit together into organic unity 
through their mutual dependence and codperation. The degree of coherency 
and dependence among the different parts of an evolved structure is determined 
by the degree of complexity and specialization of functions. An increasing 
specialization among the functions brings with it an increasing efficiency, and, at 
the same time, an increasing dependency and coherency, for the reason that as 
each organ becomes more specialized, it is less able to perform any other than its 
own allotted function. Some living beings, as the am@éba, are so low down in the 
scale of life that they have no specialization of parts. Foot, head and stomach 
are extemporized for the occasion. Integration is consequent upon a loss of mo- 
tion, so that the different parts are allowed to come into combining and coépera- 
tive relations. 

4.  Differentiation:—By differentiation is meant in Evolution the process by 


THE SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AN ORGANON OF THE SCIENCES. 655 


which an unfolding structure becomes endowed with diverse functions. By virtue 
of the marvelous changes due to differentiation, two vital germs, apparently similar 
in nature, develop into two living beings widely dissimilar in form.and nature ; 
one may develop into the serpent which crawls in the dust, the other into the 
bird of-paradise which makes the forest glorious with its beauty. Integration and 
differentiation in organic evolution supplement each other. Without the former 
there would be no organic unity, but a mere assemblage of parts, each existing 
and acting fo itself. Without the latter there would be no specialization of struc- 
tures and functions, but a mere aggregation of parts. 

These principles, as worked out by Mr. Spencer, constitute the essential 
characteristics of evolution, which, as he has shown, applies to all orders of phe- 
nomena, whether organic or inorganic, as the universal law of the redistribution 
of matter, force and motion. We may define thus: Avolution ts an orderly and 
successive series of changes from a simple and homogeneous state to one that 1s complex 
and heterogeneous, through the twofold process of integration and differentiation conse- 
quent upon a loss of motion. 

It has been said by its opponents that Evolution is only a hypothesis. This 
we admit; but no one acquainted with the logic of science would argue from this 
that it should be regarded as false. If sustained by facts, if it explains what 
would otherwise remain unexplained, while, at the same time, it is not contra- 
dicted by any known principle of nature, then a scientific hypothesis is to be 
regarded as true. Science is largely built upon hypotheses of this character, such 
as the undulatory theory of light, and the molecular and atomic theories of mat- 
ter. As to absolute certainty, this is beyond the powers of inductive investiga- 
tion, as we are taught by the ablest writers on the logic of science. ‘‘ The theory 
of Spencer, says Prof. Jevons in his work on Zhe Principles of Science, ‘‘is to 
some extent hypothetical, just as all the theories of physical science are to some 
extent hypothetical, and open to doubt. Judging from the immense numbers 
of diverse facts which it harmonizes and explains, I venture to look upon the 
theory of evolution in its main features as one of the most probable hypotheses 
ever proposed.” 

Mr. Spencer, by an induction of facts never before equaled for the variety 
and extent of learning which they display, has shown how all those phenomena 
which involve questions of genesis or succession find their explanation and 
organizing law in Evolution. That the solar system had a nebular genesis is 
now, we may say, universally received by astronomers According to this theory 
the system had its origin out of a homogeneous and incandescent vapor, which 
rotating about a center passed through successive changes consequent upon a 
dissipation of motion in the form of heat. As the rotating mass cooled, there 
was integration; when this process had reached a certain stage, rings were thrown 
off from the more rapidly revolving equatorial regions, which gathered into 
planets. Here was differentiation. The central and larger portion being less 
condensed on account of its retained heat, formed the sun. Here we have evo- 


RY 


656 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


lution on a grand and imposing scale. The truth of the nebular theory has of 
late years received a most remarkable confirmation from the revelations of the 
spectroscope. When Galileo pointed his telescope to the planet Jupiter, and 
beheld his four moons revolving round their central world, the Copernican theory 
received a confirmation which its opponents could not withstand. In like man- 
ner, when the spectroscope was brought to the aid of astronomy, the theory of 
cosmic evolution received a confirmation which almost commands acceptance. 
Far off nebulz yield a spectra which prove them to be incandescertt gas in differ- 
ent stages of evolution,—embryo worlds which are now passing through the same 
successive phases of development as was once the case with our own system. 

Geological evolution is mainly distinguished from astronomical by the fact 
that it is chiefly due to the disturbing influence of radiation from foreign bodies, 
principally the sun. The facts of geology go to prove that the earth was once a 
reservoir of intense heat, which produced a repulsion among its elements, so that 
it ‘‘was without form and void,” or, in scientific language, a structureless mass 
with no definite arrangement and dependence among its parts. While this high 
temperature lasted, it must have been atime of universal tropics, so that there 
could have been no spring, summer, autumn and winter. Variety among the 
seasons arose from the loss of heat, so that the earth’s ‘‘ external temperature 
began to depend chiefly upon the supply of solar radiance.” Thus the continual 
loss of heat producing integration, and the heat retained in the central mass pro- 
ducing differentiation in structure gradually developed the earth into its present 
variety and ‘dependence of parts. ‘Thus arose its internal structure, and also 
those systems of moving equilibrium in its water and atmosphere upon which 
depend its different climates and seasons. The facts and principles which now 
form the beautiful and imposing edifice of geology were a mere mass of materials 
without method or order until they found their logical relations and explanations 
in the guiding principles of evolution. 

With regard to the application of evolution to organic phenomena, space will 
allow only a few brief statements. We make these more especially for the pur- 
pose of pointing out some of the misunderstandings which continually beset this 
aspect of the subject. Organic evolution is often spoken of by its opponents as 
though it were intended to set aside the idea of a Creator. Nothing can be 
farther from the truth. Evolution raises no question as to the ultimate origin of 
the world; admitting this with all its forces, physical and vital, to have sprung 
from a divine Creator, the question it has raised is one solely concerning the 
method of the divine procedure in the production of the wondrous forms of matter 
and life as we know them. Hence, the whole issue in organic evolution, as raised 
by Darwin, is one about the origin of existing species, whether these are super- 
natural creations by direct fia¢s, or have been developed from pre-existing species 
by the workings of natural causes. The prime object in his work on the ‘‘ Origin 
of Species,” as he himself states, was ‘‘to show that species had not been sepa- 
rately created.” 


THE SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY AN ORGANON OF THE SCIENCES. 657 


A fundamental difference between the old and the new theory of biology is 
that while the former endeavored to explain the diverse forms of life on teleolog- 
ical principles, the latter regards environing relations as an essential factor in 
solving such problems. Between the organism and its environment there is a con- 
tinual interaction which must, in the course of long ages, produce specific and 
well marked modifications. The law of Natural Selection, as proposed by Dar- 
win as an explanation of the manner in which present existing species have been 
developed from pre-existing ones, is based on the principle of adaptive changes 
which organisms must undergo in order to adjust themselves to changes in envi- 
roning relations. ‘The truth of this law derives strong support from the consider- 
ation that organisms are not such fixed and immutable forms as they were formerly 
supposed to be. It is clearly shown that this was especially the case during 
geologic time when types were /lwent, so to speak, and less subject to the law of 
limit, so that there was a transformation of one species into another. During 
the mesuzoic period geology shows that there were comprehensive types in which 
fish, reptile, bird and beast seemed to flow into one another. The law of Nat- 
ural Selection is not inconsistent with the operation of other causes in the devel- 
opment of species. Wallace, Mivart and LeConte, while assigning to this law an 
important sphere of action, contend for other causes, even supernatural fads. 
Evolution is the only hypothesis which affords an explanation of the empiric 
principles of biology. As the undulatory theory of light is the only hypothesis 
capable of explaining all the facts in the case, so Evolution is the only hypothesis. 
which has yet been offered capable of explaining the successions of species 
during the life-history of the earth. Evolution, having no rival theory as to the 
origin of species, has been almost as generally received by biologists as the undu- 
latory theory of light has been by physicists. As to the account of the miracu- 
lous creation in the first chapter of Genesis, this sets up no rival theory against 
evolution, for it leaves the origin of species an open question. The continuity 
and succession of events implied in evolution are not inconsistent with occasional 
manifestations of supernatural power. This occasional manifestation of super- 
natural power in the form of /a¢s is all that is taught in Genesis. The entire 
organic world was due to three fa/s, one for the creation of vegetable life, one for 
the creation of animal life, and one for the creation of man. But it is plainly 
implied that these miraculous /fia¢s were instantaneous manifestations of divine 
power, while geology teaches that the development of the myriad forms of life 
was a long process, extending over countless ages, during which time organic 
species arose in an ever advancing gradation. While, then, the beginning of 
those long periods termed days was marked by a supernatural faz, their duration 
was an unbroken evolution of the effects of those fiats, during which the succes- 
sions of life, from species to species, went forward according to the working of 
natural law. ‘There is, therefore, no reason why evolution should not be recog- 
nized as a fundamental principle of theology as well as of science, so far as the 
former needs to recognize any theory regarding the method of creation. The evo- 


658 | KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


lution of the organic kingdom seems like a continually ascending spiral rising 
into ever widening cycles of multiform life, which now and then by the accumu- 
lation or creation of force starts forth into sudden and paroxysmal forms of devel- 
opment. 

Evolution is now received as the working hypothesis in biology by which are 
settled all questions concerning organic types and classifications. Classifications 
in biology are no longer, as formerly, based on external and non-essential resem- 
blances, but on essential gemeftc relationships. On this point Prof. Gray, our 
most eminent American botanist, says: ‘‘ Taken as a working hypothesis, the 
doctrine of the derivation of species serves well for the co-ordination of all the 
facts in botany, and affords a probable and reasonable answer to a long series of 
questions which, without it, are totally unanswerable.” 

But in no department of investigation has the success of evolution in solving 
difficult problems been greater than in psychology. One of the great problems 
of psychology from Plato to the present time has been to explain the correspond- 
ence between the world of mind and the world of things. Now, if a theory is 
to be tested by its ability to explain questians which all others have failed to 
answer, then Evolution should be regarded as possessing the highest scientific 
value. The theory of evolution explains the intuitions or innate forms of thought 
in a manner so satisfactory as to make all previous efforts appear fanciful. It 
views the mind, not as a metaphysical entity acting in vacuo, but as a definite 
structure, an organism, eudowed with special facilities which have been moulded 
into their present form through a continuous interaction with environing forces. 
The effects thus produced by the law of heredity are transmissible, so that what 
was ancestral experience becomes in the individual an innate endowment of mental 
faculty. Hence, the correspondence between the mental faculties and the external 
world must be interpreted as due to the latter acting on and modifying the former 
in conformity with itself. Mind is thus brought within the category of organism, 
the fundamental law of which is Evolution; and as a complex structure due to 
the workings of this law, it grows and develops in conformity to surrounding 
forces and conditions. 

In view, therefore, of the great variety of proof in support of Evolution in 
which all the various orders of cosmic phenomena find their unity and explana- 
tion, we think the Synthetic Philosophy may justly be regarded as the orvganon of 
the sciences, as indicated in the title of this essay. 


Ir is feared that the Danish steamer Oscar Dickson, with an exploring party, 
has been lost in the Siberian Polar Seas. This is the Sweedish vessel which was 
named after Dr. Dickson, of Gothenberg, Sweeden, who equipped the last expe- 
dition of Prof. Nordenskjold. 


SCHLIEMANN’S DISCOVERIES AT TROY. 659 


ARCHAOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY. 


SCHLIEMANN’S DISCOVERIES AT TROY. 
JAMES MACALISTER. 


The name ef Dr. Schliemann has been so prominently before the public for 
a number of years that most persons know something of his eventful life and the 
discoveries associated with its later years. It is doubtful, however, if the mag- 
nitude of the work he has performed, and the vast importance of the results he 
has obtained, are generally understood. No one man has ever accomplished so 
much in the field of archzological research, or contributed so largely to the solu- 
tion of problems which have an undying interest for all intelligent minds. With 
an enthusiasm and a forgetfulness of self rare among men, he has devoted his 
hard-earned wealth and the prime of his manhood to the elucidation of the im- 
mortal poems that have charmed and instructed the world for three thousand 
years; and to him more than to any other man is due the feeling of certainty with 
which we can now regard these poems as historical records of a period that has 
-hitherto been regarded as purely mythical. 

It is seldom that the whole life of a man stands so closely related to the 
achievement which has brought him honor and fame as is the case with Schlie- 
mann. Born in poverty, and receiving but a limited education, he early formed 
the resolution to master the poems of Homer, and to discover the city beneath 
whose walls the battle of the /Zad took place. To find Troy was the dream of 
his boyhood—a dream which, through all the shifting scenes of his career, never 
forsook him, and to the realization of which he decided, at the age of forty-four, 
to give up the remainder of his days and the fortune he had gathered for this pur- 
jpose. While following the business which made him rich and procured him 
leisure, he kept the great aim of his life constantly in view, and fitted himself by 
the study of languages and history for the undertaking which, on retiring, he was 
ready to begin. In 1864 he relinquished commercial pursuits; and after five 
years spent in travel and in preparatory study at Paris, he repaired to the Trojan 
Plain to commence the excavations which have made him famous. With the ex- 
‘ception of the time spent at Mycenee, he has ever since pursued his researches 
there, carrying on extensive diggings at great expense, and seeking by various 
publications to make the world acquainted with the results of his labors. Alto- 
gether he has given about five years to the excavations at Troy. 

The chief purpose of Dr. Schliemann’s labors has been the verification of the 
Homeric legends concerning Troy. It was an object worthy of the noblest en- 
deavors of his enthusiastic nature. Where did the ‘‘Sacred Ilios” stand? Is 
‘Troy a myth; or was there really a city where Priam ruled, which was conquered, 
despoiled, and burned by the Grecian hosts? Was the Ten Years’ War, with its 


660 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


mighty deeds of arms, a fiction of the poet’s brain? Did Homer invent the 
scenes, the events, the men and women, of the /ad? These are the questions 
which this intrepid explorer in the field of classic legend took upon himself to. 
answer. He had a profound faith in Homer—an unwavering belief in the reality 
of his narrative; and the task he undertook was to prove the objective corres- 
pondence of the little corner of Jand in the extreme north-western corner of Asia 
Minor with the poetic description of the //Zad, and that the hill of Hissarlik is the 
very place where stood the ‘‘ Holy City’’ around which was enacted the ‘‘ Tale 
of Troy Divine.” i 

Piotf the reader will look at a classical map of the country around the Helles- 
pont, he will find in Troas a point south of the strait (the actual distance is three 
miles) marked Novum Ilium. On modern maps this name will be changed to 
Hissarlik. For centuries after Homer’s time, this was the accepted site of Troy. 
But about 200 B. C, a writer known as Demetrius of Scepsis challenged the 
identity of Novum Ilium with the ancient Ilios of Homer. His arguments were 
of the flimsiest character; but, unfortunately, his views were adopted by Strabo, 
the geographer, whose authority was respected till the end of the last century. 
It is not certain where Demetrius and Strabo placed the site, but it is supposed 
to have been at a place now known as Akshi Kioi (rather more than four miles in 
a direct line southeast of Hissarlik. In 1785, Lechevalier, a French traveler 
who had made a hasty examination of a portion of the Troad, put forward claims 
for a place called Bounarbashi as the spot where Troy had stood in the days of its 
strength and glory. Nearly sixty years ago an attempt was made to revive the 
identity of Novum Ilium with the Homeric Ilios, by Maclaren, an English writer. 
Since then scholars have disputed over the conflicting claims of Novum Ilium and 
Bounarbashi, and there is no saying how long the controversy might have con- 
tinued, had not Schliemann gone to work with pickaxe and spade, and applied 
the sure inductions of archeological science to the settlement of the question. 
He has spent years in Jaying open the soil at both places, and has produced in- 
contestable proofs in favor of the place which Greek tradition had asssociated 
with the story of the /Zad. Three feet below the surface of the hill at Bounar- 
bashi he struck the solid rock, and there were neither ruins nor remains to show 
that any city had ever stood there. Mr. Philip Smith has said that ‘‘ the theory 
of Lechevalier is a mere hypothesis, born from the fancy of a modern traveler, 
without the slightest historical or traditional foundation.” To this might be 
added that not a single fact or principle of archeology can be quoted in support 
of the Frenchman’s theory. 

Dr. Schliemann went to work in a very different spirit, and pursued very dif- 
ferent methods, from any of his predecessors. He organized an extensive estab- 
lishment at Hissarlik, and labored with a zeal that knew no bounds. His. 
excavations extend to a depth of 521% feet from the surface. In penetrating to 
this depth he passed through a series of seven strata, differing from each other in 
many particulars. In his opinion these strata correspond to a succession of cities 


SCHLIEMANN’S DISCOVERIES AT TROY. 661 


that have arieen one above the other through long periods of time. The lowest 
stratum goes back to a prehistoric age which must have antedated the Trojan war 
by many centuries; the highest stratum was the site of the Hellenic city of Novum 
Tlium. It is the third stratum, thirty-three feet from the bottom and ten feet 
thick, which Schlieman identifies as the Homeric Ilios. Here he claims to have 
found the ruins of a city which answers to all the requirements of the //ad, and it 
is to the substantiation of this claim that his book is devoted. It would be sheer 
presumption to think of summing up in a few lines the immense mass of facts and 
reasoning gathered in the eight hundred pages of the work; but we may venture 
to state in the briefest form the principal propositions by which the conclusion is 
obtained. 

First—The position of the hill of Hissarlik answers nearly all the demands of 
the iad as to the topography and scenery of the surrounding country, in which 
the action of the poem is represented as taking place. 

Second—The structure and arrangement of the ruins of the third stratum 
which have been laid bare correspond to a remarkable extent with the descrip- 
tions of the poem. 

Third —The place bears the strongest evidence of having been destroyed by 
a great conflagration, and in this respect furnishes peculiar evidence of its identity 
with the city which Homer describes as having been given to the flames by the 
victorious Greeks. 

Fourth—The ten treasures of gold and silver found in or near the principal 
house prove the city to have been the residence of a powerful and wealthy chief— 
such an one as Priam is described to be in the poem. These treasures afford 
good ground for the epithet ‘‘ City of Gold,” so frequently used. 

Fifth—The archzological remains of all kinds found in such abundance are 
such as naturally belong to the age which can fairly be assigned to this third 
stratum of the excavations, and correspond with great exactness to the descrip- 
tions of the Ziad. 

Szxth—The historical testimony, to which allusion has already been made, is 
strongly corroborative of the disclosures made by the excavations at Hissarlik. 
It is not likely that Xerxes would have visited Novum Ilium to make libations to 
the heroes slain in the Trojan war, or that Alexander would have come thither to 
offer sacrifices to Priam when on his way to the East, if the traditions which con- 
nected Novum Ilium with the Troy of Homer had not been well founded and 
universally believed. 

It is not pretended, of course, that the topography and remains of the third 
‘city unearthed at Hissarlik correspond in every particular with the pen of Homer. 
It must not be forgotten that Homer deals with his matter in the large and 
imaginative manner of the poet. Still, the agreement is much more striking than 
would be suspected; and, taken together, the propositions stated above make out 
an overwhelming case in favor of Schliemann’s views. As Professor Virchow has 
well said, ‘‘It is not left to our choice where we should place Ilium; therefore we 


662 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


must have a place which answers to all the requirements of the poetry; therefore 
we are compelled to say: Herve, upon the fortress-hill of Hissarlik—heve, upon 
the ruins of the burnt City of Gold—/uve was Llium.”’ 

Closely connected with the problem as to where Troy stood are other ques- 
tions of fascinating interest. It is but a step to the inquiry whether the persons 
and incidents described in the //ad are to be treated as myths or regarded as his- 
torical facts. There is no room for the discussion of this question here; but we 
may be permitted to remark that since the publication of Dr. Schliemann’s 
researches but few scholars of eminence have cared to speak of the //ad as noth- 
ing more than a collection of poetical fictions. All, indeed, are not willing to 
follow Mr. Gladstone in yielding to Homer an historical authority quite equal to 
that of Herodotus. But that the Trojan war was an actual struggle, ‘‘some 
scene of that act of the warfare between Europe and Asia which made the western 
coast of Asia forever Greek,” as Mr. Freeman puts it, is a proposition entitled by 
every canon of historical criticism to unqualified acceptance. The traditions. 
woven into poetic form by Homer must have rested upon a solid basis of fact. 
Transformed to a very considerable extent they no doubt were by ‘‘the vision 
and the faculty divine” of the poet; but we cannot close our eyes to the literal 
exactness with which many of Homer’s lines fit into the facts revealed by Schlie- 
mann. Henceforth we may have the satisfaction of feeling that Homer was not 
only mighty in fancy—the inspired singer of the ‘‘ways and workings of the 
Olympian gods”—but a trustworthy narrator of historic events. Achilles and 
Hector may be names invented by the poet; but we may be sure that they stand. 
for heroes who actually engaged in deadly strife before the walls of Priam’s city. 
We get from Professor Virchow, a scientific observer of nature, so complete an 
idea of the Trojan plain and the surrounding scenery, as seen from Hissarlik, 
that it seems almost impossible to read the //ad now without realising that it is 
not all fiction. We can stand upon ‘‘Ilion’s towers’’ and view Mount Ida, ‘‘rich 
in springs,’’ where Zeus, the ‘‘cloud-compeller,” dwelt; the heights of ‘‘ woody” 
Samothrace, the seat of ‘‘earth-shaking” Poseidon ; the ‘‘ flowery mead” through 
which the ‘‘eddying” Scamander hurries to the sea; the Hellespontine shore 
where the ships of the Achzeans lay beached in ‘‘double rows.” We can sit in 
the place where Priam, with his ‘‘sage chiefs and councillors,’’ watched 


‘the glorious deeds 
Of Trojan warriors and of brass-clad Greeks.” 


And we can walk through the ‘‘Scezean Gates,” where Hector of the ‘‘ gleaming 
helm” took a last farewell of the ‘‘fair’ Andromache. Surely these glorious 
memories are not all the mere fancies of a poet’s mind!: Surely the war of Troy 
must be real history! Surely this is Troy itself, dismantled and burnt by the fury 
of the victorious Greeks! 

But there is still another question connected with Schliemann’s discoveries 
which must not be allowed to pass unnoticed. Even if it should be granted that 
Troy had a real existence, and that the Ten Years’ War is an historic fact, the 


AMERICAN POTTERY. 663 


problem of Homer himself would still remain to be settled. Was Homer a real 
person? When did he live, and to what country did he belong? Are the Homeric 
poems the work of one poet or of more than one? Are the /izad and the Oajssey 
by the same person? Is the Ziad one poem, or was it formed by the insertion of 
certain books in an earlier Achrlleid? These are not new questions, and they exist 
quite independently of Schliemann’s explorations.. But these explorations throw 
a flood of light upon the Homeric problem. We need scarcely say that Schlie- 
mann believes in the actual existence of Homer and the substantial unity of the 
Homeric poems; and his researches, and the use which has been made of them 
by scholars, have immensely strengthened this side of the controversy. The 
archzological knowledge we now possess all goes to show that while Homer, to 
use the language of Mr. Gladstone, ‘‘was neither contemporary nor denizen of 
Troy,’”’ he must have been familiar with the city and its surroundings, and that he 
could not have been far removed in time from the events of which he sings. Dr. 
Schlieman is exceedingly guarded in his statements concerning the time and place 
of Homer; but we are inclined to think that Virchow does not speak too strongly 
when he says that ‘‘the //ad could not have been composed by a man who had 
not been in the country of the Ziad”; that the ‘‘bard must have stood upon the 
hill of Hissarlik and have looked out thence over land and sea,” and that ‘‘in no 
other way could he probably have combined so much truth to nature in his 
poem.” And the learned professor does not believe it possible that ‘‘a poet liv- 
ing at a distance could have evolved out of his imagination so faithful a picture 
of the land and people as embodied in the /éad.”— The Dial. 


AMERICAN POTTERY. 


PROF. F. W. PUTNAM. 


Twenty-four years ago Professor Swallow, of Missouri, explored two mounds. 
near New Madrid, in the southeastern part of that State, from which he obtained 
about a hundred specimens of pottery and numerous other objects. This collec- 
tion was secured by the Peabody museum of Archeeology at Cambridge in 1874, 
and was briefly noticed in the Eighth Report of the Museum. At the time of its. 
purchase the ‘‘ Swallow Collection” was considered of great value and impor- 
tance, as comparatively few objects of pottery were then known from the mounds. 
and ancient burial places of the Southwestern States. Since then many of the 
mounds of Southwestern Missouri and of the adjoining portions of Arkansas. 
have. been more or less thoroughly explored, and there are now probably from 
fifteen to twenty thousand objects of pottery in public and private collections 
which were obtained from that region, and are known to the archeologists under 
the general term of ‘‘ Missouri Pottery.” Although this peculiar type of pot- 
tery has received its name from first having been found in abundance in the New 
Madrid region, it would be incorrect to imply that pottery of the same general. 
character is limited to that locality; for it is also known to be more or less abun-- 


664 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


dant, here and there, throughout a large portion of the country drained by the 
central and lower Mississippi and its tributaries. Each little center in this desig- 
nated territory, however, has its local peculiarities; just as we should expect 
would be the case in the work of a widely spread people subdivided into tribes 
and villages, but deriving the knowledge of the art from a common source. 

A thorough acquaintance with this type of pottery, from its comparative 
abundance, wide distribution and peculiar forms, is of great importance in Amer- 
ican archeology; and the Archeological Section of the St. Louis Academy has 
done a good work in placing within reach of all students the present elaborately 
illustrated memoir,* which is the first of a series on the archeology of a region 
that is exceedingly rich in prehistoric and early Indian remains. 

The memoir is divided into two sections. In the first part W. B. Potter 
gives an interesting account of the position and character of the earth-works 
and mounds in the southeastern portion of the State of Missouri, including an 
dmportant geological account of the great “Swamp Region” in which they are 
found. Accompanying this part of the memoir are five maps, showing the loca- 
tion of the old settlements on the ‘‘ridges.’”’ These settlements are surrounded 
‘by embankments and ditches, and include most of the mounds which were ex- 
plored by members of the Academy. 

The pottery obtained from them is described by Dr. Edward Evers in the 
second part of the memoir, accompanied with twenty-four lithographic plates, 
upon which are represented over one hundred and forty vessels of various shapes 
and different styles of ornamentation, which were selected for illustration from 
over four thousand specimens, belonging principally to the collections of the 
Academy, Dr. Engelmann, and Prof. Potter. 

In common with the pottery from many other and widely distant nations 
nd countries, many of the vessels from the Missouri mounds can be classed as 
water-bottles, bowls, dishes, and jars, and pots with or without handles. Occa- 
sionally a vessel is found which has a general resemblance to a form that is com- 
mon to some other locality, and leads one to speculate on the possibility of a 
transmission of the form from a widely separated people, or on the possibility of 
the individual occurence of the same ideas, expressed by the peculiar design, 
among people who were far apart. This thought will probably occur to many on 
glancing over the illustrations in the volume, when the general resemblances _be- 
tween many of the Missouri vessels and those from Central America and Peru, 
and the early Asiatic and Egyptian forms, will be apparent; but when the vessels 
themselves are studied, the method of their manufacture, the peculiarities of their 
ornamentation, and many little technicalities, will show a far greater divergence 
in the art itself than is expressed by the simple occurrence of identity in form 
and the realistic ornamentation common to many nations during corresponding 
periods of development. 

It is hardly necessary to state here that the Missouri pottery was made with- 


*CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ARCHZOLOGY OF MissouRI, by the Archeological Section of the St. Louis 
Academy of Science. Part I. Potvery. 


INDIAN TRADITIONS RESPECTING THEIR ORIGIN. 665 


out the use of the wheel, and is not glazed. Much of it is well burnt and is 
comparatively thin and hard. Probably the kiln was not used, and the harden- 
ing was done entirely by heating over coals or burning in an open fire. Dr. 
Evers mentions much of the dark pottery as simply sun-dried, but a series of ex- 
periments has led me to the conclusion that this is an error, and that simple sun- 
dried specimens are seldom found. ‘The dark-colored vessels are unquestionably 
very near the natural color of the blue clay of which they are made, but this 
color is not changed unless the color is subjected to considerable heat. The 
slight luster on the vessels was probably produced by polishing the surface with a 
smooth stone while the clay was soft, as is still done by many Indian tribes in 
America. 

Much of the Missouri pottery is ornamented by waved lines, circles, and 
stars, and other simple and symmetrical designs, in red, white, and black; but 
these colors were put on after burning, with a few exceptions, and are only well 
preserved under favorable conditions. In some of the red vessels the color was 
burnt in. Common incised lines and designs, and ‘‘ punch” and ‘‘nail” orna- 
mentation, also occur. 

The most important and interesting of the vessels are those that are modeled 
after natural forms which they faithfully represent, such as the gourd-like bottles 
and shell-like dishes, and those in which the design in ornamenting the vessel is 
to give the characteristics, if not the forms, of fishes, frogs, birds, beavers, pan- 
thers, bears, and other animals, as well as of men and women. Of such forms 
the plates in the memoir give many characteristic examples that are well worth a 
study. 

In this brief notice of the work it is only intended to call the attention of 
the readers of the Revitw to the first important memoir that has appeared on 
the as yet little known pottery of America, and to ask for it the attention which 
the subject demands. The time has at last come when the antiquities of our 
country and the remains of former Indian tribes are beginning to receive careful 
attention, and wild speculations and lo»se statements are giving way before the 
accurate presentation of facts. Such memoirs as the present will do much to 
put the knowledge of the archeology of America before the public ina proper 
way, and we can but offer our congratulations to the gentlemen of the St. Louis 
Academy who have presented a portion of the results of their explorations to the 
public in this modest, conscientiously written, and well-illustrated memoir. May 
its reception be such as to secure the publication of the other numbers of the 
series as proposed.—American Art Review. 


INDIAN TRADITIONS RESPECTING THEIR ORIGIN. 
T. L. LEWIS—BOLIVAR, MO. 


Almost every tribe has its own peculiar idea of the ‘‘ origin of man.” Man 
yi p g y 


of the South American Indians, as well as most of our Southwestern tribes, rep- 


resent, in their traditions, their fathers as issuing from caves, springs or lakes, 
IV—45 


666 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


which accounts for the peculiar veneration they have for springs, caves and lakes. 

In Peru the natives of the valley of Xanca claim to be the descendants from 
a man and woman who came out of the spring of Guaribalia; those of Cuzco, 
that they came out of Lake Titicaca, while those of the valley of Andabayla say 
that they came out of Lake Socdococa. There is also a Peruvian tradition that 
after the flood six people came out of a cave and re-peopled the desolate earth. 

The Caddoes, Ionies and Ahmandankas of Texas had a tradition that they 
issued from the Hot Springs of Arkansas. The Mandans and Minnetaries, on 
the Missouri River, say they came out of a large cavern. 

The Appalachian tribes claim to have originated at an artificial mound on the 
Big Black River in the Natchez country. 

De Smet tells us of a tradition among the Blackfeet which is romantic as it is 
peculiar. There are two lakes, the Lake of Men and the Lake of Women. From 
the one man had his origin, the other woman. Upon the first meeting of the 
sexes the men struck up a sharp bargain with the women, in which the latter were 
outwitted and reduced to perpetual drudgery. The men proposed to become 
their protectors on the one condition that they would assume all the household 
care and drudgery. 

The Ute Indians tell of a beginning when the earth was covered with mist, 
which the Great Spirit dispersed it with the bow and arrow, and found the earth 
uninhabited. He then took clay, fashioned man, and set him to bake, but as it 
was only an experiment, the fires were not hot enough, so he came out white—a 
white man. ‘The Great Spirit tried it again, with a more intense heat. Leaving 
him to roast a long time, he came out black—the negro. He then fashioned one 
with greater skill, and after the most careful baking, he came out red—the red 
man, the first Indian—the most perfect type of manhood. 

Some others claim an animal origin, as the Toukaways of Texas, from a 
mole; the Lenni Lenapes or Delawares from a snail which inhabited the banks of 
a large river which had its source in the mountains near the rising sun. The 
Choctaws assert that they were originally crawfish. One day a part of the family 
were out enjoying the sun and were carried away and became Choctaws. The 


remainder are yet under the earth. Such is the general character of their tradi- 
tions. 


Dr. George M. Beard repeated in the New York Academy of Sciences his 
interesting mesmeric experiments with the patients whom he has specially trained 
for this purpose. The results were again most interesting and astonishing. Arti- 
ficial catalepsy was produced, and each of the senses temporarily suspended 
at will, The experiments in the production of local anesthesia were particularly 
interesting ; a small spot in the face of one patient being made insensible to pain, 
while all the surrounding parts were abnormally sensitive. 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, 667 


BOWMAN: 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
REV. L. J. TEMPLIN, HUTCHINSON, KANSAS. 


[ Concluded. | 


We now approach the period in the world’s history that was par excellence the 
age of plants, viz: the Carboniferous Age; the flora of which has been anticipat- 
ed in the Devonian Age. In this last we also find anticipation of coal beds in 
the dark bands colored by carbonaceous matter, which are found between the 
strata of this age. The vegetation of the Carboniferous Age surpassed in Juxuri- 
ance and grandeur all that had preceded it; and at least, in the abundance of in- 
dividual plants it has never since been approached. The land was composed 
principally of low, marshy islands that were subject to elevation and depression 
at long and irregular intervals. They were consequently sometimes above the 
water, and at others the sea would come overand cover them. Theclimate was 
tropical in its character, and the atmosphere heavily charged with carbonic acid; on 
account of the absence of elevated land to cause precipitation it was constantly 
filled, almost, if not quite, to saturation with moisture. All these furnished con- 
ditions favorable for the production of a vegetation, so luxuriant in its abundance 
and so gigantic in its proportions, that it is doubtful whether the most favored 
localities in tropical countries of the present day can furnish a parallel. 
The most important plants of this age of Acro-ens may be considered as be- 
longing to five different families. Beginning with the lowest and simplest, the 
families are Calamites, Sigillarids, Lepidodendrids, Ferns and Conifers. The 
first three of these are generally classed as Lycopods and Equisete; but there 
are good reasons for considering them as distinct families. Calamites were plants 
with long, slender, reed-like stems either hollow or containing a pith. These 
stems were composed of woody structure, and with vascular tissue resembling 
exogenous gymnosperms. ‘The leaves, which were narrow and pointed, were ar- 
ranged in whorls around the nodes of the stem. The internodes were fluted or 
striated, the strize extending only between the nodes. It is probable the equisetz 
belonged here. During the coal age these grew to tree-like proportions, though 
at the present day they are represented in this country only by the scouring rush- 
es that seldom rise above three feet in height. 

Among the most singular and interesting plants of this age, were the Sigil- 
larids. The Sigillaria are found as fossils in flattened trunks, roots and leaves. 
The trunks of these trees are fluted vertically like the Grecian Doric style of ar- 
chitecture. Each of these flutes has a line of sculpture running down its center 
varying in shape with the different species, and giving the trees a very ornate ap- 
pearance. These sculpture-like markings are the scars left by the leaves, being 
the places where the leaves had been attached to the stem. 


668 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


These trees grew to the height of 70 or even roo feet; they probably had 
few large branches that were covered with long, stiff, pointed leaves. The roots, 
of which the soil seems to have been filled, had the peculiarity of terminating 
quite abruptly, as if they had been of the nature of rhizoma. These were proba- 
bly the largest trees that flourished in the Carboniferous age, their remains hav- 
ing been found four to five feet in diameter, and with an estimated height of 95 
to 100 feet. These resembled on one hand palms or cycads, and on the other 
they were closely allied to the lycopods. Indeed, so strong are the affinities of 
this for both of these families, that by some naturalists it is classed with the one, 
and by others it 1s placed with the other. The Sigillarids were among the most 
numerous of all the orders that flourished during this age. More than twenty 
species have been discovered, and extensive beds of coal appear to have been 
formed almost exclusively of plants belonging to this family. The Lepidodendra 
were great trees of the Club Moss type that grew to the height of 40 to 60 feet, 
and with trunks that sometimes attained to three or four feet in diameter. The 
typical genus, Lepidodendron, which was probably one of the largest of the fam- 
ily, had a bark regularly marked in a rkomboidal pattern resembling the scaly sur- 
face ofa ganoid fish, from which the genus takes its name, which signifies ‘‘scale 
tree.’ 

These marks which run obliquely around the stem represent the phylotaxis, 
and give the stem a pleasing and somewhat ornate appearance. The trees were 
furnished with long, spreading roots, that were calculated to fix them firmly in 
the soft, boggy soil in which they probably grew. In general appearance these 
trees resembled the modern Auricaria or Norfolk pine, or a giant club-moss. In 
fructification they resembled the true club-mosses, but the stem possessed 
a true pith, and in this respect the genus was raised far above the 
modern club-mosses and showed decided affinities with endogens. The 
most abundant family of plants of the coal age, in both individuals and 
species, were ferns. The erm family constituted about one-third of all the plants 
of this age in both Europe and America. Im the British coal flora, of less than 
300 species of plants, 120 were ferns and 45 more were more nearly allied 
to ferns than to any other known family. The total number of species of plants 
in the coal measures of America was about 500, not less than 250, or one-half, of 
which are ferns. These ferns varied in size from the humble, creeping species 
that trailed on the ground to those of towering trees. In order to enable them 
to resist the force of the wind the lower part of the trunk was strengthened by 
having the soft, cellular tissue abundantly penetrated by bundles or buttresses of 
dense vascular fiber, as tough and elastic as the strongest wood. The last and 
highest family of vegetation that flourished during the coal measure period, and 
that contributed toward making up that vast accumulation of vegetable remains, 
the carbonization of which produced the various beds of coal of that age, is that of 
Gymnospermous conifers. ‘These did not enter into the composition of coal to a 
very great extent as compared with the previously mentioned families, their 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 669 


remains being generally in the form of logs, stumps, fruits and leaves, which are 
most generally embedded in the limestones and sandstones of that age. They 
were doubtless upland productions, and those that are preserved as fossils were 
probably driftwood that had been carried down by flocds and buried in the 
alluvial deposits of that time. Though these were without doubt conifers, they 
bore little resemblance to modern genera and seem to have been very generalized 
types. They appear to have borne a considerable resemblance to the Auricaria 
or Norfolk pines of the present day. 

Such is a very general outline of the flora of the coal period. A few facts 
in connection with this flora are worthy of more extended consideration. The 
first fact that arrests attention is the vast amount of vegetable matter that must 
have been produced during thisage. It has been estimated that it requires not 
less than eight to twelve feet of vegetation to make one foot of coal, and that a 
vegetable production of two tons per acre per annum would, when the lighter 
gases—hydrogen and oxygen—are eliminated, as is always the case in forming 
coal, produce only one-fourth of an inch of coal in a century. At this rate it 
would require about 5,c00 years to form one foot of coal. Now, in some 
localities there are beds of 40 to 50 feet of almost pure coal, while in places the 
aggregate of the different beds reaches 100 and even 150 feet of solid coal. 
This would indicate an enormous lapse of time, or a luxuriance of vegetation of 
which we can form no conception. Probably both these causes operated to pro- 
duce these results. 

The next fact to be noticed is the highly differentiated character of the flora 
of the carboniferous age. We have here in contemporaneous existence the Thal- 
logens of earlier ages, the Acrogens for which this age is specially noted, and the 
Exogens that were more conspicuous in later times. 

Though these all flourished contemporaneously, it has been assumed by some 
that the more highly developed forms were derived from the more simple by a 
process of development. But while there has been a general advance in structure 
of vegetable organisms, there is a lack of evidence of related successional forms 
that would seem to be essential to sustain such a theory. According to the 
evolution theory, the various types of plants should have appeared in the order 
of their complexity of structure: First, the Thallogens, next the Acrogens, 
next the Endogens, followed still later by the Exogens. And not only should 
they have appeared in this order of succession, but there should have been 
gradational forms to show the successive steps by which the lower rose to the 
higher forms. But such intermediate forms are not forthcoming. 

The higher types appear suddenly and without any appearance of progenitors 
of any earlier types. The assumption that such development must have taken 
place during the long lapse of time that is supposed to have intervened between 
the different eras and of which we have no record left in the rocks, is certainly 
not consistent with the rules of evidence required by scientific reasoning. It is 
assuming that the theory must be true simply because we do not know it to be 


670 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


untrue. Such a course of reasoning—which is basing our science on our ignor- 
ance instead of on our knowledge—can hardly be considered in accordance with 
the certainty demanded to establish a scientific truth. A third fact concerning 
the coal flora is, that though the most luxuriant the earth has ever produced, it 
was in its nature utterly unfit to minister to the wants of herbivorous animals. 
A few mandibulate insects may have found sustenance in the foliage, bark or 
wood of some of the vegetable forms of that age, but we have no evidence that 
any higher animal organisms ever grazed on the verdant plains or browsed in the 
luxuriant forests of that age specially noted for the abundance of its vegetable 
productions. ‘The higher animals of this age seem to have been amphibians that 
probably preyed on the lower forms of animal existence. The orders of plants 
that prevailed at that time contribute but little to animal sustenance at the present 
time when herb-eating animals are so extremely abundant. 

The Reptilian Age, which succeeded to the carboniferous, was also charac- 
terized by the production of extensive beds of coal, indicating a flora that in 
some degree would rival that of the preceding age. 

Extensive coal deposits of this age are found in Eastern Virginia, North 
Carolina, England, Scotland, India and China. A considerable change, how- 
ever, had taken place in the vegetable tribes since the coal age proper. The 
Lepidodendrids, Sigillarids and Calamites of the previous age had measurab'y or 
entirely disappeared, and the forest vegetation of the age of reptiles was com- 
posed principally of tree ferns, cycads and conifers. The first of these, which 
had formed so conspicuous a portion of the flora of the previous age, still existed 
in great numbers, forming near two-fifths of the whole flora. The cycads, which 
appear here for the first time, were a family of plants allied on one hand to the 
ferns and on the other to the conifers, and which, in their general appearance, 
resembled stunted palms. Numerous species of conifers appeared during the 
earlier periods of this era. The Odlitic and Jurassic periods were remarkable 
for the abundant gymnospermous forests that existed. As the coal measure 
periods were remarkable for the prevalence of acrogens, so these were noticeable 
for the great number and luxuriance of zymnospermous conifers. But when we 
reach the Cretaceous, the latest period of this era, we find a great advance in the 
development of vegetable organisms. A more radical change in the flora of the 
earth never appeared at any other period in the world’s history. This period 
reveals a type of plants not found in any of the older rocks. Angiosperms, both 
dicotyls and palms, are here found in great abundance. The appearance of a 
cretaceous forest would have been quite modern compared with an) thing that had 
ever appeared before. Among other modern genera might have been seen oak, 
beech, poplar, walnut, hickory, willow, maple, dogwood, sycamore, sassafras, 
tulip-tree, laurel, sweet-gum, fig and myrtle. Many of these genera were repre- 
sented by a considerable number of species that can boast of but one or two at 
the present time. Of this we find examples in the sassafras, sycamore and 
others. It thus appears that many of these genera are but the fragments of a 
much richer flora of an earlier age. When we reach the next age—the Cenozoic 


HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 671 


or Mammalian—we find the vegetable productions still more resembling those of 
the present. The genera of dicotyls, palms and grasses, were the same as now, 
though the species were different. The indications are that a warm climate pre- 
vailed far to the north, many of the plants of that age being palms, and among 
the dicotyls were many, such as the magnolias, that at the present time flourish 
only inthe warm latitudes. In Eocene times numerous species of palms flour- 
ished in Europe, while plants of the amentiferous orders, as the oak, beech, 
hazel, etc., were perhaps quite as abundant as at the present day. 

During the Miocene period more than thirty species of palms flourished in 
Europe, while the country was covered, even as far north as Iceland, Lapland 
and Spitzbergen with evergreens such as now flourish only in the more southern 
parts of that continent. Much of the flora of Europe at that time closely resem- 
bled the present flora of the United States, as in the plane and buckthorn 
families. Many of the vegetable productions of America at that time were much 
the same as now, as the Sequoias or Big Trees and Redwood of California. The 
mildness of the climate of the higher latitudes was also evidenced by the fact that 
magnolias, libocedrus and taxodiums that now flourish only in the warmer cli- 
mates, grew luxuriously in Greenland, also in Northern Europe. We now ap- 
proach the age of Man—the Quaternary or present age—in which the changes 
in the vegetable kingdom were more in the introduction of new species of already 
existing genera, than of new genera. 

I have now traced the history of the Vegetable Kingdom from the earliest 
dawn of its existence of which we have the slightest clew down to the present 
fully developed and highly differentiated flora of the world We have found that 
reasons exist for believing that vegetation existed at a much earlier date in the 
world’s history than is shown by any vegetable fossils, the evidences of such 
existence being found, not in direct vegetable remains, but in certain facts that 
cannot be accounted for in the present state of knowledge on any other hypothe- 
sis. It has been seen that there has been a general upward tendency—a devel- 
opment of plan marking the whole progress of this history. First appeared 
plants of the most simple character, consisting of simple stems. ‘These, of 
course, were all marine. Next, the lower cryptogamic plants appeared, followed 
in order by lower forms of conifers, finally culminating in the highly developed 
dicotyledonous flora of the present time. I have given some reasons for not 
accepting the theory that this constant ascension to higher and more complex 
organisms was the result of ‘‘ Descent with Modification ;” not that I have any 
objection to evolution in itself; I simply doubt the adequacy or legitimacy of the 
proofs by which it is sought to be established. The rule of development that has 
governed in the introduction of higher forms has been by sudden jumps from 
lower to higher forms, and not by gradual modifieation. In most cases of marked 
advance, all intermediate forms, if they ever existed, appear to have utterly 
perished, leaving no trace behind. To assume that they have existed and per- 
ished is to beg the whole question, and it is disconsonant with the rigid and exact 
methods that are and should be demanded in all scientific investigation. 


672 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


CwOvoGg ye 


GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BIBLE LANDS. 
PRINCIPAL J. W. DAWSON. 


[We find in an Auburn paper an abstract of two of Principal Dawson’s lec- 
tures at the Theological Seminary in that city upon ‘‘ The Geological Features of 
Bible Lands.” That upon the special topic, ‘‘ The Geology of Egypt in Relation 
to the Hebrew Sojourn,” is as follows :—ED. | 

On the blackboard was a section illustrating the geological structure of 
Egypt, drawn in white chalk. Underneath this was written the following scheme: 

ranite and Diorite )} , ° 

eee Stales } Co) 

Nubian Sandstone, (Carboniferous), 

Nummulitic Limestone. 

Later Tertiary. 

Alluvial. 

The lecturer began by alluding to the sojourn of Israel in Egvpt. He took 
the view that this lasted through the entire period of 430 years, mentioned in the 
Bible, as opposed to the view that the 430 years began with the departure of 
Abraham from Ur of the Chaldees. Then, after noticing the importance of the 
sojourn in Egypt, as a means of training to the chosen people, he entered upon 
the geographical character of Egypt, the country of the sojourn. He cited the 
ancient saying that ‘‘ Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” The narrow strip of fertile 
country broadening out, to the north, into the Delta, is made by the materials 
brought down and deposited by the great river. Apart from this, Egypt is simi- 
lar, geographically, to the rest of Northern Africa. 

Pointing to the large map of Egypt the lecturer called attention to the 
Lybian hills on the east, the Nubian hills on the west, and the valley of the 
Nile between them, and then took up, in order, the scheme on the blackboard. 
The oldest Egyptian rocks are the granite and diorite, the latter often called basalt 
by travelers. These are igneous and eruptive in their origin, that is, formed by 
the action of fire, and pushed up above their former level by eruptions. The lec- 
turer pointed out on the map the distribution of these rocks, and filled up the 
places assigned to them in the section on the blackboard with little crosses marked 
in red chalk. He also exhibited specimens and explained the uses made of them 
by the Egyptians. The great obelisks, the facings of the pyramids, and other 
like works were made of granite, quarried at Syene, and floated down the Nile. 
In the geography of the country, also, the granite foundation was important. It 
caused the cataracts of the Nile, thus forming the limit of Egypt. The succeed- 
ing parts of the scheme on the board were treated in the same way. 

This analysis was followed by a rapid sketch of the formation of the land of 
Egypt, first by the upheaval of the igneous rocks, then by the depositing, upon 


GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BIBLE LANDS. 673: 


and against these, of the successive sandstone and limestones, and afterward the 
formation of the later rocks and soil. 

All this had much to do with the nature of the Hebrew sojourn, and with 
their employments and their training while in Egypt. The probable location of 
the land of Goshen was indicated. When the Israelites were first assigned to it, 
it was probably being just reclaimed by drainage and irrigation. The marshes to 
the north afforded pasturage for cattle, and the hills to the south for sheep. 
These and various other circumstances attending the sojourn, were illustrated by 
means of the physical characteristics of the country. 

The subject of the second lecture was ‘‘ The Geology of the Sinai Peninsula 
and its relation to the history of the Exodus.” To the maps and diagrams before 
exhibited were added a larger geological map of the southern part of the penin- 
sula, and cross-sections of the isthmus of Suez and Palestine. The blackboard 
bore a chart of geological strata, substantially like that presented for Egypt on 
Thursday evening. 

The peninsula of Sinai, said the lecturer, having been for years compara- 
tively unknown, is now accurately known to its whole extent, owing to the re- 
cent careful Ordnance Survey under the auspices of the English Society for the 
exploration of Palestine and other neighboring countries. It is a great triangle, 
150 miles at its greatest breadth across the north, and 130 miles long. Its geo- 
logical formations are identical with those of Egypt, though differently arranged. 
The mountain region of the lower part is of great physical grandeur, the great 
rough granite mountains rising to the height of 9,000 feet, and the valley-plains 
between them being 4,000 feet above the sea Thus in a very small area a wide 
variety of climate, of scenery and of geological structure is found. The moun- 
tains are formed of syenite granite, associated with gneiss and dolorite of the 
Eozoic ages, and flanked on every side by a belt of Nubian sandstone, rich in 
ores of copper, iron and manganese. North of this, and forming the great in- 
terior table land which reaches almost to the Mediterranean, are formations of 
cretaceous limestone and of Nummulite limestone of the Eocene period. The 
other geological formations are a broad strip of later tertiary gypsum series 
across the north, raised beaches of the post-pliocene on all sides of the peninsula 
and desert drift of modern formation in various places. 

At the time of the exodus of Israel the peninsula was inhabited by three 
peoples: the Amalekites, nomadic, and pastoral, occupying the arid interior table- 
land; Egyptian miners and garrisons holding some of the western valleys of the 
mountains, and the Midianites, miners, and merchantmen, filling the eastern 
coast along the gulf of Akabah. 

The lecturer then went on to speak of the route of the exodus from Egypt, 
the crossing of the Red Sea, etc. Mustering at Ramses, in their own ‘‘ Land of 
Goshen,” they were a host of 600,000 armed men, and with women and chil- 
dren must have numbered more than two millions, exclusive of the ‘*‘ mixed mul- 
titude,” which chose to cast its lot with them. From Ramses across the isthmus 
of Suez three ways were possible: 1. The maritime road along the coast, be- 


674 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


tween the Mediterranean and the Serbonian marsh, recently maintained by 
Brugsch-Bey to have been their route; 2. The direct highway across the desert 
to Canaan, a military road, probably garrisoned by Egyptians; and 3d. The way 
of the Red Sea. The third is favored alike by probability and the Biblical narra- 
tive. They turned then to the southeast, but instead of crossing above Suez, be- 
tween the gulf and the bitter lakes, were Divinely directed to go further down and 
encamp by the sea, the mountains shutting them in on allother sides. Pharaoh 
endeavored to hem them in from the rear, when Divine interposition opened the 
path through the sea. 

Of three places which have been supposed to be the place of the crossing, 
that just at Suez is in every respect the most probable. This miracle was in the 
use of natural causes, a strong northeast wind laying bare some one of the ridges 
of the bottom, as even now it occasionally makes the shallows fordable. That 
the host in the dead of night and in an awful storm were emboldened to make the 
passage is itself almost a miracle. Coming out of the sea, they were in what they 
named the Wilderness of Shur or ‘‘ the wall,” from the great limestone bluff 600 
feet high which there confronted them. Turning to the south at the foot of it, 
they follow along the coast of the Gulf of Suez. Here the wells are few and the 
water bitter, being impregnated with carbonate of soda. At Marah the water 
was miraculously made sweet. They next reach the wilderness of Sin, which 
they so named from its sharp stones, a hot, arid, waterless waste, the worst place 
of all the wandering. Here the miraculous supply of manna began, and here the 
great flock of migratory quails was blown to the camp. From the Wilderness of 
Sin they turned at right angles up the Wady Feiran, a valley rapidly rising to 
higher and cooler regions. Here occurred their first contact with the inhabitants 
of the land, the Amalekites, who held the pass against them at Rephidim, a well 
selected point of great strategic advantages. This the Hebrews reached after two 
day’s march through a waterless country. Here, in their need, the water from 
the rock was given them. Dislodging the Amalekites after a hard struggle, two 
days’ further march brought them to the great valley plain opposite Mt. Sinai, 
which the Survey has identified beyond a doubt as the only place which meets the 
demands of the record. Here in comparative ease and comfort, safe from attack 
on the rear and with communication open to the friendly Midianites, Israel spent 
several months; here the Law was given and the Tabernacle set up; here the 
military organization was perfected which prepared the people to possess the 
promised land. Hardly a place in the world is so well adapted for the purpose. 
To the suggested explanation of the awful phenomena, which attended the law- 
giving, as volcanic, the lecturer said that no volcanic action could have possibly 
taken place in Sinai during the human period. The phenomena rather resemble 
the thunder storms which are of such awful force and grandeur in this region. 
Of the whole narrative of the desert sojourn it was remarked that the exact science 
of the Survey confirms it at every point, and places it beyond a doubt that Exo- 


dus and Numbers are the contemporary journals of Moses, and that he knew 
every foot of the ground. 


THE DAKOTA GROUP. 675 


Eh DAKO TAG ROUP! 
BY CHAS. H. STERNBERG. 


In 1853 Dr. Hayden discovered a number of dicotyledonous plants in a red- 
dish and yellowish sandstone in Nebraska. This formation, lying at the base of 
the Cretaceous, he called No. 1, or Dakota Group. Later, in connection with 
Prof. Meek, he discovered the same formation in central Kansas. He found 
that the plants closely resembled living species of the higher types of our forest 
trees. Some of these plants were examined by Dr. Newberry, who found 
among them several genera that were exclusively Cretaceous—and more recent 
collections made by Profs. Mudge, Lesquereux and the writer, have proved con- 
clusively this group to be the lowest in the Cretaceous. On the eastern margin 
this deposit lies on the Permian. The other formations of Mesozoic time have 
been swept away—or, more likely, never existed—and the Permian beds were 
dry land until the opening of the Cretaceous. The rocks of the Dakota Group 
consist of strata of red, yellow and brown sandstone, interlaid with beds of vari- 
ous colored clays and lignite. The sandstone is often found in thin, shaly 
layers. Although the formation has been supposed to be of fresh water origin, 
the recent discovery of marine shells has proved the contrary. The formation 
extends from the Gulf of Mexico through Texas, Kansas and Nebraska; touch- 
ing Iowa, it continues through the British Possessions, and doubtless includes 
‘Greenland and the Arctic lands. In Kansas it is about seventy five miles wide, 
and extends diagonally across the State. Prof. Lesquereux published the first 
description of the flora of this group; and, Jater, his magnificent memoir on the 
' Cretaceous Flora has given us a pretty thorough knowledge of the fossil plants. 
Lesquereux, in addition to his Flora, has published a review of the Cretaceous, in 
which he describes 26 new species, most of which I was fortunate enough to ob- 
tain in the same localities from which he obtained the material for his memoir. I 
think I am correct in saying that I made the first large collection of fossil plants 
from the Dakota. They were sent to the Smithsonian and Dr. Newberry—who, 
so far as I know, has never classified or figured them. They were very fine 
Specimens, and then nearly all were new to science. I showed a number of 
drawings I had made to Prof. Lesquereux in 1872, who said even then a number 
of species were new. Since, from his own and Prof. Mudge’s collections, he has 
obtained all the species represented in my collection—though many of his type 
specimens are much poorer than mine—and I lost the credit due me for my early 
discoveries and science lost the figured representations of some very fine plants. 
I must acknowledge that Prof. Lesquereux mentioned this collection in his Flora 
and gave me full credit for the localities I had discovered and named a number 
of beautiful plants in my honor. One of the earliest plants to excite general in- 
terest was the sassafras; a trilobate leaf with large midribs and well marked 
‘merves. One of the species, S. mudgii, resembles the common sassafras. Nearly 
all the forest trees of to-day are represented in the rich Cretaceous flora. I have 


676 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


discovered in the bluffs near Ft. Harker a number of species of the avalia. A. 
quinguepartita has five lobes, margin entire, while 4. saporteanii has five large lobes 
with dentate margin—both are very fine species, and allied to our highest families. 
of existing trees. <Avala tripartita (or imperfecta) isa smaller species with thirteen 
entire lobes. A number of other species have been described by Lesquereux, 
showing that this magnificent tree was well represented by numerous species in 
the Cretaceous forest. ‘The sassafras, as I have said, was the first plant to excite 
interest. It is represented by a number of species—S. mradile is a large leaf 
with three lobes, having a wavy and dentate margin ; .S. cretaceum and others are 
very abundant in the sandstone of Ellsworth county, Kansas. A closely allied 
genera is c7sszfes—in fact, its species have usually gone under the genus sassafras. 
Cissttes Harkerianum and obtusum are very common. ‘The stately plane, poplar, 
oak, black walnut and many others left their leaves imbedded in the sandstone of 
the Dakota Group. One magnificent specimen I found near Ft. Harker belongs 
to the genus aspidiophylum and species trilobum. I have found specimens a foot 
in length and breadth. One peculiarity of the species is, that the midrib is per- 
follate—an ear projecting below the stem. Another species with perfoliate mid- 
rib is Protophyllum Sternbergii—a leaf one foot in length and six inches wide, with 
undulate margin. The graceful leaves of the menzspermites and poplar are often 
found. The texture of the rock is so fine-grained that the midribs, nerves and 
outline are as finely imprinted as if done in wax. I believe I can claim the 
honor of being the first to obtain pine cones from this formation. 

Dana says in an old manual that they are not found in the cretaceous. One 
beautiful cone with leaves is described in Lesquereux’s Review of the Cretaceous, 
under the name of Pinus guenstez. Among the semi tropical plants is the cin- 
namon and fig. The common plum is also found. We have, therefore, at the 
opening of the cretaceous a flora rich in recent genera. Not only do lowly forms 
appear, but the highest families of our forest trees; each species representing a 
perfect tree with no known ancestors. How can we reconcile this fact with the 
thecry of evolution, where long ages are required for the perfection of species, 
and where the geological record should show these transformations, step by step, 
from lowly forms to the perfect tree. Certainly the records show no such ad- 
vances in the vegetable kingdom. But as early as the Cretaceous we find as per- 
fect a flora as exists to-day, without even the Trias or Jura to draw from. The 
Dakota limestone lies on the shales and limestone of the Permian. The forma- 
tion has been but little explored, and the rich returns from limited areas led us to 
expect many new species when the rocks are explored. The sandstone is valua- 
ble for building purposes. The Post Hospital at Fort Harker is built of thiss tone, 
and though it his been dismantled, and the wood work carried away, the walls 
still stand, and the rains of summer, and frosts and storms of winter have been 
unable to crumble them in ruins. Beds of lignite are found in Ellsworth county 
that are of great value to the inhabitants. Potters’ clay is also found, as well as 
iron ore, aluminous shale, iron pyrites, and crystalized gypsum. ‘The iron ore 


THE THERMOGRAPH: ITS EVOLUTION AND DESTINY. 677 


is said to be equal to the best Swedish. The soil is rich and produces good 
crops of corn and wheat. The surface is undulat’ng, and covered with a thick 
carpet of buffalo grass that protects the soil from denudation. We find near 
Fort Harker large concretionary masses of fine sandstone. They are valuable 
for grindstones. Some of them are 20 feet in diameter, and where they rest on 
soft rock that has been fashioned into rude pillars by the elements, they resemble 
huge mushrooms. I trust Kansas will soon organize a thorough geological sur- 
vey. It is too bad that science must wait for private enterprise to develop the 
rich stores of animal and vegetable remains buried in the rocks of our great 
State. Already many rich collections have been taken out of the State to Yale 
College, Philadelphia, and other Eastern museums. Among the marine shells 
described by Prof. Meek are found Cressatellinz oblonza, Arca parallela, Yoldia 
microdonta, Cardium Kansensts, C. Salineus, Turbo mudziana, etc. 


IMDS DNC ION Ia, AINDDS de Gs Ua IN Ie, 


THE THERMOGRAPH: ITS EVOLUTION AND DESTINY. 
A. WELLINGTON ADAMS, M. D. 


[Dr. A. Wellington Adams, of Colorado Springs, has invented an apparatus 
for measuring the heat of the body for a given or an indefinite length of time, 
to which apparatus he gives the name of Thermograph. It is a very ingenious 
contrivance, and it is based upon the principles Breschet advocated. Medical 
men have long been plodding on with the ordinary medical thermometer, the best 
of them recording but one application to the body. It must be evident to every 
one in the medical profession, as well as those out of it, that any instrument that 
can so record the temperature that the medical man can enter the sick room, day 
or night, and see what the temperature of the body has been for any hour, half, 
or quarter hour of the twenty-four, we repeat, it must be evident, that such an in- 
strument must be of incalculable value to mankind. This Thermograph widens 
the field of the diagnostician and allows him to prognosticate more surely. 

There has long been a need for something which would register accurately 
the rise and fall of temperature during sickness, and the present system is sadly 
limited by the many imperfections and the very narrow range of its application, 
and we are glad of this addition to the mechanical appliances of medicine. In 
dealing with the force, electricity, Dr. Adams found many obstacles; the greatest 
were the proper condition of the conductive carbon under pressure and the fric- 
tion of the apparatus, the last by no means being the least. Also, by his studying 
the principles laid down by Breschet and Becquerel, Pere et Fils, he has succeeded 
in giving to the world his Thermograph, an instrument which will be a very val- 
uable auxiliary to physiological, therapeutical and pathological investigation. Dr. 


678 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Adams in the first part of his article discusses the subject in general, and we will 
give the remainder in his own words.—R. W.B. | 

My researches now remzined 7” sta/u guo for some time, when one day, in 
the course of conversation with Dr. J. Harry Thompson, of Washington, D. C., 
he suggested the utilization of the newly discovered property of carbon to vary 
its conductivity under different degrees of pressure. 

I immediately availed myself of this suggestion, developing the instrument 
as now perfected and illustrated in figs. 4and 5. This is the thermometer proper 


Fi to.5 “Lp 7esolefilarsl igc, 
HH- Handles. 


or responding portion of the instrument, and consists of a spiral spring made of 
two /amelle of brass and steel respectively, soldered together, the brass occupy- 
ing the outer side. Of course this spring expands uniformly with equal incre- 
ments of heat, and the brass, the most expansible of the two metals, will, upon 
a rise of temperature, give the platinum knob (a), attached to the free end of the 
spring, aconcentric twist. In this way we produce a varying pressure upon the 
contents of the vulcanite tube (T), against which the platinum knob (a) impinges. 

The other end of the substance contained in the hard-rubber tube (T) has 
for its abutment the platinum knob (b) attached to the hard-rubber bracket (C). 
The whole, as seen in fig. 4, is inclosed in a perforated German:silver case, with 
rounded edges, and having an external diameter of but 114 inches. . 

The binding-post (A), fig. 4, is in electrical communication with the platinum 
knob (a), and the binding-post (B) is in electrical communication with the platinum 
knob (b). When the apparatus is introduced into an electric circuit, by attaching 
the two poles to the two binding-posts, the current enters through one and 
emerges at the other, passing in its course through the substance in the vulcanite 
tube (T). The two little handles (H) (H) are intended as a means of securing 


THE THERMOGRAPH: ITS EVOLUTION AND DESTINY. 679 


the instrument in its proper position in the axilla. The composition used in the 
vulcanite tube (T) may be either a solid stick of baked lamp black, a series of 
thin carbon discs with intervening ones of silver, or a powder made of plumbago, 
gas-carbon and silver, finely divided. After receiving a communication from 
Thomas A. Edison in regard to this matter, I commenced a series of experiments 
to determine the most suitable compo-ition for this purpose, and the best results 
were obtained from the powder already referred to. The salient feature of this 
instrument is the changing of its electrical resistance with pressure, and the ratio 
of these changes, moreover, corresponding exactly with the pressure, the latter, 
in turn, being dependent upon and in unison with the rise and fall of tempera- 
ture. 

Here, then, was the true solution, for, by subjecting this instrument to vary- 
ing degrees of temperature, the resistance of the powder would vary in precise 
accordance with the pressure exerted by the uniform expansion of the spiral 
spring under equal increments of heat, and consequently a proportionate varia- 
tion would be produced in the strength of the current. The latter would thus 
possess all the characteristics of the heat waves, and by its reaction through the 
medium of some electro-magnetic piece of mechanism yet to be devised, these 
might be transferred to our movable surface, in the form of a sinuous line, whose 
rising and falling inflections would give a graphic representation of them. 

Now, that I had satisfactorily reduced this portion of the problem, the next 
in order was the devising that part of the instrument intended for recording such 
variations as the other branch might be subjected to. This, I assure you, was no. 
easy task, but one requiring a mint of patience and tedious application. For, 
first—it must be simple; second—there must be established a permanent relation- 
ship between the first and second branches of the instrument, in other words, 
there must exist throughout a strict interdependence; third—in order that the 
electro-motive force required might be reduced as much as possible, it must be 
delicate ; fourth—to render the latter possible, friction must be practically reduced 
toaminimum. To carry you through the almost endiess and varied experiments 
necessary in developing means for meeting these indications would be as tiresome 
as it would be unnecessary. Hence, I shall confine myself to the result only. 

If a number of coils of insulated wire be wound around a hollow reel, there 
is formed what is known to electricians as a /cdvx. If this is now placed in an 
electric circuit and a current passed through its convolutions, it is temporarily 
constituted a magnet, the two ends forming the poles; so that it may be said to 
possess all the properties of a permanent magnet during the passage of the cur- 
rent. Moreover, if such a helix, mounted in a vertical position in such a way 
that an iron rod can be introduced into it from below, be connected with a battery, 
the iron rod will be at once drawn up into it and be sustained oscillating in its 
axis, even though the rod may weigh considerable. 

The depth the iron rod enters will also depend entirely upon the strength of 
the current and the amount of resistance offered by the iron rod. This principle 


680 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


is well known in physics as the ‘‘axial electro-magnetic force,” and in it I found 
what I sought, namely—a combination of delicacy and strength in the proper 
proportions. A diagramatical illustration of its application may be seen in fig. 6, 


i | | F749;,6. . 
Ee 
UC 


Hi) 
ML 3 


i 
| 


) 


where H represents a helix of peculiar construction applied to the purpose in 
hand; C is a soft iron tube in connection with the short end of the lever (L); P 
represents the movable surface or strip of paper; F, the fulcrum of the lever, 
and EH its marker or stylus; T, the thermometer proper introduced into the circuit ; 
X, the battery; c, the curve, and S, the brass drum over which the strip of paper 
(P) moves. ; 

Having comprehended the principles, the action of this combination is obvi- 
ous. If an electric current passes through the helix (H), the core (C) will be 
drawn into said helix, carrying with it the short end of the lever (L), to which it 
is attached. This movement naturally causes the marking end of the lever to 
make a still longer excursion in the opposite direction. Upon breaking the 
circuit, the attractive power of the helix is abolished, and the counter-action of 
the spring (s) returns the lever to its normal position. 

The depth to which the core (C) is drawn into the helix (H) being dependent 
upon the strength of the current passing through the coils of wire, the excursions 
of the tracer or lever will also be great or small, according as the current is weak 
or strong. 

The lever (L) is delicately made, and its fulcrum provided with jewel mount- 
ings. Its short end is connected with the core (C) by means of a universal joint, 
while its longer end has inserted in it asilver stylus reaching to the surface of the 
traveling paper. ‘The latter moves over a brass drum forming a portion of the 


THE THERMOGRAPH: ITS EVOLUTION AND DESTINY. 681 


circuit. The strip of paper passing over the brass cylinder, having been satu- 
rated with a solution of chloride of sodium, pyrogallic acid, and ferrocyanide of 
potassium, the instrument is complete. 

When this combination is in operation, a current of electricity will pass from 
one pole of the battery to the binding-post (A) of the thermometer proper, 
through the substance in the vulcanite tube to emerge at binding-post (B) ; thence 
_ through the helix to the lever, along this to the silver stylus; thence through the 
moistened paper and brass cylinder to the other pole of the battery—thus com- 
pleting the circuit. Upon the application of varying degrees of heat to the ther- 
mometer proper, the resistance the current meets with during its course will be 
varied in precise accordance with the various changes of temperature. This 
waxing and waning current will now pass through the helix, and by the latter’s 
peculiar action produce to and fro motions in the lever, passing, at the same time, 
through the lever and chemically prepared paper, and producing as it passes a 
double chemical decomposition upon the paper; one of which decompositions 
renders the development of friction, during the movements of the lever, so slight 
as to be imperceptible; the second decomposition producing a change in color 
upon the paper, corresponding to the movements of the stylus, and affecting no 
larger surface than it covers, thus obviating the additional friction accompanying 
the use of an ordinary marker. 

From this description you will understand that the lever is moved backward 
and forward by a difference in the attractive power exerted by the helix, this in 
turn being dependent upon the strength of the current, which has already passed 
through the thermometer proper, and there been moulded into electric waves 
corresponding to the heat waves; the motion of the lever being facilitated by the 
lubricating action of the current, as the result of one of the chemical decomposi- 
tions during its passage through the chemicaily moistened paper; while the other 
decomposition causes a discoloration, and thus produces a mark corresponding 
in outline to the movements of the lever. This mark will, therefore, form an 
irregular line, whose sinuosities will give a graphic representation of the heat 
variations. This apparatus is extremely sensitive and can be made to record 
I-100 of a degree. 

Now, after marking upon our strip of paper the minimum and maximum 
points representing respectively go° and 110°, it becomes a very easy matter to 
determine the degree of heat represented by any point lying within this range. 
This is accomplished by dividing the intervening space into any number of equal 
parts, when any one of these divisions will represent a degree or any part of a 
degree, according to the number of divisions. These horizontal lines may be 
placed at such distances from each other as to represent 1-10 of adegree. Having 
provided the traveling paper with a uniform speed, it also becomes an easy matter 
to determine the time represented by any given distance upon its surface; for, 
supposing a certain amount of paper passes a given point in the instrument in 
one hour, to determine the amount passing the same point in five minutes, it is 


IV—46 


682 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


only necessary to draw vertical lines dividing this distance into twelve equal parts, 
each one of these will then represent five minutes. 

After determining upon the principles it became very easy to work up the 
details that would place the instrument in a convenient form for manufacture and 
use. These may be seen, as applied, in figs. 7 and 8. Fig. 7 is a front elevation. 
of the complete thermograph. 


Fig:8. 


‘©) 
eXviv ie 
RRS : ~ 
rp es ee 


It consists of a cast-iron case having two departments, one for the recording 
mechanism and actuating clock movement, the other for the battery. In the 
upper part of the front there is a circular depression for the reception of the ther- 
mometer proper or perceiving portion of the instrument when not in use. 

This is held in place by means of two little catches, one on either side, as 
seen in the figure. On both sides of this are the binding posts for the reception 
of the wires leading from the thermometer proper, when the latter is in position 
in the axilla. The open work in the lower portion is intended for the ingress of 
air and egress of gases. Fig. 8 is an interior elevation with the front removed; 
above is seen the recording mechanism, and below the thermo-electric battery. 
This form of battery gives a continuous and unvarying current, requires no clean- 
ing or recharging, and costs but little to run, hence it is the most available source 
from which to derive the current; the heat for operating it may be supplied by 
either an alcohol lamp or gas-burner. Not only is it possible with this instrument 


THE THERMOGRAPH: ITS EVOLUTION AND DESTINY. 683 


to procure a continuous curve denoting the consta~t febrile condition of a subject, 
but, with the addition of certain accessories now in process of construction, and 
as suggested by Prof. Mayer, of the University of Technology, Hoboken, and 
Dr. Toner, of Washington, we may be able to procure, on the same strip of 
paper, at the same time and under similar c~nditions, a sphygmographic and a 
respiratory curve; thus enabling pathologists, therapeutists, physiologists, and, in 
fact, general practitioners, to study the inter relationship of these three cardinal 
symptoms under various modifying circumstances. ‘The eare the fosszbz/ites, but 
when we drift into the probabilities, we see in prospective the addition of that 
which will also furnish a moisture curve. Of the advantages of the graphic 
method as applied to medicine, I need hardly speak. It already promises for 
medicine what it has accomplished in physics. 

Every physicist adores such familiar names as Leon Scott and Dr. Clarence 
Blake, to whom we are indebted for the application of the graphic method to the 
science of acoustics, through the medium of the phonautographs invented by 
themselves. 

To the experimental therapeutist this instrument is of incalculable value, as 
affording a means of determining the precise character of the temperature changes 
under the administration of various therapeutic agents in different sized doses and 
modes of exhibition. 

The experimental physiologist will find in it that which will materially facil'- 
tate accurate observation in his field. And the advantages accruing from its 
application in pathological investigations, and the possibility of thus elucidating 
hitherto obscure phenomena, must be patent to every one. An instrument of so 
much value as an aid to observations in these three important branches of scien- 
tific medicine, needs no further lauding; but I cannot draw my paper to a close 
without setting forth the mode of application and the advantages attending its. 
use in every day practice. 

Take, for example, a suspected case of typhoid fever, experience and exper- 
imentation with the thermograph having already revealed a characteristic mznor 
wave curve for typhoid fever. The physician is summoned. Upon arriving he 
applies his thermograph in the following manner: First, the perceiving portion, 
as seen in fig. 4, is fastened in the axilla by means of two elastic bands attached 
to the handles H H, one passing around the trunk, the other over the shoulder. 
Next, two fine and flexible silk covered wires are led from the binding-posts 
A B, fig. 4, to the binding posts B B, of fig. 7, the latter having been previously 
placed upon a stand at the head of the patient’s bed. 

These wires, of course, are of sufficient length to admit of any degree of 
motion on the part of the patient without interfering with the position of the 
recorder. The instrument will now be ready for use, and, upon starting the 
battery, it will continue in operation for any desired number of days, with little 
or no attention outside of winding and replenishing with new rolls of paper. 

The first benefit to be derived from its use in such a case, consists in the 


684 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ability to determine upon a diagnosis much earlier than would ordinarily be pos- 
sible ; second—the physician is furnished with a permanent record of the condi- 
tion of his patient from hour to hour and day to day; third—the slightest modi- 
fication or variation by reason of an exposure, the exhibition of prescribed reme- 
dies at given hours, or the ingestion of prescribed food during the day, will be 
reveiled to the physician when he makes his evening visit, thus affording him 
from time to time, a more definite idea of the immediate effect, good or bad, of 
his treatment; fourth—it will give warning of danger from collapse during the 
crisis before it could be detected in any other way; fifth—the physician is pro- 
vided with a means of leaving more definite directions with the attendant or 
nurse, e. g. he will be able to say that ‘‘should the curve assume such or such a 
character, or the line rise to this or that point, you may discontinue this, that, or 
the other remedy, and proceed to exhibit zs, according to the directions; or, 
should such and such a thing take place, it will indicate an emergency calling for 
this, that, or the other measure.” 

The science of meteorology, also, will find in the thermograph an instrument 
it has long felt the need of. Never before has there been invented an instrument 
capable of furnishing a curve representing the constant temperature of the atmos- 
phere. To be sure, there are two or three instruments in the possession of the 
United States Weather Department at Washington, constructed upon an entirely 
different principle, which automatically produce a continuous curve, but the latter 
is only by reason of the velocity with which the cylinder revolves ; besides, they 
are of an exceedingly complicated nature, cumbersome, and very expensive. 

The simplicity and inexpensiveness (it will cost about $50) of the thermo- 
graph, place it within the reach of almost every physician, and will enable the 
United States Weather Department to furnish one or more of them to every one 
of its sub-stations. 

This, gentlemen, is the instrument I have chosen to dignify with the title of 
Thermograph, and which I have lately placed in the hands of Aloe & Hernstein 
to manufacture for the use of the medical profession. 

With its introduction, I predict the dawn of a new era in medicine, marked 
by progress equal to that accompanying the introduction of the sphygmograph, 
myograph, cardiograph, and other important instruments of a similar character. 

—Rocky Mountain Medical Review. 


FOR CHILBLAINS. 
The following formula for Dr. Valentine Mott’s Remedy is given in the 
‘Proceedings of the Medical Society in the County of Kings:” 


ReeBeenisyralliiy Mains) eden este omranta | illo 5.4/6 4 ~ ounces. 
Ol terebinth ye ces eh ES OTT rad cia Mec tie el Neal shied ish oncom incense ss 
Spts. vini rect. 90 per cent. . RR eran AMON ma RUT OS 
ADIN Oo gy As elouee (610) 6! oo) Aura io : I es 

Another formula for the same affection is: 
IC BeSE BRIG r ey oy tie RU IC an Randy J) UA td aga eet eo zo OE 


Pi tassas Titratisi co lly RTE ONS. le ME Seka de eo Cita CnnEnSS 
IAG \AMMIMONIZE 2s) 3 5s even Gees so) © yell roy kei eikonal ct Ou os 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 685 


(GE OCiRVA leis Wal, 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 


[The following Report of the Board appointed to consider Captain How- 
gate’s plan and preparations for his second Polar Expedition, shows what extreme 
care was taken in the selection of a proper vessel and in all the details connected 
with the fitting out of the expedition. —EbpiTor. | 

A Board of Officers and men of experience in Arctic matters was convened 
at the Signal office in Washington D. C., May 27, 1880, by direction of the chief 
Signal Officer, to consider and report of a ‘‘Memorandum of plan of Arctic 
work,’ submitted by Captain Howgate in connection with the proposed expedi- 
tion to Lady Franklin Bay. 

The Board reported as follows : 

1. With respect to the provisions and fuel for the steamer Gudnare, and 
the advisability of having a surgeon for its return trip, the Board is of the opin- 
ion that these matters should be left to the discretion of the Navy Department. 

2. Mr. H. C. Chester, a member of the Board, who accompanied the 
Polaris Expedition, and who is now superintending the fitting out of the Gulnare, 
states that it is the best adapted for the purposes designed of any vessel that has 
entered the Arctic seas. 

3. The permanent party to remain at the station near Lady Franklin Bay, 
to be composed of three commissioned officers and twenty-five men, appears suf- 
ficiently large. These will be available for scientific work—three officers, one 
surgeon, one astronomer, one photographer, and three sergeants of the Signal 
Corps. A portion of the scientific work to b= performed has already been pro- 
vided for by a previous Board. 

4. It is understood by the Board that the discovery and development of 
new whaling grounds will be incidental to the duties of exploration. 

s. There is little reason to anticipate any danger to the permanent station ; 
it is to be provisioned for two years or more. The fo/aris left abundant stores 
on the opposite side of the channel, distant from Lady Franklin Bay some thirty 
or thirty-five miles; also the English Expedition, under Nares, left at Cape 
Hawk ‘‘a large quantity of biscuit.’ . 

6. The providing for the safety of sledge and traveling parties will, of ne- 
cessity, have to be left to the discretion of the othcer commanding the expedition. 
Tents are the only shelter for such parties that can well be transported, but such 
parties will build igloes, or snow houses, when the materials are at hand. 

7. The means of transportation proposed—two whale boats, one steam 
yawl, six dog sledges, and thirty dogs—are considered ample. 

8. The detailing of selected enlisted men forthe body of the expedition 
promises many advantages. Of the men already selected, two have been sea- 


686 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


men, four are accustomed to the use of the oar, one is a fair carpenter, and two 
are rough carpenters. 

9g. The members of the Board having had Arctic experience in the latitude 
of Lady Franklin Bay consider the quarters provided sufficient in capacity and 
comfort for the party proposed. 

10. The clothing suggested appears to be sufficient in quantity and adapted 
to the climate. 

11. The arrangements for heating and cooking appear adequate. 

An abundant supply of oil for lighting for two years has been provided. 

The surgeon of the expedition states that his requisition for medical stores 
will be sufficient for any anticipated emergency. 

For scientific investigation mure spare instruments should, if practicable, be 
provided. 

QuarTERS.—A frame house, 21 by 65 inside size, with double walls, 18 
inches apart, is ready for shipment, and will accommodate the whole party com- 
fortably. This house is built after the model of those used in the Hudson Bay 
Territory by the company, and is, therefore, assumed to be suitable, both as to 
size, style and comfort. . 

For moving parties four wall tents with flies, and twelve A tents complete, 
have been provided, and will be sufficient. 

CLorutnc.—Boots, stockings, mittens, sheepskins for clothing, and sleeping 
bags in sufficient quantity for three years’ supply is on hand ready for shipment. 
There is still needed a supply of overcoats, blankets and drawers, which can be 
supplied by the Quartermaster’s Department within ten days from the date of 
requisition. 

Twenty suits of sealskin or deerskin will be obtained at Rigolette, on the 
coast of Labrador, in accordance with previous arrangements. If for any cause 
the clothing is not ready at that point, it can be obtained at Disco, and is not ab- 
solutely essential, although it should be procured if practicable. 

Means oF TRANSPORTATION.—Two (2) whale boats, (to be got on the N. E. 
coast). One (1) steam yawl, (now ready). Four dog sledges, (now ready at 
Rigolette, Labrador). Thirty (30) dogs, expected to be ready at Rigolette, Lab- 
rador; if not ready, can be got on the Greenland coast, at Proven or Uper- 
navik). 

Foop.—Two years’ supply, as per list, already in the hands of the Secre- 
tary of War, and which, having been prepared with the assistance of Captain 
Wm. Kennedy, Dr. John Rae, and other Arctic explorers, is believed to be com- 
plete. 

The pemmican, which is the only item not procurable from the Commissary 
Department, is now in Washington, ready for shipment. 

Requisitions for all the other provisions have already been submitted to the 
Secretary of War for approval. 

FuEL and Heatinc.—Coal to be used as fuel, and the supply to be ob- 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 687 


tained on the spot, from the vein discovered by the English expedition, neces- 
sary tools for getting out the coal have been provided, under the advice of the 
manager of some Pennsylvania coal mines. The vein of coal must be critically 
examined before the vessel leaves the party, in order that a proper supply may 
be left from the ship’s stores if that on shore is impracticable. 

Four stoves, two cooking and two heating, have been secured, and with all 
their necessary furniture, are packed ready for shipment. 

Licur.—A large supply of lamps and lanterns of various sizes and kinds 
have been secured, with sufficient carbon-oil to serve for one full year. 

A full list of medicines, with surgical and medical apparatus, has been pre- 
pared by the surgeon, and is ready to submit for the approval of the Secretary of 
War. 

Reading matter has been contributed in abundance, and is ready for ship- 
ment 

Surveying apparatus and marine chronometers on hand. Other apparatus 
can be ready within ten days. 

ORDNANCE SToRES.—Six (6) Springfield rifles. Six (6) shot-guns. Six (6) 
revolvers, with necessary ammunition, and 1,o00 pounds of blasting powder 
have been secured, and are ready for shipment. 

Miscellaneous apparatus includes signaling outfit complete for four stations, 
including candle-bombs, heliographs, etc., etc. Eight (8) telephones. Four (4) 
call bells. Ten (10) miles No. 15 wire, plain. Four (4) sets telegraph instru- 
ments. Thirty (30) cells battery, Eagles. 500 pounds blue-stone and such other 
‘small items as are needed to put up two or more telegraph offices. 

Vessel to leave Washington not later than June 1st and to proceed under 
sail to St. Johns, N. F., where she will stop for coal, ice pilot, and any other 
items of supplies that may be needed. 

From St. Johns she will go to Rigolette, where the sledges, dogs, and 
the twenty suits of clothing will be taken on board. It is probable that two half 
breed hunters will be ready here to join the party, as partial arrangements for 
their services were made last year. 

From Rigolette the vessel will proceed to Disco, using steam only when 
mecessary. 

At Disco the coal bunkers will be refilled, either from the Danish stores or 
from the supply left by the Polaris, if that has not been consumed. The vessel 
should leave Disco with her coal bunkers filled,and as much more coal stowed on 
‘board as can be provided for. 

From Disco to Lady Franklin Bay the only stops other than those caused by 
‘ice or other causes incident to navigation will be at the several Danish settlements 
of Proven, Uppernavik and Tessieusak, for dogs and dog food, if these have not 
previously been secured. Arriving at Lady Franklin Bay the permanent party 
~will be landed and the cargo discharged with as little delay as practicable, as near 
the mouth of Watercourse Creek and the coal vein as it is practicable for the ves- 
sel to get. 


688 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


As before stated, the quality and accessibility of the coal-vein will be exam- 
ined, and if found satisfactory, it will not be necessary to leave any of the vessel’s 
coal; otherwise, a year’s supply—say 60 tons, will be left. 

The Gulnare should not leave the station at Lady Franklin Bay until at least 
one year’s supply of fuel has been obtained from the coal mine in that vicinity, 
or if this cannot be obtained, at least sixty (60) tons should be left from the ship’s. 
supply. 

In any event the Gu/nare should not be permitted to proceed on its return 
trip until the officers of the ship and of the party shall have certified in writing 
as to the suitability and fitness of the supplies and the apparent safety of the 
station, a copy of which certificate shall be brought back in the vessel. 

It is also thought that some point should be selected during the ship’s journey 
northward, where supplies should be left in 1882, if a relief ship could not by 
that year reach Lady Franklin Bay. 

The Board is of the opinion that there should not be an increase in the arms. 
now provided. 

If all the arrangements of the plan proposed by Capt. Howgate be faithfally 
carried out, it would appear that proper precautions and safeguards have been 
provided to secure the safety of the Arctic Expedition, and to promise reasona- 
ble success in the attainment of the objects for which the expedition was or- 
ganized. 

Special suggestions in writing by Mr. Bryan, of this Board, and by Sergt. 
O. T. Sherman, of the Signal Corps, accompany these proceedings. 


Jepba STORW. H. C. CHESTER. 
A. W. GREELY. OcTAVE Pavy. 
Rk. W. D. Bryan. 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 
OUTLINE OF SCIENTIFIC WORK. 


The following plan for astronomical, metereological, and magnetic work at 
Lady Franklin Bay and other stations in high latitudes, was prepared by Capt. 
Howgate, Lieut. Story and Professor Abbe, of the Signal Office, in compliance ~ 
with official instructions from the Department : 

I.—Macnetic WorK aT FIxED Stations.—The outfit necessary for this. 
work is considered to be as follows: 

1. The Unifilar Declinometer, or the complete Magnetometer, as made by 
Fauth & Co., Washington, D. C., No. 70 of their catalogue, and costs about 
$400. ‘This should have a set of very light needles, as well as the ordinary 
heavy ones, and is to be used for absolute and differential observations of declina- 
tion. 

2. A Kew Dip Circle to be used for dip and total intensity. It should 
be compared with similar observations made at Washington, at the Coast Survey 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 689 


Magnetic Observatory, before starting on the expedition, and also after the return. 

Qo ASS Chronometer very accurately rated in Mean Time. With these 
instruments, the declination dip and total intensity should be determined on the 
ist and 15th of each month. 

The differential observations of declination are to be made with the Decli- 
nometer every day, three times a day, namely, at 7 a. m., 3 p. m., and 11 p. 
m., Washington time, and are to be made by taking readings at the first second 
of every minute, for fifteen minutes, namely from 7 a. m. to 7:15 a. Mm; 3 Pp. M- 
tO 3:15 p. m.; I1 p. m. to 11:15 p. m. 

By this means there will be secured observations simultaneously with the 
Signal Service Meteorological observations, and also simultaneously with the mag- 
netic observations made at the observatories that pursue the Géttingen plan. By 
these means, also, data will be obtained for showing the rapid fluctuations to 
which needles are subject when an auroral disturbance is taking place. 

The term days will be the rst and 15th of each month, on which days, be- 
sides the fifteen minutes’ observations previously provided for, there will be made 
a special set of readings of the Declinometer, at the beginning of each five min- 
utes throughout the entire day, or if this be not possible, then, at least, in groups 
of two hours and fifteen minutes, viz.: from 6:15 a. m. to 8:15 a. m.; 2 p. m. to 
4:5 p. m.; 10 p. m. to 12:15 a. m., Washington time. 

Il —Tue MacGnetic OBSERVATIONS AT TEMPORARY Stations By TRav- 
ELING PaRTIES.—The outfit for this class of work will be as follows for each 
party : 

1. Cassella Astronomical Theodolite, as made by Fauth & Co., No. 60 of 
catalogue, which is considered decidedly preferable to the English make, it hav- 
ing 3-inch circles, and costing $150 with its stand. This instrument can be used 
for determination of latitude, time, longitude, azimuth and magnetic declination. 

2. Kew Dip Circle, small size, to be used for determination of magnetic 
dip and intensity. 

3. Two Pocket Chronometers, kept accurately rated on mean time. 

With these instruments the absolute dip and intensity should be determined 
at every convenient stopping place, andif the party stays long at any station, 
these elements should be determined each day, and especially at 7 a. m., 3 p. m.- 
and 11 p. m., Washington time, as before directed for the permanent station. 
The term day observations should be also kept up by the traveling parties, if they 
happen to be at convenient stations on the 1st and 15th of the month. 

Observers will have to be especially instructed in the use of the instruments. 
The best works of reference are: 

Riddell’s Magnetic Instructions, London, 1844. Admiralty Manual of 
Scientific Inquiry, 1871. Admiralty Arctic Manual, 1875. Walker’s Terrestrial 
and Cosmical Magnetism, 1866. Coast Survey Special Instructions. 

The form for records may be those given by Riddell, with such modifica- 
tions as the modern construction of magnetic instruments may demand. 


690 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


III. — METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.—These should be made at least three 
times daily, at the exact hours of simultaneous observations, 7 a. m., 3 p. m., 
and 11 p. m., Washington time; and, unless absolutely impossible intermediate 
observations should be made every two or four hours, the complete series being at 
1, 3, 5> 7 9 and 11 a. m, and a3, 5,7, 9 andi itr psm: an case sthateselte 
registering apparatus is suyplied, the personal observations of those items that 
are so recorded need be made only at 7 a. m., 3 p. m. andizrp.m. The ther- 
mometers and barometers should be of superior quality, and in general the 
instruments and methods of instruction embodied in the Instructions to Observer 
Sergeants of the Signal Corps should be followed. The outfit should be that of 
a first-class Signal Service Station, to which should be added the following sup- 
plementary instruments: 

1. Self-Recording Barometer. 2. Self-Recording Thermometers. Reg- 
nault’s Dew Point Apparatus. 4. Vacuum Solar Radiation Thermometers. 5. 
Hick’s Terrestial Radiation Thermometors. 6. Heiss’ Apparatus for Conver- 
gence of Auroral Beams. 7. A number of small india rubber balloons and 
apparatus for filling them, for ascertaining air currents, heights of clouds, etc. 

Special instructions for the use of these instruments are scarcely necessary, 
on account of their simplicity ; but, in order to call attention to many minor 
points, the observer should be furnished with extra copies of the following works : 

Signal Service Instructions. Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry. Ad- 
miralty Arctic Manual. Instructions to the Florence Expedition. Pickering’s 
Physical Manipulation. Kohlransch’s Physical Measurements. Everett’s Trans- 
lation of Deschanel’s Natural Philosophy. Loomis’ Meteorology. Buchans’ 
Meteorology. Kaemtz’ Meteorology. 

Special attention is called to the importance of accurate observations at 
every station of the minute details of auroral phenomena and their changes, 
(see Stoke in the Arctic Manual, page 19,) which should be recorded carefully 
by diagrams and otherwise, together with the hour, minute and second of the 
phenomena. 


IV.—AsTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.—The only astronomical observations 
recommended as imperative are those for determining latitude, longitude and 
time. Such observations must be made every day at sea, and when traveling. 
The position of the central station must be determined by observations made at 
every favorable opportunity, until there have been accumulated at least ten inde- 
pendent determinations of latitude and longitude, so that the mean of all may 
be reasonably accurate. The determination of the errors of the chronometers 
must be made whenever practicable and the resulting corrections immediately 
deduced, so that the meteorological and magnetic observers may be able to main- 
tain strict simultaneity in their observations. 

As in all the physical and astronomical observations to be made, the same 
chronometers must be used, and as these latter are most conveniently kept on 
Greenwich time, it is recommended that all records and daily reckonings should, 


THE HOWGATE EXPEDITION TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 691 


‘without exception, be kept on Greenwich mean time; that is to say, in the cor- 
rected chronometer time. 

It will thus happen that the simultaneous S. A.'M. observations will be made 
as follows: 7.0om.os. A. M., Washington time; 12 4. 8 m. 12.09 s. P. M., 
Greenwich time; 12 4. 47 m. 58.33 s. P. M., Gottingen time. The only appa- 
ratus recommended as outfit for parties is as follows: 

I.—For TRAVELING PARTIES; FOR EACH Party: 1. Pistar & Martin’s 
Prismatic Circle, which is considered preferable to the sextant, as it measures 
larger angles, which are oftentimes imperatively needed. The instruments should 
be constructed with special reference to use at very low temperatures. 

2. Mercurial, or Artificial Horizon. 3. Two Pocket Chronometers for 
central station. 

ist. The Cassella Astronomical Theodolite, as made by Fauth, as before 
enumerated under the head of ‘‘ Magnetic Work.” If this cannot be furnished, 
then the astronomical transit, capable of being used in any meridian, should be 
furnished; but this is more cumbersome to be set up, and is not recommended. 
Either instrument should be especially constructed for use at very low tempera- 
tures. 

2d. Pistar’s & Martin’s Prismatic Circle, or if not possible, the Sextant 
constructed by Fauth, No. 73 of this catalogue, price, $110. 

3d. The Artificial Horizons. 

4th. Four Box Chronometers. 

With these pieces of apparatus it is believed that a skillful observer can 
determine his position with all needed accuracy. The instructions to be followed 
in the use of these instruments are to be found in Chauvenet’s Practical Astron- 
omy, Nautical Almanac (U. S.), Bowditch’s 5-figure Logarithm Tables. 

In the determination of the errors of sextants and circles, reference should 
be made to the Memoir by Harkness, in the U. S. Naval Observation for 1869, 
Appendix I, page 51. 

On the use of the portable Transit, the Zenith Telescope, etc., if provided, 
see Hilgard and others, in the Coast Survey volumes of observations. 

The only purely astronomical work to which it is recommended that special 
attention be given will consist in observing the phenomena of shooting stars. 

In this class of work the principal point is the determination of the radiating 
point for each group of shooting stars that may be seen, for which purpose the 
observer needs to be supplied with a number of the blank charts of stars, pre- 
pared by Prof. H. A. Newton, or with an equivalent planisphere. 

EXTRA OBSERVATIONS. It is considered that the following important subjects 
should be recommended to the observer’s attention, viz: 

1. Magnetic Earth Currents. (See Nipher on Earth Currents, etc.) 
2. Tides. (Earthquakes and earth tremors of the feeblest kind.) 

3. Pendulum Experiments. 

4. Atmospheric Electricity. 


692 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


5. Polarization of the Light of the Atmosphere. 

6. Spectroscopical observations of the Aurora and Shooting Stars. 
7. Soundings to determine depths of Sea and Channel. 

8. Temperature of the Sea Water. 

g. Density of the Sea Water. 

1o. Thickness of the Sea Ice, the Ice Floes and the Icebergs. 

11. The preservation of specimens of air in hermetically sealed flasks for 
future analysis at home. 

12. The melting of large quantities of freshly fallen snow, and preservation 
of the resulting atmospheric and meteoric dust for future microscopical exam- 
ination. 

13. Triangulation and charting of coast lines in the immediate vicinity of 
the station, the location of mountains, etc., for which a simple plane table might 
be provided, and a tape line for measuring base lines. 

CoMPLEMENT OF MEN.—It is recommended that a chief observer and four 
assistant observers be detailed to carry out the astronomical and meteorological 
and magnetic observations herein provided for, and such miscellaneous work as. 
they are able to attend to. 

The chief should be especially familiar with the astronomical and magnetic 
work, and be able to instruct observers in their duties. 


ASTRONOMY. 


ASTRONOMICAL NOTES FOR MARCH, 188r. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


The sun during this month will appear to be moving north at a very fast 
rate, the daily rate being about 0.7 of its own diameter. On the 2oth, at 5 h. 
a. m., its center passes the equator and also enters the first sign of the zodiac, and 
spring commences. Mercury, for the first and second days, will show in the 
west for a few minutes after sunset. On the 11th it will be in conjunction with 
the sun, after which it will rise before the sun and cannot be seen before the end 
of the month. 

Venus, during this month, shines with great brilliancy in the western sky for 
about three hours after sunset. It attains its maximum brilliancy on the 27th, 
after which it will gradually approach the sun, still increasing in apparent size, 
but decreasing in brilliancy. Its apparent diameter on the rst is 26”, on the 31st 


y 


ASTRONOMICAL NOTES FOR MARCH 1881. 693 


41”. It is in conjunction with Saturn on the 1st, being north of that planet 


5° XY 

Mars will show for a short time before sunrise in the southeast, but being 
quite small is hard to find. 

Jupiter will still adorn the western sky after sunset. It is gradually approach- 
ing Saturn, but will not be in conjunction with it during this month. 

Saturn sets a short time after Jupiter; its rings are opening out to view, but 
it is too near the sun to be observed to advantage. 

Uranus is favorably situated for observation, being in the constellation Leo, 
the Lion. It passes the meridian on the 4th, at midnight. 

Neptune on the 22d will be 7° 9‘ south of Venus. 

The Moon, on the evening of the 3d, will approach very near to Venus, 
being within less than its own diameter of that planet at the time of its setting. 


° 


Position of the Constellations on the 14th, at 6 h. 30 m. in the Evening. 


Auriga, the Charioteer, occupies the zenith. In this constellation is situ- 
ated the bright star Capella, now a short distance northwest of the zenith. 

The Milky Way spans the celestial vault like an arch of nebulous light, rest- 
ing on the horizon in the north northwest and south southeast, and passes 
through the zenith. 

Cygnus, the Swan, is sinking below the horizon where the Milky Way rests 
upon it in the north northwest. It has nearly disappeared from view. Follow- 
ang the Milky Way we come to Cepheus, the King, and then to Cassiopea, the 
Lady, in her chair. Next come Perseus and Auriga in the zenith. Continuing 
in the same path toward the south southeast, we will touch the eastern edge of 
Taurus, the Bull. It may be recognized by the Pleiades, or Seven Stars, as the 
group is commonly called. . There are only six stars in the group visible to ordi- 
nary eyes. An eye which is good enough to see seven will be likely to see four 
others—eleven in all. A telescope of moderate power will show from fifty to 
sixty. Another group in this constellation is the Hyades, the principal stars of 
which are in the form of the letter V, one part of the V being formed by Alde- 
baran, a red star of nearly the first magnitude. 

Gemini, the Twins, lies east of Taurus, across the Milky Way. The bright- 
est stars in this constellation are Castor and Pollux. Castor, the most northern 
and western of the two, isa double star when viewed with a telescope of moder- 
ate power. 

Cancer, the Crab, lies east of Gemini. It contains no bright star. The 
only remarkable object within its confines is Preesepe, a group of stars too faint 
to be seen singly with the naked eye, and only appears as a spot of milky light. 

Keeping on along the milky way toward the south southeast, we will pass 
along the western edge of Canis Minor and through Monoceros and by the east- 
ern edge of Canis Major, which contains Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens. 
A number of bright stars south and southeast of Sirius belong to this constella- 
tion, making it one of great brilliancy. 


694 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


THE LICK OBSERVATORY TELESCOPE. 


The trustees of the Lick Observatory have finally closed the contract for 
the optical part of their great telescope. There has been considerable doubt 
whether a refractor or an enormous reflector would be selected, but the decision 
is in favor of the former. The object glass is to be three feet in diameter, and the 
Clarks of Cambridge, Mass., are to make it for $50,000. The mounting of the 
instrument is not yet provided for. Proposals will be obtained from the princi- 
pal instrument makers of Europe and this country. Probably the mechanical 
part of the instrument will cost as much as the optical. It may be three years 
before the telescope is finished. If the instrument proves successful, it will be 
the most efficient ever pointed at the heavens. Its power will exceed that of the 
Pulkowa glass by forty-four per centum, and it will be almost twice as powerful 
as the great telescope at Washington, which at present is the best of its kind.— 
Scientific American. 


METEOROLOGY: 


CLOUDS—LIGHTNING. 
PROF. S. A. MAXWELL. 


Clouds and lightning stand in relation to one another as cause and effect, 
therefore, in the proper consideration of the former subject, more or less mention 
of the latter must also be made. 

‘Lightning consists of an electrical discharge between cloud and cloud, or 
between a cloud and the earth, and sometimes between the upper and lower parts 
of the same cloud.” Such is the definition given by Prof. Henry to that wonder- 
ful electrical phenomenon, so often accompanying storms in the temperate and 
torrid regions of the earth—a phenomenon of such common occurrence as 
scarcely to need a definition, and yet so peculiar in its nature and action as to 
remain, even yet, to a certain extent unknown and unexplained. The discovery 
of the identity of lightning and atmospheric electricity was due to the genius of 
Franklin, who, more than any other philosopher of the eighteenth century, con- 
tributed valuable additions to science by his tireless researches and novel experi- 
ments. 

The electric spark in its passage through the air may be viewed under differ- 
ent conditions: hence arise those different names, —sheet-lightning, heat-lightning, 
chain-lightning, etc. If the spark is hidden by clouds, as it generally is during a 
storm, and a part of its light is reflected from the under side of the cloud, people 
call it sheet lightning. If seen during the serenity of a warm summer night, 
gilding the corrugated edges of a far-distant storm-cloud, or flashing from an 


apparently cloudless horizon, with gleams like the aurora—then, people say it is 
7) 


CLOUDS—LIGHT NING. 695 


heat-lightning. Lastly, if it breaks suddenly from the base of the threatening 
cloud, and spans instantaneously with a jagged chain of blinding fire the inter- 
vening space to the earth, then, it is denominated chain-lightning. Now, in 
truth, these three forms of lightning are identical, the diverse appearances which 
they present being due entirely to external conditions. 

Sometimes there occurs a form known as arborescent lightning. This is 
produced when a spark of electricity passing along the horizontal base of a cloud 
suddenly divides into several trunks, and these, sub-dividing again and again, 
produce the representation of a tree, with limbs interlacing one another in a 
_ network of fire. This form in its perfection is rarely witnessed. On the evening 
of August 6, 1870, a most magnificent exhibition of this species of lightning 
occurred. Hundreds of glittering sparks, originating from one, darted along the 
base of the storm-cloud, after the rain had passed. The aggregate length of the 
different ramifications of this single flash must have exceeded 150 miles! What 
is remarkable about this form of lightning is its comparatively slow movement. 
‘The duration of the flash on this occasion amounted to as much as two seconds; 
and, according to Arago, a flash of lightning requires only 1-288,000 part of a 
second to pass from a cloud to the earth, supposing the distance to be a mile. 
Another remarkable example of arborescent lightning occurred in June, 1870. 
In this instance, the storm was coming up from the west, though the ‘‘ fan-cloud” 
had already extended far to the east. Suddenly, far in the west, almost down to 
the horizon, in fact, the electricity originated, and, passing eastward along the 
cloud in numerous diverging and ramifying lines, finally terminated in the out- 
lying borders of the cloud, not less than szx¢y m/es from its starting point. The 
extent of this flash was greater than any other on record, so far as I know, being 
nearly five times greater than any noted by either Arago or Flammarion. The 
rumbling of the thunder continued in the west for fully four minutes after the 
flash, and no subsequent flash occurring, the sound must have been the result of 
this most remarkable discharge. The flash must have extended at least fifteen 
miles to the east of the point of observation, and forty-eight to the west of it. 
No rain was falling at the time, and none fell until an hour afterward, and then 
but very little. This was the finest exhibition of Nature’s fireworks that I have 
ever witnessed: the surpassing brilliancy of the flash and the prolonged detona- 
tions of the thunder combined to produce an effect of astonishing beauty and 
grandeur. 

I will not speak of the so-called globular lightning, as I believe it never ap- 
peared in reality, but only as the product of an excited imagination; nor will I 
make but a single remark concerning St. Elmo’s fire, that peculiar, lambent light 
which is sometimes seen on church spires. This fire, resembling phosphorescent 
light, sometimes plays lightly over the surface of depending projections of a 
storm-cloud. This phenomenon was particularly noticeable during a storm on 
the evening of June 7, 1874. 

Lightning sometimes appears of a brilliant white color, and at other times of 


696 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


a purple or rose-colored tint. Lieut. Arthur mentions red, and also blue light- 
ning, in his account of the Barbadoes hurricane of 1780. It has been deter- 
mined that when the cloud floats comparatively near the earth the lightning is 
white, and when occuring at great elevations the flash is of a reddish or purple 
hue. The colored tints are evidently due to the rarity of the air; for the same 
effects are produced when an electric spark is made to pass through the air of a 
partially-exhausted receiver. ; 

A certain modern philosopher says: ‘‘It is strange how strongly some errors 
retain their hold on the minds of men;”’ and the tenacious property of error is 
illustrated in the persistence with which some meteorologists uphold the theory 
that the rumblings and detonations of thunder are successive echoes reflected 
from the clouds. 

Now, as every one knows, the lightning passing through the atmosphere, 
moves in broken, zigzag lines, so that, in one part of its course it may be going 
either soward or from us, and in another in a line at right angles or obliquely to 
its former direction. From every point of its course the sound of thunder pro- 
ceeds. Now the velocity of sound is about 1,000 feet per second. Let us 
suppose a portion of the lightning’s track 2,000 feet in length lies in a line, the 
more distant extremity of which is 2,000 feet farther from us than the other, 
then will the report of the thunder be two seconds sounding in our ears; while, 
on the other hand, should the discharge occur in a line at right angles to this one, 
the report would be of but an instant’s duration—the vibrations reaching us 
from all points of the line during a single second. It is obvious, therefore, that 
in the former case, the intensity of the sound would be but half as great as in 
the latter. The different conditions of distance, direction, and intensity of the 
electric discharge are sufficient to account for nearly all the modifications of the 
voice of the thunder, which we inhabitants of the plains ever hear. In moun- 
tainous districts there are frequently echoes from mountain sides; and this is an 
effect most natural, but the idea that thunder is echoed from walls of vapor, like 
the clouds, is little short of the absurd—at any rate those should not entertain 
the idea who believe that the sound of thunder can penetrate but twice as far as 
that of a base drum. 

In some of our text-books on Physical Geography, it is stated that thunder 
is never heard at a distance of more than fez miles. ‘The truth is, thunder is not 
generally heard until the storm is within forty miles of the observer’s locality ; 
but it may be heard from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles, if the 
conditions are favorable. When the top of the storm-cloud is about ten degrees 
above the horizon, it is then some one hundred and fifty miles distant. If the 
weather is very warm, it may be even more than this. If it is moving in the 
direction of the observer it will reach his locality within from four to six hours, 
since these storms move, as a general thing, from twenty-five to forty miles per 
hour. Some storms, however, move much more rapidly than this. One occur- 
ring in May, 1873, reached Dubuque, Ia., at 10.00 a. M., Morrison, IIl., at 11, 
and Ottawa, Ill., at noon. 


ITALIAN THERMOMETRICAL READINGS. 697 


When the Mineral Point tornado occurred, May 23d, 1878, the summit of 
the cloud, viewed from this locality, was about fourteen degrees above the hori- 
zon, and thunder was distinctly heard—distance about eighty miles. On the 
same evening, lightning flashes blazed constantly from a cloud about ten degrees 
high, directly in the east. The storm was raging at the time in the vicinity of 
Chicago, and the thunder was distinctly audible. This storm had passed over 
Whiteside county (Illinois), during the afternoon, and was accompanied with 
terrific thunder. 

In the month of June, 1867, during a protracted drouth, a shower came up 
one night accompanied with considerable electricity. It passed on to the easte 
ward, and, at sunrise next morning, the corrugated edges of the thunder-cloud 
projected slightly above the horizon. No other clouds were visible in the heav- 
ens; yet thunder was distinctly heard several times, and even after the cloud 
had entirely disappeared. This is sufficient proof, with what has gone before, 
that thunder caz be heard even one hundred and fifty miles. In the remarkable 
case here noted, a light breeze from the east, combined with certain other condi- 
tions, rendered the phenomenon possible. But yet, our school-book authors lay 
it down as a fixed law that thunder can be heard but ¢em miles! They do not 
make the least allowance for varying conditions. They do not take into consid- 
eration the fact that certain conditions of moisture of the air, either more or 
less, have their modifying effects; nor do they seem to know that when the soil 
is parched from long-coutinued drouth, it then serves as a ready transmitter of 
sound. 

The height to which a thunder-cloud ascends sometimes exceeds six miles. 
When five and a half miles high, it can readily be seen 200 miles. 

[ Zo be Continued | 


MEAN ITALIAN THERMOMETER READINGS, 


FURNISHED BY ERMINE CASE, JR. 


MILAN. FLORENCE. ROME. NAPLES. 

Saturdays) Weew4, rSs0). | 41 3ou) be 47° 59° 62° 
BGs iaGG Gunes ansvevoyiny miyey ele On 55° 63° 

ve COTES H SSO) ae Aaa 43° 50° 49° 

ue B25 ROSOl a 42m 48° 50° Si y 

Geea ATS: | THeeUSOR .! 2515 Oy Bag 58° 61° 
ms Sere ol 44a 49° 55° 52° 


oe ECM MUOS Keen 3o) 44° Ase Site 


698 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT WASHBURN COLLEGE, 
TOPEKA, KANSAS. 


BY PROF. J. T. LOVEWELL. 


The last eleven days of January were milder than the first twenty, which 
were reported last month, but the average temperature was only 20°. ‘The lowest 
temperature of this decade was 2° above zero, and the average of minima was 
11.6°. The first decade of February was warmer, the average of minima being 
20.5° above zero and the mean temperature 28.8°. The last decade of this 
report, which closed Feb. 2oth, shows that another cold term has prevailed, and 
reports from many quarters indicate that the storms have been almost beyond 
precedent in their extent and severity. There had been no sleighing in Topeka 
until the 11th of February, when a snow storm began that lasted more than 24 
hours. From noon on the 11th to noon on the rath the wind traveled 1129. 
miles ; direction from the northwest. This distance is greater by more than 100 
miles than any previous record since our anemometer was set up, last May. The 
velocity was upwards of 50 m. per hour much of the time. Following this were 
several days of exceedingly cold weather—the minimum on the 15th being 9° 
below zero, and on the 16th 11° below zero. On the 1gth it was 6° below zero. 
Another snow storm occurred on the 14th, and still another on the 17th. The 
total depth of snow at any one time on the prairie, where not drifted nor blown 
off, was seven or eight inches. There have been many parhelia of great bril 
liancy, both morning and evening. The lowest barometer, 28.59, accompanied 
the rain storm of the 5th. In the second decade the N. and N. W. winds have 
prevailed, and, as usual, the barometer has been higher. 

The following table gives these results by decades: 


RECORDS DEDUCED FROM AVERAGES OF DAILY OBSERVATIONS. 


Jan. 20th Feb. Ist Feb. 10th 


to 3ist. to 11th. to 20th Mean 
TEMPERATURE. 
Minto sca ilies tors y beste stile 11.6 20.5 3.0 11.7 
MASAI ee saicterune ued snare inate tals 31.9 37.8 22.4 30.7 
Mean of Max. and Min..... 21.8 29.1 12.7 21.2 
REVERE 66 6100 6 O16 6 4.6 6 20 3 17.0 19.4 18 9 
ARMILeG ea A eriretiracabe bea tenveute 15.0 24.8 6.5 15.4 
DFR Te ee Ok tReet ps ROUEN 24.8 33.8 18.7 25 4 
Qs 6 o6 4 MPA eb ey heiiee 20.1 28.9 12.0 20 4 
Me amg earache enn Neva alti 20.0 28.8 12.4 20.4 
Ret. Humipity. 
MANUINE au cine ls alia Lanes cyeurenite esate 86 
Wi We 6 G6 6 6.6700 0 40. 6 81 
Ospeernyiecueusede te ese tetetrenteats 85 
Mieamici/e mea careacenn annerires tonne 
PRESSURE, sea-level, 32° F. 
Lifes v eben ied Uy Sa a A a Us ae 29.00 28.85 29.08 29.01 
Zip re Meee italic an WatredasUbel be nrelin 29.00 28. 83 29 06 28.99 
Olpearive seosb sation ces bel cette caer etie 29 11 28.84 29 09 29.01 
INVITE AY cipaitiscwelbrct ine Wrehea Meta ase Uber 29.10 28.84 29.08 29.01 
WIND. 


Miles Traveled. ....... | © 18,955 | 8,656 4,771 | 
RAIN A*D SNOw. 
Inches melted | | 


2 8 8 © © © © © © 


BOOK NOTICES. 699 


DUST AND FOG.—BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF SMOKE. 


Mr. John Aitken recently read a paper before the Royal Society of Edin- 
burg on the origin of fogs, mists and clouds. From a great number of experi- 
ments with moist air at different temperatures, to determine the conditions which 
produce condensation of water vapor, he concludes that whenever water vaj or 
condenses in the atmosphere, it always does so on some solid nucles; that dust 
particles in the air form the nuclei on which the vapor condenses; that if there 
were no dust there would be no fogs, no clouds, no mists, and probably no 
rain; and that the supersaturated air would convert every object on the surface 
of the earth into a condenser on which it would deposit as dew; lastly, that our 
breath, when it becomes visible on a frosty morning, and every puff of steam, 
as it escapes into the air from an engine, show the impure and dusty state of 
the atmosphere. These results have been verified at temperatures as low as 
14° Fah., at which, however, there was little cloudiness produced, owing to the 
small amount of vapor in air socold. The sources of this dust are many and 
various; for instance, finely ground stone from the surface of the earth, the ash 
from exploded meteorites, and living germs. Mr. Aitken showed experimentally 
that, by simply heating any substance, such as a piece of glass, iron or wood, a 
fume of solid particles was given off, which, when carried along with pure air into 
a receiver, gave rise to a dense fog mixed with steam. So delicate is this test 
that the hundredth of a grain of iron wire will, when heated, produce a distinct 
haziness in the receiver. By far the most active source of these fog-producing 
particles is, however, the smoke and sulphur given off by our coal fires; and as 
even gas grates will not prevent the emission of these particles, Mr. Aitken 
thinks it is honeless to expect that London, and other large cities wherein such 
fuel is used, can ever be free from fogs. However, inasmuch as more perfect 
combustion will prevent the discharge of soot flakes, these fogs may be rendered 
whiter, purer, and therefore more wholesome, by the use of gas grates, such as 
that recomended by Dr. Siemens. Mr. Aitken also drew attention to the deodor- 
izing and antiseptic powers of smoke and sulphur, which, he thinks, probably 
operate beneficially in killing the deadly germs and disinfecting the foul smells 
which cling about the stagnant air of fogs, and suggests caution lest, by suppress- 
ing smoke, we substitue a greater evil for a lesser one.—Sczentific American. 


BOOKNOTICES: 


NATURAL SCIENCE AND RELIGION, by Asa Gray. pp. 111, octavo. Chas. Scrib- 
ner’s Sons, N. Y., 1880, $1.50. 


This little work is made up of two lectures delivered by Prof. Asa Gray to 
the Theological School of Yale College; the first upon Scientific Beliefs, and the 


700 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


second upon The Relations of Scientific to Religious Belief; and, since whatever 
this eminent naturalist contributes to the literature of science carries with it in- 
disputable force and weight, it is unnecessary to say-that they comprise the sum 
of what is known and believed by the best and most profound thinkers and ex- 
perimenters in natural science and biology. His vast experience and skilled 
observations give him a position among scientists that few Americans occupy, and 
these lectures are read by old and young, creationists and evolutionists, with re- 
spect and confidence. 

In the first lecture he traces the rise and abandonment of numerous beliefs ; 
as that plants and animals are composed of different ultimate materials, whereas 
the essential oneness of the two kingdoms of organic nature is now a new article 
of scientific creed; the idea that the characteristic features of an animal were a 
mouth and a stomach, whereas it is now known that entozoa feed like rhizophytes 
and turbellarias and their relatives have no alimentary canal, the food taken by 
what answers to mouth passing as directly into the general tissue as does the ma- 
_ terial which a parasitic root imbibes from its host or an ordinary root from the 

soil; more recently, even the faculty of automatic movement is believed to belong 
to certain vegetables instead of being a special attribute of animals only. 

The hypotheses of natural selection, origin of species, etc., are all taken up 
in their turn and explained in the light of the most modern discoveries, and their 
errors as well as their established facts clearly and fairly pointed out. 

In the second lecture the distinguished and venerable author considers the 
attitude that thoughtful men and Christian believers should take respecting the 
scientific beliefs of the present day and how they stand related to beliefs of another 
order. In reference to Darwinism, which he declares to be entirely and clearly 
distinct from monistic and agnostic philosophy, he says:—‘‘As theists we are not 
debarred from the supposition of supernatural organization, mediate or immedi- 
ate. But suppose the facts suggest and inferentially warrant the conclusion that 
the course of. natural history has been along an unbroken line ; that—account for 
it or not—the origin of the kinds of plants and animals comes to stand on the 
same footings as the rest of nature. As this is the complete outcome of Darwin- 
ian evolution, it has to be’-met and considered.” Christian theists ‘should not 
denounce it as atheistical or as practical atheism or as absurd,” but give it the 
most complete investigation from the highest summits of scientific knowledge and 


research. 
As before stated, there is no work on this subject more deserving of our 


studious and respectful examination. 


History OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION TO THE YEAR 200. By Charles B. Waite, 
A. M.; pp. 455, 8 vo. Chicago; C. V. Waite & Co., 1881. For sale by 


M. H. Dickinson. $2.50. 
The author of this work claims that his intent to publish it was formed after | 


ascertaining facts and arriving at conclusions which appeared of great importance, 


BOOK NOTICES. 701 


and which had never before been made fully known. He also assumes that it 
will be found the most complete record of the events connected with the Chris- 
tian religion during the first two centuries which has ever been presented to the 
public. Whether these assumptions are fully borne out is possibly questionable, 
but that the work is the result of extensive reading and study, both of ancient 
and modern writers, and therefore well worth the examination and investigation 
of all readers, is unquestionable. 

The book is divided into six periods. First, The Apostolic age, A. D. 30 to 
A. D. 80; second, the Apostolic Fathers, A. D. 80 to 120; third, the Three 
Apochryphal Gospels, A. D. 120 to 130; fourth, Forty Years of Christian Writ- 
ers, A. D. 130 to 170, fifth, the Four Canonical Gospels, A. D. 170 to 185; 
sixth, close of the Second Century, A. D. 185 to 200. 

The first statement that attracts attention is that the gospels of the first cen- 
tury, with the exception of the epistles of Paul, the one epistle of Clement of 
Rome, a few legends and tradition, etc., are lost; also the great body of the 
Christian literature of the second century has been destroyed. Later, the author 
states, in a review of the third and fourth periods, that in the whole mass of 
Christian literature cited by him, including the writings of twenty-six Christian 
authors, besides others of note, there is not to be found a single mention of the 
canonical gospels; not a reference to Matthew, Mark, Luke or John, as the 
author of a gospel. Still later, he states, as a result of his investigation, that 
““no evidence is found of the existence, in the first century, of either of the fol- 
lowing doctrines: the immaculate conception, the miracles of Christ or his mate- 
rial resurrection. Finally, he declares that, notwithstanding all these absences 
and failures in what are usually regarded as authoritative writers and doctrines, 
the divine teachings of Christ, ‘‘ unlike the books referred to, can be traced back 
to well authenticated records of the first century.” 

Giving Mr. Waite all credit for laborious overhauling of authorities among 
early and later writers, and accepting his copious quotations as correct, and even 
allowing that his motives and purposes in the investigations he has made were 
pure and in the interest of exact history, we yet fail to be convinced that he has 
had access to better authorities or has read them to better effect than the thou- 
sands of scholars who have preceded him, who, doubtless, were actuated by as 
lofty motives in their researches, and who, doubtless, were as honest in their 
conclusions, though differing so widely from his own. 

Mr. Waite fixes the date of the canonical gospels approximately thus: Luke, 
A. D. 170: Mark, 175; John, 178; Matthew, 180. It seems impossible that 
such writers as Origen and Irenzeus, whose testimony shows that Matthew’s 
gospel was written about A. D. 58 to 60, should be so far mi taken; while the 
internal evidence of Mark’s gospel (xiii-r3, 24, 33), proves that it written before 
the destruction of Jerusalem. Luke’s gospel is known to have been in use before 
A. D. 120, and the internal evidence (Acts i, 1), proves that it was written before 
the Acts, which, since the latest time actually mentioned in the latter is the period 
during which Paul lived at Rome, must have been before the year 63. John’s gosp:l 


702 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


was written later, probably during his sojourn at Ephesus, in A. D. 66, or per- 
haps as late as 78. Scholars of the most undoubted erudition and fairness, after 
the most laborious and careful research, have agreed upon these dates, which 
have thus far withstood all efforts to materially change them. 

Many other statements of Mr. Waite are in direct conflict with the ordinarily 
accepted beliefs of the Christian world, and many of the authorities relied upon 
by him are rejected by other scholars; but, as we have before said, his book shows 
the expenditure of laborious examination of many authors, and will be an inter- 
esting study for all classes of readers. 


CHAPTERS FROM THE PHySICAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH. By Arthur Nicols 
EG. 5.) FRY iG.S!; pp. 2381, 12 mo. ; Harper & Bros:, New, Yorks lon 

Sale by Kansas City Book and News Co.; $1.50. 

The object of the author of this work in adding another to the long list of 
geological text-books, is to bring the information we have on the subject to a 
focus and direct it to the elucidation of the physical and biological history of our 
planet. The work is divided into two parts, Geology and Palzontology, each 
comprising six chapters on the appropriate subjects which are treated ably and 
comprehensively. The Paleontological part will be found especially full and 
valuable, since in that department it is possible to present new facts and dis- 
coveries, and advance the new theories growing out of them. The last chapter, 
that on Fossil man, sets forth fully the Monogenistic and Polygenistic theories ; 
man’s position on the earth, zodlogically considered; his structure and relation- 
ships with lower animals; growth of speech, etc., etc., with an account of the 
very latest discoveries of human fossil remains, and the opinions of the most 
scientific men of the present day regarding man’s antiquity. 

One marked improvement in this book over most geological works is, that 
in place of the old engravings that have been handed down from the days of 
Hitchcock, a number of new ones are introduced to illustrate the text. This 
will be appreciated at least by all middle aged, or elderly readers, to whom the 
others have long since become more familiar even than ‘‘ household words.” 


Curious MyTHs oF THE MippDLE AGEs: By S. Baring-Gould, M. A.; pp. 453, 
12 mo. Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1880. For sale by M. H. Dickinson, 
$1.50. 

Among the medieval myths described and explained in this volume are those 
of the Wandering Jew; Prester John; The Divining Rod; The Seven Sleepers 
of Ephesus; William Tell; Anti-Christ and Pope Joan; The Man in the Moon; 
St. George; The Fortunate Isles, and many more; all of which are handled 
familiarly and skillfully by the author. He has selected myths of whose origin 
and history very little is really known by most readers, although their titles are 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS, 703 


well known to all. In doing this work he has laid under obligations the mass of 


the reading public, who are also indebted to the publishers for their part of the 
work. 


SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT. By Franz Thimm; pp. 83, 12 mo.; Kansas City Book 
and News Co., 1880; 25 cents. 


This will be found a very useful hand-book to the people of the West, so 
many of whom have business and social relations with those of Old and New 
Mexico, where the Spanish language is almost universally spoken. It consists of 
a grammar and a reader, with English pronunciation and translation of every 
word, phrase, and sentence ; so that by it alone a stranger can make himself un- 
derstood by a native wherever the Spanish language is spoken, or written. 


OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 


Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 
Vol. I 1870-2, Vol. II 1873-4, Vol. III 1875-6, Vol. 1V 1876-77. Proceedings 
of the Boston Society of Natural History; Vol. XIX. Part 1, October, 1876, to 
‘March, 1877; Part 2, March, 1877, to May, 1877; Part 3, May, 1877, to March, 
1878; Part 4, March-April, 1878. Vol. XX. Part 1, May to November, 1878; 
Part 2, November, 1878, to April, 1879; Part 3, April, 1879, to January, 1880, 
Archeological Explorations of the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, 
Ohio)» Part 1) Lo 78-9) bart) 2oepiember © to December) an 1sy7obanteat 
January to June 30, 1880. Proceedings of the lowa Academy of Sciences, 
1875-80. Forest and Forestry, from Report of State Board of Agriculture of 1880, 
‘by Thos. Meehan; On the Timber Line of High Mountains, from Proceedings 
-of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1880, by Thos. Meehan. The 
‘Geology of Central and Western Minnesota, Preliminary Report of Warren 
‘Upham, Assistant State Geologist, 1879 ; The Succession of Glacial Deposits of 
New England, by Warren Upham. The Kindergarten Messenger and the New 
Education, Syracuse, N. Y., 1881, $1.00 per annum; Hardwicke’s Science Gossip, 
January, 1881, London, 5d. Proceedings of the Poughkeepsie Society of Natural 
Science, October, 1879, to July, 1880. Quarterly Report of the Kansas State 
Board of Agriculture, for the quarter ending December 31, 1880, J. K. Hudson, 
Secretary. Circular (No. 4) of Information of the Bureau of Education, Rural 
School Architecture, with Illustrations ; Circular No. 5, English Rural Schools. 


704 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


SCL NPAC Wits Cali ANG 


DEEP SEA DREDGING. 


In the opinion of Prof. A. E. Verrill of Yale College, the recent deep-sea 
dredging expedition off the coast of Rhode Island, on the edge of the Gulf 
Stream, under the auspices of the United States Fish Commission, proved the 
most successful ever sent out by this or any other country. In three days more 
specimens were obtained than by any other expedition in as many months. In 
deed, the English expedition on the Challenger, which was at work deep-sea 
dredging for five years continuously, did not accomplish more or get a larger 
collection. 

The dredging was done from seventy-five to one hundred and fifteen miles. 
south of Newport, in the region known on the charts as Block Island soundings, 
the depth of the water being from one-quarter to three-quarters of a mile. The 
specially constructed steamer Fish Hawk, fitted up with the most approved scien- 
tific appliances, was used, and the expedition was under the direct charge of Prof. 
Baird of Washington. The ground was especially favorable. A peculiar beam 
trawl was used for scraping the bottom of the ocean. It was a net forty or fifty 
feet long. The mouth of it was spread open by an oak beam fifteen feet long and 
six inches in diameter. The beam rested upon heavy iron runners, to keep the 
net-work bag about two feet off of the bottom. The lower side of the mouth of 
the net was formed of a receding rope, weighted with lead. This rope dragged 
along the bottom and scraped the shell-fish, shells and what not into the net. Fish 
swimming at that depth were also scooped in, and once inside they were entangled 


in pockets that prevented their escaping. 
This trawl would be thrown out and drawn along behind the steamer, making 


a swath half a mile long and twelve or fifteen feet wide. Then a powerful hoist- 
ing engine would be set to work and the trawl and its contents hoisted aboard the 
steamer. As many as four thousand pounds weight of stuff would be taken from 
the bottom of the ocean each time the trawl was hoisted. Two barrels of alcohol 
a day were used in preserving rare specimens. To put them in shape will be the 
work of weeks. To thoroughly arrange and classify the thousands of specimens. 
obtained, will occupy the commission all winter. Most of this work will be done 
by Prof. Verrill and his assistants. 

Eighteen species of fish were caught heretofore unknown and undescribed, 
besides others known to Greenland and Northern Europe, but not to our coast ; 
also a wonderful variety of crabs, shrimp and lobster-like creatures, some of them 
very handsome, and forty species of them entirely new. One hundred and fifty- 
five different kinds of shells, one hundred and fifteen of them not before known 
on this part of the coast, fifty-five not known as inhabitants of American waters, 
and thirty wholly unknown to scientists heretofore, were obtained. In addition, 
two new kinds of devil-fish, one about a foot long; two hundred specimens of a 


DEEP SEA DREDGING. 705 


new and pretty squid, and twenty new kinds of star-fish were taken. Of these 
star-fish thousands of specimens were netted, some of exceeding beauty. Quite 
a number of new species of corals were caught, some of them being brought up 
by the bushel. Of fan coral some beautiful specimens were obtained. Hundreds 
of sea anemones, brilliantly colored, some of them measuring a foot across, de- 
lighted the eyes of the men of science. One strange discovery was a worm inhab- 
iting a quill like a goose-quill. The quills were about a foot long, and soon after 
being taken out of the water grew so hard that they could be and were used for 
pens. They stood up in the mud at the bottom of the sea. The worms inside 
were opal-colored, and when taken out of their strange tenements glistened and 
presented a rather pretty appearance, so far as color was concerned. ‘They were 
raked up by thousands, and none of the scientific men ever heard of them before. 

The discovery was made that the tilefish is plentier than the cod. A Glouces 
ter fisherman last winter hauled in the first tilefish. Since then few have been 
caught. Prof. Verrill, however, caught three with a perpendicular trawl line. On 
opening their stomachs he found therein some of the rare crustaceze that abounded. 
thereabout, and he knew it was their feeding ground. He is satisfied that they 
are plentier there in season than codfish off Block Island. One of the fish caught 
weighed fifty pounds. ‘The tilefish, as described by Prof. Verrill, is a magnificent 
fish of a light, yellow-brown color, shaped like a sea-bass, and spotted all over 
with yellow. It is fine eating, and he is convinced that it is destined to becomea 
favorite market fish, now that it is known where it can be readily caught. 

All of the fish caught by the dredges have gone to the headquarters of the 
commission in Washington. The other specimens came here in many boxes a 
few days ago, and the work of arranging them is now being pushed forward. As 
many as one hundred series of the various specimens will be made up and dis 
tributed among the museums of the country, the first choice going to the National 
Museum at Washington, the second to the Peabody Museum here, the third to 
the museum at Cambridge, and soon. A complete and detailed report will also 
be made by the commission. 

The records of the temperature at different depths were always made with 
great care. Ata depth of from roo to 142% fathoms the temperature was usually 
from 51° to 53° Fahrenheit. From 142% to 325 fathoms it was from 42° to 43°, 
and at 500 fathoms it was 40°. The pressure at 500 fathoms or over was very 
great—sufficient to crush and press together the wood that incased the thermome- 
ter until it was a shapeless mass, and to so press the rope used to lower the instru- 
ment, that it came up hardened and squeezed together until it resembled a bar of 
metal. 
In the nine years the Fish Commission has been established it has dredged in 

2,000 localities (both shallow and deep waters), between Long Island Sound and 
Halifax, and out as far as 200 miles; but never before did they have such good 
luck as last month on the Fish Hawk.—lV. Y. Sun. 


706 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 
A LOST CITY. 


GOUR, THE RUINED AND FORGOTTEN CAPITAL OF BENGAL. 


Among the marked peculiarities of Anglo-Indians is one which we have 
never heard fully explained. Asarule, they know nothing about India. They 
are not interested in it, and do not study it, do not take even the trouble to see 
the wonderful things of which the countuy is full. We should like to know how 
many Anglo-Bengalees know anything of the marvelous city of which the name 
stands at the head of this article; Gour, the ruined capital of Bengal, the Ganga 
Regia of Ptolemy, where Hindoo kings are believed to have reigned 2,000 years 
ago, where semi-dependent Mussulman rulers undoubtedly governed Bengal 
before Richard Coeur de Lion died, and where Kai Kaus Shah, 1291, founded a 
sovereignty, which, under the different dynasties, one of them Abyssian, endured 
to 1537. These kings made Gour, by degrees, one of the greatest cities in the 
world—greater, as far as mere size is concerned, than Babylon or London. . Mr. 
Ravenshaw, a civilian, who took photographs of every building he could reach, 
photographs published since his death, believes the ruins to cover a space from 
fifteen to twenty miles along the old bed of the river, by three miles in depth, 
a space, which, after allowing for the rich native method of life, with its endless 
gardens and necessity for trees, must have sheltered a population of at least 
2,000,000. These kings must have been among the richest monarchs of their 
time, for they ruled the rice garden of the world, Eastern Bengal, where rice 
yields to the cultivator 160 per cent; they controlled the navigation of the 
Ganges, and their dominion stretched down to the Orissa, where the native 
princes—how strange it sounds now, when Orissa is a province forgotten, except 
for an awful famine!—were always defeating their troops. They spent their 
wealth necessarily mainly on a mercenary army, often in revolt, for their Ben- 
galees could not fight the stalwart peasants who entered the army of the Kings 
of Behar, and their fleet could not always protect the weak side of the capital ; 
but they covered the city with great structures, opened ‘‘ broad, straight streets, 
lined with trees,” and built inner and outer embankments of this kind: 

‘¢The boundary embankments still exist; they were works of vast labor, 
and were, on the average, about 4o feet in height, being from 180 to 200 feet 
thick at the base. The facing throughout was of masonry, and numerous build- 
ings and edifices appear to have crowned their summits; but the whole of the 
masonry has now disappeared, and the embankments are overgrown with a dense 
jungle, impenetrable to man, and affording a safe retreat for various beasts of prey. 
The eastern embankment was double, a deep moat, about 150 yards wide, sepa- 
rating the two lines. A main road ran north and south through the city, its 
course being still traceable by the remains of bridges and viaducts. The western 
face of the city is now open, and probably always was so, having been well pro- 
tected by the Ganges, which, as has already been observed, ran under its walls. 
In the center of the north and south embankments are openings, showing that 


AL ILOSIE (CHINE. 707 


these fortifications have been perforated to afford ingress to and egress from the 
city. At the northern entrance there are no remains, but at the southern still 
stands the Kutwali gate, a beautiful ruin, measuring fifty one feet in height, 
under the archway. Within the space inclosed by these embankments and the 
river stood the City of Gour, proper, and in the southern corner was situated the 
fort, containing the palace, of which it is deeply to be regretted that so little is 
left. Early in the present century there was much to be found here worthy of © 
note, including many elegantly carved marbles; but these are said to have _be- 
come the prey of the Calcutta undertakers and others for monumental purposes. 
‘On the rvadside, between the palace and the Bhagirathi River, there now lies 
split in twain a vast block of hornblende, which, having been carried thus far, 
has been dropped and left as broken on the highway, to bear its testinony against 
the spoilers. Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of similar con- 
struction to that which surrounds the city, and even more overgrown with jungle, 
A deep moat protects it on the outside. Radiating north, south, and east 
from the city, other embankments are to be traced, running through the suburbs, 
and extending in certain directions for thirty or forty miles. These include the 
great causeways or main roads leading to the city, which were constructed by 
Sultan Ghivasuddin. The greater part of them were metaled, and here and 
there they are still used as roads, but most of them are, like those within the 
city, overgrown with thick jungle” 

Within the embankment, ten miles by three, the kings constructed splendid 
mosques by the dozens; palaces, public buildings, deep and huge reservoirs, and 
so many houses, that after three centuries of spoilation, ‘‘there is not a village, 
scarcely a house, in the district of Maldah (which is as big as an English county), 
or in the surrounding country, that does not bear evidence of having been par- 
tially constructed from its ruins. The cities of Murshidabad, Maldah, Rajamahal 
and Rangpur, have almost entirely been built with materials from Gour, and 
even its few remaining edifices are being daily despoiled.” The kings built in 
brick and stone, and used for many mosques a material which Mr. Ravenshaw 
calls marble, but is more like what a hard freestone would be if it could bea 
deep coal-black. The quarries from which the material was obtained are still, as 
far as we know, uncertain; but it must have existed in enormous quantities ; it 
took the chisel perfectly, and it appears inaccessible even in that destructive climate, 
to the effect of time. We have seen a mantelpiece of it, engraved with the Mo- 
hammedan profession of faith, known to be 800 years old, and the letters, cut to 
the depth of a line, are as clear as if the work had been done yesterday. The 
Gour architects built splendid Saracenic arches, gateways, and domes, and 
spared no expense or time on elaborate decoration, in a style which deserves sep- 
arate study, for it marks the deep influence of Hindoo antiquities on men who 
were recently Mussulmans, and probably Moors from Spain. There is evidence 
that the grandeur and luxury of the city made a deep impression in Asia, for in 
one or two of the later Arabian stories it is treated as country-folk treat London ; 


708 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


while its civilization and polish so impressed the people, that to this hour a Ben- 
galee Pundit, desirous of describing and honoring his native tongue, calls it not 
Bengalee, but Goureye bhasha, ‘‘The tongue of Gour,” just as a Frenchman 
says, ‘‘ That is Parisian.” 

And then, as it were in a day, the city died. The native tradition is that 
it was struck by the wrath of the gods, in the form of an epidemic, which slew 
the whole population ; but it is more reasonable to believe, with Mr. Ravenshaw, 
that the epidemic, probably akin to cholera, finished a ruin partly acccmplished 
by war and by the recession of the Ganges, which, after cutting its way into a 
channel four miles off, is now slowly cutting its way back again.— London Spectator. 


A SHORT STORY OF THE OBELISK. 


BY LIEUT.-COMMANDER GORRINGE. 


Lieut.-Commander Gorringe, who has successfully brought the obelisk from 
its Alexandrian home to our Central Park, told the story of the Egyptian monu- 
ment before the New York Association for the Advancement of Science and Art 
in the Brick church, at Fifth avenue and Thirty-seventh street, last evening. 
Thirty-five centuries have passed, he said, since the obelisk was severed from its 
natural surroundings by the hand of man and wrought into its present form. On 
the banks of the Nile, about six hundred miles from the sea, is an immense mass 
of granite, known as syenite, noted for its freedom from cracks, veins or foreign 
substances, and the beautiful polish of which it is susceptible. An obelisk now 
standing at Heliopolis, five miles from Cairo, taken from this quarry, was erected 
more than four thousand years ago; and four thousand years ago a priest quarried 
from this place, and transported six hundred miles, a shaft weighing one hundred 
and fifty tons, which was so highly polished that the polish still remains. With 
all the science of our own day, it would tax the most skillful workmen to repro- 
duce the figures cut upon that shaft, and then give the surface such a lasting 
polish. 

‘¢On the base of the obelisk of Hatazon,’’ continued the speaker, ‘‘it is 
recorded that only seven months elapsed from the time she gave the order to 
quarry the stone to the date of its final completion. ‘To me this record means 
that the ancient Egyptians were possessed of mechanical appliances superior to 
those in use at the present day. By taking time enough, and employing men 
enough, there is hardly a limit to the weight that can be moved, but in the crea- 
tion, transportation, and erection of an obelisk, the number of men is limited to 
comparatively a few, and I am quite sure that there is not a man living who would 
undertake in seven months, upon the penalty of his life, to quarry, transport 
six hundred miles, erect, carve and polish a granite shaft one hundred and twenty 
feet long, weighing three hundred and fifty tons, such as that of Queen Hatazon 
at Karnak. I dwell on this fact so that you may realize that in spite of the won- 


STEAM HEATING FOR\CITIES. ; 709 


derful progress made in the mechanical arts of this country, we are, perhaps, only 
on the threshold of the knowledge possessed by the ancient Egyptians thirty-five 
centuries ago. In my opinion an obelisk is simply the representation of the 
creative power; it was unquestionably designed to stand before a temple; the 
proportions between its heighth and that of the wall or pylon against which it was 
seen projected, were invariably such that from every point of view the pyramidion 
of the obelisk was seen above the top of the temple. Obelisks are always erected 
in pairs; unfortunately, we have but one, and it is not reasonable to expect that 
we can get another one from Egypt; in fact, I have good ground for assuring you 
that there is not the least hope of our getting another Egyptian obelisk, until we 
can buy one from the European residents of Egypt. But I can see no reason 
for not having another obelisk, cut out of the beautiful red granite of Connec- 
ticut, and erected on a neighboring knoll, on which there could be cut a brief 
historical record.” 

He then gave an extended account of the hieroglyphics, which have before 
been fully described, and gave some facts about Thothmes III., Rameses, Thebes, 
Memphis, and Lucius Verus. ‘‘Thothmes was enabled to conquer Asia and exact 
tribute from the most powerful Asiatic kingdoms. He built new temples and 
restored others that had been destroyed by the Asiatic conquerors. Among the 
latter was the Temple of On at Heliopolis. Before that temple he erected a pair 
of obelisks, of which ours is one. 

‘Cleopatra had nothing to do with our obelisk. She died eight years before 
it was removed by the Romans from Heliopolis to Alexandria, for, as you are 
doubtless aware, the Latin and Greek inscription on the claw of the copper crab, 
found between it and its pedestal, states that it was re-erected at Alexandria in 
the eighth year of Augustus, which correspond to the twenty-third before Christ.” 

—NMew York Times. 


STEAM HEATING FOR CITIES. 


To speak of a man’s warming his hands in his own parlor by the heat of a 
fire a mile distant suggests an exploit of sorcery; yet for several years sucha 
thing has been possible to the citizen of Lockport, N. Y. If he will, he may 
break up his stoves and sell them for old iron: one furnace is henceforth to do 
the work of a thousand, and distribute its heat to the houses of an entire city 
by the agency of the good servant, steam. The process was invented and put 
into practical operation by Mr. Birdsill Holly. 

Near the center of thé city stands a plain brick building, from whose one tall 
chimney clouds of black smoke are constantly ascending. This is the boiler- 
house, and here in a row are the four great boilers in which the steam is gener- 
ated. Three are horizontal, fifteen feet in length by fiveindiameter. The fourth 
is of about the same capacity as its companions, but different in shape; it looks — 
dike a gigantic bell dropped down upon the furnace, and is familiarly known to 


710 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the workmen, not as ‘‘the upright,” but as ‘‘the nigger.” An iron pipe, eight 
inches in diameter, receives the steam from these boilers; yonder, back of the 
nigger, it passes into the ground. Outside the building, we might trace its course 
along the street by the black line of bare soil, from which it has melted away the 
snow. 

This pipe is laid at a depth of three feet below the surface, sheathed in non- 
conducting materials, and inserted in logs of wood bored for the purpose. As 
the distance from the boiler-house increases, it diminishes in size from eight inches 
to one or one-half, to correspond with the amount of steam passed throughit. At 
intervals of one or two hundred feet are placed wooden ‘‘service boxes,” in 
which the expansion and contraction of the pipe under different temperatures is 
provided for by a nickel joint; from these boxes, also, the branches of the main 
diverge, and the service pipes are sent out to the buildings heated. The whole 
distributing system is divided into sections, from any one of which, in case of 
necessity, the steam can be excluded, without affecting the others. 

As it is but a few years since this new method of heating had its origin in 
Lockport, we cannot expect to find it universally adopted. But here is a pleas- 
ant, home-like, private house warmed these two winters by the city furnace, from 
which it is distant perhaps half a mile. It is a cold, January day, but, as the 
outer door closes behind us, we find ourselves in a genial, summer-like atmosphere. 
No cheerfully glowing grate, no ugly, black register, is to be seen in the parlor; 
against the wall stands the radiator, with its polished marble cap and single row 
of delicately painted tubes. Itis a hint of the housekeeper’s millennium, when 
dust and coal-ashes, her omnipresent foes, shall be brought into subjection. 

In the kitchen the family washing is in progress without any aid from the 
stove. Heat is conveyed to the boiler and tubs through rubber tubes attached to 
the service pipes. ‘The water in the bathroom above is heated by a similar 
arrangement. There is no nerve-startling hiss as the steam escapes; that ingen- 
ious invention called the ‘‘anti-thunder box’’ reduces it to perfect quiet. 

In the basement, also, we find the regulator. Perhaps at this moment the 
pressure in the boiler and mains may be forty or sixty pounds; in the house, as 
we ascertain by glancing at the gauge, it is only five. This reduction of pressure 
is due in part to the fact that, upon reaching the regulator valver, the water of 
condensation contained in the pipes is wire-drawn, and thus to a great extent 
reconverted into steam before being diffused through the building. Connected 
with the regulator is a steam-meter, which registers the number of pounds con- 
sumed daily, and also the hour at which each radiator in the house is opened or 
closed. 

What becomes of the used steam? It is condensed upon leaving the radi- 
ator, and, in the form of hot water, returns to the basement. There, within a 
brick-walled inclosure, it circulates through several coils of pipe, exposed to a 
current of cold air. This air, warmed in its progress through the cooler, passes 
upward by a register into the apartment above, which it serves to ventilate. ‘The 
water accumulates in a tank, the surplus being discharged into the sewer. Dip 


PAPER CAR WHEELS. 711 


up a glassful from the tank. It is purer than a draught from any spring; it is the 
distilled water of chemistry. Should steam-heating ever become universal in our 
cities, there will be no danger of drawing up death from the well, no need of 
building expensive aqueducts and reservoirs; the same pipe that warm our houses 
wil] furnish us with water for every domestic purpose. 

Steam has been made as subservient to the comfort of man as gas. What 
will science do for us next? Will the model city of the future be lighted by 
electricity, heated by one central furnace, and have its dinners sent in from the 
common kitchen through pneumatic tubes >—Avantic Monthly, March, 188r. 


PAPER CAR WHEELS. 


How these are made are thus explained in the Paper World: <‘‘ The paper 
is straw-board of rather fine texture. It is received in the ordinary broad sheets, 
differing in no particular from those used for straw-board boxes or other similar 
work. ‘These sheets as they come from the paper mill are square, and are first 
cut toa circular pattern. This is done on a table with a knife guided by a 
radial arm. A small disc is also cut from the center of the sheet to admit the 
wheel center. The paper has now to be converted from loose sheets into a com- 
pact, dense body, capable of withstanding the tremendous crushing force to 
which it will be subjected in the wheels. This is accomplished as follows: Ten 
sheets are pasted together, one upon another, making a disc about ¥% inch thick. 
Enough of these “discs having been prepared to fill a powerful hydraulic press, | 
they are subjected to a pressure of 1,800 pounds per square inch. When removed 
the discs are hung on poles in a steam-heated loft and left six days to dry. 
Thicker discs are then made, each formed by pasting together two or three of 
those already finished. These are pressed and dried as before, and the process is. 
repeated until a block is built 4 inches thick and of about the specific gravity of 
lignum vite. After each pasting and pressing, six days are allowed for drying, 
and when the block is complete it is left in a drying room until thoroughly sea- 
soned. The next operation is that of turning the paper blocks to fit the steel 
tires and iron centers. This is done in lathes in the same manner as if the mate- 
rial worked on was tough wood. A bed or recess is worked out for the web of 
the tire to rest in. The block is then painted, and is ready for its place in the 
wheel.” 


The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Company are burning clay 
for ballasting their road. A smail fire of bituminous Iowa coal is started on the 
surface of the ground, and, when burning freely, the fire is covered with a layer 
of lumpy clay, then alternately coal and clay, the coal decreasing in quantity un- 
til at the top it is as one to fifteen. The mass is formed like a cone. Three 
united cones, each 18 feet high and containing in all about 1,000 cubic yards of 
material, have been started near Red Oak. They will burn for months. 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


712 


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EDITORIAL NOTES. : 713 


Dit Ora N Omir Ss: 


AT the regular meeting of the Kansas City 
Academy of Science, in January, papers were 
read respectively by Mr. Coddington and Mr. 
David Eccles: the former upon the Cultiva- 
tion of the Aésthetic in Industrial Pursuits, 
which was written in his usual elegant and 
attractive manner; the latter, a reply to Mr. 
Miller’s criticisms of Herbert Spencer’s phi- 
losophy, in which the author displayed his 
peculiar talent for metaphysical and philo- 
sophical discussion in a well and forcibly 
written defense of the Synthetic Philosophy. 

At the meeting in February, Mr. Robert 
Gillham read the first of a series of papers 
on Sanitary Drainage of Cities, a subject to 
which he has given much attention, and one 
which is of vital importance to every citizen 
who expects to make this city his home. 
The second paper was read by Dr. R. Wood 
Brown, his subject being The Teeth in Rela- 
tion to the Brain, illustrated by a large number 
of drawings prepared by himself, exhibiting 
the progressive development of the brainand 
teeth in the gradual ascent from the lowest 
to the highest grades of animal life. This 
lecture also was very instructive and was 
most attentively listened to by the audience. 

At the March meeting papers will be read 
by Dr. Halley and Mr. Gillham. 


Mr. HowarpD W. MITCHELL, of Colorado 
Springs, Colorado, replies to an inquiry rela- 
tive to the reported volcanic action on Pike’s 
Peak, that ‘It is unnecessary to say that all 
such rumors are utterly without foundation 
in fact; no subterranean disturbance has, so 
far as known, taken place in Colorado during 
the past year, and the only remarkable at- 
mospheric phenomenon was that which gave 
rise to the beautiful lunar rainbows a few 
nights since.” 


WE have received from the publishers a 
copy of Prof. T. Berry Smith’s chart entitled 
s¢The Circle of Sciences,”? intended for the 


use of teachers in instructing their pupils 
in Physical Science. The circle is three feet 
in diameter, the center being Matter, Force, 
Change, with the various departments and 
subdivisions radiating out from it. It is a 
comprehensive and readily comprehensible 
chart, and will be found of great advantage 
to teachers and students. 


AT the February meeting of the Kansas 
City Academy of Science, the Secretary called 
attention to the fact that the discovery of the 
Icthyornis dispar, the bird with teeth, ought, 
be credited to the late Prof. Mudge, instead 
of Prof. Marsh. The mistake is natural, as 
Prof Marsh figured and described this won- 
derful specimen, which was sent to him by 
Prof. Mudge. 


A very partial friend at Plattsmouth, Ne- 
braska, writes: ‘‘I receive most of the east- 
ern and many foreign scientific periodicals, 
but not one which interests me as the REVIEW 
does.” 


Boston Society of Natural History, 
Boston, Mass., January 26, 1881. 

We want several numbers of your maga- 
zine to complete our set. The society would 
be grateful to you if you could complete the 
set. Yours respectfully, 

Epw. BURGESS, Sec’y. 


COLUMBIAN COLLEGE, D. C., 
January 12, 1881. 


DEAR SIR:—I do not know of anything 
during the past year that gave me more pleas- 
ure than your account of your trip to New 
Mexico. 

Yours with respect, 
Otis T, MAson. 


714 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


THE Rocky Mountain Medical Review, edit- 
ed by A. Wellington Adams, M. D., reaches 
Number seven of its first volume with the 
March issue. It is a handsome, ably con- 
ducted journal, published at Colorado 
Springs, Col. Among the original articles in 
the November number, besides that of Dr. 
Adams, on the Thermograph, copied in the 
REVIEW, this month, is a very excellent one 
upon ‘The Influence of Altitude upon Res- 
piration,” by S. E. Solly, M. R. C.S., which 
will be found of service to all who read it, 
whether medical men or invalids. 


PRESLEY BLAKISToN, the well known pub- 
lisher of medical works, in Philadelphia, has 
changed the title of his medical journal to 
The American Specialist, which is edited by 
Chas. W. Dulles, M. D., and published 
monthly at $1 50perannum, It is attractive 
in appearance as well as valuable in sub- 
stance. 


THE Humboldt Library, Nos. 18 and 19, 
give respectively, ‘‘ Lessons in Electricity,” 
by Prof. John Tyndall, and ‘‘ Familiar Essays 
on Scientific Subjects,” by Prof. R. A. Proc- 
tor, at the usual low price of 15 cents each. 


THE Journal of the Anthropological Institute 
(London) for November is just received. It 
presents a number of articles which cannot 
fail to interest its readers, among which are 
Notes on the Romano-British Cemetery at 
Seaford; Notes on Fijian Burial Customs; 
The Ethnology of Germany, etc., etc. This 
valuable periodical is published quarterly at 
$1 oo per number of 112 pages, and can be 
clubbed with the REVIEW at reduced rates. 


HARPER’S MONTHLY for March offers the 
follows: Bedford Park, Moncure D. Conway ; 
with eight illustrations. The University of 
Leiden, W. T, Hewitt; with ten illustrations. 
The Arran Islands, J. L. Cloud; with ten 
illustrations. Possibilities of Horticulture, 
S. B. Parsons; with nine illustrations. A 
Glimpse of an Old Dutch Town; with sixteen 


illustrations. Richard Henry Stoddard, a 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


poem; Henry Ripley Dorr. The Grave-dig- 
ger, Robert Herrick; with full page illustra- 
tion by Abbey. A Nation in a Nutshell, 
Geo. P. Lathrop; with twelve illustrations. 
Anne; a novel, Constance Fenimore Wool- 
son; with three illustrations by Reinhart. 
The French Republic, George Merrill. 
Hands Off; a.story. A Talk on Dress, Maria 
R. Oakey. A Help-meet for Him; a story, 
W. M. Baker. The Family Life of the Turks, 
Henry O. Dwight. A Laodicean; a novel, 
Thomas Hardy; with an illustration by Du 
Maurier. Editor’s Easy Chair; Editor’s Lit- 
erary Record; Editor’s Historical Record; 
Editor’s Drawer. 


THE contents of Zhe Atlantic Monthly for 
March, 1881, are as follows; Friends; a duet, 
VI—VIII; Elizabeth Stuart Phelps. Story 
ofagreat Monopoly; H. D. Lloyd. Arachne; 
Rose Terry Cooke. The Portrait of a Lady; 
EXSY XOX; Elenry James) Jin htem seven 
Days; Francis L. Mace. New York Thea- 
ters. The Genesis of Genius; Grant Allen. 
Before Dawn; Maurice Thompson. The 
Wives of Poets, III; William M. Rosetti. 
The End of the War; Theedore Bacon. Ran- 
dom Recollections of England; Richard 
Grant White. Boston to Florence; Oliver 
Wendell Holmes. The Eleventh Hour; 
Katherine Carrington. Recent French and 
German Essays; War Ships and Navies; 
Tennyson’s New Volume, and other Poetry; 
Challoner’s History of Music; The Contribu- 
tors’ Club; Books of the Month. 


THE North American Review has eight origi- 
nal articles by prominent writers, among 
which are Theology in the Public Schools, by 
Bishop A. C. Coxe; The Isthmian Ship Rail. 
way, by Captain James B. Eads, which is 
exhaustive in argument and fact, and which 
has one map that of itself is satisfactory evi- 
dence of the advantages of his route over all 
others; The Effects of Negro Suffrage, by 
Chief Justice H. H. Chalmers; The Success 
of the Free School System, by Prof. John D. 
Philbrick; Theological Charlatanism, by 
Prof. John Fiske, in which he handles Rev. 
Joseph Cook without gloves, etc., etc. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


THE Popular Science Monthly is always wel- 
come, but the February number is especially 
attractive, as will be seen from the following 
abstract of its contents: The Development 
of Political Institutions, by Herbert Spencer. 
IV. Political Differentiation.—Origin of the 
Plow and Wheel Carriage, by E. B. Tylor, 
F,R.S.  (Illustrated.)— Physical Education, 
by Felix L. Oswald, M. D. II. Diet (contin- 
ued. )—Horses and Their Feet, by Sir George 
W. Cox.—Domestic Motors, by Charles M. 
Lungren. III. Gas and Electric Engines. 
(Illustrated.)—The Value of Accomplish- 
ments, by William A. Eddy.—Darwin on the 
Movement of Plants, by Eliza A. Youmans: 
(Illustrated.) — Atmospheric Electricity, by 
Prof. H. S. Carhart.—Optical Illusions of 
Motion, by Silvanus P. Thompson, B. A., D. 
SC, (Ilustrated.)—Evolution of the Chemi- 
cal Elements, by Lester F. Ward.—Only a 
Vine-Slip, by Thomas G. Appleton.—The 
November Meteors, by Prof. Daniel Kirk- 
wood.—Prehistoric Science en Fete.—Sketch 
of Count Pourtales. (With Portrait.) —Editor’s 
Table.—Literary Notices.—Popular Miscel- 
lany.—Notes. 


THE Saturday Herald, recently enlarged 
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THEO. S. CASE, Esq. : 

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KANSAS: ©LT wy 


REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 


A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN 


SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND. LITERATURE. 


VOL. -IV. APRIE 188i. NO. 12. 


lebral YOS IGS) 


THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF MISSOURI. 
BY FRANCIS E. NIPHER, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY. 


During the summer of 1878, the writer began a magnetic survey of Missouri. 
The object to be attained in sucha survey is to determine the variation of the 

needle from due north, the dip of the dipping needle, and the intensity of the 
magnetic force, at properly selected localities in the State. In field work of this 
kind, it is not possible to attain the same accuracy that is realized in an observa- 
tory, as the mean daily position of the needle varies considerably (two minutes, 
and often more) from day to day. Hence observations are usually made for five 
or six days at each station, and the mean value is taken. 

Believing that there was something to be learned in regard to local effects, it 
was our plan to establish a much greater number of stations of observation than is 
customary, and this made it necessary to spend correspondingly less time at the 
individual stations. This makes the station values less weighty, severally, but, by 
reason of their greater number, it was thought that the value of the work for 
general discussion would not be impaired. Hence, as a rule only one or two ob- 
servations of variation were made ata station unless the result was an unexpected 
one, or unless we had reason to be dissatisfied with the work. 

The apparatus used for determination of the variation (or declination) of the 
needle, consists of a transit of considerable magnifying power and provided with 
a good horizontal and vertical circle, reading to the half minute. This transit is 
mounted on a stand which also carries a small box in which the magnetic needle 
is hung upon a long silk fiber. This needle is of unusual form, being a small 

IvV—48 


718 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


cylinder of steel, bored through from end to end. One end of this cylinder is 
stopped by a glass plate on which a fine scale is etched. In the other end is put 
a lens, the principal focus of which is at the scale. This magnet is hung in a stir- 
rup attached to the fiber, in such a way that the scale is viewed through the lens, 
by means of the telescope. Hence, when the telescope is in focus for a star it 
will also be in focus for the scale of the magnet. 

The observations are made as follows: The verniers of the horizontal scale 
of the instrument are set on 0°, and the telescope is turned on some distant ob- 
ject, as a church spire. This object is taken as the starting point for angles. 
The lower plate of the transit is then clamped, and the upper one loosened, so 
that when the telescope is turned, the scale reading of the vernier changes, show- 
ing the number of degrees swept over. The telescope is set on the pole-star 
when it is furthest east or west in its path around the pole. It is then only neces- 
sary to turn west or east a small angle, (which is given in the astronomical tables) 
and the instrument will be pointed due north. The vernier reading of due north 
being thus known, we know the number of degrees between the church spire and 
north. . Hence, on any successive day, we could set the telescope on the spire, 
and turning this known number of degrees, the instrument would be pointed 
north. The telescope is then directed upon the magnet scale, and its reading 
taken. (Call this ‘‘A.”) After this the magnet is turned upside down, so 
that the scale is seen inverted. (Call this reading ‘‘B.””) The scale reading is 
generally different from the former. If the telescope is turned to the point on 
the magnet scale, midway between these scale readings ‘‘ A” and ‘‘B,” it is 
found that a reversal of the magnet does not change the reading. ‘The telescope 
is then directed upon the magnetic axis, and lies in the magnetic meridian, being 
pointed to magnetic north. The angle between this direction and true north, 
read on the verniers of the horizontal circle, gives the desired variation. It is 
however well known that the position of the magnetic needle varies during the 
day, moving over an angle which is seldom less than four or five minutes, and 
which often amounts to a quarter of a degree or more. Hence, the mean posi- 
tion of the magnetic axis is determined for each day. 

In order to see the results of such determinations it is customary to record 
the results reached at each station, at the proper places on a map of the region. 
Having done this, itis easy to drawn full degree lines through points having the 
same variation, just as we might draw an zsothermal line through points having the 
same temperature. ‘These lines in Missouri were found to be much more irregu- 
lar than had been supposed, and it was easily seen that there was a marked rela- 
tion between the contour of the surface and the position of the needle. It 
appears that the needle tends to set at right angles to river valleys, and that this 
tendency is inappreciable when the valleys are in general east and west or north 
and south, and that the tendency is greatest when the valley makes an angle of 
45° with these directions. This points to a disturbance in the earth-current sheet, 
due to unequal conducting power in the moist valleys and on the dry hills. The 


e 


719 


THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF MISSOURI. 


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to the inch. 


720 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


The stations of observation are indicated in the cut by the small circles. 
Four of them have however been inadvertently omitted, viz: Carrollton, which 
lies on the 8° 30’ line; Glasgow, which is midway’ between the 8° and the 8° 30’ 
line; Columbia, which is just east of the 8° line, and Houston, which lies in the 
westward concavity of the 7° 30’ loop. 

Those wishing to secure a larger and more accurate map, with these lines of 
equal variation upon it, can obtain the fine township map of R. A. Campbell, of 
St. Louis. 

In conclusion it is perhaps proper to add that in the prosecution of this work 
we have received aid from many public spirited citizens of St. Louis and of the 
State. It having been found impossible to obtain from the Legislature the small 
appropriation necessary for finishing the survey, it is now at a stand. It is hardly 
reasonable to ask private citizens to carry on work which is clearly a matter for 
public enterprise. 


THE KANSAS CITY ELECTRIC TIME BALL. 
BY PROF. H. S. PRITCHETT, MORRISON OBSERVATORY. 


The first time ball established in the United Sates was dropped from the 
dome of the Naval Observatory at Washington in 1855. It is still dropped at 
Washington mean noon, and has for a long time furnished the standard time for 
the city and the Departments of the Government. The apparatus employed and 
the method of dropping the ball are extremely simple. At five minutes before 
noon the ball is raised to the top of the staff on the old dome of the Observatory. 
The signal which drops it is made by hand by an assistant stationed in front of 
the mean time clock in the Observatory below. The ball when released drops upon 
the dome and thence rolls to the roof beneath. 

The New York time ball, established in 1877, is dropped at New York noon by 
an electric signal, sent from the Naval Observatory at Washington. It was erected 
and is maintained by the Western Union Telegraph Company, and is dropped from 
their building on Broadway. At1zh. 55m. the ball it hoisted half-way up the staff 
on the tower of the building. At 11h. 58m. it is hoisted to its highest point, when 
it is about 250 feet above the street and can be well seen by the shipping at the 
New York and Brooklyn docks, and vessels in the bay and from suitable positions, 
is visible to a large part of the citizens of New York, Brooklyn, Hoboken and 
Jersey City. 

The ball is 3ft. 6in. in didmneter It is really not a sphere but consists of cir- 
cular pieces of metal joined together in such a way as to present the appearance 
of a solid ball when viewed from any direction. 

If on account of wind the ball fails to drop at 12h. om. os., it is held till 12h. 
5m. and then dropped. In such cases a small red flag is hoisted at 12h. 1m. and 
kept flying till 12h. 1om. This ball was for some time dropped by hand, but for 


THE KANSAS CITY ELECTRIC TIME BALL. 721 


the last year the dropping has been automatically effected by the clock at the Ob- 
servatory. The working of the apparatus has been in the main satisfactory, and 
the ball has been dropped quite regularly, the failures being caused almost entirely 
by temporary breaks in the wire or other causes which could not be foreseen. 

In the evening papers of the day and in the papers of the next morning a 
notice is regularly inserted, stating whether the ball dropped at correct time, 
and if not, its error, fast or slow. Many are at a loss to know how this correc- 
tion is obtained. It is arrived at in the following manner: The time of the falling 
of the ball records itself automatically by electricity, near the standard clock of 
the Western Union Company in the building, the clock itself being regulated by 
the daily clock-signals from Washington. The difference between the time of fall- 
ing of the ball and noon, as indicated by the clock, is thus obtained by a direct 
comparison. ‘This assumes of course the accuracy of the clock and during along 
continued season of cloudy weather, or in case of accident to the clock itself, the 
time might be somewhat in error, although the published correction might show 
but a few hundreths of a second. At present however, the Western Union has 
the benefit also of the Alleghany and Cambridge signals, for the regulation of 
this clock, so that even during the longest season of cloudy weather it is not prob- 
able that the clock could be much in error. 

The Boston time ball, which is dropped at noon of Boston time, by means of 
the noon-time signal from the standard clock of the Harvard College Observatory, 
is placed upon the large building of the Equitable Life Assurance Company and 
was paid for and is now maintained by this company. The ball is of copper and 
weighs about 250 pounds. The machinery used in raising and controlling it is 
hence much more complicated and costly than in either of the cases before men- 
tioned. The cost of ball and machinery was about $1200. The electric 
signal which drops it, is given by the clock itself, the ball having a drop 
of fifteen feet. The nearness of the Observatory, and the fact that the wire used | 
is wholly under its control, give additional convenience and certainty in the drop- 
ping of this ball, and reduces the probability of accidents to a minimum, so that 
it is effected with great regularity and precision. Prof. Pickering, Director of the 
Observatory, reports that for the year ending Nov. rst 1880, the ball was dropped 
exactly at noon on 355 days; on four other days at five minutes past noon, in ac~ 
cordance with the rule adopted; on four other days it was not dropped, leaving 
only three cases of inaccuracy of dropping. 

Quite recently a time ball has been established at Hartford, Conn., and drop- 
ped by the Winchester Observatory of Yale College. 

The time ball recently erected at Kansas City, and which is dropped as a part 
of the time service of the Morrison Observatory, is the first attempt in this direc- 
tion in the west. It was paid for chiefly by an appropriation of the City Council 
of that city. The site selected was the large building just erected by the Messrs. 

Bullene, Moores & Emery, on Delaware street. The ball when raised to the top 
of the staff is about 140 feet above the street, and is generally visible to the busi-+ 


722 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


ness portion of the city. The ball which passes over the staff, is simply a wire 
skeleton covered with canvas and painted black, and is about three feet in diame- 
ter. It was loaded on the inside with lead until it was found to drop instantly 
and without loss of time. It has a drop of about twenty-five feet and is slowed 
up as it reaches the bottom, and is received upon a set of tall springs surmounted 
by a stout cushion. 

The apparatus used in dropping it is shown in the accompanying cut. 

It is the arrangement of Mr. William F. Gardner, the skillful instrument 
maker at the Naval Observatory, who probably has had a wider experience in the 
construction of such apparatus than any one else in this country. 

The machinery is simple and easily understood from the figure and answers 
every purpose. Itis mounted in a box about two feet high and fifteen inches 
wide, which is firmly screwed to a table beneath. The cut shows it as it stands 


SYA BRsepen 


ili _f 


| : 


agi = which is drawn 


co 

TT up to the top of 
the staff 5 min- 
utes beforenoon, 


The ropes (it) 
which hold the 
ball in place are 
shown in the 
figure passing 
through a ring 
(G). The bolt 
which holds this 
ring 1s a contin- 
uation of the per- 
pendicularpiece 
(L). This is be- 
ing constantly 
Mh pressed back to- 
| HAA ward the right 
AN by a strong 
spring conceals 


ed under (H), and is only kept from flying back by the small arm (B), which 
fits into a notch on the end of (E). (A) in turn is kept from flying out to the left 
by the armature (R) of the magnet (A). As soon now as the circuit is closed at ’ 
the Observatory at noon, this armature is instantly pulled down, the piece (B) flies 
out to the left, the ring is released and the ball drops. This has been found to: 
work easily and without loss of time and can scarcely get out of order. The en- 
tire cost of mounting the ball and machinery was only about $120, and with this 


THE KANSAS CITY ELECTRIC TIME BALL. 723 


small amount it was necessary to use the utmost economy in the purchase of ma- 
terials and apparatus. The apparatus thus briefly described, has been found to 
answer every ‘purpose, and is probably as accurate as very much more costly 
apparatus would have been. Kansas City is about one hundred miles from the 
Observatory and except in cases of breaking of the wire, when the ball cannot be 
dropped at all, it is dropped within one or two-tenths of a second of correct time. 

The discrepancy in the local time kept by different jewelers in the city, before 
. the erection of the ball was astonishing, and led to endless confusion in business 
and travel. . 

On the first day the ball dropped this difference in extreme cases amounted to 
fifteen or twenty minutes, some being eight or ten minutes fast others as slow. 
The establishment of the time ball has brought about a uniformity never before 
known, and must soon make itself felt not only as a convenience, but a promoter 
of punctuality in business engagements. | 

From the daily clock-signals sent over the wires from the Observatory it will 
be easy to establish a similar time signal in any city in the west, which will take 
the necessary steps to procure these signals. An arrangement has been made also 
by which they may be distributed to jewelers, and clock-makers, and manufac- 
turing establishments in the larger cities. 

The people at Kansas City are indebted to the officers of the Western Union 
Telegraph Company, for many courtesies in connection with the establishment 
and maintenance of this time ball. Mr. W. K. Morly, Supt. of Telegraph on 
the Chicago & Alton Railroad, kindly allows the use of a wire in dropping the 
ball, while at Kansas City Mr. M. D. Wood, Superintendent, and Mr. W. H. 
Woodring, chief operator, have gratuitously given their services each day at the 
time when the ball is dropped. Without their cordial cooperation, the success 
attained would have been impossible. . 


DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS. 
T. L. LEWIS, BOLIVAR, MO. 


The indifference of our people to forestry is criminal. It has been estimated | 
that there are but six states east of the Rocky Mountains which have a surplus of 
timber ; yet, nearly all are denuding their lands and shipping wood, ties and lum- 
ber. Strike a line through Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, and Texas; or take longie 
tude 80° west of Washington, and the eastern side contains all the timber, while 
the western is almost one boundless desert of treeless prairie. California is far 
above an average, yet only about one-twentieth part is timbered. This western 
world of prairie is now teeming with active life, and must soon be the home of 
millions, with their shops, factories, railroads, etc., etc. It becomes thena — 
practical question—will the supply meet the demands under our present reckless 
system of the wanton destruction of our forest? It is an impossibility unless the 


724 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


timbered states legislate wisely on this matter, and the prairie states follow the 
example of Kansas in the cultivation of forests. Let us look at a few facts. 

It has been estimated that 30,000,000 of our people use wood as fuel, con- 
suming 100,000,000 cords annually. We have about go,oo0 miles of railroads 
consuming 400,000 acres of timber every year. Steamboats, factories, brick 
yards, etc., consume annually about 35,000,000 cords. And more than 70,000 
factories of wood articles also consume about $410,000,000 of timber every 
year. The total forest cutting annually is estimated at nearly one thousand mil- 
lions of dollars. Again we ask, at this enormous and wholesale rate of forest de- 
struction, can the supply meet the demands of the rising west and still provide 
for the wants of the east, unless our forests are protected by law ? 


BUS TOMA, INO 2S. 


THE SPANISH EXPEDITION TO MISSOURI IN 1719. 
JOHN P. JONES, KEYTESVILLE, MO. 


The Memoirs, Historical* Journals, and other writings in which the French 
have narrated the events that occured during their occupation of the vast territory 
which they called Louisiana, contained frequent mention of an expedition which 
left Santa Fe, N. M., about the year 1719 for the purpose of establishing a mili- 
tary post in the upper Mississippi Valley as a barrier to the further encroachments 
of the French in that direction. One of the objects aimed at by the Spanish 
authorities in sending out this expedition is said to have been the destruction of 
the tribe of Indians known as the Missouris, who were supposed to be especially: 
under the influence of the French; intending by the destructionof this nation to 
intimidate those of the surrounding localities and make them more inclined to 
ally themselves with the Spaniards than with the French. ‘The account of this 
expedition most generally accounted as correct during the last century, is the 
. one given in Dumont’s Historic Memoirs of Louisiana.* Dumont was one of a 
party ascending the Arkansas river in search, of a supposed mass of emeralds, 
and says: ‘‘ There was more than half a league to traverse to gain the other 
bank of the river, and our people were no sooner arrived than they found}there a 
party of Missouris, sent to M. de la Harpet by M. de Bienville§ then Com- 


*Memoires Historiques sur La Louisiana, 2 Vols., Paris, 1753. The author was a Lieutenant in the 
French army and lived twenty-two years in the colony. His work has never been translated, though French 
in his Historical Collections of Louisiana prints a portion of one volume, and Du Pratz, in his work 
makes large drafts on both. 

+ Bernard de la Harpe, a French officer who was very active under Bienville during the first years of the 
colony. In 1719 he built a fort on Red River. In 1720 surveyed a portion of the coast of Texas and took 
possession of the country near the Bay of St. Bernard. He received a concession of lands on the Arkansas. 
At the date mentioned by Dumont he was the leader of an expedition sent to explore the Arkansas Rivere 
He wrote a work called “ Historical Journal of the Establishment of the French in Louisiana,” which 
remained in manuscript until the year 1831, when it was printed in French. 

¢ The second governor of Lguisiana and the “‘ Father of the Colony.” His careeris a matter of history. 


THE SPANISH EXPEDITION TO MISSOURL IN 1719. 725 


mandant General at Louisiana, to deliver orders to the former. Consequently 
they gave the signal ordered and our other two canoes having crossed the river. 
the savages gave to our commandant the letters of M. de Bienville, in which he 
informed him that the Spaniards had sent out a detachment from New Mexico 
to go to the Missouris and to establish a post in fhat country. In the same packet 
there was a map drawn by a Spanish geographer, of the route which the caravan 
have held from Santa Fe, and there we noticed a large lake which they had crossed 
and to which they gave the name of Red Sea.’ I have scarcely a doubt 
that this is the lake which M. de Lisle { calls in his map the Sea of the West. 
The success of this expedition was very calamitous to the Spaniards. Their cara- 
van was composed of fifteen hundred people, men, women and soldiers, having 
with them a Jacobin for a chaplain, and bringing with them a great number of 
horses and cattle, according to the custom of this nation to forget nothing that 
might be necessary for a settlement. Their design was to destroy the Missouris, 
and to seize upon their country, and with this intention they had resolved to go 
first to the Osages, a neighboring nation, enemies of the Missouris, to form an 
alliance with them and to engage them in theit behalf for the execution of their 
plan. But, perhaps the map which guided them was not correct, or they had 
not exactly followed it; it chanced that instead of going to the Osages whom 
they sought, they fell, without knowing it, in a village of the Missouris, where 
the Spanish commander, presenting himself to the great chief to offer him 
the calumet, made him understand through his interpreter, believing he was 
speaking to the Osage chief, that they were enemies of the Missouris, that they 
come to destroy them, to make their women and children slaves and to take pos- 
session of their country; consequently he begged that they would be willing to 
form an alliance with them, against a nation whom they regarded as their enemy, 
and to second them in this enterprise, promising to recompense them liberally 
for the service rendered, and to be always their friend in the future. Upon this 
discourse the Missouri chief understood perfectly the mistakes. He dissimulated 
and thanked the Spaniards for the confidence they had in his nation; he consented 
to form an alliance with them against the Missouris and to join them with all his 
forces to destroy them, but he represented that his people were not armed and 
that they dare not expose themselves without arms in‘such an enterprise. De- 
ceived by so favorable a reception, the Spaniards fell into the trap laid for them ; 
they received with ceremony, in the little camp they had formed on their arrival, 
the calumet which the great chief of the Missouris presented to the Spanish com 
mander. The alliance war,sworn to by both parties, they agreed upon a day for 
the execution of the plan which they meditated, and the Spaniards furnished the 
savages*with all the munitions which they thought were needed. After this cere- 
mony. both parties gave themselves up equally to joy and good cheer. At the 
end of three days two thousand savages were armed and in the midst of dances 
and amusements, each nation thought of nothing but the execution of his design. 


{ William de Lisle, an officer of the French army whose maps of Louisiana were very correct for the time 
of their publication. 


726 | KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


It was the evening before their departure upon their concerted expedition, and 
the Spaniards had retired to their camps as usual when the great chief of the 
Missouris, having assembled his warriors, declared to them his intentions and ex- 
horted them to deal treacherously with these strangers, who were come to their 
home only with the design of destroying them. At daybreak the savages divided 
into several bands, fell on the Spaniards, who expected nothing of the kind, and 
in less than a quarter of an hour all the caravan were murdered. No one es- 
caped from the massacre except the chaplain, whom the barbarians saved because 
of his dress: at the same time they took possession of all the merchandise and 
other effects which they found in their camp. The Spaniards had brought with 
them as I have said a certain number of horses, and as the savages were ignorant 
of the use made of these animals, they took pleasure in making the Jacobin 
whom they had saved and who had become their slave, mount them. The priest 
gave them this amusement almost every day for the five or six months that he 
remained in their village, without any of them daring to imitatehim. Tired at 
last of his slavery and regarding the lack of daring in these barbarians as a means 
that Providence had offered him to regain his liberty, he made secret all the 
provisions possible for him to make and which he believed necessary to his plan- 
At last having chosen the best horse and having mounted him, after having per- 
formed several of his exploits before the savages, while they were all occupied 
with his maneuvers, he spurred up and disappeared from their sight, taking the 
road to Mexico, where doubtless he arrived. Sometime after a party of these 
same Missouris went to the Illinois with the intention of presenting the calumet 
to the French general who was in command at that place ” 

‘It was the Sieur de Boisbriant* who in the visit these savages made him, 
was not a little surprised to see some of them covered with sarcerdotal vestments, 
others wearing stoles and some others wearing a chalice cover hanging on their 
neck, ora chalice in their hands. After informing himself on the subject of this 
masquerade he ransomed from the savages the sarcerdotal habiliments, profaned 
by these barbarians. It was from them that he had the map of which I have 
spoken, which they found among the possessions of the Spaniards. He gave it 
immediately to the general in command of the country, with all the details of 
this adventure, and it was from the latter that we learn the particulars which I 
have just related.” 

It is difficult to say how much of the foregoing is truth and how much ro- 
mance; nearly every writer of French annals of Louisiana gave credence to the 
story in almost the precise form given by Dumont. Several English compilers. 
also adopted it and it seems to have been generally received as the truth. M. 
Bossu + in his book on Louisiana follows the story about as we have given it, 


* Pierce Duque Boisbriant, a cousin of Bienville, who arrived in the colony in 1699, was amajor and 
knight of the Blue Ribbon. Was for along period in command at Biloxi and led several expeditions against the 


neighboring Indian tribes. Left Mobile in October 1718 for the Illinois country where he had been appointed 
as commandant of the post In172l he received the cross of St. Louis, and in 1724 was appointed governor 
ad interim, Bienville being suspended. In 1726, on the downfall of the Bienville regime, he sailed for France. 

} Travels through that part of North America called Louisiana, by M. Bossu, captain in the French Ma- 
rine. 2 Vols., London 1771. 


THE SPANISH EXPEDITION TO MISSOURI IN 1819. 727 


but adds additional particulars in regard to the visit of the Missouris to the 
French commandant at the Illinois, describing the procession as they marched 
and danced, with the ornaments of the chapel suspended about their necks, and 
that of a horse they had brought with them. 

Du Pratz § in his history of Louisiana, gives a condensed account of the ex- 
pedition similar to the foregoing and adds, speaking of the visit of the Missouris. 
tothe Illinois, ‘‘ They had brought the map which had so disastrously led the 
Spaniards. After having having examined it, it appears to me better suited for the 
west of our colony toward them than for the country in which we are interested. 
From this map it would seem that we should bend the Red and Arkansas rivers 
as I have said in its place, and place the source gf the Missouri more to the west 
than our geographers do.” 

Dumont, as I have shown, also writes of the same map and the fact that the 
expedition had with them the map of the country, would seem to give weight to 
the belief entertained by the French at the time, that the enterprise was under-’ 
taken by the Spaniards, with a purpose which agreed in general with the story of 
their intentions as told by the Missouris. 

Charlevoix,* who traveled from Quebec to New Orleans in the year 1721,. 
says in one of his letters to the Duchess of Lesdiguieres, dated at Kaskaskia, 
July 21, 1721: ‘‘ About two years ago some Spaniards, who came, as they say, 
from New Mexico, intending to get into the country of the Illinois and drive the 
French from thence, whom they saw with extreme jealousy approach so near the 
Missouri, came down the river and attacked two villages of the Octotas,f who are 
allies of the Ayouez,f and from whom it is also said they are derived. As the 
savages had no fire-arms and were surprised, the Spaniards made an easy con- 
quest and killed a great many of them. A third village, which was not far off 
from the other two, being informed of what had passed and not doubting but 
these conquerors would attack them, laid an ambush into which the Spanirds 
heedlessly fell. Others say that the savages having heard that the enemy were 
almost all drunk and fast asleep, fell upon them in the night. However it was, it 
is certain the greatest part of them were killed. There were in the party two almo- 
ners; one of them was killed directly and the other got away to the Missourites, 
who took him prisoner, but he escaped from them very dextrously. He had a 
very fine horse and the Missourites took pleasure in seeing him ride it, which he 
did very skillfully. He took advantage of their curiosity to get outof their hands. 

One day as he was prancing and exercising his horse before them, he got a 
little distance from them insensibly ; then suddenly clapping spurs to his horse he 
was soon out of sight.” 

Charlevoix also says that he obtained the spur of the Almoner that was killed 
and that the Indians had his breviary. The story of the priest and the manner 


@ History of Louisiana, Etc., by M. Le Page, Du Pratz Paris 1758. The author was for many yearsa 
government factor in the Province of Louisiana, and on his return to France published the above work, 

*The celebrated Jesuit father, author af ““The History of New France.’ Journal of a Voyageto N. A. 
Leters to the Duchess, etc. 

fTOtoes. flowas. 


728 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


of his escape seem to be nearly as well authenticated as that of the map. Char- - 
levoix writes from near the place where the expedition met its fate and within 
two years of the time it left Santa Fe, and the probabilities are that he was at the 
Illinois when the Missouris came over and told the commandant their story. 
Besides the spur and breviary, he mentions that one Indian had a pot of oint- 
ment which he prized very highly. It will be seen that he locates the scene of 
disaster to the Spaniards as among the Otoes. This tribe were of che same family 
as the Missouris and spoke nearly the same language; seventy-five years later, 
when the Missouris were nearly destroyed by tribes from the north, the remnant 
found shelter and home with the Otoes and finally became merged in this tribe. 
It is possible that the Spaniards did attack the two villages of Otoes, and that 
they fled down the river to their allies, the Missouris, who ambushed the Span- 
iards and destroyed them. 

De la Harpe, in his Historical Journal of the Establishment of the French in 
Louisiana, says, under the date of April 24, 1721: ‘‘M. de Bois Briant writes 
from the Illinois that the Spaniards, to the number of 300 men, were come out 
from Santa Fe, capital of New Mexico, with the design of taking possession of 
the lands of this colony.’ Of these 300 men only 7o had put the enterprise in 
execution and passed through several savage nations, guided by the Padoucas, 
who, instead of leading them east quarter northeast, went too far to the north, so 
that they arrived on the banks of the Cances* river near the Missouri; there they 
had met the nations Octotata and Passinaha,t+ who had killed all of them except 
one friar, who had been saved on his horse.” 

It will be observed that the author just quoted gives the report of the com- 
mandant at the Illinois, and that he fixes the number comprising the expedition 
at 7o men. This I believe to be much nearer the truth than the number stated 
by Dumont. Such an expedition could be easily destroyed by any of the tribes 
on the Missouri river at that time. 

Stoddard,{ in his Historical Sketches of Louisiana, writing of the expedition, 
says it was intended to make allies of the Pawnees and obtain their assistance in 
destroying the Missouris, and on this point observes: ‘‘ Various writers assert 
that these colonists aimed to find the Osage villages, but the records of Santa Fé 
authorize the statement we have given.” If such records were in existence when 
Mr. Stoddard wrote, they are not to be found now, as I have had them searched 
for diligently. |The extracts I have cited give in substance what the early French ~ 
historians and annalists wrote concerning the expedition, and while it must be 
admitted they vary, still there is sufficient evidence for us to believe that the 
Spaniards at Santa Fé fitted outand dispatched a body of men, with instructions to 
lay the foundation of what was hoped would be an obstacle to the spread of 
French dominion west of the Mississippi. That this expedition was destroyed 


*Kansas. 

+ Pana of Marquette; Panys of Perot; Panis of Charlevoix ; Panismahas of the Jesuit letters, and Paw- 
nees of the present time, 

{Sketches Historical and Descriptive of Louisiana. By Major Amos Stoddard. Philadelphia, 1812. The 
author was the first governor of the colony of Upper Louisiana after the cession of Louisiana to the U.S 


LLL [DLT RVR: (GROUP. 729 


by the Indians, is also probable, and the locality where it met its fate should be - 
an object of interest to the investigators of our early history. If destroyed by 

the Otoes and Pawnees, it is probable that the destruction took place not much 

west of Kansas City; if by the Missouris, it was not far from the mouth of 

Grand River, as the old village of the Missouris was but a few miles east of 

where that river empties into the Missouri, and the counties of Howard and. 
Chariton are prolific in Indian remains. At the date of this expedition the 

French were reaching out toward the Spanish possessions in a manner calculated 

to excite the jealousy of the latter nation. Dela Harpe, under the authority of 
Gov. Bienville, had built a fort and formed a settlement on Red River, and, in 

correspondence with the Spanish commandant at Assinais, had laid claim on 

behalf of the French to the province of Texas, basing his claim on the fort built 

by La Salle in 1685. Dumont, another French officer, was exploring the Arkan- 

sas, whose waters extended nearly to Santa Fe, while the French at the Illinois 

post were considering the possibility of a route to the Pacific Ocean by way of 

the Missouri. In attempting to confine the French to the east bank of the Mis- 

sissippi, the Spaniards were but trying to guard a territory which they believed to 

be rightfully their own, and which, in the year 1762, was relinquished to them by 

the French. ; 


\ 


THE MOQUIS. 


m 


In the history of the aboriginal races of this country, little is said regarding 
the Moquis, a branch of the Pueblos, living, where possibly they have lived for a 
thousand years, in a rocky stronghold in a sandy desert of Arizona. This people 
number about two thousand five hundred, and occupy six villages, with houses 
built of stone, cemented with sand and clay. ‘These villages, says Dr. Loew, of 
Wheeler’s surveying expedition, are built on the tops of four sandstone mesas, 
which are separated from each other about eight miles. They occupy the entire 
width of the mesas, and, standing immediately before the houses, one may look 
vertically down a depth of three hundred feet. In many places the sides of the 
mesas are terraced, being used as sheepcorrals. In appearance the Moquis come 
rather nearer to the Caucasian than the rest of his race. These Indians are well 
clad, and the females especially so. Indian corn is the principal food—the sheep 
are raised for their wool rather than for the table. From the wool a good blanket 
ismade. ‘The seed corn is planted about one and a half feet from the surface, at 
which depth sufficient moisture is found to develop and sustain the plant. The _ 
Moquis have neither church or any other place of worship, and the Spanish Jes- 
uits were unable to gain a foothold among them. 


730 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


GEOLOGY AND PALA ONTOLOGY. 


THE JUDITH RIVER GROUP. 


BY CHAS. H. STERNBERG. 
[Read tn part before the Kansas Academy of Sczence.| 


The upper Missouri cuts its way for hundreds of miles through the great shale 
beds of the Fort Pierre group: they contain quantities of the salts of soda and 
magnesia, and all the waters flowing through them are strongly impregnated with 
these salts. On the top of this group lie the soft buff-colored sandstone of Creta- 
ceous No. 5., or Fox Hills group. So far as I have examined, they are destitute 
of fossils. Near the mouth of the Judith river and for one hundred and fifty 
miles down the Missouri, the summits of the surrounding hills are covered with 
the rocks of Cretaceous No. 6, or the Judith river group. They consist of an 
upper and lower stratum of brown sandstone, interlaid with beds of various color- 
ed clays, fresh water wvzos and Lignites. These beds were first discovered and 
described by Dr. Hayden, to whose untiring energy we are indebted for our 
knowledge of the stratagraphy and geology of the Northwest. He was driven 
out of the country by Blackfeet Indians, and was only able to save some teeth 
and turtle shells. ‘These have been described by Dr. Leidy, as follows: 

Triodon formosus, and Amblysodon horridus, Carnivorous Dinosaurs and Paleo- 
cincus costatus, and Trachodon mirabilis. _Herbivorous Dinosaurs of the Zestudin- 
ata are Trionyx foveatus, Compsemys vetus, and Emys obscurus. These specimens 
were prophetic of a rich store in wait for the fortunate explorer who would be 
able to make a collection in this interesting country and carry it away. 

Ever since Hayden's explorations this country has been looked to with inter- 
est by scientific men. In 1876 Prof. Cope resolved to goto the Juidth river, and — 
he thought he could do so safely, as the Sioux were south fighting the soldiers. I 
joined the Professor at Omaha, in August. At Ogden we took the Northern Utah 
Railroad for Franklin, Idaho, where a journey by stage of 600 miles awaited us. 
Through Idaho the alkaline dust drove in great clouds, and nearly blinded us: we 
hailed the mountains with delight. | Only persons who have made long journeys 
by stage can know of the discomforts we endured. We outfitted at Fort Bentons 
the head of navigation on the Missouri, Our party consisted of five men. One 
to act as guide, one as cook, the other three including Prof. Cope, were collectors. 
We traveled down the Missouri one hundred and twenty miles to the Judith River 
and went into camp at Dog Creek where our field work began. 

The beds of the Judith River group lay on the summits of hills or in syn- 
clinal valleys near the top. Our first work every morning was to climb to the 
summits of the Bad Lands, about 1500 feet, over beds of black shale. At first 


THE JUDITH RIVER GROUP. 731 


we only discovered loose bones, teeth and turtle shells. We had hard work cling- 
ing to the almost perpendicular bluffs, where a misstep would hurl us into a cafion 
1500 feet deep. We had often to cut niches for our feet with hand picks, which 
we always carried, as without them we would have been unable to travel. The 
surface was covered with loose angular fragments of cherty rock, that rolled un- 
der our feet. One great hardship we had to endure, was the lack of drinking 
water during the day, as all that was found inthe Bad Lands was strongly im- 
pregnated with alkaline salts. Another hardship was the presence of great swarms 
of small gnats that got under our hat rims, and inflicted wounds that poisoned the 
flesh. But our toils were well rewarded, as we were able to add some forty new 
species of strange animal life to science; and I think that of all the singular and 
unique animals that have peopled our earth, some that we discovered were the 
strangest. They were great land saurians or Dinosaurs. They were the most 
numerous of the animal remains we collected. Some of them reached to the 
enormous height of twenty-eight feet. They walked on their hind limbs, which 
were strong and pillarlike. An immense tail helped support their ponderous 
weight while feeding on the tender branches and leaves of trees. Their front limbs 
were short and armed with powerful claws for grasping. In each jaw were three 
rows of teeth, and below each old tooth was a hollow groove containing five 
young ones. As fast as one row wore out another took its place. We found 
thousands of these cast-off crowns. Of course I have been speaking of the 
-Herbivorous or plant eaters. The Carnivorous Dinosaurs were lighter and more 
elegantly built for springing on the huge plant eaters. They were armed with a 
‘ single row in each jaw, of long re-curved teeth, with serrate edges. Young teeth 
were ready to take the place of old ones, when they were broken or worn out. 
The Dinosaurs resembles the.bird in many parts of its structure. They have 
but one occipital condyle. Their bones are light and hollow. ‘They also resem- 
ble the mammals by their habits, and the structure of the pelvis and pectoral 
arches. But on account of many reptilian characters, they are classed in that 
division of vertebrate life. Turtles were abundant, and were usually soft-shelled, 
and other fresh water species. ‘The shells were often curiously marked with ele- 
vated or depressed lines, or punctures. Among the fishes Ganozd, or the Lepidos- 
teus, that ancient and persistent type, were common. One peculiar species I dis- 
covered of the shark family, had six-sided teeth, with a line down the long diame-. 
ter, with dark-colored enamel on one side and light on the other. They were ar- 
ranged in the roof and floor of the mouth, like bricks in a pavement, and were 
used as a mill for grinding up shells. Prof. Cope calls it Myledaphus bipartita. Ba- 
trachia were abundant. No mammals were found, though anumber of geologists 
have thought these beds to be of Tertiary age. The explorations of Prof. Cope, 
have, I trust, proved conclusively that they are Cretaceous. The upper beds are 
covered in places with oyster shells, showing that at the close of the Cretaceous 
the sea covered the formation. Large deposits of lignite are found both in this 
and the Fort Pierre group. There are also great quantities of fossil wood scat- 
tered through the formation. 


732 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Near Cow Island, six miles down the Missouri, we found three nearly perfect 
skeletons, the femur of one specimen being five feet in length. While we were 
camped on Dog creek Prof. Cope went ahead to Cow Island, and sent word for 
us to follow with outfit. This was no easy job, as we had to get our wagon to the 
top of the Bad Lands over the steep slides of the Ft. Pierre group. Wehad madea 
bridle path to the summit, and following this we made the venture. After unload- 
ing the wagon it took four horses to haul it within about four hundred feet of the 
summit. Here the slides were very steep and the bridle path led along the side. 
Our teamster refused to drive any further so Mr. Isaac took his place, after taking 
off the lead horses. I went ahead on horse-back to encourage the team, but be- 
fore we had gone ten yards the horses’ feet slipped from under them, and taking 
the wagon with them, they made three complete summersaults and landed on their 
feet all right, with the wagon in its proper position. ‘The reader can easily imagine 
the peals of laughter that greeted this exploit. Our next performance met with 
more success. We took the horses to the top of the hill and tied our picket ropes 
together, and fastened one end to the hind axle, the other to the doubletrees, and 
the team hauled our wagon safe and sound to level ground, though all hands had 
to hold down on the upper sills of the wagon box to prevent another overturning. 

When we reached the uplandsa magnificent view burst upon us. To the 
south lay the Judith river and Medicine Bow Mountains, while to the north were 
the Little Rockies and Bear Paw Mountains, and far below us the waters of the 
great Missouri looked like a silver thread. We found ourselves on a broad, level 
prairie, covered with bunch grass, while at the heads of ravines that ran into the 
Missouri were groves of pines. ‘The country for miles had been dug up by | 
grizzly bears in search of artichokes. We often crossed heavy elk and deer trails. 
At the head of Dog creek we saw a number of buffaloes and deer; the country 
seems to be full of game, and is the favorite hunting grounds of the Crow and 
Sioux Indians. 

When we reached Cow island we proposed to go into camp on the Missouri ; 
the only place where it was possible to get down the bluffs with a wagon was very 
steep. However, it is easier to get down a steep place than up it. A kick sent 
our rolls of blankets on their way, and a couple of ropes tied to the hind axle and 
held bya half-hitch around atree, kept everything steady. A manat the tongue 
guided our wagon until it reached level ground, of course the ropes were let out 
as the wagon descended by its own weight. Night had overtaken us when we 
reached our camping ground, which we found covered with cactus. They were 
dug away from a place large enough for our tent and fire. My first thought on 
awaking the next morning, after examining our camping ground, was, How in the 
world will we ever get out of this place? We were in a small valley containing five 
or six acres, the bluffs extended on either side to the river, and behind us was the 
place we had let the wagon down, and I knew that unless it was taken to pieces 
and packed on horses, it never could be taken up the way it came down. But 


THE JUDITH RIVER GROUP. 733 


as the Professor assured me he would find a way out, I was satisfied, as I had a 
great deal of faith in his ability to accomplish almost anything. 

We were camped three miles below Cow island, and when we were ready to 
move, the Professor purchased an old scow, on which we loaded our outfit, swam 
our horses over and paddled across. ‘Then as the shore was low on that side, we 
turned it into a tow-path, hitching a horse to our scow, and after a great deal of 
labor we found ourselves at the boat landing of Cow island. The next day Prof. 
Cope took the steamer for Bismarck and Mr. Isaac and myself were left to com- 
plete the explorations; we remained until November, when hearing that the Indi 
ans were returning, and as cold weather had set in, we returned to Fort Benton, 
after a disagreeable joueney on account of snow. We saw great droves of ante- 
lope, deer and some buffalo. I suffered a good deal on my return trip by stage, 
but after the troubles were over and I was safe within the bounds of civilization, . 
I could but congratulate myself with the feeling that I had helped advance the 
interests of Science. The discomforts of the explorer are soon forgotten in the 
results accomplished. _I will give my readers a partial list of the species discov- 
ered, to show the results of the expedition. All are new except those already de- 
scribed, and have been described by Prof. Cope in Bulletin of U. S. Survey. 


REPTILIA. 

DINOSAURIA. Paronychodon lacustris. 
Gonipoda. ORTHOPODA. 
Triodon formosus. Paleocincus costatus. 

Lelaps cristatus. Dysganus peiganus. 
L. falculus. D. bicarinatus. 
L. lavifrons. D. haydenianus. 
L. hazentanus. Dichocrinus pentagonus. 
L. incrassatus. D. perangulatus. 
Amblysodon horridus. D. calamarius. 
A. lateralis. Trachodon mirabilis. 
Zapsolis abradeus. Monoclinus crassus. 
CROCODILIA. 
PROCALIA. Crocodilus humilis. (Letdy.) 
TESTUDINATA. 
CRYPODIRA. Polythorax missouriensts. 
- Trionyx foveatus. Compserny suas 
T vagans. ELASMOBRANCHII. (L. L.) 
T, mammilaris. Myledaphus bipariita. 
Plastomenus punctulatus. Hedronchus sternbergu. 


Iv—49 


734 R KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


GEOLOGICAL CLIMATES. 


4 ADDISON GARDENS, 
KENSINGTON, 11th February, 1881. 
EpiTor Revi—Ew:—I venture to send you a number of JVature, with a let- 
ter of mine, which I have thought it necessary to write after the perusal of a con- 
troversy that has been carried on for some weeks past, between two distinguished 
men, namely, Mr. Wallace, ance of the Malay Archipelago, and Island Life, etc., 
_and the Rev’d Samuel Haughton, Professor of Geology in the University of Dublint 
on ‘‘Geological Climates,” the former maintaining that were there certain de- 
pressions, or rather submergences of portions of land, tropical currents would flow 
Northward through the openings, thaw all the Polar ice, and make the Arctic 
climate almost if not wholly temperate. 

Prof. Haughton takes quite an opposite view, and thinks the ice-cap at or 
near the Pole may be hundreds of feet thick, and that the Arctic current flowing 
South would interfere materially with the heating influence of the tropical stream. 

So much is required to explain the meaning of my letter, which, from fearing 
it would occupy too much space, I did not make so explanatory asI could have 
wished. Yours Truly, JouN Rae. 

‘¢T have read with much interest and attention the letters that have appeared 
in recent numbers of /Vature on the subject of ‘‘geological climates,” and although 
it must appear presumptuous on my part to doso, I shall endeavor to show that 
each of the distinguished writers of these letters may be somewhat in error on at 
least one point, which—if I am right— must materially affect the correctness of 
the conclusions they have come to. 

I think that Mr. Wallace, whilst very justly giving the Gulf Stream and other 
currents, which mgh¢ exist were certain lands submerged, credit for great influ- 
ence in ameliorating the rigor of climate, does not take into sufficient considera- 
tion the fact that the waters of the Gulf Stream, although warmer, are, in conse- 
quence of holding much more salt in solution, heavier than the colder and less 
saline Arctic current. 

Some experiments show, as s clearly as anything done on a en small scale 
can, that two waters brought as nearly as possible to the conditions of the Gulf 
Stream and the Arctic current do not mingle when simultaneously poured into a 
long narrow glass trough; the Arctic water invariably taking its place on the 
surface. 

Supposing then that these two currents meet somewhere about latitude 80° 
or 81° N., the Arctic water flowing south—if my experiments are of any value— 
will retain its position on the surface and the warm current pass underneath, and 
thus lose all its heat and influence on the air over a Polar area about 1000 geo- 
graphical miles or more in diameter. 

We can have no stronger example of this effect of difference of density of 
ocean water than is shown by the two currents zz and ou¢ of the Mediterranean Sea. 


GEOLOGICAL CLIMATES. 735 


In Nature, vol. xxill. p, 242, Prof. Haughton says, ‘‘The thickness of this 
ideal ice-cap at the Pole is unknown, but, from what we know of the Palzeocrystic 
ice of Banks Land and Grinnel Land, must be measured by hundreds of feet, and its 
mean temperature must be at least 20° F. below the freezing point of water.”’ 

With regard to both the above assumptions—which are in italics—I must beg 
to disagree entirely with the learned Professor. He appears to consider the so- 
called Paleeocrystic ice as the normal state of the ice at and near the Pole, and as 
a natural growth by the gradual freezings or increase of a single floe during a 
series of years; whereas I am of opinion that this mis-called Palzocrystic ice is the 
result of a number of floes being forced over and under each other by immense 
pressure caused by gales of wind and currents. 

The western and northern shores of Banks and Grinnel Lands are peculiarly 
well suited for the formation of such ice heaps; as they are exposed to the full 
force of the prevailing north and northwest storms, which pile up the ice in a 
wonderful manner on these shores and others similarly placed, fora distance of miles 
seaward. The whole of the west shore of Melville Peninsula isso lined with rough 
ice of this kind that sledging is impossible. 

It will wholly depend upon the form of land—if any—at or near the Pole, 
whether or not any floebergs are there. If there is no land it is probable there 
will be few or none, as the ice will meet with no great obstruction, as it is driven 
by winds and currents. 

I have no authorities by me that give the thickness of ice formed in one sea- 
son at or near the winter quarters of any of the Arctic expeditions, except my 
own in 1853-4 at Repulse Bay, latitude 66° 32’ north. 

The measurements of the ice—taken at some distance out in the bay, where 
there was very little snow—and the mean temperature of the airaregiven. 


LOGS) ce thickness Increase Monthly Mean Temp. F. ~ 
December 2oun-.-4 feet 7 1nehess. on .-.24°°5 below zero 

1854 
es 24 225 (eet O|Imches) ee tay win) 25 days aoi3 Olas On ua ue 
MelruaTya 25th cs7) Leet Sane .-16 in 32 days eae Wace OG 
April 25 Sngtey Nh Ws eb ...1234 in 59 days ee Oia Seas ob 
May 25 Sribsoniteny Geilo -.none 30 days ---24° above zero 


The above table shows that the ice ceased to increase in thickness some time 
between April 25 and May 25. after which it decreased rapidly ; but I was unable 
to decide what proportion of this decrease was due to thaw and evaporation from 
the surface, and what amount from the lower part of the floe that was under water ; 
no doubt by far the greater effect was produced by the first two causes. 

Eight feet may perhaps be considered a fair or rather a high average of one 
winter’s formation of new ice (not increase of an old floe) over the whole of the 
Arctic Sea ; because Repulse Bay, although in a comparatively low latitude, was 
particularly favorable for ice-formation, there being no currents of any conse- 
quence. Where there are currents, one year’s ice does not exceed three or four 
feet. 5 
The winter’s ice of 1875-6 at Discovery Bay, in latitude 81° 40’ N., did not 


736 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


exceed, if I remember correctly, six feet in thickness. 

Even were these great compound floes, called Palzeocrystic ice, found at or 
near the Pole, and of only the same thickness as those seen at Grinnel Land—in- 
stead of ‘‘hundreds of feet” —they would not probably have nearly so low an 
average temperatureeall the year round as 20° F. below the freezing point of water, 
because only one-sixth of their mass would be exposed to very low temperature 
for about six months of the year, the surface being during that time protected by 
a more or less thick covering of snow, whilst at least five-sixths of their bulk was 
under water, having a temperature for the whole twelve months of or about the 
freezing point of the sea. The question is, how far the very low temperature of 
an Arctic winter penetrates a mass of, say sixty feet of ice, the surface of which 
is covered with a foot of snow, and fifty feet or five-sixths under water of a tem- 
perature at or above the freezing point of the sea? 

From my experience on a much smaller scale, I do not believe that the at- 
mospheric cold would, under the circumstances mentioned, penetrate to the lower 
surface of ice sixty feet thick; and if it does not do so there would be no increase 
to its thickness during the winter. 

An excellent example of formation of Palzeocrystic ice, or floe-berg is afford- 
ed by the experience of the Austro-Hungarian Expedition under Weyprecht and 
Payer in the Barentz Sea in 1873-4. Their ship was lifted high out of the water 
by the pressure of the floes, which were forced over and under each other to a 
great thickness and extent in a few days. 

The ship and her crew were helplessly drifted about for many months, during 
which the floes were frozen together into one solid mass, and the inequalities of 
the surface in a great measure filled up with snow-drift. Joun Rag. 

4 Addison Gardens, January 29. 


EEOCRAPHICAL NOmES: 


HEATH’S DISCOVERIES IN SOUTH AMERICA. 
PROF. JOHN D. PARKER, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


Since the death of Prof. Orton in South America, his assistant, Dr. Ivon D. 
Heath, and his brother, Dr. E. R. Heath, have both taken a deep interest in 
completing the unfinished work of that expedition. Prof. Orton had formed the 
purpose of conducting his expedition through the unexplored portion of the Beni 
river, over which there has always hung such an uncertainty and superstitious 
fear. But just before he reached this portion of his journey, the soldiers, whom 
he had hired and paid in advance for his whole expedition, intimidated by super- 
stitious fear, suddenly presented their bayonets at the breast of Prof. Orton, 
refused to go any further and returned home. Prof. Orton was, therefore, com- 


HEATH’S DISCOVERIES IN SOUTH AMERICA. 737 


pelled to abandon his expedition, and returned almost heart-broken to die of wea- 
riness and disappointment on the legendary lake of Titicaca. 

About three years ago, Dr. E. R. Heath returned to South America to com- 
plete, if possible, Prof. Orton’s work, and explore this unknown region, the zerra 
incognita of South America. It was hoped that some Geographical Society would 
aid in this important work, but while plans were being laid to secure material as- 
sistance, Dr. E. R. Heath undertook and solved the problem himself. 

- On December 28, 1880, Dr. Heath, of Wyandotte, Kansas, received a letter 
hastily written by his brother, dated Reyes, Bolivia, on the river Beni, Aug. 3, 
1880, on the day of his embarkation for the rubber camps and the unknown 
country further below. He wrote that he was just setting out to explore this un- 
known region, and that three months ‘would tell the tale of his success or defeat. 

On March 1oth, Dr. Ivon D. Heath received another letter from his brother in 
South America, announcing that his expedition had proved a complete success. 
The following extract will be interesting from this letter, which is dated Reyes, 
Bolivia, Dec. 20, 1880: 


«The question of the Beniis solved. This work of Professor Orton is finish- 
ed. I made the trip from Cabinas (rubber camps on the Madidi) in a canoe with 
twoIndians. I left Cabinas September 27, and, after delays from sickness of my 
men, at 83a. M , October 8th, discovered a new river entering from the south, and 
at mid-day of the 8th arrived at the junction of the Madre de Dios with the Beni 
No other white man has ever seen the mouth of this magnificent river. Crude 
measurements gave 735 feet for the width of the Beni, and 2350 for that of the 
Madre de Dios. Took careful observations for latitude and longitude. At 6:50 
A. M. of the oth, I passed the mouth of a river the size of the Yacuma entering 
from the north, to which I gave the name Orton. 

At night we slept on a sand-bar joined to a large island. On the roth we 
passed this island, and at 8 a. m. another large one, and at 10 a. M. came toa 
line of rocks obstructing the river and making rapids. One mile further down we 
came to the main fall, which exhibits a perpendicular descent of the entire river 
of thirty feet. We occupied the remainder of the 1oth in drawing our little 
craft over the rocks to the waters below. With much risk we passed the waves 
below the falls and camped. On the morning of October 11 we passed some 
rocks in the river corresponding to the rapids of the Palo Grande of the River 
Mamoré, but which, here, offer no serious obstructions to navigation. At Io a. 
M., October 11, 1880, we arrived at the mouth of the Beni—that is, at the junc- 
tion of the Beni and Mamoré rivers. From thence we ascended the Mamoré, 300 
miles, to Exaltacion and Santa Ana, and from Santa Ana to this place, 200 miles 
west over the pampas; brought my boat on an ox cart. a 

Here I am safe and sound with a ma» of the three rivers—Beni, Mamoré and 
Yacuma. From the river Madidi to the mouth of the Beni there are but four fam- 
ilies of Pacavara Indians in the place of ‘‘multitudes of man-eating savages,” as 
every man, woman and child in Bolivia has believed during many scores of years. 
Rubber gatherers are already taking advantage of my exploration, and have es- 
tablished camps further down the Beni.” 


On account of superstitious fear of the unexplored portion of the river Beni, 
the productions of the rubber camps on the river Madidi have ascended the riv- 
er Beni, 200 miles to Reyes, thence east 200 miles to river Mamoré, thence 300 


738 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


miles north to its union with the Beni—7oo miles around, in place of less than 
300 miles direct. The waters of the Beni come down from the gold mines of 
Bolivia and through forests of Cinchona trees; and the Madre de Dios from a 
much larger area of similar territory of Peru. 

Dr. Heath, alone, unaided, spent two years in patient, determined prepara- 
tion near the scene of the proposed exploration, and then, in a frail canoe, with 
only two Indian servants, with certain death before them, as all Bolivia believed, 
paddled bravely forth to explore a great river and extensive country where, dur- 
ing 350 years, a score of costly expeditions have disastrously failed. It is 
thought that the governments of Peru and Bolivia will give official recognition of 
his daring and successful achievement. His work will develop and change the 
commerce of many hundred miles of mountain and plain. Rubber and bark will 
now descend the Beni, instead of going 600 or 700 miles around. What risk and 
danger he faced in descending an absolutely unknown river, larger than the Mis- 
sissippi, in which were rapids and falls! What satisfaction he must have felt 
when his canoe entered the yellow waters of the Mamoré, having successfully 
braved the superstition of ages and opened up a new country to commerce! 

Dr. Heath has achieved a noble work in exploring this unknown region, 
which will be recognized everywhere, and as long as the Orton river flows, men 
will remember the explorer whose name it bears, who contributed so much to our 
knowledge of South America, and gave up his life to the cause of science. 


CONGRESSIONAL APPROPRIATIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. 


[The following extracts from the billmaking appropriations for sundry civil 
expenses of the government for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1882, will be of 
interest to our readers and to scientists generally :—En:ror. | 

THE HowcatTEe PoLar ExpeEpDITION.—Observation and exploration in the 
Arctic Seas: For continuing the work of scientific observation and exploration 
on or near the shores of Lady Franklin Bay, and for transportation of men and 
supplies to said location and return, twenty-five thousand dollars. 

Lieut. A. W. Greely, 5th U. S. Cavalry and Acting Signal Officer, has been 
assigned by the Secretary of War, to the command of this expedition. Lieut, 
Greely will be permitted to select such officers and men from the army as will be 
required to carry out the objects of the expedition. In our next issue we shall 
probably be able to give fuller details of the personnel of the expeditionary force. 

THE BENNETT PoLaR ExpepITION.—To enable the Secretary of the Navy to 
immediately charter or purchase, equip, and supply a vessel for the prosecution of 
a search for the steamer Jeannette of the Arctic Exploring Expedition (which the 
Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized to undertake), and such other vessels 
as may be found to need assistance during said cruise, one hundred and seventy- 
five thousand dollars: Provided, That said vessel shall be wholly manned by 
volunteers from the Navy. 


= 


CONGRESSIONAL APPROPRIATIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. 739 


On March 15th the Navy Department paid $100,000 for the whaling steamer 
Mary and Helen, to be sent in search of the Jeanette. 

GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY.—For the expenses of the Geological Survey, and the 
classification of the public lands and examination of the geological structure, min- 
eral resources, and products of the national domain, to be expended under the 
direction of the Secretary of the Interior, including pay of civilian employees, 
one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. 

The unexpected balance for the completion of the office work of the Geolog- 
ical and Geographical Survey of the Territories for the fiscal year, eighteen 
hundred and eighty-one, was also re-appropriated and made available for the 
same purposes. 

MississIppI R1vER CoMMISsioN.—For salaries and traveling expenses of Com- 
mission, office expenses, and reduction of work; for continuation of surveys and 
gaugings of Mississippi River and its tributaries; for permanent gauge-stations 
and borings ; for publication of maps and results, one hundred and fifty thousand 
dollars. : 

NorTH AMERICAN ETHNoLoGy.—For the purpose of continuing ethnological 
researches among the North American Indians, under the direction of the Secre- 
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, twenty-five thousand dollars; five thousand 
dollars of which shall be expended in continuing archeological investigations 
relating to Mound-builders and prehistoric mounds. 

SMITHSONIAN INsTITUTION.—For the expense of exchanging literary and sci. 
entific productions with all nations by the Smithsonian Institution, three thousand 
dollars. 

Preservation of collections, Smithsonian Institution: For preservation and 
care of the collections of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the govern- 
ment, fifty-five thousand dollars. 

Preservation of collections, Smithsonian Institution, Armory building: For 
expense of watching, care and storage of duplicate government collections, and 
of property of the United States Fish Commission, Two thousand five hundred 
dollars. 

UNDER THE COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.—Propagation of food- 
fishes: For the introduction of shad and fresh-water herring into the waters of the 
Pacific, the Atlantic, the Gulf and Great Lake States, and of salmon, white-fish, 
carp, gourami, and other useful food-fishes into the waters of the United States 


generally, to which they are best adapted ; also for the propagation of cod, her. 


ring, mackerel, halibut, Spanish mackerel, and other sea fishes, and for 


‘continuing the inquiry into the causes of the decrease of food-fishes of the United 


States, ninety-five thousand dollars, which shall be immediately available. 

Coast AND GEODETIC SuRVEY.—Survey of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 
eastern division: For every purpose and object necessary for, and incident to, 
the continuation of the survey of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United 
States, the Mississippi and other rivers, to the head of either tidal influence or 


740 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


‘ship navigation; soundings, deep-sea temperatures, dredgings, and current-obser- 
vations along the above-named coasts, in the Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf Stream, 
including its entrance into the Gulf, its course through the Carribbean and into 
and around the Sargasso Sea; the triangulation toward the western coast, and 
furnishing points for State surveys; the preparation and publication of charts, the 
Coast Pilot, magnetic map of Eastern North America, and other results of the 
work, with the purchase of materials therefor, including compensation of civilians 
engaged in the work, three hundred thousand dollars. 

For continuation of the resurvey of the Delaware Bay and river, ten thousand 
dollars. 

Survey of the Pacific coasts, western division: For every purposé and ob- 
ject necessary for, and incident to, the continuation of the survey of the Pacific 
coasts of the United States, the Columbia and other rivers, to the head of either 
tidal influence or of ship-navigation; deep-sea soundings, temperatures, currents, 
and dredgings along and also in the Japan Stream, flowing off these coasts; the 
triangulation toward the eastern coast, and furnishing points for State surveys. 
the preparation and publication of charts, the Coast Pilot, the magnetic map of 
Western North America, and other results of the work, with the purchase of 
materials therefor, including compensation of civilians employed in the work, one 
hundred and eighty thousand dollars. 

SIGNAL SERVICE.—Observation and report of storms: For the expenses of 
~ the observation and report of storms by telegraph and signal for the benefit of 
commerce and agriculture throughout the United States; for manufacture, pur- 
chase, and repair of meteorological and other necessary instruments; for 
telegraphing reports; for expenses of storm-signals announcing the probable ap- 
proach and force of storms; for continuing the establishment and connection of 
stations at life-saving stations and light-houses ; for instrument-shelters; for hire, 
furniture, and expenses of offices maintained for public use in cities and ports re- 
ceiving reports; for river reports; for maps and bulletins to be displayed in 
chambers of commerce and boards of trade rooms, and for distribution; for orzge- 
nal studies, books, periodicals, newspapers, and stationery; and for incidental 
expenses not otherwise provided for, three hundred and seventy-five thousand 
dollars. 


SIBERIAN COMMERCE. 


A document has been issued by the German Foreign Office describing the 
various attempts made during the past three years to reach the wouths of the 
Siberian river by way of the North Cape. In 1878, seven vessels undertook the 
voyage to the Artic Sea; two steamers arrived in Orbi, four in the Yenisei, and 
the seventh, a sailing vessel in the Lena, up which river it sailed to Jakustok, a 
distance of 2700 versts. The greater number of these'vessels returned to Europe 
in the same season with return freights. 


e 


SIBERIAN COMMERCE. 741 


The attempts made in the two following years were less successful. Of seven 
ships which left in 1879 only one was able to accomplish the voyage around the 
North Cape. In 1880 five ships penetrated into the sea of Kara. The two 
German steamers, the Zuwfse and the Dah/mann, bound for the Yenisei river, 
forced to return. The Dahlmann encountered to the northward of Novayo: 
Zemlya, a sea of ice as impenetrable as that which it had met with in the south 
side of the island. The ship JVordland, freighted by the well known Russian 
Merchant Siberiakoff, twice entered the Sea of Kara but its progress was also 
stopped by heavy masses of ice and had to return to Europe. This failure did 
not discourage the enterprising merchant, for in July, 1880, he himself started 
for the North in the steamer Oscar Dickson, charted in Gothenburg and provis- 
‘ioned for ten months. He left Vard6 in August, arrived in Jugor Strait before 
the end of the month, but the whole month of September was spent in vain at- 
tempts to cross the Kara Sea. Later in the year the ship was seen by the cap- 
tain of the steamer /Vepfune in the Matotskin Schar, sailing up and down to the 
ea tward of Novayo Zemlya, and once returning through that strait to the western 
side of the island. For sometime no farther news was received of the where- 
abouts of the Dickson, excepting a rumor that she was frozen in at the mouth of 
the Yenesei. In consequence of this rumor Siberakoff’s brother sent an over- 
land expedition to the mouth of that river. Subsequently news was received of 
the Dickson's safe arrival at Tobolsk. ; 

Only the fifth ship, the Veptune, already mentioned, reached the mouth of 
the Orbi arfd returned in the same season to Europe laden with grain. The con- 
dition of navigation in the Kara Sea as shown by the experience of the’last three 
years, have disappointed the hopes of a productive and profitable commerce 
hitherto entertained, but it is possible that further experience and observations 
will remove many of the obstacles that were encountered. 

For this purpose observing stations are about to be established at the mouth 
of the Lena and Kolyma, or upon one of the New Siberian Islands. Lieut. 
Turgens has been assigned to the direction of the station on the Lena. 


METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS IN BEHRINGS SEA. 


The Signal Service, in codperation with the Smithsonian Institution, the N. 
W. Trading Co., the Western Fur and Trading Co., and the Alaska Commercia] 
Co., proposes to establish an extensive system of stations during the present year, 
for the purpose of making an exhaustive study of the meteorological and other 
natural phenomena of the exterme northwest coast of the American continent, 
and of the islands in Behrings Sea. 

The stations named below have been partially decided upon for occupation. 
The Latitude and Longitude given are approximative only: 


742 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


STATIONS. LATITUDE. | LONGITUDE. 
Copper Island 0.0" Gi eee mietn | sp SA mIg On HiLO2 
Attudsland. ooo es eu leess 4 0) GRP KOON ante ray Tayete HeMtlicy allie amore coy ESE 
Wtka Islami) i. os oe (6 Eke) ON IME ws BZA ZON a Aine cae ere (eu erennian yt atom 
Wonalaslika Island oss ei 21 BO OU ie) enews Cele tie aan Caemcress 
Stum@eauly Island sos ae lacy Gencdie ates. Syn SOM . 170° oo! 
St Michaelsy. bc). by Uae tee euets (16 Ze Onc \eitge 4 tae eet ears 
Bont (Barrow 02 cs loyal oe Wy Live eal FEO ZOU IND. 6 Ns a me me 
Nuchagakak. 600 5 Ne 4 rey. ON OO) alo. te Sin) ot ree Can 


fovA 


Sita eeties cate cl Ren aes dete MON eMale val FeOOs sie A105 7 a0! 
C ordovaryBay signi vous ieaan cama «2aSaa ma Gis . 132° 20° 
RonavelBayy Ged aii, uhucuis iemeeers) el SOM Oona. “0 350.30° 
BVeicaurtteant Me eea Melia Ubse 2") Rina tBA reid bohdve MMe < Wi MO ONANG Oniier a 140° 00° 
Hort vwkeom 9/04/64 0 iy ls Woke e ue Lette. ie OOMEZO! © i Sgigeico! 
MOTE RR CLA Iho. 5 crle va 78 (o etemiy's Wtacanatenal ctt/sc sO : . 151° 00! 
POLE OE tCHes 2 ie Kiet oh er vel le ie iek a! 3h OOn ay ola) coiled sytel “elle tone OOM 
Kuskokvimi ss) <1. - Oi : ° \ LOT Eso) 


And eleven other stations ot ye please It i 1S euneoted that (Ruse will 
establish a codperating station at Petropadlovsk in about Latitude 53° and Longi. 
tude 201°. 

The station at Point Barrow is part of the American quota of the Interna- 
tional chain of Polar Stations. 

The Meteorological Office of Canada, under the energetic supervision of 
Mr. Carpuxael, proposes to establish a full station on Melville Island, at Winter 
Harber, in Lat. 74° 45’; Long. 111°, provided the necessary Government assist- 
ance can be obtained. The proposed site is where Parry wintered in 1819-20, 
and is an admirable location for one of the International chain of stations. 


ASTRONOMY. 


PLANETARY PHENOMENA FOR APRIL, 1881. 
BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


Mercury on the 7th reaches its greatest elongation west, but owing to its po- 
sition being so much south of the sun, it cannot be observed well from Kansas 
City. ‘ 

Venus on the 11th reaches the stationary point in its orbit, 2. ¢., its position 
among the fixed stars will remain unchanged for a short time. This apparent 
rest in its motion is caused by our being in the direction in which it is, moving ; 
after this it will continue rapidly to approach the sun, being so near to that orb 
after the 25th as to escape observation except with the telescope. 

Mars during this month will be among the stars in Aquarius. 


DELICATE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 743 


Jupiter and Saturn have approached so near the sun’s place that a good view 
of them cannot be obtained this month. On the 22d they are in conjunction 
with each other and also with the sun. 

Uranus is situated in the constellation Leo about 12° east and 4° south of 
Regulus, the brightest star of that constellation. If is now in a very favorable 
position for observation, and as only a few persons have ever seen this planet 
the present opportunity should not be missed. It shines with the light of a 6th 
magnitude star, and under the most favorable circumstances is visible to the 
naked eye. | 

Neptune is situated in the constellation Aries, but being so faint, owing to its 
enormous distance, cannot be seen except with good astronomical instruments. 

The Moon on the rst is in conjunction with Venus, passing south of that 
planet 3° 22’. On the roth it is within 6° 19’ of Uranus. By the 28th it will be 
again in conjunction with Venus, passing south 2° 40’, but both will be so near 
the sun that they cannot be seen with the unaided eye. i 


DELICATE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS, AND SOME RECENT 
RESULTS OF THEIR USE. 


BY EDGAR L. LARKIN, NEW WINDSOR OBSERVATORY, NEW WINDSOR, ILLINOIS. 


Within the last five years, scientific men have surpassed previous efforts in 
close measurement and refined analysis. By means of instruments of exceeding 
delicacy, processes in nature hitherto unknown, are made palpable to sense. 
Heat is found in ice, light in seeming darkness, and sound in apparent silence. 
It seems that physicists and chemists have almost if not quite reached the ultimate 
atoms of matter. The mechanism must be sensitive, as such properties of matter 
as heat, light, electricity, magnetism and actinism, are to be handled, caused to 
vanish and reappear, analyzed and measured. With such instruments, nature is 
scrutinized, revealing new properties, strange motions, vibrations and undulations. 
Throughout the visible universe, the faintest pulsations of atoms are detected, and 
countless millions of infinitely small waves, bearing light, heat and sound are dis- 
covered and their lengths determined. Refined spectroscopic analysis of light is 
now made, so that when any material burns, no matter what its distance, its spec- 
trum tells what substance is burning. When any luminous body appears, it can 
be told whether it is approaching or receding, or whether it shines by its own 

-or reflected light; whence it is seen that rays falling on earth from a flight of a 
hundred years, are as sounding lines dropped in the appalling depths of space. 
We wish to describe a few of these intricate instruments, and mention several 
far-reaching discoveries made by their use; beginning with mechanism for the 
manipulation of light. Optics is based on the accidental discovery that a piece 
of glass of certain shape will draw light to a focus, forming an image of any object 
at that point. The next step was in learning that this image can be viewed 


744 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


with a microscope, and magnified; thus came the telescope revealing unheard of 
suns and galaxies. The first telescopes colored everything looked at, but by a 
hundred years of mathematical research, the proper curvature of objectives formed 
of two glasses was discovered, so that now we have perfect instruments. Great 
results followed; one can now peer into the profound solitudes of space, bringing 
to view millions of stars, requiring light 5,000 years to traverse their awful dis- 
tance, and behold suns wheeling around suns, and thousands of nebule, or ag- 
. glomerations of stars so distant as to send us confused light, appearing like faint 
gauze-like structures in measureless voids. The modern telescope has astonishing 
power, thus: When Mr. Clark finished the great 26-inch Equatorial, now at 
Washington, he tested its seeing properties. A photographic calligraph whose 
letters were so fine as to require a microscope to see them, was placed at a dis- 
tance of three hundred feet. Mr. Clark turned the great eye upon the invisible 
thing and read the writing with ease, But a greater feat than this was accomplish- 
ed by the same instrument—the discovery of the two littke moons of Mars, by 
Prof. Asaph Hall, in 1877. They are so small as to be incapable of measurement 
by ordinary means, but with an ingenious photometer devised by Prof. Pickering 
of Harvard College, he determined the outer satellite to be six, and the inner seven 
miles in diameter. The discovery of these minute bodies seems past belief, and 
will appear more so, when it is told that the task is equal to that of viewing a 
luminous ball two inches in diameter suspended above Boston, by the telescope 
situated in the city of New York. [Newcomb and Holden’s Astronomy, p. 338. 
Phobos, the nearest moon, is only 4,000 miles from the surface of Mars, and 

is obliged to move with such great velocity to prevent falling, that it actually 
makes a circuit about its primary in only 7 hours 38 minutes. But Mars turns on 
its axis in 24 hours 37 minutes, so the moon goes round three times, while Mars 
does once, hence it rises in the west and sets in the east, making one day of Mars 
equal three of its months. This moon changes every two hours, passing all phases 
in a single Martial night; is anomalous in the solar system, and tends to subvert 
that theory of cosmic evolution wherein a rotating gaseous sun cast off concen- 
tric rings, afterward becoming planets. Astronomers were not satisfied with the 
telescope; true, they beheld the phenomena of the solar system; planets rotating 
on axes, and satellites revolving about them. They saw sunspots, facule and 
solar upheaval; watched eclipses, transits, and the alternations of summer and 
winter on Mars, and detected the laws of gravity and motion in the system to 
which the earth belongs. They then devised the Micrometer. This is a complex 
mechanism placed in the focus of a telescope, and by its use any object, provid- 
ing it shows a disc, no matter what its distance, can be measured. It consists 
of spider webs set within a graduated metallic circle, the webs movable by 
screws, and the whole instrument capable of rotating about the collimation axis 
of the telescope. The screw head is a circle ruled to degrees and minutes, 
and turns in front of a fixed vernier in the field of a reading microscope. One 
turn of the screw moves the web a certain number of seconds; then as there are 


DELICATE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 745 


360° in a circle, 1-360th of a turn moves the web 1-36oth of the amount, and 
soon. Thus, when two stars are seen in the field, one web is moved by the 
screw until the fixed line and the movable one are parallel, each bisecting a star. 
By reading with the microscope, the number of degrees turned the distance apart 
of the stars becomes known; the distance being learned, position is then sought; 
the observance of which led to one of the greatest discoveries ever made by man. 
The permanent line of the micrometer is placed in the line joining the north 
and south poles of the heavens, and brought across one of the stars; the movable 
web is then rotated until it bisects the other, and then the angle between the 
webs is recorded. Double stars are thus measured, first in distance, and second, 
their position. After this, if any movement of the stars takes place, the tell tale 
micrometer at once detects it. 

In 1780, Sir Wm. Herschel measured double stars and made catalogues with 
distances and positions. Within twenty years, he startled intellectual man with 
the statement that many of the fixed stars actually move—one great sun revolving 
around another, and both rotating about their common center of gravity. If we 
look at a double star with a small telescope, it looks just like any other ; using a 
little larger glass, it changes appearance and looks elongated; with a still better 
telescope, they become distinctly separated and appear as two beautiful stars 
whose elements are measured and carefully recorded, in order to see ifthey move. 
Herschel detected the motion of fifty of these systems, and revolutionized modern 
astronomy. Astronomers soared away from the little solar system, and began 
a minute search throughout the whole sidereal heavens. Herschel’s catalogue 
contained 400 double suns, only fifty of which were known to be in revolution. 
Since then, enormous advance has been made. The micrometer has been im- 
proved into an instrument of great delicacy, and the number of doubles has swelled 
to 10,000; 650 of them being known to be binary, or revolving on orbits—Prof, 
S.W. Burnham, the distinguished young astronomer of the Dearborn Observatory, 
Chicago, having discovered 800 within the last eight years. This discovery im- 
plies stupendous motion; every fixed star is a sun like our own, and we can 
imagine these wheeling orbs to be surrounded by cool planets, the abode of life, 
as well as ours. If the orbit of a binary system lies edgewise toward us, then one 
star will hide the other each revolution, moving across it and appearing on the 
other side. Several instances of this motion are known; the distant suns having 
made more than a complete circuit since discovery; the shortest periodic time 
known being twenty-five years. 

Wonderful as was this achievement of the micrometer, one not less surprising 

_awaited its delicate measurement. If one walks in a long street lighted with gas, 
the lights ahead will appear to separate, and those in the rear approach. The 
little spider lines have detected just such a movement in the heavens. The stars 
in Hercules are all the time growing wider apart, while those in Argus, in exactly 
the opposite part of the Universe, are steadily drawing. nearer together. This 
demonstrates that our sun with his stately retinue of planets, satellites, comets and 


746 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


meteorites, all move in grand march toward the constellation, Hercules. The 
‘entire Universe is in motion. But these revelations of the micrometer are tame 
compared with its final achievement, the discovery of parallax. 


This means difference of direction, and the parallax of a star, is the differ- 
ence of its direction when viewed at intervals of six months. Astronomers 
observe a star to-day with a powerful telescope and micrometer; andin six months 
again measure the same star. But meanwhile the earth has moved 183,000,000 
miles to the east, so that if the star has changed place, this enormous journey 
caused it, and the change equals a line 91,400,000 miles long as viewed from the 
star. For years many such observations were made; but behold the star was al- 
ways in the same place; the whole distance of the sun having dwindled down to 
the diameter of a pin point in comparison with the awful chasm separating us from 
the stars. Finally micrometers were made that measured lines requiring 100,000 
to make an inch; and a new series of observations begun, crowning the labors of 
a century with success. Finite man actually told the distance of the starry hosts 
and gauged the universe. 

When the parallax of any object is found, its Liaiseanes is at once known, for 
the parallax is an arc of a circle whose radius is the distance. -By an important 
theorem in geometry it is learned, that when anything subtends an angle of r’ its 
distance is 206,265 times its own diameter. The greatest parallax of any star is 
that of Alpha Centauri— 2, of a second; henceit is more than 206,265 times 91, - 
400,000 miles—the distance of the sun—away, or twenty thousand billions of 
miles. This is the distance of the nearest fixed star, and is used as a standard of 
reference in describing greater depths of space. ‘This is not all the micrometer 
enables man to know. When the distance separating the earth from two celestial 
bodies that revolve is learned, the distance between the two orbs becomes known. 
Then the period of revolution is learned from observation, and having the distance 
‘and time, then their velocity can be determined. The distance and velocity being 
given, then the combined weights of both suns can be calculated, since by the 
laws of gravity and motion it is known how much weight is required to produce 
so much motion in so much time, at so much distance, and thus man weighs the 
stars. If the density of these bodies could be ascertained, their diameters and 
volumes would be known, and the size of the fixed stars would have been meas- 
ured. Density can never be exactly learned; but strange to say, photometers 
measure the quantity of light that any bright body emits; hence the stars cannot 
have specific gravity very far different from that of the sun, since they send simi- 
lar light, and in quantity obeying the law wherein light varies inversely as the 
squares of distance. Therefore, knowing the weight and having close approxima- 
tion to density, the sizes of the stars are nearly calculated. The conclusion is now 
made that all suns within the visible universe, are neither very many times larger 
nor smaller than our own. (Newcomb and Holden’s Astronomy, p. 454). 

Another result followed the use of the micrometer; the detection of the 
proper motion of the stars. For several thousand years the stars have been 


DELICATE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 747 


called ‘‘ fixed,” but the fine rulings of the filar micrometer tell a different story. 
There are catalogues of several hundred moving stars, whose motion is from 
¥%” to 8” annually. The Binary star, 61 Cygni, the nearest north of the equator 
moves 8” every year, a displacement equal in 360 years to the apparent diameter 
of the moon. The fixed stars have no general motion toward any point, but 
move in all directions. 

Thus the micrometer never led to man the magnitude and general structure, 
together with the motions and revolutions of the sidereal heavens. Above all, it 
demonstrated that gravity extends throughout the universe. Still the longings 
of men were not appeased; they brought to view invisible suns sunk in space, 
and told their weight, yet the thirst for knowledge was not quenched. Men 
wished to know what all the suns are made of, whether Of substances like those 
composing the earth, or of kinds of matter entirely different. Then was devised 
the spectroscope, and with it men audaciously questioned nature in her most 
secluded recesses. The basis of spectroscopy is the prism, which separates sun. 
light into seven colors and projects a band of light called a spectrum. This was. 
known for 300 years, and not much thought of it until Fraunhofer viewed it with 
a telescope, and was surprised to find it filled with hundreds of black lines in- 
visible to the unaided eye. Could it be possible that there are portions of the 
solar surface that fail to send out light? Such is the fact, and then begana 
twenty years search to learn the cause. The lines in the solar spectrum were 
unexplained until finally metals were vaporized in the intense heat of the elec- 
tric arc and the light passed through a spectroscope, when behold the spectra of 
metals were filled with bright lines in the same places as were the dark lines in 
the spectrum of the sun. Another step; if when metals are volatilized in the 
arc, rays of light from the sun are passed through the vapor and allowed to enter 
the spectroscope, a great change is wrought; a reversal takes place, and the 
original black bands reappear. A new law of nature was discovered, thus: 
“‘ Vapors of all elements absorb the same rays of light which they emit when 
incandescent.” Every element makes a different spectrum with lines in different 
places and of different widths. These have been memorized by chemists, so that 
when an expert having a spectroscope sees anything burn he can tell what it is 
as well as read a printed page. Men have learned the alphabet of the Universe, 
and can read, in all things radiating light, the constituent elements. The black 
lines in the solar spectrum are there because in the atmosphere of the sun exist 
vapors of metals, and the light from the liquid metals below is unable to pass 
through and reach the earth, being absorbed kind for kind. Gaseous iron sifts 
out all rays emitted from melted iron, and so do the vapors of all other ele- 
ments in the sun, radiating light in unison with their own. Sodium, iron, cal- 
cium, hydrogen, magnesium and many other substances are now known to be in- 
candescent in the sunand stars; andthe results of the developments of the spec- 
troscope may be summed up in the’ generalization that all bodies in the Universe 
are composed of the same substance the earth is. 


% 


748 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The sun is subject to terrific hurricanes and cyclones, as well as explosions, 
casting up jets to the height of 200,000 miles. In the early days of spectroscopy 
these protuberances could only be seen at a time of a total solar eclipse, and as- 
fronomers made long journeys to distant parts of the earth to bein line of totality. 
Now allis changed. Images of the sun are thrown into the observatory by an 
ingenious instrument run by clock work, and called a Heliostat. This is set on 
the sun at such an angle as to throw the solar image into the objective of the 
telescope placed horizontally in a darkened observatory, and the pendulum bal- 
set in motion, when it will follow the sun without moving its image, all day if 
desired. At the eye end of the telescope is attached the spectroscope and the 
micrometer, and the whole set of instruments so adjusted that just the edge of the 
sun is seen, making a half spectrum. The other half of the spectroscope pro- 
jects above the solar limb, and is dark, so if an explosion throws up liquid jets, 
or flames of hydrogen, the astronomer at once sees them and with the micrometer 
measures their height before they have time tofall. And the spectrum at once tells 
what the jets are composed of, whether hydrogen, gaseous iron, calcium or any- 
thing else) Prot... Ay Young saw a jet of hydrogenascend a distance of 200,- 
coo miles, measured its height, noted its spectrum and timed its ascent by a 
chronometer all at once, and was astonished to find the velocity 160 miles per 
second ; eight times faster than the earth flies on its orbit. By these improve- 
ments solar hurricanes, whirlpools and explosions can be seen from any physical 
observatory on clear days, 

The slit of the spectroscope can be moved anywhere on the disc of the sun; 
so that if the observer sees a tornado begin, he moves the slit along with it, meas 
ures the length of its track and velocity. With the telescope, micrometer, 
heliostat and spectroscope came desire for more complex instruments, resulting 
in the invention of the Photoheliograph, invoking the aid of photography to make 
permanent the results of these exciting researches. This mechanism consists of 
an excessively sensitive plate, adjusted in the solar focus of the telespectroscope. 
In front of the plate in the camera is a screen attached to a spring, and held closed 
by acord. The eye is applied to the spectroscopic end of the complex arrange- 
ment to watch the development of solar hurricanes. 

Finally an appalling out-burst occurs; the flames leap higher and higher, 
torn into a thousand shreds, presenting a scene that language is powerless to de- 
scribe. When the display is at the height of its magnificence, the astronomer cuts 
the cord; the slide makes an exposure of 1-3000 part of asecond, and an accurate 
photograph is taken. The storm all in rapid motion is petrified on the plate; 
everything is distinct, all the surging billows of fire, boilings and turbulence are 
rendered motionless with the velocity of lightning. 

At Meudon, in France, M. Janssen takes these instantaneous photographs of 
the sun, thirty inches in diameter, and afterward enlarges them to ten feet; 
showing scenes of fiery desolation that appalls the human imagination. (See ad- 
dress of Vice-President Langley, A. A. A.S., Proceedings Saratoga Meeting, p 56.) 


DELICA TE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. ' 749 


This huge photograph can be viewed in detail with a small telescope and microm- 
eter, and the crests of solar waves measured. Many of these billows of fire are 
in dimensions every way equal in size to the state of Illinois. Binary stars are 
photographed so that in time to come they can be re-taken, when if they have 
moved, the precise amount can be measured. 

Another instrument is the Telepolariscope, to be attached to a telescope. It 
tells whether any luminous body sends us its own, or reflected light. Only one 
comet bright enough to be examined has appeared since its perfection. This was 
Coggia’s, and was found to reflect solar from the tail, and_to radiate its own light 
from the nucleus. 

Still another intricate instrument is in use, the Thermograph, that utilizes the 
heat rays from the sun, instead of the light. It takes pictures by heat; in other 
words it sees in the dark ; brings invisible things to the eye of man, and is used 
in astronomical and physical researches wherein undulations and radiations are 
concerned. And now comes the Magnetometer, to measure the amount of mag- 
netism that reaches the earth from the sun. * It points to zero when the magnetic 
forces of the earth are in equilibrium, but let a magnetic storm occur anywhere in 
the world and the pointer will move by invisible power. It detects a close re- 
lation between the magnetism of the earth and sun. The needle is deflected 
every time a solar disturbance takes place. At Kew, England, an astronomer was 
viewing the sun with a telescope and observed a tongue of flame dart across a 
spot, whose diameter was 33,700 miles. The magnetometer was violently agita- 
ted at once, showing that whatever magnetism may be, itsinfluence traversed the 
distance of the sun with a velocity greater than that of light. 

Not less remarkable is the new instrument the Thermal Balance devised by 
Prof. S. P. Langley Pittsburg. It will measure the 1-50.000 part of a degree of 
heat, and consists of strips of platinum 1-32 of an inch wide and ¥Y of an inch 
long ; and so thin that it requires fifty to equal the thickness of tissue paper, placed 
in the circuit of electricity running to a galvanometer. ‘‘When mounted in a 
reflecting telescope it will record the heat from the body of a man or other animal 
in an adjoining field, and can do so at great distances. It will do this equally 
well-at night, and may be said, in a certain sense, to give the power of seeing in 
the dark. (‘‘Science,”’ issue of Jan. 8, 1881, p 12.) It is expected to reveal great 
facts concerning the heat of the stars. 

Indeed, the Thermopile in the hands of Lockyer has already made palpable the 
heat of the fixed stars. He placed the little detective in the focus of a telescope 
and turned it on Arcturus. ‘* The result was this, that the heat received from 
Arcturus, when at an altitude of 55°, was found to be just equal to that received 
from a cube of boiling water, three inches across each side, at the distance of 400 
yards ; and the heat from Vega is equal to that from the same cube at 600 yards.” 
(Lockyer’s Star Gazing, p 385.) Thus that inscrutable mode of force heat, traverses 
the depths of space, reaches the earth, and turns the delicate balance of the ther. 
mopile. Another discovery was made with the spectroscope; thus, if a boat 


IV—s0 


750 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


moves up a river, it will meet more waves than will strike it if going down st.cam. 
Light is the undulation of waves ; thence if the spectroscope is set on a star that 
is approaching the earth, more waves will enter, than if set on a receding star, 
which fact is known by displacement of lines in the spectroscope from normal posi- 
tions. It is found that many fixed stars are approaching, while others are moving 
away from the solar system. 

We cannot note the researches of Edison, Lockyer or Tyndall, nor of Crookes, 
who has seemingly reached the molecules whence the Universe is composed. 

The modern observatory isa labyrinth of sensitive instruments; and when 
any disturbance takes place in nature, in heat, light, magnetism, or like modes of 
force, the apparatus notes and records them. 

Men are by no means satisfied. Insatiable thirst to know more is developing 
into a fever of unrest; they are wandering beyond the limits of the known, every 
day a little farther. They survey space, and interrogate the Infinite; measure 
the atom of hydrogen and weigh suns. Man takes no rest, and neither will he 
until he shall have found his own place in the chain of nature. 

March 29th, r881. 


ME @ Om @GNs 


THE STORM CENTER AND WEATHER PROPHETS. 


BY ISAAC P. NOYES, WASHINGTON, D. C. 


The weather since the first of January 1881 has not even been as complimen. 
tary to Mr. Vennor as was that of December 1880, and re-affirms the statements 
so often made in these papers, in regard to the absurdity of attempting to guess at 
the weather, months, or even weeks in advance. Had we had the usual mid-Janu- 
ary thaw, ignorant people and even many well informed people, would have claim - 
ed that it was all in accordance with Mr. Vennor’s predictions and evidence of 
his great skill and knowledge in prophesying the weather. 

Nine times out of ten it would be safe to venture a prediction, ‘‘that about 
the middle of January we would have a thaw,” or at least some time in January. 
But this year for very simple reasons we did not have the thaw. 

As stated in former papers, in winter, when the sun is south of the equator, 
the area of low-barometer travels on a lower line than during the summer months ; 
and as the wind is always toward ‘‘low,” it necessarily follows that the wind will 
be more generally from the north and hence cold. When thesun advances north 
the general effect is to advance the area of low-barometer to a higher line of lati- 
tude. Notwithstanding this general effect of the sun in developing low, and low 
being generally on a higher line in summer than in winter, there are times in sum- 


THE STORM CENTER AND WEATHER PROPHETS. 731 


mer:when it is on a very low line, and times in winter when it is on a very high 
line. It seldom, if ever goes over exactly the same ground, though it often takes 
a Similar course- and after running on one general line for a few times in succes- 
sion, there will be a change to some opposite or extreme line, higher or lower, as 
the case may be. : 

So when fall sets in, the area of low-barometer creeps down relatively with 
the sun, and then as the sun advances north, this area of /ow goes north with it, 
yet all the while, with the changes herein spoken of intervening, making in sum- 
mer north winds, and relatively cold days, and in winter southerly winds and rela- 
tively warm days. When one becomes familiar with these motions of Jow, or the 
concentration of the sun’s heat, studies the causes, which day by day, week by 
week and month by month it follows—its regularity and irregularity—how steady 
at times it follows just where it would seem it ought to go, and how capricious at 
other times, as though it was determined to surprise man by both its regularity 
and irregularity; when we become cognizant of the laws which this department 
of nature follows; how it would seem bent on defying us to say when and where 
“it will go, and when and where it will notsgo; when our senses perceive this, 
then and not until then will we realize the absurdity of the attempt to revive the 
old method of guessing at the weather for months in advance, or putting confi- 
dence in any person’s attempt to indicate what the weather will be, from any pre- 
tended calculation of the movements of the moon or stars. 

We all know that itis cold in winter and warm in summer, and that in the spring 
we will have blustering weather, cold winds and rain, and as the spring approaches 
summer, have what are known as “April showers’ —sunshine and rain suddenly and 
closely interspersed. A little later, hot sultry days—long and protracted dry spells, 
with sudden changes and violent storms, accompanied with thunder and lightning. 
As the season advances, more evenly distributed areas of rain—days when it is 
quite cold and it would seem that winter had come, but it has not, for following 
this are those delightful hazy days inautumn, October and November, which are 
known in this country as ‘‘ Indian Summer,’’ for the reason that the first settlers 
thought on the first approach of cold weather, that winter had come, but the Indi- 
ans told them that there would follow quite a spellof mild pleasant weather before 
the cold of winter really set in, and so it did and hence the name ‘‘Indian Sum- 
mer.’’ In those days the cause of this could not be explained, but to-day it can, 
and in former papers has been explained. Following this ‘‘Indian Summer” is 
the cold of winter, earlier in northern than in southern latitudes, (north of the 
equator). All this general knowledge of the weather of the months we know and 
knew before a weather bureau was established, or thought of, but we did not 
know the causes of the changes and their peculiarities. 

There is no wisdom in any one telling us thatit willbe cold in winter or warm 
in summer, or generally that ‘‘July will be hot, with thunder storms,” or ‘‘ Decem- 
ber cold, with heavy falls of snow,” for these are the things or conditions which 
naturally follow, and if they do not follow, form an exception in the weather of 


752 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


the year. Weare continually having these exceptions—in the days—in the weeks 
—in the months and in the years. These exceptions are a part of the regular things 
to be expected, but there is no regularity aboutthem, however. Ifthere were,,the 
exceptional features would lose their character. | 

This area of /ow is a very coy thing on the part of nature. Now likea wise, 
benevolent and broad-minded philanthropist it dispenses its bounties evenly, visit- 
ing on its course one section and another, giving all alike, at least all sufficient; 
then a change and as it were, Peter is robbed to pay Paul, or even worse, Peter 
robbed and denied the essentials of life to drown Paul with ; an overflowing abun- 
dance that is detrimental rather than beneficial to him. Let people simply study 
the weather map and this will all be revealed to them, and more, they will soon 
see the absurdity of any person attempting to make such prophecies in regard to 
the weather, and of the attempt to write or speak on the subject without this 
knowledge. 

A sea-captain would be more reasonable in this day, to attempt to navigate 
the seas and oceans of the globe without compass, quadrant and charts. We can 
not know much about navigation by merely knowing a few general laws of physics. 
We must, in order to know navigation, have knowledge of the tides, the compass, 
know how to take the sun and how to work our way by the charts, light-houses, 
buoys, etc. So when it comes to a knowledge of the weather, we must know a 
little more than the general laws of physics; we must make ourselves familiar with 
the movements of the sun in the ecliptic, with the parallelism of the earth, with 
the topography of the land, the distribution of land and water, of plains and 
mountains, and foliage, and eveh with the advancement of civilization. For, 
where civilization goes railroads are sure to follow, and it seems now to be well 
known and admitted, that railroads under certain relations to territory have more 
or less effect. 

On the Western plains, where little or no rain occurred before the advent of 
the railroad, rain is now said to be quite frequent. The cause of this would 
seem to be that the iron rails attract the rays of the sun, and develop and retain 
heat, thereby making an area of low barometer practical in such localities, where 
before the dryness of the country repelled it or so neutralized it as to make it 
non-effective. This re-actsand produces trees, and so soon as foliage is develop- 
ed, all the essential features for developing and retaining a /ow or .making it a 
practical reality issecured. For /ow will not remain over night and thereby be 
sufficiently permanent to secure moisture to the land unless there is something to 
retain the heat developed by the sun. 

Where there is moisture there is more material to form clouds, and where 
this moisture is the more clouds will hover over the spot and the factor heat be 
retained, by which other clouds are brought there to precipitate. This reveals to 
us the mystery of the superiority of territory where land and water are well distri- 
buted, and the necessity of restoring the balance where it is practicable. Landand 
water are both essential to our well being; organized as we .are, we could not 


THE STORM CENTER AND WEATHER PROPHETS. 753 


~ 


live here without the two in at least fair proportions to retain such a balance of 
heat and cold, dryness and moisture, as is essential to human life. _ So the forces 
of nature, like the artificial forces, developed by civilized man, act and re-act 
upon each other. Let a few persons establish themselves in acertain spot, others 
follow in order to meet the demands of trade, supplies, and even luxuries. Their 
demands as individuals and as a settlement increases as the settlement grows. 
Nature works on a similar plan. Take an arid country—too dry and suddenly 
tempestuous for habitation; civilization advances to it. The railroad passing 
through it develops a capacity to retain heat; some humanitarian, like the man 
who planted the acres of pinesalong the desert wastes of Cape Cod,)in -Massa- 
chusetts,some man with an eye to the future, starts a few trees, and perhaps, at great 
expense, an Artesian well, or conducts water from some distant and more favored 
locality ; it may be for his own selfish gain, yet he cannot enjoy his gain alone; 
indeed his gain becomes greater as others enjoy it with him; he andhis neighbors 
act and re-act upon each other. This little water, this railroad, these few trees, 
are the nucleus. Other similar things follow and act and re-act upon each other, 
and teach the lesson and wisdom of the benefits to man, individually and collec- 
tively, by generosity, combination and the bringing together of natural forces, and 
how one set of natural forces may, to the great advantage of man, be made to 
neutralize another set, and that with advanced civilization come even blessings 
that we little dreamed of, and reveal to us what a generous thing nature is if we 
will only court her in a becoming manner. She is ever more ready to give than 
we to receive, if we will only have the wisdom to deal with her as we should. 
Nothing more than this teaches man, or more strongly reveals to him the impor- 
tance of studying nature, and making himself familiar with the works of nature, 
and acting generously toward his fellow man. For we are so constituted that 
the more we elevate what is about us the more we elevate and benefit ourselves. 

It would seem that mere selfishness would prompt men to such acts, but the 
trouble with mere selfishness is that it is very short sighted, and works for the im- 
mediate present rather than the eternal future. He who acts for the immediate 
present is necessarily interested in ignorance, for his whole trust is in this ele- 
ment whether he be honest or deceptively pretentious. 

A person who pretends or is simple enough to think that he can figure out 
the weather, months in advance, is either ignorant himself of the laws which gov- 
ern the weather, or presumes that his fellows are, and perhaps both, and in either 

-case his dependence is in the ignorance of his fellow men rather than in their en- 
lightenment. . 

After January had passed and we had entered February, Mr. Vennor comes 
out with a card and-admits that the January thaw did not take place. He had 
made some miscalculation or other, and the thaw had been crowded out by the 
extreme cold. (!). 

If Mr. Vennor had known what caused the continued cold weather of De- 
cember and January, would it not seem natural that he should have informed the 


754 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


public, but he seems to be as innocent and ignorant of it as an unborn babe, for 
he tells us that.the thaw was crowded out (!). Yet it is said that this man is a 
scientist, at the head of the Canadian Meteorological Bureau, and ascientific man. 
I would like to see some medical man give some medical reason for the non-oc- 
currence of something in hisline on a par with this; some statesman; some law- 
yer—scientist or artist, attempt to hood-wink the public with such @ reason (/). 

If he were a person worth noticing the press of the land would soon make 
him the laughing stock of the age. The simple reason why we so often have a 
thaw in mid-winter is because of a high area of low barometer—that is, a number, 
say three or four or more areas of low barometer running on a high line of lati- 
tude with no similar area in the South to neutralize it. This causes south winds 
and gives us rain and thaw at the North, the result of which is to break up the 
ice and to sufficiently melt the snows to flood the streams, carrying off the ice 
and snow at least in part. We did not have this, atleast, to any extent this year, 
for the reason that ow was generally ona low line of latitude producing extreme 
cold with heavy rains, and even snow in the extreme Southern states. 

They had more snow in New Orleans, in consequence, this year, than perhaps 
ever before. Snow in New Orleans isa very uncommon thing and had some person 
told the world, or even made a venture that such a thing would have occurred, 
by those ignorant of science he would have been termed a weather prophet indeed. 
It was an exceptional thing and the weather-map reveals the cause thereof, as well 
as a chart of the ocean which shows a dangerous reef would reveal the cause of 
the destruction of a vessel that was wrecked thereon. Now there is one thing 
these ‘‘ weather prophets” may do, whereby they may obtain notoriety with the 
uninitiated, and that is to take the weather-map, study it for awhile in order to 
make themselves familiar with the workings of ‘‘High” and ‘‘ Low” and then 
venture a daily guess of three or four days ahead of the Signal Office, and if they 
are expert, they may come pretty near the mark. 

Indeed it would seem that it was full time that the Signal Office took a new 
departure and advanceda step. It is sure to come some day, and as they have the 
best faciliiies, it would seem that they were the ones to do it, and that is, in addi- 
tion to their present daily ‘‘Indications,’’ have a sub-indication, which will be 
understood not to be so reliable, and one in which they may be allowed more lati- 
tude. Let the basis on which they would make these new advanced indications 
be understood, then intelligent people will not hold them responsible, -but will with 
them take the chances, 

The better the public understand the weather-map the better will this be 
revealed to them, and the better they will understand the duties and difficulties of 
the Signal Office if they should undertake this new departure. If they assume 
this extra task they might adopt some new term, which will not be so positive as 
the term at present used for the daily information given tothe public. But what- 
ever the term may be, let it be distinctly understood that the greater the time in 
advance, the more uncertainty; still, oftentimes the weather for three or four days 


KANSAS WEATHER SERVICE. 755 


in advance, may be quite correctly given or revealed. If the Signal Office does 
not do this in course of time, some enterprising outsider will be sure to, and he 
will use their knowledge.and material to accomplish it. 

It would seem that it was full time that they added this auxiliary feature to 
their present daily indications. The intelligent world at least will be charitable 
toward them, and will not hold them too closely to the mark, and if they have 
the intelligent and generous people on their side, those who are able to understand 
the whys and wherefores, they need not fear the ignorant and exacting. The more 
the weather subject is understood, the more charity will the intelligent people of 
the country have for this office, and the more will they appreciate its labors, and 
the less respect will this same intelligent class have for all those would-be weather- 
prophets, who are assuming so much ignorance on the part of the public at large, 
and pretending to know so much more than other people, and more than the facts 
in the case will warrant. It is full time that the intelligent people of the world 
took hold of this subject and mastered it. They will find enough in it to fully re- 
pay them for the pains, and it will protect them against the imposition that at 
present they are so susceptible to and unprotected against. 


KANSAS WEATHER SERVICE OBSERVATIONS AT WASHBURN 
COLLEGE, TOPEKA. 


BY PROF. J. T. LOVEWELL. 


Our last report closed February 2oth, and the eight days succeeding gave us 
milder weather with no precipitation or storms, and the lowest temperature was 
8°. During the first two decades in March the weather has further moderated. 
The heaviest fall of snow of this period was on the 7th, when about four inches 
of damp snow fell. It also snowed on the 2d and 17th; and rained on the roth 
and rsth. The most noticeable phenomenon was the extremely low barometer 
on the 11th, when the reading was 28.12 at 9 p. m.; this isnearly .3 of an inch 
lower than observed at this station for more than two years, No storm occurred 
here during or immediately after this. There was thunder and lightning on the 
14th and rsth. The first prairie fire occurred on the 13th. The highest tempera- 
ture was 59°, on the 15th. ‘The pressure has been below the average during the 
past month. The weather has been rather cold for the season, but we must re- 
gard it on the whole as favorable to vegetation, and there has been no premature 
starting of the buds. The following averages by decades will give a more com, ~ 
plete statement of these facts. Robins were first seen here this year on Feb. 22. 


756 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Feb. 2st Mar. lst Mar. 11th 
to 28th. to 10th. to 20th Mean 

TEMPERATURE. 

ENG ree DS sa pee sue et ae 174 20.6 24.9 21.0 

Maxs sity seaieanieer tie wages: 41.5 41 4 47 3 43.4 

Mean of Max and Min. 29.4 31.0 36.1 32.2 

Rian seni y eee te Se Easy een tay. | Mg 241 20 8 22.4 25 8 

Mia aT yeaa hy went Mats Weds 20 6 23.6 29 38 24.5 

Dip Pm SRC os ame 31 37 6 40.5 37.4 

Oip imams eee coe aay 27.5 29.9 33.0 30 1 

Miganbiriis, toe Dac eteh i aps 27.9 $0.2 34.0 30.7 
Ret. Humipirtvy. 

TRACER eau ac ae ls eae 89 78 83 

Dine rn gee tga Tues tape aed Beedibad 74 76 75 

OMEN eta ane is ater sate ay ue ° isi 83 82 

Meany eet iain, Se Wites (a .80 78 79 
PRESSURE, sea-level, 32° F. 

Uf Cistr NRMRIN  aie O ay aeca ial 28795 28.85 28 77 28.86 

Dapvginiicaacivst Welt ah sei cr Ce Mie ta ad 28.91 28.81 28 7. £8. 85 

iat ene Sans sain Mea ash 28 94 28.83 28 77 28. 85 

Miean ae eer eaks ag pale ation Die 28.93 28.83 28.76 28. 84 
WIND 

Miles Traveled... 2... [om | 4,075 5,078 |. 12/203 
Rain. 

Dnrcheseiucn erence aoc wide ae | whe | 1.09 25 | 1.34 


CLOUDS—TORNADOES AND ELECTRICITY. 


S. A. MAXWELL, MORRISON, ILL. 


Many theories have been advanced to account for the marvelous freaks play- 
ed by tornadoes. Some who have examined into it, have asserted that these 
frightful storms are caused by the rushing together of two currents of air from 
different directions; others maintain that the phenomenon itself, and the remarkable 
circumstances attending, are both due to the action of electricity. In my opinion 
the holders of both these theories are ‘‘ partly in the right and partly in the wrong.” 

Every one is familiar with the little whirlwinds, which are so common in dry, 
warm weather in the spring. These never occur on cloudy days, for the reason 
that heat is not generated at the surface of the earth in sufficient quantity to produce 
ascending currents efair. That there is a strong upward current in the center of 
the whirl, both in ordinary whirlwinds and in tornadoes, has many times been 
proved by observation. Where such current is formed, from whatever cause, the 
tendency is to produce a vacuum at the surface of the earth directly beneath; 
but this is prevented, since the surrounding air, in obedience to a well-known 
physical law, rushes in trom all sides, and, finding no other outlet, escapes up- 
ward with the ascending current, whose destructive power is thus greatly increas- 
ed by the additions produced by its own action. The rushing together of these 
under currents almost invariably causes a rotary or whirling motion, on account, 
no doubt, of their unequal velocities and densities. This whirling motion is fa- 
miliar to all; for it is seen in the Ifttle eddies, produced where rapid currents in a 
stream of water mingle with those of slower motion, or with the waters of a stag- 
nant pool. The surface air being warm and moist, in ascending as described, is 
suddenly cooled, and therefore condensed into a thick cloud, which, on account 


CLOUDS, TORNADOES AND ELECTRICITY. 757 


of the centrifugal force produced by its rotary motion is thrown outward, forming 
the so-called funnel or tornado cloud. Sometimes the forward movement of this 
cloud is very rapid, often with a bounding motion, passing for some distance high 
in air, and anon, descending to the earth, where it destroys everything in its path, 
—the strongest works of man’s genius or mechanical skill, beind demolished in 
an instant; and trees that have withstood the ordinary storms for ages, at once 
falj prostrate by a single breath of this irresistable destroyer. 

Now the question arises, does electricity play any part in the production of 
these phenomena? It is a fact that there is a large amount of electricity exhib- 
ited during these storms; but I would rather believe that certain peculiar mani- 
festations of electrical action are due to the phenomena above stated,—viz., the 
mingling of currents, the condensation of vapor, etc., than that the tornado itself 
is the result of electricity. I think, however, that after the formation of the tor- 
nado is complete, there are numerous phenomena caused by the electric force. 
Every object directly underneath the funnel is electrified, so also is the funnel, 
but with the opposite kind of electricity. According to Prof, Henry, the base of 
a cloud is charged with positive, and the surface of the earth with negative elec- 
tricity. There isa great tendency on the part of electrified substances to rush 
together if charged with opposite electricities; and conversely, just as strong re- 
pellent action when both are positive or both negative. It is also true that any 
object strongly electrified instantly imparts its own species of electricity to an ob- 
ject in contact with it, and immediately tbrows it off or repels it violently. These 
facts clearly account for many of the astonishing phenomena, which occur during 
the passage of the tornado. If we’place upon a flat surface, as a table, a lot of 
iron filings, and pass a magnet along about an inch above them, each little metal- 
ic particle will stand upon one of its extremities, and perhaps some of them will 
rush through the intervening space and attach themselves to the magnet. It is 
nearly the same phenomena in the tornado:—the objects lying on the earth’s 
surface are the metallic filings, the funnel cloud of the tornado is the magnet. 
Though the phenomena are similar, in the two instances, there is a vast difference 
in their effect. . 

It is said that the stem of the tornado cloud, when extending toward the 
earth, but not reaching it, sometimes becomes incandescent or apparently red-hot 
from the electricity which it accumulates. I have never observed this appear- 
ence, but many instances have been noted by observers both in this country and 
in Europe. 

These, then, are the conclusions drawn from observation and research con- 

cerning the connection of electricity with the tornado. These meteors are less 
rare than many : uppose; for by keeping a careful watch, we, who are residents 
of the upper Mississippi valley, may see one as often as once in three years. 
Some tornadoes, however, do little or no damage, passing along a short distance 
and are then absorbed by the clouds above them, and are seen no more. 

As regard tornadoes, they seldom occur in the forenoon, but generally be- 
tween the hours of two and eight, p. m.—the Tampico (Ill.) tornado, of June 6th, 


758 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


1874, was, however, an exception to this rule, occurring about 11 o’clock at 
night ;—also, the one at Leavenworth, Kas., May 6th, 1875, winels happened at 
3:20 in the morning. 

It is needless for me to enlarge upon this portion of my subject, since my 
own views differ so widely from those of the public generally that a proper pre- 
sentation of them would not be possible in an article intended to be brief. At 
some future time I trust I shall be able to furnish to the readers of the ‘¢ Review” 
an article on tornadoes, which will be more instructive than the one on Clouds, 
which is now brought to a close. 


PEENOL@GN 


THE PUEBLO INDIANS. 
JAMES C. PILLING, U. S. BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 


The Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona are towns or villages inhabited by 
Indians of various races and speaking different languages. When we omit the 
Indians inhabiting the Middle Gila river, who are also sometimes spoken of as 
Pueblo Indians, the languages of the others are divisible into four families. 

THE SHINUMo (sometimes called Moki) speak a language of the Sho-sho-ni-an, 
considerably differing, however, from the neighboring Pai-Ute, Uta and Califor. 
nia dialects of this family. They occupy six of a group of seven Pueblos—the 
seventh speaking a language of the Téwan—each under its own chief. These are 
the only Pueblos in Arizona, the remainder being within the limits of New Mexico. 

The following authors are known to have written or left manuscripts on this 
language: 

PaLMER (Dr.)—Vocabulary of about 200 words (MSS.) 

PALMER (Capt. A. D.)—Vocabulary of about 200 words (MSS.) 

Simpson (J. H.)—Vocabulary of. the Moqui; 38 words. [In Journal of a 
Military Reconnaissance, &c., Wash. : 1850, 8°.] reprinted in 

BuscHMANN (J. C. E.)—‘‘Volker und Sprachen New Mexicos.” Akad. der 
Wissenschaften. Berlin: 1856, 4°. 

Loew (Oscar)—Vocabulary of about 200 words and some elements of gram- 
mar :In Gatschet (A. S:) ‘‘ZwOlf Sprachen.” Weimar: 1876, 8°. 

PowELL (Maj. J. W.)—Vocabulary of the Shiniimo, taken at Oraibi, one of 
the Pueblos. (MSS.) 

THE ZUNIAN—Zufi (pron. Sinyi), a comprehensive name given to three inha- 
bited, and as many ruined Pueblos in Northwestern New Mexico, south of the 
Navajo Reservation: Zufii, Old Zufii or Cibola (ruined). 

The linguistic literature is as follows: 

Simpson (J. H. )—Vocabulary of Zufii; about 40 words in ‘‘Journal of Military 
Reconnaissance, &c.,” pp. 140-143. Wash. 1850, Se 


THE PUEBLO INDIANS. °' 759 


Eaton (Capt. J. H.)—Vocabulary, including numerals. (In Schoolcraft, 
Vol. IIll., pp. 416-432). 

Wuipp.e (Lieut. A. W.)—Vocabulary in Pacific R. R. Rep. III. 2, pp.g1-93- 

All the above reprinted in : 

BuscHMANN (J. C. E.)—‘‘VGlker und Sprachen New Mexicos.” Akad. der 
Wissenchaften. Berlin: 1856, 4°. 

PaLMeER (Dr.)—Vocabulary of about 60 words (MSS). 

Kuett (Francis)—The Zufii Indians of New Mexico. In Popular Science 
Monthly, N. Y.. 1874, pp. 580-591 (Illus. ethnological). 

STEVENSON (J. S.)—List of names given to Zufii pottery, 1879 (MSS). 


Kerran.—Keéra, Span. Quera, plur. Qiieres; an ancient name of unknown 
signification given to Pueblo Indians west of the Rio Grande. Locally they are 
divided intotwo branches: 1. A northeastern branch on the Rio Grande, em- 
bracing San Felipe, Santo Domingo, Cotchite, Santa Afia and Cia (Silla, Tse-a). 
2. A western branch on-the Rio San Juan: Kawaikome; Laguna, Povate; 
Hasatch, Mogino. 

The linguistic literature is as follows : ; 

Simpson (J. H.)—Vocabulary of Kéra, about 30 words. [In ‘‘Journal of 
Military Reconnaissance. &c.” Wash.: 1850, pp. 140-143, 8°.]. Reprinted in 

Davis (W. H. H.)—‘‘El Gringo, or New Mexico and Her People,” N. Y., 
1857, PP: 157-159, 8°. 

WuippLe (Lieut. A. W.)—Vocabulary of Kiwomi, about 200 words, and 
of Cochitemi, about 60 words. [In Pacific R. R. Report III., 2, pp. 86-89.] 

The above reprinted in 

BuscuMANN (J. C. E.)—‘‘Volker und Sprachen, New Mexicos.” Akad. der 
Wissenschaften. Berlin: 1856, 4°. 

Loew (Oscar)—Vocabulary of Santa Afia, about 200 words and a few sen- 
tences. [In Gatschet (A. S.) ‘‘Zwolf Sprachen” Weimar, 1870, 8°. 

Loew (Oscar)—Vocabulary in Lagiina. Ibid.) 

K.ett (Francis)—Vocabulary of Acoma, about 60 words, 1873. (MSS.). 

WENAUL (John)—Teacher of Laguna; Specimens of Laguna primer and 
catechism, with interlinear English translation. (MSS.) 


TEwan.—The largest number of Indian towns in New Mexico, along the Rio 
Grande, speak dialects of the Téwan. It seems that in former times these dia- 
lects extended far into Texas and Chihuahua along the same river, though only a 
few scattered remnants of them are now remaining there. 

Of this family five main divisions may be made, these being mutually unin- 
telligible : 

1. Tafio: Isleta; another Isleta near El Paso; Sandia. 

2. Taos: Taos (Indian, Taxé) Picuni. 

3. Jemes: Jemes (old Pecos is consolidated with it). 

4. Tewa or Tehua (‘‘house, houses”) San Ildefonso, San Juan, Pojoaque, 


760 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Nambe, Tesuque, Santa Clara and one of the Moki Pueblos. Of these Pueblos, 
Santa Clara is the only one located on the western bank of the Rio Grande. 

5. Piro in Sinecu, south of El Paso. 

LINGUISTIC LITERATURE.—SIMPsON (J. H.)—Vocabulary of Jemes, etc., 30 
words, pp. 140--143; reprinted in Davis’ ‘‘El Gringo.” 

Wuitinc (David V,)—Vocabulary of Tesuque, about 400 words. [In School- 
craft III, 446-450. | 

The above reprinted in 

BuscHMANN (J. C. E.)—‘‘Volker und Sprachen.” Berlin: 1856, 4°. 

Loew (Oscar)—Isleta, Jemes, San Ildefonso, San Juan. Vocabulary of about 
230 words each, and sentences from Tesuque (about fifty). [In Gatschet (A. S.) 
“‘Zwolf Sprachen.” Weimar: 1870, 8°. 

PALMER (Doctor)—Vocabulary of Taowa (MSS. ) 

BARTLETT (J. R.)—Vocabularies of Piro, of Sinecu, of Tigua (viz: Téhua, 
Tewa. MSS.) 

Yarrow (Dr. H. C.)—Vocabulary of Los Liiceros. (MSS). 

Yarrow (Dr. H. C.)—Vocabulary of Los Taos. In Gatschet (A. S.) ‘‘Zwolf 
Sprachen.” Weimar: 1870, 8°. 

Kantz (Aug V.)—Vocabulary of Isleta, 1869. (MSS.) 

Gripes (Geo.)—Vocabulary of Isleta, 1868. (MSS.) 


COnRMESEON DENCE: 


SCLENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 


“Paris, January 1, 1881. 

The problem of prehistoric times—of primitive man, is a modern problem, 
and one which has provoked a passionate interest even in spheres outside science, 
because everybody feels that with the question of our origin is tied in some sort by 
a thousand cords—not only that of our actual, but of our future destiny. The 
ideas of transformation since ten years have made astonishing progress; but in 
their wake have also followed exaggerations; the Germans, in pushing theories 
to their utmost limit, have only arrived to be absurd. At present there is a kind 
of relative calm on the part of those who study seriously the delicate question of 
the origin of animals; they find themselves in the face of questions unsolved— 
that changing the place of a miracle does not resolve it, and that in all phenome- 
na science halts in the presence of the inexplicable. Those who desire to approach 
the grave matters in question, in this spirit, cannot do better than read M. de 
' Nadaillac’s two volumes on Les Premiers Hommes. It is a calm, impartial and 
independent examination of all the evidence and discoveries known, up to the pres- 
ent. Man—yes or no; has he lived during the tertiary period? That’s the ques- 
tion. There are scientists who would place the origin of man not only in the 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 761 


pliocene, but the miocene, and even the eocene periods—a classification of the 
tertiary formation made fifty years ago by Sir Charles Lyell, and founded on 
the variable proportion of shells of species still living, mixed at the same time 
with others fossilized. As negative are not of the same value as positive proofs, 
there are geologists who see in cut flints and bones conclusive evidence of man’s 
antiquity. Now, in the first place, are these objects contemporary with the strata 
in which they have been found; secondly, is it absolute certainty that these ob. 
jects have been manipulated by a human being? It isin the fauna immediately 
following the pliocene period that the flint existence of man, it is generally ad- 
mitted, isto be found. The first traces of man in Western Europe are flints 
simply broken, not fashioned, and of a nature to serve immediate wants; he lived 
in a milieu of strange fauna, where the animals of northern, temperate and south- 
ern zones were associated. The Abbe Bourgeois has discovered an immense num- 
ber of small cut flints, and has, accordingly, placed man in the miocene period. 
Respecting this, M. de Nadaille pertinently asks, of what- use these remarkably 
small flints could be to man, cut, as they must have been, with much effort and 
great labor; they were useless either for attack or defense, and still less for an 
implement or a tool. Neither have the alleged discoveries of human bones in 
tertiary strata been confirmed when subjected to rigorous analysis. The origin of 
humanity is still shrouded in mystery ; paleontology and zoélogy, no more than 
geology, have yet found out the exact cradle of our species, nor to link it to some 
Other anterior species. There are points of union which have escaped demon- 
stration; there are veritable /acunes which render classification difficult; there are 
variations impossible to explain. These remarks do not touch what is in the man 
—the supreme form of indifference, intelligence, articulated language, perfecti- 
bility. 


Professor Fredericy, of Liege, has investigated the subject of the coagulation 
of the blood. Extracted from the organism, blood solidifies, forms a mass called 
fibrine ; the same remark applies to lymph. Before coagulation, blood consists . 
of globule and a liquid called plasma; after coagulation of globules, serum and 
fibrine. Deprived of the latter, the blood does not coagulate. If blood be 
beaten up or whisked with a piece of whalebone, in a vessel, the fibrous masses 
will adhere to the rod, while the serum, holding the globules in suspension, 
will remain liquid. This is the process employed in the slaughter houses to pre- 
vent the coagulation of pigs’ blood, so essential for making black puddings. But 
from where comes this fibrine? It cannot be attributed to the new conditions in 
which it is placed, for neither cold, air, nor rest, nor the combination of the three 
can explain the phenomena. The principle of coagulation coming, not from an 
external cause, is it to be attributed to an internal one? So long as blood is in 
contact with the coats of the vein, etc., it will not coagulate—for a long time. 
Even in dead bodies, the blood is only imperfectly coagulated. But if a foreign 
body be introduced into the vein coagulation will set in. Since the end of the 
sixteenth century it has been known that it is in the liquid part of the blood—the 


‘ 


762 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


plasma—and not in the red globules, that the generation of fibrine must be found, 
and the commencement of the formation of fibrine is always marked by the agglu- 
tination of several white globules. Now, according to Schmidt, these white 
globules form a ferment of fibrine; this ferment does not exist in the blood during 
circulation; it is formed the moment the blood quits the vessels and comes in 
contact with foreign bodies; it is derived from the white globules, hence the fer- 
ment does not extst whilst the blood circulates: if the ferment be injected into the 
veins of a living animal, it is quickly destroyed. The white globules, on leaving 
the blood and coming into contact with a foreign body, are irritated, and that 
produces the ferment. : 


M. Engineer Roche has published a very interesting report on the Trans- 
Saharian railway, by which France is studying to connect her colonies at the Laborn 
and Sivegne with Algeria. No difficulties exist under the heads of sandhills and 
water; the latter ‘‘wul be found in all the Sahara in sufficient quantity for the 
wants of the railway.”” The construction of the line will be extremely easy: the 
soil will be the ballast; no masonry work will be required. The only difficulty 
is the want of coal, which must be brought from the seaside. M. Roche does 
not despair of utilizing the solar heat, by means of the apparatus Mouchot, or 
rather reflector, indirectly, of course, with compressed air. 


M. Delisrain has concluded his examination of the origin of carbon in vege. 
tables; it is the chlorophyll cell which reduces the carbonic acid, and so elaborates 
the organic matter; the latter cannot enter into circulation, according to some 
authorities, unless it be a second time burned. 


M. Panchon’s careful experiments on the influence of light on germination, 
are very interesting. He has found that the lighter the grain the more rapidly 
it germinates. Owing to the difficulty of not having identical volumes of heat, 
for two different seeds, no serious comparison under the head of temperature 
could be made. Light exercises an influence more or less accentuated on ger- 
mination, by forming the absorption of oxygen; heat diminishes the importance 
of the influence of light, but the quantity of oxygen absorbed augments with the 
elevation of the external temperature. More carbonic acid is given off during 
obscurity ; the latter would appear to be in some cases a condition favorable to 
the development of certain seeds. 

It was an old doctrine, because taught by his parents, that epidemics are 
influenced by the seasons, the soil, atmosphere, cold, heat and humidity. The 
doctrine was overthrown by Broussais, who placed all the disease in the subject 
in the evolution of the morbific element, and that nothing but the medical treat- 
ment could modify. A reaction has set in; it is now considered a truism that 
there is a close connection between epidemics and climatic influences. “Since 
twenty years Dr. Besnier has been delegated by the Medical Society of Paris to 
collect and study all the facts bearing on the point. Typhoid fever is a morbid 
type to be met with in every country, with all human races, and at every epoch 


<€ 


SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. 763 


of the year. France is the classic land of this disease and Paris its head center. 
Naturally, Dr. Besnier has concentrated his attention on Paris, where one-twelfth 
of the deaths, or 1,200 per year, are due to typhoid fever. Now the number of 
these deaths are not regularly divided as to the seasons—during spring the 


deaths from the malady are less than one-half what they are in autumn; the maxi- 


mum of mortality is during the months of July and October; twelve per cent. of 
the persons afflicted with typhoid fever succumb—that is to say, eighty-eight are 
cured. To well combat the fever not only the diagnosis ought to study the indi- 
viduality of the patient, the intensity of the disease, but also the season—summer 
temperature develops while augmenting the malady, and autumn maintains it in its 
aggravated form. Atmospheric influences, concludes the Doctor, are momentous 
factors in typhoid fever, but they do not produce all their effects nor become 


fruitful, only when encountering local and individual conditions of a favorable char- 
acter. 


Sydenham said that if any one would devote his life to finding a cure for 
corns, he would merit the thanks of posterity and of humanity at large. The 
skin is a soft, delicate membrane, very elastic; its color is rose with the infant 
and with the adult, following individuality, race, climate and season; it is very 
fine on the eyelids, but relatively thick on the palm of the hands and the soles of 
the feet. Skin consists of two layers—epidermis and the other more profound; 
the dermis. Everywhere there is a section of unctuous matter save on the palm 
of the hands and the sole of the foot; it is by the orifices that the perspiration ex- 
udes. Acorn is a superficial tumor on the epidermis, with a root which pene- 
trates more or less profoundly into the dermis—often deeper still; hence, why 
the ancients called corns clavi pedum, or feet nails, on account of their resemblance 
to ordinary nai's. The we/¢ is the commonest form of a corn; it is a combination 
of layers of the epidermis produced by unequal pressure of a boot or the irregu- 
lar plait of a stocking; it is also the result of professional work. ‘The monks that 
wear sandals are martyrs to such corns. A welt differs from a corn in being on 
the surface, where it always remains; the corn is conical and pierces downward ; 
often certain of these excrescences become deformities. In 1599, Marshal La- 
vardin brought to Paris a man having a horn on his head as long as a goat’s; in 
18s5< there was a Polish girl, aged 15, who had sixteen corns growing on differ- 
ent parts of her body —one springing even from the knee. Dr. Decaisne says 
that, relatively, our feet are not less deformed than those of Chinese ladies—the 
imprisonment of the foot being only the difference of degrees. Paring is the cure 
for welts; extraction for corns; caustic agencies ought to be aveided.—F. C. 


Lieut. R. M. Berry, of the United States navy, has been ordered to coin- 
mand the steamer Mary and Helen on the proposed Arctic expedition in search 
of the Jeannette. Secretary Hunt furnished Lieut. Berry with a list of the naval 
officers who volunteered for the service, and he will be guided by any preferences 
he may entertain in the make-up of the detail of officers who will serve under him. 


764 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


BOOK UN OMCGES. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. Part 
III, October to December, 1880; pp. 457, 8vo. 


For a period of nearly seventy years this academy has maintained its exist- 
ence. It has published more than fifty volumes of its Journal. Transactions, 
besides other works written by its members as contributions to science. Among 
the most active members at present are Professors Leidy and Meehan, Doctor 
Harrison, Rev. H. C. McCook and Messrs. Martindale, Potts and Heilprin, all 
of whom have contributed to the present volume the results of original investiga- 
tion in botany, zoology, etc. At the election held at the close of the year, most 
of the officers were re-elected, including the able and experienced president, Dr. 
Ruschenberger, the zealous and attentive secretary and librarian, Dr. Edward 
J. Nolan, and others who have served faithfully for many years. 


* 


Tur Romance oF Astronomy. By A. Kalley Miller, M. A.; quarto; pp. 28, 

J. Fitzgerald & Co., N. Y.; 15¢. 

This is number 20, volume I, of the Humboldt Library, and, as usual, is an 
interesting and instructive number, comprising a'‘popular acccunt of the Planets 
Astrology, The Moon, The Sun, The Comets, La Place’s Nebular Hypothesis, 
The Stars, The Nebula, The Past History of Our Moon, Ancient Babylonian 
Astronomy-—the last two written by Prof. R. A. Proctor. ; 


A Stupy OF THE SAVAGE WEAPONS AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. By Ed- 

ward H. Knight, A. M., LL. D., 8vo.; pp. 85. 

We are indebted to Professor Otis T. Mason, of Columbian College, Wash- 
ington, D. C., for this volume, which comprises simply an account of one class 
of objects s\ own at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, 

Inasmuch as there was no concurrence of design on the part of the various 
exhibitors from all parts of the world in presenting these specimens of savage 
weapons, and they were mainly thrown in, as it were, with other objects, as curi 
osities, it is highly creditable to Doctor Knight that he has been able to classify 
them and illustrate so well by them the ethnology of the tribes formerly using» 
them. ‘There are nearly one hundred and fifty engravings, representing the 
weapons of all nations in all stages, while the text is graphically descriptive of all. 
People who have any taste for ethnological studies, will be much pleased and 
instructed by a perusal of this work. 


THE ScHoot Butietins. Published by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y., 1881. 
These include the New York Examination Questions, 25c; Suggestions for 
Teaching Fractions, by W. W. Davis, 25c, and a List of the Regents Schools of 


NOTES AND QUERTES, 765 


the State of New York with name of the Principals, 25c, and will be found very 
useful to school boards and teachers in all classes of schools. 


OTHER PUBLICATONS RECEIVED. 


Our Home and Science Gossip; No. 4, Vol. V, March, 1881, 4to 16 pp., 
Rockford, Ill., $1 per annum. The Dial; a monthly index of current literature, 
Jansen, McClurg & Co., Chicago, 4to, pp. 24, $1 per annum; Report of At- 
mospheric Physics, by N. EK. Ballou, M.D., Sandwich, IIL. ; TP aeblS Pottery (illus- 
trated), by Prof. F. W. Putnam, 4to, 14 pp. Scientific Nowe No: 34 Violjaies 
Munn & Co., New York, $1.50 per annum; Botanical Index, L. B. Case, Rich. 
mond, Ind., monthly, 50c. Population and Resources of Alaska; a report of 
Ivan Petroff, special agent of Census Bureau, Dec., 1880, 8vo, pp. 86. Ameri- 
can Kindergarten. Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 11, March, 1881, Emily M. Coe, N. 
Y. monthly, $1 per annum; The Platonist, Vol. 1, No. 1, February, 1881, 
Thos. M. Johnson, Osceola, Mo., $2 per annum; The Illustrated Cosmos, Chi- 
cago, Ill., Vol. 1, No. 2; $1.50. 


SC Va INTIS. Mis Cetin SN Ne. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


The Historical Magazine for April 1861 has an article on Dr. A. Waldo, a 
surgeon in the Revolutionary war in which occurs the following: ‘‘He left nu- 
merous writing on professional subjects, illustrated with well executed drawings. 
ok ok Ok Ok ok ROKK These writings are to-day in the State of Missouri, fifty 
miles beyond St. Louis.” Are these vinta still preserved, and if so, in whose 
possession are they. ANTIQUARY. 


Can any one give me the origin of the name Chariton? It is the name of 
one of the largest rivers in the State and one of the most populous counties, eee 
its origin seems to be in doubt. Il: 


The name of Manuel Lisa or Liza appears frequently in the accounts of ex- 
peditions among the Indians of Missouri and up the Missouri river eighty or 
ninety years ago. From these accounts it would appear he had extensive deal- 
ings with the Osage Indians. Are any of his descendants or relatives now living, 
and if so are they possessed of any of his papers in which mention is made of 
transactions with the Osages ? OSAGE. 


Edward G. Mason, in his article on Kaskaskia, published in the Magazine of 


American History for March, 1881, says: ‘‘On the 18th of December, 1727, 
IV—51 


766 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


died Zebedee Le Jeuné Donni, of the Reverend Jesuit Fathers,” * * * * * * 
And in the next paragraph the following: ‘‘ Among the witnesses who sign are 
* ok k ok &K %& and Zebedee Le Jeune, the priest whose death in 1727 is noted in 
the burial register.” Was there a priest at Kaskaskia of this name or was hea 
donne or given man. His name does not appear in Shea’s History of the Catho- 
lic Missions in America. ILLINOIS. 


Will some student of our early history\ refer me to the volume where the 
particulars of the French expedition, which is said by Switzler and other histo- 
rians of our state to have ascended the Missouri as far as the mouth of the Kansas 
in 1705, are to be found. W. H. 


I am astonished at hearing the noon steam-whistle from Topeka quite often 
and distinctly here—2z5 miles away. For the past week their time has been fifteen 
minutes ahead of our farm time. Are sound waves often so widely distributed ? 


pS 


Sir Edward Thornton, in his reply, March 11, ’81, to a communication from 
the New York Produce Exchange, says: ‘‘That trichina spiralis exists among 
hogs in the United States, and that some individuals have died from eating pork 
containing that insect, seems to have been proven.” Is trichina spiralis an z”- 
sect ? L. 


NGASS IZ, 


PROF. T. BERRY SMITH—1874. 


Oh, why so still, thou great and wondrous man ? 
Unfold those hands, and ope’ those sleeping eyes, 
And, breaking silence, speak again to me 
About the earth and all that therein is. 
They tell me he is dead. But is he dead? 
His body’s dead, indeed ; but what was it 
Except the dwelling place of restless mind 

~ Which, all the while it lived within these walls, 
Was reaching out and panting to be free? 
He is not dead—Agassiz cannot die. 
Long years ago his little bark was one 
Of a great fleet that sailed along the shores 
Which bound life’s stormy ocean. Bolder grown 
And with a daring heart, he left the throng 
And sought the vaster deep. There, far beyond 
The lines that marked his chart, fearless he ran; 


THE EARTHQUAKE AT ISCHIA. 767 


And, as his prow broke up the ancient deep 

And ploughed the unknown sea, the surges rose 
Behind the driving wheels and sped away 

Toward the far off shores. And yet they speed 
And will, till time is over. 

Master in Science ! 

Father of many a thought that, till thy birth, 

In Nature’s vault had lain, and no one knew 

The key to ope’the door. At the command A 
_The ponderous bolts,flew back, and gates now first 
Unbarred, wide open swung; and while they turned 
The view disclosing more, thine eager soul 

With lustrous eye peered in and caught the gleam 
That shot from many agem. The briny sea 
From out its unseen depths gave up a hoard 

Of new and wondrous things, when thy long arm 
Beneath the waves reached downward, grasping the fields 
That base the nether deep. And ancient earth, 
‘¢The mother of all living,” gave up her dead— 
The long lost tribes that were in primal years 

And are not now, nor any semblance bear 

To all that live upon this later stage— 

Whose bones thou saw’st and all the form restored 
Or from a trace drew out the perfect whole. 
Agassiz dead? Agassiz cannot die. 

’Twas at his wish the unknown sea gave up, 

And earth its caverns ope’d that he might gaze 
Upon her treasured wealth. 

The voiceless past 

Once more took up its harp, and smote, and sang; 
The thrills that ran across its chords were sweet, 
The language long forgot, but echoing hills 

Along the shore of time the music caught 

And carried to his ears. He listened long 

At the exultant strains, and then the words 
Proclaimed to all the earth, wishing the tribes . 
That dwell to-day to be ecstatic too. 


THE EARTHQUAKE AT ISCHIA. 


The earthquake, which a week ago shook Ischia to its foundations, has deso- 
lated an island at once beautiful and historic. At the western entrance of the 
Bay of Naples, about twenty miles from the mole, the view from its shore is one 
of the loveliest in the world. The blue sky overhead, reflected in the blue waves 


768 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


beneath, seems fairer to the traveler than any other spot on earth, and when he 
has walked nine miles inland and climbed the lofty hill Mount Eponeo, as it is 
now called, he sees stretching far into the distance the long indented line of the 
Italian mainland. Procida and other smaller islets are beneath his feet, and 
pleasure boats and fishing smacks, their white sails lazily flapping in the light 
breeze, creep out upon the dancing waters from hundreds of villages clustering 
round the inlets far and near. It is a scene to entrance a poet, but not from its in- 
trinsic beauty only. All the charms of old association are gathered thickly round 
it. Ulysses himself was there when the dawn of history was but passing into the 
morning hours, and it has been consecrated by the immortal verses of both Homer 
and Virgil. In later days Berkely, the most imaginative and sensitive philoso- 
pher since the days of Plato, declared that Ischia was an epitome of the whole 
earth, and the visitor on descending the mount in the center might easily fancy 
that the golden age had returned and that the flaming sword had once again been 
removed from the gates of Eden. Grapevines cover the gentle slopes of the many 
hills, groves of chestnuts and thickets of myrtle crown-their tops. Wheat and 
maize enrich the valleys, and the most exquisite fruit tempts the hand on every 
side. Apricots, peaches, oranges, limes, pomegranates, figs and melons attest 
the richness of the soil and the general beneficence of the climate. Nor does 
languor, as in so many southern lands, step in to clog the full enjoyment of all 
this wondrous loveliness and luxuriant profusion. Even in the height of summer 
the delicious and cooling sea breezes pour a constant fountain of new vigor into 
the frame of the people. * 

So unrivaled a situation has attracted thousands to Ischia. In the early 
years of the sixteenth century three celebrated women simultaneously selected it 
for their temporary home. Joanna, of Naples; Berenice, the widow of the great 
Matthais Corvinus, and Isabella, the widow of Gian Galeazzo, lived near to- 
gether, and a quarter of a century afterward Vittoria Colonna, the widow of the 
hero of Pavia, made it her residence. There she wrote her pathetic poems in 
honor of the memory of the husband she had lost. Hers was one of the greatest. 
female intellects of the middle ages, and thé echoes of her song made Ischia famous 
throughout Europe. When Ariosto and Michael Angelo spoke or wrote of her 
and her works, they dwelt also with rapture upon the landscape in the midst of 
which her genius ripened into such splendid blossom. And as time went on, noble 
men and beautiful women, and poets and artists of afl nations, have delighted to 
haunt the spot for a while and celebrate it with voice, with pen or with brush. 
But ever in the background of.time, the remembrance of a specter of dread days 
that had been, never passed away. ‘The island itself was undoubtedly of volcanic 
origin, and, indeed, during the many years in which Vesuvius slumbered until 
she again awoke into action amid all the horrors that overwhelmed Pompeii and 
Herculaneum, it was believed to be a safety valve for the subterranean fires rag_ 
ing beneath in the bowels of the earth. As in other lands parents tell their 
children tales of fairyland, so in this Ischia, wreathed as it seemed with smiles that 
could never fade, the folk lore was tinged by never so slight a tint drawn from 


RAILROAD LAND GRANTS. 769 


the volcanic devastation so far by-gone that to the simple villagers it has ever been 
included in that mysterious era of ‘‘ once upon a time” so familiar to the tales of 
our own childhood. But now the dim tradition has become a sad reality. The earth- 
quake which none can foresee, but in the presence of whose resistless force the 
boldest tremble, has brought ruin again upon the island; and 3,000 people, but 
. ten days ago so happy in their earthly Paradise, are seeking the bodies of the 
killed or wandering to and fro homeless in the land.— Glode- Democrat. 


RAILROAD AND TELEGRAPH LAND GRANTS. 


The following is an official statement of public lands which have been granted 
by Congress to aid in the construction of railroad and telegraph lines: 

Gulf and Ship Island Railroad, Mississippi, granted 1856, 652,800 acres. 

Alabama and Florida Railroad, Alabama and Florida, granted 1856, 419,- 
520 acres. 

Coosa and Tennessee, Alabama, granted 1856, 132,480 acres. 

Mobile and Girard, Alabama, granted 1856, 840,880 acres. 

Coosa and Chattanooga, Alabama, granted 1856, 150,000 acres. 

Alabama and Chattanooga, formerly Northeast and Southwest Alabama and 
Mills Valley Railroad, Alabama, granted 1856, extended, 1869, 897,920 acres. 

Pensacola and Georgia, Florida, granted 1856, 1,568,729 acres. 

Florida, Atlantic and Gulf Central, Florida, granted 1856, 183,153 acres. 

North Louisiana and Texas, formerly Vicksburg, Shreveport and Texas, 
Louisiana, granted 1856, 610,880 acres. 

New Orleans, Baton Rouge and Vicksburg, Louisiana, granted 1871, 3,800, - 
000 acres. 

St. Louis and Iron Mountain, Missouri, granted 1866, 640,000 acres. 

Little Rock and Fort Smith, Ark., Arkansas and Missouri, granted 1856, -1,- 
009,296 acres. 

Detroit and Milwaukee, Michigan, granted 1856, 355,420 acres. 

Houghton and Ontonagon, formerly Marquette and Ontonagon, Michigan, 
granted 1856, extended 1864 and 1868, 522,575 acres. 

North Wisconsin, formerly LaCrosse, Lake Superior and Branch to Bayfield, 
Wisconsin, granted 1856 and 1864, extended 1864, 1,408,455 acres. 

Wisconsin Central, formerly Portage, Winnebago and Superior, Wisconsin, 
granted 1864, extended 1874, 1,800,000 acres. 

St. Paul and Pacific, St. Vincent extension, formerly branch to Red River of 
the North, Minnesota, granted 1857 and 1865, extended 1873 and 1874, 2,000,- 
000 acres. 

St. Paul and Pacific, Brainerd branch, formerly branch to, Lake Superior, 
Minnesota, granted 1862 and 1865, extended 1873 and 1874, 1,475,000 acres. 

Hastings and Dakota, Minnesota, granted 1866, 530,000 acres. 

Oregon Central, Oregon, granted 1870, I,200,000 acres. 


770 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Atlantic and Pacific, various States, granted 1866, 42,000,000 acres. 
Texas Pacific, various States, granted 1868 and 1874, 18,000,000 acres. 
Northern Pacific, various States, granted 1864, 47,000,000 acres. 


SEPARATING GOLD, SILVER, AND COPPER ALLOY BY ELECTROL— 
YSIS. 


Among the later inventions well worthy of the attention of metallurgists, is 
the electrolytical process of refining, patented by E. André, both in this country 
and in Europe. ‘This process has not been practically applied in this country, 
but is said to be in operation at the copper works of Messrs. Mason & Elkington, 
Pembrey, South Wales; at Birmingham and Manchester, England; the govern- 
ment works at Mahsfeld, Ocker, and Duisburg, Germany, and the refining works 
at Hamburg and Frankfort-on-the-Main. The results obtained at these works 
are said to be of the most satisfactory nature, and with the improvements of the ~ 
dynamo-electro machine, which are continually making, even better results are 
expected in the future. This process is said to completely extract, more econom- 
ically than by other means, the precious metals from their base alloys, and sep- 
arate the latter in a chemically pure metallic form. Mr. André employs the cur- 
rent of the dynamo-electric machine on the material to be separated as anodes 
suspended in diaphragms in a diluted acid or alkaline bath, according to circum- 
stances. When the disintegration of the alloys occurs, the precious metals are re- 
tained in the diaphragms, and the baser metals are deposited in a pure metallic 
state upon the cathodes placed opposite the anodes. The bath is changed at proper 
times, to free it from accumulated impurities, such as zinc, iron, antimony, etc. 
—FLngineering and Mining Journal. 


MISSOURI WATER POWER. 


Had Missouri been peopled for the last sixty years by the overflow of popu- 
lation from New England, she would doubtless be a manufacturing prodigy. The 
motors with which nature has furnished her so lavishly, would by this time have 
been turned to full account, and would be famous as the agents of an enormous 
productiveness in a great variety of lines. No eastern State is credited with hav- 
ing such an aggregate volume of available water power as investigation shows 
Missouri to possess. Yet her labyrinth of rapid dashing streams, and her multi- 
tude of perennial springs, have scarcely any reputation away from their own neigh- 
borhoods. Probably few Missourians have an adequate conception of the amount 
of energy which is daily going to waste through the State, in the shape of unused 
. but valuable water power. But only when Missouri is thoroughly canvassed can 
the possessions of her 113 counties be fully realized. 

The southern half of the State is abundantly supplied with large springs; yet 


TRICHIN IN MAN, 771 


taking the State over, there is seldom a section of land without its overflowing 
fountain of water. ‘The one called Bryce’s spring, on the Niangua river is prob- 
ably the largest. It discharges 10,927,000 cubic feet per diem, and flows away, a 
swift stream forty-two yards wide. Its temperature is steady at 60° Fah., and ice 
never forms near it to impede machinery. Its flow is regular, so that the machin- 
ist can know just what power to depend upon the year round. Upon the upper 
courses of eleven Missouri rivers, most of which are more or less navigable, fine 
water powers are to be found at intervals of from one or two to five, ten or fifteen 
miles. True, to make these powers available, the rough descents where they exist 
would generally need to be supplemented by the usual artificial appliances, such 
as dams or means of confining the channel to a narrow space; but happily, at 
these rapids the beds of the streams are invariably rocky, thus affording a sure 
foundation. Though the average annual rainfall of the State is forty-one inches, 
springs constitute the reliance of our streams for a steadfast flow of water. Sever- 
al hundred springs are known to be large and forcible enough to supply the power 
required to run an ordinary mill or factory.— Zhe Age of Steel. 


TRICHINA: IN MAN. 


It has been previously stated, that for some thirty years subsequent to the 
first description of the capsule by Hilton, and some twenty-five years after the 
identification of the parasite itself in man, the same were looked upon as mere 
harmless curiosities, and, that, although Leidy discovered the parasite in the flesh 
of swine in 1847, still it was not until 1860 that the connection was established be- 
tween them, appearing, as they had, in two totally different species (men and 
swine). The honor of this important discovery belongs to Dr. Zenker, of Dres- 
den, Germany. The disease was discovered in aservant-girl admitted as a typhus 
patient to the City Hospital in Dresden. She died, and her flesh was found to 
be completely infested with trichine. 

Leuckart’s and other experiments have shown that a temperature of 140° F. 
is necessary to securely render trichine inert. Direct heat applied to the slides 
holding specimens of trichinous pork, by means of the Shultz heating-table, has 
demonstrated, under the microscope, that a temperature of 50° C. (122° F.) is 
necessary to the certain death of the trichine. 

Leisering’s experiments with trichinous pork, made up into sausage-meat and 
cooked twenty minutes, gave positive results when fed to one rabbit, and nega- 
tive by another. He sums up his experiments as follows : 

1. Trichine are killed by long-continued salting of infected meat, and also 
by subjecting the same for twenty-four hours to the action of smoke in a heated 
chamber. 

2. They are not killed by means of cold smoking for a period of three days, 
and it also appears that twenty minutes cooking freshly prepared sausage-meat is 
sufficient to kill them in all cases. i 


772 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


The various kinds of cooking, however, are quite different in their effects on 
trichinous pork. Frying and broiling are most efficient, roasting coming next. 
Boiling coagulates the albumen on the outer surface, and allows the heat to pene- 
trate less readily ; it should be kept up, therefore, for at least two hours for large 
_ pieces of meat. Whether boiled, broiled or fried, pork should always be thor- 

oughly cooked. 

Practically speaking, the cooking, salting and hot smoking which pork in its. 
various forms receives in the United States, must be in the vast majority of cases 
sufficient to kill the trichinze and prevent infection of the persons consuming the 
meat. Epidemics like those reported in Germany are unknown here, and trichin- 
lasis in a fatal form is undoubtedly a rare disease. In the vicinity of the great 
pork packing establishments near Boston, the ‘‘spare.ribs,”’ containing the inter_ 
costal muscles, are very largely bought and eaten by the people near by ; and tri- 
chiniasis among them has not in a single case been reported, so far as I have been 
able to learn. The cus being thin and well cooked, any trichinze in them are quite 
certain to be killed. Even when trichine are introduced into the intestinal canals. 
too, they are sometimes expelled by diarrhcea, and the invasion of the system by 
a small number does no harm.—American Microscopical Journal. 


That predjudice against ‘‘ them litery fellers,” which in this country identi- 
fies statesmanship with ignorance, will be shocked to learn that one of the last 
performances of the author of Lothair before resigning office was to make Owen 
Meredith an Earl, under the title of Earl Lytton, of Lytton and Viscount Kneb- 
worth. The new fellows who come in are almost all of them literary. Gladstone 
is a voluminous writer, the Duke of Argyle is as proud of his literary record as he 
is of being the Macallum-More, Lord Selborne has condescended to edit a hymn 
book, and a very good hymn book it is, too, Vernon-Harcourt used to write for 
the Saturday Review, Foster has written a life of William Penn, Earl Granville is. 
a man of great linguistic attainments, and, taken altogether, the new Ministry, 
admittedly one of the strongest in point of statesmanship and political influence 
that England has known for years, is undoubtedly the strongest in point of liter- 
ary attainments and in the record of authorship among its members. 


SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOLS OF FRANCE. 


The modifications in the course of studies in the French public schools, re- 
cently decreed by the Superior Council, give to scientific teaching a more promi- 
nent place than has hitherto been allowed it, especially in the elementary classes. 
In the seventh class, the elements of the natural history of animals and plants. 
are added to the history of soils and stones, and take preference over it, as offer- 
ing more interest to children and being of more practical utility. In the sixth 
class an hour is deducted from the ten devoted to Latin and added to those given 


CREDIT TO THE U.S. SIGNAL SERVICE> 7173 


to the sciences, which are allowed four hours a week. In the fifth class, where 
scientific instruction has been obviously deficient, the hours for Latin are reduced 

to five, and the sciences are given four hours. In the fourth class an hour is 
taken from Greek, and the hours for scientific instruction are increased to four. 
Scientific instruction will be continued in the third, second, and rhetorical classes 
without encroaching upon the other courses, an hour being taken from the study- 
hours for new subjects of natural history in the third class, for physics in the sec- 
ond class, and for subjects of physics which have not been previously entered 
upon by the pupils, in the rhetorical class. The Superior Council advises that 
the teaching of mathematics and the natural sciences in the grammar-classes be 
committed to special professors whenever the funds of the school will permit it 
and suitable teachers can be obtained; otherwise, professors of science in the 
higher classes may perform the duty for an additional compensation ; or, if there 
is no other way, the ordinary professor may provisionally give the special in- 
struction.—fopular Science Monthly, March, 1881. 


CREDIT TO THE U. S. SIGNAL SERVICE. 


The violent storm of the last two days, with its destructive gales and floods, 
naturally invites attention to the present condition of scientific weather wisdom 
in this country. On Tuesday last we published the following telegram from New 
York: ‘‘A dangerous storm is crossing north of latitude forty-five degrees ; will 
arrive on the British and Norwegian—possibly affecting the north French—coasts 
between the 27th and 2gth, attended by strong south winds, veering to north- 
west gales, rain and snow in north; low temperature follows. Atlantic very 
stormy.” This time, at least, the forecast has fulfilled itself almost to the letter, 
only the prophesied storm seems to have traveled across the Atlantic a little 
quicker’ than was calculated, for it began on Tuesday afternoon, and seems to 
have reached its utmost violence some time during the night of Wednesday. 
From all parts of the country reports reach us of the violence of the wind and the 
violence of the rain. Off the mouth of the Tyne, and even within its still treach- 
erous harbor, several wrecks have occurred, resulting in a lamentable loss of life. 
At Falmouth, at the other end of the kingdom, vessels are putting in almost dis- 
mantled by the terrible force of the sea. From Edinburg and Southampton, from 
Brighton and Liverpool, similar accounts are sent, while in the interior continuous 
rainfall is producing disastrous floods in all directions. At Wenlock, in Shrop- 
shire, the line of railway has been bodily washed away, and all traffic is suspended, 
while the gas supply of the town is cut off by an inundation which has invaded 
the gas works. Retford is threatened with the same fate. At Walsall, water lies 
seven or eight feet deep at the railway station, and the traffic of the trains is. 
stopped. Leeds is buried in snow and Leicester is overwhelmed with floods, 
while all over the Midlands water covers the meadows, and in some places the 
housetops are concealed beneath the floods. It is almost unnecessary to say that 


774 KANSAS CIFY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, 


in such circumstances Oxford lies, like Venice, in the midst of a vast lagoon. 
The phenomenon is so familiar as hardly to excite comment, still less indignation, 
although it is perfectly well known that the perpetual inundations of the Upper 
Thames Valley are largely due to causes which, if not removable, are susceptible 
of very considerable control. The effect of over thirty-six hours’ heavy and almost | 
continuous rain is felt, however, in all parts of the country, almost as much as in 
the over-burdened Thames Valley. Certainly the American forecast seems in 
this case to have been very abundantly justified. The coincidence is at least | 
remarkable enough to make a deep impression on the popular mind and imagina- 
tion, even if professed meteorologists should see reason to doubt whether there 
is any direct connection between the storm which left the American continent on 
Monday and the gale and deluge which burst with such violence over our own 
islands before the end of Tuesday.—London Times, October 20. 


A PROJECT FOR THE YEAR 2000. 


Lake Mackenzie is one of those ‘‘ possibilities of North America” recently 
suggested. The lake would result from a proposed closing of the northerly out- 
let of the valley of the Mackenzie River, at the line 68° north, and storing up 
the water of 1,260,000 square miles. And to this could be added the water of 
other large areas. It would bea lake of about 2,000 miles in length by about 
200 of average width. Its surface would have an altitude of about 650 feet 
above sea level. It would cover with one continuous surface the labyrinth of 
streams and lakes which now occupy the Mackenzie Valley. It would bea nev- 
er failing feeder for the Mississippi. It would connect with Hudson Bay and 
with the ‘‘ great lakes,”’ and also with the interior of Alaska by connecting with 
the Yukon and its affluents. By concurrent results and other ‘‘ possibilities” it 
would become, during some months of each year, a navigable water, adding not 
less than 12,000 miles of communication to the Mississippi. It would complete 
the interior lines of river courses by connecting them. Cutting the ‘‘ divide ” 
which now exists between the Mississippi and Mackenzie would do this. The 
work is small when measured by its results, and it becomes easy of accomplish- 
ment under the methods proposed. The connecting of the Upper Mississippi 
with the proposed Lake Mackenzie would be easily made if that lake had a sur- 
face at the proposed altitude of 650 feet above thesea. The outflow from such 
a lake, having a length of more than 2,000 miles from south to north, and drain- 
ing a very wide range of altitudes and latitudes, would be a timely and enduring 
one. ‘This lake would make possible and easy the straightening of the Lower 
Mississippi. It would also contribute to the proposed ship channel from Cairo, 
Ill., to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by the almost straight line which cuts the Wa- 
bash Valley, the Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the Lower St. Lawrence. This 
commercial channel, receiving all the waters converging at Cairo, would com- 
plete the demand for a constantly open ship cannel from the St. Lawrence to the 


SMOKELESS FUEL FROM COAL, 775 


sea by way of the Strait of Belle Isle. That demand can be complied with, and 
the shortest and best line of communication can be thus opened between the 
interior and the seaboard.—S?. Louis Republican. 


SMOKELESS FUEL FROM COAL. 


Mr. W. D. Scott-Moncrieff, in a paper read before the Society of Arts, has 
recently brought to the attention of that body an important project for not only 
hereafter preventing, but also for rendering commercially available the dense 
stratum of smoke that has so long hung like a pall over the city of London, ob- 
scuring the light and rendering the atmosphere dangerous to the whole communi- 
ty. He proposes to substitute for the bituminous coal now in universal use for 
domestic and industrial purposes a modified form of this coal from which the gas 
has been partially extracted. Experiments made by him as long as ten years ago 
showed that.a semi-coke, resulting from a short distillation of coal, furnishes a fuel 
that is practically smokeless; and he has since discovered that, treating this 
coke with water when hot, renders it still more smokeless and makes it the most 
perfect fuel imaginable, as it has all the cheerfulness and heat-giving properties 
of the unprepared coal, with none of the disadvantages arising from its use. To 
produce this fuel in quantities suitable for public use he proposes to take advan- 
tage of the existing plant of the gas companies, finding that they are amply suffi- 
cient for the purpose. Instead of taking 10,000 cubic feet of gas per ton from 
the coal, he would take 3,333 cubic feet, or any other convenient proportion, 
and pass three times the quantity through the retorts. In this manner the gas 
would be coming away from the retorts all day long, just as formerly, witha slight 
loss of time to be allowed for the additional frequency of the charging. The sup- 
ply at the end of the twenty-four hours would be in excess of that which is ob- | 
tained from the long extraction, and in this way less and not more plant would be 
necessary to give the same quantity in a given time while the gas itself would 
be of better quality. The author claims, from his investigations and ex- 
periments, that the results of the application of his scheme would prove 
startling. The gas companies would have double the quantity of by-products, in 
the shape of tar and ammoniacal products,*that they have at present; the com- . 
munity would have twenty-four candle instead of sixteen candle gas; the fuel 
resulting from the process would be of a nature to ignite readily, make a cheerful 
fire that gives out twenty per cent. more heat than common coal; and*London 
would become asmokeless city. The only extra expense to the companies would 
be that of the additional workmen employed in charging the retorts and interest 
upon the additional capital required for transit appliances; but, as an offset, the 
the companies would receive an increased quantity of valuable by-products and a 
supply of fuel that would be in universal demand; and the profits from the sale of 
this at prices much below that of coal would be such that the companies would 
be actually getting their coal for nothing.—Age of Stcel. 


776 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


LIFE WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. 


The following extracts from the narative of Mr. Leigh Smith’s voyage to 
Franz Joseph Land last season (1880) show the abundance of animal and vegeta- 
ble life, as far north as it has been possible for vessels to reach in that direction: 

* kK *k * k ok *K *k *k 

May Island, Long. 53° 40’ E., Lat. 80° N., Aug. 14, 1880: 

Several walruses were seen on some ice to the eastward, and Mr. Leigh 
Smith, with Captain Lofley and the Doctor went in chase, while Mr Grant and 
the Shetlander, Peter, landed and climbed to the summit of the island, a height 

of some 200 feet. It proved to be a mass of basalt. The scene was desolate, 
but very grand. Below them lay the ship anchored to the floe, and far away in 
the distance the walrus boats could be seen. To the north was the coast of land 
to the west of McClintock Island, sinced named after Sir Joseph Hooker, envel- 
oped in mist, with loose ice floating through the intervening strait. It was 
calm, and all was still until the silence was broken by the ivory gulls (Pagophila 
eburnea) which Peter had disturbed on their nests. Seven of them were taken 
alive, of which one survives, and is now in the Zoological Gardens. They had 
built near the top of a low basaltic cliff, and the young ones were tilted out of 
their nest on the snow beneath. On this island there was a quantity of drift- 
wood, and one very large stem of a tree. During the day seventeen walruses 
were captured, and many more might easily have been taken. 

* *K *k *K *k * *K * * 

Eira Harbor, 80° 4’ N. Lat., 48° 40’ E. Long., August 20, 1880. © 

In the morning of the 2oth three bears were seen on the shore, a motherand 
two cubs, slowly wandering about and sniffling the sand. An empty box had 
been left on shore, and they were seen walking round and examining it. They 
did not seem to take any notice of the ship. The plan of attack was soon arran- 
ged. Two boats were lowered, one remaining to the left of the bears a little off 
shore, while the other rowed away to land the attacking party at some distance. 
After landing, the assailants walked towards the bears, and, as their backs were 
turned, they easily got pretty close. As soon, however, as they saw their ene- 
mies, all three bears made a rush to the water. This sealed their fate. They 
were doomed, the mother to death, and her two children to an aimless life of. 
inactivity at the Zoological Gardens. The two boats closed in; a shot through 
the head ended the life of the mother and saved her from witnessing the de- 
grading spectacle which followed. The men made quick work of the affair, 
The boats closed in with the young bears between them, and in very short time 
each boat had a bear to tow it back to the ship. 

ok * *k *K kK * * *k * 

Lat. 80° N., Long. 52° E,, Aug. a1. 

In returning, an attempt was made to secure a young walrus alive. But the 
mother fought frantically, and guarded her offspring with such resolution that 
they were obliged to kill her, when the young one immediately decamped. Di- 


LIFE WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. 777 


rectly the mother is shot dead, the baby walrus always hurries away, but so long 
as the mother is alive, even if wounded, the young one remains by her. In 
this case there was a hard fight, and the boat reached the ship in a sinking condi- 
tion, the walrus having made holes in it with her tusks, below the water line. 

After this little episode, the Aira was steered westward along the coast, to- 
wards the most distant point seen from the harbour. But she was stopped by 
packed ice at a point where there were great numbers of loons. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Mr. Grant walked along the shore to the eastward until finally stopped by a 
glacier. There was a regular beach, and a good deal of drift-wood, including a 
spar 8 feet long, which had evidently belonged to some ship. There were also 
the backbones and jaws of two whales. In the evening a party accompanied 
Mr. Grant to the summit of the hill overhanging the harbour, which proved to 
be 1040 feet above the sea (by aneroid). On the slope of this hill a good deal of 
petrified wood was collected, and some other fossils. 

*k * *k *k kK * * * * 

Lat, 80° N., Long. 50° E., Guenther Bay. 

On the 26th and 27th a furious gale was blowing brom the N.N.W. with 
much snow; and on the 28th, when it was still strong, but moderating, they 
steamed slowly eastward along the coast. In passing out of the bay, two right 
whales were seen, one of great size. 


Commenting upon the results of Mr. Smith’s voyage, Mr. Northam, in the 
March ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,” says: 

Arctic exploration is distinguished not only for the variety and importance of 
its scientific results, but also for its practical utility. It has not only added to the 
sum of human knowledge, but it has also increased the wealth of those nations 
which have wisely engaged in it. The explorers of Hudson’s Bay led the way 
to a lucrative fur trade; those of Spitzbergen, of Davis Strait, and Baffin’s Bay 
opened up other great sources of wealth; and the discoverers of New Siberia 
enriched their countrymen by a trade in fossil ivory. Mr. Leigh Smith, in dis- 
covering the south-western coast of Franz-Josef Land, saw at least two right 
whales, and a sea abounding in other oil-yielding animals. As many as twenty- 
seven walruses were taken, and, if their capture had been the object of the voy- 
age, many more could have been obtained. Great numbers of seals were also 
seen. The number of bears shot was thirteen. Like all other northern discov- 
eries, those of Mr. Leigh Smity combine results of scientific interest and impor- 
tance with practical utility. 

It is not at all unlikely that the practical utility of Mr. Leigh Smith’s dis- 
coveries may be demonstrated in the near future. The Norwegians have now 
been frequenting the walrus grounds of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya for a 
considerable number of years, and there are distinct signs of those localities hav- 
ing been overworked. The hardy Norseman will eagerly welcome a new region 
for walrus hunting, such as is offered by the southern shores of Franz-Josef 


778 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


Land; and even whalers may not improbably follow in the same direction. The 
only difficulty which may cause them to hesitate is the supposed obstruction of 
the approach, by ice floes. Explorers, by annual reconnaissances, will throw a 
flood of light on that question, and, as in so many other instances, Arctic discov- 
ery will prove to be not only important in increasing the sum cf human knowl- 
edge, but also in opening up new sources of commercial industry. 


The following letter of Gen. Washington is in possession of a gentleman 
living at Mendon, Chariton Co., Missouri: 
Mount VERNON, April 22, 1789. 
Sir :—I received this day by the Free Mason, Capt. Lawrence Layton, four 
tierces and three barrels of seed which were notified by a letter you were so 
obliging as to forward by last stage. I beg leave in behalf of my Uncle to offer 
many thanks for your care of and dispatch in forwarding them—as the freight 
agreed upon was not specified and the Captain informed me that you would set- 
tle it, will thank you by the first stage to inform me the amount and any other 
charges that may have arisen from its transportation and the money shall be im- 
mediately remitted to you. . 
I am Sir, Your Obedient Humble Servant, 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
RICHARD CURRAN, Esq. 


THE FIRST REGULAR MEETING OF THE NEW MEXICO SOCIETY. 


At the first regular meeting of the New Mexico Historical Society, composed 
of the most influential and prominent officials and citizens, the president, Acting- 
Governor W. G. Ritch, made an able and exhaustive address, reviewing the ob- 
jects of the society, outlining the ancient history of the territory and calling spe- 
cial attention to the three-century-old palace dating from the earliest existence of 
the Spanish colonists in New Mexico. He recommended, and a memorial is be- 
ing prepared and extensively signed praying Congress for a charter, and asking 
that this ancient historical relic, the oldest in the United States, be granted to the 
society for preservation in the interest of the whole country, the society being 
national in its scope and embracing the oldest and most prolific fields of historical 
research. 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


DDITORTA i NO@irEs: 


779 


THE present number completes the 
fourth volume of the Review, and we again 
express our sense of obligation to our sub- 
scribers, and especially those in this city, 
for their generous sympathy and support. 
To the liberality of the latter class we attrib- 
ute the unusual success that has attended our 
efforts to build up a magazine which should be 
a credit to the people of the West and a suits 
able medium for disseminating their theories, 
discoveries and inventions. Of course the fact 
that such a journal thrives in any community 
is a guaranty to the world that the taste and 
enterprise of that community are of a high 
order and hasits full weight in attracting per- 
sons of similar tastes and spirit to make it 
their home and field of labor. 

The fifth volume begins with the May num- 
ber and we hope to receive enough additional 
subscribers to place the Revzew on an indepen- 
dent basis, pledging ourselves to improve it 
in every respect at a rate commensurate with 
its patronage. 


As heretofore, we will bind the volume just 
closed in good, handsome binding, half mo- 
rocco with cloth sides, for one dollar. All 
subscribers desiring this or any of the preced- 
ing volumes bound, will please send in their 
back numbers as soon as possible, either to 
this office or to the counting-room of Ramsey, 
Millett & Hudson. 

Missing numbers of the third and fourth 
Volumes supplied at current rates. Those for 
the first and second volume supplied gratis, 
or full sets at $1.25 per volume unbound, or 
$2.25 bound. 


On the 29th ult. occurred the March meeting 
of the Kansas City Academy of Science. The 
feature of the evening was asecond paper on 
‘*The Future Drainage of Kansas City,” by 
Mr. Robert Gillham. In his first paper Mr. 
Gillham pointed out the mistakes made in 
early sewerage in London, Boston, New York 


and Chicago, which, having increased the 
death-rate by not meeting the sanitary condi- 
tions, were subsequently rectified, entailinga 
heavy loss on those cities. - In his second pa- 
per he proposed a system of drainage for 
Kansas City which he claims will meet the 
necessities of the city, however large its popu- 
lation may become. Mr. Gillham’s system 
proposes radical modifications of the present 
plan. 

The Academy voted to publish the papers. 
in pamphlet form, for the thoughtful consid- 
eration of the people of Kansas City. 

The secretary called attention to the recent 
exploration of the Beni river, in South Amer- 
ca, by Dr. E. R. Heath. He said these dis- 
coveries would be recognized by Geographi- 
cal Societies everywhere, and modify all our 
maps of that country. 


WE are requested by Mr. Sidney Hare, 
curator of the Kansas City Academy of 
Science, to inform all persons who have 
geological, mineralogical, archzological or 
any other specimens of value or interest to 
donate to its museum, that he will promptly 
respond to a notice of any kind and call for 
them. He will put them in order, label 
them, and place them in secure cabinets, 
where they can be seen by the public, but 
preserved carefully. 


THE project of the removal of the Mor- 
rison Observatory from Glasgow to this city 
meets with more favor than was expected 
when the suggestion was made by Dr. 
Lewis, who is a relative of,Miss Morrison, 
the donor of the funds with which the Ob- 
servatory was built and equipped. There 
are several wealthy gentlemen here whose 
education and inclinations would prompt 
them to contribute liberally to such a pur- 
pose, were it found to be feasible. Twenty- 
five thousand dollars isestimated to be ample 
for *the carrying out of the scheme; an 


780 


amount that could be raised in one day if 
necessary, and we should then have an insti- 
tution which would be an honor to the city, 
as the work of its astronomers is now a 
credit tothe West. As one of the depart- 
ments of a University to be built up here it 
would have a world-wide reputation to start 
with. 


IN common with many other scientific 
magazines of the country, we shall hereafter 
devote a portion of our space to ‘‘ Notes 
and Queries,’ to which department we in- 
vite contributions on all appropriate sub- 
jects by our subscribers and 
readers. 


interested 


A RECENT visit to Washington University, 
at St. Louis, and a careful inspection of its 
ample, complete and modern buildings, ap- 
paratus, and appliances for illustrating and 
teaching, not only the ordinary branches of 
education, but natural philosophy, chemistry, 
technology, painting and sculpturing, con- 
vinced us that in many of these departments 
it is not equaled in the West, and that it is 
excelled in none. In the departments of 
physics and practical engineering it is es- 
pecially strong, the students being put to 
the actual work of doing with their own 
hands the experimenting with fluids, solids, 
metals, etc., the architectual drawing, the 
construction of models in wood for castings, 
the forging of tools, etc., which he expects 
later in life to use and to deal with. Every- 
thing is practical, even in the art depart- 
ment and the geological cabinet. If even 
the people of St. Louis themselves gener- 
ally know what a valuable Institution they 
have in their midst, which is doubtful, it is 
far more than the people of the State do, 
much as they need such an one forjthe educa- 
tion of experts to aid in developing .the in- 
estimable wealth of its mines and its 
immense natural resources of every kind. 


WE are informed that Mr.Chas. Sternberg, 
of Ellsworth, with a son of Dr. Reynolds, of 
Riley, as assistant and a driver,are collecting 
Kansas fossils for Prof. Agassiz, of Harvard 
College, Mass. They started March Ist and 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


are now collecting among the fossil leaf im- 
pressions of the Dacotah group, a division 
of our Cretaceous. They work first in West- 
ern Kansas, and, if time allows, they will 
this fall collect a full set of coal fossils, also. 


WORK upon the tunnel under the Hudson 


river, connecting the cities of New York 


and Jersey City, is being pushed forward at 
the rate of aboutfive feet a day. A small 
tunnel six feet in diameter is run ahead of 
the larger one, which follows and incloses it. 
Warning is thus given of the nature of the 
soil. 


A DISTANT subscriber to the REVIEW in a 
private letter writes as follows concerning 
Col. Wan Horn’s article in the February 
number: ‘‘I have been waiting for years 
for some one to utilize Prof. Crook’s radiant 
light, and has not Mr. Van Horn done it 
well in his ‘‘ New Hypothesis? I can fol- 
low him with deep interest through the 
larger portion of the article, but once in 
a while he dives so deep that I have to leave 
him in the depths. I am almost tempted to 
visit Kansas City to see him and get more 
light.” 


Mr. EMIL PouRADE has discovered what 
he believes to be a quarry of very fine litho- 
graphic stone, on the Big Blue, about five 
miles east of this city. 


Rev. Dr. BELL gives the following com- 
plimentary notice of the REVIEW in a late 
number of the AZzad-Contenent: ‘*Thearticles 
are numerous and exceedingly well written 
and chosen. The article by our President of 
the Academy of Science, Hon. R. T. Van 
Horn, which leads the whole list, is one of 
rare merit. The way to make this work a 
still greater success in all directions, is to 
buy it, subscribe for it.” 


AT the close of the ceremonies attending 
the formal presentation of the obelisk to the 
City of New York, Algernon S. Sullivan, 
Esq., on behalf of the American Numis- 
matic and Archeological Society, formally 
presented to Lieutenant-Commander Gor- 


| ringe a medal, which the Society had caused 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


to be struck in commemoration of the 
event. The medal bore the following in- 
scription: ‘‘ Presented to the United States 
by Ismail, Khedive of Egypt, 1881. Quar- 
ried at Syene and erected at Heliopolis by 
Thothmes III. MRe-erected at Alexandria 
under Augustus. Removed to New York 
through the liberality of W. H. Vanderbilt, 
by the skill of Lieutenant-Commander H. H. 
Gorringe, U.S. N.” 


For the first time in the history of the 
Franklin Institutea woman has delivered a 
course of lectures there. Professor Rachel 
Bodley, of the Women’s Medical College of 
Pennsylvania, was the lecturer, and she gave 
a course of six lectures on ‘‘ Chemistry, as 
applied in the household.” They were 
largely attended. 


THE Kansas City REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND 
InNDuSTRY, edited by Theo. S. Case, presents 
an extensive array of general scientific in- 
formation, clearly and cencisely put, the 
most recent developments and latest move- 
ments in that line of progress upon which 
we base great hopes for the future. It is 
now running upon the fourth volume, and 
may be said to be an established institution. 
— Boston Post. 


The great event of the year in this section 
was the completion of the second trans-conti- 
nental line to the Pacific by the connecting 
of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail- 
road and the Southern Pacific Railroad at 
Tucson. On the 17th of March the first 
through passenger train for California, by 


this route, left the Kansas City Union De- 


pot. 


Pror. CLARENCE KING has resigned the 
position of Chief of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, and the president has appointed as 
his successor, Major S. W. Powell, the well 
known explorer of the western mountains, 
the Colorado river, etc. 


Pror. JNO. D. PARKER, of this city, has 
recently invented and patented a gauge for 
the accurate setting of compositors’ sticks to 


781 


and convenient aid to printers in presery- 
ing that uniformity in the width of columns 
which is indispensable to the proper locking 
up of forms. It is a simple and cheap de- 
vice which every printer should have. 


WE take pride anticipating all other jour- 
nals in announcing the valuable discoveries 
recently made by Dr. Heath in South Amer- 
ica. The exploration of the Beni river has 
hitherto defied all effort, but Dr. Heath has 
accomplished this result, so long desired, un- 
aided. He will hereafter;be counted among 
the noted explorers of South America. His 
brief letter in another column will prove of 
general interest. 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. 


The New York Tribune says: ‘‘ The rava- 
ges of a parasitic insecton orange and lemon 
trees are attracting much attention in Italy 
and the West Indies, and have begun to 
create alarm in Florida, Louisiana and Cali- 
fornia. J. H. Bostwick, Inspector of Customs, 
who has charge of the Fruit Department of 
the New York Custom House, is taking great 
interest in the matter, and has some speci- 
mens from cargoes of oranges, the rinds of 
which are covered with incrustations of these 
parasites.”’ 

Since observing the above, we have been 
shown by Mr. John H. Ramsey of this city, 
an orange with an incrustation answering to 
the above description. The general shape of 
these parasites is similar to the Hemzpronites 
Crassus and its, dimensions about three lines 
in length and one line in diameter at the lar- 
ger end. 


THE Journal of the Franklin Institute, for 
March, comes to us with a supplement 
equivalent to sixty pages, being the plates to 
S. Dudley’s artitle on ‘‘ The Wearing Power 
of Steel Rails, in Relation to their Chemical 
Composition and Physical Properties.”” The 
article is the result of long study and the il- 
lustratiors are very interesting and curious. 


THE result of the census of 1880 shows the 


‘ different ‘‘ems,”? which will prove a useful | center of population of the United States to 


782 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 


be within the city limits of Cincinnati, Ohio. THE Nationalist, of Manhattan, Kansas, 


Good Company, for February, 1881, pre- sends us be HeUId sor: BELLS entitled 
sents its readers, among much other enter- “The Blue’ Ribbon County,” being a full 
taining matter, the first chapter of an ac- and careful description of Riley county, its 
count of Polar Expeditions, by Lieut. people, educational advantages, natural re- 
Schwatka, under the title of «In the Land | "eSources, products, etc., which immigrants 
of the Midnight Sun.” looking westward might procure and profita- 
ea bly read, as we believe that it contains noth- 
THE United States Gazette, Philadelphia, of | ing but facts, and very attractive ones, too. 
November 27, 1832, contained the following — 
notice: ‘‘The locomotive (‘Old Ironsides’) Mr, HENRY B. DAwson, editor of the 
built by Mr. Baldwin, of this city, will de- | A¢storical Magazine, of New York, desires 
part daily when the weather zs fair, with a | copies of reports, papers, tracts, etc., rela- 
train of passengers. On rainy days horses | ting to the geology and natural history, 
will be attached.” | geography and topography, aboriginal his- 
tory and languages, and the antiquities of 
America, or anything that will throw light 
upon any of them. The Aistorical Magazine 
stands very high among periodicals of its 
class and the material furnished its editor on 
this .call will be carefully and properly 
handled and used. 


OF the various college periodicals we find | 
find none handsomely printed, better edited’ 
or more entertainingly contributed to than 
the Olio, of Marietta College, Ohio. Its 
Personalia are especially interesting to the 
alumni of the institution. It is now in its 
ninthvolume. Monthly, $1.50. 


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M. H.Dickin3on has been a leading dealer in Books and Stationery so long 
in Kansas City, (having been one of-the original firm of Matt Foster & Co., for fif- 
teen years) that his name has become a household word in the West. 

He deals in everything pertaining to a first class Book and Stationery store and 
handles only first class goods. The completeness of his stock can only be appre- 
ciated by a visit and personal inspection, but at the same time, he will fill all orders 
by mail with scrupulous care, and no one need hesitate to write for anything 
that he wants, from a Spelling Book to a set of Morocco-bound Classics, worth 
$150, or from a box of Steel Pens to a Pearl-enlaid Writing Desk or a Microscope. 

He employs a force of men constantly on papering Fine Residences, Churches, 
etc., and is prepared to furnish the very Finest Materials and do the Best Class of 


Work at any points in Missouri or Kansas without delay and at reasonable 
figures. 


It is impossible to give here even an approximate list of his goods, but a 
full Catalogue will be sent to any address upon application by letter or postal card. 
Any domestic or foreign book ordered with pleasure, and without extra charge. 


Large invoices of the latest publications from the best houses in the country 
just received. 


‘ 


SPECIAL NOTICE. 


It seems to have become altogether a fixed thing for T. M. JAmEs & Sons, to 
put their latest importations of rich China and Queensware goods and artistic 
novelties on exhibition at the opening of each week and upon arrival of new 
invoices, and the frequency of such receipts affords our citizens many oppor- 
tunities to examine choice handiwork from abroad and emanating from the most 
celebrated patterns and embellished by the hands of eminent artists. To-day 
may be seen in the show windows of T. M. James & Sons a late importation of 
admirable qualities, and splendid display of hand painted vases of Ionic and 
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is very low, considering their elegance, and will repay a close inspection and 
ought to find a place in a great number of households in our city and suburbs. 
Messrs. James & Sons are still in almost daily receipt of rich Chinaware elegant 
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An Illustrated Quarterly Published by Copy. H. SKAER, Publisher, Room 34, N 
JAMESON & MORSE, 164 Clark Street, Chicago, Illinois. W. cor. Third & Pine streets, St. Louis, Mo. 
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The 3d Vol. commenced with the Oct. Number. 


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{ wail eee ae gor Th ae A" 
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May, 


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Ashes 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY | 


PEO Ss. CASE: 


>> 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

GEOGRAPHY. 
1. Expeditions to the Arctic Sea.* Dr. John 

aemmMon dont. fix csusitoiaek’ sity.) aerate 1 

2. Honors to INoxclen Shao cist Spe ie eee enna 2 

3. A New Polar Expedition. .... Le abreicS 

4 The Nordenskjold Afloat... ..... 3 

5. The Second Howgate Expedition®. ... . 58 
ASTRONOMY. 


1. A New Determination of the Diameter of 
Mars.* H.S. Pritchett. 


ENGINEERING 


1. Comparative Merits of Wood, Stone and 
Asphalt Pavements. . 


2 Removal of Cleopatra’s Needle to New 
Noel eon ah eee ee Ie Ria AT MCE RIE BU hts el ey i 11 
GEOLOGY. 
1. Antiquity of Man Question’: Brot 
McK: JEuish esici st SUE Sec taken! Arama 19 
PSYCHOLOGY. 
1. Automatic Mental Action* Prof. J. Long, 23 
PHYSICS. 
1. A Talk About Lightning.* Prof. F W. 
CTankersu weer i.e este nea es 
2. Breaking up River Ice with Dynamite . . . 386 
PHiLOSOPHY. 
1. Choice and Chance * (Illustrated.) Prof. 
EevBeaNiph ers 5 hc, (cusp acke Sarees 


PAGE. 
METEOROLOGY. 
1. The Tornadoes ApH 18, 1880.* Prof. J. D. 
Pankerk7qgne ay Piven Se PAeencinn cen 52 


SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1 A Naturalist’s Rambles about Kansas City.* 
Win spe oly leinsiv eleva een 
2. Influence of Electric Light upon VegetationS7 
3. Water-Spouts off Kauai... . Bosahaes to!) 


ao Miosarculltune: git eee ee mene aria, ese aulaine 59 
5. Observations of the Amphioxus .. . 36 
6. An India-Rubber Producing Insect... . . 51 


OBITUARY NOTICE. 
1, Sketch of the Life of Prof W. K. Kedzie. . 60 
BOOK NOTICES. 


1. Eye-sight, Good and Bad. Presley Blakis- 
ton, Publisher: be Coen ate eae 61 

2. The Spell- Bound Fiddler. S. C Griggs & Co 62 

3 Sea Airand Sea Bathing. Presley Blakis- 


COTM bias tee he Ree le ¥ 862 


4. Questions in 1 English and American Litera- 
ture. Davis, Bardeen & Co. . + 62 
5 Realities of Irish Life, Roberts Bros. . . . 63 
6. Transactions of the Academy of Science of 
Stsotisr seco oe tenancy, Semana o 
7. Other Publications Received... . She (ita! 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


Proceedings of the Kansas City. Academy of Sci- 
ence. Lecture by Rev. 'Dr. Laws. Edi- 
torial Card The Ministers’ Convention. 
Establishment of Exact Time by Prof, F. 
W, Pritchett at Union Depo, etc , etc, 


*Written for the REVIEW. 


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VoL. IV. 


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fill FE; 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


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EDITED BY 
THEO. S. CASH. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
ASTRONOMY. 
1. The Sun and Phenomena of its Surface * 
Wnllieuaet IDEN Soren Svea Ge loee ee 68 
2. The Great Southern Comet ....... 71 
CORRESPONDENCE. 
1. Science Letter from Paris.* .,...... 74 
PSYCHOLOGY. 
Meee hen SO ——NVal abso ntaeer es leausen scr epmetaaananas 78 
2. Science and Spiritualism. ........ 82 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 


1. Tertiary Man.* FE. L. Berthoud, A. M. 84 
2. A Buried Race in Kansas.* (Illustrated ) 
Aiacle) EPS WIE tise teste wae ccem en ae tran 86 


GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 


1. Geology and Evolution * By the late Prof. 
BES ByA Mind cei s.r at nee aire ee agers 90 
2. Precious Metal Mining in the United States 95 


ENGINEERING. 
1. Asphalt Pavements. Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, 
LOPE AS VEUNSIE SORES pete Merete nies uzaieenyal) ere Uy 97 
2. The Hudson River Tunnel. ....... 99 
CHEMISTRY. 
1. Bog Butter from Ireland......... 100 
2. Summer Care of Stoves ....... .s . 101 
EDUCATION. 
1. Some Thoughts on the Principles of In- 
struction.* Prof. E. C. Crosby . . . . 102 


PAGE. 
MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 
1. Wealthful and Dangerous Occupations for 
] 


Wionme mss) hue iene ue aan aden 09 
2. Covering the Taste of Medicines Al 
3. Commercial Value of Sanitary Work. . , 112 
4. Remedy for Diphtheria... ....... 115 
6. Chloroformin Earache. ........., 115 

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 

1 Details of the Howgate Expedition. . . . 115 
2. Arctic Relief by the Government ... . 118 


3. Award of the Royal Society’s Medal. . 
4. Award of 


Medal Be Soc uterine Oi pepe) (240) 
5. Italian Explorers in Africa. . ... .. .120 
SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1. Making and Preserving Lawns. .... 121 
2. Origin of Balm of Gilead... . 1.2... 122 
Dy Se Cin Sab LeCtnicl ty: sary eka een 22 
4 Relation Between Insects, Plants and 
Mammals: iat gunisy yan es vison eg 123 
ho May JiewssbatiOystersi?ay nue, vj) ere 124 
6. Recent Telephone Experiments ... . . 125 
7. Black Ink for Stencils .......... 126 
BOOK NOTICES 
1. Water Analysis for Sanitary Purposes 
Presley Blakiston .....2.....~., 127 
2. Missouri University Lectures. Statesman 
Pringiss chee Se tee ate ee 127 
F 3. Dwelling Houses. D. Van Nostrand . . 128 
4, Other Publications Received. . Sinan 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 

Kansas City Academy of Science. Prest. Laws’ 
Lecture. Verifications of Signal Service 
Predictions. Electrolysis in Metallurgy. 
Items from the Periodicals, etc., etc. 


*Written for the REVIEW. 


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VOL. IV. 


1880. No. 3. 


Sijesliet 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


THEO. S. CASH. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
GEOGRAPHY. 
1. Personal Recoilections of Orton and Peru. 
Dr. Ivon D. Heath... BPE hp Ramos 131 
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.* 
1. African Exploration...... . ee 38 
2, Royal Belgian Expeditions... ...... 138 
3. French and German Expeditions. ... . 140 
4. Portuguese, Spanish and Italian Expedi- 
CIOS Pra peedeperaiinn ae peits aaa aad taoninn terueanee te 141 
5 Explorations in the South. ... .. . 142 
6. Arctic Explorations. ... . 5 . . 143 
ego uhernenchoneSalharatey ss ual enue 144 
Sa stanleyone thei Congor es. a ena te 146 
9. An Unknown Regionin South America. . 147 
ARCHAOLOGY. 
1. Engraved Stone in Ohio * Rev. Stephen 
IBO WEES ssa te de Wasa re ereue has a conee eouteree 
2. The Hair and Beard as Racial Character- 
SOLES Me eeeta cy co) tes eanaeees eagle on 150 
PHYSICS. 


1. Undulatory Movements as Affecting our 


Senses. Prof. T. Berry Smith. . . . 151 

2. Franklin’s Placein Science. ....... 156 

EDUCATION. 

1. Some Thoughts en the Principles of In- 
struction, (concluded).* Prof. E. C. 
Grosbyseiseate senso Si BU ee aa OS 

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 

1. Geology and Evolution * By the Late 

Prof. B. F Mudge.. . eG 


2. Origin and Classification of Ore Deposits. 165 


ae PAGE 
? enesis and Modern Thought ..... . 
4. Fossilsin Colorado. . . ce SNH Me Re aeshane atl ine 
5. Mammoth Cave of Mexico* , 176 
PHILOSOPHY. 
Motion.* By Edgar L. Larkin, ...... 177 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 


1. Bromide of Ethyl.* R. Wood Brown,M.D 184 
2. Curare and other Cures for Hydrophobia. 185 
8. A Strange Epidemic........ en 
4. Perseverance with the Drowned . . . 
5. Simple Test for Chloral Hydrate. 2. ! 188 


BOOK NOTICES. 


1. Preadamites. S. C. Grigges&Co.... 
2. Conservation of Baer F a 


ei Con en ven B Wesbeatinant stabi nc ea Rae 189 
3. Wright’s New Map of Kansas City. Book 
andeNiews) Con midesue a oun eum 189 
4. Other Publications Received. ..... | 190 
SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
I. Vhe San Juan Region. ........ 
2. The Vesuvius Railway......,.. Te 
3. Immense Meteor in HAVTBE g Bou 5 4. 183 
4. Value of Bessemer Steel... . 1... | 176 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


The Chicago University and Observator ‘ i 
Egyptian Obelisk on its Travels, vest 
Various Points. S. Meteorological 
Station at Washburne College. Items from 
the Periodicals. Summer Schools of Na- 
tural Philosophy, etc., etc. 


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Moline, Ills. ’ St. Louis. Kansas City. 


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KANSAS OCITY, x MISSOURI. 
Exposition Univeral. J. C. HFGELAOFF. 
: PARIS, 1867. THE BOOT & SHOE MERCHANT ~ 


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Aas, 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


THEO. 


Ss. 


CASE. 


a - 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 


By the late Prof. 
95 


1. Geology and Evolution.* 
B. F. Mudge : 

2. The Origin and Classification of Ore De- 
WOSIESUa etre nsetiraia om oikecon et ote nie neo Bos 200 

3. Geological Notes on the Region of Silver 
Cliff, Colorado.* By Samuel J. Wallace.205 

4. Fossil Remains in Southwest Missouri * 

5) 


Biyaleeelunele wil hci i cineeeanr sine) Beha is 207 

AG MOSSIUMBIOFES tase jo eh aula sel ee yelper abel 207 
METEOROLOGY. 

1. Tornadoes.* By Isaac P. Noyes... . . 208 

Dh dN OROIEA IBOMEEMNIS! WSO a Go bel eue eo Oe 216 


PHYSIGS. 
1. The Manner of Working the Electric Time 


Signal.* By Prof. C. W Pritchett . . 219 
Dee ebhemblectnicxWailwaya | ccs le out-0) ie e 220 
GEOGRAPHY. 
1. Personal Recollections of Orton and Peru.* 
Byer Lyons Ds kleathy ..) yumsele ce ie 221 
ee Nrctichwesearch ia ty wit tac a de otbey hell a toline 228 
3. Admiralty Surveys for 1879........- 229 
4. Public School Prize Medalists... ..... 231 
Dea NiecrolocicaluNiotices)s sa alneer een eae 233 
Ge AMVile Wao tes Eniarn inane ice aeend arta 234 
ARCHASOLOGY. 
lec AmROMmpelaneelOlSe 6 ei min ee ya 235 
2. Interesting Discovery in Clinton County, 
AONMIIG) Chiisc in 1G vind Olas samnnipaey oie pceoes 236 


PAGE, 


3. The Antigue Pipe Found in Clinton Coun- 
tard O) ib Loe EaPe TS A cA iano fu) Tr, 238 
4, The Original Settlers of America... . . 239 


FOREIGN CORRESPONDENCE, 
1. Science Letter from Paris* 
BOOK NOTICES.* 
1. Lippincott’s Pronouncing Gazetteer of the 


Weorldivicst aa. caguminen ice enupene tee . 244 
2. First Annual Report, Statistics of Indiana. 244 
3. Proceedings of Philadelphia Academy of 

SCIENCE Sia eee eee ties . » . 245 
4. Engineering Progressin the United States.245 
Oo. ybhe Studyoflaneuacesin: sent nee 245 
6. Other Publications Received... ..... 246 

SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 

IseiDyes Renner INEISG fn eG ened Gok a eke 246 
2. The Hudson River Tunnel........ 249 
3.) Perihteliay. iss cmareheh toa tei nine aeons 250 
4. Mining Affairsin Arkansas. ....... 251 
5. Pipe-Ore Limonites....... voseieoll 
6. The Six Days of Scripture not Geologic. . 252 
The WAR ASS SU BAT a Oke n en ee sia eh N ele Ge aan ae 252 
8. Preservation of Foods by Salycilic Acid* . 253 
9 | Careiofeireessand: Shinubsy esse serena 253 


EDITORIAL NOTES. 


Heat of July. Dr. John Fee to translate foreign 
articles for the Review. Twenty-ninth 
Meeting of the American Association at 
Boston. Prof. Oren Root, Jr. Items from 
the Periodicals, etc., etc. 


*Written for the REVIEW. 


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to our unrivaled stock of Gentlemen’s and \¥ 
Youths’ Summer Clothing and Furnishing Goods. ps 

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Let the boys come too and get tickets in the next pony drawing. 

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KREVILIG & WAPLES.- 


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Corey SEPTEMBER, 1880. No. 5. 


Al Tet 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


SCIEN Ck AND INDUSTRY. 


THEO. S. CASE. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. PAGE. 
GEOGRAPHY .* ETHNOLOGY. 
1. The Second Howgate Expedition. . . . 257 1. Yhe Decrease of the North American In- 
4. Accident tothe Gulnare., .. 2... % 259 dians,* Prof. John B, Dunbar. . . . , 295 
3. The Cruiseof the Corwin ..... 260 
4. Is there’an Open Polar Sea?...... ae CORRESPONDENCE. 
5. Geographical Society of France. .... 4 l. Sci Letter fi Paris®. . 205 
6. The Khediye’s Geographical Society. . 265 MAR re a ee et ag © 302 
7. Position of the Crozet Islands. ..... ag BOOK NOTICES. * 
p pemraregiaaees: 222 BE ba The Skin ie Heal snd Diseid. Pome 
A of Laan More CYP SIAISEO her, ieee ator lie ate tegen 1) ake 306 
METEOROLOGY. 2, Felter’s Elements of Arithmetic. Charles 
1. Prophecy of the Weather.* Isaac P. SeribuersiSons). a oe ir RN, SI 306 
INONY. SF Wael Ors eR RL Ee a en Peso 268 3. Progress of Astronomy in 1870... . 2. 306 
2. The Barometer.* C. A. Shaw, U.S. A . 275 4. The Data of Ethics. J. Fitzgerald & Co , 307 
3. Electric Eccentricities.. ....... 279 5. Report Kansas Board of Agriculture. . 307 
4. Meteoric Shower of Aug. 10, 1880 * Prof. 6. Proceedings National Educational Society,307 
SacrAe aia xswiellits SA) AGS id aie 28s amas 281 
PHYSIOLOGY. SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
I. Dr. Tanner’s Fast,* (concluded)... . . 281 1. Manufacture of Linen... ......, 308 
2. Experiments in aieaseace from Fluids.* 2. Advice for Vacation Work, .... . , 309 
Bro fabe ls INielSOmieca ses es v4 «ns vee. 286 3. Lhe Propagation of Oysters... 1... dll 
5 4, Anglo-American Cattle Company 211 
ASTRONOMY, 5. #Russianim kGreecer: ys nets ion ¥en ain 312 
1. Planetary Phenomena for September, HO As 6. Building with Tempered Glags. . . . | . 812 
: W. W, Alexander. .... See as 
2. A New Bienen Rae TAN Sh ee aR No 288 | MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 
GEOLOGY. 1. What to doin Emergencies... ... . 313 
1. Geology and Evolution—Articulates.* one NECROLOGICAL NOTICES. 
late’ Prof: Bo BY Mudge. 0. ws. 0% ‘ ; z 
2. The Loess of the Western Plains—Subae- i Cal Been J. MiveriW) Sip Ace aces a 
Tialonsimbagqueous )*) Awl: @hild, MoD e2Oa is. sae, deen gm mPa at ran Neca heck = accllei geal on te aiaj em 1 
Ssh xpaUsionpote Clay ci. a ital eu aiee 295 | EDITORIAL NOTES. 


*Written for the REVIEW. 


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Vou. IV. 


OcTOBER, 


1880. No. 6. 


ASUS 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


THEO. S. CASE. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 
1. The American Science Association. . . . 321 
2. The British Science Association. .... 322 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


1. Tertiary Man.* Translated by Capt. E. 


Hey BErtnoudiny een where i chs ts) sc es 326 
2. Ancient Man in Missouri. ...... 327 
PHILOSOPHY. 
1. The Synthetic Philosophy as a Philosophy* 
WHIP OMPIITE E Rey) Sku eld) oy Sieh ve re eg 328 
ENGINEERING. 
1. Sewerage and Street Paving.* Ermine 
Caseiiliniimeniy tiictss (anes suas 
2. Engineering Progress in the United States. 
Octave Chanute,C.E......... 335 


3. Ships on Wheels. James B. Eads, C. E . 338 
4. Cultivation and Preservation of Forests . 342 


5. The Canadian Pacific Railway...... 346 
ASTRONOMY. 
1. Planetary Phenomena for October, 1880.* 
ice Wet Alexandentaji sie. a). e. 2) csi ye 348 
2. A New Astronomical Discovery. .... 350 
Oy bhetiisht off fipiter sco si. ee Ue 350 
BIOGRAPHY. 
1. Nordenskjold and His Labors. Prof. Jno. 
Rice ICT Sebi sR Sigs). lich ot « Seles 351 
2. Death of Prof. S.S. Haldeman... .... 309 
PHYSICS. 
1, Freshet of July, 1880, in Missouri Rio 309 
2) ihe Photophone’. 206 sss es ee ye 361 
8. Deep Sea Researches. ........ . 362 


GEOGRAPHY. aere 


1. Annual Address before British Association 
of Science. Gen. J. H. Lefroy, F.R, S . 364 


2. The East African Expedition... .... 366 
3. Charnay’s Explorations in Mexico. . . . 369 
4. Italian Expedition in the Soudan... .. 371 
5. The Dutch Arctic Expedition. ..... 372 
HERMENEUTICS. 
1. Science of the Bible.* Prof, S, H. ean 
Bridge gh oes re sacs nea nee ' . 373 
BOOK NOTICES.* 
1. The United States Government. J. B. 
Lippincott & Co. ........... 377 
2, Adam’s Syaeuneudivena! Chart. Jay An- 
drewSi8c i Coeur 7 ce 378 
3. The New Text Book of Physics. Charles 
Scribnense Souswaes eres ieee 77 
4. The True Story of the Exodus of Israel. 
MeesaShepardian.ce) Stee toie) oe eee 
5. Ray’s Higher Arithmetic. Van Aniwerp, 
Brageiiee Comer Wares a ace oe 
6. Othert Publication: Received. ...... 380 
SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1. Practical Formulas. .......:... 381 
2. A New Discovery............ 382 
EDITORIAL NOTES. 
SHS MONA 25315 Relate AC Chem a eS amaR NLL 383 
ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS 
Si shucaae 3.4 of ake see OOe 


*Written for the REVIEW. 


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499435 UIE STS 
"S$.45d4d35H03" SIWWE LV 


PARTE WARS Ade NI ON: BAds i ah © 


GALVANIZED IRON GORNIGES, ROOFING, SPOUTING 


AND GUTTERING. 


ORDERS FROM ABROAD ATTENDED TO, AND ES- 
TIMATES MADE ON ALL KINDS OF JOBS. 


JAMES REDHEFFER. 


FE Drei 


Vot. IV. 


NOVEMBER, 1880. 


sus, 


| KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


| EDITED BY 
THEO. Ss. CASH. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
METEOROLOGY. 
1. Meteorology and the Signal Service*. . . 385 
2. Clouds,* by Prof. S. A. Maxwell ..... 403 
GEOGRAPHY.* 
1. The Survey of Western Palestine... .. 409 
2. The Ascent of Chimborazo........ 412 
8. Schwatka’s Arctic Search......... 414 
4. Cheyne’s Proposed Expedition. ..... 416 
5. The Cruise of the Corwin in Arctic Wa- 
METShrums Meena cv ce TEN eR eave wt 28 417 
6. The Howgate Expedition........ 418 
7. Lieut. Doane’s Report........... 418 
ARCH AIOLOGY. 
1. An Excursion to the Birth-place of Monte- 
zuma,* by Theo. S. Case. ....... 419 
ASTRONOMY. 
1. Planetary Phenomena for October, 1880.* 
War WieveAlexander i). ste) ace) iciiiie 6 348 


APPLIED SCIENCE. 
1. The Telegraph as Applied to Norwegian 
Fisheries.* Translated by Miss Ida How- 
gate 


PHILOSOPHY. 
1. The Doctrine of the Unknowable,* by W. 
NEA Mable caaenreuetse spain Je8 etacac once aieis penile 431 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. Hs 
1. Good Eyes and Free Schools,* by John 
Fee, MSD yt ei aaa eit aera cig 441 


SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1. Rambles of a Naturalist Around Kansas 
, City,* (No. 2.), by Wm, H. R. Lykins . 
2, Mis Roane Power of Building Mate- 
Tals. 7 53 Se aetna Tee AEN SAE ets 


BOOK NOTICES. * 


1. Contributions to Palzontology, Nos. II. 
and III.: Government Printing Office.. 448 


2, The Carpenter’s Steel Square and Its Uses: 
Industrial Publishing Co. ....... 449 

3. School and Industrial Hygiene: Presley 
Blakistonty joss, se asecus oa ee alee 450 

4. The Theory of Sound in its Relation to 
Music: J. Fitzgerald&Co....... 450 

5. The Naturalist on the River Amazons: J 
Hitzgeraldyé& Coie so a eee 450 
6. Other Publications Received. ...... 451 

. 

EDITORIAL NOTES 220.5 ee Eo 451 


ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS... . 


*Written for the REVIEW. — 


Subscription Price, $2.50 per Annum, post-paid; Single Numbers, 25 Cents. 
For Sale by the AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 39 and 41 Chambers Street, N. Y. 


Entered at the Post Office at Kansas City, Mo., as second class matter. 


of 


’ 


KANSAS CITY, MO. 


Press OF RAMSEY, MiILLETT & Hupson 


First-Class Heating and Cooking Stoves for Sale, 


LOW DOWN FOR CASH! 


They embrace the most Select and Modern Styles of leading manufacturers. 
of the Union. They include such stoves as the 


ARGAND, HECLA, CHARTER AND OMAHA, 


For both Coal and Wood, ALL of WHICH I offer for sale at the 


VERY LOWEHST PRICE. 


I also carry a full supply of 


TINNER'S STOCK AND TRIMMINGS 


Which I offer at St. Louis and Chicago prices. I cordially invite the 
attention of dealers of the Missouri Valley and the public at large to 
my large and varied stock, and challenge competition. I also man- 
ufacture a full line of 


SHEET IRON GOODS, TIN ROOFING, 


.—_-AND—- 


GALVANIZED CORNICES. 


I have in my employ FIFTY of the most skilled Mechanics in the West, which 
enables me to fill your orders with promptness and dispatch. Call at the original 


RED FRONT STOVE STORE 


518 Main Street, 
JAS. REDHEF EER. 


Vot. IV. 


DECEMBER, 1880. 


Ise, 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 
SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


i} 


INOLaS), 


THEHO. S. CASH. 


<>—<p>-- 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
PAGE, DAG 
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 2. Important Discoveries in iMiexicomeen rear 496 
1. #*Proceedings of the Kansas Academy of 3. Northern Pacifie Coal Fields West of the 
Science: 18th Annual Meeting. Bes Missowed 6 Shaina jet) Moa EN 497 
Pontedsbyabroi):) Os Parkers ile ole 153 | CORRESPONDENCE. 
2. St. Louis Academy of Science ...... 459 1) eae : cE 
83. Leavenworth Academy of Science... . . 460 : bates Sledge Journey. By eas 
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.* 2. *The Oldin New Mexico |) | |!) ) 1502 
1. Mr. B. Leigh Smith’s Arctic Expedition . .460 | scjmanNTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
2. TheFranklin Search. ......... - 464 ting Hen rae rath 
8. Return of Lieutenant Schwatka’s Franklin : merica’s River System Artificially De- 
Search@Expeditionice.). a sus) - 6s 467 Velopedss’s) ie leks RIG h a0 Siang ee ae nae 006 
Avestanleygand theiGoneomne eve: sa «eee 469 2. The Successor of General Myer... . . . 508 
5. Other Congo pepeditions MReliaa ie en ieeis ae NECROLOGY. 
6. Proposed Austrian Expedition. ..... 7 
7. M. Siberiakov’s Expedition to the Yenisei.470 n Boe cc see OLA SRO SEN i wisiae Meee 509 
8. A Private Arctic Voyager’s Explorations . 470 e et eirce, Astronomer, Meena 
ENGINEERING. DLL EOR NOU Oy NOary | ol CMC CMMEIMLS Nes st ah 
1. *TheC., B.& Q. Railroad Bridge at Platts- “BOOK NOTICES. 
mouth, Neb. By A. L. Child, M. D.. . 471 1. Bulletin De La Societe De Geographic 
2. Railroad Building in the Rocky Mountains. 474 DUAN VeErSipte oh heme apn a Oneal 511 
3. Velocity of Shot, with Suggestions to 2. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of 
SPORES UIE mp etparayil=h «\ elise Uap es se “gues Sete 477 8 Ee eee Ale teas tan 511 
APPLIED SCIENCE. . ¢ students Guide to Draughting. In- 
‘ hi dustrial Publication Co........., 
is mane Netural mclences : ape Be waic ss 4 The Neues ohsaciren S. E Geo 
an alue. Prof. T. Berry Smith, Lou- ECM RE RES ach eee hay 
isiana College, Louisiana, Mo. .... . 480 5 Mind and Body ; the Theories of their ae 
2. History of the Steam Engine. From Presi- lation. The Wonders of the Heavens J 
dent R. H. Thurston’s Inaugural Address Hitzseraldie) Coss Ne Feri anes i 512 
before the American Society of Mechan- 6. Quarterly Report of the Kansas Board of 
ical Engineers, Nov. 4,1880'. . .... 486 Agriculture wpm Uies. uaKi ul assar 519 
ASTRONOMY. 7. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural 
; a Sciences of Philadelphia. 1... 513 
t ete inn: Sey WE We anne aN 488 Atti Della Societa Toscana di Scienze Natu- 
EXPLORATION. p TaUiye Reefiepen cer cnenyt crm ein ea ate pean ae 513 
1. *Log of the Steamship “‘ Gulnare” from St. EDITORIAL NOTES............, 515 
Johns, N. F., to Disco and Return. . . 491 |: ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS. - « .516 


*Written for the REvIEw. 


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KANSAS CITY, MO. 
Press OF RAmsEy, Minttetr & Hupson. 


Furniture, Carpets and Curtain Goods 


i i ey 


| ; Ly 
: ; ii 


= =| SS By 
—— a — a P 
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WF SS SS Sp) 


Teas Te 

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oi | 
SSS ae a = i 

i ui i I 

| : i } | i 

\ i | By | i ll Hi 

| it! II | | = 

ao I nl i cA 


ABERNATHY, NORTH & ORRISON, : 
, MO. 
Cor. 6th and Main Sts, - KANSAS CITY 


FA Vv ore vA, vas 
Vot. IV. JANUARY, 1881. No. 9. 


Wes 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 
EDITED BY 
THEO. S. CASE. 
~~ — 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
PAGE. PAGE. 
GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY. ASTRONOMY. 
1. *The Mastodon. Prof.G. C. Broadhead . 519 J. *A New Chronograph... 2. 573 
2. The Antiquity of Man and the Origin of 2. *The Sun and Planets for January, 1880. 
Species. Erinewpald; W. Dawson. Hokey Wie Wie Allexan dier\ (70: ).si ice Sinan 574 
38. “Artesian Wellsin Colorado. Capt. E x 
Berthoud ........ a . 536 EIONONS NOTICES: 
4. The Miocene Beds of the John Day iver 1. Report of the Commissio f Ed t 
Oregon.* Chas, H. Sternberg... . . "540 2. The Rhyme of the ees “GC ne Be 
: Carleton’ slot eae eine 575 
CORRESPONDENCE. 3. mae Origin of Species. he Fitzgerald © 
A ans 4 576 
1. *Science Letter from Paris. F. Connor . 542 4. Other Publications Received... 0 1.” "576 
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCiETIES. METEOROLOGY. 
1. Final Papers before the National Academy ee ‘ - 
BGR ee 5AG 1 pes Hea Service. Prof. J. sits 
GEOGRAPHY. SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1. The Howgate Expedition ........ .5ol 1) Geng Wins Berlazientie ait eee 577 
2. Narrative of Secretary Clay...... . . 582 2. Transmission of Speech by Light. ... . 578 
8. The Corwin’s Cruise in the Arctic Re- 4. The Population of the Globe. ...... 579 
TOMS ia ate er a mae nla heel) ake . 558 5. New Viewsofthe Gulf Stream. ..... 589 
4 *Extracts and Notes from an Old Book of 6.) he Prehistoric Cathay ii ee ee 581 
Travels. Prof. G. C. Broadhead. . . . 568 7. The Bane of Decorative Art. ....,.., 581 
: Be 8: Celluloid Veneers) os ee 581 
PHILOSOPHY. 
HILG nase) EDITORIAL NOTES! 255 00) 9) fone 582 
1. *The Synthetic Philosophy: Its Theory of 
Evolution. W.H. Miller. ..... . .566 | ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS... . . 583 


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KANSAS CITY, MO. 
Press OF RAMSEY, MILLETT & Hupson. 


ESTABLISHED 1358. 


Kansas City, June, 1880. 


VY Je, J{ammersiongh & So., 
Vhe One-#rice Elathiers, 


Present compliments to the readers of 
the Review, and beg to call their atvention 
to our unrivaled stock of Gentlemen’s and \j 
Youths’ Summer Clothing and Furnishing Goods. ees 

We sell none but the Best Articles. Our 
prices are plainly Marked In Mo@ures mG teme 
Never deviated 170m, 

lt is useless to specity, as we have everything 
that a Gentleman can want to make himself com- 
tortable and attractive in appearance. 

We make WEDDING SUITS «a specialty, and can supply 
the finest grades on very short notice. CLERGYVMEN are always 
allowed a discount of 10 per cent. 

When you are in Kansas City, please call and examine our 
Goods. We know that we can suit you, oth in quality and price. 
Let the boys come too and get tickets in the next pony drawing. 


Respectfully Yours, Lt. HAMMERSLOUGH & CO, 
Cor. 5th and Mazin Sts. 


tA 


Established 1865. 


ED. HH. WEBSTER, 


Real Hstate: Loan Broker 


FARMS, Unimproved and Mineral Lands Bought and Sold, Capital Invested, Rents Collected, Taxes Paid 
Titles Examined, Deeds, Leases and General Conveyancing and Notarial Business promptly attended to. 


Ojjice, No. 603 Main Street, 
KANSAS CITY, a MISSOURI. 


VY ME or HORNE: 


728 Main Street, Corner 8th, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


PICTURE FRAMES, PICTURE MOULDINGS, 


PICTURES, 
ARTISTS AND WAX FLOWER MATERIALS, 


Mirrors and Mirror Plates, Stationery, A New Line, Cheap. 
FANCY GOODS OF MANY KINDS. 


TOM i ff Cae oN) 


Vou. IV. FEBRUARY, I881. No. Io. 


Te, 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


\CIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


THEO. S. CASE. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. PAGE. 
PHILOSOPHY. A METEOROLOGY. 
1. The New Hypothesis.* Hon. R, T. Van 1. Clouds.* Prof. S. A. Maxwell. .... . 626 
TBlOre A YE) ary Sa ea Pema aC een eon et 585 2: ue Weather Prophecies of Vennor. * 
See IPO INOWES G6 oe aig do eleleke 627 
GEOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY. | 3. Meteorological Summary for 1880. Prof. 
1, The Antiquity of Man and the Origin of TETAS ry RRC a Uk am Nada 631 
Species. Principal J. W. Dawson. .. - 095 4. Meteorological Observations at Washburn 
2. The Pleiocene Beds of Southern Oregon.* Gollese Prof jis ovewelle ame moa 
3 eee: Sternberg. . - - +: 600 5. Solar Halos.* Prof S.A. Maxwell. . . 635 
ae e Quaternary of Washington Terri- 6 Pathelion in Kansas City* W. EH. R 
tory.* Chas. H. Sternberg. ..-.- - . 601 ; Tey kinseoya ck pier ue VI Aas Alle a Gt ate 
ARCHAOLOGY ANO ANTHROPOLOGY. BOOK NOTICES. * 
1. Oriental Resemblances in New Mexico. . 602 1. Burr’s Library Index. J. B. Burr Pub. 
2. Ancient Works in New Mexico. . . . 605 5 ee ead eas) a ae a ale Gs 
‘ e Problem 0 uman Life. Ha 0. 637 
CHEMISTRY. 3 h i Seeks Is. G. W. 2 
1. Chemistry in 1727.* Prof, T. Berry Smith 606 Jolin Siento te eo cee 
PHYSICS 4. The fden Tableau. Le & Shepard. . . 638 
“1. The Electric Time Ball at Kansas City. * . 610 5. ne es of Ancient Egypt. Scribner’s 
MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. i 6. Other Publications Received. ....-- 640 
J. Malaria* Dr. W. B.Sawyer. ......614 | SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1. The Kansas Scientific Survey.* Prof. J. 
en Se Rina ieeerableKanedomsmRe 1D.s Parkers iain ste unease cmon ye 640 
: . ony ski EBS Scom 615 2. Improvement of the Missouri River... . 643 
_J.Templin. 2... +e es : Sanne Albmeerninve ee ahs ie cede oF 6d 644 
ASTRONOMY. She 6 4. Scientific Work at the Kansas University .645 
1. Ancient Eclipses.* Wm. Dawson. ... . i 
2. Astronomical Notes for February, 1881.* EDITORIAL NOTES. .-.-+-++--+--> 646 
W. W. Alexander. ....--+.-+--. 625 | ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS... . 647 


*Written for the REVIEW. 


Subscription Price, $2.50 per Annum, post-paid; Single Numbers, 25 Cents. 
For Sale by the AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 39 and 41 Chambers Street, N. Y. 


Entered at the Post Office at Kansas City, Mo., as second class matter. 


KANSAS CITY, MO. 
Press oF Ramsey, Mittetr & Hupson. 


First-Class Heating and Cooking Stoves for Sale, 
LOW DOWN FOR CASH! 


They embrace the most Select and Modern Styles of tending manufacturer 
of the Union. They include such stoves as the 


ARGAND, HECLA, CHARTER AND OMAHA, 


For both Coal and Wood, ALL of WHICH I offer for sale at the 


VERY LOWEST PRICE 


I also carry a full supply of 


[INNER'S STOCK AND TRIMMINGS 


Which I offer at St. Louis and Chicago prices. I cordially invite the — 
attention of dealers of the Missouri Valley and the public at large to 
my large and varied stock, and challenge competition. I also man- 
ufacture a full line of 


SHEET IRON GOODS, TIN ROOFING, 


—AND- — 


GALVANIZED CORNICES. 


I have in my employ FIFTY of the most skilled Mechanics in the West, which 
enables me to fill your orders with promptness and dispatch. Call at the original _ 


RED FRONT STOVE STORE 


518 Main Street, 
JAS.’ REDH EERE 


ne 


“att MVE CEH), 


#9 


Marcu, 1881. No. fi. 


eles 


ANSAS CITY REVIEW 


OF 


CIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


EDITED BY 


THEO. S. CASH. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE. FAGE. 
PHILOSOPHY. METEOROLOGY. 
1. The Synthetic Philosophy an Organon of 1. Clouds—Lightning.* Prof. S. A. Max- 
the Sciences.* Prof. J. M. Long. . . . 649 ‘ well. STIs Seis nee Han Ja Aslam nt 694 
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY. } nee es ne aad Reveies ee 
1. Schliemann’s Discoveries at Troy... . . eae 3. ated Weather Service.* Prof. J. T. 
2iyeAmiexican: Pottenys i acute eh eee ee 6: Ove well ies s Sea Ca autnn canon issuer Cou 698 
3. Indian Traditions Respecting Their Ori- 4. Beneficial Effects of Smoke........ 699 
ine es WING ve. aCe WAS ween ences 665 | BOOK NOTICES. * 
BOTANY. ie Natural rious, and Religion. Se 
1. History of the Vegetable Kingdom (con-— 2. History of the Christian Religion to A. D. 
cluded).* Rev. L. J. Templin. . . . 667 200. C. V. Waite& Co..... © 700 
GEOLOGY ; 3. CHApiETS front pele Dyeical History of the 
1. Geological Features of Bible Lands. . . 672 4. Cations Miche of Geimiadioaees ae 
2. The Dakota Group* Chas. Sternberg. . 675 ents Prost ie Seleee. oe Be abate 
MEDICINE AND HYGIENE 5 Spach Self Taught. K.C. Book & News 
ah OLGA eae casa HRS SRE ese CRE Rae cht Zens 703 
: RTI EEN He Evolutiomend me 6. Other Publications Received. ..,.... 703 
20 -Remiedicsi for Ghiiblains/.- piace aggend) |) SCTE DIELS MSC BE LONn. 
GEOGRAPHY Bi VAS Lost? City. Cour. nek ae 706 
1, The Howgate Expedition to Lady Frank: | 3: A Shert Story of the Obelisk . 1 Ue lia0s 
linePay eens ee. el an 85 team Heating for Cities... 1... | ~ 709 
2. Outline of Scientific Work for same*. . . 688 # Fapet es Ve Oy Walley sane 7LL 
ss ¢ 
ASTRON OM NS: a cae Marche Teste ie The Vises Isthmian Rows Ghee ip 
. Astronomica otes for arch, : ; 
Wea WiarMlexander .tiasiccke Gyo eecragne 692 EDITORIAL: NOTES 15 Usage ai cise se 73 
2. The Lick Observatory Telescope. . . .694 | ITEMS FROM; THE PERIODICALS... .714 


*Written for the REviEw. 


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KANSAS CITY, MO. 
Press oF Ramsey, MILLETT & HuDson. 


Kansas Clay, Jume, hoc: 


ye I. Hammerslough & So., 
\ The One-Price Blathiers, 


Present compliments to the readers of JN 
the Review, and beg to call their attention \~~ 
to our unrivaled stock of Gentlemen’s and 
Youths’ Summer Clothing and Furnishing Goods. pre 

We sell none but the Best Articles. Wee 
prices are plainly marked in figures and are 
never deviated from. 

It is useless to specify, as we have everything 
that a Gentleman can want to maxe himself com- 
tortable and attractive In appearance. 

We make WEDDING SUITS a specialty, and can supply 


the finest grades on verv short nouce. CLERGYMEN are always 
allowed a discount of 10 per cent. 

When you are in Kansas City, please call and examine our 
Goods. \We know that we can suit you, 40th 1m quality and price. 
AB il. Let the boys come too and get tickets in the next pony drawing. 

Sill NN A Respectfully Yours, LL. HAMMERSLOUGH & CO, 
fae ete nla ered Cor. 5th and Maztn Sts. 


: Suen sie) see 
& 


Aisa 


Established 1865. 


ED. H. WEBSTER, 


Real Estate: Loan Broker 


FARMS, Unimproved and Mineral Lands Bought and Sold, Capital Invested, Rents Collected, Taxes Paid 
Titles Examined, Deeds, Leases and General Conveyancing and Notarial Business promptly attended to. 


Office, No. 603 Mai Street, 
KANSAS CITY, - MISSOURI. 


WM. E. THORNE, 


728 Main Street, Corner Sth, KANSAS CITY, MO. 


PICTUREFRAMES, PICTURE MOULDINGS, 


PICTURES, 
ARTISTS’ AND WAX FLOWER MATERIALS, 


Mirrors and Mirror Plates, Stationery, A New Line, Cheap. 
FANCY GOODS OF MANY KINDS. 


| Vot. IV. 


APRIL, 


1881. 


Jbl, 


KANSAS CITY REVIEW 


SCIENCE AND INDUST 


e 
EDITED BY 
pS 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
PAGE, PAGE 
PHYSICS. 3. Clouds: Tornadoes and Electricity.* 5S. 
1. The Magnetic Survey of Missouri* (illus- A Maxwell... .....-.-...-. 756 
ee Frock IP 13) INK ONG SE ese ETHNOLOGY. 
2 e Kansas City Electric Time Ball* (il- : * ance 
Reseed Prof HS. Pritchett: ( 720 1. The Pueblo Indians.* James C. Pilling . 758 
8. Distinctions of Forests.* Rev. ‘V. L. CORRESPONDENCE, 
ENVAS pean eines pured eaie a soebney Seujectenxes emeas 723 1. Science Letter from Paris.* F. Connor . 760 
HISTORICAL NOTES. BOOK NOTICES.* 
1. The Spanish Expedition to Missouri in 1. Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy 
TAGE ohne jones: 6 Senge. 724 f GSC Ca Gio dg) doves 4.5.0 whoo 764 
OleeMmhen Mogquisnn i siete nok on mae 2 Ge of Astronomy. J. Fitzger- ce 
GEOLOGY AND PALHONTOLOGY. 3. A Study of Savage Weapons. ||... 
1. The Judith River Group.* Charles H. 4. The eocten Bulletins. C. W. Bardeen & 
Stermberccyrm ce reun nie ren eamienc rth wij 73 (yea WAtekis ieee EON oases cate ateaead alc sauenh euler ae stim ete Te ea 764 
2 Geological Climates.* Dr. John Rea. . . 734 5. Other Publications Received. ...-.. 
GEOORAPHICAL NOTES. SCIENTIFIC MISCELLANY. 
1. Heath’s Discoveries in South America*. lee Notesrands@wente ster eee . 765 
IPTOfen| pO emraAnkerive sii. cbicwal cieusinct 736 DAPIA OSSSIZ) sai rae aera aoe aon 2) velgievenns 766 
2. Congressional Appropriation for Scientific 3. The EarthquakeatIschia .. . . 167 
PURPOSES Siena es ke pone eee ae 738 4, Railroad and Telegraph Land Grants . 769 
3. Liberian Commerce. ..........-- 740 5. Separating the Precious Metals by Electro- 
4. Meteorological Stations in Behring’s Sea . 741 WIGS Siig Cassie orn corso sichsoco tees oo . 770 
6. Missouri Water Power... ...-.--> 770 
ASTRONOMY. Jo Abin. ta Wlain 434 5 oe Sod Sec 771 
1. Planetary Phenomena for April, '1831.* 8. Science in the Schools of France ..... 7712 
Wits WeseAlexcanderitns ates ie ats ey ie 742 9. Credit Given to the U. S. Signal Service . 773 
2. Delicate Scientific Instruments.* Prof. 10. Engineeri g Project forthe Year 2, 2000 . 774 
IDM bend bere ape OEM a iaraltsom wom cen oure 743 iit omgscles Hoel from oak 6 Re oe 
12. Life within the Arctic ircle . ewer Tal 
METEOROLOGY . 13. Letter from George Washiagton Prceneee are IUU 
1. The Storm Center and Weather Prophets.* 14. Historical Society of New Mexico... . «778 
GER IPS INOS Ss Selb Glo c A oa) 5 ole 750 EDITORIAL NOTES 79 
PemGansasiWVeatheri@DServatlonsics tbr fe pui pe ins |icmtertigin yay sialon i.nve ytiyay tly eG apnea yaa eta aay pala 
mIpAG OMEN listers Uietiani 4) (iscinetel cetera secs 755 | ITEMS FROM THE PERIODICALS... . 782 


*Written for 


Subseription Price, $2.50 per Annum, 


the REVIEW. 


post-paid ; Single Numbers, 25 Cents. 


For Sale by the AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 39 and 41 Chambers Street, N.Y. 


Entered at the Post Office at Kansas City, Mo., as second class matter. 


KANSAS CITY, MO. 
Press oF Ramsey, MitteTt & HuDSsON. 


J: OT UN OR Ree) ee 


MERCHANT TAT 


122 West Sth Street, - KANSAS CITY, MO. 


A Large Assortment of Foreign and Domestic Woolens 


First-Class Fit and Workmanship Guaranteed. 


ESTABLISHED 1858. % 


| Kansas City, April, igre 
7 he. ffammerslough de Go-, 
\ The One-Price Clathiers, 


Present compliments to the readers of ff 
the Review, and beg to call their attention 
to our unrivaled stock of Gentlemen’s and 
Youths’ Summer Clothing and Furnishing Goods. eis 

We sell none but the Best Articles, Ou 
prices are plainly marked in figures and are 
never deviated from. : 

lt 1s useless to specity, as we have everything 
that a Gentleman can want -o make himself com- 
forvable and attractive in appearance. 

We make WEDDING SUITS a specialty, and can supply 
the finest grades on very short notice. CLERGYVMEN are always 
allowed a discount of 10 per cent. 

When you are in Kansas City, please call and examine our 
Goods. \We know that we can suit you, doth in quality and price. 
Let the boys come too and get tickets in the next pony drawing. 


capi AL Respectfully Yours, L. HAMMERSLOUGH & CO.,, 
Dehabrcic be Acbadds Cor. 5th and Main Sts. 


Wi 


IR M 4 


h 


Established 1865. 


ED. H. WEBSTER, - 


Real Estate: Loan Broker 


FARMS, Unimproved and Mineral Lands Bought and Sold, Capital Invested, Rents Collected, Taxes Paid 
Titles Examined, Deeds, Leases and General Conveyancing and Notarial Business promptly attended to. 


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