KEY
TO
North American Birds.
CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF EVERY SPECIES OF LIVING AND FOSSIL
BIRD AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM THE CONTINENT NORTH OF THE
MEXICAN AND UNITED STATES BOUNDARY, INCLUSIVE
OF GREENLAND AND LOWER CALIFORNIA,
WITH WHICH ARE INCORPORATED /~^ ^^ / 7 )
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY: c^
AN OUTLINE OF THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS;
AND
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY,
A MANUAL OF COLLECTING, PREPARING, AND PRESERVING BIRDS.
^\z Jt'ftf) l£ti{tt0n,
(entirely revised)
EXHIBITING THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION, AND INCLUDING
DESCRIPTIONS OF ADDITIONAL SPECIES
IN TWO VOLUMES.
Volume I.
By ELLIOTT COUES, A.M., M.D., Ph.D.,
Late Captain and Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army and Secretary U. S. Geological Survey ; Vice-President of the American
Ornithologists" Union, and Chairman of the Committee on the Classification and Nomenclature of North American Birds ;
Foreign Member of the British Ornithologists' Union ; Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society
of London ; Member of the National Academy of Sciences, of the Faculty of the National
Medical College, of the Philosophical and Biological Societies of Washington.
PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED.
BOSTON:
DANA ESTES AND COMPANY.
1903.
^0^. ifH^^., p^,ici
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S72, by
F. W. Putnam and Elliott Coues,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
F. W. Putnam and Elliott Coues,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
Copyright, 1S82, I884, and 1887,
By Estes and Lauriat.
Copyright, 1903,
By Dana Estes & Co.
University Press :
John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.
=©0
SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD,
Nestor of American Ornithologists,
Ci)is COorli,
BEARING TO OTHERS THE TORCH RECEIVED FROM HIM IN EARLIER DAYS,
315 DeDtcateU*
PUBLISHER'S PREFACE TO FIFTH REVISED EDITION.
*' I ^HE present work constitutes the completion of Dr. Coues' life-long labors
-*- on behalf of the science of ornithology, too widely knowni and appreciated
to require further mention here. In preparing it for publication the publishers
have suffered extraorduiaiy expense, difficulty, and delay by the loss of Dr.
Coues' assistance in the proof-reading and illustrating of the book. The manu-
script was finished but shortly before his death, and though fortunately com-
plete in this form, was left in such shape as to present almost insuperable
difficulties to the compositor or proof-reader, who lacked the author's direction
and supervision.
The publishers have had the good fortune to secure the services of Mr. J. A.
Farley, who has read the manuscript of the Systematic Synopsis, constituting
Part Three or the body of the work, with the most painstaking care. To the
scholarly zeal and conscientious spirit of fidelity and accuracy with which this
ornithologist has carried out the task he set himself of presenting the fifth
edition in exactly the form Dr. Coues would have wished, had he lived, the
publishers and their readers owe an imlimited debt of gratitude. The result,
though a posthuinous book, is one which Dr. Coues would un(|uestionably have
been proud to own as the crowning work of his life. As a scientific work, it
is without doubt authoritative and definitive.
The science of ornithology has made vast strides since the publication of the
fourth edition of this work, and the present issue has outgrown the limits of a
single octavo volume. The following points briefly summarize the scope of the
additions and changes from former editions :
1. Enlarged descriptions of species.
2. Accounts much fuller than in former editions, of the breeding liabits of
birds, particularly the detailed description of eggs.
iv PUBLISHER'S PREFACE TO FIFTH REVISED EDITION.
3. The full collation in the text (not in an appendix, as in former editions)
of the nomenclature of species in the Key, with the nomenclature and numera-
tion of the American Ornithologists' Union Check-List.
4. The full synonymies and bibliographical references in the case of very
many species — a new feature of the Key, and invaluable to students of all
degi'ees of advancement. To the preparation of this important feature Dr. Coues
brought his rare gifts as a bibliographer and nomenclator.
5. The previous very extensive series of illustrations has been largely in-
creased by the addition of over two hundred new figures of species hitherto
seldom figured, from life studies by Louis Agassiz Fuertes executed with a
delicacy, beauty, and accuracy never before equalled.
6. The introductory (i. e. general) descriptions of ordinal, family, and other
groups are much amplified over those in preceding editions of the Key, being of
a broad scope which make plain the comparative relationships of North Ameri-
can families, genera, and species of birds, with extralimital forms (Old World
and neotropical). This broad treatment makes the Key more than the purely
faunal work its title would imply.
7. An appendix containing the additions to the American Ornithologists'
Union-Check List of North American Birds and the changes in nomenclature
not noted elsewhere which have been made since Dr. Coues' death.
DANA ESTES AND COMPANY.
Boston, October, 1903.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
TN presenting a new edition of the Key to those who are interested in North
-'- American Birds, the publishers desire the author to add a word by way
of preface. But little need be said of a book which speaks for itself in passing
through several editions to supply that demand for a standard textbook of
ornithology which this work has itself done much to create, by stimulating and
satisfying an interest in one of the most delightful departments of Natural
History.
The part which the Key has taken in the evolution of the subject since
1872 is sketched in the " Historical Preface " (pp. xxvi-xxx), first introduced
in the Second Edition, 1884 Since the founding of the American Ornitholo-
gists' Union in 1883 the impetus then given to the study of birds has resulted
in a momentum directly proportionate to the number of workers in this field
and to the length of time these have been engaged. I could wish the fruits
of such unparalleled activity were all sound and ripe, but they are not ; growth
has been forced to some extent in rival hot-houses, and the familiar parable of
wheat and tares finds a fresh illustration. Too quick transition from an old to
a new order of things in the technicalities of our subject has brought disorder,
as usual. Till the pace slackens somewhat, so that we can see where we stand,
I do not think it would be wise to reca.st the Key.
Therefore, tlie only change in the present edition is the addition of a Second
Appendix, beginning page 897.
E. C.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
THE second edition of the " Key," which appeared in May, 1884, has al-
ready been out of print for more than a year. Though aware of the
continued demand for a standard work of reference, the author has been unable
to meet it more promptly, having meanwhile accepted some other literary en-
gagements which proved imperative in their demand upon his capacity for work.
Slight as the requisite revision of this book has proven to be, it did not seem ex-
pedient to go to press again without recognizing the steps American Ornithology
has taken during the past three years, though these may be called many rather
than great ones. There is so little to change in the substance of the book that
it has been thought decidedly best tu reprint from the same plates, and put what
new matter has come to hand in the form of an Appendix. However much
there is that might have advantageously gone into the second edition, but did
not, the author is satisfied with nearly everything that did go in, and quite ready
to submit it all to the still further test of time. The transition from what some
of his friends have called the " Couesian Period " may mean a change in form
rather than in fact.
The naming of our birds, as an art distinguished from the science of know-
ing them, has lately been pitched in a key so high that the familiar notes of the
former " Key " might jangle out of tune, or be lost entirely, were the attempt
made to reset them just now. During the confusion unavoidably incident to
such sweeping changes in nomenclature as we have recently made, it will be a
decided benefit to the student, the sportsman, and the amateur, if not also to
every working ornithologist, to be provided with a convenient means of compar-
ing the older with the newer style of nomenclature we have adopted, until each
one shall have grown accustomed to the change of spectacles. This accommoda-
tion is aiforded by the present edition, which leaves the names and their nam-
viii PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
bers untouched in the body of the text, and then adjusts them to the new angle
of vision in the Appendix, in parallel columns. Thus the new " Key " turns
either way ; or, to vary the metaphor, the renovated structure stands Janus-
faced, looking both ways at once — backward upon its old self, of which it
has no cause to be ashamed ; forward upon another self, of which it has much
reason to be proud.
The train of incidents which resulted in Mdiat may be called a nomenclatural
explosion was fired at the founding of the American Ornithologists' Union at
New York, in September, 1883. As one of three persons who brought that
happy episode upon an unsuspecting bird-world, which nevertheless greeted their
stroke with acclamation, the author must plead a modesty act in bar of trial of
his pen on that particular count. But as the honor was his of presiding over
the first Congress of the Union, whilst the ideas of its founders were shapen in-
to a permanent and world-wide organization, so also it fell to his lot to appoint
several committees for the despatch of business the Union at once took in hand ;
and of one of these he has to speak here.
This particular wheel v/ithin other wheels turned upon a resolution of the
Union " that the Chairman appoint a committee of five, including himself, to
whom shall be referred the question of a revision of the Classification and
Nomenclature of the Birds of North America." Having accepted the situation,
the author held with his esteemed colleagues many sessions of the Committee in
Washington and New York, and in April, 1885, offered to the Union the result
of much joint labor. The report of the Committee being accepted, it was ordered
to be printed, and it appeared in 1886 in an octavo volume of 400 pages,
entitled " The Code of Nomenclature and Check-list of North American Birds,
adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union," etc.
The objects which we kept steadily in view were : first, to establish certain
sound principles or canons of nomenclature applicable to zoology at large as
well as to ornithology ; and, secondly, to apply these rules consistently and
effectually to the naming of North American birds. Others must be left to
judge how well or ill these purposes may have been accomplished, but the
simple fact is that no sooner had the book appeared than it became the standard
and indeed the only recognized Nomenclator in American Ornithology. That
which the Committee had stamped with the seal of the Union became the
current coin of the realm, other than which our venerable fowl. The Auk, should
know none.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. ix
In estimating the probable consequences for the long run, it is necessary to
discriminate between any given ornithological fact and the handle we may agree
to give that fact. The former is a natural fixity, the latter is a movable furni-
ture ; the former is subject to no authority we can set up, the latter is wholly ar-
bitrary, determinable at our pleasure. Uniformity of nomenclature is so obvious
and decided a practical convenience that even at the risk of seeming to laud
work in which he had a hand, the author cannot too strongly urge compliance
with the Union's code, and adherence to the set of names the Union has
adopted. These may not be the best possible, but they are the best we have.
The author's insistence upon this point does not of course extend to any
case where an error of ornithological fact may appear. That is an entirely
different matter. Eeserving to himself, as he certainly does, the right of indi-
vidual judgment in every question of ornithological science, he is the last to
persuade others to refrain from equal freedom of expert opinion. " So many
men, so many minds," even when the number is only five ; no individual opinion
is necessarily reflected upon any point in the Code and Check-list ; it is the collec-
tive voice of a majority of tlie Committee that is heard in every instance. The
occasion for individual dissent on the part of any member of that body, as of any
other writer upon the subject, arises when in his private capacity as an author
lie has, as it were, to pass upon and approve or disapprove any results of the
labors of others. The Appendix to the present edition of the " Key " unavoidably
brings up such an occasion. Yet that he may not even seem to reflect upon any
of his co-workers, his criticism express or implied has been sedulously reduced
to its lowest terms. It consists chiefly in declining to admit to the "Key" some
forms that the Committee have deemed worthy of recognition by name. Indeed
he has preferred to err, if at all, on the other side, desiring to give the user of this
book the later results of the whole Committee.
Nevertheless he must here record an earnest protest, futile though it may
be, against the fatal facility with whicli the system of trinomials lends itself to
sad consequences in the hands of immature or inexperienced specialists. No
allusion is here intended to anything tliat lias been done, but he must reiterate
what was said before ( Key, p. xxvii ) respecting what may be done hereafter if
more judicious conservatism than we have enjoyed of late be not brought to bear
down hard upon trifling incompetents. The " trinomial tool " is too sharp to
be made a toy ; and even if we do not cut our own fingers with it, we are likely
to cut the throat of the whole system of naming we have reared with such
X PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
care. Better throw the instrument away than use it to slice species so thin that
it takes a microscope to perceive them. It may be assumed, as a safe rule of
procedure, that it is useless to divide and subdivide beyond the fair average
ability of ornithologists to recognize and verify the result. Named varieties of
birds that require to be " compared with the types " by holding them up slant-
wise in a good strong light, — just as the ladies match crewels in the milliner's
gliop, — such often exist in the cabinets or in the books of their describers, but
seldom in the woods and fields.
K C.
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C, April, 1887.
HISTORICAL PREFACE.
remains,
period —
Were a modern Hesiod to essay — neither a cos-
mogony nor a theogony — but the genesis of even the
least department of human knowledge, — were he to
seek the beginnings of American Ornithology, he would
tiiid it only in Chaos. For from this sprang all things,
great and small alike,
to pass through Night
and Nemesis to the
light of days which
first see orderly pro-
gress in the course
of natural evolution,
when is first estab-
lished some sequence
of events we recognize
as causes and effects.
Then there is system,
and formal law ; there
science becomes possi-
ble ; there its possible
history begins.
Long was the time
during which the birds
of our country were
known to its inhab-
itants, after the fash-
ion of tlie people of
those days, — known
as things of which use
could be made, and
studied, too, that use
might be made of them.
But this period is pre-
historic ; no evidence
image. There followed a
sliorter bv far than tlie forni.'r one, tliougli it endures to-day — when the same
5: t^
save in some quaint pictograph or rudely gra
xu HISTORICAL PREFACE.
birds awakened in other men an interest they could not excite in a savage breast, and
the sense of beauty was felt. Use and Beauty ! What may not spring from such divinely
mated pair, when once they brood upon the human mind, like halcyons stilling troubled
waters, sinking the instincts of the animal in the restful, satisfying reflections of the
man ]
The history of American Ornithology begins at the time when men first wrote upon
American birds ; for men write nothing without some reason, and to reason at all is the
beginning of science, even as to reason aright is its end. The date no one can assign,
unless it be arbitrarily ; it was during the latter part of the sixteenth century, which,
with the whole of the seventeenth, represents the formative or embryonic period during
which were gathering about the germ the crude materials out of which an ornithology of
North America was to be fashioned. As these accumulated and were assimilated, — as
the writings multiplied and books bred books, " each after its kind," this special depart-
ment of knowledge grew up, and its form changed with each new impress made upon its
plastic organization.
Viewing in proper perspective these three centuries and more which our subject has
seen — passing in retrospect the steps of its development — we find that it offers several
phases, representing as many " epochs " or major divisions, of very unequal duration, and
of scientific significance inversely proportionate to their respective lengths. All that
went before 1700 constitutes the first of these, which may be termed the Archaic epoch.
The eighteenth century witnessed an extraordinary event, the consequence of which to
systematic zoology cannot be over-estimated ; it occurred almost exactly in the middle of
the century, which is thus sharply divided into a Pre-Limiaan epoch, before the institu-
tion of the binomial nomenclature, and a Post-Linntvan epoch, during which this technic
of modern zoology was established, — each approximately of half a century's duration.
In respect of our particular theme, the first quarter of the nineteenth century saw the
" father of American ornithology," whose spirit pointed the crescent in the sky of the
Wilsonian epoch. During the second quarter, these horns were filled with the genius of
the Auduhonian epoch. In the third, the plenteousness of a master mind has marked
the Bairdian epoch.
Clearly as these six epochs may be recognized, there is of course no break between
them ; they not only meet, but merge in one another. The sharpest line is that which
nms across Linnaeus at 1758 : but even that is only visible in historical perspective, while
the assignation of the dates 1700 and 1800 is rather a chronological convenience than
otherwise. Nothing absolutely marks the former ; and Wilson was unseen till 1808.
The Archaic epoch stretches into the dim past with unshifting scene, even at the
turning-point of the two centuries in which it lies. It is otherwise with the rest ; their
shapes have incessantly changed ; and several have been the periods in each of them dur-
ing which their course of development has been accelerated or retarded, or modified in
some special feature. These changes have invariably coincided with — have in fact been
induced by — the appearance of some great work ; great, not necessarily in itself, but
in its relation to the times, and thus in the consequences of the interaction between the
times and the author who left the science other than he found it. The edifice as it
stands to-day is the work of all, even of the humblest, builders ; but its plan is tliat of
the architects who have modelled its main features, and the changes they have success-
HISTORICAL PREFACE. Xlli
ively wrought are the marks of progress. It is consequently possible, and it will be found
convenient, to subdivide the epochs named (excepting the first) into lesser natural inter-
vals of time, which may be called " periods," to each of which may attach the name of
the architect whose design is expressed most clearly. I recognize fifteen such periods, of
very unequal duration, to which specific dates may attach. Seven of these fall in the
last century ; eight in the three-quarters of the present century. We may pass them in
brief review.
The Archaic Epoch: to 1700.
Mere mention or fragmentary notice of North American birds may be traced back
to the middle of the sixteenth century ] but, up to the eighteenth, no book entirely and
exclusively devoted to the subject had appeared. The Turkey and the Humming-bird
were among the earHest to appear in print ; the latter forms the subject of the earliest
paper I have found, exclusively and formally treating of any North American bird as
such, and this was not until 1693, when Hamersly described the " American Toraineius,"
as it was called. One of the largest, as well as the smallest of our birds, — the turkey,
early came in for a share of attention. The germs of the modern " faunal list," — that is
to say, notes upon the birds of some particular region or locality, — appeared early in the
seventeenth century, and continued throughout ; but only as incidental and very slight
features of books published by colonists, adventurers, and missionaries, in their several
interests, — unless Hernandez's famous "Thesaurus " be brought into the present connec-
tion. Among such books containing bird-matter may be noted Smith's " Virginia," 1612;
Hamor's "Virginia," 1615 ; Whitbourne's "Newfoundland," 1620 ; Higginson's "New
England," 1630; Morton's "New English Canaan," 1632; Wood's "New England's
Prospect," 1634; Sagard Theodat's "Voyage," 1632; Josselyn's "New England's
Earities," 1672 ; — and so on, with a few more, — sometimes mere paragraphs, some-
times a page or a formal chapter, — but scarcely anything to be now considered except in
a spirit of curiosity.
The Pre-Lixn/ean Epoch : 1700-1758.
(1700-1730.)
The Lawsonian Period. — It may be a Incus a non to call this the " Lawsonian "
period ; but a name is needed for the portion of this epoch prior to Catesby, during which
no other name is so prominent as that of John Lawson, Gentleman, Surveyor-General of
North Carolina, whose "' Description and Natural History " of that country contains one
of the most considerable faunal lists of our birds which appeared before 1730, and went
through many editions, — the last of these being published at Raleigh, in 1860. The
several early editions devote some fifteen or twenty pages to birds, — an amount aug-
mented considerably when Brickell appropriated the work in 1737. The Baron de la
Hontan did similar service to Canadian birds in his "Voyages," 1793; but, on the
whole, this period is scarcely more than archaic.
(1730-1748.)
The Cateshian Period. — This conij^rises the time wlien Mark Catesby's great work
was appearing by instalments. " The Natural History of Carolina, Florida," etc., is the
xiv HISTORICAL PREFACE.
first really great work to come under our notice ; its influence was immediate, and is even
now felt. It is the " Audubon " of that time ; a folio in two volumes, dating respectively
1731 and 1743, with an appendix, 1748 ; passing to a second edition in 1754, to a
third in 1771, under the supervision of Edwards ; reproduced in Germany, in " Selig-
mann's Sammlung," 1 749-76. It was published in parts, the date of the first of which
I believe to have been 1730, though it may have been a little earlier. Volume I, contain-
ino- the birds, appears to have been issued in five parts, and was made up in 1731 ; it consists
of a hundred colored plates of birds, with as many leaves of text ; a few more birds are
given in the appendix, raising the number to 113. These illustrations are recognizable
almost without exception ; most of the species are for the first time described and figured ;
they furnish the basis of many subsequently named in the Linnfean system ; the work
was eventually provided by Edwards with a Linnsean concordance or index ; and alto-
gether it is not easy to overestimate the significance of the Catesbian period, due to this
one work ; for no other book requires or indeed deserves to be mentioned in the same
connection, though a few contributions, of somewhat "archaic" character, were made by
various writers.
(1748-1758.)
The Edwardsian Period. — This bridges the interval between Catesby and the estab-
lishment of the binomial nomenclature, and finishes the Pre-Linnsean epoch. No great
name of exclusive pertinence to Xorth American ornithology appears in this decade.
But the great naturalist whose name is inseparably associated with that of Catesby had
begun in 1741 the " Natural History of Uncommon Birds," which he completed in four
parts or volumes, in 1751, and in which the North American element is conspicuous.
This work contains two hundred and ten colored plates, with accompanying text, forming
a treatise which easily ranks among the half-dozen greatest works of the kind of the Pre-
Linnsean epoch, and passed through several editions in difi"erent languages. Its impress
upon American ornithology of the time is second only to that made by Catesby's, of
which it was the natural sequence, if not consequence It bore similarly upon birds soon
to be described in binomial terms, and was shortly followed by the not less famous
"Gleanings of Natural History," 1758-64, a work of precisely the same character, and in
fact a continuation of the former. Edwards also made some of our birds the subject of
special papers before the Philosophical Society, as those of 1755 and 1758 upon the
Euff"ed Grouse and the Phalarope. It may be noted here that one of the few special papers
upon any American bird which Linnaeus published appeared in this period, he having in
1750 first described the Louisiana Nonpareil (Passerina ciris). This period also saw the
publication of part of the original Swedish edition of Peter Kalm's "Travels," 1753-61,
which went through numerous editions in difierent languages. Kalm was a correspondent
of Linnseus ; the genus of plants, Kalmia, commemorates his name ; his work contains
accounts of many of our birds, some of them the bases of Linnsean species ; and he also
published, in 1759, a special paper upon the Wild Pigeon. As in the Catesbian period,
various lesser contributions were made, but none requiring comment. Tlius Lawson,
as representing the continuation of a preceding epoch, and the associated names of
Catesby and Edwards in the present one, have carried us past the middle of the last
century.
HISTORICAL PREFACE.
The PosT-LixNJiAN Epoch: 1758-1800.
(1758-1766.)
The Linnoean Period. — Au interregnum here, during which not a notable work or
worker appears in North American ornithology itself. But events elsewhere occurred,
the reflex action of which upon our theme is simply incalculable, fully requiring the
recognition of this period. The dates, 1758-1766, are respectively those of the appear-
ance of the tenth and of the twelth edition of the " Systema Naturae " of Linnaeus. In
the former the illustrious Swede first formally and consistently applied his system of
nomenclature to all birds known to him; the latter is his completed system, as it finally
left his hands ; and from tlien to now, zoologists and especially ornithologists have dis-
puted whether 1758 or 1766 should be taken as the starting-point of zoological nomen-
clature. In ornithology, the matter is still at issue between the American and the
British schools. However this may result, the fact remains that during this "Linnsean
period," 1758 to 1766, we have the origin of all the tenable specific names of those of
our birds which were known to Linnaeus ; the gathering up and methodical digestion
and systematic arrangement of all that had gone before. Let this scant decade stand, —
mute in America, but eloquent in Sweden, and since applauded to the echo of the world.
Nor is this all. The year 1760 saw the famous " Ornithologia " of Mathurin Jacques
Brisson (born April 20, 1725 — died June 23, 1806), in six portly quartos with 261 folded
plates, and elaborate descriptions in Latin and French of hundreds of birds, a fair pro-
portion of which are North American. Many are described for the first time, though
unfortunately not in the binomial nomenclature. The work holds permanent place;
and most of the original descriptions of Brisson's are among the surest bases of Linnseau
species.
(1766-1785.)
The Forsterian Period. — Nearly twenty years have now elapsed with so little in-
cident that two brochures determine the complexion of this period. John Reinhold
Forster was a learned and able man, whose connection with North American ornithology
is interesting. In 1771 he published a tract, now very scarce and of no consequence
whatever, entitled "A Catalogue of the Animals of North America." But it was the
first attempt to do anything of the sort, — in short, the first thing of its kind. It gives
.'502 birds, neither described nor even named scientifically. But that was a large num-
ber of North American birds to even mention in those days, — more than Wilson gave
in 1814. Forster followed up this exploit in 1772 with an interesting and valuable
account of 58 birds from Hudson's Bay, occupying some fifty pages of the "Philosophical
Transactions." Several of these birds were new to science, and were formally named, —
such as our White-throated Sparrow, Black-poll Warbler, Hudsonian Titmouse, and
Eskimo Curlew. Aside from its intrinsic merit, this paper is notable as the first formal
treatise exclusively devoted to a collection of North American birds sent abroad. The
period is otherwise marked by the publication in 1780 of Fabricius' " Fauna Grocnlandica,"
in which some 50 birds of Greerdand receive attention ; and especially by the appearance
of a great statesman and one of the Presidents of the United States in the rule of orni-
thologist, Thomas Jefl"erson's " Notes on the State of Virginia " having been first pri-
XVI HISTOBICAL PEE FACE
vately printed in Paris in 1782, though the authorized pubHcation was not till 1787.
It contains a list of 77 birds of Virginia, fortified with references to Catesby, Linnajus,
and Brisson, as the author's authorities. There were many editions, one dating 1853,
The long publication in France of one of the monumental works on general orni-
thology coincides very nearly with this period. I refer of course to Buifon and his
collaborators. The " Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux," by Buifon and Montbeillard, dates
in its original edition 1770-1783, being in nine quarto volumes with 264 plain plates.
It forms a part of the gi-and set of volumes dating 1749-1804 in their original editions.
With the nine bird- volumes are associated the magnificent series of colored plates known
as the "Planches Enluminees," published in 42 fascicles from 1765 to 1781. The
plates are 1008 in number, of which 973 represent birds.
(1785-1791.)
The Pennantian Period. — A great landmark — one of the most conspicuous of the
last century — was set up with the appearance in 1785 of the second volume of Thomas
Pennant's " Arctic Zoology." The whole work, in three quarto volumes with many
plates, 1784-1787, was "designed as a sketch of the Zoology of North America."
In this year, also, John Latham completed the third volume (or sixth part) of his
" General Synopsis of Birds." These two great works have much in common, in so far
as a more restricted treatise can be compared with a more comprehensive one ; and in
the history of our subject the names of Latham and Pennant are linked as closely as
those of Catesby and Edwards. The parallel may be drawn still further ; for neither
Pennant nor Latham (up to the date in mention) used binomial names ; their species
had consequently no standing; but they furnished to Gmelin in 1788 the same bases
of formally-named species of the thirteenth edition of the " Systema Naturae," that
Catesby and Edwards liad afforded Linnaeus in 1758 and 1766. Pennant treated up-
wards of 500 nominal species of North American Birds. The events at large of this brief
but important period were the progress of Latham's Supplement to his Synopsis, the first
volume of which appeared in 1787, though the second was not completed till 1801 ;
the appearance in 1790 of Latham's " Index Ornithologicus," in which his birds receive
Latin names in due form; and the publication in 1788 of the thirteenth edition of the
*' Systema Naturae," as just said.
We are so accustomed to see "Linn." and "Gm." after the names of our longest-
known birds that we almost unconsciously acquire the notion that Linnaeus and Gmelin
were great discoverers or describers of birds in those days. But the men who made
North American ornithology what it was during the last century were Catesby,
Edwards, Forster, Pennant, Latham, and Bartram. For " the illustrious Swede " \vas in
this case little more than a methodical cataloguer, or systematic indexer ; while his editor,
Gmelin, was merely an industrious, indiscriminate compiler and transcriber. Neither of
these men discovered anything to speak of in this connection.
(1791-1800.)
The Bartramian Period. — William Bartram's figure in the events we are sketching
is a notable one, — rather more on account of his bearing upon Wilson's subsequent ca-
reer than of liis own actual achievements. Wilson is often called the " father of Amcri-
HISTORICAL PREFACE. xvii
<;an ornithology ; " if this designation be apt, then Bartram may be styled its godfather.
Few are fully aware how much Wilson owed to Bartram, his " guide, philosopher, and
friend," who published in 1791 his "Travels through North and South Carolina," con-
taining much ornithological matter that was novel and valuable, including a formal
catalogue of the birds of the Eastern United States, in which many species are named
as new. I have always contended that those of his names which are identitiable are
available, though Bartram frequently lapsed from strict binomial propriety ; and the
question furnishes a bone of contention to this day. Many birds wijich Wilson first
fully described and figured were really named by Bartram, and several of the latter's
designations were simply adopted by Wilson, who, in relation to Bartram, is as the
broader and clearer stream to its principal tributary affluent. The notable " Travels,"
freighted with its unpretending yet almost portentous bird-matter, went through several
■editions and at least two translations ; and I consider it the starting-point of a distinctively
American school of ornithology.
We have seen, in several earlier periods, that men's names appear in pairs, if not
also as mates. Thus, Catesby and Edwards ; Linnseus and Gmelin ; Pennant and
Latham ; and, perhaps, Buflfon and Brisson. The Bartramian alter ego is not Wilson,
but Barton, whose "Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania," 1799, closed
the period which Bartram had opened, and with it the century also. Benjamin Smith
Barton's tract, a folio now very scarce, is doubly a " fragment," being at once a work
never finished, and very imperfect as far as it went ; but it is one of the most notable
special treatises of the last century, and I think the first book published in this country
that is entirely devoted to ornithology. But its author's laurels must rest mainly upon
this count, for its influence or impression upon the course of events is scarcely to be rec-
ognized,— is incomparably less than that made by Bartram's "Travels," and by his
mentorship of Wilson.
By the side of Bartram and Barton stand several lesser figures in the picture of this
period. Jeremy Belknap treated the birds of New Hampshire in his "■ History " of that
state (1792). Samuel Williams did like service for those of Vermont in his "History"
(1794). Samuel Hearne, a pioneer ornithologist in the northerly parts of America, fore-
shadowed, as it were, the much later "Fauna Boreali- Americana " in the narrative of liis
journey from Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean — a stout quarto published in 1795.
Here a chapter of fifty pages is devoted to about as many species of birds ; and Hearne's
observations have a value which " time, the destroyer," has not yet wholly ettaced.
The W^ilsoman Epoch: 1800-1824.
(1800-1808.)
The Vieillotian Period. — As we round the turn of the century a great work occupies
the opening j'ears, before the appearance of Wilson, — a work by a foreigner, a French-
man, almost unknown to or ignored by his contemporaries in America, altliough he was
already the autlior of several illustrated works on ornithology when, in 1807, his " Histoire
Naturelle des Oiseaux de PAraerique Septentrionale " was completed in two large folio
volumes, containing more than a hundred engravings, with text relating to several hun-
<lred species of birds of North America and the West Indies ; many of them figured for
xviii HISTORICAL PREFACE.
the first time, or entirely new to science. This work, bearing much the same relation
to its times that Catesby's and Edwards' respectively did to theirs, is said to have been
published in twenty-two parts of six plates each, probably during several years ; but the
date of its inception I have never been able to ascertain. However this may be, Vieillot
alone and completely fills a period of eight years, during which no other notable or even
mentionable treatise upon North American birds saw the light. Vieillot's case is an
exceptional one. As the author of numerous splendidly illustrated works, all of which,
live; of a system of ornithology, most of the generic names contained in which are
ingrained in the science ; of very extensive encyclopsedic work in which hundreds of
species of birds receive new technical names : Vieillot has a fame which time rather
brightens than obscures. Yet it is to be feared that the world was unkind during his
lifetime. At Paris, he stood in the shadow of Cuvier's great name; Temminck assailed
him from Holland ; Avhile, as to his work upon our birds, many years passed before it
was appreciated or in any way adequately recognized. Thus, singularly, so great a work
as the "Histoire Naturelle" — one absolutely characteristic of a period — had no appre-
ciable effect upon the course of events till long after the times that saw its birth, when
Cassin, Baird, and others brought Vieillot into proper perspective. There is so little
trace of Vieillot during the Wilsonian and Audubonian epochs, that his " Birds of North
America " may almost be said to have slept for half a century. But to-day, the solitary
figure of the Vieillotian period stands out in bold relief.
(1808-1824.)
The Wilsonian Period. — The " Paisley weaver ; " the "Scotch pedler;" the "melan-
choly poet-naturalist ;" the "father of American ornithology," — strange indeed are the
guises of genius, yet stranger its disguises in the epithets by which we attempt to label
and pigeon-hole that thing which has no name but its own, no place but its own. Alex-
ander Wilson had genius, and not much of anything else — very little learning, scarcely
any money, not many friends, and a paltry share of " the world's regard " while he lived..
But genius brings a message which men must hear, and never tire of hearing; it is
the word that comes when the passion that conceives is wedded with the patience that
achieves. Wilson was a poet by nature, a naturalist by force of circumstances, an Ameri-
can ornithologist by mere accident, — that is, if anything can be accidental in the life of
a man of genius. As a poet, he missed greatness by those limitations of passion which
seem so sad and so unaccountable ; as the naturalist, he achieved it by the patience that,
knew no limitation till death interposed. As between the man and his works, the very
touchstone of genius is there ; for the man was greater than all his works are. Genius,
may do that which satisfies all men, but never that which satisfies itself ; for its ins])ira-
tion is infinite and divine, its accomplishment finite and human. Such is the penalty
of its possession.
Wilson made, of course, the epoch in which his work appeared, and I cannot restrict
the Wilsonian period otherwise than by giving to Vieillot his own. The period of Wil-
son's actual authorship was brief; it began in September, 1808, when the first volume of
the " American Ornithology" appeared, and was cut short by death before the work was
finished. Wilson, having been born July 6, 1766, and come to America in 1794, died
August 23, 1813, when his seventh volume was finished ; the eightli and ninth being
HISTORICAL PREFACE. xix
completed in 1814 by his friend and editor, George Ord. But from this time to 1824,
when Bonaparte began to write, the reigning work was still Wilson's, nothing appearing
during these years to alter the complexion of American ornithology appreciably. Wil-
son's name overshadows nearly the whole epoch, — not that others were not then great,
but that he was so much greater. This author treated about 280 species, giving fiiithful
descriptions of all, and colored illustrations of most of them. There are numerous
editions of his work, of which the principal are Ord's, 1828-29, in three volumes ;
Jameson's, 1831, in four; Jardine's, 1832, in three; and Brewer's, 1840, in one; all
of these, excepting of course the first one, containing Bonaparte's " American Orni-
thology " and other matter foreign to the original " Wilson." In 1814, just as " Wilson"
was finished, appeared the history of the memorable expedition under Lewis and Clarke
— an expedition which furnished some material to Wilson himself, as witness Lewis'
Woodpecker, Clarke's Crow, and the " Louisiana " Tanager ; and more to Ord, who con-
tributed to the second edition of " Guthrie's Geography " an article upon ornithology.
Ord's prominence in this science, howeA^er, rests mainly upon his connection with Wilson's-
work, as already noted. Near the close of the Wilsonian period, Thomas Say gave us
important notices of Western birds, upon the basis of material acquired through Long's-
Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, the account of which appeared in 1823. In this-
work, Say described sundry species of birds new to science ; but he was rather an ento-
mologist than an ornithologist, and his imprint lapon our subject is scarcely to be found
outside the volume just named. A note<i — some might say rather notorious — character-
appeared upon the scene during this period, in the person of C. S. Rafinesque, who seems
to have been a genius, but one so awry that it is difficult to do aught else than mis-
understand him, unless we confess that we scarcely understand him at all. In the
elegant vernacular of the present day he would be called a crank ; but I presume that
term means that kind of genius which fails of interpretation ; for an unsuccessful genius
is a crank, and a successful crank is a genius. For the rest, the Wilsonian period was
marked by great activity in Arctic exploration, in connection with the ornithological
results of which appear prominently the names of William E. Leach and Edward
Sabine.
As illustrating the relation between Wilson and Bartram, which I have already
pointedly mentioned, I may quote a few lines from Ord's "Life of Wilson."^
> " His school-house and residence being but a short flistance from Bartram's Botanic Garden, situated on
the west banl< of the Schuylkill : a sequestered spot, possessing attractions of no ordinary kind ; an acquaintance-
was soon contracted with that venerable naturalist, Mr. William Bartram, which grew into an uncommon friend-
ship, and continued without the least abatement until severed by death. Here it was that Wilson found him-
self translated, if we may so speak, into a new existence. He had long been a lover of the works of Nature, aud
had derived more happiness from the contemplation of her simple beauties, than from any other source of gratifi-
cation. But he hail hitherto been a mere novice ; he was now about to receive instructions from one whom the
e.\i>eriences of along life, spent in travel and rural retireni'nt, had rendered qualified to teach. Jlr. Bartram
soon perceived the bent of his friend's mind, and its congeniality to his own; and took every pains to encourage
him in a study, which, while it expands the faculties, anil purifies the heart, insensibly leads to the contemplation
of the glorious Author of Nature himself. From his youth Wilson had been an observer of the manners of birds;
and since his arrival in America he had found them objects of uncommon interest; but he had not yet viewed
them with the eye of a naturalist."
This was about 1800 — rather a little later. Wilson's " novitiate " was the Vieillotian period, almost exactly.
Bartram survived till July 22, 1823, his eighty-fourth year; the date of his death thus coinciding very nearly with
the close of the Wilsonian epoch and period.
HISTORICAL PREFACE.
The Audubonian Epoch : 1824-1853.
(1824-1831.)
The Bonapartian Period. — A princely person, destined to die one of the most
famous of modern naturalists — Charles Lucien Bonaparte, early conceived and executed
the plan of continuing Wilson's work in similar style, if not in the same spirit. He
began by publishing a series of " Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's Orni-
thology," in the "Journal" of the Philadelphia Academy, 1824-25, republished in an
octavo volume, 1826. This valuable critical commentarj'- introduced a new feature, —
decided changes in nomenclature resulting from the sifting and rectification of synonymy.
It is here that questions of synonymy — to-day the bane and drudgery of the working
naturalist — first acquire prominence in the history of our special subject. There had
been very little of it before, and Wilson himself, the least " bookish " of men, gave it
scarcely any attention. Bonaparte also in 1825 added several species to our fauna upon
material collected in Florida by the now venerable Titian R. Peale, — whose honored
name is thus the first of those of men still living to appear in these annals. Bonaparte's
"American Ornithology," uniform with "Wilson," and generally incorporated therewith
in subsequent editions, as a continuation of Wilson's work, was originally published in
four large quarto volumes, running 1825-33. The year 1827, in the midst of this work
■of Bonaparte's, was a notable one in several particulars. Bonaparte himself was very busy,
producing a " Catalogue of the Birds of the United States," which, with a " Supplement,"
raised the number of species to 366, and of genera to 83 ; nearly a hundred species
having been thus become known to us since Ord laid aside the pen that Wilson had
dropped. William Swainson the same year described a number of new Mexican species
and genera, many of which come also into the " North American " fiiuna. But the most
notable event of the year was the appearance of the first five parts of Audubon's elephant
folio plates. In 1828-29, as may also be noted, Ord brought out his three-vol. 8vo
edition of Wilson. In 1828, Bonaparte returned to the charge of systematically cata-
loguing the birds of North America, giving now 382 species ; and about this time he
also produced a comparative list of the birds of Rome and Philadelphia. His main
work having been completed in 1833, as just said, Bonaparte continued his labors with
a " Geographical and Comparative List of the Birds of Europe and North America,"
published in London in 1838. This brochure gives 503 European and 471 American
.species. The celebrated zoologist wrote until 1857, but his connection with North
American birds was only incidental after 1838. The period here assigned him, 1824-
1831, may seem too short: but this was the opening of the Audubonian epoch — a
period of brilliant inception, and one in which events that were soon to mature their
splendid fruit came crowding fast ; so that room must be made at once for others who
were early in the present epoch.
(1831-1832.)
The Swahisonio-Richardsonian Period. — The " Fauna Boreali-Americana," the
ornithological volume of which was published in 1831, made an impression so indelible
that a period, albeit a brief one, must be put here. The technic of this celebrated
HISTOmCAL PREFACE. xxi
treatise, more valuable for its descriptions of new species and genera than for its methods
of classification, was by William Swaiuson, as were the elegant and accurate colored
plates ; the biographical matter, by Dr. (later Sir) John Richardson, increased our knowl-
edge of the life-history of the northerly birds so largely, that it became a fountain of
facts to be drawn upon by nearly every writer of prominence from that day to this.
Each of the distinguished authors had previously appeared in connection with our birds,
— Swainson as above said; Eichardson in 1825, in the appendix to Captain Parry's
^' Journah" The influence of the work on the whole cannot be well overstated.
Two events, besides the appearance of the "Fauna," mark the year 1831. One of
these is the publication of the first volume of Audubon's " Ornithological Biography,"
being the beginning of the text belonging to his great folio plates. The other is the
completion of the bird-volumes of Peter Pallas' famous "Zoographia Rosso- Asiatica,"
one of the most important contributions ever made to our subject, treating so largely
as it does of the birds of the region now called Alaska. The same year saw also the
Jameson edition of " Wilson and Bonaparte."
. (1833- 1834.)
The NuttaUian Period. — Thomas ^^uttall (born 1786 — died 1859) was rather botanist
than ornithologist ; but the travels of this distinguished English- American naturalist
made him the personal acquaintance of many of our birds, his love for which bore fruit
in his " Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada," of which the first
volume appeared in 1832, the second in 1834. The work is notable as the first "hand-
book " of the subject ; it possesses an agreeable flavor, and I think was the first formal
treatise, excepting Wilson's, to pass to a second edition, as it did in 1840. Nuttall's
name is permanent in our annals ; and many years after he wrote, the honored title was
chosen to be borne by the first distinctively ornithological association of this country, —
the " Nuttall Ornithological Club," founded at Cambridge in 1873, and still flourishing.
(1834-1853.)
The Auduhonian Period. — Meanwhile, tlie incomparable work of Audubon —
" the greatest monument erected by art to nature " — was steadily progressing. The
splendid genius of the man, surmounting every difficulty and discouragement of the
author, had found and claimed its own. That which was always great had come to be
known and named as such, victorious in its impetuous yet long-enduring battle with
that curse of the world, — I mean the commonplace ; the commonplace, with which
genius never yet eff"ected a compromise, since genius is necessarily a perpetual menace
to mediocrity. Audubon and his work were one ; he lived in his work, and in his
work will live forever. When did Audubon die. We may read, indeed, " on Thurs-
day morning, January 27th, 1851, when a deep pallor overspread his countenance. . . .
Then, though he did not speak, his eyes, which had been so long nearly quenched,
rekindled with their former lustre and beauty ; his spirit seemed to be conscious tliat
it was approaching the Spirit-land." And yet there are those who are wont to exclaim,
"a aoul ! a soul! what is thatl" Happy indeed are they who are conscious of its
existence in themselves, and who can see it in others, every instant of time duiing their
lives !
xxii HISTORICAL PREFACE.
Audubon's first publication, perhaps, was in 1826, — an account of the Turkey-
buzzard, in the " Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal," and some other minor notices
came from his pen. But his energies were already focused on his life-work, with that
intense and perfect absorption of self which only genius knows. The first volume of
the magnificent folio plates, an hundred in number, appeared in 1827-30, in five parts ;
the second, in 1831-34, of the same number of plates; the third, in 1834-35, likewise
of the same number of plates ; the whole series of 4 volumes, 87 parts, 435 plates and
1065 figures of birds, being completed in June, 1839. jMeanwhile, the text of the
" Birds of America," entitled " Ornithological Biography," was steadily progressing, the
first of these royal octavo volumes appearing in 1831, the fifth and last in 1839. In
this latter year also appeared the " Synopsis of the Birds of North America," a single
handy volume serving as a systematic index to tlie whole work. In 1840-44 appeared
the standard octavo edition in seven volumes, with the plates reduced to octavo size
and the text rearranged systematically ; with a later and better nomenclature than that
given in the " Ornithological Biography," and some other changes, including an apjiendix
describing various new species procured during the author's journey to the upper Mis-
souri in 1843. In the original elephant folios there were 435 plates ; with the reduction
in size the number was raised to 483, by the separation of various figures which had
previously occupied the same plate ; and to these 1 7 new ones were added, making 500
in all. The species of birds treated in the " Synopsis " are 491 in number; those in the
work, as it finally left the illustrious author's hands, are 506 in number, nearly all of
them splendidly figured in colors.
In estimating the influence of so grand an accomplishment as this, we must not
leave Audubon " alone in his glory." Vivid and ardent was his genius ; matchless
he was both with pen and pencil in giving life and spirit to the beautiful objects he
delineated with passionate love ; but there Avas a strong and patient worker by his side, —
William Macgillivray, the countryman of Wilson, destined to lend the sturdj' Scotch
fibre to an Audubonian epoch. The brilliant French-American naturalist was little of
a "scientist." Of his work, the magical beauties of form and color and movement are
all his ; his page is redolent of Nature's fragrance : but Macgillivray's are the bone and
sinew, the hidden anatomical parts beneath the lovely face, the nomenclature, the
classification, — in a word, the technicalities of the science. Not that Macgillivray was
only a closet-naturalist ; he was a naturalist in the best .sense — in every sense — of the
word, and the " vital spark " is gleaming all through his works upon British birds,
showing his intense and loyal love of Nature in all her moods. But his place in the
Audubonian epoch in American ornithology is as has been said. The anatomical struc-
ture of American birds was first disclosed in any systematic manner, and to any consider-
able extent, by him. But only to-day, as it were, is this most important department
of ornithology assuming its rightfid place; and have \vc a modern Macgillivray to
come?
The sensuous beauty with which Audubon endowed the object of his life was long
in acquiring, with loss of no comeliness, the aspect more strict and severe of a later and
maturer epoch. Audubon was practically accomplished in 1844, the year which saw
his completed work ; but I note no special or material change in the course of events, —
no name of assured prominence, till 1853, when a new regime, that had meanwhile been
HISTORICAL PREFACE. xxiii
insensibly established, may be considered to have closed the Andubonian epoch, — the
Audubonian period thus extending through the nine years after 18-i4.
Whilp Audubon was finishing, several mentionable events occurred. I have already
spoken of Bonaparte's "List" of 1838, and of the 1840 edition of iS^uttall's "Manual."
Itichardson in 1837 contributed to the Eeport of the Sixth Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science an elaborate and important " Report on North
American Zoology," relating in due part to birds. The distinguished Danish naturalist,
lieinhardt, wrote a special treatise on Greenland Birds, 1838; W. B. 0. Peabody one
upon the birds of Massachusetts, 1839. The important Zoology of Captain Beechey's
Voyage appeared in 1839, with the birds done by N. A. Vigors. ^laximilian. Prince
of Wied, published his " Reise in das Innere Nord-America " in 1839-41. Sixteen new
species of birds from Texas were described and figured by J. P. Giraud in 1841, and
tlie same author's useful "Birds of Long Island " was published in 1844. This year
saw also the bird-volume of De Kay's " Zoology of New York." The Rev. J. H. Linsley
furnished a notable catalogue of the birds of Connecticut in 1843. A name intimately
associated with Audubon's is that of J. K. Townsend, whose fruitful travels in the
West in company with Xuttall in 1834 resulted in adding to our list the many new
species which were published by Townsend himself in 1837, and also utilized by
Audubon. Townsend's "Narrative" of his journey appeared in 1839; and the same
year saw the beginning of a large work which Townsend projected, an " Ornithology
of the United States," which, however, progressed no further than one part or number,
being killed by the octavo edition of Audubon. In 1837 I first find the name of a
friend of Audubon which often appears in his work — that of Dr. Thomas Mayo Brewer,
who wrote on the birds of Massachusetts in this year, and in 1840 brought out his use-
ful and convenient duodecimo edition of "Wilson," in one volume. In 1844, Audubon's
last effectual year, the brothers Wm. M. and S. F. Baird appear, with a list of the birds
of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, having the year previously, in July, 1843, described two new
species of flycatchers, in the first paper ever written by the one who was to make the
succeeding epoch ; and it is significant that the last bird in Audubon's work was named
"Umberiza bairdii'"
Such were the aspects of the ornith<jlogical sky as the glorious Audul)oniau sun
approached and passed the zenith ; still more significant were the signs of the times as
that orb neared its golden western horizon. In tlie interval between 1844 and 1853,
Bairil and Brewer continued ; Cassin and Lawrence appeared in various papers ; and
round these names are grouped those of William Gambol, with new and interesting ob-
servations in the Southwest ; of George A. McCall and S. W. Woodhouse, in the same
connection ; and of Holboll in respect of Greenland birds. The most important con-
tributions were the several papers published by Gambel, in 1845 and subseipiently, and
Baird's Zoology of Stansbury's Expedition, 1852. But no period-marking, still less epoch-
making, work accelerated the setting of the sun of Audubon.
The B.virdiax Epoch: 1853-18—.
(1853-1858.)
The Caasinian Period. — AVhilc much material was accumulating from the explora-
tion of the great West, and the Bairdian period was rapidly nearing ; while Brewer and
XXIV HISTORICAL PREFACE.
Lawrence were continuing their studies and writings, and many other names ot lesser
note were contributing their several shares to the whole result : the figure of John Cassin
stands prominent. Cassin was born September 6, 1813, and passed from view in the
Quaker City, January 10, 1869. Numerous valuable papers and several important works
attest the assiduity and success with which he cultivated his favorite science to the end
of his days. I think that his first paper was the description of a new hawk, Cymindis
wllsoni, in 1847. Among his most important works are the Ornithology of the Wilkes
Exploring Expedition ; of the Perry Japan Expedition ; and of the Gilliss Expedition to
Chili. Aside from his strong cooperation with Baird in the great work to be presently
noticed, Cassin's seal is set upon North American ornithology in the beautiful book
begun in 1853 and finished in 1856, entitled "Illustrations of the Birds of California,"
etc., forming a large octavo volume, illustrated with fifty colored plates. His distinc-
tive place in ornithology is this : he was the only ornithologist this country has ever
produced who was as familiar with the birds of the Old World as with those of America.
Enjoying the facilities of the then unrivalled collection of the Philadelphia Academy, his
monographic studies were pushed into almost every group of birds of the world at
large. He was patient and laborious in the technic of his art, and full of book-learning
in the history of his subject ; with the result, that the Cassinian period, largely by the
work of Cassin himself, is marked by its " bookishness," by its breadth and scope in
ornithology at large, and by the first decided change since Audubon in the aspect of the
classification and nomenclature of the birds of our country. The Cassinian period marks
the culmination of the changes that wrought the fall of the Audubonian sceptre in all
that relates to the technicalities of the science, and consequently represents the beginning
of a new epoch.
The peers of this period are only three, — Lawrence, Brewer, and Baird. The for-
mer of these, already an eminent ornithologist, continued his rapidly succeeding papers
and was preparing his share of Baird's great work of 1858 ; though later his attention be-
came so closely fixed upon the birds of Central and South America, that a " Lawrencian
period " is to be found in the history of the ornithology of those countries rather than
of our own. Dr. Brewer's various articles appeared, and in 1857 this author, so well
known since Audubonian times, became the recognized leading oologist of North America,
through the publication of the first part of his " North American Oology " — a work unfor-
tunately suspended at this point. Though thus fragmentary, this quarto volume stands
as the first systematic treatise published in this country exclusively devoted to oology, and
giving a considerable series of colored illustrations of eggs. But a larger measure of the
world's regard became his much later, when, in 1874, appeared the great " History of North
American Birds," in three quarto volumes, all the biographical matter of which was by
him ; and, even as I write, two more volumes are about to appear, in which he has like
large share. Thus closely is the name of Brewer identified with the progress of the
science for nearly half a century, — from 1837 at least, to 1884, some four years after his
death, which occurred January 23, 1880. He was born in Boston, November 21, 1814.
Baird published little during the Cassinian period, being then intent upon the great
work about to appear ; but the number of workers in special fields attests the activity
of the times. S. W. Woodhouse published his completed observations upon the birds
of the Southwest in an illustrated octavo volume. Zadock Thompson's " Natural History
HISTORICAL PBEFACE. xxv
of Vermont" (1853) paid attention to the birds of that state. Birds of Wisconsin were
catalogued by P. R. Hoy ; of Ohio, by M. C. Eead and Robert Kennicott ; of Illinois, by
H. Pratten ; of Indiana, by R. Haymond ; of Massachusetts, by F. W. Putnam ; and
various other "faunal lists" and local annotations appeared, including President Jeffer-
son's Virginian ornithology, three-quarters of a century out of date. Dr. T. C. Henry
and Dr. A. L. Heermann wrote upon birds of the Southwest ; Reinhardt continued ob-
servations on Greenland birds; Dr. Henry Bryant published some valuable papers.
The since very eminent English ornithologist. Dr. P. L. Sclater, appeared during this
period in the present connection. The series of Pacific Railroad Reports, which were
to culminate, so far as ornithology is concerned, with the flimous ninth volume, were in
progress ; the sixth volume, containing Dr. J. S. Newberry's valuable and interesting
article upon the birds of California and Oregon, was published in 1857. Thus the
Cassinian period, besides being marked as already said in its broader features, was
notable in its details for the increase in the number of active workers, the extent and
variety of their independent observations, and the consequent accumulation of materials
ready to be worked into shape and system.
(18.'»8-18— .)
The Bairdiati Period. — The nintli volume of the " Pacific Railroad Reports " was an
epoch-making work, bearing the same relation to the times that the respective works
of Audubon and Wilson had sustained in former years. A great amount of material —
not all of which is more than hinted at in the foregoing paragraph — was at the service
of Professor Baird. In the hands of a less methodical, learned, and sagacious naturalist,
— of one less capable of elaborating and systematizing, — the result would probably have
been an ordinary official report upon the collections of birds secured during a few years
by the naturalists of the several explorations and surveys for a railroad route from the
Mississippi Valley to the Pacific Ocean. But having already transformed the eighth
volume of the Reports from such a " public document " into a systematic treatise on
North American Mammals, this author did the same for the birds of North America,
with the cooperation of Cassin and Lawrence. This portly quarto volume, published in
1858, represents the most important and decided single ste}) ever taken in North Ameri-
can ornithology in all that relates to the technicalities of the science. It effected a
revolution — one already imminent in consequence of Cassin's studies — in classification
and nomenclature, nearly all the names of our birds which had been in use in the
Audubonian epoch being changed in accordance with more modern usages in generic
and specific determinations. While the work contains no biographical matter, — nothing
of the life-history of birds, it gives lucid and exact diagnoses of the species and genera
known at the time, with copious synonymy and critical commentary. Various new
genera are characterized, and many new species are described. The influence of the
great work was immediate and widespread, and for many years the list of names of the
738 species contained in the work remained a standard of nomenclature from which
few desired or indeed were in position to deviate. The value of the work was further
enhanced in 1860 by its republication, identical in the text, but with the addition of an
atlas of 100 colored plates. Many of these plates were the same as those which had
appeared in other volumes of the Pacific Railroad Reports, notably the sixth and tenth
^vi HISTORICAL PREFACE.
and twelfth (the two latter volumes having appeared in 1859) ; others were those con-
tained in the " Mexican Boundary Eeport " which had appeared under Professor Baird's
editorship in 1859; about half of them were new.
I have spoken of the collaboration of Cassiu and Lawrence in the production of this
remarkable treatise. Considering it only as one of a series of reports upon the Pacific
Railroad Surveys, I should bring into somewhat of association the names of those who
contributed the ornithological portions of other volumes, as the fourth, sixth, tenth, and
twelfth, — Dr. C. B. E. Kennerly, Dr. J. S. Newberry, Dr. A. L. Heermann, Dr. J. G.
Cooper, and Dr. George Suckley. Nor should it be forgotten that numberless other col-
lectors and contributors, whose specimens are catalogued throughout the volume, brought
their hands to bear upon the erection of this grand monument.
But what of the genius of this work 1 — for I have not measured my words in speak-
ing of Wilson and Audubon. Can any Avork be really great without that mysterious
quality ? Certainly not. This work is instinct with the genius of the times that saw
its birth. This work is the spirit of an epoch embodied.
But here I must pause. My little sketch is brought upon the threshold of contem-
poraneous history, — to the beginning of the Bairdian period, of the close of which, as
of the duration of the Bairdian epoch, it is not for me to speak. When the splendid
achievements of American ornithologists during the past quarter of a century shall be
seen in historical perspective ; when the iM-illiant possibilities of our near future
shall have become the realizations of a past ; when the glowing names that went before
shall have fired another generation with a noble zeal, a lofty purpose, and a generous
emulation — then, perhaps, the thread here dropped may be recovered by another hand.
Yet a few words of Preface proper to the present work appear to be required. The
original edition of the " Key " was published in October, 1872, in an issue of about
2,200 copies. It was not stereotyped, and has been for some years entirely out of print.
It formed an imperial octavo of 361 pages, illustrated with 238 woodcuts in the text and
G steel plates. It was designed as a manual or text-book of North American Ornithology.
To meet this design, the Introduction consisted of a general account of the external
characters of birds, an explanation of the technical terms used in describing them, and
some exposition of the leading principles of classification and nomenclature. An artificial
" key " or analysis of the genera, constructed upon a plan found practically useful in
botany, but seldom applied to zoology, Avas introduced, to enable one who had some
knowledge of the technical terms to refer a given specimen to its proper genus. Tlien,
in the body of the work, each species was briefly described, with indication of its
geographical distribution and references to several leading authorities. The ftimilies and
orders of North American birds Avere also characterized, and a synopsis of the fossil birds
was appended. The work introduced many decided changes in classification and nomen-
clature which the then state of the science seemed to require, and systematically recog-
nized a large number of those subspecies or geographical races Avhich are now indicated
by the use of trinomial nomenclature, — a method noAV fully established and recognized
as peculiar to the " American school." The central idea of the treatise Avas to enable one
HI3T0BICAL PREFACE. xx\ii
to identify and label his specimens, though he might have no other knowledge of orni-
thology than such as the book itself gave him. I have been given to understand that
the work has answered its purpose, and has had a useful career ; and I have long since
been advised by my esteemed publishers that they were ready to issue a second edition,
wliich I have only just now found time to complete.
Tlie present edition of the " Key " is conceived in the same spirit as the former one,
to fulfil precisely the same purpose. But it has been entirely rewritten, and is quite
another work, though the old title is preserved. An author who practises his profession
diligently for twenty years is apt to find fault with his first book, and seek to remedy
its defects when opportunity offers. It has become quite clear to me, as it doubtless has
to others, that the old " Key " no longer turns in the lock with ease and precision, — not
tliat it has rusted from disuse, but that the more complicated mechanism of the lock re-
(juires its key to be refitted. During no previous period has our knowledge gone faster
or farther or more surely than in the interval between the two editions of the " Key ;"
there are scores of active and enthusiastic workers where there was one before ; scores of
important treatises have appeared ; the literature of the subject has been searched, sifted,
and systematized ; every corner of our country has been ransacked for birds, and the list
of our species and subspecies has reached about 900 by the many late discoveries ; acti\-e
interest in this branch of science is no longer confined to professed ornithologists ; the
importance of avian anatomy is as fully recognized as is the beauty of the life-history of
birds ; a distinctively American school of ornithology has grown up, introducing radical
changes in nomenclature and classification ; a quarterly journal of ornitliology has reached
its ninth annual volume ; an American Ornithologists' Union, the membership of which
extends to every quarter of the globe, has been founded.
So rapid, indeed, has been the progress, and so radical the changes wrought during the
last few years, that I doubt not this is the time to take our bearings anew and proceed
with judicious conservatism. jS^either do I doubt that just at this moment a new
departure is imminent, hinging upon the establishment of the American Ornithologists'
Union. It behooves us, therefore, to consider the question, not alone of where we stand
to-day, but also, of whither we are tending ; for we are certainly in a transition state, and
not even the near future can as yet be accurately forecast. The pliability and elasticity of
our trinomial system of nomenclature is very great ; and the method lends itself so readily to
tlie nicest discriminations of geographical races, — of the finest shades of variation in sub-
s[)ecific characters with climatic and other local conditions of environment, that our new toy
may not impossibly prove a dangerous instrument, if it be not used with judgment and cau-
tion. "VVe seem to be in danger of going too ftir, if not too fast, in this direction. It is not
to cry " halt ! " — for any advance is better than any standstill ; but it is to urge prudence,
caution, and circumspection, lest we be forced to recede ingloriously from an untenable
position, — that these words are penned, with a serious sense of their necessity.
In the present unsettled and perplexing state of our nomenclature, when appeal to
no " authority " or ultimate jurisiliction is possible, it is well to formulate ami codify
some canons of nomenclature by which to agree to abide. It is well to apply such
canons rigidly, with thorough sifting of synonymy, no matter what precedents be disre-
garded, what innovations be caused. It is well to use trinomials for subspecific deter-
minations. But it is not well to overdo tlie "variety business;" feather-splitting is
xxviii HISTORICAL FBEFACE.
no better than hairsplitting, and the liberties of the " American idea " must never
degenerate into license. Our action in this regard must stop short of a point where an
unfavorable reaction would be the inevitable result.
But I have digressed, in saying a warning word, from the point of the conclusion of
this Preface, which is simply to describe the new edition of the " Key " with special
reference to its difference from the former one. The classification and nomenclature are
materially different, in consequence of the progress of our knowledge during the past twelve
years. In 1873, a year after the old "Key" appeared, I published a " Check List," con-
formed exactly with the nomenclature of the "Key." In 1 882, when I had recast the "Key,"
I published a second edition of the " Check List " in conformity with the new " Key."
The present work, therefore, gives the same names, Avith scarcely any variance, though with
a few additional ones; the new " Check List" and the new " Key" being practically one
in all that pertains to nomenclature, and representing a particular phase of the subject.
The numbering of the species, also, corresponds Avith that in the " Check List."
Part I. of the present work consists of my "Field Ornithology," originally published as
a separate treatise in 1874, and now for the first time incorporated with the " Key." It is
reprinted nearly verbatim, but with some little amplification towards its end, and the intro-
duction of a few illustrations.
Part II. consists of the introductory matter of the old " Key," very greatly amplified.
In its present shape it is a sort of " Closet Ornithology " as distinguished from a " Field
Ornithology ; " being a treatise on the classification and structure of birds, explaining and
defining the technical terms used in ornithology, — in short, teaching the principles of
the science and illustrating their application.
Part III., the main body of the work, describes all the species and subspecies of
North American birds known to me, defines the genera, and characterizes the fainilies and
higher groups. The descriptions are much more elaborate than those of the old " Key,"
and I trust that such amplification has been made without loss of that sharpness of
definition which was the aim of the first edition. I have kept steadily in view my main
purpose — the ready identification of specimens. In many cases I have drawn upon my
other works — such as the "Birds of the Colorado Valley," the "Birds of the North-
west," and several of my Monographs, — for available ready-made descriptions ; but for
the most part the matter of this kind is new. Scarcely any of this part of the old
" Key " remains as it was. One improvement, I think, will be found in the removal of
the unnecessary references to authorities which closed the descriptive paragraphs of the
old " Key," and the utilization of the space thus gained by introducing terse biograph-
ical items, with special reference to nests and eggs, to song, flight, migrative and other
habits ; the technical descriptions of the species thus also epitomizing the life-history of
the birds. Geographical distribution is also more fully treated, as its importance de-
serves. More attention has been paid to the description of the plumages of females and
young birds. The specific names head their respective paragraphs, instead of tailing-oflf
the same ; they are also marked for accent, and their etymology is concisely stated, —
though for this matter the student should continue to use the new " Check List."
As regards the artificial " key to the genera " of the old work, it has proven that
too much was attempted in undertaking to carry the student at once to our refined mod-
ern genera. I have accordingly substituted artificial keys to the orders and families ;
HISTORICAL PREFACE. xxix
and throughout the work have analyzed species under their respective genera, these
under their subfamilies or families, and these again under their orders.
Part IV. consists of a Synopsis of the Fossil birds of North America, corresponding
to the appendix of the old " Key," but augmented by later discoveries. As before, this
part of the work has been revised by Professor 0. C. Marsh.
In the mechanical execution of the work, it has been my aim to compress the most
matter into the least space and leave no waste paper, in order to keep the treatise within
a single portable volume of convenient text-book size. I judge that there is nearly four
times as much matter in the present volume as there was in the original edition, the
page being much more closely printed, in a smaller type, and on thinner paper.
The old " Key " was insufficiently illustrated, and the average character of the cuts
was not entirely satisfactory. The present edition more than doubles the number of
illustrations. These are in part original, in part derived from various sources, all of
which are duly accredited in the text. The basis of the series is of course the cuts of the
former edition ; but many of these have been discarded and replaced by better ones.
About fifty of the most effective engravings were secured by my publishers from Brehm's
'■ Thierleben ; " nearly as many more are from Dixon's " Rural Bird Life," the American
edition of which is owned by the same firm. A few have been copied from D. G. Elliot's
" Birds of America," and a few others from the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of
London. About fifty of the prettiest ones were drawn by Mr. Edwin Sheppard and en-
graved by Mr. H. H. Nichols, expressly for this edition. Another set — how many there
are of them I do not know — -are from my own drawings, and have mostly appeared in
other of my publications. Several of Mr. R. Ridgway's drawings have been placed at my
service, through his kind attentions, and with Professor Baird's permission. I am in-
debted to Dr. E. AV. Shufeldt, XJ. S. A., for about thirty original anatomical drawings, as
well as for the colored frontispiece. Mr. Henry W. Elliott has kindly put at ray dis-
position several of his own artistic compositions, and I have received some very beautiful
engravings with the compliments of the Century Company of New York.
It is always agreeable to pay one's respects when due, and acknowledge assistance
and encouragement received in the preparation of one's books. Yet what an embarrass-
ment is mine now ! For there is no writer of repute on North American ornithology,
and scarcely a leader of the science at large, who has not assisted in the making of the
'• Key ; " and there is no reader of the work who has not encouraged its author to produce
this new edition. I am trebly in debt, — to thousands whose names I know not ; to
hundreds I only know by name and fame ; to scores of tried and trusted friends.
But let me say how much I am indebted to my compositors and proof-readers of the
Cniversity Press at Cambridge for the skill with which they have turned copy into print,
and to the proprietors of that justly-celebrated establishment for the pains they liave
taken in making the book an example of beautiful and accurate typography. Lot me
recognize here the liberality and generosity of my friend, Mr. Dana Estes, senior of the
linn of Estes and Lauriat, in permitting me to make the book to suit myself, and in
sparing no expense to which he might be put in consequence. Let me not forget that
during its preparation, as for many years previously, I have enjoyed to tlie fullest extent
the privileges of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum, through the
courtesy of Professor Baird, my access to the great collection of birds being always facili-
XXX HISTORICAL PREFACE.
tated by the attentions of Mr. Robert Ridgvvay, the Curator of Ornithology. And may
that less tangible but not less real source of strength which inheres in the sympathetic
and genial intercourse of a lifetime continue to be mine to draw upon, for all my works,
from my warm friend, J. A. Allen, the tirst President of the American Ornithologists'
Union.
"Prefaces," says some one, "ever were and still are but of two sorts; . . . still the
author keeps to his old and wonted method of prefacing, when, at the beginning of his
book he enters, either with a halter about his neck, submitting himself to his reader's
mercy whether he shall be hanged, or no ; or else in a huffing manner he appears with
the halter in his hand, and threatens to hang his reader, if he gives him not his good
word." But I wish neither to hang nor be hanged ; I wish the work were better than it
is, for my reader's sake ; I wish the author were better than he is, for my own sake ; and
above all I wish that every author may rise superior to his best work, to the end that the
man himself be judged above his largest achievements. It is well to do great things,
but better still to be great.
E. C.
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C, April, 1884.
CONTENTS TO VOLUME I.
PAGE
Dedication i
Publisher's Preface iii
Preface, Fourth Edition v
Preface, Third Edition yj[
Historical Preface xi
Contents xxxi
In Memoriam, Elliott Coues xxxv
PART L
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
§ 1. Implements for collecting, and tlieir use 1
2. Dogs 9
3. Various suggestions and directions for ticld-work 9
4. Hygiene of collectorship 19
5. Registration and labelling 21
6. Instruments, materials, and fixtures for pre[)ariiig birdskins 25
7. How to make a birdskin 28
8. Miscellaneous particulars 45
9. Collection of nests and eggs , 50
lO. Care of a collection 54,
PART II.
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
§ 1. Definition of birds 59
'.2. Principles and practice of classification 65
3. Definitions and descriptions of tiie exterior parts of birds 81
a. Of the feathers, or i)luinage 81
b. The topography of birds 9()
1. Regions of the body 99
2. Of the members ; their parts and organs 105
i. The bill 105
ii. The wings Ill
iii. The tail 120
iv. The feet 124
xxxu CONTENTS.
PAGE
§4. All iutroductiou to the Anatomy of birds 139
a. Osteology : the osseous system, or skeleton 140
1. The spinal column 143
2. Thetliorax: ribs and sternum 148
3. The pectoral arch 151
4. The pelvic arch 153
5. The skull 155
b. Neurology: the nervous system ; organs of special senses 180
c. Myology: the muscular system 198
d. Angeiology : the vascular or circulatory systems 201
e. Pneumatology: the respiratory system 205
/. Splanchnology : the digestive system 215
ff. Oology: the uro-genital organs 221
5. Directions for using the artificial keys 233
Artificial Key to the Orders and Subordeus 236
Artificial Key to the Families 237
Tabular View of the Groups higher than Genera ........... 240
PART III.
SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.
Order PASSERES: Insessores, or Perchers Proper 244
Suborder ACROMYODI, POLYMODI, or OSCINES: Si.iging Birds 246
Family Turdid.e : Thrushes, etc 247
Subfamily Turdince: Typical Thrushes 248
^\x\iiwc\'\^ Myiadestinee : Fly-catching Thrushes ; Solitaires 259
Family Cinclid^ : Dippers 260
Family Sylviid.e : Old World Warblers, Kinglets, etc 261
Subfamily ;Sy<'m«^; Old World Warblers 261
Subfamily Rerjulirife: Kinglets 262
Subfamily Poli/optiliiue : Gnat-catchers 264
Family Cham.eid.e : Wren-tits 2()(j
Family Parid.e: Titmice, or Chickadees 267
Subfamily P«nW: True Titmice 267
Family Sittid.e: Nuthatches 276
Family Certhiid.e : Creepers 278
Subfamily Certhiin/p : Typical Creepers 279
Family Tkogi.odytid.e: Wrens; Thrashers, etc 280
Subfamily J//;;«V/^/'; Mockingbirds; Tiirashers 281
'$s\\\)'i'AW\'\s Trorjlodi/tinrp : Wrens 289
Family Motacillid.e: Wagtails and Pipits 300
Family Mmotiltid,e: American Warblers 304
Family CtEREiUDyK: Honey Creepers 346
Family Tanagrid.e: Tanagers 347
Family Hirundinid.e : Swallows 350
i
CONTENTS. xxxiii
PAGE
Pamily Ampelid.e: Chatterers 357
Subfamily Ampeli)i(e: Waxwings 358
Subfaniily Piilogonatinee : Flysnappers 360
Tamily ViREONiD.E : Vireos, or Greeulets 361
Fartiily Laniid^ : Shrikes 3()9
Subfamily LanivKP : True Shrikes 309
Tamily FiiiNGiLLiD^i: : Finches, etc 373
Family Icterid.e : American Starlings ; Blackbirds, etc 463
Subfamily ^^e/,?'//^,* ; Marsh Blackbirds 465
Suhhmilj Sfu>-Keliina : Meadow Starlings 471
Subfamily /6-/i?r«»^<» ; American Orioles ; Hang-nests 474
Subfamily Quiscaliiue : American Grackles 479
Family CoryiD/E : Crows, Jays, Pies, etc 484
Subfamily Corvina: Crows 485
Subfamily GarruUntB : Jays and Pies 492
Family Sturnid.e : Old World Starlings 502
Subfamily Shtrniiice : Typical Starlings 502
Family Alaudid.e : Larks 503
Suborder PASSERES MESSOMYODI, or CLAMATORES : Non-melodious or
Songless Passeres 509
Family Tyrannid.e : American Flycatchers 510
^\i\)hm\[)' Ti/rannime : True Tyrant Flycatchers 510
Family Cotingid^ : Cotingas 534
Subfamily Tili/riixp: Tityrines 534
6^,
^siciJ^^k^ J^w^^
J
IN MEMORIAM: ELLIOTT COUES.
Born Qth September, 1842. — Died 25th December, 1899.
IN the life of every nation, society, or individual, no matter how peaceful, pros-
perous, or happy the record of the past may have been, no matter how encour-
aging and bright the future may be for further advancement, increased progress
and greater achievements in the path that always leads onward and upward,
toward the ultimate fulfilment of the highest destiny that may be attained, in the
varying, shifting career that all must follow while accomplishing the pilgrimage of
earth, yet in the experience of all, even amidst the rush of a restless activity,
there comes a time to mourn. A time when the daily duties are temporarily neg-
lected or wholly laid aside, when the engrossing pursuits that occupy the thoughts
and call for the utmost energies of man's nature cease for the moment to interest
the mind, when the smile vanishes and joyous laughter no longer cheers the heart,
when the voice sinks to a whisper low and soft, as the sense of some irreparable
loss comes with stunning force to overwhelm the soul. To this Society, to all its
individual members, and to some of us in a peculiar and intimate relationship sucli
a time has surely come, for as we are gathered here to-day, one engaging presence,
one vitalizing force, one attractive personality, one brilliant mind is no longer in
our midst, to grace, strengthen, and assist us in our deliberations, and in the
accomplishment of duties that must be met. "Who shall measure the extent of the
loss sustained by various branches of scientific and historical research, by this and
kindred societies, by those of us who have parted from an intimate friend and
colleague of many vanished years, as well as the ^^ounger men just entering upon
tlie scientific field, in the recent death of our former President and late colleague,
Elliott Coues? No one occupied a more prominent position in our midst tiian he,
and no one held it by a stronger claim, founded on exceptional ability, in brilliant
work successfully accomplished.
On September 9th, 1842, in the town of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Elliott
Coues was born, and as soon as he could exhiljit a preference for any object, his
taste for ornithology was manifested, and even when only able to toddle about the
nursery, a poster of one of the old-style menageries rendered him oblivious to all
other attractions and no book nor story interested him unless animals were their
subjects. So early did the tastes and preferences that were to be the chief con-
trolling influences of his life declare themselves. When he was eleven years of age
his father, Samuel P^lliott Coues, removed to Washington, in which city our late
colleague was destined to pass a large part of his life, and where some of his most
^ An address delivered at the Eighteenth Congress of the American Ornithologists' Union,
Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 13, 1900.
xxxvi IN MEMORIAM: ELLIOTT COUES.
Important works were to be written. For a time he attended Gonzaga College, a
Jesuit Institution, and where, to one of his ardent temperament, the gorgeous
ritual of the Romish church would be apt to make a deep impression ; but his was
to be an energetic life that demanded a wide field for its activity, and could not be
pent amid cloistered shades or cathedral aisles. In his early days he was rather
inclined to neglect the classics, replying once to a remonstrance of his father, " I
only want just enough of these things to facilitate my other work," but later he
appreciated the importance of a thorough knowledge of the ancient tongues and
they had no more earnest advocate than himself. At the age of seventeen he
entered Columbia College, now Columbian University, took his degree of A.B. in
1861, Honorary M.A. in 1862, became a Medical Cadet in 1862, M.D. in 18G3 and
Acting Assistant Surgeon, United States Army, in the same year, and Assistant
Surgeon in 1864. When he passed his examination for the United States Army
medical corps, he was obliged to tell them he was not of age, and he was appointed
a volunteer surgeon for one year before he conld receive his commission, and that
year he passed at Mount Pleasant Hospital near AYashington. For seventeen
3^ears he continued in the service of the United States, and was made a brevet
Captain, resigning in 1881 in order to devote himself entirely to his scientific and
literary pursuits.
During his army life he was stationed at various posts, mostly those situated in
the western part of the United States, and he was also attached to some of the
most important Government Surveys of the Territories and little known parts of
our country, such as the one under the command of Dr. F. V. Hayden, and that of
the Northern Boundary Commission which surveyed the forty-ninth parallel west-
ward from the Lake of the Woods. In these great expeditious he served as sur-
geon and naturalist, and gained in the field that intimate knowledge of our birds
and mammals which was to make him in the near future one of the most illustrious
naturalists of our country and of our time. He had now become so absorbed in
his scientific pursuits that the monotonous routine of an army post was most dis-
tasteful, and when he was detached from the surveying expeditions and ordered
back to his first station at Fort AVhipple, Arizona, he endeavored to obtain a dif-
ferent assignment, one more congenial to him and better adapted for his scientific
work, and when this proved impossible he resigned from the army and took up
his abode in Washington, where he resided until his .death.
Altliough he was a writer on many and various subjects, his first scientific work
was done in ornithology, and as early as 1861, when he was but nineteen years of
age, he made his debut as an author in a well-conceived and executed paper, that
would have been highly creditable to a far more experienced hand, entitled " A
Monograph of the Triugie of North America." In his scientific studies Coues was
fortunate in having for his mentor the late Professor Baird, and between them the
strongest friendship existed and which only terminated with the death of the
senior naturalist. From this period Coues's contributions to literary, scieutific, and
philosophic subjects never ceased, for his energies were unlimited and he became
one of the most prolific writers of our day. In 1869 he was elected Professor of
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in Norwich University, Vermont, but the duties
TN MEMORIAM: ELLIOTT COUES. xxxvii
of army life prevented him from acceptinij; this position ; but after he retired from
tlie service of the United States he accepted the chair of anatomy at the National
INIedical College in the medical department of Columbian University, Washington,
where he lectured acceptably for ten years. lie was also one of the contributors
to the Century Dictionary, and had editorial charge of (leneral Zoology, Biolog}',
and Comparative Anatomy, and furnished some forty thousand words to tliis mon-
umental work as his share of the enterprise ; devoting to it the greater part of his
labor for seven years. Another immense undertaking to which he devoted some
years of painstaking work was a "Bibliography of Ornithology," certain instal-
ments of which alone have been published, the greater portion still remaining in
manuscript, lie also began a " History of North American Mammals," but
though considerable progress with it was accomplished nothing was ever published.
From 18G1 to 1881 he completed three hundred works and papers, the major
portion devoted to ornithology; and although he always kept up his interest in
that science and was more or less an active contributor to it all his life, his later
years were more particularly devoted to historical research. The titles to his
scientific writings of all kinds, minor papers, reviews, and special works, number
nearly one thousand, and he was the author or joint author of thirty-seven sepa-
rate volumes. The work by which he will probably be best known and remem-
bered, and which has had above all others the most important influence on orni-
thology in our own land, is his " Ke\' to North American Birds," a work tiiat in its
conception and the masterly manner in which it is carried out in all its details
stands as one of the best if not the best bird book ever written. His knowledge of
North American mammals was as extensive and intimate as was that of our birds,
and the " Fur Bearing Animals," published in 1877, as well as the Monographs on
the Muridie, Zapodidie, Saccomyida^, Haplodontia, and Geomyid}« in the " North
American Rodentia," also issued in 1877, bear ample witness to this fact. It is
impossible, however, in a comparatively brief address to enumerate the titles of
his works, and to this audience tliey would seem like twice-told tales, for with the
more important you are thorouglily familiar, and the minor ones are being con-
stantly met with and referred to by you in the pursuit of your investigations.
We know what he has done in Natural Sciences, and although he rests from his
labors, and the eloquent tongue is silent and the still more eloquent pen lies
motionless, never more to perpetuate the virile thoughts that struggled for expres-
sion in the active mind, yet his works remain and speak with no uncertain tones
for him. I would, however, pass from the consideration of him as an author and
facile writer, and present him to you as the man, as he really was, for although
many persons were acquainted with Cones few I believe really knew him. It is
now nearly forty years ago, when on a visit to Professor Baird in Washington,
one evening, in company with my old friend Dr. Gill, I first met Elliott Cones.
He was then in his teens, a student of medicine, frank, simple, honest, and confid-
ing, with a boy's generous impulses, and the glorious enthusiasm of the ornitholo-
gist manifest in speech and action. The friendship then formed continued without
a break or a hasty word ever having been exchanged with tongue or pen throughout
all the intervening years. And yet we thought very differently on many subjects;
xxxviii IN MEMORIAM: ELLIOTT COUES.
but such was our confidence in each other's honest intention and unreserved frank-
ness that we could, and did many times, argue on different sides, both orally and
in writing, with an energetic earnestness that would have been highly dangerous
to our continued friendship if we had not understood each other so well. And
first among his most eminent characteristics was his love of truth, and he was
constantly striving with all the force of his energetic nature to search it out and
take its teaching to himself wherever he might find it, careless where it might lead
him or what preconceived views or opinions it might overthrow or destroy. He
believed with Carlyle that " there is no reliance for this world or any other but
just the truth, there is no hope for the world but just so far as men find out and
believe the truth and match their own lives to it." It was therefore in his search
for truth and an attempt to apply the principles of physical science to psychical
research that in 1880 he became attiliated with the Theosophical Society of India
and was elected President of its American Board of Control, and was continued in
that office for several years. He was much interested in the subject and investi-
gated its principles and methods with his usual thoroughness, even visiting Europe
in company with Madame Blavatsky and other prominent members of the sect,
and his connection with this and kindred societies resulted in the production of
several publications such as " Biogen " and the "Daemon of Darwin." But the
knowledge that he gained of this interesting but peculiar doctrine was not of that
satisfying character as to cause him to hold fast to its tenets, nor to enable him to
retain his respect for its leaders, and although he gives no reasons for the action,
yet in the memorandum in which he records his election as President in 1885 and
his re-election in the following year, with characteristic frankness he states that he
was expelled from the Society in 1889. Those of us who have little sympathy
with the claims asserted by the disciples of Theosophy cannot but regai'd his
expulsion from the Society as having conferred a greater honor upon him than his
election to the Presidency, and can easily imagine the action he may have taken in
the Council to cause such a result after he finally satisfied himself that the doctrine
could not substantiate its claims. He detested shams of all kinds and hurled the
full force of his invective against those who had proved themselves unworthy or
who strove to appear entitled to more than was their due.
As a critic in certain lines he was unrivalled and exhibited the highest practice
of the art in his reviews, dwelling most upon what was meritorious in the treat-
ment of the subject before him, for he believed true criticism was to seek that
which was praiseworthy rather than something to condemn. But no one could be
more caustic in his treatment, nor wield a sharper weapon, when he found that
praise would be misapplied and it would be kinder to act as the skilful surgeon
does, create wounds in order that the patient's recovery might be more sure and
lasting. Rarely, however, for one who published so much, was he severe in his
writings, though none had the power to be more so ; but when, from whatever the
cause that influenced him, he permitted himself to indulge in phrases that would be
remembered and might possibly leave a sting, he set down " naught in malice,"
but employed a phraseology that he honestly believed was best suited to the case
in hand, and after some such severe articles had been issued, he has spoken to me
IN MEMORIAM: ELLIOTT COUES. XXXlx
in the kindest way of the author of the work or act he had so criticised or con-
demned, apparently entirely unconscious that it could possibly affect any friendly
relations or be the means of any estrangement. It was the sentiment advanced,
or the conclusion reached, that was the object of his attack, not the individual who
was the author. In all his critical reviews there is no thought of self, but only
desire to do justice to his subject and to its author, and if anything could be
charged against him on this point, it was an evident inclination always to find
something to praise.
In his scientific writings he was always extremely lucid and conservative in his
methods, and he had but little sympathy for tiie hair-splitting and microscopic
variations in the appearance of animals that is the joy and delight of some nat-
uralists in these later days. He was a scholar and knew his Greek and Latin ; and
with a scholar's instinct and abhorrence of incorrect phraseology, he strove with all
his might to inculcate not only in his own scientific writings but in those of others
the true principles of etymology and philology ; and both by tongue and pen, in
the keen analytical style of which he was an undisputed master, he strove with all
the force of his energetic personality against the unfortunate and mistaken doctrine
that the perpetuation of errors can ever be permissible, much less commendable.
He possessed a command of language gained by few, and the beauty of his style
and his felicity of expression has created numerous pen pictures of the habits and
appearances of our wild creatures that have never been excelled by any writer, if
indeed they have been equalled.
While a keen and just critic himself, he was very sensitive regarding the opinion
of others towards his own productions, and sought the approbation of those who
were bound closely to him either by earthly ties or an intimate friendship, or whose
knowledge of the subject under consideration caused their opinion to be of special
value. This extreme sensitiveness is best illustrated by an act committed in his
youthful days, when after having labored for several years upon a work on Ari-
zona, on reading his manuscript to one who, if not competent to judge of the
importance of his labors, he had the right to expect would exhibit sympathy for
his efforts, and who must at least have been impressed with its thoroughness and
beauty of diction, yet was only able to consider its value as a commercial asset,
and therefore commented upon it so unfavorably, and with such strength of
expression, that, utterly disheartened at the want of appreciation for that which
had been so long a labor of love and of which he was so proud of his ability to
produce, on the impulse of the moment he cast the "copy" into the fire, where it
was consumed, and then suffered a severe attack of illness in consequence of his
loss by his hasty act.
Of a most affectionate disposition, he sought and enjoyed the society of his
friends and those with sympathetic tastes ; and although he possessed strong con-
victions and firm opinions, yet no one more readily yielded to the views of another
whose opportunities to reach a correct decision had been greater than his own, and
this was always effected with a courtesy that caused his friendly opponent to regret
he could not himself yield and reverse their positions. He loved science and scien-
tific work, and scorned to employ his talents and his knowledge merely for financial
xl 7.V ME MORI AM: ELLIOTT COUES.
considerations; and although he conld command large sums for his labor, he pre-
ferred to devote himself to pure science, which, if less remunerative pecuniarily,
achieves a more lasting result and one of greater honor.
After all these years of scientific work, his thoughts and labors turned to a new
channel, that of historical research, and the last eight or ten years of his life were
devoted to editing the journals of the early explorers of our continent, and he made
many long and wearisome journeys over the various routes taken by these hardy
pioneers in order to familiarize himself with the country traversed and locate the
many places mentioned, but which had no designation on any published map. His
former army life and his great experience as a naturalist eminently fitted him for
this task, and probably no one could have proved himself so competent to fulfil
this duty. The first of these works was that of the Expedition of Lewis and
Clarke, which appeared in 1893, followed in 1895 by the Expedition of Zebulon
M. Pike. In 1897 came the Henry & Thompson Journals; in 1898 appeared the
Fowler Journal and the Narrative of Charles Larpentner, forty years a Fur Trader
on the Upper Missouri ; and during this year The Diary of Francisco Garces, on
the trail of a Spanish Pioneer : in all, fifteen volumes. All of these books bear the
impress of his most conscientious care and wonderful minuteness of annotation ;
and it is to Coues more than to any other that the original sources of the early
explorations of the western portion of our country, beyond the Mississippi, are
preserved.
It was during an arduous journey in New Mexico and Arizona in the summer
of 1899, undertaken, as he wrote me, as a " still hunt for old Spanish MSS.," and
to refresh his memory of the country described by Francisco Garces, and render
still more effective his editing of the Diary in his possession, that Coues's splendid
physique and robust health, that for so long seemed to defy fatigue and exposure,
gave way, and he was brought to Santa Fe in a rather critical condition, where for
a month he was very ill, but in September he came to Chicago. He seemed to be
getting better, and at my last interview with him, during which his condition was
freely discussed, although he fully appreciated the gravity of his case, yet he
expressed the hope, and perhaps he thought it was clearly among the possibilities,
that he might be present at the last meeting of this Society in Philadelphia. Re-
garding him, as I then did, as in a critical condition, I could not share this hope,
although I encouraged him in his belief, or what seemed to be his belief, for Coues
had been too long a skilled medical practitioner to try and deceive himself ; but
from his references to his attendant physician it was clearly apparent that he pre-
ferred to advance the opinion of his medical adviser, of whom he spoke in the
highest terms, rather than any of his own. He was greatly changed in appearance,
but the old fire and enthusiasm, that I had so often admired and not infrequently
contended with in friendly confiict during so many years, was not a whit abated,
and he spoke with all his old-time interest of the work he had himself in view and
that of others. But the voice was feeble and tlie frame was weak, and he was
filled with a restlessness that was foreign to him. But when I bade him an adieu,
which was to be our last on earth, he was cheerful and spoke hopefully of meeting
soon again. As you all know, his condition became more serious after he arrived
IN MEMORIAM: ELLIOTT COUES. xli
at his home in Washino[ton, and an expert examination at Johns Hopkins Hospital
in Baltimore gave but little hope for the preservation of his life. During these last
days I received a number of letters from him explaining frankly his condition and
how few were his chances for life, and just before submitting to the operation came
one virtually bidding me farewell and announcing the close of our correspondence,
that had extended over many years. On the 6th of December the operation was
performed, and for a short time there was a probability that his life would be pro-
longed ; but it was not to be, for he had finished his work and he was to rest from
his labors. Throughout his illness he exhibited the natural bravery of spirit habitual
to him ; not a murmur or complaint of the excessive and lasting pain, but gentle
and courteoush' appreciative of every attention, and at the last overcoming for an
instant the weakness that denoted the approach of that moment when his freed
spirit should depart and soar above all earthly things, he raised himself in his
bed, and with all the old-time vigor of voice exclaimed, " Welcome, oh, welcome,
beloved death ! " and sinking backwards on the pillow he was at rest. Nevermore
shall you welcome to your midst this courteous gentleman, who was the considerate
friend, the able counsellor, the chivalrous debater, the one most capable of leader-
ship, yet always willing to yield to another, the trained scientist, the accomplished
anatomist, the able naturalist, the conscientious historian. His was a life of intense
activity, and that which his hand found to do he did with all his might ; and of
none can it be more appropriately said, " Nihil tetigit quod non ornavit."
Cones, as may be readily supposed, was the recipient of many scientific honors,
and he was an Honorary or Active member of a very large number of societies, both
in this country and in Europe, and at the time of his election to our National
Academy he was, I believe, its youngest member. The list of scientific societies
with which he was connected numbers between fifty and sixty, far too many for
ine to attempt to give their titles at this time, yet none of them was so distinguished
but that it received as well as conferred an honor by having his name upon its rolls.
As a naturalist Coues will always hold the highest rank in the estimation of all who
are familiar with his works ; and in that galaxy of eminent names which sheds so
great a brilliancy on the scientific annals of our own land, none shall appear in the
years to come more lustrous than that of our late distinguished colleague and friend.
But the brilliant mind no longer teems with thoughts of earth, and the hand that
executed its commands lies motionless, and we, who are drawing near to that
shining portal through which he has so lately passed, and from whose farther side
no steps are ever retraced by any one of mortal birth, may never look upon his like
again, whose pen was the " pen of a ready writer," fit instrument to convey and
render permanent the eloquence of thought, beauty of diction, and facility of expres-
tion of Nature's illustrious disciple and interpreter.
D. G. ELLIOT, F. R. S. E., etc.
Part I.
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY:
MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION FOR COLLECTING, PREPARENG.
AND PRESERVING BIRDS.
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY must lead the way to Systematic and Descriptive Ornithology.
The study of Birds in the field is an indispensable prerequisite to their study in the
library and the museum. Directions for observing and collecting birds, for preparing and pre-
serving them as objects of natural history, will greatly help the student on his way to become
a successful Ornithologist, if he will faithfully and intelligently observe them. It is believed
that the practical Instructions which the author has to give will, if ft)llowed out, enable any
one who has the least taste or aptitude for such pursuits to become proficient in the necessary
qualifications of the good working ornithologist. These instructions are derived from the
writer's own experience, reaching in time over twenty years, and extending in area over large
portions of North America. Having made in the field the personal acquaintance of most
species of North American birds, and having shot and skinned with his own hands several
thousand specimens, he may reasonably venture to speak with confidence, if not also with
authority, respecting methods of study and manipulation. Feeling so much at liome in the
field, with his gun for destroying birds, and his instruments fi)r preserving their skins, he
wishes to put the most inexperienced student equally at ease ; and therefore begs to lay
formality aside, that he may address the reader familiarly, as if chatting with a friend on a
subject of mutual interest.
§1. — IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.
The Double-barrelled Shot Gun is your main reliance. Under some circumstances
you may trap or snare birds, catcli tliem with bird-lime, or use other devices ; but such cases
are exceptions to the rule that you will shoot birds, and for this purpose no weapon compares
with the one just mentioned. The soul of good advice respecting the selection of a gun is,
Get the best one you can afford to buy ; go the full length of your purse in the matters of
material and workmanship. To say nothing of tlie prime requisite, safety, or of the next most
desirable quality, efficiency, the durability of a high-priced gun makes it cheapest in the end.
1
2 FIELD OEXITHOLOGY.
Style of finish is obviously of little consequence, except as an index of other qualities; for
inferior guns rarely, if ever, display the exquisite appointments that mark a first-rate arm.
There is reaUy so httle choice among good guns that nothing need be said on this score ; you
cannot miss it if you pay enough to any reputable maker or reliable dealer. But collecting
is a specialty, and some guns are better adapted than others to your particular purpose, which
is the destruction, as a rule, of small birds, at moderate range, with the least possible injury
to their plumage. Probably three-fourths or more of the birds of a miscellaneous collection
average under the size of a pigeon, and were shot within thirty yards. A heavi/ gun is there-
fore unnecessary, in fact ineligible, the extra weight being useless. You will find a gun of
7i to 8 pounds weight most suitable. For similar reasons the bore should be small ; I prefer
14 gauge, and should not think of going over 12. To judge from the best sporting authorhies,
length of barrel is of less consequence than many suppose; for myself, I incline to a rather
long barrel, — one nearer 33 than 28 inches, — believing that such a barrel 7nay throw shot
better ; but I am not sure that this is even the rule, while it is well known that several
circumstances of loading, besides some almost inappreciable difi'ereuces in the way barrels are
bored, wiU cause guns apparently exactly alike to throw shot differently. Length and crook
of stock should of course be adapted to your figure, — a gun may be made to fit you, as well
as a coat. For wild-fowl shooting, and on some other special occasions, a heavier and
altogether more powerful gun wiU be preferable.
Breech-Loader vs. Muzzle-Loader, a case long argued, may be considered settled in
favor of the former. Provided the mechanism and workmanship of the breech be what they
should, there are no valid objections to offset obvious advantages, some of which are these :
ease and rapidity of loading, and consequently delivery of shots in quick succession ; facility of
cleaning; compactness and portability of ammunition ; readiness with which different-sized shot
may be used. This last is highly important to the collector, who never knows the moment
he may wish to fire at a very different bird from such as he has already loaded for. The
muzzle-loader must always contain the fine shot with which nine-tenths of your specimens
wUl be secured ; if in both barrels, you cannot deal with a hawk or other large bird with
reasonable prospects of success ; if in only one barrel, the other being more heavily charged,
you are crippled to the extent of exactly one-half of your resources for ordinary shooting.
Whereas, with the breech-loader you will habitually use mustard-seed in both barrels, and yet
can slip in a different shell in time to seize most opportunities requiring large shot. This con-
sideration alone should d(>cide the case. But, moreover, the time spent in the field in loading
an ordinary gun is no small item ; while cartridges may be charged in your leisure at home.
This should become the natural occupation of your spare moments. No time is really gained;
you simply change to advantage the time consumed. Metal shells, charged with loose ammu-
nition, and susceptible of being reloaded many times, may be used instead of any special fixed
ammunition which, once exhausted in a distant place (and circumstances may upset the best
calculations on that score), leaves the gun useless. On charging the shells mark the number
of the shot used on the outside wad ; or better, use colored wads, say plain white for dust shot,
and red, blue, and green for certain other sizes. If going far away, take as many shells as you
think can possibly be wanted — and a few more.
Experience, however, will soon teach you to prefer paper cartridges fir breech-loaders.
They may of course be loaded according to circumstances, with the same facility as metal
shells, and even reloaded if desired. It is a good deal of trouble to take care of metal shells,
to prevent loss, keep them clean, and avoid bending or indenting ; while there is often a prac-
tical difficulty in recapping — at least with the common styles that take a special primer.
Those fitted with a screw top holding a nipple for ordinary caps are expensive. Paper cart-
IMPLEMENTS FOB COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE. 3
ridges come already capped, so that this bother is avoided, as it is not ordinarily worth while
to reload them. They are made of different colors, distinguishing various sizes of shot used
without employ of colored wads otherwise required. They may be taken into the field empty
and loaded on occasion to suit ; but it is better to pay a trifle extra to have them loaded at the
shop. In such case, about four-fifths of the stock should contain mustard-seed, nearly all the
rest about No. 7, a very few being reserved for about No. 4. Cost of ammunition is hardly
appreciably increased ; its weight is put in the most conveniently portable shape ; the whole
apparatus for carrying it, and loading the shells, is dispensed with ; much time is saved, the
entire drudgery (excepting gun-cleaning) of collecting being avoided. I was prepared in this
way during the summer of 1873 for the heaviest work I ever succeeded in accomplishing during
the same length of time. In June, when birds were plentiful, I easily averaged fifteen skins
a day, and occasionally made twice as many. As items serving to base calculations, I may
mention that in four months I used about two thousand cartridges, loaded, at $42 per M.,
with seven-eighths of an ounce of shot and two and three-fourths drachms of powder ; only
about three hundred were charged with shot larger than mustard-seed. In estimating the size
of a collection that may result from use of a given number of cartridges, it may not be safe for
even a good shot to count on much more than half as many specimens as cartridges. The
number is practically reduced by the following steps : — Cartridges lost or damaged, or orig-
iually defective ; shots missed ; birds killed or wounded, not recovered ; specimens secured
unfit for preservation, or not preserved for any reason ; specimens accidentally spoilt in stuffing,
or subsequently damaged so as to be not worth keeping ; and finally, use of cartridges to
supply the table.
Other Weapons, etc. — An ordinary single-barrel gun will of course answer; but is a
sorry makeshift, for it is sometimes so poorly constructed as to be unsafe, and can at best be
only just half as eff'ective. This remark does not apply to any of the fine single-barrelled breech-
loaders now made. You will find them very efi"ective weapons, and they are not at all expen-
sive. An arm now much used by collectors is a kind of breech-loading pistol, with or without
a skeleton gun-stock to screw into the handle, and taking a particular style of metal cartridge,
charged with a few grains of powder, or with nothing but the fulminate. They are very light,
very cheap, safe and easy to work, and astonishingly effective up to twenty or thirty yards;
making probably tlie best ''second choice" after the matchless double-barrelled breech-
loader itself. The cane-gun should be mentioned in this connection. It is a single-barrel,
lacquered to look like a stick, with a brass stopper at the muzzle to imitate a ferule, counter-
sunk hammer and trigger, and either a shnple curved handle, or a light gunstock-shaped piece
that screws in. The affair is easily mistaken for a cane. Some have acquired considerable
dexterity in its use ; my own experience with it is very limited and unsatisfactory ; the handle
always hit me in the face, and I generally missed my bird. It has only two recommendations.
If you approve of shooting on Sunday and yet scruple to shock popular prejudice, you can slip
out of town unsuspected. If you are shooting where the law forbids destruction of small birds,
— a wise and good law that you may sometimes be inclined to defy, — artfully careless handling
of the deceitful implement may prevent arrest and fine. A blow-gun is sometimes used. It is
a long slender tube of wood, metal, or glass, through which clay -balls, tiny arrows, etc., are
projected by force of the breath. It must be quite an art to use such a weapon successfully,
and its employment is necessarily exceptional. Some uncivilized tribes are said to possess
marvellous skill in the use of long bamboo blow-guns ; and sucli people are often valuable
employes of the collector. I have had no experience with the noiseless air-gun, which is, in
effect, a modified blow-gun, compressed air being the explosive power. Nor can I say much
of various methods of trapping birds that may be practised. On these points I must leave you
to your own devices, with the remark that horse-hair snares, set over a nest, are often of great
4 FIELD OEXITHOLOGY.
serdc* in securing the parent of eggs that might otherwise remain unidentified. I have no
practical knowledge of hxrd-lime ; I l>elieve it is seldom used in this country. A method of
netting birds alive, which I have tried, is both easy and successfo]. A net of fine green silk,
some 8 or 10 feet square, is stretched i>erpendicularly across a narrow part of one of the tiny
brooks overgrown with briers and shrubbery, that intersect many of our meadows. Retreating
to a distance, the collector beats along the shrubbery making all the noise he can, urging on
the little bu-ds tiU they reach the almost invisible net and become entangled in trying to fly
tiirough. I have in this manner taken a dozen sparrows and the like at one ''drive." But
the gun can rarely be laid aside for this or any similar device.
Ammunition.— The best povcder is that combining strength and cleanliness in the highest
compatible degree. In some brands too much of the latter is sacrificed to the former. Other
things being equal, a rather coarse powder is preferable, since its slower action tends to throw
Bhot closer. Some numbers are said to be " too quick '' for fine breech-loaders. Inexperienced
sportsmen and collectors almost invariably use too coarse slwt. When unnecessarily large, two
evils result : the number of pellets in a load is decreased, the chances of killing being corre-
spondingly lessened; and the plumage is unnecessarily injured, either by direct mutilation,
or by subsequent bleeding through large holes. As already hinted, shot cannot be too fine for
your routine collecting. Use ''mustard-seed," or " dust-shot," as it is variously called; it is
smaller than any of the sizes usually numbered. As the very finest can only be procured in
cities, provide yourself liberally on lea^-ing any centre of civilization for even a country village,
to sav nothing of remote regions. A small bird that would have been torn to pieces by a few
large pellets, may be riddled with mustard-seed and yet be preservable ; moreover, there is, as
a rale, little or no bleeding from such minute holes, which close up by the elasticity of the
tissues involved. It is astonishing what large birds may be brought down with the tiny pellets.
I have killed hawks with such shot, knocked over a wood ibis at forty yards and once shot
a wolf dead with No. 10, though I am bound to say the animal was within a few feet of me.
After dust-shot, and the nearest number or two. No. 8 or 7 will be found most useful. Water-
fowl, thick-skinned sea-birds, like bxius, cormorants, and pelicans, and a few of the largest land
birds, require heavier shot. I have had no experience with the substitution of fine gravel or
sand, much less water, as a projectile : besides shot I never fired anything at a bird except
my ramrod, on one or two occasions, when I never afterwards saw either the bird or the stick.
The comparatively trivial matter of caps will repay attention. Breech-loaders not discharged
with a pin take a particular style of short cap called a " primer; " for other guns the best
water-proof lined caps will prevent annoyance and disappjintment in wet weather, and may
save you an eye, for they only sjAit when exploded ; whereas, the flimsy cheap ones — that
" G D" trash, for instance, S'jld in the comer grocerj- at ten cents a hundred — usually fly
to pieces. Cut felt vcadu are the only suitable article. Ely's "chemically prepared " wadding
is the y>est. It Ls well, when using plain wads, occasionally to drive a greased one through
the barreL Since you may sometimes run out of wads through an unexpected c<jntiugency,
always keep a wad-cutter to fit your gun. You can make sen-iceable M-ads of pastelx»ard, but
they are inferior to felt. Cut them on the flat sawn end of a stick of firewood : the side of a
plank does not do very well. Use a wooden mallet, instead of a hammer or hatchet, and so
save your cutter. Soft paper is next best after wads ; I have never used rags, c<jtton or tow,
fearing these tinder-like substances might leave a spark in the barrels. Crumbled leaves or
grass will answer at a pinch. I liave ot^casionally, in a de6i>erate hurry, loaded and killed
without any wadding.
Other Equipments. — (a.) For tlui Gun. A gun-case will come cheap in the end,
especially if you travel much. The usual box. divided into compartments, and well lined,
IMPLEJIEXTS FOR COLLECTING, AXD THEIR USE. 5
is the best, though the full length leather or india-rubber cloth case answers very weU. The
box should contain a small kit of tools, such as mainspring-vice, nipple- wrench, screw-driver,
etc. A stout hard-wood cleaning njd, with wormer, wiU be required. It is always safe to
have parts of the gun-lock, especially mainspring, in duplicate. For muzzle-loaders extra
nipples and extra ramrod heads and tips often come into use. For breech-loaders the appara-
tus for charging the shells is so useful as to be practically indispensable, (p.) For ammuni-
tion. Metal shells or paper cartridges may be carried loose in the large lower coat pocket,
or in a leather satchel. There is said to be a chance of explosion by some unlucky blow, when
they are so carried, but I never knew of an instance. Another way is to fix them separately
in a row in snug loops of soft leather sewn continuously along a stout waist-belt ; or in several
such horizontal rows on a square piece of thick leather, to be slung by a strap over the shoul-
der. But better than anything else is a stout linen vest, similarly furnished with loops holding
each a cartridge ; this distributes the weight so perfectly, that the usual *' forty rounds " may
be carried without feeling it. The appliances for k)Ose ammunition are almost endlessly
varied, so every one may consult his taste or convenience. But now that everybody uses the
breech-loader, shot-pouches and powder-flasks are among the things that were, (c.) For
specitnens. You must always carry paper in which to wrap up your specimens, as more par-
ticularly directed beyond. Nothing is better for this purpose than writing-paper ; "rejected"
or otherwise useless MSS. may thus be utilized. The ordinary game bag, with leather back
and network front, answers very weU ; but a light basket, fitting the body, such as is used
by fishermen, is the best thing to carry specimens in. Avoid putting specimens into pockets,
unless you have your coat-tail largely excavated : crowding them into a close pocket, where
they press each other, and receive warmth fi-om the person, will injure them. It is always
well to take a little cotton into the field, to plug up shot-holes, mouth, nostiils, or vent, imme-
diately, if required, (rf.) For Yourself. The indications to be fulfilled in your clothiug are
these : Adaptability to the weather ; and since a shooting-coat is not ct)nveniently changed,
while an overcoat is ordinarily ineligible, the requirement is best met by different underclothes.
Easy fit, allowing perfect freedom of muscular action, especially of the arms. Strength of
fabric, to resist briers and stand wear ; velveteen and corduroy are excellent materials. Sub-
dued color, to render you as inconspicuous as possible, and to show ilirt the least. Multiplicity
of pockets — a perfect shooting-coat is an ingenious system of hanging pouches about the
person. Broad-soled, low-heeled boots or shoes, giving a firm tread even when wet. Close-
fitting cap with prominent visor, or low soft felt hat, rather broad brimmed. Let india-rubber
goods alone : the field is no place for a sweat-bath.
Qualifications for Success. — "With the outfit just indicated you command all the required
appliances that you can biii/, and the rest lies with yourself. Success hangs upon your own
exertions ; upon your energy, industry, and perseverance : your knowledge and skill ; your
zeal and enthusiasm, in collecting birds, much as in other afiairs of life. But that your
eflbrts — maiden attempts they must once have been if they be not such now — may be directed
to best advantage, further instructions may not be imacceptable.
To Carry a Gun without peril to human life or limb is the « 6 c of its use. " There's
death in the pot."' Such constant care is required to avoid accidents that no man can give it
by coutiuual voluntary efforts : safe carriage of the gun must become an unconscious habit, fixed
as the movements of an automaton. The golden rule and whole secret is: the mtczle must
tiecer sweep the horizon : accidental discharge should send the shot into the ground before your
feet, or away up in the air. There are several safe and easy ways of holding a piece : they
will be employed by tunis to relieve particular muscles when fotigued. 1. Hold it in the
hollow of the arm (preferably the left, as you can recover to aim in less time than from the
6 FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
rit^ht), across the front of your person, the hand on the grip, the muzzle elevated about 45".
2. Hang it by the trigger guard hitched over the forearm brought round to the breast, the
stock passing behind the upper arm, the muzzle pointing to the ground a pace or so in front
of you. 3. Shoulder it, the hand on the grip or heel-plate, the muzzle pointing upward
at least 45°. 4. Shoulder it reversed, the hand grasping the barrels about their middle, the
muzzle pointing forward and downward : this is perfectly admissible, but is the most awkward
position of all to recover from. Alioays carry a loaded gun at half-cock, unless you are about
to shoot. Most good guns are now fitted with rebounding locks, an arraugemeut by which
the hammer is thrown back to half-cock as soon as the blow is delivered on the pin. This
admirable device is a great safe-guard, and is particularly eligible for breech-loaders, as the
barrels may be unlocked and relocked without touching the hammers. Unless the lock fail,
accidental discharge is impossible, except under these circumstances : a, a direct blow on the
nipple or pin ; b, catching of both hammer and trigger simultaneously, drawing back of
the former and its release whilst the trigger is stiU held, — the chances against which are
simply incalculable. FuU-cock, ticklish as it seems, is safer than no-cock, when a tap on
the hammer or even the heel-plate, or a slight catch and release of the hammer, may cause
discharge. Never let the muzzle of a loaded gun point toward your own person for a
single instant. Get your gun over fences, or into boats or carriages, before you get over
or in yourself, or at any rate no later. Remove caps or cartridges on entering a house.
Never aim a gun, loaded or not, at any object, unless you mean to press the trigger. Never
put a loaded gun away long enough to forget whether it is loaded or not ; never leave a
loaded gun to be found by others under circumstances reasonably presupposing it to be un-
loaded. Never put a gun where it can be knocked down by a dog or a child. Never imagine
that there can be any excuse for leaving a breech-loader loaded under any circumstances.
Never forget that the idiots who kill people because they " did n't know it was loaded," are
perennial. Never forget that though a gunning accident may be sometimes interpreted (from
a certain standpoint) as a " dispensation of Providence," such dispensations happen oftenest
to the careless.
To Clean a Gun properly requires some knowledge, more good temper, and most
"elbow-grease;" it is dirty, disagreeable, inevitable work, which laziness, business, tiredness,
indifference, and good taste wUl by turns tempt you to slurk. After a Imnt you are tired, have
your clothes to change, a meal to eat, a lot of birds to skin, a journal to write up. If you
"sub-let" the contract the chances are it is but half fulfilled ; serve yourself, if you want to
be well served. If you cannot find time for a regular cleaning, an intolerably foul gun may be
made to do another day's work by swabbing for a few moments with a wet (not dripping) rag,
and then with an oiled one. For the full wash use cold water first ; it loosens dirt better than
hot water. Set the barrels in a pail of water ; wrap the end of the cleaning rod with tow or
cloth, and pump away till your arms ache. Change the rag or tow, and the water too, tiU
they both stay clean for all the swabbing you can do. FiU the barrels with boiling water till
they arc well heated ; pour it out, wipe as dry as possible inside and out, and set them by a
fire. Finish with a light oiling, inside and out ; touch up all the metal about the stock, and
polish the wood-work. Do not remove the locks oftener than is necessary ; every time they
are taken out, something of the exquisite fitting that marks a good gun may be lost ; as long
as they work smoothly take it for granted they are all right. The same direction applies to
nipples. To keep a gun well, under long disuse, it should have had a particularly thorough
cleaning; the chambers should be packed with greasy tow; greased wads may be rammed at
intervals along the barrels ; or the barrels may be filled with melted tallow. Neat's-foot is
recommended as the best easily procured oil ; porpoise-oil which is, I believe, used by watch-
makers, is tlie very best; the oil made for use on sewiug-machines is excellent; "olive" oiJ
IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE. 7
(made of lard) for table use answers the purpose. The quality of any oil may be improved by
putting in it a few tacks, or scraps of zinc, — the oil expends its rusty capacity in oxidizing the
metal. Inferior oils get ''sticky." One of the best preventives of rust is mercurial ("blue")
ointment : it may be freely used. Kerosene will remove rust ; but use it sparingly for it
" eats " sound metal too.
To Load a Gun eflfectively requires something more than knowledge of the facts that the
powder should go in before the shot, and that each should have a wad a-top. Probably the
most nearly universal fault is use of too much shot for the amount of powder ; and the next,
too much of both. The rule is hulk for hulk of powder and shot. If not exactly this, then
rather less shot than powder. It is absurd to suppose, as some persons who ought to know
better do, that the more shot in a gun the greater the chances of killing. The projectile
force of a charge cannot possibly be greater than the vis inertice of the gun as held by the
shooter. The explosion is manifested in all directions, and blows the shot one way simply
and only because it has no other escape. If the resistance in front of the powder were
greater than elsewhere, the shot would not budge, but the gun would fly backward, or
burst. This always reminds me of Lord Dundreary's famous conundrum — Why does a dog
wag his tail ? Because he is bigger than his tail ; otherwise the tail would wag him. A
gun shoots shot because the gun is the heavier; otherwise the shot would shoot the gun.
Every unnecessary pellet is a pellet against you, not against the game. The experienced sports
man uses about one-third less shot than the tyro, with proportionally better result, other things
being equal. As to powder, moreover, a gun can only burn just so much, and every grain
blown out unburnt is wasted if nothing more. No express directions for absolute weight or
measures of either powder or shot can be given ; in fact, different guns take as their most
effective charge such a variable amount of ammunition, that one of the first things you have to
learn about your own arm is, its normal charge-gauge. Find out, by assiduous target practice,
what absolute amounts (and to a slight degree, what relative proportion) of powder and shot
are required to shoot the furthest and distribute the pellets most evenly. This practice, further-
more, will acquaint you with the gun's capacities in every respect. You should learn exactly
what it will and what it will not do, so as to feel perfect confidence in your arm within a cer-
tain range, and to waste no shots in attempting miracles. Immoderate recoil is a pretty sure
sign that the gun was overloaded, or otherwise wrongly charged ; and all force of recoil is sub-
tracted from the impulse of the shot. It is useless to ram powder very hard ; tw(} or three
smart taps of the rod will suffice, and more will not increase the explosive force. On the shot
the wad should simply be pressed close enough to fix the pellets immovably. All these direc-
tions apply to the charging of metal or paper cartridges as well as to loading by the muzzle.
The latter operation is so rarely required, now that guns of every grade break at the breach,
tliat advice on this score may seem quite anachronistic ; nevertheless, I let what I said in the
original edition stand. When about to recharge one baiTel see that the hammer of the other
stands at half-cock. Do not drop the ramrod into the other barrel, for a stray shot might
impact between the swell of the head and the gun and make it difficult to withdraw the rod.
During the whole operation keep the muzzle as far from your person as you conveniently can.
Never force home a wad with the flat of your hand over the end of the rod, but hold the rod
between your fingers and thumb ; in case of premature explosion, it will make just the difi'er-
ence of lacerated finger tips, or a blown-up hand. Never look into a loaded gun-barrel ; you
might as wisely put your head into a lion's mouth to see what the animal had for dinner.
After a miss-fire hold the gun up a few moments and be slow to reload ; the fire sometimes
"hangs" for several seconds. Finally, let me strongly impress upon you the expediency of
light loading in your routine collecting. Three-fourths of your shots need not bring into action
tlie gun's full powers of execution. You will shoot more birds under than over 30 yaids ; not
8 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
a few you must secure, if at all, at 10 or 15 yards ; and your object is always to kill them with
the least possible damage to the plumage. I have, on particular occasions, loaded even down
to ioz. of shot and l^dr. of powder. There is astonishing force compressed in a few grains of
powder ; an astonishing number of pellets in the smallest load of mustard-seed. If you can
load so nicely as to just drive the shot into a bird and not through it and out again, do so, and
save half the holes in the skin.
To Shoot successfully is an art which may be acquired by practice, and can be learned
only in the school of experience. No general directions will make you a good shot, any more
than a proficient in music or painting. To teU you that in order to hit a bird you must point
the gun at it and press the trigger, is like saying that to play on the fiddle you must shove
the bow across the strings with one hand while you finger them with the other; in either
case the result is the same, a noise — mx et prceterea nihil — but neither music nor game.
Nor is it possible for every one to become an artist in gunnery ; a "crack shot," like a poet, is
born, not made. For myself I make no pretensions to genius in that direction ; for although
I generally make fair bags, and have destroyed many thousand birds in my time, this is rather
owing to some familiarity I have gained with the habits of birds, and a certain knack, acquired
by long practice, of picking them out of trees and bushes, than to skilful shooting from the
sportsman's standpoint ; in fact, if I cut down two or three birds on the wing without a miss
1 am working quite up to my average in that line. But any one not a purblind "butter fin-
gers," can become a reasonably fair shot by practice, and do good collecting. It is not so hard,
after all, to sight a gun correctly on an immovable object, and collecting difi'ers from sporting
proper in this, that comparatively few birds are shot on the wing. But I do not mean to
imply that it requires less skill to collect successfully than to secure game ; on the contrary, it
is finer shooting, I think, to drop a warbler skipping about a tree-top than to stop a quail at
full speed ; while hitting a sparrow that springs from the grass at one's feet to flicker in sight
a few seconds and disappear is the most difficult of all shooting. Besides, a crack shot, as
understood, aims unconsciously, with mechanical accuracy and certitude of hitting ; he simply
wills, and the trained muscles obey without his superintendence, just as the fingers form letters
with the pen iu writing ; whereas the collector must usually supervise his muscles all through
the act and see that they mind. In spite of the proportion of snap shots of all sorts you will
have to take, your collecting shots, as a rule, are made with deliberate aim. There is much
the same diff'erence, on the whole, between the sportsman's work and the collector's, that there
is between shot-gun and rifle practice, collecting being comparable to the latter. It is gener-
ally understood that the acme of skill with the two weapons is an incompatibility ; and, cer-
tainly, the best shot is not always the best collector, even supposing the two to be on a par iu
their knowledge of birds' haunts and habits. Still a hopelessly poor shot can only attain fair
results by extraordinary diligence and perseverance. Certain principles of shooting may per-
haps be reduced to words. Aim deliberately directly at an immovable object at fair range.
Hold over a motionless object when far off, as the tra.jectory of the shot curves downward.
Hold a little to one side of a stationary object when very near, preferring rather to take the
chances of missing it with the peripheral pellets, than of hopelessly mutilating it with the
main body of the charge. Fire at the first fair aim, without trying to improve what is good
enough already. Never "pull" the trigger, but ^^ress it. Bear the shock of discharge with-
out flinching. In shooting on the wing, fire the instant the but of the gun taps your shoulder ;
you will miss at first, but by and by the birds will begin to drop, and you will have laid the
foundation of good shooting, the knack of "covering" a bird unconsciously. The habit of
"poking" after a bird on the wing is an almost incurable vice, and may keep you a poor
shot all your life. (Th(! collector's frequent necessity of poking after little birds in the bush
is just what so often hinders him from acquiring brilliant execution.) Aim ahead of a
SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 9
flying bird — the calculation to be made varies, according to the distance of the object,
its velocity, its course and the wind, from a few inches to several feet ; practice will finally
render it intuitive.
§2. — DOGS.
A Good Dog is one of the most faithful, respectful, aff'ectionate and sensible of brutes ;
deference to such rare qualities demands a chapter, however brief. A trained dog is the indis-
pensable servant of the sportsman in his pursuit of most kinds of game ; but I trust I am guilty
of no discourtesy to the noble annual, when I say that he is a luxury rather than a necessity to
the collector — a pleasant companion, who knows almost everything except how to talk, who
converses with his eyes and ears and tail, shares comforts and discomforts with equal alacrity,
and occasionally makes himself useful. So far as a collector's work tallies with that of a
sportsman, the dog is equally useful to both ; but finding and telling of game aside, your dog's
services are restricted to companionship and retrieving. He may, indeed, flush many sorts of
birds for you ; but he does it, if at all, at random, while capering about ; for the brute intellect
is limited after all, and cannot comprehend a naturalist. The best trained setter or pointer
that ever marked a quail could not be made to understand what you arc about, and it would
ruin him for sporting purposes if he did. Take a well-bred dog out with you, and the chances
are he will soon trot home in disgust at your performances with jack-sparrows and tomtits. It
implies such a lowering and perversion of a good dog's instincts to make him really a useful
servant of yours, that I am half inclined to say nothing about retrieving, and tell you to make
a companion of your dog, or let him alone. I was followed for several years by " the best dog
I ever saw" (every one's gun, dog, and child is the best ever seen), and a first-rate retriever;
yet I always preferred, when practicable, to pick up my own birds, rather than let a delicate
plumage into a dog's mouth, and scolded away the poor brute so often, that she very properly
returned the compliment, in the end, by retrieving just when she felt like it. However, we
remained the best of friends. Any good setter, pointer, or spaniel, and some kinds of curs,
may be trained to retrieve. The great point is to teach them not to " mouth " a bird ; it may
be accomplished by sticking pins in the ball with which their early lessons are taught. Such
dogs are particularly useful in bringing birds out of the water, and in searching for them when
lost. One point in training should never be neglected: teach a dog what ''to heel" means,
and make him obey this command. A riotous brute is simply unendurable under any
circumstances.
§3. — VARIOUS SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.
To be a Good Collector, and nothing more, is a small affair ; great skill may be ac-
quired in the art, without a single quality commanding respect. One of the most vulgar,
brutal, and ignorant men I ever knew was a sharp collector and an excellent taxidermist.
Collecting stands much in the same relation to ornithology that the useful and indispensable
office of an apothecary bears to the duties of a physician. A field-naturalist is always more or
less of a collector ; the latter is sometimes found to know almost nothing of natural history
worth knowing. The true ornithologist goes out to study birds alive and destroys some of
them simply because that is the only way of learning their structure and technical characters.
There is mucli more about a bird than can be discovered in its dead body, — how much more,
then, than can be found out from its stuffed skin ! In my humble opinion the man who only
gathers birds, as a miser money, to swell his cabinet, and that other man who gloats, as miser-
like, over the same hoard, both work on a plane far beneath where the enlightened naturalist
stands. One looks at Nature, and never knows that she is beautiful ; the other knows she is
beautiful, as even a corpse may be; the naturalist catches her sentient expression, and knows
10 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
how beautiful she is ! I would have you to know and love her ; for fairer mistress never
swayed the heart of man. Aim high ! — press on, and leave the half-way house of mere col-
lectorship far behind in your pursuit of a delightful study, nor fancy the closet its goal.
Birds may be sought anywhere, at any time ; they should be sought everywhere, at
all times. Some come about your doorstep to tell their stories unasked. Others spring up
before you as you stroU iu the field, like the flowers tliat enticed the feet of Proserpine. Birds
flit by as you measure the tired roadside, lending a tithe of their life to quicken your dusty
steps. They disport overhead at hide-and-seek with the foliage as you loiter in the shade of
the forest, and their music now answers the sigh of the tree-tops, now ripples an echo to the
voice of the brook. But you will not always so pluck a thornless rose. Birds hedge them-
selves about with a bristling girdle of brier and bramble you cannot break ; they build their
tiny castles in the air surrounded by impassable moats, and the drawbridges are never down.
They crown the mountain-top you may lose your breath to climb ; they sprinkle the desert
where your parched lips may find no cooling draught ; they fleck the snow-wreath when the
nipping blast may make you turn your back ; they breathe unharmed the pestilent vapors of
the swamp that mean disease, if not death, for you ; they outride the storm at sea that sends
strong men to their last account. Where now will you look for birds ?
And yet, as skilled labor is always most productive, so expert search yields more than
random or blundering pursuit. Imprimis ; The more varied the face of a country, the more
varied its birds. A place all plain, all marsh, aU woodland, yields its particular set of birds,
perhaps in profusion : but the kinds will be limited in number. It is of first importance to
remember this, when you are so fortunate as to have choice of a collecting-ground ; and it wiU
guide your steps aright in a day's walk anywhere, for it vnW make you leave covert for open,
wet for dry, high for low and back again. WeU-watered country is more fruitful of bird-hfe
than desert or even prairie ; warm regions are more productive thon cold ones. As a rule,
variety and abundance of birds are in direct ratio to diversity and luxuriance of vegetation.
Your most valuable as well as largest bags may be made in the regions most favored b(jtani-
cally, up to the point where exuberance of plant-growtli mechanically opposes your operations.
Search for particular Birds can only be well directed, of course, by a knowledge of
their special haunts and habits, and is one of the mysteries of wood-craft only solved by long
experience and close observation. Here is where the true naturalist bears himself with con-
scious pride and strength, winning laurels that become him, and do honor to his calling.
Where to find game ("game" is anything that vulgar people do not ridicule you for shooting)
of all the kinds we have in this country has been so often and so minutely detailed in sporting-
works that it need not be here enlarged upon, especially since, being the best known, it is the
least valuable of ornithological material. Most large or otherwise conspicuous birds have very
special haunts that may be soon learned ; and as a rule such rank next after game in ornitho-
logical disesteem. Birds of prey are an exception to these statements; they range everywhere,
and most of them are worth securing. Hawks will unwittingly fly in your way oftener than
they will allow you to approach them when perched : be ready for them. Owls wall be
startled out of their retreats in thick bushes, dense foliage, and hollow trees, in the daytime ;
if hunting them at night, good aim in the dark may be taken by rubbing a wet lucifer match
on the sight of the gun, causing a momentary glimmer. Large and small waders are to be
found by any water's edge, in open marshes, and often on dry plains ; the herons more particu-
larly in heavy bogs and dense swamps. Under cover, waders are oftenest approached by
stealth ; in the open, by strategy; but most of the smaller kinds require the exercise of no special
precautions. Swimming birds, aside from water-fowl (as the "game" kinds are called), are gen-
erally shot from a boat, as they fly past ; but at their breeding places many kinds that congre-
SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOB FIELD-WORK. 11
gate in vast numbets f re more readily reached. There is a knack of shooting loons and grebes
on the water ; if they are to be reached at all by the shot it will be by aiming not directly at
them but at the water just in front of them. They do not go under just where they float,
but kick up behind like a jumping-jack and plunge forward. Rails and several kinds of
sparrows are confined to reedy marshes. But why prolong such desultory remarks ? Little
can be said to the point without at least a miniature treatise on ornithology ; and I have not
yet even alluded to the diversified host of small insectivorous and granivorous birds that fill our
woods and fields. The very existence of most of these is unknown to all but the initiated ; yet
they include the treasures of the ornithologist. Some are plain and humble, others are among
the most beautiful objects in nature ; but most agree in being small, and therefore liable to be
overlooked. The sum of my advice about them must be brief. Get over as much ground,
both wooded and open, as you can thoroughly examine in a day's tramp, and go out as many
days as you can. It is not always necessary, however, to keep on the tramp, especially dur-
ing the migration of the restless insectivorous species. One may often shoot for hours without
moving more than a few yards, by selecting a favorable locality and allowing the birds to
come to him as they pass in varied troops through the low woodlands or swampy thickets.
Keep your eyes and ears wide open. Look out for every rustling leaf and swaying twig and
bending blade of grass. Hearken to every note, however faint ; when there is no sound, listen
for a chirp. Habitually move as noiselessly as possible. Keep your gun always ready.
Improve every opportunity of studying a bird you do not wish to destroy ; you may often
make observations more valuable than the specimen. Let this be the rule with all birds you
recognize. But I fear I must teU you to shoot an unknown bird on sight ; it may give you
the slip in a moment and a prize may be lost. One of the most fascinating things about field-
work is its delightful uncertainty : you never know what 's in store for you as you start out ;
you never can tell what will happen next ; surprises are always in order, and excitement is
continually whetted on the chances of the varied chase.
For myself, the time is past, happily or not, when every bird was an agreeable surprise,
for dewdrops do not last all day ; but I have never yet walked in the woods without learning
something pleasant that I did not know before. I should consider a bird new to science
ample reward for a month's steady work ; one bird new to a locality would repay a week's
search ; a day is happily spent that shows me any bird that I never saw alive before. How
then can you, with so much before you, keep out of the woods another minute ?
All Times are good times to go a-shooting; but some are better than others, (a.) Time
of year. In all temperate latitudes, spring and fall — periods of migration with most birds —
are the most profitable seasons for collecting. Not only are birds then most numerous, both as
species and as individuals, and most active, so as to be the more readily found, but they
include a far larger proportion of rare and valuable kinds. In every locality in this country
the periodical visitants outnumber the permanent residents ; in most regions the number of
regular migrants, that simply pass through in the spring and fall, equals or exceeds that of
either of the sets of species that come from the south in spring to breed during the summer,
or from the north to spend the winter. Far north, of course, on or near the limit of the venial
migration, where there are few if any migrants passing through, and where the winter birds
are extremely few, nearly all the bird fauna is composed of '' summer visitants ; " far south,
in this country, the reverse is somewhat the case, though with many quiilifications. Between
these extremes, what is conventionally known as "a season " means tlio period of tlie vernal or
autunmal migration. For example, the body of birds present in the District of Columbia (where
I collected for several years) in the two months from April 20th to May 20th, and from Septem-
ber 10th to October 10th, is undoubtedly greater, as far as individuals are concerned, than the
total number found there at all other seasons of the year together. As for species, the number
12 FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
of migrants about equals that of summer visitants ; the permanent residents equal the winter
residents, both these being fewer than either of the first mentioned sets ; while the irregular vis-
itors, or stragglers, that complete the bird fauna, are about, or rather less than one-half as many
as the species of either of the other categories. About Washington, therefore, I would readily
undertake to secure a greater variety of birds in the nine weeks above specified than in all the
rest of the year; for in that time would be found, not only all the permanent residents, but nearly
all the migrants, and almost all the summer visitants ; while the number of individual birds
that might be taken exceeds, by quite as much, the number of those procurable in the same
length of time at any other season. Mutatis mutandis, it is the same everywhere in this
country. Look out then, for "the season;" work all through it at a rate you could not
possibly sustain the year around; and make hay while the sun shines. (&.) Time of day.
Early in the morning and late in the afternoon are the best times for birds. There is a myste-
rious something in these diurnal crises that sets bird-life astir, over and above what is ex-
plainable by the simple fact that they are the transition periods from repose to activity, or
the reverse. Subtile meteorological changes occur; various delicate instruments used in
physicists' researches are sometimes inexplicably disturbed ; diseases have often their turning
point for better or worse ; people are apt to be born or die ; and the susceptible organisms of
birds manifest various excitements. Whatever the operative influence, the fact is, birds are
particularly lively at such hours. In the dark, they rest — most of them do ; at noonday,
again, they are comparatively still ; between these times they are passing to or from their
feeding grounds or roosting places ; they are foraging for food, they are singing ; at any rate,
they are in motion. Many migratory birds (among them warblers, etc.) perform their journeys
by night ; just at daybreak they may be seen to descend from the upper regions, rest a while,
and then move about briskly, singing and searching for food. Their meal taken, they recu-
perate by resting till towards evening ; feed again and are off for the night. If you have had
some experience, don't you remember what a fine spurt you made early that morning? —
how many unexpected shots offered as you trudged home belated that evening ? Now I am
no fowl, and have no desire to adopt the habits of the hen-yard ; I have my opinion of those
who like the world before it is aired ; I think it served the worm right for getting up, when
caught by the early bird ; nevertheless I go shooting betimes in the morning, and would walk
all night to find a rare bird at daylight, (c.) Weather. It rarely occurs in this country that
either heat or cold is unendurably severe; but extremes of temperature are unfavorable, for two
reasons : they both occasion great personal discomfort ; and in one extreme only a few hardy
birds will be found, while in the other most birds are languid, disposed to seek shelter, and
therefore less likely to be found. A still, cloudy day of moderate temjjerature offers as a rule
the best chance ; among other reasons, there is no sun to blind the eyes, as always occurs on a
bright day in one direction, particularly when the sun is low. While a bright day has its good
influence in setting many birds astir, some others are most easily approached in heavy or fall-
ing weather. Some kinds are more likely to be secured during a light snowfall, or after a
storm. Singular as it may seem, a thoroughly wet day offers some peculiar inducements to
the collector. I cannot well specify them, but I heartily indorse a remark John Cassin once
made to me: — "I like," said he, "to go shooting in the rain sometimes; there are some
curious things to be learned about birds when the trees are dripping, things too that have not
yet found their way into the books."
How many Birds of the Same Kind do you want? — All you can get — with some
reasonable limitations: say fifty or a hundred tif any but the most abundant and widely diffused
species. You may often be provoked with your fi-iend for speaking of some bird he shot, but
did not bring you, because, he says, "Why, you've got one like that!" Birdskins are
capital; capital unemployed may bo useless, but can never be worthless. Birdskins are a
SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 13
medium of exchange among ornithologists the world over; they represent value, — money value
and scientific value. If you have more of one kind than you can use, exchange with some
one for species you lack ; both pai-ties to the transaction are equally benefited. Let me bring
tliis matter under several heads, (a.) Your own " series" of skins of any species is incomplete
until it contains at least one example of each sex, of every normal state of plumage, and every
normal transition stage of plumage, and further illustrates at least the principal abnormal
variations in size, form, and color to which the species may be subject; I will even add that
every difierent faunal area the bird is known to inhabit should be represented by a specimen,
particularly if there be anything exceptional in the geographical distribution of the species.
Any additional specimens to all such are your onli/ "duplicates," properly speaking, (b.) Birds
vary so much in their size, form, and coloring, that a ^' specific character" can only be pre-
cisely determined from examination of a large number of specimens, shot at different times, in
difi"erent places ; still less can the " limits of variation " in these respects be settled without
ample materials, (c.) The rarity of any bird is necessarily an arbitrary and fluctuating con-
sideration, because in the nature of the case there can be no natural unit of comparison,
nor standard of appreciation. It may be said, in general terms, no bird is actually " rare."
With a few possible exceptions, as in the cases of birds occupying extraordinarily limited
areas, like some of the birds of paradise, or about to become extinct, like the pied duck,
enough birds of all kinds exist to overstock every public and private collection in the world,
without sensible diminution of their numbers. " Rarity " or the reverse is only predicable
upon the accidental (so to speak) circumstances that throw, or tend to throw, spechnens into
naturalists' hands. Accessibility is the variable element in every case. The fulmar petrel is
said (on what authority I know not) to exceed any other bird in its aggregate of imlividuals ;
how do the skins of that bird you have handled compare in number with specimens you have
seen of the " rare " warbler of your own vicinity ? All birds are common somewhere at some
season ; the point is, have collectors been there at the time ? Moreover, even the arbitrary
appreciation of '* rarity " is fluctuating, and may change at any time ; long sought and highly
prized birds are liable to appear suddenly in great numbers in places that knew them not
before ; a single heavy " invoice " of a bird from some distant or little-explored region may at
once stock the market, and depreciate the current value of the species to almost nothing.
For example, Baird's bunting and Sprague's lark remained for thirty years among our special
desiderata, only one specimen of the former and two or three of the latter being known. Yet
they are two of the most abundant birds of Dakota, where in 1873 I took as many of both as
I desired ; and specimens enough have lately been secured to stock all the leading museums
of this country and Europe. (d.) Some practical deductions are to be made from these
premises. Your object is to make yourself acquainted with all the birds of your vicinity, and
to preserve a complete suite of specimens of every species. Begin by shooting every bird you
can, coupling this sad destruction, however, with the closest observations upon habits. You
wiU very soon fiU your series of a few kinds, that you find almost everywhere, almost daily.
Tlien if you are in a region the ornithology of which is well known to the profession, at once
stop killing these common birds — they are in every collection. You should not, as a rule,
destroy any more robins, blue1)irds, song-sparrows, and the like, than you want for yourself.
Keep an eye on them, studying them always, but turn your actual pursuit into other channels,
until in this way, gradually eliminating the undesirables, you exhaust the bird fauna as far as
possible (you will not quite exhaust it — at least for many years). But if you are in a new
or little-known locality, I liad almcjst said the very reverse course is the best. The chances
are that the most abundant and characteristic birds are " rare " in collections. Many a bird's
range is quite restricted : you may happen to be just at its metropolis ; seize the opportunity,
and get good store, — yes, up to fifty or a hundred ; all you can spare will be thankfully
received by those who have none. Quito as likely, birds that are scarce just where you happen
14 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
to be, are so only because you are on the edge of their habitat, and are plentiful in more acces-
sible regions. But, rare or not, it is always a point to determine the exact geographical
distribution of a species ; and this is fixed best by having specimens to tell each its own tale,
from as many different and widely separated localities as possible. This alone warrants pro-
curing one or more specimens in every locality ; the commonest bird acquires a certain value
if it be captured away from its ordinary range. An Eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) shot in
California might be considered more valuable than the " rarest" bird of that State, and would
certainly be worth a hundred Massachusetts skins ; a varied thrush (Turdus ncevius) killed
in Massachusetts is worth a like number from Oregon. But let all your justifiable destruction
of birds be tempered with mercy ; your humanity wiU be continually shocked with the havoc
you work, and should never permit you to take life wantonly. Never shoot a bird you do not
fully intend to preserve, or to utilize in some proper way. Bird-life is too beautiful a thing to
destroy to no purpose ; too sacred a thing, like all life, to be sacrificed, unless the tribute is hal-
lowed by worthiness of motive. " Not a sparrow falleth to the ground without His notice."
I should not neglect to speak particularly of the care to be taken to secure full suites of
females. Most miscellaneous collections contain four or more males to every female, — a dis-
proportion that should be as far reduced as possible. The occasion of the disparity is obvious :
females are usually more shy and retiring in disposition, and consequently less frequently
noticed, while their smaller size and plainer plumage, as a rule, further favor their eluding
observation. The difference in coloring is greatest among those groups where the males are
most richly clad, and the shyness of the mother birds is most marked during the breeding
season, just when the males, full of song, and in their nuptial attire, become most conspicuous.
It is often worth whUe to neglect the gay Benedicts, to trace out and secure the plainer but not
less interesting females. This pursuit, moreover, often leads to discovery of the nests and
eggs, — an important consideration. Although both sexes are generally found together when
breeding, and mixing indiscriminately at other seasons, they often go in separate flocks, and
often migrate independently of each other; in this case the males usually in advance.
Towards the end of the passage of some warblers, for instance, we may get almost nothing
but females, all our specimens of a few days before having been males. The notable excep-
tions to the rule of smaller size of the female are among rapacious birds and many waders,
though in these last the disparity is not so marked. I only recall one instance, among Amer-
ican birds, of the female being mrire richly colored than the male — the phalaropes. When
the sexes are notably different in adult life, the young of both sexes usually resemble the adult
female, the young males gradually assuming their distinctive characters. When the adults
of both sexes are alike, the young commonly differ from them.
In the same connection I wish to urge a point, the importance of which is often over-
looked ; it is our practical interpretation of the adage, " a bird in the hand is worth two in the
bush." Always keep the first specimen you secure of a species till you get another ; no matter
how common the species, how poor the specimen, or how certain you may feel of getting other
better ones, keep it. Your most reasonable calculations may come to naught, from a variety
of circumstances, and any specimen is better than no specimen, on general principles. And in
general, do not, if you can help it, discard any specimen in the field. No tyro can teU what
will prove valuable and what not ; while even the expert may regret to find that a point comes
up which a specimen he injudiciously discarded might have determined. Let a collection be
"weeded out," if at all, only after deliberate and mature examination, when the scientific results
it affords have been elaborated by a competent ornithologist ; and even then, the refuse (with
certain limitations) had better be put where it will do some good, than be destroyed utterly.
For instance, I myself once valued, and used, some Smithscmian "sweepings"; and I know
very well what to do with specimens, twiv, to which I would not give house-room in my own
cabinet. If forced to reduce bulk, owing to limited facilities for transportation in the field
SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 15
(as too often happens), throw away according to size, other things being equal. Given only
so many cubic inches or feet, eliminate the few large birds which take up the space that would
contain fifty or a hundred different little ones. If you have a fine large bald eagle or pelican,
for instance, throw it away first, and follow it with your ducks, geese, etc. In this way, the
bulk of a large miscellaneous collection may be reduced one half, perhaps, with very little
depreciation of its actual value. The same principle may be extended to other collections in
natural history (excepting fossils, which are always weighty, if not also bulky) ; very few bird-
skins, indeed, being as valuable contributions to science as, for example, a vial of miscella-
neous insects that occupies no more room may prove to be.
What is " A Good Day's Work ? " — Fifty birds shot, their skins preserved, and obser-
vations recorded, is a very good day's work; it is sharp practice, even when birds are plentiful.
I never knew a person to average anywhere near it; even during the "season" such work
cannot possibly be sustained. You may, of course, by a murderous discharge into a flock,
as of blackbirds or reedbirds, get a hundred or more in a moment ; but I refer to collecting
a fair variety of birds. You wUl do very well if you average a dozen a day during the seasons.
I doubt whether any collector ever averaged as many the year around ; it would be over foui
thousand specimens annually. The greatest number I ever procured and prepared in one day
was forty, and I have not often gone over twenty. Even when collecting regularly and
assiduously, I am satisfied to average a dozen a day during the migrations, and one-third or
one-fourth as many the rest of the year. Probably this implies the shooting of about one in
five not skinned for various reasons, as mutilation, decay, or want of time.
Approaching Birds. — There is little if any trouble in getting near enough to shoot
most birds. With notable exceptions, they are harder to see when near enough, or to hit
when seen ; particularly small birds that are almost incessantly in motion. As a rule — and a
curious one it is — difficulty of approach is in direct ratio to the size of the bird ; it is perhaps
because large conspicuous birds are objects of more general pursuit than the little ones you
ordinarily search for. The qualities that birds possess for self-preservation may be called
tvariness in large birds, shyness in small ones. The former make oft" knomngly from a sus-
picious object ; the latter fly from anything that is strange to them, be it dangerous or not.
This is strikingly illustrated in the behavior of small birds in the wilderness, as contrasted with
their actions about towns ; singular as it may seem, they are more timid under the former cir-
cumstances than when grown accustomed to the presence of man. It is just the reverse with
a hawk or raven, for instance ; in populous districts they spend much of their time in trying to
save their skins, while in a new country they have not learned, like Indians, that a white man
is " mighty uncertain." In stealing on a shy bird, you wUl of course take advantage of any
cover that may offer, as inequalities of the ground, thick bushes, the trunks of trees ; and it is
often worth while to make a considerable detour to secure unobserved approach. I think that
birds are more likely, as a rule, to be frightened away by the movements of the collector,
than by his simple presence, however near, and that they are more afraid of noise than of
mere motion. Crackling of twigs and rustling of leaves are sharp sounds, though not loud
ones ; you may have sometimes been surprised to find how distinctly you could hear the move-
ments of a horse or cow in underbrush at some distance. Birds have sharp ears for such
sounds. Fonn a habit of stealthy movement ; it tells, in the long run, in comparison with
lumbering tread. There are no special precautions to be taken in shooting through high open
forest ; you have only to saunter along with your eyes in the tree-tops. It is ordinarily the
easiest and on the whole the must renuinerative path of the collector. In traversing fields and
meadows move briskly, your principal object being to flush birds out of the grass ; and as most
of your shots will be snap ones, keep in readiness for instant action. Excellent and varied
16 FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
shooting is to be had along the hedge rows, and in the rank herbage that fringes feace*. It is
best to keep at a little distance, yet near enough to arouse all the birds as you pass : you may
catch them on wing, or pick them off just as they settle after a short flight. In this shooting,
two persons, one on each side, can together do more than twice as much work as one. Thick-
ets and tangled undergrowth are favorite resorts of many birds; but when very close, or,
as often happens, over miry ground, they are hard places to shoot in. As you come thrashing
through the brush, the little inhabitants are scared into deeper recesses ; but if you keep still a
few minutes in some favorable spot, they are reassured, and vrill often come back to take a
peep at you. A good deal of standing still will repay you at such times ; needless to add, you
cannot be too lightly loaded for such shooting, when birds are mostly out of sight if a dozen
yards off. When yourself concealed in a thicket, and no birds appear, you can often call num-
bers about you by a simple artifice. Apply the back of your hand to your slightly parted lips,
and suck in air; it makes a nondescript " screeping " noise, vaiiable in intonation at your
whim, and some of the sounds resemble the cries of a wounded bird, or a young one in distress.
It w-akes up the whole neighborhood, and sometimes puts certain birds almost beside themiselves,
particularly in the breeding season. Torturing a wounded bird to make it scream in agony
accomplishes the same result, but of course is only permissible under great exigency. In pen-
, etratiug swamps and marshes, the best advice I can give you is to tell you to get along the
best way you can. Shooting on perfectly open ground offers much the same case ; you must
be left to your own devices. I will say, however, you can ride on horseback, or even in a
buggy, nearer birds than they will allow you to walk up to them. Sportsmen take advantage
of this to get within a shot of the upland plover, usually a very wary bird in populous districts ;
I have driven right into a flock of wild geese ; in California they often train a bullock to graze
gradually up to geese, the gunner being hidden by its body. There is one trick worth know-
ing ; it is not to let a bird that has seen you know by your action that you have seen it, but to
keep on unconcernedly, gradually sidling nearer. I have secured many hawks in this way,
Avhen the bird would have flown off at the first step tif direct approach. Numberless other
little arts will come to you as your wood-craft matures.
Recovering Birds. — It is not always that you secure the birds you kill ; you may not
be able to find them, or you may see them lying, perhaps but a few feet off, in a spot practi-
cally inaccessible. Under such circumstances a retriever does excellent service, as already
hinted; he is equally useful when a bird properly '"marked down" is not found there, having
fluttered or run away and hidden elsewhere. The most diflicult of all places to find birds is
among reeds, the eternal sameness of which makes it almost impossible to rediscover a spot
whence the eye has once wandered, while the peculiar growth allows birds to slip far down out
of sight. In rank grass or weeds, when you have walked up with your eye fixed on the spot
where the bird seemed to fall, yet failed to discover it, drop your cap or handkerchief for a
mark, and hunt around it as a centre, in enlarging circles. In thickets, make a " bee line "
for the spot, if possible keeping your eye on the spray from which the bird fell, and not for-
getting where you stood on firing ; ycni may require to come back to the spot and take a new
departure. You will not seldom see a bird just shot at fly off as if unharmed, when really it
Avill drop dead in a few moments. In aU cases therefore when the bird does not drop at the
shot, follow it with your eyes as far as you can ; if you see it finally drop, or even flutter
languidly downward, mark it on the principles just mentioned, and go in search. Make every
endeavor to secure wounded birds, on the score of humanity ; they should not be left to pine
away and die in lingering misery if it can possibly be avoided.
Killing Wounded Birds. — You wall often recover vdnged birds, as full of life as before
the bone was broken ; and others too grievously hurt to fly, yet far from death. Your object is
r
SUGGESTIONS AND DIBECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 17
to kill them as quickly and as painlessly as possible, without injuring the plumage. This is
to be accomi)lished, with all small birds, by suffocation. The respiration and circulation of
birds is very active, and most of them die in a few moments if the lungs are so compressed
that they cannot breathe. Squeeze the bird tightly across the chest, under the wings, thumb
on one side, middle finger on the other, forefinger pressed in the hollow at the root of the neck,
between the forks of the merrythought. Press firmly, hard enough to fix the chest immovably
and compress the lungs, but not to break in the ribs. The bird will make vigorous but ineffect-
ual efforts to breathe, when the muscles will contract spasmodically ; but in a moment more,
the system relaxes with a painful shiver, light fades from the eyes, and the lids close. I
assure you, it will make you wince the first few times ; you had better habitually hold the
poor creature behind you. You can tell by its limp feel and motionlessness when it is dead,
without watching the sad struggle. Large birds obviously cannot be dealt with in this
way ; I would as soon attempt to throttle a dog as a loon, for instance, upon which all the
pressure you can give makes no sensible impression. A winged hawk, again, will throw itself
on its back as you come up, and show such good fight with beak and talons, that you may be
quite severely scratched in the encounter : meanwliile the struggling bird may be bespattering
its plumage with blood. In such a case — in any case of a large bird making decided resist-
ance — I think it best to step back a few paces and settle the matter with a light charge of
mustard-seed. Any large bird once secured may be speedily dispatched by stabbing to the
heart with some slender instrument thrust in under the wing — care must be taken too about
the bleeding ; or, it may be instantly killed by piercing the brain with a knife introduced into
the mouth and driven upward and obliquely backward from the palate. The latter method is
preferable as it leaves no outward sign and causes no bleeding to speak of. With your thumb,
you may indent the back part of a bird's skull so as to compress the cerebellum ; if you can
get deep enough in, without materially disordering the plumage, or breaking the skin, the
method is unobjectionable.
Handling Bleeding Birds. — Bleeding depends altogether upon the part or organ
wounded ; but other things being equal, violence of the haemorrhage is usually in direct pro-
portion to the size of the shot-hole ; when mustard-seed is used it is ordinarily very trifling, if it
'occur at all. Blood flows oftener from the orifice of exit of a shot, tha:n from the wound of
entrance, for the latter is usually plugged with a little wad of feathers driven in. Bleeding from
the mouth or nostrils is the rule when the lungs are wounded. When it occcurs, hold up the
bird by the feet, and let it drip ; a general squeeze of the body in that position will facilitate
the di'ainage. In general, hold a bird so that a bleeding place is most dependent; then, pres-
sure about the part will help the flow. A " gob" of blood, which is simply a forming clot,
on the plumage may often be dexterously flipped almost clean away with a snap of the finger.
It is first-rate practice to take cotton and forceps into the field to plug up shot-holes, and stop
the mouth and nostrils and vent on the spot. I follow the custom of the books in recommend-
ing this, but I will confess I have rarely done it myself, and I suspect that only a few of our
most leisurely and elegant collectors do so habitually. Shot-holes may be found by gently
raising the feathers, or blowing them aside ; you can of course get only a tiny plug into the
wound itself, but it should be one end of a sizable pledget, the rest lying fluffy among the
feathers. In stopping the mouth or vent, ram the fluff of cotton, entirely inside. You cannot
conveniently stop uj) the nostrils of small birds separately ; but take a light cylinder of cotton,
lay it transversely across the base of the upper mandible, closely covering the nostrils, and
confine it there by tucking each end tightly into the corner of the mouth. In default of such
nice fixing as this, a pinch of dry loam pressed on a bleeding spot will plaster itself there and
stop further mischief. Never try to wijye off fresh blood that has already wetted the plumage ;
you will only make matters worse. Let it dry on, and then — but the treatment of blood-
stains, and other soilings of plumage, is given beyond.
2
18 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
Carrying Birds Home Safe. — Suppose you have secured a fine specimec, very likely
without a soiled or ruffled feather ; your next care will be to keep it so till you are ready to
skin it. But if you pocket or bag it directly, it will be a sorry-looking object before you get
home. Each specimen must be separately cared for, by wrapping in stout paper; writing
paper is as good as any, if not the best. It will repay you to prepare a stock of paper before
startino- out ; your most convenient sizes are those of a half-sheet of note, of letter, and of cap
respectively. Either take these, or fold and cut newspaper to correspond; besides, it is always
well to have a ivholc newspaper or two for large birds. Plenty of paper will go in the breast
pockets of the shooting-coat. Make a "cornucopia," — the simplest thing in the world, but,
like tjdng a particular knot, hard to explain. Setting the wings closely, adjusting disturbed
feathers, and seeing that the bill points straight forward, thrust the bird head first into one
of these paper cones, till it will go no further, being bound by the bulge of the breast. Let
the cone be large enough for the open end to fold over or pinch together entirely beyond the
tail. Be particular not to crumple or bend the tail- feathers. Lay the paper cases in the game
bag or great pocket so that they very nearly run parallel and lie horizontal ; they will carry
better than if thrown in at random. Avoid overcrowding the packages, as far as is reasonably
practicable ; moderate pressure will do no harm, as a rule, but if great it may make birds
bleed afresh, or cause the fluids of a wounded intestine to ooze out and soak the plumage of
the belly, — a very bad accident indeed. For similar obvious reasons, do not put a large heavy
bird on top of a lot of little ones ; I would sooner sling a hawk or heron over my shoulder, or
carry it by hand. If it goes in the bag, see that it gets to the bottom. Avoid putting birds
in pockets that are close about your person ; they are almost always unduly pressed, and may
gain just enough additional warmth from your body to make them begin to decompose before
you can get at skinning them. Handle birds no more than is necessary, especially white-
plumaged ones ; ten to one your hands are powder-begrimed : and besides, even the warmth
and moisture of your palms may tend to injure a delicate feathering. Ordinarily pick up a
bird by the feet or bill ; as you need both hands to make the cornucopia, let the specimen
dangle by the toes from your teeth while you are so employed. In catching at a wounded
bird, aim to cover it entirely with your hand ; but whatever you do, never seize it by the tail,
which then will often be left in your hands for your pains. Never grasp wing-tips or tail-
feathers; these large flat quills would get a peculiar crimping aU along the webs, very difficult
to efface. Finally, I would add there is a certain knack or art in manipulating, either of a
dead bird or a birdskin, by which you may handle it with seeming carelessness and perfect
impunity ; whilst the most gingerly fingering of an inexperienced person will leave its rude
trace. You will naturally acquire the correct touch ; but it can be neither taught nor
described.
A Special Case. — While the ordinary run of land birds will be brought home in good
order by the foregoing method, some require special precautions. I refer to sea birds, such as
gulls, terns, petrels, etc., shot from a boat. In the first place, the plumage of most of them is,
in part at least, white and of exquisite purity. Then, fish-eating birds usually vomit and
purge when shot. They are necessarily fished all dripping from the water. They are too
large for pocketing. If you put them on the thwarts or elsewhere about the boat, they usually
fall off, or are knocked off", into the bilge water ; if you stow them in the cubby-hole, they will
assuredly soil by mutual pressure, or by rolling about. It will repay you to pick them from
the water by the bill, and shake off all the water you can ; hold them up, or let some one do
it, till they are tolerably dry ; plug the mouth, nostrils, and vent, if not also shot-holes ; wrap
each one separately in a cloth {not paper) or a mass of tow, and pack steadily in a covered box
or basket taken on board for this purpose. With such precautions as these birds most liable
to be soiled reach the skinning table in perfect order ; and your care will afterward transform
them into specimens without spot or blemish.
HYGIENE OF COLLECTORSHIP. 19
HYGIENE OF COLLECTORSHIP.
It is Unnecessary to speak of the Healthfulness of a pursuit that, like the collectoi*'s
occupation, demands regular bodily exercise, and at the same time stimulates the mind by
supjjlying an object, thus caUing the whole system into exhilarating action. Yet collecting
has its perils, not to be overlooked if we would adequately guard against them, as fortunately
we may, in most cases, by simple precautions. The dangers of taxidermy itself are elsewhere
noticed ; but, besides these, the collector is exposed to vicissitudes of the weather, may endure
great fatigue, may breathe miasm, and may be mechanically injured.
Accidents from the Gun have been already treated ; a few special rules will render
others little liable to occur. The secret of safe climbing is never to relax one hold until another
is secured ; it is in spirit equally applicable to scrambling over rocks, a particularly difficult
thing to do safely with a loaded gun. Test rotten, slippery, or otherwise suspicious holds
before trusting them. In lifting the body up anywhere, keep the mouth shut, breathe
through the nostrils, and go slowly. In swimming, waste no strength unnecessarily in trying
to stem a current ; yield partly, and land obliquely lower down ; if exhausted, float ; the
slightest motion of the hands will ordinarily keep the face above water ; and in any event keep
your wits collected. In fording deeply, a heavy stone will strengthen your position. Never
sail a boat experimentally ; if you are no sailor, take one with you or stay on land. In cross-
ing a high, narrow footpath, never look lower than your feet ; the muscles will work true if
not confused with faltering instructions from a giddy brain. On soft ground, see what, if
anything, has preceded you; large hoof-marks generally mean that the way is safe; if none
are found, inquire for yourself before going on. Quicksand is the most treacherous, because
far more dangerous than it looks ; but I have seen a mule's ears finally disappear in genuine
mud. Cattle paths, however erratic, commonly prove the surest way out of a difficult place,
whether of uncertain footing or dense undergrowth.
Miasm. — Unguarded exposure in malarious regions usually entails sickness, often pre-
ventable, however, by due precautions. It is worth knowing, in the first place, that miasmatic
poison is most powerful between sunset and sunrise ; more exactly, from the damp of the
evening until night vapors are dissipated ; we may be out in the daytime with comparative
impunity, where to pass a night would be almost certain disease. If forced to camp out, seek
the highest and dryest spot, put a good fire on the swamp side, and also, if possible, let trees
intervene. Never go out on an empty stomach ; just a cup of cofiee and a crust may make a
decided difference. Meet the earliest unfavorable symptoms with quinine ; I should rather say,
if unacclimated, anticipate them with tliis invaluable agent. Endeavor to maintain high
health of all functions by the natural means oi regularity and temperance in diet, exercise, and
repose.
" Taking Cold." — This vague " household word " indicates one or more of a long varied
train of unpleasant affections, nearly always traceable to one or the other of only two causes :
sudden change of temperature, and unequal distribution of temperature. No extremes of heat
or cold can alone effect this result; persons frozen to death do not "take cold "during the
process. But if a part of the body be rapidly cooled, as by evaporation fi'om a wet article of
clothing, or by sitting in a draught of air, the rest of the body remaining at an ordinary tem-
perature ; or if the temperature of the whole be suddenly changed by going out into the cold,
or, especially, by coming into a warm room, there is much liability of trouble. There is an
old saying, —
" Wlien the air comes through a hole
Say your prayers to save your soul;"
20 FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
and I should think ahnost any one could get a " cold" with a spoonful of water on the wrist
held to a key-hole. Singular as it may seein, sudden warming when cold is more dangerous
than the reverse ; every one has noticed how soon the handkerchief is required on entering a
heated room on a cold day. Frost-bite is an extreme illustration of this. As the Irishman
said on picking himself up, it was not the fall, hut stopping so quickly that hurt him ; it is
not the lowering of the temperature to the freezing point, hut its subsequent elevation, that
devitalizes the tissue. This is why rubbing with snow, or bathing in cold water, is required
to restore safely a frozen part ; the arrested circulation must be very gradually re-established,
or inflammation, perhaps mortification, ensues. General precautions against taking cold are
almost self-evident, in this light. There is ordinarily little if any danger to be apprehended
from wet clothes, so long as exercise is kept up; for the " glow " about compensates for the
extra cooling by evaporation. Nor is a complete drenching more likely to be injurious than
wetting of one part. But never sit still wet ; and in changing rub the body dry. There is a
general tendency, springing from fatigue, indolence, or indifi"erence, to neglect damp feet ; that
is to say, to dry them by the fire ; but this process is tedious and uncertain. I would say
especially, off with the muddy boots and sodden socks at once ; dry stockings and slippers,
after a hunt, may make just the difference of your being able to go out again or never. Take
care never to check perspiration ; during this process, the body is in a somewhat critical condi-
tion, and sudden arrest of the function may result disastrously, even fatally. One part of the
business of perspiration is to equalize bodUy temperature, and it must not be interfered with.
The secret of much that might be said about bathing when heated, lies here. A person over-
heated, panting it may be, ^\^th throbbing temples and a dry skin, is in danger partly because
the natural cooling by evaporation from the skin is denied, and this condition is sometimes not
far from a " sunstroke." Under these circumstances, a person of fairly good constitution may
plunge into the water with impunity, even with benefit. But if the body be already cooling
by sweating, rapid abstraction of heat from the surface may cause internal congestion, never
unattended with danger. Drinking ice-water offers a somewhat parallel case ; even on stoop-
ing to drink at the brook, when flushed with heat, it is well to bathe the face and hands first,
and to taste the water before a full draught. It is a well-known excellent rule, not to bathe
immediately after a full meal ; because during digestion the organs concerned are compara-
tively engorged, and any sudden disturbance of the circulation may be disastrous. The
imperative necessity of resisting drowsiness under extreme cold requires no comment. In
walking under a hot sun, the head may be sensibly protected by green leaves or grass in the
hat ; they may be advantageously moistened, but not enough to drip about the ears. Under
such circumstances the slightest giddiness, dimness of sight, or confusion of ideas, should be
taken as a warning of possible sunstroke, instantly demanding rest and shelter.
Hunger and Fatigue are more closely related than they might seem to be ; one is a sign
that the fuel is out, and the other asks for it. Extreme fatigue, indeed, destroys appetite ;
this simply means, temporary incapacity for digestion. But even far short of this, food is more
easily digested and better relished after a little preparation of the furnace. On coming home
tired, it is much better to make a leisurely and reasonably nice toilet than to eat at once, or to
lie still thinking how tired you are ; after a change and a wash you will feel like a " new
man," and go to table in capital state. Whatever dietetic iri'egularities a high state of civili-
zation may demand or render practicable, a normally healthy person is inconvenienced almost
as soon as his regular meal-time passes without food ; a few can work comfortably or profit-
ably fasting over six or eight hours. Eat before starting ; if for a day's tramp, take a lunch ;
the most frugal meal will appease if it do not satisfy hunger, and so postpone its urgency. As
a small scrap of practical wisdom, I would add, keep the remnants of the lunch, if there are
any ; for you cannot always be sure of getting in to supper.
REGISTBATION AND LABELLING. 21
Stimulation. — When cold, fatigued, depressed in mind, and on other occasions, you
may feel inclined to resort to artificial stimulus. Respecting this many-sided theme I have a
few words to ofier of direct bearing on the collector's case. It should be clearly understood in
the first place that a stimulant confers no strength whatever ; it simply calls the powers that be
into increased action at their own expense. Seeking real strength in stimulus is as wise as an
attempt to lift yourself up by the boot-straps. You may gather yourself to leap the ditch and
you clear it ; but no such muscular energy can be sustained ; exhaustion speedily renders further
expenditure impossible. But now suppose a very powerful mental impression be made, say
the circumstance of a succession of ditches in front, and a mad dog behind ; if the stimulus of
terror be suflSciently strong, you may leap on till you drop senseless. Alcoholic stimulus is a
parallel case, and is not seldom pushed to the same extreme. Under its influence you never
can tell when you are tired ; the expenditure goes on, indeed, vnth unnatural rapidity, only it
is not felt at the time ; but the upshot is you have all the original fatigue to endure and to
recover from, plus the fatigue resulting from over-excitation of the system. Taken as a forti-
fication against cold, alcohol is as unsatisfactory as a remedy for fatigue. Insensibility to cold
does not imply protection. The fact is the exposure is greater than before ; the circulation and
respiration being hurried, the waste is greater, and as sound fuel cannot be immediately supplied,
the temperature of the body is soon lowered. The transient warmth and glow over, the system
has both cold and depression to endure ; there is no use in borrowing from yourself and fancy-
ing you are richer. Secondly, the value of any stimulus (except in a few exigencies of disease
or injury) is in proportion, not to the intensity, but to the equableness and durability of its
effect. This is one reason why tea, coffee, and articles of corresponding qualities, are preferable
to alcoholic drinks ; they work so smoothly that their effect is often unnoticed, and they '' stay
by" well; the friction of alcohol is tremendous in comparison. A glass of grog may help a
veteran over the fence, but no one, young or old, can shoot all day on liquor. I have had
so much experience in the use of tobacco as a mild stimulant that I am probably no impartial
judge of its merits: I will simply say I do not use it in the field, because it indisposes to mus-
cular activity, and favors reflection when observation is required ; and because temporary
abstinence provokes the morbid appetite and renders the weed more grateful afterwards.
Thirdly, undue excitation of any physical function is followed by con-esponding depression, on
the simple principle that action and reaction are equal ; and the balance of health turns too
easily to be wilfully disturbed. Stimulation is a draft upon vital capital, when interest alone
should suffice ; it may be needed at times to bridge a chasm, but habitual living beyond vital
income infiillibly entails bankruptcy in health. The use of alcohol in health seems practically
restricted to purposes of sensuous gratification on the part of those prepared to pay a round
price f(jr this luxury. The three golden rules here are, — never drink before breakfast, never
drink alone, and never drink bad liquor; their observance may make even the abuse of
alcohol tolerable. Serious objections for a naturalist, at least, are that science, viewed
through a glass, seems distant and uncertain, while the joys of rum are immediate and unques-
tionable ; and that intemperance, being an attempt to defy certain physical laws, is therefore
eminently unscientific.
§5 — REGISTRATION AND LABELLING.
A mere Outline of a Field Naturalist's Duties would be inexcusably incomplete with-
out mention of these important matters ; and, because so much of the business of collecting
must be left to be acquired in the school of experience, I am the more anxious to give explicit
directions whenever, as in this instance, it is possible to do so.
Record your Observations Daily. — In one sense the specimens themselves are your
record, — prima facie evidence of your industry and ability; and if labelled, as I shall presently
22 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
advise, they tell no small part of the whole story. But this is not enough ; indeed, I am not
sure that an ably conducted ornithological journal is not the better half of your operations.
Under your editorship of labelling, specimens tell what they know about themselves ; but you
can tell much more yourself. Let us look at a day's work : You have shot and skinned so
many birds and laid them away labelled. You have made observations about them before
shooting, and have observed a number of birds that you did not shoot. You have items of
haunts and habits, abundance or scarcity ; of manners and actions under special circumstances,
as of pairing, nesting, laying, rearing young, feeding, migrating, and what not ; various notes
of birds are still ringing in your ears ; and finally, you may have noted the absence of species you
saw a while before, or had expected to occur in your vicinity. Meteorological and topographi-
cal items, especially when travelling, are often tif great assistance in explaining the occurrences
and actions of birds. Now you know these things, but very likely no one else does ; and
you know them at the time, but you will not recollect a tithe of them in a few weeks or months,
to say nothing of years. Don't trust your memory : it will trip you up ; what is clear now will
grow obscure ; what is found will be lost. Write down everything while it is fresh in your
mind ; write it out in full : time so spent now will be time saved in the end, when you ofi'er
your researches to the discriminating public. Don't be satisfied with a dry-as-dust item ;
clothe a skeleton fact, and breathe life into it vidth thoughts that glow ; let the paper smell of
the woods. There 's a pulse in a new fact ; catch the rhythm before it dies. Keep ofi' the
quicksands of mere memorandum — that means something "to be remembered," v\'hich is just
what you cannot do. Shun abbreviations ; such keys rust with disuse, and may fail in after
times to unlock the secret that should have been laid bare in the beginning. Use no signs
intelligible only to yourself : your note-books may come to be overhauled by others whom
you would not wish to disappoint. Be sparing of sentiment, a delicate thing, easily degraded
to drivel : crude enthusiasm always hacks instead of hewing. Beware of literary infelicities :
" the written word remains," it may be, after you have passed away; put down nothing for
your friend's blush, or your enemy's sneer ; write as if a stranger were looking over your
shoulder.
Ornithological Booli-keeping may be left to your discretion and good taste in the
details of execution. Each may consult his preferences for rulings, headings, and blank forms
of all sorts, as well as particular modes of entry. But my experience has been that the entries
it is advisable to make are too multifarious to be accommodated by the most ingenious formal
ruling; unless, indeed, you make the conventional heading "Remarks" disproportionately
wide, and commit to it everything not otherwise provided for. My preference is decidedly for a
plain page. I use a strongly bound blank book, cap size, containing at least six or eight
quires of good smooth paper; but smaller may be needed for travelling, even down to a pocket
note-book. I would not advise a multiplicity of books, splitting up your record into difi'erent
departments : let it be journal and register of specimens combined. (The registry of your
otvn collecting has nothing to do with the registei- of your cabinet of birds, which is sure to
include a proportion of specimens fi'om other sources, received in exchange, donated, or pur-
chased. I speak of this beyond.) I have found it convenient to commence a day's record
with a register of the specimens secured, each entry consisting of a duplicate of the bird's label
(see beyond), accompanied by any further remarks I have to ofier respecting the particular
specimens ; then to go on with the full of my day's observations, as suggested in the last para-
graph. You thus have a " register of collections " in chronological order, told off with an
unbroken series of numbers, checked with the routine label-items, and continually interspersed
with the balance of your ornithological studies. Since your private field-number is sometiines
an indispensable clew to the authentication of a specimen after it has left your own hands,
never duplicate it. If you are collecting other objects of natural history besides birds, still have
BEGISTBATIOX AND LABELLING. 23
but one series of numbers ; duly enter your mammal, or mineral, or whatever it is, in its
place, with the number under which it happens to fall. Be scrupulously accurate with these
and all other figures, as of dates and measurements. Always use black ink; the "fancy"
writing-fluids, even the useful carmiue, fade sooner than black, while lead-pencilling is never
safe.
Labelling. — This should never be neglected. It is enough to make a sensitive ornithol-
ogist shiver to see a specimen without that indispensable appendage — a label. I am sorry to
observe that the routine labelling of most collections is far from being satisfactory. A well-
appoiuted label is something more than a slip of paper with the bird's name on it, and is still
defective, if, as is too often the case, only the locality and collector are added. A complete
label records the following particulars : 1. Title of the survey, voyage, exploration, or other
expedition (if any), during which the specimen was collected. 2. Name of the person in
charge of the same (and it may be remarked that the less he really cares about birds, and the
less he actually interests himself to procure them, the more particular he will be about this).
3. Title of the institution or association (if any) under the auspices or patronage of which the
specimen was procured, or for which it is designed. 4. Name of collector; partly to give
credit where it is due, but principally to fix responsibility, and authenticate the rest of the
items. 5. Collector's number, referring to his note-book, as just explained ; if the specimen
afterwards forms part of a general collection it usually acquires another number by new regis-
try ; the collector's then becoming the " original," as distinguished from the " current,"
number. 6. Localiti/, perhaps the most important of all the items. A specimen of unknown
or even uncertain origin is worthless or nearly so ; while lamentable confusion has only too
often arisen in ornithological writings from vague or erroneous indications of locality : I should
say that a specimen "not authentic " in this particular had better have its supposed origin
erased and be let alone. Nor will it do to say simply, for instance, " North America" or even
" United States." The general geographical distribution of birds being according to recognized
fVumal areas, ornithologists generally know already the quarter of the globe from which any
bird comes ; the locality of particular specimens, therefore, should be fixed dowoi to the very
spot. If this be obscure add the name of the nearest place to be found on a fairly good map,
giving distance and direction. 7. Date of collection, — day of the month, and year. Among
other reasons for this may be mentioned the fact that it is often important to know what
season a particular plumage indicates. 8. Sex, and if possible also age, of the specimen, — an
item that bespeaks its own importance. Ornithologists of all countries are agreed upon certain
signs to indicate sex. These are : ^ for male, V for female, — the symbols respectively of
Mars and Venus. Immaturity is often denoted by the sign ^ ; thus, $ ^, young male. Or,
we may write 9 ad., 9 y<J-, for adult female, young female, respectively. It is preferable,
however, to use the language of science, not our vernacular, and say $ juv. (juvenis, yoimg).
^' Nupt." signifies breeding plumage; " /loniof." means a bird of the year. 9. Measurements
of length, and of extent of wings; the former can only be obtained approximately, and the
latter not at all, from a prepared specimen. 10. Color of the eyes, and of the bill, feet, or
other naked or .soft parts, the tints of which may change in drying. 11. Miscellaneous partic-
idars, such as contents of stomach, special circumstances of capture, vernacular name, etc.
12. Scientific name of the bird. This is really the least important item of all, though
generally thought to take precedence. But a bird labels itself, so to speak ; and nature's
label may be deciphered at any time. In fact, I would enjoin upon the collector not to
write out the supposed name of the bird in the field, unless the species is so well known as
to be absolutely unquestionable. Proper identification, in any case to which the slightest
doubt may attach, can only be made after critical study in the closet with ample facilities for
examination and comparison. The first eight items, and the twelfth, usually constitute the
24
FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
face of a label ; the rest are commonly written on the back. Labels should he of light card-
board, or very stiff writing paper ; they may be dressed attractively, as fancy suggests ; the
general items of a large number of specimens are best printed ; the special ones must of course
be written. Shape is immaterial; small "cards" or "tickets" are prefeiTed by some, and
certainly look very well when neatly appointed ; but I think, on the whole, that a shape
answering the idea of a " slip" rather than a " ticket" is most eligible. A slip about three
inches long and two thirds of an inch wide will do very well for anything, from a hawk to a
humming-bird. Something like the " shipping tag " used by merchants is excellent, particu-
larly for larger objects. It seems most natural to attach the string to the left-hand end. The
slip should be tied so as to swing just clear of the bird's legs, but not loose enough to dangle
several inches, for in that case the labels are continually tangling with each other when the
birds are laid away in drawers. The following diagrams show the face and back of the last
label I happened to write before these lines were originally penned ; they represent the size
and shape that I find most convenient for general pui-poses ; while the " legend " illustrates
every one of the twelve items above specified.
§ Explorations in Dakota. Dr. Elliott Coues, U. S. A.
'5
g Ko. 2655. Buteo borealis (Gm.) V. 9 juv.
•3 Fort Randall, Missouri River. Oct. 29, 1872.
23.00 X 53.00 X 17.50. — Eyes yellowish-gray ; bill horn-blue,
darker at tip; cere wax-yellow; tarsi dull yellowish; claws
bluish-black. Stomach contained portions of a rabbit; also, a
large tapeworm.
Reverse-
Directions for Measurement may be inserted here, as this matter pertains rightfully to
the recording of specimens. The following instructions apply not only to length and extent,
but to the principal other dimensions, which may be taken at any time. For large birds, a
tape-line showing inches and fourths will do ; for smaller ones, a foot-rule graduated for inches
and eighths, or better, decimals to hundredths, must be used ; and for all nice measurements
the dividers are indispensable. " Length : " Distance between the tip of the bill and end of
the longest tail-feather. Lay the bird on its back on the ruler on a table; take hold of the bill
with one hand and of both legs with the other ; pull with reasonable force to get the curve all
out of the neck ; hold the bird thus with the tip of the bill flush with one end of the ruler, and
see where the end of the tail points. Put the tape-line in place of the ruler, in the same way,
for larger birds. " Extent: " Distance between the tips of the outspread wings. They must
he fully outstretched, with the bird on its back, crosswise on the ruler, its bill pointing to your
breast. Take hold of right and left metacarpus with the thumb and forefinger of your left and
right hand respectively, stretch with reasonable force, getting one wing-tip flush with one end
of the ruler, and see how much the other wing-tip reaches. With large birds pull away as
hard as you please, and use the table, floor, or side of the room ; mark the points and apply
tape-line. " Length of wing : " Distance fi-om the carpal angle formed at the bend of the
wing to the end of the longest primary. Get it with compasses for small birds. In birds with
a convex wing, do not lay the tape-line over the curve, but under the wing in a straight line.
This measurement is the one called, for short, " the wing." ^'Length of tail : '' Distance
MATERIALS FOR PREPARING BIRDSKINS. 25
from the roots of the rectrices to the end of the longest one. Feel for the pope's nose; in either
a fresh or dried specimen there is more or less of a palpable lump into which the taU-feathers
stick. Guess as near as you can to the middle of this lump; jjlace the end of the ruler opposite
this point, and see where the tip of the longest taU-feather comes. " Length of hill: " Some
take the curve of the upper mandible ; others the side of the upper mandible from the feathers ;
others the gape, etc. I take the chord of the culmen. Place one ft)ot of the dividers on the
culmen just where the feathers end ; no matter whether the culmen runs up on the forehead, or
the frontal feathers run out on the culmen, and no matter whether the culmen is straight or
curved. Then with me the length of the bill is the shortest distance from the point just indi-
cated to the tip of the upper mandible ; measure it with the dividers. In a straight bill of
course it is the length of the culmen itself ; in a curved bill, however, it is quite another thing.
" Length of tarsus : " Distance between the joint of the tarsus with the leg above, and that
with the first phalanx of the middle toe below. Measure it always with dividers, and in front
of the leg. ^^ Length of toes: " Distance in a straight line along the upper surface of a toe
from the point last indicated to the root of the claw on top. Length of toe is to be taken
without the claw, unless othenvise specified. '^Length of the claws : " Distance in a straight line
from the point last indicated to the tip of the claw. " Length of head ^^ is often a convenient
dimension for comparison with the bill. Set one foot of the dividers over the base of the culmen
(determined as above) and allow the other to slip snugly down over the arch of the occiput.
§6. — INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS, AND FIXTURES FOR PREPARING BIRDSKINS.
Instruments. — The only indispensable instrument is a pair of scissors or a knife ;
although practically you want both of these, a pair of spring forceps, and a knitting-needle, or
some similar wooden or ivory object, yet I have made hundreds of birdskins consecutively
n'ithout touching another tool. '^ Persicos odi, puer, apparatus!" I always mistrust the
einphasis of a collector who makes a flourish of instruments. You might be surprised to see
what a meagre, shabby-looking kit our best taxidennists work with. Stick to your scissors,
knife, fc^rceps, and needle. But you may as well buy, at the outset, a common dissecting-case,
just what medical students begin business with ; it is very cheap, and if there are some unneces-
sary things in it, it makes a nice little box in which to keep your tools. The case contains,
among other things, several scalpels, just the knives you want ; a " cartilage-knife," which is
nothing but a stout scalpel, suitable for large birds ; the best kind of scissors for your purpose,
with short blades and long handles — if "kneed "at the hinge so much the better; spring
forceps, the very thing ; a blow-pipe, useful in many ways and answering well for a knitting-
needle ; and some little steel-hooks, chained together, which you may want to use. But you
will also require, for large birds, a very heavy pair of scissors, or small shears, short-bladed
and long-handled, and a stout pair of bone-nippers. Have some pins and needles ; surgical
needles, which cut instead of punching, are the best. Get a hone or strop, if you wish, and a
feather duster. Use of scissors requires no comment, and I would urge their habitual employ
instead of the knife-blade ; I do nine-tenths of my cutting with scissors, and find it much the
easiest. A double-lever is twice as efi'ective as a single one, and besides, you gain in cutting
soft, yielding substances by opposing two blades. Moreover, scalpels need constant sharpen-
ing ; mine are generally too dull to cut much with, and I suppose I am like other people —
while scissors stay sharp enough. Tlie flat, thin ivory or ebony handle of the scalpel is about
as useful as the blade. Finger-nails, which were made before scalpels, are a mighty help.
Forceps are almost indispensable for seizing and holding parts too small or too remote to be
grasped by the fingers. The knitting-needle is wanted for a specific purpose noted beyond.
The shears or nippers are only needed for what the ordinary scissors are too weak to do. Our
instruments, you see now, are " a short horse soon curried."
26 FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
Materials. — (a.) For stuffing. ''What do you stuff 'em with?'" is usually the first
question of idle curiosity about taxidermy, as if that were the great point; whereas, the stuffing
is so small a matter that I generally reply, "anything, except brickbats ! " But if stuffing
birds were the final cause of Cotton, that admirable substance could not be more perfectly
adapted than it is to the purpose. Ordinary raw cotton-batting or wadding is what you want.
When I can get it I never think of using anything else for small birds. I would use it for all
birds were expense no object. Here tow comes in ; there is a fine, clean, bleached article of
tow prepared for surgical dressings ; this is the best, but any will do. Some say chop your
tow fine ; this is harmless, but unnecessary. A crumpled newspaper, wrapped with tow, is
first-rate for a large bird. Failing cotton or tow, any soft, light, dry, vegetable substance may
be made to answer, — rags, paper, crumbled leaves, fine dried grass, soft fibrous inner bark,
etc. ; the down of certain plants, as thistle and silkweed, makes an exquisite filling for small
birds. But I will qualify my remark about brickbats by saying : never put hair, wool, feathers,
or any other animal substance in a birdsJcin ; far better leave it empty : for, as we shall see in
the sequel, bugs come fast enough, \Aathout being invited into a snug nest, (b.) For preserv-
ing. Arsenic, — not the pure metal properly so called, but arsenic of the shops, or arsenious
acid, — is the great preser\'ative. Use dry powdered arsenic, plenty of it, and nothing else.
There is no substitute for arsenic worthy of the name, and no preparation of arsenic so good as
the simple substance. Various kinds of " arsenical soap" were and may still be in vogue;
it is a nasty greasy substance, not fit to handle; and although efficacious enough, there is a
very serious hygienic objection to its use.^ Arsenic, I need not say, is a violent irritant poison,
and must therefore be duly guarded, but may be used with perfect impunity. It is a very
heavy substance, not appreciably volatile at ordinary temperatures, and therefore not liable,
as some suppose, to be breathed, to any perceptible, much less injurious, extent. It will not
even at once enter the pores of healthy unbroken skin ; so it is no matter if it gets on the fingers.
The exceedingly minute quantity that may be supposed to find its way into the system in the
course of time is believed by many competent physicians to be rather beneficial as a tonic. I
will not conmiit myself to this ; for, though I have never felt better than when working daily
with arsenic, I do not know how much my health was improved by the out-door exercise
always taken at the same time. The simple precautions are, not to let it lie too long in con-
tact with the skin, nor get into an abrasion, nor under the nails. It will convert a scratch or
cut into a festering sore of some little severity ; while if lodged under the nails it soon shows
itself by soreness, increased by pressure ; a white speck appears, then a tiny abscess forms, dis-
charges and gets well in a few days. Your precautions really respect other persons more than
yourself; the receptacle should be conspicuously labelled "POISON!" Arsenic is a good
friend of ours : besides preserving our birds, it keeps busybodies and meddlesome folks away
from the scene of operations, by raising a wholesome suspicion of the taxidermist's surround-
ings. It may be kept in the tin pots in which it is usually sold ; but some shallower, broader
receptacle is more convenient. A little drawer say 6x6 inches, and an inch deep, to slip
under the edge of the table, or a similar compartment in a large drawer, wUl be found handy.
A salt-spoon, or little wooden shovel whittled like one, is nice to use it with, though in effect,
I always shovel it up with the handle of a scalpel. As stated, there is no substitute for arsenic;
1 "Strange as it may appear to some, I would say avoid especially all the so-called arsenical soaps ; they
are at best but filthy preparations ; besides, it is a fact to which I can bear jiainful testimony that they are,
especially when applied to a greasy skin, poisonous in the extreme. 1 have been so biidly poisoned, while working
upon the skins of some fat water birds that had been prepared with arsenical soap, as to be made seriously ill, the
poison having worked into the system through some small wounds or scratches on my hand. Had pure arsenic
been used in iireparing the skins, the eftect would not have been as bad, although grease and arsenic are generally
a blood-poison in some degree ; but when combined with ' soap ' the effect, at least as far as my experience goes,
is much more injurious." (Maynard, Guide, p. 12.) In endorsing this, I would add that tlie combination is the
more poisonous, in all probability, simply because the soap, being detersive, mechanically facilitates the entrance
of the poison, without, however, chemically increasing its virulence.
MATERIALS FOB PREPARING BIRDSKINS. 27
but at a pinch you can make temporary shift with the following, among other articles: — table
salt, or saltpetre, or charcoal strewn plentifully ; strong solution of corrosive sublimate, brushed
over the skin inside ; creosote ; impure carbolic acid ; these last two are quite efficacious, but
they smell horribly for an indefinite period. A bird threatening to decompose before you can
get at it to skin, may be saved for a wliile by squirting weak carbolic acid or creosote down the
throat and up the fundament ; or by disembowelling, and filling the cavity with powdered
charcoal, (c.) For cleansing. Gypsum is an almost indispensable material for cleansing
soiled plumage. " Gypsum " is properly native hydrated sulphate of lime ; the article referred
to is " plaster of Paris" or gypsum heated up to 260° F. (by which the water of crystalliza-
tion is driven ofi") and then finely pulverized. When mixed with water it soon solidifies, the
original hydrate being again formed. The mode of using it is indicated beyond. It is most
conveniently kept in a shallow tray, say a foot square, and an inch or two deep, which had
better, furthermore, slide under the table as a drawer ; or form a compartment of a larger
drawer. Keep gypsum and arsenic in different-looking receptacles, not so much to keep from
poisoning yourself, as to keep from not poisoning a birdskin. They look much alike, and
skinning becomes such a mechanical process that you may get hold of the wrong article when
your thoughts are wandering in the woods. Gypsum, like arsenic, has no worthy rival in its
own field ; some substitutes, in the order of their applicability, are : — corn-meal, probably the
best thing after gypsum; calcined magnesia (very good, but too light — it floats in the air,
and makes you cougli) ; bicarbonate of magnesia; powdered chalk ("prepared chalk," cj-eta
praparata of the drug shops, is the best kind) ; fine wood-ashes ; clean dry loam. No article,
however powdery when dry, that contains a glutinous principle, as for instance gum-arabic or
flour, is admissible, {d.) For wrapping, you want a thin, pliable, strong paper ; water-closet
paper is the very best; newspaper is pretty good. For making the cones or cylinders in
which birdskins may be set to dry, a stiffer article is required ; writing paper answers perfectly.
Naturalists habitually carry a Pocket Lens, much as other people do a watch. You
will find a magnifying glass very convenient in your search for the sexual organs of small
birds when obscure, as they frequently are, out of the breeding season ; in picking lice from
plumage, to send to your entomological friend, who will very likely pronounce them to be of a
" new species ; " and for other purposes.
Fixtures. When travelling, your fixtures must ordinarily be limited to a coUecting-
chest ; you will have to skin birds on the top of this, on the tail-board of a wagon, or on your
lap, as the case may be. The chest should be very substantial — iron-bound is best ; strong
as to hinges and lock — and have handles. A good size is 30 x 18 x 18 inches. Let it be
fitted with a set of trays; the bottom one say four inches deep; the rest shallower; the top
one very shallow, and divided into compartments for your tools and materials, unless you fix
these on the under side of the lid. Start out with all the trays full of cotton or tow. At
home, have a room to yourself, if possible ; taxidermy makes a mess to which your wife may
object, and arsenic must not come in the way of children. At any rate have your own table.
I prefer plain deal that may be scrubbed when required ; great cleanliness is indispensable,
especially when dcnng much work in hot weather, for the place soon smells sour if neglected.
I use no special receptacle for oftal, for this only makes another article to be cleaned ; lay
down a piece of paper 'for the refuse, and throw the whole away. A perfectly smooth surface
is desirable. I generally have a large pane of window-glass on the table before me. It will
really be found advantageous to have a scale of inches scratched on the edge of the table ; only
a small part of it need be fractionally subdivided ; this n>places the foot-rule and tape-line,
just as the tacks of a dry-goods counter answer for tlie yardstick. You will find it worth while
to rig some sijrt of a derrick arranginnent, which you cim readily devise, on mie end of the
28 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
table, to hitch your hook to, if you hang your birds up to skin them ; they should swing clear
of everything. The table should have a large general drawer, with a little drawer for gypsum
and arsenic already mentioned, unless these be kept elsewhere. Stuffing may be kept iu a box
under the table, and make a nice footstool ; or in a bag slung to the table leg.
Query : Have you cleansed the bird's plumage ? Have you plugged the mouth, nostrils,
and ventf Have you measured the specimen and noted the color of the eyes, bill, and feet,
and prepared the labels, and made the entry in the register ? Have you got all your apparatus
within arm's length f Then we are ready to proceed.
§7. — HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.
a. The Regular Process.
Lay the Bird on its Back, the bill pointing to your right ^ elbow. Take the scalpel like
a pen, with edge of blade uppermost, and run a straight furrow through the feathers along the
middle line of the belly, from end of the breast-bone to the vent. Part the feathers com-
pletely, and keep them parted.^ Observe a strip of skin either perfectly naked, or only cov-
ered with short down ; this is the line for incision. Take scissors, stick in the pointed blade
just over the end of the breast- bone, cut in a straight line thence to and into the vent; cut
extremely shallow.^
Take the forceps in your left band, and scalpel in your right, both held pen-wise, and with
the forceps seize and Uft up one of the edges of the cut skin, gently pressing away the belly-
walls with the scalpel-point ; no cutting is required ; the skin may be peeled off without trouble.
Skin away till you meet an obstacle ; it is the thigh. Lay down the instruments ; with your
left hand take hold of the leg outside at the shank ; put your right forefinger under the raised
flap <.»f skin, and feel a bump ; it is the hnee ; push up the leg till this bump comes into view ;
hold it so. Take the scissors iu your right hand ; tuck one blade under the concavity of the
knee, and sever the joint at a stroke; then the thigh is left with the rest of the body, w'hile
the rest of the leg is dissevered and hangs only by skin. Push the leg further up till it has
Slipped out of its sheath of skin, like a finger out of a glove, down to the heel-joint. You
have now to clear off the flesh and leave the bone there ; you may scrape tUl this is done,
but there is a better way. Stick the closed points of the scissors in among the muscles just
below the head of the bone, then separate the blades just wide enough to grasp the bone;
snip oft" its head ; draw the head to one side ; all the muscles follow, being there attached ;
strip them doivnward from the bone ; the bone is left naked, with the muscle hanging by a
bundle of tendons ("leaders") at its foot; sever these tendons collectively at a stroke. This
whole performance will occupy about three seconds, after practice ; and you may soon discover
you can nick off the head of the bone of a small bird with the thumb-nail. Draw the leg bone
back into its sheath, and leave it. Repeat all the foregoing steps on the other side of the bird.
If you are bothered by the skin-flaps settling against the belly-walls, insert a fluff of cotton.
» Reverse this and following directions for positkm, if you are left-handed.
2 The motion is exactly like stroking the right and left sides of a moustache apart ; you would never dress
the hairs smoothly away from the middle line, by poking from ends to root ; nor will the feathers stay aside,
unless stroked away from base to tips.
8 The skin over the belly is thin as tissue paper in a small bird; the chances are you will at first cut the
walls of the belly too, opening the cavity; this is no great matter, for a pledget of cotton will keep the bowels in;
nevertheless, try to divide skin only. Reason for cutting into vent: this orifice makes a nice natural termination
of the incision, buttonhole-wise, and may keep the end of the cut from tearing around the root of the tail. Reason
for beginning to cut over the edge of the sternum: the muscular walls of the belly are very thin, and stick so close
to the skin that you may be in danger of attempting to remove them with the skin, instead of removing the skin
from them ; whereas, you cannot remove anything but skin from over the breast bone, so you have a guide at the
start. You can tell skin from belly-wall, by its livid, translucent whitishness instead of redness.
HOW TO MAKE A BIRD SKIN. 29
Keep the feathers out of the wound ; cotton and the moustache movement will do it. Next you
must sever the tail from the body, leaving a small " pope's-nose " for the feathers to stay stuck
into. Put the bird in the hollow of your lightly closed left hand, tail upward, belly toward you;
or, if too large for this, stand it on its breast on the table in similar position. Throw your
left forefinger across the front of the tail, pressing a little backward ; take the scissors, cut the
end of the lower bowel free first, then peck away at bone and muscle with cautious snips, till
the tail-stump is dissevered from the rump, and the tail hangs only by skin. You will soon
learn to do it all at one stroke ; but you cannot be too careful at first ; you are cutting right
down on to the skin over the top of the pope's-nose, and if you divide this, the bird will part
company \nth its tail altogether. Now you have the rump-stump protruding naked ; the legs
dangling on either side ; the tail hanging loose over the bird's back between them. Lay down
scissors, take up forceps^ in your left hand; with them seize and hold the stump of the rump ;
and with point or handle of scalpel in the other hand, with finger-tips, or with thumb-nail
(best), gently press down on and peel away skin.^ No cutting will be required (usually) tiU
you come to the wings : the skin peels off (usually) as easily as an orange-rind ; as fast as it
is loosened, evert it ; that is make it continually turn itself more and more completely inside
out. Work thus till you are stopped by the obtruding wings. ^ You have to sever the wing
from the body at the shoulder, just as you did the leg at the knee, and leave it hanging by
skin alone. Take your scissors,* as soon as the upper arm is exposed, and cut through flesh
and bone alike at one stroke, a little below (outside of) the shoulder-joint. Do the same with
the other wing. As soon as the wings are severed the body has been skinned to the root of
the neck ; the process becomes very easy ; the neck almost slips out of its sheath of itself; and
if you have properly attended to keeping the feathers out of the wound and to continual ever-
sion of the skin, you now find you have a naked body connected dumb-bell-wise by a naked
neck to a cap of reversed skin into which the head has disappeared, from the inside of which
the legs and wings dangle, and around the edges of which is a row of plumage and a tail.^
Here comes up an important consideration : the skin, plumage, legs, wings, and tail together
weigh something, — enough to stretch ^ unduly the skin of the neck, fi-om the small cylinder of
which they are now suspended : the whole mass must be supported. For small birds, gather
it in the hollow of your left hand, letting the body swing over the back of your hand out of the
1 Or at this stage you may instead stick a hook into a firm part of the rump, and hang up the bird about
the level of your breast ; you thus have both hands free to work with. This is advisable with all birds too large
to be readily taken in hand, and will help you, at first, with any bird But there is really no use of it with a small
bird, and you may as well learn the best way of working at first as afterward.
2 The idea of the whole movement is exactly like ungloving your hand from the wrist, by turning the glove
inside out to the very finger tips. Some people say, pull ofi" the skin ; I say never pull a bird's skin under any cir-
cumstances : piish it off, always operating at lines of contact of skin with body, never upon areas of skins already
detached.
3 The elbows will get in your way before you reach the point of attack, namely, the shoulder, unless the
wings were completely relaxed (as was essential, indeed, if you measured alar expanse correctly). Think what a
<lifference it would make, were you skinning a man through a slit in the belly, whether his arms were stretched
above his head, or pinned against his ribs. It is just the same with a bird. When properly relaxed the wings
are readily pressed away toward the bird's head, so that the shoulders are encountered before the elbows.
< Shears will be required to crash through a large arm-bone. Or, you may with the scalpel unjolnt the
shoulder. The joint will be found higher up and deeper among the breast muscles than you might suppose,
unless you are used to carving fowls at table. With a small bird, you may snap the bone with the thumb-nail
and tear asunder the muscles in an instant.
5 You find that the little straight cut you made along the belly has somehow become a hole larger than the
greatest girth of the bird ; be undismayed ; it is all right.
0 If you have up to this point properly pushed off the skin instead of pulling it, there is as yet probably no
stretching of any consequence; but, in skinning the head, which comes next, it is almost impossible for a beginner
to avoid stretching to an extent involving great damage to the good looks of a skin. Try your utmost, by delicacy
of manipulation at the lines of contact of skin with flesh, and only there, to prevent lengtlurise stretching. Cross-
wise aistension is of no consequence; in fact more or less of it is usually required to skin the head, and it tends
to counteract the ill effect of undue elongation.
30 FIELD OBNITHOLOGY.
way ; for large ones, rest the afiair on the table or your lap. To skin the head, secure the
hody in the position just indicated, by confining the neck between your left thumb and fore-
finger ; bring the right fingers and thumb to a cone over the head, and draw it out with gentle
force; or, holding the head itself between the left thumb and forefinger, insert the handle of
the scalpel between the skin and skull, and pry a little, to enlarge the neck-cylinder of skin
enough to let the head pass. It will generally^ slip out of its hood very readily, as far as its
greatest diameter ; ^ there it sticks, being in fact pinned by the ears. Still holding the bird as
before, with the point of the scalpel handled like a nut-picker, or with your thumb-nail, detach
the delicate membrane that lines the ear-opening ; do the same for the other ear. The skull is
then shelled out to the eyes, and will skin no further of its own accord, being again attached
by a membrane, around the border of the eye-socket. Holding the scalpel as before, run its
edge around an arc (a semicircle is enough to let you into the orbit) of the circumference, dis-
severing the membrane from the bone. Reverse the scalpel, and scoop out the eyeball with
the end of the handle ; you bring out the eye betwixt the ball of your thumb and the handle
of the instrument, tearing apart the optic nerve and the conjunctival tissue, but taking care
not to open the eyeball^ or lacerate the eyelids. Do the same with the other eye. The head
is then skinned far enough ; there is no use of getting quite to the base of the bill. You have
now to get rid of the brain and flesh of the nape and jaws,* and leave most of the skuU in ; the
cranial dome makes the only perfect "stuffing" fur the skin of the head. This is all done at once
by only four particular cuts. Hold the head between your left thumb and fingers, the bill point-
ing towards you, the bird's palate facing you ; you observe a space bounded behind by the base
of the skull where the neck joins, in front by the floor of the mouth, on either side by the prongs
of the under jaw, — these last especially pn)minent. Take the scissors ; stick one blade just
inside one branch of the lower jaw, thence into the eye-socket which lies below (the head
being upside down), thence into the brain-box ; make a cut parallel with the jaw, just inside
of it, bringing the upper scissor blade perpendicularly downward, crashing through the skuU just
inside of the angle of the jaw. Duplicate this cut on the other side. Connect the anterior
ends of these cuts by a transverse one across the floor and roof of the mouth. Connect the
posterior ends of the side cuts by one across the back of the skuU near its base, — just where
the nape-muscle ceases to override the cranium. You have enclosed and cut out a squarish-
shaped mass of bone and muscle, and, on gently pulling the neck (to which of course it
remains attached), the whole affair comes out, bringing the brain with it, but leaving the
entire roof of the skull supported on a scafiblding of jaw-bone. It only remains to skin the
wings. Seize the arm-stump with fingers or forceps ; the upper arm is readily drawn from its
sheath as far as the elbow; but the wing must be skinned to the wrist (carpus — "bend of
the wing ") ; yet it wiU not come out so easily, because the secondary quills grow to one of the
fore-arm bones (the ulna), pinning down the skin the whole way along a series of points. To
break up these connections, hold the upper arm firmly with the left thumb and forefinger, the
convexity of the elbow looking towards you ; press the right thumb-nail closely against the
back edge of the ulna, and strip downward, scraping the bone with the nail the whole way.
If you only hit the line of adhesions, there is no trouble at all about this. Now you want to
1 The special case of head too large for the calibre of the neck is treated beyond.
- And you will at once find a great apparent increase of amount of free skin in your hand, owing to release
and extension of all that was before shortened in length by circular distension, in enlargement of the neck-
cylinder.
3 An eyeball is much larger than it looks from the outside ; if you stick the instrument straight into the
socket, you may punch a hole in the ball and let out the water; a very disagreeable complication. Insinuate the
knife-handle close to the rim of the socket, and hug the wall of the cavity throughout.
* You may of course at this stage cut off the neck at the nape, punch a hole in the base of the skull, dig out
the brains, and scrape away at the jaw-muscles till you are satisfied or tired ; an unnecessary job, during which
the skin may have become <lry and shrivelled and hard to turn right side out. The operation described in the
text may require ten seconds, perhaps.
HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 31
leave in one of the two fore-arm bones, to preserve sufficiently the shape of the limb, but to
remove the other, with the upper-arm bone and all the flesh. It is done in a moment : stick the
point of the scissors between the heads of the two fore-arm bones, and cut the hinder one (ulna)
away from the elbow; then the other fore-arm bone (radius), bearing on its near end the
elbow and the whole upper arm, is to be stripped away from the ulna, taking with it the flesh
of the fore-arm, and to be cut off at its far end close to the wrist -joint, one stroke severing the
bone and all the tendons that pass over the wrist to the hand ; then the ulna, bare of flesh,
is alone left in, attached at the wrist. Draw gently on the wing from the outside till it slips
into the natural position whence you everted it. Do the same for the other wing. This
finishes the skinning process. The skin is now to be turned right side out. Begin any way
you please, till you see the point of the bill reappearing among the feathers ; seize it with
fingers or forceps, as convenient, and use it for gentle traction. But by no means pull it out
by holding on to the rear end of the skin — that would infallibly stretch the skin. Holding
the bill, make a cylinder of your left hand and coax the skin backward with a sort of milking
motion. It will come easily enough, until the final stage of getting the head back into its
skull-cap ; this may require some little dexterity ; but you cannot fail to get the head in, if
you remember what you did to get it out. When this is fairly accomplished, you for the first
time have the pleasure of seeing something that looks like a birdskin. Your next ^ care is to
apply arsenic. Lay the skin on its back, the opening toward you and wide '=pread, so the
interior is in view. Run the scalpel-handle into the neck to dilate that cylinder until you can
see the skull; find your way to the orifices of the legs and wings; expose the pope's-nose;
thus you have not only the general skin surface, but all the points where some traces of flesh
were left, fairly in view. Shovel in arsenic ; dump some down the neck, making sure it reaches
and plentifully besprinkles the whole skull ; drop a little in each wing hole and leg hole ;
leave a small pile at the root of the tail ; strew some more over the skin at large. The simple
rule is, put in as much arsenic as will stick anywhere. Then close the opening, and shake up
the skin ; move the head about by the bill ; rustle the wings and move the legs ; this distrib-
utes the poison thoroughly. If you have got in more than is necessary, as you may judge by
seeing it piled up dry, anywhere, hold the skin with the opening downward over the poison-
drawer, and give it a flip and let the supei-fluous powder fall out. Now for the "make up,"
upon which the beauty of the preparation depends. First get the empty skin into good shape.
Let it lie on its back ; draw it straight out to its natural length. See that the skin of the
head fits snugly ; that the eyes, ears, and jaws are in place. Expand the wings to make sure
that the bone is in place, and fold them so that the quills override each other naturally ; set the
tail-feathers shinglewise also ; draw Aown the legs and leave them straddling wide apart.
Give the plumage a preliminary dressing ; if the skin is free from kinks and creases, the feath-
ers come naturally into phice ; particular ones that may be awry should be set right, as may
be generally done by stroking, or by lifting thern free repeatedly, and letting them fall ; if any
(through carelessness) remain turned into the opening, they should be carefully picked out.
Remove all traces of gypsum or arsenic with the feather duster. The stulfing is to be put in
through the opening in the beUy ; the art is to get in just enough, in the right places. It
would never do to push in pellets of cotton, as you would stuff a pillow-case, till the skin is
filled up ; no subsequent skill in setting could remove the distortion that would result. It
takes just four'^ pieces of stuffing — one for each eye, one for the neck, and one for the body;
1 Some direct the poisoning to be done while the skin is still wrong side out; and it may be very thoroughly
efiected at that stage. I wait, because the arsenic generally strews over the table in the operation of reversing
the skin, if you use as much as I think advisable; and it is better to have a cavity to put it into than a surface to
strew it on.
2 For any ordinary bird up to the size of a crow. It is often directed that the leg-bones and wing-bones b«
wrapped with cotton or tow. I should not think of putting anything around the wing-bones of any bird up to the
size of an eagle, owan, or pelican. Examination of a skinned wing will show how extremely compact it is, except
32 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
while it requires rather less than half as much stuffiug as an inexperienced person inighl
suppose. Take a shred of cotton that will make a tight ball as large as the bird's eye ; stick
it on the end of your knitting-needle, and by twirling the needle whilst the cotton is confined
in your finger tips, you make a neat ball. Introduce this through the belly-opening, into
the eye-socket ; if you have cut away skull enough, as already directed, it will go right
in; disengage the needle with a reverse twirl, and withdraw it. Take hold of the bill with
one hand, and with the forceps in the other, dress tlie eyelids neatly and naturally over
the elastic substance within. Repeat for the other eye. Take next a shred of cotton that
will roll into a firm cylinder rather less than the size of the bird's neck. Roil it on the
needle much as you did the eye-ball, introduce it in the same way, and ram it firmly into
the base of the skull ; disengage the needle by twirling it the other way, and withdraw it,
taking care not to dislodge the cotton neck. If now you peep into the skin you wiU see
the end of this artificial neck ; push it up against the skin of the breast, — it must not lie
down on the back between the shoulders.^ The body- wad comes next; you want to
imitate the size and shape of the bird's trunk. Take a mass of cotton you think will be
■enough, and take about half oi this; that wiU be plenty (cotton is very elastic). It should
make a tolerably firm ball, rather egg-shaped, swelling at the breast, smaller behind. If you
simply squeeze up the cotton, it wUl not stay compressed ; it requires a motion something
like that which bakers employ to knead dough into the shape of a loaf. Keep tucking
over the borders of the cotton till the desired shape and firmness are attained. Insert the ball
between the blades of the forceps in such way that the instrument confines the folded-over
edges, and with a wriggling motion insinuate it aright into the body. Before relaxing
the forceps, put your thumb and forefinger in the bird's armpits, and pincii the shoulders
together tUl they almost touch ; this is to make sure that there is no stuffing between the
shoulders, — the whole mass lying breastwards. Loosen the forceps and withdraw them. If
the ball is rightly made and tucked in, the elasticity of the cotton will chiefly expend itself in
puffing out the breast, which is just what is wanted. Be careful not to push the body too far
in ; if it impacts against the skin of the neck, this will infallibly stretch, di-iviug the shoulders
apart, and no art wiU remedy the unsightly gape resulting. You see I dwell on this matter of
the shoulders ; the whole knack of stuffing correctly focuses just over the shoulders. If you find
you have made the body too large, pull it out and make a smaller one ; if it fits nicely about
the shoulders, but is too long to go in, or too puffy over the belly, let it stay, and pick away
shreds at the open end tiU the redundancy is remedied. Your bird is now sturfed. Close the
opening by bringing the edges of the original cut together. There is no use of sewing ^ up
the cut, for a small bird ; if the stuffing is correct, the feathers will hide the opening ; and if they
do not, it is no matter. You are not making an object for a show case, but /or a naturalist's
just at the shoulder. What you remove will never make any difference from the outside, whue you would almost
inevitably get in too much, not of the right shape, and make an awkward bulging no art. would remedy ; I say,
then, leave the wings of all but the largest birds empty, and put in very little under any circumstances. As for
legs, the whole host of small perching birds need no wrapping whatever; depend upon it you will make a nicer
skin without wrapping. But large birds and those with very muscular or otherwise prominent legs must have
the removal of flesh compensated for I treat of these cases beyond.
1 Although a bird's neck is really, of course, in direct continuation of the back-bone, yet the natural .sigmoid
curve of the neck is such that it virtually takes departure rather from the breast, its lower curve being received
between the prongs of the merrythought. This is what we must imitate instead of the true anatomy. If you let
the end of the neck lie between the shoulders, it will infallibly press them apart, so that the interscapular plumage
cannot shingle over the scapular feathers as it should, and a gaping place, showing down or even naked skin,
will result. Likewise if the neck be made too large (the chances are that way, at first), the same result follows.
These seemingly trifling points are very important indeed; I never made a decent birdskin till I learned to get the
neck small enough and to shove the end of it against the breast.
"- But sew it up, if you please, though you may be perhaps giving the man who subsequently mounts the
bird the trouble of ripping out the stitches. Stitches, however, will not come amiss with a large bird. I generally,
In such cases, pin the edges of the cut in one or more places.
HOW TO 3IAKE A BIRDSKIN. 33
cabinet. Supposing you to have been so far successful, little remains to be done ; the skin
already looks very much like a dead bird ; you have only to give the finishing touches, and
"set" it. Fixing the wings nicely is a great point. Fold each wing closely; see that the
carpal bend is well defined, that the coverts show their several oblique rows perfectly, that all
the quiUs ovemde each other like shingles. Tuck the folded wings close up to the body —
rather on the bird's back than along its sides ; see that the wing tips meet over the tail (under
the tail as the bird lies on its back) ; let the carpal angle nestle in the plumage ; have the
shoulders close together, so that the interscapulars shingle over the scapulars. If the wing be
pressed in too tightly, the scapulars will rise up on end ; there must be neither furrow nor
ridge about the insertion of the wings; everything must lie perfectly smooth. At this stage
of tlie process, I generally lift up the skin gingerly, and let it slip head first through one hand
after the other, pressing liere or there to correct a deformity, or uniformly to make the whole
skin compact. The wings set, next bring the legs together, so that the bones within the
skin lie parallel with each other; bend the heel-joint a little, to let the tarsi cross each other
about their middle; lay them sid(!wise on the tail, so that the naturally flexed toes lie flat, all
the claws mutually facing each other. See that the neck is perfectly straight, and, if anything,
shortened rather than outstretched; have the crown of the head flat on the table, the bill point-
ing straight forward, ^ the mandibles shut tightly.'^ Never attempt any "fancy" attitudes with
a birdskin; the simpler and more compactly it is made up the better.^ Finally, I say, hang
over your bird (if you have time) ; dress better the feathers that were well dressed before ;
perfect every curve ; finish caressingly, and put it away tenderly, as you hope to be shriven
yourself when the time comes.
There are several ways of laying a birdskin. A common, easy, and slovenly \A-ay is to
thrust it head first into a paper cone; but it makes a hollow-chested, pot-bellied object,
unpleasant to see, and renders your nice work on the make-up futile. A paper cylinder,
corresponding in calibre to the greatest girth of the birdskin, binds the wings well, and makes
a good ordinary specimen, — perhaps better than the average. Remarking that there are some
detestable practices, such as hanging up a bird by a string through the nose (methods only to
be mentioned to be condemned), I will tell you the easiest and best way, by which the most
elegant and tasteful results are almost necessarily secured. The skins are simply laid away
in cotton, just as they come from your hands. Take a considerable wad of cotton, make a
" bed" of it, lay the specimen in, and tuck it up nicely around the edges. In efiect, I gener-
ally take a thin sheet of cotton wadding, the sizing of which confers some textile consistency,
and wrap the bird completely but lightly in it. By loosening or tightening a trifle here or
there, laying down a " pillow" or other special slight pressure, the most delicate contour-lines
may be preserved with perfect fidelity. Unnecessary pother is sometimes made about dnjing
' Exceptions. Woodpeckers, ducks, and some other birds treated of beyond, are best set witli tlie head flat
on one side, the bill pointing obliquely to the right or left; owls, with the bill pointing straight up in the air as
the bird lies on its back.
2 If the mandibles gape, run a thread through the nostrils and tie it tightly under the bill. Or, since this
injures the nostrils (and we frequently want to examine their structure) stick a pin in under the bill close to the
gonys, driving it obliquely into the palate. Sometimes the skin of the throat looks sunken betwixt the sides of the
jaw. A shred of cotton introduced with forceps through the mouth will obviate this.
3 Don't cock up the head, trying to impart a knowing air — it cannot be done, and only makes the poor bird
look ridiculous. Don't lay the skin on one side, with the legs in perching position, and don't spread the wings —
the bird will never perch nor fly again, and the suggestion is unartistic because incongruous. The only permis-
sible departure from the rule of severe simplicity is when some special ornament, as a tine crest, may be naturally
displayed, or some hidden markings are desired to be brought out, or a shape of tail or wing to be perpetuated ;
but in all such cases the "flowery" inclination should be sparingly and judiciously indulged. It is, however,
frequently desirable to give some special set to hide a defect, as loss of plumage, etc. ; this may often be accom-
plished very cunningly, with excellent result. No rules for this can be laid down, since the details vary in every
case; but in general the weak spot may be liid<ien by contracting the skin of the place, and then setting the bird
in an attitude that naturally corresponds, thus making a virtue of necessity.
34 FIELB OENITHOLOGY.
skins ; the fact being that under ordinary circumstances they could not he kept from drying
perfectly ; and they dry in exactly the shape they are set, if not accidentally pressed upon. At
sea, however, or during unusually protracted wet weather, they of course dry slowly, and may
require some attention to prevent mildew or souring, especially in the cases of very large,
thick-skinned, or greasy specimens. Thorough poisoning, and drying by a fire, or placing
in the sun, will always answer. Very close packing retards drying. When travelling, or
operating under other circumstances requiring economy of space, you must not expect to
turn out your collection in elegant order. Perfection of contour-lines can only be secured by
putting each spechnen away by itself ; undue pressure is always liable to produce unhappily
outre configuration of a skin. Trays in a packing box are of great service in limiting possi-
bilities of pressure ; they should be shallow ; one four inches deep will take a well stufi'ed hen-
hawk, for example, or accommodate from three to six spaiTows a-top of one another. It is-
well to sort out your specimens somewhat according to size, to keep heavy ones oft' little ones ;
though the chinks around the former may usually be economized with advantage by packing
in the less valuable or the less neatly prepared of the latter. When limited to a travelling
chest, I generally pass in the skins as fast as made, packing them '' solid " in one sense, yet
hunting up a nice resting-place for each. If each rests in its own cotton coffin, it is astonishing
how close they may be laid without hann, and how many will go in a given space ; a tray
30 X 18 X 4 inches will easily hold three hundred and fifty birds six inches long. As a tray fills-
up, the drier ones first put in may be submitted to more pressure. A skin originally dried in
good shape may subsequently be pressed perfectly flat without material injury ; the only thing
to avoid being contortion. The whole knack of packing birds corresponds to that of filling a
trunk solidly full of clothes, as may easily be done without damage to an immaculate shirt-
front. Finally, I would say, never put away a bird unlabelled, not even for an hour; you may
forget it or die. Never tie a label to a bird's bill, wing, or tail ; tie it securely to loth legs
where they cross, and it will be just half as liable to become detached as if tied to one leg only.
Never paste a label, or even a number, on a bird's plumage. Never put in glass eyes before
mounting. Never paint or varnish a bird's bill or feet. Never replace missing plumage of one
bird with the feathers of another — no, not even if the birds came out of the same nest.
h. Special Processes; Complications and Accidents.
The Foregoing Method of procedure is a routine practice applicable to three-fourths if
not nine-tenths of the " general run ■'' of birds. But there are several cases requiring a modi-
fication of this programme ; while several circumstances may tend to embarrass your operations.
The principal special conditions may therefore be separately treated to your advantage.
Size. — Other things being equal, a large bird is more difficult to prepare than a small
one. In one case, you only need a certain delicacy of touch, easily acquired and soon becom-
ing mechanical ; in the other, demand on your strength may be made, till your muscles ache.
It takes longer, too ; ^ I could put away a dozen sparrows in the time I should spend over
an eagle ; and I would rather undertake a hundred humming-birds than one ostrich. For
' The reader may be curious to know sometliitig of the statistics on this score — how long it ought to take
liim to prepare an ordinary skin. He can scarcely imagine, from his first tedious operations, how expert he may
become, not only in beauty of result, but in rapidity of execution. I have seen taxidermists make good small
skins at the rate of ten an hour; but this is extraordinary. The quickest work I ever did myself was eight an
hour, or an average of seven and a half minutes apiece, and fairly good skins. But I picked my birds, all small
ones, well shot, labelled, measured, and plugged beforehand, so that the rate of work was exceptional, besides-
including only the actual manipulations from first cut to laying away. No one averages eight birds an hour, even
excluding the neces-sary preliminaries of cleansing, plugging, etc. Four birds an hour, everything included, is
good work. A very eminent ornithologist of this country, and an expert taxidermist, once laid a whimsical wager,
that he would skin and stuff a bird before a certain friend of his could pick all the feathers off a specimen of the
same kind. I forget the time, but he won, and his friend ate crow, literally, that night.
HOW TO MAKE A BIEDSKIN. 35
•' large " birds, say anything from a hen-hawk upward, various special manipulations I have
directed may be foregone, while however you observe their general drift and intent. You may
open the bird as directed, or, turning it tail to you, cut with a knife.^ Forceps are rarely
required ; there is not much that is too small to be taken in hand. As soon as the tail is
divided, hang up the bird by the rump, so you wUl have both hands free. Let it swing clear
of the wall or table, at any height most convenient. The steel hooks of a dissecting case are
not always large enough; use a stout fish-hook with the barb filed ofi". Work with your naUs,
assisted by the scalpel if necessary. I know of no bird, and I think there is none, in this
country at least, the skin of which is so intimately adherent by fibrous or muscular tissue as
to require actual dissecting throughout ; a pelican comes, perhaps, as near this as any ; but in
many cases the knife may be constantly en] ployed with advantage. Use it with long clean
sweeping strokes, hugging the skin rather than the body. The knee and shoulder commonly
require disarticulation, unless you use bone-nippers or strong shears ; the four cuts of the skull
may presuppose a very able-bodied instrument, even a chisel. The wings will give you the
most trouble, and they require a special process ; for you cannot readily break up the adhesions
of the secondary quills to the ulna, nor is it desirable that very large feathers should be
deprived of this natural support. Hammer or nip ofi" the great head of the upper arm-bone,
just below the insertion of the breast muscles; clean the rest of that bone and leave it in. Tie
a string around it (what sailors call '' two half hitches " gives a secure hold on the bony
cylinder), and tie it to the other humerus, inside the skin, so that the two bones shall be rather
less than their natural distance apart. After the skin is brought right side out, attack the
wings thus : Spread the wing under side uppermost, and secure it on the table by dri\'ing
a tack or brad through the wrist -joint; this fixes the far end, while the weight of the skin
steadies the other. Raise a whole layer of the under wing-coverts, and make a cut in the skin
thus exposed, from elbow to wrist, in the middle line between the two forearm bones. Raise
the flaps of skin and all the muscle is laid bare ; it is to be removed. This is best done by
lifting each muscle from its bed separately, slipping the handle of the scalpel under the
individual bellies ; there is little if any bony attachment except at each end, and this is reatlily
severed. Strew in arsenic ; a little cotton may be used to fill the bed of inuscle removed from
a very large bird ; bring the flaps of skin together, and smooth down the coverts ; you need
not be particular to sew up the cut, for the coverts will hide the ojjening ; in fact, the operation
does not show at all after the make-up. StuflBng of large birds is not commonly done with
only the four pieces already directed. The eyeballs, and usually the neck-cylinder, go in as
before ; the body may be filled any way you please, provided you do not put in too much
stuffing nor get any between the shoulders. All large birds had better have the leg-bones
wrapped to nearly natural size. Observe that the leg-muscles do not form a cylinder, but a
cone ; let the wrapping taper naturally from top to bottom. Attention to this point is neces-
sary for all large or medium-sized birds with naturally prominent legs. The large finely
feathered legs <>f a hawk, for example, ought to be well displayed ; with these birds, and also
with rails, etc., au^reover, imitate the bulge of the thigh with a special wad laid inside the
skin. Large bir^ commonly require also a special wad introduced by the mouth, to make
the swell of the throat ; this wad should be rather flufi'y than firm. As a rule, do not fill out
• Certain among larger birds are often opened elsewhere than along the belly, with what advantage I cannot
say from my own experience. Various water birds, such as loons, grebes, auks, gulls, and ducks (in fact any
swimming bird with dense under plumage) may be opened along the side by a cut umler the wings from the
shoulder over the hip to the rump; the cut is completely hidden by the make-up, and the plumage is never ruffled.
But I see no necessity for this; for, as a rule, the belly opening can, if desired, be completely etiaced with due care,
though a very greasy bir<l with white under i)lumage generally stains where opened, in spite of every precaution.
Such birds as loons, grebes, cormorants, and penguins are often openetl by a cut across the fundament from one
leg to the other; their conformation in fact suggests and favors this operation. I have often seen water birds slit
down the back ; but I consider it very poor practice.
36 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
large birds to their natural dimensions ; they take up too much room. Let the head, neck,
and legs be accurately prepared, but leave the main cavity one-third if not one-half empty ;
no more is required than will fairly smooth out creases in the skin. Reduce bulk rather by
flattening out than by general compression. Use tow instead of cotton ; and if at all short of
tow, economize with paper, hay, etc., at least for the deeper portions of the main stuffing.
Large birds may be " set " in a great quantity of tow ; wrapped in paper, much like any
other parcel ; or simply left to dry on the table, the wings being only supported by cushioning
or other suitable means.
Shape. — Some special configurations have been noticed in the last paragraph, prema-
turely perhaps, but leading directly up to further considerations respecting shape of certain
birds as a modifying element in the process of preparation. As for skinning, there is one
extremely important matter. Most ducks, many woodpeckers, flamingoes, and doubtless
some others with which I am not familiar, cannot be skinned in the usual way, because the
head is too large for the calibre of the neck and cannot be drawn through. In such cases,
skin as usual to the base of the skull, cut oflF the head there (inside the skin of course), and
operate upon it, after turning the skin right side out, as follows : Part the feathers carefully
in a straight line down the back of the skull, make a cut through the skin, just long enough
to permit the head to pass, draw out the skull through this opening, and dress it as already
<lirected. Keturn it, draw the edges of the cut nicely together, and sew up the opening with
a great many fine stitches. Simple as it may appear, this process is often embarrassing, for
the cut has an unhappy tendency to wander about the neck, enlarging itself even under the
most careful manipulation ; while the feathers of the parts are usually so short, that it is diffi-
cult to eftace all traces of the operation. I consider it very disagreeable ; but for ducks I know
of no alternative. I have however found out a way to avoid it with woodpeckers, excepting
the very largest ; it is this : Before skinning, part the eyelids, and plunge the scalpel right
into the eyeballs ; seize the cut edge of the ball with the forceps, and pull the eye right out.
It may be dexterously done without spilling the eye-water on the plumage ; but, for fear of
this, previously put a little pile of plaster on the spot. Throw arsenic into the socket, and
then fill it with cotton poked in between the lids. The eyes are thus disposed of. Then, in
skinning, when you come to the head, dissever it from the neck and work the skull as far out
as you can ; it may be sufficiently exposed, in all cases, for you to gouge out the base of the
skull mth the scissors, and get at the brain to remove it. Apply an extra large dose of
arsenic, and you m^lU never hear from what jaw-muscle has been left in. In all these cases, as
already remarked, the head is preferably set lying on one side, with the bill pointing obliquely
to the right or left. Certain birds require a special mode of setting ; these are, birds with very
long legs or neck, or both, as swans, geese, pelicans, cormorants, snakebirds, loons, and
especially cranes, herons, ibises, and flamingoes. Long legs should be doubled comjjletely on
themselves by bending at the heel-joint, and either tucked under the wings, or laid on the
under surface ; the chief point is to see that the toes lie fiat, so that the claws do not stick un,
to catch in things or get broken ofi". A long neck should be carefully folded ; not at a sharp
angle with a crease in the skin, but with a short curve, and brought round either to the side
of the bird or on its breast, as may seem most convenient. The object is to make a " bale "
of the skin as nearly as may be, and when it is properly efi'ected it is surprising what little
space a crane, for instance, occupies. But it is rarely, if ever, admissible to bend a tail back
on the body, however inconveniently long it may be. Special dilations of skin, like the pouch
of a pelican, or the air sacs of a prairie hen, may be moderately displayed.
Thin Skin. — Loose Plumage. — It is astonisliing how much resistance is off'ered by
the thin skin of the smallest bird. Though nu thicker than tissue paper, it is not very liable
HOW TO 3IAKE A BIRDSKIN. o«
to tear if deftly handled ; yet a rent once started often enlarges to an embarrassing extent if
the skin be stretched in the least. Accidental rents and enlargements of shot-holes should be
neatly sewn up, if occun-ing in an exposed place ; but in most cases the plumage may be set
to hide the openings. The trogons are said to have remarkably thin and delicate skin; I have
never handled one in the flesh. Among our birds, the cardinal grosbeak and the species of
Caprimulcjidce have, I think, about the tenderest skins. The obvious indication in all such
cases is simply a little extra delicacy of manipulation. In skinning most birds, you should
not loose more than a feather or two, excepting those loosened by the shot. Pigeons are
peculiar, among our birds, ftjr the very loose insertion of their plumage ; you will have to be
particularly careful vnl\\ them, and in spite of all your precautions a good many feathers will
probably drop. As stripping down the secondary quills from the forearm, in the manner
already indicated, will almost invariably set these feathers free from the skin, I recommend you
not to attempt it, but to dress the wings as prescribed for large birds.
Fatness. — Fat is a substance abhorred of all dissectors ; always in the way, embarrass-
ing operations and obscuring observations ; while it is seldom worth examination after its
structure has once been ascertained. It is particularly obnoxious to the taxidermist, since it
is liable to soil the plumage during skinning, and also to soak into the feathers afterwards ;
and greasy birdskins are never pleasing objects. A few birds never seem to have any fat ;
some, like petrels, are always oily; at times, especially in the indolent autumn season, when
birds have little to do but feed, the great majority acquire an embonpoint doubtless to their own
satisfaction, but to the taxidermist's discomfort. In all such cases gypsum should be lavishly
employed. Strew plaster plentifully, from the first cut all through the operation ; dip your
fingers in it frequently, as well as your instruments. The invaluable absorbent will deal with
most of the "running" fat. When the skin is completely reversed, remove as much of the
solid fat as possible; it is generally found occupying the areolar tissue of particular definite
tracts, and most of it may usually be peeled or flaked off in considerable masses. Since the
soft and oozy state of most birds' fat at ordinary temperatures may be much improved by cold,
it will repay you to leave your birds on ice for a while before skinning, if you have the means
and time to do so ; the fat will become quite firm. There is a device for preventing or at any
rate lessening the soiling of the plumage so apt to occur along the line of your incision ; it is
invaluable in all cases of white plumage. Take a strip of cloth of greater width than the
lenijth of the feathers, long enough to go up one side of the cut and down the other. Sew
this closely to the skin all around the cut, and it will form an apron to guard the plumage.
You will too frequently find that a bird, prepared without soiling and laid away apparently
safe, afterwards grows greasy ; if the plumage is white, it soon becomes worse than ever by
sliowing dust that the grease catches. Perhaps the majority of such birds in our museums
show the dirty streak along the belly. The reason is, that the grease has oozed out along the
cut, or wherever else the skin has been broken, and infiltrated the plumage, being drawn up
api>arently by capillary attraction, just as a lampwick '' sucks up " oil. Sometimes, without
obviously soiling the plumage, the grease will run along the thread that ties the label, and
make a uniformly transparent piece of ''oil-paper." I have no remedy to offer for this gradual
infiltration of the plumage. It will not wash out, even with soap and water. Possibly careful
and persistent treatment with an ether might be effective, but I am not prepared to say it would
be. Removal of all fat that can be got off during skinning, with a liberal use of plaster, will
in a measure prevent a difficulty that remains incurable.
Bloodstains, etc. — In the nature of the case, this complication is of continual occurrence;
fortunately it is easier dealt with than greasiness. Much may be done in the field to prevent
bloodying of the plumage, as already said. A little blood does not show much on a dark
38 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
plumage ; but it is of course conspicuous on light or white feathers. Dried blood may often
be scraped oflF, in imitation of the natural process by which a bird cleanses its plumage with
the bill ; or be pulverized by gently twiddling the feathers between the fingers, and then
blown off. But feathers may by due care be washed almost as readily as clothing ; and we
must ordinarily resort to this to remove all traces of blood, especially from white surfaces. If
properly dried they do not show the operation. With a soft rag or pledget of cotton dipped in
warm water bathe the place assiduously, pressing down pretty hard, only taking care to stroke
the feathers the right way, so as not to crumple them, until the red color disappears ; then you
have simply a wet place to deal with. Press gypsum on the spot ; it will cake ; flake it off
and apply more, till it will no longer stick. Then raise the feathers on a knife-blade and
sprinkle gypsum in among them ; pat it down and shake it up, wrestling with the spot till the
moisture is entirely absorbed. Two other fluids of the body will give you occasional annoy-
ance,— the juices of the aUmentary canal and the eye-water. Escape of the former by mouth,
nostrils, or vent is preventable by plugging these orifices, and its occurrence is inexcusable.
But shot often lacerates the gullet, crop, and bowels, and though nothing may flow at the
time, subsequent jolting or pressure in the game-bag causes the escape of fluids : a seemingly
safe specimen may be unwrapped to show the whole belly-plumage a sodden brown mass.
Such accidents should be treated precisely like bloodstains ; but it is to be remarked that these
stains are not seldom indelible, traces usually persisting in white plumage at least in spite of
our best endeavors. Eye-water, insignificant as it may appear, is often a great annoyance.
This liquor is slightly glairy, or rather glassy, and puts a sort of sizing on the plumage difficult
to efface ; the more so since the soiling necessarily occurs in a conspicuous place, where the
plumage is too scanty and delicate to bear much handling. It frequently happens that a lacer-
ated eyeball, by the elasticity of the coats, or adhesion of the lids, retains its fluid till this is
pressed out in manipulating the parts; and recollecting how the head Ues buried in plumage at
that stage of the process, it will be seen that not only the head, but much of the neck and even
the breast may become wetted. If the parts are extensively soaked, the specimen is almost
irreparably damaged, if not ruined. Plaster will absorb the moisture, but much of the sizing
may be retained on the plumage ; therefore, though the place seems simply wet, it should be
thoroughly washed with water before the gypsum is applied. I always endeavor to prevent
the accident; if I notice a lacerated eyeball, I extract it before skinning, in the manner
described for woodpeckers. Miscellaneous stains, from the juices of plants, etc., may be
received ; all such are treated on general principles. Blood on the beak and feet of rapacious
birds, mud on the bill and legs of waders, etc., etc., may be washed off \\dthout the slightest
difficulty. A land bird that has fallen in the water should be recovered as soon as possible,
picked up by the biU, and shaken ; most of the water will run off, unless the plumage is com-
pletely soaked. It should be allowed to dry just as it is, without touching the jdumage,
before being wrapped and bagged. If a bird fall in soft mud, the diit should be scraped or
snapped off as far as this can be done without plastering the feathers down, and the rest
allowed to dry ; it may afterward be rubbed fine and dusted off, when no harm will ensue,
except to white feathers wliieh may require washing.
3Iutilation. — You will often be troubled, early in your practice, with broken legs and
wings, and various lacerations ; but the injury must be very severe (such as the carrying away
of a limb, or blowing off the whole top of a head) that cannot be in great measure remedied by
care and skill. Suppose a little bird, shot througli the neck or small of the back, comes apart
while being skinned ; you have only to remove the hinder portion, be that much or little, and
go on with the rest as if it were the whole. If the leg bone of a small bird be broken near
the heel, let it come away altogether ; it will make little if any difference. In case of the
same accident to a large bird that ought to have the legs wrapped, whittle out a peg and stick
HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIX. 39
it in the hollow stump of the bone ; if there is no stump left, file a piece of stout wire to a
point and stick it into the heel joint. If the forearm bone that you usually leave in a small
bird is broken, remove it and leave the other in ; if both are broken, do not clean the wings
so thurouglily that they become detached ; an extra pinch of arsenic will condone the omission.
In a large bird, if both bones of the forearm are broken, splint them with a bit of wood laid in
between, so that one end hitches at the elbow, the other at the wrist. A humerus may be
replaced like a leg bone, but this is rarely required. If the skull be smashed, save the pieces,
and leave them if you can ; if not, imitate the arch of the head with a firm cotton-ball. A
broken tarsus is readily splinted with a pin thrust up through the sole of the foot : if too large
for this, use a pointed piece of wire. There is no mending a bill when part of it is shot away ;
for I think the replacing of part by putty, stucco, etc., inadmissible; but if it be only fractured,
the pieces may usually be retained in place by winding with thread, or with a touch of glue or
mucilage. It is singular, by the way, what unsightliness results from a very trifling injury to
the bill; much, I suppose, as a boil on a person's nose is peculiarly deplorable. I have already
hinted how artfully various weak places in a skin, due to mutilation or loss of plumage, may be
hidden.
Decomposition. — It might seem unnecessary to speak of what may be smelled out so
readily as animal putrescence; but there are some useful points to be learned in this connection,
besides the important sanitary precautions that are to be deduced. Immediately after death
the various fluids of the body begin to " settle" (so to speak), and shortly after the muscular
system as a rule becomes fixed in what is technically called rigor mortis. This stifiening
usually occurs as the animal heat dies away ; but its onset, and especially its duration, is very
variable, according to circumstances, such as cause of death ; although in most cases of sudden
A-iuleut death of an animal in previous good health, it seems to depend chiefly upon tempera-
ture, being transient and imperfect, or altogether wanting, in hot weather. As it passes ofl",
the whole system relaxes, and the body soon becomes as " limp " as at the moment of death.
This is the period immediately preceding decomposition ; in fact, it may be considered as the
stage of incipient putridity ; it is very brief in warm weather, and it should be seized as the
last opportunity of preparing a bird without inconvenience and even danger. If not skinned
at once, putrescence becomes established; it is indicated by the effluvium (at the outset "sour,"
but rapidly acquiring a variety of disgusting odors) ; by the distension of the abdomen with
gaseous products of decomposition ; by the loosening of the cuticle, and consequently of the
feathers ; and by other signs. If you part the feathers of a bad-smelling bird's belly to find
the skin swollen and livid or greenish, while the feathers come ofi" at a touch, the bird is too
far gone to be recovered without trouble and risk that no ordinary specimen warrants. It is
a singular fact that this early putrescence is more poisonous than utter rottenness; as physicians
are aware, a post-mortem examination at this stage, or even before it, involves more risk
tlian their ordinary dissecting-room experience. It seems that both natural and pathological
poisons lose their early virulence by resolution into other products of decay. The obvious
deduction from all this is to skin your birds soon enough. Some say they are best skinned
perfectly fresh, but I see no reason for this; when I have time to choose, I take the period of
rigidity as being preferable on the whole; for the fluids have then " settled," and the limbs are
readily relaxed by manipulation. If you have a large bag to dispose of, and are pressed for
time, set them in the coolest place you can find, preferably on ice; a slight lowering of temper-
ature may make a decided difference. Disembowelling, which may be accomplished in a
moment, will materially retard decomposition. Injections of creosote or dilute carbolic acid
will arrest decay for a time, for an indefinit<'ly long period if a large quantity of these anti-
septics be employed. When it becomes desirable (it can never be necessary) to skin a putres-
cent bird, great care nmst be exercised not only to accomplish the operation, but to avoid
40 FIELh ORXITHOLOGY.
danpjer. I must not, however, uueonscioiitily lead you to exaggerate the risk, aud will add
that I think it often overrated. I have probably skinned birds as " gainey " as any one has,
and repeatedly, without being conscious of auy ill efi'ects. I am sure that no poison, ordinarily
generated by decomposition of a body healthy at death, can compare in virulence with tliat
commonly resulting after death by many diseases. I also believe that the gaseous products,
however offensive to the smell, are innocuous as a rule. The danger pi-actically narrows down
to the absorption of fluids through an abraded surface ; the poison is rarely taken in by natural
pores of healthy skin, if it remain in contact but a short time. Cuts and scratches may he
closed with a fihn of coUodion, or covered with isinglass or court plaster, or protected by
rubber cots on the fingers. The hands should, of course, be washed with particular care
immediately after the operation, and the nails scrupulously dressed. Having never been
poisoned (to my knowledge), I cannot give the symptoms from personal experience; but I
will quote from Mr. Maynard :
" In a few days numerous pimples, which are exceedingly painful, appear upon the skin
of the face and other parts of the person and, upon those parts where there is chafing or
rubbing, become large and deep sores. There is a general languor and, if badly poisoned,
complete prostration results ; the slightest scratch becomes a festering sore. Once poisoned
in this manner (and I speak from experience), one is never afterward able to skin any animal
that has become in the least putrid, without experiencing some of the symptoms above
described. Even birds that you handled before with impunity, you cannot now skin without
great care. The best remedy in this case is, as the Hibernian would say, not to get poisoned,
.... bathe the parts frequently in cold water ; and, if chafed, sprinkle tlio parts after bathing,
with wheat flour. These remedies, if persisted in, will efiect a cure, if not too bad; then,
medical advice should be procured without delay.'" ^
How to mount Birds. — As some may not improbably procure tins volume with a
reasonable expectation of being taught to mount birds, I append the required instructions,
although the work only professes to treat of the preparation of skins for the cabinet. As a
rule, the purposes of science are best subserved by not mounting specimens ; for display, the
only end attained, is not required. I would strongly advise you not to mount your rarer or
otherwise particularly valuable specimens; select for this purpose nice, pretty birds of no
special scientific value. The principal objections to mounted birds are, that they take up
altogether too much room, require special arrangements for keeping and transportation, and
cannot be handled for study with impunity. Some might suppose that a mounted bird would
give a better idea of its figure and general aspect than a skin ; but this is only true to a limited
extent. Faultless mounting is an art really difficult, acquired by few ; the average work done
in this hue shows something of caricature, ludicrous or repulsive, as the case may be. To
copy nature faithfully by taxidermy requires not only long and ch)se study, but an artistic
sense ; and this last is a rare gift. Unless you have at least the germs of the faculty in your
composition, your taxidermal success will be incommensurate with the time and trouble you
bestow. My own taxidermal art is of a low order, decidedly not above average ; although I
have mounted a great many birds that would compare very favorably with ordinary museum
work, few of them have entirely answered my ideas. A live bird is to mc such a beautiful
object that the slightest taxidermal flaw in the eff"ort to represent it is painfully offensive ; per-
haps this makes me place the standard of excellence too high for practical purposes. I like a
good honest birdskin that docs not pretend to be anything else ; it is far ])rcfcrable to the
1 Avoid all meclianical irritation of the iiirtamed parts; touch the parts tliat have ulcerated with a stick
of lunar caustic ; take a dose of salts ; use syrup of tlie iodide of iron, or tincture of the chloride of iron, say thirty
drops of either, in a wineglass of water, thrice daily; rest at first, exercise gradually as you can bear it; and skin
no birds till you have completely recovere<l.
HOW TO MAKE A BIBDSKIX. 41
ordinary taxidermal abortions of the show-cases. But if, after the warnings that I mean to
convey in tliis paragraph, you still wish to try your hand in the higher department of taxi-
dermy, I will explain tlie whole process as far as manipulation goes; the art you must discover
in yciurself.
The operation of skinning is precisely the same as that already given in detail ; then,
instead of stuffing the skin as directed above, to lie on its back in a drawer, you have to stuff
it so that it will stand up on its feet and look as much like a live bird as possible. To this end
a few additional implements and materials are required. These are : a, annealed wire of vari-
ous numbers ; it may be iron or brass, but must be perfectly annealed, so as to retain no
elasticity or " spring;" b, several files of different sizes ; c, some slender, straight, brad awls ;
d, cutting pliers ; e, setting needles, merely sewing or darning needles stuck in a light wooden
handle, for dressing individual feathers ; /, plenty of pins (the long, slender insect pins used by
entomologists are the best) and sewing thread ; g, an assortment of glass eyes. (The fixtures
and decorations are noticed, beyond, as occasion for their use arises.)
There are two principal methods of mounting, which may be respectively styled soft stuif-
ing and hard stuffing. In the former, a wire framework, consisting of a single anterior piece
passing in the middle line of the body up through the neck and out at top of the head, is
immovably joined behind with two pieces, one passing through each leg; around this naked
forked frame soft stuffing is introduced, bit by bit, till the proper contour of the skin is secured.
I have seen very pretty work of this kind, particularly on small birds ; but I consider it much
more difficult to secure satisfactory results in this way than by hard stuffing, and I shall there-
fore confine attention to the lattei*. This method is applicable to all birds, is readily practised,
facilitates setting of the wings, arranging of the plumage, and giving of any desired attitude.
In hard stuffing, you make a firm ball of tow rolled upon a wire of the size and shape of the
bird's body and neck together ; you introduce this whole, aftervA^ards running in the leg wires
and clinching them immovably in the mass of tow.
Having your empty skin in good shape, as already described ; cut three pieces of wire of
the right ^ size; one piece somewhat longer than the whole bird, the other pieces two or three
times as long as the whole leg of the bird. File one end of each piece to a fine shar}} point ;
try to secure a three-edged cutting point like that of a surgical needle, rather than the smooth
jiunching point of a sewing- needle, as the former perforates more readily. Have these wires
perfectly straight.^ Bend a small portion of the unfiled end of the longer wire irregulaiiy upon
itself, as a convenient nucleus for the ball of tow.'^ Take fine clean tow, in loose dossils, and
wrap it round and round the wire nucleus, till you make a firm ball, of the size and shape of
the bird's body and neck. Study the contour of the skinned body : notice the swelling breast-
muscles, the arch of the lower back, the hollow between the furcula into which the neck, when
naturally curved, sinks. Everything depends upon correct shaping of the artificial body ; if
it be misshapen, no art can propei'ly adjust the skin over it. Firmness of the tow ball and
accurate contour may both be secured by wrapping the mass with sewing thread, loosening
liere, tiglitening there, till the shape is satisfactory. Be particular to secure a smooth super-
ficies ; the skin in drying will shrink close to the stuffing, disclosing its irregularities, if there
bo any, by the maladjustment of the plumage that will ensue. Observe especially that the
neck, though the direct continuation of the backbone, dips at its lower end into the hollow of
the merry-thought, and so virtually begins there instead of directly between the shoulders.
' The right size is the smallest that will support the whole weight of the stuffing and skin without bending,
when a piece is introduced into each leg. If using too thick wire, you may have trouble in thrusting it through
the legs, or may burst the tarsal envelope.
= If accidentally kinky, the finer sizes of wire may be readily straightened by drawing strongly upon them
80 as to stretch them a little. Heavier wire must be hammered out straight
5 Cotton will not do at all ; it is too soft and elastic, and moreover will not allow of the leg wires being thrust
into it and there clinched.
42 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
The three mistakes most likely to be made by a beginner are, getting the body altogether too
large, not firm enough, and irregular. When properly made, it will closely resemble the
bird's body and neck, with an inch or several inches of sharp-pointed wire protruding from the
anterior extremity of the neck of tow. You have now to introduce the whole afiair into
the skin. With the birdskin on its back, the tail pointing to your right elbow, and the
abdominal opening as wide as possible, hold the tow body in position relative to the skin ;
enter the wire, pass it up through the neck, bring the sharp point exactly against the middle
of the skuU, pierce skull and skin, causing the wire to protrude some distance from the middle
of the crown. Then by gentle means insinuate the body, partly pushing it in, j^artly drawing
the skin over it, tUl it rests in its proper position. This is just like drawing on a tight kid
glove, and no more difficult. See that the body is completely encased; you must be able to
close the abdominal aperture entirely. You have next to wire the legs. Enter the sharp
point of one of the leg-wires already prepared, exactly at the centre of the sole of the foot,
thrusting it up inside the tarsal envelope the whole length of the " shank," thence across the
heel joint ^ and up along the next bone of the leg, still inside the skin. The point of the wire
will then be seen within the skin, and may be seized and drawn a little further through, and
you will have passed a ware entirely out of sight all the way along the leg. The end of the
wire is next to be fixed immovably in the tow ball. Thrust it in at the point where the knee,
in life, rests against the side of the body.^ Bring the point to view, bend it over and reinsert
it till it sticks fiist. There are no special directions to be given here ; fasten the wire in any
way that efi'ectually prevents '' wabbling." You may find it convenient to wire both legs
before fastening either, and then clinch them by twisting the two ends together. But remem-
ber that the leg-wires may be fixed respecting each other, yet permit a see-saw motion of the
body upon them. This must not be ; the body and legs must be fixed upon a jointless frame.
Having secured the legs, close the abdominal opening nicely, either by sewing or pinning ; you
may stick pins in anywhere, as freely as in a pin-cushion; the feathers hide their heads. Stick
a pin through the pope's nose to fix the tail in place.
All this while the bird has been lying on its back, the neck stretched straight in continua-
tion of the body, wired stiffly, the legs straddling wide apart, straight and stiff", the wings lying
loosely, half-spread. Now bring the legs together, parallel with each other, and make the
sharp bend at the heel joint that will bring the feet naturally under the belly (over it, as the
bird lies on its back). Pick up the bird by the wires that project from the soles and set it on
its stand, by running the wires through holes bored the proper distance ajjart, and then secur-
ing the ends by twisting. The temporary stand that you use for this purpose should have a
heavy or otherwise firm support, so as not easily to overturn during the subsequent manipu-
lations. At this stage the bird is a sorry-looking object ; but if you have stuff"ed correctly and
wired securely, it will soon improve. Begin by making it stand properly. The common fault
here is placing the tarsi too nearly perpendicular. Perching birds, constituting the majority,
habitually stand with the tarsi more nearly horizontal than perpendicular, and generally keep
the tarsi parallel with each other. Wading and most walking birds stand with the legs more
nearly upriglit and straight. Many swimming birds straddle a little ; others rarely if ever.
See that the toes clasp the perch naturally, or are properly spread on the ffat surface. Cause
the flank feathers to be correctly adjusted over the tibiae (and here I wiU remark that with
most birds little, if any, of the tibise shows in life), the heel joint barely, if at all, projecting
1 There is occasionally difficulty in getting the wire across this joint, from the point sticking into the enlarged
end of the shin-bone. In such case, take stout pliers and pinch the joint till the bone is smashed to fragments.
The wire will then pass and the comminution will not show. If there is any trouble in passing the wire through
the tarsus, bore a hole for it with a brad awl.
« This point is further forward and more belly-ward than you might suppose. Observe the skinned body
again, and see where the lower end of the thigh lies. If you insert the wire too far back, you cannot by any possi-
bility balance the bird naturally on its perch; it will look iu imminent danger of toppling over.
HOW TO MAKE A BIRBSKIN. 43
from tlie general plumage. It is a common fault of stuffing not to draw the legs closely
enough to the body. Above all, look out for the centre of gravity ; though you have really
fastened the bird to its perch, you must not let it look as if it would fall off if the wires slipped;
it must appear to rest there of its own accord. Next, give the head and neck a preliminary
setting, according to the attitude you have detennined upon. This will bring the plumage
about the shoulders in proper position for the setting of the wings, to which you may at once
attend. If the body be correctly fashioned and the skin of the shoulders duly adjusted over it,
the wings will fold into place without the slightest difficulty. All that I have said before
about setting the wings in a skin applies here as well ; but in this case they will not stay
in place, since they fall by their own weight. They must be pinned up. Holding the wing
in place, thrust a pin steadily through near the ^\Tist joint, into the tow body. Sometimes
another pin is required to support the weight of the primaries ; it may be stuck into the flank
of the bird, the outer quill feather resting directly upon it. With large birds a sharp pointed
wire must replace the pin. When properly set, the wing-tips will fall together or symmetri-
cally opposite each other, the quills and coverts will be smoothly imbricated, the scapular
series of feathers will lie close, and no bare space will show in front of the shoulder. Much
depends upon the final adjustment of the head. The commonest mistake is getting it too
far away from the body. In the ordinary attitudes of most birds little neck shows, the head
appearing nestled upon the shoulders. If the neck appears too long, it is not to be contracted
by pushing the head directly down upon it, but by making an S curve of the neck. No precise
directions can be given for the set of the head, but you may be assured it is a delicate, difficult
matter ; the slightest turn of the bill one way or another may alter the whole expression of the
bird. You wiU of course have determined beforehand upon your attitude, upon what you wish
the bird to appear to be doing ; tlien, let your meaning be pointed by tlie bird's bill.
On the general subject of striking an attitude, and giving expression to a stuffed bird, little
can be said to good purpose. If you are to become proficient in this art, it will come from
your own study of birds in the field, your own good taste and appreciation of bird life. The
manual processes are easily described and practised ; it is easy to grind paint, I suppose, but
not so to be an artist. I shall therefore only follow the above account of the general processes
with some special practical points. After ''attitudinizing" to your satisfaction, or to the best
of your ability, the plumage is to be carefully " dressed." Feathers awry may be set in place
with a light spring forceps, or needles fixed in a handle, one by one if necessary. When no
individual feather seems out of place, it often occurs that the general plumage has a loose,
slovenly aspect. This is readily corrected by wrapping with fine thread. Stick a pin into the
middle of the back, another into the breast, and perhaps others, elsewhere. Fasten the end of
a spool of sewing cotton to one of the pins, and carry it to another, winding the thread about
among the pins, till the whole surface is covered with an irregular network. Tighten to
reduce an undue prominence, loosen over a depression ; but let the wrapping as a whole be
light, firm, and even. This procedure, nicely executed, will give a smoothness to the plumage
not otherwise attainable, and may be made to produce the most exquisite curves, particularly
about the head, neck, and breast. The thread should be left on till the bird is perfectly dry ;
it may then be unwound or cut ofi", and the pins withdrawn. When a particular patch of skin
is out of place, it may often be pulled into position and pinned there. You need not be afraid
of sticking pins in anywhere : they may be buried in the plumage and left there, or withdrawn
when the skin is dry. In addition to the maiu stuffing, a little is often required in particular
places. As for the legs, they should be filled out in all such cases as I indicated earlier in this
section ; small birds require no such stuffing. It is necessary to fill out the eyes so that the
lids rest naturally ; it may be done as heretofore directed, or by putting in pledgets of cotton
from the outside. A little nice stuffing is generally required about the upper throat. To stuff
a bird with spread wings requires a special process, in most cases. The wings are to be wired.
44 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
exactly as directed for the legs ; they may then be placed in any shape. But with most small
birds, and those with short wings, simple pinning in the half-spread position indicating flutter-
ing will suffice ; it is readily accomplished with a long, slender insect pin. I have already
spoken of fixing the tail by pinning or wiring the pope's nose to the tow body ; it may be thus
fixed at any desired elevation or depression. There are two ways of spreading the tail. One
is to run a pointed wire through the quills, near their base, where the wire will be hidden by
the coverts ; each feather may be set at any required distance from the next by sliding it along
this wire. This method is applicable to large birds ; for small ones the tail may be fixed with
the desired spread by enclosing it near its base in a split match, or two slips of card-board,
with the ends tied together. This holds the feathers until they dry in position, when it is to
be taken off. Ci'ests may be raised, spread, and displayed on similar principles. A small
crest, like that of a cardinal or cherry bird, for instance, may be held up till it dries in position
by sticking in behind it a pin with a little ball of cotton on its head. It is sometimes neces-
sary to make a bird's toes grasp a support by tying them down to it till they dry. The toes
of waders that do not lie evenly on the surface of the stand may be tacked down with small
brads. The bill may be pinned open or shut, as desired, by the method already given. Never
paint or varnish a bird's bill or feet.
Substitution of an artificial eye for the natural one is essential for the good looks of a
specimen. Glass eyes, of all sizes and colors, may be purchased at a moderate cost. The
pupil is always black ; the iris varies. Y(ju will, of course, secure the proper coloi if it is
known, but if not, put in a dark brovAm or black eye. It is well understood that this means
nothing ; it is purely conventional. Yellow is probably the next most common color ; then
come red, white, blue, and green, perhaps approximately in this order of frequency. But do
not use these striking colors at hap-hazard; sacrificing truth, perhaps, to looks. Eyes are gen-
erally inserted after the specimen is dry. Remove a portion of the cotton fi-om the orbit, and
moisten the lids till they are perfectly pliable; fix the eye in with putty or wet plaster of Paris,
making sure that the lids are naturally adjusted over it. It goes in obliquely, like a button
through a button-hole. Much art may be displayed in this little matter, making a bird look
this way or that, to carry out the general " expression."
On finishing a specimen, set it away to dry ; the time required varies, of course, M-ith the
weather, the size of the bird, its fetness, etc. The more slowly it dries the better; there is
less risk of the skin shrinking irregularly. You will often find that a specimen set away with
smooth plumage and satisfactory curves dries more or less out of shape, perhaps with the
feathers raised in places. I know of no remedy ; it may, in a measure, be prevented by scru-
pulous care in making the body smooth and firm, and in securing slow, equable drying.
When perfectly dry remove the wrapping, pull out the superfluous pins or wires, nip off the
others so short that the ends are concealed, and insert the eyes. The specimen is then ready
to be transferred to its permanent stand.
Fixtures for the display of the object of course vary interminably. We will take the
simplest case, of a large collection of mounted birds fur public exhibition. In this instance,
uniformity and simplicity are desiderata. " Spread eagle" styles of mounting, artificial rocks
and flowers, etc., are entirely out of place in a collection of any scientific pretensions, or
designed for popular instruction. Besides, they take up too much room. Artistic grouping
of an extensive collection is usually out of the question ; and when this is unattainable, half-
way efforts in that direction should be abandoned in favor of severe simplicity. Birds look
best on the whole in uniform rows, assorted according to size, as far as a natural classification
allows. They are best set on the plainest stands, with circular base and a short cylindrical
crossbar on a lightly turned upright. The stands should be painted dead-white, and be no
larger than is necessary for secure support ; a neat stiff paper label may be attached. A small
collection of birds, as an ornament to a private residence, offers a different case; here, variety
MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. 45
of attitude and appropriate imitation of the birds' natural surroundings are to be secured. A
miniature tree, on wliich a number of birds may be placed, is readily made. Take stout wire,
and by bending it, and attaching other pieces, get the framework of the tree of the desired size,
sliape, and number of perches. Wrap it closely with tow to a proper calibre, remembering
tliat the two forks of a stem must be together only about as large as the stem itself. Gather
a basket full of lichens and tree moss ; reduce them to coarse powder l)y rubbing with the
liands ; besmear the whole tree with mucilage or thin glue, and sift the lichen powder on it till
the tow is completely hidden. This produces a very natural effect, which may be heightened
by separately affixing larger scraps of lichen, or little bunches of moss ; artificial leaves and
flowers may be added at your taste. The groundwork may be similarly prepared with a bit
of board, made adhesive and bestrewn with the same substance ; grasses and moss may be
added. If a flat surface is not desired, soak stout pasteboard till it can be moulded in various
irregular elevations and depressions ; lay it over the board and decorate it in the same way.
Rocks may be thus nicely imitated, with the addition of powdered glass of various colors.
Such a lot of birds is generally enclosed in a cylindrical glass case with arched top. As it
stands on a table to be viewed from different points, it must be presentable on all sides. A
niche in parlor or study is often fitted with a wall-case, which, when artistically arranged, has
a very pleasing effect. As such cases may be of considerable size, there is opportunity for the
display of great taste in grouping. A place is not to be found for a bird, but a bird for the
place, — waders and swimmers below on the ground, perchers on projecting rests above.
The surroundings may be prepared by the methods just indicated. One point deserves atten-
tion here; since the birds are only viewed from the front, they may have a " show-side" to
which everything else may be sacrificed. Birds are represented flying in such cases more
readily than under other circumstances, supported on a concealed wire inserted in the back of
the case. I have seen some very successful attempts to represent a bird swimming, the duck
being let down part way through an oval hole in a plate of thick glass, underneath which
were fixed stuffed fishes, shells, and seaweed. It is hardly necessary to add that in all orna-
mental collections, labels or other scientific machinery must be rigorously suppressed.
Transportation of mounted birds offers obvious difficulty. Unless very small, they are
best secured immovably inside a box by screwing the foot of the stands to the bottom and
sides, so that they stay in place without touching each other. Or, they may be carefully packed
in cotton, with or without removal of the stands. Their preservation from accidental injury
depends upon the same care that is bestowed upon ordinary fragile ornaments of the parlor.
The ravages of insects are to be prevented upon the principles to be hereafter given in treating
of the preservation of birdskins.
§ 8. — MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.
Determination of Sex. — This is an important matter, which must never be neglected.
For altliough many l)irds show unequivocal sexual distinctions of size, shape, and color, like
tliose of the barnyard cock and hen for instance, yet the outward characteristics are more
frequently obscure, if not altogether inappreciable, on examination of the skin alone. Young
birds, moreover, are usually indistinguisliable as to sex, although the adults of the same species
may be easily recognized. The rule results, that the sexual organs should be examined as the
only infallible indices. The essential organs of masculinity are the testicles ; similarly, the
ovaries contain the essence of the female nature. However similar the accessory sexual struc-
tures may be, the testicles and ovaries are always distinct. The male organs of birds never
leave the cavity of the belly to fill an external bag of skin (scrotum) as they do among
mammalia ; they remain within the abdomen, and lie in the same position as the ovaries
of the female. Both these organs are situated in the belly ojiposite wliat corresponds to the
46 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
" small of the back," bound closely to the spine, resting on the front of the kidneys near their
fore end. The testicles are a pair of subspherical or rather ellipsoidal bodies, usually of the
same size, shape, and color, and are commonly of a duU opaque whitish tint. They always
lie close together. A remarkable fact connected with them is, that they are not always of the
same size in the same bird, being subject to periodical enlargement during the breeding season,
and corresponding atrophy at other seasons. Thus the testicles of a house sparrow, no bigger
than a pin's head in winter, swell to the size of peas in April. The ovary (for although this
organ is paired originally, only one is usually functionally developed in birds) wUl be recog-
nized as a iiattish mass of in-egular contour, dnd usually whitish color ; when inactive, it
simply appears of finely granular structure which may require a hand lens to be made out ;
when producing eggs, its appearance is unmistakable. Both testis and ovary may further be
recognized by a thread leading to the end of the lower bowel, — in one case the sperm-duct, in
the other the oviduct; the latter is usually much the more conspicuous, as it at times transmits-
the perfect egg. There is no difficulty in reaching the site of these organs. Lay the bird on
the left side, its belly toward you : cut Avith the scissors through the belly-walls diagonally
from anus to the root of the last rib, or further, snipping across a few of the lower ribs, if these
continue far down, as they do in a loon for instance. Press the whole mass of intestines aside
collectively, and you at once see to the small of the back. There you observe the kidneys, —
large, lobular, dark reddish masses moulded into the concavity of the sacrum (or back middle
bone of the pelvis) ; and on their surface, towards their fore end, lie testes or ovary, as just
described. The only precaution required is, not to mistake for testicles a pair of small bodies
capping the kidneys. These are the adrenals or ''supra-renal capsules," — organs whose
function is unknown, but w^ith which at any rate we have nothing to do in this connection.
They occur in both sexes, and if the testicles are not immediately seen, or the ovary not at
once recognized, they might easily be mistaken for testicles. Observe, that instead of lying
in front, they cap the kidneys ; that they ai-e usually yellowish instead of opaque whitish ; and
that they have not the firm, smooth, regular sphericity of the testicles. The testes, however,
vary more in shape and color than might be expected, being sometimes rather oblong or linear,,
and sometimes grayish or livid bluish, or reddish. There is occasionally but one. The sex
determined, use the sign $ or 9 to designate it, as already explained. In the very rare cases
of impotence or sterility among birds, of course no organs wiU be observed ; but I should dislike-
to become responsible for such labelling without very careful examination. The organs of a
small bird out of the breeding season are never conspicuous, but may always be found on close
scrutiny, unless the parts are disintegrated by a shot.
Recognition of Age is a matter of ornithological experience requiring in many or most
cases great familiarity with birds for its even approximate accomplishment. There are, how-
ever, some unmistakable signs of immaturity, even after a bird has become full -feathered, that
persist for at least one season. These are, in the first place, a peculiar soft fluify " feel" of the
plumage ; the feathers lack a certain smoothness, density, and stifieniug which they subse-
quently acquire. Secondly, the bill and feet are softer than those of the adults ; the corners of
the mouth are pufi"y and flabby, the edges and point of the bill are dull, and the scales, etc.,
of the legs are not sharply cut. Thirdly, the flesh itself is tender and pale colored. These are
some of the points common to all birds, and are independent of the special markings that
belong to the youth of particular species. Some birds are actually larger for a while after
leaving the nest, than in after years when the frame seems to shrink somewhat in acquiring
the compactness of senility. On the other hand, the various members, especially the bill and
feet, are proportionally smaller at first. Newly growing quills are usually recognized on sight,
the barrel being dark colored and full of liquid, while the vanes are incomplete. In studying,
for example, the shape of a wing or tail, there is always reason to suspect that the natural
MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. 47
proportions are not yet presented, unless the quill is dry, colorless, and empty, or only occupied
with shrunken white pith.
Examination of the Stomach frequently leads to interesting observations, and is always
worth while. In the first place, we learn most unquestionably the nature of the bird's food,
which is a highly important item in its natural history. Secondly, we often secure valuable
specimens in other departments of zoology, particularly entomology. Birds consume incal-
culable numbers of insects, the harder kinds of which, such as beetles, are not seldom found
intact in their stomachs ; and a due percentage of these represent rare and curious species.
The gizzards of birds of prey, in particular, should always be inspected, in search of the small
mammals, etc., they devour; and even if the creatures are unfit for preservatitm, we at least
learn of their occurrence, perhaps unknown before in a particular region. MoUusk-feeding
and fish-eating birds yield their share of specimens. The alimentary canal is often the seat of
parasites of various kinds, interesting to the helminthologist ; other species are to be found
under the skin, in the body of muscle, in the brain, etc. Most birds are also infested with
external parasites of many kinds, so various that almost every leading species has its own sort
of louse, tick, etc. Since these creatures are only at home with a live host, they wUl be found
crawling on the surfiice of the plumage, preparing for departure, as soon as the body cools after
death. There is thus much to learn of a bird aside from what the prepared specimen
teaches, and moreover apart from regular anatomical investigations. Whenever practicable,
brief items should be recorded on the label, as already mentioned.
Restoration of Poor Sl{:ins. — If your cabinet be a ''general" one, comprising specimens
from various sources, you will frequently happen to receive skins so badly prepared as to be
unpleasant objects, besides failing to show their specific characters. There is of course no sup-
plying of missing parts or plumage ; but if the defect be simply deformity, this may usually be
in a measure remedied. The point is simply to relax the skin, and then proceed as if it were
freshly removed fi-om the bird ; it is what bird-stuffers constantly do in mounting birds from
prepared skins. The relaxation is effected by moisture alone. Remove the stuffing ; fill the
interior with cotton or tow saturated with water, yet not dripping ; put pads of the same under
the wings ; wrap the bill and feet, and set the specimen in a damp, cool place. Small birds
soften very readily and completely ; the process may be fiicilitated by persistent manipulation.
This is the usual method, but there is another, more thorough and more effective ; it is expo-
sure to a vapor-bath. The appointments of the kitchen stove furnish all the apparatus
required for an extempore " steamer;" the regular fixture is a tin vessel much like a wash-
boiler, with closed lid, false bottom, and stopcock at lower edge. On the false bottom is
placed a heavy layer of gypsum, completely saturated with water; the birds are laid on a
perforated tray above it ; and a gentle heat is maintained over a stove. The vapor penetrates
every part of the skin, and completely relaxes it, without actually wetting the feathers. The
time required varies greatly of course ; observation is the best guide. The chief precaution
is not to let the thing" get too hot. Professor Baird has remarked that crumpled or bent
feathers may have much of their original elasticity restored by dipping in hot water. Immer-
sion for a few seconds suffices, when the feathers will be observed to straighten out. Shaking
off superfluous water, they may be simply left to dry, or they may be dried with plaster. The
method is chiefly applicable to the large feathers of the wings and tail. Soiled plumage of
dried skins luay be treated exactly as in the case of fresh skins.
Mummification. — As before mentioned, decay may be arrested by injections of carbolic
acid and otlier antiseptics ; if the tissues be sufficiently permeated with these substances, the
body will keep indefinitely; it dries and hardens, becoming, in short, a " munuuy." Injection
48
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
should be done by the mouth and vent, be thorough, and be repeated several times as the
fluid dries in. It is an improvement on this to disembowel and till the belly with saturated
tow or cotton. Due care should be taken not to soil the feathers in any case, nor should the
carbolic solution come in contact with the hands, for it is a powerful irritant poison. I mention
the process chiefly to condemn it as an atrocious one ; I cannot imagine what circumstances
would recommend it, while only an extreme emergency could justify it. It is further objection-
able because it appears to lend a dingy hue to some plumages, and to dull most of them
perceptibly. Birds prepared — rather unprepared — in this way, may be relaxed by the
method just described, and then skinned; but the operation is rather difficult.
Wet Preparations. — ^By this terra is technically understood an object immersed in some
preservative fluid. It is highly desirable to obtain more information of birds than their stufi"ed
skins can ever furnish, and their structure cannot be always examined by dissection on the
spot. In fact, a certain small proportion of the birds of any protracted or otherwise " heavy "
collecting may be preferably and very profitably preserved in this way. Specimens in too
poor plumage to be worth skinning may be thus utilized ; so may the bodies of skinned birds,
which, although necessarily defective, retain all the viscera, and also aflord osteological mate-
rial. Alcohol is the liquid usually employed, and, of all the various articles recommended,
seems to answer best on the whole. I have used a very weak solution of chloride of zinc with
excellent results ; it should not be strong enough to show the slightest turbidity. As glass
b(jttles are liable to break when travelling, do not fit corners, and offer practical annoyance
about corkage, rectangular metal cans, preferably of copper, wnth screw-lid opening, are
advisable. They are to be set in small, strong, wooden boxes, made to leave a little room for
the lid wTench, muslin bags for doing up separate parcels, parchment for labels, etc. Unoc-
cupied space in the cans should be filled with tow or a similar substance, to prevent the
specimens from swashing about. Labelling sliould be on parchment ; the writing should be
perfectly dry before immersion ; india-ink is the best. Skinned bodies should be numbered to
correspond with the dried skin from w^hich taken; otherwise they may not be identifiable.
Large birds thro\^ii in imskinned should have the belly opened, to let in the alcohol freely.
Birds may be skiuued, after being in alcohol, by simply drying them : they often make fair
specimens. They are best withdrawn by the bill, that the "swash" of the alcohol at the
moment of emersion may set the plumage all one way, and huug up to dry untouched.
Watery moisture that may remain after evaporation of the alcohol may be dried with plaster.
Figs 1, 2. — Views of .iternum and pectoral arch of the ptarmigan, Lagopus albus. reduced; after A. New-
ton. 1, lateral view, with the bones upside down; 2, viewed from below, a, sternum or breast-bone, showing two
long slender lateral processes; fc. ends of sternal ribs; e, ends of humerus, or upper arm-bone, near the shoulder-
joint ; d, scapula, or shoulder-blade ; f , coracoid ; /, merry-thought, or furculum (clavicles).
Osteological and other Preparations (figs. 1-3 >. — While complete skeletonizing of
a bird is a special art of some difficulty, and one that does not fall within the scope of this
treatise, I may mention two bony preparations very readily made, and susceptible of rendering
MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.
49
ornithology essential service. I refer to the skull, and to the breast-bone with its principal
attachn)cnts. These parts of the skeleton are, as a rule, so highly characteristic that they
zoological items. To save a skull
all intents ; but you often have
that are very profitably utilized
(figs. 1, 2, a) excepting when mu-
the skin, and for '* choice " invoices
nient. You want to remove along
bones connecting the breast-bone
the merry-thought (figs. 1, 2, /)
and the shoulder-blades (figs. 1, 2,
each other, for these bones collec-
girdle," or scapular arch. Slice
to the bone, and divide their in-
scrape or cut away the muscles
chest ; snip off the ribs (figs. 1, 2,
bone ; sever a tough membrane
of the wish-bone; then, by taking
at c), you can lift out the whole
tions underneath the bone and
require attention : the breast-bone
behind and on the sides (the corn-
extreme illustrations of this, as
cut by mistake for ribs, or to be
ally taper to a point, easily l)n>ken
thnes very delicate or defective,
advisable to make perfect prepara-
they are best dried with only super-
kled with arsenic. The skull, if
liable to lose the odd-shaped,
and the freely movable pair that
Great care should be exercised re-
boues, particularly the sternum,
number of the specimen to which
tied to the coracoid bone. A skull
for itself, and, besides, is not usu-
theless, any record tending to fa-
■p ^ "" H duly entered on the register. There
familiar, of making elegant bony
3. — Trachea or very good results by simply boil-
better, macerating them in water
afford in most cases invaluable
is of course to sacrifice a skin, to
mutilated or decayed specimens
in this way. The breast-bone
tilated, is always preservable with
may form its natural accompani-
with it the coracoids (the stout
with the shoulders, figs. 1, 2, e),
intervening between these bones,
(J), all without detachment from
tively constitute the "shoulder-
ntf the large breast muscles close
sertions into the wing-bones (c) ;
that tie the shoulder-blades to the
h) close to the side of the breast-
usually found between the prongs
hold of the shoulders (figs. 1, 2,
affair, dividing some slight counec-
behind it. The following points
often has long slender processes
mi in fowl and the ptarmigan are
shown in the figures i, liable to be
snapped ; the shoulder-blades usu-
iift'; the merry-thought is sonie-
When travelling, it is generally not
tions of either skull or sternum ;
fiiious riesh removed, and besi)rin-
perfectly cleaned, is particularly
pronged bones that hinge the jaw,
push on the palate from behind,
specting the identification of these
which should invariably bear the
it belongs; the label should be
is more likely to be able to speak
ally accompanied by a skin ; never-
cilitate its recognition should be
are methods, with which I am not
prejiarations. You may secure
ing the bones ; or, what is perhaps
F
;v -
Fig
win(l])ipe of tlie male red
breasted merganser, Mer-
till the flesh is completely rotted gus serrator, ahont \ nat. away, and then bleaching them in
the sun. A little potassa or soda (beh\ndTrafterN™vtoii."^! hastens the process. Withbreast-
l)ones, if you can stop the process tongue; B B, its attach- just when the flesh is completely
dissolved but the tougher ligaments S^\/th;''m"Srai^^ remain, you secure a "natural"
preparation, as it is called ; if the swelling below into a bony ligaments go too, the associate
parts of a large specimen may be X^'^^^^^^^^ tf iun-l"*'^'''^ "'^"'^^ together, those of a small
one glued. T think it best, with skulls, to clean them entirely of
ligament as well as muscle : for the underneath parts are usually those conveying the most
desirable informatidu. and they sliould not be in tlie slightest degree obscured. Since in such
50 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
case the anvil-shaped bones, the palatal cylinders already mentioned, and sometimes other
portions come apart, the whole are best kept in a suitable box. I prefer to see a skull with
the sheath of the beak removed, though in some cases, particularly of hard-billed birds, it
may profitably be left on. The completed preparations should be fully labelled by writing on
the bone, in preference to an accompanying or attached paper slip, which may be lost. Some
object to this, as others do to -WTiting on eggs, that it " defaces " the specimen ; but I confess
I see in dry bones no beauty but that of utility.
'' In many families of birds, as the ducks (Anatidrs), the trachea or windpipe of the male,
affords valuable means of distinguishing between the different natural groups, or even species,
chiefly by the form of the bony labyrinth, or bulla ossea, situated at or just above the divari-
cation of the bronchial tubes. A little trouble will enable the collector in all cases to preserve
this organ perfectly, as represented in the annexed engraving (fig. 3). Before proceeding to
skin the specimen, a narrow-bladed knife should be introduced iuto its mouth and by taking
hold of the tongue (A) by the fingers or forceps, the muscles {B B) by which it is attached to
the lower jaw should be severed as far as they can be reached, care being of course taken not
to puncture the windpipe (C C) ; and later in the operation of skinning, when dividing the
body from the neck or head, not to cut into or through it. This done, the windpipe can be
easily withdrawn entire and separated from the neck, and then the sternal apparatus being
removed as before described, its course must be traced to where, after branching off in a fork
(D), the bronchial tubes (E E) join the lungs. At these latter points it is to be cut ofi". Then
rinsing it in cold water, and leaving it to dry partially, it may, while yet pliant, be either
wrapped round the sternum, or coiled up and labelled separately." — (A. Newton.)
§ 9. — COLLECTION OF NESTS AND EGGS.
Ornithology and Oology are twin studies, or rather one includes the other. A collec-
tion of nests and eggs is indispensable for any thorough study of birds ; and many persons
find peculiar pleasure in forming one. Some, however, shrink from " robbing birds' nests"
as something particularly cruel; a sentiment springing, no doubt, from the sympathy and
deference that the tender office of maternity inspires ; but with all proper respect for the
humane emotion, it may be said simply, that birds'-nesting is not nearly so cruel as bird-
shooting. What I said in a former section, in endeavoring to guide search for birds, applies
in substance to hunting for their nests ; the essential difference is, that the latter are of
course stationary objects, and consequently more liable to be overlooked, other things being
equal, than birds themselves. Most birds nest on trees or bushes ; many on the ground
and on rocks ; others in hollows. Some build elegant, elaborate structures, endlessly varied
in details of form and material; others make no nest whatever. In this country, egging is
chiefly practicable in May and during the summer; but some species, particularly birds of
prey, begin to lay in January, while, on our southern border at least, the season of repro-
duction is protracted through September ; so there is really a long period for search. Par-
ticular nests, of course, like the birds that build them, can only be found through ornithological
knowledge; but general search is usually rewarded with a varied assortment. The best clew
to a hidden nest is the actions of the parents; patient watchfulness is commonly successful in
tracing the bird's home. As the science of oology has not progressed to the point of deter-
mining from tlie nests and eggs to what bird they belong, in even a majority of cases, the
utmf)St care in authentication is indispensable. To be worth anything, not to be worse
than worthless in fact, an egg must be identified beyond ([uestion ; must be not only
unsuspected, but above suspicion. A shade of suspicion is often attached to dealers' eggs ;
not necessarily implying bad faith or even negligence on the dealers' i)art, but from the nature
of the case. It is often extremely difficult to make an unquestionable detcrnunation, as for
COLLECTION OF NESTS AND EGGS.
51
instance when numbers of birds of similar habits are breeding close together ; or even impos-
sible, as in case the parent eludes observation. Sometimes the most acute observer may be
mistakeu, circumstances appearing to prove a parentage when such is not the fact. It is in
general advisable to secure the parent with the eggs : if shot or snared on the nest, the
identification is simply unquestionable. If y<m do not yourself know the species, it then
becomes necessary to secure the specimen, and retain it with the eggs. It is not required to
make a perfect preparation ; the head, or better, the head and a wing, will answer the purpose.
When egging in downright earnest, a pair of climbing irons, a coil of f inch rope, and a tin
collecting box filled with cotton, become practically indispensable; these are the only field
implements required in addition to those already specified.
Preparing Eggs. For blowing eggs, a set of special tools is needed. These are " egg-
drills," — steel implements with a sharp- pointed conical head of rasping surface, and a slender
shaft; several such, of different sizes, are needed; also, blow-pipes of dift'erent sizes, a delicate
Fig. 5. — Instriirnerits for blowing eggs; after Newton. a,b,
blow-pipes, i iiat. size : c, wire for cleansing tliem ; </, syringe, \
nat. size (the ring of the handle must be large enough to insert
the thumb); e, bulbous insufflator, for sucking eggs.
Kk;. 4. —Egg-drills, diflferent sizes, nat.
size ; after Newton.
thin pair of scissors, light spring for-
ceps, some little hooks, and a small
syringe. They are inexpensive, and
may be had of any dealer in natur-
alists' supplies. (See figs. 4-7.) Eggs
should never be blown in the old way of making a hole at each end ; nor are two holes any-
where usually required. Opening should be effected on one side, preferably that showing least
conspicuous or characteristic markings. If two are made, they should be rather near together ;
on the same side at any rate. But one is generally sufficient, as the ffuid contents can escape
around the blow-pipe. Holding the egg gently but steadily in the fingers,-' apply the point of
' The usual method of emptying eggs through one small hole is doubtless supposed to be a very modern trick j
but it dates back at least to 1828, when M. Danger proposed " a new method of preparing and preseving eggs for
the cabinet," which is practically the one now followed, though he used a three-edged needle to prick the hole,
instead of our modern drill, and did not appear to know some of our ways of managing the embryo. I make this
reference to his article to call attention to one of the tools he recommends, which I think would prove useful, aa
being better than the fingers for holding an egg during drilling and bh)wing. The simple instrument will be un-
derstood from a glance at the figure given in the Nuttall Bulletin, iii, 1878, p. 191. The oval rings are covered with
light fabric, like mosquito-netting or muslin, and do not touch the egg, which is held lightly but securely in the
netting. The cost would be trifling, and danger might be avoided by Danger's method.
52
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
the drill perpendicularly to the surface, unless it be preferred to prick with a needle first.
A twirlins; motion of the instrument gradually enlarges the opening by filing away the shell,
and so bores a smooth-edged circular hole. This should be no larger than is required to
insert the blow-pipe loosely, with room for the contents to escape around it. Nor is it always
necessary to insert the pipe ; a fine stream of water may be easily injected by holding the
instrument close to the egg, but not quite touching. The blowing should be continuous and
equable, rather than forcible ; a strong pufi" easily bursts a delicate egg. Be sure that all the
contents are removed; then rinse the interior thoroughly with clean water, either by taking a
mouthful and sending it through a blow-pipe, or with the syringe. Blowing eggs is a rather
fatiguing process, more so
than it might seem ; the
cheek muscles soon tire,
and the operator actually
becomes "blown" himself
before long. The opera-
tion had better be done
over a basin of water, both
to receive the contents, and
to catch the egg if it slip
from the fingers. The
membrane lining the shell
should be removed if pos-
sible. It may be seized by
the edge around the hole,
A^-itli the forceps, and
drawn out, or picked out
with a bent pin. But this
is scarcely to be accom-
plished in the case of fresh
eggs, when the membrane
may be simply pared
smoothly around the edge
of the hole. Eggs that have been incubated of course offer difi[i-
culty, in proportion to the size of the embryo. The hole may be
drilled, as before, but it must be larger ; and as the drill is apt to
split a shell after it has bored beyond a certain size of hole, it is often
well to prick, with a fine needle, a circular series of minute holes
almost touching, and then remove the enclosed circle of shell. This
must be very carefully done, or the needle will indent or crack the
shell, which, it must be remembered, grows more brittle towards
the time of hatching. Well-formed embryos cannot be got bodily through any hole that can
be made in an egg ; they must be extracted piecemeal. They may be cut to pieces with the
slender scissors intrt)duced through the hole, and the fragments be picked out with the
forceps, hooked out, or blown out. No embryo should be forced through a hole too small ;
there is every probability that the shell will burst at the critical moment. Addled eggs, the
contents of which are thickened or hardened, offer some difficulty, to overcome which persistent
syringing and repeated rinsing are required ; or it may be necessary to fiU them with water,
and faet them away for such length of time that the contents dissolve by maceration ; carbonate
of soda is said to hasten the solution ; the process may be repeated as often as may be necessary.
In no event must any of the animal contents be suffered to remain in the shell. When emptied
Fig. 6. — Scissors, knives, and forceps, ^ nat.
size ; after Newton.
Fig. 7. — Hooks for ex-
tracting embryos, nat. size ;
after Newton, a, b, c, plain
hooks ; d, bill-hook, liaving
cutting edge along the con-
cavity.
COLLECTION OF NESTS AND EGGS. 63
and rinsed, eggs should be gently wiped dry, and set hole downward on blotting-paper to
drain. ^ Broken eggs may be neatly mended, sometimes with a film of collodion, or a bit of
tissue paper and paste, or the edges may be simply stuck together with any adhesive substance.
Even when fragmentary a rare egg is worth preserving. Eggs should ordinarily be left empty ;
indeed, the only case in which any filling is admissible is that of a defective specimen to which
some slight solidity can be imparted with cotton. It is unnecessary even to close up the hole.
It is best, on all accounts, to keep eggs in sets, a "set" being the natural clutch, or whatever
less number was taken from a nest. The most scrupulous attention must be paid to accurate,
complete, and permanent labelling. So important is this, that the undeniable defacing of a
specimen, by writing on it, is no off'set to the advantages accruing from such fixity of record.
It is practically impossible to attach a label, as is done with a bird-skin, and a loose label is
always in danger of being lost or displaced. Write on the shell, then, as many items as
jiossible ; if done neatly, on the side in which the hole was bored, at least one good " show side "
remains. An egg should always bear the same number as the parent, in the collector's
record. In a general collection, where separate ornithological and oological registers are kept,
identification of egg with parent is nevertheless readily secured, by making one the numerator
the other the denominator of a fraction, to be simply inverted in its respective application.
Thus, bird No. 456, and egg No. 123, are identified by making the former -flf the latter ^^.
All the eggs of a clutch should have the same number. If the shell be large enough, the name
of the species should be written on it ; if too small, it should be accompanied by a label, and
may have the name indicated by a number referring to a certain catalogue. According to my
" Cheek List," for example, "No. 1 " would indicate Turdus migratorius. The date of collec-
tion is a highly desirable item; it may be abbreviated thus ; 3 | 6 ] 82 means June 3, 1882. It
is well to have the egg authenticated by the collector's initials at least. Since " sets " of eggs
may be broken up for distributions to other cabinets, yet permanent indication of the size of
the clutch be wanted, it is well to have some method. A good one is to write the number of
the clutch on each egg composing it, giving each egg of the set, moreover, its individual
number. Supposing for example the clutch No. -Jlf contained five eggs ; one of them would
be -J-ff I 5 I 1 : the next ||| | 5 | 2, and so on. But it should be remembered that all such
arliitrary memoranda must be systematic, and be accompanied by a key. Eggs may be kept
in cabinets of shallow drawers in little pasteboard trays, each holding a set, and containing a
jiaper label on which various items that cannot be traced on tlie shell are written in full.
' Reinforcing the Eggshell before Blowing. — Fig. 8 " shows a piece of paper, a number of which, when gummed
on to an egg, one over the other, and left, to dry, strengtlien the sliell in such a manner that the instruments above
described can be introduced through the aperture in the middle and worked to tlie best advantage, and thus a
fully formed embryo may be cut up. and tlie pieces extracted througli a very moderately
sized hole; the number of thicknesses required depends, of course, greatly upon the size
of the egg, the length of time it has been incubated, and the stoutness of the shell and
the paper. Five or six is the least number that it is safe to use. Each piece should bo
left to dry before the next is gammed on. The slits in the margin cause them to set
pretty smoothly, which will be found very desirable; the aperture in the middle of each
may be cut out lirst, or the whole series of layers niay be drilled through when the hole
is made in the egg. For convenience' sake, the papers may be prepared already gummed,
and moistened when put on (in the same way that adhesive postage labels are used).
Doubtless, patches of linen or cotton cloth would answer equally well. When the opera-
tion is over, a slight application of water (especially if warm) through the syringe will pj^ g_ _ jj^j gj^g
loosen them so that they can be easily removed, and they can be separated from one
another, and dried to serve another time. The size represented in tlie sketch is that suitable for an egg of mod-
erate dlmenslim, such as that of a common fowl. The most effectual way of adopting this method of emptying
eggs is by using very many layers of thin paper and plenty of thick gum, but this is, of course, the most tedious.
Nevertheless, it is quite worth the trouble in the case of really rare specimens, and they will be none the worse for
operating upon from the delay of a few days caused by waiting for the gum to dry and harden. The naturalist
to whom this method first occurred has fouml it answer remarkably well in every case that it has been used, from
the egg of an eagle to that of a humming-bird, and among English oijlogists it has been generally adopted."
I A. Newton, in Snnths. Misc. Coll. 139. 18G0.)
54 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
Such trays should all be of the same depth, — half an inch is a convenient depth for general
purposes ; and of assorted sizes, say from one inch by one and one-half inches up to three by
six inches ; it is convenient to have the dimensions regularly graduated by a constant factor
of, say half an inch, so that the little boxes may be set side by side, either lengthwise or
crosswise, without interference. Eggs may also be kept safely, advantageausly, and with
attractive effect, in the nests themselves, in which a fluff of cotton may be placed to steady
them. When not too bulky, too loosely constructed, or of material unsuitable for preservation,
nests should always be collected. ^ Those that are very closely attached to t\ngs should not be
torn off. Nests threatening to come to pieces, or too frail to be handled without injury, may
be secured by sewing through and throiigh with fine thread : indeed, tliis is an advisable pre-
caution in most cases. Packing eggs for transportation requires much care, but the precau-
tions to be taken are obvious. I will only remark that there is no safer way than to leave them
in their own nests, each wrajiped in cotton, with which the whole cavity is to be lightly filled ;
the nests themselves being packed close enough to be perfectly steady.
§ 10. — CARE OF A COLLECTION.
Well Preserved Specimens wiU last " forever and a day," so far as natural decay is
concerned. I have handled birds iu good state, shut back in the twenties, and have no doubt
that some eighteenth century preparations are still extant. The precautions against defilement,
mutilation, or other mechanical injury, are self-evident, and may be dismissed with the remark,
that white plumages, especially if at all greasy, require the most care to guard against soiling.
We have, however, to fight fi)r our possessions against a host of enemies, individually despica-
ble but collectively formidable, — foes so determined that untiring vigilance is required to ward
off their attacks even temporarily, whilst in the end they prove invincible. It may be said that
to be eaten up by insects is the natural end of all bird-skins not sooner destroyed.
1 "A Plea for the Study of Nests," made by i\Ir. Ernest Ingersoll in his excellent " Birds'-Kesting," suits
me so well that I will transcribe it. " Whether or not it is worth while to collect nests — for there are manj' per-
sons who never do so — is, it seems to me, only a question of room in the cabinet. As a scientific study there is far
more advantage to be obtained from a series of nests than from a series of eggs. The nest is something with which
the will and energies of the bird are concerned. It expresses the character of the workman ; is to a certain extent
an index of its rank among birds, — for in general those of the highest organization are the best architects, — and
give us a glimpse of the bird's mind and power to understand and adapt itself to changed conditions of life. Over
the shape and ornamentation of an egg the bird has no control, being no more able to govern the matter than it
can the growth of its beak. There is as much difference to me, in the interest inspired, between the nest and the
egg of a bird, as between its brain and its skull, — using the word brain to mean the seat of intellect. The nest is
always more or less the result of conscious planning and intelligent work, even though it does follow a hereditary
habit in its styles while the egg is an automatic production varying, if at all, only as the whole organization of
the bird undergoes change. Don't neglect the nests then. In them more than anywhei-e else lies the key to the
mind and thoughts of a birtl, — the spirit which inhabits that beautiful frame and bubbles out of that golden
mouth. And is it not this inner life, — this human sigmflcance in bird nature, — this soul of ornithology, that we
are all aiming to discover? Nesta are beautiful, too. What can surpass the delicacy of the humming-bird's home
glued to the surface of a mossy branch or nestling in the warped point of a pendent leaf; the vireo's silken ham-
mock ; the oriole's gracefully swaying purse ; the blackbird's model basket in the flags ; the snug little caves of the
marsh wrens; the hermitage-huts of the shy wagtails and ground-warblers, the stout fortresses of the sociable
swallows! Moreover, there is much that is highly interesting which remains to be learned about nests, and which
can only be known by paying close attention to these artistic masterpieces of animal art. We want to know by
what sort of skill the many nests are woven together that we find it so hard even to disentangle; we want to know
how long they are in being built; whether there is any particular choice in respect to location; whether it be a
rule, as is supposed, that the female bird is the architect, to the exclusion of her mate's efforts further than his
supplying a part of the materials. Many such points remain to be cleared up. Then there is the question of
variation, and its extent in the architect of the same species in different quarters of its ranging area. How far is
this carried, and how many varieties can be recorded from a single district, where the same list of materials is
open to all the birds equally? Variation shows individual opinion or taste among the builders as to the suitability
of this or that sort of timber or furniture for their dwellings, and observations upon it thus increase our acquaint-
ance with the scope of ideas and habits characteristic of each species of bird."
CABE OF A collection:
55
Insect Pests (Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12) with which we have to contend belong principally to the
two families Tineidce and Dermestidce — the former are moths, the latter beetles. The moths are
of species identical with; and aUied to, the common clothes moth. Tinea flavifrontella, the carpet
moth, T. tapetsella, etc., — small species observed flying about our apartments and museums,
in May and during the summer. The beetles are several rather small thick-set species, princi-
pally of the genera Dermestes and Anthrenus. I am able to figure species of these genera,
\\-ith their larval stages, and of two other genera, Ptinus and Sitodrepa, through the attentions
of Prof. C. V. Riley, the eminent entomologist. The larvae (" caterpillars" of the moths, and
"grubs " of the beetles) appear to be the chief agents of the destruction. The presence of the
mature insects is usually readily detected ; on disturbing an infested suite of specitnens the moths
I
Fig.
■Anthrenus scrofularicB, enlarged; the short line shows nat. size, a, h, larvje; c, pupa; d, imaga
jsSi^-
Fig. 10. — Dermestes tardarius, en- FiG. 11. — Sitodrepa pnnicea. Fig. 12. — Ptmus hrunneus.
larged. a, larva ; 6, an enlarged hair ; enlarged, a, imago; 6, its an-
c, imago. tenua, more enlarged.
flutter about, and the beetles crawl as fast as they can into shelter, or simulate death. The
insidious larvse, however, are not so easily observed, burrowing as they do among the feathers,
or in the interior of a skin ; whilst the minute eggs are commonly altogether overlooked. But
the "bugs" are not long at work without lea\4ng their unmistakable traces. Shreds of
feathers float off when a specimen is handled, or fly out on flipping the skin with the fingers,
and in bad cases even whole bundles of plumes come away at a touch. Sometimes, leaving the
plumage intact, bugs eat away the horny covering of the bill and feet, making a peculiarly
unhappy and irreparable mutilation. I suppose this piece of work is done by a particular
insect, but if so I do not know what one. It would appear that when the bugs effect lodgment
in any one skin, they usually finish it before attacking another, unless they are in great force.
We may consequently, by prompt removal of an infested specimen, save further depredations ;
56 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
nevertheless, the rest become "suspicious,'' and the whole drawer or box should be quaran-
tined, if not submitted to any of the processes described beyond. Our lines of defence are sev-
eral. We may mechanically oppose entrance of the enemy ; we may meet him with abhorrent
odors that drive him off, sicken or kill him, and finally we may cook him to death. I will
notice these methods successively, taking occasion to describe a cabinet under head of the first.
Cases for Storage or Transportation should be rather small, fur several reasons. They
are easier to handle and pack. There are fewer birds pressing each other. Particular speci-
mens are more readily reached. Bugs must eSect just so many more separate entrances to
infest the whole. Small lids are more readily fitted tight. For the ordinary run of small birds
I should not desire abox over 18x18x18, and should prefer a smaller one ; for large birds, a box
just long enough for the biggest specimen, and of other proportions to correspond fairly, is
most eligible. Whatever the dimensions, a proper box presupposes perfect jointing ; but if
any suspicion be entertained on this score, stout paper should be pasted along all the edges,
both inside and out. We have practically to do with the lid only. If the lot is likely to
remain long untouched, the cover may be screwed very close and the crack pasted like the
others. Under other and usual circumstances the lid may be provided with a metal boss fitting
a groove lined with india rubber or fiUed with wax. An excellent case may be made of tin
with the lid secured in this manner, and further fortified with a wooden casing. Birdskins
entirely free from insects or their eggs, encased in some such secure manner, will remain intact
indefinitely ; but there is misery in store if any bugs or nits be put away with them.
Cabinets. — As a matter of fact, most collections are kept readily accessible for examina-
tion, display, or other immediate use, and this precludes any disposition of them in "hermeti-
cal'' cases. The most we can do is to secure tight fitting of movable woodwork. The
"cabinet" is most eligible for private collections. This is, in efi"ect, simply a bureau, or chest of
drawers, protected with folding doors, or a front that may be detached, either of plain wood or
sashing for panes of glass. It is simply astonishing how many birdskins of average size can
be accommodated in a cabinet that makes no inconvenient piece of furniture for an ordinary
room. A cabinet may of course be of any desired size, shape, and style. In general it will be
better to put money into excellence of fitting rather than elegance of finish ; the handsomest
front does not compensate for a crack in the back or for a drawer that hitches. There should
not be the slightest flaw in the exterior, and doors should fit so tightly that a puff of air may
be felt on closing them. The greatest desideratum of the interior work, next after close
fitting yet smooth running of the drawers, is economy of space. This is secured by making
the drawers as thin as is consistent with stability ; by having them slide by a boss at each end
fitting a groove in the side wall, instead of resting on horizontal partitions ; and by hinged
countersunk handles instead of knobs. I do not recommend, except for a suite of the smallest
birds, a multiijlicity of shallow drawers, accommodating each one layer of specimens ; it is
better to have fewer deeper drawers, into which light shallow movable trays are fitted. These
trays never need be of stuff over one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch thick, and may have
bottoms of stiff pasteboard glued or tacked on. They may vary from one-half inch to two-
inches in depth, but this dimension should always be some factor of the depth of the drawer,
so that a certain number of trays may exactly fill it. They should be just as long as one
transverse dimension of the drawer, and rather narrow, so that two or more are set side by
side. Finally, though they may be of different depths, they should be of the same length and
breadth, so as to be interchangeable. They may simply rest on top of each other, or slide on
separate projections inside the drawer. Such trays are extremely handy for holding particular
sets of specimens, to be carried to the study table without disturbing the rest of the collection.
If a collection be so extensive that any particular specimen may nut be readily hunted up,.
CARE OF A COLLECTION. 57
it will be found convenient to have the drawers themselves labelled with the name of the
group within. A collection should always be methodically arranged — preferably according to
some approved or supposed natural classification of birds ; this is also the readiest mode, since,
with some conspicuous exceptions, birds of the same natural group are approximately of the
same size. If I were desired to suggest proportions for a private cabinet of most general
eligibility, I should say four feet high, by three feet wide, by two feet deep, in the clear; this
makes a portly yet not unwieldy looking object. It is wide enough for foldiug-doors, to be
secured by bolts at top and bottom, and lock ; not so high that the top drawer is not readily
inspected ; and of proportionate depth. Such a case will take seven drawers six inches deep
either of the full width, or in two series with a median partition; these drawers will hold
anything up to an eagle or crane. A part of them at least should have a full complement of
such trays as I have described, — say three or four tiers of the shallower trays, three trays to a
tier, each about tM'o feet long by about a foot wide ; and one or two tiers of deeper trays.
To Destroy Bugs. — In our present case prevention is not the best remedy, simply be-
cause it is not always practicable ; in spite of all mechanical precautions the bugs will get in.
We have, therefore, to see what will destroy them, or at least stop their ravages. It is a
general rule that any pungent aromatic odor is obnoxious to them, and that any very light
powdery substance restrains their movements by getting into the joints and breathing pores.
Both these qualities are secured in the ordinary "insect powder," to be had of any leading
druggist. It sliould be lavishly strewn on and among the skins, and laid in the corners of the
drawers and trays. Thus employed it proves highly effective, and is on the whole the most
eligible substance to use when a collection is constantly handled. Camphor is a valuable agent.
Small fragments may be strewn about the drawers, or a lump pinned in mosquito netting in a
corner. Benzine is also very useful. A small saucer full may be kept evaporating, or the
liquid may be sprinkled — even poured — directly over the skins ; it is very volatile and leaves
little or no staiu. It is, however, obviously ineligible when a collection is in constant use.
My friend Mr. Allen informs me he has used sulphide of carbon with great success. The
objection to this agent is, that it is a stinking poison ; should be used in the open air, to
escape the inefiably disgusting and deleterious odors, and its employ is properly restricted to
cases for storage. When the bill or feet show they are attacked, further depredation may
be prevented by pencilling with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate ; a weaker solution,
one that leaves no white film, on drying, on a black feather, may even be brushed over the
whole plumage. Mr. Eidgway tells me that oil of bitter almonds is equally efficacious. But
remember that these poisons must be used with care. Specimens may be buried in coarse
refuse tobacco leaves. One or another of these lines of defence will commonly prove successful
in destroying or driving oft" mature insects, and even in stopping the ravages of the larvae;
lint I doubt that any such means will kill the "nits." With these we must deal otherwise ;
and their destruction no less that that of their parents is assured, if we subject them to a high
temperature. Baking bird-skins is really the only process that can make us feel perfectly
safe. Infected specimens, along with suspected ones, should be subjected to a dry heat, from
212° F. up to any degree short of singeing the plumage. This is readily done by putting the
birds in a wooden tray in any oven — they must however be watched, unless you have special
contrivances for regulating the temperature. How long a time is required is probably not
ascertained with precision ; it will be well to bake for several hours. Wlien the beetles and
larvffi are found completely parched, it may be confidently believed that tlie unseen eggs are
<uu of tlie hatching way forever.
Two Items. — One is, that arsenic lielps to keep out the bugs, besides preventing decay
— a fact that sliould never be forgotten, and tliat should give sharper edge to my advice
58
FIELD ORNITHOLOGY.
respecting lavish use of the substance at the outset. If it be true, as some state, that bugs can
eat arsenic without dying, it is also true that they do not relish it ; and in entering a case of
skins they will burrow by preference in those holding the least of it. This fact is continually
exhibited in large collections, where if two birds be side by side, one being duly arsenicized
and the other not so, one will be taken and the other left. My second item, with its proper
deduction, will form, I think, a fitting conclusion to this treatise. It is a fact in the natural
history of these our pests, that they are fond of jieace and quiet, — they do not like to be dis-
turbed at their meals. So they rarely effect permanent lodgment in a collection that is con-
stantly handled, though the doors stand open for hours daily. As a consequence, the degree
of our diligence in studijing birdskins is likely to become the measure of our success in pre-
serving them. I once read a w'ork, by an eminent and learned divine, on the " Moral Uses of
Dark Things," under which head the author included everything from earthquakes to mos-
quitoes. If there be a moral use in the " dark thing " that museum pests certainly are to us,
w'e have it here. The very bugs urge on onr work.
Fig. 13. — Wilson's ScHOOL-HonsE, near Gray's Ferry. Philadelpuia. From a drawing by M. S.
Weaver, Oct. 22, 1841, received by Elliott Coues, February, 1879, from Malvina Lawson, daughter of Alexander
Lawson, Wilson's engraver. See article in the " Penn Monthly," June, 1879, p. 443. The drawing was first
engraved on wood, and publislied, by Thomas Meehan, in the "Gardener's ]\Ionthly," August, 1880, p. 248. The
present impression is from an electrotype of that wood-cut. The size of the original is 5.10 x 3.95 inches. This
reminder of early days of " Field Ornithology " in America may be further attested by the signature of
^^
Part II.
GENEKAL OENITHOLOGY:
AN OUTLINE OF THE
STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.
§ 1. — DEFINITION OF BIRDS.
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY, like Field Oruithology, is a subject with ^vhich the
student must have some acquaintauce, if he would hope to derive either pleasure or
profit from the Birds of North America. For any intelligent understanding of this subject, he
must become reasonably familiar with the technical terms used in describing and classifying
birds, and learn at least enough of the structure of these creatures to appreciate the characters
upon which all description and classification is based. Extensive and varied and accurate as
may be his random perception of objects of natural history, his knowledge is not scientific, but
only empirical, until reflection comes to aid observation, and conceptions of the significance of
what he knows are formed by logical processes in the mind. For
Science (Lat. scire, to know) is knowledge set in order — knowledge disposed after the
rational method that best shows, or tends to show best, the true relations of observed facts.
Sound scientific facts are the natural basis of all philosophic truth, and the safest stepping-
stones to religious faith — to that wisdom whicli comes only of knowing the relation which
material entities bear to spiritual realities. The orderly knowledge of any particular class of
facts — the methodical disposition of observations upon any particular set of objects — consti-
tutes a Special Science. Thus
Ornithology (Gr. opvi6os, omithos, of a bird ; \6yos, logos, a discourse) is the Science of
Birds. Ornithology consists in the rational arrangement and exposition of all that is known of
birds, and the logical inference of much that is not known. Ornithology treats of the physical
structure, physiological functions, and mental attributes of birds; of their habits and manners;
of their geographical distribution and geological succession; of their probable ancestry; of
their every rehition to one another and to all other animals, including man. The first business
•of Ornithology is to define its ground — to answer the question,
60 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
What is a Bird? — There is every reason to believe that a Bird is a greatly modified
Reptile, being the otispring by direct descent of some reptilian progenitor; and there is no
reason to suppose that any bird ever had any other origin than by due process of hatching out
of an egg laid by its mother after fecundation by its father — just what we believe to have been
the invariable method during tlie period of the world known to human history. There is no
reason to believe that any bird was ever originally created and endowed with the characters it
now possesses ; bnt that every bird now living is the naturally modified lineal descendant of
parents that were less and less like itself, and more and more like certain reptiles, the further
removed they were in the line of avian ancestry from such birds as are now living. This is
the Darwinian logic of observed facts, ujion which the modern Theory of Evolution is based,
in opposition to the tradition of the special creation of every species of animal ; which latter
has no scientific basis whatever, and is consequently accepted as true by few thoughtful per-
sons who are capable of forming independent judgments. Accordingly,
Birds and Reptiles — even those of the present geologic epoch — share so many and
such important structural characters, that we unite the two classes, Aves and Eeptilia, in one
primary group of Vertebrata, or animals with a backbone. This group is called Sauropsida,
or reptiliform ; it is contrasted, on the one hand, with Ichtliyopsida, or fish-like vertebrates,
including Batrachians as well as Fishes; and, on the other, with Mammalia, the province of
Vertebrata which iucludes Man and all other animals that suckle their young. We find that
Sauropsida (Gr. a-avpos, sauros, a reptile; o-^n, opsis, appearance), or lizard-like Ver-
tebrates, agree with one another, and difi'er from other animals, in the fidlowing important
combination of characters, substantially as laid down by Professor Huxley — some of the char-
acters being shared by Ichtliyopsida, and some by Mammalia, but the sum of the characters
being distinctive of Sauropsida : They are all oviparous (laying eggs hatched outside the body
of the parent), or ovoviviparous (laying eggs hatched inside the body of the parent), being
never viviparous (bringing forth alive young nourished before birth by the blood of the mother).
The embryo develops those foetal organs called amnion and allantois, and is nourished before
hatching by a great quantity of yolk in the egg. There are no mammary glands to furnish
the young with milk after birth. The generative, urinary, and digestive organs coine together
behind in a common receptacle, the cloaca, or sewer, and their products are discharged by a
single orifice. The kidneys of the early embryo, called Wolffian bodies, are soon replaced
functionally by permanent kidneys, and structurally by the testes of the male and the ovaries
of the female. The cavity of the abdomen, or belly, is not separated from that of the thorax,
or chest, by a complete muscular partition, or diaphragm. The two lateral hemispheres of
the brain are not connected by a transverse commissure, or corpiis callosum. Air is always
breathed by true lungs, never by gills. The blood, which may be cold or hot, has red oval
nucleated corpuscles; the heart has either three or four separate chambers — four in birds, in
which the circulation of hot blood is completely double, i. e., in the lungs and right side of the
heart, in the body at large and left side of the heart. The aortic arches are several ; or if but
one, as in adult birds, it is the right, not the left as in Mammals. The centra, or bodies, of
the vertebrae are ossified, but have no terminal epiphyses. The skull hinges upon the back-
bone by a single median protuberance, or condyle, and tlie basioccipital part bearing the con-
dyle is completely ossified. The lower jaw, or mandible, consists of several separate pieces,
the articular one fif which hinges upon a movable quadrate bone; and there are other pecu-
liarities in the formation of the skull. Tiie ankle-joint is situated, not, as in Mammals, be-
tween the tarsal bones and those of the leg, but between two rows of tarsal brnes. The skin
is usually covered with outgrowths, in the form of scales or feathers. — Different as are any
living members of the class of Birds from any known Reptiles, the characters of the two groups
DEFINITION OF BIRDS. 61
converge in geologic history so closely, that the presence of feathers in the avian class, and
tlieir absence from the reptilian, is one of tlie most positive differences. The oldest known
birds are from the Jurassic rocks of Europe and North America. These birds had teeth, and
various other strong peculiarities of structure, which no living members of the class have
retained.
AVES, or the Class of Birds, may be distinguished from other Sauropsida by the
following sum of characters : The body is covered with feathers, a kind of skin-outgrowth
no other animals possess. The blood is hot; circulation is completely double; the heart is
perfectly four-chambered ; there is but one (the right) aortic arch, and only one pulmonary
artery springs from tlie heart ; the aortic and the pulmonary artery have each three semilunar
valves. The lungs are fixed and moulded to the cavity of the thorax, and some of the air-
passages run through them to admit air to other parts of the body, as under the skin and in
various bones. Reproduction is oviparous ; the eggs are very large, in consequence of the
copious yolk and white ; have a hard chalky shell, and are hatched outside the body of the
parent. There are always four limbs, of which the fore or pectoral pair are strongly distin-
guished frt)in the hind or pelvic pair by being modified into tvings, fitted for flying, if at all,
by means of feathers — not of skin as in the cases of such mammals, reptiles, and fishes as
can fly. The terminal part of the limb is compressed and reduced, bearing never more than
three digits,* only two of which ever have claws, and no claws being the rule. There are
not more than two separate carpals, or wrist-bones, in adult recent birds (with very rare
exceptions) ; nor any distinct interclavicular bone. The clavicles are complete (with rare ex-
ceptions), and coalesce to form a " wish-bone" or "merry-thought." The sternum, or breast-
bone, is large, usually carinate, or keeled, and the ribs are attached to its sides only ; it is
devek)ped from two to five or more centres of ossification. The sacral vertebrae proper have
no expanded ribs abutting against the ilia ; the ilia, or haunch-bones, are greatly prolonged
fi)rward; the socket for the head of the femur, or thigh-bone, is a ring, not a cup; the ischia
and puhes are prolonged backward in parallel directions, and neither of these bones ever unites
with its fellow in a ventral symphysis (except in Struthio and Bhea). The fibula, or outer
bone of the leg, is incomplete below, taking no part in the ankle-joint. The astragalus, or
upper bone of the tarsus, unites with the tibia, or inner bone of the leg, leaving the ankle-
joint between itself and other tarsal bones, the lower of which latter similarly unites with the
bones of the instep, or metatarsus. There are never more than four metatarsal bones, and the
same number of digits ; the first or inner metatarsal bone is usually free, and incomplete above ;
the other three anchylose (fuse) together, and with distal tarsal bones, as already said, to form
a compound tarso-metatarsus. Recent birds, at any rate, have a certain saddle-shape of the
ends of the bodies of some vertebrae. Such birds have also no teeth and no fleshy lips; the
jaws are covered with horny or leathery integument, as the feet are also, when not feathered.
The Position of the Class Aves among other Vertebrates is definite. Birds come in
the scale of development next below the Class Mammalia, and no close links between Birds
and Mammals are known ; the most bird-like known mammal, tlie duck-billed platypus of
Australia (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus), being several steps beyond any known bird. Birds
are tiie higher one of the two classes of Sauropsida — the lower class, Reptilia, connecting with
tlie Batrachians (frogs, toads, newts, etc.) and so with the Fishes, Ichthyopsida. In this Ver-
tebrate series. Birds constitute what is called a hifjJily specialized group ; that is to say, a very
particular off-shoot, or, more literally, a side-issue, of the Vertebrate genealogical tree, wliich
in the present geological era has become developed into very numerous (about 11,500) species,
closely agreeing witli one another in the sum of their physical characters. In comparison with
other classes of Vertebrates, all birds are mucli alike ; there is a less degree of difference among
62
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
them than that among the members of any other classes of Vertebrates. Their likeness to
each other is strong, and their difference from any other Vertebrates is peculiar ; this makes
them the ''highly specialized" class they are recognized to be. The structural difference
between a Humming-bird and an Ostrich, for example, is not greater in degree than that
subsisting between the members of some of the orders of Reptiles ; whence some hold, witli
reason, that Birds should not form a class Aves, but an order, or at most a sub-class, of Saurop-
sida, and thus be compared not with a class Beptilia collectively, but with other Sauropsidau
orders, such as Chelonia (turtles), Sauria (lizards), Ophidia (serpents), etc. The practical
convenience of starting with a "class" Aves, however, is so great, that such classificatory
value will probably long continue to be ascribed, as heretofore, to Birds collectively. I have
spoken of Birds as a particular " side-issue " or lateral branch of the Vertebrate " tree of life " ;
hence it is not to be supposed that they are in the direct line of genealogical descent. Though
they stand as a group next below Mammals in the scale of evolution, it does not follow that
Mammals were developed from any such creature as a Bird has come to be, nor that Birds
have been evolved from any such Reptiles as those of the present day. It is one of the popu-
lar misunderstandings of the Theory of Evolution, to imagine that all the lower forms of ani-
mals are in the genetic line of development of the higher forms ; that man, for example, was
once a gorilla or a chimpanzee — actually such an ape. The theory simply requires all forms
of life to be developed from some ante-
cedent form, presumably, and in most
cases certainly, lower in the scale of or-
ganization. Thus man and the gorilla
are both descendants of some common
progenitor, more or less unlike either of
these existing creatures. All Mammals
are similarly the modified descendants
of some more primitive stock, from which
stock sprang also all Smtropsida, n^.edi-
ately or immediately ; therefore, a Mam-
mal is not a modified Bird, though higher
in the scale; and, though a Bird is a
modified Reptile, it is not a modification
of any such snake or lizard as now ex-
ists. The most bird-like reptiles known
are not the Pterodactyls, or Flying Rep-
tiles (Pterosatiria) , as might be sup-
posed ; but of that remarkable order, the
Ornithoscelida, comprising the Dinosau-
rians, which "present a large series of
modifications intermediate in structure
between existing Reptilia and J.fes,"
and are therefore inferentially in the
direct ancestral Hue of modern Birds.
Fig. 14. —Oldest known oniitliological treatise, illus-
trating also the art of lithography in the Jurassic period,
engraved by Archceopteryx lithographica. From the originnl
slab in the British Museum ; after A. Newton, Ency. Brit.
Geologic Succession of Birds. —
Birds have been traced back in geologic
time to Cretaceous and Jurassic epochs
of the Mesozoic or Mid-Life period of the world's history. The earliest ornithichnites — the
fossils so called because supposed to indicate the presence of Birds by their foot-prints — were
discovered about the year 1835 in the Triassic formation in Connecticut. But the creatures
DEFINITION OF BIRDS.
63
which made these tracks are now believed to have been Dinosaurian Reptiles. The oldest
ornitholite, or fossil certainly known to be that of a true Bird, is the famous ArchfEopteryx,
found by Andreas Wagner in 1861 in the Oolitic slate of Soleuhofen in Bavaria. This has
a long lizard-like tail of 20 vertebra?, from each of which springs a well-developed feather
on each side ; feathers of the wings are also well preserved ; bones of the hand are not fused
together, as they are in recent Birds ; and the jaws bear true teeth. This Bird has served as
the basis of one of the primary divisions of the class Aves ; though it has many reptilian char-
FiG. 15. —Restoration oi JhspirorHia n-fjalis. After Marsh.
acters, it is a true Bird. A Bird {Laopteryx prisons) believed to be also of Jurassic age was
discovered in 1881 in North America. The great gap between these ancient Avians and latter-
day birds has been to some extent bridged by the discovery in 1870-72 of Birds from Creta-
ceous formations of North America ; such genera as Ichthyornis and Hesperornis forming types
of two remarkable groups, Odontotormce and Odontolcce, or Birds with teeth in sockets, and
Birds with teeth in grooves. In both the tail is short, as in ordinary birds. In Ichthyornis,
though the wings are well developed, with fused metacarpals, and the sternum is keeled, the
vertebrse present the primitive character of being biconcave. In Hesperornis the vertebra3 are
64
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
saddle-shaped, as usual, but the sternum is flat, as in existiug Ostriches, and the wings are
rudimentary, wanting metacarpals. Some 20 species of several other genera of American
Cretaceous Birds have been described. Remains of Birds multiply in the next period, the
Tertiary. Those of the Eocene or early Tertiary are largely and longest known from discov-
eries made in the Paris Basin, among them Gastornis jiarisiensis, as large as an Ostrich ; some
of these belong to extinct genera, others to genera which still flourish ; none are known to
have true teeth, or otherwise to be as primitive as the reptile-like forms of the Cretaceous.
Fig. 16. — B.estoTa,tioii ot Ickthy amis victor. After Marsh.
The Miocene or Middle Tertiary has proven specially rich in remains of Birds, including some
of extinct genera, but in largest proportion referable to modern types. Later Tertiary (Plio-
cene and Post-pliocene) birds almost all belong to living genera, and some are apparently of
living species. Extinct birds coeval with man, their bones bearing his marks, are found in
various caves. Subfossil birds' bones occur in shell-heaps (kitchenmiddens) and elsewhere, of
course contemporaneous with man, and some of them scarcely prehistoric. One of the oldest
of these is the gigantic JEpyornis maximus of Madagascar, of which we have not only the
bones, but the egg. The immense Moas, or Dinornithes of New Zealand, were among the
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION.
65
later of these to die, portions of skin, feathers, etc., having been found. With Moa-remains
are found those of Harpagornis, a raptorial bird large enough to have preyed upon Moas.
Finally, various birds have been exterminated in historic times,
some of them within the lifetime of persons now living. The Dodo
of Mauritius, Didus ineptus, is the most celebrated one of these, of
the living of which we have documentary evidence down to 1681 ;
the Solitaire of Rodriguez, Pezopliaps solitarius, the Geant, Legua-
tia gigantea, and several others of the same Mascarene group of
islands, are in similar case. The Great Auk, Plautus impennis, is
supposed to have become extinct in 1844 ; a Parrot, Nestor pro-
ductus, was last known to be living in 1851 ; various Parrots, Rails,
and other birds have likewise disappeared within a very few years.
At least two North American birds, Pallas' Cormorant, Phalacrocorce
perspicillatus, and the Labrador Duck, Camjjtolcernus labradorius,
are lately deceased. (See Newton, Ency. Brit., 9th ed., art. Birds.)
§2.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION.
Having seen what a Bird is, and how it is distinguished
from other animals, our next business is to inquire how birds are
related to and distinguished from one another, as the basis of
Classification : a prime object of ornithology, without the at-
tainment of which birds, however pleasing they are to the senses, do
not satisfy the mind, which always strives to make orderly disposi-
tion of its knowledge, and so discover the reciprocal relations and
interdependencies of the things it knows. Classification presup-
poses that there do exist such relations, according to which we may
arrange objects in a manner which facilitates their comprehension, by bringing together what
is like, and separating what is unlike ; and that such relations are the results of evolutionary
law. It is, therefore.
Fig. 17. — Restoration of
Leguatia gigantea. From
Packard, after Schlegel.
Taxonomy (Gr. Ta|is, taxis, arrangement, and vofios, nomos, law), or the rational,
lawful disposition of observed facts. Just as taxidermy is the art of fixing a bird's skin in a
natural manner, so taxonomy is the science of arranging birds in the most natural manner —
in the way that brings out most clearly their natural affinities, and so shows them in their
proper relations to each other. This is the greatest possible help to the memory in its
attempt to retain its hold upon great numbers of facts. But taxonomy, which involves
consideration of the greatest problems of ornithology, as of every other branch of biology
(biology being the science of life and living things in general), is beset with gravest diffi-
■culties, springing fnnn our defective knowledge. We could only perfect our taxonomy by
having before us a specimen of every kind of bird that exists, or ever existed ; and by
thoroughly understanding how each is related to and differs from every other one. This is
obviously impossible; in point of fact, we do not know all the birds now living, and only
a small number of extinct birds have come to light; so that many of the most important
links in tlie chain of evidence are missing, and many more cannot be satisfactorily joined
together. With these springs of ignorance and sources of error must be reckoned also the
risk of going wrong through natural fallibility of the human mind. The result is, that
"natural classification,'' like the elixir of life or the philosopher's stone, is a goal still dis-
tant ; and as a matter of fact, the present state of the ornithological system is far from
6
66 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
being satisfactory. It is obvious that birds, or any other objects, may be "classified" in
numberless ways — in as many ways as are afforded by all their qualities and relations, —
to suit particular purposes, or to satisfy particular bents of mind. Hence have arisen, in
the history of the science, very many different schemes of classification ; in fact, nearly every
leader of ornithology has proposed his own " system," and enjoyed a more or less respect-
able and influential following. Systems have been based upon this or that set of charac-
ters, and erected from this or that preconception in the mind of the systematist. Down to
quite recent days, modifications of the external parts of birds, particularly of the bill, feet,
wings, and tail, were almost exclusively employed for purposes of classification ; and the
mental point of view was, that each species of bird was a separate creation, and as much
of a fixture in Nature's museum as any specimen in the naturalist's cabinet. Crops of
classifications have been sown in the fruitful soil of such blind error, but no lasting har-
vest has been reaped. The confusion thus engendered has brought about the inevitable re-
action; and the newest fashion is decidedly the opposite extreme — that of counting external
features of little consequence in comparison with anatomical characters. Much ingenuity
has been wasted in arguing the superiority of each of these characters for the purposes of
classification ; as if a natural classification should not be based upon all points of structure !
as if internal and external characters were not reciprocal and mutually exponent! But the
genius of modern taxonomy seems to be so certainly right — to be tending so surely, even
if slowly, toward the desired consummation, that all differences of opinion, we may hope,
will be settled, and defect of knowledge, not perversity of mind, be the only obstacle left
in the way of success. The taxonomic goal is not now to find a way in which birds may
be most conveniently arranged, described, and catalogued ; but to discover their pedigree, and
thus construct their family tree. Such a genealogical table, or phylum (Gr. (f)v\ov, phnlon,
tribe, race, stock), is rightly considered the only taxonomy worthy the name, — the only true
or natural classification. In attempting this end, we proceed upon the belief that, as ex-
plained above, all birds, like all other animals and plants, are related to each other geneti-
cally, as offspring are to parents ; and that to discover their genetic relationships is to bring
out their true affinities — in other words, to reconstruct the actual taxonomy of Nature. In
this view, there can be but one "natural" classification, to the perfecting of which all in-
crease in our knowledge of the structure of birds infallibly tends. The classification now
used is the result of our best endeavors to accomplish this purpose, and represents what
approach we have made to this end. It is based upon principles of Evolution which most
naturalists are satisfied have been demonstrated. It is necessarily a
Morphological Classifleation — that is, one based solely upon consideration of structure
or form (/iop(^e, morphe, form) ; and for the following reasons : Every offspring tends to take
on precisely the structure or form of its parents, as its natural physical heritage ; and the
principle involved, or the law of heredity, would, if nothing interfered, keep the descendants
perfectly true to the physical characters of their progenitors; they would "breed true" and be
exactly alike. But counter influences are incessantly operative, in consequence of varying
conditions of environment ; plasticity of organization of all creatures rendering them more or
less susceptible of modification by such means, they become unlike their ancestors in various
ways and to different degrees. On a large scale is thus accomplished, by natural selection and
other natural agencies, just what man does in a small way in producing and maintaining dif-
ferent breeds of domestic animals. Amidst such shifting scenes, degrees of likeness or unlike-
ness of physical structure indicate with exactitude nearness or remoteness of organisms in
kinship. Morphological characters are therefore the surest guides we can have to the blood-
relationships we desire to establish ; and such relationships are the "natural affinities" which
classification aims to discover and formulate. As already said, taxonomy consists in tracing
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 67
pedigrees and constructing the pMjlum; it is like tracing any leaf or twig of a tree to its
branclilet, this to its bough, this to its trunk or main stem. The student will readily perceive,
from what has been said, the impossibility of naturally arranging any considerable number of
birds in any linear series of groups, one after the other. To do so is a mechanical necessity of
book-making, where groups have to succeed one another, on page after page. Some groups
will follow naturally ; others will not ; no connected chain is possible, because no such single
continuous series exists in nature. In cataloguing, or otherwise arranging a series of birds for
description, we simply begin with the highest groups, and make our juxtapositions as well as
we can, in order to have the fewest breaks in the series.
Morphology being the only safe clue to natural affinities, and the key to all rational
classification, the student cannot too carefully consider what is meant by this term, or too
sedulously guard against misinterpreting morphological characters, and so turning the key the
wrong way. The chief difficulty he will encounter comes from physiological adaptations of
structure ; and this is something that must be understood. The expression means that birds,
or any animals, widely different in their morphological characters, may have certain parts of
their organization modified in the same way, thus bringing about a seemingly close resem-
blance between organisms not nearly related to each other. For example : a Phalarope, a
Coot, and a Grebe, all have lobate feet — that is, their feet are fitted for swimming in the same
way, namely, by development of flaps or lobes on the toes. A striking but superficial and
therefore unimportant resemblance iu a certain particular exists between these birds, on the
strength of which they used to be classed together in a group called Pinnatipedes, or " fin-
footed " birds. But, on sufficient examination, these three birds are found to be very unlike
in other respects; the sum of their unlikenesses requires us to separate them quite widely in
any natural system. The group Pinnatipedes is therefore unnatural, and the appearance of
affinity is proven to be deceptive. Such resemblance in the condition of the feet is simply
functional, or physiological, and is not correspondent with structural or morphological relation-
ships. The relation between these three birds is analogical ; it is an inexact superficial resem-
blance between things profoundly unlike, and therefore having little homological or exact
relationship. Analogy is the appai-ent resemblance between things really unlike — as the
wing of a bird and the wing of a bntterfiy, as the lungs of a bird and the gills of a fish.
Homology is the real resemblance or true relation between things, however different they may
appear to be — as the wing of a bird and the foreleg of a horse, the lungs of a bird and the
swim-bladder of a fish. Analogy commonly rests upon mere functional, i. e. physiological,
modifications ; homology is grounded upon structural, i. e. morphological, identity or unity.
Analogy is the correlative of physiology, homology of morphology; but the two may be coin-
cident, as when identical structures are used for the same purposes and are therefore physio-
logically identical. Physiological diversity of structure is incessant, and continually interferes
with morphological identity of structure, to obscure or obliterate the indications of affinity the
latter would otherwise express clearly. It is obvious that birds might be classified physiologi-
cally, according to their adaptive modifications or analogical resemblances, just as readily as
upon any otlier basis : for example, into those that perch, those that walk, those that swim,
etc. ; in fact, most early classifications rested upon such considerations. It is also evident,
that when functional modifications happen to be coincident with structural affinities — as when
the turning of the lower larynx into a music-box coincides with a certain type of structure —
such modifications are of the greatest possible service in classification. But since all sound
taxonomy rests on morphology, on real structural affinity, we must be on our guard against
those physiological "appearances" which are proverbially "deceptive." I trust I make the
principle clear to the student. Its practical application is another matter, only to be learned
in the school of experience. This question of
68 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Homology or Analogy may be thus summed : Birds are homologically related, or natu-
rally allied or affiued, according to the sum of like structural characters employed for similar
purposes ; they are analogically related according to the sum of uulike characters employed for
similar purposes. A Loon and a Cormorant, for instance, are closely affined, because they are
both fitted in the same way for the pursuit of their prey by flying under water. A Dipper
(family Cinclidce) and a Loou (family Gaviidce) are analogous, in so far as both are fitted to
pursue their prey by flying under water ; but they stand near opposite extremes of the ornitho-
loffical system ; they have little affinity beyond their common birdhood ; very difi'erent struc-
ture being modified to attain the same end. A Crow lias vocal organs almost identical in struc-
ture with those of a Nightingale, and the organization of the two birds is in other respects
very similar ; their affinity or homology is therefore close, though the Crow is a hoarse croaker,
the Nightingale an impassioned musician.
The Reason why Morphological Classification is so important as to require adoption
has been clearly stated by Huxley, whose words I cannot do better than quote in this connec-
tion. Speaking of animals, not as physiological apparatuses merely ; not as related to other
forms of life and to climatic conditions ; not as successive tenants of the earth ; but as fabrics,
each of which is built upon a certain plan, he continues : —
" It is possible and conceivable that every animal should have been constructed upon a plan of its own, having no
resemblance whatever to the plan of any other animal. For any reason we can discover to the contrary, that combina-
tion of natural forces which we term Life might have resulted from, or been manifested by, a series of infinitely diverse
structures ; nor would an3i;hing in the nature of the case lead us to suspect a community of organization between ani-
mals so different in habit and in appearance as a porpoise and a gazelle, an eagle and a crocodile, or a butterfly and a
lobster. Had animals been thus independently organized, each working out its Ufe by a mechanism peculiar to itself,
such a classification as that now under contemplation would be obviously impossible ; a morphological or structural
classification plainly implying morphological or structural resemblances in the things classified.
" As a matter of fact, however, no such mutual independence of animal forms exists in nature. On the contrary,
the members of the animal kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, are marvellously connected. Every animal has
something in common with all its fellows ; much, with many of them ; more, with a few ; and usually, so much with
several, that it differs but little from them.
" Now, a morphological classification is a statement of these gradations of likeness which are observable in animal
structures, and its objects and uses are manifold. In the first place, it strives to throw our knowledge of the facts which
underlie, and are the cause of, the similarities discerned, into the fewest possible general propositions, subordinated to
one another, according to their greater or less degree of generality ; and in this way it answers the purpose of a memoria
technica, without which the mind would be incompetent to grasp and retain the multifarious details of anatomical
"But there is a second and even more important aspect of morphological classification. Every group in that
classification is such in virtue of certain structural characters, which are not only common to the members of the group,
but distinguish it from all others ; and the statement of these constitutes the definition of the group.
"Thus, among animals with vertebrae, the class Mammalia is definable as those which have two occipital con-
dyles, with a well ossified basi-occipital ; which have each ramus of the mandible composed of a single piece of bone
and articulated with the squamosal element of the skull ; and which possess mammae and non-nucleated red blood-
corpuscles.
" But this statement of the characters of the class Mammalia is something more than an arbitrary definition.
It does not merely mean that naturalists agree to call such and such animals Mammalia : but it expresses, firstly, a
generalization based upon, and constantly verified by, very wide experience ; and, secondly, a belief arising out of that
generalization. The generalization is that, in nature, the structures mentioned are always found associated together ;
the belief is that they always have been, and always will be, found so associated. In other words, the definition of the
class Mammalia is a statement of a law of correlation, or coexistence, of animal structures, from which the most impor-
tant conclusions are deducible." (Introd. to Classif. of Animals, 8vo, London, 1869, pp. 2, 3.)
But broad as such laws of correlation of structure are, and important as are the conclu-
sions deducible, we must guard against presuming upon infallibility either of the data or of the
deduction, as the author just quoted goes on to show. Such caution is specially required where
there is no obvious reason for the particular combination that may be found to exist. In the
case of the ostrich-like birds (Ratitce), for example, we can understand how a flat, uukeeled
breast-bone, a particular arrangement of shoulder-bones, and a rudimentary state of wing-
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 69
bones, are fouud in combination, because all these modilicatious of structure are evidently re-
lated to loss of power of flight ; and, in fact, no exception is known to the generalization, that
such conditions of sternal, coraco-scapular, and humeral bones always coexist. But in all
known struthious (ratite) birds, this state of the bones in mention coexists with a peculiar
modification of bones of the palate, and no necessary connection between these two sets of
diverse characters is conceivable. Now, if we only knew struthious birds, and found the com-
bination in mention to hold with them all, we should doubtless declare our belief, that any
bird having such palatal characters would also be found to possess such imperfect wing-appa-
ratus. But this would be going too far ; for we know that Tinamous (Dromoeognathce) have
such a palate, yet have a keeled sternum and functionally developed wings. To take another
case, derived from consideration of a large number of existing birds: it is an observed fact, that
a particular arrangement of plates upon the back of the tarsus, a peculiar modification of the
lower larynx or voice organ, and an undeveloped or abortive condition of the first large feather
on the hand, are found associated in a vast series of birds, constituting the group of Passeres
called Oscines. What possible connection there can be between these three separate and ap-
parently independent modifications we cannot even surmise ; but that they have some natural
and necessary connection we cannot doubt, and that the connection is causal, not fortuitous, is
a logical inference from the observed fact, that birds which present this particular combination
are also closely related in other structural characters — that is, that they have all been sub-
jected to operative influences which have conspired to produce the modifications observed.
Given, then, a bird with a known oscine larynx, but unknown as to its feet and wings, it
would be a reasonable inference that these members, when discovered, would present the char-
acters observed to occur in like cases. But the first Lark (Alaudidce) examined would show
this inference to be fallible ; for the tarsus of such a bird is diSerently disposed, though a lark
has an elaborate singing apparatus, and only nine instead of ten developed primaries. Once
more : the development of a keeled sternum, a peculiar saddle-shape of certain vertebrfe, and
lack of true teeth, are characters coexisting in all the higher birds ; and, as far as these birds
are concerned, we have no hint that such a combination is ever broken. In fact, however,
the singular Cretaceous Ichthyornis shows us a pattern of bird in which a well-keeled sternum
and perfectly formed wing coexist with teeth in reptile-like jaws and with fish-like biconcave
vertebras. What we learn from this case indeed breaks down one of the most precise definitions
we might have made (and indeed did make) respecting birds at large ; but in its failure we are
taught how great is the modification of geologically recent birds from their primitive gener-
alized ancestry; we learn something likewise of the steps of such modification, and of the
length of time required for the process. It is the history of attempts to frame definitions
of groups in zoology, that they are all liable to be negatived by new discoveries, and there-
fore to be broken down and require remodelling as our knowledge increases. It is to be
readily perceived that the ability to draw distinctions and make definitions of groups is as
much the gauge of our ignorance as the test of our knowledge; for all groups, like all species,
come to be such by modification so gradual, so slight in each successive increment of difference,
that, if all the steps of the process were before our eyes, we should be able to limit no groups
whatever in a positive, uuqualified manner. All would merge insensibly into one another, be
inseparably linked in as many series as there have been actual lines of evolutionary progress,
and finally converge to the one or few starting points of organized beings.
Practically, however, the case is quite the reverse — happily for the comfort of the work-
ing naturalist, however sadly the philosopher may deplore the ignorance implied. Degrees of
likeness and unlikeness do exist, which when rightly interpreted enable us to mark ofl' groups
of all grades with much facility and precision, and thus erect a morphological classification
which recognizes and defines such degrees, and explains them upon the principles of Evolution.
The way in which the principles of such classification are to be practically applied gives occa-
sion for some further remarks upon
70 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Zoological Characters. — A "character," iu zoological language, is any point of struc-
ture which may be perceived and described for the purpose of comparing or contrasting animals
with one another. Thus, conditions of sternum, palate, tarsus, larynx, as noted in preceding-
paragraphs, are each of them "characters" which may be used in describing individual
birds, or in framing definitions of groups of birds. Morphological characters, with which the
classification we have adopted alone concerns itself, may be derived from the structure of a
bird considered in any of its relations, or as afi'ected by any of the conditions to which it is
subjected. Thus emhryological characters are those afi'orded by the bird during the progress
of its development in the egg, from the almost structureless germ to the fully formed chick.
Such characters of the embryo in its successive stages are of the utmost significance ; for it is
a fact, that the germ of each of the higher organisms goes through a series of developmental
changes which, at each succeeding step in the unfolding of its appropriate plan of structure,
causes it to resemble the adult state of animals lower than itself in the scale of organization.
In fine, the history of the evolution of every individual bird epitomizes tiie history of those
changes which birds collectively have undergone in becoming what they are by modified
descent from lower organisms. Such transitory stages of any embryo, therefore, give us
glimpses of those revolutionary processes which have afi'ected the group to which it belongs.
Any bird, for example, when a germ, is at first on the plane of organization of the very lowest
known creatures — it is one of tlie Protozoa. As its germ develops, and its structure becomes
more complicated by the formation of parts and organs successively difi'erentiated and special-
ized, it rises higher and higher in the scale of being. At a certain stage very early reached
(for the steps by which it becomes like any invertebrate are very speedily passed over), it
resembles a fish in possessing gill-like slits, several aortic arches, no true kidneys, no amnion,
etc. Further advanced, losing its gills, gaining kidneys and amnion, etc., it rises to the
dignity of a reptile, and at this stage it is more like a reptile than like a bird ; having, for
example, a number of separate bones of the wrist and ankle, no feathers, etc. The assump-
tion of its own appropriate characters, i. e. , those by which it passes from a reptilian creature
to become a bird, is always the last stage. We can thus actually see, inside any egg-shell,
exactly those progressive steps of development of the individual bird which we believe to have
been taken on a grand scale in nature for the evolution of the class Aves from lower forms of
life; and the lesson learned is fraught with significance. It is nothing less than the demon-
stration in ontogeny (genesis of the individual) of that plujlogeny (genesis of the phylum) by
which groups of creatures come to be. The interior of any adult bird, again, furnishes us with all
kinds of ordinary anatomical characters, derived from the way we perceive the diflerent organs
and systems of organs to be fashioned in themselves, and arranged with reference to one
another. The finishing of the outward parts of a bird gives us the ordinary external characters,
in the way in which the skin and its appendages are modified to form the covering of the bill
and feet, and to fashion all kinds of feathers. Birds being of opposite sexes, and such difi'er-
ence being not only indicated in the essential sexual organs, but usually also in modifications
in size or shape of the body or quality of the plumage and other outgrowths, a set of sexual
characters are at our service. Birds are also sensibly modified in their outward details of
feathering by times of the year when the plumage is changed, and this renders appreciation
of seasonal characters possible. All such circumstances, and others that could be mentioned,
such as effects of climate, of domestication, etc., in so far as they aff'ect the structure of birds,
conspire to produce zoological "characters," as these are above defined. Such characters,
according as they result from m(jre or less profound impressions made upon the organism, are
of more or less " value" in taxonomy ; being of all grades, from the trivial ones that serve to
distinguish the nearest related species or varieties, to the fundamental ones that serve to mark
off" primary divisions. Thus the " character " of possessing a backbone is common to all ani-
mals of an immense series, called Vertebrata. The " character " of feathers is common to all
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 71
the class Aves ; of toothless jaws to all modern birds ; of a keeled sternum to all the sub-class
CarinattE ; of feet fitted for perching to all Passeres ; of a musical apparatus to all Oscines ;
of nine primaries to all FrinjiUidee ; of crossed mandibles to all of the genus Loxia ; of white
bands on the wings to all of the species Loxia leucoptera. There is thus seen a sliding scale
or valuation of characters, from those involving the most profound or primitive modifications
of structure to those resting upon the most superficial or ultimate impressions. It will also be
obvious, that every ulterior modification presupposes inclusion of all the prior ones ; for a
White-winged Crossbill, to be itself, must be a loxian, fringilline, oscine, passerine, cariuate,
modern, avian, vertebrated animal. The more characters, of all grades, that birds share in
common, the more closely are they related, and conversely. Obviously, possession of more or
fewer characters in common results in
Degrees of Likeness, — Were all birds alike, or did they all difi"er by the same charac-
ters to the same degree, no classification would be possible. It is a matter of fact, that they
do exhibit all degrees of likeness possible within liinits of their Avian nature ; it is a matter of
belief, that these degrees are the necessary result of Evolution, — of descent with modification
from a common ancestry ; and that, being dependent upon that process, they are capable of
explaining it if rightly interpreted. For example : Two White-winged Crossbills, hatched in
the same nest, scarcely difi"er perceptibly (except in sexual characters) from each other and
from the pair that laid the eggs. We call them "specifically" identical; and the sum of the
differences by which they are distinguished from any other kinds of Crossbills is their "spe-
cific character." All the individual Crossbills which exhibit this j)articular sum constitute a
"species." In this case, the genetic relationship of ofi"spring and parent is unquestionable; it
is an observed fact. Now turn to the extremely opposite case. The diff'erence between our
Crossbills and the Jurassic Archceopteryx is the greatest known to subsist between any two
birds whatsoever. But Archceopteryx and Loxia are also separated by an immense interval
of time, and presumably by correspondingly enormous difi"erences in conditions of environment
— in their physical surroundings. It is a logical inference that these two things — difference
in physical structure, and difference in physical environment — are in some way correlated and
coordinated. If we presume, u[)on the theory of evolution, that despite the great difl'erence, a
Crossbill is genetically related to some such bird as an Archceopteryx, as truly as it is to its
actual parents, only much more remotely, and that the difference is due to modifications im-
pressed upon its stock in the course of time, conformably with changing conditions of environ-
ment, we shall have a better explanation of the difference than any other as yet offered — an
explanation, moreover, which is corroborated by all the related facts we know, and with which
no known facts are irreconcilable. But to correctly gauge and fonnulate the degrees of like-
ness or unlikeness between any two birds is to correctly "classify'' them ; and if these degrees
rest, as we believe they do, upon nearness or remoteness of genetic relationship, classification
upon such basis becomes the truest attainable formulation of "natural affinities." It is the
province of morphological classification to search out those natural affinities which the structure
of birds indicates, and express them by dividing birds into groups, and subdividing these into
other groups, of greater or lesser "value," or grade, according to the more or fewer characters
shared in common — that is, according to degrees of likeness — that is, again, according to
genealogical relationship or consanguinity.
Zoological Groups. — To carry any scheme of classification into practical effect, natu-
ralists have found it necessary to invent and apply a system of grouping objects whereby the
like may come together and be separated from the unlike. They have also found it expedient
to give names to all these groups, of whatever grade, such as class, order, family, geniis,
species; and to stamp each such group with the value of its grade, or its relative rank in the
72 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
scale, so that it may become currency among naturalists. The student must observe, in the
first place, that the value of each such coinage is wholly arbitrary, until sanctioned and fixed
by common consent. The term "class," for example, simply indicates that naturalists agree
to use that word to designate a conventional group of a particular grade or value. Indispens-
able as is some such acceptable medium of exchange of ideas among naturalists, their groups
are not fixed, have no natural value, and in fact have no actual existence in the treasury of
Nature. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the student that Nature makes no bounds
— Natura nan facit saltus ; there are no such abrupt transitions in the unfolding of Nature's
plan, no such breaks in the chain of being, as he would be led to suppose by our method of
defining and naming groups. He must consider the words "class," "order," etc., as wholly
arbitrary terms, invented and designed to express our ideas of the relations which subsist be-
tween any animals or sets of animals. Thus, for example, by the term "Class of Birds" we
signify simply the kind and degree of likeness which all birds share, such being also the kind
and degree of their unlikeness from any other animals; the word "class" being simply the
name or handle of the generalization we make respecting their relations with one another and
with other animals ; it represents an abstract idea, is the expression of a relation. True, all
birds embody the idea; but "class" is nevertheless an abstraction. Now, as intimated earlier
in this essay, definition of the idea we attach to the term — limitation of the class Aves — de-
pends entirely upon how much we know of the relation intended to be expressed. It so hap-
pens, that no animals are known which cannot be decided to belong, or not to belong, to the
conventional Class of Birds, because we have found it convenient and expedient to consider the
presence of feathers a fair criterion, or necessary qualification. But what if an animal be dis-
covered the covering of whose body is half-way between the scales of a lizard and the plumes
of a bird, and whose structure is otherwise as equivocal f This may happen any day. A feather
is certainly a modified scale ; a feather has doubtless been developed out of a scale. In the
case supposed, we should have to modify our definition of the " Class of Birds"; that is, change
our ideas upon the subject, and alter the boundary-line we established between the classes of
birds and reptiles; whereas, were a "class" something naturally definite, independent, and
fixed, all that we could learn about it would only tend to establish it more surely. The same
obscurity and uncertainty of definition attaches to groups of every grade — from the Animal
" Kingdom " itself, which cannot be cut clear of the Vegetable " Kingdom " — down through
classes, orders, families, genera, species, and varieties — yes, to the individual itself which,
however unmistakable among higher organisms, cannot always be predicated of the lowermost
forms of Life. Such divisions, of whatever grade, as we are able to establish for the purposes
of classification, depend entirely upon the breaks and defects in our knowledge. There is no
such thing as drawing " hard and fast" lines anywhere, for none such exist in Nature.
Taxonomic Equivalence of Groups. — But, however arbitrary they may be, or however
obscure or fluctuating may be their boundaries, groups we must have in zoology, and groups
of different grades, to express diS'erent degrees of likeness of the objects examined, and so
to "classify" them. It is a great convenience, moreover, to have a recognized sliding-scale
of valuation of groups from the highest to the lowest, and an accepted valuation. Just as in a
thermometric scale, there are " degrees " designated as those of the boiling-point of water, the
heat of the blood, the freezing of water, of mercury, etc. ; so there are certain degrees of like-
ness conventionally designated as those of class, order, family, genus, and species ; always ac-
cepted in the order here given, from higher to lower groups. (There are various others, and
especially a number of intermediate groups, generally distinguished by the prefix suh-, as suh-
family ; but those here given are generally adopted by English-speaking naturalists, and
suifice to illustrate the point I wish to make.) It may sound like a truism to say, that groups
of the same grade bearing the same name, whatever that may be, must be of the same value,
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 73
— must be based upon and distinguished by characters of equal or equivalent importance.
Equivalence of groups is necessary to the stability and harmony of any classificatory system.
It will not do to frame an order upon one set of characters here, and there a family upon a
similar set of characters ; but order must differ from order, and family from family, by au equal
or corresponding amount of difference. Let a group called a family differ as much from the
other families in its own order as it does from some other order, and by this very circumstance
it is not a family but an order itself. It seems a very simple proposition, but it is too often
ignored, and always with practical ill result. Two points should be remembered here : First,
that absolute size or numerical bulk of a group has nothing to do with its taxonomic value:
one order may contain a thousand species, and another be represented by a single species,
without having its ordinal valuation affected thereby. Secondly, any given character may as-
sume different importance, or be of different value, in its application to different groups. Thus,
the number of developed primaries, whether nine or ten, is a family character almost throughout
Oscines ; but in one oscine family (Vireonidts) it has scarcely generic value. It is difficult,
however, to determine such a point as this without long experience. Nor is it possible, in
fact, to make our groups correspond in value with entire exactitude. The most we can hope
for is a reasonable approximation. As in the thermometric simile above given, " blood heat"
and other points fluctuate, so does order not always correspond with order, nor family with
family, in actual significance. What degree of difference shall be "ordinal"? What shall
be a difference of "family"? What shall be "generic" and what "specific" differences?
Such questions are more easily asked than answered. They demand critical consideration.
Valuation of Characters. — In a general way, of course, the gi-eater the difference
between any two objects, the more "important" or "fundamental" are the characters by
which they are distinguished. But what makes a character "important" or the reverse?
Obviously, what it signifies represents its importance. We are classifying morphologically,
and upon the theory of Evolution ; and in such a system a character is important or the
reverse, simply as an exponent of the principles, or an illustration of the facts, of evolutionary
processes of Nature, according to the unfolding of whose plans of animal fabrics the whole
structure of living beings has been built up. Why is possession of a back-bone such a
" fundamental " character that it is used to establish one of the primary branches of the ani-
mal kingdom ? It is not because so many millions of creatures possess it, but because it was-
introduced so early in the evolutionary process, and because its introduction led to the most
profound modification of the whole structure of the animals which became possessed of a ver-
tebral column. Why is possession by a bird of biconcave vertebrae so significant ? Not be-
cause all modern birds have saddle-shaped vertebrae, but because to have biconcave vertebrae
is to be fish-like in that respect. Why is presence or absence of teeth so important ? Not that
teeth served those old birds better than a horny beak serves modern ones, but because teeth
are a reptilian character. Obviously, to be fish-like or reptile-like is to be by so much unbird-
like; the degree of difference thus indicated is enormous; and a character that indicates such
degree of difference is proportionally " important " or " fundamental." By knowledge of facts
like these, and by the same process of reasoning, a naturalist of tact, sagacity, and experience
is able to put a pretty fair valuation upon any given character ; he acquires the faculty of per-
ceiving its significance, and according to what it signifies does it possess for him its taxonomic
importance. As a matter of fact, it seems that characters of all sorts are to be estimated
chronologically. For, if animals have come to be what they are by any process that took time
to be accomplished, characters earliest established are likely to be the most fundamental ones,
upon the introduction of which the most important train of consequences ensued. Feathers,
for example, as Archccopteryx teaches us, were in full bloom in the Jurassic period, and they
are still the most characteristic possession of birds : all birds have them ; no other animals
74 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
have them ; they are a class character. If they had been taken on quite recently, we may
infer that many creatures otherwise entirely avian might not possess them, and they would
have in classification less significance than that now rightly attributed to them. On the other
hand, we cannot suppose that the finishing touches, by which, in the presence of white bands
on the wings oi Loxia leucoptera, and their absence in Loxia ciirvirostra, these two " species "
are distinguished, were not very lately given to these birds. It is a very late step in the
process, and correspondingly insignificant; it is of that value or importance which we call
"specific." The same method of reasoning is available for determining the value of any
character whatever, and so of estimating the grade of the group which we establish upon such
character. As a rule, therefore, the length of time a character has been in existence, and its
taxonomic value, are correlated, and each is the exponent of the other.
" Types of Structure." — In no department of natural history has the late revolution in
biological thought been more efi'ective than in remodeling, presumably for the better, the
ideas underlying classification. lu earlier days, when "species" were supposed to be inde-
pendent creations, it was natural and almost inevitable to regard them as fixed facts in nature.
A species was as actual and tangible as an individual, and the notion was, that, given any two
specimens, it should be perfectly possiI>le to decide whether they were of the same or difierent
species, according to whether or not they answered the "specific characters" laid down for
them. The same fancy vitiated all ideas upon the subject of genera, families, and higher
groups. A "genus" was to be discovered in nature, just like a species; to be named and
defined. Then species that answered the definition were "typical;" those that did not do so
well were "sub-typical;" those that did worse, were "aberrant." A good deal was said of
"types of structure," much as if living creatures were originally run into moulds, like casting
type-metal, to receive some indelible stamp ; while — to carry out my simile — it was supposed
that by looking at some particular aspect of such an animal, as at the face of a printer's type,
it could be determined in what box in the case the creature should be put; the boxes them-
selves being supposed to be arranged by Nature in some particular way to make them fit
perfectly alongside each other by threes or fives, or in stars and circles, or what not. How
much ingenuity was wasted in striving to put together such a Chinese puzzle as these fancies
made of Nature's processes and results, I need not say ; suflBce it, that such views have become
extinct, by the method of natural selection, and others, apparently better fitted to survive, are
now in the struggle for existence. Rightly appreciated, however, the expression which heads
this paragraph is a proper one. There are numberless "types of structure." It is perfectly
proper to speak of the " vertebrate type," meaning thereby the whole plan of organization of
any vertebrate, if we clearly understand that such a type is not an independent or original
model conformably with which all back -boned animals were separately created, but that it is
one modification of some more general plan of organization, the unfolding of which may or
did result in other besides vertebrated animals ; and that the successive modifications of the
vertebrate plan resulted in other forms, equally to be regarded as "types," as the reptilian,
the avian, the mammalian. Upon this understanding, a group of any grade in the animal
kingdom is a "type of structure," of more general or more special significance, presumably
according to the longer or shorter time it has been in existence. An individual specimen is
"typical" of a species, a species is "typical" of a genus, etc., if it ha.s not had time enough
to be modified away from the characters which such species or genus expresses. Any set of
individuals, that is, any progeny, which become modified to a degree from their progenitors,
introduce a new type; and contiimally increasing modification makes such a type specific,
generic, and so on, in succession of time. There must have been a time, for example, when
the Avian and Reptilian "types" began to diverge from each other, or, rather, to branch
apart from their common ancestry. In the initial step of their divergence, when their respec-
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 75
tive types were beginning to be fornied, the difference must have been infinitesimal. A little
further along, the increment of difi'erence became, let us say, equivalent to that which serves
to distinguish two species. Wider and wider divergence increased the difi'erence till genera,
families, orders, and finally the classes of Reptilia and Aves, became established. In one sense,
therefore, — and it is the usual sense of the term, — the " type " of a bird is that one which is
furthest removed from the reptilian type, — which is most highly specialized by diflereutiation
to the last degree from the characters of its primitive ancestors. One of the Oscines, as a
Thrush or Sparrow, would answer to such a type, having lost the low, primitive, generalized
structure of its early progenitors, and acquired very special characters of its own, representing
the extreme modification which the stock whence it sprung has undergone. In a broader
sense, however, the type of a bird is simply the stock from which it originated ; and in such
sense the highest birds are the least typical, being the furthest removed and the most modified
derivatives of such stock, the characters of which are consequently remodeled and obscured
to the last degree. Two opposite ideas have evidently been confused in the use of the word
" Type." They may be distinguished by inventing the word teleotype (Gr. Ti\eosi teleos, final,
i. e., accomplished or determined) in the usual sense of the word type, and using the word we
already possess, prototype (Gr. Trpayros, protos, first, leading, determining), in the broader sense
of the earlier plan whence any teleotype has been derived by modification. Thus, Archceop-
teryx is prototypic of modern birds, all of which latter are teleotypic of their ancestors. It
may be further observed that any form which is teleotypic in its own group, is prototypic of
those derived from it. Thus, the Archceopteryx, so prototypic of modern birds, was a very
highly specialized teleotype of its own ancestry. A little reflection will also make it clear that
the same principle of antitypes (opposed types) is applicable to any of our groups in zoology.
Any group is teleotypic of the next greater group of which it is a member; prototypic of the next
lesser one. Any species is teleotypic of its genus; any genus, of its family; any family, of its
order ; and conversely ; that is to say, any species represents one of the ulterior modifications
of the plan of its genus. The Class of Birds, for example, is one of the several teleotypes of
Vertebrata, i. e., of the vertebrate plan of structure; representing, as it does, one of several
ways in which the vertebrate prototype is accomplished. Conversely, the Class of Birds is
prototypical of its several orders, representing the plan which these orders severally unfold in
different ways. And so on, throughout any series of animals, backwards and forwards in the
process of their evolution; any given form being teleotypic of its predecessors, prototypic of its
successors. All existing forms are necessarily teleotypic — only prototypic for the future. Pro-
totype, in the sense here conveyed, indicates what is often expressed by the word archetype.
But the latter, as I understand its use by Owen and others, signifies an ideal plan never actually
realized; the "archetype of the vertebrate skeleton," for example, beiug something no verte-
brate ever possessed, but a theoretical model — a generalization from all known skeletons. The
correspondence of my use of "prototypic" with a common employ of "archetypic," and of
" teleotypic " as including both " attypic " and " etypic," is noted below.^
The actual and visible genetic relationships of living forms being practically restricted to
individuals of the same species — parents and offspring " specifically "' identical — it would seem
at first sight that species must be the modified descendants of their respective genera, in order
* '^Archetypical characters are those which a group derives from its progenitor, and with which it commences,
but which in much modified descendants are lost ; such, for example, is the dental formula of the Educabilia (M ^ PM }
C n 3 X 2), — a formula, as shown by Owen, very prevalent among early members of the group, but generally departed
from more or less in those of the existing faunas. Alli/pical characters are those to the acquisition of which, as a matter
of fact, we find that forms, in their journey to a specialized condition, tend . . . Etypicnl characters are exceptional
ones, and which are exhibited by an eccentric offshoot from the common stock of a group." {GUI, Pr. Am. Assoc. Adv.
Sci. XX, 1873, p. 293.) To illustrate in birds: A generalized lizard-like type of sternum \s archetypic oi any bird's ster-
num. The sternum of the lizard-like animals whence birds actually descended is prototypic ; the keeled sternum of a
cariuate bird is ntlypicnl in most birds, etypical in the peculiar state in which it is found in Stringops ; but equally
teleotypic in both instances.
76 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
to be teleotypic of any such next higher group. But nothiug descends from a genus, or any
other group ; everything descends from individuals ; a " genus," like any other group, is an ab-
stract statement of a relation, not a begetter of anything. To illustrate : the " genus Turdus"
is represented by many species : if these species be rightly allocated in the genus, they are all
the modified descendants of a form which vpas, before they severally branched oS', a specific
form; the "genus Turdus" in the abstract is simply that form; and that form is prototypic of
its derivatives. In the concrete, as represented by its teleotypes, the genus Turdus sums the
modifications which these have collectively undergone, without specifying the particular modi-
ficatious of any of them ; it expresses the way in which they are all like one another, and in
which they are all unlilce the representatives of any other genus. Thus what is above advanced
is seen to hold, though genera and all other groups are actual descendants of individuals
specifically identical.
Generalized and Specialized Forms. — Taking any one group of animals — say the
genus Turdus, of numerous species — and considering it apart from any other group, we per-
ceive that it represents a certain assemblage of characters peculiar to itself, aside from those
more fundamental ones it includes of its family, order, etc. Its particular characters we call
"generic." Among the numerous teleotypic forms it includes, there is a wide range of specific
variation, within the limits of generic relationship. Some of its species are modified further
away than some others are from the generic standard or type to which all conform more or less
perfectly. The former, having more peculiarities of their own, are said to be the most special-
ized ; the latter, having fewer peculiarities, are the least specialized. Those that are the least
specialized are obviously the most generalized ; and this means, that we believe them to be
nearest to the stock whence all have together descended with modification. The application of
this illustration to great groups shows us the principle upon which any form is said to be gene-
ralized or specialized. lehthyornis, with its fish -like vertebrse, reptile-like teeth, bird-like
sternum and shoulder-girdle, is a very generalized form. A Thrush is the opposite extreme of
a highly speciaUzed form. The two are also separated by an enormous interval of time : one
being very old, the other quite new ; a chronological sequence is here perceived. Since the
evolutionary processes concerned in the modification on the whole represent progress from sim-
plicity to complexity of organization, and therefore ascent in the scale of organization, a gen-
eralized type, an ancient type, and a simple type are on the whole synonymous, and to be
contrasted with specialized, recent, and complex types. They therefore respectively corre-
spond to
« Low " and " High " in the Scale of Organization. — All existing birds are very
closely related, notwithstanding the great numerical preponderance of the class in the present
geological epoch. This outbreak, as it were, of birds upon the modern scene, is like the
nearly simultaneous bursting into bloom of a mass of flowers at the end of one branch of the
Sauropsidan stem. All modern birds, in fact, are strongly specialized forms, so much so that
it is difficult to predicate " high " or " low " within such a narrow scale. The great group
Passeres, for example, comprehending a majority of all known birds, is scarcely more different
from other birds than are the families of reptiles from each other, and among Passeres we have
little to go upon in deciding " high " or " low " beyond the musical ability of Oscines. It is
hard to see much diff"erence in actual complexity of organization between birds regarded as
lowest, as an Ostrich or a Penguin, and those conceded to be highest, as a Swallow or Spar-
row. Nevertheless, in a larger perspective, as between a fish, a reptile, and a bird, the stu-
dent will readily perceive the bearing of the ideas attached to the terms " low " and '' high "
in the scale of organization. Creatures rise in the scale by a number of correlated modifica-
tions and in the course of time (for it takes tim^ to evolve a class of birds from sauropsidan
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 77
stock as really as it does to develop the germ of an egg into the body of a chick). Progressive
differentiation and specialization of structure and function in due course elaborates diversity
from sameness, complexity from simplicity, the " high " special from the " low " general plan
of organization ; the culmination in man of the vertebrate type, first faintly foreshadowed in
the embryonic Ascidian. No one should venture to foretell the result of infinitesimal incre-
ments in elevation of structure and function, nor presume to limit the infinite possibilities of
evolutionary processes, either in this actual world or in the foretold next one.
As to " evidences of design " in the plan of organized beings, it may be said simply that
every creature is perfectly " designed " or fitted for its appropriate activities, and perfectly
adapted to its conditions of environment. In fact, it must be so fitted and adapted, or it would
perish. Whether it so determines itself, or is so determined, is a teleological question. The
truth remains that every creature is perfect in its own way. A worm is as perfectly fitted to be
a worm, as is a bird to be a bird ; in fact, were it not, it would either turn into something else,
or cease to be. A spade is as perfect an organization of the spade kind, as is a steam-engine of
that kind of an organization ; though the di2"erence in complexity of structure and functional
capacity, like that between the lowly organized ascidian generality and the highly organized
avian speciality, is enormous.
One word more : The class of mauimals is highest in the scale of organization. The
class of birds is next highest. But it does not follow, from this relation sustained by Mam-
malia and Aves collectively, that every mammal must be more highly organized than every
bird. It is difficult to say how a mole or a mouse is a more elaborate or more capable creature
than a canary-bird, physically or mentally. The relative rank of two groups is determined by
balan(;ing the aggregate of their structural characters. In large series, the average of devel-
opment, not the extremes either way, is taken into account ; so that the lowest members of a
higher group may be below the highest members of the next lower group. The common phrase,
" below par," or '' above par," is most applicable to such cases.
Machinery of Classification, — The inexperienced student may be glad to be given some
explanation of the way in which the taxonomic principles we have discussed are applied, and
carried into practical effect in classifying birds. Our machinery for that purpose is our inherit-
ance from those naturalists who held very different views from those which touch the evolu-
tionary key-note of modern classification. It is clumsy, and does not work well as a means of
expressing the relations we now believe to be sustained by all organisms toward one another ;
but it is the best we have. Systematic zoology, or the practice of classification, has failed to
keep pace with the principles of the science ; we are greatly in need of some new and sliarper
" tools of thought," which shall do for zoology what the system of symbols and formulae has
done for chemistry. We ivant some symbolic formidation of our knowledge. The invention of
a practicable scheme of classification and nomenclature, which should enable us to formulate
wliat we mean by Merula migratoria, as a chemist symbolizes by SO4H2 what he understands
liydrated sulphuric acid to be, would be an inestimable boon to working naturalists. The
mapping out of groups with connecting lines to indicate their genetic relations, in the form of a
" phylum," is a common practice ; but that, like any other pictorial representation of a " family
tree," is not the graphic symbolization required. We already have a mother of the required
invention in the necessity of the case, and may ho])e that the father will not be long in
coming.
Under the present system, Birds are called a " Class " of Vertebrates, and are subdivided
into " orders," " families," "genera," "species" and " varieties," as already sufficiently indi-
cated. Groups intermediate to any of these may be recognized ; and if so, are usually distin-
guished by the prefix sub-. Many other terms are in occasional use, as " tribe," " race,"
"series," "cohort," "super-family;" but those first mentioned are the best established ones
78 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
among English -speakiug naturalists. Their sequence is fixed, as above, from higher to lower,
in relative rank.^ With the exceptions to be presently noted, the names of any groups are
arbitrary, at the will of the person who founds and designates them. The framer of a genus,
or the describer of a species, calls it what he pleases, and the name he gives holds, subject to
certain statutory regulations which naturalists generally agree to abide by. The exceptions
are the names of families and subfamilies, the former commonly being made to end in -idcB, the
latter in -incB : family Turdidce ; subfamily Turdince. This is a great convenience, since we
always know the rank intended to be noted by these forms. The names of groups higher than
species are almost invariably single words ; as, order Passeres ; but sometimes, especially in
cases of interinediate groups, two words are used, one qualifying the other ; as, suborder
Passeres Acromyodi, or Oscine Passeres. A generic or subgeneric name is always a single
word; these, and the names of all higher groups, invariably begin with a capital letter.
Until quite recently, the scientific name of any individual bird almost invariably consisted
of two terms, generic and specific — the name of the genus, followed by the name of the
species; as, Merula migratoria, for the Robin. This is the "binomial nomenclature"' (badly
so called, for "binominal'' would be better), introduced by Linnseus in the middle of the last
century. It was a great improvement upon the former method of giving either single arbitrary
names to birds, often a mere Latin translation of their vernacular nickname, or long descriptive
names of several words; probably no other single improvement in a method of nt)menclature
ever did so much to make the technique of nomenclature systematic. To couple the two terms
at all was a great thing, the convenience of which we who never felt its want can hardly appre-
ciate. To follow the generic by the specific term was itself of the same advantage that it is to
have the Smiths and Browns of a directory entered under S and B, instead of by Johns and
Jameses; besides according with the genius of the Romance languages, which commonly put
the adjective after the noun. A Frenchman, for example, would say, Bec-croise aux ailes
blanches de VAmerique septentrionale, or " Bill-crossed to the wings white of the America
north," where we should say, "North American White-winged Cross-bill," and Linnaeus
would have written Loxia leucoptera. The binomial scheme worked so well that it came to
have the authority and force of a statute, which few subsequent naturalists have been inclined,
and fewer have ventured, to violate ; while it became an ex post facto law to prior naturalists,
ruling them out of court altogether, as far as the legitimacy of any of the names they had be-
stowed was concerned. It necessarily rested, however, or at any rate proceeded upon, the false
idea of a species as a fixity. Linnseus himself experienced the inadequacy of his system to
deal binomially with those lesser groups than species, commonly called " varieties," now better
designated as "conspecies" or "subspecies"; and he often used a third word, separated how-
ever from the binomial name by intervention of the sign " var." or some other symbol. Thus,
if he had supposed an American Crossbill to be a variety of a European Loxia leucoptera, he
might have called it Loxia leucoptera, a, americana. Many years ago I urged the necessity of
recognizing by name a great number of forms of our birds intermediate between nominal species,
and connected by links so perfect, that our handling of " species" required thorough reconsid-
eration. The dilemma arose, through our very intimate knowledge of the climatic and geo-
graphical variation of " species," either to discard a great number that had been described, and
so ignore all the ultimate modifications of our bird-forms; or else to recognize as good species
the same large number of forms that we knew shaded into each so completely that no specific
character could be assigned. In the original edition of the present work (1872), I compromised
the matter by reducing to the rank of varieties the nominal species that were known or believed
1 The expression " higher group," in the sense of relative rank in the taxonomic scale, will of course be dis-
tinguished from the same expression when applied to the relative rank in the scale of organization of the objects
classified. Au order of birds is a " higher group " than a family of birds, in the former sense, but no higher than
an order of worms, in the latter sense
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 79
to intergrade ; aud the original edition of my Check List (1873) distinguished such by the sign
" var." intervening between the specific and the subspecific name. I subsequently determined
to do away with the superfluous term " var.," and in the next edition of the Check List (1882)
and Key (1884) adopted a purely trinomial system of naming the equivocal forms as subspecies;
as, Loxia curvirostra americana. This method was found to work so well, that it was immedi-
ately adopted and officially formulated in the Code of Nomenclature (188fi) of the American
Ornithologists' Union, and thus came into universal use in this country. Trinomialism is con-
fidently commended as a boon to our brethren over the sea, who perceive its usefulness, yet
continue to handle it gingerly, Linnaaus being still something of a fetich on the more conserva-
tive side of the water. It is the most distinctive feature of what English ornithologists call
"the American school."
The Student cannot be too well assured, that no such things as species, in the old
sense of the word, exist in nature, any more than have genera or families an actual existence-
Indeed they cannot be, if there is any truth in the principles discussed in our earlier paragraphs.
Species are simply ulterior modifications, which once were, if they be not still, inseparably
linked together; and their nominal recognition is a pure convention, like that of a genus.
More practically hinges upon the way we regard them than turns upon our establishment of
higher grtmps, simply because upon the way we decide in this case depends the scientific labeling
of specimens. If we are speaking of a Robin, we do not ordinarily concern ourselves with the
fiiuiily or order it belongs to, but we do require a technical name for constant use. That name
is compounded of its genus, species, and variety. No infallible rule can be laid down for deter-
mining what shall be held to be a species, what a conspecies, subspecies, or variety. It is a
matter of tact and experience, like appreciation of the value of any other group in zoology.
There is, however, a convention upon the subject, which the present workers in ornithology in
this country find available; at any rate, we have no better rule to go by. We treat as
" specific" any form, however little difi'erent from the next, that we do not know or believe to
intergrade with that next one — between which and the next one no intermediate equivocal
specimens are forthcoming, and none, consequently, are supposed to exist. This is to imply
that the difierentiation is accomplished, the links are lost, and the characters actually become
"specific." We treat as "subspecific" of each other any forms, however different in their ex-
treme manifestation, which we know to intergrade, having the intermediate specimens before
us, or which we believe with any good reason do intergrade. If the links still exist, the differ-
entiation is still incomplete, and the characters are not specific, but only subspecific, in the
literal sense of these terms. In the latter case, the oldest approved name is retained as the
specific one, and to it is appended the subspecific designation : as Merula migratoria propinqua.
The specific and subspecific names are preferably written with a small initial letter, even when
derived from the name of a person or place.
One other term than those just considered sometimes forms part of a bird's scientific name:
this is the subgenus. When introduced, it always follows the generic term, in parentheses;
thus, Turdus (Hglocichla) mustelinus. This is cumbrous, especially when there are already
three terms, and is Httle used in this country. I discarded it altogether in 1884. and so did the
American Ornithologists' Union in 1886. There is no real difiierence between a subgenus and
a genus, and modern genera have so multiplied that one can easily find a single name for any
generic refinement he may wish to indulge.
It has always been customary to write after a bird's name the name of the original describer
of the species, as the authority or voucher for the validity of the species named. But as genera
nmltiplied, it was often found necessary to change the generic name, the species being placed
in another genus than that to which its original namer had referred it. Then the name of the
person who originated the new combination was commonly suffixed, presumably as authority
80 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
for the validity of the classification implied. As this was to ignore the proprietorship of the
original describer, it became customary to retain such describer's name in parentheses and add
that of the classiiier ; thus, Tardus migratorius Linnaeus ; Planestieus migratorius (Linn.)
Bonaparte. The practice still prevails ; it is no more objectionable than any other harmless
exhibition of human vanity. The student will find it carefully carried out in my Check List
■of 1873 and 1882, and entirely discarded in the Second and subsequent editions of the present
work.
It would take me too far to go fully into the rules of nomenclature : some few points may
be noted. A proper sense of justice to the describers of new genera, species, and subspecies,
prompts us to preserve inviolate the names they see fit to bestow, with certain salutary pro-
visions. Hence arises the " law of priority." The first name given during or since 1758 is to
be retained and used, if it can be identified with reasonable certitude, — that is, if we think we
know what the giver meant by it. But it is to be discarded, and the next name in priority of
time substituted, if it is "glaringly false or of express absurdity," — as calling an American
bird "cafer," or a black one ^^albus." No generic name can be duplicated in zoology, and one
once void for any reason cannot be revived and used in any connection. The same specific
name cannot be used twice in the same genus.
In my judgment, the best set of rules for naming objects of natural history ever devised is
the Code of Nomenclature promulgated by the American Ornithologists' Union in 1886. Its
canons are applicable not only to ornithology, but also to all other branches of zoology. They
have acquired the force of statutory regulations in this country, and the student who would be
more than an amateur must learn them. He will also do well to obey them until he becomes
a professional ornithologist and can afibrd to express opinions of his own. For myself I sub-
scribe to the Code iu its entirety, with two exceptions. I will never obey a canon which would
oblige me to use a " glaringly false " name, for falsity is foreign to science. Nor shall I ever
have anything but contempt for Canon XL. , which would make me misspell a name for no other
reason than that it was misspelled in the beginning ; for that would be a matter " of express
absurdity, and therefore contemptible." The committee who devised this Code were : EUiott
Cones, Chairman ; J. A. Allen, Robert Ridgway, William Brewster, and H. W. Henshaw.
The Actual Classification of Birds has undergone radical modification of late years,
though the same machinery is employed for its expression. This is as would be expected,
seeing how profoundly the theory of Evolution has affected our principles of classification, how
completely the morphological has replaced other systems, and how steadily our knowledge of
the structure of birds, and their chronological relations, has progressed. Nevertheless, the
ornithological system is still iu a transition state, and the classification implied by my arrange-
ment of North American birds in the present work must be regarded as tentative and provis-
ional. In the original edition of the Key the classification was vitiated at the outset by physi-
ological considerations, 1 and in scmie other respects was open to decided improvement, as I
trust the present edition shows. The table given on a succeeding page will afi"ord the student
a C0U2) d'oeil of the groups, from subclass to subfamily, which I have been led to adopt ; it
represents, as far as it goes, a classification of birds at large. The principal groups, higher
than families, which are absent from the North American Fauna, are : the whole of the
RatitcE, or Struthious birds ; the Bromceognathce, embracing the South American Tinamous ;
the Sphenisci, Penguins of the Southern Hemisphere, and several small superfamily groups be-
longing in the vicinity of the Columbine, Gallinaceous, Lemicoline, and Anserine birds.
As to the primary divisions of Aves, it seems certain that these must be made with special
> In primarily dividing birds into Anes aereir, Avfs terrestres, and Aves aqtiaticcr, after Lilljeborg, I should do myself
the justice to say, however, that the fact that these divisions did not rest upon morphological characters of any conse-
quence was expressly stated (pp. 8 and 276 of the orig. ed.).
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— FEATHERS. 81
reference to the extraordinary form from the Jurassic and to the radical difference between
Ratite and Carinate Birds. The subclass Carinatce, which includes all other existing birds, seems
not to be primarily divisible into a few orders, such as were in vogue not many years ago; but to
be split directly into a large number — perhaps about twenty — groups of approximately
equivalent value, to be conventionally designated as orders, if we take CarinatcB as a subclass
of the class Aves. Passeres seems to be one of tiie most firmly established of these " ordinal "
groups ; but neither Passeres nor any other leading group of birds has any such taxonomic
grade as the groups of the same name have in other branches of zoology. ^^Picarice^^ is one
of the most unsatisfactory, and I have no doubt it will be abolished. The arrangement offered
on a subsequent page has perhaps some claims to consideration.
With this glance at some taxonomic principles and practices, I pass to an outline of the
structure of birds, some knowledge of which is indispensable to any appreciation of orni-
thological definitions and descriptions. It is necessary to be brief, and I shall confine myself
mainly to consideration of those points, and explanation of those technical terms, which the
student needs to understand in order to use the present volume easily and successfully. Here
I will insert a tabular illustration of a sequence of zoological groups, from highest to lowest,
under which a bird may fall : —
Kingdom, Animalia : Animals.
Branch, Vertebrata: Back-boned Animals.
Province, Sauropsida : Lizard-like Vertebrates.
Class, Aves: Birds.
Subclass, Carinatce: Birds with keeled breast-bone.
Order, Passeres : Perching Birds.
Suborder, Oscines : Singing Birds.
Family, Turdidce: Thrush-like Birds.
Subfamily, Turdince : True Thrushes.
Genus, Turdus : Typical Thrushes.
Subgenus, Hylocichla : Wood Thrushes.
Species, ustulatus : Olive-backed Thrush.
Subspecies, alicice : Alice's Thrush.
§3. — DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EXTERIOR PARTS OF BIRDS.
a. Of the Feathers, or Plumage. i
Feathers are possessed only by birds, and all birds possess them. Feathers are therefore
diagnostic of the class Aves. Feathers are modified scales ; like scales, hair, horns, claws, etc.,
tiiey are outgrowths of the integument, or skin covering the body, and therefore belong to tiie
class oi epidermic (Gr. eVi, epi, upon ; bipfia, derma, skin), or exoskeletal (Gr. e|, ex, out ; aKe'Kerov,
skeleton, dried; in the sense of " outer skeleton") structures. The horny coverings of beak
and feet are of the same class, but very difterently developed. The development of feathers is
a complicated process, and the result is correspondingly complex. Besides being the most
highly developed or specialized, wonderfully beautiful and perfect kind of tegumentary out-
growth— besides fulfilling in a singular manner the function of covering and protecting the
body — feathers have their particular locomotory office : that of accomplishing the act of flying
in a manner peculiar to birds. For all vertebrates, excepting birds, that progress through the
air — the flying ^»\\ {Exoccetus) with, its enlarged pectoral fins; the flying reptile (Draco or
Pterodacti/lus) with its skinny parachute ; the flying mammal (bat) witli its great webbed
fingers — accomplish aerial locomotion by means of tegumentary exjmnsions. Birds alone fly
6
82 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
with tegumentary outgroivths, or appendages. These peculiar structures are very light, weigh-
ing little in proportion to their bulk ; and some kinds of feathers are very strong and elastic^
easier to bend than to break — in fact, the horny part of a feather is a very tough substance.
Feathers make extremely poor conductors of heat, and consequently a warm covering of the
body.
All a bird's feathers, of whatever kind, collectively constitute its ptilosis (Gr. nriKov, jJtilon,
a feather) or plumage (Lat. pluma, a plume or feather). In many cases tlie first plumage of
the nestling or uewly-hatched bird is a short-lived set of feathers so difi'erent from the crop
next grown and longer worn as to give rise to the technical distinction between
Neossoptiles and Teleoptiles (Gr. veossos, neossos, a young bird, chick, or fledgling ;
TeXeos, teleos, finished, final, or mature ; and tttiKov, ptilon, a feather). A neossoptile is an un-
finished feather which precedes a final feather, is borne upon the latter for a while, and then
drops ofi". All birds do not have neossoptiles, and these temporary feathers form but a sparse
and scanty covering of some birds which possess them. Such is the case with those birds
which are commonly said to hatch naked, and which stay in the nest until they are fully
fledged; though even in these instances the few straggling hair-like feathers which may be
first observed are neossoptiles. In the highly exceptional case of the Mound-birds (MegajiO-
didce) neossoptiles are shed before the chick is hatched, so that the apparently first but actually
second set of feathers are teleoptiles. Neossoptiles are copious enough to form the complete
downy covering of those young birds which hatch clothed and are able to run about or swim
almost immediately, as in the cases of the chicks, ducklings, or goslings of the poultry-yard,
the unfledged young of plovers, snipes, and many others: such a covering is also speedily
acquired by various birds which hatch naked or nearly so, yet remain long in the nest, as the
squabs of pigeons, and the nestlings of herons, gulls, and most other water-birds. The gen-
eralization may be made, that neossoptiles are most copious and conspicuous in the lower
orders of birds, as the walkers, waders and swimmers, least so in the higher Passerine and Pi-
carian orders. This distinction agrees very well with what are explained beyond as altricial
or psilopeedic birds on the one hand, and prcecocial or ptilopcBdic birds on the other hand ; less
exactly, with birds called nidicolous and nidifugous, or those which remain some time in the
nest and those which can leave it at once. Neossoptiles are always weak, fiufl"y, hairy or
downy feathers — in fact, they form the first "downy plumage" of any bird which possesses
such a covering. Their character will be better understood by the student after he has read
what is said beyond of the structure of feathers. The distinction between neossoptiles and
teleoptiles is not that the former are downy, for many of the latter are equally downy ; but that
neossoptiles are shed or moulted, from the ends of the teleoptiles upon which they are borne,
not from the skin itself. In fine, a neossoptile is simply the temporary, deciduous, terminal
portion of an ungrown teleoptile, though it may be the only kind of a feather the young bird
possesses. The whole plumage of every adult bird consists of teleoptiles, whose several kinds
are described beyond.
Development of Feathers. In a manner analogous to that of hair, a feather grows in
a little pit or pouch formed by an inversion of the dermal or true-skin layer of the integument
as well as of the epidermal or scarf-skin layer. This pit is the feather-follicle ; it supports tlie
base of a little conical pimple, the feather -papilla, upon which the future feather is to be
moulded. The outermost layer of epidermal cells is called the epUrichium ; the subjacent
layers form the Malpighian stratum, which enters into the structure both of the follicle and of
the feather itself. The cells of this stratum, rapidly multiplying and growing downward into
the pit, separate into two sets, one of which lines the whole wall of the follicle, while the other
covers a mass of cells which have meanwhile shot up in the centre of the follicle from the
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS.
83
uiulerlying dermal layer of iuteguinent. This central mass is the pulp which is to nourish the
rapidly growing feather ; it becomes a soft spongy network and furnishes the blood supply, but
is not otherwise transformed into the substance of the feather. For the latter is entirely epi-
dermal, being built up from the cells of that portion of the Malpighian stratum which covers
the central pulp. This portion subdivides into three layers. The outermost layer sprouts out
of the skin in the form of a horny cylindric sheath, and is the well-known object we call a
" pin-feather." The thick intermediate layer m,akes most of the feather itself, set free when
Fio. 18. —Symmetrical Figfures from Forming Feathers; a, dove; 6, turkey. — "In the summer of
18G9, wliilst examining the feather capsule of a nestling dove, the microscopic slide was suddenly covered witli a multi-
tude of exquisite forms. . . . The next day my German farmer cUmbed to the dove's nest ainl procured a few more pin-
feathers. Some of these were cut into fine shred-s, rubbed in a drop of water, and placed under the microscope. In a
short period the figures of yesterday were again before me. From tlie cut surfaces of the portions of tlie pin-feathers I
had placed under tlie lens, granules appeared to stream forth like blood, covering the microscopic slide in countless num-
bers. Mingled with these were numerous larger cells of a globular or oval form, having a transparent centre. These and
the granules gave to the water a slightly glutinous consistency. As the fluids on the glass dried, lines at ditferent angles
shot across tlie slide, lookmg much as though an unseen camel's hair pencil had been swiftly drawn in opposite directions,
sometimes at riglit angles, but frequently at angles more acute. Probably at the moment of transition from a fluid to a
solid condition, the transparent nucleated cells assumed the form of a square, a lozenge, a starry hexagon, a cross, or any
other beautiful figure which could be formed of the parts wliich suddenly appeared in the spherical cells, these parts seem-
ing at flrst, in some instances at least, to consist of minute triangles. At tlie same moment the little granules moved to
order, and tliere before the astonished gaze were diamonds such as Aladdin might have envied, in form as varied, but far
more symmetrical, than the frost-work on a window pane of a winter's morning." (Grace Anna Lewis, Am. Nat., v, 1871,
p. 675.)
84 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the sheath that contains it peels off. The innermost layer simply sheathes the pulp, and is
finally transformed into the pith which may be observed inside the hollow quill as a set of little
caps or thimbles. Such development of feathers as is here briefly sketched holds good both for
neossoptiles and for teleoptiles, the formation of the latter simply completing the process begun
with the former. When the final feather has completed its growth the activity of the follicle
ceases as long as the feather stays in place ; but when the feather drops, as it always does when
it is worn out, the follicle renews its function and grows another feather in the same manner as
before, except that this teleoptile is never preceded by a neossoptile. The steps of the process
by which a feather expands into its complex figure from such a simple matrix or mould of form
is thus graphically illustrated by Huxley :
" The integument of birds is always provided with horny appendages, which result from the conversion into horn of
the cells of the outer layer of the epidermis. But the majority of these appendages, which are termed ' feathers,' do not
take the form of mere plates developed upou the surface of the skin, but are evolved within sacs from the surfaces of con-
ical papillfe of the dermis. The external surface of the dermal papiUa, whence a feather is to be developed, is provided
upon its dorsal [upper] surface with a median groove, which becomes shallower towards the apex of the papilla. From
this median groove lateral furrows proceed at an open angle, and passing round upon the under surface of the papilla, be-
come shallower, until, in the middle line, opposite the dorsal median groove, they become obsolete. Minor grooves run
at right angles to the lateral furrows. Hence the surface of tlie papilla has the character of a kind of mould, and if it
were repeatedly dipped in such a substance as a solution of gelatine, and withdrawn to cool until its whole surface was
covered with an even coat of that substance, it is clear that the gelatinous coat would be thickest at the basal or anterior
end of the median groove, at the median ends of the lateral furrows, and at those ends of the minor grooves which open
into them ; while it would be very thin at the apices of the median and lateral grooves, and between the ends of the minor
grooves. If, therefore, the hollow cone of gelatine, removed from its mould, were stretched from within ; or if its tliin-
nest parts became weak by drying ; it would tend to give way, along the inferior median line, opposite the rod-like cast of
the dorsal median groove and between the ends of the casts of the lateral furrows, as well as between each of the minor
grooves, and the hollow cone would expand into a flat feather-like structure with a median shaft, as a ' vane ' formed of
'barbs' and 'barbules.' In point of fact, in the development of a feather such a cast of the dermal papilla is formed,
though not in gelatine, but in the homy epidermic layer developed upon the mould, and, as this is thrust outward, it opens
out in the manner just described. After a certain period of growth the papilla of the feather ceases to be grooved, and a
continuous horny cylinder is formed, which constitutes the 'quiU.' " (Introd. Classif. Auim., p. 71.)
Structure of Feathers. — A perfect feather, possessing all the structures a teleoptile can
have developed, consists of the following named parts : (1) a main stem, shaft, or scape in
two portions, calamus and rliachis / (2) a supplementary stem, aftershaft, or hyporliachis ;
(3) each stem bearing on each side a web, vane, or vexillum ; (4) each web composed of a
series of bai-bs or rami ; (5) each barb bearing on each side a series of barbules or radii ;
(6) most barbules bearing a set of barbicels or cilia ; (7) some barbicels forming booklets or
hamuli. Exactly how these several parts or structures combine to compose the feather is next
to be shown.
(1) The main stem, shaft, or sca2)e (Lat. scapus, a stalk) is usually divided into two well
distinguished parts, calamus and rhachis. (a) The calamus (Lat. a reed) is the part next the
body of the bird inserted by one end into the skin, and at the other end supporting the rest
of the feather. This is the tube, barrel, or ''quill" proper; a hard, horny, hollow, semitrans-
parent cyHuder, bearing no webs, and containing on the interior a little loose dry pith in the
form of a series of caps or thimbles, sometimes called the " soul." These are the remains
of the innermost layer of the inner division of the Malpighian stratum. One end of this
quill tapers to its insertion, and is matked by the trace of what was an opening when the
featlier was growing; this is the umbilicus inferior. The other end of the calamus passes
dii-ectly into the rhachis, at a point marked by a little pit, the umhilicus superior, on the under
side of the feather (nearest the bird's body). The rhachis (Gr. pdxts, rhachis, a spine or ridge)
is the direct continuation of the calamus to the tip of the feather, but (lifters in cliaracter, being
a four-sided prism, squarish in cross section, tapering gradually to a fine point : it is less horny
than the barrel, very elastic, opaque, and solidly pithy; it alone bears the vexilla, serving as
a midrib between the two vanes for their whole extent. Tlie rhachis is usually grooved length-
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS.
85
wise on its under side, this groove being best marked on the large feathers of the wings and
tail ; and it is commonly much longer than the calamus.
(2) The aftershaft or hyporhachis (Gr. vno, hupo, and pdxis), when well developed is like
a duplicate of the main feather, from the under side of the stem of which it springs, at junction
of calamus with rhachis, close by the umbilicus superior. It is generally very small in com-
parison with the main part of the feather, though quite as large in a few birds, as Cassowaries,
Emeus, and Moas. This counterpart or " counterfeit " is n(jt developed in all groups of
birds, nor on all feathers of any bird ; its presence or absence, whether by non-acquisition or
subsequent reduction, thus becomes a classificatory character of some importance. It is never
well developed, but generally minute or wanting on the large strong wing- and tail-feathers ;
is best marked as an ap-
pendage of small contour
feathers, and especially
down feathers. The after-
shaft may bear vanes, and
generally does ; but the
♦-^S^ //y/^ ' barbs and barbules are
"^^ -v> ( ''V^v- /^>.. never connected by barbicels
or booklets (as presently to
be described for ordinary
feathers), and therefore this
supplementary feather is of
a fluffy or downy texture,
not close-webbed. The ap-
pearance of double feathers
in the Emeu and some other
ratite birds results from the
equal size of the aftershaft
and main shaft; the former
is well developed though inconspicuous in Parrots,
Gulls, Herons, and most raptorial birds ; it is small
and very weak in the great Passine series, in most
waders, and many Galliue birds ; still smaller in or
absent from the Duck tribe, in Totipalmate birds,
in some Picarians, in Owls, Pigeons, and the Os-
triches and Kiwis. More detailed notice of presence
or absence of aftershafts will be found under heads
of the groups of birds treated in this work.
(3) Each web, vaue, or vexillum (Lat. vexillum, a standard: \)\. vexilla) consists of a
series of parallel, mutually appressed, flat, narrowly linear or lance-liuear laminae or plates,
eacli one of which is set by its end obliquely on the rhachis (or on the hyporhachis, as the case
may be), diverging at a varying open angle, and ending in a free point. Every such narrow
flat plate constitutes a
(4) Barb or ramus of the vane (Lat. barba, a beard; ramus, a branch; pi. rami).
The barbs may be likened to the blades of a pocket knife, with the sharp edge turned toward
the under side of the feather, the blunt back of the blade turned to the other side. Barbs of
the outer webs of many feathers are deeper, stronger, and shorter than those of inner webs,
and commonly set on the rhachis at a more acute angle ; this difference is best marked on large
feathers of the wings and tail. The number of barbs to a vane is very variable ; there may be
several hundred. Now, if these barbs simply lay alongside one another, like leaves of a book,
Fig. 20. — Two barbs,
a, a, of a vane, bearing an-
terior, b, b, and posterior,
c, barbules ; enlarged ; after
Nitzsch.
Fig. 19. — A partly pennaceous, partly plum-
ulaceous feather, from Argus i)bea8ant; after
Nitzsch. ad, main stem ; (I, calamus ; a, rliachis ;
c, c, c, vanes, cut away on left side in order not
to interfere with b, the after-shaft, the whole of
the right vane of which is likewise cut away.
86 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
without any ineans of holding together, the feather would have uo texture or consistency —
there would be no true web; therefore they are connected by means of
(5) Barbules or radii (Lat. radius, a ray ; pi. radii). Just as the rhachis bears its two
series of barbs, so does each barb bear two series of processes or plates of the second order.
These barbules, as they are called (Lat., diinin. of barba), or radii, are to the barbs exactly
what the barbs are to the main shaft, and are similarly given off from both sides of the thick
upper border of a barb ; they make the vane truly a web — that is, they so connect the barbs
together that some slight force is required to pull them apart. Barbules are variously shaped,
but generally flat sidewise, to pack together closely, with an upper and under edge at base,
rapidly tapering to a slender thready end; and are long enough for each one to reach obliquely
over several barbules of the next barb. Their number on most feathers is very great ; a feather
with a few hundred barbs to each web may have several hundred thousand barbules. All the
structures thus far described may be seen by the naked eye or with a simple pocket lens ; but
a microscope is required to make out the minute structures by means of which the barbules
confer consistency on the bai'bs. These are the
(6), (7) Barbicels or cilia (barbicel, another dimin. of Lat. barba ; and cilium, an eye-
lash; pi. cilia), and booklets or hamuli (Lat. hamulus, a little hook, dimin. of hamus,
a hook; pi. hamuli). Both of these minute structures are simply a sort of fringe to a
barbule, as if the end and part of the lower edge of the barbule were frayed out, and only
differ from each other in that barbicels are plain hair-like processes, while hamuli are hooked
at the end ; they are not found on all feathers, nor on all parts of any feathers. There are
countless millions of barbicels and hamuli on the main feathers of every bird which has smooth
webby surface plumage and well-formed wings and tail ; but their absence characterizes all
neossoptiles, all supplementary feathers, and all the downy or hairy under plumages to be
presently noticed. Barbicels occur on both anterior and posterior rows of barbules, though
rarely on the latter; booklets are confined to anterior series of barbules, which, as we have
seen, overlie the posterior rows, forming a diagonal mesh-work. The purpose of this beauti-
ful structure is evident ; barbules are interlocked, and the whole made a web ; for each booklet
of one barbule catches hold of a barbule from the next barb in front, any barbule thus holding
on to as many barbules of the next barb as it has booklets ; while, to facilitate this interlock-
ing, barbules have a thickened or folded-over upper edge of the right size for booklets to grasp.
The aiTaugement is shown in fig. 22, where a, a, a, a, are four barbs in transverse section,
viewed from the cut surfaces, with their anterior, b, b, b, b, and posterior, c, c, c, c, barbules,
the former bearing the booklets which catch over the edge of the latter.
Types of Feathery Structure. — But all feathers do not answer the above complete
description. The aftershaft may be wanting, as we have seen. Booklets may not be devel-
oped, as frequently happens. Barbicels may be few or entirely lacking. Barbules may be
similarly deficient, or so defective as to be only recognized by their position and relations.
Even barbs may be few or lacking on one side of the shaft, or on both sides, as in certain bristly
or hair-like styles of feathers. Finally the main stem may be a mere filament, without obvious
distinction of calamus and rhachis. Consideration of these and other modifications of feather-
structure has led to recognition of three types or plans : 1. The perfectly feathery, plumoiis, or
pennaceous (Lat. pluma, a plume, or penna, a feather fit for writing with ; fig. 23), as above
described. 2. The downy or plumulaceous (Lat. plumula, a little plume, a down-feather),
when the stem is short and weak, with soft rhachis and barbs, long slender thready barbules,
little knots in place of barbicels, uo booklets, and consequently no smooth webbing. 3. The
hairy, bristly, or filoplumaceous (Lat. filum, a thread), with a very long, slender stem, rudi-
mentary or very small vanes composed of fine cylindrical barbs and barbules, if any, and no
barbicels, knots, or booklets. There is no abrupt definition between tliese types of structure;
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS.
87
in fact, the same feather may be constructed on more than one of these plans, in different
parts of its length, as in fig. 19, partly pennaceous, partly plumulaceous. All feathers are
built upon one or another, or some combination, or modification, of these types; and, in all
their endless diversity, may be reduced to four or five.
Different Kinds of Feathers. — 1. Contour -feathers, pennts or pl!j««« proper, have a
perfect stem composed of calamus and rhachis, with smooth-webbed vanes of pennaceous
structure, at least in part, usually plumulaceous toward the base.
These form the great bulk of surface-plumage exposed to light ;
their beautiful tints give a bird its colors ; they are the most
modified in detail of all, from the fish-like scales of a penguin's
wings to the glittering jewels of a Humming-bird, and all the
endless array of tufts, crests, ruffs, and other ornaments of
the feathered tribes; even the imperfect bristle-like feathers
above mentioned may belong among them. The most conspic-
uous contour-feathers are the large ones of the wings and tail;
these are also the most perfect feathers, except for lack of an
aftershaft. Some contour-feathers are of fluffy texture, assume
singular shapes, and grow to great lengths ; such are commonly
ornamental, and may be confined to the nuptial plumage, or
characteristic of the male sex, as the aigrettes of many Herons,
and the plumas of Paradise birds. Such feathers may not only
lack all the minute structures above described, but even have the
webs decomposed, owing to fewness of barbules or of barbs them-
selves. It would take me too far afield to go fully into their
numerous variations. Contour-feathers are usually individually
moved by subcutaneous muscles, of which there may be sevei-al
to one feather, passing to be attached to the sheath of the tube,
iuside the skin, in which the stem is inserted. These muscles
may be plainly seen under the skin of a goose, and every one has observed
their operation when a hen shakes herself after a sand-bath, or erects her
top-knot, or any other bird ruffles up its plumage. 2. Down-feathers, plumulce, are charac-
terized by a downy structure throughout. They more or less completely invest the body, but
are almost always hidden beneath contour-feathers, like padding about the bases of the latter ;
occasionally they come ^
in
Fk; 21.—
A single bar-
bule, bearing
barbicels and
booklets ;mag-
nifltil ; after
Nitzscb.
Fig. 22.
Four barbs
cross section, a,
a, a, a, bearing
anterior, b, b, b,
b, and posterior
c, c, c, c, bar-
bules, the form-
er bearing hook-
lets which catch
over the latter;
magnified; after
Nitzsch.
\-
y
iR
Fig.
entirely
I the tail of a Kingbird. Tyrannus tyrnnnus, almost
Tshaft. From nature, by Coues.
to light, as in the fleecy
ruft' about the Condor's
neck, and then usually
replace contour-feathers ;
tliey have an aftershaft,
or none; sometimes no
rhachis at all, the barbs then being sessile in a tuft at the end of the calamus. They often
stand in a regular quincunx (] • ]) between four contour-feathers. All neossoptiles are of
di)wny structure, though they belong to a different category of feathers, as we have seen, and
we are now talking only of teleoptiles. Down-feathers, as a rule, are more copious in water
birds than in land birds; swan's-down and eider-down are fine examples, and may be used by
both birds and people to warm their respective nests. 3. Semiplumes, semiplwnce, may be
said to unite the characters of the last two, possessing the pennaceous stem of the former, and
the plumulaceous vanes of the latter ; they are with or without aftershaft. They stand among
pcnnfe, as plumul* do, about the edges of patches of the former, or in parcels by themselves.
88 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
but are always covered by contour-feathers. As implied in the name, the alleged distinctions
of semipluraes are equivocal, and not easy to verify in all cases. Better marked are — 4. Filo-
plumes, filopliimcB, or thread-feathers, which have au extremely slender, almost invisible stem,
not well distinguished into calamus and rhachis, and usually no vane, unless a terminal tuft
of barbs be held for such. Long as they are, they are usually hiddeu by contour-feathers, close
to which they stand as accessories, one or more seeming to issue out of the very sacs in which
larger feathers are implanted. Sometimes they come to the surface, as the hairs on the neck
of birds of the genus Criniger, so named from this fact ; and some think the thready white
plumes on the neck and flanks of Cormorants in nuptial plumage are filoplumaceous. Typical
filophmies are the nearest approach to hairs that birds have ; they are very well shown on
domestic poultry, being what a good cook finds it necessary to siuge ofi" after plucking a fowl
for the table. 5. Certain down-feathers are remarkable for continuing to grow indefinitely,
and with this unlimited growth is associated a continual breaking down of the ends of the
barbs. Such plumulae, from being always dusted over with dry, scurfy exfoliation, are called
powder-down ; they may be entitled to rank as a fifth kind of teleoptiles, which I have named
pulviplumes. They occur in the Hawk, Parrot, and Gallinaceous tribes ; also in certain Pica-
rian birds (Leptosomus and Podargus) ; and especially in Herons and their allies. They are
always present in the latter, where they may be readily seen as at least two large patches of
greasy or dusty, whitish feathers, matted over the hips and on the breast. Pulviplumes are
said to be luminous at times with a sort of phosphorescence ; but what good it does a bird to
wear such fungus-like puff-balls is unknown.
Colors of Feathers, in almost endless diversity of shade, hue, or tint, are reducible to
three categories (see Newton's Diet., p. 95). 1. Chemical, absorptive, or pigmentarij colors,
due to the deposition in the caratine or substance of the feather of certain pigments, either in
the form of fixed granules, or diffuse solution. Such colors are unvarying in any light in which
they may be viewed. Some kinds of pigment have been distinguished by name as follows :
Zoomelanin, or black ; zoonerythrin, or red ; and sooxanthin, or yellow ; the names being de-
rived from Greek words meaning "animal," and "black," "red," "yellow." To these add
turacin, the particular red pigment of birds of the genus Turacus, family Musophagidce ; and
turacoverdin, the green pigment of the same birds; the red color is due to copper and the green
to iron. Browns are due to varying mixtures of red and black pigments. AVhite is no color, but
results from the molecular structure of the feather, in the absence of pigment. Gloss, of what-
ever color, is due to smooth polish of the surface of a feather. 2. "What have been called
objective structural colors result from surface-conditions of the feather in connection with under-
lying pigments. All blues, most greens, and some yellows belong in this category, as no blue
pigment is known, and under the microscope these colors are always seen to depend upon the
structure that overlies pigment of a different color. For example, the color basis of a blue
feather may be a brownish or blackish pigment, and the blue only show as a condition of the
surface of the barbs and barbules. 3. Subjective structural, prismatic or so called metallic col-
ors constitute iridescence, or the glittering scintillation of those feathers which change rainbow-
like according to the position in which they are viewed by the eye with regard to light, i. e., to
angle of incidence of light-rays. Iridescence is thus wholly due to superficial texture of a
feather, without regard to the subjacent dark or black pigment. Prismatic hues are mostly
confined to exposed surfaces of feathers, and to barbules which lack barbiccls, and also have a
particular disposition. Iridescence is to be distinguished from mere sheen, gloss, or " bloom "
of a feather; it is carried to its pitch of perfection in Humming-birds, though many other
groups of birds also exhibit this optical phenomenon.
Whatever be the coloration normal to any bird, that is its chrosis (Gr. xp^i^fts, chrosis,
coloring). But any bird may exhibit abnormal color or lack of color, either as a pathological
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS. 89
condition, or as due to particular diet, or to direct artificial tincture ; this has been called
heterochrosis (Gr. fTepos, heteros, other, and xP«s«). The principal abnormal conditions are :
1. Albinism, in which the bird is white, wholly or in part; a " white Blackbird " is no mis-
nomer, and white Crows or Ravens are well known. This is the commonest affection of the
kinds now under consideration ; any bird may, and many birds do, become entirely pure white,
from failure of pigment ; such are called albinos. 2. Melanism, or abnormal blackness, from
excess of dark pigment. It is much less common than albinism, but by no means rare.
3. Xanthism (Gr. ^avdos, xatithos, yellow), or yellowness, as when a red, orange, or green
bird turns out more or less yellow. 4. Erytlirism (Gr. epvdpos, eruthros, red), or redness.
Both the last two cases are somewhat special ones, considered as abnormities. Feeding upon
cayenne pepper may produce erythrism ; in Brazil, where counterfeit species of Chrysotis, a
genus of Parrots, are fashionable, they "are produced by the rubbing in of the cutaneous
secretion of a toad, Biifo tructorius, into the budding feathers of the head, which then turn out
yellow instead of green" (Newton, Diet., p. 99). It should be noted that all these hetero-
chroses are abnormal; normal changes of plumage with age or season, and normal differences
of plumage, are treated beyond. Neither dechromatism nor aptosochromatism is here iu
question.
Feather Oil Gland. — Birds do not perspire, and cutaneous glands, corresponding to the
sweat-glands and sebaceous follicles so common in Mammalia, are hardly known among them.
But their " oil-can " is a kind of sebaceous follicle, which may be noticed here in connection
with other teguinentary appendages. This is a two-lobed or rather heart-shaped gland, sad-
dled upon the " pope's nose," at the root of the tail, and hence sometimes called the uropyrjial
(Lat. uropygiiim, rump), or ruinp gland ; is also known as the elceodoclion (Gr. iKaiohoxoi,
elaiodochos, containing oil). It is composed of numerous slender tubes or follicles which se-
crete a greasy tluid, the ducts of which, uniting successively in larger tubes, finally open by
one or more pores, commonly upon a little nipple-like elevation. Birds press out a drop of oil
with the beak and dress the feathers with it, in the well-known operation called "preening."
The gland is present in most birds ; it is large and always present in aquatic birds, which have
need of waterproof plumage ; smaller in land-birds, as a rule, and wanting in some. The
presence or absence of this singular structure, and whether or not it is surmounted by a partic-
ular circlet of feathers, distinguishes certain groups of birds, and has become much used in
classification, as it was supposed to be related in some occult manner to the coeca of the
intestine.
Pterylography. — Feathered Tracts and Unf eathered Spaces. — Excepting certain
birds having obviously naked spaces, as about the head or feet, all would be taken to be
fully feathered. So they are all covered with feathers, but it does not follow that feathers are
everywhere implanted upon the skin. On the contrary, a uniform and continuous pterylosis
is the rarest of all kinds of feathering ; though such occurs, almost or quite perfectly, among
certain birds, as Ostriches and their allies Penguins, and Toucans. If we compare a bird's skin
to a well-kept park, part woodland, part lawn, then where feathers grow is the woodland,
wliere they do not grow is the lawn. The former places are called tracts or pterylce (Gr.
nrepov, pteron, aphune, and v\r], huh, woods; literally, " feather-forests") ; the latter, spaces,
or «/??ena (Gr. a privative, and TrrepoV) ; they reciprocally distinguish certain definite areas.
Not only are pterylee and apteria thus definite, but their size, form, and arrangement mark
whole families and even orders of birds, so that pterylosis becomes available, and is indeed
found to be important, for purposes of classification. Pterylography, or the description of this
matter, was first (1833) made a special study by the celebrated Nitzsch, who laid down the
general plan of pterylosis which obtains in the great majority of birds, as follows : 1. The
90
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
spinal or dorsal tract (pteryla spinalis ; fig. 24, 1), running along the middle of a bird above
from nape of neck to tail ; subject to great variation in width, to dilation and contraction, to
forking, to sending out branches, to interruption, to enclosing an apterium, etc. 2. Humeral
or arm tracts (pt. humerales ; Lat. humerus, shoulder, or upper arm-bone; fig. 24, 2), always
present, one on each wing ; they are narrow bands, running from the shoulder obliquely back-
ward upon the upper arui-bone, parallel with the shoulder-blade. 3. Femoral or thigh tracts
(pt. femorales ; Lat. femur, thigh; fig. 24, 3) ; a similar oblique band upon the outside of each
thigh, subject to great vaiiation. 4. The ventral tract (pt. ventralis ; Lat. venter, belly ;
fig. 24, 8), which forms most of the plumage on the under part of a bird, commencing at or
near the throat, and continuing to the vent ; like the dorsal tract, it is very variable, is broad
or narrow, branched, etc., though always consisting of right and left halves, with a median
apterium ; thus, Nitzsch enumerates seventeen distinct modifications, and there are others. The
foregoing are mostly isolated tracts, that is, bands nearly surrounded by complementary apteria ;
the following are, in general, continuously and uniformly feathered, and thus practically equiva-
lent to the part of the body they represent : Thus, 5, the head tract {pt. capitalis ; Lat. caput.
Fio. 24. — Pterylosis of Micropus apus, drawn by Cones after Nitzsch ; right hand upper, left hand lower, surface.
1. spinal tract; 2. humeral; 3. femoral; 4. capital; 5. alar; G. caudal; 7. crural; 8. veutral.
capiitis, head ; fig. 24, 4) clothes the head, and generally runs into the beginning of both dorsal
and ventral tracts. 6. There may be a recognizable neck tract (pt. colli ; Lat. colliitn, neck),
and in some cases, as Herons, what Nitzsch called pt. colli laterales. 7. The alar or wing tract
(pt. alaris; Lat. ala, wing; fig. 24, 5) represents all feathers that grow upon the wing, ex-
cepting those of the humeral tract. 8. The caudal or tail tract {pt. caudalis; Lat. cauda, tail;
fig. 24, 6) includes the tail-feathers proper and their coverts, and usually receives the termina-
tion of dorsal, ventral, and femoral tracts. 9. The crural or leg tract {pt. cruralis ; Lat. crits,
cruris, leg; figs. 24, 7) clothes the legs as far as these are feathered, which is generally to the
heel, always below the knee, and sometimes to the toes or even the claws. 10. The uropygial
or rump tract (pt. uropygii) is confined to the elaeodochon, which may be uniformly feathered,
or naked except for a peculiar circlet of feathers which surmounts it. I need not enumerate the
apteria, as these are merely the complements of the pterylae. The highly important special
" flight-feathers" of the wings and " rudder-feathers " of the tail are to be examined beyond,
in describing those members for purposes of classification.
Endysis and Ecdysis. — Putting on and off Plumage. — Newly hatched birds, as
already said, are partially or entirely covered for some time with a kind of down neossop-
tiles, entirely difi"erent from such teleoptiles as they ultimately acquire. The relation
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS. 91
between these two sets of feathers has already been fully shown. Down is scanty, leaving
much or all of the body naked, in most altricial birds, or such as are reared by the parents
in the nest (Lat. alirix, female nourisher) ; but thick and puffy in some Altrices, and in all
Prcccoces (Tiat. prcecox, precocious), which run about at birth. Since many birds which re-
quire to be reared in the nest also hatch clothed, or very speedily become downy, a more
exact distinction may be drawn by using the terms ptilopccdic and psUopcedic (Gr. irriXov, ptilon,
a feather; -^CKoi, psilos, bare ; and Trals, pais, a child) respectively for those birds which hatch
feathered or naked; a chicken and a canary-bird are familiar examples. Ptilopaedic birds are
also called dasypasdic (Gr. baavs, dasus, hairy), which means the same thing. It is the rule,
that the higher birds are born helpless and naked or nearly so, requiring to be reared in the
nest till their true feathers grow ; the reverse with lower birds, as the walking, wading, and
swimming tribes; and a primary division of birds has even been proposed upon this physio-
logical distinction. It offers, however, too many exceptions ; thus, no birds are more naked
and helpless at birth than young Cormorants. Probably all prsecocial birds are also ptilopa3dic
and all psilopaedic birds altricial ; but the converse is far from holding good, many Altrices, as
Hawks and Owls, being also ptilopsedic. In other words, psilopsedic birds are always altricial,
but ptilopadic birds may be either altricial or praecocial. In view of this distinction which
does not always distinguish, it has been proposed to drop the terms, and substitute nidicolous
(Lat. nidus, nest, and colere, to inhabit) for those birds which stay some time in the nest, those
which leave it at once being termed nidifugous (Lat. nidus, nest, and fugere, to flee). Thus,
all Altrices are NidicolcB, and all PrcBCOces are Nidifugce ; in either case without prejudice to
the question whether the former are psilopsedic or ptiloptedic.
In any ease, true feathers are soon gained, in some days or weeks, those of wings and tail
being usually the first to sprout. The acquisition of plumage is called endysis (eudva-is, endusis,
putting on). The renewal of plumage is a process familiar to all, in its generalities, under the
term " moult," or ecdgsis (Gr. €k8v(tis, ekdusis, putting off), though the details of the process
have been worked out satisfactorily for comparatively few species of birds, and M'e have to be
cautious in making statements concerning this subject; for unexpected exceptions may be un-
provided for unless our language is guarded. Feathers are of such rapid growth, and make
such a drain upon vital energies, that we easily understand how critical are periods of moult.
The first plumage is usually worn but a short time ; then another more or less complete change
commonly occurs. The moult is annual, as a rule ; and in many cases more than one moult is
required before a mature bird attains the perfection of its feathering. It is well known how dif-
ferent many birds are the first year in their coloration from that afterward acquired; sometimes
changes progress for several years ; and some birds appear to have a period of senile decline.
All such changes are necessarily connected, if not with actual moult, as is the rule, then at any
rate with wear and tear and repair of the plumage. The first plumage having been gained,
under whatever conditions peculiar to the species, it is the general rule, that birds are there-
after subject to single, or annual, moult ; possibly there is no exception to the rule that a
healthy adult bird renews its plumage at least once a year. This change commonly occurs
when the duties of incubation are concluded, and the well-worn plumage most needs renewal,
as happens in late summer and early autumn months in our latitudes ; though some of our
l)irds, as Swallows and Hawks, may put off tlie process till winter. Many birds, however,
moult twice a year, the additional moult usually occurring in spring, when a fresh nuptial suit
is acquired ; in such cases, the moult is said to be dotible, or semi-annual. Such additional
moult is generally incomplete; that is, all the feathers are not shed and renewed, but more or
fewer new ones are gained, with more or less loss of old ones, if any. The most striking orna-
ments donned for the breeding season, as the elegant plumes of many Herons, are usually worn
but a brief time, being doffed in advance of the general fall moult; and males of very many
birds which put on special nuptial ornaments make room for these by doffing feathers from the
92 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
parts where the new ones grow. A few birds, as Ptarmigan (Lagopus), regularly have a third
or triple moult, '' shedding their feathers as usual by annual moult iu summer, then soon chang-
ing by another (partial) moult to pure white for the winter, then in spring moulting again more
or less to assume their wedding dress." As a rule, feathers are moulted so gradually, particu-
larly those of wings and tail, and so simultaneously upon right and left sides of the body, that
birds are at no time deprived of power of flight : moreover, the first flight-feathers acquired by
youug birds are usually kept till the next season. But those that fly very early, before they
are half grown, as so many gallinaceous birds do, include their first weak wing-feathers in the
general moult which occurs to young and old in autumn. The Duck family (Anatidcc) and
some others ofier the remarkable case, that they drop their wing-quills so nearly all at once as
to be for some time deprived of power of flight ; and on regaining them the males acquire a
postnuptial plumage very difierent from that gay attire they last wore — a dingy dress like that
of the female. Numberless other birds, like our Tanagers, the males of which are brilliant in
breeding dress, moult into a postnuptial plumage in which they resemble their homely mates.
It is difficult to lay down any rules of moulting for particular groups of birds, since very closely
related species may diflFer greatly in respect to their changes of plumage, and the subject has
not yet received the attention its interest and importance should claim for it.
The physiological processes involved in endysis and ecdysis are analogous to those con-
cerned in shedding of hair of mammals, casting of cuticle of reptiles ; for hair, cuticle, and
feather are alike cuticular or epidermal structures, as we have seen (p. 81). Therefore it
need surprise no one to learn that feathers are not the only tegumentary appendages subject to
moult. Some birds shed portions of the horny covering of the bill, feet, claws, even eyelids.
Thus in the Grouse family (Tetraonidce) the greatly overgrown claws of some species in the
winter season are reduced in size by moult or by mechanical wearing away (as is also the
case with some Lemmings among mammals) ; and some Grouse develop along the sides of
the toes a fringe of horny process which is regularly shed and renewed. The bill of Redpolls
of the genus ^giothus enlarges in summer, bulging out into a redundant growth of horn, which
in winter is mechanically worn down till the bill resumes its usual acutely conical shape. Our
White Pelican regularly sheds a curious horny outgrowth of the upper mandible. But the most
remarkable known cases of such ecdysis of horn are found in various species of the Auk family
(Alcidce) ; for a full account of which the reader is referred to my article in the body of this
book, where that family is treated at length.
Aptosochromatism. — It is certain that many birds change the colors of their plumage
without losing or gaining any feathers, and thus independently of moult. This is what I call
aptosochromatism (Gr. a, privative ; nrSxris, ptosis, a falling off or away ; xP^H'^j chroma, color,
complexion). Though I coined this word many years ago, and some of the facts to which it
applies were known long before my time, certain writers have had the hardihood to deny the
facts and decry the term. It is asserted by such persons that a feather becomes a dry dead ap-
pendage as soon as it attains its growth ; which is not true. A feather, like a hair or a claw,
retains vitality for a time after it, ceases to grow ; and does not die until it is ready to be cast
like a foreign body. True, there is no blood circulation after the pin-feather stage is past, and
the " soul " of the feather has turned to dry pith ; but a certain degree of vascularity persists for
some time thereafter, maintaining vital connection with the body, and permitting certain molec-
ular changes of pigmentation in the substance of the feather. The full-grown hairs of a mam-
mal long retain a sort of circulation which in some cases is capable of altering their color ;
witness the bleacliing of black or brown human hair in a few hours under some strong mental
emotions of grief or terror. Feathers are in precisely the same case. Nay, more ; a different
degree of vitality can easily be shown to persist in different parts of the same feather. Thus,
the primaries of many Gulls acquire definite white tips ; and these wear away sooner than the
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— FEATHERS. 93
"black portion of the feathers, so that the white spots are lost as neatly as if they had been
snipped away with scissors. It seems to be a rule, that heavy pigmentation tends to make a
feather more durable than it would othervAise be. Again, the identical primary of a Gull ac-
quires after it is full grown a greater extent of white or pearly web than it had before, by actual
absorption or decomposition of black pigment in a portion of the web, the bleaching being thus
progressive. Such changes could not go on in a dead feather; they are physiological processes,
or at any rate chemical processes, in living tissue, — not merely mechanical alterations due to
wear and tear of dead substance ; and they affect coloration of plumage far more profoundly
than is commonly recognized, as well as in a far greater number of cases than have been as-
cribed, as they should be, to aptosochromatism. It has been proven in the case of the red and
gray phases of our Screech Owl (Megascops asio) that aptosochromatism is effected by actual
alteration of pigmentation, without any loss of old or gain of new feathers. Erythrlsm and
melanism, and numerous other alterations of color, may be undergone by birds without any
moult ; such change may be brought about by a particular diet, and certainly this could not
occur if a grown feather were a dead feather, lacking all vascular connection with the fluids or
humors of the body. Such physiological or chemical processes as are concerned in depigmen-
tation and rcpigmentation of grown yet living feathers may be likened to the changes undergone
by chlorophyll in the leaves of plants which change from green to yellow or scarlet while they
still live, and do not lose vascular connection with the stem till they turn brown, wither, and
drop. Persons who pluck live geese understand this matter better than some ornithologists do ;
they resort to this cruel process because they can get a better pi-ice for feathers torn from the
living body of the poor bird, than for the identical feathers taken from the same goose dead,
because the former are more elastic and more durable.
Aptosochromatism is thus primarily a physiological and chemical fact. But it extends to and
is directly connected with a certain mechanical process by which plumage may be profoundly
affected in coloration without loss or gain of any feathers. Now, if the student will refer back
to what I have said regarding color, he will recall the facts, that pigmentary colors are often
dependent upon the texture of feathers for their optical effect. For example, there are no blue
pigments, but plenty of birds are blue by objective structural coloration ; and any alteration in
texture or structure of a feather is liable to produce a change of color. In fact, this sort of ap-
tosochromatism is very common ; it consists in shedding certain parts of a feather which have
less vitality than the rest, and therefore break off and drop away before the whole feather dies
and follows suit. Not only barbicels and barbules may be thus moulted, without visibly alter-
ing the shape of the feather, though very likely with some change of objective structural color-
ation, and in cases of iridescence with entire change of subjective structural coloratiou ; but also
some of the barbs themselves may fall away from the rest, with great change in the figure of
the webs, and consequently great alteration in color of plumage if, as is usually the case, the
lost portion of the webs be differently pigmented from the part that remains. Few ornitholo-
gists seem to be aware of the prevalence of this sort of aptosochromatism as a factor in modifying
or entirely changing the coloration of birds. The male of our Bobolink, for example, acquires
his faultless black plumage by shedding the long yellowish tips of the feathers which just before
had veiled those portions of his wedding suit. The Snow Bunting, which has no spring moult,
passes to the pure black and white nuptial plumage by dropping the brown edges and ends of
black centred feathers; in this case, so much of each feather is lost that the shape changes from
a broadly rounded to a sharply pointed contour. In the related genus of Longspurs I have
found that certain uniformly glossy black areas result in like manner from loss of deciduous gray
or brown portions of the webs. I have above spoken of this kind of aptosochromatism as "a
certain mechanical process." It is mechanical in the sense of breakage and loss of parts of a
feather, but this is not due to actual abrasion or wear and tear, and would not occur if there
were no physiological process concerned ; for if the parts in question were not devitalized they
94 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
would not be deciduous, nor drop before the whole feather was ready to fall. While it is not
probable, as some have claimed, that a worn feather can mend its ragged edges by a new growth
of barbs, barbules, or barbicels, it is certain that a fresh feather retains for a while after it is
full grown those molecular movements in its substance which may result in deposition of addi-
tional pigment, and in absorption or decomposition of pigment already laid down ; so that some
colored areas may be extended or restricted, and also change color to some degree, during the
lifetime of an individual feather — that is, without moult — that is, in a word, aptosochromatism.
Once more; if we turn from consideraticm of color-change in the webs of feathers to such as
may be readily observed in their shafts, we find the same thing again. The surface of a rha-
chis is smooth, firm, and solidly horny, quite like the corneous covering of the bill. Now the
beak of some birds, as of the genus Leucosticte for example, is black in summer and yellow in
winter, and this is aptosochromatism, for nobody imagines that the horny sheath of the bill is
shed in this genus; it is an actual alteration in color from black to yellow and back again.
The same thing occurs, for instance, in the shaft of a Gull's primary, which alters from blackish
to yellowish or white in a certain portion of its extent corresponding to the gradual extension
of white areas in the adjoining portions of each web of the same feather, and has nothing what-
ever to do with the moult of that feather. The notorious inconstancy of coloration of what are
called the " soft parts" of most water birds is another case in point. Such as these are " softer "
than feathers, indeed, but horny epidermis is only "soft" in comparison with harder horn, not
to the degree of what is commonly called vascularity, for it has no blood vessels. I adduce these
facts to bring all the epidermal structures of birds into proper correlation, showing that feathers
do not differ from beaks or claws so much as some have assumed in the degree of that kind of
vascularity which they retain for a while after they have ceased to grow, and that in the interval
between maturity and moult they may continue subject to color-changes (a) by pigmentary
vicissitudes, (b) by structural modifications ; both of which modes of alteration in coloration
come under the head of aptosochromatism, or change of plumage without loss or gain of any
feathers.
Plumage-changes with Sex, Age, and Season. — Aside from any consideration of the
way in which plumage changes, whether by moult or otherwise, the fact remains that most
birds of the same species diS"er more or less from one another according to certain circumstances.
The dissimilarity is not only in coloration, though this is the usual and most pronounced differ-
ence, but also in the degree of development of plumes, — their size, form, and texture. Since
young birds are those which have not come to sexual vigor; since breeding recurs at regular
periods of adult life, annually or oftener; and since males and females usually differ in plu-
mage,— nearly all the various dresses worn by different individuals of the same species are cor-
related with conditions of the reproductive system. As the internal generative organs represent
of course the essential or primary sexual characters, all those of plumage just indicated may be
properly classed as secondary sexual characters. These are of great importance, not only in
practical ornithology, but as the basis of some of the soundest views that have been advanced
respecting the evolution of specific characters in this class of animals. The generalizations
may be made : that when the sexes are strikingly different in plumage, the young at first re-
semble the female ; when the adults are alike, the young are diff"erent from either ; when sea-
sonal changes are great, the young resemble the fall plumage of the parents ; and, further, that
when the adults of two related species of the same genus are nearly alike, the young are usu-
ally intermediate, their specific characters not being fully developed. Specific characters are
often to be found only in the male, the females of two related species being scarcely distinguish-
able, though the males may be told apart at a glance. Extraordinary developments of feathers,
as to size, shape, and color, are often confined to one sex, usually the male. The more richly,
extensively, or peculiarly tlic male is adorned, the simpler the female in comparison, as the
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS. 95
Peacock and Peahen. The Wise Man of Late has formulated several categories of secondary
sexual characters, giving the following rules or classes of cases : "1. When the adult male is
more beautiful or conspicuous than the adult female, the young of both sexes in their first
plumage closely resemble the adult female, as with the common Fowl and Peacock ; or, as occa-
sionally occurs, they resemble her much more closely than they do the adult male. 2. When
the adult female is more conspicuous than the adult male, as sometimes though rarely occurs
[chiefly with certain birds of prey and snipe-like birds], the young of both sexes in their first
plumage resemble the adult male. 3. When the adult male resembles the adult fem.ale, the
young of both sexes have a peculiar first plumage of their own, as with the Robin [usual].
4. When the adult male resembles the adult female, the young of both sexes in their first
plumage resemble the adults [unusual]. 5. When the adults of both sexes have a distinct
winter and summer plumage, whether or not the male differs from the fenuile, the young re-
semble the adults of both sexes in their winter dress, or much more rarely in their summer
dress, or they resemble the females alone. Or the young may have an intermediate character ;
or again they may differ greatly from the adults in both their seasonal plumages. 6. In
some few cases the young in their first plumage differ from each other according to sex ; the
young males resembling more or less closely the adult males, and the young females more or
less closely the adult females." — (Darwin, Desc. of Man, ed. 1881, p. 466.)
Summary of Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds. — The temptation to give the
conclusion of the whole matter in Darwin's own words, summary of his views of Sexual Selec-
tion as so important a factor in Natural Selection, need not be resisted. I therefore quote again
from the work last cited, pp. 496-499.
" Most male birds are highly pugnacious during the breeding season, and some possess weapons adapted for fight-
ing with their rivals. But the most pugnacious and the best armed males rarely or never depend for success solely upon
their power to drive away or kill their rivals, but have special means for charming the female. With some it is the power
of song, or of giving forth strange cries, or instrumental music, and the males in consequence ditfer in their vocal organs,
or in the structure of certain feathers. From the curiously diversified means for producing various sounds, we gain a
high idea of the importance of this means of courtship. Many birds endeavor to charm the female by love-dances or
antics, performed on the ground or in the air, and sometimes at prepared places. But ornaments of many kinds, the
most brilliant tints, combs, and wattles, beautiful plumes, elongated feathers, top-knots, and so forth, are by far the
commonest means. In some cases mere novelty appears to have acted as a charm. The ornaments of the males must be
highly important to them, for they have been acquired in not a few cases at the cost of increased danger from enemies,
and even at some loss of power in fighting with their rivals. The males of very many species do not assume their orna-
mental dress until they arrive at maturity, or they assume it only during the breeding season, or the tints then become
more vivid. Certain ornamental appendages become enlarged, turgid, and brightly colored during the act of courtship.
The males display their charms with elaborate care and to the best effect ; and this is done in the presence of the females.
The courtship is sometimes a prolonged affair, and many males and females congregate at an appointed place. To sup-
pose that the females do not appreciate the beauty of the males, is to admit that their splendid decorations, all their
pomp and display, are useless ; and this is incredible. Birds have fine powers of discrimination, and in some few cases
it can be shown that they have a taste for the beautiful. The females, moreover, are known occasionally to exhibit a
marked preference or antipathy for certain individual males.
" If it be admitted that the females prefer, or are unconsciously excited by the more beautiful males, then the
males would slowly but surely be rendered more and more attractive through sexual selection. That it is this sex which
has been chiefly modified, we may infer from the fact that, in almost every genus where the sexes differ, the males differ
much more from one another than do the females ; this is well shown in certain closely-allied representative species, in
which the females can hardly be distinguished, whilst the males are quite distinct. Birds in a state of nature offer indi-
vidual differences which would amply sviffice for tlie work of sexual selection ; but we have seen that they occasionally
present more strongly-marked variations which recur so frequently that they would immediately be fixed, if they served
to allure the female. The laws of variation must determine the nature of the initial changes, and will have largely influ-
enced tlie final result. Tlie gradations, which may be observed between the males of allied species, indicate the nature
of the stejis througli whicli they have passed. They explain also in the most interesting manner how certain characters
have originated, such as the indented ocelli on the tail-feathers of the peacock and the ball and socket ocelli on the wing-
feathers of the Argus pheasant. It is evident that the brilliant colors, top-knots, fine plumes, &c., of many male birds
cannot have been acquired as a protection ; indeed, they sometimes lead to danger. That they are not due to the direct
and definite action of the conditions of life, we may feel assured, because the females have been exposed to the same con-
ditions, and yet often differ from the males to an extreme degree. Although it is probable that changed conditions act-
ing during a lengthened period liave in some cases produced a definite effect on both sexes, or sometimes on one sex
96 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
alone, the more important result wiU have been an Increased tendency to vary or to present more strongly-marked indi-
vidual differences ; and such differences will have afforded an excellent ground-work for the action of sexual selection.
" The laws of inlieritance, irrespectively of selection, appear to have determined whether the characters acquired
by the males for the sake of ornament, for producing various sounds, and for fighting together, have been transmitted to
the males alone or to both sexes, either permanently, or periodically during certain seasons of the year. Why various
characters should have been transmitted sometimes in one way and sometimes in another, is not in most cases known ;
but the period of variability seems often to have been the determining cause. When tlie two sexes have inlierited all
characters in common, they necessarily resemble each other ; but as the successive variations may be differently trans-
mitted, every possible gradation may be found, even within the same genus, from the closest similarity to the widest dis-
similarity between the sexes. With many closely-allied species, following nearly the same habits of life, the males have
come to differ from each other chiefly through the action of sexual selection ; whilst the females have come to differ
cliiefly from partaking more or less of the characters thus acquired by the males. The effects, moreover, of the definite
action of the conditions of life, will not have been masked in the females, as in the males, by the accumulation through
sexual selection of strongly-pronounced colors and other ornaments. The individuals of both sexes, however affected,
will have been kept at each successive period nearly uniform by the free intercrossing of many individuals.
" With species, in which the sexes differ in color, it is possible or probable that some of the successive variations
often tended to be transmitted equally to both sexes ; but that when this occurred the females were prevented from ac-
quiring the bright colors of the males, by the destruction which tliey suffered during incubation. There is no evidence
that it is possible by natural selection to convert one form of transmission into another. But there would not be the
least difficulty in rendering a female dull-colored, the male being still kept bright-colored, by the selection by successive
variations, which were from the first limited in their transmission to the same sex. Whether the females of many spe-
cies have actually been thus modified, must at present remain doubtful. When, through the law of the equal transmis-
sion of characters to both sexes, the females were rendered as conspicuously colored as the males, their instincts appear
often to have been modified so that they were led to build domed or concealed nests.
" In one small and curious class of cases the characters and habits of the two sexes have been completely trans-
posed, for the females are larger, stronger, more vociferous and brighter colored than the males. They have, also, be-
come so quarrelsome that they often fight together for the possession of the males, like the males of other pugnacious
species for the possession of the females. If, as seems probable, such females habitually drive away their rivals, and by
the display of their bright colors or other charms endeavor to attract the males, we can understand how it is that they
have gradually been rendered, by sexual selection and sexually-limited transmission, more beautiful than the males —
the latter being left unmodified or only slightly modified.
" Whenever the law of inheritance at corresponding ages prevails, but not that of sexually-limited transmission,
then if the parents vary late in life — and we know that this constantly occurs with our poultry, and occasionally with
other birds — the young will be left unaffected, whilst the adults of both sexes will be modified. If both these laws of
inheritance prevail and either sex varies late in life, that sex alone will be modified, the other sex and the young being un-
affected. When variations in brightness or in other conspicuous characters occur early in life, as no doubt often happens,
they will not be acted on through sexual selection until the period of reproduction arrives ; consequently if dangerous to
the young, they will be eliminated through natural selection. Thus we can understand how it is that variations arising
late in life have so often been preserved for the ornamentation of the males ; the females and the young being left almost
unaffected, and therefore like each other. With species having a distinct summer and winter plumage, the males of
■which either resemble or differ from the females during both seasons or during the summer alone, the degrees and kinds
of resemblance between the young and the old are exceedingly complex ; and this complexity apparently depends on
characters, first acquired by the males, being transmitted in various ways, as limited by age, sex, and season.
" As the young of so many species have been but Uttle modified in color and other ornaments, we are enabled to
form some judgment with respect to the plumage of their early progenitors ; and we may infer that the beauty of our
existing species, if we look to the whole class, has been largely increased since that period, of which the plumage gives
us an indistinct record. Many birds, especially those which live much on the ground, have undoubtedly been obscurely
colored for the sake of protection. In some instances the upper exposed surface of the plumage has been thus colored
in both sexes, whilst the lower surface in the males alone has been variously ornamented through sexual selection.
Finally, from the facts given in these four chapters [pp. 358-499 of the work in citation], we may conclude that weapons
for battle, organs for producing sound, ornaments of many kinds, bright and conspicuous colors, have generally been
acquired by the males through variation and sexual selection, and have been transmitted in various ways according to
the several laws of inheritance — the female and the young being left comparatively but little modified."
l. Topography of Birds.
The Contour of a Bird with the feathers on is spindle-shaped, or fusiform (Lat.
ftisus, a spindle), tapering at botli ends ; it represents two cones joined base to base at the middle
or greatest girth of the body, tapering in front to the tip of the bill, behind to the end of the
tail. The obvious design is easiest cleavage of air in front, and least drag or wash behind, in
the act of flying. This shape is largely produced by the lay of the plumage ; a naked bird pre-
sents several prominences and depressions, this irregular contour being reducible, in general
terms, to two spindles or double cones. The head tapers to a point in front, at the tip of the
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — TOPOGRAPHY. 97
■bill, and contracts behind toward tlie middle of the neck, in consequence of diminution in
bulk of the muscles by which it is slung on the neck ; which last is somewhat contracted or
hour-glass shaped near the middle, swelling where it is slung to the body. The body is largest
in front and tapers to the tail.
The Centre of Gravity is admirably preserved beneath the centre of the body, and op-
posite the points where it is supported by the wings. The enormous breast- muscles of a bird
axe among its heaviest parts, sometiuies weighing, to speak roundly, as much as one-sixth of
the whole bird. Now these are they that effect all the movements of the wings at the shoulder-
joints, lifting as well as lowering the wings. Did these pectoral muscles pull straight, the
lifters would have to be above the slioulder-joiut ; but they all lie below it, and the lifters
accomplish their office by running through pulleys to change the line of their traction. They
work like men hoisting sails from the deck of a vessel ; and thus, like a ship's cargo, a bird's
<;hief weight is kept below the centre of motion. Top-heaviness is further obviated by the way
in which birds with a long heavy neck and head draw these parts in upon the breast, and
extend the legs behind, as is well shown by the attitude of a heron flying. The nice adjust-
ment of balance by the variable extension of the head and feet is exactly like that produced in
weighing by shifting a weight along the arm of a steel-yard; and together with the slinging
of the chief weight under the wings instead of over or even between them, enables a bird to
•easily keep riglit side up in tlight.
The Exterior of a Bird is divided for purposes of description into seven parts : —
1. Head (hat. caput) ; 2. Neck (hat. collum) ; 3. Body proper, or trunk (Lat. truncus) ; 4.
Bill or beak (Lat. rostrum) ; 5. Wings (Lat. pi. alee) ; 6. Tail (Lat. Cauda); 7. Feet (Lat. pi.
pedes). Of these, 1, 2, 3, head, neck, and trunk, are collectively termed body (Lat. corjms).
in distinction from 4, 5, 6, 7, which are members (Lat. membra). Wings and feet are of course
double or paired parts. The bill is strictly but a part of the head ; but its manifold uses as an
organ of prehension make it functionally a hand, and therefore one of the " members."
The Head has the general shape of a four-sided pyramid ; of which the base is applied to
the end of the neck, therefore not appearing from the exterior, and the apex of which is frus-
trated at the base of the bill. The uppermost side is more or less convex or vaulted, sloping in
■every direction ; the under side is flattish and horizontal ; the lateral surfaces are flattish and
vertical ; all similarly taper forward. The departures from any such typical shape are endless
in degree and variable in kind, giving rise to numerous general descriptive terms, such as
''head flattened," "head globular," but not susceptible of exact definition. The head is
moulded, of course, upon the skull, corresponding in a general way to the brain-cavity of the
cranium proper, both in size and sliape ; but it differs in several particulars. In the first place,
there is the scaff"olding of the jaws; secondly, large excavations to receive the eye-balls, and
smaller ones for the ear-parts ; thirdly, muscular and sometimes glandular masses overlying
the bone ; and lastly, in some birds, large liollow spaces in bone between the inner and outer
tables or plates of the cranial walls. Each side of the head presents two openings for eye (Lat.
ccidus) and ear (Lat. auris), the position of which is variable, both absoluttdy and in relation
to each other. But in the vast majority of birds, the eye is strictly lateral in situation, and
near the middle of the side of the head ; wliile the ear is behind and a little below the eye,
near the articulation of the lower jaw. But the shape of the skull of Owls is sucli, that the
eyes are directed forward, and such birds are said t() have "eyes anterior." Owls also have
enormous outer ears, in some cases provided with a movable flap or ccmch, closing upon the
opening like the lid of a box ; and in many cases their ear-parts, and some of the cranium
itself, is unsymmetrical. In most birds the ear-opening is quite small, and only covered by
7
98 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
modified feathers. In Woodcock and Snipe, owing to the way the brain-box is tilted up, the
ears are below and not behind the eyes. The mouth (Lat. os, gen. oris) is always a fissure across
the front of the head. The cleavage varies, both in extent and direction ; the latter is usually
horizontal, or nearly so, but may trend much downward ; the former varies from a minimum,
in which the cleft does not reach back of the horny part of the bill, as in a snipe, to the maxi-
mum seen in fissure-billed birds like Swifts and Goatsuckers, which gape almost from ear to ear.
There are no other openings in the head proper, for the nostrils are always in the bill.
The Neck, in effect, is a simple cylinder, rendered somewhat hour-glass shaped, as above
said. It consists of a movable chain of bones, or cervical vertebrae (Lat. cervix, neck ; verto, I
turn), enveloped in muscle, along which in front lie the gullet (Lat. cesoplmgus) and windpipe
(Lat. trachea), with associate blood-vessels, nerves, etc. Its length is very variable, as is the
number of its bones, the latter ranging from 8 to about 26. Bearing as it does the head, with
the bill, which serves as a hand, the neck is extremely flexible, to permit necessarily varied
movements of this handy member. Its least length may be that which allows the point of a
bird's beak to reach the oil-gland on the rump ; its greatest length sometimes exceeds that of
the body and tail together, as in the case of a Swan, Crane, or Heron. The length is usually
in direct proportion to that of the legs, in obvious design of allowing the beak to touch the
ground easily to pick up food. The neck is habitually carried in a double curve, like an open
S or italic/, the lower belly of the curve, convex forward, fitting in between the forks of the
merry-thought (J^sX. fiirculum) , the upper curve, convex forward, holding the head horizontal
at the same time. This '' sigmoid flexure" (sigma, Greek S), highly characteristic of a bird's
neck, is produced by saddle-shaping of the articular surfaces of nearly all its bones. The me-
chanical arrangement is such, that the sigma may be easily bent till the upper end (head) rests
on the lower convexity, or as easily straightened to a right line ; but little if any farther devi-
ation in opposite curvature is permitted. As a generalization, the neck may be called relatively
longest in wading birds, as Herons, Cranes, Ibises, etc. ; shortest in perching birds, as the great
majority of small Tnsessores ; intermediate in swimming birds. But many swimmers, as
Swans and Cormorants, have extremely long necks ; and some waders, as Plovers, have very
short ones. A long neck is a rarity among higher birds (above Gallince), in most of which
the head seems to nestle upon the shoulders. The longer the neck, the more sinuous and
flexible is it likely to be. Anatomically, the neck ends in front at the articulation of the atlas
(first cervical vertebra) with the skull, and behind at the first vertebra which bears free jointed
ribs reaching the sternum. The shape of
The Body proper, or Trunk, is obviously referable to that of an egg ; it is ovate (Lat. ovum^
an egg ; whence oval, the plane figure represented by the middle lengthwise section of an egg;
ovate or ovoid, the solid figure). The swelling of the breast represents the greatest diameter of
the egg, usually near the larger end. But an ovoid is never perfectly expressed, and departures
from such figure are numberless. In general, perching birds have the body nearly of ovate
shape ; among waders, the figure is usually compressed, or flattened vertically, as is well seen
in Herons, and still better in Rails, where the lateral narrowing is at an extreme ; among swim-
mers, the body is always more or less depressed, or flattened horizontally, and especially under-
neath, tliat the birds may rest on water with more stability, as well shown by a Duck or Diver.
Anatomically the body begins with the foremost one of the dorsal vertebrce, or those that bear
true ribs; laterally, it ceases quite definitely at the shoulder -joints, the whole fore limb being
outside the general content of the trunk ; behind, in mid-line, it includes everything, only the
Xa\\-feathers themselves being beyond it; behind and laterally, it includes more or less of the
legs, for these are generally buried in common integument of the body nearly or quite to
the knee-joint, sometimes to the heel-joint; though in anatomical strictness the trunk is
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — TOPOGRAPHY. 99
limited by the hip-joint. The rib-bearing extent of the back-bone, ribs themselves, and the
greatly enlarged breast-bone (Lat. sternum') compose the cavity of the chest (Lat. thorax).
Upon this bony box, which contains the heart and lungs and some other viscera, are saddled
on each side the bones of the shoulder -girdle or scapular-arch, namely, the shoulder-blades
(Lat. scapula), the coracoids, and the collar-bones (Lat. clavicula), all three of which come
together at the shoulder-joint. The thoracic cavity is not separated by any partition or dia-
phragm from that of the belly (Lat. abdomen) , which with the 2}elcis, or basin, contains the
digestive, urinary, and genital organs. The pelvis is composed, in dorsal mid-line, of so many
vertebra? (dorso-lnmhar, sacral proper, and urosacral, as become immovably joined to one
another, and laterally of the confluent haunch-bones. The numerous anchylosed (or confluent)
vertebrfe compose the sacrum. The haunch-bones or ossa innominata consist on each side of
three bones, ilium, ischium, and pubis, in adult life more or less perfectly anchylosed. Where
they all three come together on each side is the hip-joint or coxa. The remaining bones,
usually included among those of the body proper, are the coccygeal or caudal vertebrae. (For
anatomical detail see beyond, under Osteology, etc.)
Topography of the Body. — Besides being thus divided into head, neck, trunk, and
members, the exterior of the body is further subdivided or mapped out into regions for purposes
of description. It is necessary for the student to become familiar with the " topography" of a
bird, as this kind of mapping out may be called, for names of regions or outer areas are inces-
santly used in ordinary descriptive oraithology. Many more names have been applied than are
in common use; I shall try to define and explain all those which are usually employed, begin-
ning with the parts of the body, and ending with those of the members.
1. REGIOXS OF THE BODY.
Upper and Under Parts. — Draw a line from corner of mouth along side of head and
neck to and through shoulder-joint and thence along side of body to root of tail ; all above this
line, including upper surfaces of wings and tail, are upper parts ; all below it, including under
surfaces of wings and tail, are under parts ; for which the short words "above" and "below"
often stand. The distinction is arbitrary, but so convenient as to be practically indispensable.
It will be seen how an otherwise lengthy description, enumerating parts that lie over or under
the " lateral line," can be put in so few words as, for example, " above, green; below, yellow."
Many birds' colors have some such simple general distribution. These parts are also dorsal
(Lat. dorsum, back) and ventral (Lat. venter, belly) surfaces or aspects. Upper parts of the
body proper, or trunk, have also received the general name of notceum (Gr. vojtos, notos, back) ;
under parts, similarly restricted, that of gastrceum (Gr. yaarrip, gaster, belly) . but these terms
are not much used. These two are never naked, while both head and neck may be variously
bare of feathers. The only exception is the transient condition of certain birds during incuba-
tion, when, like the Eider Duck, they pull ofl" feathers to furnish the nest, or when the plumage,
as usually happens, wears off. The gastra?um is rarely ornamented with feathers different in
texture or structure from those of the plumage at large ; but such a case is furnished by Lewis'
woodpecker (Asyndesmus torquatus), and much more notable cases are those of certain Birds of
Paradise, Storks, etc. The notaeum, on the contrary, is often the seat of extraordinary devel-
opment of feathers, either in size, shape, or texture, or all three of these qualities ; as the sin-
gularly elegant dorsal plumes of many Herons. Individual feathers of the notseuni are Tnustly
pcnnaceous, straiglit, lanceolate; and as a whole lie smoothly shingled or imbricated. The
ventral feathers are usually more largely plumulaceous, and less flat and imbricated, but even
more compact — that is, thicker — than those of the upper parts ; especially among water birds,
where they are more or less curly, and very thick-set. There are subdivisions of the
100
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Notaeum. — Beginning where neck ends, and ending where tail-coverts begin (see fig. 25,
12), this part of a bird is subdivided into hack (Lat. dorsum; fig. 25, 11) and rump (Lat. uro-
pygium; fig. 25, 13). These are in direct continuation of each other, and their limits are not
precisely defined ; feathers of both grow on the pterijla dorsalis. In general, we should call
the anterior two-thirds or three-fourths of noteeum "back," and the rest "rump." With the
foi'mer are generally included the scapular or shoulder-feathers, scapulars or scapularies ; these
are they that grow on the pterylce humerales. The region of notaeum they represent is called
scapulare (Lat. scapula, shoulder-blade), and that part of notfeum strictly between them is
called interscapulare (fig. 25, 10); it is often marked, as in the Chipping Sparrow, with streaks
or some other distinctive coloration. A part of dorsum, lying between interscapulare and
uropygium, is sometimes recognized as " lower back " (Lat. tergum) ; but this distinction is not
practically useful. To uropygium probably also belong feathers of the pterylce femorales, or at
Fio. 25. — Topography of a Bird. 1, forehead {/rons). 2, lore (loruni). 3, circumocular region. 4, crown {vertex).
5, eye. 6, hind liead {occiput). 7, nape {nucha). 8, hind neck {cervix). 9, side of neck. 10, interscapular region.
11, back proper {dorsum), including 10. 12, notccum, or upper part of body proper, including 10, 11, and 13. 13, rump
{uropygium). 14, upper tail-coverts {iectrices superiores). 15, tail {c(iuda). HI, under tail-coverts {cris.'!uni or tectrices
inferiores). 17, tarsus. 18, abdomen. 19, hind toe (ArtZ/uj-). 20, ^osiraPHW, including 18 and 24. 21, outer or fourth
toe. 22, middle or third toe. 23, side of body. 24, breast {pectus). 25, primaries. 26, secondaries. 27, so-called ter-
tiaries ; nos. 25, 26, 27 are flight-feathers or remiges. 28, primary coverts. 29, ahda, or bastard wing. 30, greater
coverts {tectrices majores). 31, median coverts (tectrices mediance). 32, lesser coverts {tectrifes minores). 33, " throat,"
including 34, 37, 38. 34, jngulum, or lower throat. 35, malar region. 36, auriculars. 37, guln, or middle throat.
38. mentum, or chin. 39, angle of commissure, or comer of mouth. 40, ramus of under mandible. 41, side of under
mandible. 42, gonys. 43, apex, or tip of bill. 44, tumia, or cutting edges of bill. 45, cuUnen, or ridge of upper mandi-
ble, corresponding to gonys. 46, side of upper mandible. 47, nostril {naris). 48 passes across bill a little in front of
its base.
any rate these are commonly included with rump in descriptions ; but they more properly repre-
sent flanks (Lat. ilia, or hypochondria) — that is, sides of rump. They are sometimes the seat
of largely developed or otherwise peculiarly modified feathers, as the snowy flank-plumes of the
White-bellied Swift (Aiironaides saxatilis) or Violet-green Swallow {Tachycineta thalassina).
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — TOPOGRAPHY. 101
which meet over the rump. The whole of notaeum, taken together with upper surfaces of wings,
is called the mantle (Lat. stragidum, a cloak); often a convenient term, as in describing Gulls
and Terns, for example. In like mauuer, the
Gastraeum is subdivided into regions, called breast (Lat. pectus; fig. 25, 24), belly (Lat.
abdomen; fig. 25, 1.8), and sides of body (Lat. pleura ; fig. 25, 2'S). The "sides" or pleurae
belong as much to dorsal as to ventral aspects of a bird's body ; but in consequence of the un-
derneath-freighted shape, the line we drew passes so high up along them, that they are almost
entirely given over to gastraeum. The breast begins over the merry-thought where jugulum
(see beyond) ends; on either hand, it slopes up to "sides"; behind, its extension is indefinite.
It should properly reach as far as the breast-bone does, to the limit of the thorax; but iu many
birds this would leave almost nothing for abdomen, and the limit would fluctuate with almost
every family of birds, the sternum being so variable in length. Practically, therefore, without
reference to the breast-bone, "breast" or pectus is restricted to the swelling anterior part of
gastraeum, which we call belly or abdomen as soon as it begins to straighten out and flatten.
Abdomen, like pectus, rounds up on either hand into sides; behind, it ends in a transverse line
passing across the anus. It has been unnecessarily divided into epigastrium or "pit of the
stomach," and venter or lower belly; but these terms are rarely used. (^Crissum is a frequent
name of some indefinite region immediately about the vent ; sometimes meaning flanks, some-
times vent-feathers or under tail-coverts proper; I refer to it again in connection with these
last.) Thougli these boundaries seem fluctuating and not perfectly satisfactory, a little practice
will enable the student to appreciate their proper use in descriptions, and to employ them him-
self with sufficient accuracy. The adjectival terms are respectively pectoral, abdominal, and
lateral. The anterior continuation of the trunk, or the
Neck (Lat. colliim) is likewise subdivided into regions. Its lateral aspects, except in birds
that have lateral neck-tracts of feathers, are formed by the meeting over its sides of feathers
that grow on dorsal and ventral pterylae, the skin being usually not planted with feathers on its
sides. Partly on this account, perhaps, a distinct region is not often named ; we say simply
" sides of neck," or " neck laterally" {parauchenia, fig. 25, 9). The neck behind, or its dorsal
(upper) aspect, is divided into two portions : a lower, " hind neck " proper, or " scruff of neck "
(Lut. cervix; fig. 25, 8), next to back ; and an upper, or " nape of neck " (Lat. nucha; fig. 25,
7), adjoining hind head. These are otherwise respectively known as the cervical and nuchal
region; and, in speaking of both together, we usually say "neck behind." The front of the
neck lias been needlessly subdivided, and these subregious vary with almost every writer. It
suffices to call it throat (Lat. gula, fig. 25, 37, or jugulum, 34); remembering that Xhe jugular
portion is lowermost, vanishing in breast, and the gula uppermost, running into chin along
under surface of head. Guttur is a term sometimes used to include gula and jugulum together:
it is equivalent to "throat," as just defined; the adjective is guttural. Though generally cov-
ered with feathers, the neck is frequently naked in part. When naked behind, it is usually
cervix that is bare, as so characteristically occurs in Herons, from interruption of forward ex-
tension of pteryla spinalis. Nucha is seldom if ever naked, except as an extension of general
bald-headedness. Gula is similarly naked from above downward, as conspicuously illustrated in
the order Steganopodes, comprising Pelicans, Cormorants, etc., which have a bare gular pouch;
and as seen in many Vultures, whose baldness extends over nucha and gula, and even all
around the neck, as in the Condor, whose nakedness ends with so singular a collar of close-set,
downy feathers. The lower throat or jugulum becomes naked in a few birds, in which a dis-
tended crop or craw protrudes, pushing apart feathers of two branches of pteryla ventralis as
these ascend the neck. The rule is, that the neck is not the seat of enlarged or otherwise highly
developed feathers, which might restrict the requisite freedom of its motion; but there are some
102 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
sigual exceptions, among which may be instanced the Grouse family. The Ruffed Grouse has
a singular umbrella-like tuft on each side of the neck : the Pinnated Grouse has still mure curi-
ous wiuglets in the same situation, covering bare distensible skin : the Sharp-tailed Grouse is
in sWiievvhat similar but less -proaouoced case; while the C(»ck--t)f-the-plaius has some «xtraor»
dinary jugular developments of feathers in connection with his subcutaneous tympanum. Cervix
proper almost never has modified feathers, but often a transverse coloration different from that
of the rest of the upper parts; when conspicuous, this is called ''cervical collar," to distinguish
it from guttural or jugular "collars" or rings of color. Nucha is frequently similarly marked
with a " nuchal band; " often special developments there take the form of lengthening of feath-
ers, and we have a "nuchal crest." More particularly in birds of much variegated colors,
guttur and jugulum are marked lengthivise with stripes and streaks, of which those on the sides
are apt to be different from those along the middle line in front. Jugulum occasionally has
lengthened feathers, as in many Herons. Higher up, the neck in front may have variously
lengthened or otherwise modified feathers. Conspicuous among these are the ruffs or tippets
of some birds, especially of the Grebe family {Podicipedidce), and of the male m^ {Pavoncella
pugnax). But these, and a few other modifications of feathers of upper neck, are more con-
veniently considered with those of the
Head. — Though smaller than any of the areas already considered, the head has been
more minutely mapped out, and much detail is required by the number and importance of its
recognizable parts or regions. Without intending to mention all that have been named, I
describe all needed to be known for any practical purposes.
"Top of head" is a collective term for all the upper surface, from base of bill to nape, and
laterally about to level of upper border of eyes; this is ])ileum or "cap" (fig. 25, 1, 4, 6) : it
is divided into three portions. The forehead, frontal region, or simply " the front " (Lat. frons;
fig. 25,1), includes all that slopes upward from bill, — generally to about opposite anterior
border of eyes. Middle head or crown (Lat. corona, or vertex; fig. 25, 1), includes top of head
proper, or highest part, from rise of forehead to fall of hind-head toward nucha. This slope is
hind-head (Lat. occiput; fig. 25, 6). The lateral border of all three constitutes the superciliary
line, that is, line over eye (Lat. super, over; cilia, little hairs, especially of the brows).
" Crown " means the same thing as pileum. The adjectives of the several words are frontal,
coronal or vertical, and occipital (pileum has none in use, coronal being said instead).
" Side of head" is a general term defining itself; it presents for consideration several re-
gions. The orbital or circumorhital region, or simply orhit (Lat. orhis, an orb, here meaning
socket of eyeball ; fig. 25, 3), is a small space forming a ring around eye. It includes eye, and
especially eyelids (Lat. palpebrcB). The points where these meet, in front and behind, respec-
tively, are anterior canthus and posterior canthns (Gr. kovOos, Jcanthos, Lat. canthus, a tire).
The orbital region is subdivided into supra-orhital, infra-orbital, ante-orbital, and post-orbital,
according as its upper, under, front, or back portion is desired to be specially designated. The
situation of the orbit varies much in different groups of birds ; it is generally midway, as said
above, but may be higher or lower, jammed on toward bill, or pushed far up and back, as strik-
ingly shown in Woodcock. In Owls, the orbital region is exaggerated into a great disc of
radiating feathers, conferring a peculiar physiognomy. The aural or auricidar (Lat. auris, or
auriculum, ear; fig. 25, 36) region lies about the external opening of the ear, or meatus audi-
torius; its position varies in heads of different shapes, but it nearly always lies behind and a
little below eye. Wherever located, it may be recognized at a glance, by a peculiar texture
of feathers (the aiiriculars) which overlie the meatus. Doubtless to offer least obstacle to
sound, these are a parcel of loose-webbed little plumes, which may be collectively raised and
turned forward, exposing orifice of ear; they are extremely large in those Owls which have
complicated external ear-parts, and in sucli they form a portion of the great facial disc The
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — TOPOGRAPHY. 103
term "temporal region" or "temple" is not often used in ornithology, not being well distin-
guished from a post-orbital space between eye and ear, and having nothing special about it.
At lowermost back corner of side of head, generally just behind and below ear, may be seen or
felt a hard protuberance; this is the sharpest corner-stone of the head, being the place where
the lower jaw hinges upon the skuU. This is called "angle of jaw"; it is a good landmark,
which must by no means be confused with "angle of mouth," where horny parts of the beak
come together. The lore (Lat. lorum, a strap, or bridle ; hence, place where the cheek-strap
passes ; fig. 25, 2) includes pretty much all the space between eye and side of base of upper
mandible; a considerable uart of it is simply ante-orbital. Thus we say of a Hawk, "lores
bristly " ; and examination of a bird of that kind will show how large a space is covered by the
term. Lore, however, should properly I)e restricted to a narrow line between eye and bill in
direction of nostrils. It is excellently shown in Herons and Grebes, where " naked h)res" is a
distinctive character. The lore is frequently the seat of specially modified or specially colored
feathers. The rest of side of head, including space between angle of jaw and bill, has the name
of cheeTc (Lat. gena; fig. 25, 35). It is bounded above by loral, infra-orbital, and auricular re-
gions; below, by a line along lower edge of bony prong of under mandible. It is cleft in front
for a varying distance by backward extension of gape of mouth ; above this gape is more prop-
erly gena, or malar region (Lat. mala, upper jaw) in strictness; below it is jaiv {maxilla), or
rather " side of jaw." The lower edge of jaw definitely separates side of head from " under
surface " of head, which is a space bounded behind by an imaginary line drawn straight across
from one angle of jaw to the other, and running forward to a point between forks of under man-
dible. As already hinted, " throat" (gula ; fig. 25, 37) extends upward and forward into this
space without obvious dividing line; it runs into chin (Lat. mentuni; fig. 25, 38), which is the
(varying in extent) anterior part of under surface of head. Anteriorly, mentum may be marked
off, opposite the point where feathers end on side of lower jaw, from a feathery space (when
any) between branches of upper mandible itself; this space is called interramal (Lat. inter, be-
tween; ramus, fork).
The head is often striped lengthwise with different colors, apt to take definite position ;
these lines have received special names. Median vertical line is one along middle of pileum,
from base of bill to nucha ; lateral vertical lines bound it on either side. Superciliary line has
already been noticed ; below it runs the lateral line ; that part of it before eye, is loral or ante-
orbital; behind eye, post-orbital; when these are continuous through eye, they form a trans-
ocular (Lat. trans, across; oculus, eye) line; below this is malar line, or cheek-stripe (Lat.
frenum, a bridle); below this, on under jaw, maxillary or submaxillary line; in the middle
below, mental or gular lines.
No other part of the body has so variable a ptilosis as the head. In most birds it is wholly
and densely feathered ; but it ranges from this condition to one wholly naked ; though such
nakedness means only absence of perfect contour feathers, for most birds with unfeathered heads
have a hair-like growth of filoplumes. Our examples of naked-headed birds are Turkeys, Vul-
tures, Cranes, and some of Ibises. Associated with more or less complete baldness, is frequent
presence of various fleshy outgrowths, as combs, tvattles, caruncles (warty excrescences), lobes,
and flaps of all sorts, even to enumerate which would exceed our limits. The parts of the barn-
yard cock exemplify the whole; among North American birds they are very rare, being almost
confined to Turkeys. Sometimes horny plates take the place of feathers on part of the head ;
as the frontal shields of Coots and Gallinules. A common form of head-nakedness marks one
whole order of birds, Steganopodes, which have mentum and more or less of gula naked, and
transformed into a sort of pouch, extremely developed in Pelicans, and well seen in Cormorants.
The next commonest is definite bareness of lores, as in all Herons and Grebes; in the former
including the wliole circum-orbital region. A little orbital space is bare in many birds, as vul-
tinine Hawks and some Pigecms; species of Grouse have a bare warty supra-orbital space.
104 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Among water-birds particularly, more or less of the interramal space is almost always unfeath-
ered ; the nakedness always proceeds from before backward. With the rare exceptions of a
narrow frontal line, and a little space about angle of mouth, no other special parts of the head
than those above given are naked in any North American bird, unless associated with general
baldness.
The opposite condition, that of redundant feathering, gives rise to all the various crests
(Lat., pi. cristce) that form such striking ornaments of many birds. Crests proper belong to
top of head, but may be also held to include those growths on its side ; these together being
called crests in distinction to the ruffs, ruffles, beard, etc., of gula or mentum. Crests may be
divided into two kinds: 1, where feathers are simply lengthened or otherwise enlarged ; and
2, where texture, and sometimes even structure, is altered. Nearly all birds possess the power
of moving and elevating the feathers on the head, simulating a slight crest in moments of ex-
citement. The general form of a crest is a full, soft elongation of coronal feathers collectively ;
when perfect, such a crest is globular, as in the genus Pyrocejjhalus ; generally, however,
feathers lengthen on occiput more than on vertex or front, and this gives us the simplest and
commonest form. Such crests, when more particularly occipital, are usually connected with
lengthening of nuchal feathers, and are likely to be of a thin, pointed shape, as well shown in
the Kingfisher. Coronal or vertical crests proper are apt to be different rather in coloration
than in much elongation of feathers ; they are perfectly illustrated in the Kingbird, and other
species of the genus Tyrannus. Frontal crests are the most elegant of all ; they generally rise
as a pyramid from the forehead, as excellently shown in the Bluejay, Cardinal, Tufted Tit-
mouse, and others. All the foregoing crests are generally single, but sometimes double ; as
shown in the two lateral occipital tufts of " horned " Larks, in all tufted or " horned " Owls,
and in some Cormorants. Lateral crests are, of course, always double, one on each side of the
head; they are of various shapes, but need not be particularized here, since they mostly belong
to the second class of crests — those consisting of texturally modified feathers. It is a general,
though not exclusive, character of these last that they are temporary ; while tlie other kind is
only changed with the general moult, these are assumed for a short period only, the breeding
season ; and they are often distinctive of sex. Occurring on top of head, they furnish remark-
able ornaments of birds. I need only instance the elegant helmet-like plumes of Partridges of
the genus Lophortyx ; the graceful flowing train of Oreortyx picta ; the similar plumes of
Night and other Herons. Most Cormorants and some Auks possess lateral plumes of similar
description ; these, and those of Herons, are usually deciduous ; while those of the Partridges
above mentioned last as long as the general plumage. In many birds, especially Grebes, these
lateral plumes are associated or coalesce with ruffs, which are singular lengthening and modi-
fying of feathers of auriculars, gente and gula ; and are almost always temporary. Beards, or
special lengthening of mental feathers alone, are comparatively rare ; we have no good exam-
ple among our birds, but a European vulture, Gypaetus harbatiis, is one. The feathers some-
times become scaly (squamous), forming, for instance, the exquisite gorgelets or frontlets of
Hummingbirds. They are often bristly (setaceous), as about the lores of nearly all Hawks,
the forehead of the Dabchicks, Meadow-larks, etc. A particular set of bi'istles, which grow in
single series along the gape or rictus of many birds, are called rictal bristles or vibrissa. These
are more or less developed in nearly all small insectivorous birds; they are large, stiff, and
highly characteristic ot the family Tyrannidce, or Tyrant Flycatchers ; while in some of
Goatsuckers (Caprimulgidce) they are prodigiously long, and in one species of that family
(Antrostomus caroUnensis) have lateral filaments. While usually all unlengthened head-
feathers point backward, they are sometimes erect, forming a velvety pile, or they may radiate
from a given point, as from the eye in most Owls, where they form a disc.
In the foregoing paragraph I mention only a few styles of crests, chiefly needed to be
known in the study of our native birds; there are many others, with endless modifications,
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE BILL. 105
among exotic birds ; to tiiese, however, I cannot even allude by name. Peculiarities of nasal
feathers, and others around base of bill, are noticed below. Forms of crests are illustrated by
many figures given passim in the present work.
2. OF THE MEMBERS: THEIR PARTS AND ORG ASS.
I. THE BILL.
The Bill (Lat. rostrum) is hand and mouth in one : the instrument of prehension. As
hand, it takes, holds, and carries food or other substances, and in many instances, feels ; as
mouth, it tears, cuts, or crushes, according to the nature of the substances taken; assuming
functions of both lips and teeth, neither of which do any recent birds possess. An organ thus
essential to a prime function of birds, one directly related to their various modes of life, is of
much consequence in a taxonomic point of view ; yet its structural modifications are so various
and so variously interrelated, that it is more important in framing genera than families or or-
ders; more constant characters must be employed for higher groups. The general shape of
the bill is referable to the cone. This shape combines great strength with great delicacy ; the
end is fine to apprehend the smallest objects, while the base is stout to manipulate the largest.
But in no bird is the cone expressed with entire precision; and, in most, the departure from
this figure is great. The bill always consists of two, Upper and Under or Lower
Mandibles (fig. 26), which lie, as their names indicate, above and below, and are sepa-
rated by a horizontal fissure — the mouth. Each mandible consists of certain projecting skull-
bones, sheathed with more or less horny integument in place of true abode f (j
skin. The framework of the Upper Mandible is (chiefly) a bone
called intermaxillary, or better, premaxillary . In general, this is a
three-pronged or tripodal bone running to a point in front, with the
uppermost prong, or foot, implanted upon the middle of the forehead,
and the other two, lower and horizontal, running into the sides of the
skull in front. The basis of the Under Mandible is a compound
bone called inferior maxillary or inframaxillary ; it is U- or
V-shaped, with a point or convexity in front, and prongs running to
either side of base of skull behind, to be there movably hinged, a, side of upper mandible ; 6,
These two bones, with certain accessory ones of the upper mandi- noS^(BerbelJw)Trgapl'
ble, as palate bones, etc., together with the horny investment, con- or wliole commissural line; <?,
stitute the Jaws. Both jaws, in birds, are movable; the under, by T^^^\eoi'l^r^nlh\ Ha-
the joint just mentioned ; the upper, either by a joint at, or by elas- mus of under jaw ; j, tom'iaof
ticity of bones of, the forehead ; and by a singular muscular and bony ""'^^l". mandible (the refer-
. *' ° •' ence lines e should have been
apparatus m the palate, further notice of which is given beyond, drawn to in<iicate the corre-
under head of Anatomy (Osteology). Motion of the upper mandi- sponding tomia of upper man-
. , dible): k, angle of gonys; /,
ble IS freest m rarrots, where both fronto-maxillary and palato- gonys; ?«, side of under man-
maxillary sutures exist. When closed, the jaws meet and fit along ^'^l®: "- tips of mandibles,
their apposed edges or surfaces, in the same manner and for the same purposes as lips and teeth
of man or other vertebrates. All Ijills, thus similarly constituted, have been divided into
Four Classes, representing as many ways in which the two mandibles close upon each
other at the end: 1. Epignathous (Gr. eVt, epi, upon, yvddos, gnathos, jaw) way, plan, or
type, in which the upper mandible is longer than the under, and its tip is evidently bent dovni
over the tip of the lower. 2. Hypognathous (Gr. vno, hupo, under), in which the lower man-
dible is longer than the other. .'}. Raragnathoxis (Gr. napa, para, at or by), in which both
are of about equal length, and neither is evidently bent over tlie other. 4. Metagnathous (Gr.
k J i
Parts of a Bill.
106 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
fj-fTu, meta, witli, beside, etc.), in which the points of the mandibles cross each other. The
second and fourth of these forms are extremely rare ; they are exemplified, respectively, by
Skimmers and Crossbills (genera Rhynchops and Loxia). The first is common, occurring
throughout Birds of Prey and Parrots, and among Petrels, Gulls, etc. The great majority of
birds exhibit the third; and there is such evident gradation of paragnathism into epignathism,
that it is necessary to restrict the latter to cases of its complete development, exhibited in the
intermaxillary bone divested of its horny sheath, which often, as among Flycatchers, etc.,
forms a little overhanging point, but does not constitute epignathism. These four classes,
though always determinable, and convenient in descriptions, are purely arbitrary — that is,
they by no means correspond to any four large groups of birds ; but, on the contrary, usually
only mark families and subdivisions of families ; and the four types may be seen in closely related
genera. The general shape of the bill has also furnished
Other Classes, for many years used as a large basis for ornithological classification, even
for establishment of orders; but which progress of the science has shown to be merely as con-
venient as, and only less arbitrary than, the foregoing. The principal of these are represented
by the following types : A, among land birds. 1. Fissirostral (Lat. fissus, cleft, and rostrum),
or cleft, in which the bill is small, short, and with a very large gap running down the side of
the head ; as in the Swallow, Chimney-swift, Whippoorwill. 2. Tenuirostral (Lat. tenuis,
slender), or slender, in which the bill is slim, long, and with a short cleft ; as in the Humming-
bird, Creeper, Nuthatch. 3. Bentirostral (Lat. dens, a tooth), or toothed, in which, with a
various general shape, there is present a nick, tooth, or evident lobe in the apposed edges of
one or botli mandibles near the ena ; as in the Shrike, Vireo, and some Wrens, Thrushes,
Warblers. 4. Conirostral (Lat. conus, a cone), or conical, sufficiently defined by its name,
and illustrated by the Finch family and some allied ones. — B, among water birds. 5. Longi-
rostral (Lat. longus, long), or long, an aquatic style of the tenuirostral, best exhibited in the
Snipe fsimily. 6. Pressirostral (Lat. pressus, pressed), or compact, illustrated by Plovei's,
etc., and quite likely analogous to the conirostral. 7. Cultrirostral (Lat. citlter, a knife), cut-
ting, perhaps analogous to the dentirostral, exemplified by Herons. 8. Lamellirostral (Lat.
lamella, a little plate), or lamellate, in which the bill is furnished with series of little laminae
along the apposed edges of both mandibles, as in Swans, Geese, Ducks, Mergansers, Flamin-
goes, and certain Petrels. None of these terms is now used to indicate a natural group, nor
have we such absurdities as " orders " Fissirostres, Tenuirostres, etc. Swallows, for instance,
and Swifts are equally fissirostral, though only distantly related to each other; a Swift is
closely related to a Hummingbird, though the latter is extremely tenuirostral ; and birds of
contiguous genera may be dentirostral or not. The terms are nevertheless convenient to use
in descriptions. Some similar terms, expressing special modifications, as nnguirostral (Lat.
unguis, a hook), acutirostral (Lat. acutus, sharp), etc., are also employed.
Other Forms. — A bill is called long, when notably longer than head proper; short,
when notably shorter ; medium, in neither of these conditi(ms. It is compressed, when higher
than wide, at base at least, and generally for some portion of its length ; depressed, when
wider than high ; terete (Lat. teres, cylindric), under neither of these conditions. It is recurved,
when curved upward; decurved, when curved downward; hent, when the variation in any
direction is at an angle, as in Flamingoes and the Wry-billed Plover ; straight, when not out
of line with axis of head. A bill is obtuse (said chiefly of the paragnathous sort) when it rap-
idly comes to an end that therefore is not fine, or when the end is knobby ; it is acute, when it
runs to a sharp point; acuminate, when equally sharp and slenderer; attenuate, when still
slenderer; subulate (awl-shaped), when slenderer still; acicular (needle-shaped), when slen-
derest possible, as in some Hummingbirds and Phalaropes. A bill is arched, vaulted, turgid,
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE BILL.
107
iumid, inflated, etc., when its outliues, both crosswise and lengthwise, are notably more or less
convex; and contracted, when some, or the principal, outliues are concave (said chiefly of de-
pres'^ions about base of upper mandible, or of concavity along sides of both mandibles). A bill
is hamulate (Lat. hamus, a hook), or ungukulate (Lat. unguis, a claw),.whcu strongly epigna-
thous as in rapacious birds, whose upper mandible is like the talon of a carnivorous beast ; it is
dentate, when toothed, as in a Falcon ; if there are a number of similar " teeth," it is serrate
(Lat serra, a saw), like a saw, or denticulate, as in Motmots, Trogons, some Humuungbirds,
etc •" it is adtrate (knife-like), when extremely compressed and sharp-edged, as in an Auk or
Skimmer- if much curved as weU as cultrate, it is falcate (Lat. falx, a reaping-hook ; scythe-
shaped); and each mandible may be oppositely falcate, as in a Crossbill, constituting metag-
nathism A gibbous bill is one which has a pronounced hump or knob, as that of some Swans
and Scoters; and some bills are appendaged with various leathery or skinny lobes or flaps. A
biU much flattened and widened at eud (rare) is spatulate (Lat. spatula, a spoon) ; examples:
Spoonbill. Shoveler Duck, and the extraordinary little Sandpiper whose technical name is
Eurynorhynchus pygmceiis. One is called lamellate, when it has a .series of plates or processes
just inside the edges of the mandibles, as in all Ducks, etc., furnishing a sifter or strainer of
■^-ater- just what is effected in the whale by the '' bone " in its mouth. The commonest shape
of a bill is conical, as in any Finch, Bunting, or Warbler; probably the next commonest is
that called by some ornithologists grypaniform, such as is exhibited by any Thrush or War-
l.ler — the grypaniform being a mild case of epignathism, usually associated with weak tooth-
ing or nicking. Finally, the far end of the bill, of whatever shape, is called the tip or apex
(fig. 26, n) ; the near end, joined to the rest of the skull, the base; the rest is the contmmty.
Particular shapes of bills are almost endlessly varied, and cannot be given ; the student
who uses this book to the end will find many of them described, and " there are others." One
of the most curious cases is that of the New Zealand Huia, Heteralocha acutirostris, in which
shape of bill is a sexual character ; for in the <? the bill is comparatively short and straight,
but in the 9 it is about twice as long and curved almost in the arc of a circle.
Covering of the Bill. — (a) In a great majority of birds, including nearly all perchers,
many walkers, and some waders and swimmers, the sheathing of botli mandibles is wholly
hard, horny, or corneous (Lat. cornu, a horn) ; it is integument modified much as in case of
nails or claws of beasts, by thickening and hardening of outer layers of malpighian cells. In
nearly all waders and most swimmers, the sheath becomes softer, and wholly or partly of a
dense, leathery texture. But many swimmers furnish bills as hard-covered as any, while some
perchers have the integument partly quite soft, so that no unexceptional rule can be laid down ;
moreover, gradations from one extreme to the other are insensible. Probably the softest bill
is found in Scolopacida:, where it is skinny throughout, and in typical Snipes and Woodcocks
vascular and nervous at tip, becoming a true organ of touch, used to feel for worms out of
sight in the mud. In all the Duck order the bill is likewise soft ; but there it always ends in
a hard, \\o\uy tinguis or "nail," more or less distinct; and such a horny claw also occurs in
other water birds with softish bills, as Pelicans. An interesting modification occurs in the
Pigeon order (Columba') ; these birds have the bill hard or hardish at tip and through most of
continuity, but toward and at base of upper mandible the sheath changes to a soft, tumid,
skinny texture, overarching the nostrils ; and the case is much the same with most Plovers.
But the most important feature in this connection is afforded by Parrots and all Birds of Prey
— one so remarkable that it has received a distinct name : Cere (or ceroma). The cere (Lat.
cera, wax ; because it looks waxy ) is a dense membrane saddled on the upper mandible at base,
so different from the rest of the bill, that it might be questioned whether it does not more proi>-
erly belong to head than to bill, were it not that the nostrils open in it. A cere is often densely
feathered, as in the Carolina paroquet, in the bill proper of which no nostrils are seen, these
108 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
beiug hidden in the feathered cere, which, therefore, might easily be mistaken for the bird's
forehead. A sort of false cere occurs in some water birds, as Jaegers or Skuas gulls (geuera
Stercorarius and Megalestris). The tumid nasal skin of Pigeons is sometimes called a cere;
but the term had better be restricted to the birds first above named. The under mandible
probably never presents softeuing except as a part of general skinniness of bill ; it may have
a nail at the end, as it does in the Duck family (Anatida). (b) The covering is either entire
or pieced. In most birds it is entire — that is, the sheath of either mandible may be pulled off
whole, like the finger of a glove. But in many birds it is divided into parts by various lines <if
slight connection, and then comes off in pieces; as is the case with some water birds, particu-
larly Petrels, where the divisions are regular, and the pieces have received distinctive names.
Thus the pieces which I named in 1866 for the Albatross are : culminicorn, along ridge of bill;
latericorn, along each side of upper maudible ; unguicorn, on the hook of the bill ; naricorn,
encasing each nostril ; ramicorn, along each side of under mandible ; inferior unguicorn, at
tip of under mandible, and interramicorn, between the two lower edges of the inferior ungui-
corn. Many Auks (Alcidce) also have the covering of the bill in particular pieces, and it is an
extraordinary fact that such parts are of a secondary sexual character, being assumed at the
breeding season and afterward moulted like feathers. Such condition of the sheath, or of
its special developments, is called caducous or deciduous. The entire covering of both jaws
together is called rhamphotheca (Gr. pdfi.(f)os, hramphos, beak; 6rjKT), theke, sheath): of tlie
upper alone, rhinotheca (Gr. pi's, hris, nose) ; of the under, gnathoiheca (Gr. yvddos, gnathos,
jaw); but these terms are not much used, nor are dertrotheca (Gr. beprpov, dcrtron, hook)
and myxotheca (Gr. /xv|a, Lat. myxci) for the superior and inferior uuguicorus, respectively.
(c) The covering is otherwise variously marked ; sometimes so strongly that similar features
are impressed upon the bones beneath. The most frequent marks are various ridges (Lat. pi.
carince, keels) of all lengths and degrees of expression, straight or curved, vertical, oblique,
horizontal, lengthwise, or transverse; a bill so marked is said to be striate (Lat. stria, a streak)
or carinate ; when numerous and irregular, the ridges are called rugce (Lat. ruga, a wrinkle),
and a bill is said to be corrugated or rugose. When the elevations are in points or spots in-
stead of lines, thev are called puncta (Lat. pnmctum, a point) ; a bill so furnished is j)unctate,
but the last word is oftener employed to designate the presence of little pits or depressions, as
in the dried bill of a Snipe toward the end. Larger softish, irregular knobs or elevations pass
under the general name of warts or papillae, and a bill so marked is liapillose ; when the pro-
cesses are very large and soft, a bill is said to be carunculate (Lat. caro, flesh, diminutive
carunculus, little bit of flesh). Various linear depressions, often but not always associated
with carina?, are grooves or sulci (Lat. stdcus, a furrow), and the bill is then called sidcate.
Sulci, like carinas, are of all shapes, sizes, and positions; when very large and definite, they are
sometimes called canalicuJi, or channels. The various knobs, " horns," and large special fea-
tures of bill cannot be here particularized. Any of the foregoing features may occur on both
mandibles, and they are exclusive of that special mark of the upper, the nasal fossa in which
the nostrils open, and which is considered below. We have still to notice special parts of either
mandible ; and will begin with the simplest, the
Under Mandible (mandibula, or maxilla inferior). — In most birds this is a little shorter
and narrower and not nearly so deep as the upper mandible ; sometimes quite as large, or even
larger. The upper edge, double (i. e., there is an edge on both sides), is called the mandibu-
lar tomium, or in the plural, tomia (Gr. rip-vfiv, temnein, to cut ; fig. 26, j ) ; this is received
against, and usually a little within, the corresponding edge of the upper mandible. The
prongs already mentioned are mandibular rami (pi. of Lat. ramus, a branch ; fig. 26, i) ;
these meet at some point in front, either at a short angle (like >) or with a rounded joining
Clike p ) ; in either case this is called angidus menti or mental angle. At their point of union
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE BILL. 109
there is a promiuence, more or less marked (fig. 26, k) ; this is the gonys (corrupted from
Gr. yovv, gonu, a kuee; hence, any similar protuberance). That is to say, this point is gonys
proper (sometimes called angle of the gonys or gonydeal angle) ; but the term gonys is extended
to apply to the whole line of union of rami, from gonys proper to tip of under mandible ; and in
descriptions it means, then, tinder outline of bill for a corresponding distance (fig. 26, 1). This
important term is constantly used in describing birds.* Gonys is to under mandible what a
keel is to a boat ; it is the opposite of ridge or culmen of upper mandible. It varies greatly
in length. Ordinarily it forms one-half to three-fourths of the under outline. Sometimes, as
in conirostral birds, a Sparrow for example, it represents nearly all this outline ; while in a
few birds it makes the whole, and in some, as the Puffin, is actually longer than the lower
mandible proper, because it extends backward in a point. Other birds may have almost no
gonys ; as a Pelican, where the rami only meet at the extreme tip, or the whole Duck family,
where there is hardly more. As the student must see, length of gonys is simply a matter of how
extensive is fusion of rami, and that, similarly, their mode of fusion, as in a sharp ridge, a flat
surface, a straight line, a curve, etc., results in corresponding modifications of its special shape.
The interramal space is complementary to length of gonys ; sometimes it runs to tip of bill, as
in a Pelican, sometunes there is next to uone, as in a Puffin ; while its width depeuds upon
degree of divergence, and straightness or curvature, of the rami. This space may be occupied
by naked skin of the floor of the mouth, or partly or completely feathered. The surface be-
tween tomium and lower edge of rami and gonys together is side of under mandible (fig. 26, m).
Each mandibular ramus is sometimes called gnathidium ; and that portion of the rami which
corresponds to length of gonys is known as myxa. The most important feature of the
Upper Mandible is the cidmen (Lat. for top of anything; fig. 26, b). The culmen is to
the upper mandible wliat the ridge is to the roof of a house ; it is the upper profile of the bill
— highest middle lengthwise line of bill; it begins where feathers end on the forehead, and ex-
tends to tip of upper mandible. According to shape of bill it may be straight, convex, con-
cave, or even somewhat 02 -shaped; or double-convex, as in the Tufted Puffin : but in most
cases it is convex, with increasing convexity toward the tip. Sometimes it rises up into a thin
elevated crest, as in the genus Crotophaga, and in Puffins (Fratercula) , when the upper man-
dible is said to be keeled, and the culmen itself to be cidtrate ; sometimes it is a furrow instead
of a ridge, as toward the end of a Snipe's bill ; but generally it is simply the uppermost line of
union of the gently convex and sloping sides of upper mandible (fig. 26, a). In a great many
birds, especially those with depressed bill, as all Ducks, there is really no culmen ; then the
median lengthwise line of surface of upper mandible takes place and name of culmen. The
culmen generally stops about opposite the proper base of the bill ; then the feathers sweep
across its end, and downward across the sides of the upper mandible, usually also obliquely
backward. Variations in both directions are frequent ; feathers may run out in a point on cul-
men, shortening the latter, or a culmen may run up the forehead, parting feathers ; either in a
I)oint, as in Rails and Gallinaceous birds, or as a broad plate of horn, as in Coots and Gallinulcs.
A culininal point between feathers of the forehead forms an angulus frontalis ov frontal angle ;
and the same terms are used for extension of feathers in a point on the culmen. The lower
■edge (double) of the upper mandible is the maxillary tomium, as far backward as it is hard
and h(irny. The most conspicuous feature of the upper mandible in most birds is the
Nasal Fossa (Lat. fossa, a ditch), or nasal groove (fig. 26, c), in which each nostril opens.
The ujjper prong of the intermaxillary bone is usually separated some way from each lateral
* The word gonys originated with Illiger in 1811. It is a mistake for genys (Gr. yivv<;, genus), meaning lower jaw or
chin. But it is firmly established in ornithology, and supplied with a fictitious etymology to suit, as in my text. (See,
for example, Sundevall, Teiitamen, or the Century Dictionary.) The adjective gonydeal is a monstrous abortion of a
•word, but in good current u.sage.
110 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
prong ; the skinny or horny sheath that stretches betwixt them is usually sunken below the
general level of the bill, especially in those birds whose prongs are long or widely separated ^
this "ditch" is what we are about. It is called fossa when short and wide, with varying
depth; sulcus or groove when long and narrow; the former is well illustrated in Gallinaceous
birds ; the latter in nearly all wading birds and many swimmers. When the intermaxillary
prongs are soldered throughout, or are very short and close together, there is no (or no evident)
nasal depression, the nostrils then opening flush with the general surface. The
Nostrils or Nares (Lat. pi. of naris, fig. 26, d), two in number, vary in position as fol-
lows : they are lateral, when on sides of upper mandible (almost always) ; culminal, when
together on the ridge (rare) ; superior or inferior when evidently above or below midway be-
twixt culmen and tomia; hasal, when at base of upper mandible; sub-basal when near it
(usual) ; median when at or near middle of upper mandible (frequent, as in Cranes,
Geese, etc.); terminal when beyond this (very rare; wo birds have nostrils at end of bill^
except the Kiwis, ApterygidcB). Nostrils are pervious, when open, as in nearly all birds ;
impervious, when not visibly open, as among Cormorants and other birds of the same-
order; perforate, when there is no septum (partition) between them, so that you can look
through them from one side of the bill to the other, as in the Turkey-buzzard, Crane, etc. ;
imperforate, when partitioned ofi" from each other, as in most birds ; but difi"ereut ornithologists
use these terms interchangeably, saying nares pervioe of nostrils which communicate with
each other, and nares impervice of nostrils shut off from each other by an internasal septum.
Principal shapes of nostrils may be thus exhibited: — a line, linear nostrils; a line variously
enlarged at either end, clavate, club-shaped, oblong, ovate nostrils ; a line, enlarged in the
middle, oval or elliptic nostrils ; this passing insensibly into a circle, round or circular nostrils ;
and more or less linear nostrils may be either longitudinal, as in most birds, or oblique, as in
a few; almost never directly transverse (up and down). Rounded nostrils may have a raised
border or rim ; when this is prolonged they become tubular, as in the Goatsucker family and
all Petrels. Usually, nostrils are defined entirely by the substance surrounding them ; as a
cere, in Hawks, Owls, Parrots; softish skin, in a Pigeon, Plover, or Snipe, and much swollen
in the first named of these birds ; or horn, in most birds ; but often their contour is partly
formed by a special development, somewhat distinct either in form or texture, called the nasal
scale, or operculum. Generally, it forms a sort of overhanging arch or portico, as well shown
in Gallinaceous birds, among Wrens, etc A curious case of this is seen in the European
Wryneck {lynx torquiUa), where the scale floors instead of roofing the nostrils. In the sin-
gular Kagu {Rhinochetus jubatus), the operculum forms a large movable scroll, apparently
capable of closing the aperture. The nostrils also vary in being feathered or naked, the nasal
fossa being a place where frontal feathers are apt to run out in paired points (called antice),
embracing a small porti<m of the culmen (called mesorhinium) . Such extension of feathers may
completely fill and hide the fossa, as in Grouse and Ptarmigan ; but it oftener runs for a varying
distance toward, or above and beyond, the nostrils, as in Hummingbirds ; sometimes similarly
below them, as in a Chimney-swift ; and the nostrils may be densely feathered when there is
no evident fossa, as in an Auk. When thus feathered in varying degree, they are still open to
view; another condition is, their being covered and hidden by m.odified feathers not growing
on the bill itself, but on the forehead. These are usually bristly (setaceous), and form two
tufts, close-pressed and directed forward, as is perfectly shown in a Crow ; or, the feathers
may be less modified in texture, and form either two tufts, one over each nostril, or a single
ruff, embracing the whole base of the upper mandible, as in Nuthatches, Titmice, Red-polls,
Snow Buntings, and many other northern Fringillida;. Bristles or feathers tlius growing for-
ward are called retrorse (Lat. retrorsum, backward ; here used in the sense of in an opposite
direction from the lay of the general plumage ; but they should properly be called antrorse,.
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE WINGS. Ill
i. e., forward). Nostrils, whether cuhninal or lateral, are, like eyes and ears, always two in
nuinher, though they may be united in one tube, as in Petrels.
The Gape. — It remains to consider what results from relations of mandibles to each
other. When a bill is opened, there is a cleft or fissure between upper and under mandibles ;
this is the grape or rictus (hat. rictus, mouth in the act of grinning). Though thus really
meaning the open space between maudibles, gape generally signifies the line of their closure.
Commissure (Lat. committere, to put or join together) properly means the point where the
gape ends behind — that is, angle of mouth, angulus oris, where apposed edges of mandibles
join each other; but, like gape, it is extended to the whole line of closure, from commissural
point to tip of bill. So we say, "commissure straight," or "commissure curved"; also,
"commissural edge "of either mandible (equivalent to " tomial edge"), in distinction from
culmen or gonys. But it would be well to have more precision in this matter. Let, then,
tomia (fig. 26, j) be the true cutting edges of either mandible from tip to base of bill proper,:
let rictus (fig. 26, g) be their edges thence to the commissural point (fig. 26, h) where they
join Avhen the bill is open ; commissural line (fig. 26, /) to include both when the bill is closed.
The gape is straight, when rictus and tomia are both straight and lie in the same line; curved,
sinuate, when they lie in the same curved or waved line ; angulated, when they are straight,
or nearly so, but do not lie in the same line, and therefore meet at an angle. (An important
distinction : see under family FringilUdce in the Synopsis.)
The "Egg Tooth." — Finally, it is to be observed that unhatched birds are provided
with a tool for working their way into the world by chipping the eggshell. This interesting
instrument is a small sharp knob or boss at the tip of the upper mandible, such as also exists
in some reptiles ; it may readily be observed in a newly hatched chick of domestic fowl. It
consists of a deposit of hard calcareous matter in the middle layers of epidermis, not connected
with the underlying bone, but breaking through the epidermal layers to come in contact with
tlie eggshell that is to be chipped at one point and thus cracked open. Soon after hatching, the
calcareous substance of this curious little drill is cast ofi", and the layers of epidermis through
which the point of the drill projected cease to be distinguishable from the rest of the horny
covering of the bill.
II. THE WINGS.
Definition. — Pair of anterior or pectoral Kmbs organized for flight by means of epidennal
outgrowths (feathers). Used for this purpose by birds in general ; but by Ostriches and their
allies only as outriggers to aid running; by Penguins as fins for swimming under water; used
also in the latter capacity by some birds that fly well, as Divers, Cormorants, Dippers. Want-
ing in no recent birds, but imperfect in all Batitee, among which the wings are greatly reduced
in the Emeu, Cassowary, and Apteryx, while in Moas {Dinornithid(c), as in the Cretaceous
Hesperornis, only a rudimentary humerus is known. To understand their structure we must
notice particularly
The Bony Framework (figs. 27, 28, 29). — The skeleton of a bird's wing is built upon
a plan common to the fore or pectoral limb of most vertebrates, so that its bones and joints may
readily be compared and identified with those of any lizard or mammal, including man. But
the member is highly specialized ; being fitted for accomplishing flight, not only by develop-
ment of feathers, but also by modifications in the bones themselves. The axes of the bones
have a special direction with reference to each other and to the axes of the body ; the move-
Tnents of the joints are peculiar in some respects ; and the end of the wing, from the wrist out-
vanl. is peculiarly constructed, by loss of some of the digits that five-fingered animals possess.
112
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
and by compression of those that are left, as more particularly said beyond. The wing
proper begins at the shoulder-joint, where it hinges freely in a shallow socket formed con-
^ ^ /(^^^V\ jointly by the shoulder-
-^— ^T/j /^^\\>r\ blade or scopztZa, and by the
?^^>j^ Vk VVV^' ^(^^'^^oid ; these two bones,
^ with the clavicles, collar-
bones or merry - thought
(furculum) forming the
shoulder-girdle, or pectoral
arch (figs. 56, 59).
The wing ordinarily
consists, in adult life, of
teyi or eleven actually sepa-
rate bones ; in embryos (see
fig. 29) there are indications
of several more at the wrist
(carpus), which speedily
lose their identity by fusing
together and with bones
of the hand (metacarptis) .
Aside from these, there is
often an accessory ossicle
^^, upper arm, brachlum ; £ C, foTe-arm, antibrachium ; C'Z», whole hand at the shoulder -joint (fig.
56, ohs), sometimes one at
the wrist-joint, occasionally
an extra bone at the end of
the principal finger. Among
RatittB, the carpal bones
are reduced to one in a Cas-
sowary, to none in an Emeu
and a Kiwi; all of which
birds have but a single digit.
The Archceopteryx had the
Fig. 27. — Bones of right wing of a duck, Clangula islandica, from above,
nat. size. (Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. ) A, shoulder, oinos ; B, elbow, ancon;
C, wrist, carpus ; I>, end of i)rineipal finger ; E, end of hand proper, metacarpu.
or pinion, maniis; composed of CE, hand proper or metacarpus, excepting d '■
ED,OT d - d 3, d *, fingers, digits, digit i. h, humerus ; rd, radius ; ul, ulna ; sc,
outer carpal, scapholunare or radiate ; cm, inner carpal, cuneiforme or ulnare;
these two composing wrist or carpus, mc, the compound hand-bone, or meta-
carpus, composed of three metacarpal bones, bearing as many digits — the outer
digit seated upon a protuberance at the head of the metacarpal, the other two
situated at the end of the bone, d 2, the outer or radial digit, commonly called
the thumb or pollex, composed of two phalanges ; d^, the middle digit, of two
phalanges; d*, the inner or ulnar digit, of one phalanx d- is the seat of the
feathers of the bastard icing or alula. L> to T' (whole pinion), seat of the flight-
feathers called primaries ; C to B (fore-arm), seat of the secondaries ; at B and
above it in direction of vl, seat of tertiaries proper; below A, in direction of iJ,
seat of scapidaries (upon pteryla humeralis), often called tertiaries The wing
shown half-spread: complete extension would bring ABC D into a right line;
in complete folding C goes to A, and Z> to B ; all these motions nearly in the
plane of the paper. The elbow-joint and wrist are such perfect hinges, that, in most bones of any known
opening or closing the wing, C cannot sink below the paper, nor D fly up above -i . i • V, +V,
the paper, as would otherwise be the effect of the pressure of the air upon the ''1™, With three separate
flight-feathers. Observe also : r(/ and m/ are two rods connecting iJ and C; the metacarpals, three free di-
constructionoftheirjointing at i} and r, and with each other, is such, that they . rl It tV.
can slide lengthwise a little upon each other. Now when the point C, revolving S"^' ^"'^ altogether nine
about B, approaches A in the arc of a circle, rd pushes on sc, while id pulls back phalanges. The normal or
cu ; the motion is transmitted to D. and makes this point approach B. Con- 1 ^ f ■ ^
versely, in opening the wing, rd pulls back .sc, and ul pushes on cu, making D ^^"^^ numoer OI wmg-Dones
recede from 5. In other words, the angle j1 7J C cannot be increased or dimin- is shown in fig. 27, taken
ished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle £ C 7); so that no f,.^,„ „ J„„i, ( rifitmuln
part of the wing can be opened or shut without automatically opening or shut- "*"" ^ °_ \,vmngiaa
ting the rest,— an interesting mechanism by which muscular power is corre- islandica), in
lated and economized. This latter mechanism is further illustrated in fig. 28,
where re and mc show respectively the size, shape and position of the radial con-
dyle and ulnar condyle of the humerus. It is evident that in the flexed state of
the elbow, as shown in the middle figure, the radius, rd, is so pushed upon that
its end projects beyond ul, the ulna ; while in the opposite condition of extension,
shown in the lower figure, rd is pulled back to a corresponding extent,
which alone forms the first segment of the wing. In the closed wing, the humerus lies nearly
in the position of the same bone in man when the elbow is against the body ; in extension
of the wing, the elbow is borne away from the body, as when we raise the arm, but carry it
neither forward nor backward. A peculiarity of the bird's humerus is, that it is rotated on its
which there
are eleven.
The upper arm-bone,
h, reaching from shoulder A
to elbow B, is the humerus,
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE WINGS.
113
axis through about the quadrant of a circle, so that what is the front of the human bone is
the outer aspect in a bird. The humerus is a cylindric bone, straightish or somewhat italic
/-shaped, with a globular head to fit the socket of the shoulder, a strong pectoral ridge for
insertion of breast muscles,
and at the lower end two
condyles (fig. 28, re, uc), or
surfaces for articulation with
a pair of succeeding bones.
The second segment is the
fore-arm, ciihit or antibra-
chium, extending from elbow
to wrist, B to C, fig. 27 ;
this has two parallel bones of
about equal lengths. These
are tihui, ul, and radius, rd ;
the ulna, inner and posterior,
the larger of the two, bears
quills of the secondary series ;
the radius is slenderer, outer,
aud anterior. The enlare;ed Fm. 28. — Mechanism of elbow-joint. (See explanation of Jig. 27.)
upper end of tlie ulna is called olecranon, or ''head of the elbow." The third segment of the
wing is the pinion, hand, or manus, to be considered in its three successive portions : wrist or
carpus ; hand proper or metacarpus ; and fingers or digits : in all, C to D in fig. 27. In adult
life, the carpus almost always consists of 'two small knobby
carpal bones, extremely irregular in shape, called scapho-
lunar, sc, and cuneiform, cu; or radiale and ulnare, because
one of them is at the end of the radius, and the other at the
end of the ulna. In embryos, several more cartilaginous
or gristly nodules are demonstrable ; their number varies in
different birds. The theory is, that birds' ancestors had the
following number of carpals : three in a proximal or first
row, warned radiale, intermedium, and ulnare; one median,
called centrale; and five in a distal row, being one for eacli
of the five ancestral digits (though no more than three have
ever been demonstrated). It is believed with reason that
the actual radiale consists of an ancestral radiale fused with
an intermedium ; that the actual ulnare consists of an an-
cestral ulnare fused with a centrale; and it is certain that,
whatever number of distal carpals can be demonstrated in
any case, they all fuse with the metacarpal bones. Thus a
bird's carpals are reduced to the two abovesaid, and one of
these disappears in some ratite birds. The hand proper or
metacarpus, C to E (exclusive of rf2), in all recent adult
birds, consists of a single metacarpal bone; but this is a
from a yonnrj grouse { Centrocercus nrophaxiantix, six months old), is designed to show the composi-
tion of the carpus and metacarpus before the elements of these bones fuse together: r. radius; u, ulna; s. seai)h-
olunar or radiale; c, cuneiform or ulnare; om, a carpal bone believed to be os magnum, later fusing with the
metacarpus; «. a carpal bone, supposed to be unciform, later fusing with metacarpus; 8, an unidentified fifth
carpal bone, wliich may be called pentnstemi. later fusing with the metacarpus; 7. r.adial or outer metacarpal
bone, bearing the pollex or outer digit, consisting of two plialanges, d and k; 9', principal (median) metacarpal
bone, bearing the middle finger, consisting of the two plialanges, di, d" ; 9, inner or ulnar nietacarp.al, bearing a
digit of one phalanx, dl'f. The pieces marked om, z, 7, 8, 9. all fuse with 9^ (From nature by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt,
U.S.A.) „
114 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
compound bone ; for, besides including one or more carpal bones in itself, as already shown, it
consists of three metacarpal bones fused in one, corresponding to the three fingers or digits
which nearly all birds possess. In feet, it is three metacarpals in one, plus certain carpals ; its
full name would therefore be carpo- metacarpus. Much the greater part of this composite bone
corresponds to a bird's middle linger ; a small, short part, only at the base and on the radial
side, corresponds to the outer finger, as seen in the figure above the bone marked d2 ; while
that part corresponding to the inner finger is slender, nearly as long as the rest of the bone,
and often fused therewith only at its two ends, leaving between itself and the main metacarpal
an open space, as seen opposite the letters nic in the figure. The metacarpus thus compounded
articulates at the wrist with both the free carpals ; it bears the digits, almost invariably three in
number, with which the wing is finished off; they are marked d2, d3, rf4 in the figure. They
are the radial, median, and ulnar digits. The median digit, d 3, extending from £" to D in the
figure, is much the largest of the three, and forms the main continuation of the hand; it ordi-
narily consists of two jointed phalanges, or bones placed one after the other, but may have a
third ^/taZana; ; the first or proximal phalanx is much larger than the other one or two. The
inner or ulnar digit, d 4, is borne upon the distal end of the metacarpal bone, alongside the first
phalanx of the middle digit j it ordinarily consists of a single small phalanx, but sometimes
there is another (the Archccopteryx had four); it enjoys little if any freedom of motion, and
occasionally fuses with the first phalanx of the middle finger. The outer or radial digit, d 2,
is borne upon the projection near the base of the metacarpus, alongside which it lies, away
from the other two fingers ; it ordinarily consists of two phalanges, of which the terminal one
is small, and often wanting ; it enjoys considerable motion, being quite freely articulated with
the metacarpus, except in Penguins. No bird has, and none is known to have had, more than
these three digits; and in the Cassowary, Emeu, and Kiwi there is only one, the inner and
outer being lost or reduced to mere traces. Such is the compactness and consolidation of a
bird's hand that all the fingers act almost like a single stout tapering digit, only the outer one
being capable of much individual action ; though in the Archseopteryx the three metacarpals
were free bones like the digits, and the whole hand more like that of a lizard. A bird's three
digits are supposed by some to correspond to the thumb and fore and middle fingers of our
hands; in this view, the radial digit is ca.\\ed pollex, which means thumb; and the next one,
index or forefinger. But I agree with others who consider that birds have lost the first and fifth
digits of the ancestral five-fingered, consequently the three they retain correspond to our fore,
middle, and ring fingers, or our 2d, 3d, and 4th digits, and so I have marked them d2, dS, dA,
in the figure.
The resemblance of a bird's digits to those of a lizard or mammal is increased by the claws
(Lat. ungues) which some birds possess. The Archceopteryx liad claws upon all three of its
finger-tips. In recent birds, claws are found on the ends of the radial and middle fingers, es-
pecially the former; and in some embryos, as of the Ostrich, there is said to be a rudimentary
claw on the ulnar digit. The adult Ostriches of the genera Struthio and Bhea have claws on
the radial and middle digits, and so do some Anatidce, and various Birds of Prey, the Cassowary,
Emeu, and Kiwi have a claw on the middle digit ; one on the radial digit is well shown by the
Turkey-buzzard and other Cathartidce, various Anserine and Gallinaceous birds, some Birds of
Prey ; and such a claw has occasionally been found on an oscine bird. The occurrence of claws
is more or less irregular, and probably more frequent than is yet known.
The Mechanism of these Bones is admirable. The shoulder-joint is free, much like our
own, permitting the humerus to swing all about; though the principal motions are to and from
the side of the body (adduction and abduction), and up and down in a vertical plane. The
elbow -joint is a very strict hinge, permitting motion in one plane, nearly that of the wing itself.
The finger-bones have little individual motion, as we have already seen. The construction of
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE WINGS. 115
the wrist-joint is quite peculiar. In the first phice the two bones of the forearm are so fixed in
relation to eacli other, that the radius cannot roll over the ulna, like ours. If you stretch your
arm upon the table, you can, without moving the elbow, turn the hand over so that either the
palm or the knuckles are downward. This is a rotary motion of the bones of the forearm, called
pronation and supination ; the prone when the palm touches the table, supine when the knuckles
are downward. This rotation is absent from the bird's ann ; if it could occur, the action of the
air upon the pinion-feathers would throw them all " at sea" during the strokes of the wing, ren-
dering flight difficult or impossible. The hingcing of the hand upon the wrist is such, also, that
the hand does not move up and down, as ours can, in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the
wing, but in the same plane as that surface. The motion is that which would take place in our
hand if we could bring the little finger and its border of the hand so far around as to touch the
corresponding border of the forearm. It is a motion of adduction, not of flexion, and its opposite,
abductiijn, not extension, by which a wing is folded and spread. Such abduction is the way in
which the hand is " extended" upon the wrist -joint, increasing and completing the unfolding
of the wing that begins by the true extension of the forearm upon the elbow and abduction of
the upper arm from the body. In a word, a wing is spread by the motion of abduction at the
shoulder and wrist, of extension at the elbow ; it is closed by adduction at the shoulder and
wrist, and flexion at the elbow. The numerous muscles wliich unfold or straighten out the
wing are called extensors ; those that bend or close it are flexors. Extensors lie upon the back
of the upper arm, and the fi-ont of the forearm and hand, their '' leaders" or tendons passing
over the convexities of the elbow and of the wrist. The flexors occupy the opposite sides of the
limb, with tendons in the concavities of the joints. The most powerful muscles of the wings
are the great pectoral or breast muscles, acting upon the upper end of the humerus ; there are
several of them, exerted in throwing out the arm from the body, and in giving both the up and
down wing-strokes. Tendons are generally strong inelastic cords ; but there is an interesting
arrangement of an elastic cord in a bird's wing. In fig. 27, A B C is a deep angle formed by
the naked bones, but none such is visible from the exterior, because the space is filled by a
fold of skin passing from C to near A. But C approaches and recedes from A as the wing
is folded or unfolded, and a cord long enough to reach A-C would be slack in the folded wing,
did not its elasticity enable it to contract and stretch, keeping the anterior border of the wing
straight and smooth. (For another automatic mechanism, see explanation of fig. 28.)
The point C is a highly important landmark in practical ornithology ; it represents, in
any folded wing, a very prominent point, the distance from which to the tip of the longest
flight-feather is a special measurement known as that of " the wing." It is the convexity of
the carpus, commcmly called the " carpal angle," or " bend of the wing." Having thus glanced
at the bony structure and mechanism of the wing, we are ready to examine the
Feathers of the Wing (fig. 30). — How important these are will be evident from the
consideration that they arc the bird's chief organs of locomotion ; for without them the wing
would be useless for flight. We also remember that such means of locomotion is the great
specialty of birds. Wing-feathers are those which grow upon the pteryla alaris. They are
of two main sorts : the flight- feathers proper, or long stiflf quills, collectively called remiges
(Lat. remex, pi. remiges, rowers) ; and the smaller, wa^aker feathers overlying them, and hence
called coverts, or tectrices (Lat. tectrix, pi. tectrices, coverers). To these may be added as a
third distinct group tlie bastard quills, which constitute the
Alula, or Ala Spuria (Lat. alula, little wing, diminutive of ala, wing ; spuria, spurious,
bastard). The ''little wing" is simply the small parcel of feathers which grow upon the
" thumb " (see fig. 27, d 2; 29, d and k; 30, al). Highly significant as these may he in a mor-
I)hological ])oint of view, as representing wliat this part of the wing may have been in early times,
116
GENERAL ORXITHOLOGY.
they are so much reduced in modem birds as to be of little account in practical ornithology.
In fact, the unpractised student may fail to recognize them at first. They form a small packet
on the fore outer border of the pinion near the carpal angle, and lie smoothly upon the upper
surliice of the wing, strengthening and finishing off what would be otherwise a weak spot in
the contour of the wing-border. It is quite easy, on recognizing them, to lift them collectively
a little away from the other feathers, owing to the slight mobihty the thumb possesses. In fact,
they are sometimes quite obtrusive, when faulty taxidermy has discomposed them. They are
not often conspicuously modified either in size or color. In a few birds {e.g., Cathartes), a clato
will be found at the end of the joint which bears them. The student must be careful to dis-
criminate between the use of the word spurious in the present connection and its application
to a rudimentary condition of the first remex (sec p. Hi)). The
Wing-Coverts overhe the bases of the large quills on both the upper and under surfaces
of the wing. They are therefore conveniently divided into an upper set (tectrices superiores)
and an under set {tect. inferiores). The former are so much more conspicuous than the latter
that they are always under-
stood when " upper" is not
specified. The latter are
sometimes collectively called
"the lining of the wings."
Coverts include all the small
feathers of the wings except-
ing the bastard quills ; they
extend a varying distance
along the bases of the flight-
feathers. The ordinary dis-
position and division of the
upper coverts is as follows :
One set, rather long and stif-
fisli, grow upon the i)inion,
and are close-pressed upon
the bases of the outer nine
or ten remiges, covering
Fig. 30. — Feathers of a sparrow's wing; nat. size. (For explanatiou see text.) , , » f ■ tl • • 1 t -^
far as their structure is plumulaceous. Tliese are the upper primary coverts, or coverts of the
primaries (fig. 30, pc) ; they are ordinarily the least conspicuous of any. All the rest of tlio
upper coverts are secondary; they spring mostly from the forearm. These are considered in
three groups or rous. The greater upper secondary coverts, called simply the "greater coverts "
(tectrices majores, fig. 30, gsc,) are the first, outermost, longest row, reaching nearest the tips of
the flight-feathers ; they overlie the bases of nearly all the remiges, excepting the first nine or
ten. The median upper secondary coverts, shortly known as the "middle coverts" (tectrices
medice), are a next row, shorter and therefore less exposed, but still quite evidently forming a
special series (fig. 30, msc). It is a common feature of these median coverts that they shingle
over each other contrary-wise to the way the greater coverts are imbricated, the outer vane of
one being under the inner vane of the next outer one. All the rest of the upper secondary
coverts, forming several indistinguishable rows, pass under the general name of lesser coverts
(tectrices minores ; fig. 30, be). The greater coverts furnish an excellent zoological character ;
for in no Passeres are they more than half as long as the remiges they cover, while the reverse
is the case in most birds of lower orders. Woodpeckers, however, though non-passerine, have
quite short coverts. The under coverts have the same general arrangement as the ui)i)er ; but
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE WINGS. 117
they are more alike and less distinctly disposed in rows or series ; so that for practical purposes
they pass under the general name of under wing-coverts, or lining of the icing. Since, when
the wing is particularly marked on the under side, it is the coverts and not the remiges that are
highly or variously colored, the common expression ''wing below," or " under surface of the
wing," refers to the coverts more particularly. We should distinguish, however, from the under
coverts in general, the axiUars, or axillary feathers (Lat. axilla, the arm-pit). These are the
innermost feathers lining the wings, lying close to the body ; almost always longer, stiffer,
narrower, or otherwise peculiarly modified. In ducks, for example, and many of the waders,
as snipe and plover, they are remarkably well developed. The color of the axillaries is the
principal distinction between some species of plovers. The
Remiges, or Flight- Feathers (fig. 30, b, s, and f),give the wing its general character,
mainly determining both its size and its shape ; they represent most of its surface and of its
inner and outer borders, and all of its posterior outline, forming a great expansion of which the
Ixiny and fleshy framework is insignificant in comparison. The shape of the wing is indeed
primarily aflTected by the relative lengths of its bony segments, the upper arm being, in a
liumming-bird, for example, very short in ct)mparison with the terminal portion of the limb,
and in an albatross again, both upper and forearm being greatly lengthened ; still in any case
it is the flight-feathers that mainly determine the contour of the wing, by their absolute degree
(if development, their lengths proportionately to one another, and their individual shapes. They
collectively form a thin, elastic, flattened surface for striking the air, quite firm along the front
border where the bone and muscle lie, thence growing more mobile and resilient toward the
posterior border and along the outer edge. Such surface may be quite fiat, as in such birds as
cut the air with long, pointed wings, like oar-blades ; but it is generally a little concave under-
neath and correspondingly convex above ; such arching or vaulting of the wing-surface being
usually associated with a short, broad, rounded wing, as in the gallinaceous tribe, and being
least in birds which have the thinnest and sharpest wings. Corresponding differences in the
mode of flight result. The short, rounded wing confers a powerful though labored flight for
short distances, usually accompanied by a whirring noise resulting from the rapidity of the
wing-beats; birds that fly thus are almost always thickset and heavy. The long, pointed
wing gives a noiseless, airy, skimming flight, indefinitely prolonged, and accomplished with
more deliberate wing-beats ; birds of this style of wing are generally trim and elegant. These,
of course, are merely generahzations of the extremes of modes of flight, mixed and gradated
ill every degree in actual bird-life. Thus the humming-bird, which has sharp, thin wings,
whirs them fastest of all birds, — so rapidly that the eye cannot follow the strokes, merely
perceiving a haze about the bird while the ear hears the buzzing. The combination of acute-
r.ess and concavo-convexity is a remai'kably strong one, confcmug a rapid, vigorous, whistling
flight, as that of a duck or pigeon, or the splendid hurtling of a fiilcon. An ample wing, as
one both long and broad without being pointed is called, is Avell displayed by such birds as
herons, ibises, and cranes ; the flight may be strong and sustained, but is rather slow and
heavy. The longest- winged birds are fiiund among the swimmers, particularly the pelagic
family of the petrels, and some of the whole-webbed order, as pelicans,' particularly the frigate-
pelican. The last named, Tachypetes aquilus, has perhaps the longest wings for its bulk of
body of any bird whatever, as well as the shortest feet. The American vultures are likewise
of great alar expanse in proportion to their weight. The shortest wings, among birds possess-
ing perfect remiges, occur among the lower swimmers, as auks and divers, and among some
of the Gallinse. The great auk is, or was, perhaps the only flightless bird with well-formed
flight-feathers, only too small to subserve their usual purpose ; though certain South American
ducks are said to be in similar predicament. In the penguins, the whole wing-structure is
degraded, and the remiges abort in scale-like feathers, the wings being reduced to fins both
118 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
in form and function. The whole of the existing Ratitce have rudimentary or very imperfect
wings, as was the case with the Cretaceous Hesperornis ; but the contemporary of the latter,
Icthyornis, and the still more ancient ArchceojJteri/x, appear both to have had excellent ones.
The disposition of the remiges in their mutual relations is very noteworthy. They have
a rigid hollow barrel of great resistant powers, considering the amount of substance, — just
like the cylindrical stern of the cereal plant; a stout, solid, highly elastic shaft; the outer web
narrower than the inner, with its barbs set at a more acute angle upon the shaft. Any one
of these stiifer outer vanes overlies the broader and more yielding inner vane of the next outer
feather, which, on receiving the impact of air from below, resists as it were with the strength of
a second shaft superimposed. Though the "way of an eagle in the air" was a mystery to the
wise man of old, the mechanics of ordinary flight are now better understood. But the sailing
of some birds for an indefinite length of time, up as well as down, without visible motion of
the wings, and without reference to the wind, remains an enigma. The flight of the albatross
and turkey vulture, I venture to afiirm, is not yet explained. The riddle of The Wing will be
read when we know how the archsaurian escaped from ilus to aether.
The number of true remiges ranges from about sixteen, as in a humming-bird, to up-
wards of fifty, as in the albatross. Their shape is quite uniform, minor details aside. They
are the stiflfest, strongest, most perfectly pennaceous of feathers, without evident hyporhachis,
if any. They are generally lanceolate, that is, tapering regularly and gradually to an obtuse
point, though not infrequently more parallel- sided, especially those of the secondary and
tertiary series. Either or both webs may be incised toward the end ; that is, more or less
abruptly narrowed ; this is called emargination (see fig. 343); their ends may be transversely
or obliquely truncate, or nicked in various ways. In a few birds, apparently for purposes of
sexual ornamentation, they are developed in bizarre shapes of beauty, with evident decrease of
utility as flight-feathers. Those of the ostrich and penguin tribes share the peculiarities of the
general plumage of these extraordinary birds. Remiges are divided into three classes or series,
according to where they grow upon the limb, whether upon the hand, the fore-arm, or the
upper arm. In this distinction is involved one of the most important considerations of practical
ornithology, of which the student must make himself master. The three classes of quill-
feathers are: 1. the pr//HrrriVs; 2. the secondaries ; 3. the tertiaries.
The Primaries (Fig. 30, b) are those remiges which grow upon the pinion, or hand-
and finger-bones collectively (fig. 27, CtoD). Whatever the total number of the remiges
may be, in nearly all birds tvith true remiges the Primaries are either nine or ten in number.
The humming-bird with sixteen remiges, the albatross with fifty or more, each have ten
primaries. The grebes and a few other birds are said to have eleven primaries : if this be so,
it is at any rate highly exceptional. No instance of a higher number than this is known
to me. Again, it is only among the highest Passeres that the number nine is found, the
Oscines having indifferently nine or ten. In a good many Oscines, rated as nine-primaried,
there are actually ten, though the outermost is so rudimentary, and even out of alignment
with the developed primaries, that it is not counted as one of them. Among Oscines, just this
difference of one evident and unquestionable primary more or less forms one of the best distinc-
tions between the families of that suborder. So the tenth feather in a bird's wing, counting
from the outside, becomes a crucial test in many cases ; for, if it be last primary, the bird is
one thing ; if it be first secondary, the bird is another. In such cases the necessity, therefore,
of determining exactly which it is becomes evident. Of course it is always possible to settle
the question by striking at the roots of the remiges and seeing how many are seated on the
pinion; but this generally involves some defacing of the specimen, and there is usually an
easier way of determining. Hold the wing half-spread : then, in most Oscines, the primaries
come sloping down on one side, and the secondaries similarly on the other, to form where they
EXTEBNAL PARTS OF BIBDS. — THE WINGS. 119
meet a reentrant angle in the general contour of the posterior border of the wing ; the feather
that occupies this notch is the one we are after, and unluckily it is sometimes last primary,
sometimes first secondary. But observe that primaries are so to speak, self- asserting, emphatic,
italicized, remiges, stiff, strong, and obstinate ; while secondaries are retiring, whispering, in
brevier, limber, weak, and yielding. Their different character is almost always shown by
something in their shape or texture which the student will soon learn to recognize, though it
cannot well be described. Let him examine fig. 30, where b marks the nine primaries of a
sparrow's wing, and s indicates the secondaries ,• he will see a difterence at once. The
primaries express themselves, though with diminishing emphasis, to the last one ; then the
secondaries begin to tell a different tale. Among North American birds the only ones with
NINE primaries are the families Motacillidce, Vireonidce, Coerebidee, Sylvicolidee, Hiriindinidce,
Tanagridce, Fringillidce, Icteridce, part of Vireonidice, and the genus Amp)elis. The condition
of the first primary, whether spurious or not, is often of gi'eat help in this determination.
The first primary is called "spurious" when it is very short — say one third, or less, as long
as the second, or longest, jirimary. Among Passeres, a spurious first primary only occurs in
certain ten-primaried Oscines : whence it is evident, that to find such short first primary is
equivalent to determining the presence of ten primaries, though not to find it does not prove
there are only nine ; the count should be made in all cases in which the outer primary is more
than one-third as long as the next. The difference between nine primaries, and ten with the
first spurious, is excellently illustrated among the species of Vireo. Any thrush, nuthatch,
titmouse, or creeper shows a spurious primary to advantage, — large enough not to be over-
looked, small ent>ugh not to be mistaken.
The Secondaries (Fig. 30, s) are those remiges which are seated on the fore-arm (fig.
27, -B to C). They vary in number from six to forty or more. They have the peculiarity of
being attached to one of the bones of the fore-arm, the
•ulna. If an ulna be examined closely, there will be
seen a row of little points showing the attachment ;
such are indicated in fisr. 27, along- id, and in fiij. 31.
^, , . to ' _ fe ' , „ Fm. 31. — Ulna of Colapie.t mexicamix.
The secondaries present no pomts necessary to dwell showing points of attadiraent of the second-
upon here, after what has been said of the primaries, ^nes. (Dr. R. w. Slmfeldt, U.S. A.)
They are enormously developed in the Argus pheasant, and have curious shapes in some other
exotic birds. They are often long enough to cover the primaries completely when the wing is
closed, as in grebes ; on the other hand, they are extremely short in the swifts and humming-
birds.
The Tertiaries (Fig. 30, t) are properly the remiges which grow upon the upper arm,
humerus. But such feathers are not very evident in most birds, and the two or three inner-
most secondaries, growing upon the very elbow, and commonly different from the rest in form
or color, pass under the name of " tertiaries.'' Again, in some cases, scapular feathers
(fig. 30, scp,) are called tertiaries, especially when long or otherwise conspicuous. But
there is an evident and proper distinction. Scapulars belong to the pteryla humeralis (see
p. 90) ; while tertiaries, whether seated on tlie elbow or higher up the arm, are the innermost
remiges of the jjteryla alaris. These inner remiges are often shortly called tertials ; though
the longer name is more con-(*ct, besides being conformable with the names of the other two
scries of remiges. Tertiaries often afford good characters for description, in peculiarities of
tlieir size, shape, or color. Thus it is very common among FringiUid/e for these feathers to be
parti-colored differently from the other remiges. In many birds they are long and "flowing";
as in the families Motacillidce and Alaudidte, where they reach about to the end of the
primaries when the wing is closed. Their development is similar in many Scolopacidce. In
120 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
such cases, the feather-border of the wing pronounces the letter W quite strongly, — outer
lower angle at point of primaiies ; middle upper angle at reentrance between primaries and
secondaries ; inner lower angle at point of tertiaries.
The "point of the wing" is at the tip of the longest primary. It is best exjjressed when
the first primary is longest. Sometimes the end is so much rounded off, that the midmost
primary may be the longest one, the others being graduated on both sides of this projecting
point. In speaking of the relative lengths of remiges, we always mean the way in which their
tips fall together, not the actual total lengths of the feathers. Thus a second primary, whose
tip falls opposite the tip of the first one, is said to be of equal length, though it may actually
be longer, being seated higher up on the pinion. The development of the primaries also
furnishes one of the most important measurements of birds: for the expression "length of
wing," or simply "the wing," means the distance from the "bend of the wing," or carpal
angle, to the end of the longest primary. The integument of the wing does not very often
develop anything but feathers. Occasionally
Claws and Spurs are found upon the pinion. Claws have been aheady noticed (p. 114).
They are properly so caUed, being horny growths comparable in every way to those upon tlie
ends of the toes, like the claws of beasts, or human nails. A spur (Lat. calcar), however, is
something different, though of the same homy texture, since it does not terminate a digital
phalanx, but is ofl*-set from the side of the hand. It is exactly like the spur on the leg of a
fowl, which obviously is not a claw. The spur- winged goose {Plectwjyieriis), pigeon (Bidun-
culus), plovers (Chettusia, etc.), and the doubly-spurred screamer {Palamedea), afford exam-
ples of such outgrowths, of which the Jacauas (Parra) furnish the only, though a very
well-marked, illustration among North American bii'ds. (See fig. 53 ter.)
III. THE TAIL.
Its Bony Basis. — Time was when birds fiew about with long, lizard-like, bony and
fleshy tails, having the feathers inserted in a row on either side like the hairs of a squirrel's.
But we have changed all that distichous arrangement since when the Archceoptenjx was
steered with such a rudder through the scenes of its Jurassic life. Now the true separate
coccygeal bones are few, generally about nine in number, and so short and stimted that they do
not project beyond the general plumage, — in fact scarcely beyond the border of the pelvis.
Anteriorly, within the bony basin of the pelvis, there are several vertebrae, which, fusing
together and with the true sacrum, are termed urosacral or false tail-bones. To these
succeed the true caudal vertebrae, movable upon each other and upon the urosacrum. The
last one of these, abruptly larger than the rest, and of peculiar shape, bears all the large
tail-feathers, which radiate from it like the blades of a fan. The true caudal vertebrae col-
lectively fonn the coccyx (Gr. kokkv^, kokkux, a cuckoo; from fancied resemblance of the
human tail-bones to a cuckoo's bill) ; the enlarged terminal one is the vomer (Lat. VQmer, a
plough-share, from its shape ; not to be confused with a bone of the skull of same name) or
l)ygostyle (Gr. Trvyr], inige, rump, and ariikos, stulos, a stake, pale). The pygostyle, however,
is a compound bone, consisting of several stunted coccygeal vertebrae fused in one. The bones
are moved by appropriate muscles, and upon the surface is seated the elaeodochon (p. 89). The
whole bony and muscular affair is famihar to every one as the " pope's nose" of the Christmas
turkey; it is a bird's real tail, of which the feathers are merely appendages. In descriptive
ornithology, however, the anatomical parts are ignored, the word "tail" having reference solely
to the feathers. These, like those of the wings, are of two sorts : the coverts or tcctrices, and
the rudders or rectrices (Lat. rectrix, pi. rectrices, a ruler, guider; because they seem tO'
steer the bird's thght) ; corresponding exactly to the coverts and remiges of the wings. The
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE TAIL. 121
Tail-Coverts are the numerous comparatively small and weak feathers which overlie and
underlie the rectrices, covering tlieir bases and extending a variable distance toward their
ends, contributing to the firmness and symmetry of the tail. They pass smoothly out from
the body, by gradual lengthening, there being seldom, if ever, any obvious outward distinction
between them and feathers of the rump and belly; but they belong to the ^ter?/?a caudalis
(p. 90). The natural division of the coverts is into an uj^jjer and under set (tectrices super-
iores, tectrices inferiores). The inferior coverts are the best distinguished from the general
l)lumage, the anus generally dividing off these " vent-feathers," as they are sometimes called.
It is to the bundle of under tail-coverts, behind the vent, that the term crissum is most properly
applied. Neither set is ever entirely wanting; but one or the other, particularly the upper one,
may be very short, as in a connorant, or duck of the genus Erismatura, exposing the quills
almost to their bases. While the upper coverts are usually shorter and fewer than the under
tines, reaching less than half-way to the end of the tail, they sometimes take on extraordinary
development and form the bird's chiefest ornament. The gorgeous, iridescent, argus-eyed
train of the peacock consists of enormous tectrices, not rectrices ; the elegant plumes of the
paradise trogon, Pharomacrus mocinno, several times longer than the bird itself, are like-
wise coverts. Occasionally, a pair of coverts lengthens and stiffens, and then resembles true
tail-feathers; as in the Ptarmigan (Lagopus). The crissal feathers are more uniform in
development; they ordinarily form a compact, definite bundle, as well shown in a duck
where they reach about to the end of the taU. In some of the storks, they become plumes of
considerable pretensions ; and in the wonderful humming-bird, Loddigesia mirahilis, the
middle pair stiffens to resemble rectrices and projects far beyoud the true tail. The
Rectrices, Rudders, or true tail-feathers, like the remiges or rowers, are usually stiff,
well-pronounced feathers, pennaceous to the very base of the vexilla, without after-shafts, as a
rule, and with the outer web narrower than the other in most cases. They are always in
pairs ; that is, there is an equal number of feathers on the right and left half of the tail ; and
their number, consequently, is an even one. The excepti(nis to this rule are so few and
irregular, and then only among birds with the higher numbers of rectrices, that such are
probably to be regarded as mere anomalies, from accidental arrest of a feather. They are im-
bricated over each other in this wise : the central pair are high-
est, lying with both their webs over the next feather on eitlier
side, the inner web of one of these middle feathers indifferently
underlying or overlying that of the other; all thus successively
overlying the next outer one so that they would form a pyra-
mid were they thick instead of being so flat. The arrange-
ment is perceived at once in the accompanying diagram ;
where it will be seen, also, that spreading the tail is the diver- ^
gence of a from 6, while closing the tail is bringing a and h together under c. The motion
is effected by certain muscles that draw on either side upon the bases of the quills collectively ;
they are the same that pull the whole tail to one side or the other, acting like the tiller-ropes
of a boat's rudder. The general
Shape of a Rectrix is sliown in fig. 23. Such a feather is ordinarily straiglit, some-
what clubbed or oblong, widening a little, regularly and gradually toward the tip, .ij-here it is
gently rounded off. But the departures from such shape, or any that could be assumed as a
standard, are numberless, and in some cases extreme. In foct, none of a bird's feathers are
more variable than those of tlie tail ; it is impossible to specify all the shapes they assume.
While most are straight, some are curved — and the curvature may be to or from the middle
line of the body, in the horizontal plane, or up and down, in the vertical plane. Some shapes
122
GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
have received particular names. A rectrix broad to the very tip, and there cut squarely off, is
said to be truncate ; one such cut obliquely off is incised, especially when, as often happens, the
outline of the cut-off is concave. A linear rectrix is very narrow, with parallel sides; a lanceo-
late one is broader at the base, thence tapering regularly and gradually to the tip. A notably
pointed rectrix is said to be acute; when the pointing is produced by abrupt centraction near the
tip, as in most woodpeckers, the feather is acuminate. A very long and slender, more or less
linear feather is called filamentous, as the lateral pair of a barn swallow or most sea swallows.
The vanes sometimes enlarge abruptly at the end, forming a spoon-shaped or sjmtulate feather;
or such a spoon may
result from narrowing
of the vanes near the
end, or their entire ab-
sence, as in the "rack-
et " of a saw-bill (3Io-
motus). The vanes are
sometimes wavy as if
crimped; our Plotus is
a fine example of this.
Sometimes the vanes
are entirely loosened,
the barbs being remote
from each other, as in
the exotic genus Stipi-
turus, and some parts
of the wonderful caudal
appendage of the male
lyre-bird (Menura su-
perba). When the rha-
(his projects beyond the
\anes, the feather is
^pinose, or better, mu-
ironate (Lat. muero, a
pricker), as excellently
-<hown in the chimney-
^ivift, ChtEtura (fig.
3 75). A pair of feathers
abruptly extending far
beyond the others are
Tail-featliers also differ
■^f3^:-^
to >.liow the mil jue
Fig 32 — Ihe I\relirl ot Au^iiilii ytiiuia ii
lyrate shape of the tail (From Amer lyat )
called long-exserted, after the analogous use of the term in botany,
much in their consistency, from the softest and weakest, not well distinguished from coverts,
to such stiff and rugged props as the woodpeckers possess. They are downy and very rudi-
mentary in a few birds, notably all the grebes, Podicipedidce, which are commonly said to
have no tail. The tinamous of South America (Dromceognathce) are also very closely
docked. The
Typical Number of Rectrices is twelve. This holds in the great majority of birds. It
is so uniform throughout the great group Oscines, that the rare exceptions seem perfectly
anomalous (ten in Edoliidce or Dicr\irid(p). In the other group of Passeres (Clamatores) it is
usually twelve, sometimes ten. Ten is the rule among Picarice, though mauy have twelve, a
very few only eight, as in the genus Crotophaga. The whole of the woodpeckers (PicidcB)
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS, — THE TAIL. 123
have apparently ten; but really twelve, of which the outer one on each side is spurious, very
small, and hidden between the bases of the secoml and third feathers. Birds of prey (Baptores)
have about twelve. In pigeons the rule is twelve or fourteen, as in all our genera; but sixteen
are found in some and twenty in one case. In birds below these, the number increases directly;
there are often or usually more than twelve in the grouse, and there may be sixteen, eighteen,
or twenty, as among our own genera of Tetraonidcc. Wading birds, often having but twelve,
furnish instances of as many as twenty. Those swimming birds with large well-formed tails,
as the Longipennes, and some Anatidce, have the fewest, as twelve, sometimes fourteen, rarely
sixteen ; those with short soft tails have the most, as sixteen to twenty-four (forty in some
domestic pigeons). Among the penguins there are thirty-two or more. Tlie Archceopteryx
appears to have had forty, — a pair to each free caudal vertebra; and this may be considered
the prototypic relation between the bones and feathers of the tail. The
Typical Shape of the Tail, as a whole, is the fan. The modifications of form, how-
ever, which are greater and more varied than those of the wing, are susceptible of better
definition, and many of them have received special names. Taking the simplest case, where
the rectrices are all of the same length, we have what is called the even, square, or truncate
tail. The other forms depart from this mainly by shortening or lengthening of certain
feathers. A tail nearly or quite even may have the two central feathei-s locg-exserted, as seen
in the jaegers (Stercorarius), and tropic-birds (Phaethon). The most frequent departure from
the even shape results from gradual shortening of successive rectrices from the middle to the
outer ones. This is called, in general, gradation or graduation (Lat. gradus, a step) ; such
shortening may be to any degree. More precisely, graduation means shortening of each
successive feather to the same extent, — say, each half an inch shorter than the next; but
such exactitude is not often expressed. When the feathers shorten by more and more, we
have the true rounded tail, probably the commonest form among birds ; thus, the gradation
between the middle and next pair may be just appreciable, and then increase regularly to an inch
between the next and the lateral feather. The opposite gradation, by less and less shortening,
gives the wedge-shaped or cuneate (Lat. cuneus, a wedge) tail ; it is well shown by the
magpie {Pica) in which, as in many other birds, the middle feathers would be called long-
exserted were the rest all as short as the outer one is. A cuneate tail, especially if the feathers
be narrow and lanceolate, is also called acute, or pointed, as in the sprig-tailed duck (Dafila)
or sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes) . The generic opposite of the gradated is the forked tail ;
in which the lateral feathers successively increase in length from the middle to the outermost
pair. The least appreciable forking is called emargination, and a tail thus shaped is said to be
emarginate ; when it is better marked, as, for instance, an inch of forking in a tail six inches
long, the tail is imly forked or furcate (Lat. furca, a fork). But the degrees of furcation, like
those of gradation, are so insensibly varied, that quaUfied expressions are usual; as, ''shghtly
forked," ''deeply forked." Deep furcation is usually accompanied by more or less narrowing
or filamentous elongation of the lateral pair of rectrices, as in the barn swallows (Hirundo)
and most of the sea-swallows (Sterna). An advisable term to express such an extreme furca-
tion is forficate (Lat. forfex, scissors), when the depth of the fork is at least equal to the
length of the shortest feathers ; it occurs among our birds in those last named, in the species
of the flycatcher genus Milvulus, and elsewhere. Douhle-forked and double-rounded tails
are not uncommon ; they result from combination of both opposite gradations, in this way :
The middle feathers being of a certain length, the next two or three pairs progressively
increasing in length, and the rest successively decreasing, the tail is evidently forked centrally,
rounded externally, which is the double-rounded form, each half of tlie tail being rounded ;
it is shown in the genera Myiadestes and Anous. Now if with middle feathers as before,
the next pair or two decrease in length, and then the rest increase to the outermost, we have
124
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the double-forked, a common style among sandpipers, as if each half of the tail were forked.
But in such case, the forking is slight, merely emargination, being little more than protrusion
of the middle pair of feathers in an otherwise lightly forked tail ; and in the double-rounded
form the gradation is seldom if ever great.
I should also allude to shapes of tail resulting from the relative positions of the feathers.
Prominent among these is the complicate or folded tail of the barn-yard fowl, and others of the
Phasianidce, — a very familiar but not common form. It is only retained while the tail is
closed and cocked up, — for when it is lowered and spread in flight it flattens out. The oppo-
site disposition of the feathers is seen to some extent in our crow blackbirds (Quiscalus) ,
a where the lateral feathers
slant upward from the lower-
most central pair, like the
sides of a boat fi-om its keel ;
this is tlie scaphoid (Gr.
(TKcKf))], a boat) or carinate
(Lat. carina, a keel) tail.
Our ''boat-tailed" grackle
has been so named on this
account. One of the most
beautiful and wonderful of
all the shapes of the tail is
illustrated by the male of the
lyre-bird (Menura superha,
fig. 32), in which the feathers are anomalous both in shape and in texture, and the resulting
form of the whole is unique. Various shapes, which the student will readily name from the
foregoing paragraphs, are illustrated in many other figures of this work. It should be remem-
bered that, to determine the shape, the tail should be nearly closed; for spreading will ob-
viously make a square tail round, an emarginate one square, etc. I append a diagram of the
principal forms (fig. 33).
Fig. 33. — Diagram of sliapes of tail, adc, roumled ; aec. gradate; nic,
cuneate-gradate ; ale, cuneate; ahc, double-rounded; ./W/, square; fh(j,
emarginate ; /«eo(/, double-emarginate; kim, forked; Icem, deeply forked;
khm, forflcate.
IV. THE FEET.
The Hind Limbs, in all birds, are organized for progression — all can walk, run, or hop
on land, though the power to do so is very slight in some of the lower swimming birds, as
loons and grebes, and certain of the lower perching birds, as hummers, swifts, goatsuckers, and
kingfishers. They are specially fitted for perching on trees, bushes, and other supports requiring-
to be grasped, in the great majority of birds, as throughout the Passeres, Picarice, AccipitreSy
Columhce, and, in fact, many water-birds ; there being few forms, mainly found among three-
toed birds, or those in which the hind toe is short, weak, and elevated, in which the extremity
of the limb has not decided grasping power. The limb becomes a paddle for swimming either
on or in the water in many cases. In not a few, as parrots and birds of prey, the foot is
serviceable as a hand. Those kinds of birds which live in trees and bushes habitually
progress, even when on level ground, in a series of hops, or rather leaps, both feet being
moved together : in all the lower birds, however, the feet move one after the other, as in ordi-
nary walking or running. The modifications of the hind limb are more numerous, more
diverse, and more important in their bearing on classification than those of either bill, wing,
or tail; their study is consequently a matter of special interest.
Their Bony Framework (fig. 34). — Beginning at the hip-joint, and ending at the
extremities of the several toes, the skeleton of the hind limb consists in the vast majority of
adult birds of twenty bones. This is the typical and nearly the average number; birds
EXTERNAL PABTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET.
125
scarcely ever have more, and the principal lessenings of the number result from the absence
of one or two toes, or a slight reduction in the number of the joints of some toes, or absence of
the knee-cap. Of the normal twenty, fourteen are bones of the toes; one is an incomplete
bone connecting the hind toe with the foot ; one is the knee-cap, and four are the principal
bones of the thigh (1), leg (2), and foot (1). The first or uppermost is the thigh-bone or
femur (Lat. femur ; adjective, femoral), fm, from hip to knee, J. to 5 in the figure. It is
a rather short, quite stout, cylindrical bone, enlarging above and below. Above it has a
globular head, a, standing off obliquely from the shaft, received in the acetabulum (Lat. aceta-
bulum, a kind of receptacle) or socket of the hip, and a prominent shoulder or trochanter,
which abuts against the
brim of the acetal>ulum. Ji
Below, it expands into
two condijles (Gr. k6v8v-
Xo?, a knob), for articu-
lation with both the
bones it meets at the
knee. It is the same
bone as the femur of a
quadruped or of man,
and corresponds to the
humerus of the wing.
In the knee-joint, many
or most birds have a
small ossicle, and a few
have two such bony nod-
ules, not shown in the
figure, but nearly in the
position of the letter B :
the knee-pan or knee-
cap, jyaiella (Lat. patel-
la). The thigh is the
first segment oi \.h.e limb;
the next segment is the
leg proper, or crus (Lat.
crus, the shin ; adjective,
crural), 5 to C in the
figure, or from knee to
heel. This segment is
occupied by two bones, 'i^^Z-li
the tibia (Lat. tibia, a
tube, trumpet), tb, and
fibula (Lat. fibula, a
splint, clasp), fi. Of
these the til)ia is tlie
principal, larger, inner
bone, running quite to the heel ; the fibula is smaller, and (with rare exceptions, as in some of
the penguins) only runs part way down the outside of the tibia as a slender pointed spike, close
pressed against or even partly fused with the shaft of the tibia. Above, at the knee, both
bones articulate with the femur ; tlie tibia with both the femoral condyles, the fibula only with
the outer condyle. Above, the tibia has an irregularly expanded head or cnemial process (Gr.
n a (luck. Clangiila islandica, % nat.
knee: C, heel or ankle-joint; D,
; -B to C, crus, leg proper, " drura-
FiG. 34. — Bones of a bird's hind limb: fro
size ; Dr. K. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A. A, hip: B.
bases of toes. A to li, thigh or " second joint '
stick," often wrongly called " thigh " ; C to D, metatarsus, foot proper, correspond-
ing to our instep, or foot from ankle to bases of toes; in descriptive ornithology
the tarsus; often called "shank." From D outward are the toes or digits, fm.
tibia, principal (inner) bone of leg ; Ji, fibula, lesser (outer) bone of
leg; mt, principal metatarsal bone, consisting chiefly of three fused metatarsal
bones; am, accessory metatarsal, bearing \t, first or hind toe, with two joints ; 2/,
second toe, with three joints; Zt, third toe, with four joints; 4/, fourth toe, with
five joints. At r there are in the embryo some small tarsal bones, not shown in
the figure, uniting in part with the tibia, which is therefore a tihio-tarsus, in part
with the metatarsus, which is therefore a tai-so-mefatnrsus ; the ankle-joint being
therefore between two rows of tarsal bones, not, as it appears to be, directly be-
tween tibia and metatarsus
126 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
KVTjfiT), kneme, same as Lat. cms), which in some birds, as loons, runs high up in front above
the knee-joint. Below, the tibia alone forms the ankle-joint, C, by articulating with the next
bone. For this purpose it ends in an enlarged trochlear (Gr. rpoxaXia), or pulley-like surface,
presenting a little forward as well as downward, above which, in many birds, there is a little
bony bridge beneath which tendons passing to the foot are confined. This finishes the leg,
consisting of thigh, A B, and leg proper, B C, bringing us to the ankle-joint at the heel, C.
Now a bird's legs, unlike ours, are not separate from the body from the hip downward ;
but, for a variable distance, are enclosed within the general integument of the body. The
freedom of the limb is greatest among the high perching birds, and especially the Raptores,
which use the feet like hands, and least among the lowest swimmers. The range of variation,
from greatest freedom to most extensive enclosure of the limb, is from a little above B nearly to
C, as in the case of a loon, grebe, or penguin. In no bird is the knee, B, seen outside the
general contour of the plumage : it must be looked or felt for among the feathers, and in most
prepared skins will not be found at all, the femur having been removed. It is a point of little
practical consequence, though bearing upon the generalization just made. The first joint, or
bending of the limb, that appears beyond a bird's plumage is the heel, C ; and this is what,
in loose popular parlance, is called " knee," upon the same erroneous notions that make people
call the wrist of a horse's fore-leg '' knee." People also call a bird's cms or leg proper, B to C,
the "thigh," and disregard the true thigh altogether. This confusion is inexcusable; any one,
even without the slightest anatomical knowledge, can tell knee from heel at a glance, whatever
their respective positions relative to the body. Knee is at junction of thigh and leg proper ;
it always bends forward; ZteeZis at junction of leg with foot, and always bends backward.
This is as true of a bird, which is digitigrade, that is, walks on its toes with its heels in the
air, as it is of a man, who is plantigrade, that is, walks on the whole sole of the foot, with the
heel down to the ground. In a carver's language, the thigh is the "second joint" (from
below) ; the leg is the "drumstick "; the rest of a fowl's hind limb does not usually come to
table, having no fiesh upon it.
Before proceeding to the next segment of the limb, I must dwell upon the ankle-joint,
situated at the heel, — the point C, — corresponding to the carpal angle or bend of the wing,
C, in fig. 27. There we found, in adult birds, two small carpal bones, or bones of the wrist
proper; and noted the presence in the embryo of several other carpals (fig. 29), which early
fuse with the metacarpus. Just so in the ankle, there are in embryonic life several tarsal bones,
or bones of the tarsus (Lat. tarsus, the ankle) ; all of which, however, soon disappear, so that
there appears to be no tarsus, or collection of little bones between the tibia and the next
segment of the limb, the metatarsus. An upper tarsal bone, or series of tarsal bones, fuses
with the lower end of the tibia, making this leg-bone really a tibio-tarsus ; and similarly, a
lower bone or set of bones fuses with the upper end of the metatarsus, making this bone a
tarso-metatarsus. So there are left no free bones in the ankle-joint, which thus appears to be
immediately between the leg-bone and the principal foot-bone ; but which is nevertheless
really between two series of tarsal bones, the identity of which has been lost.^
1 The exact liomologues of a bird's vanishing tarsal bones are still questioned. Gegenbaur showed the so-
called epiphysis or shoe of bone at the foot of the tibia, and the similar cap of bone on the head of the principal
metatarsal bone, to be true tarsal elements. Morse went further, showing the tibial epiphysis, or upper tarsal bone
of Gegenbaur to be really two bones, which he held to correspond with tlie tibiale and fibulare, or astrnijnius and
calcaneum of ma.mma,\s; these subsequently combining to form the single upper tarsal bone of Gegenbaur, and
finally becoming anchylosed with the tibia to form the bitrochlear condylar surface so characteristic of the tibia ot
Aves. The distal tarsal ossicle he believed to be the centrnle of reptiles. Wyman discovered the so-called " process ot
the astragalus " to have a distinct ossification, and Morse interpreted it as the intermedium of reptiles. Later
views, however, as of Huxley and Parker, limit the tibial epiphysis to the astragalus alone of mammals. If these
opinions be correct, other tarsal elements (more than one) are to be looked for in the epiphysis of the metatarsus.
WLatever the final determination of these obscure points may be, it is certain that, as said in the text above, the
lower end of a bird's tibia and the upper end of a bird's metatarsus include true tarsal elements, just as the upper
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET. 127
The next segment of the limb, C to D, or the foot proper, is represented by the principal
metatarsal bone, mt. This corresponds to the human instep or arch of the foot, nearly fi-om
the ankle-joint quite to the roots of the toes. The metatarsal bone, like the metacarpal of
the hand, which it represents in the foot, is a compound one. Besides including the evanes-
cent tarsal element or elements already specified, it consists of three metatarsal bones con-
solidated in one, just as the metacarpal is tripartite. Among recent birds, the three are
])artly distinct only in the penguins; but in all, excepting ostriches, the original distinction is
indicated by three prongs or stumps at the lower end of the bone, forming as many articular
surfaces for the three anterior toes. The other toe most birds possess, the hind toe, is hinged
upon the metatarsus in a difierent way, by means of a small separate metatarsal bone, quite
imperfect; this is the accessory metatarsal, am. It is situated near the lower end toward the
inner side of the principal metatarsal bone, and is of various shapes and sizes ; it has no true
j< linting with the latter, but is simply pressed close upon it, much as the fibula is applied to the
tibia, or partly soldered with it. Above, it is defective; below, it bears a good fecet for articu-
lation with the hind toe. ^W In spite of anatomical proprieties, the metatarsal part of a bird's
foot — from heel to base of toes — from C to Z), is inordinary descriptive ornithology invariably
called "■The Tarsus" ; a wrong name, but one so firmly estabhshed that it would be finical
and futile to attempt to substitute the correct name. In the ordinary attitude of most birds,
it is held more or less upright, and seems to be rather " leg " than a part of the " foot." It is
vulgarly called " the shank." These points must be ingrained in the student's mind to
])revent confusion. (See fig. 112 bis, p. 235.)
The digits of the foot, or toes, upon which alone most birds walk or perch, consist of
certain numbers of small bones placed end to end, all jointed upon one another, and the basal
or proximate ones of each toe separately jointed either with the principal or the accessory meta-
tarsal bone. Like those of the fingers, these bones are called phalanges (Lat. phalanx, a
rank or series) or internodes (because coming between any two joints or nodes of the toes).
The furthermost one of each almost invariably bears a nail or claw (unguis). The phalanges
are of various relative lengths, and of a variable number in the same or diflferent toes. But all
these points, being matters of descriptive ornithology rather than of anatomy proper, are fully
treated beyond, as is also the special homy or leathery covering of the feet usually existing
from the point C outward. We may here glance at the
Mechanism of these Bones. — The hip is a ball-aud-sockot joint, permitting round-about
as well as fore-and-aft movements of the wIkjIc limb, thougli more restricted than the shoulder-
joint. The knee is usually a strict ginglymus (Gr. ylyyXvfios, gigglumos, hinge) or hinge-joint,
allowing only backward and forward motion ; and so constructed that the forward movement of
the leg is never carried beyond a right line with the femur, while the backward is so extensive
that the leg may be quite doubled under the thigh. In some birds there is a slight rotatory
motion at the knee, very evident in certain swimmers, by v,'hich the foot is thrown outward, so
that the broad webbed toes may not " interfere." The heel or ankle-joint is a strict hinge ; its
bcndings are just the reverse of those of the knee ; for the foot cannot pass back of a right line
with the leg, but can come forward till the toes nearly touch the front of the knee. In some
liirds the details of structure are such that, with the assistance of certain muscles, the foot is locked
upon the leg when completely straightened out, so firmly that some little muscular efl!"ort is re-
quired to overcome the obstacle; birds with this arrangement sleep securely standing on one leg,
which is the design of the mechanism. The jointing of the toes with the prongs of the meta-
tarsus is peculiar ; for the articular surfaces are so disposed in a certain obliquity, that when
end of the metacarpus includes carpal elements; and that a bird's ankle-joint is not tibio-tarsal or between
leg-bone and foot-bones, as in mammals, but between proximal and distal series of tarsal bones, and therefore
jncrfio-tarsal, as in reptiles.
128 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the toes are brought forwards, at right angles or thereabouts with the foot, they spread apart
from each other automatically in the action, and the diverging toes of the foot thus opened are
pressed upon the ground or against the water. AVhen the toes are bent around in the opposite
direction, they automatically come together and lie in a bundle more or less parallel with one
another, besides being each bent or flexed at their several nodes. The mechanism is best
marked in the svAdmmers, which, for advantageous use of their webbed toes, must present a
broad Surface to the water in giving the backward stroke, and bring the foot forward M'ith the
toes closed, presenting only an edge to the water, — all on the principle of the feathering of oars
in rowing. It is carried to an extreme in a loon, where, when the foot is closed, the digit
marked 2t in the figure lies below and behind St. It is probably least marked in birds of
prey, which give the clutch with their talons spread. The jointings of the individual phalanges
of the toes upon one another are simple hinges, permitting motion of extension to a right line
or a little beyond in some cases, with very free flexion in the ojiposite direction. On the
whole, the mechanics of a bird's foot are less peculiar than those of the wing, and quite those
of the limbs of a quadruped.
In ordinary hopping, walking, and running, and in perching as well, (mly the toes rest upon
or grasp the support, from D to beyond, C being more or less vertically over D. Such resting
of the toes is complete for 2 t, St, 4: t in the figure, or for all the anterior toes ; but for the hind
toe it varies according to the length and position of that digit, from complete incumbency, like
that of the front toes, to mere touching of the tip of that toe, or not even this : the hind toe
is then sure to be functionless. But many of the lower birds, such as loons and grebes, cannot
stand at all upright on their toes, resting with the heel touching the ground ; and in many such
cases the tail furnishes additional support, making a tripod with the feet, as in the kangaroo.
Such birds might be called plantigrade (Lat. ^^Zawto, the sole; gradus, a step) in strict
anatomical conformity with the quadrupeds so designated. The others are all digitigrade,
standing or walking on their toes alone. But no birds progress on the ends of their toes, or
toe-nails, as hoofed quodrupeds do. A bird's ordinary walking or running is the same as ours,
so far as the ordinary mechanics of the motions are concerned ; but its so-called " hopping" is
really leaping, both legs moving at once. Most birds, down to Columb(e, leap when on the
ground, a mode of progression characteristic of the higher orders; but many of the more terres-
trial Passeres and Accijiitres progress by ordinary walking when on the ground, as is invariably
the case with parrots, pigeons, gallinaceous birds, and all waders and swimmers.
The student need scarcely be reassured that, whatever their modifications, their relative
development, motions, and postures, the several segments of both fore and hind limbs of any
vertebrate, quadruped or biped, feathered or featherless, are fixed in one morphologically iden-
tical series, thus: 1, shoulder or hip-joint; 2, upper arm or thigh, humerus or femur; 3,
elbow or knee-joint ; 4, fore -arm or leg proper, radius and ulna or tibia and fibula ; 5, wrist,
bend of wing, carpus, or heel, ankle, tarsus ; 6, hand proper, metacarpus, or foot proper,
metatarsus ; 7, digits with their phalanges, of hand or foot, fingers or toes. 2, first segment ;
4, second segment; 5, third segment (not separate in foot of bird) ; 6 and 7, fourth segment,
in the wing called manus or pinion, in the leg, pes. Observe the improper naming of parts,
in the case of the hind limb, whereby 1, 2, 3, are not generally counted ; 4 is called "thigh " ;
5 is called " knee " ; 6 is called " leg " or " shank "; 7 is called "foot." Observe also that in
descriptive ornithology 6 is " the tarsics."
The Plumage of the Leg and Foot varies within wide limits. In general, the leg is
feathered to the heel, C, and the rest of the limb is bare of feathers. The thigh is alivays
feathered, as part of the body plumage (pteryla femoraUs). The crus or leg jjroper (thigh of
vulgar language, B to C) is feathered in nearly all the higher birds, and in swimming 1)irds
Mnthout exception ; in the loons, the feathering even extends on the heel-joint. It is ainong
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET.
129
the walking and especially the wading birds that the cms is most extensively denuded ;
it may be naked half-way up to the knee. A few waders, — among ours, chiefly in the
sniije family,— have the crus apparently clothed to the heel-joint; but this is due, in most if
not all cases, to the length of the feathers, for probably in none of them does the pteryla cruralis
itself extend to the joint. Crural feathers are nearly always short and inconspicuous; but
sometimes long and flowing, as in the " flags " of most hawks, and in our tree-cuckoos. The
tarsus (I now and hereafter use the term in its ordinary acceptation — C to D in fig. 34; trs in
fii?. 36) in the vast majority of birds is entirely naked, being provided with a horny or leathery
sheath of integument like that covering the bUl. Such is its condition in the Passeres and
PicaricB (with few exceptions, as among swifts and goatsuckers) ; in the waders without ex-
ception, and in nearly all swimmers (the frigate-bird, Tachtjpetes, has a slight feathering).
The Raptores and GaUinee furnish the most feathered tarsi. Thus, feathered tarsi is the rule
among owls (Striges) ; frequent, either partial or complete, in hawks and eagles, as in Aquila,
Archibuteo, Fulco, Buteo, etc. All our grouse, and perhaps all true grouse, have the tarsus
more or less feathered (fig. 35). The toes themselves are feathered in a few birds, as several
of the owls, and all the ptarmigans {Lagopiis). Partial feathering of the tarsus is often con-
tinued downward, to the toes or upon them, by sparse modified feathers in the form of bristles ;
as is well shown in the barn-owl (fig. 47). When incomplete, the feathering is generally want-
ing behind and
below, and it is
almost invariably
continuous above
with the crural
plumage. But in
that spirit of per-
versity in which
})lrds delight to
I)rove every rule Fig. 35. —Feathered tarsus of a grouse, CMpirfaniacajsirfo. Nat. size.
we establish by furnishing exceptions, the tarsus is somethnes partly feathered discontinuously.
A curious example of this is afi"orded by the bank-swallow, Cotile riparia, with its little tuft of
feathers at the base of the hind toe ; and some varieties of the barn-yard fowl sprout monstrous
leggings of feathers from the side of the tarsus.
The Length of Leg, relatively to the size of the bii'd, is extremely variable ; a thrush or
sparrow probably re]iresents about average proportions of the limb. The shortest-legged bird
known is probably the frigate-pelican, Tachy petes ; which, though a yard long more or less,
has a tibia not half as long as the skull, and a tarsus under an inch. The leg is very short in
many Picariau birds, as hummers, swifts, goatsuckers, kingfishers, trogons, etc., in many of
which it scarcely serves at all for progression. Among Passeres, the swallows resemble swifts
in shortness of their hind limbs. It is pretty short likemse in many zygodactyle, yoke-toed or
scansorial birds, as woodpeckers, cuckoos, and paiTots. In most swimming birds the limb
may also be called short, especially in its femoral and tarsal segments ; while the broad-webbed
toes are comparatively longer. The leg lengthens in the lower perching birds, as many
hawks and some of the terrestrial pigeons ; it is still longer among walkers proper, such as the
gallinaceous birds, and reaches its maxinmm among the waders, especially the larger ones,
such as cranes, herons, ibises, storks, and flamingoes ; among all of which it is correlated with
extension of the neck. Probably the longest-legged of all birds for its size is the stilt
{Himantopus). Taking the tarsus alone as an index of length of tlie whole limb, this is in
the frigate under one-thirty-sixth of the bird's length ; a flamingo, four feet long, has a tarsus
a foot long: a stilt, fourteen inches louijc, one of four inches; so that the maximum and
9
130
GENEUAL ORNITHOLOGY.
minimum lengths of tarsus are nearly thirty and under three per cent, of a bird's whole
length.
The Horny Integument of the Foot requires pai-ticular attention. That part of the
limb which is devoid of feathers is covered, like the bill, by a hardened, thickened, modiiied
integument, varying in texture from horny to leathery. This sheath is called the podotheca
(Gr. TTowy, TToSdf, poiis, podos, foot, and OrjKr), theke, sheath). It is more corneous in land birds,
and in water birds more leathery ; this general distinction has but few exceptions. The perfectly
horny envelope is tight, and immovably fixed or nearly so, while the skinny styles of sheath
are looser, and may usually be slipped about a little. The integument may differ on different
parts of the same leg, and in fact generally does so to some extent. Unlike the sheath of the
bill, the podotheca is never simple and continuous, being divided and subdivided in various
ways. The lower part of the crus, when naked, and the tarsus and toes, always have their
integument cut up into scales, plates, tubercles, and other special formations, which have
received particular names. The manner and character of such divisions are often of the
utmost consequence in classification, especially among the higher birds, since they are quite
significant of genera, families, and even some larger groups.
trs—
3tcl
Fig. 36. — Booted lamlniplantar
tarsus of a robin. Nat. size.
Fig. 37. — Scutellate
laminiplantar tarsus of a
cat-bird. Nat. size.
Fig. 38 — a. Reticulate tarsus-
of a plover. Nat. size. 6. Scutel-
late and reticulate tarsus of a
pigeon. Nat. size.
The commonest division of the podotheca is into scales or scutella (Lat. scuteUum, a little
shield; pi. scutella, not scntellce as often written) ; figs. 37, and 38, h. These are generally of
large comparative size, arranged in definite vertical series up and down the tarsus and along
the toes, and apt to be somewhat imbricated, or fixed shingle-wise, the lower edge of f)ne
overlapping the upper edge of the next. The great majority of birds have such scutella. They
oftenest occur on the front of the tarsus (or acrotarsium, corresponding to our " instep"), and
almost invariably on the tops of the toes (collectively called acropodium) ; frequently also on
the sides and back of the tarsus or plnnta ; not so often on the crus, and rarely if ever on the
sides and under surfiices of the toes. A tarsus so disposed as to its podotheca is said to be
scutellate, — scutellate before (fig. 37), or behind, or both, as the case may be. The term is
equally applicable to the acropodium, but is not so often used because scutellation of the upj)er
sides of the toes is so universal as to be taken for granted unless the contrary condition is
expressly said. The most notorious case of the Oscine podotheca (figs. 36, 37), charactoriziiig
that great group of birds, is given beyond (next paragraph).
Plates, or reticidations (Lat. reticulum, a web; fig. 38, a) result from the cutting Tip of
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE FEET. 131
the envelope in various ways by cross lines. Plates are of various shapes and sizes, and
grade usually into true scutella, from which however they are generally distinguished by being
smaller, or of irregular contour, or not in definite rows, or lacking the appearance of imbrica-
tion ; but there is no positive distinction. They are oftenest hexagonal (six-sided), a form best
adapted to close packing, as shown very perfectly in the cells of the honey-bee's comb ; but
they may have fewer sides, or be polygonal (many-sided), or even circular; when crowded in
one direction and loosened in another the shape tends to be oval or even linear. A leg so fur-
nished is said to be reticulate : the reticulation may be entire, or be associated with scutellation,
as often happens (fig. 38, b). A particular case of reticulation is called granulation (Lat.
granum, a grain) : when the plates become elevated into little tubercles, roughened or not.
Such a leg is said to be granular, granulated, or rugose : it is well shown by parrots, and the
fish-hawk {Pandion). When the harder sorts of scales or plates are roughened without
obvious elevation, the leg is said to be scabrous or scarious (Lat. scabrum, a scab). But
scabrous is also said of the under surfaces of the toes, when these develop special pads, or
wart-like bulbs (called tijlari) : as is well shown in the sharp-shinned and many other hawks.
The softer sorts of legs, and especially the webs of swimming birds, are often marked crosswise
or cancellated with a lattice M'ork of lines, these however not being strong enough to produce
plates ; it is more like the lines seen on our palms and finger-tips. The plates of a part of the
leg (jccasionally develop into actual serrations ; as witnessed along the hinder edge of a
grebe's tarsus. When an unfeathered tarsus shows no divisions of the podotheca in front
(along the acrotarsium), or only two or three scales close by the toes, it is said to be booted or
greaved ; and such a podotheca is holothecal (Gr. oXoy, holos, whole, entire, and 6r]Krj; fig. 36).
The generic opposite is sclmothecal (Gr. a-xiC^^, I cleave), whether by scutellation or reticula-
tion or in any other way the integument may be cut up. A booted or holothecal tarsus chiefiy
occurs in the higher Oscines, and is supposed by many, particularly German ornithologists, to
indicate the highest type of bird structure. It is, however, found in a few water birds, as
Wilson's stormy petrel and other species of Oceanites. It is not a common modification.
Exceptions aside, it only occurs in connection with an equally particular condition of the
sides and back of the tarsus, or planta. In almost all Oscine Passeres {Alaudida are an
exception), which constitute the great bulk of the large order Passeres, the planta is covered
with one pair of plates or lamincE, one on each side, meeting behind in a sharp ridge ; a condi-
tion called laminiplantar, in distinction from the opposite, scutelliplantar , state of the parts.
A holothecal podotheca only occurs in connection with the laminiplantar condition, the combi-
nation resulting in the perfect " boot." Among North American birds, the genus Oceanites
aside, it is exhibited by the following genera, and by these only : Tardus, Cinclus, Saxicola,
Sialia, Regulus, Cyanecicla, Phylloscopus, Chamcea, Myiadestes ; and even birds of these
genera, when young, show scutella which disappear with age by progressive fusion of the
acrotarsial podotheca. (Compare figs. 36, 37.)
The Cms, when bare of feathers below, may, like the tarsus, be scutellate or reticulate
before or behind, or both ; such divisions of the crural integument being commonly seen in
long-legged wading birds. Or, again, this integument may be loose, softish, and movable, not
(ilniously divided, and passing directly into ordinary skin.
The Tarsus, in general, may be called subcylindrical : it is often quite circular in cross-
section ; generally thicker from before backward, and only rarely wider from one side to the
other than in the opposite direction; but such a shape as this last is exhibited by the penguins.
When the transverse thinness is noticeable, the tarsus is said to be compressed; and such
compression is very great in a loon, in which the tarsus is almost like a knife blade. Quite
cylindrical tarsi occur cliioHy when there are similar scales or plates before and behind, as
132 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
happens in the larks (Alaudida) ; they are rare among land birds, common among waders.
Those swimming birds with a very thin skinny podotheca are apt to show traces of the four-
sidedness of the metatarsal bone. The tarsus in the vast majority of land birds is seen on
close inspection to be somewhat ovate or drop-shaped on cross- section, — gently rounded in
front, more compressed laterally, and sharp-ridged behind. This results fi-om the laminiplan-
tation described above, and is equally well exhibited by most passerine birds, whether they
have booted or anteriorly scutellate tarsi. The line of union of anterior scutella with postero-
lateral plates on the sides of the tarsus is genctrally in a straight vertical line, — either a mere
line of Hush union, or a ridge, or oftener a groove (well seen in the crows), which may or
may not be filled in with a few small narrow plates. In the Clamatorial Passeres, represented
by our flycatchers, the tarsus is enveloped in a scroll-like podotheca of irregularly arranged
plates, the edges of the scroll meeting along the inner side of the tarsus. But the full consider-
ation of special states of the tarsal envelope, however important and interesting, would be part
of a systematic treatise on ornithology, rather than of an outline sketch like this.
The Number of Toes (individually, digiti ; collectively, podiuiii) is four : there are
never more. There are two in the ostrich alone, in which both inner and hind toe are wanting.
There are three in all the other struthious birds (Rheidce, Casu-
ariida), excepting Ajiteri/x, which has four. There are like-
wise three, the hind toe being suppressed, in the tinamine
genera Calodromas and Tinamotis {Dromceognathce) ; through-
out the auk family {Alcklce) ; in the petrel genus Pelecan-
o'ides; apparently iu the albatrosses (Diomedeina;) ; usually in
the gull genus Eissa; in the flamingo genus Phoenicoparra ;
throughout the bustard family (Otididee), and among various
related forms, as (Edicnemus, Esacus, Cursorius ; in the
plovers (Charadriidcs), excepting Squatarola ; and in the
Fig. 39. — Tridactyle foot of sand- bush-quails (Tumicidce), excejsting Pedionomus. In higher
erling, Calidris arenaria ; nat. size. ^^.^.^^^ ^j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^ anomaly, only known to occur in
three genera of w^oodpeckers (Picmdes, Sasia, and Tiga), and in one galbuline genus (Jaca-
maralcyon), by loss of the hind toe ; in two genera of kingfishers {Ceyx and Alcyone), by sup-
pression of the inner front toe ; and in the passerine genus Cholornis, by defect of the outer
front toe. North American three- toed birds are these only : the woodpeckers of the genus
Pico'ides ; all auks (Alcidce), and albatrosses (Dioviedeince ; in these, however, there is a
rudiment of the liind toe) ; all plovers (Charadriidce, excepting one, Squatarola) ; the oyster-
catchers (Hcematopus) ; the sanderling (Calidris, fig. 39) ; the stilt (Himantopus). Bu'ds
with two toes are said to be didactyle ; with three, tridactyle ; with four, tetradactyle. In the
vast majority of cases, birds have three toes in front and one behind. Occasionally, either the
hind toe, or the outermost front toe, is versatile, that is, susceptible of being turned either
way. Such is the condition of the outer front toe in most owls (Striges), and in the fish-hawk
(Pandion). We have no case of true versatility of the hind toe among North American birds;
but several cases of its stationary somewhat lateral position, as in goatsuckers {Caprimidgido'),
some of the swifts {CypselidcB) , the loons (Colymbidce) , and all the totipalmate swimmers
(Steganopodes). Nor have we any example of that rarest of all conditions (seen in some
Cypselidce, and the African Coliidaf) in which all four toes are turned forward. The arrange-
ment of toes in pairs, two before and two behind, is quite common, being the characteristic
of scansorial birds and some others, as all the parrots and wood})eckers, cuckoos, trogons, etc.
Such arrangement is called zygodactyle or zygodactylous (Gr. (vyov, zugon, a yoke ; haKTvKoi,
daktulos, a digit) ; and birds exhibiting it are said to be yoke-toed (fig. 45). In all yoke-toed
birds, excepting the trogons, it is the outer anterior toe which is reversed ; in trogons, the
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET. 133
inner one. In nearly every three-toed bird, all three toes are anterior ; our single exception is
in the genus Pico'ides, where the true hind toe is wanting, the outer anterior one being reversed
as usual in zygodactyles. No bird has more toes beliind than in front. Birds' toes, and their
respective joints, are
Numbered, in a certain definite order, as follows (see figs. 34, 36) : hind toe = first toe,
1^; inner anterior toe =: second toe, 2t ; middle anterior toe =^ third toe, 3t; outer anterior
toe = fourth toe, 4:t. Such identification oilt, 2t, 3t, 4:t applies to the ordinary case of three
toes in front and one behind. But, obviously, it holds good for any other arrangement of the
toes, if we only know which one is changed in position, — a thing always easy to learn, as we
shall see at once. In birds with the hind toe reversed, leaving all four in front, the same
order is evident, though then 1 i is the inner anterior, 2 t the next, etc. ; for it always happens,
when a hind toe turns forward, that it turns on the inner side of the foot. Similarly, in yoke-
toed birds (excepting Trogonidee), it is the outer anterior which is turned backward, as above
said ; then, evidently, inner hind toe = lt; inner front toe = 2 ^ ; outer front toe = 3 ^ ; outer
hind toe = i t. In Trogonidce, with inner front toe reversed, the coiTection of the formula is
easily made. Moreover, when the number of toes decreases from four to three or two, the
digits are almost always reduced in the same order : thus, in three-toed birds, 1 / is the missing
one ; in the two-toed ostrich, 1 1 and 2 t are gone. The only known exceptions to this general-
ization are afi"orded by two exotic genera of kingfishers, Ceijx and Alcyone, in which 2 ^ is
defective ; and by the anomalous passerine Cholornis of China, in which it is in like case.
The rule is proven by the
Number of Phalanges, or joints, of the digits. The constancy of the joints in birds'
toes is remarkable, — it is one of the strongest expressions of the highly monomorphic character
of Aves. In cdl birds, excepting Procellarudcc, 1 1 when present has two joints (not counting,
of course, the accessory metatarsal). In all birds, 2 t when present has tJiree joints. In nearly
all birds, 3 t has four joints. In nearly all birds, 4 t has five joints. Thus, any digit has one
more joint than the number of itself. The exceptions to this regularity consist in the lessening
of the number of joints of 1 t or 3 thy one, and of 4 ^ by one or two. So when the joints do
not run 2, 3, 4, 5, for toes 1 to 4, they run either, 1, 3, 4, 5, or 2, 3, 4, 4, or 2, 3, 3, 3. (These
statements do not regard the anomalous cases of Ceyx, Alcyone, and Cholornis — see above.)
Tliis variability is nearly confined to certain Picarian birds : our examples of it are in certain
ryi genera of Cypselince, fig. 40, where the ratio is 2, 3, 3, 3,
I of Caprimulgince, fig. 41, where it is 2, 3, 4, 4 ; and the petrel
[J family, with 1, 3, 4, 5. Such admirable conservatism enables
<^/7^jt. us to tell what toes are missing in any case, or what ones are
j^ t) out of the regular position. Thus, in Pico'ides, the hind toe,
a})parently 1 1, is known to be 4 t, because it is five-jointed ;
iu a troi^on, the inner hind toe is 2 t, beine three-jointed ; in
Fig. 40.-Pha- , ° , ' . , , „ ■, , , ,
langes of Cypse- ^ne ostrich, with only two toes, 6t and 4i are seen to be
line foot, 2, 3, 3, 3. preserved, because they are respectively four- and five-jointed.
(See fig. 34, where the digits and their phalanges are numbered.) Besides
tliis interesting numerical ratio, the phalanges have other inter-relations of
some consequence in classification, resulting from their comparative lengths. langesofCaprimuU
In some families of birds, one or more of the basal or proximal phalanges ginefoot, 2, 3, 4,4.
(those next to the foot — opposed to distal, or those at the ends of the digits) of the front toes
are extremely short, being mere nodules of bono (fig. 40) ; in other and more frequent cases,
they are the hmgest tif all, as in figs. 34, 41. On the whole, they generally decrease in length
fniin pri)xinial to distal extremity, and the last one of any toe is quite small, serving merely
134 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
as a core to the claw. The difference in the lengths of the several plialauges, like that of
the digits themselves, makes the toes more efficient in grasping, since they therehy clasp more
perfectly upon an u'regular object. The design and the principle are the same as seen in the
human hand, in which model instrument the digits and their joints are all of different lengths.
The Position of the Digits, other than in respect to their direction, is important. In
all birds the front toes are inserted on the metatarsus on the same level, or so nearly iu one
horizontal plane that the difference is not notable. The same may be said of the hind toes
when they are a pair, as in zygodactyle birds. But the hind toe, or hallux, as it is often
called, when present and single, varies remarkably in position with reference to the front toes ;
and this matter requires special notice, as it is important in classification. The insertion of
this digit varies, from the very bottom of the tarsus (metatarsus), where it is on a level with
the front toes, to some distance up the bone. When the hallux is flush with the bases of
the other toes, so that its whole length is on the ground, it is said to be incumbent. When
just so much raised that its tip only touches the ground, it is called insistent. When inserted
so high up that it does not reach the ground, it is termed remote (amotus) or elevated.
But as the precise position varies insensibly, so that the foregoiug distinctions are not readily
perceived, it is practically best to recognize only two of these three condhions, saying simply
"hind toe elevated," when it is inserted fairly above the rest, and "hind toe not elevated,'-
when its insertion is flush with that of the other toes. In round terms : it is characteristic of
all insessorial (Lat. insedo, I sit upon) or perching birds to have the hind toe dq-wn ; of all
other birds to have it up (when present). The exceptions to the first of these statements are
extremely rare ; among North American birds they are chiefly furnished by certain genera of
Caprimulgidce, perhaps also of Cypselidce, and of Cathartidee. But among other Raptores
besides Cathartidee, especially certain owls (Striges), and in some of the pigeons (Columhidce) ,
the hind toe is not quite down, or is decidedly uplifted (as in Starncenas, for example). It is
elevated in all our rasorial birds {Gallince); elevated in all our waders excepting the herons
and some of their allies (Herodiones) , though not very markedly so in the rail family {Rallidm).
It is elevated in all swimming birds, whether lobe-footed or completely or partly web-footed,
but in the totipalmate order {Steganopodes), where the hallux is lateral in position and
webbed with the inner toe, the elevation is slight. Now since, curiously enough, the only
ones of our insessorial genera (see above) that have the hind toe up, have also little webs
between the front toes — since some Raptores are our only other insessorial birds with any
such true webbing — since herons and some of their allies are our only birds with such
webbing that have the hallux down — the following rule is perhaps infallible for North
American birds : Consider the hind toe up in any bird with any true webbing or lobing of the
front toes, excepting herons and some of their allies and some birds of prey. The converse
also holds almost as well ; for our only birds with fully cleft anterior toes and hind toe up, are
the rails and gallinules (Rallidce), the black-bellied plover (Squatarola helvetica), our only
fuur-toed plover, the turn-stone (Strepsilas interpres), the American woodcock (Philohela
minor), tl\e European woodcock {Scolopax rusticula), Wilson's snipe (Gallinago tvilsoni), and
most of the sandpipers (/Sco/o^jaarf^e). If the sense of this paragraph is taken in, the student
who wishes to use my artificial "key" wiU seldom be puzzled to know whether to take the
toe up or down.
The Hallux has other Notable Characters. — It is free and simple, in the vast majority
of birds : iu all insessorial l)irds, nearly all cursorial (Lat. cursor, a courser), and most natatorial
(Lat. natator, a swimmer) forms. Its length, claw included, may equal or surpass that of the
longest anterior toe ; and generally exceeds that of one or two of these. It is never so long as
when incumbent ; when thus down on a level with the rest it also acquires its greatest mobility
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET.
135
and functicinal efficiency. In most Passeres it is virtually provided with a special muscle for
independent movement, so that it may be perfectly apposable to the other t(jes collectively,
just as our thumb may be brought against the tip of any finger. In general, it shortens as it
rises on the metatarsus ; and probably in no bird in which it is truly elevated is it as long as
the shortest anterior toe. It is short, barely touching the ground, in most wading birds ;
shorter still in some swimmers, as the gulls, where it is probably functionless ; it is incom-
plete in one genus of gulls (Rissa), where it bears no perfect claw ; it has only one phalanx
and is represented only by a short immovable claw in the petrels (Procellariidce) ; it disappears
in the birds named in the last paragraph but two above, and in some others. It is never actu-
ally soldered with any other toe, for any noticeable distance ; but it is webbed to the base of the
inner toe in the loons (Colymbiis), and to the whole length of the toe in all the Steganopodes
(fig. 0-1). It may also be independently webbed; that is, be provided with a separate flap or
lobe of free membrane. This lobatiou of the hallux is seen in all our sea-ducks and mergansers
(Fulignlinee and Merginee), and in all the truly lobe-footed birds, as coots (Fulica), grebes
(Podicipedidce) and phalaropes {Phcdaropodidce) . The modes of union of the anterior toes
with one another may be finally considered under the head of the
Three leading 3Io(liflcations of the Avian Foot. — Birds' feet are modelled, on the
whole, upon one or another of three jjlans, furnishing as many types of structure ; which
types, though they run into one another, and each is variously modified, may readily be appre-
ciated. These plans are the perching or insessoricd, the walking or wading, cursorial or
grallatoricd, and the swimming or natatorial — in fact, so well distinguished are they, that
<*ariuate birds have even been primarily divided into groups corresponding to these three
evidences of physiological adaptation of the structure of the Avian jjes. Independently of the
number and position of the digits, the plans are pretty well indicated by the method of union
of the toes, or their entire lack of union. 1. The insessorial type, (a) In order to make a foot
the most of a hand, that is, to fit it best for that grasping function which the perching of
birds upon trees and bushes requires, it is requisite that the digits should be as free and
movable as possible, and that the hind one should be perfectly apposable to the others.
Compare the human hand, for example, with the foot, and observe the perfection secured by
the perfect freedom of the fingers and especially the appositeness of the thumb. In the most
accomplished insessorial foot, the front toes are cleft to the base, or only coherent to a very
slight extent ; the hind toe is completely incumbent, and as long and flexible as the rest. Our
thrushes I Turdidce) probably show as complete cleavage
as is ever seen, practically as much as that of the
human fingers ; the cleft between the inner and middle
toe being to the very base, while the outer is only joined
to the middle for about the length of its own basal
joiTit. This is the typical 2i«sserine foot (figs. 36, 37,
42, 43). There may be somewhat more cohesion of
tlic tcies at base, as in the wrens, titmice, creepers,
vircos, etc., without, liowever, tibscuring the true pas-
serine character. As regards this matter, the point is,
that when the toes are united at all, it is by their actual
cohesion there, not by movable webl/mg. Besides the
tyi)ical passerine, there are several other modifications
of the insessorial foot, (h) Tims a kingfisher shows
what is called a syndactyle or syngnesious (Gr. avv, sun
way of l)irtli) foot (fig. 44), where the outer and middle toes cohere for most of their extent and
have a broad sole in common. It is a dei^radatiou of tlie insessorial foot, and not a common
Figs. 42, 43- — Typical passerine feet.
(The right-hand fig. is Plectrophanes lappo-
nicus, nat. size.)
together ; yvfjcrios, gnesios, relating to
136
GEXEEAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Fig. 45. — Zygodactyle foot of a wood
pileatus, nat. size.
Ceoji/iUtus
Fig. 44. — Syn-
dactyle foot of king-
fisher, nat. size.
one either ; seen in those perching hirds which scarcely use their feet for progression, but
simply for sitting motionless, (c) The zygodactyle or yoke-toed modification has been suiB-
ciently noted (.fig. 45). It was formerly made much (jf, as a i^cnmnrwl ,,r rlimhivq typo "f foot,
and an absurd "order"
of birds has been called
Scansores. But many
of the zygodactyle birds
do not climb, as the
cuckoos ; while the most
nimble and adroit of
climbers, such as the
nuthatches and creepers,
retain a typically pas-
serine foot. The " scan-
sorial " is simply one modification of the insessorial plan, aud has little clas-
sificatory significance, — no more than that attaching to the particular con-
dition of the insessorial foot (d) which results from elevation or versatility of
the hind toe, as in some Oypselida and CaprimulgidcB. This is an abnormality which has
received no special name ; it is generally associated with some little webbing of the anterior
toes at base, which is a de-
parture from the true inses-
sorial plan, or with abnormal
reduction of the phalanges of
the third and fourth toes, as
explained above (figs. 40, 41).
(e) The raptorial is another
modification of the insessorial
foot. It is advantageous to a
bird of prey to be able to
spread the toes as widely as
possible, that the talons may
seize the prey like a set of
Fig. 46. — Raptori.al foot of a hawk, ^ecipi^er coope7-i, nat. size. grappling irons; and accord-
ingly the toes are widely divergent from each other, the outer one in the owls and a few hawks
being quite versatile. In a foot of raptorial character, the toes are cleft profoundly, or, if united
_ ^ -^-^--^ at base, it is hy movable
^ webbing; the claws are im-
mensely developed, and* the
under-surfaces of the toes are
scabrous or bulbous for greater
security of the object grasped.
Any hawk or owl or (dd-world
vulture exhibits the rai)torial
insessorial foot (figs. 46, 47).
2. The mrsorial or grallato-
rial type. The gist of this
plan lies in the decrease or
Fig. 47. — Kaptoriai foot of anowl, ^Zwco^ammcMS, nat. size. entire loss of the grasping
function, and in the elevation, reduction in length, or loss of the hind toe; the foot is a good
foot, but nothing of a hand. The columbine birds, which are partly terrestrial, partly arboreal.
^"^pH'
EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET. 137
exhibit the transition from the perching to the gradient foot, in some reduction of the hind toe,
which is nevertheless in most cases still on the same level as the rest (fig. 38, h). In the
gallinaceous or rasorial (Lat. rasor, a scraper) birds, which are essentially terrestrial, and
noted for their habit of scratching the ground for food, the hind toe is decidedly elevated and
shortened in almost all of the families (fig. 35). Such reduction and uplifting of the hallux is
carried to an extreme in most of the waders, or gral-
latores, in many of which this toe disappears (tigs.
38, ff, 39). It is scarcely practicable to recognize special
modifications of such gradient or grallatorial feet, since
they merge insensibly into one another. The herons,
which are the most arboricole of the waders, exhibit a
reversion to the insessorial type, in the length and in-
cumbency of the hallux. The mode of union of the
mation in Ereunetes ; front toes of the walkers and waders is somewhat char- Fig. 49. — Semi-
' . . . m, . , , „ . , , palruated bathes of
"at. size. acteristic. The toes are either cleft quite to the base, t^eg ^f Symphemla;
or there joined by small webs ; probably never actually coherent. Such "at. size,
basal webbing of the toes is called semipalmation ("half-webbing"). It is actually the
same thing that occurs in many birds (jf prey, in most gallinaceous birds, etc. ; the term is
mostly restricted, in descriptive ornithology, to those wading birds, or grallatores, in which it
occurs. Such basal webs generally run out to the end of the first, or along part of the second,
phalanx of the toes ; usually farther between the outer and midtUe ,^«
than between the middle and inner toes. Such a foot is well illus-
trated by the semipalmated plover (^gialites semipalmatus),
semipalmated sandpiper (Ereunetes pusillus, fig. 48), and willet
{Symphemia semipalmata, fig. 49). In a few wading birds, as the
avocet and flamingo, the webs extend to the ends of the toes.
This introduces us at once to the third main modification of the
foot, 3. The natatorial type. Here the foot is transformed into
a swimming implement, usually with much if not entire abrogation
of its function as foot or hand. Swimming birds with few ex-
ceptions are notoriously bad walkers, and few of them are percliers.
The swimming type is presented under two principal modifica-
tions : — (fl.) In the pnlmate or ordinary webbed foot, all the front pjg, 50. — Palmate foot of a
toes are united by ample webs (fig. 50). The palmation is usually tern, Sterna forsten; nat size,
complete, extending to the ends of the toes ; but one or both webs may be so deeply incised,
that is, cut away, that the palmation is practically reduced to semipalmation, as in terns of
the genus Hydrochelidon (fig. 51). The totipalmnte is a special case of palmation, in
which all four toes are webbed ; this characterizes the whole order
Steganopodes (fig. 52). (b.) In the lobate foot, a paddle results not
from connecting webs, but fi-om a series of lobes or flaps along the
sides of the individual toes ; as in the coots, grebes, phalaropes, and
sun-birds (Heliornithidee). Lobation is usually associated with semi-
pjilmation, as is well seen in the grebes (Podicipedidee) . In the snipe-
like phalaropes (Phalaro2}odida:) , lobation is present as a modification
of a foot otherwise quite cursorial. Tlie most emphatic cases of loba-
tion are those in which each joint of the toes has its own flap, with a p ^^j — inoiscl nal-
free convex border ; the membranes as a whole therefore present a scol- mation of Hydrorheiulon
loped outline (figs. 53, 53 his). Such lobes are merely a development '«"/"'-'"«•• "»* «*^e-
of certain marginal fringes or ]irocoss('s exhibited by many nmi-lobate or non -palmate birds.
Thus, if tlic foot of some of the gallinules be examined in a fresh state, the toes will be seen to
138
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
have a narrow membranous margin running the whole length. The same thing is evident in
a great many waders, and on the free borders of the inner and outer toes of web-footed birds.
In the grouse family
(Tetraonidee) , mar-
ginal fringes are
very conspicuous ;
there being a great
development of hard
horny substance,
fringed into a series
of sharp teeth or
pectinations (fig.
35). These forma-
tions appear to be
deciduous, that is,
to fall off periodically, hke parts of the claws of
some quadrupeds (lemmings).
Fig. 52. — Totipalmate foot of
pelican; reduced.
Lobate foot of a coot; reduced.
Fig. 53 Ws.— Lobate foot of phala-
rope, Lobipes hyperhoreus ; nat. size.
Claws and Spurs. — With rare anomalous exceptions, as in the case of an imperfect
hind toe, every digit terminates in a complete claw. The general shape is remarkably constant
in the class ; variations being rather in degree than in kind. A cat's claw is about the usual
shape : it is compressed, arched, acute. The great talons of a bird of prey are only an en-
largement of the typical shape ; and, in fact, they are scarcely longer, more curved, or more
acute than those of a delicate canary bird ; they are simply stouter. The claws of scansorial
birds are very acute and much curved, as well as quite large. The under surface of the claw
is generally excavated, so that the transverse section, as
well as the lengthwise outline below, is concave, and the
under surface is bounded on either side by a sharp edge.
One of these edges, particularly the inner edge of the middle
claw, is expanded or dilated in a great many birds ; in some
it becomes a perfect comb, having a regular series of teeth.
This pectination (Lat. pecten, a comb), as it is called, only
occurs on the inner edge of the middle claw. It is beautifully shown by all the true herons
(Ardeidce) ; by the whip-poor-wills and night-hawks (Caprimulgidce, fig. 41) : by the frigate
pelican (Tachypetes) ; and imperfectly by the barn owl (Aluco flammeus). It is supposed to
be used for freeing parts of the plumage that cannot be reached by the bill from parasites;
but this is very questionable, seeing that some of the shortest-legged birds, which cannot
possibly reach much of the plumage wnth the comb," possess that instrument. Claws are
more obtuse among the lower birds than in the insessorial and scansorial groups, as the
columbine and gallinaceous (rasoriaT) orders, and most natatorial families. Obtuseness is
generally associated with, flatness or depression ; for in proportion as a claw becomes less
acute, so does it lose its arcuation, as a rule. This is well iUustrated by Wilson's petrel
( Oceanites oceanicus) , as compared with others of the same family. Such condition is carried
to an extreme in the grebes (Podicipedidce), the claws of which birds resemble human finger-
nails. Otherwise, deviations from curvature, without loss of acuteness, are chiefly exhibited
by the hind claw of many terrestrial Passeres, as in the whole family Alaudida; (larks),
and some of the finches {FringilUdai) , as the species of " long-sjiur " {Centrophanes) . But all
the claws are straight, sharp, and prodigiously long, in birds of the genus Parra (fig.
53 ter) ; these ja^anas being enabled to run lightly over the floating leaves of aquatic plants
by so much increase in the spread of their toes that they do not "slump in." Claws nrc
THE ANATOMY OF BIEDS.— OSTEOLOGY.
139
also variinisly carinate or ridged, sulcate or grooved. In a few cases they are rounded under-
neath, so as to be nearly circular in cross-section, as is the case with those of the tish-hawl
(Pandion). They are always horny (comeoMs). They take name from and are reckoned by
their respective digits : thus, 1 d. = claw oi I t ; 2 cl = claw of 2 1, etc.
Fio. 53 ter. — Foot of Jacana (Asarcin) spinosa, nat. size, showing the
Mus. The spurred wing of the same bird is also shown. See p. 120.)
straight claws. (From Pr. U. S. Nat.
Spurs (Lat. calcar, a spur) are developed on the metatarsal bones of a few birds. They
are of the nature of claws, being hard, horny modifications of the epiderm : but they have
nothing to do with the digits. They possess a bony core upon which they are supported,
like the horns of cattle. Such growths chiefly occur in gallinaceous birds : the spurs of the
domestic fowl are a familiar case. Sometimes there are a pair of such weapons on each foot,
as in the Favo bicalcaratus. The only instance of their occurrence among indigenous birds of
North America is offered by the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Metatarsal spurs are
characteristic of the male sex : they are oflFensive weapons, and belong to the class of "second-
ary sexual characters" (p. 9.5). (For wing-spurs, as shown in fig. 53 ter, see p. 120.)
4.— AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.
Anatomical Structure now aff'ords ornithologists many and the most important of the
characters used in classification. In fact, few if any of the groups above genera can be
securely established without consideration of internal parts and organs, as well of exterior
modifications of structure. Therefore, the student who really *• means business " must be on
speaking terms at least with avian anatomy. For example, none could in the least intelli-
gently understand a wing or a leg without knowing the bony framework of those members.
Yet, for me to adequately set this matter forth would be to occupy this whole volume with
anatomy ; whereas, I can only devote a few pages to the entire subject. In such embarrass-
ment, wliich attends any attempt to treat a great theme in a short way that shall not also be a
small way, attention must be mainly confined to those points which bear most directly uptm
systematic ornithology as distinguished from pure anatomy, in order to bring forward the
structures which are more particularly concerned in the classification of birds. I wish to
give a fair account of the skeleton, as osteological characters are of the utmost importance for
the determination of natural affinities ; and to continue with some notice of prominent features
of the muscular, vascular, respiratory, digestive, urogenital, and nervous systems, and
organs of the special senses, as the eye and ear. The tegumentary system has already been
treated at some length fpp. 81-9G) ; so has the osseous system, so far as the bones of the limbs
are concerned (pp. 111-115. 12I-128, 133). What further I shall have to say is designed
merely as an introduction to the rudiments of avian anatomy, and is supposed to be addressed
to beginners only.
140 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
a. Osteology : The Osseous System, or Skeleton.
Osteology (Gr. oariov, osteon, a bone ; Xdyos, logos, a word) is a scientific description of
bone in general and of bones in particular. Bone consists of an animal basis or matrix (Lat.
matrix, a mould) hardened by deposit of earthy salts, chiefly phosphate of lime. Bone is
either preformed in the gristly substance called cartilage (Lat. cartilago, gristle), and results
from the substitution of the peculiar osseous tissue for the cartilaginous tissue, or it is formed
directly in ordinary connective tissue, such as that of most membranes or any ligaments of the
body. Bone tissue presents a peculiar microscopic structure, in which it difi'ers from teeth, as
it does also in not being developed from mucous membrane ; the substance is called ostein,
as distinguished from dentine. Though very dense and hard, bone has a copious blood-sujjply,
and is therefore very vascular ; the nutrient fluid penetrates every part in a system of vessels
called Haversian canals. In the natural state bone is covered with a tough membrane called
periosteum (Gr. nepl, peri, around, and oa-reov), which is to bone what bark is to a tree. The
bones collectively constitute the osseous system, otherwise known as the skeleton (Gr. aKeXtrov,
dried, as bones usually are when studied). The skeleton is divided into the endoskeleton (Gr.
fv8ov, endon, within), consisting of the bones inside the body ; and the exoskeleton (Gr. t^, ex,
out of j, or those upon the surface of the body, of which birds have none. Certain bones
developed apart from the systematic endoskeleton, in fibrous tissue, are called scleroskeletal
(Gr. (TKKrjpos, scleras, hard), as the ossified tendons or leaders of a turkey's leg, the ring of
ossicles in a bird's eye (an ossicle is any small bouc). Sesamoid (Gr. arja-afir], sesame, a
kind of pea) bones, so often found in the ligaments and tendons about joints, are probably
best considered scleroskeletal. The endoskeleton is divided into bones of the axial skeleton,
so called because they lie in the axis of the body, as those of the skull, backbone, chest,
pelvis, and shoulder-girdle ; and of the appendicular skeleton, including bones of the hmbs,
considered as diverging appendages of the trunk. The skeleton is jointed ; bones join
either by immovable suture, or by movable articulation (Lat. articulus, a joint, dimin. of artus^
a limb). In free articulations, the opposing surfaces are generally smooth, and lubricated
with a fluid called synovia. Progressive ossification often causes bones originally distinct to
coossify, that is, to fuse together ; this is termed ankylosis or anchylosis ; bones so melted
together are said to be ankylosed or anchylosed (Gr. dyKvXaa-is or dyxvXaxris, the stiflPening of
joints in a bent position). Thus all the bones of a bird's brain-box are anchylosed together,
though the box at first consists of many distinct ones ; and the determination of such osseous
elements or integers in compounded bones is a very important matter, as a clue to their
morphological composition. The names of most individual bones, chiefly derived from the
old anatomists, are arbitrary and have little scientific signification ; many are fanciful and mis-
leading ; bones named since anatomy passed from the empiric stage, when it was little more
than the art of dissecting and describing, however, have as a rule better naming. The shaft
of a long bone is its continuity: the enlargements usually found at its extremities are called
condyles (Gr. k6v8vXos, kondulos, a lump, knot, as of the knuckles). Points where ossification
commences in cartilage or membrane, are ossific centres, or osteoses ; valuable clues, usually,
to the elements of compound bones. But ossification of individual simple bones may begin in
more than one spot, and the several osteoses afterward grow together. This is especially the
case with the ends of bones, which often make much progress in ossification before they unite
with the shaft or main part ; such caps of bone, as long as they are disunited, are called
epiphyses (Gr. tm, epi, upon ; (fyva-is, phusis, growth). Protrusive parts of bones have the
general name of processes, or apophyses (Gr. dno, apo, away from, and (f)v(ns); such have
generally no ossific centres, being mere outgrowths. But many parts of a vertebra, which are
called " apophyses," have independent ossific centres. The progress of ossification is usually
rapid and efl"ectual.
THE ANATOMY OF BIBDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
141
The skeleton of birds is noted for the number and extent of its anchyloses, a great ten-
dency to coossification and condensation of bone-tissue resulting from the energy of the vital
activities in this hot-blooded, quick-breathing class of creatures. Birds' bones are remarkably
hard and compact. When growing, they are solid and marrowy, but in after life more or fewer of
them bec(jme hollow and are filled with air. This pneumaticity (Gr. nveviiaTiKos, jmeumaUl'os,
windy) is highly characteristic of the avian skeleton. Air penetrates the skull-bones from the
nose and ear-passages, and may permeate all of them. It gains access to the bones of the
trunk and limbs by means of air-tubes and air-sacs which connect with the air-passages in
the lungs; such sacs, sometimes of great extent, are also found in many places in the interior
of the body, beneath the skin, etc. ; sometimes the whole subcutaneous tissue is pneumatic.
The extent to which the skeleton is aerated is very variable. In many birds only the skull,
in a few the entire skeleton, is in such condition ; ordinarily the greater part of the skull,
and the lesser part of the trunk and limbs, is pneumatized. The passage of air in some cases
is so free, as into the arm-bone for example, that a bird with the windpipe stopped can breathe
Fig 55. — Actual section of the body in the thoracic
region of a bird. N', neural canal; //, hamal canal; c,
centrum of a dorsal vertebra; hy, hypapophysis; (I,
diapophysis ; z, zygapophysis ; >i.s-, neural spine; r,
pleurapopliysis, or vertebral part of a free rib, bearing
u, uncinate process or epipleura; rr, hajniapophysis
or sternal part of the same; st, section of sternum or
breast-bone (ha;mal spine). Designed by Dr K. W.
Shufeldt, U. S. A.
for an indefinite period through a hole in the humerus. Pneumaticity is not directly nor
necessarily related to power of Hight ; some birds which do not fly at all are more pneumatic
than some of the most buoyant. (On the general j)neiunaticity of the body see beyond under
head of the respiratory system.)
Fio. 54. — Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a
vertebrate. X, neural canal ; //, hiemal canal ; the body
separating them is the centrum of any vertebra, bear-
ing e, an epapoi»hysi.-<, and y, a hypapophysis ; n, n, neu-
rapophyscs; d, d, diapophyses; ma-, bifid neural spine;
pi, p/, pleurajMiphyses ; /;, A, haemapophyses; As, bifid
haemal spine. Brawn by Dr. K. W. Sliufeldt, U. S. A.,
after Owen.
The Axial Skeleton (figs. 54, 5.5, 56) of a bird or any rertebrnted animal, that is, one
having a back-bone, exhibits in cross-section two rings or hoops, one above and the other
below a central point, like the upper and lower loops of a figure 8- The u])per ring is the
neural arch (Gr. vdpov^ neuron, a nerve), so called because such a cylinder encloses a section
of the cerebro-spinal axis, or principal nervous system of a vertebrate (brain and spinal cord.
142
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
wh nee anse all the nerves of the body excepting those of the sympathetic nem.us system)
cf th TnZ/l / / i^-- ''''^"' '"""' '^^^'^^' "'^^'^'^ ^^""^^^^ly contains a section
of the pnncipal blood-vessels and viscera- Fig. 55 shows such a section, made across the
tUrac^c or chest-region of the trunk. Here the upper ring ,neural) is contracted, on ; sur
rounding the slender spinal cord, while the lower ring is expanded to enclose the heart and
lungs. Such a section, made in the region of the skull, would show the reverse; the up,,cr
nng greatly inflated to contain the brain, the lower contracted and otherwise greatly mod Id
into bones of the jaws. Thus the trunk of a vertebrate is a double-barrelled tube ; <nie tube
the tlfbl- ' "" "" T7.' ''' "''"■ '^''^ '•" ^^^ -^''^''''^ ■"' ^-g'^ ' the partition between
the two being a jointed chain of solid bones from one end of the body to the otl>er The.e
solid bones are the centrum, or hodies of vertebra, in tlie trunk; and in tlie hrad cerfu,i
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 143
boues which iu some respects correspond with the centrums of vertebrae. The entire chain or
series of vertebrae composes the back-bone or spinal column; with its connections (thorax and
pelvis) and anterior continuation (skull) it is the axial skeleton. The skull is considered by
some competent anatomists to consist of modified vertebrae. The skuU-bones ha\-e certainly
the position and relations of parts of vertebrae ; to a certain extent they resemble vertebrae, as
in being divisible into several segments, like as many vertebral segments ; they are also direct-
ly in the axis of the body, enclosing a part of the cerebro-spinal nervous system above, and
portions of the visceral systems below. But supposed strict morphological correspondence of
cranial bones with vertebrae is not supported by their mode of development, and is now gen-
erally denied, the relation being considered rather analogical and physiological than homological
and morphological.
1. THE SPINAL COLUMN.
A Vertebra (so called from the tlexibility of the chain of vertebrae ; Lat. verto, I turn)
consists of a solid body or centrum, and more or fewer processes or apophyses, some of which
have separate ossific centres. . Plate-like processes which arch upward from either side of a
centrum to enclose the neural canal are the neural arches or neur apophyses (fig. 54, n, n) ;
at their union in the middle line above they commonly send up a process called the neural spine
(ns). Transverse processes from the sides of the neural arch are diapophyses (Gr. bia, dia, across)
(figs. 54, 55, d, d). Oblique processes from the sides of the same arches, serving to lock them
together, are zygapophyses (Gr. ^vyov, zugon, a yoke ; fig. 55, z) ; there are two on' each side ;
one anterior, on tlie front border of an arch, a pre-zygapophysis ; one posterior, on the hind
border, & post-zygapophysis. From the under-side of a centrum, in the middle line, there is often
a hypapophysis (Gr. utto, hupo, under: fig. 55, hy). These several processes, with some others
not necessary to mention here, make with the centrum a vertebra iu strictness ; that is, when exist-
ing at all, they are completely consolidated with one another and with the centrum into one bone.
But certain important elements of a vertebra, developed from independent ossific centres, may or
may not anchylose therewith, in difierent regions of the same spinal column. These are the
pleurapophyses (Gr. irktvpov, pleuron, a rib; fig. 54 pi; fig. 55, r). Any rib is in fact the
pleurapophysial element of a vertebra ; it may be, and in most regions of the spinal column it is,
([uite small when existing at all, and anchylosed with the vertebra to which it belongs, as an
integral portion thereof. Only in the lower region of the neck, and throughout the thoracic
region, such pleurapophyses elongate, and are movably articulated with their respective verte-
brae; they then become the "ribs" of ordinary language. Moreover, the true thoracic ribs of
birds are jointed near the middle, each thus consisting of two pieces; the upper piece is pleura-
l>ophysis proper: the lower is called a hcemapophysis (fig. 54, h; fig. 55, cr) ; it coiTcsponds to
a " costal cartilage " of human anatomy. Once again : since the sternum (breast-bone) is theo-
retically, and doubtless archetypically, a solidified set of those parts of the vertebral segments
whicli complete the haemal arches below, each segment of a sternum to which a haemapophysis
is articulated is called a hcemal spine, being compared to a neural spine above. Aside from any
consideration of the ribs proper and sternum, or free pleurapophyses, htemapophyses, and
h;emal spines, any "vertebra" of ordinary language is the compound bone which consists of
centrum and neur-, di-, pre- and post-zyg-, jdeur-, hyp- and other -apophyses, if any, and
neural spine ; the latter being often called the " spinous process."
The Vertebrae join one another, forming a continuous chain. Their centra are placed
end to end, one after another ; their neunJ arches are also locked together by the zygapophyses,
when such articular processes are developed. Zygapophyses bear upon their free ends smooth
articular facets, the faces of which are mostly horizontal ; those of the pre-zygapophyses looking
downward, and overriding the reversed faces of the post- zygapophyses. The mode of jointing
144 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
of the centra of such vertebrae as are freely movable upon each other is highly characteristic
of birds, in so far as the shapes of the articular ends of the vertebral centra are concerned.
In anatomy at large, a vertebral centrum which is cupped or hollowed at both ends, is of
course bi-concave. Such a vertebra is called ampMcoelous (Gr. an^l, amphi, on both sides ;
KotXof, Jcoilos, hollowed) ; this is the rule in fishes, and obtained in some extinct Cretaceous birds,
as Ichthyornis ; it is unknown in recent birds.^ A centrum cupped in front only is proccelous ;
one cupped only behind is opisthoccelous (Gr. omaSe, opisthe, behind). Such structure neces-
sarily results in a ball-and-socket jointing of vertebrae. In those vertebrae of birds in which
this aiTangeinent obtains, it is always the posterior face of a centrum which is cupped, the
anterior one being balled; such vertebrae are therefore opisthoccelous. But in the freest
vertebral articulation of birds, that existing in the region of the neck, another modification
occurs. Both ends of each vertebra are saddle-shaped ; i. e,, concave in one direction, convex
in the other; a condition which may be called heterocoelous (Gr. erepos, heteros, conU'ary).
The concavo-convexity of any one vertebra fits the reciprocal concavo-convexity of the next.
Anterior faces of heterocoelous vertebrae are concave crosswise, up-and-down convex ; jjosterior
faces are the reverse ; consequently, such vertebrae are proccelous in horizontal section, but in
vertical section opisthoccelous. The various physical characters of vertebrae in different regions
of the body, and their connections with and relations to other parts of the body, have caused
their division into several sets, as cervical, dorsal, etc., which are best considered separately.
Cervical Vertebrae (fig. 56, cv) are those of the neck : all those in front of the thorax or
chest, which do not bear free pleurapophyses in adult life, or the free pleurapophyses of which,
if any, are not in two-jointed pieces and do not reach the breast-bone; i. e., have no haema-
pophyses. It is advisable, in birds, to draw this line between cervical and succeeding vertebrae,
no other being equally practicable ; for, on the one hand, one, two or more of the cervicals
(recognizable as such by their general conformation and free articulation) may have long free
ribs, movably articulated ; and all the cervicals, excepting usually the first, or first and second,
have short pleurapophyses, anchylosed in adult life, but free in the embryo ; while, on the
other hand, a vertebra, apparently dorsal by its configuration and even its anchylosis with the
dorsal series, may be entirely cervical in its pleurapophysial character.^ Thus, in fig. 56, of an
owl's trunk, the bone which is apparently first dorsal, and is so marked (dv), bears a free
styliform " riblet " an inch long (c), only it is not jointed, and does not reach the sternum ;
while the next to the last cervical has a minute but still free rib (c). In a raven's neck before
me, the last cervical rib is about two inches long, articulating by well-defined head and shoul-
der to body and lateral process of the vertebra ; the penultimate rib is about half an inch long,
with one articulation to the lateral process ; while the next anterior vertebra (third from the
last) has a minute ossicle, as a free "riblet." The rule is two such free pleurapophyses or
cervical ribs of any considerable length : sometimes one ; rarely three ; in the cassowary four.
Rudimentary pleurapophyses may usually be traced up to the second cervical vertebra, as slender
1 Except to this statement, however, the oddly-massed pygostyle, which, in birds where a terminal disc
develops inferiorly, may be distinctly cupped at both ends, as it is in a raven for example.
- The case is very puzzling; the more so because, viewing the whole series of birds, the ambiguous "cervico-
dorsal," or two such equivocal vertebrae, may lean in different cases in opposite directions when the whole sum of
characters is taken into account. Therefore it may be best, as already said, to make the possession of a jointed
sternum-reaching rib the criterion of tlie Jirst dorsal vertebra, even though an antecedent one may have the
physical characters of a dorsal, and be anchylosed with the dorsal series. This is tlie view taken by Huxley, who
says: " The first dorsal vertebra is defined as such by the union of its ribs with the sternum by means of a sternal
rib." (Anat. Vert. Anim., 1872, p. 237.) Owen appears to regard as dorsal any of the vertebrae in question which
bear freie ribs. The actual uncertainty in the case, and the discrepant reckoning by diflferent authors, prevents us
from making a satisfactory count of the numbers of the two series of vertebrae in any given case. Thus, fig 56, as
marked by Dr. Shufeldt, shows siv dorsals (f/c), to which is to be added the one under 7;, bearing the rib sr; and
from which is to be subtracted the anterior one, bearing the rib c/, which is to be regarded as cervical, though its
physical characters are evidently those of the dorsal series.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 145
stylets or riblets, completely anchylosed with the neural arches in adult life, and lying parallel
with the long axes of the bones. The anchylosis of pleuropophyses distinguishes most cervical
vcrtebriE in another way : for from it results, on each side of the neural arch, a foramen
(Lat. foramen, a hole, pi. foramina), through which blood-vessels (vertebral artery and vein)
pass to and from the skull. The series of these foramina is called the vertebrarterial canal ;
none such exist in those posterior cervical vertebrae which bear free ribs ; thus, in the raven the
canal begins abruptly at the fourth fi-om the last cervical. But, as in Bhea for instance (and
doubtless in many other cases), the vertebrarterial canal shades visibly into the series of
foramina formed by the spaces between the head and shoulder of any rib and the side of the
vertebra to which it is attached ; such being, as I suppose, the true morphology of the canal.
The cervical is the most flexible region of a bird's spine ; the articular ends of the vertebral bodies
are the most completely saddle-shaped (heterocoelous) ; the zygapophyses are large and flaring,
overriding each other extensively ; the largest processes are at the fore ends of the bones ; the ap-
positions of the central and zygapophysial articular surfaces are collectively such, that the column
tends to bond in an S-shape or sigmoid curve. The vertebral bodies are more or less contracted
in the middle, or somewhat hour-glass-shaped ; on several lower cervicals, hypapophyses are
lilci'ly to be well developed; as are neural spines toward both the beginning and end of the
scries. The vertebrae on the whole are large ; their neural canal is also of ample calibre. The
first two cervicals are so peculiarly modified for the articulation of the skull as to have received
special names. The first one, fig. 56, at, the atlas (so called because it bears up the head, as
the giant Atlas was fabled to support the firmament), is a simple ring, apparently without a
centrum. The lower part of the ring is deeply cupped to receive the condyle of the occiput
into ball-and-socket joint. The second cervical is the axis, ax, which subserves rotary move-
ments of the skull. It has a peculiar tootli-like odontoid (Gr. 68ovs, 686vtos, odous, odontos,
tooth ; (Ihos, eidos, form) process, borne upon the anterior end of its body, fitting into the lower
])art of the atlantal ring; about which pivot the atlas, bearing the head, revolves like a wheel
ujxm an eccentric axis. The cervicals of birds vary greatly in number; according to Huxley
there are never fewer than eight, and there may be as many as twenty-three ; Stejneger gives
twenty-four for some of the swans. Twelve to fourteen may be about an average number.
Thoracic or Dorsal Vertebrae (fig. ,56, dv) extend from the cervical to or into tlie
pelvic region of the spine. In most animals, and in ordinary anatomical language, a "dorsal"
is one which bears a distinct free rib, and is therefore truly thoracic, since '' ribs" are the side-
walls of the chest. But in birds, as we have seen, certain cervicals have distinct elongate
ril>s ; and, as will be seen soon, long jointed pleurapophyses are usually found in that region
commonly called "sacral." The first dorsal, in birds, is arbitrarily considered to be that one
which bears the first rib which is jointed, and which reaches the sternum by its lower (luema-
l.ophysial) half. Five or six vertebra? of birds commonly answer this description ; though the
last one which bears a long free jointed rib (which may or may not reach the sternum) is com-
monly anchylosed with the sacrum, as .<?r. So few as only three haemapophysis-bearing ribs may
reach the sternum. There may also be a long free-jointed rib which " floats " at both ends ;
i. e., is articulated neither with the sternum nor with the vertebra to which it belongs as in the
loon, for example. As the dorsal series thus shades insensibly behind into an»)ther series, the
lumbar (wliich lias no free, nor any di.stinct rihs, — ribs that one would not hesitate to call
such), it is best to consider as dorsal or thoracic all those vertebrae, succeeding the last
cervical (which is to be determined as explained ill tlic hist paragraph), which have distinct
jointed ribs, whatever the connection or disconnection of such pleurapophyses at either end.
On this understanding, one, sometimes two or even three "dorsal" vertebrae anchylose with
the pelvic region of the sjiine. Fixity of the dorsal region being of advantage to flight, these
vertebrae ai-f very li^^htly locked together; not only by the close apposition or even
10
146
GENERAL OliXlTHOLOGY.
anchylosis of their oodies and processes, but also, in many cases, by ossifications of the
tendons of muscles of the back, and coost-ifications of these with the vertebrae, like a set of
splints, till the consolidation of the thoracicis only surpassed by that of the pelvic region of the
spine. Dorsal vertebrae also usually differ a good deal from most cervicals in having shorter
bodies, laterally compressed, producing a ridge which runs along their middle line below ; in
lacking a vertebrarterial canal ; in having on each side two articular facets, — one on the body
and the other on the transverse process, for the head and shoulder of a rib. They are further
distinguished, usually, by having large spinous processes, in the form of high, long, thin,
squarish plates, often or usually anchylosed together. Their transverse processes are alst)
very prominent laterally, thin and horizontal, and often anchylosed. More or fewer dorsals
may bear large hypapophyses ; which, as in the loon, may bifurcate at their ends into two
flaring plates. Such processes continue a similar series from the neck, and are in relation to
the advantageous action of the muscles (rectus colli anticus and longus colli) by which the
neck is made to straighten out from the lower curve of its sigmoid flexure.
The " Sacrum " of a Bird (figs. 57, and 60) is commonly considered to be that large
solid mass of num('riiu.s anchylosed vertebras in the region of the pelvis, covered in by, and
fused more or less completely with, the principal bones of the
pelvis, or haunch-bones (ilio). But in this consolidation of an
extremely variable number (averaging perhaps twelve, but run-
ning up to at least twenty, eleven to thirteen being usual)
of bones are included vertebrae which in other animals belong
to several different sets — dorsal, lumbar, sacral proper, and
coccygeal or caudal. We have just seen that one or two, even
three, vertebrae, which are dorsal according to the definition
agreed upon, may enter into the composition of the " sacrum,"
being firmly anchylosed therewith, and their long ribs issuing
(tut from underneath the ilia, as shown in fig. 5fi, sr. Next
comes one bone, or a series of several (two to five or morel
bones, anchylosed together by their bodies and Sjiiuous proc-
esses, and also anchylosed with the ilia by means of stout lateral
bars of bone sent transversely outward on either side from their
respective centra to abut against the ilia. These cross-bars
correspond in general form and position with the transverse
process of the last true rib-bearing dorsal, — that process against
which the shoulder of any developed rib abuts ; they are variously
considered to be, to represent, or to include rudimentary ribs;
and such difference of view may be warranted by the state of the
parts in different birds. However this may be, the bones just
described are lumbar vertebrae (Lat. lumbus, the It. in : where
such vertebrae are situated in man and other mammals) ; which
certainly possess abortive ribs in some cases. On successive
lumbars the cross-bars, whatever their nature, commonly slip
lower and lower downward (belly- ward) on the vertebral bodies,
till the last ones are quite down to the level of the ventral
aspect of the centrum ; these are also commonly the stoutest,
most directly transverse, and most nearly horizontal of the series
of processes, abutting against the ilia a little in advance of the
socket of the thigh bone. This ends a series of consolidated
"sacral" vertebrae which are termed collectively " dorso-lumbar,"
Fig. 57. —The "sacrum" of
ii young fowl, seen from below,
nat. size ; after Parker. (II, dor-
solumbar series, whereof the first
is dorsal proper, the next three
are lumbar ; x, the sacral series
proper, or true sacrum, consist-
ing of five vertebrie ; c, the uro-
sacral series, being those caudal
vertebra;, six in number, which
anchylose with one another and
with the sacrum.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 147
— all of them anterior to the true sacrum of a bird. The sacrum proper (tig. 57, s) consists
of those few vertebrte — three, four, or five — from foramina between which issue the spinal
nerves that form the net-work called the sacral plexus. These true sacral vertebrae are ribless,
and may be recognized, in a general way, by the absence of anything like the cross-bars above
described, issuing from the vertebral centra ; though their neural arches send off some small
bars or plates to fuse with the ilia. These sacrals proper are at or near the middle of the
whole sacral mass. After these come a large number — from five to ten or more — of verte-
bra which, from their following the true sacrals, though consolidated therewith and with one
another, are considered to belong to what would be the caudal region of other animals, and
are hence called " tail-sacrals," uro-sacrals (Gr. ovpa^ tail, fig. 57, c.) These continue to send
oft' a series of little plate-like processes from their neural arches, just as the true sacrals do ;
hut, in addition to these, processes are given off from the bodies of the uro-sacrals, corre-
sponding in position and relation to those which proceed from the bodies of the lumbars, and
being apparently of the same morphological character (pleurapophysial). These "riblets"
are, however, quite slender, and also oblique in two directions ; for instead of being trans-
verse and nearly horizontal, they trend very obliquely backward and upward ; they also
shorten consecutively from before backward. The cross-bars of the latter uro-sacrals, however,
are stouter and altogether more like those of a lumbar vertebra. The appearances described
are those seen fi-om below, or on the ventral aspect. Above, on the back of the pelvis, the
line of confluent spinous processes of the dorso-lumbars is commonly distinct, separated a little
from the flaring lips of the ilia. Such distinct formation may continue throughout the sacral
and uro-sacral regions ; oftener, however, the line of spinous process sinks, flattens, and
widens into a horizontal plate which becomes perfectly confluent with the ilia along the pos-
terior portion of their extent ; such smooth, somewhat lozenge-shaped surface being quite
continuous with the superfcies of the pelvis, but perforated with more or fewer pairs of inter-
vertebral foramina. — Such is the general character of a bird's complex sacrum; the description
is taken chiefly fi-oni a raven {Corvus corax) ; the figure from the common fowl, after Parker.
The kidneys are moulded into the recesses between the sacral and uro-sacral vertebrae and in
the concavity of the ilia. The general shape of a " sacrum," viewed from below, is fusiform,
broadest across the sacral bodies proper or just in front of them, tapering toward either end;
tlie face of the sacrum is also flattest about the middle, more or less ridged before and behind
from compression of the vertebral bodies. It has little if any lengthwise curvature, and that
chiefly in the uro-sacral region, where the concavity is downward. The total number of bones
may be less than twelve, or more than twenty. The extensive anchyloses in this region of
the spine are in evident adaptation to bipedal locomotion, which requires fixity hereabouts,
that the trunk may not bend upon the fulcrum represented by a line drawn through the hip-
joints, which are situated about opposite the middle of the sacral mass, as shown by the arrow,
ac, in fig. 60. (The word " sacrum," a " sacred thing," curious in this application, is very
ancient in human anatomy, commemorating some superstitious or ritualistic notion, respecting
this part of the body.)
The Coccyseal, or Caudal Vertebrae (fig. 56, dv) proper, terminate the spinal column.
They are called " coccygeal," from the fancied resemblance of the human tail-bones collectively
to the beak of a cuckoo (Gr. k6kkv$, kokkux). The caudals are all the free bones situated
behind the anchylosed uro-sacrals. The series commonly begins opposite the point where the
pelvic bones end; it consists of a variable number of bones, from the twenty long slender ones
which the Arch(Eopteryx possessed, down to seven or fewer separate ones. The usual ninnber
is eight witliout the jiygostyle. They are stunted, degraded vertebrae, whose chief office is to
support tlie tail-featlicrs ; for the Icasli of nerves wliicli emerge from the sjnnal canal to form
the sacral plexus by so much diuiinish the spinal cord that a mere thread is left to pene-
148 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
trate the tail, though the neural arches of all the coccygeals be still pervious. All may be
freely movable, as in the American Ostrich {Rhea) ; but in almost all birds only the anterior
ones are distinct and vertebra-like, the rest, to a variable number, being abortive, and melted
into that extraordinary affair called the "ploughshare" or pygostyle (Gr. nvyr]^ puge, the
rump ; arvKos, a post), which may consist of no fewer than ten such metamorphosed taU-bones.
It has usually a shape suggesting the share of a plough (see fig. 56, py), but is too variable to
be concisely described. The pygostyle supports the tail-feathers ; and as these are morphologi-
cally one pair to each rectrix-bearing vertebra, the number of taU-feathers may be primarily
equal to the number of vertebrse which fuse in the pygostyle. Thus the swan is said to have
ten vertebrae in this mass; our wild swan (Cygmis columbianus) has twenty tail-feathers. In
this view, six should be the usual composition of the share-bone. A bird's tail is really more
extensive and lizard-like than commonly supposed; thus the swan, besides its ten in the
pygostyle, has seven free caudals, and ten uro-sacrals — twenty-seven post-sacral vertebrae in
aU (Huxley). In the raven, the free caudals are six, exclusive of the pygostyle. These aU
have large flaring transverse processes and moderate spinous processes, and the latter ones are
also provided with hypapophyses, some of which are bifurcate. The pygostyle in many birds
expands below into a large circular or polygonal disc.
2. THE THORAX: lilBS AND STERNUM.
The Thorax (Gr. 6copa^, a coat of maU; in anat., the chest; adj. thoracic; see fig. 56) is
the bony box formed by the ribs on each side, the breast-bone below, and the back-bone above.
In birds, it is very extensive, including most or all of the abdominal as well as the thoracic
viscera, and its cavity is not partitioned off from that of the belly by a completed diaphragm,
though a rudimentary structure of that kind is found in the class. The thorax is usually sol-
dered behind to the pelvis by uniou of one or more pairs of ribs with the ilia ; in front it al-
ways and entirely bears the pectoral arch (see p. 151). The thorax is very movable in birds,
by reason of the great length and joiutedness of the ribs.
The Kibs (Lat. costa, a rib; pi. costce; adj. costal; see fig. 56, c, c', R, cr, sr, u),as said
above, are the pleurapophysial elements of A^ertebrae, which remain small and anchylosed, or
become long and free. In the latter state only are they " ribs" in ordinary language. The
one or more cervical ribs, however elongated, and the abortive lumbar and uro-sacral ribs, are
to be excluded from the present description, and have been already considered. True ribs are
those which belong to the dorsal vertebrae proper, and are jointed in themselves ; that is, have
articulated hcEmapophyses (see -p. 143), by which they may or do articulate with the sternum.
Such true ribs are fixed, when they reach from back-bone to breast-bone; floating, when either
or neither of these connections is made. Usually the last rib, though bearing a perfect haem-
apophysis, does not reach the sternum ; in the loon, for example, the last rib floats at both
ends, having connection neither with vertebra nor sternum ; and the two next ribs float at
their sternal ends. The perfected ribs are few, ■ — five or six is a usual number, though nine
are haemapophysis-bearing in the loon. The last rib at least is usually " sacral ;" i. e. , be-
longs to a dorsal vertebra which is anchylosed with the "sacral" mass; and two or even, as in
the loon, three ribs may likewise issue out from under cover of the ilia. These "sacral ribs"
are furthermore distinguished by being devoid of the epipleural or uncinate processes (Lat.
tmcus, a hook ; fig. 56, m) with which other true ribs are furnished, forming a series of splint-
bones proceeding obliquely from one rib to shingle over the next succeeding one, and thus
increase the stability of the thoracic side-walls. Such splints may be either articulated or an-
chylosed with their respective ribs ; they have independent ossific centres. The upper (pleura-
pophysial) part, of a rib, or " vertebral rib," when perfected, articulates with the side of the
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 149
body of a vertebra by its head or capitulum (Lat. diinin. of caput, head), and also with the
lateral process of the same vertebra by its shoulder or tuberculum (Lat. dimin. of tuber a
swelliug). In well-marked cases, the head and shoulder are quite far apart, the rib seeming
prolonged above ; either of these vertebral connections may be disestabhshed, the other re-
maining, or both may be lost. The lower (hsemapophysial) part of a rib, or "sternal rib "
articulates with the side of the sternum by a simple enlargement ; the ends of those sternal ribs
which thus join the sternum tend to cluster closely together at a part of the breast-bone called
its costal process (fig. 58) ; those which do not make the sternal connection are simply buudled
together. Commonly five or six, sometimes four, rarely only three ribs reach the sternum.
The ribs are ordinarily as slender and strict as those shown in fig. 56 ; but iu Apteryx, for
example, their pleurapophysial parts are expansive and plate-like. They lengthen rapidly
from before backward, both in their vertebral and their sternal moieties ; these parts meet at
angles of decreasing acuteness from before backward ; but these angles, as those of the ribs
both with vertebrae and sternum, incessantly increase and diminish in the respiratory move-
ments of the chest ; all being in expiration more acute, and more obtuse in inspiration.
The Avian Sternum (Gr. arepvov, .sternon, the breast; fig. 56, -S) is highly specialized;
its extensive development is peculiar to the class of Birds, and its modifications are of more
importance in classification than those of any other single bone. Thereupon it becomes an
interesting object. Theoretically it is a collection of haemal spines of vertebrae. Though
such morphological character is appreciable in those animals which have a long jointed ster-
num, the segments of which, answering to pairs of ribs, develop from separate centres, there
is little or nothing in the development or physical characters of the avian sternum to favor
this view. The great bone floors the chest and more or less of the belly, and furaishes the
main point cfappui of both the bony and muscular apparatus of flight, receiving important bones
of the scapular arch and giving origin to the immense pectoral muscles. (See also tig. 58.)
Birds offer tico leading types of sternal structure, the ratite and the carinate, or the " raft-
like" and the "boat-like'', according as the bone is flat or keeled (Lat. ratis, a raft; adj.
ratite ; in an arbitrary uom. pi., Ratitce, a name of one of the leading divisions of birds: Lat. car-
ina, a keel; adj. carinate: nom. pi. Carinatce, name of another such division). 1. In all stru-
thious birds, comprehending the ostrich and its allies (and also in the Cretaceous Hesjoerornis),
the sternum is a flattish, or rather concavo-convex, buckler-like bone, of somewhat squarish
or rhomboidal shape, developed from a single pair of lateral centres of ossification, — a "flat
boat, " without any keel, built with reference to an important modification of the shoulder-gir-
dle, and a reduced or rudimentary condition of the wings, which are unfit for flight. 2. In all
flying birds, and some which from other than any fault of the sternum do not fly, — comprising
all remaining recent birds, or CanHOte, and also the Cretaceous Ichthyornis, — -the sternum
is keeled and develops from a median centre of ossification as well as from lateral paired cen-
tres; usually two of these, making five in all. In a few Carinatce the keel is rudimentary, as
the flightless ground parrot of New Zealand, Stringoiis hahroptilus ; or otherwise anomalous,
as in the extraordinary Opisthoconms cristatus, where it is cut away in front, and in tlie rail-
like Notornis, where the sternum is extremely like a lizard's. In general, the development of
the keel is an index of wing-power, whether for flying or swimming, or both ; the effectiveness
of the pectoral muscles being rather in proportion to depth of keel than to extent of the sides
of the " boat-bone ;" thus, the keel is enormous iu swifts {Ci/pselidcc) and luiuiniing-birds
(Trochilidce).
The carinate sternum normally develops from five centres, having consequently as many
separate pieces in early life. Two of these are lateral and in pairs ; the third is median and
single. The median ossification, which includes the keel, is tlie lophosteon((iv. \<')(f)os, lophos,
a crest ; oartov, osteon, a bone). The anterior lateral i)iece, that with which tlie ribs, or some
150 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
of them, articulate, is the pleurosteon (Gr. nKevpov, pleuron, a rib); in adult life this becomes
the costal process, so prominent in Passeres (fig. 58). The posterior lateral piece is the metosteon
(Gr. fifrd, meta, after). From the latter are derived the pair, or two pairs, of lateral processes
which the posterior border of the sternum has in so many birds. In fine, the extent of ossifica-
tion of the lophosteon and metostea, and the mode of their coosification, determines all those
various shapes of the posterior border of the sternum which, being commonly characteristic of
genera and higher groups, are described for purposes of classification. Thus, if the lophosteon
and the metostea are completely ossified and to the same extent behind, the posterior border of
the sternum will be transverse, and perfectly bony. Such a sternum is said to be entire. If the
lophosteon is longer than the lateral pieces, the sternum will have a central pointed or rounded
projection ; when such a formation is called the middle xiphoid process (Gr. ^icpos, xiphos, a
sword: etSoy, eirfos, form). The projection of the metostea, not infrequent, similarly gives
a pair of external lateral xiphoid processes. But such processes oftener result merely from de-
fects of coosification between the elements of the sternum. Thus, there is often a deep notch
in the posterior border of the sternum between the lophosteon and the metosteon of each side ;
the sternum is then said to be single-notched or single- emarginate (one pair of notches, one on
each side ; fig. 58). This conformation prevails throughout the great group Passeres, possibly
without exception ; it is therefore highly characteristic of that order, though a great many other
birds also have it. In the natural state, the notch is filled in with membrane. Such a notch
may also be converted into a "fontanelle" or fenestra (Lat. fenestra, a window), which is simply
a hole in the bone, the metostea having grown to the lophosteon at their extremities, but left an
opening between. Such a sternum is called fenestrate, more exactly uni-fenestrate (Lat. unus,
one; one window on each side). Now, the parts remaining as before, let either each half of
the lophosteon, or each metosteon, be notched or fenestrate ; obviously then, such a sternum is
double-notched or hi- fenestrate, having four notches, or holes, two on each side, — two notches,
or two holes ; or notched and fenestrate, having a notch and a hole on each side. The latter
is very frequent : when occurring, the hole is generally nearest the middle line, the notch ex-
terior. Irregularity of ossification, converting a hole into a notch, and conversely, may in any
case result in lack of symmetry; but this is a mere individual peculiarity. When there are
two notches on each side, as in fig. 56, the sternum has evidently a median and two lateral back-
ward extensions, which are then called respectively the middle, internal lateral, and external
lateral xiphoid processes. Notching of the lophosteon in the middle line, at least to any extent,
must be very rare, if indeed it ever occurs. The extreme case of emargination of the sternum is
afi"orded by the Gallince, and is highly characteristic of that group. Here the lophosteon is
extremely narrow, and fissured deeply away from the metostea, which latter are deeply forked ;
the arrangement giving rise to two very long slender lateral processes on each side (figs. 1 and 2,
p. 48). The sternum of the tinamou, a droma?ognathous bird, is still njore deeply emargi-
nated, but the extremely long and slender lateral processes, which enclose an oval contour, are
simple, not forked.
In a very few birds there are centres of ossification additional to those above described.
In Turnix, there are said by Parker to be a pair of centres between the pleurostea, which he
names coracostea, because related to the part of the sternum with which the coracoids (see
p. 146) unite. The same authority describes for Dicholophus a posterior median cartilagi-
nous flap having a separate centre, named urosteon (Gr. ovpa, oura, tail). In various birds the
sternum is eked out in the middle line behind by cartilage which has no ossification.
The sternum, especially of the higher birds, develops in the middle line in front a beak-
like process called the rostrum or manubrium (Lat. manubrium, a handle) ; its size and shape
vary ; it is well-marked in Passerine birds (fig. 58) ; and may be bifurcate at the end and run
down the front of the keel some way, as in the raven. The fore border of the sternum is
generally greatly convex from side to side, and then, in those birds which have prominent
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
151
plcurostea, produced in angular costal processes. This border is also thickened, and presents
on each side a well-marked, smooth-faced groove, in which the expanded feet of the coracoid
bones are instepped and firmly articulated. These deep grooves commonly meet in the middle;
are occasionally continuous from one side to the other ; sometimes each crosses to the other
sidfe a little way. The costal processes on each side also have thickened edges, with a series
of articular facets for the ribs, which gives this border a fluted
or serrate profile. Generally the fore half, or rather less, of the
side border of the sternum is thus articular ; and it is only such
costiferous (rib-bearing) extent of sternum which cori'esponds to the
whole body of the bone in a mammal, all the rest being " xiphoid."
Tlie singular carinate sternum of Notornis, and the ratite bone of
Apteryx, are concave crosswise along the front border, and bear the
coracoids far apart, at the summits of antero-lateral projections.
A sternum is generally concavo-convex in each direction,
bellying downward ; somewhat rectangular, it may be long and
narrow, or short, broad, and squarish. It is commonly longer than
broad, with convex front border, a median beak, which is often
forked, prominent antero-lateral corners, pinched-in sides (bulg-
ing in tinamou) and indeterminate hind border. The keel
usually drops down lowest in front, sloping or curving gently up to
the general level behind, with a concave (rarely protuberant)
vertical border, and pronounced apex, to which the clavicles may
or may not be anchylosed, as they are in a pelican for instance. In
Opisthocomus, the clavicles anchylose Math the manubrium of size; Dr. R.w. Shufelilt, U.S.A.
the sternmn.' The external surface, both of body and keel, is Sternum single -notched. ^vitl>
' •' ' prominent costal processes and
ridged in places, indicating lines of attachment of the diff'erent pec- forked manubrium; five ribs
toral muscles. In a few birds, notably swans and cranes, the keel reacMng sternum, one rib "float-
is expanded and hollowed out to receive folds of the windpipe in its
interior (see figs. 99, 100). — But the numberless modifications of the sternum in details of
configuration belong to systematic ornithtdogy, not to rudimentary anatomy.
Fig. 58. —Typical passerine
sternum, jiectoral arches, and
sternal ends of ribs ; from the
robin, Tnrdiis migi-ntorius, nat.
3. THE PECTORAL ARCH.
The Pectoral Arch (Lat. i^ectus, the breast; figs. 1, 2, 56, 58, 59) is that bony structure
liy wliicli the wings are l)()rue upon the axial skeleton. It is to the fore limb what the pelvic
arcli is to the hind liml) ; but is disconnected from the back-bone and united with the breast-
bone, whereas the rever.se arrangement obtains in the pelvic, which is fused with the sacral
region of the spine. Each pectoral arcli of birds consists (chiefly) of three bones : the scapula
and coracoid, forming the shoulder-girdle proper, or scapular arch ; and tlie accessory clavicles,
or right and left half of tiie clavicular arch. There is also at the shoulder-joint of most birds
an insignificant sesamoid ossicle, called scapula accessoria or as humero-scapulare (fig. 56, ohs) ;
and in many a rudiment of a bone called procoracoid, which occurs in reptiles, but in birds is
united witli the clavicle. From the ribs, the scapula; fnim the sternum, the coracoid ; from
its felldw, tlie clavicle, converges to meet each of the two other bones at the point of the
shoulder. Tiie lengthwise scapular arches of opposite sides are distinct from each other ; the
clavicular arch is crosswise, and nearly always completed on the middle line of tiie body ; by
whicli uninn nf the clavicle,^; the whole pectoral arch is coaptated. The coracoid bears the
slioulih'r firmly away fnmi the Itreast : the .scapula steadies the shoulder against the ribs ; the
clavicles iceep the .slioulders apart from each other. The scapular arch is always present and
complete ; the clavicular is sometimes defective or wanting. There are two leading styles of
162
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
scapular arch, corresponding to the ratite and carinate sternum. (1) In Ratitce the axes of the
coracoid and scapula are nearly coincident (for the most part in a continuous right line) and
anchylosed together ; the clavicles are usually wanting, or defective ; and the coracoids are in-
stepped on the sternum far ajjart. (2) In all Carinatce, the axes of the coracoid and scapula
form an acute or scarcely obtuse angle (fig. 56, sglc) •. normally these bones are not anchylosed;
perfect clavicles are present, anchylosed with each other, but free from the other bones ; and the
coracoids are instepped close together. Decided exceptions to these conditions, as in Notornis,
are anomalous ; though incompletion of the clavicles repeatedly occurs, as noted below.
The Coracoid (Gr. Kopa^, korax, a crow ; ddos, eklos, form : the corresponding bone of
the human subject, which is the stunted " coracoid process of the scapula," being likened to a
crow's beak ; no applicability in the present case ;
figs. 56, c, 59, c) is a stout, straight, cylindric bone,
expanded at each end, extending forward, outward,
and ujjward from the fore border of the sternum
to the shoulder. Its foot is liatteued and splayed
to fit in the articular groove of fore border of
the sternum already described; it often overlaps
that of its fellow on the median line ; is narrower
and remote from its fellow in Ratif(e. The liead
of the bone, irregularly expanded, articulates or
anchyloses with the end of the scapula, and also
usually with the clavicle. It bears externally a
smooth demi-facet, which represents the share it
takes in forming the glenoid (Gr. y^rjinj, glene, a.
shallow pit ; fig. 59, gl) cavity, which is the socket
of the humerus. This articular expansion is the
glenoid process of the coracoid : the clavicular
process is that by which the bone unites with the
clavicle. The relation between the heads of the
three bones (each uniting with the other two) is
such that a pulley-hole is formed, through which
plays the tendon of the pectoral muscle which ele-
vates the wing. The coracoid is a very constant
and characteristic bone of birds.
The Scapula (Lat. scapula, the shoulder
■ Right pectoral arcli of a bird, Pedice-
ellus, nat. size, outside view ; Dr. R.
W. Shufeldt, U. S. A. s, scapula; c, coracoid; gl, y[..^^i^^^. fl.rg. 5(3, 59, s) merits in birds its name of
glenoid, the cavity for head of humerus; c^, clavicle; 70 ' '
he, hypocleldium. In situ, the right end of the fig- " blade-bone," being usually a long, thin, narrow,
ure should tilt up a little; see fig. 56. sabre-like bone, which rests upon the ribs— usu-
ally not far from parallel with the spinal column, and near it; but in Ratit(B otherwise.
It seldom gains much width, and is quite thin and flat in most of its length ; but it has a
thickened head or handle, expanding outwards into a glenoid process which unites with that
of the coracoid to complete the glenoid cavity, and dilated inward to form an acromial (Gr.
uKpafiiov, akromion, point of the shoulder) j^rocess for articulation with the clavicle (as it does in
man), when that bone exists. The other end is usually sharp-pointed, but may be obtuse, or
even clubbed, as in a woodpecker. The scapula is broadest and most plate-like in the pen-
guins, in which birds all the bones of the flipper-like wing are singularly flattened. In Apteryx
it reaches in length over only a couple of ribs; in most birds, over most of the tlujrax; and
in some its point overreaches the pelvis.
THE ANATOMY OF BIBDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
isa
The Clavicles, or Furculum (Lat. clavicula, a little key : furciilum, a little fork ^
figs. 56, 59, c7), or the clavicular arch, are the pair of bones which when united together form
the object well known as the " merry-thought" or *' wish-bone," corresponding to the human
" collar-bones." They lie in front of the breast, across the middle Hue of the body like a V
or U ; the upper ends uniting as a rule both with scapula and coracoid. For this purpose, in
most birds, the ends are expanded mt)re or less ; such expansion is called the epicleidium (Gr.
(ni, epi, upon ; Kkeiblov, kleidion, the collar-bone) ; in Passerine birds it is said to ossify separ-
ately, and is considered by Parker to represent the procoracoid of reptiles. At the point of
union below, the bones often develop a j)rocess (well shown in the domestic fowl) called the hypo-
cleidium (Gr. viro, hypo, under ; fig. 59, lie), supposed to represent the interclavicle of reptiles.
The clavicles are as a rule present, perfect, anchylosed together, articulated at the shoulder; in a
few birds anchylosed there; in several, there and
with the keel of the sternum ; in Opisthocomus there
aud with the manubrium of the sternum. In various
birds, chiefly Picarian and Psittacine, they are de-
fective, not meeting each other. They are wanting
in Struthio, Rhea, Apteryx, and some Psittaddce.
Besides curving toward each other, the clavicles
have usually a fore-and-aft curvature, convex for-
ward. In general, the strength of the clavicles,
the firmness of their connections, and the openness
of the V or U, are indications of the volitorial or
natatorial power of the wings. The end of the fur-
culum is hollowed for a fold of the windpipe in the
crested pintado (Owen).
4. THE PELVIC ARCH.
The Pelvis (Lat. pelvis, a basin, fig. 60), is
that posterior part of the trunk which receives the
uro-genital, and lower portion of the digestive, vis-
cera. It consists of the "sacral" vertebrae on the
middle dorsal line, flanked on each side by the bones
of the pelvic arch, which supports the hind limb.
In vertebrates generally the pelvic basin is com-
])leted on the ventral aspect by union (symphysis ;
Gr. avv, sun, together ; ^vais, growth) of the bones
from o{)posite sides. Excepting only Struthio, which
has a pubic symphysis ; and Bhea, which has an
ischiac symphysis just below the sacral vertebra",
the pelvis of a bird is entirely open below and
behind ; each pelvic arch anchylosing firmly with
the sacral vertel)r{e to form a roof over the viscera
above named. This sacro-iliac anchylosis is com-
monly coextensive with th(! confluence of the many
vertebrte whicli make the "sacrum" of ordinary
language, that is, fn.m the first dorso-luml)ar to the
last uro-sacral. The whole roof-like affiiir l(M)ks
something like a keelless stenium inverted. The
pelvic arch of each side consists of three bones, ilium,
P'iG. 60. — Telvis of a heron {Jrdcn Iterodins),
nat. size, viewed from below; from nature by Dr.
R. W. Sliufeldt, U.S.A. (I/, dorso-lumliar vertebrae
to and including the last one, sc ; below sc, for the
extent of tli«/ffr(7<'black8i)aces(oi)positetliearrow)
are the true sacral vertebr.-E; h.s', nrosacral verte-
brae (opposite the five oval black spaces ; //, ilium ;
/s, ischium; /', pubis; nl>, obturator foramen.
The arrow flies into the acetabulum.
154 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
ischium, and pubis, which have iudepeudent ossific centres, but become fii-raly consohdated
together to form the haunch-bone or os innominatum. Each of these bones unites with the
other two, somewhere near the middle of the whole affair, at a ring-like structure called the
acetabulum (Lat., a vinegar-cruet, fig. 56, a; fig. 60, arrow ac), which all three consequently
contribute to the formation of, and which is the socket for the head of the thigh-bone (femur,
p. 135). When free ribs issue from under cover of the pelvis, they are commonly anchylosed
with the ilia ; and all the abortive pleurapophyses of the lumbar and uro-sacral vertebrae have
likewise iliac anchylosis, as explained in treating of the sacrum (p. 146). As a whole, the pelvis
varies like the sternum in relative length, breadth, and degree of convexity ; and especially in
the configuration of its posterior border ; but few zoological characters are derived from this
structure.
Viewed from below, the pelvis is seen to be much hollowed or excavated for the lodgment
of the kidneys, and cross-cut into compartments by the sacral rafters ; the series of sacral
bodies forming a ridge-pole along the middle line. Above, the series of sacral spinous pro-
cesses represent the ridge-pole ; anteriorly, the somewhat spoon-shaped iliac bones are
applied, concavity outward, to the dorso-lumbars ; posteriorly, in the middle line, is a more or
less flattened horizontal expansion, and laterally are the more expanded sides of the ischiac roof,
finished along the eaves and behind by the slender pubic bone, whicli commonly projects
backward, and inclines toward its fellow of the opposite side. The most prominent formation
of the side wall of the pelvis is the thick-hpped smooth articular ring, the acetabulum, con-
verted in the natural state into a cup by a membrane.
The postero-superior segment of the rim is promi-
nent, to form the antitrochanter (Gr. avri, anti,
against; Tpoxavrrjp, trochanter of the ^emur) against
which the shoulder of the femur abuts when the
Fig 61. —Pelvis of yoiinp grouse, showing j^g.^^| jg -^^ ^^^^ ^.^
three distinct bones. II. Is, P. ilium, ischium, ' ^' /- • i • j i
pubis. In front of former a dorsal vertebra pro- It is normal to recent C armate birds to have
trudes. (Dr. E. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A.) ^j^g ischium fused with the ilium, however distinct the
pubis may remain ; but to Cretaceous birds (even the carinate Ichthyornis), and l^e existing
RatitcE, to have both ischium and pubis distinct in most of their extent.
The Ilium (Lat. ilium, haunch-bone ; pi. ilia ; adj. iliac ; figs. 56, I; 60, 61, II) is the
median, most anterior and longest of the haunch-bones, and the only one which extends in ad-
vance of the acetabulum. Such anterior prolongation of this bone is the specialty of the avian
pelvis : it commonly overlies one or more ribs, and is often overreached by the end of the scapula.
It is longest and narrowest and flattest in some of the lower swimmers ; the reverse among the
highest birds. Its relations and connections have been sufficiently indicated. The bone is
almost always separated from its fellow by the sacrum, though the approximation may be
very close over the back of tlie j)clvis, along the middle line.
The Ischium (Gr. la-xiov, ischion, the haunch-bone; pi. ischia ; adj. ischiadic, ischiatic,
better ischiac; figs. 56, 60, 61, Is) lies entirely post-acetabular, or behind the socket which it
contributes to form, and composes most of the side-wall of the pelvis thence to the end. It is
generally a thin, plate-like bone. Among Cretaceous birds and existing Eatitae it only unites
with the ilium at and just behind the acetabulum, whence a deep ilio-ischiac fissure between
the two exists, as in the young grouse, fig. 61 ; but in ordinary adult birds this fissure is con-
verted into a fenestra or window of large size, just behind the acetabulum, by union of the two
bones behind it. This vacuity, whether a notch or a hole, corresponds to the ' ' sacro-sciatic
notch" of human anatomy (fig. 56, in). The ischia of opposite sides are distinct, except in
Bhea.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 155
The Pubis (Lat. pubis, bone of the front of the liuman pelvis where the hair grows at
puberty ; pi. puhes ; adj. 2}ubic; figs. 56, 60, 61 P), beginning at its share of the acetabular ring,
is a long slender bone which runs ahjng the lower border of the ischium, sometimes for a short
distance only, often for the whole length of the ischium, and usually projecting behind ; more
iir less perfectly parallel with, applied to, or united with, the inferior ischiac border. When
separate, a long deep fissure results ; when united at the end, a long narrow foramen is
formed ; when incompletely united in any part of its ischiac continuity, a fissure and a foramen,
in the ostrich two foramina, result. All these conditions occur ; in any case, such ischio-pubic
interval corresponds to the obturator foramen (fig. 56, o; fig. 60, ob) of human anatomy ; it is
greatest in Cretaceous birds and existing Batitce. The free ends of the pubes may be more or
less expanded. In the ostrich only there is a pubic symjihysis of the ends of the bones ; in the
same bird a separate ossicle, situated upon the lower border of the pubes, and called epipubic,
is considered to represent a " marsupial " bone (Garrod). In various birds, among them our
ground cuckoo, Geococcyx californianus, the pubis projects a little forward, under the ace-
tabulum : this prominence is the propubis. Separation of the pubes is supj^osed to be for
amplification of the pelvic strait to facilitate the passage of the large chalky eggs birds lay.
5. THE SKULL.
The Skull of a Bird is a poem in bone — its architecture is the ''frozen music" of
morphology ; in its mutely eloquent lines may be traced the rhythmic rhymes of the myriad
ainoebiform animals which constructed the noble edifice when they sang together.^ The poesy
(noiriais, poiesis, a making) of the subject has been translated with conspicuous zeal and success
by Mr. W. K. Parker ; its zoological moral has been similarly pointed by Professor Huxley ;
and the young ornithologist who would not be hopelessly unfashionable must be able to whistle
some bars of the cranial song — the pterygo-palatine bar at least.
The rapid progress of ossification soon obliterates most of the original landmarks of the
skull, fusing the distinct territories of bone in one great indistinguishable area. Thus the
l)rain-box of almost any mature bird is apparently a single solid bone, and most parts of the
jaw-scaffolding similarly run together. Aside from the bones of the tongue, which are collec-
tively separate from those of the skull proper ; and of the compound lower jaw, wliich is freely
articulated with the rest of the skull; only two or three other bones of the skull, as a rule, are
permanently and perfectly free at both ends. These are the quadrate bones — the anvil-shaped
pieces by. which the lower jaw is slung to the skull ; the pterygoids, articulating the palate with
the quadrate ; and sometimes the vomer. Traces only of the bones of the face and jaws are
usually fnuud ; but even such vestiges disappear, as a rule, from among the bones of the
brain-box. It is necessary to any intelligent understanding of the construction of a bird's skull,
to learn somewhat of its mode of development in the embryonic stage; this being the only clue
to the individual bones of which it is composed, and so to any correct idea of its morphology.
One theory is, that the skull consists of four modified vertebrae ; and the principal bones have
been named and described by some in terms indicating the elements of a theoretical vertebra.
It is true that the skull is segmented, or may be segmented off, like a chain of several
vertebrae ; that it continues the vertebral axis forward ; that it has a basis cranii like a series of
vertebral centrums, above which rises a segmented neural arch enclosing the great nervous
mass, and below which depends a set of bones enclosing visceral parts like a hannal arch.
The hindmost cranial segment, the occipital bone, resembles a vertebra in many physical
diaracters, and even in mode of development. But if the serial homology of the skull with
' Boi.e-tissue chiefly consists of tlie aggregated skeletons of Osteamabce — a kind of uni-cellular protozoan
animals wliicli inhabit in myriads the bodies of nearly all the Vertcbrata, possessing the faculty of feeding upon
phosphate of lime and other earthy matters they find in the blood, and afterward excreting them in the form of
miiltiradiate exoskeletons of their own, collectively forming the whole skeleton of their host.
156
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the back-bone be real and true, it is so obscured by the extraordinary modifications to which
the vertebral elements have been subjected that the fact of such homology cannot be demon-
strated; and to interpret the skull as something super-imposed upon, and morphologically
different from the spinal column, is perfectly warranted if not required by the known facts of
its constructive development. This is the view taken by the rulers of to-day's science. As
already said (p. 143) the relation between cranial and vertebral parts is rather the analogy of
adaptive modification than a true homology of structure.
Before proceeding to describe the mature skull, it will be best to consider its mode of
development. In this I shall closely follow Parker, often using the words of that master, and
illustrating the early stages of the embryo with figures borrowed from the same safe source.
In the fewest words possible, I wish to convey an idea of the embryonic skull up to Parker's
" third stage," at which it begins to ossify. Here, however, I will first insert a figure, kindly
drawn for me by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, of the U. S. Army, which shows most of the cranial
bones, and will give the student a preliminary notion of the " lay of the land." I advise him
to contemplate this picture till he has learned the names printed on it by heart, and can apply
them to the identification of the parts of the real skull he should have in hand at the same time.
He may also meditate on fig. 63.
-^n^'^l^^S«j'anOu-7aJ'
Fig. 62. Skull of common fowl, enlarged; from nature by Dr. R. W. Sliufeldt. U. S. A. The names of bones
and some other parts are printed, requiring no explanation; but observe the following points: The distinction of
none of the bones composing the brain-case (the upper back expanded part) can be found in a mature skull. The
brain is contained between the occipital, sphenoidals, squamosals, parletats and part oi frontal : the ethmoidals
belong to the same group of cranial bones proper. All other bones, excepting the three otic ear-bones, are bones
of the face and jaws. The lower jaw, of five bones, is drawn detached ; it articulates by the black surface marked
articular with the prominence just above — the quadrate bone. Observe that from this quadrate a series of bones
— qxiadrato-jugal, jugal. maxillary — makes a slender rod running to the primdrillary : this is the zygoma, or
jugal bar. Observe from the quadrate also another series, composed of /i/i ri/i/nid and palatine bones, to the pre-
maxillary; this is the ptery go-palatine bar: it slides along a median lixe<i ;ixis of the skull, the rostrum, which
bears the loose vomer at its end. The under mandible, quadrate, pterygoid, and vomer are the only movable bones
of this skull. But when the quadrate rocks back and forth, as it does by its upper joint, its lower end pulls and
pushes upon the upper mandible, by means of the jugal and pterygo-palatine bars, setting the whole scaffolding of
the upper jaw in motion. This motion hinges upon the elasticity of the bones of the foreliead, at the thin jdace just
where the reference-lines from the words " lacrymal " and " mesethmoid " cross each other. The dark oval space
behind the quadrate is the external orifice of the ear; the parts in it to which the three reference-lines go are
diagrammatic, not actual representations ; thus, the quadrate articulates with a large prn-ntic as well as with
the squamosal. The great excavation at the middle of the figure, containing the circlet of unshaded bones, is the
left orbital cavity, orbit, or socket of the eye. The mesethmoid includes most of the background of this cavity, shaded
diagonally. The upper one of the two processes of bone extending into it from behind is the post-frnntal or sphe-
notic process ; the under one (just over the quadrate) is the squamosal process. A bone not shown, the prcsphenoid,
lies just in front of the oval black space over the end of basisphenoid. This black oval is the optic foramen.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
167
through wliich the nerve of sight passes from the brain-cavity to the eye. The black dot a little behind the optic
foramen is the oritice of exit of a part of the trifacial nerve. The black mark under the letters '• on " of the word
" frontal" is the olfactory foramen, where the nerve of smell emerges from the brain-box to go to the nose. The
nasal cavity is the blank space behind nasal and covered by that bone, and in the oval blank before it. The parts
of the beak covered by horn are only premaxiUnry, nasal, and dentary. The condyle articulates with the first
cervical vertebra ; just above it, not shown, is the foramen magnum, or great hole through which the spinal medulla,
or main nervous cord, passes from the skull into the spinal column. The basioccipital is hidden, excepting its
condyle; so is much of the basisphenoid. The prolongation forward of the basisphenoid, marked " rostrum," and
bearing the vomer at its end, is the parasphenoid, as lar as its thickened under border is concerned. Between the
fore end of the pterygoid and the basisphenoidal rostrum, is the site of the basipterygoid process, by which the
bones concerned articulate by smooth facets ; further forward, the palatines ride freely upon the parasphenoidal
rostrum. In any Passerine bird, the vomer would be thick in front, and forked behind, riding like the palatine
upon the rostrum. The palatine seems to run into the maxillary in this view; but it continues on to premaxillary.
The maxillo-palatine is an important bone which cannot be seen in the tigure because it extends horizontally into
the paper from the maxillary about where the reference line " maxillary " goes to that bone. The general line
from the condyle to the end of the vomer is the cranial axis, basis cranii, or base of the cranium. This skull is
widest across the post-frontal; next most so across the bulge of the jugal bar.
Fig. 63. — f>ku\\ of a, duclii riangitlaislandica\nat. size; Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U S. A. a. premaxillary bone;
b. partly ossifled internasal septum ; b^, pervious part of nostril ; c, end of premaxillary, perforated for numerous
branches of second division of the fifth cranial nerve ; d, dentary bone of under mandible ; e, groove for nerves, etc. ;
/, a vacuity between dentary and other pieces of the mandible ; g. articular surface ; h, recurved " angle of the jaw ; "
I, occipital protuberance: ./, vacuity in supraoccipital bone; k, muscular impression on back of skull; / is over the
black ear-cavity; jn, post-frontal process; n, quadrate bone; o, pterygoid; p, palatine; q, quadrato-jugal; r,
jugal; s, maxillary ; t, fronto-parietal dome of the brain-cavity; u, the lacrymal bone, immense in a duck, nearly
completing rim of the orbit by approaching m; v, vomer: u\ supra-orbital depression for the nasal gland
(see p. 1C3); x, cranio-facial hinge; y, optic foramen; z, etc., interorbital vacuities.
Development of the Fowl's Skull (figs. 64 to G9). — In the chick's head cartilage is
formed along the floor of the skull by the fifth day of incubation. This cartilaginous basilar
plate is formed on each side of th notochord, fig 64, c (Gr. vwtov, noton, back ; x°P^' chorde, a
chord), a rod-like structure, the primordial axis of the body, around which, along the spinal
column, the bodies of the vertebrae are fi)rmed, and which runs in the middle line of the floor
of the skull as far as the pituitary space, pts. The basilar plate is the parachordal (Gr. jrapa,
para, by the side of) cartilage. In this, at the earliest stage, are already ])lanted certain ])arts
of the ear, the cochlea, cl, (Lat. cochlea, a snail-shell), and the horizontal one of the tliree semi-
circular canah, hsc. Opposite the end of the notochord, the border of the parachordal plate
is notched, .5 ; this notch afterward forms the foramen ovale, for the passage of parts of the
fifth or trifacial nerve. Near the middle line, posteriorly, the plate is ])erforate(l for the
jKissage of the twelfth or hj/jwrjlossal nerve, q. At each lateral corner is the separate quadrate
cartilage, to form the quadrate bone. Anteriorly, the plate connects by a strap or bridge
of cartilage, the lingtda, Ig (Lat. lingula, a little tongue) with the trahecidfc, tr (Lat. trabe-
cida, a little b<'ani), which enclose the pituitary sjmce, pts (Lat. pituita, mucus: no a]>pliea-
bilitv hen). Ill front of this pituitary interval the trabeculae come together to form an inter-
158
GENERAL OENITHOLOGY.
nasal plate, which is so arched over downward as to disappear from this view, as seen in
fig. 65, where fn is the fronto-nasal process, and n is the future external nostril. After
uniting in the inter-nasal plate, the fore ends of the traheculae separate and becouie free ; their
free ends are the under extremities of this first visceral arch (first and only pre-oral arch).
The same chick's head, now viewed from below, fig. 65, shows the squarish aperture, m,
of the future mouth ; the three post-oral arches, with their respective cartilaginous bars, out
of which are to be formed the bones of the jaws and tongue. 1, 2, 3, are the corresponding
visceral clefts, between tlie arches ; the first of these is to be modelled into the ear-
passages (outer and middle ear and eustachian tube) ; the others will disappear. The quadrate
cartilage, q, is the same that was seen in fig. 64 ; it is already nearly in position, between the
hind ends of the scaffolding of the upper and under jaw. The curved subocular or maxillo-
palatine bar, mxp, deveh)ped in the first post-oral arch, ah-eady indicates anteriorly 2;a7a^me,
pa, and posteiiorly, pterygoid, pg, parts ; it will form tlie bones so named, and others of the
Fig. 64. - Skull of chick, fifth day of Incubation,
X9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof
of the skull and the brain removed. cv\, anterior cere-
bral vesicle ; e, eye ; c, notochord, running through the
middle of the basilar plate or parachordal cartilage, in
which are already visible the rudimentary ear-parts, cl,
the cochlea, lisc, the horizontal semicircular canal ; pis,
the pituitary space, bounded by tr, the trabecule,
which come together before it to form the fronto-nasal
plate, fn, in fig. 65; hi, Ihif/ula or bridge connecting
trabeculae with parachordal cartilage ; 5, notch after-
ward becoming foramen ovale for passage of parts of
the fifth (trifacial) nerve ; 9, foramen for hypoglossal
nerve ; q, separate cartilage forming the future quad-
rate bone. (After Parker, in Ency. Brit.)
pa.
Fig. 65. — Same as fig. 64, but seen from below.
cv\, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; m, mouth; pis,
pituitary space; /n, fronto-nasal plate; ir, ends of the
trabecula3,free again after their union and bent strong-
ly from the original a.xis of the trabeculie; n, exter-
nal nostril ; mxi), subocular bar of cartilage, or ptery-
go-palatine rod, to form pa, palatine, and pg, pterygoid
bone, and other parts of the upper jaw, as the maxil-
lary, jugal and quadrato-jugal; q, quadrate cartilage,
same as seen in fig. 64; ml;, meckelian cartilage, to form
lower jaw ; these parts are in the first post-oral visceral
arch; ch, cerato-hyal, and hh, basihyal, of second post-
oral arch; chr, cerato-branchial, ehr, epi-branchial,
hhr. basi-branchial, of third post-oral arch ; the larts
of the second and third arch all going into the yold
bone. 1, 2, 3, 1st, 2d, 3d visceral clefts, whereof uie Ist
is to be modified into the ear-passages, and the others
are to be obliterated. (After Parker.)
upper jaw. This subocular bar is an antero-suporior part of the first post-oral arch, of which
q and mlc are a postero-inferior portion ; the cleft of the ftiture mouth is to lie between them.
The lower jaw bone, or mandible, is entirely developed from mk, its several bones developing
around this rod of cartilage, the meckelian cartilage ; it is to become movably articulated with
the bone, the quadrate, into which q will be transformed. Thus the postero-inferior part of
the first post-oral arch (second of the whole series of arches) begins in two pieces, one of which
is to become the suspensorium, or suspender of the mandible, and the other the mandible
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
159
itself. The rest of the pieces belong to the second aud third post-oral arches, and all
together make up the very composite hi/oid bone, or bone of the tongue (figs. 72, 73, 7i)- The
pieces ch and bh are in the second arch, and form respectively the ceratohyal and basihyal
bones ; the pieces cbr, ebr, and bhr are in the third arch, and form respectively the cerato-
branchial, epibranchial and basibranchial bones. These ^jieces of the third arch have already
outgrown those of the second arch, and they will form the greatest part of the hyoid bone.
In the second stage, after the fifth day of incubation, but before any ossification has
begun, a vertical section shows the appearances represented in fig. 66. The parachordal and
trabecular cartilages are applied to each other unconformably, the latter rising high between
second and third cerebral vesicles to form the posterior pituitary wall, pel, in which the axial
skeleton properly ends. There are other changes in the parachordal cartilages. The inter-
nasal plate, formed by the union of the trabecule in front of the pituitary space, has become a
vertical median wall between the olfactory and optic chambers of the right and left sides (^pn
and eth, tops and ale). This partition, besides forming finally the interorbital septum which
divides the right and left orbits, will undergo further notable changes in direction, and will
develop lateral plates and processes, which
will make up the nasal labyrinth and the
partition between the cavity of the nose
and that of the eye, when any exists. Such
lateral developments of the ethmoid plate
are the aliethmoid, aliseptal, and aUnasal.
This plate extends backward in mid-line
to the optic foramen, 2, ending in the ante-
rior elinoid wall, asc, separated from the
(parachordal) piosterior elinoid wall by the
original pituitary space, now the opening
tlirough which the carotid arteries, ic, enter
the brain cavity. Besides ethmoidal parts
proper, the plate develops at what will be
the end of the upper beak a prenasal carti-
lage, pn, to become the axis of the beak,
rill 4.U • 1, 1 J V. ^4. c 1 Fig. 66. — Head of a chick, second stage, after five days
1 he mouth IS become already better formed, ^f incubation, section in profile ; x 6 diameters, cri, cv2, cr3,
the axis of its cavity pointing more forward first, second, and third cerebral vesicles; 1, place of the
♦1...., A „..,.., ,„i. ,1 J. 1 first nerve, the olfactory; 2, place of second nerve, the
than downward; and great changes are optic ;/., internal carotid artery, running into skull at what
undergoing in parts of the ear at the back was originally the pituitary space, now an opening bounded
corner of the mouth. The quadrate and '" f""""* ^l "'"^ ^"'f"'' ''V' ^ehin.l by the ..osterior, pel,
1 I i.«^ c I clinoid walls; nc. notochord; oc, occipital condyle, thence
meckelian cartilages are assuming much of to pc! being the original parachordal cartilage, here seen in
profile; co, exoccipital; e//i, ethmoid, with ps, its presphe-
noid region posteriorly, and pn, pre-nasal part ; this whole
rtcl
their true form. Tlie quadrate develops
an orbital process, which extends free into plate afterward developing into parts of the nose and the
tlie orbit, aud an otic process which articu-
partition between the eyes; jhi, palatine; pf/, pterygoid
region; pa umlp;/ reference lines are in the chick's mouth; mk
lates with the auditory sac aud parts of meckelian cartilage (lower jaw); rA and W(, ceratohyal and
the exoccipital cartilage. The relations at ^"^^'^'''^ i'*""'" "*" ""^ ''^"''^ ""■ *""»"" ^°"^- <^"'''" ^^^^"^-^
this stage have not been made out in the fowl, but are figured and described from the corre-
sponding stage of the European house martin (Chelidon urbica). In fig. 67, mk is the cut
stump of the meckelian cartilage, of which ar is the articular part ; q is the quadrate, of which
a backward process is seen articulating with teo, the tympanic wing of the exoccipital. Just
below and behind this otic process of the quadrate, exactly where in riper embryos is the
fenestra ovalis in which is fitted the foot of the stapes or stirrup-boue of the middle ear, there
appears a trowel-shaped projection of cartilage, the handle of wliich is continuous with the
substance of the ear-capsule ; the sickle-shaped piece behind which is tlie tympanic wing of
160
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the exoccipital (teo). This trowel of cartilage is the upper anterior segment of the hyoidcan
(second post-oral) arch, being to that arch what the pterygo-palatine bar is to the mandibular
(first post-oral) arch. Several parts of this stapedial cartilage are recognized, as named in the
fine print under the figure. If the connections of the
second post-oral arch were completed, as those of the
first are, the tongue bone would be slung to the skull
as the lower jaw is ; but they are not, the tract rep-
resented by the dot-line from the stylo-hyal, sth, to
the cerato-hi/al, chy, being, like ist, above sth, only
soft connective tissue. This defect of connection is
made up for by the great development of the hyoidean
parts of the third post-oral arch, hr 1 and hr 2, which
retain the tongue-bone in position, without however
articulating it with the skuU. The hand of the trowel
of cartilage soon segments itself off" from the ear-cap-
sule, bringing away with it a small oval piece of the
periotic wall, which piece is the true stapes, and the
oval space in which itfits is the/ej(fsfva oi'«fe leading
into the inmost ear (the cochlea). The broad part of
the trowel-blade is the extra-stapedial part, on which
the membrana tympani, or ear-drum, will be stretched.
The stylo-hyal, sth, will join the extra-stapedial
plate, and the afterward chondrified band of union will
be the infra- stapedial, ist. (Figs. 71, st, and 83.)
Fio. 67. — The post-oral arches of the
house martin, at middle of period of incuba-
tion, lateral view, x 14 diameters, ink, stump
of meckelian or mandibular rod, its articular
part, ar, already sliapen ; q, quadrate bone, or
suspensorium of lower jaw, with a free anterior
orbital process and long posterior otic process
articulating with the ear-capsule, of which teo,
tympanic wing of occipital, is a part ; mst,
est, sst, ist, sth, parts of the suspensorium of
the third post-oral arch, not completed to chy;
mst, medio-stapedial, to come away from teo,
bringing a piece with it, the true stapes or co-
lumella auris ; the oval base of the stapes fit-
ting into the future fenestra ovalis, or oval
window looking into the cochlea ; sst, supra-sta-
pedial ; est. extra-stapedial; is^ infra-stapedial,
which will unite with sth, the stylo-hyal ;
chy and bhy, cerato-hyal and basi-hyal, distal
parts of the same arch ; bbr, br 1, br 2, basi-
branchlal, epi-branchial and cerato-branchial
pieces of the third arch, composing the rest of
the hyoid bone ; *£r, tongue. (After Parker.)
Returning
now to the
chick's head,
which we left
to examine
the intricate
ear - parts at
the proximal
end of the second post-oral arch, we see by fig. 68
how rapidly the parts are shaping themselves at the
end of this second stage of development. This figure
shows the cartilaginous skull, in which no trace of
ossification has appeared, excepting in the under
mandible. The brain and membranous parts of the
cranium have been removed. The roof of the skull
never becomes cartilaginous, bone there growing di-
rectly from the membrane ; and the whole of the chon-
dro-cranium, as shown in the figure, is one continuous
cartilaginous structure (like the whole skull of an
adult shark or skate), excepting the parts of the post-
oral arches, which are separate. The auditory cap-
sule is environed by occipital cartilage, eo, stretching
over the back of the skull, and by wing-like growths
Fig. 68. — Skull of chick, second stage, In
profile, brain and membranes removed to
show cartilaginous formations, x 4 diameters.
eth, ethmoid, forming median nose-parts and
inter-orbital septum ; developing lateral parts,
a,s ale, aliethmoid, als, aliseptum, aln, alinasal,
pp, partition between nose and eye; pn, pre-
nasal cartilage; ps, presphenoidal part of mid-
ethmoid; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid,
walling brain-box in front ; pf, post-frontal,
bounding orbit behind; pet, pf;, palatine and
pterygoid; q, quadrate; so. supra-occipital;
eo. ex-occipital; oc, occipital condyle, borne
upon basi-occipital, and showing 7)c, remains
of notochord ; these occipitals bound the fora-
men magnum, and eo expands laterally to form
a tympanic wing, circumscribing the external
auditory orifice behind and below; hsc,psc,
horizontal and posterior vertical semicircular
canals of ear.- fr, st, fenestra rotunda and
fenestra ovalis, leading into inner ear, lat-
ter closed by foot of the stapes ,• ml; ch, bh,
bbr, cbr, ebr, parts of jaw and tongue, as nam-
ed in figs. 65, 66 and 67. (After Parker.)
(alisphenoids, as) which wall most of the brain-box
in front. The high orbito-nasal septum is a continuous vertical plate of cartilage, upgrowin
from the tract of the conjoined trabeculae.
Lateral developments of this ethmoidal wall, in
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
161
front, are divided into several recognizable parts, ale,
als, aln, the latter being the external nostril; })}) is a
transverse partition between the orbital and nasal cham-
bers. The nasal cartilages ultimately become much
convoluted to form the nasal labyrinth, among the con-
volutions of which will be the superior and inferior tur-
binal cartilages, in addition to those already noted.
The ethmoidal wall ends behind a,t ps, the presphe-
noidal region, where the brain case begins ; below and
behind, it is deeply notched for the 02)tic foramen, 2.
The pituitary space forms a circular foramen, through
which the carotid arteries enter. The site of the orbit
of the eye is bounded behind and below by the post-
frontal process of the alisphenoid wing, pf of as. The
I)terygo-palatine rod is seen along the under border of
the skull, pg and pa. The quadrate, q, has acquired
nearly its shape, and the rest of the mandibular and
hyoidean parts are clearly displayed, mk, etc. The
proximal hyoidean element, st, is freed from the peri-
otic cartilage, leaving the fenestra ovalis (see last para-
graph). Below the general outline, pa to oc, is not
shown a mat of soft tissue, in which are to be devel-
oped the hasitemporal and parasphenoid bones which
underflocjr the whole skull, — the former making a plat
between the ears, fig. 69, bt, the latter forming the thick-
ened under edge of the rostrum of the skull rbs.
At the third stage, about the middle of the second
week of incubation, the cartilaginous parts already
•described are neatly finished, and the skull is beginning
to ossify. The occipital parts are well formed; the
condyle is perfect ; the foramen magnum is circum-
scribed by the ex- and supra-occipitals, eo and so, fig.
09. Investing bones, formed in membrane without pre-
vious cartilage, are becoming apparent. The hasitem-
poral, bt, and parasphenoid, rbs, are engrafting upon
the base of the skull. The prenasal cartilage, pn, now
at its fullest growth, is beginning to decline ; on each
side of it is formed a three-forked bone, the premaxil-
lary, px, having superiorly nasal, and laterally palatal
and dentary processes. This bone is to grow to great
size, forming most of the upper beak, and starving out
the maxillary, which in mammals is the principal bone
of the ui)per jaw. The palatal, pa, and pterygoid, pg,
bones are ossified, and the quadrate, q, is ossifying.
Between the premaxillary and the quadrate are the
bones forming the zygoma, or jugal bar, developed in
the outer part of the maxillo-palatine bar of the earlier
embryo. They are the weak maxillary, mx, with its
ingrowing process, the maxillo-palatine bone, nixp;
next the jugal, j ; then the quadrato- jugal, qj; the
11
',:.f/fe'
Fig. 69. — Skull of cliick, third stage,
viewed from belmv, x 6| diameters, pn,
prenasal cartilage, running behind into the
septum nasi ; on each side of it the premax-
illary, ;).r, of which the (inner) palatal and
(outer) dentary processes are seen (the upper
nasal process hidden) ; mx, the maxillary,
developing inner process, the maxillo-pala-
tine, mxp ; pa, the palatal, well-formed, ar-
ticulating behind with rbs, the sphenoidal
rostrum, its thickened under border, the
parasphenoid; this will bear the vomeral its
end when that bone is developed; J, jugal,
joining mx- and (/j, the quadrato-jugal, join-
ing ; and q, the quadrate ; mx to fj, the
jugal bar or zygoma ; pt). the pterygoid,
making with pa the pterygo-palatine bar,
joining 7 a,ndpx : bt, the hasitemporal, great
mat of bone from ear to ear, underflooriiig
the skull proper, as rbx, a similar formation,
does further forwani ; (V, outer end of carotid
canal, to run between the bt plate and true
floor of skull, and enter brain cavity at origi-
nal site of pituitary fossa (tigs. 64, 66, ic) ; tij,
tympanic cavity — external opening of ear;
a.t, alisphenoid, bounding much of brain-
box anteriorly, and orbital cavity posteri-
orly; psc, posterior semicircular canal of ear,
in opisthotic bone, which will unite with the
spreading eo, exoccipital, which will reach
the condyle shown in the middle line, above
the foramen magnum, fm, completed above
by so, supra-occipital; 8. foramen lacerum
posterius, exit of pneumogastric, glosso-pha-
ryngeal and spinal accessory nerve; 9, exit
of h\ poglossal nerve, in basi-occipital. (After
Parker.)
162 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
whole forming an outer lateral rod from quadrate to premaxillary, like a duplicate of the
pterygo -palatine rod from the same to the same.
Among occurrences of later stages are to be noted the development in membrane in the
middle line below of the vomer, borne upon the end of the rostrum ; the roofing in of the
whole skull by the parietal, squamosal, frontal and nasal bones ; the completion of the periotic
hones as the prootic, epiotic and opisthotic, which form the otic capsule ; the development of
lacrimal bones, bounding the orbits of the eyes in front. Absorption of the middle wall of
cartilage between the nasal and orbital cavities nicks off the nose parts from those of the orbit
(fig. 70, between ntb and eth) ; and certain changes in the orbital septum develop the orhito-
sphenoids. Very nearly aU the bones of a bird's skull having thus been accounted for, we may
next consider them in their adult condition. Reference should now be made to figs. 62,
63, 70, 71.
The Occipital Bone (fig. 62, 70, 71) forms the back part of the floor of the skull, and lowet
part of the back wall of the skull ; neither its boundaries nor its composition is visible in
adult skulls. It is formed by the basioccipital, bo, below in the middle line ; the supra-occipital
so, above in the middle line ; the exoccipital, eo, on either side. These bound the foramen
magnum (fig. 69, fm), where the nerve mass makes its exit from the cavity of the cranium into
the tube of the spinal column. At the lower part of the forainen is the protuberant occipital
condyle (figs. 68, 71, oc), borne chiefly upon the basioccipital, but to the formation of which the
exoccipitals also contribute; the latter flare widely on each side, into the tympanic wings, which
bound the external auditory meatus behind. The true basioccipital is mostly covered by the
underlying secondary bone, the basitemporal (69, 70, bt), which extends from one tympanic
cavity to the other, and more or less forward in the middle line to the sphenoidal rostrum.
Openings to be observed in the occipital region, besides the great foramen, are those for the
hypoglossal nerve, 9, near the condyle ; for the parts of the vagus nerve, 8, more laterally, and
the carotid canal, ic: also, above the foramen magnum, openings for veins, sometimes of great
size, as in fig. 63, j.
The Parietals (figs. 62, and 70, p, 71)- — Proceeding up over the brain-box, the next
bones are a pair of parietals, between the occipital behind, the frontal before, and the squa-
mosal beside ; but their limits are rarely if ever to be seen in adult skulls. They are relatively
small in birds ; simply squarish plates, bounded as said, coming together in the midline.
The Frontals (fig. 62, and 70, /, 71), originally paired, soon fuse together, and with sur-
rounding bones of the skull, though maintaining some distinction from those of the nose and jaw.
These roof over much of the brain cavity, close in much of it in front, and form the roof and
eaves of the great orbital sockets. Anteriorly in the middle of the forehead line the feet of the
nasal process of the premaxillary are implanted upon the frontal, usually distinctly ; more
laterally, the nasal bones are articulated or anchylosed ; this fronto-naso-premaxillary suture
formiug the fronto-facial hinge, (fig. 63, x) by the elasticity or articulation of which the upi)er
jaw moves upon the skull, when acted on by the palatal and jugal bars. In the midst of the fore-
head the two halves of the frontal sometimes separate, as they do in the fowl, allowing a little
of the mesethmoid to come to the front. In the middle line, underneath, the frontals fuse with
whatever extent there may be of the mesethmoid which forms the lengthwise inter-orbital
septum, and often a crosswise partition between the orbital and nasal cavities. To the antero-
extemal corners of the frontal are articulated or anchylosed the lacrymals. The post-frontal
process,^ morphologically the post-frontal or sphenotic bone, bounds the rim of tlie orbit behind ;
1 There is apparently some ambiguity in the use of the term " post-frontal " process by different authors. It
would appear that this i)roces8, bounding the rim of the orbit behind, may be a projection of the frontal bone, and
therefore strictly a post-frontal process. Or that, as said by Owen for lihea, it may be a separate bone, and there-
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 163
it is usually quite prominent. The frontal rim of the orbit in many birds shows a crescentic
depression (very strong in a loon and many other water birds ; fig. 63, w), for lodgment of the
supra-orbital gland, the secretion of which lubricates the nasal passages. The cerebral plate of
the frontal is often imperfectly ossified, showing large *' windows" besides the regular openings
for the exit of nerves which are always found at the back of the orbit. View from above, the
frontal is vaulted and expanded behind, over the brain cavity, then pinched more or less, some-
times extremely narrow over the orbits, then usually somewhat expanded again at the fronto-
facial suture. The extent of the frontal between the orbits and face, in the lacrymal region,
is very great in the duck family, as seen in fig. 63.
The Squamosal (Lat. squama, a scale : figs. 70, 71, sq.) bounds the brain-box laterally,
lietween occipital, })arietal, frtmtal and sphenoidal bones, its distinction from all of these being
(ibliterated in adult life. It is situated near the lower back lateral corner of the skull, fonning
some part of the cranial wall just over the ear-opening, and a strong eaves for that orifice. It
is firmly united also to the bones of the ear proper, and receives the larger share of the free
articulation which the quadrate has with the skull. It often develops a strong forward-down-
ward spur, the squamosal process (fig. 62), looking like a duplicate post-frontal process ;
between these two is the crotapTiyte depression, corresponding to the ''temporal fossa" of man,
in which lie the muscles which close the jaws. It scarcely or not enters into the orbit, the
adjacent part of the orbit being alisphenoidal.
The Periotic Bones (Gr. Trtpl, peri, about ; ovs, <Lror, ous, otos, the ear ; fig. 70) are
those that form the petrosal hone (Lat. petrosus, rocky, from their hardness), or bony periotic
capsule, containing the essential organ of hearing. When united with each other and with the
scjuamosal, they fonn the very composite and illogical bone called "temporal" in human anat-
omy. There are three of these otic bones, — an anterior, the pro-otic; a posterior and inferior,
the opisthotic (Gr. Sniade, opistlie, behind) and a superior and external, the epiotic. They can
only be studied in young skulls, upon careful dissection ; they do not appear upon the outside
(if the skull at all, excepting a small piece of the opisthotic, which there fuses indistinguishably
with the exoccipital. But somewhat of these bones are seen on looking into the cavity of the
outer ear, and if the fenestra ovalis can be recognized, it detennines a part of the boundary
between the prootic and opisthotic bones, while the fenestra rotunda lies wholly in the latter.
The cavity of the periotic bone is hollowed for the labyrinth of the internal ear, including the
cochlea, which contains the essential nervous organs of hearing, and the three semicircular canals
— so much of them as does not invade surrounding bones. In the young fowl's skull viewed
internally (fig. 70), Parker figures a very large prootic portion (po) of the periotic, perforated
by the internal auditory meatus (7) for the entrance from the brain of the auditory nerve : below
and behind the prootic a small opisthotic (op), in relation with the exoccipital, upon the surface
of which it also appears, outside (fig. 69, at^.sc), and with which it blends; a very small epiotic
centre (e2)), between the prootic and supraoccipital ; and the anterior semicircular canal (asc)
<inl)edded in the latter. In Dr. Shufcldt's figure the otic elements are merely noted diagrain-
Hiatically. According to Huxley's generalization, the epiotic is in special relation witli the pos-
terior semicircular canal; the prootic with the anterior vertical canal, between which and the
foramen ovale (5) for the lower divisions of the trifacial nerve it lies. That part on which tlie
inner foot of the quadrate is implanted is prootic. Below the drooping eaves of the squamosal,
before the flaring wing of tlie exoccipital, and behind tlie quadrate bone, is the always decided
and considerable cavity of tlie ear, bounded pretty t^harply by tlie s(iuamosal and exoccipital rim,
fore properly n post-frontal bone. Or. again, that it may liave nothing to do with the frontal bone, but belong to
tJie alisphenoid, as a process of the latter or a separate ossification ; in which case it would be properly the sphe-
notic. In no event has it anything to do with the sf/unmosaf process lettered as such in tig. 62.
164
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
gloping with less distinction in front toward the orbital cavity. In this auditory hollow may be
seen several openings: the meatus or proper ear-passage, through which, in one direction, a
bristle may be passed to emerge at or near
the middle line of the base of the skull,
about the root of the basisphenoidal ros-
trum. Such a passage is through the first
visceral cleft of the early embryo, modi-
fied into meatus auditorius and eustachian
tube, which latter communicates Math the
back part of the mouth. Besides the other
ear-passages proper, may be found other
openings of air-passages leading into the
interior diploic tissue of bones of the
skull, and especially into the lower jaw
bone. The ear-parts are immensely de-
veloped in owls, in many species of
which they are unsymmetrical, that is,
not sized and shaped alike on right and
left sides of the head.
The Sphenoid (Gr. (t^iji/, sphen, a
wedge ; ddos, eidos, form ; tigs. 62, 70,
71) is a compound bone, not easy to un-
derstand as it occurs in birds, as much
of it is hidden from the outside, some of
it is very slightly developed, and all of it
is completely consolidated with surround-
ing bones in the adult. It is wedged
into the very midst of the cranial bones
proper, with its body in the middle line
below, next in front of the basioccipital,
and its wings spread on either side in the
orbital cavity. A sphenoid consists es-
sentially of the basisj)henoid, or main
Fig. 70. —Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, viewed
inside, x 3 diameters ; after Parker. In the mandible are seen :
mk, remains of meckelian rod ; d, dentary bone ; sp, splenial ;
a, angular ; sri, surangular ; ar, articular ; iaj), internal articu-
lar process; jiajy, posterior articular process. In tlie skull : im,
the original prenasal cartilage, upon which is moulded the pre- . . „ . 7- j
maxillary, pa-, with its nasal process, npa-, and dentary process, P^rt ot the bone (tig. bZ); the aiisphe-
dpx ; sn, septo-nasal cartilage, in which is seen nn, nasal nerve; noids or " wingS," on either side (figS. 70,
7itb, nasal turbinal ; the reference line crosses the cranio-facial
suture, the face parts and cranial parts being nearly separated
here by the nick seen in the original cartilaginous plate; eth,
ethmoid ; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, which will spread
nearly throughout the dotted cartilaginous tract in which it lies,
to form nearly all the Interorbital septum ; transverse thicken-
ing (in some birds) below the reference line eth will form the
pre-frontal, or orblto-nasal septum; iof, inter-orbital foramen;
^s, pre-sphenoidal region, just above which is the orbito-sphe-
noidal region ; 2. optic foramen ; as, alisphenoid, with 5, foramen
for divisions of the 5th (trifacial) nerve ;/, frontal ; sq, squamosal ;
p, parietal ; so, superoccipital ; asc, anterior semicircular canal ;
tc, a sinus (venous canal); ej), epiotic; eo, exoccipital; op. opis-
thotic ; po, prootic, with 7, meatus auditorius internus, for en-
trance of 7th nerve ; 8, foramen for vagus nerve; 6o, basioccipi-
tal ; bt, basitemporal ; ic, canal (in original pituitary space ;
fig. 66 ic) by which carotid artery enters brain cavity ; ap, basi-
pterygoid process; ap to rbs. rostrum of the skull, being the
jmrasplienoid bone underflooring the basisphenoid and future
Iierpendicular plate of ethmoid. (The scaffolding of the upper
jaw not shown, excepting px, &c.)
71 , as) ; the obscure presphenoid, {2)s) in
the middle line in front of and above the
main body ; and the small orhito-sp)he-
noids. which are in fact the wings of the
presphenoid. The body is usually covered
in by the underflooring of the basitem-
])oral ; it is a flat triangular plate, pro-
duced more or less forward in the middle
line as the basisphenoidal rostrum, or
beak of the skull. This rostrum is an
imjiortant thing. It forms, in fact, the
central axis of the base of the skull ;
with the mesethmoid ])late the inferior
border of the interorbital septum, usually
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
165
smooth facet with which the pterygoid artic-
thickened by the underflooring of the parasphenoid (fig. 70, rbs). The rostrum often bears
on each side a hasipterygoid process {ap)
ulates. These processes may be very
strong, and far back on the basisphenoid
body, when the pterygoids articulate with
them near their own posterior ends, as
in the struthious birds and tinamous (fig.
75, htp) ; or they may be further along
on the rostrum, and the pterygoids then
articulate near or at their fore-ends. The
rostrum may be produced far forvA'ard,
beyond the maxillo-palatines and vomer
even, as in an ostrich ; or it may bear the
vomer at its end ; or may be embraced
by forks of the vomer ; the palatines may
glide along it, or be remote from it on
either side. In any event, whatever its
production, whatever pait may be eth-
moidal, or basisphenoidal, or parasphe-
noidal thickening, pterygo-faceting, etc.,
tliis '* beak " of the basisphenoid is
always in the axis of the base of the
skull, and at the bottom of the inter-
orbital plate ; it may be horizontal, or
obliquely ascending forward ; and the
variety of its relations with the pterygo-
palatine and vomerine mechanism fur
nishes important zoological characters,
as we shall see when we come to treat
of palatal structure particularly. Just at
the l)ase of the beak, where it widens
into the main body of the bone, may
commonly be seen, coming from between
tlie sphenoidal body and the lip of the
basitemporal underflooring, the orifices
of the eustachian tubes, and often also
the anterior ends of the carotid canal.
Fig.
Parker,
nasal; n
71. — Ripe oliii'k's skull, in iirofile, x 3 diameters ; after
px, premaxillary ; aln, ali-nasal cartilage; en, septo-
, nasal bone; /, lacrymal; pe, perpendicular plate of
ethmoid, as in fig. 70; ps, presphenoidal region; ns, alisplie-
noid ; /, frontal ; p, parietal ; ^q, squamosal ; so, superoccipital ;
eo, exoccipital ; oc, occipital condyle ; st. the cross-like object,
the stapes, whose foot fits fenestra ovalis, see fig. 83; q. quad-
rate; pd, pterygoid; qj, quadrato-jugal; ./, jugal; pa, palatine;
mx, ma.\illary. In the mandible: d, dentary; su, surangular;
a, angular; ar, articular; iap, internal angular process ; jmp,
If a bristle, passed into a questionable posterior angular process. 2, optic foramen ; 5, foramen ovale,
foramen here, comes out of the ear, it for inferior divisions of the 5th nerve. (Compare fig. 70.)
has gone through the eustachian tube; if it comes out below the ear, on the floor of the skull,
outside, it lias run in the carotid canal. The extent of the alisphcnoids (figs. 70, 71, as) can-
not be determined in old skulls. They lie at the back lower border of tlie orbital cavity, clos-
ing in most of the brain box that is not foreclosed by the frontal bone. You will always find
at the back of the orbit, close to the mid-line, and rather low down, the very large optic fora-
mina (any figs., 2) ; alisphenoid should not extend in fnmt of these orifices. A little below and
behind the optic foramina, and much more laterally, not far from the quadrate itself, is a con-
siderable foramen, quite constant, for transmissi(m of the inferior divisions of the fifth (trigeminal
or trifacial) nerve. Tliis is the foramen ovale (any figs., 5) ; it is either in the alisphenoid, or
between thai bone and the proiitic ; it must not be mistaken for one of the several smaller holes,
usually seen close about the optic foramen, which transmit the nerves (oculo-niotor, pathetic.
166 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
and abducent) which move the muscles of the eyeball; these holes being collectively about
equivalent to the foramen lacerum anterius of human anatomy. Parts about the optic foramen,
before and above, are presphenoidal (figs. 70, 71, ps) and orbito-sphenoidal ; but they are
obscure to all but the embryologist, and practically furnish no zoological characters.
The Ethmoid (Gr. ijdfios, ethmos, a sieve ; from the way it is perforated in the human
species ; tig. 62) is the bone of the mid-line of the skull, in front of the sphenoidal elements and
below the frontal ; it is in special relation with the olfiictory nervous apparatus, or sense of
smell. This is not an easy bone to " get the hang of" in birds. Keferring to figs. 66, 68, eih,
the student will see in the early embryo a high thin plate of cartilage, the mesethmoid cartilage,
which is developing lateral processes to fomi the convoluted walls of the nasal passages. By
the uprising and forth-growing of the prenasal cartilage, the mesethmoidal plate is tilted back-
ward, as it were, under the frontal. Next, by absorption of tissue just opposite the future
cranio-facial suture, the plate is nicked apart, the portion in front of the nick elaborating
the nasal chambers, which usually remain cartilaginous, and the portion behind this nick
becoming the permanent plate, fig. 70, eth, pe, to which the name mesethmoid or mid-ethmoid
is more strictly applicable. Practically, a bird's ethmoid is chiefly the inter-orbital septum, in
vertical mid-line between the orbits, with such flange-like processes or lateral plates as may be
developed to form an orhito-nasal septum separating the eye-socket from the nose-chamber.
In general, the permanent ethmoidal plate becomes nearly coincident with this orbital wall, and
pretty well cut ofi" from the osseous or cartilaginous developments, when any, in the nasal cavi-
ties. It is then fairly under cover of the frontal, with which, as with the sphenoidal elements
posteriorly, it becomes completely fused. When this inter-orbital septum is fully developed, it
completely divides the right and left orbital cavities, and its lower horizontal border, fused
with the basisphenoidal rostrum, may like the latter be thickened by bearing its share of the
parasphenoidal splint. Oftener, however, this lower border slopes upward and forward, from the
sphenoidal base to the roof of the skull about the site of the cranio-facial suture ; and usually
the septum is incomplete, having a membranous fenestra somewhere near its middle (fig. 70,
iof). Along the upper border of the mesethmoid plate, or just in the crease between it and
the overarching frontal may usually be seen a long groove, which, beginning behind at the
olfactory foramen of the brain-box, conducts the thence-issuing olfactory nerve to the nasal
chambers. Sometimes there is another such groove, from a similar foramen near by in the
sphenoidal parts, which similarly traces the course of the ophthalmic (first) division of the tri-
facial nerve. Occasionally, as in the fowls, the two halves of the frontal bone separate a little
at the extreme forehead, allowing the mesethmoid plate there to come up flush with the outer
surface of the skull.
In some birds, as the low ostrich, for example, the original mesethuKiidal cartilage-plate
does not nick apart into orbital and nasal moieties, but ossifies as a continuous sheet of bone,
dividing right and left halves of the skull far towards the point of the beak (see fig. 75, beyond
B to Pmx). A nasal septum, separated from the orbital septum, may persist to ossify ; form-
ing, as in the raven, a vertical plate separate from all surroundings, and liable to be mistaken
for a free vomer (see fig. 79, where the reference line v goes to it, instead of to the truncate
vomer) ; or, as in many birds, a plate variously anchylosed mth its surroundings. But these
formations, as well as the various turhinal (Lat. turho, a whorl) scrolls and whorls formed in
this part of the skull, belong rather to the organ of smell than to the skull proper.
The Cranial Bones proper are all those thus far described, excepting the nasal ossifica-
tions just noted, which belong to the first pre-oral arch ; and the stapedial paits of the ear,
which belong to the hyoidean apparatus (second post-oral arch). Intermediate in some
respects between the proper cranial bones and
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 167
The Facial Bones proper is the Vomer. — By "facial bones," as distinguished from
*' cranial " bones, is meant the entire bony scaflblding of the upper and lower jaws, and of the
tongue, — parts developed in the pre-oral or maxillary, and first, second, and third post-oral, or
mandibular, hyoidean proper, and branchial, arches.
The Vomer (Lat. vomer, a ploughshare ; figs. G2, G3, 75 to 80, v) is considered, by those
who hold the vertebral theory of the skull, to be the body of the foremost (fourth from behind
— the basioccipital, basisphenoid, and presphenoid being the other three) cranial vertebra. So
far from having any such morphological significance, it is one of the late secondary bones,
developed, if at all, apart from the general make-up of the skull, as a special superaddition
underlying the ethmoidal region, as the parasphenoid and basitemporal underlie the skull further
back. Its character is extremely variable in the class of birds, though usually constant in the
several natural divisions of the class, — a fact which confers high zoological value upon this
anomalous bone. A vomer is a symmetrical mid-line bone of the base of the skull, found if at
all at or near the end of the rostrum. It is originally double, i. e., of right and left paired
halves. These halves persist distinct in the woodpeckers, and are remote from each other,
one on each side of the mid-line (fig. 80). The vomer is wanting entirely in the Columbine
birds, as the pigeons and some of their allies, as the sand grouse (Pierodetes) and bush quails
(Hemipodes) of the old world, and in certain of the true Gallince. Its connections are various.
It may be borne free upon the end of the rostrum. It may be applied like a splint by a grooved
upper surface to the under side of the rostrum, and so fixed there ; or, in such situation, it may
glide along the rostrum according to the movements of the palatal parts with which it may
connect. Thus, in the ostrich (fig. 75), it saddles the rostrum below, and is joined by the
maxillo-palatines. Or, it may be united with separate ossifications, the septo-maxillaries,
which in some birds bridge across the palate (fig. 80). The commonest case is its deep
bifurcation behind (fig. 79), each fork uniting with the palate bone of its own side, and some-
times also with the pterygoid. Such is usually the fixture of the bone behind, and it then rides
along as well as simply bestrides the rostrum. The anterior end of the vomer may be perfectly
free, pnjjecting into the floor of the nasal chambers (figs. 62, 77), or the fore end may be
variously steadied or connected with maxillary processes (fig. 78). When free in front, and
often when not, the vomer is a simple share-like plate, more or less expanded vertically, quite
thin laterally, and " spiked,'' i. e., running forward to a point ; under these circumstances it may
or may not bifurcate behind, and be there attached to the palatines or not. But the commonest
case of vomer, shown by the great Passerine group, which comprise the majority of recent
birds, is di9"erent from this, the vomer being in front thickened, flattened and expanded laterally,
and connected with nasal cartilages and ossifications (alinasals and turbinals). Such a vomer,
deeply cleft behind to join the palatals, is endlessly diversified in the configuration of its fore end,
which may be notched, lobed, clubbed, etc. The general case of such a vomer is indicated by
the expression " vomer truncate in front," as distinguished from the simply pointed or "spiked"
vomer. (For further details see description of the several patterns of palate-structure, beyond.)
The Quadrate Bone (Lat. qiiadratus, sciuared; figs. 02; 03, n; U, 05, 68, 69, 71, q;
75, Qu), witli wliicli we may begin the jaw-bones proper, is the suspensorium of the lower jaw,
— the perfectly constant and characteristic bone by means of which the mandible proper articu-
lates with the skull. Its rudiment is seen in the earliest embryos, at the corners of tlie pri-
mf)rdial parachordal cartilages. It belongs to the mandibular (first post-oral) arch, of which it
is the proximal element. Its general morphology has caused much dispute. From the fact
that in birds one of its functions is to support, in part, the tyinpanum of the ear, it has been
identified with the tympanic bone of mammals, — that which in man f<)nns the bony tube of the
external auditory meatus. The view now generally accepted is, that the bird's quadrate repre-
168 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
sents, certainly in part, probably iu whole, the little bone of the middle ear called ihemalleus in
mammals. Anyhow this may be, the quadrate of a bird bears the proximal ends of both jaws,
caiTying their final (posterior) articulation up to the squamosal and petrosal bones. Thus, the
foot of the quadrate forms the free hinge of the lower jaw, and also movably articulates the
back end of both the zygomatic and the pterygo-palatine bars or "arcades." The head of
the quadrate freely articulates with the squamosal, just in front of the tympanity cavity, which
it thus bounds in front ; and there is usually a shoulder which furthermore articulates with
the anterior periotic bone, the prootic ; Struthious birds do not have these two distinct facets.
A long pedicle or orbital process extends forwards, inwards, and upwards in the orbit ; this non-
articular handle is for advantageous muscular traction. So circumstanced, the quadrate is a
stocky bone, of a shape reminding one of an anvil ; it rocks freely to and fro upon its cranial
socket, pulling and pushing upon the whole maxillary and mandibular mechanism, with such
effect that when the lower jaw drops, the zygomatic and palatal bars are automatically shoved
forward, tending to make the upper jaw rise, and so increase the opening of the mouth. Such
mobility of the upper jaw automatically with the movement of the lower is very free in parrots,
whose cranio-facial connections are quite articular in character ; it is well shown also in ducks ;
and probably nearly all birds have some such motion of the upper jaw upon the skull. In
nearly all birds, the mandibular articular facet of the quadrate is divided by a lengthwise
impression into inner and outer protuberances, or condyles, fitting corresponding depressions on
the articular face of the lower jaw ; in some birds the articular surface is single. The zygo-
matic articulation with the quadrate is made by the balled end of the quadrato-jugal socketed
in a cup at the outer side of the mandibular facet (with various minor modifications in different
birds). The palatal i.rticulation is made by a little condyle of the quadrate, at the inner side of
the main facet, socketed into the cupped end of the pterygoid (with mincir modifications).
The Quadrato-jugal and Jugal Bones (Lat. jugum, a yoke ; figs. fi2, 63, q, r; G9, 71,
QJi J) form most of the outer arcade — the juffcil or zygomatic bar — leading from the quadrate
bone to the beak. The quadrato-jugal is posterior, reaching a variable distance forward ; at its
fore end it is obliquely sutured to the jugal, a splint-rod which carries the bar forward to the
maxillary bone, with which it is iu like manner obliquely sutured. The whole afi'air is almost
always a slender rod, which with its fellow of the opposite side forms the outermost lateral
boundary of the skull for a great distance. It con-esponds in general with the " zygomatic
arch " of a mammal, which is made up of a " zygomatic process of the squamosal " and a malar
or " cheek-bone." The whole zygomatic arch, including the maxillary bone itself, is developed
from the outer part of the primordial pterygo-palatine bar (see fig. 65). In parrots the zygoma
is movably articulated before as behind.
The Maxillary Bone (Lat. maxilla, upper jaw bone; figs. 62; 63, s; 69, 71, 75, mx),
forming so much of the upper jaw of a mammal, is in birds greatly reduced, being starved out by
the predominant premaxillaries which form most of the upper beak. The shape of this stunted
bone varies too much to be concisely described. Its connections are, ordinarily, with the jugal
behind by a long slender splint-like process, and with the premaxillary and usually the nasal
bones in front and externally. Internally, it may or may not connect with the palatal and
vomer. The zoological interest of this bone centres in certain inward (palate-ward) processes,
often its most conspicuous parts, and apparently corresponding to the plate which in a mammal
roofs the hard palate anteriorly. Though these are mere processes from the main maxillary,
they are so distinct and important that they are commonly described as if they were indejiendent
bones, under the name of the maxillo-2Mlatines. They are flange-like or scroll-like plates, or
large spongy masses of delicate bone-tissue, — endlessly varied in configuration and context (see
the various figures of base of skuU, rnxp, beyond, where the palate-patterns are described).
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 169
Certain other inward maxillary processes, which may or may not unite with the vomer, and so
bridge over the palate, are called se/^to-maxillaries (fig. 80, smx) ; and in some woodpeckers
yet other palate-processes appear (fig. 80, imix).
The Pterygoid Bones (Gr. irrtpv^, ptenix, wing ; eidos, eidos, form ; figs. 62 ; 63, o;
65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 80, pg; 75 to 79, Ft). Eetuming now to the quadrate, and going along the
inner arcade, we first encounter the pterygoid, — a generally rod-like, but variously twisted,
crooked, or expanded bone which makes the connection between the quadrate behind and the
palate bone before. The pterygoid is always freely jointed at both ends ; its posterior quadrate
articulation has been noted above ; its anterior connection is usually by little nipper-like claws
by which it " catches on" to the hind end of the palatine. In the ostrich (fig. 75, Ft) the
pterygoid expands into a scroll-like plate ; but its rod-like shape is usually preserved. Besides
passing very obliquely inward as it goes forward from the wide-apart quadrates to the narrow
rostrum in the axis of the skull, the pterygoid often bellies or elbows inwards in its course to
join the basisphenoidal beak, and be movably articulated therewith. In the majority of birds,
there is no such rostral articulation, or the pterygoid only touches the rostrum at its fore end
where it joins the palatal. In many, however, special articular facets, called hasipterygoid
processes (fig. 70, ap), are developed on the rostrum for the pterygoids to abut against and
glide over. In Carinate birds, excepting the tinainous (Dromcsognathce) , these processes are
forward on the beak, and the pterygoids articulate at or near their own fore ends, as well shown
in the fowl or duck, figs. 77, 78, Ft. In Eatite birds and tiuamous, the basipterygoids are
very long, flaring transverse processes, far back on the rostrum, at the sphenoidal base, and
the pterygoids articulate therewith at or near their own posterior ends (figs. 75, Btp, and 76).
The Palatal or Palatine Bones (Lat. palatum, roof of the mouth ; figs. 62 ; 63, p; 65,
66, 68, 69, 71, 11, 78, 80, pa; 75, 76, 79, PI) are a pair, approximately parallel and near the
mid-line, forming that part of the *' hard palate " or roof of the mouth which is not constructed
by the palatal processes of the maxillaries, or vomer. They are nearly always long thin bones,
among the most conspicuous parts when the dried skuU is viewed from below. Sometimes, as in
the ostrich (fig. 75, pi), they are remote from the axis of the skull and only connected in front
with the maxillaries and maxillo-palatines. In many birds they skip the maxillary parts in
going forward to be fused with the premaxillaries ; in most, probably, they form anterior con-
nections in one or another fashion with palatal parts both of maxillaries and of premaxillaries.
Behind, they always correctly articulate with the pterygoid. The mid-line connections made
in most Carinate birds (not in DromaBognathse) are variously ^vith the vomer, with the ros-
triun, with each other, or some or all of these relations at once. A long deeply-deft vomer
may by its posterior forks attach itself to the whole palatal mid-line, excluding tiie palatals^
from the rostrum ; less extensive attachment of the same kind may permit the palatals to touch
each other and the rostrum posteriorly, while cutting them off" anteriorly ; also, a non-cleft
vomer may attach itself to the posterior extremity f)f the palatals, and bear them off the ros-
trum. The whole hard palate may fuse into an indistinguishable mass ; and in almost any
case the relations of the palatals to each other and their connections afi'ord some of the most
valuable zoological characters of great groups of birds. (Details figured and described beyond.)
Though very variable in configuration, as well as in connections, certain parts of a palatal may
usually be recognized, and conveniently named for descriptive purposes. Anteriorly, in the
great majority of birds, of whatever technical kind of palatal structure, the palatals are simply
prolonged as flat strap-like or lath-like bars running past the maxillary to the premaxillary
region ; and such simple band-like character may be preserved behind. Ordinarily, however,
the palatals expand posteriorly, becoming more or less laminar ; and in this i)late-like part
three surfaces may usually be recognized. One, more or less horizontal, flaring outward, is the
170 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
external lamina. It is well shown in a Passerine or Kaptorial bird, where the postero-external
angle (between the outer border and the posterior end) of the palatal is well-marked, or may
be acutely produced ; there is no such lamina in a fowl, where the palatals are for the most
part slender and rod-like. An internal, more or less vertically produced, plate to make the
mid-line rostral or vomerine connection is the sttperior internal lamina, or medio-palatine pro-
cess; very strong, for example, in a fowl, where it fomis all the expanded part of the bone, and
ends anteriorly as a sharp inter -p)alatine spur. The medio-palatine is probably to be regarded
as the main body of the bone, being the most axial part, of the most extensive and varied con-
nections. A third lip or plate of the palatal is the inferior internal lamina, looking downward ;
it is generally very evident, but in a duck or fowl is reduced to a mere ridge, indicating where
the superior internal and external laminae meet. A duck's palatals are quite different in ap-
pearance from those of most birds, all the posterior parts just distinguished being reduced and
constricted, while the fore ends, running abruptly into the hard-boned beak, are much expanded
horizontally (fig. 78). The postero-extenial angles of the palatal (formed by the external
lamina), even when much produced, may not reach as far back as opposite the pterygo-palatine
articulation ; or they may surpass these limits, and when they do, such backward prolongation
is called post-palatiue, the palate being considered to end at the pterygoids. In like manner,
the maxillary processes of the palatals, or the palatal strips as prolonged into the premaxillary
region, are called ^;>T-2>fl/rt^/>(es. The inner posterior jJiocess, by which the palatine is articu-
lated with the pterygoid, is its pderygoid process.
The Premaxillary Bones (figs. 62 ; 63, a; 69, 70, 71, 80, px; 75 to 79, pmx), also called
Intermaxillaries, form most of the upper beak, attaining enormous development in birds, and
reversing the usual relative size of premaxillary and maxillary. Mainly determining as they
do the form of the upper mandible, their shapes are as various as the bills themselves of
birds ; but their generalized characters can be easily given. Each premaxillary, right and
left, forms its half the bill ; the two are always completely fused together in frout, commonly
preserving traces at least of their original distinction behind. They are commonly called one
"bone, the premaxillary. Each is a triradiate or 3-pronged bone ; one upper prong, the most
distinct, called the nasal or frontal process, forms with its fellow the culmen (p. 109, fig. 26, h)
of the bill. These processes, side by side, run clear up to the frontal bone in birds, driving the
nasal bones apart from each other. Such a median frouto-premaxillary suture, with lateral
fronto-nasal and uaso-premaxillary sutures, is highly characteristic of birds, — an arrangement
probably exceptionless. Two other horizontal prongs on each side, extensively distinct from
the frontal process in most birds, but less separate from each other, run horizontally along the
■side and roof of the mouth for a variable distance. These horizontal prongs are an external or
dentary process (fig. 80, dpx^, forming the tomium (p. 109) of the bill, and reaching back to
join the dentary part of the maxillary; and an internal or palatal process (fig. 80, ppx), run-
ning along the commencement of the bony palate. "With this latter the anterior ends of the
palatal bones unite, — either on the side toward the mid-line of the beak, or between the palatal
-and dentary processes, as in a woodpecker (fig. 80). Great laminar expansions inward of these
palatal parts of the premaxillaries roof the hard part of the mouth anteriorly, though there is
usually a vacancy between the premaxillary hard i)alate and that formed farther back by the
Tnaxillo-palatines and palatines. The posterior extremities at least of the frontal processes of
the premaxillaries are commonly distinguishable from each other, as well as from the frontal
and nasal bones — in fact, these fnrato-naso-premaxillary sutures are among the most per-
sistent of all. The divergence of the frontal from the palatal and dentary processes bounds the
■external nostril in part, the circumscription of that orifice being completed by the prongs of the
nasal bones. The superficies of the premaxillary bone, like that of the dentarv piece of the
lower jaw bone, is commonly sculptured with the impressions of the vessels and nerves which
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 171
ramify beneath the horny integument ; and in birds with very sensitive bills, as a snipe or
duck, the end is perforated sieve-like with little holes, into which the skin shrinks in drying,
jiroducing the familiar "pitted" appearance (fig. 63, at c).
The Nasal Bones (figs. 62 ; 71, n) might have been described next after the frontals, as
tliey continue forward the general roofing of the skull; but are conveniently considered in the
present connection, being in birds rather "facial" than " cranial." They are of large size in
birds, and pronged, — one fork, the superior process, being applied for a variable distance along
the outer side of the frontal process of the premaxillary, the other, inferior, descending to or
towards the dentary border of the maxillary or premaxillary, or both ; the divergence of these
two processes bounding the nostril behind. The base of the nasal, uppermost and posterior,
anchyloses (usually) or sutures (often) or articulates (as in parrots) with the antero-external
border of the frontal bone; its frequent collateral connections being with the lacrymal or
ethmoid, or both of these. The nasals are very variable in shape, as well as in the extent
of their connections. When expansive, they may wall in much of the nasal ca\nty, as well as
bound the nostrils. These latter openings, as far as the bony boundaries are concerned, are
usually much more extensive than they seem to be from the outside, being much contracted by
membrane and integument. Ordinarily, each forms a great vacuity, which the descending
prong of the nasal bone separates from a similar vacancy between itself and the lacrymal, the
lacrymal in turn interposing between this and the orbital cavity. The descending process of
the nasal, in fact, is a marked object at the side of the base of the upper mandible of most birds,
though slight or rudimentary in the Eatitfe. A character of the nasals has been employed in
classification by Mr. Garrod. A bird having the bones as above generally described, with
moderate forking, so that the angle of the fork, bounding the nostrils behind, does not reach so
far back as the fronto-premaxillary suture, is termed holorhinal (Gr. o\os, holos, whole ; pis,
pivos, rhis, rhinos, nose; fig. 62 j. But in the Columhidce, and in a great many wading and
swimming birds, whose palates are cleft (schizognathous), the nasal bones are schizorhinal
((TX'C'^, schizo, I cut) ; that is, cleft to or beyond the ends of the premaxillaries ; such fission
leaving the external descending process very distinct from the other, almost like a separate
bone. Pigeons, gulls, plovers, cranes, auks, and other birds are thus split-nosed. The value
of the character, except as an auxiliary, is doubtful.
The Lacrymal (Lat. Incryma, a tear ; from the relation of the human bone to the tear-
duct ; figs. 62; 63, «; 71, I) is one of several splint-like membrane-bones of the .skull, having
little intimacy of relation with the general morphology of the cranium, though quite constant in
birds, and often very conspicuous. It is situated at or near the anterior outer corner of the
orbit, near the nasal but behind that bone ; sometimes anchylosed, sometimes very loosely
attached, oftener firmly sutured with the frontal ; and may also have connection with the nasal
and ethmoid. It is generally a claw-like affair, depending from the ft'out outer corner of the
frontal, and consequently bounding the orbit anteriorly ; it may be variously twisted, crooked,
liooked, etc. It is singularly elongated and distorted in the ostrich. In the duck tribe, in
which the lacrymo-frontal region of the skull is greatly elongated, the lacrymal has coex-
tensive attachment to the frontal bone, and is broadly laminar, with a downward process ;
in some ducks bounding at least a fourth of the orbital brim, and almost completing the circle
by extending toward the very protrusive post-frontal process, as in fig. 63, u. In some parrots,
the rim of the orbit is completed below, and even sends a bony bar to bridge over the temporal
fossa behind the post-frontal. In some birds, the lacrymal is quite free, and even in more than
one free piece. The os imcinatnm, or os lacrymo-palatinum, would appear to be a palatine bone
distinct from the lacrymal; it lias been observed in the Mimiphngides and many other pica-
rian birds, in Tackypetes and certain Procellariidce. The lacrymal bone seems to be the priu-
172 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
cipal relic, in birds, of a set of splint-'bones which lie about the edges of the orbits in many
Sauropsida. Another is the post-frontal or sphenotic, usually a process of the frontal, often a
separate ossification. In some birds, as various Baptores, there are one or more loose supra-
orbital plates of bone, serving to eke out the brim of the orbits ; thus forming the " orbital
shields " so prominent in many hawks, and causing their eyebrows to project. Were such a
a chain of splint-bones complete (lacrymal, superorbitals, post-frontal, and squamosal, to
quadrate), it would fonn an arcade of bones over the orbit, like the actual zygomatic arch
(maxillary, jugal, quadrato-jugal, to quadrate) which lies under the orbit ; and such a double
series is very perfectly illustrated in many of the Sauropsida below birds (Huxley).
Other special ossifications have been described in some birds, but I am obliged to pass
them over. I have already far exceeded intended limits, and have yet to describe the mandib-
ular and hyoidean arches, and the zoological characters of the palate as a whole.
The Mandible, or Lower Jaw Bone (figs. 02, 03, 70, 71) is a collection of bones devel-
oped in the first post-oral visceral arch. Each half of the compound bone (right and left) con-
sists normally of five bones, which become immovably anchylosed, but traces of the original
distinction of which commonly persist for an indefinite period, — in some birds throughout their
lives. In an embryo whose skull has passed to the cartilaginous stage, a long slender rod of
cartUage appears in the first post-oral visceral arch ; this is Meckel's cartilage, or the meckelian
rod (figs. 65, 66, 68, 70, mlc), so named after a famous anatomist. Around this rod, which
subsequently disappears, the several bones of the mandible are developed. The anterior one of
these is the dentary (d), forming the scaffold of the horuy part of the external under mandible.
It usually unites by anchylosis, sometimes only by suture, with its fellow of the opposite side.
This union in the middle line is the symphysis (Gr. avv, sun, with ; (pva-is, i:)liusis, growth).
The line of union is externally the gonys (see p. 109), the length and other characters of which
are determined by the mode of symphysis, as is the general shape of the tip of the lower mandi-
ble. The union generally makes an angular j^, but may be an obtuse n ; the symphysis is
very short and imperfect, as in a pelican, for instance, or the opposite, as iu a woodpecker and
a multitude of birds. Behind the dentary, each ramus of the jaw continues with pieces called
splenial, angular and surangular (sp, a, sii); there is often a fenestra between tliem, by
imperfection of bony union, as shown in fig. 62, or 63, /, which also sufficiently indicates the
relations of these parts. The articulation of the jaw with the quadrate bone is furnished by a
fifth piece called articular (ar) from its function. As a whole the mandible is a pronged bone,
forking with a variable degree of divergence from its obtuse or acute point, sometimes quite
parallel- sided, as in a duck, oftener very open; such prongs may be straight, or variously
curved or bent either in the vertical or the horizontal plane ; are generally stout and stanch,
sometimes so slender as to be quite flexible. The articular part, always expanded horizontally,
presents a smooth irregularly cupped superior surface for reception of the protuberances of the foot
of quadrate. In general, the concave articular surface is divided into an inner and outer cup sepa-
rated by a protuberance, corresponding to snnilar inequalities of the opposing surface of the
quadrate. Cupping of the mandibular articulation is characteristic of birds as compared with
mammals, in which latter the lower jaw has always a knobbed articular surface (condyle). In
many birds the angle of the jaw is prolonged back of the articulation as a posterior articular
process (fig. 63, h, 70, 71, pap), which may be long, slender and up-curved, as is well shown in
a fowl, duck, or plover. Such birds are said to have the " angle of the mandible recurved ; "
the opposite condition is "angle truncated" (cut off). Usually also, an internal angular
process (figs. 70, 71, iap) is produced inward from the articular part of the jaw, as in the
fowl, duck. Between the dentary and articular parts, the ramus of the jaw is usually verti-
cally produced as a thin raised crest, which, when prominent, is called the coronoid j^rocess ;
it corresponds to the strong process so called in a mammal, and relates to the advantageous
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY.
173
insertion of the temporal or masseteric muscles which eflfect closure of the jaw. It is scarcely
evident in the fowl, fig. 62, but well marked in the duck, fig. 63, over/. At the back of the
articular surface is the pneumatic foramen for entrance of air, when any ; on the inner surface
of the ramus, about the splenial bone, is the opening conveying the vessels and nerve.
The Hyoid Bone (Gr. letter v, hu = hy, ddos, eidos, forai; figs.
65-68, 72-74) is the skeleton of the tongue ; a very composite struc-
ture, consisting of several distinct bones, developed in the second and
third post-oral visceral arches (see fig. 65, where ch and bh are the
original elements of the second arch, making the hasihyal and cerato-
hyal bones, and hhr, cbr, and ebr are the original elements of the third
arch, making the basibranchial, cerato-branchial, and epibranchial
bones). The whole aff'air is somewhat A" or Xl'Shaped, lying
loosely, point forward, between the forks of the lower jaw, with its
long slender prongs curving up behind the hind head more or less ;
but not definitely connected with any other bones of the skull. The
connection which exists between the hyoid and other cranial bones
in a mammal is in birds broken by non-development of certain
links of bone developed in the mammalian second post-oral arch, as
the stylo-hyal, epihyal, etc.; though birds have a rudimentary stylo-
hyal, at least in the embryo, among the several proximal parts of
the second arch which form the intricate bones within the ear-
passages (fig. 67). The visible parts of a bird's hyoid are usually:
the body of the bone, basihyal (bh, and fig. 72, c), single and median,
•commonly quite short and stocky, sometimes long and slender. The
basihyal bears in front a pair of cerato-hyals (ch; not shown in
fig. 72, where they have been absorbed in 6) usually movably
articulated with the basihyal. They commonly appear as little
" horns " or processes of the next piece, the glosso-hyal (fig. 72, b)
or bone chiefly supporting the substance of the tongue. It may be
a stout and apparently single bone, as that of the goose figured ; but
oftener appears as a pair of slender bones, side by side, whose back-
ward ends are the cerato-hyals. The glossohyal may or may not
bear at its fore end a cartilaginous tip, as in fig. 72, a. AU the fore-
going are hyal, i. e., belonging to the second visceral arch; the
following are branchial, of the third arch : The basi-branchial
(bbr, fig. 72, d) is a single median piece, projecting backward
from the basihyal, with which it may be perfectly consolidated, as
it is in the figure, or separately articulated ; it may be wanting ; it
is usually tipped and prolonged backward with a thread of cartilage.
The basibranchial is oftener called " urohyal," but had better be
allowed its strict morphological name. On either side, the basihyal
bears the separately articulated cerato-branchials (cbr, fitj. 72, e), .. ,
, , , , \ ' rt ; /' pletely with d. basibr.ancliial,
long slender bones diverging as they pass backward, and bearing commonly calle<l " uroliyal;"
upon their ends the epi-branchinls (ebr, fig. 72,/), which finish ofi" f' ceratobranchial ; /, ej.i-
, , ., , v't?;.'/' branchial; e ami./ are to-
the hyoid bone behind, or may be in turn tipped with cartilaginous gether known as "thyro-
threads. The cerato- and epi-branchials together are badly called liyais," or " greater cornua."
the " thyro-hyals," and in still more popular language the ''greater cornua" or "horns"
of the hyoid. All these bones vary in diff'erent birds in size and shape and relative develop-
ment ; the branchial elements are the most constant in their length and slenderness. The
Fig. 72. — Hyoid bones of a
goose, nat. size ; by Dr. R. W.
Shufeldt, U. S. A. a, car-
tilaginous end-piece of b, the
great glosso-hyal, which has
absorbed or replaced cerato-
liyals or " lesser cornua"; c,
basihyal, movably articulated
with ft, and combined com-
174
GENEBAL OBNITHOLOGY.
whole hyoid apparatus of the woodpeckers is specially modified ; the basihyal is very long
and slender, bearing stunted cerato- and glosso-hyals at its extreme end ; there is no uro-
hyal, or only a rudiment ; the cerato-branchials are long, and the epibranchials so extraordi-
narily elongated in some species as to curl up over the back of the skull and forward along the
top of the skull to a variable distance ; sometimes, as in fig. 73, curling around the orbit of the
eye, or, as in fig. 74, running into the nostril to the tip of the beak. In such cases they
bundle together in passing forward over the skull, and go obliquely to one side. (Derivation
of the terms in this paragraph : hyal is another form of hyoid; branchial, Lat. branchia,
gills ; basi-, Lat. basis, base ; cerato-, Gr. Ktpas, Kfparos, keras, keratos, horn ; epi-, Gr. eVt,
epi, upon; stylo-, Lat. stylus, a pen; glosso-, Gr. yXaxraa, glossa, tongue; uro-, Gr. ovpa,
oura, tail ; thyro-, Gr. 6vpt6s, thureos, a shield.)
Figs. 73, 74. —Under fig. side view of a woodpecker's (Picus)
skull, showing the long slender basihyal {hh), bearing slight elements
at its fore end, no uroyhal, and extraordinarily long thyrohyals
(chr, ebr) curving up over back of skull and curling together around
orbit of the right eye. Upper flg. top view of skull of Colaptes,
showing thyroliyals running along the skull and into right nostril
to end of the bill. (Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A.)
Other Bones of the Skull. ^
The articulation of the lower jaw
with the quadrate may have certain
sesamoids. Thus, there are two
such sclerosteous or ligament-bones
in the external lateral ligament of
the raven's jaw-joint, and the long
occipital style of the cormorant and
snake-bird is of the same character,,
being an ossification in the nuchal
ligament of the neck. The siphon-
like tube which conveys air from
the outer ear-passage to the hollow
of the mandible may ossify, as it
does in an old raven, resulting in
a neat tubular ''air-bone" or at-
viosteon (Gr. arpos, air).
Types of Palatal Structure
The arrangement of the bones of the-
palate in birds results in several
types of structure, first defined by
Huxley and applied to the classification of birds. These are the dromccognathous, schizog-
nathous, desmognathous and eegithognathous ; to which Parker has added the saurognathous.
Huxley proposed to make the primary division of Carinate birds upon this score ; and since
the plan could not be made to work in his hands, it is certainly futile for any one else to
demonstrate again the impossibility of establishing the higher groups of birds upon any one
set of characters, — upon the modifications of any one structure. Nevertheless, when duly
co-ordinated with other characters, palatal structure becomes of the utmost importance in
defining large groups of birds. It is necessary, therefore, for the student to clearly understand
this matter, which I will lay before him as nearly as ])ossible in the words of the authors
just mentioned.
Dromaeognathism (Gr. hpopaioi, dromaios, a runner: genus-name of the emeu). — All the
Ratite birds, and the tinamous alone of Carinate birds, are dromccognathous. "The posterior-
ends of the palatines and the anterior ends of the pterygoids are A'ery imperfectly, or ntjt at all,
articulated with the basisphenoidal rostrum, being usually separated from it, and supported by
the broad, cleft, hinder end of the vomer. Strong basipterygoid processes, arising from the-
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY
175
g -^° ° S 2 ^
sill ill:
•a =: g a g- c ^
s ^.^ H. ~ =
- c o = s- 3
toS ^-S C?
S 9
e 5 ■r>- •, tb
•TO ^ _ - --O
; p s 5
I i •§ 5 * g:
5- !z! s •S r --^
g 5 S- ? .^ 2
f S ?^ -g. 1. 1
p — _, S^ re c«
» 5-^ ' 3 ■
^ 5 3 » i >
s> 3 3 2. .? •
H P p =• '
2. - 2. S ^ i5
s " n. 5' . ^
s- 2. 3 w g; I
§ s-r ^:? 3
' S" CL o.
boay'f.f the basisphonoid and not from the n.strum, articulate with facets which are siiiiated
nearer tlie posterior than the anterior ends of the inner edges of the pterygoid bones. 1 his is
176
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the gist of dromccognathism; it is exhibited in several ways, (a) In Struthio alone, fig. 75,
the very short vomer, borne upon the rostrum, articulates neither with palatines nor with ptery-
goids, but with the maxillo-palatines ; and the palatines, which are remote from the rostrum,
advance beyond the maxillo-palatines, as in most birds, (fc) In RJiea, the vomer is as long as
usual in birds, and articulates behind with the palatines and pterygoids, but does not join the
maxillo-palatines in front ; the short palatines unite with the inner and posterior edges of the
thin fenestrated maxillo-palatines. (c) In Casuarius and DromcEUS (cassowary and emeu),
the long vomer articulates behind with the palatines and pterygoids, and uuites in front with
the maxillo-palatines ; these are flat, imperforate, and solidly joined to the premaxillse ; the
palatines are short, (cl) The extinct Binornis had flat imperforate maxillo-palatine plates
uniting solidly with the premaxillae, and probably with the vomer, as in Brommis. (e) In
Apteryx, the long vomer unites with palatines and pterygoids behind ; short broad palatines
-T'wjc-.
suture obliquely with flat imper-
forate maxiUo- palatine plates,
which unite both M'ith premax-
illary and vomer. (/) The tin-
amous, DrovKBognathcc (flg. 76)
" have a completely struthious
palate " ; vomer very broad,
uniting in front with broad max-
illo-palatine plates as in Bi-o-
mcens; behind articulating with
posterior ends of palatines aud
anterior ends of pterygoids, both
of which are thus prevented, as
in all Ratitce, from any extensive
connection with the rostrum ;
basipterygoid processes springing
from body of sphenoid, not from
its rostrum, articulating with
pterygoids very near the pos-
terior or outer ends of the latter ;
head of quadrate with a single
articular facet, as in Ratitce.
Frrvnc^
J^locp.
Ft.
Fig. 77. — Schizognathoxis skull of
common fowl, nat. size, from nature,
by Dr. K. W. SLufeldt, U. S. A. Letters
as before ; Pa, palatine.
schizo, I cleave) is the kind of
Fig. 76. — Dromceognathous
skull of tinamou ( Tinamus
robusttis) ; copied by Shufeldt
from Huxley. Letters as be-
fore; Mxp, maxillo-palatine. Schizognathism (Gr. (txI^u
"cleft palate" shown by the columbine and gallinaceous birds, by the waders at large, and
many of the swimmers (see fig. 77)- In this general case, the vomer, whether large or small,
tapers to a point in front, while behind it embraces the basisphenoidal rostrum, between the
palatines ; these bones and the pterygoids are directly articulated with one another and with
the basisphenoidal rostrum, not being borne upon the divergent posterior ends of the vomer;
the maxillo-palatines, usually elongated and lamellar, pass inwards over \tmdcr, when the
skuU is viewed upside-down, as it usually is] the anterior part of the palatines, with which
they unite and then bend backwards, along the inner edge of the palatines, leaving a broader
or narrower fissure between themselves and the vomer, on each side, and do not unite with one
another or with the vomer. It follows from this that in the dry skull of a plover, for instance,
which shows the schizognathous arrangement extremely well, " the blade of a thin knife can
be passed, without meeting with any bony obstacle, from the posterior nares alongside the
vomer to the end of the beak." There are several groups of birds which exhibit the schizo-
gnathous plan, with ulterior modifications of palatal and other characters. (a) The colum-
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY.
177
Brnjc
Jufxp
bine birds {Peristeromorphce of Huxley's arrangement) : maxillo-palatines elongate and
spongy; basipterygoid processes narrow, but prominent. (6) The gallinaceous birds (^Zee-
toromorphce) : maxillo-palatines varying greatly in size, but always lamellar ; palatines long
and narrow, -with rounded off postero-external angles ; basipterygoid processes oval, flattened,
sessile upon the rostrum, articulating with the pterygoids, (c) The penguins (Sphenisco-
morphce) : maxillo-palatines concavo-convex and lamellar; no basipterygoid processes; ptery-
goids flattened, {d) In the gulls, petrels, loons, grebes,
and auks, constituting the Cecomorphce of Huxley, the
maxillo-palatines are usually lamellar and concavo-
convex, but may be spongy, tumid, and closely approx-
imated to the vomer ; and basipterygoid processes are
absent or present, (c) In the cranes, rails, and their
allies (Geranomoiphce), the maxiUo-palatines are con-
cavo-convex and lamellar, and basipterygoid processes
are usually absent. (/). In the plover-snipe group,
or limicoline Grallce {Charadriomorphce) , the maxiUo-
palatines are always concavo-convex and lamellar ; the
basipterygoid processes narrow and prominent. Except-
ing perhaps group d, which does not hang together so
well, the schizognathous groups here noted correspond
very closely with recognized orders or suborders of birds;
in all of them, the maxillo-palatines are perfectly dis-
tinct from one another and from the vomer, and the _
Pa-
latter is slender and usually pointed. There are plenty " ' ^ ^
of other birds in which the former factor in the case
obtains ; but in these the vomer is broad and usually
truncate in front (see JSgWwgnathism, beyond).
Desmognathism (Gr. 8e(rfx6s, desmos, a bond) is
exhibited in one or another style by those swimming
and wading birds which are not schizognathous, by
the birds of prey, and various non-passerine perching
l)irds. It does not fadge so well as any other one of
the palatal types of structure with recognized groups of
birds based on other considerations. In the ''bound-
palate " type, the vomer is either abortive, or so small
that it disappears ; when existing it is usually slender
and tapers to a point in front; the maxillo-palatines
are united across the median line, either directly or by
means of ossifications in the nasal septum ; the posterior
ends of the palatines and the anterior ends of the ptery-
goids articulate directly with the rostrum (as in schizo-
gnathism). This type is simply and perfectly exhibited by a duck (fig. 78) in which the
maxillo-palatinc is a broad flat plate united with its fellow in mid-line ; the oval sessile basi-
pterygoid facets are far forward, opposite the very ends of the pterygoids. In the flamingo,
ibis, sp()on-l)ill, stork, heron, the united maxillo-palatines are tumid and spongy, filling the
base of the beak ; basipterygoids are wanting (rudimentary in the flamingo). In totipalmate
swimmers (pelican, cormorant), desmoguathism is carried to an extreme by union of the palate
bones also across the mid-line ; the general arrangement is as before. The birds of prey
exhibit several special conditions of desmognathism. The parrots are another case ; among
12
Fig. 78 — Desmofinathous skull of mal-
lard duck, Alias boscas, iiat. size, from
nature, by Dr. R. W. Sbufeldt, U. S. A.
Letters as before.
178
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Sh
other cranial characters of these hirds is to he noted the articulation of the pahite hones with
the upper heak, hke that of the zygoma. The multifarious Picarian hirds, or non-passerine
Insessores, are desinognathous, excepting the schizognathous trogons {Trogonidce) and the
''saurognathous" woodpeckers. Parker has established the following categories of desmo-
gnathism : {a) Perfect direct, the maxillo- palatines uniting below at the mid-line ; either with
the nasal septum free from such bony bridge, as in a duck; or anchylosed therewith, as in many
birds of prey. (&) Perfect indirect, very common, as in eagles, vultures, owls ; maxillo-
palatines separated from each other by a chink, but an-
chylosed with nasal septum. (c) Lnperfectly direct;
maxillo-palatines sutured together, but not anchylosed,
''In young falcons and hawks the palate is at first in-
direct, is then imperfectly direct, and at last perfectly
direct." (d) Imperfectly indirect; maxillo-palatines
closely articulated with, and separated by, the " median
septo - maxillary ;" but there is no anchylosis. (e)
Doiihle : the palatines united as well as the maxillo-
palatines ; as in the pelican and cormorant above noted,
in certain Caprimulgine birds, horn-bills, etc. (/) Com-
pound: when the properly (pgithognathous skull of a
passerine bird becomes also desmognathous.
.^githognathism (Gr. alyi6aX6s, aigithalos, some
small bird) is exhibited almost unexceptionally by the
great group of Passerine birds ; it is also nearly coinci-
dent with Passeres, though a ' few other birds, notably
the swifts {Cypselidce) , also exhibit it. Huxley's term
Coracomorphce, nearly synonymous with Passeres, relates
to the palatal structure exhibited by a raven (fig. 79), as
typical of that of Passeres at large. The vomer is a
broad bone, truncate in front and deeply cleft behind,
embracing the sphenoidal rostrum in its forks. The
palatines have produced postero-external angles. The
maxillo-palatines are slender at their origin, extending
inwards and backwards over the palatines and under the
vomer, where they end free, being united neither with
each other nor with the vomer. This disconnection of
the maxillo-palatines is quoad hoc "schizognathous,'' of
course ; but such condition, in association with the j>ecu-
liarities of the vomer, is segithognathous. The nasal
septum in front of the vomer is often ossified in segitho-
gnathism, and the interval between it and the premax-
illfe filled up with spongy bone; but no union takes
place between this ossification and the vomer (Huxley).
According to Parker, the distinguishing character of the
wgithognathous type is the union of the vomer with the alinasal wall and turbinals. He dis-
tinguishes four styles : (a) Incomplete; very curiously exhibited by the low Turnix, which
stands near the galUnaceous birds, (b, c) Complete, as represented under two varieties, one
typified by the crow, an Oscine Passerine, the other by the Clamatorial Passerines Pachyrham-
phus and Pipra. (d) Compound, i. e., mixed with a kind of desmognathism, as noted above.
"Vomer truncated in front" is the general expression for the condition of that bone in the
Fig. 79 — .Egithognathous skull of
raven, Corrus corax, nat. size, from na-
ture, by Dr. R. W. Shufelrlt, U. S. A.
Letters as before. N. B. Tlie reference
line, r, goes to the ossified nasal septum
borne upon the end of the vomer, which
latter bone begins at the thickest part of
the central projection. Mxp underlies V
and overlies PI, but touches neither.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY.
179
fegithognathous type ; it is frequently massive in that direction, and of endlessly varied con-
figuration.
Saurognathism. — (Gr. a-avpos, sauros, a lizard; fig. 80). According to Huxley the
woodpeckers exliibit a •' degradation and simplification of tlie aegithognathous structure." The
peculiarities of the palate of these birds (including Picidce, PicumnidcB and lyngidce) are so
decided that Parker proposes to call them saurognatJious.
to make out, and may be understood best by
study of the accompanying figure, copied from
Parker. The maxillo-palatines, mxjo, are
very slight, not extending inward beyond the
outer margin of the palatines, and being some-
times quite rudimentary. In front of them,
an additional little palatal plate of the max-
illary, pmx, is developed. The vomers, v, are
delicate paired rods on each side of the median
line. The postero-external angle of the pala-
tine is either rounded off or obtuse-angled.
Where the broad main part of the palatine
suddenly narrows is developed an interpala-
tiue process, ipa. The ethino-palatine plates,
ejxi, or internal superior plates of the palatine,
which are of variable length, are connected
by the most marked medio -palatine t)ssifica-
tiiin, mpa, seen in the class of birds. Bridges
of bone are deposited along the inner borders
(if tlie palatines; such are the septo-maxil-
laries, smx, and other formations which, like
tlie medio-palatine, serve to bind the palate
lialves together. The nasal chambers are
unusually simple ; there are peculiarities of
tVi<' tympanic cavity and quadrate bone.
" All these things being considered,"
says Parker, in conclusion, " it will Seem con-
tradictory now to assert the great uniformity
of tlie skulls of Birds, and indeed of Birds
Tlit-mselves. Yet so it is ; and the countless
mndifications that offer themselves for obser-
vation are gentle in the extreme. One form
is often seen to pass into another by almost
insensible gradations. ... In the rest of the
Fig. 80. — Saurognathous skull of nestling Picus
minor, x 4 diameters, after Parker. Px, premaxillary :
dpx, its dentary process; ppx, its palatal process; sn,
septo-nasal ; pa, palatine ; pmx, peculiar palatal plate of
maxillary of a woodpecker; «/; nasal turbinal; mx,
maxillary; ipa, interpalatal spur of palatine bone; mxp,
rudimentary maxillo-palatine, scarcely reaching palatine;
smx, septo-maxillary, in several pieces ; r, right vomer,
its fellow opposite ; pe, lower border of perpendicular plate
of ethmoid, between vomers ; epa, ethmoidal (inner)
plate of palatine; mpa, medio-palatine ; pg, pterygoid; t,
foramen for internal carotid ; 8, for vagus nerve ; 9, for
hypo-glossal nerve.
Birds' organization abundant evidence of tl
same specialization will be seen. The mind fails to desire more beauty or to contemplate more
ex((uisite adaptations. An almost infinite variety of Vertebrate life is to be found in this class.
Of its members some dig and bury their germs, which rise again in full plumage, whilst others
watch and incessantly feed their tender brood in the shady covert or ' on the crags of the rock
and the strong place.' In locomotion some walk, others run, or they may wade, swim, plunge,
or dive, whilst most of them 'fly in the open firmament of heaven.'" {Ency. Brit. 9th ed.
Art. Birds, p. 717.)
180 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
b. Neurology ; The Nervous System ; Organs of Special Senses.
The Nervous System of any Vertebrate determines the form of such an animal ; in fact,
the beautiful skeleton we have examined is simply a sketch in bone of the cerehro-spinal nervous
system, conformably with which the whole bony framework of the body is erected. A brain
and spinal chord and their lateral prolongations or nerves are the commanding superad-
ditions, in a vertebrate, to any such nervous system as an invertebrate may or does possess.
Besides the vertebrate or main nervous system, all brainy vertebrates retain a sympathetic
system of nerves, supposed to represent a modified inheritance of the whole nervous system of
Invertebrates. Thus the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic are the two distinct nervous systems
of nearly all vertebrates, — of all vertebrates which have a skull and brain. The former presides
over the animal life of the creature, — its sensations, perceptions, and voluntary actions ; the
latter more especially over its vegetative functions, as digestion, respiration, circulation, and
reproduction, which are more or less involuntary. But the two are inseparably connected,
anatomically and physiologically, so that no distinct line can be drawn between them.
Nerve-ti«sue consists of an aggregation of nerve-cells and their investing substance, — the
bodies of a myriad Neuramcehce agglutinated by their secretions. They are of two species :
Neuramoeba cinerea and N. Candida. The former are usually multiradiate, inosculating cells
of nerve-substance, which form the "gray matter" of the brain and spinal chord and the
ganglia (knots) of nerves ; the latter are white, thready, and form the connecticms of the
ganglionic masses and the whole substance of ordinary nerve-chords. The gray amoebas are
the immediate communicants between the mind and the body of the creature ; the white
amoebas are the mediators between the body and outward things. The gray amoebas translate
thought in terms of matter, and conversely ; the white convey the translation. How this is
done, no one knows, but the fact is manifest. In ordinary language, gray nerve centres receive
from white tracts impressions made upon the periphery of the nervous system ; and, with or
without the knowledge and consent of the animal, convert these impressions into appropriately
responsive actions. This is called the " reflex action " of the nervous system. Some think
such reflection is the principal or only activity of the nerve-tissue, taking animals to be mere
automata, the mechanism of which is only set in motion by external stimulation. Others think
that animals, and even human beings, have in their consciousness an inner spring of action,
vaguely called '' spiritual," whose operations upon the matter of their bodies manifests what is
called by some " mind," by others " soul." I am satisfied of the correctness, in the main, of
the latter view ; but, however this may be, it is quite certain that white nerve tissue is a means
of carrying something to and fro, which something is called a '^ nerve impulse," for want of
knowing what it is. White nerves have therefore an efferent function, when they carry im-
pulses outward from gray centres, and an afferent function, when they bring impulses in to gray
centres. The former is their motor function ; the latter is their sensory function. In nerves at
large, impulses of both kinds travel in the same tracts without interference ; such mixed nerves
are therefore called sensori-motor . Thus, each spinal nerve has a posterior sensory gangliou-
ated root, and an anterior motor simple root, which soon blend in one chord, in which both
functions coexist. Some nerves seem to be entirely motor, as those which move muscles of the
face and tongue. The purest sensory nerves are those of " special sense," as the olfactory,
optic, and auditory. Some nerves are so "mixed" as to combine functions of special sense,
common sensation, and motion, as that called glosso-pharyngeal, which moves, feels, and
tastes. The motor effluence of nerve tissue upon itself and other parts of the body is literally
animation; the sensory influence is nominally materialization. The physical mechanism of
these occult processes in a bird is as follows : —
THE ANATOMY OF BIBDS. — NEUROLOGY. 181
The Brain (Lat. cerebrum : Gr. ey/ce^aXoi/, egkephalon; frontisp.) is th<^ anterior dilatation
and complication tif the main nervons axis of the body, contained within the skull. It resembles
a soap-bubble blown at the end of a pipe, being not less beautiful in its iris-quality, and not less
lasting. It is primarily triune, or three-fold, beginning as three such bubbles, called the
(Ulterior, middle, and j)osterior cerebral vesicles, corresponding to what are afterward the fore-
brain, mid-brain, and hind-brain, or prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and opisthencephalon. The
birth and multiplication of gray ueuramoebas causes tliickenings of the bladdery membranes in
various places and ways; all such gray deposits are the ganglia of the brain, and the great
peripheral ganglion is the cortical layer or " bark of the brain." Similar deposits of white
neuramcebas connect all these ganglionic colonies, furnishing the various commissures of the
lirain. The cavity of the original bubbles, continuous with the hollow of the pipe-stem or
spinal chord (which was at the outset a fun-ow along the back of the embryo, not a tube)
becomes partially divided up into several communicating hollows ; these are the ventricles
( little bellies) of the brain. Actual prolongations of brain-tissue, or nervous threads more like
tlie ordinary spinal nerves, pass out of the brain-box ; these are cerebral nerves, oftener called
cranial nerves ; there are twelve pairs of them. At the pituitary space (see p. 157 ; the note-
chord ends just behind it; fig. 64) is developed a remarkable structure, i\\e pituitary body : its
nature is unknown. This lies under the brain; opposite it, on top of the brain, is another
curiosity, the pineal body ; it has been considered the special seat of the soul by some, though
otliers have located that throne of animal grace in the solar plexus of the sympathetic system,
which is in the belly. The pituitary and pineal are also called respectively the hypapophysis and
epapophysis cerebri. They lie respectively at the bottom and top of one of the cavities of the
l)rain, arbitrarily called the third ventricle; the anterior wall of this ventricle is the lamina
tcrminalis, or terminal sheet of the brain, with which, morphologically speaking, the brain ends
in front ; though, in its actual growth, the prosencephalon crowds ahead of this formation. As
the brain-cells multiply, the prosencephalon outgrows the associated parts, and becomes nearly
separated into lateral halves; these are the liemispheres of the cerebrum, or "halves of the
great brain " ; they retain their ventricles, which intercommunicate through a passage-way,
winch also leads into the third ventricle; this is the foramen of 3Iunro. Each sends out in
front a hollow process; these processes are the olfactory lobes, or rhinencephalon ("nose-
brain ■'). A great ganglionic thickening of gray matter in the interior of each hemisphere is
tlic corpus striatum; these " striped bodies " are connected by the anterior commissure of the
brain. The rest and greater part of the original anterior cerebral vesicle makes up by
j,MngUonic thickening of its sides into what are called misleadiugly the optic thalami, since
tlicse tracts have nothing to do with the sense of sight. The thalami and associate parts
beliind the lamina terminalis (third ventricle, etc.) compose what is called the thalamen-
cephalon, or " bed-brain." The original middle cerebral vesicle makes up underneath into
longitudinal commissural fibres, called the cr\ira cerebri or " legs of the brain," ccmnecting fore
and aft parts ; but especially composes the ganglionic centres called corpora higemina, or
" twin bodies." These are the optic lobes, or " eye-brain." They are connected by transverse
commissure. The optic ganglia and commissure, the cerebral crura, and contained cavities,
essentially compose the mesencephalon or " mid-brain." The original posterior cerebral
vesicle (opisthencephalon) becomes separated into two parts : The fore part of it is moulded
into the considerable mass of the cerebellum ("little brain") ; which, with its connections of
wliite substance (pons varolii, peduncles, etc.) and the hollow underneath it ("ff)urth ventricle")
constitutes the metencephalon or " after-brain." The hind part of it tapers off into the spinal
chord ; this tapering part is the medulla oblongata, or " oblong marrow," also called the
myclencephalon, or "marrow-brain." This description is pertinent to brains at large, repre-
senting the general plan of structure ; any fairly developed encephalon shows the parts speci-
fied ; and most complicated brain, as that of man, only shows what elaborate finishing touches
182 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
may be given to the simple structure thus outlined, when cells, both white and gray, but
especially the latter, are profusely furnished, to the ornamentation of the mind's estate with
race-tracks great and small, and the place of fornication, — fruits of the olive, and of the arbor
vitse. The membranes, or meninges, which hide all this from the uninitiated, are three. The
pia mater, or "tender mother," which immediately invests the brain, is very vascular, and
furnishes the blood supply ; not only by small arteries which immediately penetrate the sub-
stance of the brain, but by enfolded sheets which enter the ventricles, and are called choroid
plexus. The arachnoid, or " cobweb," comes next ; a serous fluid which it secretes bathes the
brain, and meets concussion with its gentler fluctuation. The dura mater, or " stem mother,"
is a dense outer membrane which enwraps and holds the whole firmly. These meninges
descend into the spinal column, and answer the same purpose there, maintaining the same dis-
position around the spinal chord.
The Bird's Brain ofi"ers the following comparative characters : It is compact, having
nothing of the straggling apart of its elements seen in low vertebrates, and completely fills the
cranial cavity. Its long axis is about transverse to the axis of the spinal column. The cerebral
hemispheres are well developed, but do not cover the cerebellum or optic lobes ; from their
dome the rhiuencephalon protrudes like a porte-cochere. Their surface is quite smooth (devoid
of the gyri and sulci of most mammalian brains) ; even the sylvian fissure is barely indicated.
The optic lobes are of immense size, relatively to those of most vertebrates, and relatively to
the rest of the encephalon ; they appear much loosened from their surroundings, at the sides and
lower part of the mid-brain ; they retain their ventricles, as does also the rhiuencephalon. The
corpora striata are very large. The fornix is rudimentary. The cerebellum is well develojjed
and deeply sulcate, with transverse fissures, but is not divided into right and left lobes ; a
" fleecy " lobule on each side, the flocculus, is well defined, and received in a special recess of
the inner wall of the skull. Parts of the medulla oblongata notable in mammals are obscure or
obsolete. There is no pons varolii, or supei-ficial transverse commissure of the cerebellum, nor
any corpus callosum, — that great white commissure of the cerebral hemispheres, characteristic
of all but the lowest mammals.
The Spinal Chord, or medulla spinalis (" spinal martow ") is the main nerve-axis of the
body, running in the series of neural arches of the vertebras from head tf) tail ; it directly con-
tinues the medulla oblongata. It retains its primitively tubular character in part at least, and
consists as usual of white matter enclosing gray matter. Tlie chord is fissured into lateral
columns, as these are also to some extent into anterior and posterior tracts. The latter diverge
in ascending the medulla oblongata, to throw the central tube into the cavity of the fourth
ventricle ; and especially in the sacral region, where a sort of ventricle, known as the avian
sinus rhomboidalis, is similarly formed. The calibre of the chord increases at the root of the
neck, where large nerves are to be given ofi" from the brachial jilexus to the wings, and again in
the sacral region, with the same reference to nerve supply of the legs ; after which the chord
continues to the end of the spinal canal as a terminal thread.
The Cranial Nerves are twelve pairs, as in mammals, the highest vertebrate number.
1, the olfactory nerve of special sense (smell) ; origin from rhiuencephalon ; exit from cranial
cavity by olfactory foramen, high up in orbital cavity ; conducted along a groove to final escape
between perpendicular and lateral plates of ethmoid into the nasal chambers ; distributed to the
investing mucous membrane of the septal and turbiual bones of the nose. The exit is through
a sieve-like or cribriform plate only in Apteryx and Dinornis (Owen). 2, the ojitic, nerve of
special sense (sight) ; origin from optic lobe and thalamus ; of great size, and fonning a
chiasm (decussation) with its fellow ; exit by optic foramen, a large hole in back of orbital
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY. 183
cavity between centres of orbito- sphenoid and alisphenoid, close to or in common with its
fellow. This nerve forms the retina of the eye. 3, 4, 6, the ocuU-niotor, pathetic, abducent,
collectively the motor nerves of the eye, supplying the muscles moving the eye-ball; 3, to all
these muscles excepting superior oblique and external rectus; origin fi-om crura cerebri, base of
mesencephalon ; 4, to the superior oblique, origin behind optic lobes, upper sui-ftice of meten-
<!ephalon ; 6, to external rectus (also to muscles of the third eyelid in birds); origin between
met- and myel-encephalon, base of brain ; 3, 4, 6, exits from cranial into orbital cavity by
several small, not constant, foramina near optic foramen ; or by this foramen sometimes all the
nerves which enter the orbit pass out of brain ca\aty through one great hole. 5, great trifacial
or trigeminal, sensori-motor ; feeling skin of head, mo\'ing muscles of jaws ; origin (double)
from myelencephalon ; leaves brain from sides of metencephalon ; sensory root has gasserian
ganglion ; motor root simple. This nerve has three divisions, whence its name : 5a, oplitlialmic
division, the most distinct ; exit from cranial into orbital cavity by separate foramen above
and to outer side of optic foramen ; grooves orbital wall in passing ; ciliary ganglion ; distri-
bution mainly to lacrymal and nasal parts ; traceable to end of upper mandible ; 56, superior
maxillary; exit by foramen ovale, in alisphenoid or between that and prootic centre ; distribu-
tion to side of upper jaw ; m^ckelian ganglion ; 5c, inferior maxillary, derived chiefly from
motor root ; exit same as 5b; distribution to lower jaw (muscles, substance of bone, integu-
ment) ; no special sense (gustatory) function ; no otic ganglion. 7, facial or portio dura,
motor ; origin from myelencephalon ; enters periotic bone, escapes from ear behind quadrate
bone, by what corresjionds to stylo-mastoid foramen of mammals ; communicates with 5c by
chorda tympani nerve, with 9, 10, 12, and sympathetic system; distribution to skin-muscles
iiud others of lower jaw and tongue, etc. 8, auditory or portio mollis, nerve of special sense
(hearing); origin with 7; no exit from skull; enters meatus auditorius internus of periotic
bone ; forms auditory apparatus in labyrinth of ear. 9, glosso-pharyngeal, mixed nerve, sensori-
motor and gustatory (taste) ; origin myelencephalon ; exit by foramen in exoccipital bone,
behind basitemporal, near lower border of tympanic recess ; distribution to muscles and mem-
branes of gullet, throat, tongue, etc. 10, pneumogastric, sensori-motor; origin and exit next
to 9; distribution to windpipe, lungs, gullet, stomach, heart, etc. ; has recurrent syringeal to
vocal organs. 11, s/jma? accessor?/, sensori-motor ; origin upper part of spinal chord ; exit with
9, 10; distribution to these nerves and to muscles of neck. 9, 10, 11, are intimately connected
with one another, and with other nerves, especially 10 with sympathetic. The several fora-
mina in a bird's skull which may be seen in the place indicated at 8, figs. 69, 70, are for the
divisions of this composite vagus or ^' wandering" nerve of respiration, circulation, digestion,
•etc. ; they represent morphologically a foramen lacerum posterius, between exoccipital and
opisthotic centres. 12, hypoglossal, motor nerve of the tcmgue ; origin from myelencephalon ;
exit by anterior condyloid foramen in front of the occipital condyle. Thus the plan of the
cranial nerves of birds is nearly coincident with that of mammals.
The Spinal Nerves, in pairs, correspond in a general way to the vertebra^, between
which they pass out by intervertebral foramina, to supply the body at large. They are sensori-
motor ; arise from the spinal chord by anterior motor and posterior sensory (ganglionated) roots
which unite before lca\'ing the spinal canal ; in the sacral region the main branches leave by
separate foramina. They form plexuses or interlacements. The principal of these is the
brachial plexus ; constituted by several lower cervical nerves, and one or two usually counted
as dorsal, which combine to form a single chord, whence the nerves of the wing are derived.
Similar network (jf tliree t(j five true sacral nerves furnishes the nerves of the leg.
The Sympathetic System consists of a pair of nervous chords running lengthwise below
the bodies of the vertebrae, one on each side in the trunk, and in corresponding relations with
184 GENEBAL ORNITHOLOGY.
cranial bones. An extensive and intricate series of communications is effected with the nerves
of the cerebro- spinal system, excepting the special-sense nerv^es of smell, sight, and hearing.
The points of communication form a chain of sjTnpathetic ganglia ; from these knots, the most
conspicuous features of the system, nervous chords pass to their distribution in the motory
mechanism of the heart and blood-vessels and other viscera. The anterior sympathetic nerves-
are the iridian ; the ganglia are the spheno-palatine or meclcelian, intimately connected with
cranial nerves. The system ends behind in the caudal region of the spine by a ganglion
impar.
Sense of Smell : Olfaction. — The sense of smell is effected by terminal branches of the
olfactory (1st cranial) nerve, ramifying in the mucous (pituitary or schneideriau) membrane
of the nasal cavities. Owing to the comparatively small size and little complexity of the fold-
ings and pleatings of bone or cartilage in the nasal chambers, the sensory surface being cor-
respondingly limited, it is not probable that birds possess this sense in a high degree. Besides
the cartilaginous or osseous septum, generally more or less complete in birds, tliere are lateral
scrolls and whorls of bone in endless diversity in most birds, which may be ossified, or remain
gristly. The general cavity is mostly bounded and enclosed by the bony beak ; floored by the
anterior part of the hard palate; defended on each side by the descending prong of the nasal
bone ; in the dry skull, it either seems continuous with the great orbital cavity on each side
behind, or is separated therefrom by lateral ethmoid (pre-frontal) or lacrymal ossifications, or
both. Outwardly the nasal chambers open upon the beak by the external nostrils — orifices of
great zoological diversity, as already indicated (p. 109), bounded by prongs of the premaxillary
and nasal bones. These openings are minute or quite obliterated in some Steganopodes, a&
pelicans and cormorants. The nasal cavities always communicate with the back part of the
mouth, or the posterior nares (Lat. naris, a nostril) ; generally paired, that is, with a partition
between them, sometimes united in one median aperture. The olfactory nerve, which is rather
a prolongation of the rhinencephalon itself than an ordinary nerve, escaping from the brain-
box by a special foramen, traversing the upper part of the interorbital septum in a groove or
canal, enters the nasal cavity by a single orifice (excepting Apteryx and Dinornis), instead
of the numerous apertures in a cribrifonn plate by which its filaments reach tlieir destination in
mammals. The true sensitive membrane in which the nei-\'ous filaments end is that investing-
ethmoidal (septal and turbinal), not maxillary parts. An associate structure of the olfactory
organ is the nasal gland, sometimes called the superorbital gland, from its position in many
birds. Thus it is of great- size in a loon, and lodged in large deep crescentic depressions on
top of the skuU over the orbits (fig. 63, w) ; these crescents nearly meeting each other in the
middle line. In other birds it is smaller, and within the cavity of the orbit, but never in that
of the nose itself, its secretion being poured into the nasal chamber by a special duct.
Sense of Sight: Vision. — The eye is an exquisitely perfect optical instrument, like an
automatic camera obscura which adjusts its own focus, photographs a picture upon its sensi-
tized retinal plate, and telegraphs the molecular movements of the nervous sheet to the optic
''twins" of the brain, where the result is '' biogenized;" that is, translated from the physical
terms of motion in matter to the mental tenns of consciousness. But no part of the nervous
tract, from the surface of the retina to the optic centre, sees or knows anything about it, being
simply the apparatus through which the Bird looks, sees, and knows. In this class of Verte-
brates, the optic organs, both cerebral and ocular, are of great size, power, and effect ; their
vision far transcends that of man, unaided by artificial instruments, in scope and delicacy. The
faculty of accommodation, that is, of adjusting the focus of vision, is developed to a marvellous
degree ; rapid, almost instantaneous, changes of the visual angle being required for distinct per-
ception of objects that must rush into the focal field with the velocity at least of the bird's flight.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — NEUROLOGY. 185
Birds are therefore far-sighted or near-sighted (presbyopic or myopic) according to the degree
of tension the nerve-tide excites in the eye by the mechanism described further on ; and the
transition from one to the other state is effected with great quickness and correctness. Ob-
serve an eagle soaring aloft until he seems to us but a speck in the blue expanse. He is far-
sighted ; and scanning the earth below, descries an object much smaller than himself, which
would be invisible to us at that distance. He prepares to pounce upon his quarry ; in the mo-
ment required for the deadly plunge he becomes near-sighted, seizes his victim with unerring
aim, and sees well how to complete the bloody work begun. A humming-bird darts so quickly
that our eyes cannot follow him, yet instantaneously settles as light as a feather upon a tiny
twig. How far off it was when first perceived we do not know ; but in the intervening fraction
of a second the twig has rushed into the focus of distinct vision, from many yards away. A
woodcock tears through the thickest cover as if it were clear space, avoiding every obstacle.
The only things to the accurate perception of which birds' eyes appear not to have accommodated
tliemselves are telegraph-wires and light-houses ; thousands of birds are annually hurled against
these objects to their destruction.
The orbital cavity^ orbit, or socket of the eye, has been almost sufficiently described (p. 156 ;
see also any figs, of skull in profile) as that great recess in the side of the skull bounded above
by the roofing frontal bone, behind by this and sphenoidal elements, in front, if at all, by lateral
ethmoidal elements (pre-frontal), and separated from its fellow more or less completely by the
inter-orbital septum, which is chiefly the perpendicular plate of the mesethmoid, but may be also
in part orbito-sphenoidal and pre-sphenoidal. The brim is completed in few birds, by union of
lacrymal and post-frontal ; in quite a number of birds, however, it is nearly perfected by the
approximation of these same bones, as in fig. 63, u and m, and in some the rim is carried out
by extra supra-orbital and infra-orbital ossification. There is no bony floor, or only such slight
scaffolding as the expansion of the palatine and pterygoid may afford. The zygoma itself, in
many dry skulls, seems like the threshold of the orbital chamber. The bony walls may be also
defective in some places by great vacuities in the inter-orbital septum (fig. 70, iof, and fig. 63, z),
and others in the cerebral wall, aside from the regular foramina which the nerves pass through.
The 1st — 6th nerves (p. 182) inclusive usually enter the orbit: of their foramina, the optic
(figs. 66, 68, 70, 71,2, and fig. 63, y) is much the largest and most constant, generally blended
with its fellow. Those for nerves 1 and 5 (p. 183) are next most obvious and constant ; others
are often, and all may be, thrown into one large opening. In such a socket as this the eye-ball
rests upon a cushion of muscle, fat, gland, and connective tissue ; and large as is the chamber,
the ball fits and nearly fills it. A bird's eye-ball is much larger than the opening of the
eye-lids (see p. 30, note).
As to its development: "the Eye'''' says Huxley "is formed by the coalescence of two sots
of structures, one furnished by an involution of the integument, the other by an outgrowth of the
brain. The opening of the tegumentary depression, which is primarily [in the very early em-
bryo] formed on each side of the head in the ocular region becomes closed, and a shut sac is
tlie result. The outer wall of this sac becomes the transparent cornea of the eye; the epider-
Hiis of its floor thickens, and is metamorphosed into the crystalline lens; the cavity fills with
tlie aqueous humor. A vascular and nmscular ingrowth taking place round the circumference
of the sac, and dividing its cavity into two segments, gives rise to the iris. The integument
around the cornea, growing out into a fold above and below, results in the formation of the
eyelids, and the segregation of the integument which they enclose, as the soft and vascular con-
junctiva. The pouch of the conjunctiva very generally communicates, by the lacrymal duct,
with tlie cavity of the nose. It may be raised, on its inner side, into a broad fold, the nictitating
membrane, moved by a proper muscle or muscles. Special glands — the lacrymal externally,
and the harderian on the inner side of the eye-ball — may be developed in connection with, and
pour their secretion on to, the conjunctival mucous membrane. The posterior chamber of the
186
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
eye has a totally distinct origin. Very early that part of the anterior cerebral vesicle which
eventually becomes the vesicle of the third ventricle, throws out a diverticulum, broad at its
outer, narrow at its inner end, which applies itself to the base of the tegumentary sac. The
posterior, or outer, wall of the diverticulum then becomes, as it were, thrust in, and forced
towards the opposite wall by an ingrowth of the adjacent connective tissue; so that the primi-
tive cavity of the diverticulum, which, of course, communicates freely Avith that of the anterior
cerebral vesicle, is obliterated. The broad end of the diverticulum acquiring a spheroidal shape,
while its pedicle narrows and elongates, the latter becomes the optic nerve, while the former,
surrounding itself with a strong fibrous sclerotic coat, remains as the posterior chamber of the
eye. The double envelope, resulting from the folding of the wall of the cerebral optic vesicle
upon itself, gives rise to the retina and the choroid coat , the plug or ingrowth of connective
tissue gelatinizes and passes into the vitreous humor, the cleft by which it entered becoming
obliterated." (Anat. Vert., 1871, p. 79.)
Birds alone, of all animate beings, may be truly said to "fall asleep" in death. When
the "silver cord " of a bird's life is l(H)sed, the "windows of the soul" are gently closed by
unseen hands, that the mysterious rites of
divorce of spirit from matter may not be pro-
faned. When man or any mammal expires,
the eyes remain wide open and their stony
stare is the sign of dissolution. Only birds
close their eyes in dying. At the same mo-
ment, the eye sinks and seems to collapse, by
the ebbing of its waters. The closure is
chiefly effected by the uprising of the lower
lid. These are the principal external diff'er-
ences between the eyes of birds and mammals.
The movements of the upper lid in most birds
are much more restricted than those of the
lower. The few exceptions are chiefly fur-
nished by night birds, as owls, whippoorwills,
and others of their respective tribes. The lids
consist externally of common skin, internally
of a layer of conjunctival (joining) mucous
membrane, with interposed connective tissue:
the lower is also stiffened with a smooth plate,
the tarsal cartilage. The upper is raised by a
small muscle, called from its office levator pal-
j)ehrcc superioris, arising from the bony orbit.
There is no special lowering nor lifting muscle
of the under lid ; the lids close together by the action of the orbicularis ociili, which nearly
surrounds the eye, and whose chief office is to lift the lower lid; the latter has a small dis-
tinct depressor muscle. Birds have no true hairs, but in some kinds modified filiform feathers
answer to eye-lashes. When wide open the orifiice of the lids is circular, that is, without the
inner and outer corners (canthi) of almond-eyed creatures like man. There is a third inner
eyelid, highly developed and of beautiful mechanism : this is the nictitating membrane, or
"winker" (nictito, I wink), a delicate, elastic, translucent, pearly-white fold of the con-
junctiva. While the other lids move vertically and have a horizontal commissure, the winker
sweeps horizontally or oblicjuely across the ball, from the side next the beak to the oppo-
site. If we menace a bird's eye with the finger, it is curious to see the winker rush out of
the corner to protect the ball. Owls habitually sit in the daytime with this curtain shading
Fk;. M. — Ri<;lit eye-b:ill, seen from Ijehind, show-
ing the inuscles: r(, rectus superior; Ij, rectus externus;
c, rectus inferior ; d, rectus internus ; e, obliquus
superior; /, (not lettered) obliquus inferior; g, quad-
ratus; h, pyramidalis, with its tendon, k, passing
through a pulley in the quadratus (as shown by the
dotted line) to keep it off the optic nerve, i, then passing
around the edge of the ball to its insertion in the nicti-
tating membrane.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. —NEUROLOGY. 187
the eyes from the glare of light ; and doubtless the eagle throws the same screen over its sight
when soaring towards the sun. When not in action, the winker lies curled up in the corner of
the eye, like those patent window shades which stay up of themselves till pulled down. The
ingenious mechanism of the movement of the winker across the lid may be understood with the
help of fig. 81, which represents the hack of the eye-ball. The winker lies in front, on the left
hand of the picture, and is to be pulled across the front by the slender tendon, k, of the pyrami-
dalis muscle, h. As h contracts it pulls on k, and k, winding round to the front, pulls the
winker to the right hand. But i is the optic nerve, entering the ball; k would press upon
it, were it not fended off by passing, as seen by the dotted line, through a pulley in the end
of the quadratus muscle, g. The harder h pulls, the harder does g also pull, their consentane-
ous action at once giving the proper direction to the tendon k, and keeping it off the nerve.
Beneath the eye-lids, upon the ball, is a delicate filmy membrane not easily recognized on
ordinary inspection : this is the conjunctiva, so called because it joins the eye to the lids. The
ocular layer is transparent where it passes over the cornea : it is then reflected away from the
ball, to form the palpebral layer, — a folding between being the nictitating membrane. The
conjunctiva is highly vascular, but the blood-vessels are too small to be seen unless they be-
come congested, when the eye presents the well-known appearance called blood-shot. Though
birds can hardly be said to cry, they have a well-developed apparatus for the manufacture of
tears. The lacrymal are two small glands lying one in each corner of the eye, inner and
outer. The former, called the harderian gland, is the smaller, deeply seated behind the
winker, upon which it pours a glary fluid : it is an oil-can which not only supplies but
applies the fluid to the winker, which needs constant lubricating to work well. The lac-
rymal gland proper is the outer one, which prepares the tears to moisten and cleanse the
conjunctiva; after which they are drained oflF by the lacrymal duct into the cavity of the
nose, which thus becomes a sort of cesspool to receive the refuse waters of the eye. A third
gland about the orbit has been already mentioned (p. 184) as pertaining to the nose, not to the
eye. Its site is shown in the crescentic super-orbital depression, fig. 68, w.
The motions of the eye-ball, though more restricted than in mammals, owing to the shape
of the ball and its close socketing, are nevertheless subserved by the usual number of six mus-
cles. Of these four are called the recti, or straight muscles, and two the obliqui, or oblique
muscles; though they are all "straight" enough, the terms applying to their lines of traction.
The four recti arise from the bony orbit, near together, about the optic foramen, and pass to
be inserted in the eye-ball at as many nearly equidistant points on its circumference ; the
muHculus rectus superior, tig. 81, a, on top; m. r. inferior, c, below, antagonizing a ; the m. r.
externus, h, and internus, d, respectively to the outer and inner (hindward and forward) sides,
also antagonizing each other. The two oblique muscles arise further forward in the bony or-
bit, near each other, and then diverge obliquely upward, m. o. superior, e, and downward, m.
o. inferior, f, to be inserted near the margin of the globe of the eye, close by the respective in-
sertions of superior and inferior rectus. All the motions of the ball result from consentaneous
<jr dissentaneous action along these six lines of traction ; the muscles acting as ropes to pull
the ball about, and to steady it in any direction of its axis. The peculiarity of mechanism in a
bird is, that the superior oblique goes straight to its insertion, instead of passing through a
pulley which changes its line of action in mammals. The special nerves presiding over
these muscles (3, 4, 6) have been pointed out already (p. 183). In the figure, the cut orbital
ends of them all are reflected away from the ball to disclose the underlying muscles of the
winker : the reader must mentally bring the six loose ends together and fasten them to tlie
bony orbit at points near about opposite i, as above said of their origins.
The above are the principal circumstances and accessories of the optic apparatus ; we may
now examine the eye itself, of which fig. 82 gives an enlarged view, in longitudinal vertical
.section, — the nerve, marsupium, and ciliary processes not indeed lying as shown in this section.
188
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
but so introduced as to show them up intelligibly. A bird's eye-ball is not nearly so spherical
or globular as a mainuuil's. The globe of the human eye is about a live-sixths segment of a
large sphere (sclerotic) with a one-sixth segment of a smaller sphere protruding in front (cor-
neal). The anterior part of the sclerotic of a bird is so prolonged as to be in some cases almost
tubular or cylindric, and the corneal protuberance is very convex : the result may be likened
to an acorn which has a short blunt kernel in a heavy shallow cup, or to a thick old-
fashioned watch with a very convex crystal. This characteristic shape is fairly shown in
the figure ; but some birds' eyes are much more tubular in front, — owls' for example. The
eye-ball being hollow and filled with fluids which press in all directions, it is hard to see at first
how such a peculiar shape is maintained. But the sclerotic coat is very dense, almost gristly
in some cases ; and it is reinforced by a circlet of bones, the sderotals, h, h ; see also fig. 62,
where the circlet is shown. These are packed alongside each other all around the circumfer-
ence of one part of the sclerotic, like a set of splints. The large discoidal segment of a bird's
eye is mostly composed of the mem-
brane called from its hardness the
sclerotic, — thick, tough, and strong,
of a glistening livid color. Three
sclerotic coats or layers may be de-
monstrated by careful dissection; in
the figure h is the outer, c the com-
bined middle and inner ones, — much
exaggerated as to their distinctness.
The bony plates lie between the
outer and middle coats anterior to the
greatest girth of the eye-ball, extend-
ing from the rim of the disc nearly
or quite to the edge of the cornea.
They are a dozen to twenty in num-
ber, of oblong squarish shape, taper-
ing toward the cornea, around which
they are thus circularly disposed;
they are pretty closely bound to-
gether, but the circlet as a whole
enjoys some little motion back and
forward with the varying convexity
of the cornea, g. This last is the
tliin transparent membrane complet-
ing the eye-ball in front, like tlie crystal over the face of a watch. It is very protuberant
in birds, — even a hemisphere, or almost tubular. Its structure is not peculiar in birds; but
it is remarkable in this class of creatures not only for its convexity, but for the wide range of
the variability in convexity which increased or diminished pressure of the contained humors
may eff'ect, and its collapse in death.
The sclerotic coat is lined with the choroid membrane, d, loosely wwen of cellular tissue,
replete with blood-vessels, and painted pitch-black with a heavy deposit of pigment-cells. It
lines the whole globe as tar forward as the edge of the sclerotal bones, where it splits in two
layers. The inner choroid layer turns away from the wall of the eye, tow^ard the interior, and
in so reflecting becomes plaited, as a bag is puckered by pulling the strings. These pleats-
converge upon the rim of the delicate capsule enclosing the lens of the eye, n, and there-
adhere, forming -the ciliary processes, i, i. The outer layer also starts away from the cir-
cumference of the sclerotic wall, as if to pass directly across the cavity, but ends in the iris..
Fig. 82. — Vertical aiitoro-posteiior se cticni nf eye-ball : a, optic
nerve; b, sclerotic, its outer coat; c, sclerotic, its middle and inner
coats; f/, choroid; e, hyaloid ;/, marsupium; </, cornea ; h,h, hony
plates between sclerotic layers ; i, i, corrugations of choroid, form-
ing ciliary processes; k; k; canal of Petit; /, /, iris; m, anterior
chamber of eye; n, capsule of the lens; o, lens; p, posterior cham-
ber of eye. Neither the retina, nor the peculiar sheathing of the
optic nerve, is shown. The nerve, marsupium, and ciliary processes,
not falling in this section, can only be arbitrarily shown.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — NEUROLOGY. 189
Around the circumference of the iris, where sclerotic, corneal, and choroid coats come together, is
a circular band of fibres, the ciliary ligament; and on the outer surface of the choroid is a similar
band of circular and radiating contractile fibres, the ciliary muscle. These ciliary structures are
supposed to be the agents of the accommodating faculty of the eye, acting upon the lens to alter
its shape or its position, or both. It is a difficult matter to settle, when such delicate structures
are in question.
The iris, I, I, or rainbow of the eye, is an exquisite structure hanging like a many-colored
curtain vertically between the two compartments of the eye ; a highly ornamental framework
of the eye's window, being both sash and blind to the pupil. It is suspended vertically in the
aqueous humor, just in front of the lens. Viewed in front, from the outside, the iris appears as
a colored circular band around the pupil, and seems to come to the surface of the eye. But
this is not so, for the conjunctiva, the cornea, and the aqueous humor of the front chamber of
the eye, are between us and it. It may be likened to the dial-plate of a watch, which we look
ixt without noticing the interposed crystal. Similarly, the pupil of the eye, which shows us our
own reflection, diminished to the size of the "eye-baby," may be likened to the round central
hole in the dial-plate through which protrudes the shaft that bears the hands of a watch. The
" pupil " is the round black spot within the colored rim of the iris ; but it is not a thing — it is
a hole in a thing — the hole in the iris through which we may look and see the black choroid
■coat behind. The quivering iris is very similar in texture to the choroid, being a delicate tissue
of interlacing fibres and vessels ; but it is highly mobilized by circular and radiating sets of
<'ontractile fibres, by which the curtain is tightened and loosened, with corresponding change
in the size of the central orifice — the pupil. Although the iridiau movements are largely
automatic, depending upon the stimulus of light, they are to some extent voluntary, as any one
may satisfy himself who observes owls in confinement. During these expansions and con-
tractions of the iris, the pupil in birds preserves its circularity ; and even when the movement
is freest and most voluntary, as in owls, the contracted pupil never appears as a vertical oval
figure, or a slit, like that of cats. The round pupil of the great horned owl ranges from the
diameter of a finger ring down to that of a small split-pea. The iridian colors are often
striking in birds. Though black and brown are the commonest, yellow is quite frequent,
red is often seen, blue and green are rarer ; the eyes of cormorants are of the latter color. The
iris is sometimes pure white, as it is in our common " white-eyed" greenlet, Vireo noveboracensis.
In the Californian woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus, the eyes are indiff'ereutly (or at diS'er-
ent ages of the bird, or seasons) brown, bluish, pink, rosy, or yellow.
The crystalline lens, o, is a transparent biconvex disc, like a common magnifying glass,
apparently set in the iris like a mirror in its frame, but really hanging a little back of that
structure. It is enclosed in a capsular membrane, n, of extreme delicacy and transparency,
wliich is in turn set between two layers of the hyaloid membrane to be presently noticed.
Where these layers of hyaloid separate around the rim of the capsule to form tlie investment, a
small space is left between them ; this circular tube around the lens is the canal of Petit, k, k.
The lens is stationed in the axis of vision ; some suppose it to be equally stationary in any
transverse axis. It is, however, difficult to understand how an object thus suspended in
fluctuating humors should be insusceptible of some motion backward or forward, as well as
of alteratiim in its degree of convexity ; both of which may be factors in the focusing process.
From what has preceded, it is evident that the cavity of the eye is divided into anterior and
posterior compartments, or chambers, by the reflection, from the sclerotic wall, of the choroid,
hyaloid and iridian structures, which with the lens form a vertical partition. Each chamber
is filled Avith a fluid of difterent density and consistence. That in the anterior or corneal
chamber is thin and watery, and therefore called the aqueous humor; that in the sclerotic
cavity is more dense and glassy, and for this reason known as the vitreous humor. There is
much less aqueous than vitreous; but birds have comparatively more of the former than usual.
190 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
owing to the relatively greater size and convexity of the cornea. The waters are enclosed in
exceedingly delicate membranes ; the vitreous in the hyaloid membrane, e, which, besides
lining the posterior chamber and enclosing the lens as already said, sends thin partitions all
through the vitreous humor to steady these glassy waters.
The 02)tic nerve, a, of birds is peculiar. In mammals, as a rule, the nerve is a smooth
cylinder, proceeding straight to the sclerotic, penetrating the coats of the eye-ball directly, near
the middle point behind, and then spreading out on the inside of the ball as a large circular
concave mirror. This thin, saucer-like expansion of nerve-tissue is the retina. In birds the
optic nerve is a fluted column, which approaches the eye-ball quite obliquely, strikes it at a
point eccentric from the axis of the eye, and does not at once pierce the sclerotic. Tapering to
a fine point, and running still obliquely, downward and forward, in a deep groove in the
sclerotic that would be a tube were it not split, and through a similar slit in the choroid, a
fluting of the nerve rises to attain the cavity of the eye, and the retina spreads out from the
sides and end of this fold. But the prime peculiarity of a bird's eye is the " purse " or " comb,"
marsupium, pecten, f; a very vascular structure, like the choroid, and likewise painted black ;
apparently " erectile," that is, capable of increasing and diminishing in size by influx and efllux
of blood. It is attached behind to the nervous structure ; is suspended in the vitreous humor,
and runs forward obliquely a part or the whole of the way to the lens, to the envelope of which
it may be attached in some cases. Its office is not fully determined. Its great resemblance to
the choroid proper suggests a similar function in the absorption of light. If it be turgid and
flaccid by turns it must occupy a variable space in the vitreous humor, and in the former state
press the waters upon the most yielding part of their walls, — that where the lens is situated,
even to the extent of altering the position of the latter ; and if so, of changing the focus of the
eye. It is dilficult to account for the bird's eyes' powers of accommodation by the action of
the ciliary muscle in only changing the shape of the lens, thus throwing out of account as
impossible any change in the position of that refracting medium, or of the density of the
refracting humors, or of the convexity of the cornea. The peculiar course of the optic nerve
may be simply an anatomical convenience, or may have something to do with a bird's ability to
see straight ahead though its eyes be laterally positioned. (See Am. Nat., ii, 1868, p. 578 ; Pr.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xii, Apr. 21, 1869.)
Sense of Hearing : Audition This is enjoyed to a high degree by the '' musical class "
of the Vertehrata, — birds being the only animals besides man whose emotions are habitually
aroused, stimulated, and to some extent controlled by the appreciation of harmonic vibrations of
the atmosphere. Most birds express their sexual passions in song, sometimes of the most
ravishing quality to our ears, as that of the nightingale or the bluebird, and it cannot be sup-
posed that they themselves do not experience the efi"ect of music in an eminent degree of
pleasurable perturbations. Otherwise, they would cease to sing. The capability of musical
expression resides chiefly in the more spiritualized male sex ; the receptive capacity of musical
afi"ections is better developed in the female, who chiefly furnishes the plastic material which is
to be moulded into the physical manifestation of the male principle. Quickness of ear is
extraordinary in such birds as those of the genus Mimus, which correctly render any notes they
may chance to hear, with greater readiness and accuracy than is usually within human
possibility. It may be reasonably doubted that any others than some of the world's greatest
musical composers have a higher experience in acoustic possibilities than many birds. Birds'
ears have nevertheless a comparatively simple anatomical structure, on the whole much more
like that of reptiles than of mammals. Such simplicity is seen in the ligulate or strap-shaped
cochlea, the essential organ of hearing, figs. 84, 85, 86, 87, as compared with the helicoid curva-
tion of the mammalian cochlea. The openness of the ear-parts which lie outside the tympanum
is seen in fig. 62, at the place where the reference-lines ^'ear-cells" reach the skull; and
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — NEUROLOGY. 191
especially in fig. 71, where the stapes, st, is seeu lying in the ear-cavity, the tympanum having
been removed.
There is ordinarily no external ear, in the sense of a fleshy conch or auricle, though owls
at least have a considerable flap which overlies the auditory aperture. The place of an auricle
is filled by a set of pecuharly modified feathers surrounding and overlying the opening, called
in ornithology the ear-coverts, or auriculars (p. 102; fig- 25, 36). The outer ear or meatus
aiiditorius externus is a considerable shallow roundish depression in the skull, at the extreme
lower lateral comer. Its ordinary boundaries are the movably articulated quadrate bone in
front, the expanded rim of the squamosal above, the tympanic wing of the exoccipital behind,
and below; the termination of the basitemporal also usually contributing to the under boundary.
(See fig. 71, at st ; 63, under Z; fig. 62, where reference lines "bones of ear cell" go.) On
removing the quadrate from the dry skull, the general tympanic depression is seen to be more
or less continuous with the alisphenoid ; the boundary is best marked behind and below by the
broad thin sharp-edged shell of the tympanic wing of the exoccipital. To the brim indi-
cated is attached the tympanum, or drum of the ear — that membrane being, from the con-
figuration of the parts, quite superficial, — not at the bottom of a tube-like meatus, as in man.
The membrane proper is invested externally by modified common integument which readOy
peels ofl'. Thus this wide shallow depression overlaid with feathers or a slight flap is all there
is to represent the " outer ear-passage." The tympanic membrane sometimes develops slight
ossification, which then represents the "tympanic bone," or "external auditory process " of
human anatomy. Did not this membrane occlude the way, the passage through the ear to the
mouth would be pervious. This passage is the modified persistence of the first visceral cleft or
" gill-slit " of the embryo. Just within the tympanic membrane is the cavity of the tympanum
or middle ear, which may be very extensively exposed by merely removing the membrane.
Looking into this cavity, as may readUy be done from the outside, in carefully cleaned dry
skulls, many objects of interest are presented; among them, a number of foramina — openings
leading in various directions. In the first place there are some (inconstant and not readily
identified) holes, which are pneumatic openings, conveying air from the middle ear-passage to
the interior of bones of the skull and lower jaw. Next is observed a large orifice in the lower
anterior part of the cavity, — the mouth of the eustachian tube. This tube continues the ear-
passage to the mouth ; opening at the back of the hard palate by a median orifice in common
with its fellow. In clean skulls of any size a bristle, or even a wooden tooth-pick, will pass
through the eustachian tube, and appear upon the floor of the skull in mid-line or nearly there,
under the basisphenoid, over the basitemporal. The foregoing passages have not conducted
us to the inner ear or proper acoustic cavity. There will be observed, in the side-wall of the
tympanic cavity, two definite openings near the eustachian orifice. One of these, anterior and
superior to the other, larger usually, and oval, is the fenestra oralis; it lies in the obliterated
suture between the prootic and opisthotic bones ; and when the membranous curtain which
closes it in life is gone, you lotik through this " oval window " into the vestibular cavity of the
ear ])roper. The lower, posterior, circular orifice is the feiiestra rotunda; through which round
window in the opisthotic bone you look into the cochlear cavity of the ear proper. Fenestra
i>valis and f. rotunda are generally close together, — only divided by a little bridge of bone, or a
mere bony bar. To the circumference of the fenestra ovalis is fitted the expanded oval foot of
the trumpet-shaped columella auris, — the stajoes, or '' stirrup-bone," as it is called in mammals
(fig. 83, st). This is an elegant little bone, which establishes mechanical connection between
the membrane closing the fenestra ovalis and the tympanic membrane, — something on the
])rinciple of the " sounding-post" inside a violin. It is shown magnified greatly in its embry-
onic condition, in fig. 67, and there seems to be primitively and morphologically tlie proximal
connection of the hyoid bone (by cerato-hyal elements) with the bony capsule of the ear; but
no trace of this relation persists. Fig. 83 shows the mature stapes of a fowl, and indicates its
192
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Fig. 83. — Mature
of fowl, about X
4; after Parker, s^ its
foot, fitting fenestra
ovalis ; mst, main shaft,
or medio-stapedial ele-
ment ; sst, supra-sta-
pedial; est, extra-sta-
pedial ; ist, infra-sta-
pedial, its end repre-
senting a rudimentary
stylo-hyal ; /, a fenestra
in the extra-stapedial.
(See St in situ, fig. 71,
and its embryonic for-
mation, tig. 67.)
several elements which have received special names. In skulls prepared with suiEeient care,
the stapes may be seen in situ, as in fig. 71, st, — an extremely delicate rod, stepped into the
fenestra ovalis by its foot, the other end pi-otruding freely, and bearing in many cases its
hammer-like or claw-like stapedial elements. A stapes I have just
picked out of an eagle's ear is a fourth of an inch long, with a stout
foot, but a stem as fine as a thread of sewing silk, and at the tympanic
end a still finer hair-like process half as long as the main stem, from
which it stands out at a right angle. The ossification is perfect, and
there appears to have been another similar process which has broken
off from the cross-like figure shovt-n in fig. 71, st. In a raven's skull
before me the stapes has fallen into the fenestra ovalis, and lies there with
its head sticking out, though perfectly loose. I cannot withdraw it intact,
as the expanded foot fits the hole too closely to pass through in any
position I have succeeded in placing it. It appears to be about as large
as the eagle's. Close examination at a point somewhere about the fe-
nestra ovalis, or between that and the eustachian orifice, will discover a
minute foramen, corresponding to the '' stylo- mastoid " foramen of mam-
mals. It transmits cranial nerve 7 (see p. 183), or the facial nerve, which
has burrowed through the bony acoustic capsule from the brain-cavity
and entered the tympanic cavity on its way to the surface. There are
sometimes two such minute foramina, close together, both conducting to
the brain cavity (neither in common with the internal auditory meatus) ;
as in the eagle, in which large bird a fine bristle just passes through each.
Thus in the dry skull of a bird, all the hard parts of the middle ear or
tympanic cavity, as well as the eustachian tube, can readily be inspected
from the outside ; even the limits of the opisthotic and prootic bones can be determined to some
extent, and the ossiculum auditus be seen in situ. There will also be noted, in most birds, the
articular facet upon the prootic bone for the inner head of the quadrate, as well as upon the
squamosal for the outer head of the quadrate ; however these may shift in position, in dif-
«rent birds, they cannot easily be overlooked or mistaken. Details of mere size and configura-
tion aside, the above general description will apply pretty well to any bird, and should suflice
for the identification of the objects seen on looking into the ear, though the number and
variety of the irregular pneumatic openings may be puzzling at first. To see these things
clearly in a mammaVs ear would require special preparation of the parts, as they lie inside a
tympanum which is itself at the bottom of a contracted tube. In such an ear, properly laid
open, would be found a chain of three ossicles crossing the tympanic cavity from the inner
surface of the tympanic membrane to the opposite surface of the membrane closing the fenestra
ovalis — the malleus, incus, and stapes, or " hammer," '' anvil" and " stirrup ; " and the latter
would be stirrup-shaped, not trumpet-like with a cross-bar at the mouth-piece. Some mam-
mals would also show a hyoid bone which M'^ould have what are the cerato-hyals of a bird
produced up toward the ear-parts, and continued to these by a bone called stylo-hyal, or
" styloid process of the temporal"; and any mammal's jaw would articulate directly with the
squamosal, — the chain of three ossicles being entirely inside the ear. As to comparing the
parts now: the mammalian stapes is the stapes or columella of a bird, — its stem and foot at
least ; the incus of a mammal is represented by one of the claws of the cross-bar of a bird's
stapes (the SM^^^'c^-stapedial element; fig. 83, sst); the malleus of a mammal is the great
quadrate bone of a bird; the stylo-hyal of a mammal is not fairly developed in a bird, unless
-contained in or represented by another claw of the stapes (an in/ra-stapedial element, ist) ;
and in these facts is the reason why a bird's lower jaw is articulated indirectly to the skull
by means of the quadrate, and also why a bird's hyoid bone is not articulated or in any way
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — NEUROLOGY. 193
directly connected with the skull — excepting when, as in a woodpecker, elongated branchial
elements of the hyoid bone take on such office by curling over the cranium (figs. 73, 74).
Section of the bone is required for further examination of the ear-parts. On longitudinally
bisecting the skull, or otherwise gaining access to the brain-cavity, the internal surface of the
periotic bone is brought into view (fig. 70, po, op, ep). It is the same bone we have seen in
the tympanic cavity, now viewed upon its cerebral surface. In a skull of any size, as that of the
eagle before me (from which the rest of my description will be taken), there is no difficulty in
making out the parts, although the periphery of the periotic bone is completely consolidated
with its surroundings. The periotic, or petrosal (Lat. petrosus, stony — from its hardness), or
" petrous part of the temporal," is the bony capsule of the inner ear, enclosing the labyrinth or
essential organ of hearing, — in fact, it is the skull of the ear, sometimes therefore called the
otocrane — just as ethmoidal parts form the "skull of the nose," and the sclerotal bones represent
a " skull of the eye." The periotic consists of the three bones already often mentioned, — the
prootic, po, epiotic, ep, and opisthotic, op, or anterior, superior, and posterior otocranial bones,
completely consolidated together, as well as with surrounding bones. The petrosal appears as
an irreg-ilar i)rotuberance in the inner wall of the brain-cavity, at the lower back part. It
seems to be more extensive than it really is, because the great superior semicircular canal, too
large to be entirely accommodated in the petrosal, has invaded the occipital bone, — the track of
its bed in that bone being sculptured in bas-rehef (fig. 70, asc). Behind this semicircular trace,
the deep groove of a venous sinus is engraved in the bone, making the tract of the canal still
more prominent (fig. 70, sc). The top of the petrosal and contiguous occipital is the floor of
a recess or fossa in which is lodged the great optic lobe of the brain, partly divided from the
general cavity for tlie cerebral hemisphere by a bony tentorium, like that which in mammals
separates the cerebellar from the cerebral fossee. On the vertical face of the petrosal, or on the
corresponding occipital surface, is a large smooth-lipped orifice, at least ^^ of an inch in longest
diameter ; it leads to a tongue-like excavation of the bone, in which the flocculus of the cerebel-
lum is lodged. In front, between the petrosal and alisphenoid (or in the conjoined border of
one or the other of these bones) is a considerable foramen, conducting the second and third
divisions of cranial nerve 5 (see p. 183; figs. 70, 71, ^) into the orbit. Beh)W the petrosal (in
fact, between the opisthotic and the exoccipital), near the border of the foramen magnum, is a
foramen (which may be subdivided into foramina), representing the foramen lacerum posterius
of mammals, transmitting cranial nerves 9, 10, 11 (see p. 183; fig. 70, 8). The general space
under description is continued to the margin of the foramen magnum by the exoccipital (fig.
7U, eo). Now on the vertical face of the petrosal itself — behind foramen for 5, above that for
9, 10, 11, in front of the large floccular orifice, will be seen a smooth-lipped depression, tlie
meatus auditorius internus (fig. 70, 7), at the bottom of which are at least two separate small
foramina. A bristle passed in the upper (or anterior) one of these two holes emerges outside
the skull, in the tympanic cavity, near the tympanic end of the eustachian tube ; it has traversed
the interior of the petrosal, in a track known as the fallopian nerviduct; it transmits cranial
nerve 7 — the facial, or portio dura. A bristle passed into the other of the two foramina may
also be made to come out in the tympanic cavity, but by a different track, for it emerges through
either the fenestra ovalis or the fenestra rotunda ; it has traced the course of cranial nerve 8, —
the auditory nerve or portio mollis. Both bristles have entered the common internal auditory
meatus, but the second one has traversed the ear-cavity proper, through the labyrinth of the
ear, and come out at the tympanic vestibular orifim (fenestra ovalis), or at tlie tympanic cochlear
orifice (fenestra rotunda). Either passage is easily made, without breaking down or indeed
meeting with any Ixmy obstacle, which would not be the case with a mammal. Cranial nerves
7 and 8 w(!re formerly comited as one (seventh) ; hence the name portio dura (" hard portion")
for the former, and 2)ortio mollis (" soft iiortion ") for the latter. The former, as said, traverses
the petrosal bone and escapes upon the face ; the latter, which is the true acoustic nerve, or
13
194 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
nerve of hearing, remains in the bone, being expended upon the labyrinthine structures within
the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea, which constitute the walls of the cavities in
which the essential organ of hearing is snugly encased.
If now-, with a very fine saw — the saws now so much used for fancy scroll-work will
answer the purpose — the whole periotic mass be cut away from the skull, and then divided in
any direction, the labyrinth can be studied. It is best to make the section in some definite
plane with reference to the axes of the whole skull, — the vertical longitudinal, or vertical
transverse, or horizontal, — as the direction and relations of the contained structures are then
more easily made out. Four or five parallel cuts will make as many thin flat slices of bone,
affording eight or ten surfaces for examination ; the whole course of the labyrinthine cavity can
be seen in sections which, when put together in the mind's eye, or held a little apart in their
proper relations and visibly threaded with bristles, afford the required picture very nicely. It
is extremely difficult to chisel out the affair from the bone in which it is embedded. At first
glance the slices show a bewildering maze, — a continuous net-work or lattice-work of bone, in
which the unaccustomed eye will recognize nothing but confusion. AU this cancellated struc-
ture, however, is pneumatic — the open-work tissue of the bone, containing air derived from
the tympanic or eustachian cavities, and having nothing to do with the ear-passages proper.
Parts of the bony labyrinth will soon be recognized by their firm smooth walls and definite
courses, as distinguished from the irregular interstices of the pneumatic bone-rissue. The bony
labyrinth consists of an irregular central cavity, the vestibule; of a cavity, projecting like a
beak downward and backward from the vestibule, the cochlea; and of three horseshoe-shaped
tubular cavities, above, behind, and below the vestibule, the semicircular canals, the ends of
whose hollows all open into the vestibule. Imagine three hollow horseshoes, with their ends
melted into a hollow inflation (vestibule), the opposite wall of w-hich is a hollow projection
(cochlea) — or a hollow^ flat-iron (vestibule) with a long nose (cochlea) and three hollow handles
(the canals). Or, see figs. 84 to 87, representing the contained membranous labyrinth, to which
the containing bony labyrinth very closely conforms, as it is simply the bony cavity whose walls
encase the membranous and other soft structures. According as the sections have been made,
numerous cross-cuts of the canals will be seen here and there as circular orifices ; the canals
themselves lying curled like worms in the petrosal and occipital substance, their ends finally
converging to the vestibular cavity. As compared with those of man, the parts are of great
size ; in the eagle, the whole affair is as large as that part of one's thumb covered by the nail ;
the whole length of the superior semicircular canal is an inch or more ; its calibre, I should
judge, being absolutely about as great as in man. The cochlea, however, though not diminutive
comparatively, is in a rudimentary condition as far as complexity of structure is concerned, in all
Sauroijsida, representing only the beginning of the cochlear structure of mammals. In tlie
latter class, the cochlea is spirally coiled or whorled on itself like a snail-shell (whence the
'a■^aae — cochlea, a snail), making at least one turn and a half, sometimes five (two and a half in
man) ; with a centre-post or modiolus around which winds a bony flange, the lamina spiralis^
a membranous extension of which to the cochlear out-waU divides the cavity into two com
partments or scales {scala, a flight of stairs) ; it is just like a sjiiral stairway, only an inclined
plane instead of a series of steps. The membranous extension of the bony spiral lamina to the
side-wall obviously throws the cavity, as just said, into two spirals, which only intercommuni-
cate at the top, where the modiolus ends in a funnel-shaped expansion, the infundibulum,
beneath the apex of the snail-shell, the cupola. A marble rolling down the upper stairway
would fall into the vestibular cavity; this division of the cochlea is therefore the scala vestibuli.
The marble starting from the other side of the infundibulum would roll along the under stair-
way, and if nothing stopped the way, would fall through the fenestra rotunda into the tym-
panic cavity ; this is therefore the scala tympani. The first marble would also eventually
rcacli the tympanum, through the vestibule, and out of the fenestra ovalis, if the foot of tlie
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY.
195
stapes were unstepped (in life, of course, both these ''windows " are closed by membranous
curtains). Now in birds the cochlear cavity and its bony or cartilaginous contents are only the
beginnings of such structure — a strap-shaped or tongue-like protrusion from the vestibule, as
if a part of the first mammalian whorl, and very incompletely divided into scala vestibuli and
scala tympani by a
gristly structure (rep-
resenting the modi-
". = "^N 3— g'S ^a "3 -^->^^ » Es B
2=2 a § » » » So
*^ S- £ :i g. 3
g 5^ 5 w " ir „ n. TO
olus and its lamina i,
which proceeds from
the bony bar or bridge
between fenestra ova-
lis and fenestra ro-
tunda. (See figs. 84,
85.) This structure
is the most intimate
and essential part of 2 = s^ >3
m O 1 ~.
the organ of hearing, - ■"= ^
for upon it spread the
terminal filaments of
the auditory nerve.
A human or any
well-developed mam-
malian cochlea
thing of marvellous
Iteauty, even as to
its bony shell — there
is nothing to com-
pare with its exqui-
site symmetry; while
the spiral radiation
of the nervous tissue
introduces yet other I
and more wondrous
" curves of beauty."
The vestibule hard-
ly requires special de-
scription; it is simply
the central chamber
common to the coch-
lear and canalicular
cavities ; receiving
the mouth of the
scala vestibuli of the
cochlea ; the several
mouths of the separate or uniting semicircular canals ; opening into tympanum by fenestra ova-
lis ; conducting to meatus auditorius internus by the course of the auditory nerve. In the
eagle, if its irregularities of contour were smoothed out, it would about hold a pea.
In the language of human anatomy, the three semicircular canals are the (a) anterior or
superior vertical, the (6) posterior or inferior vertical, and tlie (c) external or horizontal ; and
the planes of their respective loops are approximately mutually perpendicular, in the three
196 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
planes of any cubical figure. In birds tliese terms do not apply so well to the situation of the
canals with reference to the axes of the body, nor to the direction of the loops ; neither is
mutual perpendicularity so nearly exhibited. The whole set is tilted over backward to some
degree, so that the {a) "anterior" (though still superior) loops back beyond either of the others ;
the (&) ''posterior" loops behind and below the (cj horizontal, which tilts down backward;
the verticality of the planes of (a) and (h) is better kept. The canals may be better known
as the (a) superior (vertical), and (b) inferior (vertical), and (c) internal (horizontal). What-
ever its inclination backward, there is no mistaking («), much the longest of the three, looiiing
high up over the rest, exceeding the petrosal and bedded in the occipital, the upper limb and
loop of the arch bas-relieved upon the inner surface of the skull (fig. 70, asc). It makes much
more than a semicircle — rather a horse-shoe. Tlie inferior vertical (6) loops lowest of all,
though little if any of it reaches further backward tlian the great loop of (a) ; it is the second in
size ; in shape it is quite circular, — rather more than a half-circle. Its upper limb joins the
lower limb of (a), as in man, and the two open by one orifice in the vestibule ; but it is not
simple union, for the two limbs, before forming a common tube, twine half-round each other
(like two fingers of one hand crossed). The loop of (fc) reaches very near the back of the skull
(outside). The canal (c) is the smallest, and, as it were, set within the loop of (b), though its
plane is nearly the opposite of the plane of (ft) ; and the cavities of (h) and (c) intercommuni-
cate at or near the point of their greatest convexity, farthest from the vestibule. This decus-
sation of (6) and (c), like the twining inosculation of («) and (ft), is well known. It may not
be so generally understood that there is (in the eagle if not in birds generally) a tliird extra-
vestibular communication of the canals. My sections show this perfectly. The great loop of
(a), sweeping past the decussating-place of (ft) and (c), is thrown into a cavity common to all
three. Bristles threaded either way through each of the three canals can all three be seen
in contact, crossing each other through this curious extra- vestibular chamber, which may be
named the trivia, or " three-way" place. (The arrangement I make out does not agree well
with the figure of the owl's labyrinth given by Owen, Anat. Vert, ii, 134. The trivia is at
the place where, in fig. 84 or 85, the three membranous canals cross one another. It does not
follow, however, that these contained membranous canals intercommunicate, and it appears
from Ibsen's figures that they do not. Study of these admirable illustrations, with the
explanations given under them, should make the details perfectly clear to the reader.)
All that precedes relates to the bony labyrinth, — the scrolled cavity of the periotic bone.
The membranous labyrinth is a sac lying loosely in the hollow of the bone, and shaped just like
it, lining the hollow of the vestibule and tubes of the semicircular canals. Withdrawn intact,
it would be a perfect " cast" of the labyrinth. Originally, this sac is also continuous with one
in the cavity of the cochlea, called the membranous cochlea, which afterward becomes shut off
from the main sac. This shut-off cochlear part lies between the scala tympani below and the
scala vestibuli above ; its interior is the scala media. If demonstrable in birds, it must be quite
as rudimentary as the other scalse. The membrane is not attached to the bony walls of the
labyrinth, but is separated by a space containing fluid, the perilymph, which also occupies the
scala vestibuli and scala tympani. A similar fluid, the endolymph, is contained in the cavity of
the membranous labyrinth, and scala media of the cochlea ; in it are found concretions, (U- oto-
liths, of the same character as the great " ear- stones " so conspicuous in many fishes. This
lymph has a wonderful office — that of equilibration, enabling the animal to preserve its
equilibrium. The labyrinth and its contained fluid may be likened to the glass tubes filled
with water and a bubble of air, by a combination of which a surveyor, for example, is enabled
to adjust his theodolite true to the horizontal. Somehow a bird knows how the fluid stands in
the self-registering levelling-tubes, and adjusts itself accordingly. Observations made on
pigeons show that "when the membranous canals are divided, very remarkable disturbances
of equilibrium ensue, which vary in character according to the seat of the lesion. When the
THE ANATOMY OF BIEDS. — NEUROLOGY. 197
horizontal canals are divided rapid movements of the head from side to side, in a horizontal
plane, take place, along with oscillation of the eyeballs, and the animal tends to spin round on
a vertical axis. When the posterior or inferior vertical canals are divided, the head is moved
rapidly backwards and forwards, and the animal tends to execute a backward somersault, head
over heels. When the superior vertical canals are divided, the head is moved rapidly forwards
and backwards, and the animal tends to execute a forward somersault, heels over head. Com-
bined section of the various canals causes the most bizarre contortions of the head and body."
(Ferrier, Funct. of the Brain, 1876, p. 57-) Injury of the canals does not cause loss of hearing,
nor does loss of equilibrium follow destruction of the cochlea. Two diverse though intimately
connected functions are thus presided over by the acoustic nerve, — audition and equilibration.
Senses of Taste and Touch : Gustation and Taction. — The liands of birds being
hidden in the feathers which envelop the whole body — their feet and lips, and usually much
if not all of the tongue, being sheathed in horn, these faculties would appear to be enjoyed in but
small degree. While it is difficult to judge how much appreciation of the sapid quahties of sub-
stances birds may be capable of, we must not be hasty in supposing their sense of taste to be
much abrogated. One who has had the toothache, or teeth " set on edge" by acids, or pain-
fully affected by hot or cold drinks, may judge how sensitive to impressions an extremely dense
tissue can be. Persons of defective hearing may be assisted to a kind of audition by an instru-
ment applied to the teeth ; and it is not easy to define the ways in which sensory functions may
be vicariously performed or replaced. Birds are circumspect and discriminative, even dainty, in
their choice of food, in which they are doubtless guided to some extent by the gustatory
«;ensations they experience. As, however, only some human beings make these an end instead
of a natural and proper means to an end, the selection of food by birds may be chiefly upon
intuitions of what is wholesome. Such purely gustatory sense as they possess is presided over
by the branches of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve which go to the back part of the tongue and
mouth. Though the chorda tympani nerve exists, there is no lingual (gustatory) branch of the
third division of the fifth cranial nerve. Yet the latter, which goes in mammals to the anterior
])art of the tongue, is less effectually gustatory than the glosso-pharyngeal ; as we know by the
fact that the sensation of taste is not completely experienced until the sapid substance passes to
the back of the mouth. Gustation is likewise connected with olfaction ; the full effect of
nauseous substances for example, being not realizeu if the nose is held. From these alternative
considerations, each one may estimate for himself how much birds know of sapidity ; remember-
ing also, how soft, thick, and fleshy are the tongue and associate parts in some birds, as parrots
and ducks, in comparison with birds whose mouths are quite horny.
The beak is doubtless the principal tactile instrument ; nor does its hardness in most birds
preclude great sensitiveness ; as witness the case of the teeth, above instanced. Sensation is
here governed by the branches of the fifth nerve. In some birds, in which also the terminal
filaments of this nerve are largest and most numerous, the bill acquires exquisite sensibility.
Such is its state in the snipe family, in most members of which, as the wtiodcock, true snipe, and
sandpipers, the bill is a very delicate nervous probe. Tlie Apteryx also feels in the mud for
its food, enjoying moreover the unusual privilege of having its nose at the end of its long
exploration. Ducks dabble in the water to sift out proper food between the " strainers " with
which the sides of their beaks are provided ; and the ends of the maxillary and mandibular bones
themselves are full of holes, indicating the abundance of the nervous supply (fig. 63).
The senses oi birds and other animals are commonly reckoned as five — a number whicli
may be defensively increased — as by a sixth, the muscular sense, which gives consciousness
of strain or resistance, apart from purely tactile impressions ; and perhaps a seventh, the
faculty of equilibration, which has a ])1iysical mechanism of its own, at least as distinct and
complete as that of hearing. The ordinary "five senses" are curiously graded. Taction cou-
198 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
notes qualities of matter in bulk, as density, roughness, temperature, etc. Gustation, matter
dissolved in water — liuidic. Olfaction, matter diffused in air — aeriformed. Audition, atnuts-
pheric air in undulation. Vision, an ethereal substance in undulation. All animals are proba-
bly also susceptible of biogenation, which is the affection resulting from the influence of biogen ;
a substance consisting of self-conscious force in combination with the minimum of matter
required for its manifestation.^
c. Myology : the Muscular System.
Muscular Tissue consists of more or fewer amcebiform animals; separate colonies of which
creatures, isolated in various parts of the body, compose the individual different muscles. They
are enveloped in fibrous tissue, the sheets of which are called fasciae, and the ends of which,
usually attached to bones by direct continuity with the periosteal covering of the latter, form
tendons and ligaments. The muscle-animals belong to a genus which may be termed
Myamceha, differing from other genera of the amoebiforms which compose the body of a bird
less in their physical character of being elongated and spindle-shaped, or even filiform, than in
their physiological character of contractility. Under appropriate stimulus, as the passage of a
current of electricity, or the wave of biogen-substance which constitutes a '' nerve-impulse,"
MyamcebcB shorten and thicken, tending towards a state of tonic contraction which, if completed
and long sustained, would cause them to become encysted as spherical bodies ; but extreme con-
traction is never long continued. By alternate contraction and relaxation all the motions of the
body in bulk are effected. The capacity of, or tendency to, contraction is called the tonicity of
muscular fibre. The simultaneous contraction of any colony of Myamoehce pulls upon the attach-
ment of the muscle at each of its ends ; in some cases approximating both ends ; oftener moving
the part to which one end is attached, the other being fixed. The action of a muscle is upon
the simplest mechanical principles, —nothing more or less than pulling upon a part, as by a
rope, the hne of traction being exactly in the line of contraction of the muscle ; though it is
often ingeniously changed by the passage of tendons around a comer of bone, or through a loop of
fibrous tissue, as if through a pulley. Such movements as those of a turtle protruding its head,
or a bird thrusting its beak forward, where muscle seems to push, are fallacious ; when analyzed,
the motion is invariably resolved into simple pulling. The swelling up of a muscle in contract-
ing must indeed impinge upon neighboring parts and shove them aside ; but that is an extrinsic
result. Muscles contract most powerfully under resistance to their turgescence : what is effected
by the fasciae which bind them down ; — what the athlete seeks to increase by bandaging his
swelling biceps. There are two species of Myamoeba. M. striata is the ordinary striped fibre
of voluntary motion, and also of some motion not under control of the will, as that of the heart.
This species is usually of a rich red color (pale pink in many birds of the grouse family), and is
the ordinary " flesh " of the body. The other species, M. IfBvis, composes the pale or colorless
smooth fibre of the involuntary muscles, as those of the intestines, the gullet, etc. A species of
contractile tissue commonly referred to the genus Desmamoeba (indifferent connective-tissue
cells) is very near Myamceba leevis ; example, mammalian dartos. The movements of erectile
organs, as the neat combs over the eyes of grouse, or the turkey's caruncles, are not in any sense
myamoebic, but depend mechanically upon influx of blood.
The Muscular System of Aves can only be touched upon ; it is impossible in my limits
to even name all the muscles, much less describe them. I can only note the leading peculiarities,
and present a figure in which the principal muscles are named.
1 The reader who may be interested to inquire further in tliis direction is referred to a publication entitled : —
Biogen: A Speculation on the Origin and Nature of Life. Abridged from a paper on the " Possibilities of Proto-
plasm," read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, May 6, 1882. By Dr. Elliott Coues, etc. Washing-
ton, Judd «& Detweiler. 8vo, pp. 27. Second ed., Boston, Estes & Lauriat, 1884.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — MYOLOGY. 199
The subcutaneous sheet of muscle (of which the human '' muscles of expression " and
platysma myoides are segregations) is broken up in birds into a countless number of little slips
which agitate the feathers collectively, and especially the great quills of the wings and tail.
There are estimated to be 12,000 in a goose. The prime peculiarity of birds' musculation is the
enormous development of the pectorales, or breast muscles, which operate the wings. The
great pectoral, p. major or 2>- primus, arises from the sternal keel, when that special bony sep-
tum between the fellow-pectorals exists, and from more or less of the body of the sternum, pass-
inc directly to the great pectoral or outer ridge of the humerus, near the upper end of that bone.
Its origin may even exceed the limits of the sternum, invading the clavicle, etc. ; it may unite
with its fellow. It is the depressor of the humerus, giving the doivnward stroke of the wing.
The next pectoral, p. secundus or p. medius, arises from much or most of the sternum not occu-
pied by the first, under cover of which it lies ; it passes also the humerus, but by an interesting
way it has of running through a pulley at the shoulder it elevates that bone, giving the upward
wing-stroke. A third pectoral, p. tertius or p. minimus, arising from sternum, and often con-
tiguous parts of the coracoid bone, passes directly to the humerus, supplementing the action of
the first. A fourth muscle in many birds acts upon the humerus from the sternum or coracoid,
particularly the latter. These four differ greatly in their relative development. Such extent of
the sternum and pectoral muscles correspondingly reduces that of the belly-walls, and the
abdominal muscles are consequently scanty. Fixity of the spinal column in the dorsal region
diminishes the musculation of that part, the spinal muscles being much better developed in
the cervical region ; where, in cases of some of the long- necked birds, there are curious con-
trivances for the mechanical advantage of the muscle in Hexing and extending this mobile part
of the body. Muscles of the hyoidean apparatus acquire a singular development in woodpeckers.
The lower jaw is depressed particularly by muscle inserted into the end of the mandible ; the
ujiper is elevated by particular muscles operating the pterygoid and quadrate bones. Temporal,
masseteric, and ordinary pterygoid muscles close the jaws. They are unsymmetrical in Loxia.
The diaphragm, the musculo-membranous partition which in mammals divides the thoracic
from the abdominal cavity, is only represented in birds in a rudimentary condition. Macgillivray
has figured that of the rook as consisting of three fleshy slips, v, v, r, passing from as many
ribs, 4, 5, 6, to the pleural sac of the lungs, t, t, in fig. 101, p. 212. It is best developed in the
Aj^teryx.
The remarkable specialization of both limbs, — the former for flight, the latter for the
perfectly bipedal locomotion which only birds besides man enjoy, — results in corresponding
peculiarities of the muscular mechanism. Muscles beyond the shoulder are greatly reduced in
number and complexity from an ordinary quadrupedal standard ; those of the legs are rather
increased, and their configuration, relative size, and to some extent their relations are so much
changed, that great difficulty is experienced in identifying them with the corresponding muscles of
quadrupeds. The result is, great confusion in their nomenclature, which is still shifting, though
inucli has been done of late to give it precision. Attention has recently been called by Garrod
to the classificatory value of certain muscles of the limbs. The tensor patagii, that muscle or
muscles which may have elastic tendons, and by which the folds of skin in the angles of the
wing bones are regulated, may have difterent characters in different groups of birds. It has
loug been known that particular muscles of the hind limb are in direct and important relation
to the prehensile power of the toes, and consequently co-ordinated with the insessorial or the
reverse character of the foot. In the highest birds, Passeres, the foot grasps with great
facility, owing to the distinctness or individuality of the flexor longus hallucis, or bender of the
hind toe. The ambiens (Lat. atnbiens, going around) is a muscle of which Garrod has even
made so much as to divide all birds into two primary groups according to whether they possess
it or not. The ambiens arises from the ))elvis about the acetabulum, and passes along the inner
side of the thigh ; its tendon runs over the convexity of the knee to the outer side, and ends by
200
GENERAL OENITHOLOGY.
|l:l;lf|l.^i--|
liiijilPliii
THE ANATOMY OF BIBDS. — ANGEIOLOGY. 201
connecting with the flexor digitorum perforatus, — one of the muscles which hend the toes col-
lectively. When this arrangement obtains, the result is that when a bird goes to roost, and
squats on its perch, the toes automatically clasp the perch by the strain upon the ambiens that
ensues as soon as the leg is bent upon the thigh, and the tarsus upon the leg, the weight of the
bird thus holding it fast upon its perch. The eifect is as if an elastic cord were tied to the hip
joint, thence directed over the front of the knee and back of the heel and so on to the ends of the
toes. Obviously, such a cord would be strained when the limb is bent, relaxed when the limb is
straightened out. The reader may observe a corresponding effect of the muscular arrangement
of his forearm by throwing the hand as far back as possible ; the fingers tend to close by the
strain on the fiexors in passing over what is a convexity of the wrist when the hand is in that
position. Passeres have no ambiens, the perfection of their feet in other respects answering all
purposes. Birds having it are tenned homalogonatous or ' ' normally-kneed " (Gr. SfioXos, homalos,
from 6/xof , homos, like, even, etc.; ■yoVv, yovaros, gonu, gonatos, knee) ; those wanting it are called
anomulogonatous, " abnormally-kneed." The distinction prevails with much applicability to
various large groups of birds, and does good duty in diagnosis when duly connected with other
characters ; but surely should not give name to primary groups founded upon it ! Other
muscles of the leg much used by the same sagacious and zealous anatomist are the femoro-
candal, accessory femoro-caudcd, semitendinosus, and accessory semitenduiosus. The whole five
of these muscles "vary ; any one or more than one may be absent in different birds ; . . . the con-
stancy of the peculiarities in the different individuals of each species, or the species of each
genus, and very generally in the genera of each family, makes it evident to any one working at
the subject that much respecting the affinities of the different families of birds is to be learnt
from the study of their myology, in connection with the peculiarities of their other soft parts ;
and that these features will, in the long run, lead to a more correct classification than one based
on the skeleton ahme, becomes almost equally certain." (Garrod, P. Z. S., 1873, p. 630.) I
quote in justice of this author, a modem Macgillivray in sincerity and love of truth ; and very
generally, in constructing my characters of the higher groups of birds in the body of this work,
I shall be as glad to use the myological formulae of Garrod, as I am here to pay this slight
tribute to his memory.
d. Angeiology : THE Vascular or Circulatory Systems.
Blood and Lymph are the two media by the circulation of which throughout the body
tlie various amoeboid animals which compose the tissues are fed, their waste repaired, and their
dead parts removed. Each species of Amoeba has the faculty of selecting from the constituents
of blood and lymph its appropriate food: and of converting such nourishment into its own
proper substance. Refuse matters are either drained off by the kidneys and voided as excrement,
or swept by the current of blood into the lungs and there cremated. The stream of lymph is a
feeder to the blood, an<l when the mingled currents are no longer distinguishable has become
blood. The machinery of circulation is two sets of vessels — the hcematic, or vascular system
proper, consisting of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries for the blood-circulation ; and the
lymphatic, consisting of lymph-hearts and vessels, for the How of lymph. The lymphatics,
converging from all parts of the body, and especially from the intestines, end in vessels which
pour the lymph into the veins of the neck. The heart is the central organ of the blood-circu-
lation, by which that fluid is pumped into all parts of the bo(Jy through the arteries or efferent
vessels ; straining through the network of capillaries, it returns to the heart through the veins,
or afferent vessels. The set t>f efferent vessels is the arterial system ; that of afferent vessels is
the venous system. The blood in arteries excepting the pidmonary is bright red ; that in
veins excepting the pulmonary is dark red. The change from bright to dark occurs in the
capillaries of the system at large ; the change from dark to bright only in the capillaries of the
lungs and air-sacs. The systemic blood circulation is completely separated from the pulmonic
202 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
in all animals in which, as in birds, the right and left sides of the heart are separated from each
other ; such circulation is said to be double ; that is, arterial and venous blood only mingle in
the capillaries, whether of the lungs or others, and therefore at the periphery of the vascular
system : the heart being the centre of that system. Blood, in all or some of its constituents,
permeates absolutely every tissue of the body. Those tissues whose capillaries are large enough
for the passage of all the constituents of blood are said to be vnscular; those which only feed by
sucking up certain constituents of the blood, and have no demonstrable capillaries, are called
non-vascular. But nutrient iiuid penetrates the densest tissue, as the dentine of teeth ; no
permanent tissues are really non-vascular, or they would soon die, as do feathers, which require
to be renewed once a year or oftener.
Lymph and the lymphatics are noticed further on. Blood consists of water in which
several ingredients are dissf)lved, and certain solid bodies are suspended. Its water is salted,
albuminated, fibrinated, and coi-pusculated. The proportions, which vary in difierent birds and
at different times in the same bird, are in round numbers : water 80, fibrine and corpuscles 15,
albumen and salts 5 = 100 parts. Withdrawn from the body and allowed to settle, blood sepa-
rates into two parts, serum and coagulum. The serum is the clear yellowish salty albuminous
water ; the clot is the fibrine, in the meshes of which are mii-ed the corpuscles, reddening the
whole mass. The plasma., plasm or plastic material of the blood, is its substance dissolved
in water ; that is to say, minus the solid corpuscles. These latter interesting little bodies are a
myriad of minute animals, which swim in the life-current, and are named Hcematamoeba
eruentata. They have been supposed to be of two species ; but the so-called white blood
corpuscles, or leucocytes, indistinguishable from lymph corpuscles, are simply the forma-
tive stages of the red blood-discs. In its early colorless stage, the Hcematamoeha is a
nucleated mass of protoplasm (protoplasm is the indifferent substance out of which all animal
tissue is derived), of no determinate size or shape, exhibiting active amoeboid movements.
Later in the life of the minute creature, it passes into a sort of encysted state, in which it red-
dens and acquires definite dimensions and configuration. In birds, these ''blood-discs" are
flat, elliptical, and nucleated, that is, containing a kernel ; they average in the long diameter
■jyVoj in the short j^-q, of an inch. Thus they differ decidedly from the flat, circular, non-
nucleated, red blood-discs of Mammalia, Avhich latter are supposed to be rather /ree nuclei than
perfected Hcematamoebce. The red color of blood is entirely due to the presence of these
unicellular animals. The energy of respiration, and corresponding activity of circulaiiou in
birds, make them hcematothermal, or hot-blooded ; the pulse is quickest, the blood hottest,
and richest in organic matter, in these of all animals.
The Heart is a hollow muscular organ, at the ])hysiological centre of the haematic vas-
cular system. Its muscle presents the principal exception to the rule, that the contractility of
Myamoeba striata (see p. 198) is subject to voluntary control. It is the most industrious organ
of the body, never ceasing its rhythmic systole and diastole, or contraction and dilatation, from
the moment of the first pulsation in the contractile vesicle which begins it, to that when the
" muffled drum " gives the last beat of the '' funeral march to the grave." The arteries are
the elastic thick-walled branching tubes which leave the heart on their way to the body at
large ; their pulsations, over which the vaso-motor nervous system presides, are isochronous
with the heart-beats, and arterial blood thus flows in jets. The veins are the vessels converg-
ing from all parts ; thin-walled, less elastic, with more equable current. The capillaries are
the communicating vessels, of such size as just to permit the Hsematamoebas to pass through ;
their network represents the terminations of arteries and the commencements of veins. The
heart in adult birds is completely double ; i. e., the right and left sides are perfectly separated.
It is also completely four-chambered ; i. e., there is an auricle and a ventricle on each side,
which communicate ; in embryonic life the two auricles communicate by the foramen ovale.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — ANGEIOLOGY. 203
wliich then closes. Arteries proceed from the strong muscular ventricles ; veins are received by
the weaker auricles. The course of the blood is : From the body excepting the lungs it comes,
dark and heavy \rith products of decomposition, through the caval veins into the right auricle ;
from right auricle through the auriculo- ventricular opening into riglit ventricle ; from right ven-
tricle through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs ; in the capillaries of vi^hich it is relieved of
its burden. There decarbonized and oxygenized, the bright red aerated blood returns through
the pulmonary veins to the left auricle ; through the corresponding auriculo-ventricular open-
ing to the left ventricle, which pumps it out through the aorta and other arteries to the
capillaries, and so to the veins and heart again. Thus the pulmonary arteries convey black
blood, the pulmonary veins red blood ; the reverse of the usual course. Before lungs come into
play, in the eg,g, the blood is purified iu the allantois, an embryonic organ which then sustains
a respiratory function. Besides the pulmonary there is another special circulatory arrange-
ment, the hepatic portal system of veins, by which blood coming from the chylopoetic viscera
(stomach, intestines, etc., which make chyle in the process of digestion), strains through the
liver before reaching the heart. There is no renal portal system in birds.
The heart of birds is not peculiar in its conical shape, but is more median in position than
in mammals. There being no completed diaphragm, the pericardial sac which holds it is received
in a recess between lobes of the liver. The right ventricle is much thinner- walled than the
left; the auricles have less of the elongation which has caused their name (" little ears" of the
heart) in mammals. The right auriculo-ventricular valve, which prevents regurgitation of
blood, instead of being thin and membranous, is a thick fleshy flap which during the ventricular
systole applies itself closely to the walls of the cavity. The pulmonary artery and the aorta are
each provided at their origination with the ordinary three crescentic or *' semilunar" valves, as
in mammals. The pulmonary artery arises single, forking for each lung. The pulmonary
veins are tivo. The systemic veins, or vence cavce, bringing blood from the body at large, are
tltree — two pre-caval, from head and upjjer extremities, one post-caval, from trunk and lower
extremities. The aorta, almost immediately at the root of that great trunk, figs. 90-95, h,
divides into three primary branches ; right, ri, and left, li, innominate arteries, conveying
blood to the neck, head and upper extremities ; and main aortic, a, which curves over to the
right (left in mammals) and supplies the rest of the body. More precise statement is, perhaps,
that the aortic root, h, first gives off the left innominate, li, then at once divides into right
innominate, ri, and main aortic trunk, a, (right). It represents the fourth primitive aortic
arch of the embryo. On the whole, the avian heart is a great improvement on that of most
reptiles, though nearly resembling that of Crocodilia ; it is substantially as in any mammal,
though differing in its fleshy right auriculo-ventricular valve, two instead of one pre-caval vein,
right instead of left aortic arch, and mode of origin of the primary aortic branches.
The zoological interest of the avian blood-vessels centres in the carotid arteries, which,
with the vertebral arteries, supply the neck and head. The carotids may be single or double ;
and other details of their dis|)osition correspond well with certain families and orders of birds.
They are the first branches of the innomiuates. In most birds, there is but one carotid, the
left; in a few, one, formed by early union of two; in many, two, long distinct. The arrange-
ment wiU be perceived by the diagrams taken from Garrod's admirable paper (P. Z. S., 1873,
p. 457). In nearly the words of this author: 1. In what may be termed the typical arrange-
ment (though it is not the usual one), two carotids, of equal size or nearly so, run uj) the front
of the neck, converging till they meet iu the middle line, and so continue up to the head, on the
front of the bodies of the cervical vert(djrtv, in the hypapophysial canal. Birds with this
arrangement Garrod calls aves hicarotidince normales (fig. 90). 2. In most birds, the carotid
branch of the right innominate being not developed, only the left, of larger size, traverses the
hypapophysial canal ; but it bifurcates before reaching the head, thus producing two carotids,
distributed as if there had been two all the way up. Such birds are said to have a left carotid,
204
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
and are termed aves leevo-earotidince (fig. 91). 3. In certain parrots only, with two carotids,
the right is as in (1), but the left runs superficially along the neck with the jugular vein and
pneuinogastric nerve; such birds are aves hicarotidinae ahnormales (fig. 92). 4. Two carotids,
arising normally, unite almost immediately, and the single trunk runs to near the head, just as
if there were two as in (1); then it bifurcates, as in birds with left carotid only (2). Such birds
are termed aves conjundo-carotidinai. Special cases of (4) are : in the bittern, the two roots
are of nearly equal size (fig. 93) ; in the flamingo, the left is very small (fig. 94) ; in a cockatoo,
the right is very small (fig. 95) . Parrots display all four of the arrangements ; the cases of the
bittern and flamingo are unique. The question is thus for nearly all birds narrowed to whether
there be two normal carotids (1), or the left only (2). Observations upon three hundred genera
show two in one hundred and ninety- three, in one hundred and seven the left only ; but the
Figs. 90-95. — Diagrams of carotid arteries of birds : 7i, root of aorta ; a, arch of aorta, to tlie right side ; li, left
innominate ; ri, right innominate ; Is, left subclavian ; rs, rigbt subclavian; Ic, left carotid; re, right carotid (1)
Fig 90. Aves bicarotidinte normales, with two carotids, both alike. (2) Fig. 91. Aves /(Evo-carotUlhifr, with left
carotid only. (3) Fig. 92. Aves bicarotUUnce nbnormales, certain parrots, with two carotiils. not alike. (4, 5, 6)
Aves conjuncto-carotidina:, with two carotids, which speedily unite in one. (4) Fig. 93, bittern, both alike. (5)
Fig. 94, flamingo, left very small. (6) Fig. 95, cockatoo, right very small. (Copied by Sbufeldt from Garrod.)
numerical proportion of Passerine genera makes (2) the most frequent arrangement. There is
but one carotid in all Passeres as far as known ; in most CypselideB ; in TrogonidcB, 3Ieropida;,
Upujndce, Rhamphastida, some Psittad, the Turnicidce, Megapodida, Podicipedido', Alcida:,
Rheidee, ApterygidcE. Thus in Passeres, Columha;, Accipitres, GraJlce, and Anseres, the
carotid arrangement is an ordinal character, all but the first named of these great groups
having two. The character separates most of the families of " Picarian" birds, and also dis-
tinguishes the families Phanicopterida, Megapodida, Cracidce, Turnicido', Podicipedidce, and
family groups of the Ratitte, from among one another. It is apparently only a generic charac-
ter in Psittad, and in Cijpselidce, Ardeidce and Alcida.
Reaching the skull, the carotids burrow in the bone, between the basitemporal plate and
the true floor of the skull, and enter the cranial cavity by the " sella tuj-cica " (the original
pituitary space) ; their anastomosis furnishes a sort of " circle of WiUis." (Figs. 66, 69, 70, ic.)
I
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — PNEUMATOLOGY. 205
Both limbs of birds have a prime peculiarity of their arteries as compared with mammals.
In the fore limb, the blood supply being chiefly absorbed by the immense pectoral muscles,
vessels which in mammals are small axillary branches appear like the main continuation of the
subclavian trunk, and the brachial arteries are correspondingly reduced. In the leg, the main
source of supply is the great ischiac artery, the femoral being small. This ischiac artery cor-
responds to the twig which in man accompanies the great sciatic nerve (comes nervi ischiatici) ;
and the rare human anomaly of a iwsterior main vessel of the thigh is therefore a reversion
(atavism) to the avian rule. There is no single proper renal artery to the kidney.
The Lymphatics of birds consist chiefly of a deep set accompanying the main blood-
vessels, forming various plexus, — nodes, "glands," or "lymph-hearts" in their course. Su-
perficial lymphatics, so prominent in mammals, are little developed, though lymphatic glands
are found in the arm-pit and groin of some birds. These are the systemic vessels; a special
set, the lacteals, arise by numberless twigs in the course of the small intestine, uniting and re-
uniting to form at length two (not one as in mammals) main tubes, which lie along either side
of the spinal column. These are the thoracic ducts; which terminal trunks of the whole lym-
phatic system empty into the right and left jugular veins at the root of the neck. The contents
of the vessels differ correspondingly. Pure lymph is a pale, limpid, albuminous fluid, contain-
ing when maturely elaborated a number of irregular amoeboid bodies, indistinguishable from
the white formative corpuscles of the blood (p. 202). It is strained out of the tissues at large,
being that material, not yet effete, which is still fit for feeding the blood. The lacteals contain
chyle, — the other kind of lymph, drained ofi" by the mucous membrane of the intestine from the
prepared food in that tube ; an albuminous fluid, milky or cloudy from the abundance of oil-
globules, which, after mingling with the systemic lymph, is poured directly into the current of
the blood, in the manner above said. Since the lacteals do not appear to begin with open
mouths, the chyle must soak into them through the lining membrane of the intestines ; and
as this consists of a layer of amoeba-like animals, through whose bodies the chyle passes, it is
quite true to say that the whole organism is nourished upon the excrement of amoebas.
e. Pneumatology : the Respiratory System.
The Organs of Respiration provide for the ventilation of the body. Since the respira-
tory process is also caloritic, tliey likewise furnish a heating apparatus. They consist essen-
tially of air- passages and air-spaces connected with lung-tissue, being therefore pulmonary
organs. No other animals are so thoroughly permeated as birds with the atmospheric medium
in which they live ; in no others are the respiratory functions so energetic and eff'ectual. The
lung may be likened to a blast-furnace for the ccmibustion of decayed animal matter; purifica-
tion of the blood and warming of the body being two inseparable results obtained. Dark
blood flowing to tiie lungs, heavy with eff'ete carbonaceous matters, is there relieved of its bur-
den and aerated by the action of oxygen ; tlie products of combustion being exhaled in tlie
form of carbonic dioxide and water. Aside from the proper lung-tissue, the capillary substance
of the immense air-sacs tends to the same result. There is likewise, in birds, a lesser system
of ventilation, by which air is admitted to cranial bones through the eustachian tubes ; but
this is unconnected with the proper respiratory C)ffice. Pulmonary tissue consists chiefly of a
wonderful net (a rete mirahile) of capillaries, interlacing in every direction, bound together and
supported by fine connective tissue, and invested with membrane so delicate that their walls
seem naked, their exposure to the air being thus very tliorough. Air gains sucli intimacy
with the capillaries through the larynx, trachea (fig. 101, o), and bronchial tubes (r, r), these
being the primary air-passages. Hut all the bronchial tubes do not subdivide into the ultimate
air-cells; some large ones run through the lung, pierce its surface (as at u, u, fig. 101), and end
206 GENERAL OBNITHOLOGY.
in that system of enormous air-spaces for which the respiratory system of birds is so remarkably
distinguished, — like a heap of soap-bubbles, blown up en masse from a bowl of fluid ; the extra-
pulmonary air-spaces being the larger superficial bubbles, the minute vesicles of lung-tissue
proper being little bubbles just formed. In this way air penetrates even the hollow skeleton of
most birds (p. 141).
The Lungs of Birds (fig. 101, t, t), notwithstanding their heated energy of respiration,
are anatomically more like those of reptiles than of mammals. They are not shut by a dia-
phragm in a special division of the great thoracic-abdominal cavity of the body, but extend from
the apex of the chest as far as the kidneys, in the pelvic region. They are not divided into lobes,
as in mammals, nor do they as in that class float freely in the chest by their mooring at their
roots ; nor, again, are they completely invested by a serous membrane forming a closed pleural
cavity. They are fixed in the dorsal region of the general cavity, covered in front with pleura,
with which slips of the rudimentary diaphragm (v, v, v) are connected ; but on the dorsal surface
are accurately moulded to the intercostal spaces, showing the impressions of the ribs and verte-
brae, — just as the lobulated kidneys are stamped with the sacral inequalities of surface. They
are, as usual, two, right and left; their *' roots" are the bronchi (r, r), the pulmonary arteries
and veins, nerves, and connective tissue.
The Pneumatocysts. — A bird is literally inflated with these great membranous recepta-
cles of air, and draws a remarkably ''long breath," — all through the trunk of the body, in
several pretty definite compartments ; in many, or most, or all, of the btmes ; in many inter-
muscular spaces ; in some birds also throughout the cellular tissue immediately beneath the
skin. They vary so much in extent and disposition as to be not easily described except either
in the most general terms already used, or with particularity of detail for difl'erent species. Ac-^
cording to Owen, however, the usual disposition is : An inter-clavicular air-space, quite con-
stant: this, with its cervical prolongations, furnishes the great "air-drums" of our pinnated
grouse and cock-of-the-plains. Anterior thoracic, about the roots of the lungs. Lateral tho-
racic, prolonged to axillary, and to spaces and passages in the wings, including the hollow
humerus. Large hepatic or posterior thoracic, about the lower part of the lung and the liver.
Abdominal, right and left, of great size, from the lower part of the lung where the longest bron-
chial tubes open very freely ; extending to pelvic and inguinal compartments, whence femoral
sacs, the hollow of the femur, etc. The subcutaneous cells are enormously developed in the
pelican and gannet ; the extensive areolar tissue being thoroughly pneumatic, and furnished
with an arrangement of the cutaneous muscle (panniculus carnosus) whereby, apparently, the
air may be rapidly and forcibly expelled by compression. A similar muscle develops in some
birds in connection with the interclavicular air-space. (For pueumaticity of the skeleton, see
p. 141.)
The purpose of this extensive respiratory apparatus is thus dwelt upon by the great "New-
ton of Anatomy " just cited: "The extension from the lungs of continuous air- receptacles
throughout the body is subservient to the function of respiration, not only by a change in the
blood of the pulmonary circulation eflfected by the air of the receptacles on its repassage through
the bronchial tubes ; but also, and more especially, by the change which the blood undergoes
in the capillaries of the systemic circulation which are in contact with the air-receptacles.
The free outlet to the air by the bronchial tubes does not, therefore, afl!"ord an argujuent against
the use of the air-cells as subsidiary respiratory organs, but rather supports that opinion, since
the inlet of atmospheric oxygenated air to be diffused over the body must be equally free. A
second use may be ascribed to the air-cells as aiding mechanically the action of respiration in
birds. During the act of inspiration the sternum is depressed [lowered from the back-bone in
horizontal position of a bird] , the angle between the vertebral and sternal ribs made less acute,.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — PNEUMATOLOGY.
207
and the thoracic cavity proportionally enlarged ; the air then rushes into the lungs and tho-
racic receptacles, while those of the abdomen become flaccid ; when the sternum is raised or
approximated towards the spine, part of the air is expelled from the lungs and thoracic cells
through the trachea, and part driven into the abdominal receptacles, which are thus alternately
enlarged and diminished with those of the thorax. Hence the luugs, notwithstanding their
fixed condition, are subject to due compression through the medium of the contiguous air-
receptacles, and are afl"ected equally and regularly by every motion of the sternum and ribs.
A third use, and perhaps the one which is most closely related to the peculiar exigencies of the
bird, is that of rendering the whole body specifically lighter ; this must necessarily follow from
the desiccation of the marrow and other fluids in those spaces which are occupied by the air-
cells, and by the rarification of the contained air from the heat of the body. ... A fourth use
of the air-receptacles relates to the mechanical assistance which they afi'ord to the muscles of
the wings. This was suggested by observing that an inflation of the air-cells in the gigantic
crane {Oiconia argald) was followed by an extension of the wings, as the air found its way
along the brachial and anti-brachial cells. In large birds, therefore, which, like the argala [or
our wood ibis, Tantalus loculator], hover with a sailing motion for a long-continued period in
the upper regions of the air, the muscular exertion of keeping the wings outstretched will be
lessened by the tendency of the distended air-cells to maintain that condition. It is not meant
to advance this as other than a secondary and probably partial service of the air-cells. In the
same light may be regarded the use assigned to them by Hunter, of contributing to sustain the
song of birds and to impart to it tone and strength. It is no argument against this function
that the air-cells exist in birds which are not pro\-ided with the mechanism necessary to pro-
duce tuneful notes ; since it was not pretended that this was the exclusive and only office of the
air-cells." (Owen, Anat. Vert, ii, 1866, p. 216.)
Though nothing like them exists in mammals, it must not be inferred that these air-
pouches are unique in birds. The general pulmonary mechanism is reptile-like, and the or-
nithic development is simply a logical extreme of arrangements found in reptiles and lower
vertebrates, — even to the swim-bladder of a fish, which is morphologically and homologically
pulmonary, though fishes' gills are functionally, and therefore analogically, their lungs; «. e.,
their respiratory apparatus.
The Trachea (Gr. rpaxeia, tracJieia, rough) or " asper-artery "
answers perfectly to its English name, wind-pipe. It is the tube
which conveys air to and from the lungs (fig. 101, i, o to q). It
commences at the root of the tongue by a chink in the floor of the
mouth (fig. 101, 3, c), runs down the neck in front between the
gullet and the skin, and ends below by forking into right and left
bronchus (fig. 101, i, r, r). It is composed of a series of very
numerous gristly or bony rings connected together by elastic
membrane. Lengthening and shortening, effected by muscles
to be presently noted, is permitted by a very ingenious and in-
teresting construction of these rings, which will be clearly under-
stood with the help of the figures (96, a, h, 97 ^, 2) borrowed from
Macgillivray's admirable account. When contracted, the rings
look like an alternating series of lateral half- hoops, as in fig.
96, a; when stretched to the utmost, as in fig. 96, b they are
clearly seen to be annular, or completely circular. The curious
bevelling of the right and left sides of each ring alternately is
shown in fig. 97, ', 2 ; and fig. 97, ^, 2, represents the same two
rings put together. The principle by which any two rings slip
Fig. 96. —a, an inch of tra-
chea, contracted to tlie utmost,
the rings looking like alter-
nating lialfriiigs; h, the same,
stret(lio<l to two inches, the rings
eviilenfly complete, with inter-
vening membrane. (After Mac-
gillivray.)
208
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Fig 97. — 1, 2, left hand, two tracheal rings, sepa-
rate, as in fig. 96, b; 1, 2, right hand, the same put
together, as in fig. 96, a. (After Macgillivray. )
partly over each other on alternate sides is something like that upon which a cooper fastens
the ends of any one barrel-hoop without any nailing or tying. The rings are in some birds
perfectly cartilaginous : in most they become
osseous. The trachea is moved by lateral
muscles, which not only shorten the tube by
approximating the rings, but also drag the
whole structure backward, by their attach-
ment to the clavicle and sternum. The strip,
or two strips, of muscle lying upon each side
of the trachea, is the contractor trachece (fig.
101, 1, ss, ss) ; the most anterior, when there
are two, as soon as it leaves the tube to go to the clavicle, becomes the cleido-trachmlis, or
cleido-hyoid, fig. 101, i, /, /; the other is similarly the sterno-trachealis. The latter may be a
direct continuation of the contractor, as in fig. 101, i, the loose strips under q, or apparently
arise separately from the side of the lower end of the tube, as in fig. 101, ^^, e. (Other muscles
are to be described with the larynx superior and inferior.) Tlie trachea is long in birds, pro-
portionate to the extensi(.m of the neck ; it is very flexuous, following with ease the bends of
the neck in which it lies so loosely. Its cross section is oval or circular ; but aU that relates
to the configuration and course of the pipe requires special description, — so variable is the
organ in difterent birds. It is subject to dilatations and contractions in any part of its extent,
and to deviations from its usual direct course to the lungs. Minor modifications must be
passed over. The most remarkable expansions of the lower part of the tube occur in many
sea-ducks and mergansers (Ftdigulince and Merginee), and some other birds; several lower rings
of the trachea being enormously enlarged and welded together into a great bony and mem-
branous box, of whoUy irregular, unsymmetrical contour. Such a structure, represented in
figs. 3 and 98, is tenned a tracheal tympanum, or laly-
rinth. It is not a part of the voice-organ proper, but
may act as a reverberatory chamber to increase the vol-
ume of the sound, without however modulating it. Being
chiefly developed in the male, it is a kind of secondary
sexual organ. The vagaries of the wind-pipe are stiU
more remarkable. Very generally, in cranes and swans,
the trachea enters the keel of the stenuun, which is exca-
vated to receive it, and where it forms one or more coils
before emerging to pass to the lungs. This curious wind-
ing is carried to an extreme in our Grus americana, the
whooping crane, in which the wind-pipe is about as long
as the whole bird, and about half of it — over two feet of
it! — is coiled away in the breast-bone (fig. 99). The
same thing occurs in G. canadensis to a less extent (fig.
100). In a Guinea-fowl, Guttera a-istata, a loop of the
trachea is received in a cup formed by the apex of the
clavicles. In various birds, as some of the curassows ( Cra-
cideB), the capercaillie (Tetrao ttrogallus), a goose, Anseranas semipalmata, and the female of the
curious snipe, Rhynchcea australis, the trachea folds between the pectoral muscles and the skin.
Fig. 98. — Bony labyrinth at the bot-
tom of the trachea of the male of Clangnla
islarulica, seen from behind, nat. size. Dr.
R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A.
The Larynx (the Gr. name, \dpvy^, larugx) is the peculiarly modified upper end of the
trachea (fig. 101, l, and 3 to 12). In mammals it is a complicated voice-organ, containing the
vocal chords and other consonantal apparatus; in birds the construction is simpler, as the
larynx merely modulates the sound already produced in the lower end of the tube. It lies in
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — PNEUMATOLOGY. 209
FlO. 99. — Coiling of the windpipe in the sternum of Grus americana ; reduced. (From Amer. Nat.)
%^>.
Fig. 100. — Coiling of the windpipe in tlie sternum of Grus cariadensis ; reduced. (From Amer Nat. )
14
210 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the floor of the mouth, at the root of the tongue, between the forks of the hyoid bone, resting
upon the uro-hyal. Besides its attachments of mucous and other membrane, it is connected
with the hyoid bone by a pair of thyro-liyoid muscles (8, l»i), and usually with the rest of the
trachea by prolongations of the steruo- and cleido-ti'acheales. It is usually a small, simple,
conical " mouth-piece " of the pipe (4, a), without the dilatation which renders the corresponding
structure — the " Adam's apple," — so conspicuous in the human throat. Below, it communi-
cates directly with the pipe : above, it opens into the mouth by the glottidean fissure, or rima
glottidis (3, c), a median lengthwise chink, which opeus and shuts as its sides diverge or close
toiiether, and which is further defended in front by a folding of the mucous membrane of the
mouth, constituting a rudiment of that curious trap-door arrangement which, when fully
developed, is called the epiglottis (3, d, e). Exclusive of two broken upper rings of the tra-
chea (6, g), the cartilages (or oftener bones, — for they generally ossify) of the larynx are five.
One is a large single median and inferior piece, the thyroid, or shield-jiiece (*, ^, ", a),
forming the most substantial part of the structure. It is somewhat triangular or oblong, run-
ning to an obtuse end in front ; and with sides and posterior angles which curl upward behind.
To its lateral posterior corner is attached on each side the small "horns" or cornicula laryngis
(5. 6^ 7^ i>). There is a small median upper posterior piece, supposed to represent all there is
of the cricoid (5, T, c), which in man makes a ring around the larynx below the thyroid. To
the cricoid, as to a base, are attached a pair of straight slender arytenoids (6, 7, d), projecting
forward along the upper surface of the larynx : these form the rima glottidis, — the fissure of the
glottis being between them. The arytenoids are attached in front by slender ligaments to the
end of the thyroid (5, the little slips between d and e), and they are supplemented by carti-
laginous edges {^, f,f) ; but there are no true vocal chords. Besides the extrinsic thyro-hyoid
muscles, which pass from the larynx to the tongue-bone, the laryngeal parts are operated by
intrinsic muscles, the sum of the motion given by which is the opeuiug and shutting of the
glottis by drawing apart or pulling together the arytenoids. Four pairs of such muscles are
described for some birds. As named and figured by Macgillivray for the rook, there are : the
thy ro- arytenoids, which are the openers of the glottis (9, 2,2) ; the oblique arytenoids (lo, 3,3) ;
the thyro-cricoids ('i, 4,4); and t\ie posterior thyro-cricoids Q-^ and ^2^ 5,5).
The Syrinx (Gr. a-vpiy^, surigx, a pipe) or Lower Larynx is the voice-organ of birds; in
most respects a more complicated structure than the larynx proper, and one so differently
constructed in difi"erent birds that it afibrds characters of great significance in classification.
The highest group of Passeres, for example, is signalized by the elaboration of this musical
organ, the marvellously adroit fingering of the keys of which by the little muscular performers
sends through the tracheal sounding-pipe the tuneful messages of bird's highest estate. A few
degraded or disgraced birds, as the ostrich and the American vultures, have no bucolic organ at
aU, the trachea forking as simply as possible. Others, as the common fowl, have a fair syrinx,
but no muscles whatever to modulate their pastoral lays. Others have one, two, or three pairs
of intrinsic nmscles; to which may or may not be added a stemo-tracheal with syringeal attach-
ment. It is not so much the bulk or mere fleshiness of the syrinx that indicates musical abil-
ity ; but the distinctness of the several muscles, and the mode of their insertion, which result in
endless combinations of rotating and rocking movements of the parts, whereby an infinite modu-
lation of the musical tones becomes possible. In Oscines, there are normally five or six pairs
of muscles, without counting the extrinsic sterno-tracheales ; and the gist of the arrangement,
in these melodious Passeres, is the attachment of the muscles to the ends of the upper bronchial
half- rings, as far as the third one. As Professor Owen remarks with appreciative feeling, "the
manifold ways in which the several parts of the complex vocal organ in Cantores may be
afi"ected, each of the principal bony half-rings, as one or the other end may be pulled, being
made to perform a slight rotatory motion, are incalculable ; but their efiects are delightfully
I
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — PNEUMATOLOGY. 211
appreciable by the rapt listener to the singularly varied kind and quality of notes trilled forth
in the stillness of gloom by the nightingale."
I should be able to make the plan of the syrinx clear to the student with the assistance of
Macgillivray's beautiful figures. These are drawn from the rook, — a corvine croaker, indeed,
but one whose syrinx is in good order, though he has never learned to play. As the modifica-
tions affect principally the soft parts covering and moving the music-box, one description of the
latter is applicable to most birds. The last lower ring, or piece composed of several fused rings,
of the trachea, at its bifurcation into bronchi, is enlarged or otherwise modified (fig. 101, ^^,
aba), and crossed below from front to back by a bony bar, the pessulus ('3, at b; 15, «), or
bolt-bar, which, dividing it into lateral halves (as at ^^), forms thus two lateral openings
instead of one median tube, — the beginnings of each bnmchial tube. A membranous plate,
strengthened by cartilage, rises vertically into the tracheal tube, forming a septum, or median
partition, between the onfices of each bronchus. The free curved upper margin of this septum,
extending of course, from fi'ont to back of the orifice, is called the semilunar membrane; being
the edge of a partition common to both bronchi, it forms, in fact, the inner lip of each bronchial
orifice ; that is to say, the inner rima glottidis syringis, or lip of the syringeal mouth-piece.
This membi-aue vibrates with the column of air, and is, in fact, one of the "vocal chords."
Nnw the bronchial rings which succeed are not annular, circumscribing the bronchial tube,
but are half-rings (}°, b, b), or arcs of circles to be completed by membrane, which forms more
or less (scarcely or not half) of the ci^'cumference of the tube ; this membranous part, termed
the internal tympaniform membrane (15, c to c), being on the side of the bronchus which faces
its fellow, while the hard bronchial half-rings complete the rest of the cylinder. The mem-
brane is attached to the pessulus above. This accounts for the whole bronchial tube and its
vocal septum from its fellow. Now the concavity of the upper two or three bronchial half-
rings, on the outer wall of the tube, but in its interior, is the place where is developed a certain
fold of the mucous membrane, projecting into the tube opposite the septum, and forming the
outer lip of the syringeal glottis; for this membranous fold, like the semilunar membrane, is
set quivering in vocalization. The upper tracheal rings which enter into this arrangement
are enlarged and otherwise modified. Thus are formed two " vocal chords," upon the vibrations
of which the harmonious or discordant notes of the bird depend. The cords are struck by the
hand of air indeed, but endless musical variations result from the play of the muscles in increas-
ing or diminishing and variously conabiuing the tension of the several parts of tlie instrument.
In giving four pairs of intrinsic syringeal muscles (anterior external, anterior internal, inter-
mediate, and posterior, besides the extrinsic sterno-tracheales), as figured in ^^, a, b, c, d and e,
Macgillivray is said to have understated the full oscine number, which is five or six. In the raven,
Owen describes ^I'e, without counting the sterno-trachealis : broncho-trachealis anticus, anterior
external ; broncho-trachealis posticus, posterior external ; broncho-trachealis brevis, posterior
internal ; bronchialis anticus, anterior internal ; and bronchiulis posticus. The general arrange-
ment, however, is fairly indicated by Macgillivray in ^^, where on the side of the syrinx, the mus-
cles are seen to diverge from the tracheal Literal line to go to ends of the bronchial semi-rings.
The student will understand that my description is particular only as regards the oscine
syrinx ; that in birds at large every possible modification, almost, of lower tracheal and upper
bronchial rings occurs, and with various musculation, or with none. The non-oscine rule for
the muscles is, one on each side, if any ; and insertion into mid-parts, not ends, of the bronchial
half-rings. The latter character chiefiy distinguislies the non-oscine syrinx when it has sev-
eral nuiscles. As to situations of the syrinx, tliree have been recognized : the ordinary broncho-
tracheal, in formation of which both bronchi and trachea take part; the tracheal, only known
to occur in some American Passeres, as in I'humnophilks and Opetiorhynchus, situated wholly
in the trachea, the lower part of wliicli is extensively membranous ; and the bronchial, wliolly
in the bronchi, as iu Crotuphaya and Steatornis.
212
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Fig. 101 — Respiratory and vocal organs of the Rook, Corvus frugilegus, an Oscine Passerine bird ; nat. size,
after Macgillivray. 1. a, tongue; ft, basi-brancliial, commonly called uro-hyal; c, c, horns of hyoid bone; d.<l,
genio-hyoid muscles; e, e, stylo-hyoid muscles; /,/, cleido-hyoid muscles; g. h, i, oesophagus; j, proventriculus;
or secretory stomach; k, gizzard, or gigerium, the muscular stomach ; ;, m, n, n, intestine, duodenum to rectum ;
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. —PNEUMATOLOGY. 213
o,p, tracliea, or windpipe ; q, inferior larynx, or syrinx ; r, r, right and left bronchus : ss, ss, contractor muscles
of trachea; t, t, lungs, with «, u, apertures communicating with thoracic air-cells ; v, r, r, three pairs of muscular
slips answering to a rudimentary diaphragm ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, as many ribs. — 2. Hyoid bone ; a, glosso-hyal, tipped
with cartilage, its posterior horns being cerato-hyals proper ; b, ba^'i-hyal ; c, basi-branchial proper, commonly
called uro-hyal ; rf, d, cerato-branchials proper, commonly called apo-hyals ; e, e, epibranchials proper, commonly
called cerato-hyals, tipped with cartilage,/,/. —3. Glottis, or opening of trachea in the mouth; a, base of tongue;
h, b, horns of hyoid bone ; c, rima glottidis, cleft or chink of the glottis ; rf, a triangular vacuity ; e, an elastic liga-
ment ; (I and e represent an epiglottis ; / /, a papillose surface. —4. Larynx viewed from before (below); a, thy-
roid bone or cartilage.— 5. Larynx viewed from behind (above); a, thyroid bone ; b, b, its apjiendages; c, cricoid;
(/, d, arytenoids; e, e, anterior border of thyroid, to which d, d are connected by two arytenoid ligaments. — 6.
Larynx viewed from right side ; a, thyroid ; b, appendage ; c, cricoid ; d, arytenoid ; // cartilage attached to ary-
tenoid ; g, a tracheal ring. —7. Larynx viewed from behind ; a, thyroid ; 6, b, its appendages ; c, cricoid ; d, d, ary-
tenoids.—8, 9,10, 11,12. Muscles of the larynx; 1,1 (fig. 8), thyro-hyoids ; 2, 2 (tig. 9), thyro-arytenoids, or openers
of the glottis ; 3,3 (fig 10), oblique arytenoids; 4, 4 (fig. 11), thyro-cricoids ; 5,5 (tigs. 11 and 12), posterior thyro-
cricoids. — 13. Bifurcation of trachea ; aba, last entire tracheal ring. — 14. Last entire tracheal ring, viewed from
below, crossed by the pessulus. — 15. Bifurcation of trachea, and bronchi, viewed from below ; a, pessulus, the
bolt-bar, or " bone of divarication " ; b, b, next succeeding tracheal half-rings. - 16. a, b, c, d, inferior laryngeal
or syringeal muscles, not well made out in this figure; see text. But the typical oscine arrangement (acromyo-
dian) is perceived, inasmuch as anterior (a) and posterior (rf) intrinsic muscular masses go to ends of the first
tracheal half-ring, at b and c ; the extrinsic slip e passing to sternum ; compare fig. 1, at q. — 17. Trachea, etc., of
the nightingale, nat. size. (Compare figs. 3, 67, 72, 73, 74.)
The Song of Birds unlocks the great secret of Genesis to those who can hear the key-
note. It is the closest approach, in animate nature, to the ringing of the hydrogen bells in the
pliysics of light. The musical instrument figured (101, i'^) is the identical pipe the " great god
Pan " first fashioned for a legacy to all time, as so sweetly said by Mrs. Browning : —
♦' He tore out a reed, the great god Pan,
From the deep cool bed of the river.
The limpid water turbidly ran,
And the broken lilies a-dying lay.
And the dragon-fly had fled away.
Ere he brought it out of the river.
" ' This is the way,' laughed the great god Pan,
(Laughed while he sate by the river!)
The only way since gods began
To make sweet music, they could succeed.'
Then dropping his mouth to a hole in the reed,
He blew in power by the river.
" Sweet, sweet, sweet, O Pan,
Piercing sweet by the river!
Blinding sweet, O great good Pan!
The sun on the hill forgot to die,
And the lilies revived, and the dragon-fly
Came back to dream on the river."
But the sad sequel, felt by Keats, when poor Psyche has seen and known, and Eros has
found his wings : —
" So did he feel who pulled the boughs aside.
That we might look into a forest wide.
To catch a glimpse of Fauns, and Dryades
Coming with softest rustle through the frees;
And garlands woven of flowers wild and sweet,
Upheld on ivory wrists, or sporting feet:
Telling us how fair trembling Si/rinx fled
Arcadian Pan, with such a fearful dread.
Poor Nymph, — poor Pan, — how he did weep to find
Naught but a lovely sighing of the wind
Along the reedy stream ! a half heard strain
Full of sweet desolation, balmy pain."
The blessed blue-bird, "bearing the sky upon her back," is burthened with the same
" light load of song " —
214 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Have you listened to the carol of tbe bluebird in the spring?
Has her gush of molten melody been not poured forth in vain?
Ah! then the pulse has quickened, and a sigh, perhiips, has risen,
From the breast the bluebird's music stirs to thoughts that lack expression —
So tender, so tumultuous are the fancies thus aroused.
The bluebird's song breathes gladness — breathes the sweet and solemn triumph
Love feels when all love's passion melts in its own fruition.
Exquisitely subtile are the chords the bluebird touches —
Chords that quiver now in ecstasy, now thrill in fond expectancy,
Now die in dreams of all that might have been.
Hers is language to interpret, and translate in accents rhythmic,
All the yearning of young love to claim his own —
Of young love that trembles on the threshold of the passions,
And shrinks before the images his ardor calls to life.
Thus to the maiden musing come thronging thoughts unbidden.
When she hears this speaking ecbo of the hopes that glow within;
And the tell-tale blushes redden to the rose-tint on the bosom
Of the bird that dares to breathe her secret joy.
Thus to the youth impetuous, whose life is set to music —
Let love but laugh and beckon from afar —
Fulfilment sends a greeting in the soft voluptuous languor
That steals upon the senses if the bluebird's song be heard —
This song of wondrous gladness, ever bubbling, welling, gushing.
From a fountain full of promise, inexhaustible, divine !
Sweeter far these liquid accents when the buds of hope are blighted,
And the tree of knowledge bears its bitter fruit;
When memory sits brooding on the ashes of her birthright,
And sackcloth shrouds a heart that once was young;
For a silver chord is quickened where was greedy, silent sorrow —
Responding to a sympathetic touch:
The bird sings true and tender, with a precious burden laden,
With the tidings of a love that never dies.
So in the timid spring-time, when the world wears wreaths of rosea,
Ring clear the joyous melodies of hope!
So in the summer season, when the wine of pleasure reddens.
Ring passionate the triumphs of the heart!
So in the sad, still autumn, when life bends beneath its burden.
When what might have been has never come to pass,
Rings once again this music on the crushed and wounded spirit,
Bringing light where all was dark and drear before :
All is not lost if the music that the bluebird bears be heeded.
For her mission is to tell us love is God.
Though it is a fact that "the Chenomorphcc are not provided with intrinsic syringeal
muscles," there may be much truth in treatises de cantu Cycni morituri which have appeared
from time to time, and to the number of which I may be pardoned for adding : —
How sadly sweet, how soft and low
Is the music born of pain —
How mournful sounds the ebb and flow,
What measured beats, what throb and throe,
In the wild swan's dying strain!
The archer, Death, and the twanging bow,
And the fateful shaft on-spe<l,
All state and grace and pride laid low,
Disordered plumes and crimson flow —
For the white swan's heart has bled.
But hear the mournful cry that rings
On the startled air of night!
As a spirit form in the darkness wing"
its way unseen, the wild swan sings
His psalm of life and light.
I
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — SPLANCHNOLOGY. 215
How sadly sweet the solemn strain —
The dirge of the dying swan !
That wondrous music, child of pain,
That requiem, sounding once again —
And a bird's soul passes on.
/. Splanchnology : the Digestive System.
The Alimentary Canal, or digestive tract, is a tube which passes through the body
from mouth to anus, conveyiug food, the nutritious qualities of which are drawn off by the lac-
teals in transitu and assimilated, the refuse being voided. This is dige-ntion. The canal is
really a tube within a tube, being contained in the cavity below the bodies of the vertebrte,
furmed by the series of hcemal arches (p. 141). Birds are fast livers, their digestive operations,
like the processes of respiration and circulation, being very active and eflFectual ; they require
proportionally great quantities of food. The voracity of the cormorant is proverbial, but it is
probably not greater than that of the ethereal nightingale. Birds as a class are omnivorous ;
many species are as nearly omnivorous as any animals can well be ; but the majority are either
vegetarian or flesh-feeding. Very many birds feed upon fruits, hard or soft ; but even these,
when in the nest, are nourished for the most part upon the bodies of insects ; and it may be truly
said, that the great majority of birds are insectivorous. Birds seem to be the great controlling
agency in the economy of nature, of the increase of insect life ; agriculture would be difficult if not
impracticable without them, and their economic value is simply incalculable. Insectivorous
birds cannot be nmch interfered with, without destroying one of the most important and conse-
quential of nature's many beautiful adjustments. The bird cries perpetual " echec ! " to the
insect. Even those birds which are mainly flesh-eaters, as the hawks and owls, are similarly
beneficial, for the creatures they chiefly prey upon are the small rodents so fateful to husbandry.
The carrion -eaters contribute largely to make tropical regions habitable to man. Various
tribes of birds feed alnioet exclusively upon fish ; and these sometimes reach the dignity of
diplomatic and other political interests of mankind : nations have gone to war over the dung
of such birds, guano-beds being to some of the South American powers a large item of their
revenue. Chili and Peru have been fighting lately, and the United States have been wrang-
ling, over the excrements of the alimentary canal of sea-birds. This tube, in general, is
.shortest, simplest, and most direct in the flesh- and fish-eaters, the nature of whose food assim-
ilates already more nearly to the substance of their bodies than does that of the vegetarians.
The tube is modified in difi"erent portions of its extent, for the prehension, retention, saturation,
maceration, and comminution of food, and the mixture with it of other solvent fluids than those
secreted by the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal itself. Hence arise the various
modifications of its length, dilatation here, contracti(m there ; the presence in its lining mem-
brane of numerous follicles ; and the annexation of various glandular organs. Being always
longer tlian the body, the tube is necessarily coiled away in certain places; this folding taking
l)lace chiefly in the intestinal part of the tract. Modifications of structure make recognizable
parts, as the mouth, gullet, crop, stomach, gizzard, intestine, cloaca, anus. Annex organs
are the salivary glands, the liver, and the pancreas, all of which pour their secretions into the
canal. This tube also receives the terminations of other systems of organs : the auditory organ
of special sense; the respiratory system, which is at first a mere bud or oflf-set from the
<ligestive ; the urinary and the generative, which, tliough originally distinct, primitively and
permanently open into the lower bowel. The intestine is also contiimous with the cavity of the
umbilical vesicle of the embryo, a primitive structure which disappears as the chick matures;
and with that of the allantois, another embryotic organ which begins by budding from the intes-
tinal cavity. Its connection with the system of blood-vessels is direct through the lacteals and
thoracic ducts (p. 20.5). Its operations are automatic and spontaneous, of the '"reflex" order;
216
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
that is, excited by the presence of food, — having work to do making it work, so to speak. Its
innervation is chiefly by the pueuniogastric and sympathetic nerves; and digestion is the most
purely vegetative function, dealing with the raw materials of nutrition and consequently of the
growth and repair of the whole body. The active fiictors in this transaction are several spe-
cies or varieties of small creatures, caUed Enteramoebm; they are all derived by descent with
modification from the hypoblastic cells of the early embryo. Those of the canal itself form
all the mucous epithelium of that structure, with its various secretory crypts, follicles, and villi ;
similar creatures, perhaps of different genera, form the lining of the salivary, hepatic, and pan-
creatic glands. Blood-vessels, in intimate connection with the digestive organs, form that
special venous arrangement by which the blood coming from that part of the intestinal tract
where chyle is made is collected in a^^ortaZ system and sent through the liver, — in the embryo
a sort of "great dismal swamp" which interrupts the ordinary current. The tube within the
tube is fixed not only at its ends, but by various membranous connections, among them the
mesenteries. We will notice the several departments of the alimentary canal, and its annexes ;
reference should be made to the colored frontispiece, and to fig. 101, where most parts of the
digestive system are shown.
The Mouth and Tongue. — The most anterior of the special cavities in which the tube
is divided, and the " manual " organ it contains. The mouth in general corresponds to the
a shape of the jaws, already sufficiently noted (pp. 105, 168). The
anterior part is much hardened, like the beak ; in fact, this hard-
ness of the buccal cavity, and the absence, or very slight distinc-
tion, of a " soft palate," are among the peculiarities of a bird's
mouth. There is consequently little distinction, if any, between
mouth proper and fauces, or pharynx, which is the posterior part,
leading directly into the gullet. Besides this communication the
mouth receives the terminations of four special cavities. 1. The
posterior nares, on the roof of the mouth posteriorly, generally a
median slit, leading into the nasal chambers. 2. The generally
single and median and more posterior opening of the eustachian
tubes, which lead into the tympanum, and arc the remains of the
first post-oral visceral cleft of the early embryo. 3. The glottis (fig.
101, ^, c), a slit at the base of the tongue, the opening of the wind-
pipe, and so of the whole respiratory system, which is defended by
a rudimentary trap-door, the epiglottis, if any. 4. One or several
pairs of orifices, the openings of the ducts of the salivary glands.
These structures, coiTesponding to the parotid, submaxillary, and
sublingual glands of mammals, vary extremely in their develop-
ment. In M'oodpeckers, for example, and some Raptores, elaborate
special salivary glands occur, having a glomerate structure, and
a special " stenonine " duct. In many other birds, similarly com-
pound but less elaborate submaxillary glands pour their secretion
into the mouth by a series of pores. In most birds, however, the
salivary glands are small, simple, and less distinct from various
other sets of mucous crypts which open into the mouth. In the-
great bustard {Otis tarda; fig. 102) there is a singular buccal struc-
ture ; a great pouch opening beneath the tongue, susceptible of distension during those amatory
antics termed the " showing-off " of the creature. It is in fact an air-sac, but not of the kind
already considered (p. 200), having no connection with the respiratory system. The narial,
eustachian and glottidean apertures are commonly defended by retrorse papillfe ; and other such
Fig 102. — Gular pouch of
bustard ; copied by Shufeldt
from Garrod. a, tongue; h,
the pouch, opening under a,
hanging in front of c, the tra-
chea, behind which is the
oesophagus, d, with its crop, e.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — SPLANCHNOLOGY. 217
processes of mucous membrano, knobbed or acuto, may occur elsewhere in lines and patches.
The roof of the mouth is nearly all " hard palate," as already said; its soft floor is the mucous
membrane and skin between the jaws, with muscular or other intervening structures. The
principal flooring muscle is the mylo-hyoid ; the genio-hyoid ("fig. 101, i, d) is another, which
passes, like the first, from the mandibular to the hyoid bone; a third is the stylo-hyoid (e).
Tlie floor in some cases fonns a pouch, which, as in the case of the pelican, is of great extent
and susceptible of enormous dilatation (fig. 669).
The handler of the mouth, or lingual organ, is the tongue, which answers the same pur-
]">se as in other creatures: it is tactile, to some extent gustatory, sometimes prehensile, nearly
always manipulatory. In some birds, as the pelican and ibis, and also the kingfisher, it is
very sliglitly developed, — scarcely more than a pad at the bottom of the mouth, enjoying the
most limited motion or other function. In some birds, as the parrot and duck tribes, and also
the flamingo, the tongue is large, thick, and fleshy, quite filhng the mouth. In the first-
named of these, it is dexterously manipulatory ; the morsel of food is managed between the
tongue and upper beak ; the tactile certainly and perhaps the gustatory sense is highly devel-
oped ; and the fleshiness of the tongue may aflect that power of articulate speech for which
some parrots are justly noted. In the Lamellirostres just mentioned the tongue has lateral
processes corresponding to the denticulations of the beak, and the under surface is horny at the
end, like a human finger-nail. In the woodpeckers (figs. 73, 74) the tongue itself, (glosso-hyal
part of the hyoid) is reduced to a slight horny and spiny tip of the lingual apparatus; but other
parts of that mechanism are so extraordinarily developed that the " tongue " appears as a
lumhriciform (worm-like), spear-headed organ usually capable of great protrusion from the
mouth, and therefore acting as a prehensile instrument, being bedewed for that purpose with
tenacious saliva from the great salivary glands ; while it is actuated in protrusion and retraction
by specially developed muscles. In the snipe and many of the long slender-billed waders, the
tongue is similarly slender, but not protrusible. The long narrow tongue of the toucans {Illiam-
jjhastidff) is beset with slender processes, so that it seems feathery. The tongue of the hum-
ming-bird is very singular, — delicately thready, yet double-barrelled, — two tubes placed
side by side, serving as siphons to extract the nectar of flowers. These and other
interesting extremes aside, the ordinary style of a bird's tongue is flat, narrow, more or less
sagittate or lanceolate, and tipped or sheathed in horn, commonly with lateral backward pro-
cesses like the barbs of an arrow head, — the whole glossal structure upborne pretty distinctly
u{)on the end of the basihyal bone. (See fig. 101, where i, a, is such an ordinary tongue, and
2, a-f, is its whole skeleton.) Such homy tongues are commonly bifid at the extreme tip
or there variously lacerate, or laciniate, or thready, — and even the fleshy tongue of some
parrots, as the lories, is brushy at the end. The bony foundation of the tongue is the com-
posite hyoid bone, already often mentioned (see p. 173); the free lingual ])ait proper is based
upon the glosso-hyal and its terminal cartilage; the roots curve more or less extensively about
the base or more of the skull. The tongue is moved by some intrinsic muscles, as well as by
those extrinsic ones by which it is connected to the skull, jaw, and windpipe (fig. 101, i and 8).
The CEsophagus. — After conuninution, if any, by the beak, and insalivation in the
mouth, food passes directly through the pharynx into the ffS0/)/io<7«s or gullet, — a musculo-
membranous tube connecting mouth with stomach (fig. 101, ', g, h, i). This is composed (besides
its mucous membrane) of circularly disposed constrictor fibres, and longitudinal contractor fibres,
of Myamceba, of the pale, smooth species (M. leevis). It has generally a pretty straight course,
but may be diverted to one side or the other ; and, in particular, is subject to various dilatations
and cf)ntractions. permanent or temporary, aside from the mere distensit>n caused by the pas-
sage of food. When the floor of the mouth is wide and loose, the gullet partakes of the same
tharacter above ; the extreme case is afforded by the pelicans, especially P. fusctis. But the
218 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
gullet of many small birds, as various genera of Fringillidce and CorvicUs, is much more disten-
sible than is commonly supposed, and may be found crammed with seeds which there find rest-
ing-place for some time. The fish-eating birds, as herons, cormorants, loons, and others, have
also capacious gullets. The Australian bustard, Eupodotis australis, has an oesophagus capa-
ble of such extraordinary distension that it hangs down in front of the breast when intiated
with air, as it is in the amatory display in which that sjjecies is wont to indulge. Aside from
mere distensibility of transient character, the oesophagus of many birds becomes modified
anatomically iuto a special pouch, — the crop or craw, ingluvies, where the food is detained to
be macerated in a special secretion before passing on to the true stomach. Such definite crops
occur in birds of prey, which gorge such masses of food in their irregular voracious banquets
that it cannot all be received into the stomach at once ; and likewise throughout the orders of
Columbine and Gallinaceous birds, which habitually feed upon seeds and other fruits so hard
that they are advantageously macerated as a preliminary to true digestion. The common fowl
furnishes a good illustration of a large, definite, single and median crop ; in pigeons it is a pair
of lateral dilatations. In these latter birds, when they are rearing their young, the secretion
<)f the ingluvies, always copious, becomes still more so, and of a milky character in conse-
fiuonce of tlie activity of the altered mucous surface; it is regurgitated into the mouths of
the young, along with the macerated grains. " This phenomenon is the nearest approach in
the class of Birds to the characteristic mammary function of a higher class ; and the analogy
of the 'pigeon's milk' to the lacteal secretion of the Mammalia has not escaped popular notice."
Various other birds also feed their young by regurgitation of elaborated food ; and very many
similarly reject indigestil)le portions of their ingesta. Such vomiting is best known tc> be the
wont of birds of prey, which habitually throw up the hair, feathers and bones of their victims,
made up into the boluses called " castings "; but the practice is far from being confined to these
flesh-eaters. The extreme case of emesis off'ered by birds is witnessed in the horn-bills
(BueerotidcE) which have been known to throw up the coat of their stomach without discom-
fort,— what a blessing it would be to some old topers if they could do the same, and grow
another with equal ease ! In fact, in consequence of the capacity and directness of the gullet,
vomiting is very easy to birds, and with some it is a means of self-defence, — very efl'ectual
for instance in the cases of our vultures {Cathartides). Fish-eating birds, as herons, gulls,
petrels, habitually vomit when wounded or otherwise molested.
The Proventriculus. — The tube just considered ends below in a special tract, variously
dilated or not, but always peculiar in the presence of certain gastric follicles which secrete the
digestive fluid proper. The " stomach " of a bird, in fact, is compound, consisting of a glandular
or digestive portion, and a muscular or grinding part. The former is the proventriculus;
whatever its size or shape, or whatever its magnitude in comparison with the grist-mill, it is
recognized by the presence in its mucous surface of these gastric follicles, secreting the peptic
fluid which chymifies the food. The follicles are perhaps always large enough for this part of
the tube to be recognized by the naked eye, — the mucous membrane having here a thickened,
velvety, vascular appearance. The glands are of various sizes and shapes, — usually simply
tubular, sometimes clubbed or conical, or variously racemose (like a bunch of grapes). They
are disposed in a zone around the tube, or in patches upon part of its surface, — in the darter
(Phtus), very singularly in a separate lateral compartment looking like a crop. Details of the
grouping of these solvent glands are interminable. Whatever its anatomical variations, and
however like the end of the oesophagus it may simply appear to be, this ventriculus glandulosus
is the bird's proper stomach (fig. 101, l, j).
The Gizzard. — Mixed with the salivary, ingluvial, ])roventricular and other secretions of
the mucous surface, and already chymified, the food of birds next passes directly into the giz-
THE ANATOMY OF BIEDS. — SPLANCHNOLOGY. 219
zard, gigerium, or muscular division of the stomach, sometimes called the ventriculus hulbosus.
The two are sometimes separated by a tract, sometimes immediately consequent. In the mus-
cular gizzard, the food-grist is ground fine. To this end, the walls of "he cavity become devel-
oped into a more or less powerful muscular apparatus, and the mucous membrane changes to a
tough, thick, horny, occasionally even bony, lining ; this callous cuticular lining being often
very loosely attached, and even deciduous in some cases. The muscular arrangement is chiefly
in two great masses, called the lateral inuscles, converging to a central tendon ; between them
intermediate fibres may form a more or less distinct muscular belly. In the most powerful
gizzards, the muscular tissue is very dense and dark-colored ; the tendons brilliantly glistening,
and the contained " millstones " extremely callous. Such a gizzard is well displayed by the
common fowl or the goose. The opposite extreme is afforded by the carnivorous and espe-
cially the piscivorous birds, whose soft f(»od requires little trituration, — it is all a matter of
degree. ' How readily this part of the canal responds to the regimen of the bird, is witnessed in
our cock-of-the-plains (Centrocercus urophasiamis) , — a bird whose gizzard is so slightly mus-
cular as to appear like a membranous bag, though its gallinaceous relatives have extremely
strong grinders. Its food is cliiefly the buds and leaves of the wild sage (Artemisia), and grass-
hoppers. Increased muscularity of the gizzard has even been artificially produced. Birds
whose grist is heavy habitually swallow gravel, that these small stones may mechanically aid
in the grinding process.' The action is so energetic, that in "auscultating" a fowl when the
mill is in full blast, the noise of the grinding can be distinctly heard. The pebbles, in fact,
have a function which leaves ''hens' teeth" not entirely mythical. The kind of motion
impressed upon the opposing pads of cuticle is alternating, — a rubbing back and forth to a
slight extent. Peculiar dispositions of the callous surfaces are found in soine pigeons, with
corresponding peculiarity of the cross-section of the gizzard. In some of the cuckoos a matting
of impacted hairs of lepidopterous insects has been mistaken for a coat of the gizzard itself. In
the darter, which has a pyloric division or compartment of the gizzard, this is nearly filled with
a mass of matted hairs, a peculiar modification of the epithelial lining, serving to guard the
pyloric orifice. Folds of the lining membrane form a pyloric valve in many birds. The jn/lo-
rus, or the pyloric orifice, is that opening by which food leaves the gizzard for the intestines ;
the orifice of entrance from the oesophagus is the cardiac. The two are always near together,
and sometimes adjoining. (In fig. 101, i, k is on the central tendon of the moderately muscular
gizzard ; the cardiac orifice is between ^ and k, and pylorus between I and k.}
The Intestine continues the alimentary canal to the cloaca. Any difference in the
length of the whole tract, relatively to that of the bird, is chiefly produced by the foldings of
the int'cstiue, especially in the upper portion of its course. The extremes of proportionate
length are perhaps not ascertained; but known to be from less than 2: 1, to more than 8:1.
In birds there is little or no distinction between "small" and "large" intestine, as to the calibre
of the tube, nor is the latter succulated as in manunals. The former is considered to extend
from the pylorus to the cceca (structures to be presently noticed). Above the caeca the intes-
tine commonly receives its foldings and windings ; behiw them it usually proceeds more
directly, or quite straight, to the cloaca, forming literally a " rectum " ; but in the ostrich this
ultra-c{ecal tract is longer than the rest, and convoluted. The cis-caecal portion is convention-
ally divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum ; there is, however, no positive anatomical
distinction of these parts in any animal with which I am acquainted. In birds, a " duodenum "
is perhaps as distinct as ever; it forms the tnost constant duplication of the intestine, the pan-
creas being lodged in this duodenal fold (fig. 101, i, I, m, n). The course of the intestine is
otherwise very Various in different birds. The upper end, near the pylorus, receives the hepatic
ducts ; and food is chi/lified after impregnation with the biliary and pancreatic fluids ; a process
furthered by he proper secretions of the intestinal follicles. The cht/le is drawn off" by the
220 GENEBAL ORNITHOLOGY.
lacteals already described (p. 205), and the unassimilable refuse of the food becomes excremen-
titious.
Caeca (Lat. ccecus, blind; in the nom. pi. ccEca; sing, ccecum). — The " bhnd guts," so
called because they end in culs-de-sac, are of two kinds. One is the umbilical ccecum, or
vitelline ccecum, a rudimentary, or rather vestigial, structure, the remains of the open duct by
which the cavity of the umbihcal vesicle (an embryonic organ) communicated with that of the
intestinal tract. It is ordinarily not to be noted at all ; but it is said by Owen to have been
found half an inch long in the galliuule, an inch in the bay ibis, and dilated into a sac an inch
in diameter in the AiAeryx. The structures ordinarily called cceca, or cceca coli, for they are
usually paired, are pouches or diverticula which set off from the intestine proper at the junc-
tion of the ileum with colon ; but there is nothing in the intestine itself to mark this point, so
that when caeca are absent, as frequently happens, no distinction of ileum from colon or rectum
is appreciable. No part of the intestinal tract is so variable as the caecal; so that presence or
absence of these appendages furnishes zoological characters now-a-days taken very commonly
into account in framing genera and famiUes. There are no caeca, as in the turkey-
buzzard and some pigeons ; there is a single small caecum in herons. From a condition of
extremely small size, like little buds upon the intestine, caeca are found to elongate to extraor-
dinary dimensions ; and the large specimens are frequently saccate or clubbed, with slender
roots. In geese and swans the caeca are a foot long, more or less ; in some grouse they are
said to be a yard long. In the ostrich, the mucous membrane is throwni into a spiral fold.
However developed, the physiology of these intestinal appendages is, the detention of food until
all its nutritive qualities are absorbed, and increase of the absorbent surface.
The Cloa'ca (fig. 101, 1 A) or " sewer," very well named, is the termination of the bowel,
— an oval or globular enlargement of the rectum, of sufficient capacity at least to contain the
completely shelled egg. For, not as in placental mammals, the uro-genital and digestive or-
gans are behind-hand in their evolution, and do not entirely lose connection with each other.
Nor is there in birds any distinct bladder ; but a cavity, originally that of the allantois of the
embryo, persists in common with that of the intestines, and is the cloaca. Such incomplete
distinction between the two as there may be, by a folding of mucous membrane or partial com-
partment of the whole, results in cloaca proper and urogenital sinus, in which latter are the
papillose orifices of the ureters, one on each side, from the kidneys ; and of the single oviduct
(9) or paired sperm-ducts (J), from ovary or testes. The urine of birds not being liquid
requires no more of a bladder than the sinus furnishes. The same cavity contains the penis of
those birds, as the ostrich and drake, which are provided with an organ of copulation. A
peculiar anal gland, the bursa fabricii (see froutisp.), also opens into the cloaca. Refuse of
digestion, the renal excretion, the spermatic secretion, and the product of conception, are dis-
charged by a single anal orifice, the two former en masse.
Being intimately related to dietetic regimen, and so to the habits of birds, the alimen-
tary canal varies greatly, — even more than my slight sketch shows, — and consequently affords
good zoological characters in the details of its construction. But of all the anatomical systems,
this is the one most variable as a matter of i)hysiological adajitation (see p. 67). Its char-
acters, even when they seem weighty, are therefore peculiarly liable to be fallacious as indices
of natural affinities, and must be applied with discreet caution to morphological classification.
Such are commonly only of generic significance. Thus in pigeons the caeca and even the gall-
bladder may be present or absent in neighboring genera.
Alimentary Annexes. — Some of these, as the salivary glands, have been noticed already.
The two most important bodies connected with the digestive tract, and properly considered
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY. 221
adjuncts, are the pancreas and the liver. The former is that kind of lobulated salivary gland
which in mammals is called the "sweetbread.'' It lies in the duodenal loop, along which its
loosely aggregated lobes extend. Its ducts, formed by the successive union of smaller efferent
tubes, are two or three in number; they pierce the intestine a little below its commencement
at the pylorus, and pour into the canal the pancreatic juice, which has the property of emul-
sionizing fat. The liver is a well-known glandular organ of very special structure and func-
tion, secreting the Huid called bile, also received into the intestine. It is of moderate size in
birds, and dcipply divided into two principal (right and left) lobes : in some birds there is also a
smaller lobe ; and one of the large lobes may also be divided. The lobes dispart above to
receive between them the apex of the heart ; they are held in place by pleuro-peritoneal folds
contributing to form the thoracic-abdominal air-cells. The viscus receives venous blood from
the extensive portal system of birds; two hepatic veins then conduct it to the post-caval. The
emunctory ducts, carrying off the bile, are two or three in number. One at least goes directly
to the intestine, and another to the gall-bladder, when that cyst exists ; in which case there is
a separate cystic duct from the bladder to the intestine, no ductus communis choledochus, or
duct common to the hepatic substance and its cyst, being formed in birds. Two hepatic ducts
may coexist with a cystic duct, making three to the intestine, all separate ; two is the rule
when there is no gall-bladder. These emunctories commonly enter the intestine some distance
apart, and after the pancreatic ducts. The gall-bladder is generally present, frequently absent ;
it may occur or not in closely related genera of birds.
g. Oology : the Uro-Genital Organs.
The Urinary and Generative Organs may be conveniently considered together, not
only on acccnint of their close anatomical relations, but because their physiological functions,
totally diverse in adult life, are primitively related in the most intimate manner. For it is a
singular fact that the mean office of straining urine out of the system is at first sustained by a
structure (wolffian body), in closest connection with which, in the female, actually as a part of
which, in the male, are later developed those organs (ovary and testis) whose exalted office
is creative ; for these permanent genital glands procreate the microscopic creatures called
DynamamoehcB, the marriage of which results in the reproduction of a complex organism like
the male or female parent. (See figs. 103, 104, and following.)
The Wolflflan Bodies, or jmmordial kidneys, are a pair of tubular structures which
appear very early in tlie progress of development of the embryo, beneath the spinal column, in
front of the fore end of the future kidneys: with each of them is developed a duct, the wolffian
duct, which carries their excretion into the cavity of the allantois (the future cloaca). Upon
the appearance of the true kidneys, the transitory wolffian bodies and ducts lose their urinary
function; they ultimately disappear from the female, for the mo.st part, leaving only a trace of
their former existence in certain vestigial structures {parovaria, etc.) ; in the male, likewise,
they atrophy, but not to tlie same extent ; for a portion of the bodies persists as an accessory
(epididymalj portion of the testicle, and their ducts persist as the sperm-ducts, or vasa deferen-
tia. Meanwhile, in closest connection with tlie wolffian bodies, appears a pair of organs, the
genital glands, for a while exactly alike. If the new creature is to hecome female, the genital
gland develops to a certain complexity of tissue and becomes the ovary ; while a certain duct,
the miilleriun duct, developed coincidently to connect such ovary with the cloaca, becomes
the oviduct. In birds usually only one ovary and oviduct (the left) becomes functional. If
the new creature is to become male, the same genital gland develops to a higher degree of
complexity, acquires a tubular structure, and becomes the testicle; it connects with remains of
the Wolffian body, and the wolffian duct becomes the permanent sperm-duct, conveying the
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
product of the male function to the cloaca, just as the oviduct conveys the product of the female
function to the same sewerage. Thus the testicle of the male and the ovary of the female are
homologous, in fact primitively identical organs, upon which sexual difference is impressed hy
the greater complexity of structure acquired if the sex is to be male ; a female being, anatomi -
cally and })liysiologically, simply an imperfect male, arrested at one stage of her physical
progress to male perfection of structure; and the whole nature of the female bears out the same
relation of inferiority. But the oviduct of the female, and the sperm-duct of the male, though
physiologically identical, having the same function of conveying the products of generation
from the genital gland to the light of day, are not anatomically the same; for in the case of the
female, whose wolffian duct has disappeared, the miillerian is the oviduct ; in the case of the
male, in which no miillerian duct appears, the wolffian is the sperm-duct. The two are analo-
gous, not homologous (a good illustration — see p. 68). But it must be further observed that
while tlie sperm-duct conveys only the masculine essence from centre to periphery, the oviduct
conveys the feminine material from centre to periphery, and also the male essence in the opposite
direction ; for, upon coitus, which is direct in all birds, the spermatozoa, deposited in the cloaca
of the female, find their way up through her oviduct to the ovary, there to accomplish impreg-
nation of the ovarian ova, the fecund product then passing down by the same avenue. All that
relates to the mysteries of generation, — both the structure and functif m of the reproductive
organs, and the maturation of the product of conception, is properly Oology (Gr. ^6v, oon, an
egg) ; though the term is vulgarly used to signify merely a description of the chalky substance
in which the egg of a binl is finally invested. The anatomy of the egg is Embryology. An
egg, or ovum, is simply the product of conception up to the time that product ac([uires an inde-
pendent existence ; while still connected with the female tissue of the ovary, and before or after
it amalgamates with the male element, it is an ovarian ovum ;
more or less incompletely matured, it is an embryo or fa-tus, —
the fonner term being commonly applied
to the unhatched young of birds. The
only difference between the "egg" of a
"viviparous" mammal and that of an
"oviparous" bird, is in the albuminous
and cretaceous envelopes of the latter,
and its speedy expulsion from the body
of the female to be hatched outside, with-
out anatomical connection with the moth-
er after the hard shell is formed ; whereas,
in most mammals, the ovum is retained
in a dilated part of the muUerian duct
(uterus or womb) until it "hatches"; but
mammal and bird alike "lay eggs," the
essential germinative part of which is
identical. Appreciation of these facts, offemaie embryo binl
..^. . , r u 1 • r u after Mull er. a, kiilr
a, kidneys: h, ureters; c, and a proper idea of the relations ot the gan bodies: c, genital gland, to
wolffian bodies; rf, their mature sexual organs to the wolffian become ovary; (/.adrenals; e.ure-
ducts, to be sr'erm-<luct8; . j j- **'"''! ''• wolffian ducts, to disap-
e, genital glands, to become bodies IS necessary to any understanding j,ear; "(7, mullerian ducts, to become
testicles;/, adrenals. of the parts and processes concerned in oviducts,
reproduction.^ We have here to consider the pennanent as distinguished from the transitory
kianeys, and may then recur to the subject of generation.
' The matter may be further illustrated by the two figures borrowed from Owen (after Miiller). In both figs.,
the large dark masses, a, are the permanent kidneys, whose ducts, b in fig. 103. t in fig. IM, are the ureters, empty-
ing into the cloaca. In fig. 103, male, c is the wolffian body, whose duct, rf, persists as the sperm-duct, conveying
"t:
Fig. 103. — Uro-genital
organs of male embryo bird;
from Owen, after Muller
Uro-genital organs
from Owen,
Ineys; b, wolf-
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY.
223
The Kidneys (Lat. renes, Engl, reitis, adj. renal; figs. 103, 104, a; 105, rr) differ much
from those of mammals in physical characters, though identical in function, — that of straining
off from the hlood certain deleterious substances in the form of urea ; whence they are sometimes
called emidgent organs. Their office of purification is analogous to that of the lungs, which
decarbonize the blood, and to some extent vicarious, as is that of excretory organs in general.
As the lungs are closely bound down to the thoracic region of the trunk, so are the kidneys
impacted in the pelvic region, being moulded to the sacral inequalities of surface (p. 147).
They are paired, but sometimes connected across the median line by renal tissue ; they have no
special renal artery, but derive their blr)od from various sources ; and blood from them takes
part in the hepatic portal system, no reuiportal being accomplished. They have little or noth-
ing of the particular mammalian configuration which has made "kidney-shaped" a common
descriptive term ; being elongated, somewhat parallel-sided and rectangular, flattened bodies,
lobated into a few large compartments, and lobulated into many lesser divisions ; their figure
depends much upon that of the pelvis. They are very dark-colored, rather soft, easily laccrable,
and appear to the naked eye to be of a granular substance, without dis-
tinction of "cortical" and "medullary" portions. Nor is there any
" pelvis" of the kidneys in which the uriniferous tubules empty together
by numerous ducts as into a common basin. Each ureter (figs. 103, b ;
10-t, e; 105, ?/), or excretory duct, is formed by reiterated reunion of the
iuhuli uriniferi, after the manner of a pancreatic duct ; each ureter passes
<l(>wn behind the rectum and opens into the lower back part of the cloaca,
— much like a mammalian ureter into the base of the bladder. The
original cavity of the allantois remains to furnish no more of a urinar)/
bladder than some special dilatation of the cloaca represents ; but this
rudimentary bladder, as distinguished from the uro-genital sinus in which
the ureters terminate alongside the sperm-ducts, is well marked in some
birds ; being in the ostrich, for example, a considerable enlargement of
the cloaca between the termination of the rectum proper and the urn-
genital compartment of the sewer. The renal excretion is not watery
as in mammals, but semi-solid, and voided with the faeces, of which it
forms part.
The kidneys are capped by a pair of small yellowish bodies, the
supra-renal capsules or adrenals (figs. 103,/; 104, 105, d), the nature
of which is undetermined. They are chiefly interesting to the practical
ornithologist in their liability to be mistaken for testes in examining
specimens for sex (see p. 40).
Male Organs of Generation. — The testis CLvd. testis, Tp\. testes,
a witness; fig. 105, a) or testicle lias been already sufficiently noticed as
its general appearance and position (p. id)
Fig. 105. — Uro-gen-
ital organs of the domes-
tic cock; after Owen,
a, testis; 6, epididymis;
c, sperm-duct or vas de-
ferens; (I, adrenal; k,
cloaca; x, kidney; y,
ureter.
to Its general appearance and position (p. 4(5). As said above, it is the
essential male organ, consisting of the ]>rimitive indifferent genital gland (fig. 103, e) in its
highest state of development as a tubular secretory organ, connected with the remains of
the wfdffian body as a part of its efferent structure (epididymis ; fig. 105, b) and with the
original wolffian duct as its vas deferetis (figs. 103, d ; 105, c), or efferent duct, by which the
semen is conveyed to the cloaca. The original glands normally remain paired, and both
are usually functionally developed to corresponding size, shape, and activity ; they remain
in their embryonic situation in front of the upper part of the kidneys; and such difference
semen from e, the testis. In fig 101, h is the wolffian body, whose duct,/, disappears ; and g is the miillerlan duct,
becoming the oviduct, to convey the egg from c, the ovary. Thus <•, fig. 10.3, and c, fig. KH, are the homologous
genital glands, becoming either testis or ovary: but the sperm-duct, <1, fig. 103, is not the oviduct, </, tig. 104.
224 GEyEEAL ORNITHOLOGY.
of appearance as they present under diflferent circiunstances is mainly seasonal. For birds,
as a rule, procreate only at particular times of the year, rarely having more than one or
two broods of young : the functional activity and quiescence of the testes correspond, as the
enormous swelling of the gland during the breeding season is one of the peculiarities of the
bird's organ. This may be related to the absence, in birds, t>f specially formed vesiailce semi-
naks, or seminal reservoirs ; though certain contortions and dilatations of the sperm -ducts
which are to be observed may imperfectly answer to detain the secretion until circumstances
render it available. The passage of the sperm-duct is alcmg the face of the kidneys, generally
iu company with the ureters ; the opening is by a papilla upon the surface of the uro-genital
sinus. These papillose terminations of the sperm-ducts are erectUe to a degree, and answer the
purpose of paired penes in those birds which are not provided with better-formed copulatory
parts. In coitu, th»; cloacal chambers containing the orifices of the genital ducts are opened,
and the more or less jirotruded papillae come in contact or close juxtaposition. In cases in
which a penis or two penes are developed, the urethral passage is a groove, never a tube,
though cavernous and even muscular tissue may be developed ; and iu any case of such an
intromittent apparatus, it has cloacal invagination when not operative (see p. 891). These
organs, in all their variety, are of the sauropsidan, not mammalian, type ; though in some
respects the structure approaches that seen in the non-placeutal mammals. No prostate or
cowperian glands exist in birds.
The sole ofiice of the testis, or oophoron masculinum, is the secretion of semen, associate
structures being simply accessory, for the conveyance of that vital substance and its transfer-
ence to the opposite sex. The seminal fluid itself is merely the vehicle of transport of the
spermatozoa, in which their activity may be freely exercised in their intuitive struggles to gain
access to their mates in the ovary. It is literally a ^' sea of life " in which the minute creatures
swim in shoals to their destiny, — and their fate in any case is death. If they successfully
buffet the waves of fate they find a watery grave in the ovum at last ; if that haven be not
reached they simply perish in mid-ocean. The spermatozoa, or seminal animalcules, or male
Di/namamcebce (figs. 106, 107), are the exact counterparts of ovarian ova, in so far as thoy are
single-celled animals of a very low grade of organi-
zation ; but their activity and intelligence is marvel-
lous, and still more so is the mysterious attribute
with which they are endowed of assimilating their
protoplasmic substance with that of the ovum; with
the result that the thus fecundated ovum is capable
of procreating itself by fission for a period until a
mass of similar creatures is engendered ; from which
. mass is then speedily evolved the complex body of mato7oa'ofsparrow.
of rloniestic cock, greatly , -r.. , m, ,. n t -i-v i ..i -^ i
magnified; from Owen, after the Bird. The correspondmg female DynamamcehcB ^H^^^^^^^'^'f^'^^^
Wagner and Leuckart. (ovarian ova) are simple spherical animalcules, phys- -wagner andLeuck-
ically indistinguishable from an ordinary encysted ^Wfce&rt; but the sperma- art.
tozoa are remarkably distinguished in appearance, furnishing probably the best marked case of
sexual characters to be found among the Protozoa, to which class of animals they belong. The
spermatozoa resemble flagellate infusoria or ciliated endothelium cells, though they each have
but a single whip. They are of extremely minute size, much smaller than their females, and
filamentous; more or less thickened and sometimes wavy at their nucleated heads, whence pro-
trudes an excessively delicate thready taU, endowed with great vibratory energy. They may bo
likened to diminutive attenuated tadpoles, which swim by lashing the tail in the seminal fluid.
Under the microscope shoals of these curious creatures may be seen swimming in the sea, nosing
about in search of the ovum, butting their heads in wrong places, backing out and trying again
in another direction; with such success that out of myriads a score or so may gain tlieir end. It
Fk; mo. —Spermatozoa --«-- ;- *i J:i i..«J ^u- -. i-- i,...n. „f Fig. 107. Sper-
THE ANATOMY OF BIEDS. — OOLOGY. 225
will be seen that they have a long journey to accomplish ; for, liberated in the cloaca of the
female, they have to swim through the whole length of the oviduct to the ovary. Besides
such physical difference between the male and female Dynamamcebce as I have indicated, they
differ in their place and mode of birth ; and in this difference lies the very gist of sex. The
original indifferent genital gland above described, arrested, as said, at a certain stage of de-
velopment and therefore female — the ovary — produces its eggs from its surface-cells, which
subside into the ovarian tissue, and are quietly packed away there as ovarian ova, ready to
ripen and awaken to impregnation in due course. The same gland, further developed into a
testis, gives active birth to the spermatozoa in the tubules of its comphcated interior tissue. In
the former case, the superficial cells slowly ovulate ; in the latter, the cells lining the interior
speedily spermate; in a word, the testis is as literally viviparoxis as is the ovary oviparous, —
and these contUtions are certainly no insignificant indices of relative development in the scale of
being. The spermatozoa appear in some animals to be set free in myriads from the walls of the
seminal tubules whence they directly issue; in birds, they are described as appearing coiled or
otherwise packed in delicate sperm-cells, which speedily rupture and discharge the creatures in
the current of the seminal fluid, where they take up the course and display the energetic actions
above noted. Either case has its parallel among ordinary Protozoans ; the former coiTespond-
ing to the process of budding or gemmation, the latter to that of interior fission and discharge
of numerous progeny by rupture of the envelope. The final conjugation of spermatic filaments
with ovarian ova is simple fusion, such as any ordinary sexless amoeboid animal may jjractise to
blend its protoplasmic substance with that of another. But there is this difference, that in the
case of Dynamamoeba it is a true sexual congress, usually polyandrous, and still more of a
one-sided affiiir in that the feu;ale Dynamaniceba is at the time in a more or less quiescent,
encysted state.
Female Organs of Generation. — Tlie connection between the male and female organs
of generation is naturally so close that in what has preceded it has been scarcely possible to
speak of the former without reference to the female counterparts. I have thus far endeavored
to state clearly the nature of the originally sexless genital gland ; the difference in the same
gland when afterward sexed male or female ; and the character of the spermatic offspring of
the male gland. In reading that lesson the novitiate in such Eleusinian mysteries must not
mistake the language I have used to describe the male Dynamamceba, or spermatozoon, as
applicable to anything in the development of the female Dynamamoeba, or ovum, into the
chick ; for all said thus far only relates to the bringing of the spermatozoon into contact with
tlie ovum, preliminary to the initial step of the ovum in its course of development. It is tliis
female Dynamamoeba — ih\s primitive ovarian ovum, the germ of the chick, which con-esponds
to and is the counterpart of the male Dynamamceba, on meeting and mingling with which
fecundation is accomplished; the impregnated ovum being then empowered to take up its
marvellous march. Conjugation of the opposite Dynamamoebce occurs either in the ovary or
upper part of the oviduct, — most probably the former. One or several spermatozoa — usually
more than one — accomplishing their journey up the oviduct, and finding their affinity,
insinuate themselves into the substance of the ovum, and die there, dissolved in amorous pain ;
that is to say, they melt into the substance of the ovtim. The now fertile result, consisting of
the mingled protoplasm of the opposite amoebas, is to all appearance precisely the same as the
original infecund ovum — yet there is all the difference in the world, as the result shows.
The general character of the ovary of a bird has been already indicated Tp. 40). The
l)rincipal superficial difference in appearance when the ovary is in functional activity, from the
corresponding organ of a mammal, is that the ova develop to such a size, in ripening in the
ovary before leaving it for the oviduct, that the organ looks like a btmch of grapes, — very
large and conspicuous. The oviduct is the musculo-membranous tube (modified muUerian
226
GENERAL OBN UROLOGY.
duct) which conveys the ripened ovum, and in its passage provides it with a quantity of white
albumen, and iinally a chalk shell. A bird's oviduct is the strict morphological homologue
' (p. 68) of a mammal's fallopian tube, uterus and vagina, —
more accurately, of one fallopian tube, one half of a uterus,
and one half of a vagina ; for the uterus and vagina of a
mammal result from the union of both miillerian ducts ;
whereas in a bird only one — the left usually — is normally
developed. Functionally, the oviduct is also analogous (p.
68) to the mammahan uterus, inasmuch as it transmits the
product of conception, and detains it for a whUe, in the initial
stage of its germination, as we shall see in the sequel ; though
all but the very first steps in the development of the chick
are taken during incubation, the egg having so hastily left
its uterine matrix. These structures — ovary and oviduct,
fig. 108, — are most conveniently described as we trace the
course of the ovum from its origination to its maturity. This
record differs considerably from the corresponding course of
events in a mamniiil, inasmuch as the ovum of a bird, though
primitively identical Avith that of any other animal, acquires
special albuminous and cretaceous envelopes which the mam-
malian ovum, developed in the body of the parent, does not
require. The process is termed ovulation. Ovulation, which
is the formation of an egg in the bird, must not be confounded
with germination, which is the formation of a bird in the egg.
The former can be accomplished by the virgin bird, which
may lay eggs scarcely differing in appearance irom those which
have been fecundated, but germination in which is of course
impossible. The course of ovulation, and afterward of germi-
nation, is now to be traced.
Fig. 108. — Female organs of do-
mestic fowl, in activity ; from Owen,
after Carus. a, b, c, d, mass of ova-
rian ova, in all stages of develop-
ment; h, a ripe one; c, its stigma,
where the ovisac or calyx ruptures ;
rf, a ruptured empty calyx, to be ab-
sorbed ; e, infundibulum, or funnel-
sbaped orifice of the oviduct ; /, next
portion of oviduct ; g, follicular part
of oviduct ; in, mesometry, membrane
steadying the oviduct ; the reference-
line, m, crosses the constricted part or
isthmus of the oviduct ; these parts
secrete the white of the egg ; A-, shell-
forming or uterine part of oviduct,
in which is a completed egg, i ; I,
lowest or vaginal part of oviduct,
opening into uro-genital sinus of the
cloaca, n ; o, anus.
Ovulation. — The ovum begins as a microscopic point in
the ovary, the stroma or tissue of which is packed with these
incipient eggs. It is primitively just like any other female
Dynamamoeba, from that of a sponge up to that of a woman,
— a naked simple cell, capable of exhibiting active amoeboid
movements. It consists of a finely granular protoplasm, the
viteUus, or yelk, enclosed in a delicate structureless cell- wall, the vitelline membrane, called
the zona 2)eHuci(la from its appearance imder the microscope. Imbedded in the vitellus is ii
nucleus, or kernel, the germinal vesicle; in this is a nucleolus, or inner kernel, the germinal
spot. The ovum occupies a tiny space in the ovary, the ceUular walls of which constitute an
ovisac, or graafian follicle. Now if such an ovum as this were mammalian, it would, without
material change, burst the ovisac, be received into the fallopian tube and conveyed to the
uterus ; where, supposing it already fertihzed, the whole of its contents would develop into the
body f.f the embryo. ItVould therefore be holoblastic (Gr. o\os. holos, the whole ; ^XaariKos,
hlastikos, germinative). It is different with a bird or other " oviparous" animal, the egg of
which has to hatch outside the body ; for provision must be made for the nourishment of the
developing chick, thus separated from the tissues of its mother. Such provisicm is made by
the accumulation about the ovum of a great quantity of granular protoplasmic substance, which
forms nearly all the large yellow ball called in ordinary language '' the yelk " of an egg. None
of this adventitious substance goes to form the embryo ; it is what the embryo feeds on during
1
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY.
227
Fig. 109. — Meroblastic ovum
(yelk) of domestic fowl, nat. size,
in section; after Haeckel. a, the
thin yelk-skin, enclosing the yel-
low food-yelk, which is deposited
in CQnceiitric layers, c, d ; b, the
cicatricle or tread with its nu-
cleus, whence passes a cord of
white yelk (here represented in
black) to the central cavity, d^.
its formation. A bird's egg is therefore meroblastic (Gr. fj-epos, meros, a part, and ^XaariKos),
and we must carefully discriminate between the great mass of yellow food-yelk, as it may be
called, and a small quantity of "white yelk," the true germ-yellc, which alone is transformed into
the body of the chick. The latter forms the cicatricle, vulgarly called the " tread"; that small
disc, visible in most birds' eggs to the naked eye, which appears
upon the surface of the great yellow ball, floating in a pale thin
yelk which penetrates the denser and yellower food-yelk by a
cord of its own substance leading to a central cavity, the false
yelk-cavity, around which the food-yelk is deposited in a series
of concentric layers like a set of .onion-skins The whole mass
is surrounded by a delicate structureless yelk-skin, called the
vitelline membrane (whether this be the original ^•itelline mem-
brane of the Dynamamceba or not; i. e., whether the food-yelk
lias accumulated inside or outside the original zona pellucida).
All this enormous accumulation, effecting what is called a meto-
vnm or after-egg, to distinguish it from the protovum, or primitive
state of the egg, goes on in the ovary, and in the ovisac of each
ovum ; with the ripening of the ovum, the ovisacs become dis-
tended to a corresponding size, and the whole ovary acquires
the familiar bunch-of-grapes appearance. With such maturation
of the fruit, the connection with the rest of the ovary lengthens
into a stalk, or pedicel, by which the ripe ovum hangs to its
stock, like any fruit upon its stem, ready to burst its skin and fall into the open mouth of the
oviduct. Such rupture of the graafian follicle (ovisac), in its now distended state known as
the capsule or calyx, occurs along a line where the numerous blood-vessels which ramify
upon its surface appear to be wanting, called the stigma : this is rent ; the ovum slips out of
its calyx, like the substance of a grape pinched out of its skin, and falls into the oviduct.
After this discharge, the empty calyx collapses, shrivels, and ultimately disappears by ab-
sorption. (See expl. of fig. 108).
The ovum thus acquires the full size of its yelk in the ovary, — becoming, as in the case of
the hen, a yellow sphere an inch in diameter.^ Notwithstanding its enormous distension with
food-yelk, it is still morphologically a simple cell, affording the maximum dimension of any
known protozoan or single-celled animal. Entering the oviduct, the germ-yelk part of the
whole mass is fertilized by spermatozoa, unless this process has before occurred in the ovary,
and iu its passage through that tube the yelk-ball becomes invested successively with the
mass of transparent albumen known as the " white" of the egg, and finally by the chalk shell
— both secreted by the mucous membrane lining the oviduct.
During its functional activity, the left oviduct (there beiug usually only this one) becomes
liighly developed, both as to its muscular walls, which by their contractility embrace the ovum
closely and squeeze it along, and as to its mucous secretory surface. It is supported by perito-
neal folds forming a mesometry, like the mesentery of the intestines ; its whole structure and
office are quite like those of a length of intestine. The upper end of the singularly serpentine
oviduct is dilated into an infundibidum, or fuimel-like mouth, corresponding to the fimbriated
extremity of the mammalian fallopian tube, and constituting a morsiis diaboli, or ''devil's grip,"
' How great this is can only be appreciated by comparison. The human egg, on escaping from the graafian
follicle, is sai<l to be from ^Jn to y}g of an inch in diameter. Taking it at jj,,, there would be 40,000 in a square inch,
and in a cubic inch 8,000,000. The largest bird's egg known, that of the ^pyornis, is said to have a content of
about a gross of hen's eggs — 144. Supposing the yelk of the yEpi/omis egg to bear the usual f)roportion to the
other contents of the shell, and allowing for the difference in bulk between a sphere and a cube of equal diameters,
there would still be somewhere about a billion human eggs in one yEpyornis egg-yelk, — roundly, a mass of them
equal to that of the germs of more than one-half of the present population of the globe.
228
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
which gets hold of the ovum to drag it down to the common lot of mortals from its high ovarian
birth. The infundibulum receives from the mesentery a delicate tunic of unstriped muscular
fibres, which are so disposed as to dilate that orifice for the reception of the ovum ; and during
the venereal orgasm the mouth of the tube is supposed to seize upon the ripest egg. The
actual anatomy of the arrangement, and the whole operation, is strangely suggestive of one of
the oldest myths respecting the serpent which bore the egg of the world in its jaws. The
mucous lining of the oviduct consists of a layer of ciliated epithelium ; the membrane has a
different character in successive portions of its extent. Above, when the tube is not distended
with its burthen, the lining is thrown into lengthwise folds, which lower down become spirally
disposed, and then longitudinal again before they cease. This rugous portion of the tube is
beset with raucous follicles, which secrete "the white." The oviduct, after contracting at a
point called the isthmus, enlarges to a calibre suflBcient to accommodate the egg in its shell ;
for this is the shell-forming part, homologous with the mammalian uterus (a sinister semi -uterus
at least), lined with large villi, and beset with the follicles whose secretions calcify the egg-shell,
and decorate it with pigment. The rest of the tube is vaginal, being merely the passage-way
by which the perfected ovum is discharged into the cloaca, to be expelled per anum. The
muscular Avails of the oviduct consist of both circular and longitudinal unstriped fibres, like
those of intestine, — the latter especially in upper portions and at the infundibulum, the former
more conspicuously below, where they form a sort of os tinccB at the bottom of the calcific
portion, and a kind of sphincter vagince at the end of the tube. A recognizable clitoris is
developed in many birds.
The depositicm of the white and of the shell
remains to be noticed. The first deposit upon
tlie yelk-ball consists of a layer of dense and
somewhat tenacious albumen, called the chala-
ziferous membrane (Gr. xa^afa, chalaza, a tu-
bercle, and Lat. fero, I bear). As the egg is
urged along by the peristaltic action of the
tube, it acquires a rotation about the axis of the
tube ; the successive layers of soft albumen it
receives are deposited somewhat spirally; and
the chalaziferous membrane is drawn out into
threads at opposite poles of the egg. These
threads, which become tvA'isted in opposite direc-
tions during the rotation of the egg, are called
chalazcB ; they are the " strings," rather un-
pleasantly evident in a soft boiled egg, but serve
the important office of mooring and steadying the
yelk in the sea of white by adhesions eventually
contracted M-ith the membrane which immedi-
ately lines the shell. They are also intrusted
with the duty of ballasting, or keeping the yelk right side up. For there is a ''right side"
to the yelk-ball, being that on which floats the cicatricle, or "tread." This side is also the
lightest, the white yelk being less dense than the yellow ; and the chalazse are attached a little
below the central axis. The result is, that if a fresli egg be slowly rotated on its long axis,
the tread will rise by turning of the yelk-ball in the opposite direction, tOl, held by the twisting
of the chalazse, it can go no farther ; when, the rotation being continued, the tread is carried
under and up again on the other side, resuming its superior position as before. After all the
spiral layers of soft white are laid on, a final covering of dense albumen is deposited at the
isthmic part of the oviduct. This forms a tough tunic called the membrana ptituminis (Lat.
Fig. 110. —Hen's egg, nat. size, in section; from
Owen, after A. Tliompson. A, cicatricle or " trea<i,"
with its nucleus, of white germ-yelk, floating on surface
of pale thin nutritive yelk, leading to central yelk-
cavity, X ; a, the yellow yelk-ball, deposited in the suc-
cessive layers, forming a set of halones, and enveloped
in the clialaziferous membrane which is spun out at
opposite poles into the twisted strings, chalazse, e, c;
b, V, successive investments of softer white albumen ;
d, membrana putaminis, the "."soft shell" or egg-pod,
between layers of which at the great end of the egg is
the air space,/; e, the shell.
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY. 229
putamen, a peel, rind), ur " egg-pod"; it is the final envelope of such a " soft- shelled egg"
as a hen drops when deprived of the lime required to enahle her to secrete a hard shell. In
the uterine dilatation of the oviduct a thick white fluid charged with earthy matter is exuded ;
this condenses upon the egg-pod and forms the shell. The composition of this earth is chiefly
carbonate of lime (common chalk), with some carbonate of magnesia, and phosphates of both
of these bases — thus like that of bone as to ingredients, but in very different proportions. The
shell does not simply overlie the pod in a distinct sheet, but is intimately coherent, the micro-
scopic crystals or other particles of the earthy matter being deposited in the matted fibrous
texture of the pod. The connection is most intimate in fresh eggs ; after a while, layers of the
pod separate at the butt of the egg, forming the large air-space which every one has noticed in
that situation. The shell being very porous, readily admits air. The air space enlarges during
incubation, and the pod becomes more and more distinct from the shell, which latter also
increases in porosity and fi-agility towards "full term." The rough or smooth appearance of an
egg-shell, the pores which may be visible to the naked eye, and other physical characters, are
due to the impression made upon it by the lining membrane of the '' uterus.'' The superficial
deposit of chalk is so heavy, in some cases, as those of cormorants, etc., that it may be scraped
ofl" without interfering with the texturally firm shell-substance underlying. All the coloration
of egg-shells, which frequently makes them pretty objects, is simply the deposit of pigment
granules in or upon the shell. Such deposit may be perfectly uniform, as it is in the bluish-
green egg of a robin, for instance, but it is oftener spotty — either upon a white or a whole-
colored ground. The browns and neutral tints are the usual colors, particularly a bright
reddish-brown; the same, lying in instead of upon the shell, gives the grays, "lilacs," and
"lavenders" so well known. In ptarmigan, the pigment is so heavily deposited that the
egg comes out pasty on the surface ; a sign of " fresh paint! " one must not disregard if he
wcaild not spoil the decoration.
Oviposition. — The energy and rapidity with which the processes involved in the manu-
facture of so complex a product as a bird's egg is now seen to be are extraordinary. A domestic
fowl may lay an egg every day for an indefinite period. It is diflicult to say how quickly an
egg may ripen in the ovary ; for, during the activity of that organ, several or many are to be
found in all stages of immaturity, and the date of the initial impulse cannot well be determined.
As there is probably but one egg at a time in the oviduct, the whole process of finishing off the
yelk-ball with its chalaziform, soft albuminous, putaminous, and calcareous envelopes may go
on in twenty-four hours, most of which time is consumed in the shell-formation. The number
of eggs matured by the human female is or should be thirteen annually; this is no large number
for many of the gallinaceous and anatine birds to deposit in about as many days. But a
probable average number is five or six. Defeat of the procreative instinct from any accident is
commonly a stimulation to renewed endeavors to reproduce ; and very many birds rear two or
three broods annually, though one clutch of eggs is the rule. Many, such as auks, petrels, and
penguins, lay a single egg. Two eggs is the rule in humming-birds and pigeons. Three is
normal to gulls and terns, though these often have but two. Four is the rule among the
small waders of tlie limicoline groups. Some of the small Oscines lay over the average,
liaving eiglit or ten ; among these, the European sparrow, Pas.<ier domesticus, is probably the
most prolific. The parasitic cuckoos are said to lay the relatively smallest eggs ; that of the
Apertyx is said to be the largest, weighing one fourth as much as the bird. Tlie usual
sh(q)e of an egg has given us the connnon names oval, ovate, and ovoidal, for the well-known
figure. Some, as those of owls, woodpeckers, kingfishers, and others, more or less nearly
approach a spherical shape. Eggs of grebes, herons, Totipalmate birds and various others
are rather elliptical, or equal-ended, and narrow in proportion to their length. Eggs of the
limicoline group are generally pyriform, — very broad at one end and narrow at the other. But
230
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
the eggs of all birds vary more in size and shape than some of the devotees of theoretical oology
admit in their practice. The variation so well known in any breed of domestic, fowl is scarcely
above a normal rate. The short diameter, corresponding to the caUbre of the oviduct, is less
variable than the long axis ; for when the quantity of food-yelk and white, upon which the
diflference in bulk depends, varies with the vigor of the individual, the scantiness or redundancy
is expressed by the shortening or lengthening of the whole mass. The egg traverses the
passage small end foremost, like a round wedge, with obvious reference to ease of parturition
by more gradual dilatation of the outlet.
Germination. — Leaving now all the accessory parts of an egg, let us confine attention
to the germ-yelk, or " tread," which is alone concerned in the germinative process. Recurring
to the female Dynamamoeha, consisting of granular protoplasm (vitellus) included in its cell-
wall (vitelhne membrane) and including its nucleus and nucleolus (germinal vesicle and germi-
nal spot), we will trace it up to the time it begins to take shape as an embryo chick. At first,
as I have observed before, it is like any other amoeba ; the first step of development is prob-
ably a retrograde one ; for if there ensues, when the spermatozoa melt into the ovum, the
result affirmed for mammalian ova, the original germinal vesicle and germinal spot disappear,
and the whole con-
tent of the ovum
proper is simply a
homogeneous mass
of granular proto-
plasm. In this ret-
rograde step, the or-
ganism, at the low-
est possible round
of the ladder of
evolution, is called
a monerula. The
germinal vesicle
and spot, however,
are speedily recon-
structed, and the
ovum looks pre-
cisely as it did be-
fore. But observe
that the actual dif-
ference is enoiTOOus;
for it now consists
of the blended sub-
stance of the original ovum and of the spermatozoa ; and in this duplex or bisexed state,
before any further step is taken, the creature is called a ajtula, — the parent cell of the entire
future organism. In the former state it could reproduce nothing, not even itself ; for it is the
strange physiological law of a Dynamamoeha that it cannot reproduce like an ordinary cell,
but must evolve an entire organism, like botli of those two whose vital forces it concentrates,
summarizes, and embodies, — or nothing.
The first change in the parent-cell is that by which it becomes T)r()ken up into a mass of
cells, each of which is just like itself. This process is called segmentation of the vitellus; each
one of the numerous resulting cells is called a cleavage-cell. The nucleus of the parent-cell
divides into two ; each attracts its half of the yelk ; the halves furrow apart and there are now
Fig 111 -St^iuentation of the vitellus 1)\ (IibLinilal cleavage, diagi uuni itK x about
10 times, alter Haeokel Onh the tread," eicatncle or germ yelk tigs> 109, i, 110, .-1) is
represented, as no other part of the whole yelk-ball undergoes the process. A, separation
into 2 ; B, into 4 ; C, into 16, by 8 radial and 1 concentric furrow ; I), into many parts, by
16 radial and about 4 concentric furrows ; E, 64 radial and about 6 concentric furrows ;
F, the whole tread broken up into a mulberry-mass (morula) of cells.
THE ANATOMY OF BIBDS.— OOLOGY.
231
two cleavage-cells in place of the one parent-cell. A fun-ow at right angles to the first, and
redivision of the nuclei, results in four cleavage-cells. Radiating furrows intermediate to the
first two bisect the four cells, and would render eight cells, were not these simultaneously
doubled by a circular furrow which cleaves each, with the result of sixteen cleavage-cells. So
the subdivision goes on until the parent-cell becomes a mass of cells. This particular kind of
cleavage, by radiating and concentric furrowing, is called discoidal, and the resulting heap of
little cells assumes the figure of a thin, flat, circular disc. Segmentation of the vitellus, in
whatever manner it may go on, results in a mulberry-like mass of cleavage-cells ; and the
original cytula has become what is called a morula. This process and result are clearly shown
in fig. Ill, A-F.
The morula or mulberry-massed germ of which the "tread" of a bird's egg at this mo-
ment consists increases by multiplication of cells, and the disc is lifted a little away from the
mass of yellow food-yelk upon which it rests, like a watch-crystal from the face of a watch.
Til is disposition of the greatly multiplied cells in a layer and their coherence forms of course
a membrane, — the blastodermic mem- -^
brane, or blastoderm, fig. 112, B, b.
The cavity between the blastoderm
and the mass of food- yelk is called the
cleavage cavity, s. At the stage when
the blastodermic membrane and cleav-
age-cavity are formed, the germ is
called a blastula, or germ-vesicle,'^ and
the process by which the morula be-
comes a blastula is called blastulation.
Next, from the thickened rim, w, of
the watch-crystal-like blastula a layer
of large entoderm cells, fig. 112, C, i,
separates, and grows toward the centre :
when it gets there, of course the origi-
nal cleavage-cavity, s, is shut off fi'om
the surface of the food-yelk ; a second
crystal having grown under the first
one. Tlie second adheres to the first,
obliterating the original cleavage-cav-
ity ; the germ is now obviously two-
FiG. 112. — Fnrtlier developnieiit of hen's egg; after Ilaeckel:
A, the mulberry mass of cleavage cells, h, same as seen on top in
fig 111, F, here viewed in profile in section, resting upon n, the
simply-shailed part of the figure, to represent conventionally the
mass of foofl-yelk. A, morula stage (as before); B, blastula
stage, the mass of cells, h, forming the blastoderm, uplifted from
the food-yelk, leaving the cleavage-cavity, s ; w, the thickened
rim of the germ-disc; (', the blastula in process of inversion, by
which a layer of entoderm-cells, i, growing from periphery to
layered ; tlie rising of the inner layer centre, will'apply itself to the layer of exoderm-cells, c, obliterat-
to Mioct tlie outer results in a cavity '"^ *''® f'leavage-cavity, s; D, the disc-gastrula completed, by
. 1 1 <■ 1 11 T-» 7 union of entoderm, i, with exoderm, c, leaving the primitive
between itsclt and the lood-yelk, I), d. intestinal cavity, d, which is quite similar in appearance to the
This cavity exactly resembles the cleavage cavity, s, but morphologically quite different,
(iriii^iual cleavage-cavity, but it is a very different thing, being the primitive i'ntestinal cavity.
The blastula, or germ-vesicle, has become converted into a gastnda, by the invaginating
process just described, known as gastrulation. The gastrula of a bird has the circular dis-
cnidal fnnii which causes it lo be termed a discogastrula. This process of forming a single
blastddcniiic layer, with a cleavage-cavity (blastula, or true germ- vesicle), then two blasto-
dermic layers, with obliteration of the cleavage-cavity and substitution of a ])rimitive intestinal
cavity (gastrula), is common to all animals which consist of more than single cells, under vari-
ous modifications and disguises ; the process described is that occurring in meroblastic eggs
which have a discoidal cleavage and form a discogastrula.'^
> Not to be confounded with the original " germinal vesicle " of the parent-cell, which long since disappeared
2 The so-called "germ-vesicle" of the holoblastic mammalian egg is subsequent to gastrulation, not prior
and iB therefore not a blastula proper.
232 GENERAL OBNITHOLOCxY.
"What we have got now is a tread or germ consisting of a circular concavo-convex disc of
two layers of blastoderm, resting by its rim upon the great yellow ball of food-yelk, from which
it is separated by a cavity, as a watch-crystal from its face. All these changes, up to comple-
tion of gastrulation, may go on before the egg is laid, the tread of a perfectly fresh egg being
already a multicellular discogastrula. Since the earlier stages of the embryo (cytula, morula,
blastula, and gastrula) are actually accomplished while the egg is stiU in the body of the parent,
the analogy of the oviduct to uterus, etc., as well as its strict homology to the parts of a
miillerian duct so named, is not so fanciful as some appear to think. The outer of the two
blastodermic layers is the ectoderm or epiUast, C or D, e; the inner is the endoderm or hypo-
blast, i. By multiplication of cells between the two arises the mesoblast. The mesoblastic
layer of cells subsequently splits into two, of which the outer is the sonmtopleura, or body
layer, the inner the splanchnopleura or visceral layer. The two-layered germ has then become
four-layered. Up to the time of formation of four layers, the cells are all alike, or only differ
slightly in size, color, or consistency. Now, however, ensues that marvelhtus process by which
the indifferent cells of the blastodermic layers are to become differentiated in form and special-
ized in function, — a sort of division-of-labor system in the infant colony of cells, by which some
are to learn to move, others to digest, others to procreate, others to think and feel, with corre-
sponding modifications of form by which are generated the Osteamcebte, Myamoehee, Neur-
amoebce, — the bone-cells, muscle-cells, nerve-cells, and all others of the complex organism
which is in a few days to come into being from such simple beginnings. This of course opens
up the whole field of embryology, which we cannot here enter upon. I will only add, that fi-om
the epiblast is derived the integument, and its inversions, as those of the eye and ear, and the
brain and spinal chord. From the hypoblast is derived the lining of the alimentary canal and of
its annexes and ofisets, as liver, lungs, etc. The rest of the embryo comes from the mesoblast,
and most of it from the somatopleural layer. The fissure between the two layers of the
mesoblast becomes the great pleuro-peritoneal cavity.
In explaining the early embryo, I have closely followed the great German morjjhologist,
Haeckel ; and the illustrations are from the same high source.
Incubation. — To induce the wonderful metamorphoses just hinted at, it is only necessary
to keep a bird's egg at a pretty even temperature of about 100° F. Nearly all birds secure
this result by the process of incubation. In many cases the sun's rays relieve the parent of
some part of the duty. In a few, the heat evolved from vegetable ferment or decomposition is
utilized for the same purpose. This seems to be the case to some extent with grebes ; but
these incubate. ''The exception to the rule of incubation is given by the Megapodial birds
of the Australasian Islands. A huge mound of decaying vegetable matter is raised ; the eggs
are deposited vertically in a circle at a certain depth, near the summit, and the chick is devel-
oped with the aid of the heat of fermentation. The large size of the egg relates to affording
a supply of Tnaterial sufficing for an unusually advanced state of development of the chick at
exclusion; whereby it has strength to force its way to the surface of the hatching-mound,
with wings and featliers sufficiently developed to enable it to take a sliort flight to the nearest
branch of an overshadowing tree" (Owen). The period of incubation has been ascertained
with precision for few birds; it is known to range from ten days (perhaps less), as in case of
the wren, to fifty or sixty for the ostrich. The female is usually the sitter. Frequently both
sexes incubate in turn ; such unnatural care for the young by the male is tenned double monog-
amy. In most or all Eatitce, in the funnily Phalaropodidce, and some other Limicoline genera,
the male incubates. Most birds attend to their own eggs; many cuckoos (Cuculidce) and the
species of Molothrus, are parasitical, laying in the nests of other birds, which are thus forced to
become foster-parents of alien offspring, generally to the destruction of their own. This seems
to result from some peculiarity of the egg-layiug process, which does not permit several eggs
THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY. 233
to bo incubated and hatdiod simultaneously. It is not so unusual among American cuckoos
as generally supposed. The degree of d(!velopmeut to which biids attain in the egg has been
already discussed (p. 91). They break the shell by pecking at it, and struggling; for tlie
former operation the bill is often tempered at the tip by a hard knob which is afterward ab-
sorbed. The necessity of providing a receptacle for eggs, in which they may be incubated,
results in nidification or nest-building ; and the extraordinary taste and ability many birds dis-
play in this matter, as well as the wide range of their habitudes, furnishes one of the most
delightful departments of ornithology, called caliology (Gr. KoKia, kalia, a bird's nest; see
p. 54, note). Many birds burrow in the ground; others in trees; the most beautiful and
elaborate nests are furnished by various members of the Oscines, the weaver-birds of Africa
(Ploceidce) probably taking the lead. The male sometimes constructs his own "nest" apart
from that in which the female incubates. "Certain conirostral Cawtores still practise in the
uudisturbod wilds of Australia the formation of marriage-bowers distinct from the later-formed
nesting-place. The satin bower-bird (Ftilonorhynchus holosericeus) , and the pink-necked
bower-bird (Chlamydodera maculata), arc remarkable for their construction on the ground of
avenues, over-arched by l(»ng twigs or grass-stems, the entry and exit of which are adorned by
pearly shells, bright-colored feathers, bleached bones, and other decorative materials, which are
brought in profusion by the male, and variously arranged to attract, as it would seem, the
female by the show of a handsome establishment" (Owen). The extraordinary nests of the
Crotophaga, used in common by a colony of the birds, are ncited at p. 004. "Edible birds'-
uests," constructed by swifts of the genus Collocalia, c(jnsist chieHy of inspissated saliva.
Perhaps the most remarkable of all the receptacles of eggs is that which the penguin makes of
its own body, tlie egg being carried in a sort of pouch formed by the integument of the belly,
something like that of a marsupial mammal.
§5. DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ARTIFICIAL KEYS.
These "Keys" differ from natural analyses in being wholly arl»itrary and artilicinl.
They are an attempt to take the student by a "short cut" to the name and position in the orni-
thological system of any specimen of a North American bird he may have in hand and desire to
identify. The plan has been much used in Botany, though seldom if ever employed for a
whole Fauna, before the original edition of this work. It will serve a good purpose, rightly
used; but it must be remembered there is no "royal road to learning"; n(d)ody can be
smuggled into sound erudition, either. Nor must too much be expected of me here; I can
take the student nowhere until he has learned the difference between the head and the tail of
a bird, at any rate. That is what the ])receding pages undertake to teach; but, until such
technicalities have been mastered, progress in ornithology is out of the question.
The original "Key to the Genera" proved scarcely so satisfactory as I hoped it would be.
It undertook too much, to conduct the student at once down to the intricacies of the very
many modern genera, not all of which can by any possibility be characterized intelligil)ly in
a line of type. I have probably simplified and expedited matters by ))reparing on the same
plan Keys to the Orders and Sub-orders, and to the Fainilics. Tiicn in
work, under each head, further analyses are givfai when such seems to
families under their orders or sub-orders, of genera under their families, and
their genera. These ulterior analyses are for the most part rather natun
though I never liesitate to seize ujion awy character that may furnish the desi
ficati<jn.
The artificial Keys immediately ftdlowing will take the student to i\\c families, with refer-
ence to the page of the work where such groups come ; on turning to which, further analyses
he
body of tl
le
[' 1
•ef|uii'ed, —
<.f
if ;
species undi
IT
tl
lau artilicia
1,
<1 (
■\\w. to ident
i-
234 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
will be found, generally down to species and even varieties. They are to be used as follows
{after the preceding lessons have been learned) : —
We have in hand a bird we do not know, and the name of which we wish to ascertain.
Suppose it to be that common species which builds the nest of mud upon the bough of the
apple-tree and lays greenish-blue eggs. To what family does it belong ?
The Key opens with an arbitrary division of our birds according to the number and
position of their toes. Our specimen, we see, has four toes, three in front, one behind. It
therefore comes under IV. Going to IV., we read :
Hind toe — inserted above the level of the rest, etc.
— not inserted above the level of the rest. . . . (Go to B.)
Our specimen has the hind toe not inserted above the level of the rest. Going to B, we find
five alternatives. Our bird presents no one of the special characters of the first four altdrna-
tives, and this determined takes us to g. There we find :
(g) Primaries — 10 ; the 1st (never spurious), etc.
— 10; the 1st (spurious or), etc. . . . (Go to t)
— 9 ; the 1st (never spurious), etc.
In this case the bird has obviously a spurious first primary, not nearly two-thirds as long as
the longest. Going to i; —
(j) Tarsus —" booted " ; wings — shorter than, eto.
— longer than tail ; tail — double rounded.
— not double rounded Tuedid^, p. 240.
Thus (provided we have taken the troiible to inform ourselves what " spurious first pri-
mary" and "booted tarsus" mean), the key conducts to a family, by presenting in succession
certain alternatives, on meeting with each of which, we have only to determine which one of
the two or more sets of characters agrees with those afforded by our specimen. There will
not, it is believed, be any trouble in determining whether a given character is so, or is not so,
since only the most tangible, definite, and obvious features have been selected in framing the
key. After each determination, either the name of a family is encountered, or else a reference-
letter leads on to some new alternative, until by a gradual process of elimination the proper
family is reached. After a few trials, with specimens representing different groups, the process
will be shortened, for the main divisions will have been learned; still the student must be
careful how he strikes in anywhere except at the beginning, for a false start will soon set him
hopelessly adrift. The key has been tested so thoroughly that there is little danger of his
running off the track except through carelessness, or misconception of technical terms; but
there is no excuse for the former, and the latter may be obviated by the Glossary at the end of
the book, and especially the foregoing General Ornithology, § 3, which should be consulted
when any doubt arises. Time spent upon the preliminary lessons will be tune saved in
the end.
At page 24:7, as indicated, the family Turdidcc is fully characterized, and its sub-families
and genera are analysed. The bird in hand should answer all the characters of the family and
those of one of the sub-famiUes, Turdince, and one of the genera, Turdus. The analysis of
the species of Turdus should show the specimen to T»e Turdus migratorius, the Robin. Under
the head of that species, No. 1 of the List, will 1>c foun<l a fair description and various other
particulars.
If there lie any difficulty in going at once to the family, tlie student may try the key to
the orders and sub- orders, and get on the track in that way.
Directions for measurement have already been given (p. 24). In comparing measure-
ments made with those given in the Synopsis, absolute agreement must not be expected ;
individual specimens vary too nmch for this. It will generally be satisfactory, if the discre-
DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE KEYS.
235
paney is not beyond certain bounds. A variation of, say, five per cent, may be safely allowed
on birds not larger than a robin : from this size up to that of a crow or haw-k, ten per cent. ;
for larger birds even more. Some birds vary up to twenty or twenty-five per cent., in their
total length at least. So if I say of a sparrow for instance, "length six inches," and the
specimen is found to be anywhere between five and three-fourths and six and one-fourth, it
will be quite near enough. But the relative proportions of the diflfereut parts of a bird are
much more constant, and here less discrepancy is allowable. Thus " tarsus longer than the
middle toe," or the reverse, is often a matter of much less than a quarter of an inch ; and as it
is upon just such nice points as this that a great many of the generic analyses rest, the neces-
sity of the utmost accuracy in measuring, for the use of the keys, becomes obvious. When I
find it necessary to use the qualification "about" (as, "biU a6oM^ = tarsus") I probably never
mean to indicate a difference of more than five per cent, of the length of the part in question.
It may be well to call attention to the fact, that most persons unaccustomed to handling
birds are liable to be deceived in attempting to estimate a given dimension ; they generally
make it out less than measurement shows it to be. This seems to be an optical efiect con-
nected with the solidarity of the object, as is well illustrated in drawing plates of birds, which,
when made exactly of life-size, always look larger than the original, on account of the flatness
of the paper. The ruler or tape-line, therefore, should always be used, and particularly in
those cases where analyses in the key rest upon dimensions. It is hai'dly necessary to add,
that in taking, approximately, the total length from a prepared specimen, regard should be
had for the "make-up" of the skin. A little practice will enable one to determine pretty
accurately how much a skin is stretched or shrunken, and to make the due allowance in either
case.
The measurements used in this work are all in English inches and decimals.
There are probably no signs or abbreviations not self-explanatory or not already explained
in " Field Ornithology."
if- ~ £^ -^ - ~-tV9j_ _
Fig. 112 Ws. — Diagrain of corresponding segments of hind limbs of man, horse, and bird. Tbe lines 1-11 are
isotomes, cutting tbe limbs into morphologically equal parts, or isomeres.
236 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE ORDERS AND SUBORDERS.
Page
I. Toes 3 ; 2 in front, 1 behind Pici of Picari^ 537
II. Toes 3 ; 3 in front. Toes — cleft or semipalmate Limicol* 702
— palmate. Nostrils — tubular Tubinares 1021
— not tubular Pyoopodes 104G
III. Toes 4 ; 2 in front, 2 behind. Bill — cered and hooked Psittaci Gil
— neither cered nor hooked. Tail feathers — 8 or 10
Coccyges of Picari^ 537
— 12. Bill — chisel-like
Pict 0/ PicARi^ 537
— dentate
Trogones of Picari.e 537
IV. Toes 4 ; 3 in front, 1 behind.
Toes — syndactyle Halcyones of Picari^ 537
— totipalmate (all four full-webbed) Steganopodes 951
— palmate. Bill — curved up Limicol^ 762
— not curved up — lamellate Lamellirostres 887
— not lamellate. Hallux — lobate Pygopodes 1046
— not lobate .... Longipennes 973
— lobate. Tail — rudimentary Pygopodes 1046
— perfect. — A horny frontal shield Paludicol* 844
— No frontal shield Limicol« 762
— semipalmate ; joined by evident movable basal web (go to A).
— cleft to the base or there immovably coherent (go to B).
A. Hind toe — elevated. Tibiee — feathered below. Nostrils — perforate .... CatharUdes of Raptores 617
— imperforate. Gape — reaching below eye
Corackc of Picari« 537
— not reaching below eye
Gallinje 719
— naked below. Nostrils — perforate Paludicol^ 844
— imperforate. Tarsi — scutellate in front
L1MICOL.E 762
— reticulate. Head — bald
Herodiones 863
— feathered
LiMicoL*: 762
— not elevated. Tibiae — naked below Herodiones 803
— feathered below. Bill — cered and hooked Raptores 617
— not cered. Nasal — membrane soft Columb« 705
— scale hard . Gallin.e 719
B. Hind toe — elevated. Gape — reaching below eye Cypseli of Picarls: 537
— not below eye. 1st primary — emarginate or about = 2d ... LimicoLjE 702
— not emarginate and shorter than 2d
Paludicol« 844
— not elevated. Nostrils — opening beneath soft swollen membrane Columb*; 705
— otherwise. Bill — cered and hooked Raptores 017
— otherwise. Secondaries — only six
rroc/nVi' 0/ PicARi.B 537
— more than six (go to a).
a. Primaries — 10; 1 st more than § as long as the longest Chrmatoresof)
— 10 ; 1st not § as long as the longest 1 , , „/•( ^^^^'^''''^ "'**
— 9 only (
ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES. 237
ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES.
Page
TOES 3, — 2 IN FRONT, 1 BEHIND . PlCID« 57C
TOES 3, -3 IN FRONT. (Go to II.)
TOES 4, — 2 IN FRONT, 2 BEHIND. (Go tO III.)
TOES 4, — 3 IN FRONT, 1 BEHIND. (Go to IV.)
II. [Toes 3, — 3m front.]
Toes — completely webbed. Nostrils — tubular (Albatrosses) DiOMEDEiDiE 1022
— not tubular (Auks, etc.) Alcid^ 1059
— incompletely or not webbed. Legs — about as long as wings. Bill subulate (Stilt) . Recurvirostrid^ 789
— much shorter than wings (go to a).
(a) Tarsus — scutellate in front, about as long as bill (Sanderling) Scolopacid.e 798
— reticulate in front — shorter than red chisel-like bill (Oyster-catcher) . . . H«matopodid.e 787
— longer than bill (Plovers) Charadriid^ 767
III. [Toes 4, — 2 ix front, 2 behind.]
Bill — cered and strongly hooked. Tarsus granulated (^Parrot) Arid« 6145
— not cered ; inner hind toe — 3-jointed ; plumage iridescent (Trogon) Trogonid^ 575
— 2-jointed ; tail of — 8 or 10 soft feathers (Cuckoos, etc.) .... Cuculid^ 602
— 12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers
(Woodpeckers) Picid.e 576
IV. [Toes 4, — 3 in front, 1 behind.]
Hind toe — inserted above the level of the rest (and always shorter than the shortest front toe). (Go to A.)
— NOT inserted above THE LEVEL OF THE REST (aND GENERALLY BUT NOT ALWAYS NOT SHORTER THAN
THE SHORTEST FRONT TOE). (Go tO B.)
A. [The hind toe elevated.']
Feet — TOTiPALMATE (dtl 4 toes trebbed ; hind toe semi-lateral and barely elevated). (Go to A.)
— PALMATE (3 front toes full-webbed, hind toe well itp, or else connected by slight webbing to base only of inner
toe). (Go to B.)
— LOBATE {Z front toes partly webbed or not, and conspicuously bordered with plain or scalloped membranes ;
hind toe free, and simple or lobed). (Go to C.)
— SEMIPALMATE (2, Or 3, front toes webbed at base only by small yet evident membrane; hind toe well up,
simple). (Go to D.)
— SIMPLE (front toes with no evident membranes ; hind toe simple). (Go to E.)
(A.) Tarsus — feathered, partly ; tail deeply forked ; biU epignathous (Frigate-bird) Fregatid.e 969
— naked ; bill — > tail, hooked at tip, furnished with enormous pouch (Pelicans) . . Pelecanid^ 956
— < tail ; throat — feathered ; middle tail feathers filamentous (Tropic-birds)
PHAiiTHONTID^ 971
— naked ; tail — pointed, soft ; tomia subserrate (Gannets) Sulid^e 953
— rounded, stiff; bill — paragnathous (Anhinga)
Anhinoid^ 968
— epignathous (Cormorants)
PhalacrocoracidjE 959
(B.) Bill — curved up, extremely slender and acute (Avocet) Recurvirostrid^ 789
— bent abruptly dovra, very stout, lamellate (Flamingo) Phcenicopterid^ 888
— lamellate ; mostly membranous, with nail at end (Swans, Geese, Ducks, etc.) Anatid.e 890
-■ not lamellate ; nostrils — tubular ; liind toe very small (Petrels) Procellariid.(E 1026
— not tubular ; hind toe — free, not lobed ; bill — cered (Jaegers)
STERCORARIID.E 975
— not cered (Gulls, Terns,
etc.) Larid.« 982
— not free, lobed (Loons) Gaviid.b 1047
(C.) Tail — rudimentary; lores naked (Grebes) Podicipedid.*: 1051
— perfect ; forehead covered with a horny shield (Coots) Rallid.*: 850
— feathered (Phalaropes) Phalaropodid.e 793
238 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
Page
(D.) Mid-claw — pectinate; 4th toe l-jointed ; plumage lax (Goatsuckers) CAPRiMULoiDiE 5(il
— not pectinate ; hind toe — versatile; plumage compact (Swifts) Micropodid^e 555
— not versatile ; head — naked (go to b).
— feathered (go to c).
(b.) Nostrils — imperforate ; naked leg and foot shorter than tail (Turkey) Meleagridid« 726
— perforate ; naked leg and foot — shorter than tail (Turkey-buzzards) . . Cathartid/E TOO
— longer than tail (Cranes) Gruid.e 847
(e.) Nostrils — feathered, or scaled, in deep fossa of stout hard bill ; shank — more or less featliered
(Grouse) Tetraonid^ 730
— entirely bare and scaly
(Partridges and Quail) Perdicid* 749
— not feathered nor scaled, in groove of softish bill ; tarsus — reticulate tPlovei )
Uhakadrhd^ 7G7
— scutellate in front (Snipe, etc.)
SCOLOPACID^ 798
(E.) Wing — spurred Jacanid^ 7G5
— not spurred ; forehead — covered with a horny shield (GaUinules) RaludjE 850
— feathered ; length — 2 feet or more Aramid^ 849
— under 2 feet ; 1st primary — attenuate (Woodcock)
SCOLOPACID^ 798
— not attenuate — much
shorter than 2d (Rails)
RALLIDiE 850
— about equal to 2d (Snipe,
etc.) ScolopacidjE 798
or AphrizidjE 783
B. \_The hind toe not elevated^
Toes syndacttlous ; tibiae naked below ; bill straight, acute (Kingfishers) . . Alcedinid^ 571
TlBI^ NAKED BELOW. (Go tO d. )
Nostrils opening beneath soft swollen membrane. (Go to e.)
Bill hooked and furnished with a cere. (Go to f.)
Birds without the above characters. (Go to g.)
(d.) Middle claw — pectinate (Herons) Ardeid^ 871
— simple ; tarsus — scutellate in front (Ibises) Ibidid^e SG4
— reticulate; bill — flat, spoon-shaped (Spoonbill) . . Plataleid.e 8G8
— not flat, stout, tapering (Wood Ibis) Ciconiid^ 809
(e.) Bird over 18 inches long, greenish (Texan Guan) Cracid.e 721
Birds under 18 inches long (Pigeons) Coldmbid^ 709
(f.) Eyes — lateral, not surrounded by a disc; nostrils i>i the cere (Hawks, Eagles, etc.) . . Falconid.e G49
or PANDIONID.E G98
— anterior ; face more or less disc-like ; nostrils at edge of cere (Owls) ; middle claw — simple
. Strigid^ 623
— jagged
Aluconid^ G21
(g.) Primaries — 10 ; the 1st (never spurious) always more than % as long as longest (go to li).
— 10 ; the 1st (spurious or) at most not § as long as longest (go to i).
— 9 ; the Ist {never spurious) of variable length (go to k).
(h.) Tail - 12-feathered ; tarsus — exaspidean (Flycatchers) TYRANNiDiE 510
— pycnaspidean (Cotingas) C0TIN6ID.E 534
— 10-feathered ; secondaries — only 6 ; bill subulate (Humming-birds) Trochilid*: 543
— more than G; bill small, very short (Swifts) . . Micropodid^ 555
(i.) Tarsus — "booted"; wings — shorter than tail, both much rounded ; plumage very lax Cham.eid* 2G6
— longer than tail ; wing — over 3 inches ; rictus — bristled (Thrushes, etc.)
Turdid^ 247
— unbristled (Dippers)
C1NCLID.E 2G0
— not over 3 inches (Kinglets, etc.) Sylviid^ 2G1
— scutellate ; nostras — concsaled ; bill — strongly epignathous, toothed and notched (Shrikes)
LANUDiE 3G9
— paragnathous ; — over 7 inches long (Crows and
Jays) C0RVID.E 484
— not 7 inches ; bill — nearly = head
(Nuthatches) Sittid« 276
— scarcely or not
I = head (Tits) Parid* 267
ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES.
239
Page
— exposed ; length — over 9 inches ; color brown or blue . . Corvid^ 484
— 8J inches ; glossy green and blue, speckled ; bill
yellow Sturnid-e 502
— 7-8 inches ; crested ; (f glossy black Ampelid^ 357
— 4j-6i inches ; bill distinctly hooked ; tail soft,
without black Vireon'Id^ 3G1
— 4i-5J inches ; bill slender, curved, tail stiff, acute
Ceethiid^ 278
— under 6 inches ; colors bluish, black and white
(Gnatcatchers) Sylviid-e 261
— Birds without these characters (Wrens, Thrash-
ers, etc.) Teoolodytid^ 280
(k.) Tarsus — scutelliplantar ; hind claw straight (Horned Larks) Alaudid^ 503
— laniiuiplantar ; bill — metagnathous, both mandibles falcate, their points crossed
Fringillld* 373
— paragnathous, toraia of up. mand. toothed or lobed near middle
(Tanagers) Tanagrid.e 347
— epignathous, notched and hooked at tip. Length 5\-G\ Vikeonid^ 3G1
— various. Quills — tipped with red horny appendages ; head
crested (1st quill minute) . . Ampelid.*; 357
— not appendaged ; bill — fissirostral (go to 1).
— dentirostral or tenuiros-
tral (go to in).
— conirostral (go to n).
(1.) Bill triangular-depressed, about as wide at base as long, gape twice as long as culmeu, reaching about
opposite eyes, tarsus not longer than outer toe and claw (Swallows) Hirundinid.e 350
(m.) Longest secondary nearly reaching end of primaries in closed wing ; hind claw (usually) little curved,
nearly twice as long as middle claw ( Wagtails and Pipits) Motacillid^e 300
Longest secondary not nearly reaching end of primaries in closed wing; hind claw well curved, not
nearly twice as long as middle claw (Warblers, etc.) . . . C(EREBID« 34G, or Mniotiltid.e 304
(n ) Bill usually thick, stout, and with evident angulation of the commissure Icterid^e 463
or Fringillid^ 373
Xfite. — These two families cannot be concisely distinguished. IcTEEiDiE contains the Blackbirds, Orioles.
Meadow Starlings, Bobolink^, and Cowbirds. FRiUGllXlDiE, our largest family, includes all kinds of Grosbeaks, Bunt-
ings, Linnets, Finches, and Sparrows.
1 v;: ?<r\ -j;^^ — /-
Fig. 112 /cr. — Diagram of fore limbs of man, bat, horse, and bird. The lines 1-0 are isotonics, cutting the limbs
into morphologically equal parts, or isomeres.
240
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY.
TABULAR VIEW OF THE GROUPS HIGHER THAN GENERA
ADOPTED IX THIS WORK FOR THE
CLASSIFICATION OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.
Subclass CARINAT^: Carinate Birds.
Ordees (14)
Suborders (26)
Families (71)
Subfamilies (71)
I. PASSEKES ....
1. OSCINES
1. TurdidiE
1. Turdin*.
2. Myiadestinse.
2 Cincli(l(V
3. Sylviidre
3. Sylviinse.
4. Regiilin*.
5. Polioptiliu<e.
4 Chammdce (*■)
5. Parida:
C. Pariuae.
7. Certhiidce
S. TroglodijIidcB . . .
7. Certhiina;.
8. Mirnin*.
9. Troglodj'tina;.
13 Himndinid(F
14. Ampelidce (.?) ...
10. Ampelinae.
11. Ptilogonatinae.
15 Vireo7iidce
16. Laniidm
17 FrinqillidcB
12. Laminae.
18. leieridcB
13. Agelsein*.
14. SturnelUnae.
15. Icterin*.
16. Quiscalinae.
17. Corvinae.
18. Garrulinae.
19. SturniniB.
19. Con'idiv
20. Sturnidw
''1 A Imtdidce
2. Clamatores ....
22. Tymnnida: ....
23. CotingidcB
20. Tyranuinae.
21. Tityrin*.
II. PICARI^(?) . . .
3 Trochili
4. Cypseli
25. Micropodidce . . . .
22. Micropodinae.
23. Chaeturinae.
24. Caprimulgin;e.
25. AJcedinina.
5. C0RACI.S:
G. Halcyones ....
7. Trogones
8. Pici
2G. Capj-imulgidcE . . .
27. AlcedinidcB ....
29. Picidm
30. Cucididce
26. Piciiiie.
27. Crotophaginae.
28. NeomorpWnse.
III. PSITTACI ....
IV. RAPTORES . . .
10. EUPSITTACI ....
11. Strides
12. ACCIPITRES ....
31 Arid(F,
32 Aluconidce
30. Conuriiiae.
33. Strigidce
34. Falconidm
31. Circinse.
32. Milvin*.
33. Accipitrinae.
CLASSIFICATION OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.
241
Orders (U)
Suborders (20)
Families (71)
Sttbpamilies (71)
34. Falconinae.
35. Polyborinae.
36. Buteoninae
%-^ Pmi<limiid<p . . 1
13. Cathartides ....
30. Vathartidm ...
37. Sarcorhamphinse.
38. Cathartinae.
39. Columbinse.
40. Zenaidiuw.
41. Starnoenadinae.
42. Penelopinse.
43. Phasiauiute.
V. COLUMBiE ....
U. PERISTERiE ....
37. ColumbidcB ....
VI. GALLINiE ....
15. Peristeropodes . . .
10. Alectoropodes . . .
38. Cnicid(F
39. Phasianidce ....
40 Meleagrididtr . . .
41 Telraonidip
42. Pei-dicidce
44. Perdicinae.
45. Odontophorinae.
44. CharadriidcB . . .
45. Aphrizidce ....
40. Charadriinse.
47. Aphrizinse.
48. Arenariinae.
46. Hcematopodidm . . .
47. Re.curvirostridm . .
48. PtialaropodidcB . . .
VIII. PALUDICOL.E .
IT. Grues
50 Qruidce
18. Ralli
52. RaUidcR
49. Rallinae.
50. GalUnulinae.
51. FuliciiiiB.
IX. HERODIONES . .
10. Ibides
53 Ibid id (P
54 Plataleidm
20. C1CONI.E
55. Ciconiidce
52. Tantalinae.
53. Ciconiinae.
54. Ardeinae.
55. Botaurinae.
oj Herodii . .
.50. Ardeidce
X. LAMELLIROSTRES
22. Odontooloss.e . . .
23 Anseres
57. PhmiicopteiidiF . .
57. Anserinae.
5S. Anatinae.
00. Mergiuae.
60 Pel lean idw
61. Phalacrocoracidce . .
03. Fregiiiida;
XII LONGIPEXNES
05. StercovariuUv . . .
GO Laridw
61. Lariniv.
62. Steniiii.T.
63. Rhyncliopinae.
68. ProcellariidtB . . .
64. Fulmarinae.
65. Pufflninae.
60. Procellariinae.
XIV. PYGOPODES . .
24. 6AVI.E
70. Podicipedidm . . .
71. Alcida;
OS. Fratereuliiiae.
20. Alc.e
70. Allinae.
71. AlciniB.
U Orders.
20 Suborders
71 Families.
71 Subfamilies.
1ft
Part III.
SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS
NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS,
CLASS AVES: BIRDS.
THIS CLASS OF ANIMALS, while sharply distinguished from Mammals, is so closely
related to Reptiles, that the presence of feathers in the former, and their absence
from the latter, is the most obvious if not the only positive character by which the two classes
are separable.
Though the species of birds are numerous (some 11,500 are known), the structural diver-
sity of the Class is comparatively so slight, that the characters upon which the primary divisions
are based seem insignificant in view of those upon which the major groups of Mammals or
Keptiles may be founded. With strict regard for equivalency of taxonomic groups, based on
morphological considerations, the conventional "class "of Birds is scarcely or not of higher
value than an order of Reptiles, with which Birds are associated under the name Saurop-
SIDA. But it is not proven that a given structural character may not have classificatory value
in one case, different from that which may properly be attributed to it in another ; so that,
though the most diverse birds may be more alike than are extremes among Lizards for
example, we may still continue to speak of a class Aves, to be primarily divided into sub-classes
or orders.
All known Birds, living and extinct, are divisil)le into the following primary groups,
which may be termed sub-classes :
I. Saurur^e. — Birds with teeth. Vertebrae biconcave (amphiccelous). Sternum
keeled. Wings small, with separate metacarpals. Tail longer than body, its
vertebrse not pygostyled, its feathers arranged in distichous series. (One species,
ArchcEopterrjx lithographica, from the Jurassic of Europe. Fig. 14.)
IT. ODONTOTORMiE. — Birds with teeth, implanted in sockets. Vertebrae biconcave.
Wings large, with anchylosed metacarpals. Sternum keeled. Tail short.
(Typified by the genus Ichthyornis, from tlie Cretaceous of North America.
Fig. IG.)
244 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — CARINAT.E — PASSERES.
III. Odontolc^. — Birds with teeth, implanted in grooves. Vertebrae saddle-shaped
(heterocoelous). Wings rudimentary, wanting metacarpals. Sternum without
keel. Tail short. (Typified by the genus Hesperornis, from the Cretaceous of
North America. Fig. 15.)
IV. Eatit.e. — Birds without teeth. Vertebras (some) saddle-shaped. Wings rudi-
mentary, or at most unfit for flight, with anchylosed metacarpals. Sternum
without keel (as in Odontolcce, fig. 15). Tail short. (Embracing the extinct
]\roas, and the living Ostriches, Cassowaries, Emeus, and Kiwis.)
V. Carinat.^:. — Birds without teeth. Vertebrae (some) saddle-shaped. Wings devel-
oped, with rare exceptions fit for flight, with anchylosed metacarpals. Sternum
keeled. Tail short (as to its vertebrae, which are usually pygostyled). (Em-
bracing all living birds excepting the Batitcc.)
AVES CARINAT^: ORDINARY BIRDS.
The essential characters of this group, which includes all living birds excepting Ostriches
and their allies (Ratite or Struthious birds), are absence of teeth, saddle-shai:)ed faces of the
best-developed vertebrae, and keeled breast-bone (fig. 56), in combination with perfection of
wing-structure in adaptation to aerial (or aquatic) flight. The metacarpals and three meta-
tarsals are anchylosed (figs. 27, 34) ; the scapula and coracoid meet at less than a right angle
(very rarely more), and the furculum is usually perfect (fig. 59). (In the flightless parrot of
New Zealand {Stringops hahroptilus) , the sternal keel is rudimentary.) The caudal vertebrae
are few, and the last few (pygostyle, fig. 56) are peculiarly modified to support the tail-feathers
in fan-like array. There is normally extensive post-acetabular anchylosis of tlie pelvic bones,
which are normally separate there in the other groups (compare figs. .56 and 15).
The division of Carinate birds has always exercised the judgment and ingenuity of orni-
thologists ; no system that has been proposed has been universally adopted. The orders of
Carinatce, therefore, are still provisional. But a great assemblage of birds have been ascer-
tained to agree (with few exceptions) in possessing a certain combination of characters, upon
which may be based the
Order PASSERES : Insessores, or Perchers Proper.
The feet are perfectly adapted for grasping by length and low insertion of the hind toe,
great power of apposing which to the front toes, and great mobility of which, are secured by
separation of its principal muscle (flexor longus hallucis) from that which bends the other toes
collectively (flexor profundus digitorum).^ The hind toe is always present, perfectly incum-
bent, and never turned forward or even sideways; its claw is as long as, or longer than, the
claw of the middle toe. The feet are never zygodactyl, or syndactyl, or semipalmate, or
palmate ; the front toes are usually immovably joined to each other at base, for a part, or the
whole, of the basal joints. No one of the front toes is ever versatile. The joints of the toes
are always 2, .3, 4, 5, counting from 1st (hind one) to 4th (outer front one). The toes are
always 4 in number (excepting Cholornis with 4th toe abortive). (Figs. 36, 37, 42, 43.)
Various as are the shapes of the wings, these members agree in having the great row of coverts
not more than half as long as the secondaries ; the developed primaries either 9 or 10 in num-
ber, and the secondaries more than 6. (Fig. 30.) The tail, extremely variable in shape, has
1 The notable exception to this statement is the Broadbill family, Eurr/l(smidce, which have a plantar vinculum ;
for which reason some authors make them a prime division of Passeres under the name of Desmodactyli, all other Pas-
seres being then called Eleidherodaclyli.
CHARACTERS OF PAS SERES. 246
J2 rectrices (with certain anomalous exceptions : none in P)io'epyga ; 10 in Xenicus, AcantJii-
sitta, Phrenotrijc, Edolius ; 16 in Menura). Tlie bill is too variable in form to furnish char-
acters of groups higher than families ; but its covering is always hard and horny, in part or
wholly — never extensively membranous, as in many wading and swimming birds, or softly
tumid, as in Pigeons, or cered, as in Parrots and birds of prey. The nostrils do not openly
communicate with each other. The oil-gland (elfeodochon, p. 89) is nude, and of a charac-
teristic shape. Besides these external characters, which the student may readily examine
without dissection, there are some more important anatomical ones. The sternum (with few
exceptions) is cast in a particular mould, having a forked manubrium (except Etirylcemidce),
prominent costal processes, and each side of the posterior border single-notched (neither entire,
nor deeply nor doubly notched, nor fenestrate; fig. 58). The bony palate has a peculiar
structure, called cegithognathous (fig. 79), but in some cases a sort of desmognathism occurs;
there are no basipterygoids ; the nasal bones are holorhinal. The atlas is perft)rated by the
odontoid process of the axis. Beddard has called attention to a disposition of the abdominal
septa which may be a passerine character : the oblique septa being either free from the ster-
num, or sharing their attachment thereto with the falciform ligament. There is but one
carotid artery, the left (fig. 91). Cceca coli are present, though small. The plumage is after-
shafted, as a rule (except Eiirylcemidce). There is a peculiarity in the method of insertion of
the tensor patagii brevis ; " the tendon of the muscle does not end upon the tendon of the ex-
tensor, as it does in the picarian bird, but, though attached to it firmly, retains its independ-
ence, and runs back to be attached near it to the extensor condyle of the radius" {Beddard) ;
there is no biceps slip, nor any expansor of the secondaries. Besides possessing the separate
fiexor of the hind toe already mentioned, Passeres are anomalogonatous (p. 201) — that is, the
ambiens is absent ; so is the accessory femorocaudal ; the femorocaudal and semitendinosus
are present, as is usually also the accessory semitendinosus. The formula is therefore A X Y
(rarely AX).
No North American Passerine bird shows any of the exceptions noted in the foregoing
paragraph; all are normally passerine.
Physiologically, the nature of Passeres is altricial and psilopfedic (p. 91); tliat is, tlie
young are hatched weak and naked, and require to be fed for some time in the nest by the
parents. They represent the highest grade of physicdogical development, as well as the most
perfect physical organization of the class of birds. Their nervous irritability is great, coordi-
nate with rapidity of respiration and circulation ; they consume the most oxygen, and live the
fastest, of all birds. They habitually reside above the earth, in the air that surrounds it, among
the plants that with them adorn it ; not on the ground, nor on " the waters under the earth."
Pas' seres were named by Cuvier in 1798 as an order of birds; the name is simply the
plural of Lat. passer, a sparrow. But the group as established by him included many forms
which were first properly excluded by the celebrated Nitzsch, who in 1829 limited the group
as now accepted. Besides being one of the best defined, it is by far the largest group of its
grade in ornithology. For example, of the 888 birds enumerated as Nortli American in my
last Check List, no fewer than 894 are Passeres ; as are more than half of all known birds, or
about 6,000 out of some 1 1 ,500 species.
Passeres are primarily divisible into two groups, commonly called suborders, mainly
according to the structure of the vocal organ — the lower larynx, or syrinx. In one of these
groups, the musical apparatus is highly developed, with several distinct pairs of intrinsic mus-
cles, inserted into the ends of the upper three half-rings t»f the bronchial tubes. In the other,
the voice-organ is less complex, with less specialized muscles inserted into the middle jiortions
of the upper bronchial half-rings. The former arrangement is termed acroiinjodian, the latter
mesomyodian; the two are also contrasted as polymyodian and oligomyodian, with reference to
number of syringeal muscles. Birds wliich exhibit this diflference of structure are respectively
246
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
called Passeres acromyodi and Passeres mesomyodi, or Oscines and Clamatores.^ (See p. 212,
fig. 101.)
Associated with the acromyodian or oscine type of syrinx is a peculiar condition of the
tarsal envelop. In nearly all Oscines, the tarsus is covered on each side with a horny plate,
nearly or quite undivided, meeting its fellow in a sharp ridge behind. This condition of the
tarsus is called bilaminate, and birds showing it are laminiplantar (tigs. 37, 42, 43). In some
cases fusion of the tarsal envelop proceeds so far that the front of the tarsus likewise presents
a nearly or quite undivided surface, the whole tarsus being then encased in a " boot," as it is
called. A " booted " tarsus may be said to be trilaminate (fig. 36). The principal exception
to association of a bilaminate or trilaminate tarsus with an acromyodian syrinx is afforded by
Alaudida, which have the tarsus scutellate and blunt behind; and, with very few exceptions,
no bird which is not acromyodian has a bilaminate tarsus. A third important feature charac-
terizes Oscines, as a rule. This is reduction in length of the 1st primary, which never equals
the longest primary in length, is rarely over f as long as tlie longest, is so short as to be called
spurious, or is quite rudimentary and apparently wanting, leaving apparently only 9 primaries
(fig. 30).
Associated with the mesomyodian or clamatorial type of syrinx is seen (with few excep-
tions) an opposite condition of the tarsus, the sides and back of which, as well as the front,
are covered with variously arranged scutella, so that there is no sharp undivided ridge behind.
In such cases there are also 10 fully developed primaries, the 1st of which, if not equalling or
being itself the longest, is at least f as long. (See p. 510, fig. 343.)
These combinations of characters may be contrasted for the purpose of dividing the great
group Passeres into two sections, conventionally denominated suborders.
1 . Suborder ACROMYODI, POLYMYODI, OR OSCINES : Singing Birds.
Syrinx with 4 or 5 distinct pairs of intrinsic muscles, inserted at ends of 3 upper bronchial
^ half-rings, and thus constituting a highly complex and
effective musical apparatus. Each side of tarsus cov-
ered with a horny plate meeting its fellow in a sharp
ridge behind; front of tarsus also sometimes laminate.
Primaries apparently 10, the 1st short or spurious; or
apparently only 9.
Here belong all the North American families of
ji^ Passeres, except Tyrannidcc, or Flycatchers, and
Cotingidce, which are clamatorial (mesomyodian).
The only North American exceptions to the diagnosis
given are afforded by Alaudidre, or Larks, and cer-
tain Troglodytince, which, with an oscine syrinx and
wins-structure, do not havt
bilaminate tarsus. "■^
Of our nearly 550 Passerine species and subspecies,
no fewer than ,500 are Oscine. The name is the
Lat. os'ceu, n. pi. os'cines, divining-birds — those
whose notes were regarded as augural.
It is a question, which one of tlie numerous Oscine families should be placed at the head
Fig. 113. — Thrushes : European Redwing
[Turdus iliacus) and Fieldfare (T. pilaris).
From Dixon.
1 I do not wish to modify this statement, made in former editions of the Key, notwithstanding what is said of
Eurylwmidoe in the note on p. 244.
- The most abnormal Oscines are the Australian Scrub-birds and Lyre-birds, Atrichiida and Meimrid(B. In these
the syringeal muscles are reduced, the furculum is rudimentary, there are more than the typical number of rectrices,
etc. — so that these families are sometimes made a prime division, Pseiidoseines or Abnormales, contrasted with
Normales.
turdidjE— thrushes.
247
of the series. Largely, perhaps, through the influence of those ornithologists who hold that
fusion of the tarsal envelop into one continuous plate indicates the acme of bird-structure, the
place of honor has of late been usually assigned to the Thrushes. It seems to me most prob-
able that this character, though unquestionably of high import, should be taken as of less value
than reduction of numbtu- of primaries from 10 to 9; and I am inclined to believe that eventu-
ally some Oscine family with only 9 i:)rimaries — as the Finches or Tanagers — will take the
leading position. Some contend for the headship of the Crows. Here, however, I follow usage
in the sequence of North American families, as follows: — Turdidce, Cinclidce, Sylviidce, Cha-
mceidce, Paridce, Sittidcc, CertMidce, Troglodytidce, 3Iotacillidce, MnioUltidcc, Coirebidce, Tana-
gridce, Hinmdinidce, Anqjelidce, Vireonidce, Laniidce, Fringillidce, Ictendce, Corvidce, Sturnidce,
Alaiulida;.
Family TURDID^ : Thrushes, etc.
The essential character of this great group of Oscines is booted tarsi and 10 primaries,
the 1st spurious. But Turdidce do not show this combination exclusively as birds of some
other families also
possess it. Though
it be as natural as
any other Oscine
femily of equal ex-
tent and variety,
and equally close
relationships with
other groups, it is
insusceptible of
perfect definition in
concise terms. The
North American rep-
resentatives, how-
ever, may readily be
ciirumscribed in a
manner enabling the
student to assure
himself- of the family to which they belong, though no line whatever can be drawn between
Turdidce and S>/lviidce. The vast assemblage of Old World Warblers are in fact thoroughly
Thrnsli-like.
Wing of 10 primaries, of which the 1st is spurious or quite short. Wing more or less
elongate and pointed, longer than tail. Inner secondaries never long and flowing as in Mota-
ciUidcE. Bill never stout and conical, nor with angulated commissure, nor flattened with gape
reaching under eyes; usually slender, straight or little curved, more or less compressed, sub-
ulate and acute, usually notched at end of upper mandible (but the nick frequently obsolete),
and thus of a character which is called grijpaniform. Nostril oval or roundish rarely linear,
exposed in conspicuous nasal fosste; nearly or quite reached or overreached by frontal feathers,
but never concealed by a dense ruff" as in Paridce and Sittidce. Rictus bristled or with bristle-
tipped feathers. Tarsus normally liooted, the anterior scutella, excepting a few below, being
fused in a coiitinu(jus plate. On tiie sides and behind, tarsus strictly laminiplantar (compare
Alaudidce and some Troglodi/tince). Tarsus usually also long and slender; never decidedly
shorter than middle toe and claw, often decidedly longer. Anterior toes deeply cleft; inner to
its very base, outer adherent to middle for only length of its basal jt>int (compare Trugludgtincc).
Via. 114. —Skulls of Tiir(li<lii\ Mimiiur, etc., nat
sco//tes montanns ; B, Sialin mi'.riciuui ; C, Ciiiclus
serve likeness between A and B, at points marked c.
points marked 6, b', d, d'.
after Sluifeldt. A, Oro-
s : D, Siurus ,„n-h<x. Ob-
aud between C and D, at?
248 S YS TEMA TIC S YXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Hind claw never leiagtheiied and straightened as usual in Motacillidcc. Tail-feathers 12 ; tail
normally much shorter than wings, sometimes about equal ; never cuneate, or deeply forked.
Any North American bird, except the Dipper, showing booted tarsi, 10 primaries, the 1st
spurious, — and wing over 3 inches long, — is one of the Tiirdidce.
Obs. — In determining character of tarsus, whether booted or scutellate, it is necessary to examine adult birds ; for
the fusion of the anterior scutella is progressive, and only accomplished perfectly at maturity. And in general, in using
artificial keys to genera and species, the student must agree with the author in understanding that specimens fairly
illustrating normal adult characters are in hand.
Subfamily TURDIN/E: Typical Thrushes.
Tarsus, in the adult, "booted" or enveloped in a continuous plate, formed by fusion of all
tarsal scutella except 2 or 3 just above base of toes (fig. 36). Toes deeply cleft — inner to the
very base; outer coherent with middle only for
the length of its basal joint. Wings more or
less pointed, longer than tail; 1st primary spuri-
ous ; 2d longer than 6th. Bill moderate, shorter
than head, straight, more or less subulate, little
depressed at base, with bristly rictus. Nostrils
oval, nearly or quite reached by the frontal feath-
ers. (Fig. 116.) Tail-feathers widening some-
wliat toward ends; tail as a whole somewhat
fan-shaped, neither decidedly forked uov nmch
graduated. Upward of 250 species are now usu-
ally assigned to TurdincB. They are nearly cos-
Fio. 115. -A typical Thrush, the European Black- mopolitan, and have a great development in the
hivd {Tuniu.i meiula). From Dixon. c » • , , . ,
warmer parts ot America, where they are mainly
represented by types closely allied to Turdus proper; more aberrant forms, constituting very
distinct genera, occur in the Old World. We have 6 genera in North America, and a species
of Catharus occurs very near if not actually over our Mexican border. Some of the leading
genera which are not represented in North America are Oreocinda, which presents the passerine
abnormality of 14 tail-feathers; Geocichla, an extensive group of Ground Thrushes, with sev-
eral subdivisions ; Mimocichla and Catharus, of Neotropical America ; Erithacus, typified by
the Robin-redbreast of Europe, E. rubecula, familiar in the traditions of the nursery ; Aedon,
which contains the famous Nightingale, A. luscinia; RuticiUa, based on the European Red-
start, E. Phcenicura; and monticola, including the Rock Chats, such as M. saxatilis. The
Turdince are diffused over all woodland parts of our country ; all are strictly migratory, insec-
tivorous birds, though feeding also upon berries and other soft fruits. Though not truly grega-
rious, some, as the Robin for instance, often collect in troops at favorite feeding places, or
migrate in companies. They build rather rude nests, often plastered with mud, never pensile,
but saddled on a bough, fixed on a fork, or set on the ground; and lay 4-6 green or blue
eggs, sometimes plain, sometimes spotted. All are vocal; some, like the Wood Thrush, are
exquisitely melodious.
These birds may be taken in illustration of a character which runs tlirough other groups
of Turdidce besides TurdiiM; proper. The young, in their first feathering, which is worn l)ut a
short time, are curiously speckled and streaked, in a manner quite different from the adults.
This feature is well shown by a young Robin, or Bluebird ; it disappears entirely, from the
upper parts at least, but continues to characterize the under parts of our Wood Tlirush and its
allies of the genus Hylocichla. Our genera of Turdhife (including those formerly referred to
Saxicolince) may be recognized by tlie following artificial
TURDID.E—TURDIN.E: THRUSHES. 249
Analysis of Genera.
Tail-feathers not particolored ; no blue anywhere.
Neither spotted nor banded below, but throat streaked Mei-ula
Banded crosswise below ; slate-colored above Hesperoeiehla
Spotted or streaked below on a white or whitish ground.
European Turdus
Native American Hylocichla
Tail-feathers black and white ; no blue anywhere Saxieoln
Tail-feathers brown and chestnut ; throat blue and chestnut Cyanecula
Tail-feathers blue, like back Sialia
MEK'ULA. (Lat. merula, a kiud of Thrush, the European Blackbird, Turdus merula Linn.,
type of the genus: Leach, Syst. Cat. Brit. Birds, 1816, p. 20.) European Blackbirds.
American Robins. Characters of Turdus proper, but tail relatively longer, being thrice as
long as tarsus. Tarsus a little longer than middle toe and claw. Bill notched near end, little
widened at base. Of large, stout form. Sexes similar; beneath mostly unicolor, with streaked
throat, but breast not spotted or collared. We have two good species, and a subspecies of
one of these. (Given as a subgenus of Turdus in former eds. of the Key, p. 243.)
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Upper parts slate-colored ; breast chestnut.
Outer tail-feather with white tipping. (Eastern.) migratoria
Outer tail-feather without decided white tipping. (Western.) M. propinqua
Upper parts grayish-asli ; breast yellowish-buff. (Cape St. Lucas.) conjinis
31. migrato'ria. (Lat. migratoria, migratory; migrator, a wanderer. Figs. 36, 58, 116.)
Robin. Adult $, in summer: Upper parts slate-color, with a shade of olive. Head black;
eyelids and spot before eye white; throat streaked with white. Quills of tlie wings dusky,
edged with hoary-ash, and wdth color of back.
Tail blackish; outer feather usually tipped with
white. Under parts to vent, including under
wing-coverts, chestnut. Under tail-coverts and
tibiae white, showing more or less plumbeous.
.•^NV.
Bill yellow, often with a dusky tip; mouth
yellow ; eyes dark brown ; feet blackish ; soles ^^S*^"^
yellowish. Length about 10.00; extent 16.00; ^V^S^ ^ .v
wing 5.00-5.50; tail 4.00-4.50; bill 0.80; tar- ^^4\1^'^"
sus, or middle toe and claw, 1.25. Adult 9i ®^'
in summer: Similar, but colors duller; upper Fio. llG. - Robin, nat. size. (Ad. uat. del. E. C.)
parts rather olivaceous-gray; chestnut of under parts paler, the feathers skirted witli gray or
white; head and tail less blackisli ; tliroat with more white. Bill much clouded with dusky.
(J 9, in winter, and young: Similar to adult 9) ^"t receding somewhat farther from $ in
summer by duller colors, paleness and restriction of the chestnut, its extensive skirting with
white, lack of distinction of color of head from that of back, tendency of white spot before eye
to run into a superciliary streak, and dark color of most of bill. Very young birds have the
back speckled, each feather being whitish centrally, with a dusky tip; cinnamon of under parts
spotted with blackish ; greater coverts tipped with white or rufous, frequently persistent, as are
also some similar markings on lesser coverts. N. Am. at large, W. to the Rocky Mts., to the
Pacific in Alaska, and to eastern Mexico; an abundant and familiar bird, migratory, breeding
from middle portions of the U. 8. northward to the Arctic Ocean, and wintering from Canada
and the northern States irregularly to the middle districts, abundantly in the Southern States;
casual in the Bermudas ; accidental in Europe. Nest in trees usually, saddled on a horizontal
250
6^ YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
bough, composed largely of mud; eggs ^^-6, about i.l8 X 0.80, uuit'onn greenish -blue, nor-
mally unspotted.
M. m. propin'qua. (La.t. propinqua, ueigliboring ; as related to the last.) Western Robin.
Quite like 31. migrator ia ; averaging .slightly larger; wing up to 5.60; tail up to 4.70, not so
blackish as that of 31. migratoria, the outer feather without white, or merely a narrow edging.
A scarcely distinguished race, of the Rocky Mt. region aiid westward in the U. S. to Luwer
California and Mexico.
M. conli'nis. (Lat. coufinis, allied or related ; as to 31. migratoria.) St. Lucas Robin.
Adult $ 9 • Upper parts, including sides of head and neck, uniform grayish-ash, with slight
olive shade, scarcely darker on head; chin and throat white, streaked with ashy-brown; breast,
sides, and lining of wings pale yellowish-buft', belly white, flanks ashy. A distinct white super-
ciliary stripe ; lower eyelid white. Feathers of jugulum and sides with ashy tips; greater wing-
coverts tipped with whitish ; bill yellowish, upper mandible and tip of lower tinged with dusky;
feet pale brown. Wing 5.10, tail 4.10; tarsus 1.20; middle toe and claw 1.07. Lower Cali-
fornia; has occurred at Hay ward, Cal., exceptionally. General appearance of a young dull-
colored common Robin, but quite distinct.
Fio. It7.— Varied Thrush.
HESPEROCICH'LA. (Gr. fo-nepos, hesperos, Lat. vctperus, of the evening or time of sun-
set, hence western ; /ci;fXa, kichla, a kind of thrush : Baird, Rev. Am. B., i, 1864, p. 12.) Ves-
per Thrushes. In general, similar to 3Ierula and Turdus proper. Tarsus no longer than
middle toe and claw. Bill unnotched ; nostrils partly overhung by feathers which fill the nasal
fossae. Sexes subsimilar; $ with a black pectoral collar. One strongly marked species, by
one author referred to the extensive Old World genus Geocichla. (Given as a subgenus of
Turdnx in former eds. of the Key.)
i
TURDID/E — TURDINjE : THR USHES.
251
Fig. 118. — Varied Thrush, nat.
(Ad. uat. del. E. C.)
H. nae'via. (Lat. nrnvia, spotted, varied; ncevus, a birth-mark. Figs. 117, 118.) Varied
Thrush. Oregon Robin. Adult (J, iu summer: Entire upper parts dark slate-culur, vary-
ing in shade from blackish to plumbe-
ous slate, in less perfect specimens
with a slight olive tinge ; wings and
tail blackish, with more or less of
plumbeous or olive shade, according
to age of the quills ; greater and lesser
wing-coverts, tipped with orange-
broAvn, forming two cross-bars, and
quiUs edged in two or three places
with the same ; quills also white at
b.ase on inner webs, this marking not
visible from the outside; one or sev-
eral lateral tail-feathers tipped with
wliite. A broad black collar across
breast, mounting on side of neck and
head. Stripe behind eye, lower eyelid,
an<l under parts orange- brown, gradu-
ally giving way to white on lower belly;
vent and crissum mixed white, orange-
brown, and plumbeous. Bill black ;
feet and claws dull yellowish. Length 9.50-10.00; extent about IG.OO ; wing 5.00; tail 375;
bill 0.80 ; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 1.25. Adult 9, in summer : Upper parts olivaceous-
plumbeous (almost exactly the shade of the common Robin in winter) ; wings and tail scarcely
darker; pectoral collar narrow, like the back in color; other under parts like those of the ^,
but duller, paler, and rather rusty than orange-brown, with more white on lower belly. Mark-
ings of head, tail, and wings exactly as iu the ^. Young: Like adult ?, in many respects;
duller; no white on belly and crissum. Upper parts in many cases with a decided umber-brown
wash ; feathers of breast and throat with blackish edgings ; lesser wing-coverts with angular rusty
spots, but no fully speckled stage, like that of the very young Robin, has been observed, though
August specimens have been examined. In young ^, black pectoral bar at first indicated by
interrupted blackish crescents on individual feathers. Young 9 9 sometimes show scarcely a
trace of collar. At all ages, markings of head and wings are much the same. Pacific coast
region, Alaslai to Mexico, abundant, migratory ; accidental in Mass., N. J., and Long Island.
Nest in bushes, of twigs, grasses, mosses, and lichens ; eggs 1.12 X 0.80, light greenish-blue,
speckled with dark brown. Breeds S. to Humboldt Co., Cal.
TUR'DUS. (Lat. turdus, a thrush.) True Thrushes. A large genus, even when taken
in its most restricted sense, including many species, occurring in most parts of the world, of
medium and small size. Tail rather short, not thrice as long as tarsus, which is decidedly
longer than middle toe and claw. Bill notched near end, more or less widened and depressed
at the bases. Sexes indistinguishable, or at least quite similar, extensively streaked or spotted
on the under parts. The type of Turdus Linn., Syst. Nat., i, 1758, p. 168, is now taken to be
T. viscivoms, the Missel Thrush of Europe, with which such species as T. musicus, the Mavis
or Song Thrush, and T. iliacus, the Redwing, are strictly congeneric.
T. ili'acus. (Lat. iliacus, relating to the flanks, which are reddish. Fig. 113.) Red-winged
Thrush. Wind Thrush. Redwing. Winnard. Upper parts hair-brown with an
olive shade, darker on head, paler on rump. Wing-quills deep brown ; coverts and inner
secondaries tippf^l witli wliitish. Tail dark brown, the outer feather usually white-
tipped. Lore blackish ; eyelids and superciliary stripe whitish ; auriculars streaked with
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
light aud dark brown. Throat yellowish -white, streaked with brownish-black ; breast and
belly grayish-white ; lower tail-coverts whitish, streaked with brown. Sides aud under wiuy-
coverts light reddish. Bill brownish-black ; basal half of lower mandible orange-yellow ; iris
brown; feet flesh-colored. Sexes alike. Length 8.50 ; extent 14.00; wing 4.50 ; tail ;3.25 ;
bill 0.75; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 1.15. European; only N. American as occurring
accidentally in Greenland.
HYLOCICH'LA. (Gr. v'Xr], hide, woods, forest; (ci'x'^a, lichla, a thrush.) American
Wood Thrushes.
Chiefly distinguished
from Turdus proper
by length and slen-
derness of tarsus,
which is more than :|-
as long as wing, and
longer than middle
toe and claw. Bill
comparatively weak,
small, depressed and
broad at base. Spe-
cies of small size, and
not robust form ;
sexes similar; adults
not spotted or
streaked above, but
spotted or streaked
below on a white or
whitish Of r o u n d ;
young with whitish
or bufi" markings on
upper parts. A
beautiful genus of
woodland vocalists,
included under Tur-
dus in former eds. of
the Key and A. 0. U.
Lists. Hi/locichla
Bd., Rev. Am. B., i,
1864, p. 12, type
mustelinus, the well-
known Wood Thrush, besides which the genus contains the Veery, the Hermit, the Olive-
back, the Gray-cheek, and their several subspecies, as follows :
Wood Thrush.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Upper parts not of one color from head to tail. Eggs not spotted.
Upper parts tawny, shading to olive on rump. Wood Thrush. (Eastern.) mustelina
Upper parts olive, shading to rufous on rump. Hermit Thrushes.
Of medium size. (Eastern.) aonnUii-rhka pallasi
Of largest size. Rocky Mts aoiuilasc/ikir audubtmi
Of smallest size. Pacific coast aunalaschkw
Upper parts of one color throughout.
Eggs not spotted.
TURDID.E—TURDIN.E: THRUSHES. 253
Upper parts tawny ; spots below few, pale, chiefly on jugulum ; no buff eye-ring. Tawny Thrush, or Veery.
(Eastern.) fuscescens
Upper parts russet-olive ; spots below as before ; no buff eye-ring. Willow Thrush. (Western.) . fuscescens salicicola
Eggs spotted.
Upper parts russet-olive ; spots below numerous, invading white breast ; a buff eye-ring. Russet-backed Thrush.
Pacific coast, northerly . . • . nstiiUita
Pacific coast, southerly ustulata aniica
Upper parts dark pure olive ; spots below as before.
A buff eye-ring. Olive-backed Thrush. (Eastern.) vslidala su-ainsoni
No buff eye-ring. (Eastern.)
Of general distribution. Alice's Thrush alicicB
Of local distribution. Bickuell's Thrush alicke bicknelli
H. musteli'na. (Lat. vuistelinus, weasel-like; i. e. tawny in color: mustela, a weasel.
Figs. 119, 120.) Wood Thrush. Wood Robin. Bellbird. Geraldine. Adult (J 9 :
Upper parts, including surface of closed wings, tawny-brown, purest and deepest on head, shad-
ing insensibly into olivaceous on rump and tail. Below, pure white, faintly tinged on breast with
buff, and everywhere, except on throat, middle of
belly, and crissum, marked with numerous large,
well-detiued, rounded or subtriaugular blackish spots.
Inner webs and ends of quills fuscous, with white or ^BS^^^-- ( ^ J
buffy edging toward base ; under wing-coverts mostly
white. Auriculars sharply streaked with dusky ai
white. Bill blackish-brown, with Hesh-colored or yol- . //^p
lowish base ; feet like this part of the bill. Length ' //;f^^
7.50-8.00; extent about 13.00; wing 4.00-4.25; tail '^'^^
3.00-3.25; bill 0.75; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and i^''
claw less. Young: Speckled or streaked above with F'o- i^o.-Wood Thrush {T. musteUmis),
„.,,.., . ,, ,. , 1 nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
pale yellowish or whitish, especially noticeable as
triangular spots on wing-coverts. But these speedily disappear, when a plumage scarcely
diflerent from that of the adult is assumed. The most strongly marked species of the genus ;
in no other are the spots below so large, sharp, numerous, and generally dispersed. In the
Hermit, our only other Thrush showing both tawny and olive on ujjper parts, the position
of the two colors is reversed, tawny occupying the rump, olive the head. Eastern U. S., N.
to Massachusetts, Michigan and Southern Canada, W. to the Plains, S. in winter to Guate-
mala; Cuba; a famous vocalist, c(nnmon in low damp woods and thickets; migratory; breeds
throughout its U. S. range. Nest in bushes and low trees, of leaves, grasses, etc., and mud ;
esrgs usually 3-4, plain greenish-blue like the Robin's, but smaller: 1.08 X 0.70.
H. fusces'cens. (Lat. fuscescens, less than fmcus, dark.) Wilson's Thrush. Taavny
Thrush. Vekry. Pine Spirit. Adult $ ?: Upper parts reddish-brown, with slight
olive shade; no contrast of color between back and tail ; quills and tail-feathers darker and
jiiirer brown, former with white or buflF spaces at concealed bases of inner webs (as usual in
this genus). No light ring around eye; auriculars only obsoletely streaky. Below, white;
sides shaded with hoary-gray or pale grayish-olive ; jugulum buflf-colored, contrasting with
white of breast, and marked with a few small brown arrow-heads ; chin and middle line of
throat, however, nearly white and immaculate. A few obsolete grayish-olive spots in white
of breast; but otherwise markings confined to the l)ufF area. Bill dark above, mostly pale
below, like feet. $ : Length 7.25-7..50 ; extent about 12.00 ; wing 4.00-4.25 ; tail 3.00-3.25 ;
bill 0.(30; tarsus 1.20. 9 smaller; average of both sexes: length 7.35; extent 11.75; wing
3.90; tail 2.85; tarsus 1.12. Chietly Eastern U. S., but N. to Canada; commim, migratory,
nesting in northerly parts of its range. Wintering mostly extralimital, but sparingly in
Florida. Xest on ground or near it, of leaves, grasses, etc., but no mud ; eggs 4-5, greenish-
bUie like tlio Wood Thrush's, normally unspotted, 0.90 X 0.()0. A delightful songster, like
others of tlie genus, found in tliick woods and swamps ; of shy and retiring habits.
254 SYSTEM A TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
H. f. salici'cola. (Lat. salix, a willow ; colere, to inhabit or cultivate.) Willow Tawny
Thrush. Like fuscescens, but averaging larger; upper parts less decidedly tawny; juguluin
less distinctly buff. Wing 3.80-4.25, av. 4.02; tail 2.95-3.40, av. 3.20; bill 0.55-0.00 ; tarsus,
av. 1.17; middle toe without claw, av. 0.69. Rocky Mt. region, U. S., N. to British Colum-
bia, S. to Brazil in winter, occasionally E. to Illinois and South Carolina. This siibspecies is
clearly referable to fuscescens ; but it bears an extraordinary resemblance to ustulata, in the
russet-olive color of the upper parts, and only slightly buff tinge of the juguluui. It is distin-
guished from ustulata by lack of the buff orbital ring so characteristic of ustulata and swain-
soni, and other characters by which fuscescens differs, notably the few if any spots on the white
breast back of the buff area, and pale hoary gray instead of sordid olive-gray shading of the
sides. The nest and eggs are like those of fuscescens, not like those of ustulata or swainsoni.
H. aonalasch'kae. (Of Aoualaschka, Oonalashka, Oonalaska, Ounalashka, Unalaschka, Una-
lashka, Unalaska, etc., one of the largest islands of the Aleutian chain in Alaska. Unfortu-
nately, this barbarous name, of unsettled orthography, was given to the Western form of
Hermit Thrush by Gmelin in 1788, before the common Eastern form had been described : for
it thus takes precedence as the specitic term. In the 2d-4th eds. of the Key I softened the
outlandish word into the Latin-looking form of unalascee ; but by our rigid rules it must be
restored to its original terrors.) Dwarf Hermit Thrush. Western Hermit Thrush,
In color absolutely like the common Eastern Hermit below described ; in size slightly less on
an average; length scarcely 7.00 ; wing 3.30; tail 2.50; tarsus 1.15. Pacific coast region of
N. A., Alaska to Lower California and Western Mexico, breeding from the Sierra Nevadas
northward, and in migration found in the Great Basin. Nest and eggs not distinguishable
with certainty from those of the Eastern Hermit.
H. a. aud'uboni. (To J. J. Audubon.) AuDUBOx's Hermit Thrush. In color abso-
lutely like the common Eastern Hermit; in size larger on an average; length about 7.75;
wing 4.20; tail 3.30; tarsus 1.20. Inhabits Rocky Mt. region of the U. S., westward in the
Great Basin to Southern California, S. in winter through Mexico to Guatemala. A better
marked variety than the last ; besides the larger size, on an average, the general tone is rather
duller or grayer, and the rufous of the tail is not so bright. Nest and eggs as in the common
Hermit.
Note. T. sequoiensis Belding, Proc. Cala. Acad., ii, June, 1889, p. 18, breeding at Big Trees, Calaveras Co., Cal.,
is deemed inadmissible, as noted in tiie Key, 4th ed., p. 897. It resembles other Western Hermits in the rufous tail, un-
spotted eggs, etc. ; the ascribed dimensions are intermediate between those of the two preceding forms.
H. a. pal'lasi. (To Peter S. Pallas, the celebrated Russian traveller and naturalist (Cabanis,
1845). T. tinalasccE nanus of 2d-4th eds. of the Key, based on T. nanus Aud. There is
much to be said in favor of this name, but I waive my contention in deference to the A. 0. U.
committee. For synonymy of all our Hylocichla;, see Coues, B. Col. Vail., i, 1878, pp. 22-28.)
Eastern Hermit Thrush. Swamp Angel. ^ 9, in summer: Upper parts olivaceous,
with a brownish cast, and therefore not so pure as in sivainsoni ; this color changing on rump
and upper tail-coverts into rufous of tail, in decided contrast with back. Under parts white,
shaded with grayish-olive on sides ; breast, jugulum, and sides of neck more or less strongly
tinged with yellowish, and marked with numerous large, angular, dusky spots, which extend
back of the yellowish-tinted parts. Throat immaculate. A yellowish orbital ring. Bill brown-
ish-black; most of under mandible livid whitish ; mouth yellow; eyes brown ; legs pale brown-
ish. ^: Length 7.00-7.25; extent 11.00-12.00; wing 3.50-3.75 ; tail 2.75-3.00. 9 smaller:
Length 6.75-7.00; extent 10.75-11.25; wing 3.25-3.50. Averages of both sexes are:
Length 7.00; extent 11.25; wing 3.50; tail 2.75 ; tarsus 1.15. The dimensions thus overlap
those of both aonalaschkce and auduhoni, and no positive discrimination is possible ; the differ-
ences, when any, being of averages, not of extremes either way. $ 9 ? i" winter: The oliva-
I
rURDID.E— TURBINE: THRUSHES. 256
ceous of upper parts assumes a more rufous cast, much like that of ustulata, and tlie yellowish
wash of under parts and sides of head and neck is more strongly ]>ronounced. But the most
rufous specimens are readily distinguished from fuscescens by the strong contrast between the
color of the tail and other upper parts. Very young: Most of the upper parts marked with
pale yellowish longitudinal streaks, with clubbed extremities, and dusky specks at the end ;
feathers of belly and flanks oftea skirted with dusky in addition to the numerous blackish spots
of other under parts. Chiefly the Eastern Province of North America ; abundant ; migratory,
and found in all woodland, but breeds only nortlierly, from Massachusetts and corresponding
latitudes and northern Alleghanies ; winters in the Southern States. Nest and eggs not distin-
guishable from those of the Veery.
H. ustula'ta. (Lat. ustulata, scorched, singed; referring to the warm russet coloration.)
Oregon Olive-backed Thrush. Eusset- backed Thrush. Quite like the Eastern Olive-
back (swainsoni) in uniformity of color of whole upper parts, presence of buff orbital ring, and
general character of the shading and spotting of under parts ; but olive of upper parts not pure,
liaviug a decided rufous tinge, resulting in a russet-olive of exactly the shade of that of the
upper parts of the Western subspecies of fuscescens {salidcola) ; from which distinguished by
the buff orbital ring, and very different shading and marking of under parts (compare salicicola.) ;
there being, as in sivainsoni proper, much olive-gray spotting of the white breast back of the
buff area, and much shading of the same olive-gray on the sides. Size of swainsoni. Nest in
bushes, and eggs spotted, as in the latter. Pacific coast region of the U. S. and British Colum-
bia, from Alaska S. in winter to Guatemala; abundant.
H. u. oedica. (Gr. wBikos, oidikos, fond of singing, musical, vocal.) Tuneful, Olive-back.
Described as like ustulata, with upper parts and flanks paler. Ascribed to California and
S. Oregon. A very slight local race, included under ustulata in former eds. of Key. Ober-
holser. Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 23; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, ibid., p. 127.
H. u. swaiii'soni. (To Wm. Swainson, an English naturalist.) Swainson's Thrush.
Olive-backed Thrush. Eastern Olive-back. Adult J ?: Above, clear olivaceous, of
exactly the same shade over all upper parts ; below, white, strongly shaded with olive-gray on
sides and flanks; throat, breast, and sides of neck and head strongly tinged with yellowish,
the fore parts, excepting throat, marked with numerous large dusky spots, which extend back-
ward on breast and belly, there rather paler, and more like the olivaceous of upper parts.
Edges of eyelids yellowish, forming a strong buff orbital ring ; lores the same. Mouth yellow ;
bill blackish ; basal half of lower mandible pale ; iris dark brown ; feet pale ashy-brown.
Length of ^ 7.00-7.50; extent 12.00-12.50; wing 3.75-4.00; tail 2.75-3.00 ; bill 0.50; tar-
sus 1.10. 9 '1^'ei'agiug smaller : Length 6.75; extent 11.50-12.00, etc. Eastern N. Am., W.
to Colorado in migrations; winters in Cuba, C. and S. Am. ; breeds in Canadian fauna, S. in
tlie Alleghanies to West Virginia. Nest in bushes and low trees, thus in situation like that of
tlie Wood Tlu-ush, but no mud in its composition; eggs unlike those oi inustelinus, fuscescens,
and aonalascliTcce, in being freely speckled with different shades of brown on a greenish-blue
ground; size 0.90 X 0.(j<>; number .'J-4.
Note. — //. u. alnur Oberh., Auk, Oct. 1898, p. 304, from the R. Mts., Utah, and E. Nevada, is recognizably differ-
ent from siraiiisoni. North to Yukon Basin, south in winter to Mexico.
H. ali'eiae. (To Miss Alice Kennicott, sister of Robert Kennicott.) Grav-Cheeked
Thrush. Alice's Thrush. Similar to swainsoni in uniformity and purity of the olive of
upper parts, which is as dark and pure (no tendency to the rufous of ustulata) ; but sides of
head lacking the yellowish or buffy suffusion seen in sivainsoni, being thus like the back,
or merely grayer; no buff ring around eye; breast slightly if at all tinged with yellowish.
Rather larger tlian swainsoni, iihont efjuaHiuir mustelina: Length 7.50-8.00; extent 12.50-
13.50; wing 4.00-4.25; tail 3.00-3.25 ; liill over 0.50 ; average dimensions about tlie maxima
256 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCiyES.
of swainsoni. Distribution aud nesting the same, but breeding range more northerly, being
beyond the U. S. to the Arctic coast; occurs in Alaslca, and even in Siberia; S. in winter
to Central America. T. alicicB Bd., 1858; T. sicainsoni alicice Coues, Key, orig. ed., 1872,
p. 73 ; T. ustulatus alicice of the Key, 2d-4th eds., 1884-90, p. 248, the specific distinctness
there indicated now confirmed.
H. a. bick'nelli. (To E. P. Biclcnell of Now York.) Bicknell's Thrush. A local race,
described as smaller on an average, with tlie bill usually slenderer; colors exactly those of
alicicB proper. Breeding in the Catskill Mts. of New York, the White Mts. of New Hamp-
shire, and in Nova Scotia, migrating S. in winter to parts unknown, because nobody cau
recognize as different from alicicB specimens found away from the ascribed breeding range.
Hylocichla a. bicknelli Ridgw., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., iv, Apr. 1882, p. 377; Turdits a. hick-
nelli Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds., 1884-90, p. 248.
SAXIC'OLA. (Lat. saa-'wrn, a rock; co?o, I inhabit. Fig. 121.) Stoxe-chats. Bill shorter
than head, slender, straight, depressed at base, compressed at end, notched. AVings long,
pointed; tip formed by 2d-4th quills; 1st spurious,
scarcely or not ^ as long as 2d. Tail much shorter
tlian wing, square. Tarsi booted, but with 4 scutella
below in front, long and slender, much exceeding mid-
dle toe and claw ; lateral toes of about equal lengths,
very short, the tips of their claws not reaching base of
middle claw; claws little curved; feet thus adapted to
terrestrial habits. A large and widely distributed Old
World genus, of some 30 species, inhabiting Europe,
Asia, and especially Africa. With some authors, it gives
Fig. I2t.— Generic details of Snzieola. name to a subfamily SaxicolincB of Turdida;, or even of
a family Saxicolidce. I have presented such a group in earlier eds. of the Key, after a fashion
then prevalent, but with the remark that "it has uever been defined with precision, being
known conventionally by the birds ornithologists put in it." (Key, 2d ed., 18S4, p. 256) ; and
I am now glad to abandon it altogether, with the sanction of the A. 0. U.
S. oenan'the. (Gr. olvavdrj, oinanthe, name of a bird, from oht), oine, the grape, and 01*^0?,
anfhos, a flower.) Stoxe-Chat. Wheat-Ear. Adult ^ : Ashy-gray; forehead, super-
ciliary line and under parts white, latter often brownish-tinted; upper tail-coverts white;
wings and tail black, latter with most of the feathers white for half or more of their length ;
line from nostril to eye, and broad band on side of head, black ; bill and feet black. 9 more
brownish-gray, the black cheek-stripe replaced by brown. Young without the stripe : above,
olive-brown ; superciliary line, edges of wings and tail, and all under parts cinnamon-brown ;
tail black and white as in the adult. Length of ^ 6.75; extent 12. .50 ; wing 3.75 ; tail 2.50;
tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 0.75. 9 smaller: length 6..50; extent 11. .50, etc. Europe,
Asia, and N. Africa ; Atlantic coast, from Europe via Greenland ; also N. Pacific and Arctic
coast, from Asia. Common in Greenland, and probably also breeds in Labrador: straggles
S. to Nova Scotia and other parts of Canada, New England, New York, even to the Ber-
mudas, and New Orleans, La. ; also Ccdorado (at Boulder, May 14, 1880). Nest in lioles in
the ground or rocks, crevices of stone Avails, etc. Eggs 4-7, 0.87 X 0.60, greenish-blue, witli-
out spots.
SlA'LIA. (Gr. (naXls, sicdis, a kind of bird.) Bluebirds. Primaries 10 ; 1st spurious and
very short. Wings pointed ; tip formed by 2d, 3d, and 4th quills. Tail much shorter than
wings, emarginate. Bill ^ as long as head or less, straight, stout, wider than deep at base,
compressed beyond nostrils, notched near tip ; culraen at first straight, then gently convex to
end ; gonys slightly convex and ascending ; commissure slightly curved throughout. Nostrils
overhung and nearly concealed by projecting bristly feathers ; lores and chin likewise bristly.
TURDID.E—TURDINjE: BLUEBIRDS. 257
Gape ample ; rictus cleft to below eyes, furnished with a moderately developed set of bristles
reaciiing about opposite nostrils. Feet short, rather stout, adapted exclusively for perching
(in Saxicola the structure uf the feet indicates terrestrial habits). Tarsus not longer than middle
toe ; lateral toes of unequal lengths ; claws all strongly curved. Blue is the principal color of
this beautiful genus, which contains 3 species and several subspecies. They are strictly arbori-
cole ; frequent the skirts of woods, coppices, waysides, and weedy fields ; nest in holes, and lay
whole-colored eggs; readily become semi-domesticated; feed upon insects and berries; and
have a melodious warbling song. Polygamy is sometimes practised by them, contrary to the
rule among Oscincs. Bluebirds are peculiar to America, and appear to have no exact repre-
sentatives in the other hemisphere.
Analysis of Species.
(f Rich sky-blue, uniform on back ; throat and breast chestnut ; belly white sialis
(f Rich sky-blue, including throat ; iliiddle of back and breast chestnut ; belly whitish mexicana
cf Light blue, paler below, fading to white on beUy ; no chestnut arctica
S. si'alis. (Gr. o-taXt'f, «/«?/*, a kind of bird. Fig. 122.) Eastern Bluebird. Wilson's
Bluebird. Blue Robin. (J, in full plumage : Rich azure-blue ; ends of wing-quills black-
ish ; throat, breast, and sides of body chestnut ; belly and
cri.ssum white or bluish-white. The blue sometimes ex-
tends around the head on sides and fore part of chin, so that ~'^'%y .^^*^^^^^J
the chestnut is cut off from bill. Length 6.50-7.00; ex- '^^^ ~Z'^^ v-i««ss
tent 12.00-13.00; wing 3.75-4.00; tail 2.75-3.00; bill "-^'f |^V'''*^^
0.45; tarsus 0.70. ^, in winter, or when not full-plu-
maged : Blue of upper parts interrupted by reddish-brown
edging of the feathers, or obscured by a general brownish
wash. White of belly more extended ; tone of other under
parts paler. In many Eastern specimens, the reddish-brown ^^^^!2Ss
skirting of the feathers blends into a dorsal patch; when '<r^^
tliis is accompanied by more than ordinary extension of
blue on throat they closely resemble S. mexicana. 9 , in ' p^^ 122. -Bluebird, nat. size. (Ad
full plumage: Blue mixed and obscured with dull reddish- nat. del. E. c-)
brown ; becoming bright and pure on rump, tail, and wings. Under parts paler and more
rusty-brown, with more abdominal w^iite than in $. Little smaller than $. Young, newly
fledged : Brown, becoming blue on wings and tail; back sharply marked with whitish shaft-
lines. Nearly all the under parts closely and uniformly freckled with white and brownish.
A white ring r()und eye ; inner secondaries edged with brown. From this stage, in which the
sexes are indistinguishable, to the perfectly adult condition, the bird changes by insensible
degrees. Eastern U. S. and Canada ; abundant and familiar, almost domestic ; W. often to
the Rocky Mts. Migratory, but breeds throughout its range, wintering in tlu- iMiildle States
and beyond, whence it comes as one of the early harbingers of spring, or during mild •winter
weatlier, bringing its bit of blue sky with cheery, voluble song. Nest in natural or artificial
hollows of trees, posts, or bird-boxes, loosely constructed of the most miscellaneous materials;
<'ggs 4-0, pale bluish, occasionally whitish, unmarked, 0.80X0.60; two or three broods in
one season.
S. s. azu'rea. (New Lat. adj. azureu!^., azure, sky-blue; Middle Lat. noun ozitra, azuruni,
lazur, lazurius, lazulus, a blue stone, the Icqns lazuli, Gr. \aCovpiov, Inznurion, from Arabic
lazward; Persian lazhward; said to be named from the mines of Lajwunl.) Azure Blue-
bird. Similar to S. sialis ; the blue of a greenish .shade; breast paler chestnut; crissum
buffy ; tail about 3.00. S. Arizona and southward. A slight variety, first described by Baird,
Rev. Am. Birds, 1804, p. 62 ; taken into Key, 3d ed., 1887, p. S66 ; A. O. U. List, No. 766 a
(wrongly accredited to SwAlxsox, and the date of Baird's Review misprinted 1884).
17
258 SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSTS. — PASSERES— OSCIXES.
S. mexica'na occidenta'lis. (Lat. mexicana, of Mexico; occidentalism of the Occident or
setting sun, i. e., Western.) Townsend's Western Bluebird. Mexican Bluebird.
(J, adult : Eich azure-blue, including head and neck all around; a patch of purplish-chestnut
on upper back, more or less completely divided into a pair of patches ; breast and sides rich
chestnut ; belly and vent dull blue or bluish-gray. Bill and feet black. Size of the last
species. 9, and young: Changes of plumage coincident with those of the Eastern bluebird.
Immature birds may usually be recognized by some difference in color between middle of back
and other upper parts, and between color of throat and of breast ; but birds in the streaky
stage could not be determined if the locality were unknown. In typical adult $ , the dorsal
patch is restricted, or broken into two scapular patches with continuous blue between ; the
chestnut of breast sometimes divides, permitting connection of the blue of throat and belly (see
anahelcB below). Specimens with little trace of the dorsal patch are scarcely distinguished from
those of S. sialis, in which there is much blue on the throat, the grayish-blue of the belly, in-
stead of white, being a principal character. Pacific Coast region of the U. S. and British
Ccdumbia. E. occasionally in migrations to Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, etc. Abundant ; habits,
nest, and eggs identical with those of ^S*. sialis. S. occidentalis Towns., Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philada., vii, 1837, p. 188. S. mexicana occidentalis Eidgw., Auk, Apr. 1894, pp. 151, 1.54;
A. O. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 322, No. 767 ; as subspecifically distinguished from the typical
Mexican form with which it had before been considered identical, and from the following :
S. m. baird'i. (To S. F. Baird.) Chestnut-backed Bluebird. Baird's Bluebird.
In typical adult $ the patch of chestnut on the back forming a single solid area, well defined
against blue surroundings. Eocky Mountain region of the U. S., S. into Mexico. Auk, Apr.
1894, p. 151, p. 157 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 323, No. 767 a.
S. m. anab'elae. (To Mrs. Anabel Anthony, wife of W. A. Anthony.) Anabel's Blue-
bird. San Pedro Bluebird. Chestnut of breast divided by blue of throat, and thus re-
stricted to lateral pectoral patches ; that of scapulars almost entirely absent ; size at a
maximum. San Pedro Martir Mts. of Lower California. Anthony, Proc. Cala. Acad. Sci.,
2d ser., u., Oct. 1889, p. 79 (see Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 897); A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895,
p. 323, No. 767 h. (This and the last subspecies recognized by name in no former ed. of the
Key, being both included under Mexicana, with express statement, however, of their respec-
tive peculiarities.)
S. arc'tica. (Lat. arctica, arctic; Gr. apKTos, arctos, a bear; i. e., near the constellation Ursa
Major.) Arctic Bluebird. Eocky Mountain Bluebird. ^, in perfect plumage:
Above azure-blue, lighter than in the two foregoing, and with a faint greenish hue ; below,
paler and more decidedly greenish-blue, fading insensibly into white on the belly and under
tail-coverts. Ends of wing-quills dusky; bill and feet black. Larger; length 7.00 or more;
extent 13.00 or more ; M'ing 4.50 ; tail 3.00. 9 '■ Nearly uniform rufous-gray, lighter and
more decidedly rufous below, brightening into blue on rump, tail, and wings, fading into w^hite
«m belly and crissum ; a whitish eye-ring. Young : Changes parallel with those of the other
species. Birds in the streaky stage may be known by superior size, and greenish shade on
the wings and tail. N. America from the W. portions of the Great Plains and E. spurs and
foothills of the Eocky Mts. to the Pacific, chiefly in high open regions, abundant ; resident
southerly, migratory N. to Great Slave Lake, S. into Mexico. Habits thdse of the otliers ;
nesting the same, but eggs larger, about 0.92 X 0.70.
CYANEC'ULA. (A diminutive form of Gr. Kvaveos, kuaneos, Lat. cyaneus, blue : as we
should say, "bluet.") Bluethroats. Bill much shorter than head, slender, compressed
throughout, acute at tip, with obsolete notch (as in Saxicola, but slenderer). Feet, as in Sax-
icola, long and slender ; tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw ; lateral toes of unequal
lengths; outer longer, but tip of its claw falling short of base of middle claw; claws little
curved, the hinder fully as long as its digit. Wings long (less ,so than in Saxicola), pointed by
I
TURDID.E — MYIADESTIN.E: FLY-CATCHING THRUSHES.
259
.'ill, 4th, and 5th quills ; 2cl about equal to 6th ; 1st spurious, about ^ as loug as the longest.
Tail of moderate length, slightly rounded; particolored with chestnut ; throat and breast with
azure-blue and chestnut. An Old World genus, one species of which occurs casually in
Alaska.
C. sue'cica. (Lat. Suecica, Swedish.) Blue-tiiroated Redstart. Red-spotted Blue-
throat. ^ , adult : Entire upper parts dark brown with a shade of olive (about the color of
a Titlark, Anthus petisilvanicus) ; feathers of crown with darker centres ; rump and upper tail-
coverts rather lighter, mixed with bright chestnut-red. Wings like back, with slightly paler
edgings of the feathers. Middle tail-feathers like back, or rather darker, the rest blackish,
with the basal half or more of their length bright chestnut-red or orange-brown. Lores dusky ;
a whitish superciliary line. Chin, throat, and forebreast rich ultramarine blue, enclosing a
bright chestnut throat-patch ; the blue bordered behind by black, this again by chestnut
mixed with white. ■ Rest of under parts white, w^ashed on sides, lining of wings and under tail-
coverts with pale fulvous. Bill and feet black. 9 ^^^ young similar, the throat-markings
imperfect. Length 5.75-6.00 ; wing 3.10 ; tail 2.25-2.50 ; bill 0.50 ; tarsus 1.00 ; middle toe
and claw 0.75. A beautiful and interesting bird, widely distributed in northerly parts of the
Old World, casually found at St. Michael's in Alaska.
Subfamily MYIADESTIN/E: Fly-Catching Thrushes; Solitaires.
Bill very short, much depressed and widened at base; rami of under mandible deeply
cleft, with short gonys (only i as long as culmen), tarsus hooted, and toes deeply cleft, as in
other Turdidce. Feet weak ; lat-
eral toes unequal ; tip of inner
claw falling short of base of the
middle one. W^iug of 10 prima-
ries; 1st spurious, 2d about =
6th ; tip formed by 3d-5th. Tail
long, about equalling wing,
double -rounded, being forked
centrally, graduated externally,
all the feathers tapering. Head
subcrested ; plumage sombre,
variegated on wings ; sexes alike ;
young spotted. Containing a
dozen or more species, chieHy
(if the genus Myindestes ; others
of CicMopsis and Platycichla; all
except one are birds of C. and S.
Am. and the W. Indies. Though
our species was formerly called
bill and foot
Fio. 123. — Generic details of ^fyi^destps (M. toin
nat. size, wing and tail J). (From Baird.)
Ptilogouys," it has nothing to do with that genus ; and
though it has usually been placed near J'hainopepla, and referred with the latter to Ampelidce,
it is no member of tliat family. As stated in the Key, 2d ed., 1884, p. 325, " the MyiadestineB
are near the true Thrushes,'' to which they have been since referred by comun)n consent of
American writers, and with all the authority of the A. 0. U. I avail myself of the first oppor-
tunity to make the required transposition to the Turdida- of the matter on pp. 328 and 329 of
2d-4tli o.ls. of Key.
MYIADKS'TKS. (Gr. iiv'ia, mnia, a fly, and tSeo-nyr, edextes, an eater.) Fly-catching
Thrushes. Solitaires. Characters those of the subfamily as above given.
M, town'sendi. (To J. K. Townsend.) Townsend's Fly-catchixg Thrush, or
260 SrSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
Solitaire. ^ 9 : General color dull brownish-ash, paler below, bleaching on throat, lower
belly, and crissum. Wings blackish ; inner secondaries edged and tipped with white, nearly
all the quills extensively tawny or fulvous at tlie base, and several intermediate ones again
edged externally toward their ends with the same color. In the closed wing, the basal tawny
shows upon the outside as an oblique spot in the recess between the greater coverts and the
bastard quills, separated by an oblique bar of blackish from the second tawny patch on the
outer webs of the quills near their ends. Tail like wings (the middle pair of feathers more
nearly like the back) ; outer feather edged and broadly tipped, next one more uarrowly tipped,
with white. A white ring around eye. Bill and feet black. Eyes brown. Length about
8.00; wing and tail about equal, 4.00-4.50; the latter forked centrally, graduated laterally;
biU 0.50 ; tarsus 0.75 ; middle toe and claw rather more. Young : speckled at first, like a
very young Thrush; each feather with a triangular or rounded spot of dull ochraceous or
tawny, edged with blackish. Western U. S., from eastern foot-hills of the Rocky Mts. to the
Pacific ; N. to British Columbia and upper Yukon, S. to Sonora and L. Cala. ; breeds from
New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California northward. A bird not less strange and unlike
anything seen in the East than Phainopepla : inhabiting woodland and shrubbery, feeding on
insects and berries, and capable of musical expression in an exalted degree. Nest on ground or
in rubbish near it, loosely made of grasses ; eggs 3 to 6, bluish-white, freckled with reddish-
brown, 0.95 X 0.67.
Family CINCLID.^ : Dippers,
Primaries 10; Jst spurious, and, like the others, falcate; 2d entering into point of wing;
wing short, stiff, rounded, concavo-convex. Tail still shorter than wing, soft, square, of 12
broad, rounded feathers, almost hidden by the coverts, which reach nearly or quite to the end,
the under ones especially long and full. Tarsus booted, about as long as middle toe and claw.
Lateral toes equal in length. Claws all strongly curved. Bill shorter than head, slender and
compressed throughout, higher than broad at nostrils, about straight, but seeming to be slightly
recurved, owing to a sort of upward tilting of the superior mandible ; culmen at first slightly
concave, then convex ; commissure slightly sinuous, to correspond with culnieu, notched near
end ; gonys convex. Nostrils linear, opening beneath a large scale partly covered with featli-
ers. No rictal vibrissse. nor any trace of bristles or bristle-tipped feathers about nostrils.
Plumage soft, lustreless, remarkably full and compact, water-proof. Body stout, thick-set.
Habits aquatic. A small but remarkable group, in which characters shared by the Turdidcs
and Sylviidce are modified in adaptation to the singular aquatic life the species lead. There is
only one genus, with about 12 species, inhabiting clear mountain streams of most parts of the
world, chiefly the Northern Hemisphere ; easily flying under water, and spending much of
their time in that element, where their food, of various aquatic animal substances, is gleaned.
(Subfamily Cinclinee of former eds. of the Key, now raised to family rank.)
CIN'CLUS. (Gr. Kt'yKXo?, kigklos, Lat. cindus, a kind of bird. Fig. 114.) Dippers. Char-
acters those of the family, as abfive given.
C. luexica'nus. (Lat. mexicanus, Mexican. American Dipper, or Water Ouzel. ^ 9 ,
adult, in summer: Slaty-plumbeous, paler below, inclining on the head to sooty-brown.
Quills and tail-feathers fuscous. Eyelids usually white. Bill black ; feet yellowish. Length
6.00-7.00; extent 10.00-11.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail about 2.25; bill 0.60; tarsus 1.12;
middle toe and claw rather less. Individuals vary much in size. ^ 9 > i'l winter, and most
immature specimens, are still paler below, all the feathers of the under parts being skirted
with whitish ; quills of the wing also tipped with white ; bill yellowish at base. Young :
Below, whitish, more or less so according to age, frequently tinged with pale cinnamon-brown;
whole under parts sometimes overlaid with whitish ends of tlie feathers, shaded with rufous
SYLVIID.E — SYLVIIN.E: OLD WORLD WARBLERS. 261
posteriorly: throat usually nearly white; bill mostly yellow; white tipping of wing-feathers at
a inaximum ; in some cases the tail-feathers similarly marked. Mountains of Western N. A.,
from Alaska to Guatemala; E. in the U. S. to tlie eastern bases and spurs of the Rocky
Mts., as in the Black Hills of S. Dakota; a sprightly and engaging resident of clear mountain
streams, usually observed flitting among the rocks ; has a fine song. Nest a pretty ball of
green moss lined with grasses, with a hole at the side, hidden in the rift of a rock, or other
nook close to the water: eggs about 5, 1.04 X 0.70, pure white, unmarked.
Family SYLVIID^ : Old World Warblers, Kinglets, etc.
A large family of chiefly Old World birds, mainly represented in America by the genera
Regulus and Polioptila. They belcnig to the Turdoid series, and the line between Turdidce
and Si/lciidce is not a hard and fast one. The fact that young Sylviidcc are not spotted like
young Thrushes is probably the best character that can be ascribed ; this seems to be correlated
with the double annual moult which normal Sylviidce undergo, in spring and fall, as contrasted
witli the single moult of true Turdidce. The tendency of Sijlviidoi is toward booted tarsi, as in
Turdidce, and fusion of scutella is usually extensive, as in Sylviince and Regulince ; but in some
groups, as Polioptilince, the scutellation is plain. There is no difficulty, however, in recogniz-
ing any North American bird of the family as here given, by the very diminutive size (length
under 6.00, usually 5.00 or less); 10 primaries, the 1st spurious; slender bill, more or less
notched or even hooked at tip ; and greenish or bluish coloration. Our 3 genera fall in as many
subfamilies, recognition of which is convenient, but a mere conventionality. (The Sylviidce are
brought under Turdidce in 2d-4th eds. of Key, but we have the authority of the A. 0. U. for
separating them as a family, and thus reverting to the arrangement given in the orig. ed., 1872.)
Analysis of Subfamilies.
Tarsus more or less booted.
Colors greenish ; no crest. (Old World. N. Am. only in Alaska.) SylviincB
Colors greenish, with a red or flaming crest. No black on wings or tail RegulincB
Tarsus distinctly scuteUate.
Colors bluish and white, with much black on wings and tail Polioptilince
Subfamily SYLVilN/E: Old World Warblers.
Characters suflBciently indicated for present purposes in the above analysis, as the subfamily
cuts no figure in America, though it is a large and important group in Europe, Asia, and Africa,
with numerous (over 100) species of many modern genera, among which are Sylvia proper,
riiyllopseustes (or Fhylloscopus), Hypolais, Acrocephalus, Locustella, Lusciniola, and Gettia
— tliis last exhibiting the passerine anomaly of only 10 rectrices, and perhaps standing as type
of a different subfamily Gettiince. We have here to do only with the genus
PHYLLOPSEUS'TES. (Gr. <^vXXov, phullon, a leaf; y\r(T€vsrr)i, psc^stes, a liar, cheat; ap-
jdication nut obvious. ^leyer, 181."). PhyUoscopus of most authors, as of 2d-4th eds. of Key;
Phyllopneuste of the orig. ed.) Old World Wood-Warbler.s. Willow Warblers.
Bill shorter than head, slender, straight, depressed at base, compressed and notched at tip ; nos-
trils exposed, though reached by the frontal feathers. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw,
booted or indistinctly scuteUate; wings longer than tail; pointed by 8d and 4th quills; 5th
much slK)rter, 6th sliorter still, 2d between 5th and 6th ; 1st spurious, very short, exposed less
than 0.50. Tail about even. Size diminutive and coloration simple. Includes numerous
(about 25) Old World species, one of them occurring in Alaska.
P. borea'lis. (Lat. borealis, northern; boreas, the north-wind.) Arctic Willow Warbler.
Kennicott's Warbler. <J 9 > adult: Above, olive-green, clear, continuous, and nearly
262 S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
uniform, but rather brighter on rump ; quills and tail-feathers fuscous, edged externally with
yellowish -green; a long yellowish superciliary stripe ; under parts yellowish- white ; lining of
wings and flanks yellow ; wings crossed with two yellowish bars, that across ends of greater
coverts conspicuous, the other indistinct ; bill dark brown, pale below ; feet and eyes brown.
Length 4.75; extent 6.00; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 1.75-2.00; tarsus 0.70; middle toe and claw
0.55. Europe; Asia; casually N. Am. in Alaska.
Subfamily RECULIN/E: Kinglets.
Characters sufficiently indicated in the following diagnosis of our only genus.
REG'ULUS. (Lat. regulus, diminutive of rex, a kiug.) Kinglets. Tarsus booted, very
slender, longer than middle toe and claw. Lateral toes nearly equal to each other. 1st pri-
mary spurious, its exposed portion less than half as long as 2d. Wings pointed, longer than
tail, which is emarginate, with acuminate feathers. Bill shorter than head, straight, slender,
typically Sylviine, not hooked at end, well bristled at rictus, with nostrils overshadowed by tiny
feathers. Coloration olivaceous, paler or whitish below, with red, black, or yellow, or all
three of these colors, on head of adult. About 10 species, of Europe, Asia, and America;
elegant and dainty little creatures, among the very smallest of our birds excepting Hummers.
They inhabit woodland, are very agile and sprightly, insectivorous, migratory, and highly
musical.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Head with a scarlet patch, but no black or yellow. A tuft of bristly feathers over nostrils. (Subgenus Phtlloba-
SILEUS : Ruby-crowns.)
The ordinary bird of N. Am. at large calendula
A dark insular species of Guadalupe Island, L. Gala obscurus
Head with black and orange or yellow. A single tiny feather over each nostril. (Regulus /);o/)i»r.- Gold-Crests.)
The ordinary form of N. Am. at large . satrnpa
A brighter form of the Pacific coast region S. olivaceus
(SKbgenus Phyllobasileus.)
R. (P.) calen'dula. (New Lat. calendula, dimin. of Ital. calandra, Fr. ccdandre, Eug. ca-
lender, a kind of Lark, Melanocorypha calandra; so called from Lat. caliendnim, a head-
dress of false hair, chignon, wig. In botany, calendula, a word of identical form but difi'erent
derivation, is the name of the genus of marigolds.) Euby-Crowned Kinglet. ^, adult:
Bill and feet black. Upper parts greenish-olive, becoming more yellowish on the rump;
wings and tail dusky, strongly edged with yellowish ; whole under parts dull yellowish-white,
or yellowish- or greenish-gray (very variable in tone) ; wings crossed with two whitish bars,
and inner secondaries edged with the same. Edges of eyelids, lores, and extreme forehead
hoary whitish. A rich scarlet patch, partially concealed, on the crown. This beautiful orna-
ment is apparently not gained until the 2d year, in some cases, as it is absent from some adult
(J (J in the spring, or of a yellow instead of flaming color; but as a rule it is present in young
^ $ the first autumn. It is never present in the 9 , as a normal character, though possibly
to be found in some individuals of that sex which have taken on the $ dress in consequence of
age or sterility. Length 4.10-4.50; extent 6.66-7.33 ; wing 2.00-2.33; tail 1.75; bill 0.25 ;
tarsus 0.75. Young of the year : Quite like the adult of each sex ; i.e., ? wanting the scarlet
patch, usually present in the $, sometimes wanting, or merely yellowish. In a newly fledged
specimen wings and tail as strongly edged with yellowish as in adult; but general plumage «if
upper parts rather olive-gray than olive-green, and under parts sordid whitish ; bill light col-
ored at base, and toes appear yellowish. N. Am. at large, breeding far N. and in mountains
of the west to S. California and Arizona, wintering in tlie Southern States and beyond to Gua-
temala. An exquisite little creature, famous for vocal power, abundant in wooded regions.
Nest a large mass of matted hair, feathers, moss, straws, etc., placed at or near the end of a
S YL I 'IID.E — REGULIN.E : KINGLE TS.
263
bough, usually of a coniferous tree ; eggs numerous, 0.54 X 0.42, creamy Avhite, sparsely speckled
with brown, chiefly about the larger end.
R. c. grinnelli. (To Joseph Grinnell.) Sitkan Kinglet. Sooty-olive above, blackening
along sides of the vermilion patch ; throat and
breast dusky gray; belly yellowish- white. Bill
acute, with wide base. Sitka, Alaska; a dark
coast form. W. Palmer, Auk, Oct. 1897, p.
399.
R. obscu'rus. (Lat. obscurus, obscure, daik.)
Dusky Kinglet. Eesembling the comuKin
Ruby-crown, but with darker and more plumbe-
ous shade of upper parts, and some slight diffei-
ences in proportions. A dark insular form from
Guadalupe Island, Lower California. R. c. oh-
sciirus RiDGW., Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Teir.,
Apr. 1876, p. 184; Coues, Key, 2d ed., 1884,
p. 260; R. obscurus Ridgw., Bull. Nutt. Club,
July, 1877, p. 59; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No.
750.
(Subgenus Regulu.s.)
R. satra'pa. (Gr. a-arpdnTji, Lat. satrapes, a ruler; alluding to the bird's golden crown. Figs.
124, 125.) Golden-crested Kinglet. ^, adult: Upper parts olive-green, more or less
Fig. 124. — Golden create J Kinglet. (After Audubon.)
Fio. 1-5. — Golden-crested Kinglet.
bright, sometimes rather olive-ashy, always brightest on rump; under parts dull asliy- or
264
S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
yellowish -white. Wings and tail dusky, strongly edged with yellowish, the inner wing-quills
with whitish. On the secondaries, this yellowish edging stops abruptly in advance of ends of
coverts, leaving a pure blackish interval in advance of white tips of greater coverts ; this, and
similar tips of median coverts, form two white bars across wings ; inner webs of quills and tail-
feathers edged with white. Superciliary line and extreme forehead hoary-whitish. Crown
black, enclosing a large flame-colored space, bordered with pure yellow. The black reaches
across forehead; but behind, the yellow and flame-color reach the general olive of upper parts.
Or, top of head may be described as a central bed of flame-color, bounded in front and on sides
with clear yellow, this similarly bounded by black, this again in same manner by hoary-whitish.
Smaller than B. calendula ; overlying nasal plumes larger. Length 4.00 ; extent 6.50-7.00 ;
wing 2.00-2.12; tail 1.67. 9, adult, and young: Similar to adult $, but central field of
crown entirely yellow, enclosed in black (no flame-color). N. Am. at large ; another exquisite,
abundant in woodland and shrubbery, breeding in various mountains of U. S. and from north-
ern parts northward, wintering in most of the U. S., and also extending S. to Central America.
Nest pensile or not, of moss, hair, feathers, etc., about 4.50 in diameter, on high or low bough
of a tree, preferably evergreen; eggs 6-10, 0.50 X 0.40, white, fully speckled.
R. s. oliva'ceus? (Lat. olivaceus, olivaceous; oliva, an olive.) Western Golden-crested
Kinglet. Said to be of livelier coloration than the last. Pacific coast region of California
and northward.
Obs. — JJ. cuvieri, Aud,, Orn. Biogr., i, 1832, p. 288, pi. 55, and B. Am., ii, 1841, p. 1G3, pi. 131 ; Nutt., Man., 1, 1832,
p. 416; Schuylkill River, Pa., June 8, 1812, said to have two black stripes on each side of head, continues unknown;
A. O. U. Hypothetical List No. 26. —iJ. tricolor, Nutt., Man., i, 1832, p. 420, is JR. satrapa; so is his R. cristaius, which
latter is the name of the European Gold-crest, not found in N. Am.
Subfamily POLIOPTILIN/E: Cnat-catchers.
chiefly Central and
sometimes associ-
Sylviine. Some au-
uear the Old World
X, 1885, p. 440).
America the family
from the New World.
A small group of one genus and about a dozen species.
South American; peculiar to America. Polioptila has been
ated with Paridte, but differs decidedly and is apparently
thors believe it to be Muscicapine, and would place it
genus Stenostira (see Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.,
Should this view be correct, it would add to North
MuscicapidcB, which has been supposed to be absent
' " " Cluiracters those of the
single genus.
POLIOPTILA. (Gr. TroXtoj,
polios, hoary ; tttiXoi/, ptilon, a
feather; the primaries being
edged with whitish.) Gnat-
catchers. Tarsi scutellate.
Toes very short, the lateral
only about half as long as tar-
sus; outer a little longer than,
inner. 1st primary spurious,
about ^ as long as 2d. Wings
rounded, not longer than the
graduated tail, whose feathers widen toward their rounded ends. Bill shorter than head,
straight, broad and depressed at base, rapidly narrowing to the very slender, distinctly notched
and hooked end — thus Muscicapine in character. Rictus with well-developed bristles. Nos-
trils entirely exposed. Coloration without bright tints; bluish-ash, paler or white below; tail
• Blue-gray Gnat-catcher, nat
(Ad nat. del. E. C.)
S YL VIIDJ^ — POLIOP TILING : GNA T-CA TCHERS.
265
black and white. Delicate little woodland birds, peculiar to America, not over 5.00 long ; mi-
gratory, insectivorous, very active and sprightly, with sharp squeaking notes.
Analysis of Species (adult males).
Forehead and line over eye black ; outer tail-feather white ccerulea
Whole crown black ; outer web of outer tail-feather white plumbea
with white californica
Whole crown black ; outer web of outer tail-feather only <
Blue-gray Gnat-
forehead black, con-
of /'. pluinlteii ,
P. coeru'lea. (Lat. coerulea, cerulean, blue. Figs. 126, 127, b.)
CATCHER. (J, adult: Grayish-blue, bluer on crown, hoary on rump:
tinuous with a black superciliary line. Edges
of eyelids white, and above these a slight
whitish stripe bordering the black exteriorly.
Below white, with a faint plumbeous shade
on breast. Wings dark brown ; outer webs,
especially of inner quills, edged with hoary,
and inner webs of most bordered with white.
Tail jet-black ; outer feather entirely or
mostly white, next one about half white, 3d
one tipped with white. Bill and feet black.
Length 4.50-5.00; extent 6.25-7.00; wdng
2.00-2.20 ; tail about the same. 9 : Like ^,
but duller and more grayish above ; head like
back, without any black. Bill usually in
part light-colored. Eastern U. S., N. to
New York, Great Lakes, and S. New England, casual to Minn, and Me., W. to Col. ; breeds in
most of range, and winters on the S. border and southward to the Bahamas, Cuba, and Guate-
mala ; abundant in woodland. Nest a model of bird-architecture, compact-walled and contracted
at the brim, elegantly stuccoed with lichens, fixed to slender twigs at a varying height from 10
to 50 or 60 feet ; eggs 4-5, about 0.60 X 0.45, whitish, fully speckled with reddish and umber-
brown and lilac.
P. c. obscu'ra. (Lat. obscurus, obscure, dark.) Obscure Gnat-catcher. Western
Blue-gray Gnat-catcher. Resembling the last: coloration less clear. S. W. U. S., iu
Arizona, Southern and Lower California, and Western Mexico. Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
v. Mar. 1883, p. 535; CouES, Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 897; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 315,
No. 751 a. The distinction of this form is so .slight that it was ignored in the first three eds.
of the Key, 1872-87, and in the A. 0. U. List, 1st ed., 1886.
P. plum'bea. (Lat. pluvibeus, plumbeous, lead-colored. Fig. 127, d.) Black-capped
Gnat-catcher (adult). Plumbeous Gnat-catcher {young). ^, adult: Upper parts
like those of P. coerulea, but duller and more grayish ; whole top of head black, involving
lores and auriculars ; under parts white, with an ashy shade on the sides. Outer tail-feather
with whole outer web and tip white (like the second feather of P. coerulea) ; next two feathers
tipped with white. Size of P. coerulea; tarsi rather longer — about 0.70. Immature <J :
acquiring the black cap by degrees, beginning with a small black stripe on each side, over a
white superciliary line, and gradually spreading. 9- Like $ ; upper parts still duller, fre-
quently with a decided brownish shade ; no black on head ; distinguislied from 9 coerulea by
less white on tail. Nest high in a tree, saddled on a limb, small, neat, compact, with con-
tracted brim, composed of various downy substances and cobwebs ; size outside about 2.50 in
diam. X 1.75 deep, with a cavity of 1.75 X 1.25; eggs about 4, 0.58 X (K45, bluish-white,
speckled with reddisli brown, umber, and lilac; laid in March and April. Valley of the Gila
and Colorado, iu Arizona and Southern and Lower California ; also, valley of the Upper Rio
266 5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
Graude, ,in New Mexico and Western Texas. As stated in the Key, 2d, 8d, and 4th eds.,
p. 262, P. melanura Lawr., Ann. Lye N. Y., vi, 185G, p. 1G8, and of other authors refer-
ring to the bird of the abuve given habitat, is the adult i>f P. x)lumhea Baird, Proc. Pliihida.
Acad., 1854, p. 118; as is also CuUcivora atricapilla of Lawr., Ann. Lye. N. Y., v, 1851,
p. 124, and of Cass., 111., 1854, pi. 27 (not of Swainson).
P. califor'nica. (Lat., califomian.) Black-tailed Gxat-catcher. California Black-
capped Gnat-catcher. ^, adult: As compared with P. plumbea, upper parts decidedly
plumbeous instead of bluish ; throat, breast, and sides dull ashy instead of ashy-white ; lower
belly and crissum fulvous or even pale chestnut; light edging of tail-feathers confined to
outer pair, with sometimes slight tipping of next pair (as in my Fig. 127, c.) ; lining of wings
pearly-ash, not white ; secondaries and tertials edged with light brown. No pure white any-
where; general aspect of under parts nearly as dark as those of a Cat-bird. Whole crown
glossy black. Length 4.50; extent 6.10; wing 1.80-1.90; tail 1.90-2.20; tarsus 0.73; bill
0.50. 9 : Similar, but no black oa crown ; belly and crissum pale chestnut ; outer webs of
2d pair of rectrices edged with white. Changes of plumage of young ^ in reaching maturity
like those of P. plumbea. This is mainly a Pacific coast form ; P. melanura of authors refer-
ring to that region, but not of Lawr., 1856. It extends from Southern California into Lower
California, where its range reaches that of P. plumbea. Brewster, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club,
Apr, 1881, p. 103; Coues, Key, 2d-3d eds., 1884-87, p. 262; Ridgw., Man., 1887, p. 570;
A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 753.
Family CHAM^ID^ : Wren-tits.
Framed for a siugle species, much like a Titmouse in general appearance, but with tar-
sus not evidently scutellate in front; rounded wings much shorter than graduated tail; lores
bristly ; plumage extraordinarily soft and lax. With the general habits of Wrens, with which
the species was formerly associated. The position and valuation of the group are still uncer-
tain, probably to be determined upon anatomical characters. I have little doubt that Chamcea
will yet be found referable to some other recognized family of birds, and suspect that it might
be assigned to the Old World Timeliidce, with at least as much propriety as some other Amer-
ican groups which have been relegated to that ill-assorted assemblage. In the A. 0. U. Lists,
1886-95, Chamcea is referred to Paridce as type of a subfamily ChamceirKB, which curiously
combines such dissimilar forms as Chamcea, Psaltriparus, and Auriparus — " inadvertently,"
as one member of the Committee has remarked (Man. N. A. Birds, 1887, p. 558). Wlien
doctors disagree like this, it is useless to exchange one dubiosity for another, and safest to con-
tinue the treatment the unfortunate patient has survived for some years. I therefore retain
the family Chamceidce of the 2d-4th eds. of the Key, 1884-90.
CHAMJE'A. (Gr. xa^a') c'*«»»«^' on the ground.) Wren-tits. Form and general aspect
combining features of wrens and titmice. Plumage extraordinarily lax, soft, and full. Color-
ation simple. Tarsal scutella obsolete, or faintly indicated, at least outside. Toes coherent
at base for about ^ the length of proximal joint of middle one. Soles widened and padded,
much as in Paridee. Primaries 10; 6th longest, 3d equal to longest secondaries, 1st about f
as long as longest; wing thus extremely rounded, and much shorter than tail (about f as long).
Tail very long, constituting more than ^ the entire length of the bird, extremely graduated,
with soft, narrow feathers, widening somewhat toward tips, rounded at end ; lateral pair
not I as long as the middle. Bill much shorter than head, very deep at base, straight, stout,
compressed-conical, not notched, with ridged and very convex culmen, but nearly straight
commissure and gonys; nostrils naked, scaled, linear, gape strongly bristled. Frontal feathers
reaching nasal fossae, but no ruff concealing nostrils as in Paridce.
PARID.E — PARIN.E: TRUE TITMICE. 267
C. fascia'ta. (Lat. fasciata, striped ; faseis. a bundle of faggots.) Gambel's Wren-tit.
Adult ^ 9 : Dark brown with an olive shade ; top of head clearer and somewhat streaky ;
wings and tail purer brown, obscurely fasciated with numerous cross-bars; below, dull cinna-
mon-browu, paler on belly, shaded with olive-brown on sides and crissum; throat and breast
obscurely streaked with dusky; bill aud feet brown; iris white. Length about 6.00; wing
2.25-2.50; tail 3.25-3.50, much graduated, lateral feathers 1.00 or more shorter than middle
ones; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.90-1.00; middle toe aud claw 0.75. First primary nearly 1.00
shorter than longest one. California coast region, N. to Humboldt Bay at least. A remark-
able bird, resembling no other, common in shrubbery ; nest in bushes, of twigs, grasses, and
feathers, neither roofed over nor purse-like ; eggs 3-5, 0.70 X 0.52, plain greenish-blue.
C. f. hen'shawi. (To H. W. Heushaw.) Henshaw's Wuen-tit. Much lighter and duller
colored ; above, gi-ayish-ash, with slight olive shade (about the color of a Lop1iox)lianes) ; below,
scarcely rufescent upon a soiled whitish ground, shaded on sides with color of back ; bill and
feet smaller. Interior of California, including W. slopes of the Sierra Nevadas, from the valley
of the Sacramento River S. to Lower California.
Family PARID^ : Titmice, or Chickadees.
Ours are all small (under 7.00 long) birds, having 10 primaries, 1st much shorter than 2d;
wings barely or not longer than tail ; tail-feathers not stiff nor acuminate ; tarsus scutellate,
longer than middle toe ; anterior toes much soldered at base ; nostrils concealed by dense tufts ;
bill compressed, stout, straight, unnotched, and much shorter than head — characters that
readily marked them off from all their allies, as Wrens, Creepers, etc. They are hard to dis-
tinguish, technically, from Jays; but all our Jays are much over 7.00 long.
Titmice are distributed over North America, but the crested species are rather southern,
and all but one of them western. Most of them are hardy birds, enduring the rigors of winter
without inconvenience, and consequently none are properly migratory. They are musical, after
a fashion of their own, chirping a quaint ditty ; are active, restless, aud very heedless of man's
presence; and eat everything. Some of the western species build astonishingly large pensile
nests, like a bottle or purse with a hole in one side, as represented in Fig. 134 ; others live in
knot-holes, and similar snuggeries that they usually dig out for themselves. They are very
prolific, laying numerous eggs, and raising more than one brood a season ; the young closely
resemble the" parents, and there are no obvious seasonal or sexual changes of plumage. All
but one of our species are plainly clad ; still they have a pleasing look, with their trim form
and the tasteful colors of the head.
Subfamily PARIN/E: True Titmice.
Exclusive of certain aberrant forms, usually allowed to constitute a separate subfomily,
and sometimes altogether removed from Paridce. Titmice compose a natural and pretty well
defined group, to which the foregoing diagnosis and remarks arc particularly applicable, and
agree in the following characters : Bill very short and stout, straight, compressed-conoid in
shape, not notclied nor with decurved tip, its under as well as upper outline convex. Rictus
without true bristles, but base of bill covered with antrorse tufts of bristly feathers, entirely
concealing nostrils. Feet stout ; tarsi distinctly scutellate, longer than middle toe ; toes rather
short, the anterior soldered together at base for most of the length of basal joint of middle one.
Hind toe with an enlarged pad beneath, forming, with consolidated bases of anterior toes, a
broad firm solo. Primaries 10; 1st very short or spurious, scarcely or not ^ as long as 2d;
wing as a whole rounded, scarcely or not longer than tail, which latter is rounded or grad-
uated, composed of 12 narrow soft feathers, with rounded or somewhat truncated tips. Plu-
mage long, soft, and loose, without bright colors or well-marked changes according to sex,
268 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCTNES.
age, or season (excepting Auriparus). There may be about 75 good species of Farina; as
thus restricted, most of them falling in the genus Parus, or its immediate neighborhood. With
few exceptions they are birds of the Northern Hemisphere, abounding in Europe, Asia, and
North America. The larger proporticni of the genera and species inhabit the Old World. All
those of the New World occur within our limits.
A7ialysis of Genera.
Crested.
Wings and tail rounded, of about equal lengths. No red or yeUow Lophophanes
Not crested.
Wings and tail rounded, of about equal lengths. No red or yellow Parus
Wings rounded, shorter than the graduated tail. No red or yellow Psaltri parus
Wings pointed, longer than the even tail. Head yellow ; bend of wing red Auriparus
LOPHOPH'ANES. (Gr. Xo'c^o?, lophos, a crest ; (\>alv(a, phaino, I appear.) Crested Tit-
mice. Head crested. Wings and tail rounded, of about equal lengths. Bill conoid-com-
pressed, with upper and under outlines both convex. No yellow on head or red on wing.
Plumage lax, much the same in both sexes at all ages and seasons. Average size of the
species at a maximum for Farina;. Nests excavated in trees ; eggs spotted (except in L.
wollweheri).
Obs. This genus is reduced to a subgenus of Parus by the A. O. U. But it is quite a good genus, as genera go now-
adays, and I need not disturb the position it has held in the Key since 1872 — in fact, among most American writers since
1858. The user of the Key has only to read " P." for L. in the following paragraphs if he wishes to be perfectly ortho-
dox on the subject of Parus (Lophophanes).
Analysis of Species.
Frontlet black ; sides washed with rusty. Eastern bicolor
Crest like rest of upper parts ; no rusty on sides. Southwestern inornatus
Crest entirely black ; rusty on sides. Texan atricristatus
Head with several black stripes ; no rusty on sides. Southwestern ivoUxceheri
L. bi'color. (Lat. fcis, twice ; coZor, color. Fig. 128.) Tufted Titmouse. Peto. c^ 9 ,
adult : Entire upper parts ashy ; back usually with a slight oli-
vaceous shade ;. wings and tail rather purer and darker plumbe-
ous, the latter sometimes showing obsolete transverse bars.
Sides of head and entire under parts dull whitish, washed with
chestnut-brown on sides. A black frontlet at base of crest.
Bill plumbeous-blackish ; feet plumbeous. Length 6.00-6.50 ;
extent 9.75-10.75; wing and tail 3.00-3.25; bill 0.40; tarsus
0.80; middle toe and claw 0.75. 9 smaller than $. Young:
Crest less developed; little if any trace of black trontlet; sides
scarcely washed with rusty. Eastern U. S., rather southerly;
scarcely N. to New England; resident, abundant in woodland
and shrubbery. It is a hardy, sprightly bird, fond of reiterat-
ing its loud ringing " peto, peto." Nest in holes; eggs 6 or 8,
nat. si!r (Ad.'mt™.'^E^cT"'^' **•''•"' ^ ^•^^' ^^■'''^*'' ''""^*^ ^'^^ reddish-brown and lilac.
L. b. texen'sis. (Lat., of Texas.) Texan Tufted Titmouse. Paler than the last, with
chestnut instead of black frontlet at base of crest ; this chestnut corresponding in tint to that
which suffuses sides of body. Tarsus 0.85 ; bill 0.45. Southeastern Texas. Parus hicolor tex-
ensis Sexn., Auk, Jan. 1887, p. 29; Ridgw., Man., 1887, p. 561 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895,
p. 306, No. 731 a. Lophophanes bicolor texensis Coues, Key, 3d ed., 1887, p. 866; 4th ed.,
1890, p. 897.
li. inorna'tus. (Lat. in, as signifying negation, and ornatus, adorned ; orno, I ornament.)
Plain Titmouse. Toppy. ^ 9) adult: Entire upper parts dull leaden-gray, with a slight
PARIDJ^ — PARIX.E: TITMICE. 269
olive shade ; wings and tail rather purer and darker. Below, dull ashy-whitish, without any
rusty wash on sides. No black on head ; extreme forehead and sides of head obscurely speckled
with whitish. No decided markings anywhere. In size rather less than L. bicolor ; length
usually under 6.00; wing and tail under 3.00. Young quite like adults, which closely re-
semble the young of L. bicolor ; but in the latter there are traces at least of the reddish of the
sides or black of the frontlet, or both ; the general coloration is purer, with more distinction
between upper and under parts, and the size is rather greater. The speckled appearance of
tlie sides of head and lores of L. inornatus is peculiar. Abundant, resident. The typical form
is from the coast region of California and Oregon ; a rather larger, stouter-billed form, lighter
leaden-gray with scarcely any olive shade, from the Great Basin, is
L. i. gris'eus. (Lat. griseus, grisly. Gkay Titmouse. Said to differ from ordinary inornatus
in rather larger size and decidedly grayer color. Wing 2.90 ; tail 2.55. Middle Province of
the U. S. ; Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, and California E. of the Sierra
Nevadas. L. i. griseiis'RiuGW., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., v, Sept. 1882, p. 344; CoUES, Key, 2d
ed., 1884, p. 204, in text; 3d and 4th eds., 1887 and 1890, p. 866; P. i. griseus A. 0. U. Lists,
No. 733(^
Jj. i. cinera'ceus. (Lat. cineraceus, somewhat cinereous or ashy in color.) Ashy Titmouse.
An(jther local race, described as grayer above and paler below than L. i. griseus, with smaller
bill, black in color. Lower California. L. i. cineraceus Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., vi,
Oct. 1883, p. 154 ; Coues, Key, 3d and 4th eds., p. 866; P. i. cineraceus A. O. U. List, No.
733 b.
L. atricrista'tus. (Lat. ater, black, cristatus, crested ; crista, a crest.) Black-crested
Titmouse. ^ '^,adn\t: Plumbeous, with a shade of olive; wings and tail rather darker and
purer, edged with color of back, or a more hoary shade of the same. Beneath, dull ashy-
whitisli, especially on breast; abdomen whiter; sides chestnut-brown as in L. bicolor. Extreme
forehead and lores whitish; entire crest glossy black. Bill blackish-plumbeous; feet plum-
beous. Small : Length about 5.00 ; wing and tail 2.75. Valley of the Lower Rio Grande,
S. E. Texas, and N. E. Mexico. Nest in natural cavities of trees, usually including cast snake-
skins among its materials; eggs 0.75 X 0.58, white, spotted with reddish-brown in fine dots
over the general surface, boldly blotched at large end, but not distinguishable from those of
L. bicolor.
L. a. castan'eifrons. (Lat. castaneus, of chestnut color ; frons, forehead.) Chestnut-
fronted Titmouse. Resembling the last : upper parts plumbeous, faintly tinged with
olive ; under parts pale ashy, washed with chestnut on sides, with faint trace of the same on
breast and crissum. Crest thin, 1.00 long, dark brown and ashy instead of black, and witli a
cliestnut frontlet ; lores white; bill black; feet dark plumbeous. Size of L. bicolor, the
bill even larger. Wing 3.12; tail 2.95; tarsus 0.77; bill 0.42.
Bee County, Texas. P. a. castaneifrons Senn., Auk, Jan. 1887,
p. 28; KiDGw., Man., 1887, p. 561. L. a. castaneifrons Coues,
Key, 3d and 4tli eds., 1887 and 1890, p. 866; not admitted in the
A. 0. U. List; a dubious form, whose characters suggest hybrid-
ism between L. bicolor and L. atrieristatus.
L. wollweb'eri. (To one Wollweber. Fig. 129.) Bridled
Titmouse. $ 9 , adult : Upper parts olivaceous-ash ; wings and
tail darker, edged with color of back, or even a brighter tint, some-
times nearly as yellowish as in liegidus. Under parts sordid ashy-
white. Crest black, with a central field like the back. Whole Fio. 129. - Bridled Titmouse,
^\ .L n 1 • • o T^ .,!,,. , ,. 1 nat. size. (Mex. B. Survey.)
throat black, as m species of Parus. A black line runs behind
eye and curves down over auriculars, distinguished from black of crest and throat by white of
side of head and white superciliary stripe ; a half-collar of black on nape, descending on sides
270
.S' YiSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
of ueck, there separated from the black crescent of auriculars by a white crescent, which latter
is continuous with the white of superciliary line ; considerable whitish si^eckliug in black of
forehead and lores. Bill blackish-plumbeous; feet plumbeous. Smallest: Length 5.00 or
less' wing 2.70; tail 2.40-2.65; bill 0.33; tarsus 0.60-0.70. Young: Chin narrowly or im-
perfectly black, and some of the above described head-markings obscure or incomplete. The
singularly variegated markings of the head of this species at once distinguish it. W. Texas,
southern New Mexico, and Arizona, S. in Mexico to Orizaba. Abundant, going in troops, in
woods and shrubbery. Eggs 5-7, 0.65 X 0.50, white, unmarked.
PA'RUS. (Lat. ^fl>"ifs, a titmouse.) Typical Titmice. Chickadees. Head not crested.
Wings and tail rounded, of approximately equal lengths. Bill typically parine (see foregoing
characters). No bright colors (in any North American species). Head in most species with
black. Plumage lax and dull, without decided changes with age, sex, or season. Size medium
in the family. Nest excavated. Eggs spotted.
Analysis of Species mid Subspecies.
Species definitely black-capped and black-throated.
A white superciliary stripe. Western gambeli (iormerly called moJitanusf
No white superciliary stripe. Eastern and Western.
Tail not shorter than wing ; feathers of both with much hoary-whitish edging.
Larger ; tail at maximum length ; coloration most hoary. Rocky Mts a. septentrionali*.
Smaller; tail moderate ; coloration less hoary. Eastern atricapillus
&ize of a/ricdpiUus ; coloration darker. Pacific . a. occidenialU
Tail shorter than wings ; whitish edgings of wings and tail obsolete.
Rather smaller than atncnpilliis. South Atlantic States (and Texas) . . carolinensis (and C. agilis}
Rather smaller than <7^r!"c«p!7/i«; coloration very dark. Mexican border meridionalis
Species brown-capped, or with crown quite like back, and blackish throat.
Cap hair-brown ; back little different.
White confined to side of head. Eastern and Arctic hudsonicus, etc.
White spreading over sides of neck. Arctic, Alaska, and Siberia cinctus alascensiS'
Cap dark wood-brown ; back chestnut.
Back and sides rich chestnut alike. Pacific, northerly rufescens
Back chestnut, but sides only washed with rusty. Pacific, southerly r. neglectus
P. atricapil'lus. (Lat. (iter, black ; capillus, hair. Fig. 130.) Black-capped Titmouse.
Common Chickadee. 9 i adult : Crown and nape,
with chin and throat, black, separated by white sides of
*^"^ -^ the head. Upper parts brownish-ash, with slight olive
tinge, and a rusty wash on rump. Under parts more or
less purely white or whitish, shaded on sides with a brown-
ish or rusty wash. Wings and tail like upper parts, the
lAi^'H^ feathers moderately edged with hoary-white. Average
dimensions: Length 5.25; extent 8.00; wing and tail,
each, 2.50 ; tarsus 0.70. Extremes : Length 4.75-5.50 y
extent 7.50-8.50; wing and tail 2.35-2.65; tarsus 0.65-
0.75. Eastern N. Am., from the Middle States north-
M-ard, very abundant, well-known by its familiar habits
and peculiar notes. Nest in holes of trees, stumps, or
fences, natural or excavated by the bird, made of grasses,
mosses, hair, fur, feathers, etc ; eggs 6-S, 0.58 X 0.47,
white, fully sprinkled with reddish-brown dots and spots.
P. a. septeiitriona'lis. (Lat. septentrionalis, northern ;
f:eptentrio)ies, the constellation of seven stars, the dipper.)'
LoxG-TAiLED CHICKADEE. Similar to p. atricapillus;
i-iG. 130. -Black-capped Chickadee, averaging larger, and especially longer-tailed ; tail rather
reduced. (Ad. nat. del. E. c.) exceeding wing in length. Coloration clear and pure;.
PARID.E — PARIN.E: TITMICE.
271
wings and tail very strongly edged, especially on secondaries and outer tail-feathers, M-ith
hoary-wliite, which usually passes around their tips. Cap pure black aud very extensive on
nape; black of throat reaching breast; sides of head aud neck snowy- white. Bill and feet
dark plumbeous. Average dimensions about the maxima of P. atricapillns : Length 5.25-
5.50; extent 8.50; wing 2.50-2.75; tail 2.60-2.80, sometimes 8.00. This style reaches its
extreme development in the region of the Upper Missouri and Rocky Mts., there apparently to
the exclusion of P. atricapillus proper.
P. a. occidenta'lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western; occido, I fall; i. e., where the suu sets.)
Western Chickadee. Oregon Chickadee. ainnluT to P. atricajnllus ; of same average
size ; presenting the opposite extreme from P. septentrionalis in minimum edging of wing- and
tail-feathers with hoary, heavy brownish wash of sides, and general dark sordid coloration.
Pacific coast region, California to Alaska.
P. carolinen'sis. (Lat. of Carolina.) CAROLINA Chickadee. Averaging smaller than P.
atricapillus, with relatively as well as absolutely shorter tail, which is rather shorter than
wings; wings and tail very little edged with whitish. Average dimensions about the minima
oi P. atricapillns. Length about 4.50; wing 2.50 ; tail 2.25, S.Atlantic and Gulf States;
X. to New Jersey, Illinois, and Missouri. Nesting like 7^. atricapiUus ; eggs similar, rather
smaller.
P. c. a'gilis. (Lat. agilis, agile, active.) Plumbeous Chickadee. Differs from P. caroli-
nensis proper by more plumbeous shade of upper parts, wliiter under parts, which lack any
decided bufi"y wash, and somewhat longer tail in comparison with other dimensions ; wing and
tail of about the same length — 2.40. Eastern and Central Texas. Sennett, Auk, Jan.
1888, p. 46; Coues, Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 898; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 308,
No. 730 a.
P. meridiona'lis. (Lat. meridionalis, southern.) Mexican Chickadee. Differs decidedly
from P. atricapillus in having the under parts merely a paler shade of tlie ashy nf the upper,
instead of white, without any brownish wash on sides; wing-
coverts and tail lacking any hoary edging, though the wing,
quills have a slight grayish-white edging. Thus quite like
P. (jamheli in color, but no white superciliary stripe. Length
4.80-5.20 ; extent 8.00-8.70 ;
wing 2.67-2.90; tail 2.40-
2.07. Mexico, from Orizaba
to Arizona.
P. gani'beli. (ToWm. Gam-
bol, its original describer as P. montanus. Figs. 131, 132.)
Mountain Chickadee. Gambel's Chickadee. Upper
parts ashy-gray, with scarcely a shade, and only
on rump, of the ochraceous seen in most other
species; under parts similarly grayish -white,
without rusty tinge ; middle of belly nearly
white, the rest more heavily shaded. Wings and
tail with comparatively little whitish edging —
tail with no more than that of P. carolinensia.
Sides of head and neck white ; top of head, aud
throat, black. A conspicuous white supercili-
ary stripe in the black cap, usually meeting its
fellow across forehead. Length about 5.00;
extent 8.30 ; wing 2.50-2.75 ; tail ratlier less ;
bill 0.38, slender ; tarsus 0.66. U. S., from Eastern foot-lulls of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific,
Fig. 131. — Mountain Chickadee,
nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
Mountain Chickadee.
272
SYSTEM A TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCIXES.
British Columbia to Lower California, chiefly in alpine regions. Eggs 0.62 X 0.57, spotted
as usual in this genus, or not. P. montamis Gambel, of all former eds. of the Key, as of
most writers ; P. gamheli Ridgw., Man., 1887, p. 562; A. 0. U. Lists, No. 738.
P. rufes'cens. (Lat. rufescens, rufous, reddish.) Chestnut-backed Titmouse. ^ 9 ,
adult: Crown and nape dark wood-brown, becoming sooty along sides, separated from the
sooty-black of throat by a large white area extending back on sides of neck. Entire back and
sides of body rich dark chestnut, contrasting strongly with the brown of head. Breast and
central line of under parts, with lining of wings, whitish. Wing- and tail-coverts more or less
washed with rusty-brown. Quills and tail-feathers scarcely or slightly edged with whitish.
Bill black ; feet dark ; iris brown. Young with throat brown, like crown, instead of sooty.
Length 4.75; extent, 7.50; wing 2.30; tail about 2.00. A strongly marked species, with
chestnut back and sides contrasting with dark brown cap and sooty throat. Pacific coast
region of Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Southern Alaska, very abundant in
coniferous woods and shrubbery ; resident. Nest in hollow of a tree, 10-40 feet up, of moss,
hair, feathers, etc. ; eggs 6-8, 0.61 X 0.42, minutely speckled with reddish, rarely immaculate;
May, June.
P. r. neglec'tus? (Lat. neglectiis, neglected, i. e., not chosen; nee, not, and lego, I gather,
choose.) Quite similar: crown, throat, and back the same, but sides not extensively chestnut,
being simply washed with rusty-brown. Coast region of California.
P. hudson'icus. (Lat. hudsonicus, of Hudson's Bay; after Henry Hudson, the navigator.
Fig. 133.) HuDSONiAN Titmouse. <^ 9 , adult : Crown, nape, and upper parts generally clear
hair-brown, or ashy-brown with
a slight olive shade ; coloration
quite the same on back and
crown, and not separated by any
whitish nuchal interval. Throat
quite black, in restricted area, not
extending backward on sides of
neck ; separated from the brown
crown by silky white on side of
head, this white not reaching
back of auriculars to sides of
nape. Sides, flanks, and under
tail-coverts washed with dull
chestnut or rusty-brown ; other
under parts whitish. Quills and
tail-feathers lead-color, as in other
Titmice, scarcely or slightly edged
with whitish. Little or no concealed white on rump. Bill black : feet dark. Size of P.
atricapillus, or rather less. Wing 2.50-2.60 ; tail rather less; tarsus 0.60. N. New England and
Great Lake region of the U. S., and British America generally ; common in coniferous woods.
P. h. ston'eyi. (To Lieut. Geo. M. Stoney, U. S. N.) Stoney's Titmouse. Kowak
Chickadee. Like P. hudsonicus ; grayer above ; sides of neck purer ashy-gray ; sides paler
rusty, and throat clear slaty-black instead of sooty-black. Size of P. hudsonicus ; wing 2.55-
2.75, averaging 2.62 ; tail 2.62 ; tarsus 0.62-0.70. Kowak River, N. W. Alaska. P. stoneyi,
RiDGW., Man., 1887, p. 591 ; P. hudsonicus stoneyi, A. O. U. List, 1st Suppl., 1889, p. 17;
Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 897; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 309, No. 740a.
P. h. columbia'nus. (Lat., Columbian.) Rhoads' Titmouse. Columbian Chickadee.
Like P. hudsonicus, but presenting the opposite variation from that of P. h. stoneyi in general
darker coloration: throat jet black ; lores and frontal area sooty-black ; crown and neck slaty,
'I"-'-
Fio. 133. — Hudsonian Titmouse.
PARTDJE — PARINJE: TITMICE. 273
with little or no brownish tinge. Size slightly larger than that of the typical form ; wing 2.70;
tail 2.64 ; tarsus 0.67. Type locality, Field, British Columbia ; range extending in the Rocky
Mts. from Liard River S. to Montana. Rhoads, Auk, Jan. 1893, p. 213 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.,
1895, p. 310, No. 740 b.
P. h. evu'ra. (Gr. cu, well; ovpa, tail.) Well-tailed Titmouse. Alaskan Chickadee.
Like P. hiulsonicMs in color; larger, with especially longer tail; tail nearly 3.00. The varia-
tion in this case corresponds to that of P. septentrionalis as compared with P. atricapillus.
CouES, Key, 2d ed., 1884, p. 267 ; not recognized in A. 0. U. Lists.
P. cinc'tus alascen'sis. (Lat. cinctus, girdled, from cingo, I bind about ; alascensis, of
Alaska.) Siberian Titmouse. In general, similar to P. hudsonicus, but quite distinct.
^ 9 , adult : Throat sooty-blackish ; crown and nape dark hair-brown, bordered laterally with
dusky, appreciably different in tone from the brighter brownish of back, from which also sepa-
rated to some extent by whitish of cervix. Sides of head and neck pure white, in a large area
widening behind, this white of opposite sides nearly meeting across cervix. Back ashy over-
laid with flaxen-brown ; rump light brown with much concealed white. Under parts whitish
centrally from the black throat, but heavily washed on sides, flanks, and crissum, sometimes
quite across belly, with light brownish. Wings and tail slate-color, as usual in the genus, with
much whitish edging, especially on secondaries. Bill plumbeous-blackish ; feet plumbeous.
Length 5.30-5.60; wing 2.60-2.80; tail rather more; tarsus 0.65. Eggs 0.65 X 0.50. A
large stylish Chickadee, lately ascertained to inhabit Arctic America, especially Alaska. It is
very near the E. Siberian form of the Lapp titmouse (true P. cinctus of Boddaert, P. sibiricus
Gm., or P. lapponicHS Lundahl), from which P. ohtectus Cab., J. f. O., 1851, p. 237, is by
some considered specifically distinct. Compare Pcecila submicrorhynchus of Brehm, Nau-
mannia, 1856, p. 369. Our Alaskan bird is P. cinctus of former eds. of the Key ; P. c. obtectus
Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., viii, 1885, p. 354 ; Man., 1887, p. 564 ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and
1895, No. 739; name now changed, after Pcecila cincta alascensis Prazak, Orn. Jahrb.,
Mar.-Apr. 1895, p. 92, to Parns cinctus alascensis, A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Jan. 1897, p. 132,
No. 7.39.
PSALTRIP'ARUS. (Gr. -^aXTpia, Lat. psaltria, a lutist; parns, a tit.) Bush-tits.
Dwarfs among pygmies! 3.75-4.25 long; wing 2.00 or less, tail 2.00 or more. Ashy or
olive-gray, paler or whitish below ; neither crown nor throat black ; no bright colors. Head
not crested ; wings rounded, shorter than the long narrow graduated tail. Nest large, woven,
pensile, with lateral entrance (fig. 134). Eggs 6-9, white, unmarked. The 4 species are
Western ; they are notable for their diminutive size, scarcely equalling a Polioptila in bulk.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Crown brown, unlike back ; no black on side of head. Pacific coast region minimus
N. California and northward jh mimMi proper
N. and S. California "'• cali/omicus
Lower California "»■ grinda-
Crown like back ; no black on side of head. S. Rocky Mt. region plumbeua
Crown ash, unlike back ; a black stripe on side of head.
cf with tlie black stripe narrow and occipital only snntarila
(f with the black stripe broad and long Iloydi
P. inin'imus. (Lat. minimus, least, sinalh'st.) Least BuSH-TlT. ^ 9 , adult : Dull lead-
C(dor, frequently with a brownish or olivaceous shade; top of head abruptly darker — clove-
brown or hair-brown. Below sordid whitish, or brownish-white. Wings and tail dusky, with
slight hoary edgings. Bill and feet black. Length 4 00 or less; wing scarcely or not 2.00;
tail 2.00 or more ; bill 0.25 ; tarsus 0.60. Young birds do not ditfer materially. There is
considerable variation in the precise shade of the body, but the brown cap always differs in
coh^r from the rest of the upper parts. Eggs 0.55 X 0.40. The typical dark Northern form
18
274
^^ YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
inhabits the coast region of N. California, Oregon, and Washington, shading insensibly into
the following :
P. m. califor'nicus ? (Lat., Califoruian.) Californian Bush-tit. Lighter colored than
the last, on an average. This form inhabits the greater part of the coast region of California,
and is intermediate between the last and the next variety. Pr. Biol. Soc. Wash., ii, Apr.
1884, p. 89; A. 0. U.
Lists, 1886 and 1895, No.
743 a ; not admitted in
■my former ed. of the Key.
P m. grin'dae. (To
Don Francisco C. Grin-
da ) Grinda's Bush-
tit. Adult : Cap pale
blown, lightening on sides
(if head into white on chin
and throat ; other under
parts exactly as in P.
minimus. Upper parts
light plumbeous-gray,
\\ ell contrasted with
blown of nape. Bill and
fut black. Wing 2.00;
till 2.30, graduated 0.50;
bill 0.20. A further local
\ariation, combining to
some extent the characters
of minimus and plum-
heus. Lower California.
P grindce, BELDixa, Pr.
U S. Nat. Mus., vi, Oct.
1^83, p. 1.55; P. m. grin-
dce, KiDGW., ihid., viii,
1885, p. 354 ; CouES,
Key, 3d ed., 1887, p. 867;
A 0. U. List, 2d ed.,
1^95, No. 743 &.
P pliim'beus. (Lat.
phimheus, lead-colored.)
Plumbeous Bush-tit.
$ 9 , adult : Clear plum-
beous, with little or no olive or brownish shade ; top of head not different from back, its sides
pale brownish. Under parts as in P. minimus, but clearer. Tail longer than wings. Eyes
yellow or dark brown. Length about 4.25 ; wing 1.88-2.12 ; tail 2.25-2.50; bill 0.25; tar-
sus 0.60. Closely related to P. minimus, but readily distinguishable. Total length greater,
owing to elongation of tail, which sometimes exceeds wings by 0.50. General coloration clearer
and purer; crown not different in color from back, but cheeks brownish in obvious contrast.
Rocky Mt. region, from Wyoming and Oregon southward ; common in Arizona.
P. santari'tae. (Lat., of the Santa Rita (mountains). Santa Eita is a Spanisli phrase,
meaning "holy creek," rita being a diminutive form of rio, river.) Santa Rita Bush-tit.
^, similar to the last; sides of head paler, and marked with a lateral occipital blackish line
PARID.E — PARIN.E: TITMICE. 275
over the auriculars, as in the 9 <>f -P- Uoi/cli. Said to be smaller than P. plumheus, but the
ascribed dimensions do not bear out the statement. Santa Rita Mts. of Southern Arizona.
RiDGW., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., x, Sejtt. 1888, p. 697; Coues, Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 898;
A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 312, No. 744.1.
P. lloyd'i. (To Wm. Lloyd.) Lloyd's Black-eared Bush-tit. ^, adult : Sides of head
broadly black with greenish lustre, the bands meeting narrowly across chin, and nearly meet-
ing on nape. Crown and nape clear ash. Back hair-brown. Wings and tail fuscous, with
narrow pale ashy edgings of the feathers; outer webs and tips of outer tail-feathers, and inner
webs of many wing-feathers, whitish. Below, white, pure on throat and sides of neck, thence
passing through lavender-gray to rusty-brownish on flanks and crissum. Bill and feet black ;
iris brown. 9 j adult : Black of head reduced to ?. streak along each side of the occiput, leav-
ing sides of head light brown. Young $ quite similar to the adult, having glossy black on
head before it is fully feathered ; but the black marks do not at flrst meet on chin. Length
about 4.00; wing 1.90; tail 2.25; bill 0.25, compressed, with very convex culmen and nearly
straight under outline; tarsus 0.60; middle toe and claw 0.45. Northern Mexico, from Sonora
and Chihuahua into Arizona, New Mexico, and W. Texas. P. melanotis of earlier eds. of rhe
Key, ascertained to be different from true melanotis of Mexico ; P. lloydi Sennett, Auk,
Jan. 1888, p. 43; Key, 4th ed.. 1890, p. 898; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 312, No. 745.
Xt'st pensile, pear-shaped, with large end downward, about 6 inches long, made of mosses,
lichens, and plant-stems, lined with feathers ; eggs white, unmarked, 0.58 X 0.42. The bird
has been found breeding in pineries, at an altitude oi over 6,000 feet ; a nest was affixed to
twigs of a cedar tree, 7 feet from the ground.
AURIP'ARUS. (Lat. auri, of gold, i\m\ parus, a tit; from the yeUow head.) Gold-tits.
Head not crested. Wings pointed ; 2d quill little shorter than 3d; 1st spurious. Tail little
rounded, decidedly shorter than wiugs. Bill not typically Parine — extremely acute, with
straight or slightly concave under outline, and barely convex culmen, thus resembling that of
■A Helmintliopliila ; longer and slenderer than usual in Pann« ; nostrils scarcely concealed by
the imperfect ruff. Tarsus relatively shorter than in preceding genera. Bright colors on head
(yellow) and wing (red). Plumage comparatively compact ; sexes alike, but young very differ-
ent from adults. Size very small. General form Sylvicoline. Nest globular, woven. Eggs
spotted. One sjiecies.
A. flav'iceps. (Lat. flaviceps, yellow-head.) Gold-tit. Verdin. Yellow-headed
TiT.MOUSE. (J 9 ) adult : Upper parts ashy ; under parts whitish ; wings and tail dusky, with
lioary edging. Whole head rich yellow. Lesser wing-coverts chestnut-red. Bill dark plum-
Im'ous; feet plumbeous. Length 4.00-4.25; wing 2.00; tail 2.25. Young without red on
wing or yellow on head ; thus obscure objects, known, however, by their generic characters.
Adults vary in having the yellow heightened to orange, or dull and greenish ; the red some-
times haematitic ; and shade of the ashy clear and pure, or dull and brownish. Valleys of the
Rio Grande and Colorado, N. to S. Nevada and S. W. Utah, S. extensively in Mexico; resident
in most of its range ; abundant in chaparral, building in bushes a great globular or purse-like
nest c)f twigs, lined with down and feathers ; eggs 4-6, 0.60 X 0.45, pale bluish speckled with
brown.
A. f. laniproceph'alus. (Gr. \afji7rp6s. lampros, briglit ; K((pa\T], IrjiJuiIr, licad.) Brioht-
headed Titmol'se. 'Like flaviceps ; head clearer yellow; wings shorter: tail much shorter.
Lower California. Included under /ai'jce/>s in former eds. of the Key. A. f. ornatus Bry-
ant, Zoe, i, 1890, p. 149 (nee Conirostrum ornatum Lawr.). A. f. lamprocephalus Ober-
HOLSER, Auk, Oct. 1897, p. 391 ; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 126.
276
SYSTEMsl TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
Family SITTID^: Nuthatches.
Bill subcylindrical, tapering, compressed, slender, acute, nearly or about as long as head ;
culmen and commissure about straight; gonys long, convex, ascending (giving a sort of re-
curved look to a really straight bill). Nostrils rounded,
concealed by bristly tufts. Wings long, pointed, with
10 primaries, 1st very short or spurious; tail much
shorter than wings, broad, soft, nearly even; tarsus
shorter than middle toe and claw, scutellate in front;
toes all long, with large, much curved, compressed
claws ; 1st toe and claw about equal to 3d ; 2d and 4th
toes very unequal in length. Plumage compact ; body
flattened ; tongue horny, acute, barbed. Nuthatches
are amongst the most nimble and adroit of creepers;
thoy scramble about and hang in every conceivable atti-
tude, head downward as often as otherwise. This is
done, too, without any help from the tail — the whole
tarsus being often applied to the support ; and there is
in their movements something so suggestive of mice
\ that they are sometimes called Treemice — a term which
, contrasts very well with Titmice, of the neighboring
family ParidtE. They are chiefly insectivorous, but
feed also on hard fruits ; and gained their English name
from their habit of sticking nuts and seeds in cracks in
bark, and hammering away with the bill till they break
the shell. They are very active and restless little birds,
quite sociable, often going in troops which keep up a
continual noise ; lay 4-6 white, spotted eggs, in hol-
lows of trees. The family is a small one, of less than
30 species, among them a single remarkable Madagascar form (^Hypositta) , and a genus pecu-
liar to Australia (Sittella) ; but is cliiefly represented by the genus Sitta, with some 15 species
of Europe, Asia, and North America. The genera Xenicus and Acanthisitta of New Zealand,
long supposed to be Sittidac, are now known to belong elsewhere. The A. 0. U. reduces Sittidee
to a subfamily oi Par idee — in my judgment a needless if not unwise step I am not prepared
to take. The change is of no practical consequence.
SIT'TA. (Lat. sitta, Gr. mTTa, name of a bird. Fig. 135.) Typical Nuthatches. Tree-
mice. Characters practically those given under head of the family.
Fig. 135. — European Nuthatch, Sitta ccesia
(resembling S. pusilla), nearly uat. size. (From
Brehm.)
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
White below ; crissum washed with rusty-brown ; cap glossy black, without stripes.
Bill stouter, 0.18-0.20 deep at base. Inner secondaries boldly variegated with black. Eastern.
Eastern U.S. and British Provinces cnrolinensis
Florida to South Carolina coastwise c. atkinsi
Bill slenderer, 0.12-0.16 deep at base. Inner secondaries scarcely variegated vritli blackish. Western
c. anileala
Rusty-brown below ; cap glossy black with white stripes, or color of back canadensis
Rusty-brovm or brownish-white below ; cap brown, unlike back, without stripes.
Crown clear hair-brown ; a white spot on nape ; middle tail-feathers plain. Southeastern .... pusilla
Crown dull-brownish, with darker border ; middle tail-feathers with black.
Southwestern ; little or no white on nape pygmo'a
Lower California ; more white on nape p. leuconucha
SITTID^: NUTHATCHES.
277
Carolina Nuthatch. White-
QuANK. <J, adult: Upper parts,
Carolina Nuthatch, nat.
C.)
S. carolinen'sis. (Lat., of Carolina. Figs. 136, 137.)
BELLIED Nuthatch. Treemouse. Devil Downhead.
central tail-feathers, and much edging of wings, clear
ashy-blue ; M-hole crown, nape, and back of neck glossy
black. Under parts, including sides of neck and head
to above eyes, dull white, more or less marked on flanks
and crissum with rusty-brown. Wings and their cov-
erts blackish, much edged as already said, and with
an oblique bar of white on outer webs of primaries
toward their ends; concealed bases of primaries white;
under wing-coverts mostly blackish; b(dd bluish and
black variegation of inner secondaries. Tail, excepting
the two middle feathers, black, each feather marked
with white in increasing amount ; outer web of lateral
feather mostly white. Bill blackish -plumbeous, pale at base below. Feet dark brown. Iris
brown. Length 5.50-6.00; extent 10.50-11.00; wing 3.50; tail 1.75; bill about 0.66 long,
0.18-0.20 deep at base. 9 : Similar; black of head imperfect, mixed or overlaid with color of
back, or altogether restricted to nape. Eastern U. S. (except S. Atlantic coast region) and
British Provinces, resident, abundant in woodland, where its curious quank, quank, quank may
often be heard as the nimble bird hops up and down the tree-trunks. Nest in holes, often ex-
cavated by the birds with infinite labor, lined with fur, feathers, grasses, etc. ; eggs 5-8, 0.80 X
0.60, white, profusely speckled with reddish and lilac.
S. c. at'kinsi. (To John W. Atkins, of Key West, Fla.) Florida White-breasted Nut-
hatch. Said to be smaller than the last, to the extent of 0.15-0.20 iu average length of wing;
bill said to be longer, 0.69-0.78 ; wings
and tail said to have less white. 9
with crown pronounced black, not easily
distinguished from the ^ . Florida, and
coastwise to S. Carolina. Scott, Auk,
. Apr. 1890, p. 118; A. 0. U. List, 2d
A ed. 1895, No. 727 b (de minimis curat
lex !).
S. c. aculea'ta. (Lat. acukata, sharp-
ened ; referring to the slender bill.)
Slender-billed Nuthatch. Like
carolinensis; bill slenderer, 0.12-0.16
at base. Inner secondaries scarcely or
not variegated witli blackish, and gen-
eral tone of coloration duller. Wood-
land of Middle and Western provinces
nf the U. S., and S. into Mexico ; com-
mon, replacing carolinensis. The two
forms are se])a rated for the most part by
tlie treeless plains where neither occurs,
and are well marked. Specimens which
Fu>. i:,.. -NMnU-bn-.Me.l -N.al.atcl,. ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ .^ ^^^^ ^^_^^^^ ^^.^^^ ^^^ g^
Dakota, were however somewhat equivocal. Nesting as in other species ; eggs 5-9, ordinaiily
7-8, March and later.
S. canaden'sis. (Lat, of Canada; an Iroquois word. Fig. 138.) Red-bellied Nuthatch.
Canada Nuthatch. <J , adult : Upper parts leaden-blue (brighter than in carolinensis) ; central
278
5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Fig. 138. — Canada Nuthatch, uat
size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
tail-feathers the same ; wings fuscous, with slight ashy edgiugs and concealed white bases
of primaries. Entire under parts rusty-brown, very variable in shade, from rich fulvous to
brownish-white, usually palest on throat, deepest on sides and
crissum ; tail-feathers, except middle pair, black, the lateral
marked with white. Whole top and side of head and ueck
glossy black, that of the side appearing as a broad bar through
eye from bill to side of ueck, cut off from that of crown by a
long white superciliary stripe, which meets its fellow across
forehead. Bill dark plumbeous, paler below ; feet plumbeous-
brown. Length 4.50-4.75; extent 8.00-8.50; wing 2.60 ;
tail 1.50 ; bill 0.50. 9 : Crown like back ; lateral stripe on head merely blackish. The under
parts average paler than those of the <J, but there is no constancy about this. Young birds
resemble the 9 . Temperate N. Am., range on the whole more northerly than that of caroli-
nensis, breeding from the northern tier of States northward, and further south only in moun-
tainous regions ; winters S. through the S. States ; common in woodland ; habits like those of
the Carolina Nuthatch ; eggs similar, smaller, 0.65 X 0.54 down to 0.60 X 0.45.
S. pusil'la. (Lat.j9MsiZ?«, puerile, petty. Fig. 139.) Brown-headed Nuthatch. (J 9 ,
adult : No black cap or white stripe on head. Upper parts dull ashy-blue ; under parts sordid
or muddy whitish. Cap clear hair-brown. A decided spot of white on middle of nape, in the
brown cap, which on sides of head includes eyes, and is bor- _
dered with dusky. Middle tail-feathers like back, without
black, and with little or no white. Length scarcely 4.00 ;
extent about 8.00; wing 2.50; tail 1.25; tarsus 0.60; bill
about 0.50. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, N. to Virginia,
Ohio, and Missouri. Habits of the other species : eggs 0.60 X
0.50, very heavily speckled with dark reddish -brown.
S. pygmse'a. (Gr. irvynfj, pttgme, the fist ; Lat. pygmeciis, a
pygmy, fistliug, or tom-thumb.) Pygmy Nuthatch. S 9 ,
adult : Upper parts ashy-blue ; wings with slight if any mark-
ings (as in canadensis), though some outer primaries may be narrowly edged with white.
Whole crown, nape, and sides of head to below eyes, olive-brown, the lateral borders of this
patch blackish; an obsolete whitish patch on nape. Central tail-feathers lilce back, but witli
a long white spot, and their outer webs black at base; other tail-feathers blackish, with white
marks, often also tipped with color of back. Entire under parts ranging from muddy-white to
smoky-brown or rich rusty, nearly or quite as intense as in canadensis; flanks and crissum
shaded with a dull wash of color of back. Bill and feet dark plumbeous, tlie former paler at
base below. Iris black. Size of the last. Young : Differs much as 9 canadensis does from
^, having top of liead like back. U. S. from Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, abundant, chiefly in
pine woods; N. to British Columbia, S. into Mexico. Eggs 6-7, 0.62 X 0.50; white, pro-
fusely speckled with reddish.
S. p. leuconu'cha. (Gr. XevKos, leucos, white, and Lat. nucha, nape.) White-naped Nut-
hatch. Like the last ; nuchal spot more conspicuous ; under parts whiter ; head grayer ; bill
larger. San Pedro Mts., Lower California. Anthony, Pr. Cala. Acad., 2d ser., ii, Oct. 1889,
p. 77; C0UE8, Key, 3d ed., 1890, p. 898 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 305, No. 730 a.
Fio. 139. — BrowTi-headed Nut-
hatch, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
Family CEBTHIID^ : Creepers.
A very small, well-marked group, of about 12 species, and 4 or 5 genera, which fall in 2
sections, commonly called subfamilies ; one of these, Ticliodroinince, is represented by the well-
known European Wall Creeper, Tichodroma muraria, and several (chiefly Australian) species
CERTHIID^E—CERTHIIN.E: TYPICAL CREEPERS.
279
of the genus CUmacteris ; while the genus Certhia, with 5 or 6 species or subspecies, and cer-
tain allied genera (all but one Old World) constitute the
Subfamily CERTHIIN>E: Typical Creepers.
Our species may be known on
sight, among North American Cs
cines, by its rigid, acuminate tail-
feathers, like a Woodpecker's. Be-
sides : bill about equal in length to
head, extremely slender, sharp, and
decurved ; nostrils exposed ; no rict.il
bristles; tarsus scutellate, shuitti
than 3d toe and claw, which is con-
nate for the whole of the 1st joint
with both 2d and 4th toe; lateial
toes of unequal lengths ; 1st toe
shorter than its claw ; claws all
much curved and very sharp ; \a ing
10-primaried, 1st primary very shoit,
not i the 2d, which is less than
3d ; point of wing formed by 3d, 4th,
and 5th ; tail rounded, equal 1o oi
longer than wing, of 12 stout, elastic,
curved, acuminate feathers. Rest-
less, active, little forest birds that
make a living by picking bugs
out of cracks in bark. In scram-
bling about they use the tail as Woodpeckers do, and never hang head downward like Nut-
hatches. Lay numerous white, speckled eggs ; are not regularly migratory ; have slight
seasonal or sexual changes of plumage; are chiefly insectivorous, and not noted for musical
ability.
CERTHIA. (Lat. certhius, a creeper. Fig. 141.) Characters as above. The stock-form
of this genus varies according to locality. European varieties sometimes recognized are
C. cost(E and C- britannica. The N. Am. bird,
when separated from the European, has been called
C. nifa (Bartram, 1791), fitsca (Barton, 179!)),
and americana (Bp. 1838), for Eastern specimens;
C. montana for those from the Rocky Mt. region ;
C occidentalis for those from the Pacific coast
region ; and C. meocicana (or alticola) and C.
albescens for the Mexican forms. The differences
between any of these forms are slight; but if they
are to be recognized by name, all the American
ones must be specifically separated from those of
Europe ; for we adopt the fact of intergradation, not any degree of difference, as our touchstone
of subspecificality, and it is a physical impossibility for any of our creepers to intergrade now
with any European ones. Therefore our birds should stand as C- americana, C a. montana,
C- a. occidentalis, and C. a. albescens. But I forbear to make the change, in deference to the
A. 0. U. committee over which I had the honor of presiding in our attempts to confer immu-
tability upon nomenclatural permutability.
Fig. 140. —Common Brown Creeper, Cnihia famthai-is, nearly
nat. size. (From Brehm.)
Fig. 141. — Head, foot, and tail-feather of Cer-
ifiin, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
280 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES—OSCINES.
C. familia'ris americana. (Lat. familiaris, from familia, family ; domestic, home-like.
Fig. 140.) Brown Creeper. ^9'- Upper parts dark brown, changing to rusty-brown on the
rump, everywhere streaked mth ashy-white. An obscure whitish superciliary stripe. Under
parts dull whitish, sometimes tinged with rusty on flanks and crissum. Wing-coverts and
quills tipped with white ; inner secondaries with white shaft-lines, which, with the tips, con-
trast with the blackish of their outer webs. Wings also twice crossed with white or tawny-
white ; anterior bar broad and occupying both webs of feathers, other only on outer webs near
their ends. Tail grayish-brown, darker along shaft and at end of feathers, sometimes show-
ing obsolete transverse bars. Bill blackish above, mostly flesh-colored or yellowish below ;
feet brown; iris dark brown. Length of (J 5.25-5.75 ; extent 7.50-8.00 ; wing 2.50, more
or less ; tail usually a little longer than the wing, sometimes not so, 2.50 to nearly 3.00 ;
tarsus about 0.60: bill 0.65-0.75; ? averaging smaller than ^. Eggs 5-9, 0.60 X 0.45;
white speckled with reddish-brown, especially about the large end. Eastern N. Am., in
woodland; migratory to some extent, as it breeds chiefly from northerly or mountainous parts
of the U. S. northward, and winters chiefly further S. ; abundant, generally seen winding
spirally up the trunks and larger branches of trees. C. fusca Barton, Frag. N. H. Penna,
1799, p. 11, nee Gm., 1788. C familiaris fusca Coues, B. N. W., 1874, p. 230; A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 126. C familiaris of 2d-4th eds. of Key, 1884-90, p. 273.
C. familiaris americana, A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 726.
C. f. monta'na. (Lat. montantis, of mountains.) Rocky Mountain Creeper. Grayer
above than the last, with more distinctly contrasted tawny rump, and longer bill, wings, and
tail. Rocky Mt. region of the U. S., including Alaska. Not recognized in any former ed. of
the Key. Ridgw., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mu.s., v, July, 1882, p. 114; Man., 1887, p. 558; not
recognized in A. 0. U. List, 1886 ; but ibid., 2d ed., 1895, No. 726 b.
C. f. occidenta'lis. (Lat. occidentalis, of the Occident or setting sun, western.) Califorxian
Creeper. The darker form, from the Pacific coast region, from southern California to Alaska.
Not recognized in any former ed. of the Key, nor in A. 0. U. List, 1886 ; Ridgw., Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus., V, 1882, p. 114 ; Man., 1887, p. 558 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, No. 726 c
C. f. albes'cens. (Lat. albescens, somewhat white, whitish.) Mexican Creeper. Differs
in lacking light tips of the primary coverts, and general richer coloration, the brown more
rusty; rump bright chestnut; under parts grayish. Mexico, to S. W. border of the U. S., in
the mountains of Arizona. This is C f. mexicana of previous eds. of the Key ; but the name
mexicana cannot stand in this genus, as there is a prior Certhia mexicana (Gm.). See Miller,
Auk, Apr. 1895, p. 186, where the Mexican creeper is named Cf. alticola, the same being
No. 726 a of the A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895 ; and Oberholser, Auk, Oct. 1896, p. 315, where
the same is divided into two races, the northern one, which occurs over our border, being
regarded as the C. m. albescens of Berlep.sch, Auk, Oct. 1888, p. 450, renamed as C f
albescens. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. K32.
Family TROGLODYTID^ : Wrens; Thrashers, etc.
Embracing a number of forms assembled in considerable variety, and diflicult to define witli
precision. Closely related to the last three families ; known from these by non-acuminate
tail-feathers and exposed nostrils. Distinguished from typical Turdine and Sylviine birds by
the not strictly spurious character of the 1st primary, short as it may be and generally is ; as a
rule, by the shortness of the rounded wings in comparison with the length of the usually
rounded or graduated tail ; and especially, by the distinctly scutellate instead of booted tarsi.
(Compare diagnoses already given of Turdidce, Sylviidce, Cinclidce ; and observe that the
dubious family Chamaidce is wren-like in most respects.) In former editions of the Key, the
Mimince or so-called Mocking "Thrushes" were brought under Turdida, as a subfamily of
TROGLODYTID.E — MIMIN.E : MOCKINGBIRDS; THRASHERS. 281
the latter, with the express statement, however, that they were '' an aberrant group, related to
the Troglodytiche'' {2d ed., 1884, p. 242), "departing from the prime characteristic of the
family in having the tarsi scutellate in front'' {ibid., p. 248). I now avail myself of the first
opportunity, incident to the resetting of the type for the present edition, to remove the Mimince
from Turdidcc to Troglodytidce — 'the position assigned them in the A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95.
This is a happy atavism — a reversion to the stand taken by Baird in 1858, when he com-
bined the Mockers with the Wrens under the family name of " Liotrichidcc,^' after the example
set by Cabanis in the Museum Heineanum of 1850. In so far as American forms are con-
cerned, the Troglodytidte here given are precisely Baird's Liotrichidce under another name: and
they correspond exactly to what are recognized by Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Mus., vi and vii,
1881 and 1883) as the subfamilies Troglodytince and Mimince of the so-called " Timeliidcs or
Babbling Thrushes" — that vast assemblage of some 1,100 species of chiefly Old AVorld birds
wliich makes a sort of ornithological waste-basket for want of any satisfactory classification.
To discipline that unruly mob is not our present purpose ; we have only to recognize by name
a family group to contain our own Mockers and Wrens ; and as Troglodytes Vieill., 1807,
antedates hoih. Leiothrix Swains., 1831, and Timalia Horsford, 1820 (or Timelia Sund.,
1872), we use Troglodytidce instead of ''Liotrichidce'' or "■ Timeliidcc'''' without prejudice to
any question of the relationships of American Wrens and Mockers to the various Old World
birds concerned in the case, and with the assurance that in any event Troglodytidce is a straitly
orthodox name for the family with whose members we have here to do.
In 1858 Bafrd divided his Liotrichidce = Troglodytidce into four subfamilies — Mimince,
Ccimpylorhynchince, Troglodytince, and Chamceince. There is much to be said in favor of this
arrangement, especially regarding the position thus assigned to the refractory genus Chamcea.
In 1884 I had no difficulty in distinguishing Cam])ylorhynchince from Troglodytince (see Key,
2d ed., p. 274), upon consideration of the North American genera alone. But other American
forms obliterate the dividing line between them, so that they must be combined in one, to be
called Troglodytince. Upon this understanding, our Troglodytidce now consist of two sub-
families, which may be easily recognized, as follows :
Analysis of Subfamilies.
Size large, and general aspect thrush-like. Length 8.00 or more, wing 3.50 or more. Rictal bristles evident. Tarsal
scutellation moderate, in some cases obsolete. Inner toe free to its base from middle toe. Represented by Mocking-
birds, Catbirds, Thrashers MimincB
Size small, and general aspect wren-like. Length 8.00 or less, wing 3.50 or less (usually much less). Rictal bristles not
evident. Tarsal scutellation moderate, in some cases excessive. Inner toe extensively coherent with middle toe.
Represented by all species of Wrens Troglodytince
Subfamily MIMINiC: Mockingbirds; Thrashers.
Birds of maximum size among Troglodytidce, simulating Turdidce in some respects; dis-
tinguished from Troglodytince by greater size, rictal bristles, different nostrils, and nK)re deeply
cleft toes. Tarsi scutellate in front (the scutella sometimes fusing, however, as in the Cat-
bird). Wings short and rounded, about equal to tail only in Oroscoptes ; 1st prhnary short,
but not spurious; 2d primary shorter than 6th. Tail large and rounded or much gradu-
ated, usually decidedly longer than wings. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw; feet
stout, in adaptation to somewhat terrestrial life. Bill various in form, usually longer or at
least more curved than in Thrushes; in Harporhynchus attaining extraordinary lengtli and
curvature. As a group the Mimince are rather soutiiern, hardly passing beyond the U. S. ; few
species reaching even the Middle States, and the maximum development being in Central and
South America. They are peculiar to America, where they are represented by Oroscoptes,
Mimus, Galeoscoptes, Harporhynchus, and 5 or 6 related genera, with upward of 40 recorded
species. About one-half of tliese fall in Mimus alone ; nearly all the species of Harporhynchus
282
SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIN'ES.
occur iu the U. S. In their general hahits they resemble Wrens, habitually residing in shrub-
bery near the ground, relying for concealment as much upon the nature of their resorts as upon
their own activity and vigilance. They are all melodious, and some, like the immortal mock-
ingbird, are as famous for their powers of mimicry as for the brilliant execution of their proper
songs. In compensation for this great gift of music, perhaps that they may not grow too
proud, they are plainly clad, grays and browns being the prevailing colors. The nest is gen-
erally built with little art, in a bush, and the eggs, 2-6 in number, are blue or green, plain or
speckled.
A/ialysis of Genera.
Smallest : bill shortest ; wing about equal to tail. Adults speckled below Oroscoptes
Aledium : bill moderate ; wing a little shorter than tail. Adults plain below.
Ashy above, white below, with much white on wings and tail Mimiis
Blackish-ash above, no white anywhere ; crown black Galeoscoptes
Largest : bill immoderate ; wing much shorter than tail. Plain or spotted below Harporhynchus
OROSCOP'TES. (Gr. o/joy, oros, a mountain ; o-KoonTris. scojjtes, a mimic.) Mountain
Mockers. Wing and tail of about equal length ; former more pointed than in other genera of
Mimince ; 1st quill not half as long as 2d, which is be-
tween 6th and 7th ; 3d, 4th, and 5th about equal to one
another, and forming the point of the wing. Tail nearly
even, its feathers but slightly graduated. Tarsus longer
/') '' \Z^^*$i^B than middle toe and claw, anteriorly distinctly scutel-
//)\^^^^^^ ^^^^' ^^^^ much shorter than head, not curved, with
f[ i v\L^^^^^^ obsolete notch near end. Rictal bristles well developed,
the longest reaching beyond nostrils. 0. montanus is
the only known species.
O. monta'nus. (Lat. montanus, of a mountain. Fig.
142.) Mountain Mockingbird. Sage Thrasher.
(J 9 ) iu summer : Above, grayish- or brownish-ash,
the feathers with obsoletely darker centres. Below,
whitish, more or less tinged with pale buffy-brown, ev-
erywhere marked with triangular dusky spots, largest
and most crowded across breast, small and sparse, some-
times wanting, on throat, lower belly, and crissum.
Wings fuscous, with much whitish edging on all the
quills, and two white bauds formed by tips of greater
and median coverts. Tail like wings ; outer feather
edged and broadly tipped, and all the rest, excepting
usually the middle pair, tipped with white in decreasing
amount. Bill and feet black or blackish, the former
often with pale base. Length about 8.00 ; wing and
tail, each, about 4.00; tarsus 1.12; bill 0.75. Young:
Dull brownish above, conspicuously streaked with dusky ;
the markings below strealcy and diffuse. Plains to the
Pacific, U. S. ; also Texas and Lower California ; an interesting species, resembling an un-
dersized young Mockingbird, abundant in the sage-brush of the W. Nest on ground or in low
bushes; eggs usually 4, 1.00 X 0.72, light greenish-blue, heavily marked with brown and
neutral tint.
Ml'MUS. (Lat. mimus, a mimic.) Mockingbirds. Bill much shorter than head, scarcely
curved as a whole, but with gently-curved commissure, notched near the end. Rictal vibrissae
well developed. Tail rather longer than wing, rounded, the lateral feathers being considerably
Sage Thrasher.
TROGLODYTID.E — MIMIN.E : MOCKINGBIRDS.
283
graduated; wing rounded. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Above ashy-brown, be-
low wliite ; lateral tail-feathers and bases of primaries white. (Tarsal scutella always distinct.)
M. polyglot'tus. (Lat. polijglottus, many-tongued ; Gr. ttoXvs, poliis, many; yXarra, glotta,
tongue. Fig. 143.) Mockingbird. ^J, adult: Upper parts ashy-gray; lower parts soiled
white. Wings blackish-brown ;
primaries, except the Jst, marked
with a large white space at base,
usually restricted on outer quills
to half or less of these feathers,
but occupying nearly all of inner
quills. The shorter white spaces
show as a conspicuous spot when
the wing is closed, the longer inner
ones being hidden by the second-
aries. Wing-coverts also tipped
and sometimes edged with white ;
and there may be much edging
or tipping, or both, of the quills
themselves. Outer tail-feather
wliite; next two white, except on
outer wel> ; next usually white
toward end ; the rest sometimes
tipped with white. Bill and feet
black, the former often pale at
base below ; soles dull yellowish.
Fio. 1-13. — Mockingbird, about § nat. size. (After Wilson.)
Length about 10.00 (9.50-11.00); extent about 14.00 (13.00-15.00); wing 4.00-4.50; tail
4.50-5.00; bill 0.75; tarsus 1.25. 9 j adult: Similar, but colors less clear and pure; above
rather brownish- than grayish-ash, below sometimes quite brownish-white, at least on breast.
Tail and wings with less white than as above described. But the gradation in these features
is by imperceptible degrees, so that there is no infallible color-mark of sex. In general, the
clearer and purer are the colors, and the more white there is on the wings and tail, the more
likely is the bird to be a (J and prove a good singer. 9 filso smaller than ^ on an average,
generally under and rarely over 10.00 ; extent usually less than 14.00 ; wing little if any over
4.00; tail about 4.50. Young: Above decidedly brown, and below speckled with dusky.
U. S. from Atlantic to Pacific, .southerly; rarely N. to New England (Maine, Am. Nat., v,
1871, p. 121, Auk, 1897, p. 224), and not common N. of 38°, though known to reach 42°;
thronging the groves of the S. Atlantic and Gulf States. Nest in bushes and low trees, bulky
and inartistic, of twigs, grasses, leaves, etc.; eggs 4-6, averaging 1.00 X 0.75, bluish-green,
lieavily speckled and freckled with several brownish shades. Two or three broods are gen-
erally reared each season, which in the South extends from March to August. When taken
from the nest, the "prince of musicians" becomes a contented captive, and has been known to
live many years in confinement. Naturally an accomplished songster, he proves an apt scholar,
suscejjtible of im])rovement by education to an astonishing degree; but there is a great differ-
ence with individual birds in this respect.
OALKOSC'OP'TKS. (Gr. yaKtr} or yaXij, galee or gale, an animal of the weasel or marten
kind kTiown to the ancients, commonly later translated "cat," and (tkwitttis, skoptes, a mocker.)
('ATBiRns. Characters of Mimus proper, of which given as a subgenus in former eds. of the
Key, and best distinguished by color: Blackish-ash, scarcely paler below, no white anywhere,
crown black, crissum reddish. (Tarsal scutella .sometimes obs(dete.) (Lwcffr Bartram, Trav.,
1791, p. 291 his: see Coue.s, Pr. Phila. Acad., 1875, p. 349, and Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 97.)
284
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
G. carolinen'sis
Catbird. ^ 9
(Of Carolina: Carolus, Charles IX., of France. Figs. 37, 144, 145.)
81ate-gray, paler and more grayish-plumbeous below ; crown of head,
tail, bill, and feet black. Quills of wing blackish, edged
with the body-color. Under tail-coverts rich dark chest-
nut or mahogany-color. Length 8.50-9.00; extent 11.00
or more ; wing 3.50-3.75 ; tail 4.00 ; bill 0.66 ; tarsus 1 .00-
1.10. Young: More sooty above, with little or no dis-
tinction of a black cap, and comi3aratively paler below,
where the color has a soiled brownish cast. Crissum dull
rufous. (Specimens in which the black cap does not come
snug to the bill, leaving the forehead gray, are grisifrons
of Mayn., B. E. N. Am., pt. 40, p. 710: see Auk, Jan.
1897, p. 133.) U. S. and adjoining British Provinces,
chiefly Eastern. W. to the Rocky Mts., even to Wash-
ington; migratory, but resident in the Southern States,
and breeds throughout its range ; nest of sticks, leaves,
bark, etc., in bushes; eggs 3-6, oftenest 4-5, 0.95 X 0.70,
deep greenish blue, not spotted ; they resemble Robins'
eggs, but are smaller and more deeply tinted. An abun-
dant and familiar inhabitant of our groves and briery
tracts, remarkable for its harsh cry, like the mewing of
a cat (whence its name), but also possessed, like all its
tribe, of eminent vocal ability.
HARPORHYN'CHUS. (Gr. apnT], harpe, a sickle;
pvyxos, hri/gchos, beak; i. e. bow-billed.) Thrashers.
Bill of indeterminate size and shape; in one extreme
straight and shorter than head ; in the other exceeding the
head" in length and bent like a bow (see figs. 146, 152.)
Feet large and strong, indicating terrestrial habits; tarsus
strongly scutellate anteriorly, equalling or slightly exceed-
ing in length the middle toe with its claw. Wings and
tail rounded; latter decidedly longer than^ former. Rictus with well developed bristles.
Viewing only extreme shapes of bill, as in H. rufus and H. crissaUs, it would not seem con-
sistent with the minute subdivisions which
now obtain in ornithology to place all the
species in one genus ; but the gradation of
form is so gentle that it seems impossible
to dismember the group without violence,
though two subgenera may be conveniently
recognized. Most of our species represent
the subgenus Methriopierus, which contains
the common Thrasher, Harporhijnehus
proper being restricted to the three species
which have the most arcuate bills. Arcu-
ation of the bill proceeds pari passu with its elongation, the shortest bills being the straight-
est, and conversely; very young birds of the most bow-billed species are straight-billod.
There is also a curious correlation of color with shape of bill; the short-billed species being
the most richly colored and heavily spotted, while the bow-billed ones are very plain, some-
times with no spots whatever on the under parts. Our 11 forms of the genus are with one
exception Southwestern, focusing in Arizona.
Fig. 144. — Catbird.
Fig. 145 —Catbird, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del,
TR 0 GL OD YTID.E — MIMIN.E : THRA SHER S.
285
Analysis of Species and Siibspeeies.
Bill not longer than head (0.87-1. 1'2), little or not curved. Breast spotted. {Siibgemis Methriopterus.)
Bill 1.00, quite straight. Above rich rusty-red ; below whitish, heavily spotted and streaked with dark
brown. Eastern rufus
Bill 1.1'2, slightly curved. Above dark reddisli-browu, below wliitish, heavily spotted and streaked with
blackish. Texas longirostris sennetti
Bill 1.12, curved. Above ashy-gray, below whitish, breast with round spots of the color of the back.
Mexican border and Arizona curvirostris a.ii6.c. palmeri.
Bill 0.87, scarcely curved. Above grayish-brown, below brownish-white, breast alone with arrow-heads
of the color of the back. Arizona hendirei
Bill 1.12, curved. Above ashy-gray, below whitish, vritlj profuse distinct blackish-brown spots. Lower
California cinereus and c. mearnsi
Bill longer than head (1.50), arcuate. Breast not spotted. (Harporhynchtjs proper.)
Dark oily olive-brown, below paler, belly and crissum rufescent. Coast of California redirirus
Pale ash, paler still below, lower belly aud crissum brownish-yellow. Arizona and Lower
California lecontei and /. nrenicola
Brownish-asli, paler below, crissum chestnut in marked contrast. Arizona, New Mexico, and
California crissalis
{Subgenus Methriopterus.)
H, ru'fus. (Lat. rufus, rufous, reddish. Figs. 146, 147.) Thrasher. Ground Thrush.
Brown Thrush. Red Thrush. Ferruginous Mockingbird. Sandy Mockingbird.
French Mockingbird. Mavis. $ 9 , adult : Upper parts uniform rich rust-red, with a
bronzy lustre. Concealed portions of quills fuscous; greater and median wing-coverts blackisli
near ends, then conspicuously tipped
with white ; bastard quills like the cov-
erts. Tail like back, the lateral feathers
with paler ends. Under parts white,
more or less strongly tinged, especially
on breast, flanks, and crissum, with
tawny or pale cinnamon-brown ; breasts
and sides marked with a profusion of
well-defined spots of dark brown, oval
in front, becoming more linear poste-
riorly. Throat immaculate, bordered
with a necklace of spots; middle of
belly and under tail-coverts likewise
unspotted. Bill quite straight, black,
with yellow base of the lower mandible ; ^''o- 14G. - Thrasher, nat. size. (ad. nat. del. E. C.)
feet pale ; iris yellow or orange. Young sufficiently similar to be unmistakable. Length about
1 1.00 ; extent r2.r)0-14.00 ; wing 3.75-4.25 ; tail 5.00 or more ; bill 1.00 ; tarsus 1.25. Eastern
U. S. cliiefly, but N. to adjoining British Provinces and W. to the Rocky Mts. ; migratory, but
breeds throughout its range, and winters in the Southern States. A delightful songster, abun-
dant in thickets and shrubbery. Nest in bushes (sometimes on ground), bulky and rude, of
sticks, leaves, bark, roots, etc.; eggs 3-5, .sometimes 6, 1.05 X 0.80, whitish or greenish,
profusely speckled with brown.
H. longiros'tris sen'netti. (Lat. longus, long, and rostris, from rostrum, hoik; i. e., long-
billed. To Georijc H. Sennett.) Texas Thrasher. Sennett's Thrasher. Similar to
H. rufiis; upper parts dark reddi.sh -brown, instead of rich foxy-red; under parts white, with
little if any tawny tinge, the spots large, very numerous, and blackish instead of brown ; ends
of rectrices scarcely or not lighter than the rest of these featliers ; bill almost entirely dark-
colored. Besides these points of coloration, there is a decided difference in shape of bill. In
286
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
H. rufus, the bill is quite straight, and only about 1.00; the gonys is straiglit, and makes an
angle with the slightly concave lower outline of the mandibular rami. lu H. longirostris sen-
netti, the bill is over 1.00, and somewhat curved; the outline of the gonys is a little concave.
Brown Thrasher.
making with the ramus one continuous curve from base to tip of bill. Size of H. riifns. Eggs
1.05 X 0.75. Lower Rio Grande valley, from Corpus Christi and Laredo, Tex., southward in
Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon. H. longirostris (Lafr.) of Bd., B. N. A. 1858, p. 352; H.
rufus longirostris, Coues, Key, 1872, p. 72, 1884-87, p. 251 ; H. longirostris sennetti
RiDGW., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., x, Aug. 1888, p. 506; Coues, Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 897.
H. curviros'tris. (Lat. ciirvus, curved, and rostris, bow-billed.) Curve-billed Thrasher.
^ 9 • Above, uniform ashy-gray (exactly the color of a Mockingbird) ; wings and tail
darker and purer brown. Below, dull wliiti.-h. tiiiirod with ochraceous, especially on flanks
and crissum, marked with rounded
spots of the color of the back, most
numerous and blended on the breast.
Throat quite white, immaculate,
without maxillary stripes ; lower
belly and crissum mostly free from
spots. No decided markings on side
of head. Ends of greater and me-
dian wing-coverts white, forming
two decided cross-bars: tail-feathers
distinctly tipped with white. Bill
Length of ^ about 11.00 ; wing 4.25-4.50 ; tail 4.50-
9 averaging rather smaller. Mexico,
little too thick.
Fig. 148. — Bow-billed Thrasher, uat.
(Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
black, curved, stout; feet dark brown.
5.00 ; bill 1.12 ; tarsus 1.25 ; middle toe and claw 1.33.
reaching the U. S. border of Texas and New Mexico.
H. c. pal'meri. (To Edw. Palmer. Fig. 148.) Bow billed Thrasher. Above, grayish-
brown, nearly uniform ; wing-coverts and quills with slight whitish edging ; edge of wing itself
TROGLODYTJD.E — MIMIN.E: THRASHERS.
287
white; tail-feathers with slight wliitish tips. Below, a paler shade of the color of the upper
parts; throat quite whitish; crissum slightly rufescent ; breast aud belly with obscure dark
gray spots on the grayish-white grouud ; uo obvious maxillary streaks, but vague speckling
on cheeks. Bill black ; feet blackish-brown. Leugth 10.75; bill 1.12 ; wing 4.25; tail 5.00 •
tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.30. 9 snialler; wing 3.75 ; tail 4.50; tarsus 1.20; middle
toe and claw 1.12; bill barely 1.00. Although the ditiereuces from the typical form are not
easy to express, they are readily appreciable on comparison of specimens. The upper parts
are quite similar ; but the under parts, instead of being whitish, with decided spotting of the
color of the back, are grayish, tinged with rusty, especially behind, and the spotting is neb-
ulous. The white on the ends of the wiug-coverts and tail-feathers is reduced to a minimum
or entirely suppressed. The bill is slenderer and apparently more curved. Arizona and
Sonora, common, in desert regions. Nest in cactus, mesquite and other bushes; eggs usually
3, 1.10 X 0.80, pale greenish-blue profusely dotted with reddish-brown.
H. bendi'rei. (To Capt. Chas. Bendire, U. S. A. Fig. 149.) Arizona Thrasher. Ben-
dire's Thrasher. ^ 9 : Bill shorter than head, comparatively stout at base, very acute
at tip ; culmen quite convex ; gonys just appreciably concave. Tarsus a little longer than
middle toe and claw. 3d aud 4th prima-
ries about equal and longest, 5th and 6th
successively slightly shorter, 2d equal to
7th, 1st equal to penultimate secondary
in the closed wing. Entire upper parts,
including upper surfaces of wings and tail,
uniform dull pale grayish-brown, with
narrow, fiiintly-rusty edges of wing-cov-
erts and inner quills, and equally obscure
whitisli tipping of tail-feathers. No max- ^"'' ^"'^'
illary nor auricular streaks ; no markings about
Under parts brownish-white, palest (nearly w^hite) on belly aud throat, more decidedly rusty-
brownish on sides, flanks, and crissum, the breast alone marked with numerous small arrow-
head spots of the color of back. Bill light-colored at base below. $ : Length about 9.25 ;
wing 4.00; tail 4.25; bill 0.87; along gape 1.12; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.12.
9 rather smaller ; wing, 3.75, etc. Young birds are quite rusty or tawny on the wings and
rump, and at all ages the species is a plain dull one. Arizona and Sonora, less common than
Xiahneri, witli which it is associated ; has been found also W. to Agua Caliente, Cal., and N.
to Colorado Springs, Col. ; also breeds com-
mcmly about House Junction, Col., in May
and June (see Osprey, Sept. 1897, p. 7).
Nest in bushes ; eggs 2-3, rarely 4, about
1.00 X 0.73, elliptical rather than oval,
wliitish, spotted and blotched witli reddish-
lirowu.
H. ciner'eus. (Lat. cineretts, ashy ; cinis,
cineris, ashes. Fig. 150.) St. Lucas
Thrasher. ^ 9 > fidult : Upper parts
uniform ashy-brown ; wings and tail simi-
lar, but rather purer and darker brown;
wings crossed with two white bars formed
by the tips of the coverts ; tail tipped with
white. Below, dull white, often tinged with
small, sharp, triangular spots of dark brown
— Arizona Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
head except slight speckling on cheeks.
St. Lucas Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del.
E. C.)
rusty, especially behind, and tliickly marked witli
288 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCIXES.
or blackish. These spots are all perfectly distinct, covering the lower parts excepting the
throat, lower belly, and crissum ; becoming smaller anteriorly, they run up each side of the
throat in a maxillary series bounding ihe immaculate area. Sides of head finely speckled, and
auriculars streaked ; bill black, lightening at base below, little longer than that of H. rtifus,
though decidedly curved. Length of ^ about 10.00; wing 4.00; tail 4.50; bill 1.12 ; tarsus
1.25 ; middle toe and claw 1.25. 9 averaging rather smaller. Young : Upper parts strongly
tinged with rusty-brown, this color also edging the wings and tipping the tail. The resem-
blance of this species to the Mountain Mockingbird {Oroscoptes montanns) is striking. It is
distinguished from any others of the U. S. by the sharpness of the spotting underneath, which
equals that of H. riifus itself, the small and strictly triangular character of the spots, together
with the grayish-brown of the upper parts, and inferior dimensions. Lower California, from
Cape St. Lucas N. to about lat. 30°, common. Nest a slight shallow structure of twigs in
cactus and other bushes; eggs 1.12 X 0.77, greenish-white, profusely speckled.
H, c. mearns'i. (To Dr. E. A. Mearns, U. S. A.) Mearns' Thrasher. Like H. cinerens;
differing in much darker upper parts, becoming bister-brown on the rump and upper tail-
coverts, rustier flanks and crissum, larger and blacker spots on under parts, and less curved
bill. San Quintin, L. Cala. Anthony, Auk, Jan. 1895, p. 53; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895,
No. 709 a. (Included under cinereus proper in all earlier eds. of the Key, 1872-90.)
(Subgenus Harporhynchus.)
H. redivi'vus. (Lat. redivivns, revived ; the long-lost species having been rediscovered and
so named. Fig. 151.) California Thrasher. (^ : No spots anywhere ; wings and tail
without decided barring or tipping. Bill as long as head or longer, bow-shaped, black.
Wings very much shorter than tail.
Above, dark oily olive -brown;
wings and tail similar, but rather
purer brown. Beh)w, a paler
shade of color of upper parts ; belly
and crissum strongly rusty-brown ;
throat definitely whitish in marked
contrast, and not bordered by de-
cided maxillary streaks. Cheeks
Fig. 151. — California Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) and auriculars blackish -brown,
with sharp whitish shaft-streaks. Length 11.50 ; wing 4.00 or rather less ; tail 5.00 or more ;
bill (chord of culmen) nearly or quite 1.50 ; tarsus 1.35 ; middle toe and claw about the same.
9 similar, rather smaller. Coast region of California from the valleys of the Sacramento and
Kussian rivers southward. Abundant in dense chaparral ; nest a rude platform of twigs, roots,
grasses, leaves, etc., in bushes; eggs 2-4, 1.15 X 0.85, bluish-green, with olive and russet-
brown spots.
H. r. pasadenen'sis. (Lat., of Pasadena, a place in Cahfornia.) Pasadena Thrasher. A
very slightly difl'ereutialed race, continuing the distribution of the species southward to about
lat. 30° in Lower California. General coloration " ashier or less distinctly brown " than in
redivivus proper ; throat nearly pure white. No appreciable difference in dimensions. In-
cluded under redivivus in former eds. of Key. Grinnell, Auk, July, 1898, p. 237 ; A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 123.
H. lecon'tei. (To Dr. John L. Le Conte, the entomologist.) Yuma Thrasher.
Le Conte's Thrasher. Size and proportions nearly same as in redivivus; difi'ers very
notably in the pallor of all the coloration. Excepting the slight maxillary streaks, there are
no decided markings anywhere; and the change from the pale ash of the general under parts
TROGLODYTID.E—TROGLODYTINM: WRENS. 289
to the brownish -yellow of tlie lower belly aud crissuin is very gradual. Valley of the Gila
and Lower Colorado in contiguous portions of W. Arizona, N.W. Sonora, N.E. Lower Cali-
fornia ; S. California in the Mojave River desert. Death Valley, San Joaquin Valley, etc. ;
N. to S. Nevada, and the extreme S.W. corner of Utah. Specimens were for many years
very rare, and the species was long regarded as a bleached desert race of redivivus, as in all
former eds. of the Key. The type specimen from Fort Yuma, and another which I took near
Fort Mojave in 1865 were long the only ones known. But we now have plenty of them, and
their specific character is confirmed. Young birds have the bill very short and quite straight,
the elongation and arcuation being gradually acquired as they come to maturity. Nest in
bushes, bulky, loose, deep; eggs 2-4, 1.15 X 0.77, pale greenish, rather sparsely dotted with
reddish-brown. For various observations on the life-history of this interesting bird, see Auk,
1884, pp. 253-258; 1885, p. 197 and pp. 229-231 ; 1886, pp. 299-307; 1895, pp. 54-60.
H. 1. arenic'ola. (Lat. arena, sand, sandy place ; colere, to inhabit, or incola, an inhabitant.)
Desert Thrasher. Like the last ; darker above and on tail, grayer on breast ; tail perhaps
shorter. Locally developed in the sand dunes of Rosalia and Playa Maria Bays, Lower Cali-
fornia, iu common with Mearns' Thrasher. Anthony, Auk, Apr. 1897, p. 167 ; A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 124.
H. crissa'lis. (Lat. crissaUs, relating to the crifisuyn, or under tail-coverts. Fig. 1.52.) Cris-
SAL Thrasher. (J : Brownish-ash, with a faint olive shade, the wings aud tail purer aud
darker fuscous, without white
edging or tipping. Below, a
paler shade of color of upper
parts. Throat and side of lower
jaw white, with sharp black
maxillary streaks. Cheeks and
auriculars speckled with whitish.
Under tail-coverts rich chestnut,
in marked contrast with sur-
rounding parts. Bill black, at
tlie maximum of length, slen- F'"- 152.-Cri88al Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
derness, and curvature ; feet blackish. Length about 12.00 ; wing 4.00-4.25 ; tail 5.50-6.00 ;
its lateral feathers 1.50 shorter than the central ones; bill 1.50 ; tarsus 1.33 ; middle toe and
claw 1.25. This fine species is distinguished by the strongly chestnut under tail-coverts, the
contrast being as great as that seen in the Catbird. The sharp black maxillary streaks are
also a strong character. The bill is extremely slender, the tail at a maximum of length, and
the feet are notably smaller than those of H. redivivus. Western Texas, New Mexico, Ari-
zona, some parts of Nevada and Utah, and California in the Colorado Valley, common in
chaparral; nest in bushes near the ground, of twigs lined with vegetable fibres; eggs usually
3, 1.10 X 0.75,'emerald green, unspotted.
Subfamily TROCLODYTIN/E : Wrens.
For characters in com])arison with Mimina; see the analysis on p. 281. The Troglodytimr
are small birds, only exceptionally over 6 inches long, and nearly all may be recognized ou
sight by any one familiar with our common House Wren. In comparison with any member
of the Sylviida; observe that in Regulus the tarsus is booted ; that in Polioptila the colors are
bluish, black, and white. In comparison with Paridce or SittidfP, observe that Wrens liave a
different character of the nostrils and nasal plumules; with reference to Certhiidcr, that the tail
is not rigid and acuminate ; while as regards any small 9-priniaried birds like the Warblers
19
290 S YS TEMA TIC S YXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
(MniotiltidfT), the wrens have 10 primaries. Furthermore: " the inner toe is united by half
its basal joint to the middle toe, sometimes by the whole of this joint ; and the second joint
of the outer toe enters wholly or partially into this union, instead of the basal only." Nostrils
narrowly or broadly oval, exposed, overhung by a scale ; bill moderately or very slender,
straight or shghtly decurved, from half as long to about as long as head, unnotched in all our
genera; no evident rictal bristles; wings short, more or less rounded, with 10 primaries, the
1st short, but not strictly spurious; tail of variable length, much or little rounded, of broad
or narrow feathers, often held over the back. Tarsus scutellate, sometimes behind as well as
in front.
Excluding some Old World forms of doubtful affinity, and excepting some species of
Anorthura proper, the Troglodytime are confined to America. About 100 species and sub-
species are recognized, usually referred to about 16 genera, most of which belong to tropical
America, where the group reaches its maximum development, — over 20 species of Heleodytes
being described, for instance. Of North American genera, Heleodytes, Catherpes, and Sal-
jnnctes are confined to the West, and represent a section distinguished by breadth of tail-
feathers, which widen toward the end. Species of all our other genera are common and.
familiar Eastern birds, much alike in disposition, manners, and habits ; the House Wren typi-
fies these. They are sprightly, fearless, and impudent little creatures, apt to show bad temper
when they fancy themselves aggrieved by cats or people, or anything else that is big and
unpleasant to them ; they quarrel a good deal, and are particularly spiteful towards mar-
tins and swallows, whose homes they often invade and occupy. Their song is bright and
hearty, and they are fond of their own music ; when disturbed at it they make a great ado
with noisy scolding. Part of them live in reedy swamps and marshes, where tliey hang
astonishingly big globular nests, with a little hole in one side, on tufts of rushes, and lay 6
or 8 dark-colored eggs ; the others nest anywhere, in shrubbery, knotholes, hollow stumps,
and other odd nooks. Nearly all are migratory ; one is stationary ; one comes to us in the fall
from the north, the rest in spring from the south. Insectivorous, and very prolific, laying sev-
eral sets of eggs each season. Plainly colored, the browns being the usual colors ; no red^
blue, yellow, or green in any of our species.
Analysis of Genera.
Fan-tailed Wi-ens. Feet not strictly lamiuiplantar ; lateral plates divided, or not perfectly fused in one.
Tail broad, fan-shaped, the individual feathers widening toward the end.
Very large ; length about 8 inches. Tarsus decidedly scutellate behind. Lateral toes of equal lengths.
Above streaked with white, below spotted with black Heleodytes
Smaller, about G 00 long. Tarsus scutellate behind. Lateral toes of unequal lengths Salpinctes
Smaller about 5.50 long. Tarsus scarcely scutellate behind. Lateral toes of unequal lengths . . . Catherpes
Thin-tailed Wrens. Feet strictly lamiuiplantar, as usual in Oseines. Tail thin, with narrow parallel-edged feathers.
Wings and tail more or less completely barred crosswise.
Large. Upper parts uniform in color, without streaks or bars ; rump with concealed white spots. Belly un-
marked ; a conspicuous superciliary stripe.
Tail shorter or not longer than wing, all the feathers brown, distinctly barred Thryothoms {T. ludovicianus)
Tail decidedly longer than wing, blackish, not fully barred on all the feathers . Thryomanes (T. bewicki)
Small. Upper parts not uniform ; back more or less distinctly barred crosswise ; wings, tail, and flanks fully
barred.
Tail about equal to wing ; outstretched feet reaching scarcely or not beyond its end Troglodytes (T. aedon)
Tail decidedly shorter than wing ; outstretched feet reaching far beyond its end . Anorthura (A. hyemalis)
Small. Upper parts not uniform ; back streaked lengthwise ; flanks scarcely or not barred.
Bill scarcely ornot J as long as head ; crown streaked, like whole back .... Cis/olhorus (C. stellaris)
Bill about § as long as head ; crown plain ; streaks of back confined to interscapular region
Telmntodytes (C. palustris}
HELEOD'YTES. (Ctt. eXof. gen. tXeos, helo.'^, heleos, a marsh, meadow, or lowland : bvrrjs.
dutes, a diver, used as in Troglodytes, etc.. simply as one who enters in upon, or inhabits:
TR 0 GL OD YTID.E — TROGL OD YTIN.E • WRENS. 291
Cab., Mus. Hein., i, 1850, p. 80. Catnpylorhynchus (Spix, 1824) of all previous eds. of the
Key — a name which proves unavailable by our rules. See Auk, Jan. 1893, p. 86.) Cac-
tus Wrens. Of largest size in subfauiily ; length about 8.00. Tarsus scutellate behind.
Lateral toes of equal lengths. Wings and tail of about equal lengths. Tail broad, with wide
feathers. Tarsus a little longer than middle toe and claw. Upper parts with sharp white
streaks on a brown ground ; under parts boldly spotted with black on a white ground ; tail-
feathers barred with black and white. A neotropical genus of numerous species, one of which
overreaches our Mexican border.
H. brunueicapil'lus. (Lat. brunneus, brown; capillus, hair.) Browx-headkd Cactus
Wrex. ^, adult : Back grayish-brown, marked with black and white, each feather having
a central wliite field several times indented with black. Whole crown of head and nape rich
dark wood-brown, immaculate. Along white superciliary stripe from nostril to nape. Beneath,
nearly pure white anteriorly, gradually shading behind into decided cinnamon-brown; throat and
fore part of breast marked with large, crowded, rounded black spots; rest of under parts with
small, sparse, oval or linear black spots, again enlarging on crissum. Wings darker and more
fuscous-brown than back ; all the quills with a series of numerous white or whitish indentations
along edges of both webs. Central tail-feathers like wings, with numerous more or less incom-
plete blackish bars ; other tail-feathers blackish, the outer with several broad white bars on both
webs, tlie rest with usually only a single complete white bar near end. Bill dark plumbeous,
paler below ; iris orange. Length near 8.00; wing 3.50 ; tail rather longer; bill 0.80 ; tarsus
1. 00; middle toe and claw 0.90. 9> adult: Quite like ^, but spots on throat and breast
rather smaller, therefore less crowded, and less strongly contrasting with the sparse speckling
I if the rest of under parts. Young: Similar to adult on upper parts, but throat whitish
with little speckling ; scarcely any spots on the rest of under parts, which are, however,
as decidedly cinnamon as those of the adults. Southwestern U. S., Texas, New Mexico,
Arizona, southern Utah and Nevada, portions of California, and S. into Mexico ; com-
mon in cactus and chaparral, building a large purse-shaped nest in bushes; eggs about 6,
1.00 X 0.68, white, but so uniformly and minutely dotted with reddish-brown as to produce a
nearly flat salmon-color. (If not Picolaptes brunneicapillus Lafr., this will stand as H. b.
couesi, after Sharpe, Cat. Br. Mus., vi, 1882, p. 196.)
H. b. bryant'i. (To W. E. Bryant.) Bryant's Cactus Wren. Intermediate in all re-
spects between brunneicapillus and affinis ; thus connecting the two, and making it necessary
to reduce affinis to the grade of a subspecies; tail fully barred, and under parts pale, but
lieavily spotted. Lower California, N. into S. California ; a form best developed about
San Telmo, 50 miles N. of San Quentin, L. Cala. Anthony, Auk, July, 1894, p. 212;
July, 1895, p. 280; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, No. 713 a. The describer discusses the ques-
tion whether, after all, this be not the form upon which Lafresnaye based his brunneicapillus
fri>m California ; if it be, bnjanti becomes a strict synonym.
H. b. affl'nis. (Lat. affinis, affined, allied ; ad, and finis.) St. Lucas Cactus Wren.
Similar to the last. Cap reddish-brown, lighter instead of darker than back. Markings of
back very conspicuous, in strong streaks of black and white, these two colors bordering each
other with little or no indentation. Under parts nearly white, the black spots, though con-
spicuous, not enlarged and crowded on breast, but more regularly distributed. All the lateral
tail-feathers, instead of only the outer ones, crossed on both webs with numerous complete
wliite bars. The variations with sex and age correspond with those of H. brunneicapillus.
Lower California, Cape St. Lucas and northward. Nest and eggs as beftjre. (According to
Sharpe, I. c. p. 197, this is P. brunneicapillus Lafr.) Campijlorhynchus affinis of former
eds. of Key; A. 0. U. List, 1st ed., 1886, No. 714. Hdeodytes affinis A. 0. U. Li.st, Sixth
Suppl., Auk, Jan. 1894, p. 48. Heleodytes brunneicapillus affinis Anthony, Auk, July, 1895,
p. 280; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, No. 713 b.
292
5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
Pig. 153. —Rock Wren
del. E. C.)
size. (Ad. nat.
SALPINC'XES. (Gr. a-akinyKT^s, salpigJctes, a trumpeter.) Rock Wrens. Bill about as
long as head, slender, compressed, straight at base, then slightly deourved, acute at tip, faintly-
notched. Nostrils conspicuous, scaled, in a large
fossa. Wing longer than tail ; exposed portion of
1st primary about half as long as 2d, which is de-
cidedly shorter than 3d. Tail rounded, of 12 broad
plane feathers, with rounded or subtruucate ends.
Feet small and weak ; tarsus longer than middle toe,
scutellate posteriorly. Hind toe and claw shorter
than middle one; lateral toes of unequal lengths,
outer longest, both very short ; tips of their claws
falling short of base of middle claw. Two species.
S. obsole'tus. (Lat. obsoletus, unaccustomed ; ob,
iuid soleo, I am wont; hence obsolete, effaced, the
coloration being dull and diffuse. Figs. 153, 154.) Rock Wren. ^ ? , adult : Upper parts
pale brownish-gray, minutely dotted with blackish and whitish points together, and usually
showing obsolete wavy bars of dusky. Rump cinnamon-brown ; a whitish superciliary line.
Beneath, soiled white, shading behind into pale cinnamon ; throat and breast obsoletely
streaked, and under tail-coverts barred, with dusky. Quills of wings rather darker than back,
with similar markings on outer webs. Middle
tail-feathers like back, with many dark bars
of equal width with the lighter ones ; lateral
tail-feathers similarly marked on outer webs,
plain on inner webs, with a broad subter-
minal black bar on both, and cinnamon-
trown tips, the latter usually marbled with
dusky; outer feathers with several blackish
and cinnamon bars on both webs. Bill and
feet dark horn color, the former paler at base
below. Length 5.50-6.00 ; wing 2.60-2.80 ;
tail 2.20-2.40; bill 0.66-0.75 ; "tarsus 0.75-
0.80. Most of the markings blended and
diffuse. Shade of upper parts variable, from
dull grayish to a more plumbeous shade,
often with a faint pinkish tinge. Specimens
in worn and faded plumage may fail to show -. - -
the peculiar dotting with black and whitish ; „ _ „ u w
but in these the cross-wise dusky undula-
tion, as well as the streaks on the breast, are commonly more distinct than in fresher-feathered
examples. The rufous tinge of the under parts is very variable in shade ; that of the rump,
however, being always well marked. Western U. S., and adjoining British provinces, W. to
the Pacific, E. to Iowa ; S. on the Mexican table-lands to Central America; breeds throughout
its range ; migratory in the U. S., except along the southern border ; common, haunting
rocky places, where it is conspicuous by its restlessness and loud notes ; nest of any rubbish in
a rocky nook ; eggs 5-8, of crystalline whiteness, sparsely sprinkled witli reddish-brown dots,
0.75 X 0.62.
S. guaclalupen'sis. (Lat., inhabiting the island off the coast of L. California called in Spanish
Guadalupe, and not known by the French name of Guadeloupe.) Guadalupe Rock Wren.
Resembling the last ; darker colored, with more distinct speckling; wings and tail somewhat
shorter; bill and tarsi rather longer. Wing 2.50-2.70; tail 2.00-2.30; tarsus 0.80-0.90.
TROGLODYTID.E—TROGLODYTIN.E: WRENS. 293
Guadalupe Island, Lower California. S. obsoletus guadeloupensis (by error for Guadalupensis)
KiDGw., Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., ii, Apr. 1876, p. 185; *S'. obsoletus guadalupensis Coues,
Key, 2d-4th eds., 1884-90, p. 8G7 ; S. guadalupensis, Ridgw., Bull. Nutt. Club, ii, July, 1877,
p. 60; S. guadeloupensis [si'e], Ridgw., Man., 1887, p. 548; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895,
No. 716.
CATHER'PES. (Gr. Kadepnrjs, katherpes, a creeper; Kara, kata, down, tpvcj, herpo, I creep.)
Canon Wrens. Bill singularly attenuate, about as long as head, nearly straight in all its
outlines, with such direction of its axis that the bill as a whole appears continuous with the
line of the forehead. Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw, with tendency to subdivision
of the lateral tarsal plate. Lateral toes of unequal lengths, the outer longest. Wings and
tail as in Salpinctes; and system of coloration much the same. One known species, of which
3 subspecies occur in the U. S.
C. mexica'nus al'bifrons. (Lat. mexicanus, Mexican. Lat. albifrons, white-fronted; albiis,
white; frons, front, forehead.) Texan Canon Wren. Similar to the form next described;
much darker colored both above and below, with sharper contrast of the white throat ; white
speckling mostly restricted to back and wings ; black tail-bars broader and more regular; light
markings of wings mere indentations instead of complete bars. Bill straight, more abruptly
decurved at extreme tip. Feet stouter, dark brown. Length about 6.00 ; wing 2.80 ; tail 2.40 ;
bill nearly 1.00 long, only about 0.12 deep at base. Specimens vary much in sharpness and
extensiveness of speckling of upper parts. In best-marked cases, the spots quite white, almost
lengthened into streaks, each one completely set in black ; in other examples, small, sparse, and
restricted, these specimens also showing wavy transverse bars of blackish. Lower Rio Grande
of Texas, and southward in Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon. C. mexicanus of all former eds. of
Key, and of A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95. Certhia albifrons Giraud, Sixt. Sp. Tex. B., 1841,
pi. XVIII. Catherpes mexicanus albifrons Nelson, Auk, Apr. 1898, p. 160; A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 124.
C. m. consper'sus. (Lat. conspersus, speckled.) Speckled Canon Wren. ^ 9 , adult :
Upper parts brown, paler and grayer anteriorly, behind shading insensibly into rich rufous,
everywhere dotted with small dusky and whitish spots. Tail clear cinnamon-brown, crossed
with numerous very narrow and mostly zigzag black bars. Wing-quills dark-brown ; outer
webs of primaries and both webs of inner secondaries barred with color of back. Chin,
throat, and fore brea.st, with lower half of side of head and neck, pure white, sliading be-
hind through ochraceons-brown into rich deep ferruginous, and posteriorly obsoletely waved
with dusky and whitish. Bill slate-colored, paler and more livid below ; feet black ; iris
brown. Length about 5.50; extent 7. .50; wing 2.30; tail 2.12; tarsus 0.65; bill 0.80.
California, New Mexico, Arizona, and portions of Texas, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Wyoming,
Idaho, and Oregon ; also S. in Mexico to Aguas Calientes ; residcmt in most of its range, and
common in suitable localities. A remarkable bird, famous for its ringing notes, inhabiting
canons and other rocky places. Nesting and eggs like those of the Rock Wren ; eggs 5 or
more, 0.75 X 0..55, crystal white, fairly sprinkled and blotched with reddish-brown.
C. 111. piiiu'tiila'tus. (Lat. punctulatus, dotted.) Dotted Canon Wren. Smaller than
either of the foregoing: Length about 5.00 ; wing 2. 10 ; tail 1.90; bill 0.75. Coloration inter-
mediate ; up])er parts most like those oi conspersus, and wings as completely barred ; but under
parts posteriorly dusky ferruginous (dark mahogany color), and tail-bars broad, firm, and reg-
ular, as in mexicanus proper. Coast region of California and Oregon ; resident in most of its
range. The type specimen, the only one I have seen, for some years in my cabinet and now
No. 82,71.5, Mus. S. I., seems to be recognizably distinct; but all the forms of the genus inter-
grade. Ridgw., Pr. Nat. Mus., v, Sept. 1882, p. 343; disallowed by A. 0. U. Committee,
1886 ; Key, 2d ed., 1884, p. 276; see also 4th ed., 1890, p. 896; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895,
p. 297, No. 717 6.
294
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
THRYOTHO'RUS. (Gr. 6pvov, thriion, a reed, and Sovpoi, tlwuroa, leaping. This is the
spelling given and etymology indicated by A^ieillot, Anal., 1816, p. 70, but on p. 45 he first
spells the word thriothorus.) Reed Wrens. Carolina Wrens. Of largest size in this
group; length up to 6.00. Tail decidedly shorter than wings. Back uniform in color, without
streaks or bars ; wings and tail more or less barred crosswise ; belly unmarked ; a long super-
ciliary stripe ; rump with concealed white spots. Eggs colored.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Reddish-brown above, rusty whitish below ; tail regularly barred throughout. Wmg 2.40 ludovicianus
Similar ; more heavily colored ; rusty-brown below. Wing 2.75. Florida ludovicianus miamensis
Grayish-brown, more extensively barred on flanks, barring of tail irregular; small; wing 2.25. S. E. Texas
ludovicianus lomitensis
Darker brown, most extensively barred on flanks, barring of tail irregular ; small ; wing 2.25. N. E. Mexico
ludovicianus berlandieri
T. ludovicia'nus. (Lat. Ludon'cianus, Louisiana; of Ludovicus, Louis XIV., of France.
Fig. 155.) Great Carolina Wren. LTpper parts uniform reddish-brown, brightest on
rump, where are concealed whitish spots; a
long whitish superciliary line, usually bordered
with dusky streaks ; upper surfaces of wings and
tail like back, barred with dusky ; outer edges
of primaries and lateral tail-feathers showing
wliitish spots. Below, rusty or muddy whitisli,
clearest anteriorly, deepening behind, the under
tail-coverts reddish-brown barred with black-
i.sh. Wing-coverts usually with dusky and
whitish tips. Feet livid flesh-coh)red. Length
6.00 ; extent nearly 7.50 ; wing 2.40 ; tail 2.25 ;
l)ill 0.65 ; tarsus 0.75. Eastern U. S., south-
erly ; N. regularly to the Middle States, rarely
to Massachusetts and Ontario ; Michigan; Ne-
braska; resident in most of its range. A com-
mon and well-known inhabitant of shrubbery,
with a loud ringing song ; shy and secretive.
Nest in any nook about out-buildings, trees or
stumps, or in shrubbery, when iu the latter
usually roofed over, of the most miscellaneous
materials ; eggs 4-7, 0.72 X 0.60, white, pro-
fusely speckled and blotched with shades of
reddish, brown, and purplish.
Florida.) Florida Wren. Similar: larger,
stouter, and more deeply-colored, especially below, where nearly uniform rustv-browii. Wing
2.75 ; tail 2.60 : bill 0.90 ; tarsus 0.95. Florida ; a local race.
T. 1. loniiten'sis. (Of Lornita ranch, Hidalgo Co., Tex., where the types were taken.)
Lomita Wren. Similar to ludovicianus proper; rather smaller; length about 5.25; wing
2.25; tail 2.05: shade of the upper parts rather grayish -brown than reddish-brown; barring
of the tail broken and irregular, giving a mottled appearance ; in this respect, as well as iu a
tendency to barring of the fianks, approaching berlandieri. S. E. Texas, on the Rio Grande.
Sennett, Auk, Jan. 1890, p. 58 (T. I lomita- Coues, Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 898, by slip of
the pen for lomitensis), A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 298, No. 718 b.
T. 1. berlan'dieri. (To Dr. Louis Berlandier.) Berlandier's Wren. Similar: smaller;
length 5.25; wing 2.25; tail 2.12. Coloration darker than in typical ludovicianus, especially
Great Carolina Wren, reduced. (From
Nuttall, after Audubon.)
T. 1. miamensis. (Of the Mi
River,
TROGLODYTID^E—TROGLODYTIN.E: WRENS. 295
below; flanks as well as crissuin barred with dusky; tail-bars bi-okea up intu irregular nebu-
lation. Valley of the Rio Graude; a local race of N. E. Mexico, which is admitted in neither
of the A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, perhaps as being extralimital, or iu some uncertainty
regarding its subspecitic status. But it seems to be as well marked as the others, and for the
])resent I let it stand, as in all the previous eds. of the Key.
THRYO'MANES. (Gr. Bpvov^ thruon, a reed; fidvrjs or fiavrjs, manes, a kind of cup.) Be-
WK'k'.s Wkens. Similar to Thryothorus, but tail not decidedly shorter than wings — usually
decidedly longer — blackish, not fully barred. Coloration not reddish-brown above. (Included
under Thryothorus in former eds. of the Key, and in A. O. U. Lists till 1899.)
Analysis 0/ Species and Subs^iecies.
Tail decidedly longer than wings.
Eastern U. S. southerly beiricki
Western U. S. except Pacific coast region. Grayer above, whiter below b. leucogaster
Pacific coast region. Like the last, with less evident contrast between middle tail-feathers and back b. spilinus
San Clemente Island. Superciliary stripe more conspicuous leucopbrys
Tail about as long as wings, both under 2.00.
Guadalupe Island brevicauda
T. be'wicki. (To Thomas Bewick.) Bewick's Wren. Above, dark grayish-brown ;
below, ashy-white, with a brownish wash on flanks. Rump with concealed whitish spots.
A long whitish superciUary stripe from nostrils to nape. Under tail-coverts dark-barred; two
middle tail-feathers like back, with numerous fine black bars; others black with whitish mark-
ings on the outer webs and tips. Length about 5.50 ; extent 6.75 ; wing 2.00-2.12 ; tail 2.35;
bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75. Eastern U. S., southerly, N. to the Middle States and Minnesota, W.
to the edge of tlie Great Plains ; resident iu most of its range. Not very common in the Atlan-
tic States, but so abundant as to replace the House Wren in some parts of the interior. Nest
in holes in trees, stumps, fences, etc.; eggs 5-9, 0.65 X 0.50, white, finely dotted and spotted,
resembling those of Catherpes or Salpinctes.
T. b. leucogas'ter. (Gr. XeuKoy, lei(kos, white; yacm'jp, gaster, belly.) Baird's Wren.
White-bellied Wren. Above, uniform clear ashy-brown ; below, clear ashy-white ; pure
white on middle under parts. A long, strong, wliite superciliary stripe ; auriculars speckled
with white. Concealed white spots on rump. Quills of wings fuscous, the inner ones very
obsoletely waved with color of back. Two middle tail-feathers closely barred with pure dark
ash and black well contrasted with the ashy-brown of the back ; others black, with irregular
white or asliy-white tips ; outer web of exterior one barred with white. Length 5.50-5.75 ;
extent 6.75; wing 2.00-2.33; tail 2.25-2.50; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75. A well-marked
geographical race, inhabiting tlie Great Plains and Great Basin, from Kansas and Colo-
rado to Utali, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, E. of the Sierra Nevadas, and
S. into Mexico. Thryothorus (Thryomanes) bewickii, var. leucogaster Bd., Rev. A. B.,
1864, p. 127 (not Troglodytes leucogastra of Gould, P. Z. S., 183(5, p. 89, as Baird supposed
it was, for Gould's bird is uropsila leucogaster of ScL. and Salv., Cyphorhinus pusillus ScL.,
Heterorhina pusilla Bd.); Thryothorus bairdi Salv. and Godm., Biol. Cent. -Am., i, Apr.
1880, p. 95; T. bewickii bairdi liiuaw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus , viii, 1885, p. 354; A. 0. U.
Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 719 b ; but no rule of nomenclature requires us to change the sub-
specific name leucoaaster Bd., 1864. The fact that Troglodytes leucogastra Gould, 1836, is
an entirely diS'erent bird, belonging to another genus, does not outlaw Thryothorus bewicki
leucogaster, or in any way aff"ect nomenclature in the genus Thryothorus. See Coues, Auk,
Oct. 1896, p. 345. The point is conceded in A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 131,
where the Key name is restored, as above.
T. b. spilu'rus. (Gr. ottCKos, spilos, s\)oncd; ovpa, ourn, tail.) YiGORS' Wren. Speckled-
tailed Wren. Similar to T. bewicki in color ; upper parts more uniform dull bistre rather
than umber brown, with little contrast iu shade between back and middle tail-feathers; bill
296 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
averaging slightly longer. This is " Bewick's " Wren of the Pacific Coast region, from British
Columbia to Southern and Lower California, and Western Mexico.
T. leu'cophrys. (Gr. XevKos, Uncos, white; o^pi;?, ophrus, eyebrow.) San Clemente
Wren. Resembling T. b. spUurus ; upper parts with a decided grayish wash; superciliary
stripe white, very conspicuous ; under tail-coverts less heavily barred ; bill longest. San
Clemente Island, 75 miles oif coast of California, common in cactus and other bushes. An-
thony, Auk, Jan. 1895, p. 52; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 299, No. 719.1.
T. cerroen'sis. (Lat., of Cerros Isl., Spanish cerro, a mountain or large hill.) Cerros
Island Wren. Like the last ; darker above ; less gray on the flanks ; bill shorter. Cerros
Island, Lower California. Anthony, Auk, Apr. 1897, p. 166.
T. brevicau'dus. (Lat. brevis, short; cauda, tail.) Guadalupe Wren. Resembling
T. bewicki lencogaster, but distinct. Above grayish-brown, grayest on tail, brownest on
rump ; few if any concealed white spots on the rump ; wing-feathers obsoletely and tail-
feathers distinctly cross-barred with dusky ; the 3 outermost of the latter pale dull gray at ends,
with one or two broad dusky bars. A strong white superciliary stripe, below which a grayish-
brown loral and auricular stripe. Below, w^hite, shaded into ashy on belly and sides; crissum
M'ith broad black bars. Wing 1.85-1.90; tail 1.80; bill 0.45-0.50; tarsus 0.70-0.75. Gua-
dalupe Island, Lower California. Thrijomanes brevicauda Ridgw., Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., ii,
Apr. 1876, p. 186; Thnjothorus brevicaudus Coues, Key,.2d-4th eds., 1884-90, p. 868;
Thryothorus (Thryomanes) brevicaudus Ridgw., Man., 1887, p. 551. Tliryotliorus brevicauda
Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus., vi, 1881, p. 227. Thryothorus {Thryomanes) brevicauda, A. 0. U.
Lists, 1st and 2d eds., 1886-95, No. 720.
TROGLOD'YTES. (Gr. rptoyXoSurr;?, troglodutes, a cave-dweller.) House Wrens. Of
small size; no decided superciliary line. Upper parts not uniform in color; back more or less
distinctly barred crosswise ; wings, tail, and flanks fully barred crosswise ; tail about equal to
wing in length, the outstretched feet scarcely or not reaching beyond its end. Eggs colored.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Umber-brown on back, little barred there. Eastern U. S a'edon
Grayish-brown on back, more barred there. Western U. S aedon aztecus
Brown on back, most barred. Pacific coast a'edon parkniani
T. aedon, (Gr. ai?Sa)i/, dedon, the songstress, applied by Hesiod to the Nightingale ; in Homer
as a proper name, 'At/Swi', daughter of Pandareus, changed into a Nightingale.) Eastern
House Wren. Brown, brighter behind; below rusty-brown, or grayish-brown, or even
grayish-white ; everywhere waved with darker shade, very plainly on wings, tail, flanks, and
under tail-coverts, breast apt to be darker than either throat or belly; bill shorter than head,
about 0.50; wings and tail nearly equal, about 2.00, but ranging from 1.90 to 2.10; total
length 4.50-5.25, averaging about 4.90; extent about 6.75. Exposed portion of 1st primary
about ^ as long as longest primary. Eastern U. S., N. to Canada, AV. to Dakota ; very abun-
dant anywhere in shrubbery, gardens, and about dwellings, where its active, sprightly, and
fearless demeanor, together with its hearty trilling song, bring it into friendly notoriety. Nest
of any trash in a hole of a building, fence, tree, or stump ; eggs 6-9, 0.65 X 0.55, profusely and
uniformly studded with minute points of brown, often rendering an almost uniform color ; two or
three broods each season. Resident in the South, migratory elsewhere. (T. domesticus of 2d-
4th eds. of the Key, 1884-90, after Bartram.)
T. a. az'tecus. (Lat., Aztec, as this form was originally described from Mexican specimens.)
Western House Wren. Brown above, little brighter on rump, nearly everywhere waved
with dusky, strongest on wings and tail, but usually appreciable on the whole back. Below
brownish-white, nearly white on belly, obscurely variegated with darker markings, which on
flanks and crissum become stronger bars, alternating with brown and wliitish ones. Bill black-
I
TROGLODYTID.E—TROGLODYTIN.E: WRENS. 297
ish above, pale below ; feet bnnvn. Length 5.00-5.25 ; extent 6.75 ; wing and tail about 2.10.
Exposed portion of 1st primary about \ as long as 2d primary. Western U. S., chiefly from
tlie Plains and Rocky Mt. region, E. to Illinois, N. to Manitoba, S. into Mexico, abundant,
there replacing T. aedon, to which it is so similar ; but on an average paler and grayer, with
rather longer wings and tail. Parkman's Wren was originally described by Audubon from the
Columbia River, and the name therefore belongs to the next variety, as stated in the Key, 4th
ed., 1890, p. 898: see Allen, Auk, Jan. 1888, p. 164. The present form is T. cedon aztecus
Baird, Rev. A. B., 1864, p. 139; T. cedon parkmanni Coues, Key, 1st ed., 1872, p. 87;
T. domesticus parJcmani, Key, 2d-4th eds., 1884-90, p. 278; T. aedon aztecus, A. 0. U. Lists,
1886-95, No. 721 b.
T. a. park'mani. (To Dr. George Parkman, of Boston, murdered Nov. 23, 1849, by Prof.
John W. Webster, Professor of Chemistry in Medical College of Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.)'
I'aukman's Wren. Pacific House Wren. More heavily colored than typical aedon,
with tendency to more extensive barring. Pacific coast region, British Columbia, Washington,
Oregon, and Northern California, grading directly into the last form. T. parkmanii, Aud.,
Orn. Biogr., v, 18^39, p. 310; T. tedon parkmanni, in part, Coues, Key, 1872, and later eds.;
T. aedon parkmanii, A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 300, No. 721 a.
ANORTHU'RA. (Gr. av, an, signifying negation; 6p66s, ortJios, straight; ovpa, oura, tail.)
Winter Wrens. Like Troglodytes proper, but tail decidedly shorter than wings, the out-
stretched feet reaching far beyond its end. Eggs colored.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Length about 4.00 ; bill about 0.40.
Eastern hiemalis
Western h. pacificus
Length about 4.50 ; bill 0.50-0. CO.
Alaskan alascensis
A. hiema'lis. (Lat. /nemaZis, wintry ; feiems, winter. Fig. 156.) Winter Wren. Above
brown, darker before, brighter behind, most of back, together with tail and inner wing-quills,
banded with dusky; markings obsolete on
back, where usually accompanied by whitish
specks, strongest on wings and tail. Outer
webs of several primaries regularly barred
with brownish-white, in marked contrast with
other bars of the wings. An inconspicuous
whitish superciliary line. Below brownish,
paler or whiti.sh anteriorly ; belly, flanks, and
crissum heavily waved with dusky and whitish
bars. Bill slender, straight, decidedly shorter
than head. Tail much shorter than wings.
Length 3.90-4.10; extent 6.00-6.50 ; wing Fro. 156. - Winter Wren, little reduced. (Baird'sfig-
. .w .,,->_,.,, ^ .r. . , ■,-, ure of A. alascensis.)
I./.^; tail 1.25; bill 0.40; tarsus, middle toe,
and claw together, about 1.12. Eastern N. Am., common, migratory, breeding from N. New
England and corresponding latitudes northward, in the Alleghanies S. to N. Carolina, winter-
ing in the U. S. from about its southern limit of breeding southward ; the strict representative
of tbe European Wren, A. troglodytes. Nest of twigs, moss, lichens, hair, feathers, etc., usually
in a stump or log close to the ground: eggs 5-8, 0.65 X 0.50, pure white, minutely dotted
with reddi.sh -brown and purplish, but not nearly so heavily marked as those of House Wrens and
long-billed Marsh Wrens, sometimes very sparingly sprinkled. A sly, secretive little bird, less
often seen than other Wrens no less common ; voice strong and highly musical. Anorthura
298 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES - OSCINES.
troglodytes hiemaUs uf 2d-4tli eds. of Key. Anorthura hyemalis Coues and Prentiss, 1862.
A. hiemalis A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 125.
A. h. pacif'icus. (Lat. pacificus, pacific, peace-making; pax, peace, and /ado, I make, do ;
alluding to " the stilly sea.") Western Winter Wren. Like the last; darker, iu lack of
whitish specks of upper parts, and of whitish bars on outer webs of primaries ; but very
slightly distinguished. Pacific Coast region, from Southern Alaska (Sitka) to southern Cali-
fornia; E. to Idaho. Anorthura troglodytes pacifims of 2d-4th eds. of Key. A. hiemalis
pacifica A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Jan. 1899, p. 125.
A. alascen'sis. (Of Alaska.) Alaskan Winter Wren. Like the common species in form
and coloration; larger, size of a House Wren; wing 2.00-2.20; tail 1.50; tarsus 0.75;
tarsus, middle toe, and claw together 1.40; bill 0.65. Culmen, gape, and gonys almost per-
fectly straight, latter slightly ascending. Aleutian and Pribylov Islands, Alaska. Well dis-
tinguished from the common form, and nearer the Japanese A. fmnigatiis. Anorthura troglo-
dytes alascensis of 2d-4th eds. of Key.
TELMATO'DYTES. (Gr. reX/ia; ^eZma, a swamp; Surjjr, dides, an inhabitant.) Marsh
Wrens. Small. Upper parts not uniform ; back streaked lengthwise with white and black ;
flanks scarcely or not barred ; crown plain ; bill |-f as long as head. Eggs dark chocolate-
brown. Nest globular, bulky, with a hole in the side, aflfixed to reeds in swamps or marshes.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Basal third of lower mandible flesh color.
Middle tail feathers and upper tail coverts indistinctly barred, if at all. Eastern paluslris
Middle tail featliers and upper tail coverts more distinctly barred. Western p'diistris pnlujicola
Lower mandible almost entirely horn color.
General coloration paler and more uniform than in palustris, but breast clouded. S. Carolina and Georgia
paliis/iis griseus
General coloration darker and less uniform than in paluslris; black of upper parts extensive, brown of under
parts with an olive shade, breast clouded, barring of tail and its coverts well marked. W. coast of Florida
maria?ice
T. palus'tris. (Lat. 2)fdustris, marshy ; jxdus, a mansh. Figs. 157, 158.) Long-billed
Marsh Wren. Above clear brown, unbarred ; middle of back with a large black patch sharply
streaked with white (these white stripes sometimes defi-
cient). Crown of head usually darker than back, often
quite blackish and cimtinuous with black interscapular
patch. A dull white superciliary line. Wings fuscous ;
inner secondaries blackish on outer webs, often barred or
indented with light brown. Tail evenly barred with
fuscous and color of back. Under parts white, usually
quite pure on belly and middle line of breast and throat,
but much shaded with brown on sides, flanks, and cris-
FiG. 157. — Long-billed Marsh Wren, nat. suiii. Bill blackisli above, pale below ; feet brown.
Bize. (Ad. nat. del. E. c.) Length about 5.00; extent 6.50; wing 1.75-2.00; tail
about the same ; bill 0.50 or more; tarsus 0.66-0.75. Eastern U. S. and British Provinces,
even casually to Greenland. Breeds throughout its usual range, and winters chiefly in the
Soutliern .States, sometimes N. to New England ; an abundant bird, colonizing reedy swamps
and marshes in large numbers, its great globular nests of plaited rushes, with a hole iu the
side, being affixed to the swaying herbage; eggs 5-10, 0.58 X 0.45, very dark-colored, being
so thickly dotted with chocolate-brown as to appear almost uniformly of this color. Telmato-
dytes palustris of 2d-4th eds. of the Key.
T. p. gris'eus. (Lat. griseus, gray.) Worthington's Marsh Wren. A local race of T.
palustris ; paler and grayer, yet with dark under mandible, clouded breast, and some other
TROGLODYTID.E — TROGLODYTIN.E : WRENS.
299
features of T. mariante ; markings of wings and tail less pronounced than in typical palustris.
Coast of Soutli Carolina and Georgia. Brewster, Auk, July, 1893, p. 216; A. 0. U.
List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 302, No. 725 6.
T. marian'se. (To Mrs. Marian J. Scott, wife of W. E. D. Scott.) Marian's Marsh
Wren. Differing from T. palustris in
general darker coloration ; black of back
and crown extensive ; the brown parts of
an olivaceous rather than rufous shade ;
breast clouded ; upper and under tail
coverts and Hanks decidedly barred ;
lower mandible dark. West coast of
Florida, Tarpon Springs to Cedar Keys ;
apparently resident. Intermediates be-
tween this supposed species and T. pa-
lustris, through T. p. griseus, may be
expected to occur, but none such are as
yet forthcoming. ScOTT, Auk, Apr.
1888, p. 188 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895,
p. 303, No. 725. 1. Telmatodijtes mari-
nnce Coues, Key, 1890, 4th ed., p. 898 ;
Cistothorus 2Jrt/((s<m mariance Brew-
ster, Auk, July, 1893, p. 219.
T. p. paludi'cola. (Lat. pialudicola, a
marsh-inhabiter ; palus, a marsh, and
colo, I cultivate.) Tule Marsh Wren.
Bill averaging shorter ; tail and its cov-
erts more ilistinctly barred. Western
United States and British Provinces from
the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, and
S. in Mexico ; breeds throughout its U. S.
range, and winters from Oregon south-
ward. It abounds iu many localities in
tlie tule {Scirpus validus) marshes,
whence its Spanish vernacular name is
derived. See Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 898.
Disallowed in A. 0. U. List of 188(5 ;
admitted in 2d ed., 1895, p. 302, N...
725 a. This has lately been split into
paludicola proper of the Pacific Coast,
and C. p. jil'^sius Oberholser, Auk,
Apr. 1897, p. 188, supposed to be paler,
etc., and to inhabit the rest of tlie region ju.st .said.
CISTOTHORUS. (Gr. Kiarros, kistos, a shrub ' doipds, thouros, leaping.) Marsh Wrens.
Like TcliiKitodi/tes ; wlude back and crown streaked with white. Bill scarcely or not one-half
as long as liead. Eggs white.
C. Stella' ris. (Lat. stellaris, starry; i. e., speckled. Fig. 159.) Short-billed Marsh
Wren. Upper parts brown; crown and most of back blackish, streaked with white. Below,
whitish, sliaded with clear brown across breast, along sides, and especially on flanks and
crissum, the latter more or less indistinctly barred with dusky (often inappreciable). A whitish
line over eye. Wings and tail marked as in the last species; upper tail-coverts decidedly
Fio. l.">8. — Long-billed Marsh W
(From The Osprey.)
300 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OS CINES.
barred. Bill blackish above, whitish below, extremely small, scarcely | as loug as head ; feet
brown. Length 4.50; extent 5.75-6.00 ; wing and tail each
about 1.75; bill 0.35-0.40 ; tarsus, middle toe, and claw to-
gether, about 1.12. The streaking of head and that of back
are usually separated by a plain nuchal interval; but these
are often run together, the whole bird above being streaked
with whitish and blackish upon a brown ground. The wings,
tail, and entire under parts are much like those of palustris,
from which the species is distinguished by the markings of
Fig. 159. — Short-billed Marsh Wren, the upper parts and extremely short bill. Eastern U. S. and
nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. c.) adjoining British Provinces ; N. to New Hampshire, Michigan,
Ontario, and Manitoba, W. to the Great Plains. Migratory ; winters in the Southern States.
Frequents marshy places like palustris, but is not common. Nesting similar, but eggs pure
white, 0.65 X 0.45; nest typically a ball of green grass hung in meadow grass.
Family MOTACILLID^ : Wagtails and Pipits.
Bill shorter than head, very slender, straight, acute, notched at tip. Nostrils not concealed
by feathers, which however reach into nasal fosste. Rictus not notably bristled. Primaries 9 ;
1st about as long as 2d; first 3, 4, or 5, forming point of the wing; inner secondaries
enlarged, the longest one nearly or quite equalling primaries in the closed wing. Tail length-
ened, averaging about equal to wing. Feet long and slender; tarsus scutellate, usually longer
than middle toe and claw ; inner toe cleft to the very base, but basal joint of outer toe soldered
with middle one; hind toe bearing a long and little curved claw (except in Motacilla proper).
A well-defined group of about 60, chiefly Old World, species, which may be termed terrestrial
Sylvias, all living mostly on the ground, where they run with facility, like Larks, never hopping
like most Oscines. They are usually gregarious ; are insectivctrous and migratory. They have
gained their name from the characteristic habit of moving the tail with a peculiar see-saw
motion, as if they were using it to balance themselves upon unsteady footing. They may be
distinguished from all the foregoing birds by having only 9 primaries ; from all the following
Oscines except AlauclidfE, by having long flowing inner secondaries ; and from Alaudidce, with
which they agree in this respect, as well as in usually having a lengthened, straightish hind
claw, by having the tarsal envelop as in Oscines generally, slender bill, exposed nostiils and
double moult. Two subfiimilies have been generally recognized, but the distinctions are
scarcely more than generic. They hold pretty well for the few forms found in America, but
break down when the Old World genera are considered. I therefore banish them from the
Key, as the A. 0. U. does from its List, following Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus., x, 1885, p. 456.
Anoli/sis of Genera.
Wagtails. Point of wing formed by first 3 primaries. Tail longer or not obviously shorter than wings, with narrow
tapering feathers. Hind claw variable in length and curvature. Coloration black and white, or yellow and greenish.
Tail decidedly longer than wings, doubly emarginate. Hind claw of ordinary length and curvature.
Colors black, ashy, and white, in masses Motacilla
Tail, if anything, shorter than wings, nearly even. Hind claw lengthened and straightened. Colors yellow and
green, in masses Budytes
Pipits. Point of wing formed by first 4 or 5 primaries. Tail decidedly shorter than wings, its feathers not tapering.
Hind claw lengthened and straightened. Coloration brownish ; under parts streaked, upper usually also variegated
Anlhus
MOTACIL'LA. (Lat. mota-cilla, wag-tail ; name of some small bird.) Water Wagtails.
Tail much longer than wings, of 12 narrow, weak, tapering or almost linear feathers. First
3 primaries about equal and longest; longest secondary (when full grown) about reaching
MOTACILLID.E: WAGTAILS AND PIPITS.
301
■*itf>
their ends when the wing is closed ; these flowing secondaries narrow and tapering. Tarsus
long and slender ; lateral toes of about equal lengths ; hind claw not particularly lengthened
or straightened ; with its digit much shorter than tarsus. Form remarkably lithe and slender ;
coloration black, ashy, and white, in large masses.
M. al'ba. (Lat. alha, white.) White Wagtail. $, in summer: Head black, with a
broad mask of white across forehead and along sides ; black extending on fore breast ; wings
blackish, with much white edging and tipping of quills and greater coverts; tail black, the
two lateral feathers on each side mostly white ; back and sides ashy ; lower parts mostly
white ; bill and feet black. In winter the black more restricted, that on the fore breast form-
ing a crescent. 9 similar; black still more restricted, in part replaced by gray. Young
gray above, grayish-white below, with a gray or blackish crescent on the fore neck. Length
about 7.00 ; wing 3.25 ; tail 3.7.5 ; tarsus 0.90 ; hind toe and claw 0.60 ; bill 0.50. A species
of wide distribution in Europe, Africa, and Asia, occasional in Greenland. Nest on the
ground; eggs 3-5, 0.80 X 0.60, white, fully speckled with brown.
M. ocula'ris. (Lat. ocMtorts, ocular.) Siberian Wagtail. Swinhoe's Wagtail. Closely
resembling M. alba. Larger; length 7.00-7..50; wing 3.50-3.60; tail 3.50-4.00. A black
eye-stripe in the white mask ;
wing-coverts mostly white, form-
ing a large wing-patch ; upper
parts mostly gray. Young with
the transocular fascia indicated by
a dusky line. N. E. Siberia and
southward ; accidental in Lower
California ; probably also occur-
ring in Alaska. This tine species
agrees with M. lugens in the head-
inarkings, but in the latter the
back is black. SwiNH., Ibis, 1860,
p. 55; see Ridgw., Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus., iv, 1882, p. 414; Nel-
son, Cruise of the Corwin, 188.'^,
]). 62, plate 2 ; CouES, Key, 2d ed.,
1884, p. 284; Sharps, Cat. B.
Brit. Mus., XV, 1885, p. 471, pi. 4,
tigs. 5, 6, showing the difference
lietween ocularis and lugens; which latter may also be looked for in Alaska.
BU'DYTES. (Gr. ^ov8vti]s, boudutes, some small bird.) Field Wagtails. Characters of
MiAdcUln ; tail sliorter, not exceeding the wing in length; hind claw lengthened and straight-
_ ish ; hind toe and claw nearly as long as the tarsus. Coloration
cliietiy yellow and greenish.
B. fla'vus leucostria'tus. (Lat. flavus, yellow. Gr. XtvKos,
leucos, white ; and Lat. striatus, striped, striated. Figs. 160,
1()I.) Siberian Yellow Wagtail. Homever's Quake-
ail. Adult : Above yellowish-green ; below, yellow, shaded
witli greenish on sides, with dusky on breast, and bleaching on
chin. Top of head bluish-gray ; a long white superciliary
stripe; a dusky area from corner of mouth through eye to car-
coverts. Quills of wing dusky ; lesser coverts edged with color of back ; median and greater
coverts showing whitish wing-bars; inner secondaries edged with the same. Tail dusky;
middle feathers edged witli color of bacli ; outer two on each side mostly white. Bill and feet
Fig. 160. — Siberian Yellow Wagtail.
Fig. IGl. — VeUow Wagtai
nat. size. (After Baird.)
nearly
302 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
black. Length about 6.50; wing 3.00; tail about 2.75; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.90; hind toe and
claw 0.65. Nest on the ground; eggs usually 4-6, 0.75 X 0.55, whitish, thickly speckled
with browTi. B. flavus is a protean species of Europe, Africa, and Asia, occurring abundantly
in Alaska, in a form with whole side of head, below the white stripe, slaty-blackish, and some
dusky markings on breast ; this is the Asiatic subspecies given in 2d-4th eds. of the Key as
"flavus?", and considered the same by Sharpe, of extensive dispersion in Siberia, Kamt-
schatka, and southward. B. leticostriatiis Hom., J. F. 0., 1878, p. 128; B. f. leucostriatus
St., Orn. Expl. Kamtsch., 1885, p. 280; Eidgw., Man., 1887, p. 535; A. O. U. Lists,
No. 696.
AN'THUS. (Gr. avdos, anthos, Lat. anthus, a kind of bird.) Pipits. Bill shorter than
head, about as wide as high at base, compressed in most of its extent, acute at tip, where dis-
tinctly notched; culmen slightly concave between base and terminal convexity; rictus slightly
bristled. Wings longer than tail, usually tipped by first 4 primaries, 5th abruptly shorter.
Tarsus not shorter or rather longer than hind toe and claw ; inner lateral toe rather longer than
outer, or the two about equal ; hind claw always lengthened and straightened (as in the figure
beyond given oi A ntJms pensilr aniens). Coloration "niggled" — that is to say, broken up
in streaks and spots. The species of Anthus make up about half the fiimily ; there are sev-
eral genera. In typical Anthus the wing is longer than the tail, and its point is formed by
the outer 4 primaries, the 5th being abruptly shorter ; the hind claw is nearly straight, and
nearly or quite equals its digit in length. Neocorys only differs in having the feet larger and
tail shorter. In certain S. Am. forms {Pediocorys and Notiocorys) the wing is more rounded,
and 4 or even 5 primaries enter into tip of wing ; in several European subgenera only 3 pri-
maries are abruptly longer than succeeding ones. Anthus pensilranicus is strictly congeneric
with the European A. spinoletta, type of the genus. About 50 species (among them six or
eight Central and South American ones) have been ascribed to Anthus ; the true number is less
than 40. They are terrestrial and more or less gregarious birds, migratory and insectivorous ;
nest on the ground, a large compact structure of grasses, mosses, hairs, feathers, etc. Eggs so
heavily specked and clouded with bro\A'n as to present a nearly flat dark tone.
Analysis of Subgenera and Species.
Tarsus not shorter (rather longer) than hind toe and claw. Tail moderately shorter than wing, the outstretched feet not
reaching beyond its end (Anthus proper).
Markings of upper parts distinct —
Except on rump and upper tail-coverts. Europe ; Greenland pralensis
Including rump and upper taU-coverts. Asia ; Alaska ? L. Gala cervinus
Markings of upper parts obscure. North America pensihanicus
Tarsus shorter than hind toe and claw. Tail only about two-thirds as long as wing, the outstretched feet reaching
beyond its end (Subge7uis Neocorts).
Markings of upper parts distinct spraguei
A. praten'sis. (Lat. pratensis, relating to pratum, a meadow.) Meadow Pipit. Adult:
Upper parts pale greenish -brown, distinctly marked with blackish-brown centres of the feath-
ers; wing-quills and coverts clove-brown, edged with greenish-gray. Tail-feathers dark
brown, edged with the greenish shade of the back ; outer one obliquely white for nearly half
its length, and others with white at end. Cheeks olivaceous, speckled with dusky. Under
parts brownish-white with a tinge of green, marked on breast and sides with brownish-black
streaks running forward as a maxillary chain; chin, belly, and under tail-coverts unmarked.
Bill dusky above and at end, the rest livid flesli-color; feet obscure flesh-color; iris blackish.
Length about 6.00 ; extent 9.50 ; wing 3.00; tail 2.50; bill 0,50 ; tarsus 0.75. Eggs 0.78 X
0.58. Europe; Africa; North American as occurring in Greenland, and also, it is said, in
Alaska. I have seen Alaskan Pipits, certainly not pensylvanicus, but too young and in too bad
condition to furnish decisive characters.
MOTACILLID.E: WAGTAILS AND PIPITS. 303
A. cervi'nus. (Lat. cervinus, fawn-colored.) Red-throated Pipit. Adult : Above, light
grayish-brown, fully streaked with dusky, the streaks broadest and darkest on the back.
Wings and tail dusky, the feathers edged with pale brown, the long inner secondaries with
buff; ends of middle and greater wing-coverts wliitish ; outer tail-feathers with much white on
both webs, and next feather with a white spot at end of inner web. A pale and more or less
huffy superciliary and malar stripe. Below, whitish, more or less suffused with fawn-color on
chin and throat, the throat, breast, and sides broadly streaked or longitudinally spotted with
brownish -black, aggregated into a stripe on each side of throat; chin, belly, and vent immacu-
late. Bill black, with yellowish base of lower mandible ; feet dark brown. Wing 3.36; tail
2.50 ; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 0.85. A species of extensive distribution in northerly parts of the Old
World, probably occurring in Alaska, and accidental in Lower California : see Pr. U. S. Nat.
Mus., vi, Oct. 1883, p. 156. CouES, Key, 3d and 4th eds., 1887-90, p. S68; Ridgw., Man.,
1887, p. 537 ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds., 1886-95, No. [699].
A. pensilva'nicus. (Properly spelled pennsylv aniens, conformably with the name of the State ;
originally called " Penn's Wood " after Wm. Penn, its founder; Lat. silvanus or sylvanus,
pertaining to silra or sylca, a forest, woods. Fig. 162.) Pennsylvanian Pipit. American
I'lTLARK. Brown Lark. Adult ^ 9 : Upper parts dark brown with
an olive shade, most of the feathers with dusky centres, giving an ob-
scure streaky or nebulous appearance ; eyelids, superciliary line, and all
under parts brownish-white, or pale buffy or ochrey brown, very vari-
able in shade from muddy white to rich buff, the breast and sides of
the body and neck thickly streaked with dusky ; wings and tail black-
ish, the inner secondaries pale-edged, and 1-3 outer tail-feathers white
wliolly or in part. Bill blackish, pale at base below; feet brown.
Length 6.25-6.75, somethnes 7.00; extent 10.25-11.00; wing 3.25-
3.50; tail 2.75-3.00; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.90. Young hardly differ
appreciably from adults. N. Am., everywhere; an abundant and Fig. 162. —Titlark, nat.
well-known bird of fields and plains ; migratory ; in the U. S. seen ""^- ^^^- '^**- ^"^^ ^- ^-^
diiefly in flocks in fall, winter, and early spring ; breeds in high latitudes, and in the Rocky
Mts. above timber line as far south as Colorado ; accidental in Europe ; lays 4-6 very dark-
colored eggs, 0.80 X 0.60, in a mossy or grassy nest on the ground; voice querulous, gait
tremulous, flight vacillating. (A. ludovieianus of all former eds. of the Key, as of most writers,
after Alauda ludoviciana Gm., 1788; but the name A. pensilvanicus (Latham, Syn. Suppl. i,
1787, p. 287) has priority.
Subgenus Neocorys.
(This section has been given full generic rank in all former eds. of the Key : for characters
see foregoing analysis of Anthtis.)
A. (N.) spraguei. (To Isaac Sprague, of Mass.) Sky Pipit. Sprague's Pipit. Mis-
.SOURI Titlark. Adult ^ 9 : Above, variegated with numerous streaks of dark brown and
gray, in largest pattern on back, smallest on nape, the gray constituting the edging of the
feathers. Below, dull whitish, more or less brownish-shaded across breast and along sides ;
breast sharply streaked, sides less distinctly so, with dusky ; a more or less evident series of
maxillary spots. Quills dark grayish-brown ; inner ones, and wing-coverts, edged with
grayish-white, corresponding to pattern of back. Middle tail-feathers like back ; next ones
blackish-brown; two outer pair wholly or mostly pure white; 3d pair from the outside
usually touched with white near the end. With reduction of the gray edgings of the feathers
of the upper parts by wearing away in siimmer, the bird becomes darker above, with narrower
and sharper variegation, and the pectoral streaks are fainter. Bill blackish above ; below, like
the feet, pale flesh-color; iris black. After the fall mtailt tlie colors again become pure ; the
304
SrSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
streaking of the upper parts is strong and sharp, and the under parts acquire a ruddy-brown
shade. Young : Edgings of feathers of upper parts buffy, giving a rich coinjjlexion to the
plumage ; feathers of back with pure white edging, fonniug conspicuous semicircular mark-
ings ; greater wing-coverts and long inner secondaries broadly tipped with wliite ; primaries
broadly edged and tipped with white or buflf. Ear-coverts buffy-brown, forming a more con-
spicuous patch than in the adult. Under parts strongly tinged, except on throat and middle of
belly, with buffy-brown, the pectoral and lateral streaks large and diffused. Sexes indistin-
guishable ; 9 rather smaller than ^. Length 6.25-6.75, rarely 7.00; extent 10.00-11.00,
generally about 10.50, rarely 11.50 ; wing 3.00-3.30; tail 2.25-2.40; bill 0.50 ; tarsus 0.80-
6.90; middle toe and claw 0.90; hind toe and claw nearly 1.00, the claw alone about 0.50.
Central portions of the U. S., and adjoining British Provinces, from E. edge of the high
Central Plains to the Rocky Mts., from the valleys of the Red River of the North and of the
Saskatchewan to Texas and the table lands of Mexico ; accidental in South Carolina ; breeding
in profusion in Dakota and Montana ; nest on the ground, of fine dried grasses, sometimes
arched over; eggs 4-5, 0.90 X 0.60, grayish-white minutely flecked with dark tints, giving a
purplish-brown cast. General habits and manners of Titlarks ; but the soaring flight of the
Sky Pipit when singing, and the song itself, possess all the qualities which have made the
European Skylark famous, and are no less worthy of celebration in poetry : see Birds of
the N. W., 1874, p. 42.
Family MNIOTILTID^ : American Warblers.
(Commonly called Sylvicolid.e.)
Primaries 9; rectrices 12; tarsi scutellate; inner secondaries not enlarged, nor hind toe
lengthened and straightened, as in the preceding family; bill without a lobe or tooth near mid-
dle of commissure, as in Piranga ; not strongly toothed and hooked at end, as in Lanius and
Vireo (which may have 10
primaries), nor greatly flat-
tened with gape reaching
to eyes, as in Hirundi-
nida, nor strictly conical
with angulated commis-
sure, as in Fringillida.
The family presents such
a number of minor modi-
fications of form, that it
seems impossible to char-
acterize it, except nega-
tively ; in fact, it has never
been satisfactorily defined.
But doubtless the student
will be able to assure him-
self that his specimen is
sylvicoline by its not
Fig. 163. — Black-throated Green Warbler, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) showing the peculiarities
of our other nine-primaried Oscines. All the Warblers are small birds ; excepting Icteria, and
perhaps a species of Siurus, not one is over 6.00 long, and they hardly average over 5.00. With
few exceptions they are beautifully clothed in variegated colors ; but the sexes are generally
unlike, and the changes of plumage, with age and season of the year, are usually strongly
marked, so that different specimens of the same species may bear to each other but little
MNIOTILTIDjE: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 305
resemblance; this of course requires careful discriniiuation. The usual shape of the bill may
be called conoid-elongate (something like a slender miuie bullet in miniature), but the varia-
tions in precise shape are endless. The rictus is usually bristled ; the bristles sometimes have
an extraordinary development, and are sometimes wanting. The wings are longer than the
tail, except in Geothh/pis, Icteria, and a few exotic genera; neither wing nor tail ever presents
striking forms ; the head is never crested. The feet have no special peculiarities, though they
show some slight modifications corresponding to somewhat terrestrial, or more strictly arbori-
cole, habits. The nidification is endlessly varied, more or less artistic or artless nests being
built in trees, bushes, holes, or on the ground. Musical proficiency might be expected from
the agreeably suggestive name of the family, but as a rule the " Warbler's" singing is rather
'' quaint and curious" than very skilfully modulated or highly melodious — to which statement,
however, there is signal exception to be taken, as iu the case of the Siuri. Some Warblers
have the habits of Titmice or Wrens ; others of Creepers or Nuthatches ; the Siuri closely re-
semble Titlarks in some respects, and have even been placed in Motacillidcc ; while Setoxthagince
simulate Tyrannida; (of a difiierent suborder) so perfectly that they used to be classed with
these clamatorial Flycatchers. Warblers grade so perfectly toward Tanagers that they have
all been made a subfamily of Tanagridce (where possibly they belong). The affinity of some
of them with Ccerehidce, or Honey-creepers of the tropics, is so close that the dividing line has
not been drawn. The position of Icteria and its two associate exotic genera, Granatellus and
Teretistris, is open to question ; perhaps they come nearer Vireonidte. It is probable that final
critical study will result in a remapping of the whole group ; meanwhile, the very diversity of
its forms enables us to discriminate the genera with ease. We have usually followed Baird
in recognizing for our genera the three subfamilies '' Si/lvicolince," Icteriinee, and Setopha-
gin(p, which have been formally presented in previous eds. of the Key, and such subdivision
has the merit of practical convenience. But the basis of this grouping is not scientifically
strong, and I am quite ready to follow the example of the A. 0. U. in ignoring subfamilies
altt)geThor in treating our North American forms.
It is unfortunate that the long-current name of this family, Sylvicolid^, which has been
used iu all former eds. of the Key, can no longer be used consistently with our rules; and I
M'ish we could employ the term Dendrcecidce, derived from the name of our most characteristic
genus. But Sylvicola in ornithology is inadmissible, having been given to a genus of Mollusks
long before it was applied to our Warblers ; Si/lvicolidce must therefore be discarded in favor of
3ImotiUidcc, because Mniotilta is the earliest name of exclusive pertinence to any genus of
this family.
Tliis is the second largest family of North American birds, FringiUidce alone surjiassiug it
in number of species. If not exactly " representative," in a technical sense, of the Old World
SgJriida, it may be considered to replace that family in America, having much the same rdle
in bird-economy ; both families abound in species and individuals; they are small, migratory,
insectivorous, and everywhere take prominent part in tlie make-up of the bird-fauna. There
are nearly or about 140 good species of Mniotiltido', distributed over the whole of North and
Middle America, and much of South America. Tlie centre of abundance of Setophagince, or
Flycatcliiug Warblers, is in the warmer parts of America ; comparatively few species reach
the United States, and only two or three are extensively dispersed in this country. On the
other hand, the Mniotiltince are more particularly birds of North America ; very few of the
species are confined to Middle or South America; and Dendrosca, the leading type of this
group, is the largest, most beautiful, and most attractive genus of North American birds,
pre-eminently characteristic of this country. The Warblers have we always with us, all in
tlieir own good time; they come out of the South, pass on, return, and are away again, their
appearance and withdrawal scarcely less than a mystery ; many stay with us all summer long,
and some brave our winters. Some of these slight creatures, guided by unerring instinct,
20
306 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
travel true to the meridian in hours of darkness, slipping past " like a thief in the night,"
stopping at dayhreak from their lofty flights to rest and recruit for the next stage of the
journey. Others pass more leisurely from tree to tree, in a ceaseless tide of migration, glean-
ing as they go ; the hardier males, in full song aud plumage, lead the way for the weaker
females and yearlings. With tireless industry do Warhlers hefriend the human race ; their
unconscious zeal plays due part in the nice adjustment of Nature's forces, helping to bring
about that balance of vegetable and insect life without which agriculture would be in vain.
They visit the orchard when the apple and pear, peach, plum, and cherry are in bloom, seem-
ing to revel carelessly amid the sweet-scented and delicately- tinted blossoms, but never falter-
ing in their good work. They peer into crevices of bark, scrutinize each leaf, aud explore the
very heart of buds, to detect, drag forth, and destroy those tiny creatures, singly insignificant,
collectively a scourge, which prey upon the hopes of the fruit-grower, and which, if undisturbed,
would bring his care to nought. Some Warblers tlit incessantly in the terminal foliage of the
tallest trees ; others hug close to the scored trunks and gnarled boughs of the forest kings ; some
peep from the thicket, the coppice, the impenetrable mantle of shrubbery that decks tiny water-
courses, playing at hide-and-seek with all comers ; others more humble still descend to the
ground, where they glide with pretty mincing steps and affected turning of the head this way
and that, their delicate Hesh-tinted feet just stirring the layer of withered leaves with which a
past season carpeted the ground. We may seek Warblers everywhere in their season ; we
shall find them a continual surprise ; all mood and circumstance is theirs.
Artificial Key to the Genera and Subgenera of Mniotiltidce.
Length 7.00 inches or more ; bill very stout Icteria
Length 5.50 inches or more and tail-feathers plain ; bill ordinary Siurus
Length under 5.50 or tail-feathers not plain.
Wing shorter than tail or equal, and head ashy Geothlypis
Wing longer than tail or equal, and head not ashy.
Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw ; plumage black and white in streaks Mniotilta
Tarsus not shorter than middle toe and claw.
Rictal bristles evidently reaching far beyond nostrils.
Tail black and orange, or black and white, or dark and yellow Setophaga
Tail ashy edged with white, and head with red Cardellina
Tail greenish, unmarked, or with white blotches WUsonia
Tail dusky and reddish, body carmine, ears silvery Ergaticus
Tail otherwise, head striped with black and yellow Basileuterus
Bictal bristles evidently not reaching far beyond nostrils, or not evident at aU.
Tail-feathers all unmarked.
Bill at least 0.50 inch long, very acute.
4 black stripes on head Helmitherus
no black stripes on head Helinaia
Bill not 0.50 inch long
Wing over 2.50 inches ; bill not acute ; bright yellow below, or head ashy . . . . Oporornis
Wing not over 2.50 inches ; bill very acute ; no bristles Helminthophila
Tail-feathers blotched with white, or yellow on inner webs.
Rictal bristles not evident.
Bill not 0.50 inch long ; whole fore parts not yellow Helminthophila
Bill at least 0.50 inch long ; whole fore parts yellow Protonotaria
Rictal bristles very evident.
Back blue with gold spot, throat and legs yellow Compsothlypis
Head orange-brown with black bar through eye Peucedramus
Coloration otherwise Dendroeca
Diagnostics or Characteristics of certain Genera and Subgenera of Mniotiltidw.
Mniotilta, Compsothlypis, and Peucedramus are creeping Warblers, with certain slight modifications of the feet,
enabling them to scramble about trees much like Creepers or Nuthatches.
Geothlypis and Oporornis are ground Warblers, with the feet modified in adaptation to terrestrial life. Siurus is
similar in this respect ; the species walk on the ground, and act in some respects like Motacillines.
Protonotaria, Helinaia, Helmitherus, and Helminthophila are ^'■worm-eating'''' Warblers (the old genus Ver-
»), with slight rictal bristles or none.
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 307
Setophaga, Cardellinn, Wilsonia, Ergaticus, and Basileuterus a.Te fly-catching Warblers, with strongly bristled bill
and muscicapine habits, in some respects like species of Tyramiidce.
Icteria is isolated by its peculiarities of form and habits, and great size for this family.
Dcndrceca comprehends the wood Warblers par excellence, — the largest genus, with over twenty species.
Bill : — Peculiarly stout, high, and compressed in Icteria ; — flattisli, and strongly bristled in Setophaga and Wil-
sonia ; — parine in Ergaticus and Cardellina ; — large, with straightish outlines, scarcely or not bristled, and very acute
in Protonotaria, Jlelinaia, and Helniitherus ; — small, unbristled, and very acute in Helminthophila.
Feet : — Tarsus longest, slenderest, and usually pale-tinted in ground Warblers ; — shortest in creeping Warblers,
with relatively longest toes.
Wings : — Shorter than tail in Icteria and species of Geothlypis ; — about equal to tail in species of Geothlypis,
Siurus, Setophaga, and Cardellina ; — usually decidedly longer than tail.
Tail: — The feathers (some or all) blotched with white in the following: Mniotilta, Compsothlypis, Protonotaria,
species oillelminthophiln, all Bendrcecie (excepting D. cestiva and its allien), Peucedramus, one Wilsonia, one Setophaga.
The feathers plain olivaceous, or otherwise like back, unmarked, in species of Helminthophila, in Helmitherus, Oporornis,
Geothlypis, Siurus, Icteria, species of Wilsonia, Cardellina ; yellow and dark in one Setophaga and one Dendrceca ; dusky
and reddish in Ergaticus.
MNIOTIL'TA. (Gr. fiviov, mnion, muss, and ti'XAo, tillo, I pluck, or tiXtos, tiltos, ])lucked '
conjectural application to the nest-building.) Crekping Warblers. Coloration entirely
black-and-white; tail-feathers white-blotched. Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw;
hind toe long, with large claw. Wings long, pointed, 1st primary about as long as 2d; tail
nearly even, much shorter than wing. Bill nearly as long as head, slender, much compressed,
with concave lateral outlines, and curved culmen and gonys, slightly notched and bristled.
Only one good species.
M. var'ia. (Lat. varia, variegated. Fig. ]G4.) Varied Creeping Warbler. White-
poll Warbler. Black- anu- white Creeper. ^, adult: Black; edges of feathers of
upper parts, coronal, superciliary, and maxillary stripes, tips of
greater and median wing-coverts, outer edges of inner secondaries
and inner edges of quills and tail-feathers, and spots on inner
webs of lateral tail-feathers, white ; under parts white, with black
streaks on throat, sides, and crissuin; bill and feet black. 9
similar : less black in proportion to the white, being mostly white
l)elow. Young of both sexes resemble the 9 5 3t a very early
age the white parts are tinged with tawny, and the black is not
pure — rather errav ; but the streakiness of the bird at all ages is _ ,^, „, , , ,.
■^ ° •' ' ° Fig. 164. — Black - and - white
unmistakable. Length 5.00-5.25 ; extent 8.25-8.75; wing 2.35- Creeper, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del.
2.75; tail 2.25; bill nearly 0.50. Eastern N. Am.; N. to the ^- ^^
Fur Countries ; W. to the Plains ; accidental in California (Pasadena, Auk, 189G, p. 200) ;
migratory ; breeds throughout most of its range ; winters from the southern border southward
to the West Indies, Central America, and northern South America. A common bird of wood-
land, thicket, and swamp, generally seen scrambling actively about the trunks and larger
branches of the trees, rather like a Nuthatch than like a Creeper, the tail not being used as
a prop. Nest on the ground or in a stump, of bark-strips, mosses, grasses, leaves, hair, etc. ;
eggs 4-5, 0.70 X 0.52, white, profusely marked with reddish and other dots. (M. v. borealis,
queried in former eds. of the Key, as based on northerly birds said to be smaller-billed, may
now be disregarded.)
COMPSOTH'LYPIS. (CJr. KOfx^aos, kompsos, dressy, exquisite, ornate, as these birds cer-
tainly are ; BXvnis or dpavnis, thlnpis or thraiqns, some bird so called; 6\avnis is also alleged as
a personal proper name.) Parula Warblers. Coloration highly variegated ; tail-feathers
white-blotched; back bluish, with yellowish spot; throat yellow, with dark spot ; feet pale.
Size under 5.00. Bill short, stoutish ; notch obsolete; bristles slight, though evident. Two
distinct sj)ecies in N. Am., and others in warmer parts of America. (Parula of previous eds.
of the Key, and of Tnost writers since 1858; rejected by our rules on account of the earlier Pa-
rulus Spix, 1824; for synonymy see CoUE.s, Birds Col. Vail., i, 1878, p. 20G )
308 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
C. america'na. (Lat., of America.) Blue Yellow-backed Warbler. Parula War-
bler. ^, in spring: Upper parts clear ashy-blue; middle of back with a patch of greenish-
yellow or brownish-golden. Lores dusky. A white spot on each eyelid. Wings blackish,
crossed on ends of greater and middle coverts with two broad white bars; primaries narrowly,
secondaries more broadly, edged externally with the color of the back, internally with white.
Tail like wings, with much edging of outer webs like the back, the middle feathers mostly
bluish ; at least two outer feathers on each side with large, white, squarish patches on inner
web near the end, usually 3d feather blotched with white, and a white touch on 4th or even 5th
feather. Chin and throat yellow, rather narrowly couliued, this yellow spreading over whole
breast, but much of breast spotted or tinged with orange-brown, and jugulum showing even a
blackish collar ; coloration of this part very variable ; sometimes reddish-brown markings along
sides, much as in the Chestnut-sided Warbler. Rest of under parts w^hite. Bill above black ;
below whitish or flesh-colored, drying yellowish. Legs pale. Length 4.50-4.75 ; extent 7.00-
7.50; wing 2.10-2.30; tail 1.75. 9 , in spring: Like ^ ; upper parts less brightly bluish, or
with slight greenish gloss ; back-patch not so well defined ; less white on tail ; white wing-
bands narrower; dark or reddish tinting of fore breast less decided or scarcely indicated; the
yellow more restricted. Young: Bluish of upper parts glossed over with greenish, sometimes
to such extent as to obscure the dorsal patch, which is then not very difierent from the rest of
the upper parts. White tail-spots smaller, generally confined to two outer feathers on each
side. White wing-bands narrower. Edging of tail and wings tinged with greenish, like back.
Eyelids not spotted with white. Yellow of fore under parts pale, with little or no indication (if
dusky across jugulum. White of under parts tinged with yellowish posteriorly, and frequently
showing brownish touches along sides. Eastern U. S.; W. sometimes to the Rocky Mts. ;
migratory ; breeds in the greater part of its U. S. range, but chiefly southerly ; winters from
Florida southward. An elegant, diminutive species, abundant in high open woods, where it
is generally observed fluttering among the smallest twigs and terminal foliage. Nest in trees,
^^^^ an elaborate woven structure of mosses and lichens often
^^^^^^^^^ placed in a bunch of Spanish moss (TiUandsia usneo-
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ides); eggs 4-5, 0.62 X 0.48, white with the usual
_^^^^^^^^^K^^^^^^^^^^ sprinkling of reddish and other dots.
^I(|^^^^^^^^^^^^P^^F C. a. us'neae. (Lat., of usnea, a kind of lichen haug-
llt^^^^^^^^^^r iug like moss from trees, etc. Usnea barhata is of
^^(^^Bfllll^^ the species. Fig. 165.) Northern Parula Warbler.
^tj^^Fm^W Like the last, slightly larger on an average and with
^^^^Br shorter bill. (J, adult: More black on lores; less yel-
^W low on under parts ; the collar black or blackish, and
fore breast much spotted with rich dark chestnut. East-
Fio. 105. — Nvyithern Parula. (L. A. em U. S. and British Provinces; breeding range more
Fuertes.) northerly than that of typical americana ; nest usually
almost invariably placed in the hanging-moss whence the name is derived, mostly 2-8 feet
from the ground; eggs 4-5, May (best account of nesting in Auk, July, 1897, pp. 289-2[)4).
Included with the foregoing in all former eds. of the Key. Brewst., Auk, Jan. 1896, p. 44 ;
A. 0. U. List, Eighth Suppl., Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 123.
C. nigrilo'ra. (Lat. niger, black ; lorum, a bridle ; applied to the space between eye and
bill of a bird.) Sennett's Warbler. Adult ^ : Upper parts of the same ashy-blue color
as in C. americana, with a dorsal patch of greenish-yellow exactly as in that species. Wings
also as in americana, dusky, with grayish-blue outer and whitish inner, edgings, and crossed
by two conspicuous white bars on tips of greater and middle coverts. Tail as in americana,
but the white spots smaller and almost restricted to two outer feathers on each side. Eyelids
black, tvithout white marks. Lores broadly and intensely black, this color extending as a
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 309
narrow frontal line to meet its fellow across base of culmen, and also reaching back to invade
auriculars, on which it shades through dusky to the general bluish. Under jjarts yellow as
far as middle of belly, a little farther on flanks, also spreading on sides of the jaw to involve
part of mandibular and malar region ; on fore breast deepening into rich orange, but showing
nothing of the orauge-chestuut and blackish of C. americana. Lower belly, flanks and cris-
sum white. Bill black above, yellow below. Legs light horn-color. Length about 4.50 ;
wing 2.00-2.20; tail 1.80-1.90; bill from nostrils 0.38-0.40; tarsus 0.62-0^6.5; middle toe
alone 0.40. Texas, in the valley of the Lower Rio Grande, and southward in Mexico. Another
little exquisite, which I added to our fauna in 1878.
PROTONOTA'RIA. (Low Lat. protonotarius, first notary, or scribe; whyf) Golden
Swamp Warblers. Bill of great size, nearly as long as head, compressed, conic, acute,
with slightly notched tip and scarcely bristled rictus. Wings pointed, unmarked, much
longer than the short, nearly even, tail. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. One
s]K'cies.
P. cit'rea. (Lat. citrea, pertaining to the citron; i. e., yellow.) Prothonotary War-
Bi,ER. Adult ^ 9 • Golden-yellow, paler on belly, changing to olivaceous on back, thence
to bluish-ashy on rump, wings, and tail ; most of the tail-feathers largely white on inner
webs ; no other special markings ; bill entirely black, very large, at least 0.50 long. Length
about 5.50; extent 9.25; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25; tarsus 0.75. Sexes similar. In high-
est feather the yellow of the head sometimes becomes orange-red. Eastern U. S., southerly;
N. to Virginia, southern Michigan, and S. E. Minnesota, casually to Maine and Ontario,
W. to Kansas, Nebraska, Indian Territory, and Texas ; winters extra-limital. A beautiful
species, of striking form and colors, and sedate manners, inhabiting swamps and thickets ;
nest in holes or other sheltered cavities in trees, stumps, and logs, of the most miscellaneous
materials; eggs usually 4-5, but varying 3-7, 0.68 X 0.54, creamy white, profusely speckled
with brown and gray.
HEL3IITHE'RUS. (Gr. tXfiis, gen. eXfjLivdos, hehnis, helminthos, a bug; dijpav, to hunt;
6t]p, an animal; i.e., iXfiivdodrjpas, helminthotheras, a bug-hunter; like verinirora, worm-
eating.) Worm-eating Swamp Warblers. Bill large, conic-acute, especially high and
stout at base, nearly as long as head, unnotched and scarcely or not bristled. Wings rather
pointed, much longer than the little rounded tail. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw.
Sexes similar ; tail-feathers unmarked ; legs pale. Two very distinct species were formerly
included in this genus, as in all former eds. of the Key. It is now restricted to one of them.
The name of the genus is Helmitheros Raf., Journ. Phys., 1819, p. 417, cited as Hehnitherus
by Baird, 1858, by me in orig. ed. of the Key, 1872, and so given in the A. 0. U. Lists, 1886
and 1895 ; given as Helmintherus by me in 2d-4th eds. of the Key, 1884-1890, and in the Cen-
tury Dictionary; given as Hehninthotherus in the British Museum Catalogue, 1885; probably
the most classic form we could use would be Helminthotheras.
H. vermi'vorus. (Lat. rerwirorMS, worm-eating; vermis, a, woTm; roro, I devour. Fig. 166.)
Worm-eating Warbler. Adult ^ 9'- Olive, below
huffy, paler or wliitish on belly; head buff, with four black
stripes, two along sides of crown from bill to nape, one
along each side of head through eye ; wings and tail oliva-
ceous, unmarked ; iris dark brown ; upper mandible brown,
lower mandible and feet pale ; bill acute, unbristled, un-
notched, at least 0.50. Length 5.50; extent 8.75; wing
2.75-3.00; tail 2.00-2.25. The distinctive head-stripes Fio. icc. — Worm-eating Warbler, nat.
appear before the bird is fully fledged, when the upper "^^- ^^^- "**• ^^^- ^- ^■'>
parts are brownish, and the wing-coverts have buff tips. Eastern U. S., rather southerly,
but N. regularly to Middle States and Connecticut ; west to Kansas, Missouri, and Indian
310 5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
Territory ; breeds throughout its U. S. range ; winters from Florida southward ; common in
woods, shrubbery, and swamps. A bird of rather slow and sedate movements ; nest on the
ground, of leaves, grasses, rootlets; eggs 4-5, crystal-white, minutely dotted with reddish-
brown, 0.70 X 0.50.
HELINAI'A. (Gr. cXoy, helos, a marsh, and mica, naio^ I dwell, abide: AuD., Syn., 1839,
p. 66, where the faulty word is coined; emended to Helomea by Agassiz, and so given by me
in the Century Diet. The orig. form of the word is preserved in the A. 0. U. Lists. The
genus was intended by Audubon to include all the so-called "worm-eating" Warblers; but by
successive restrictions it has been confined to its type species, which has usually been included
under Helminthents, as in all former eds. of the Key.) Canebrake Warblers. Characters
in general of Helmitherus. Bill larger and differently shaped, nearly as long as the tarsus,
deep at base, acute at tip, with straight, sharp cuhoinal ridge rising high on the forehead,
something like a meadow-lark's. Point of wing formed by 2d and 3d quills ; 1st shorter than
2d. Feet stout, with tarsus slightly longer than middle toe and claw. Coloration plain and
simple. Habits terrestrial and aquatic. One species, afiording a curious analogy t(i the
" acrocephaline " type of Reed Warblers of the Old World family Sylviidce.
H. swain'soni. (To Wm. Swainson.) Swainson's Warbler. Somewhat similar to the
last; no long black head stripes ; no strong markings anywhere. Adult $ 9 '• Upper parts olive,
nearly uniform, but brownish on exposed surfaces of wings and tail, and quite reddish-brown on
crown and nape. A long light superciliary stripe ; below this a dusky loral and transocular
line ; sides of head below this speckled with brownish on a whitish ground ; sometimes also a
short median yellowish stripe on forehead. Lower parts whitish, of a creamy or pale yellowish
tinge, shaded on sides with brownish-olive, and quite across breast with some nebulous mark-
ings. Specimens vary much in precise tone of coloration, some being more olivaceous, others
more brownish, independently of sex and season. Bill brown above, pale below: feet flesh-
color; iris brown. Young in the fall are browner than adults above, more yellowish below
and on eyebrows ; they show blackish lores ; the first plumage is mostly dull rufous-brown be-
coming whitish on belly; wings and tail as in adults. A rather large Warbler; length up to
6.00 or more; extent about 9.00; wing 2.65-2.95; tail 1.85-2.15; tarsus 0.65-0.75; middle
toe nearly as much ; culmen 0.65-0.75. This interesting bird, long very rare iu collections
and supposed to be confined to the S. Atlantic States, is now well known by many specimens
to extend N. to the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia, to Indiana, Missouri, and E. Texas; in
winter, S. in Mexico to Vera Cruz ; Cuba ; Jamaica. It is a beautiful songster, of sedate
movements and retiring disposition, breeding in canebrakes, where the nest is affixed to canes
over the water, like a Marsh Wren's; it is a bulky structure of twigs, leaves, mosses, rootlets,
hairs, etc., sometimes 5 or 6 inches in diameter; eggs 2 or 3, 0.75 X 0.58, whitish, plain or
variously marked with pale spots which may be scattered over the whole surface or wreathed
about one end, laid late in June. For history of the species since the Audubouian period, see
GuNDL., Journ. f. Orn., 1872, p. 412 (Cuba) ;' Maynard, B. Fla., 1873, p. 47 ; N. C. Brown,
Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1878, p. 172; Ridgw., ihid., p. 163, and 1881, p. 54; A. Newton,
P. Z. S., 1879, p. 552 (Jamaica); Hoxie, Orn. and 061., 1884, p. 138; Coues, Forest and
Stream, Nov. 6, 1884, p. 285; and especially Brewst., Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 65; For. and Str.,
July 9, 1885, p. 468; Auk, Oct. 1885, p. 346.
HELMINTHO'PHILA. (Gr. eX^is, e^fxivdos, hehnis, helminthos, a bug; (jiikta, 'phileo, I
love.) WoRM-EATiNG Warblers. Bill slender and exceedingly acute, unnotched, un-
bristled (fig. 167). Wings pointed, longer than nearly even tail — in one species nearly half
as long again. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Tail-feathers in some species white-
blotched, iu others plain — the former being otherwise of bright and varied colors, the latter
more simply clad. Nest on the ground or quite near it (excepting iu the case of H. lucice)',
eggs white, spotted. To the 8 established U. S. species of the genus have been added 3 others ;
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS.
311
but one of them is almost certainly a hybrid between H. pinus and Oporornis formosa, while
the other two are probably hybrids between H. pinus and H. chrysoptera. There have also been
added a variety oi' II. ruhricapUla, and two varieties of i/. celata.
These are enumerated beyond, but ouly the 8 established species
are considered in the analysis of the genus. Even with this re-
duction, Helminthophila is still the second largest genus of the sub-
family. It is peculiarly North American, all the known species
occurring in this country, some of them not being known to occur
elsewhere. The genus may be divided according to coloration intit
two groups, which correspond in a general way with geographical ^m. m.-H. chrysoptera,
distribution. Three species {HH. pinus, chrysoptera, and bach- "**■ size. (Ad. nat. del. E. c.)
mani), exclusively Eastern, are of variegated colors, the tail-feathers white-blotched as in Den-
drosca. In the other five the coloration is simpler; the tail-feathers are not, or not conspicu-
ously, blotched with white, and all but one of these species have a crown-patch ; one of them
is Eastern, two are Western, and two of general dispersion. The natural analysis of the
species, and a shorter Key to them, are subjoined ; these tables should suffice to identify adult
males, but females and young, particularly of celata, ruhricapUla, and Virginia, require detailed
descriptions for their recognition. (In H. peregrina, with tail normally plain, the outer feather
is sometimes distinctly white-blotched.) Relminthophaga Cab., of 1st ed. of Key. Helmin-
thophila RiDGW., of all later eds.
Natural Analysis of Species.
I. Tail-feathers conspicuously white-blotched. Wings with white or yellow on coverts. Head or breast with black.
Exclusively Eastern.
1. Bluish-ash, below white ; crown and wing-bars yellow ; throat and stripe on side of head black
chrysoptera
2. Olive-green ; wings and tail bluish-ash, former with white or yellow bars ; crown and under parts yellow ;
lores black pivns
3. Olive-green, below yellow ; throat, breast, and crown-patch black ; forehead yellow bachmani
II. Tail-feathers inconspicuously or not blotched with white. No decided wing-markings. No black anywhere.
a. Crown without colored patch. Wings about half as long again as tail.
4. Tail with obscure whitish spot on outer feather ; under parts white or whitish ; upper parts olive-green,
brighter behind, quite ashy in front. Chiefly Eastern peregrina
b. Crown with colored patch. Wings shorter.
5. Crown-patch orange-brown ; tail unmarked ; upper parts olive-green, under parts greenish-yellow, both
nearly uniform. Western and incompletely Eastern celata
G. Crown-patch chestnut ; tail unmarked ; upper parts olive-green, growing ashy on head ; under parts uni-
formly yellow. Eastern and incompletely Western ruhricapUla
7. Crown-patch chestnut ; tail unmarked ; above olivaceous-ash, below whitish ; rump and under tail-coverts
bright yellow ; breast yellowish. Western virgini<e
8. Crown-patch and upper tail-coverts chestnut ; outer tail-feather with dull white patch ; above pale
cinereous, below white. Southwestern lucia
Pass-key to the Species.
Tail-feathers white-blotched — bluish, crown yellow, throat black chrysoptera
— greenish, crown and all under parts yellow pinus
— greenish, crown (partly) and throat black bachmani
— upper tail-coverts chestnut, crown-patch chestnut . lucias
Tail-feathers all unmarked — upper tail-coverts — yellow ; crown-patch chestnut virginUt
— not yellow ; crown-patch chestnut rubricapilla
orange-brown celata
wanting peregrina
H. pi'nus. (Lat.^mws, a pine-tree. Fig. 168.) Blue-winged Yellow Warbler. Adult
$ : Fore part of crown and entire under parts rich yellow ; upper parts yellow-olive, becoming
slaty-blue on wings and tail (system of coloration thus Vike th-dt of Protonotaria). Wings
■with two white or yellowish bars ; tail with several large white blotches ; under tail-coverts
312 SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCTNES.
white ; eyelids bright yellow ; small stripe through eye black ; bill blue-black. Female and
young not very dissimilar ; duller and more olivaceous. Length about 4.75 ; extent 7.50 ;
wing 2.40-2.50: tail 2.00-2.10; tarsus 0.65; bill 0.45.
Eastern U. S., N. to Massachusetts and Minnesota, W. to
Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas ; common, migratory,
breeding in most of range, wintering extralimital in Mexico
and Central America. Nest on the ground ; eggs 4-5, 0.67
X 0.48, white, sprinkled with reddish-brown and blackish
dots chiefly abounding near the large end, laid late in May
and early in June.
H. lawren'cei ? (To Geo. N. Lawrence, of N. Y.) Law-
rence's Warbler. Like H. pinus ; but a large black
patch on throat and breast, and broad black eye-stripe,
reaching over auriculars, as in H. chrysoptera ; thus pinus
Fig. 168. — Blue -winged YeUow X chrysoptem, and doubtless a hybrid between the two.
Warbler. (L. A. Fuertes.) About a dozen specimens known, New Jersey, Connecti-
cut, etc. A. 0. U. Hypothetical List, 1896, No. 20.
H. leucobronchia'lis ? (Gr. Xeuicdy, leucos, white, ^poyxoi, brogclios, becoming bronchuSf
throat.) White-throated Warbler. Like H. chrysoptem ; but a black bar through eye
as in pinus, and lacking the black breast-patch of chrysoptera, the entire under parts being-
white ; thus chrysoptera X pinus, and doubtless a hybrid between the two, though up to date
numerous specimens have been described, from New England, New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Virginia, Michigan, etc. Figured in colors on pi. 1 of the Nuttall Club Bulletin^
1876. A. 0. U. Hypothetical List, 1896, No. 21.
H. cincinnatien'sis ? (Of Cincinnati, Ohio, where discovered.) Cincinnati Warbler.
Like H. pinus in color ; bill with evident rictal bristles ; no white wing-bars or tail-blotches ;
no ashy-blue on wings or tail ; concealed black on crown and sides of head like the incom-
pleted black mask of Oporornis formosa, with which the bird otherwise closely agrees in color ;
thus curiously being H. pinus X 0. formosa. Length 4.75 ; wing 2.50; tail 1.85; bill 0.44.
One specimen known, Ohio. A. O. U. Hypothetical List, 1896, No. 22.
H. chrysop'tera. (Gr. xP^'^°^j chrusos, golden, and nrepov, pteron, wing.) Blue Goldex-
wiNGED Warbler. (J, adult : Upper parts slaty-blue, or fine bluisli-gray ; crown, and
large wing-patch formed by confluent wing-bars, rich yellow ; a broad stripe on side of head
and patch on chin, throat and fore-breast, black, the eye-stripe bordered above and below with
white ; under parts generally, excepting the black breastplate, white, often tinted with yellow-
ish, and shaded on the sides with ashy. Exposed surfaces of wings and tail like upper parts ;
great white blotches on three lateral tail-feathers ; bill black ; feet dark, 9 and immature
specimens have the back more or less glossed with yellowish -olive ; yellow of crown obscured
with greenish ; black eye-stripe and breastplate veiled with gray tips of the feathers, or not
at all evident. Size of H. pinus. A beautiful species, common in Eastern United States ;
N. to Southern New England, Ontario, Minnesota, etc., migratory, breeding from our middle
districts northward, and in mountains S. to the Carolinas, retiring in the fall entirely to winter
in Cuba, E. Mexico, Central America, and the U. S. of Colombia. Nest on the ground,
like that of if. pinus ; eggs similar, 0.65 X 0.50, white, dotted with browns in fine pattern,
mostly about the larger end.
H. bach'mani. (To Rev. John Bachmau, of S. C. Fig. 169.) Bachmax's Warbler.
Adult $ : Upper parts yellowish-olive, including sides of head and neck, tinged \vith ashy on
hind head; forehead and under parts bright yellow; a black band on vertex separating yel-
low front from ashy occiput ; throat and fore breast black, this breastplate isolated in yellow
surroundings. Wings dusky, glossed with color of back on all the exposed surface, the
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 313
quills edged with ashy, and some of the lesser coverts yellow. Inner webs of three outer tail-
feathers white-blotched. Small; length 4.50; wing 2.35; tail 2.00; bill at maximum of
acuteuess, and curvature. 9 resembles J, but
lacks the black crown, and the breastplate is dusky
veiled with olive. S. Atlantic and Gulf States ;
X. to Virginia and S. Indiana, W. to Louisiana
and Arkansas; Cuba in winter. This was long
considered an extremely rare species, few speci-
mens having been known until recently. See
Auk, Jan. 1887, p. 35; Apr. 1887, p. 165; and
for its rediscovery in abundance, with best biogra-
phy, Auk, Apr. 1891, pp. 149-157.
H. lu'ciae. (To Miss Lucy Baird, daughter of
Prof S. F. Baird.) Lucy's Warbler. Adult
(J 9 • Clear ashy-gray. Beneath white, with a
faint tinge of buff on breast. A rich chestnut
patch on crown, and upper tail-coverts of the same
color. A white eye-ring. Quills and tail-feathers
edged with the color of the back or whitish. Lat- ^"'- ^^'•'- " Bachman's Warbler,
eral tail-feather with au obscure whitish patch. Lining of wing white. Feet dull leaden-
olive. Iris dark brown or black. Length 4.3:3-4.66 ; extent 7.00-7.50 ; wing 2.25-2.50 ; tail
1.75-2.00; tarsus 0.66; bill 0.2.5-0.33. Young: Lack chestnut on crown, though that of
rump is present; throat and breast milk-white, without the ochrey tinge of the adults; wing-
coverts edged with pale rufous. The chestnut upper tail-coverts, and absence of any trace of
olivaceous or yellowish coloration, distinguish this interesting species, the general superficial
aspect of which is quite like that of a Polioptila. Valley of the Colorado and Gila ; common
in Arizona, where I found it breeding at Fort Whipple in 1866 ; N. to Utah, S. into Sonora.
The exceptional nidification of this species of the genus (Am. Nat., vi, 1872, p. 493) has been
confirmed : nest in crevice behind bark of a tree or bush, or other odd nook, even some other
bird's nest, of straws, leaves, hair, and feathers, such as a Wren might select ; eggs 3-7, 0.58
X 0.45 ; not peculiar, being white dotted with reddish, chiefly wreathed about the large end,
laid in May.
H. virgin'ife. (To Mrs. Virginia Anderson, wife of the discoverer.) Virginia's Warbler.
$, in summer : Ashy-plumbeous, alike on back, and top and sides of head. Below dull
whitish, the sides shaded with ashy. Lining and edge of wings white. Upper and under
tail-coverts, and isolated spot on breast, yellovi', in strong contrast with all surroundings. A
white ring round eye. Wings and tail without yellowish edgings. Crown with a chestnut
patch, as in H. ruhricapilla. Length 4.75; extent 7.50; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 2.25. 9, in
summer : The yellow duller and slightly tinged with greenish ; that of breast, and the chestnut
of crown, more restricted. Autumnal specimens resemble the 9 \ but in botli sexes the plum-
beous of the upper parts has a slight olive shade, and in birds of the year the crown-patch may
be wanting.' Southern Rocky Mt. region; N. to Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming; S.
into Mexico. Nest on ground, like others of this genus, at roots of a bush or tuft of grass,
loosely made of hay, rootlets, and other fibres; eggs 4,0.60x0.48, indistinguishable from
those of allied species ; laid in May and June. In Arizona and New Mexico the breeding range
is at 5,000 feet or more.
H. rubricapil'la. (Lat. ruber, red; capillus, hair. Fig. 170.) Nashville Warbler.
^, in summer : Upper parts olive-green or yellowish-olive, clearer and brighter on rump and
upper tail-coverts. Top and sides of head and neck ashy, with a veiled chestnut patch on crown,
and a white ring round eye. No superciliary stripe. Lores pale. Wings and tail fuscous, edged
314 S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
with color of back. Entire under parts yellow, including under wing-coverts and edge of wing ;
sides shaded with olive. Length 4.50-4.75; extent 7.50; wing 2.33-2.50; tail 1.75-2.00.
9, in summer: Similar; head less purely ashy; crown-patch
smaller and more hidden, if not wanting; yellow of under parts
paler, whitening on belly. Autumnal specimens, of both sexes,
though quite as yellow below as iu summer, have the ash
of the head glossed over with olivaceous, and in birds of the
year the crown-patch may be entirely wanting. This species
is distinguished by the rich clear yellow of the under parts at
' all seasons. In H. celata, which is next most yellow below,
the color has a greenish cast ; the head is little, if any, differ-
no. 170. - Nashville Warbler. ^^t from the rest of the upper parts, and the crown-patch is
(L. A. Fuertes.) urange-brown. Eastern N. Am., W. to the Plains, N. far
into the fur countries, S. in winter to Mexico and Central America. A common bird, migra-
tory in most of U. S., breeding in latitude of S. New England (further S. in alpine regions)
and thence northward. Nest on the ground, like the others, and eggs not peculiar. (Sylvia
ruficapilla Wils., 1810, nee Lath., 1790. H. ruficapilla of 2d-4th eds. of Key, as of most
late authors. Sijli'ia rnhricapiUa Wils., 1812. H. ruhricapilla Faxon, Auk, July, 1896,
p. 264; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 130, No. 645.)
H. r. guttura'lis. (Lat. relating to guttur, the throat.) Calaveras Warbler. Quite
like the last ; said to be more brightly colored ; rump and upper tail-coverts more yellowish ;
lower parts more richly yellow ; slightly larger ; average size as alleged equal to the largest
ruhricapilla: <? wing 2.40-2.55; tail 1.90-2.00. Eocky Mts. to the Pacific, N. to Alaska
(Kadiak), S. to L. Cala. and W. Mexico. I have heretofore declined to recognize this slight
race, and do so now with reluctance. Helminthophaga ruficapilla gutturalis Bd., Brew.
and RiDGW., Hist. N. A. B., i, 1874, p. 191 ; Helmintliophila r. g. Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat.
Mus., viii, 1885, p. 354; A. O. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 645 a ; H. rubricapilla gutturalis
Faxon, Auk, July, 1896, p. 264; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 131, No. 645 a.
H. cela'ta. (Lat. celata, concealed, as is the orange on the crown.) Orange-CROWNED
Warbler. (J 9 > ii summer : Upper parts olive, duller and washed with grayish toward
and on head, brighter and more yellowish on rump and upper tail-coverts. Beneath greenish-
white, palest on belly and throat, more olive-shaded on sides ; the color not pure, but rather
streaky, and having in places a grayish cast. Wings and tail edged with color of back ; lining
of wings like belly ; inner edges of tail-feathers whitish. Orbital ring and lores yellowish.
An orange-brown patch on crown, partially concealed, smaller and more hidden in 9 than in
(J. Length 4.80-5.20; extent 7.40-7.75; wing 2.30-2.50 ; tail 2.00 or rather more. Resem-
bling the last, and often difficult to distinguish in immature plumage ; but a general oUveness
and yellowness, compared with the ashy of some parts of rubricapilla, and different color of
crown-patch in the two species, will usually be diagnostic. The sexes of this species scarcely
differ, and young or autumnal birds are very similar to adults, except frequent or usual absence
of the orange-brown crown-spot in birds of the year. The species is well distinguished from
all its allies by color of crown-patch. N. Am. at large, but especially Western and Middle
regions; rare or occasional in the Eastern Province; N. to Mackenzie River region and the
Yukon in British America and Alaska; migratory mainly in the interior; winters in S. Atlan-
tic and Gulf States and E. Mexico; breeds in Arctic and subarctic regions; in alpine localities
S. to New Mexico ; nest and eggs not peculiar.
H. c. lutes'cens. (Lat. lutescens, growing yellowish.) Pacific Orange-crowned War-
bler. Differs in being much more richly colored. It may be described simply as olive-green
above, and greenish-yellow, shaded with olive on sides, beh)vv, without the qualifying terms
required for precision in the case of typical celata. Pacific Coast region, Alaska to Lower Call-
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 315
fornia and W. Mexico : E. in migration to the Rocky Mts. ; breeding range from S. Cala. to
S. Alaska. Nest normally on ground, sometimes 3-6 feet up in a shrub or vine, built of
leaves, grass, and hair ; eggs laid in May and June, not peculiar.
H. c. sor'dida. (Lat., sordid, soiled, stained.) Dusky Orange-crowned Warbler.
Diflcrs in being more darkly colored ; "there is an appearance of grayness about the upper
plumage, owing to a leaden tinge on ends of feathers. Throat and under parts slightly
streaked." San Clemente, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands, off California. Neither this
nor the last-named variety amounts to much, and both have been recognized mainly upon geo-
graphical considerations. TowNS., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., xiii, 1890, p. 139; A. 0. U. List,
2d ed., 1895, No. 646 ft.
H. peregri'na. (Lat. per eg rina, wandering, alien, foreign ; i. e., migratory. Fig. 171.) Ten-
nessee Warbler. Adult ^ : Upper parts yellowish-olive, brightest posteriorly ; on fore parts
and head changing to pure ash, without any greenish tint whatever. No crown-patch of any
different color. Lores, eye-ring, or frequently a decided
superciliary stripe, whitish. Entire under parts dull white,
scarcely or not tinged with yellowish. Wings and tail
dusky, strongly edged with color of back ; outer tail-feath-
ers frequently with an obscure whitish spot. Bill and feet
dark. Length 4.50-4.7.5, rarely 5.00 ; extent 7.50-8.00 ;
wing about 2.75, thus long for the size of the bird, and es- \.
l)ecially in comparison with the short tail, pointed, with ^*^.;
little difference in length between the first 3 or 4 quills; ""
tail only 2.00 or less, thus remarkably short — the com- ; -\
parative length of wings and tail, with other characters, ^~"->-.
probably always distinguishes the species from the fore- Fio. 17L — Tennessee WarWer. (L. a
going. Adult 9 '■ Quite like <^, but ashy of head less pure
and clear, and under parts more or less tinged with greenish-yellow. Young : Entire upper
parts strongly and uniformly yellowish-olive, like rump of adult <J, or even brighter, this color
also tingeing eye-ring and superciliary stripe. Under parts as in adult 9 , or more decidedly
greenish-yellow, leaving only belly and crissum whitish. In this condition specimens more
closely resemble some other species than when adult ; but the short tail, long wings, and no
crown-patch should be distinctive. Chiefly Eastern N. Am., but W. to the Rocky Mts. ;
common, especially in the Mississippi Valley, but less so in the Atlantic States; migratory;
breeds in N. New England and northern tier of States, and thence to high latitudes in British
America; winters S. through E. Mexico to Central Amer. and the U. S. of Colombia. Nest
and eggs as in other species of the genus.
DKNDIICE'CA. (Gr. fi€v8pov, dendron, a tree, and otVew, oikeo, I inhabit.) Wood War-
blers. Bill variable in shape, usually conico-attenuate, more or less depressed at base, com-
])ress('d from tlie middle, notched near tip, not showing the extreme acuteuess of that of
Jlelmitherns, Helinaia, Hehninthophila, and Protonotaria (except in the subgenus Perisso-
glossn). Rictus with obvious bristles, which are not evident in the true "worm-eating"
warblers. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw (it is shorter, or not longer, in 3Tmotilta).
Ilind toe little if any longer than its claw (decidedly longer in Mniotilta and Compsothlypis).
Wings much longer than tail, pointed, 1st and 2d jirimarics longest. Tail moderate, with
ratlier broad feathers, nearly even, but varying to slightly rounded, or with slight central
«margination. Pattern of coloration indeterminate. Tail always with white blotches (except
in ccstiva and its immediate allies, where the inner webs are yellow), never plain olivaceous.
Crown never with lateral black stripes, nor under parts uniformly streaked with blackish on a
pale ground, nor back with a yellow patch, nor whole head yellow. Length usually 5.00-
■ti.OO ; rarely under and perhaps never over these dimensions. Nest in bushes or trees, with
316 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES.
rare exceptions. Eggs white, spotted. It is not easy to frame a definition of this genus cover-
ing all its modifications, yet introducing no term inapplicable to any species ; but the foregoing
expressions considered collectively, however arbitrary or trivial some of them may seem to be,
will serve to distinguish any Dendrceca from its allies of other genera ; and, if so, the diagnosis
is exclusively pertinent to the group as conventionally accepted. The coloration of the rec-
trices is a good clue to this genus ; for all the species (excepting D. cestica and its conspecies)
have the tail-feathers blotched with white — a feature only shown, among North American
allies, in 3Iniotilta, Compsothlypis, Protonotaria, and some species of HehnintJiophila and
Sylvania. There is as much uniformity in the nest and eggs of Dendrceca as in those of
HelmintJwphila. Whereas all these nest on the ground, as far as known all the Dendroecce
nest in trees and bushes, with the single exception of D. palmarum. Excepting B. castanea,
the eggs are essentially similar ; all being white, variously speckled, dotted, or blotched with
shades of reddish and darker brown, and lilac or purplish shell-spots. About 40 species are
cuiTcnt, but not all of them are well established ; notable extralimital species are : pityophila
(Cuba), adelaidcB (Porto Eico), phareira (Jamaica), eoa (Jamaica), aureola (Galapagoes),
capitahs (Barbadoes), and petechia (West Indies) with its several tropical forms, all like our
astiva. Of the 26 species which have been ascribed to North America, " montana " and
"carbonata" remain unknown: leaving 24 species to be treated, nearly as in the orig. ed.
of the Key, there having been but two North American accessions {plivacea and hryanti) to
the genus since 1872, though four varieties (respectively of cBstiva, of dominica, oi palmarum,
and of ccerulescens) have meanwhile been described. D. tigrina was made type of a genus
Perissoglossa by Baird in 1865, and I made oliracea type of a genus Peucedramus in 1876 ;
but both of these are now reduced to subgenera of Dendrceca, as follows :
A7ialysis of Stibgenera of Dendrceca.
Bill very acute, with appreciably decurved tip (much as in some species oiHelminthophagn ; tongue peculiarly
fringed ■. Perissoglossa {tigrina)
Bill very long, attenuate, culmen rather concave than convex in part, and under outline about straight. Wing half
as long again as tail Peucedramus (oliracea)
Bill otherwise Pendroeca (proper)
The following artificial analysis will facilitate the determination of our 24 established
species ; I believe it to be an infallible key to the perfect male plumages, and that it will
probably hold good for spring specimens of both sexes of many species ; but it will fail for
nearly all autumnal and most female specimens of (b). It is diificult if not impossible to meet
the varied requirements of these by rigid analysis ; and recourse must be had to the detailed
descriptions of the species arranged in what seems to be their natural sequence. The supple-
mentary table of certain diagnostic marks may prove of much assistance, though it is not a
complete analysis.
Analysis of perfect Spring Males.
Tail-feathers edged with yellow ; head — yellow rrstiva, (f. sonorana, (r. rubiginosa
— chestnut hryanti castaneiceps
Tail-feathers blotched with white ; a white spot at the base of primaries
head — black and blue ccerulescens and c. cnirnsi
— orange-brown with black stripe oliracea
— no white spot at base of primaries, (a)
(a) Wing-bars not white. Below, white ; sides chestnut-streaked, crowni yellow penniylvanica
— yellow; sides reddish-streaked, crown reddish . . . palmarum and p. hypocfin/sea
— black-streaked ; above, ashy kirtlandi
— olive, reddish-streaked discolor
(a) Wing-bars white (sometimes fused into one large white patch), (b)
(,b) Crown blue, like back ; below white, sides and breast streaked rara
— chestnut, like throat ; below, and sides of neck, butfy-tinged caslanea
— clear ash ; rump and under parts yellow, breast and sides black-streaked maculosa
— blackish, with median line orange-brown, Uke auriculars ; rump yellow tigrina
MNIOriLTID^E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 317
— perfectly black ; throat black ; a small yellow loral spot , nigrescens
— not black ; no yellow ; feet flesh color striata
— with yellow spot ; throat flame-color ; rump not yellow hlackburnicB
— white ; rump and sides of breast yellow . coronata
— yellow ; rump and sides of breast yellow auduboni
(b) Crown otherwise ; throat black; back ashy, streaked, rump ash, crown yellow occidentalis
— black, like rump and crown chrysoparia
— olive ; crown like back virens
— uotUke back tounsendi
— yellow ; back olive ; no black or ashy on head vigorsi
— ashy-blue ; cheeks the same ; eyelids yellow gracioe
— black ; eyelids white dominica and d. albilora
Diagnostic marks of certain Warblers in any plnmage.
Bill as above said for Perissoglossa ; rump generally yellow tigrina
Bill as above said for P(»u('«/ra;/i«s; head orange-brown or yellowish olivacea
Wing-bars and belly yellow discolor
Wings and tail dusky, edged with yellow ces/iia or bryanti
Wing-bars yellow, and belly pure white pennsylvanica
A yellow spot in front of eye and nowhere else nigrescens
A white spot at base of primaries (almost never wanting) cmrulescens
Throat definitely yellow, belly white, back with no greenish dominica, d. albilora or grades
Rump, sides of breast, crown and throat more or less yellow auduboni
Rump, sides of breast, and crown more or less yellow ; throat white coronata
Wing-bars white, tail-spots oblique, at end of two outer feathers only vigorsi
Tail-spots at middle of nearly all the feathers, rump and belly yellow maculosa
Wing-bars brownish, tail-spots square, at end of two outer feathers only .... palmarum and p. hypochrysea
Wing-bars not very conspicuous, whole under parts yellow, back with no greenish kirtlandi
Tail-spots at end of nearly all the feathers, and no definite yellow anywhere rara
Throat, breast, and sides black or with black traces, sides of head with diffuse yellow, outer tail-feather white-edged
externally virens, chrysoparia, townsendi, or occidentalis
Throat yellow or orange, crown with at least a trace of a central yellow or orange spot, and outer tail-feather white-
edged externally blackbumice
BiU ordinary ; and with none of the foregoing special marks striata or castanea
(Subgenus PerissoCtLOSSA.)
D. (P.) tisri'na. (Lat. tigrina, striped like a tiger, tigris. Fig. 172.) Cape May War-
bler. Adult $ , in spring: Back yellowish-olive, spotted with black ; crown in high plumage
I)erfectly black, usually interrupted with olive. Rump, sides
of neck nearly meeting across nape, sides of head and entire
under parts, bright yellow ; ear-patch orange-brotvn ; a black
transocular stripe, cutting off a yellow superciliary stripe ;
lower throat and whole breast and sides thickly streaked
with black ; yellow of throat sometimes tinged with orange-
brown ; that of belly and under tail-coverts pale or whitish.
Wing- bars fused in a large white patch, formed by middle
coverts and outer webs of most of the greater coverts.
Quills and tail-feathers blackish, edged on outer webs with
olive ; tail-spots on three outer feathers near their ends,
oblique, large on outer feather, diminishing on the next Fio. ill. - Cape May Warbler. (L.
successively ; bill and feet blackish. The yellow patcli on ^- F"ertes.)
the rump is conspicuous, and in high plumage that on tlie side of the neck is immaculate
and very bright. 9 i in spring : Similar ; lacking the distinctive head markings ; under parts
paler and less streaked, tail-spots small or obscure : less white on wing. Young : An insig-
nificant-looking bird, resembling an overgrown Ruby-crowned Kinglet, without its crest;
obscure greenish-olive above ; rump yellowish ; under parts yellowish-white ; breast and sides
with the streaks obscure or obsolete ; little or no white on wings, which are edged with
yellowish. Length 5.00-5.50; wing 2.75-2.85 ; tail 2.15-2.25. Eastern N. Am. to Hudson's
318
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
Bay, only known W. to the edge of the Great Plains ; breeds from northern New England
northward, and winters in the West Indies ; resident, however, in Jamaica. The Cape May
is an exquisite, resembling the Magnolia in its yellow rump and yellow black-striped under
parts, but easily recognized at maturity by the orange-brown ear-coverts ; possessing also the
charm of rarity in most parts. The curved and very acute bill, and some anatomical peculiari-
ties of the tongue will assist the student in recognizing the obscure 9 and young. Nest in low
trees or bushes, preferably evergreens, neatly cupped, built of small twigs, grasses, cobwebs,
etc. Eges 3-4, 0.70 X 0.50, white or whitish, marked chiefly about the larger end with the
usual reddish-brown and darker spots or dots, with others of blackish and neutral tint.
(Subgenus Peucedramus.)
D. (P.) oliva'ceiis. (Lat. o?trrtce?<s, olivaceous in color ; oKra, an olive. Fig. 173.) Olive
Warbler. Tongue much as in Dendroeca, but larger, with revolute edges, cleft tip, and
laciniate for some distance
from the end. Wings elon-
gated, half as long again as
tail (in Dendroeca less than
half as long again), reaching,
when folded, nearly to end
of tail. Tail emarginate.
Tarsus longer than middle
toe and claw. Hallux little
if any longer than its claw.
I >ill little shorter than tarsus
(averaging little over half
the tarsus in Dendroeca), at-
tenuate, notably depressed,
yet very little widened at
base. Culmen rather con-
cave than convex in most
of its length, the under out-
line almost perfectly straight from extreme base to tip. Nasal fossfe very large, with a highly
developed nasal scale. Rictal vibrissae few and short. Plumage without streaks. Adult ^ :
Upper parts ashy, more or less olivaceous, changing to greenish on nape. Head and neck all
around orange-browTi or intense saffron-yellow, with a broad black bar on side of head through
eye. Wings blackish ; inner webs of all the quills edged with white ; outer webs of most pri-
maries edged with whitish, and outer webs of secondaries with greenish ; most of the primaries
also marked with white on outer webs at base, forming a conspicuous spot (only seen else-
where in D. ccerulescens) ; middle and greater wing-coverts with white bars. Tail like wings,
with greenish edging of most of the feathers, the two outer ones on each side mostly or wholly
white. Belly and sides whitish, tinged with olive or brownish. Basal half of under mandible
light brown. Length 4.75-5.25; extent 8.25-9.00; wing 2.75-3.10; tail 1.95-2.20; bill
0.55; tarsus 0.75. Adult 9 and young $ : The saffron color much clearer yellowish, and
shaded with olive- green on crown ; the black bar replaced by whitish, excepting a dusky patcii
on auriculars. A remarkable Mexican Warbler, also ascertained to inhabit S. Arizona and
New Mexico, in mountainous localities ; probably also Texas. It has much the habits of the
Pine-creeping Warbler (Z). vigorsi) ; nest very pretty, somewhat like the Blue-Gray Gnat-
catcher's, high up in a coniferous tree, saddled on a limb or fixed in a forked twig, composed
of moss, lichens, fir blossoms, and cobwebs, lined with fine rootlets; eggs peculiar, olive-gray,
very thickly speckled with black ; set of 3-4, May, June.
Fig. 173. — Olive Warbler.
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 319
(Subgenus Dendrceca.)
D. aesti'va. (Lut. eestiva, summeTy; testas, summer.) Summer Warbler. Summer Yel-
low-bird. Yellow-poll Warbler. Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler. Golden
Warbler. "Wild Canary." Adult ^ : Golden yellow ; back with a greenish tinge
resulting in rich yellow-olive ; rump more yellowish ; middle of back sometimes obsoletely
streaked with darker. Crown like under parts, in high plumage often tinged with orange-
brown. Breast and sides, and sometimes most of the under parts, streaked with orange-
brown. Quills and tail-feathers dusky, edged on both webs with yellow, occupying most of
the inner webs of the tail-feathers. Bill plumbeous. Feet pale brown. Length 4.75-5.00;
extent 7.50-7.75 ; wing 2.50 ; tail 2.00. Adult 9 : Yellow-olive of upper parts extending on
crown ; streaks below obsolete or entirely wanting. General coloration paler. Young : Like
9 , but still duller. Upper parts, including crown, pale olive, with an ochrey instead of clear
yellow shade ; below ochrey- white or dull pale yellowish. Edgings of wings and tail dull yel-
lowish. N. Am., everywhere in woodland, gardens, orchards, parks, and even city streets, a
beautiful, abundant, and familiar little bird. Nests throughout its range, in fruit or shade
trees, shrubbery and brushwood, building a neat, compact, and durable nest of soft vegetable
and animal substances felted together; eggs commonly 4-5, 0.64-0.69 X 0.48-0.53, grayish-
or greenish-white, variously dotted and blotched with reddish-brown and lilac shades. The
color of this precious gem makes a pretty spot as it flits through the verdure of the grove or
plays amidst the rose-tinted blossoms of the fruit-orchard ; and its sprightly song is one of the
most familiar sounds of bird-life during the season when the year renews its youth.
D. ae. sonora'na. (Lat. sonoran.) SONORA Summer Warbler. Adult ^ : Like the
last ; upper parts, especially the rump, wings, and tail, more uniformly yellow, the rump
usually pure yellow and the back and wings scarcely tinged with greenisli ; light yellowish
edgings of wing-quills and coverts broader ; crown with a brownish-orange tinge, and feathers
of the interscapulars with shaft-stripes of purplish-chestnut, usually conspicuous ; under parts
faintly and sparsely streaked. 9 '■ Much paler and grayer than that of (Estiva proper ;
yellowish-gray above, in contrast with more decided yellowness of wing-coverts and tail-
feathers, the latter only narrowly edged with yellow ; under parts very pale straw yellow, whiten-
ing on the throat. Wing of $ 2.55; tail L80 ; tarsus 0.70; bill 0.50. Sonora, through S.
Arizona and S. New Mexico to W. Texas. This would appear to be a recognizable form,
especially in the streaking of the interscapulars, though this feature is not always exhibited.
Brewster, Auk, Apr. 1888, p. 137; Coues, Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 898; A. 0. U. List,
2d ed., 1895, p. 274, No. 652a. In some respects it resembles D. ee. morcomi Coale, Bull.
Ridgw. Club, Chicago, No. 2, Apr. 1887, p. 82; RidCxW., Man., 1887, p. 494 ; but this
Western form of the Yellow Warbler has been disallowed by the A. 0. U. Committee.
D. ae. rubiginosa. (Lat. rubiginosus, reddish, as the streaks on the under parts of the <?
are.) Like the last, but upper parts nearly uniform, as the olivaceous of the back extends
over the crown and rump ; streaks of breast and edgings of wings and tail rather narrow. Only
recognized from Alaska and British Columbia ; type specimen from Kadiak Isl. Motacilla
rubiginosa Pall., Zoog. R.-A., i, 1811, p. 496 (Kadiak). D. (B. rubiginosa Oberholser,
Auk, Jan. 1897, ]^. 76; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, ibid, p. 123, No. 652 6.
D, bry'anti castaneiceps. (To Dr. Henry Bryant. Lat. castaneiceps, chestnut-headed.)
Chestnut-Headed Golden Warbler. Mangrove Warbler. Belonging to the
" golden warbler" group of the genus, and resembling D. cestiva in general characters. Dusky
predominating over yellow on tail-feathers ; tarsus about 0.72. Adult $: Whole head chest-
nut, well defined all around against the yellow ; edging of wing-coverts slight ; rufous streaks
of breast and sides few and narrow. This resembles the continental D. rieHloti, as described
by Cassin in 1860, but would appear to be well distinguished by the rufous hood which
320
SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES— OSCIXES.
envelops the head. The form of hryanti here given is the INIexicau race, lately ascertained to
occur at La Paz, Lower California ; it is D. rieilloti hryanti of the 2d and later eds. of the
Key ; as above in A. O. U. Lists,
both eds., No. Gb^^^. The 9 is said
to be indistinguishable from that
of others of the Golden Warbler
group. The extra-limital forms all
differ from N. Am. (estiva in having
longer tarsi and less yellow on the
tail-feathers. (Not in the Check
List, 1882. See Am. Nat., vii, Oct.
1873, p. 606 ; Hist. N. A. Birds, i,
1874, p. 217 ; Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
iv, 1882, p. 414, and viii, 1885, p.
350.
D. vir'ens. (Lat. virens, growing
green. Figs. 174, 175.) Black-
throated Green Warbler.
Adult $ , in spring : Back and
crown clear yellow-olive ; forehead,
superciliary line, and whole sides
of head rich yellow (in very high
plumage, middle of back with dusky
marks, and dusky or dark olive
lines through eyes and auriculars,
and even bordering crown); chin,
throat, and breast jet black, pro-
longed behind as streaks on sides ;
other under parts white, usually yel-
low-tinged ; wings and tail dusky,
former with two white bars and
much whitish edging, latter with
outer feathers nearly all white ; bill
and feet blackish. ^ in fall, and
9 in spring: Similar, but the black restricted, interrupted, or veiled with yellow; young sim-
ilar to 9 1 l*ut the black still more restricted or wanting altogether, except a few streaks along
sides (f Sylvia montana WiLS.). Small: Length 4.80-
5.10 ; extent 7.60-8.00 ; wing 2.30-2.55 ; tail 2.00. East-
ern U. S. and British Provinces, N. to Hudson's Bay and
casually even to Greenland, W. only to the edge of the
Plains; migratory, abundant ; breeds from higher portions
of the Middle States, in mountains even S. to the Carolinas,
and plentifully from New England northward ; winters ex-
tralimital in the W. I. and S. to Panama ; has occurred
accidentally in Europe. This jaunty bird is one of the
commonest warblers of summer in New England, breeding
mostly in the pineries, in June. Nest in fork of a bough,
usually at some elevation, but very variable in this respect,
of the most miscellaneous materials; eggs 4-5, 0.67 X 0.54 to 0.58 X 0.48, white, with
the usual sprinkling or wreathing of brown and purplish markings. The nuptial song is very
peculiar.
Black-throated Green Warbler. (From the Osprey.)
ack - throated Green
(L. A. Fuertes.)
MNIOTILTWjE: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 321
D. town'sendi. (To J. K. Townsend.) Townsend's Warbler. Adult $ : Entire upper
parts yellowish-olive, rather darker than in virens, everywhere streaked with black, especially
on crown, where black usually predominates ; no hidden yellow on crown. Side of head bnjs^ht
yellow, enclosing a large black patch on loral, orbital, and auricular regions, in which the yel-
low eyelids appear. Chin, throat, and juguluin black ; breast, and sides part way, yellow ;
iiides of breast and of body streaked with black. Under wing-coverts, belly, flanks, and crissum
white, the two latter slightly shaded and streaked with dusky. Wings crossed with two white
bands, that of the median coverts broadest. Wings and tail fuscous, the former with pale edit-
ings, the latter having two or three outer feathers largely blotched with white. Bill and feet
blackish horn-color. Length about 5.00 ; extent 7.50-8.00; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 2.00. 9 : Like
^ , but black of throat veiled with yellow, and that on top and sides of head mixed with or re-
placed by olive. Young : Shade of upper parts slightly brownish, and the black streaks slight,
obsolete, or wanting. The dark patch on side of head olivaceous, like back. No continuous
black on throat. Autumnal adults show various gradations between characters of old and
young. Very closely related to D. virens, of which it is the western representative. Adult
males readily distinguished by darker greenish upper parts, conspicuously streaked, especially
on head, with black which in summer is uniform ; black cheeks and auriculars ; and yellow
bordering black of throat laterally and spreading on breast behind. Young birds not so easily
■discriminated ; but there are usually traces at least of the black streaks on the upper parts ;
there is no concealed yellow on crown ; the yellow of under parts, quite as bright as in the
adult, extends far along the breast, behind that part where it veils the black. Rocky Mts. to
Pacific, Alaska to Guatemala ; breeds in coniferous woods in U. S. and British Columbia range,
from S. Cala. to upper Yukon valley, E. to Idaho; in migrations E. to Col. and W. Texas*,
straggler taken in Penn. Eggs indistinguishable from those of virens.
D. occidenta'lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western; where the sun sets.) Western Warbler.
Hermit Warbler. Adult ^ : Above, ashy-gray, tinged with olive, especially on rump, and
closely streaked with black ; top and sides of head rich yellow, the former spotted with black.
Below, white; central line of chin, throat, and jugulum black, ending on breast with a sharp
convex outline, contrasted with the adjoining white. Wings and tail as in virens. Bill black.
Length 4.75-5.00; extent 7.75; wing 2.50-2.75; tail 2.l'2-2.25; tarsus 0.66-0.75; bill 0.40.
Adult 9- Like ^, but darker gray above, with yellow of head less extended, and thnjat
whitish, spotted with dusky. Young: Upper parts olivaceous-ash, and yellow of top of head
overlaid with olive. Sides of head pretty clear yellow, fading gradually into white of throat.
No black on throat. White of under parts faintly brownish-tinged, and sides with obsolete
streaks. In a September specimen I took in Arizona the dusky-olive extends over all upper
parts, tinging the ashy of lower back, and reaching on crown nearly to bill, where it gradually
lightens by admixture of yellow; sides of head clear yellow, soiled with some olivaceous; chin
and throat the same, fading on breast into the dull white of the other under parts ; sides with
obsolete streaks, and a slight grayish-olive wash. There is no black whatever about head or
throat, and the blackish streaks of back are obsolete. The wings are twice-barred with con-
spicuous white tips of greater and median coverts. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, U. S. and Brit-
ish Columbia ; S. in winter to L. California and Mexico to Guatemala ; another of tlie several
western warblers of the D. virens group. Nest high in conifers, of pine-needles, bark-shreds,
rootlets, and sometimes hairs, 4.00 in outside diameter, by 2.00 inside, with a cavity about
1.00 deep; eggs 0.70 X 0.52, creamy white, marked with brown and neutral tints, as usual;
laid in June.
D. chrysopari'a. (Gr. xpi'<^o9, chriisos, golden, and napfid, pareia, cheek.) Golden-cheeked
Warbler. Prevailing color of upper parts black, usually mixed with olive-green ; sides of
head yellow, with narrow black stripe through eye ; below, with wings and tail, as in vireris;
size of that species, and changes of plumage generally parallel; very closely related. <J, in
*21
322 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES—OSCINES.
full dress : Above, jet-black from bill to tail, anteriorly narrowing to a point on tbe forebead,
with scarcely a trace of olivaceous toward and on rump. Entire side of bead and neck golden-
yellow, reaching bill, elsewhere enclosed in black, and enclosing a long black stripe through
eye to side of nape, nearly cutting off a superciliary stripe from the general yellow area, w-hich,
however, is continuous on lore and side of nape. Chin, throat, and breast jet-black, this color
extending backward along sides as heavy streaking; narrowing anteriorly where sharply
defined against the yellow ; other under parts, including lining of wings, white, squarely de-
fine<l against black of breast (whole under parts thus as in virens). Wings blackish, with two
broad white cross-bars, and whitish edging of quills, especially the inuer secondaries. Tail black-
ish ; outermost feather white with only a black shaft-line clubbed at end ; next three pairs
with decreasing white. Adult 9 : Above olive-green indistinctly streaked ; throat yellowish
more or less mixed with black. Texas and southward. Nest in upright fork, preferably of a
cedar, large for the bird, compactly felted of bark strips, fine grasses, rootlets, and slender veg-
etable fibres and cobwebs, lined copiously with hair and feathers ; eggs 0.75 X 0.55, white,
dotted with reddish-brown and lavender, and blotched with darker brown, laid in May.
D. nigres'cens. (Lat. nigrescens, growing black. Fig. 176.) Black-throated Gray
Warbler. Adult ^i Above, bluish-ash, the interscapular region, and usually also upper-tail
coverts, streaked with black. Below, from breast, pure white, the
sides streaked with black. Entire bead, with chin and throat, black ;
a sharply defined yellow spot before eye, a broad white stripe behind
eye, and a long white maxillary stripe widening behind from corner
of bill to side of neck. Wings fuscous, with much whitish edging,
crossed with two broad white bars on ends of greater and median
coverts. Tail like wings, the three lateral feathers mostly white,
Fig. 176. — Black-throated except on outer webs, the fourth with a white blotch. Bill and feet
Gray Warbler, nat. size. (Ad. black. Size oi D. townsetidi. 9 like ,J, but black of crowu mixed
with the ashy of back, and that of throat veiled with white tips of
the feathers. Young : Like 9 > but crown almost entirely like back, and black of throat still
more hidden. Back not streaked. Less white on tail. Bill not entirely black. Rocky Mts. to
the Pacific, U. S. and British Columbia, southward in winter in Mexico, common in woodland.
Quite unlike any other species ; one of the five Dendracce which are normally confined to the
West. Nest, usually low, in bushes and shrubbery, small, 2.00 X 1-50, resembling that of the
Summer Warbler, but lined with grasses and hairs ; eggs from dull white to greenish-buff,
heavily marked, 0.63 X 0..50; May, June. The breeding range is ciiineidfiit with the distribu-
tion of the bird in the U. S., it being common in summer
in the mountains of Southern Arizona up to 9,000 feet. ../ i^r-i - ,\
D. coerules'cens. (Lat. coendescens, growing blue ; cccni-
leiis, blue. Fig. 177.) Black-throated Blue War-
bler. Adult (J, in spring: Above, uniform slaty-blue,
the perfect continuity of which is only interrupted in very
high plumages, by a few black dorsal streaks ; below, pure
wliite; sides of head to above eyes, chin, throat, and
wliole sides of body continuously jet-black ; iving-hars
wnnting (the coverts being black, edged with blue), hut
a large uhite spot at base of primaries : quill-feathers Fig. i:;.- Black-throated Blue War-
blackish, outwardly edged with bluish, the inner ones ^^^^- (^- ^- ^uertes.)
mostly white on inner webs ; tail with ordinary white blotches, the central feathers edged with
bluish ; bill black, feet dark. Young ^ : Similar, but the blue glossed with olivaceous, and
tlie black interrupted and restricted. 9 entirely different: Dull olive-greenish, with faint
bluish shade, below pale soiled yellowish ; but recognizable by the white spot at base ofpri-
MNIOTILTID^: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 323
mnries, which, though it may be reduced to a mere speck, is nearly always evident, at least on
pushing aside the primary coverts ; no other wing-markings ; tail-blotches small or obscure ;
feet rather pale. Size of virens. Eastern N. Am., abundant, in woodland, its range somewhat
coincident with that of virens ; breeding range N. from northern New England and the north-
ern border of the U. S. at large, S. in the Appalachian chain to the Carolinas and even Georgia
(var. cairnsi); in winter found in the West Indies and S. to Guatemala; west in migrations
to Rocky Mts. It is rather a bird of brake and burn than of high woods, at least in summer;
and nests in bushes, close to the ground. Nest of bark-strips, mosses, lichens, rootlets, cob-
webs, etc., built by the 9 > rather compact, about 1.50 deep and 2.00 across (inside measure-
ment), affixed usually to upright supports; eggs 3-4, 0.67 X 0.48, white with buffy or even
greenish tinge, well spotted and blotched with reddish-brown. This is a beautiful bird, the
(J with black, white and blue in masses, thus resembling no other, and the olive-colored 9 as
different as possible from lier mate.
D. c. cairn'si. (To John S. Cairns of Weaverville, N. C.) Cairns' Black-Throated
Blue Warbler. A local race of the last, with nearly black back, and rather smaller, breed-
ing in the mountains of western N. Carolina in May and June, building in shrubs and weeds
from si.x inches to three feet from the ground, and laying 3-4 eggs. Arrival a week or ten
ihiys earlier than that of the stock form, which latter is migrating in the same region while
cairnsi is nesting. CouES, World's Congress on Ornith., Nov., 1896, p. 138 ; Auk, Jan., 1897,
]^. 96 ; A. O. U. Suppl. List, ibid., p. 123, No. 654 a.
D. ra'ra. (Lat. rarws, rare. Fig. 178.) Cerulean Warbler. Azure Warbler. Adult ,^ :
Entire upper parts sky-blue, the middle of the back streaked with black ; the crown usually
richer and also with dark markings. Below, pure ivhite, streaked across the breast and along
tlie sides with dusky-blue — the breast-streaks inclin-
ing to form a short bar, sometimes interrupted in the
middle. Auriculars dusky ; edges of eyelids and su-
perciliary line white. Wings blackish, much edged
f.xternally with the color of the back ; inner webs of
all quills, outer webs of inner secondaries, and two
broad bars across tips of greater and median coverts,
white. Tail black, with much exterior edging of the
color of the back, all the feathers, except middle pair,
witli small, white, subterminal spots on inner webs.
Length 4.00-4.50; wing 2.66; tail 2.00 or less. Adult Fig. 178. - Cerulean Warbler. (L.
9: Quite different. Upper parts dull greenish, with
more or less grayish-blue shade, the greenish brightest and purest on crown. Eyelids, line
over eye, and entire under parts, whitish, more or less strongly overcast witli dull greenish-
yellow. Wings and tail dusky, with exterior edgings of the color of the back ; the bars,
spots, and interior edgings white, as in J". The 9 is curiously similar to the same sex of D.
coerulescens (but in the latter the tail-spots are different ; there are no white wing-bars, and
instead there is a small whitish spot at base of outer primaries). The autumnal plumage of
adults is said to differ in no wise from that of tlie spring. Young males are much like adult
females, but less uniformly greenish-blue above and purer white below, with evident blackish
stripes on interscapulars and sides of head. The young 9 resembles the adult of that sex, but
is still greener above, with little or no blue, and quite buffy-yellowish below. Wlien in full
dress this is a perfect little beauty, tliere being something peculiarly tasteful and artistic in the
simjde contrast of snowy-white with delicate azure-blue, without any " warm " color. East-
ern U. S. to the bordering Britisli Provinces, rarely N. to New England, and apparently not
common anywhere E. of the AUeghanies ; W. ordinarily to the Plains, sometimes to the Rocky
Mts. in the latitude of Colorado; in winter S. through Mexico, Central America, and much of
324 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
S. America ; rare in Cuba. Breeding range chiefly Mississippi Valley at large from middle
districts northward. Nest small and neat, well cupped, placed in fork of a bough 20-50 feet
from the ground, preferably in woods of deciduous trees, and composed of the usual materials ;
eggs 4, 0.66 X 0.47, creamy-white or with a faint greenish tinge, heavily blotched with red-
dish-brown, especially about the larger end. (Sylvia cceridea Wils., 1811, nee Lath., 1790 ;
Dendroica or Dendroeca cceridea of authors, as of former eds. of Key. Sylvia vara Wils.,
1811 ; Dendroica rara Eidgw., Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 97 ; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897,
p. 131, No. 658.)
D. corona'ta. (Lat. coronata, crowned; corona, a crown. Fig. 179.) Yellow-rumped
Warbler. Yellow-crowned Warbler. Myrtle Bird. Adult J", in spring: Slaty-
blue, streaked with black ; below, white, breast and sides mostly
black, belly, and especially throat, pure white, immaculate ;
rump, central crown-patch, and sides of breast, sharply yellow,
there being thus four definite yellow places ; sides of head black ;
eyelids and superciliary line white ; ordinary white wing-bars
and tail-blotches ; bill and feet black. ^ in winter, and 9 iu
summer, similar, but slate-color less pure, or quite brownish ;
young birds quite brown above, with a few obscure streaks in
the whitish of under parts. It is impossible to specify the end-
Yeiiow-rumped War- ipgg intermediate styles; but I never saw a specimen without
the yellow rump, and at least a trace of the other yellow marks;
these points therefore are diagnostic. (The only other obscure brownish Warblers with yellow-
rump are maculosa and tigrina, when young. Resembles auduboni, e.Kcepting in the follow-
ing points : Thrt)at white. Breast black, mixed with white. Sides of head definitely pure
black ; edges of eyelids, and long narrow superciliary line, white. Wings crossed with two
broad white bars, which do not fuse into one white patch, owing to narrowness or deficiency
of white edging along outer webs of greater coverts.) One of the large species. Length
5.30-5.75 ; extent 8.80-9.40 ; wing 2.75-3.00 ; tail about 2.50. N. Am., but chiefly eastern ;
Alaska; Washington; California; Arizona; U. S. rarely in .summer except along the north-
ern borders, but during the migrations and in winter the most abundant of all Warblers ; win-
ters as far N. as New England, and thence through the U. S. to the West Indies, Mexico, and
Central America; resident in Jamaica; seen everywhere, but is particularly numerous in
shrubbery, along hedge-rows, in flocks, with troops of Sparrows, Titmice, etc. Breeds from
our northern borders northward; nest generally low in evergreens; eggs 4, about 0.75 X 0.55,
white with a creamy or slight buff tinge, and with the usual markings of browns, blackish and
neutral tints. Moult double, there being a vernal as well as an autumnal change, the fornier
usually effected during the spring migrations.
D. c. hoo'veri. (To Theodore J. Hoover.) Hoover's Yellow-RUMP. Like the last,
wing and tail longer; ^ wing 3.00 or more; 9 wing 2.87. Western N. Am. McGregor,
Bull. Cooper Club, i, No. 2, Mar. 15, 1899, p. 32.
D. aud'uboiii. (To J. J. Audubon.) Audubon's Warbler. Western Yellow-rump.
Adult (J, in summer: Upper parts clear bluish-ash, streaked with black. A central longitu-
dinal spot on crown, the rump, throat, and a patch on each side of breast, rich yellow. Sides
of head little darker than upper parts ; eyelids narrowly white, but no decided superciliary
white stripe ; ash of upper parts extending far around sides of neck. Jugulum and breast in
high plumage pure black, though usually mixed with some grayish skirting of the feathers,
or invaded by white from behind, or even touched with yellow here and there. Belly and
under tail-coverts white, the sides streaked with black. Wings blackish, with gray or white
edging, especially on inner quills ; median wing-coverts tipped, greater ones edged and tipped,
with white, forming a great white blotch. Tail like wings ; outer webs narrowly edged with
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 325
gray or white ; inner webs of all the lateral feathers with large white blotches. Bill and feet
black. One of the largest species. Length 5.50-5.75; extent 8.75-9.33; wing 2.75-3.00;
tail 2.25. 9, in summer: Generally similar to $. Upper parts duller and browner slate-
color, with less heavy dorsal streaks; crown-spot and other yellow parts paler; breast not
continuously black, but variegated with black, white, and color of back. Sides only obsoletely
streaked. Eyelids scarcely white, and cheeks hardly different from back. White of wing-
coverts mostly restricted to two bars; white tail-spots smaller. (^ 9 , in autumn and winter,
and young : Upper parts quite br(jwu, with obscure black marking. Yellow crown-spot con-
cealed or wanting; yellow of throat, rump, and sides of breast paler and restricted. Under
parts whitish, shaded on sides, and usually across breast, with a dilute tint of color of back,
the breast and sides obsoletely streaked with darker. White of wing-coverts obscured with
brownish. N. Am., from easternmost woodland of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific; N. to
British Columbia and probably to Alaska; S. in winter to Central America; accidental in
Pennsylvania and Massachusetts ; migratory, breeding northward and in Alpine regions ; ex-
tremely abundant; nesting in no wise peculiar; nest usually high in coniferous trees, made of
bark-strips, pine-needles, rootlets, mosses, hairs, and even feathers; eggs about 4, white with
a greenish tinge, rather sparsely marked with the usual colors.
D. black'burniae. (To Mrs. Blackburn, an English lady. Fig. 180.) Blackburnian War-
bler. Hemlock Warbler (youug). Torch-bird. P'irebrand. Prometheus. Adult (^,
in spring : Entire upper parts, including wings and tail,
black, the back varied with whitish ; wings with a large
white speculum on coverts and much white edging of
coverts; lateral tail-feathers largely white, only a shaft-
line, with clubbed extremity, being left blackish on the
outer two or three pairs. Spot on fore part of crown,
eyelids, line over eye spreading into a large spot behind
tlie auriculars, with chin, throat, and fore breast, intense
orange or flame-color — there is nothing to compare with
the exquisite hue of this Promethean torch. Side of head "''
black in an irregular patch, usually confluent with the p,^_ iso. - Biackbuniian Warbier. (L.
black streaks on side of breast, isolating the orange of A. Fuertes.)
side of the head from that of throat, and circumscribing the orange patch below eye. Under
parts from the breast white, more or less tinged with orange or yellow, and whole sides streaked
with black. Bill and feet dark. Length about 5.50; extent 8.50; wing 2.75; tail 2.00.
Adult 9 J in sprhig; Similar to ^ in pattern and distribution of the colors; upper parts brown-
ish-tjlive, streaked with black ; the fiery orange of ^ not so intense, or merely yellow, that on
crown obscure or obsolete. White speculum of wing resolved into two white bars. Sides of
head like back, instead of black as in (J, and the lateral streaks duller and more blended.
(J and 9 7 adult, in autumn, are sufficiently similar to the respective sexes in spring, but the
coloration is toned down, the fiery colors of the ^ being less intense, and the black of the
back being much mixed with olivaceous, bringing about a close resemblance to the spring 9 ',
while the 9 i^ duller still, and more impurely colored. Young: Early autumnal birds of the
year are very obscure, showing no sign of the rich coloration of the adults, and are Si/lvia
parus, the Hemlock Warbler, of old authors. Above, like adult 9 » l^^t still browner, with
more obsolete dusky streaking. Usually an indication of the crown-spot in a lightening of
the part. Sides of head like crown, cutting off a superciliary stripe and the eyelids, which
are ochrey-white. Whole under parts white, tinged, especially on throat and breast, with
yellowish, the sides with obsolete streaking. Indication of the peculiar jjatteru of the adults,
though without their actual coloration, together with extent of white on the tail-feathers, will
usually suffice for determination of the species, before any orange appears on the throat, after
326
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
Fig. 181. — Black-poll Warbler,
nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
which there can be no difficulty. Eastern N. Am. ; W. regularly to the Plains, casually to
Utah. Abundant in mixed woodland ; breeds in northerly parts of its U. S. range and north-
ward, also much further S. in the Alleghanies ; winters extralimital in the Bahamas, Mexico,
and Central and S. Am. One of the later migrants in spring. Nests in bushes and trees,
preferably evergreens, building a rather large and flattisb nest, about 5.00 broad outside and
2.00 deep, with a cavity of only about 2.00 X 1-00 ; eggs not peculiar, 0.70 X 0.50, greenish
or bluish-white, with the usual shades of brown and neutral tint in dots and spots, cliietly at
or near the larger end.
D. stria'ta. (Lat. striata, striped. Fig. 181.) IJlack-poll Warbler. Adult ^ : Back,
rump, and upper tail-coverts grayish-olive, heavily streaked with black; whole crown pure
glossy black. Below, pure white ; a double series of black
sti-eaks starts from the extreme chin, and diverges to pass one
on each side to the tail, the streaks being continent anteriorly,
discrete posteriorly. Side of head above the chain of streaks
pure white, including lower eyelid. Wings dusky; primaries
with much greenish edging ; inner secondaries with whitish edg-
ing, greater and median coverts tipped with white, forming two
cross-bars. Tail like wings, with rather small white spots at
ends of inner webs of two or three outer feathers. Upper man-
dible brownish-black ; lower mandible and feet ilesh-colored or
yellowish. Length 5.25-5.75 ; extent 8.75-9.30 ; wing 2.70-2.90 ; tail 2.25. Adult 9 : En-
tire upper parts, including crown, greenish-olive, with dusky streaks; below, white, much
tinged with greenish -yellow, especially anteriorly, the streaks dusky and not so sharp as those
of (J, but still very evident. Bars and edgings of wings greenish-white. Tail as in ^. Rather
smaller than $ on an average. Young : Similar to adult 9 > l^'^t brighter and more greenish-
olive above, the streakings few and chiefly confined to middle of back ; below, more or less
completely tinged with greenish-yellow, the streakings obsolete, or entirely wanting. Under
tail-coverts usually pure white. These autumnal birds bear an extraordinary resemblance to
those of B. castanea (though the adults are so very difi"erent), the upper parts being, in fact,
the same in both. But young castanea generally shows traces of chestnut, or at least a buffy
shade, quite different from the clear greenish-olive of striata, this tint being strongest on flanks
and under tail-coverts, where striata is the most purely white. Moreover, castanea shows no
streaks below, traces at least of which are usually observable in striata. N. Am., excepting
Western and most of Middle Province ; N. to the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Alaska ; W. to
Montana and Colorado. Winters extralimital, in S.
America. Breeds from northern New England and Mich-
igan and mountainous parts of New York. Migrates
late in spring, bringing up the rear-guard of the War-
bler hosts ; when the Black -polls appear in force the
collecting season is about over! Nests low in spruce-
trees and other evergreens and sometimes on the ground,
in high latitudes lined with feathers ; eggs 5, 0.72 X
0.50, not peculiar, being white with a creamy or buft'
tinge, very variably dotted, spotted, or blotched with
different shades of brown, gray, and blackish.
D. casta'nea. (Lat. castanea, a chestnut, in allusion
to the color. Fig. 182.) Bay-bueasted Warbler.
Adult $, in spring : Back thickly streaked with black
and grayish-olive ; forehead and sides of head black, enclosing a large deep chestnut patch ; a
duller chestnut (exactly like a Bluebird's breast) occupies the whole chin and throat and
Fio. 182.
Fuertes.)
•Bay-breasted Warbler. (L. A.
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS.
327
thence extends, more or less interrupted, along entire sides of body ; rest of under parts ochrey
or buify whitish; a similar buffy area behind ears ; wing-bars and tail-spots ordinary ; bill and
feet blackish. 9> i^ spring: More olivaceous than $, with the markings less pronounced;
but always shows evident chestnut coloration : and probably traces of it persist in all adult
birds in the fall. The young, however, so closely resemble young striata, that it is sometimes
impossible to distinguish them with certainty. The upper parts, in fact, are of precisely the
same greenish-olive, with black streaks; but there is generally a difference below — castanea
being tliere tinged with buffy or ochrey, instead of the clearer pale yellowish of striata ; this
shade is particularly observable on belly, flanks, and under tail-coverts, where striata is
whitest ; and moreover, castanea is usually not streaked on the sides at all. Mature spring
birds vary interminably in the extent and intensity of the chestnut. Size of striata. Eastern
N. Am., N. to Hudson's Bay, W. to the edge of the Plains. Winters extralimital in
Mexico, Centr. Am., and the U. S. of Colombia. Migratory in most of the U. S. Breeds
from northern New England, Michigan, etc. northward. Nests moderately high, in conifers,
usually 15-25 feet up, building a large nest of twigs, tree-moss, rootlets, fur, etc. ; eggs 3-6,
0.70 X 0.52, bluish-green, profusely spotted with browns and neutral tints.
D. pennsylva'nica. (Of "Penn's woods; " sylva, a forest ; sylranus, sylvan. Figs. 183, 184.)
Chestnut-sideu Warbler. Bloody-sided Warbler. Adult (^, in spring: Back streaked
with black and pale yellow (sometimes ashy or whitish) ; ivhole
crown j)ure yelloiv, immediately bordered with white, then enclosed
with black : sides of head and neck and whole under parts pure
ivhite, former with an irregular black crescent before eye, one
horn extending backward over eye to border the yellow crown
and be dissipated on sides of nape, the other reaching downward
and backward to connect with a chain of pure chestnut streaks ^^'
.^ that run the whole length of
the body, the under eyelid '^Fia. 183. - Chestnut - sided
and auriculars being left Warbler, nat. size. (Ad. nat.
U-. • 1 1 11 del. E. C.)
white; wing-bands generally
fused into one large patch, and, like the edging of the
inner secondaries, much tinged with yellow; tail-spots
white, as usual; bill blackish; feet brown. 9> in spring:
Quite similar ; colors less pure; black loral crescent ob-
scure or wanting; chestnut streaks thinner. Young:
Above, including crown, clear yellowish -green, perfectly
uniform, or back with slight dusky touches ; no distinct
head-markings; below, entirely ivhite from bill to tail,
unmarked, or else showing a trace of chestnut streaks on
sides; wing-hands cXgav yellowish as in adult — this is a diagnostic feature, taken in connec-
tion with the continuously wliite under parts ; bill light-colored below. Small : Length 4.80-
5.10; extent 7.75-8.10; wing 2.30-2..50 ; tail 2.00. Eastern U. S. and adjoining British
Provinces ; W. to the edge of the Plains ; whiters extralimital ; breeds abundantly in Middle
and Northern States, S. to Illinois, and still further in the Appalachian ranges; nests in forks
of low sajilings, shrubs, and bushes ; eggs 4-5, 0.(!8 X 0.50, with the usual markings. A
pretty s))ecies chained with chestnut on snowy ground.
D. maculo'sa. (Lat. maculosa, full of s])ots; macula, a spot. Figs. 185, 187.) Black-and-
yellow Warbler. Blue-headed Yellow-rump Warbler. Spotted Warbler.
Magnolia Warbler. Adult ^ 9, in spring: Back black, usually quite pure and unin-
terrupted in (J, more or less mixed with olive in 9 > rump yelloiv; upper tail-coverts black,
often skirted with olive or ashy. Whole crown of head clear ash ; sides of head black, in-
Fio. 184. — Che.stnut-8ided Warbler
(L. A. Fuertes.)
328 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
eluding a very Barrow frontlet ; eyelids and a stripe behind eye, between the ash and black,
white. Entire under parts rich yellow, excepting the white crissum, heavily streaked with
black across breast and along sides, the streaks on the
breast so thick as to form a nearly continuous black
border to the immaculate yellow throat. Wings fus-
cous, with wliite lining, white edging of inner webs
of all the quills, of outer webs of the inner secondaries,
and with a large white patch formed by tips of median
coverts and tips and outer edges of greater coverts.
Tail blackish, with square white spots on middle of
inner webs of all the feathers excepting middle pair.
Bill blackish; feet dark. Length 4.75-5.00; extent
F.a;i1^.-Black.and-yellow warbler. (L. ' -00-7.50 ; wing 2.25-2.50 ; tail 2.00-2.25. Young:
A. Fuertes.) Upper parts ashy-olive, grayer on head ; rump as yellow
as in the adult ; no decided head-markings ; a whitish ring around eye. Below, yellow, gen-
erally pure and continuous, sometimes partially replaced by gray ; black streaks wanting, or
few and confined to the sides. Wings with two bars ; tail-spots as in the adult. While the
sexes of this dainty little species are quite similar, the young require looking after ; observe
yellow rump (usually as conspicuous as in the species so named), small square tail-spots on
middle of feathers, and extensively or completely yellow under parts. Eastern N. Am., N. to
Hudson's Bay and Great Slave Lake, W. to the Rocky Mts. of Colorado, casually to British
Columbia; abundant, chiefly migratory in the U. S., but breeds from our N. border northward,
and S. in mountains to Pennsylvania at least, probably still further ; winters wholly extralim-
ital, in the Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America. Builds a small neat nest in conifers
at a very variable height from the ground ; eggs 4-5, 0.64 X 0.48, not peculiar, and with
considerable range of variation in the markings.
D. dis'color. (Lat. discolor, parti-colored; opposed to concolor, whole -colored. Fig. 186.)
Prairie Warbler. Adult ^ 9 • Yellow-olive; back with a patch of brick-red sjjots ; forehead,
superciliary line, two wing-bars, and entire under parts, rich
yeUow; a V-shaped black mark on side of head, its upper arm
running through eye, its lower arm connecting with a series
of black streaks along sides of neck and body ; white tail-
blotches very large, occupying most of inner web of outer
feathers. The sexes are almost exactly alike, and the young
only differ in not being so bright and in having the dorsal
patch and head-markings obscure. Small: Length 4.75;
extent 7.00-7.40; wing 2.15-2.25; tail 2.00. Eastern U. S.
to Massachusetts and Michigan, W. to Kansas ; an abundant
bird of the Middle and Southern States, in sparse low wood- p,Q jgg _ prairie Warbler. (L.
land, cedar thickets, and old fields grown up to scrub-pines ; A. Fuertes.)
remarkable for its quaint and curious song ; an expert flycatcher, constantly darting into the
air in pursuit of winged insects, like the Redstart and the species of Sylvania. Breeds through-
out its U. S. range ; winters in Florida and the West Indies. Nest in a bush or sapling near
the ground; a small, neat, compact structure; eggs 3-4, not peculiar. On the nesting of the
Prairie Warbler in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, see the account by my son, Mr. E. B.
CouES, Auk, Oct., 1888, pp. 40.5-408.
D. gra'ciae. (To Miss Grace D. Coues, the author's sister.) Grace's Warbler. Adult $:
Entire upper parts ashy-gray, with a slaty-blue tinge ; middle of back streaked witli black ;
upper tail-coverts less conspicuously so marked ; crown with crowded black arrow-heads,
especially anteriorly and laterally, the tendency of these markings being to form a line along
KiK'. 1.N7. — Magnolia Warblers. (From The Osprey.;
330 S VS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
side of crown, meeting its fellow on forehead. A broad superciliary line of yellow, confluent
with its fellow on the extreme front, changing to white behind eye. Lores blackish ; sides of
head otherwise like back, enclosing a crescentic yellow spot below eye ; edges of eyelids yel-
low. Chin, throat, and fore breast bright yellow, bordered with blackish streaks; yellow of
thnjat separate from that under eye or on lores. Under parts from breast white ; sides shaded
with color of back, and streaked with black in continuation of the chain of shorter streaks
along side of neck. Wings dusky, with very narrow whitish edging, and crossed with two white
bars along ends of greater and median coverts. Tail like wings ; lateral feather mostly white,
excepting outer web ; next two or three with white blotches, decreasing in size. Eyes, bill,
and feet black ; soles dirty yellowish. Length 4.90-5.25 ; extent about 8.00; wing 2.60; tail
2.25 ; bill under 0.50. ^, in autumn : Color of upper parts obscured with a shade of brownish-
olive ; dorsal streaks obscure ; head-markings as in summer, and yellow parts quite as bright.
Adult 9: Quite similar to ^, in fact scarcely distinguishable in autumn, though the yellow is
not quite so strong. Young; Slate-gray of upper parts much shaded with brownish-olive;
black streaks wanting on back, those on crown obsolete ; yellow much as in the adult but
paler, and not bordered along sides of neck with black streaks; black lores poorly defined;
wing-bars grayish or obsolete. The white of the under parts has an ochrey tinge, and the
lateral streaks are not so heavy in color nor so well defined. Southern Rocky Mt. region of the
U. S. and southward; a beautiful species, related to dominica and adelaidce ; abundant in pine
woods of Arizona and New Mexico. Nest high in a coniferous tree, usually in a bunch of
needles, of the usual materials; eggs 3-4, not peculiar, white dotted with reddish ; May, June.
D. domin'ica. (Lat. dominicus, of St. Domingo. Fig. 188.) Yellow-throated War-
bler. Much like the last species, with which its changes of plumage correspond ; back without
black streaks; no yellow in the black under eye. A
white patch separating black of cheeks from bluish -
ash of neck; a long superciliary stripe, usually yel-
low from bill to eye, thence white to nape. Forehead
and sides of crown usually quite black, chin and throat
rich yellow, bordered on each side by black. Rest
of under parts white, the sides boldly streaked with
black. Bill black, extremely compressed, almost a
little decurved, very long (at least 0.50). Length
5.00 or more; extent 8.00; wing 2.70; tail 2.25.
A large handsome species, with its bright yellow
throat. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, conunon ; N.
Fig. 188. — Yellow-throated Warbler. (L. A. Sometimes to Middle States, casually to New Eng-
■^'""^*'^^-) land. Breeds in its U. S. range at large; winters in
Florida and the West Indies. Nest in trees, usually pines, at varying height, often hidden in
bunches of Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides), composed of the usual materials; eggs 0.70
X 0.50, white with a greenish or grayish tinge, and marked with the usual shades of brown
and neutral tint, especially about the larger end.
D. d. albilo'ra. (Lat. (dbiis, white ; lorum, the lore.) AVhite-brow^ed Warbler. Syca-
more Warbler. Precisely like the last ; but superciliary stripe usually white, and yellow
of chin cut off from bill by white; bill smaller on an average (0.45 instead of 0.50 along cul-
men). This slight variety (considering how variable dominica is in amount of yellow in the
superciliary line) is the common form of the Mississippi and Ohio valley, N. regularly to Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, etc., W. to Kansas and Texas, S. in winter to Mexico and Cen-
tral America.
T>. kirt'landi. (To Dr. Jured P. Kirtland, of Ohio. Fig. 189.) Kirtland's Warbler.
Adult ^: Upper parts slaty-blue; crown and back streaked with black; lores and frontlet
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS.
331
Fig. 189. — Kirtlaud's Warbler.
black ; eyelids mostly white. Under parts clear yellow, wliitening on crissum, the breast with
small spots and sides with short streaks of black ; greater and middle wing-coverts, quills, and
tail-feathers edged with white ; two
outer tail-feathers white- blotched
on inner web. Length 5.50; wing
2.80 ; tail 2.70. Adult 9 : Upper
parts dull bluish-gray, obscured
with brownish on hind neck and
back, marked with heavy blackish
streaks on whole back ; crown and
upper tail-coverts with fine black
shaft-lines. Sides of head and neck
like upper parts, with darkened
lores and whitish eye-ring. Wing-
quills dusky, with slight whitish
edging of both webs ; coverts like
back, but with large blackish cen-
tral field, and whitish edging and tipping, forming two inconspicuous wing-bars. Tail-feathers
like wing-quills, only the outermost one having a small white blotch. Entire under parts dull
yellow, brighter on breast, paler on throat and belly, washed with brownish on sides, with a
slight necklace of brownish dots across fore breast (as in Wilsonia canadensis) ; these spots
stronger on sides of breast, whence lengthening into streaks on sides and flanks ; a few small
sharp scratches of the same nearly across lower breast. Under tail-coverts white, unmarked.
Bill and feet black. Length about 5,60; wing 2.60; tail 2.30; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.80. East-
ern U. S. and Bahama Isls., the rarest of all the Warblers ; only 20 U. S. specimens have thus
far been taken, in Minn., Wise, Mich., Mo., Ind., 111., Ohio, Va., S. C, and 55 in the Baha-
mas. The relationships appear to be with dominica, gracice, and adelaidce. Nest and eggs
still unknown in 1899: see especially Auk, Oct., 1898, pp. 289-293, pi. iv, and Jan., 1899,
p. 81.
D. palina'rum. (Lat. palmariim, of the palms ; gen. pi. of jyalma, a palm.) Yellow
IvKD-PoLL Wakbler. Palm Warbler. Adult (J, in spring: Brownish-olive; rump and
upper tail-coverts brighter yellowish-olive ; back obsoletely streaked with dusky ; croion
chestnut ; superciliary line and most under parts rich yellow, breast and sides with reddish-
brown streaks, somewhat as in the Summer Warbler; a dusky h)ral line running through eye;
no white iving-bars, the wing-coverts and inner quills being edged with yellowish-brown ; tail
spots at very end of inner webs of two outer pairs of tail-feathers only, and cut squarely off — a
})eculiarity distinguishing the species in any plumage. 9 ""'t particularly difl'erent from $.
Young : An obscure object, brownish above like a young Yellow-rump, but upper tail-coverts
yell(nvi.sh-olive, and under tail-coverts apt to show quite bright yellow in contrast with the
dingy yellowish-white or brownish-white of other under parts; pectoral and lateral streaks
obscm-e; crown generally showing chestnut traces ; but in any plumage, known by absence of
white wing-bars and peculiarity of tail-spots. Length 5.00-5.25; extent about 8.00; wing
2.50 ; tail 2.25 ; tarsus 0.75. The Palm Warbler (including its alleged var. hrjpochrysea) is
abundant in eastern North America, especially in the interior; N. to Labrador, Hudson's
Bay, Fort Restdution, etc. ; breeds only beyond the U. S., excepting (hypochrysea) in Maine.
Nest on the ground ; peculiar in this respect in the genus, as fiir as known (excepting some
instances of groundne.^ting of D. striata) ; eggs not peculiar. When the bird is migrating it
is usually found in fields, along hedgerows and roadsides, with Yellow-rumps and Sparrows ;
the most terrestrial species of the genus, often recalling a Titlark ; migrates early in spring,
and remains in ftill latest of any, except the Yellow-rump, being observed at both these seasons
332 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
in New England, with snow, in April and November ; winters abundantly from the Carolinas
to Texas, and in the West Indies.
D. p. hypochry'sea ? (Gr. vno, hupo, under ; ^pvcreor, cJiritseos, golden.) Yellow-bellied
Red-poll Warbler. Said to differ in being more brightly and continuously yellow on the
under parts, with the streaks confined mostly to the sides, broadly tear-shaped instead of linear,
reddish instead of dusky; lower eyelid yellow, not whitish; back brighter olive. "Atlantic
States, N. to Hudson's Bay. Breeds from eastern Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia
northward ; winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf States," along with true palmarum. Ac-
cording to this, hypoclirysea should be the common bird of the Atlantic States, and what is
above described as irne palmarum should be the bird of the interior. But I have little f\iith in
the validity of the physical characters assigned, and none in the geographical distinctions
sought to be established.
D. vigors'!. (To N. A. Vigors, the English quinarian naturalist.) Pine Warbler.
Pine-Creeping Warbler. Pine Creeper. "Vigors' Vireo." Adult (J : Uniform
yeUowish-olive above, yellow below, paler or white on belly and under tail-coverts, shaded
and sometimes obsoletely streaked with darker on the sides ; superciliary line yellow ; wing-
bars white ; tail-blotches confined to two outer pairs of feathers, large, oblique. 9 and
young : Similar, duller ; sometimes merely olive-gray above and sordid whitish below, or even
brownish-gray above and brownish- white below, thus making very dingy, non-committal ob-
jects. The variations in precise shade are interminable ; but the species may always be known
by lack ot any special sharp markings whatever, except the superciliary line ; and by combina-
tion of white wing-bars with large oblique tail-spots confined to two outer pairs of feathers.
One of the largest species, as well as most simply colored ; length 5.50-5.75 ; extent
8.50-9.00; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.40; tarsus 0.70; bill 0.45. Eastern U. S. to the
Plains ; N. only to Manitoba, Ontario, and New Brunswick. Breeds throughout its range,
and abounds in winter in the Southern States ; is nearly resident, being sometimes seen
in the Middle States in midwinter, and in New England early and late, with snow.
Nests high in pine-trees ; eggs 0.68 X 0.52, not peculiar in ground-color or markings.
D. pinus of authors, as of all previous eds. of the Key, after Sylvia pinus WiLS., 1811, ante-
dated by S. pinus Lath., 1790, which latter is now Helminthophila pinus : for full synonymy
see CouES, B. Col. Vail., i, 1878, p. 251. Sylvia vigorsii Aud., Orn. Biog., i, p. 1.53,
1832, named Vireo vigorsii on pi. 30, and in Nutt., Man., i, 1832, p. 318 ; Bendroica vigorsii
St., Auk, Oct., 1885, p 343; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 671.
*^* Thus passing in review the 24 " solid " species of Dendroeca, with four varieties
lately introduced, I may allude to two species described by early authors, but never identified :
1. Sylvia montana Wils. This I have given (in the orig. ed., p. 105) some reasons for sup-
posing to be a young D. virens. 2. Sylvia carbonata Aud. A strongly-marked bird, the
like of which has never been seen since ; conjectured to be a hybrid of I), tigrina and D.
striata. Perhaps it is an ofispring of the imagination, stimulated by the artistic sense of its
originator, as possibly Megulus cuvieri and certainly Sylvia rathbonia are also.
SIU'RUS. (Gr. o-ft'o), seio, I wave or brandish ; olpa, oura, tail.) AVagtail Warblers.
In general form scarcely distinguishable from Dendroeca ; larger in size, different in pattern of
coloration, in habits, gait, and nidification. Bill ordinary. Rictal bristles short but evident.
Wings pointed, much longer than tail. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Tail nearly
even, with rather acute feathers, and long, copious under coverts. Neither wings nor tail parti-
colored. Above olivaceous, with or without head-markings, otherwise uniform ; below white,
buffy, or yellowish, profusely streaked. Legs slender, usually pale-colored. Habits terrestrial
to some extent; nest on ground; eggs white, spotted. Vocal powers pre-eminent. Gait am-
bulatorial, not saltatorial, and some other traits decidedly Motacilline. (A. 0. U. spells
Seiurus.)
MNIOTILTIDJL: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 333
Analysis of Species.
Crown orange-brown, with two black stripes ; no superciliary line auricapillus
Crown like back ; a long superciliary line.
Below, yellowish, heavily streaked ; smaller ; bill not over 0.50 ^ . ncevius
Below, whitish, lightly streaked ; larger ; bill over 0.50 motacilla
S. auricapillus. (Lat. aurum, gold ; capillus, hair. Fig. 190.) Golden-crowned
Wagtail Warbler. Golden-crowned Accentor. Golden-crowned Thrush. Oven-
bird. Adult (J 9 '• Entire upper parts, including wings and tail, uniform bright olive-green,
without markings. Top of head with black lateral stripes,
bounding a golden-brown or dull orange space. A white
ring round eye ; no white superciliary stripe. Under parts
white, thickly spotted with dusky on breast, the spots .,,^_=__=„
lengthening into streaks on sides; a narrow black max- \*'> '^^^RrS^*^
illary line ; under wing-coverts tinged with yellow. Legs
tiesh-colored. Length 5.75-6.50, usually 6.00-6.25; ex- W^
tent 8.75-10.40, usually 9.50-10.00 ; wing 2.90-3.25 ; tail
about 2.50. Varies much in size, but is remarkably con- Fio. 190. — Ovenbird, nat. size. (Ad.
, . • 3- ■ -111 , nat. del. E. C.)
stant m coloration ; sexes indistinguishable, and young
scarcely to be told from the adults. Fall specimens ordinarily quite as bright-colored as those
of spring ; and the orange-brown crown-spot, though it may be less bright, is acquired by the
young with their first full feathering. There are at first no crown-stripes ; lower parts bufty,
indistinctly streaked ; upper parts fulvous-brown; wings and tail as in the adult. N. Am.,
W. to Colorado, Montana and Alaska; breeds throughout its N. Am. range; winters from our
S. bt>rder southward. A pretty and engaging species, called Oven-bird from the way it has
of roofing over its nest, abundant in woodland, migratory. In May the woods resound with
its loud crescendo chant, so incessant and obtrusive that the bird was long in acquiring the
reputation of musical ability to which its luxurious nuptial song entitles it not less than the
Louisiana Water Thrush itself. The bird spends much of its time on the ground, trailing
prettily among fallen leaves with mincing steps. Nest on the ground, of leaves, grasses, etc. ;
eggs 4-6, white or slightly creamy, profusely speckled with reddish-brown and lilac, 0.85 X
0.65. (Name misspelled Seiurus aurocapillus in A. 0. U. Lists, preserving the original cacog-
raphy of Swains., 1827.)
S. nfc'vius. (Lat. rxeviiis, spotted ; n(svus, a mole, birth-mark.) Small-billed Wag-
tail Warbler. Aquatic Accentor. New York Water Thrush. Bessy Kick-up.
River Pink. Adult ^ 9 '■ Uniform dark olive-brown ; wings and tail similar, unmarked ;
below, pale sulphury-yellow everywhere, except perhaps on middle of belly, thickly sjieckled
-or streaked with dark olive-brown, the markings smallest on throat, largest on sides. A hmg
dull whitish superciliary line. Bill and feet dark. Length 5.50-6.00; extent 8. .50-9.50;
wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25; bill not over 0.50 along the culmen. The sexes do not difibr ap-
preciably. The shade of the upper parts varies from a decidedly olivacemis-brown to a purer,
darker bistre-brown, and that of the under parts from sulphur-yellow to nearly white: but it is
never of the buffy-white of S. motacilla. The streaking varies in amount and intensity, but
has a sharp distinct character in comparison with S. motacilla, and is rarely if ever absent from
the throat. No bill over 0.50, and this member lacks the ]>eculiar sliape, as well as size, char-
acteristic of S. motacilla. The very young bird sooty-blackish, each feather of upper parts
with terminal bar of ochraceous ; wing-coverts tipped witli the same, fi)rming two bars ; streaks
below as in the adult, but broader, and not so sharjily defined. Eastern N. Am. to the arctic
regions, the typical form migratory especially along tlie Atlantic slope, but also in the Missis-
.sippi Valley at large ; breeds mainly from our N. borders northward, and winters from the S.
334 S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
border S. to the West Indies, and Central and S. America; a common inhabitant of thickets,
swamps, and morasses, less frequently of mixed woodland. Nest usually under a stump or log,
in wet places or near water, not roofed over, but simply built of mosses, leaves, and grasses,
lined with rootlets ; eggs 4-6, brilliant white, profusely speckled with reddish-brown surface-
markings and neutral-tint shell-spots, 0.80 X 0.60. S- noveboracensis A. 0. U.
S. n. nota'bilis? (Lat. notahilis, noteworthy.) Wyoming Water Thrush. Grix-
xell's Water Thrush. Identical in coloration with the last, but larger ; wing 3.25 ; tail
2.50; bill from nostril 0.50 ; its depth at base 0.25 ; tarsus 0.83; middle toe without claw 0.56.
A slight variation upon the last, originally described from Wyoming, later extended to include
the small-billed Water Thrushes of Western N. Am., chiefly iu the interior, E. to Illinois and
Indiana (sometimes to the Atlantic coast.'), with latitudinal extension from Arctic to South
America. I continue to query the bird, as iu former eds. of the Key. A. 0. U. Lists,
No. 675 a.
S. motacil'la. (Lat. 7notaeilla, a wag-tail. See p. 300.) Large-billed Wagtail War-
bler. Louisiana Water Thrush. Y ery similar to S.ncsviiis; larger; length 6.00-6.25;
extent ] 0.00-10.75; wing 3.00-3.25; bill especially longer and stouter, over 0.50; tarsus
nearly 1.00. Under parts white, only faintly tinged, and chiefly on flanks and crissum, with
buff (not sulphury-yellow); the streaks sparse, pale, and not very sharp ; throat, as well as
belly and crissum, unmarked ; legs pale. I have yet to see a specimen I cannot distinguish
on sight ; size of bill is by no means the only character, though it is a principal one. Eastern
U. S., rather southern, and not very common ; N. to Massachusetts and southern Ontario,
Mich., and Minn.; W. to Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas; more abundant in the Missis-
sippi Valley ; breeds in its U. S. range at large ; winters extralimital iu the West Indies, some
parts of Mexico, and thence to Panama. Habits, nest, and eggs like those of S. navius. A
sweet and skilful songster.
GEO'THLYPIS. (Gr. yij or yea, ge or gea, the earth, and 6\vnis or Opavnis, tJiht^xis or
thraupis, uame of some bird.) Ground Warblers. Bill of ordinary Sylvicoline charac-
ters; rictal bristles short and few, but evident. Wings variable; pointed, and much longer
than the tail in the subgenus Oporornis, with 1st quill nearly or quite the longest; short and
much rounded, scarcely or not longer than the tail in Geothhjpis proper ; colored like the back,
and without markings, in both subgenera. Legs stout ; tarsi longer or not shorter than mid-
dle toe and claw. Of medium and rather small size for this family. Coloration plain olivaceous
above, with more or less extensive yellow below and veiled with ash or blackish on the head (as
iu Oporornis and some species of Geothlypis) or there masked with black, ash, and white or
hoary, as in $ of the G. trichas group ; sexes alike in the former case, unlike the latter. Tail
about even, or a little rounded, without white spots. Legs pale-colored. Habits somewhat
terrestrial. Nest on the ground or near it. This genus affords numerous species more or less
resembling the common Maryland Yellow-throat, chiefly of tlie warmer parts of America —
seven of N. Am. Most of them are well distinguished from other Warblers by the extreme
shortness of the wings, which are scarcely or not longer than the tail, and all of them by the
size of the pale-colored legs, which indicates their somewhat terrestrial habits; in the two
species of Oporornis the outstretched feet reach nearly or quite to tlie end of the tail ; and they
reach about as far in G. Philadelphia and G- macgiJlivrayi, though the tail is relatively longer
in the G. trichas group. Our species are familiar inhabitants of shrubbery, ordinarily keeping
near the ground, where the nest is usually placed. (Genera Oporornis and Geothli/pis of all
previous eds. of the Key, the former being now reduced to a subgenus of the latter. I am glad
to follow the A. 0. U. example in this case, as two of our species {Philadelphia and tolmiei
both) connect the two species of Oporornis so closely with the trichas group, tliat tliey liave
been even placed in the former subgenus by one high authority.)
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS.
335
Analysis of Species.
Wing much longer than tail, pointed, 1st quill longest or nearly so [Subgenus Opobobkis).
Head with black ; line over eye and all under parts rich yellow in jf $ formosa
Head without black or yellow ; crorni, throat, and breast ashy in (f; a white eye-ring agilis
Wing not longer than tail, rounded, 1st quill not nearly longest [Subgenus Geothlypis).
Sexes nearly alike : head and throat ashy, deepening on breast.
No white eyelids ; breast of adult cf quite blackish Philadelphia
White eyelids ; breast of adult cf scarcely different from throat tolmiei
Sexes quite unlike, cf with black and ash or yellow on head ; 9 with head plain.
Black mask involving front and sides of head.
Mask bordered vrith hoary ash ; throat and breast only yellow trichas
Mask bordered witli yellow ; under parts all yellow beldingi
Black on sides of head only ; top of head ash ; eyelids white {Subgenus Chaslethlypis) poliocephala ralphi
(Subgenus Opororkis.)
G. (O.) formo'sa. (Lat. /onwosa, shapely, comely; hence, beautiful iu auy way. Fig. 191.)
Kentucky Warbler. Adult ^ 9 : Clear olive-green ; entire under parts pure bright yellow,
olive-shaded along sides ; crown black, the featliers more or less
skirted with ashy, separated by a rich yellow superciliary line
(which curls around eye behind) from a broad black bar running
from bill below eye and thence down side of neck ; wings and tail
unmarked, glossed with olive; feet flesh-color. Length 5.50-
6.75 ; extent about 9.25 ; wing 2.75-3.00 ; tail 2.00-2.25 ; tar-
sus 0.85. In the fall, the black of head and neck is much
overlaid by ashy or grayish tips of the feathers ; the yellow of
under parts is paler, and more shaded with olivaceous along ^ '
sides. Young birds lack the black and yellow of head ; the Fio. 191. — Kentucky Warbler,
under parts are much duller, and the upper parts have a brown- "^*- ^'^®- ^^^- "**• ^^^- ^- ^'^
ish cast; at a very early age the wing-coverts are tipped with buff. Eastern U. S., N. to the
Connecticut Valley, Michigan, etc., and rarely to Quebec; W. to the Plains; not abundant.
Not abundant at large, but very
common in certain sections, as
in Illinois, Kansas, and other
portions of the Mississippi Val-
ley. Breeds throughout its U. S.
range; winters extralimital, iu
^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .^^^^^^ some of the West Indies, parts
^^^^^^^^^^^- ^^^^" of Mexico, and S. to Panama.
A beautiful object, gleaming like
gold in the tangle and debris of
thick dark woods and swamps.
Nest on the ground, or in rub-
bish near it, of leaves, grasses,
weed-stems and rootlets, large
and shallow ; eggs 4-5, 0.70 X
0.56, crystal-white, sprinkled
with spots and dots of reddish,
brownish, and neutral tint.
fthf'^^^ G. (O.) a'gilis. (Lat. agUis,
^ ,«o r- .• . ,.- v., ai^ile* active. Fig. 192.) CoN-
Fio. 192. — Connecticut W arbler. & > o ^
NECTicuT Warbler. Adult (J:
Olive-green, becoming ashy on head; below, from the breast, yellow, olive-shaded on sides;
ciiin, throat, and breast dark ash; a white ring around eye; wings and tail unmarked, glossed
336 .S' y STEM A TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
with olive; under mandible and feet pale. Length abont 5.50; extent 8.50-9.00; wing 2.75-
3.00 ; tail 2.00 ; tarsus 0.80. In spring males the ash of head and throat is quite pure and
very dark, almost black on breast; then the resemblance to G. lihUadelphia is close; but in
the latter the wings are little if any longer than the tail. The 9 is not always distinguishable
from the $ ; but the top of the head is less purely ash, being tinged with olivaceous, and the
sides of the head, the chin, and throat, are light gray or even whitish. In most specimens of
both sexes in the tall the upper parts from bill to tail are nearly uniform olive, and the ash of
the throat is pale. Young of the year resemble the adult 9 > 1^"t are more dingy brownish ;
and the species lacks any very strong or decided markings, except the $ in full plumage.
Eastern U. S. and adjoining British Provinces ; known to breed in Ontario and Manitoba, and
to reach northern S. Am. in winter ; not commonly observed in spring ; abounding in fall in
some localities (whence the name of the subgenus Oporoniis from Gr. oTrw/ja, opora, autunm,
and opvis, oniis, a bird); a shy, fugitive inhabitant of brusliwood and thickets. Nest on
ground, as usual in this genus; eggs 0.75 X 0.52; white, dotted and spotted witli reddish and
darker brown and with neutral tints.
(Sttbgenus Geothlypis.)
O. philaderphia. (To the city of brotherly love; Gr. (piXeo), j)Ml€0, I love; ahf\(l)6^,
(uMphos, brother. Fig. ]93.) MOURNING Warbler. Crape Warbler. Adult ^ 9 , i»
^^^^^^^^ spring : Bright olive, below clear yellow ; on the head
^^^^^^^^^^^^ the olive passes insensibly into ash ; in high plumage
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^k^ of ^ tlic and breast black ; but generally ash,
|^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^9||^k. showing black the feathers being black veiled
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ with ash, producing a peculiar appearance suggestive
^^^^^^HH^^^^^^ of the bird's wearing crape ; wings and tail unmarked,
|^^^j^™7^^^^r glossed with olive ; under mandible and feet flesh -color ;
m' ' L«r no white about eijes in iuh\\t ^ . Young, and generally
^ ><^H||||^p^ fall specimens : Ash of fore parts veiled witli olive; sides
^^^ and across breast quite olivaceous, leaving only central
line of under parts yellow ; blackish-ash of jugulum
Fio. 193. — Mourning Warbler. (L. A. veiled by bright yellow tips of the feathers; eyelids
"^^ ^^'' brownish-yellow. Young birds have little or no ash on
head, and no black on throat, thus resembling agilis 9 »nd young. The Mourning Warbler
is very closely related indeed to the Connecticut Warbler ; taking sex for sex and season for
season, the changes of plumage are quite correspondent; but the two species are of course dis-
tinguishable by their subgeneric characters : observe shortness and rounding of wing in Phila-
delphia, as compared with its length and pointedness in agilis, in either case as relative to
length of tail. Length 5.25-5.50 ; extent 7.50-8.00 ; wing 2.25-2.50 ; tail 2.00-2.25 ; tarsus
0.80. Eastern N. Am., W. to Kansas and Dakota, rare in most localities in the Atlantic
States, but abundant in the Mississippi Valley ; migratory; no record of wintering in the U. S-;
breeds chiefly in the northernmost tier of States and along the British border, but farther S.
in mountainous portions of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania; S. in winter to
Cent, and S. Am. ; accidental in Greenland. Nidificatit)n like that of G. trichas ; eggs not
distinguishable.
G. tol'miei. (To Dr. Wm. Eraser Tolmie, surgeon and chief factor H. B. Co., whom J. K.
Townsend met on the Columbia in 1834.) Tolmie's Warbler. Macgillivray's War-
bler. Adult ^ 9 '■ Upper parts, including exposed surfaces of wings and tail, clear olive-
green ; below, bright yellow, shaded with olive on the sides. Head and neck all around,
throat, and fore breast, clear ashy ; eyelids tvhite; loral region dusky or quite black, the throat
with blackish centres to the feathers, veiled by their gray skirting. Upper mandible blackish ;
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 337
iindfr mandible and feet flesh-colored or pale yellowish. Size of G. Philadelphia exactly.
Seasonal and sexual diflerences those of G. philudelphiu, of which it is the Western represen-
tative, differing in having white eyelids and black lores, and in never showing a decided black
patch on the breast, which is conspicuous in the highly pluniaged $ of the other form ; but
thus closely resembling 9 Philadelphia, which normally shows a whitish eye-ring, and has not
the breast black. Middle and Western Provinces of the U. S., E. to the limit of trees on the
plains, N. to British Columbia; abundant, migratory; breeds throughout its U. S. range; win-
ters beyond, in L. Cala., Mexico, and Cent. Am. to the U. S. of Colombia. Nest and eggs as
in others of the genus. G. macgilUcrayi of most authors, as of all former eds. of the Key ; but
Sijlvia tolnuei J. K. Towns., Journ. Phila. Acad., viii, pt. 1, read Apr. 1839 (vol. pub. 1840),
j)p. 149 and 159, and Narr., Apr. 1839, p. ^343, has a few months' priority over Syhia macgil-
Ucraiji Aud., Orn. Biog., v, June, 18:39, p. 7.5, folio pi. :399 : see Stone, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 81 ;
A. 0. U. Suppl. List, ibid., p. 122.
O. trich'as. (Gr. Tpt^aft Qiii^e of some bird in Aristotle. Fig. 194.) Ykllow-throated
Gkound Warbler. Maryland Yellow-throat. Black-masked Warbler. $, in
summer : Upper parts rich olive, inclining to grayish on head, brightest on rump. Wings and
tail brown, edged with color of back. Chin, throat, and breast,
with under wing- and tail-coverts, rich yellow. Middle under
parts dull whitish, shaded on sides. A broad black mask on front
and sides of head, bordered behind by hoary-ash. Bill black;
feet flesh -colored. Length 4.7.5-5.00; extent 6.50-6.90 ; wing
1.90-2.10; tail liardly more; tarsus 0.7.5. 9> in summer : Rather
smaller; yellow of under parts paler and more restricted ; no black
or ashy markings on head, but crown usually with some concealed
,,. , , r. , ■ J -1 /i. 1 11 r 1 1 Fio. 104. — Mar>-land Yellow.
reddish-brown. Otherwise top and sides of head like back, with throat, cf, nat. size. (Ad. uat.
.some obscure whitishness about lores and orbits. Young: Simi- del. E. C;
lar to adult 9 , but the olive of upper parts with much of a brownish tinge, the yellow parts
and, in fact, most of the under parts, quite buflfy. The adults, in fall and winter, are similar
to each other, except in the purer and stronger yellow of the <J, as at that season the peculiar
black and ashy markings of the head are wanting. Both sexes then resemble the autumnal
plumage of the young in the bnjwner shade of the olive and buflSness of the under parts.
Easteni U. S. and British Provinces, N. to Labrador, W. in the Mississippi Valley; breeds
throughout most of this range; winters from the S. Atlantic and Gulf States southward to the
We.st Indies, Eastern Mexico, and Central America, but is occa.sionally found at this season N. to
Massachusetts. An abundant and familiar inhabitant of shrubbery and underbrush, the same-
ness of which is enlivened by its sprightly pre.seuce and hearty song throughout the summer
months. Nest on the ground or near it, usually carefully concealed, of large size and built of
any rubbish ; eggs 4-6, usually 0.60-0.70 long by 0..50-0..55, white, rather sparingly sprinkled,
and mostly at the large end, with several shades of brown : but the markings, like the size and
shape of the egtrs, are very variable.
G. t. occidenta'lis. (Lat., of the Occident or setting sun, i. e., we.stern.) Western Yellow-
throat. Like the last ; appearing somewhat larger, owing to longer tail ; upper parts lighter,
the olivaceous having a more yellowish hue, and the hoary ash of cap paler and more extended ;
under parts ricli yellow, extending over the belly and sometimes farther ; the shading of the
flanks ochraceous rather than olivaceous. Wing and tail each about 2.30, Western N. Am.,
Missi.«sippi Valley to the Pacific, British Columbia in summer to Central Am. in winter. This
is a fairly well-marked form, which .should have appeared in all the previous eds. of the Key.
More than .'JO years ago I named it G. hypochryseuH in a monograph of the genus which was
never publi-shed, but subsequently overlooked it. The extensive bright yellow of the under
parts is a good feature, and the tail averages 0.25 longer than that of average trichas. Brews-
22
338 S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
TER, BuU. Nutt. Orn. Club, July, 1883, p. 159; Eidgw., Man., 188/, p. 523; A. 0. U. Lists,
1886audl895, No. 681a.
G. t. igno'ta. (Lat. ignotus, unknown or ignored, as this form was for many years ; but the
name ceased to be applicable as soon as it was used.) Florida Yellow-throat. Like
the last ; with somewhat longer bill, tarsus, and tail, as usual in Florida birds ; yellow of under
parts bright and extensive ; olivaceous of upper parts browner in shade ; liauks deeply shaded ;
fecial mask broader. Florida and Georgia. Chapman, Auk, Jan. 1890, p. 11 ; Coues, Key,
4th ed., 1890, p. 898 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 284, No. 681 b. This is G. t roscoe of
Hasbrouck, Auk, Apr. 1889, p. 167; but Sylvia roscoe of Audubon, Orn. Biog., i, 1831,
p. 124, pi. 29, was based on an immature autumnal ^ taken in Mississippi in September, of
such equivocal character that it has thus far proved unidentifiable ; the name cannot therefore
be used for the resident Florida bird. S. Atlantic and Gulf coast, S. E. Va. to E. Texas.
G. bel'dingi. (To L. Belding.) Belding's Yellow-throat. Adult (J : Above nearly
uniform olive-green, a little browner anteriorly ; below, rich yellow, paler on the vent, tinged
with brown on the fiauks and sides. Black mask exactly as in G. trichas, but bordered behind
for its whole extent with rich yellow ; there being thus no hoary ash on the head. Wing 2.60 ;
tail 2.70, graduated 0.50 ; bill 0.50 or more ; tarsus 0.90. Adult 9 similar to J in the body
colors, but lacking the distinctive head markings, as usual in the trichas group; more brownish
on the head, duller yellow below, and whitish or grayish on the belly and tlanks; size less.
Lower California, N. to San Ignacio, about lat. 27°. Quite distinct from any other species in
this list; near the Mexican G. melanops. Eidgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., v, 1882, p. 344;
Coues, Key, 3d ed., 1887, p. 870; A. 0. U. Lists, No. 682.
(Sxbgenus Cham.ethlypis.)
G. polioceph'ala ralph'i. (Gr. noXios, polios, hoary; Kf(j)a\T), Tcephale, head. To Dr. Wm.
L. Ealph.) Hoary-headed Yellow-throat. Eio Grande Yellow-throat. Ealph's
Trichas. Quite different again from any of the foregoing, and representing a section of the
genus which has been called Chamathlypis. Bill very stout, with strongly curved culmen
hardly twice as long as the bill is deep at base. Adult $ : Olive-green above, becoming gray
on the crown, the loral and more or less of the circumocular region black, the evelids white ;
yellow below, including edge and more or less of lining of wings, paling to buffy whitish on
the belly and flanks. 9 similar, having the distinctive head-markings. Length about 5.50 ;
wing 2.30; tail 2.60; tarsus 0.87; bill 0.47, its depth at base 0.20 or rather more. Browns-
ville, Texas, in Lower Eio Grande Valley. Very close indeed to G. poliocephala proper of
western Mexico, and also near G. palpehralis of E. Mexico, with which it agrees closely in
size and proportions, but is not entirely yellow below ; said to diff'er from poliocephala proper
only in rather larger size, especially of the bill, grayer upper parts, and paler yellow below.
Not in any previous ed. of the Key; G. p. palpehralis, Allen, Auk, July, 1891, p. 316 j G.
p. ralphi Eidgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1894, p. 692 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, No. 682. 1.
ICTE'RIA. (Gr. iKrepos, ikteros, the jaundice ; hence, yellowness; from the l)ird's golden
breast.) Chats. Bill stout, high at base (higher than broad at nostrils), thence compressed ;
unnotched, unbristled, with much curved culmen and commissure. Frontal feathers reaching
nostrils, which are subcircular and scaled. Wings much rounded, shorter or not longer than
graduated tail. Tarsus partly booted, longer than middle toe ; feet stout. Inner toe cleft to
the degree usually seen in this family. Of largest size for this family. Form stout. Color-
ation simple, chiefly olive, yellow, and white. Sexes alike. Nest in bushes. Eggs white,
spotted. Probably only one species.
I. vi'rens. (Lat. rirens, being green. Figs. 195, 196.) Yellow-breasted Chat. Poly-
glot. Clown. Charlatan. Mountebank. Adult ^ 9 '■ Bright olive-green, below
golden -yelhnv, belly abruptly white: lore black, isolating the white under eyelid from a white
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS.
339
superciliary line above and a short white maxillary line below; wings and tail unmarked,
glossed with olive ; bill blue-black ; feet plumbeous. Length about 7.50; extent about 10.00 ;
Fig. 195. — Yellow-breasted Chat.
wing about 3.00 ; tail about 3.25. Little diflference with age, sex, or season in the plumage of
tins rich bird; very young have the fore under parts gray or white slashed with yellow, no
black on lore, and lower mandible pale ; white of belly and
crissum tinged with buff. Eastern U. S., N. to Massachu-
setts, S. Minnesota, and S. Ontario ; breeds throughout
its range ; winters through E. Mexico to Central America.
An exclusive inhabitant of low tangled undergrowth, and
oftener heard than seen, except during the mating season,
when it performs the extravagant aerial evolutions for
which, as well as for the variety and volubility of its song,
it is noted. Nest in crotch of a bush near the ground ;
eggs 3-5, very variable in size and markings, 0.90 to 1.00 s'ze. (Ad. nat. del. E. c.)
X 0.70 to 0.80, white, dotted, spotted or blotched with reddish-browns and the usual lilac
shell-markings.
I. V. longicau'da. (Lat. longus, long; cnuda, tail.) Long-tailep Chat. Adult J* 9:
Entire upper parts, including exposed surfaces of the wings and tail, grayish-olive. Quills of
wings and tail fuscous. Fore half of body below, including lining of wings, rich yellow;
hinder half white, shaded with gray on sides. Loral region black ; a sharp maxillary line,
another from nostril over eye, and under eyelid, white. Bill blackish-plumbeous; feet plum-
beous. Size of the last ; tail averaging l«>neer. Middle and Western Provinces of the U. S.
This fonn, in its typical manifestation, differs from rirens in the shade of the upper parts —
quite grayish instead of pure olive-green ; in the dullest-colored birds there is scarcely a tinge
of olive in the gray, though the yellow of the breast is as rich as that of rirens.
1^%
Fio. 196. — Yellow-breasted Chat, nat.
340 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
WILSO'NIA. (To Alexander Wilson, " father of American Ornithology.") Fly-catching
Warblers. Bill Muscicapine, though with lateral outlines a little concave, broad and depressed
at base, with many obvious rictal bristles reaching decidedly beyond nostrils ; culmen and
commissure nearly straight. Wings pointed, as in most MniotiltidcB, longer than tail ; 1st quill
longer than 5th, 3d equalling or exceeding 4th. Tail narrow, even or little rounded. Middle
toe without claw about f as long as tarsus. Tail unmarked, or with white blotches as iu I)en-
droeca. No red or flame-color; always yellow below. Comprehends three species, well dis-
tinguished among Mniotiltidce by development of rictal bristles and depressed shape of bill,
though these Muscicapine characters are not pushed to the extreme seen in Setophaga. Nest
on the ground, as in the genera Geotlihjpis, Helminthophila, etc. (except in case of mitratra) ;
eggs white, marked after the usual fashion of Warblers'. (Genus Myiodioctes Aud., 1839, of
most writers, as of all previous eds. of the Key ; Mijioetonus Cab., 1850 ; Wilsonia Bp., 1838 ;
not Sylvania Nuttall, 1832, which is a mere synonym of Setophaga, including the Redstart,
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, aud several species of the present genus, but untenable for any of
these, though misused for them by various authors, and so by the A. 0. U., 1886-95 : see
COUES, Auk, Apr. 1897, pp. 223, 224, where the error is exposed, aud Wilsonia shown to
be the proper name : see also CouES, Bull. Nutt. Club, 1880, p. 95. Wilsonia was adopted
by the A. 0. U. iu its Ninth Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 123.)
Analysis of Species.
Olive and yellow ; tail-feathers white-blotched mitrata
Olive aud yellow ; tail-feathers plain pusilla
Ashy-blue and yeUow ; tail-feathers plain canadensis
Note. — The "small-headed flycatcher, yfuscicnpa minii/a" of Wils., Nutt., Aud., etc. (nee Gm., 17SS), conjec-
tured to belong to this genus, continues to be unknown. Its whole record is a tissue of surmises : for the synonj-my, see
CouES, Birds Col. Valley, i, 1878, p. 32G, aud add : Sylcania microcephala Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., viii, 1SS5, p. 354 ;
Man., 1887, p. 527; A. O. XJ. Hypothetical List, No. 25. There certainly was such a bird, for Wilson figured it, and he
never drew upon his imagination ; but we do not recognize his plate, nor that of Audubon. The mysterious bird has been
claimed for New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, and Kentucky. I have long believed it to be the Pine-
creepmg Warbler, Dendrceca vigorsi: see Key, orig. ed., 1872, p. 109.
W. mitra'ta. (Lat. mitrata, wearing a mitre, or other head-dress. Fig. 197.) Hooded
Fly-catciiix(i Warbler. Selby's Sylvan Flycatcher. Adult ^: Clear yellow-olive
above ; below, rich yellow, shaded with olive along sides ;
whole head and neck pure black, enclosing a broad golden
(l^^;^^^^^^ mask across forehead and through eyes; wings unmarked,
glossed with olive ; tail with large white blotches on 2 or 3
outer pairs of feathers, as in Dendrceca ; bill black ; feet flesh-
colored. Length 5.00-5.50; extent about 8.50; wing 2.50-
2.75 ; tail about 2.25. Adult 9 and young $ : The black re-
stricted or interrupted, if not wholly wanting, as it is in the
eai-lier stages, when the parts concerned are simply colored
Fig. 197. — Hooded Warbler, nat. to correspond with the upper and under surfaces of the bird,
size. (Ad. nat. del. E. c.) j^^^j ^.^j^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ perfected till the 3d year, and to be finally
acquired, in fulness of its extent if not in purity of the black, l)y the 9 • Eastern N. Am.,
strictly, W. only to the edge of the PLiins, N. regularly to the Connecticut Valley, some por-
tions of New York, southern Ontario, and southern Michigan ; migratory ; breeds at large in
its U. S. range ; winters extralimital in some of the West Indies, eastern Mexico, and Central
America. A lovely bird, reminding one of the Kentucky Warbler, common in the South in
such brakes and bottoms as the Kentucky haunts, rarer northward. Nest in bushes ; eggs 3-4,
about 0.70 X 0..50, as usual white, sprinkled with reddish-brown, neutral gray, and sometimes
darker spots and dots, chiefly about the larger ends.
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 341
W. pusil'la, (Lat. pusilla, puerile, petty, small. Fig. 198.) Green Black-capped Fly-
catching Warbler. Wilson's Sylvan Flycatcher. Wilson's Warbler. Adult
^ 9 : Upper parts, including exposed edgings of wings and tail,
bright yellowish-olive ; under parts, including front and sides of head
and superciliary line, rich yellow, shaded with olive on sides. A
squarish, glossy blue-black patch on crown. Wings and tail plain
fuscous, with greenish edgings, unmarked with other color. Upper
mandible dark ; under mandible and feet light. Length 4.75 ; ex-
tent (1.75-7.00; wing 2.00-2.25; tail 2.00. Young: Lacking the
black cap ; as sometimes also the 9 • There is very little variation fig. 198. — Black-capped
in this species, according to age or season, though the adult summer Warbler, nat. size. (Ad. nat.
birds are the more richly colored. Eastern N. Am., in wooded re-
gions ; common, migratory. Breeds from the northernmost States northward to the limit of
trees ; occasional west in migration in the Rocky Mountains ; winters extralimital. Nest on
the ground ; eggs 4-5, 0.60 X 0.50, white, speckled and blotched with dark reddish-brown
and lilac.
W. p. pileola'ta. (Lat. pileolata, wearing the pileum, a kind of cap.) Western Black-
capped Fly-catching Warbler. Pileolated Sylvan Flycatcher. Specimens from
the southern Rocky Mts. and Pacific coast region are frequently of a brighter yellow, almost
orange, on head and fore parts below. Breeds from Rocky Mts. to Pacific and N. to Alaska.
W, canaden'sis. (Lat., of Canada. Fig. 199.) Canadian Fly-catching Warbler.
Bonaparte's Sylvan Flycatcher. Adult ,$, in spring: Bluish-ash; crown speckled with
lanceolate black marks, crowded and generally continuous
■ T-'?^^^^ on forehead ; latter divided lengthwise by a slight yellow
- - '"•^r'jty?^ line; short superciliary line and edges of eyelids yellow;
»^3Pfe^^^^^^ lores black, continuous with black under eye, and this pass-
:. -,7'g,:.-- Mf^-mp' ing ^s * chain of black streaks down side of neck and pret-
m^^^^B^^Br^ tily encircling throat like a necklace of jet ; excepting these
^^Ij^P^^^^H streaks and the white under tail-coverts, entire under parts
▼ '^f^^F "^^^^ yellow ; wings and tail unmarked ; feet flesh-color. ^
J^f iu autumn with the yellow very rich, even tipping feathers
J^ of the black necklace. Length 5.25-5.50; extent 7.75-
'iy 8.25 ; wing 2.50 ; tail 2.25. In the 9 and young the black
r. A- ^, . ,.• <^'f crown, cheeks, and necklace is obscure or much restricted,
Fig. 109. — Canadian Fly-catchmg _ ' '
Warbler. (L. A. Fuertes.) and in the youug the back may be glossed with olive; but
tliey cannot be mistaken for auy other species. Eastern
X. Am.; an abundant and beautiful woodland species; migratory; breeding in the Allegha-
nies from as far S. at least as tlie mountains of western N. Carolina, where I have found fledg-
lings, and at lower elevations from the Middle States occasionally, from New England regularly,
northward to the limit of trees; in winter S. to Central and S Am. Nest on the ground or
very close to it in the grass or weeds of wet woods ; eggs 3-5 0.75 X 0.55, wliite, dtitted and
blotched with reddish-brown and other shades, as usual.
Note on Wilsonia microcephnln. The small-headed Flycatcher, Muscicapa minuta Was., 1812, supposed to belong
to this genus, continues unknown. It was renamed Sijlrania microcephala by Ridgway in 1885, and so stands with a
query, in A. O. U. Hypothetical List, I8SG to date, p. 333.
SETO'PHAGA. (Gr. o-jjs, (tt^tos, ses, setos, an insect ; (fxiyo), pliago, I cat.) Redstarts.
Bill tlioroughly Muscicapine in depression and breadth at base, where wider than liigh,
straightuess of superior and lateral outlines, and development of rictal bristles, which reach far
beyond nostrils. Wings pointed, not sliortcr tlian tail ; 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal and
342
5 YS TEMA TIC S YXOPSFS. — PA SSERES — OSCTNES.
longest; 1st intermediate between 4th and oth. Tail rather L)ng and fan-shaped, with broad
flat feathers, widening at ends. Feet slender, with long tarsi indistinctly scutellate externally,
and short toes, the middle one without its claw about half as long as tarsus. Coloration inde-
terminate. Habits arboricole and Muscicapine. The genus has been made to cover consid-
erable variety in form among the numerous species of Fly-catching Warblers of subtropical
and tropical America, where it is best represented. The diagnosis, drawn up from S. ruficilla,
may require some little modification in order to its applicability even to S. picta. All the
e.xtralimital species difler in the shorter and more rounded wing and other characters. S. ruti-
cilla is the only species in which the sexes are decidedly dissimilar in color; even in S. picta,
the nearest ally, they are substantially alike ; and in all the rest, in which the coloration is
very various, there is no obvious difierence between the sexes. Species of Setophaga (includ-
ing Myiohorus and Euthhjpis), to the number of 15 or more, are recognized by late authors.
S. ruticilla is the only one generally distributed in N. Am.
Analysis of Species.
(f Black, white, and orange ; $ brown, white, and yellow ruticilla
(J ? Black, white, and carmine-red ; no chestnut picta
cf 9 Black, white, slate-gray, and vermilion red ; cap chestnut miniata
S. ruticilla. (Lat. ruticilla, red-tail ; riitilus, reddish ; '^ redstart " is corrupted from rotlistert,
red-tail. Figs. 200, 201.) American Eedstart. Little Oriole. Fire-tail. " Live
Coals." Adult $ : Lustrous blue-black ;
belly, flanks, and crissum white. Sides of
body and lining of wings rich flame-color,
which often tinges the breast quite across.
Basal portions of all wing-quills, excepting
innermost secondaries, the same rich reddish-
•c^ ^^^^^^ V orange, brightest on outer webs, where it
forms a conspicuous exposed spot, paler and
more extensive on inner webs. All lateral
tail-feathers similarly colored for half or more
of their length, orange meeting black
abruptly with transverse outline. Bill and
_^^^^ feet black. Length ,5.00-.5.50 ; extent 7.50-
vH^:: .Ji^J^^^^^ 8.00; wing 2.25-2.50; tail the same; bill
0.33; tars^us 0.66. Adult ?: Black of ^
replaced on upper parts with olive, grow-
Ifluk /I nUPn^C ^°S more ashy on head, on wings with
>- ' /V] ) fuscous, and below with white. Sides rich
yellow where ^ is orange, this color often
Fig 'ioo. — American Redstart. tingeing the breast across. Orange mark-
ings of wings and tail of ^ replaced by clear yellow. Lores dusky ; eyelids and slight
stripe from nostrils to eye whitish. Rather smaller than ^, about equal to the lesser several
dimensions given. ^, young: Like the 9; but upper parts more brownish, tail quite black,
and yellow of sides brighter. Males changing in spring to their final plumage are irregularly
patched with black in the general olivaceous and white. The spring migration includes males
in this condition, and others irregularly patched with black, as well as those in ]ierfect dress ;
whence it is evident that the Redstart does not acquire his full-dress suit until in his tliird year
(see Birds Col. Vail., p. 340). Temperate N. Am., but chiefly Eastern; W. to the Great
Basin regularly, casually to Upper and Lower California. Breeds in much of its U. S., and
all of its British American range, abundantly from the Northern States northward; winters in
MNIOTILTIDjE : AMERICAN WARBLERS.
343
the West Indies, Mexico, and Cent, and S. Am. Nest a neat, compact structure in fork
of a shrub or sapling at little elevation ; eggs 3-5, averaging 0.65 X 0.50, not distinguishable
from other Warbler eggs.
During tlie nuptial ecstasies
the lovely Redstart shines
among the birds that throng
the woodland, where his
transparent beauty flashes
like a lambent tongue of
flame at play amidst the
tender pale green foliage of
the trees.
S. pic'ta. (Lat. pi eta,
painted. Fig. 202.) Painted
Eedstart. Adult <J 9 :
Lustrous black ; middle of
breast and belly carmine-
red ; eyelids, a large patch
on wings formed by greater
and middle coverts, broad
edging of inner secondaries,
edging of inner webs of pri-
maries toward base, lining
of wings, nearly all the outer
tail-feather, and a diminish- .
ing space on next two or
three, together with crissum,
white. Bill and feet black.
Length 5.00-5.50; wing
2.75; tail2..50; tarsus 0.G6;
bill 0..33-0.40. 9 not par-
ticularly difl"erent from ^,
though rather less richly
colored. In poor plumages,
the black is not so lustrous ;
red of belly less extensive
and of a more bricky-red
tone; white of wings and
tail more restricted. Very
young: Dull black, or only
slightly lustrous; white
nearly as in the adult ; spot
on lower eyelid, patch on
wing, outer edge of first pri-
mary only, outer edges of
secondaries, inside of wings,
axillars. crissum, tibiae, outer
tail-feather except at base,
and a diminishing space on the 2d and .'M, white. Mountains of Mexico, N. to Arizona, New
Mexico, and doubtless also Texas ; common in summer in Santa Rita, Santa Catalina, and
Fip. 201. — American Redstart. (From The Osprey.)
344
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Fig. 202. — Painted Redstart. (Ad. nat.
del. H. W. EUiott.)
Huachuca Mts. of Arizona. Nest on ground, usually under a projecting stone, or in a bank
near water; large, flat, shallow, of bark, weed-fibre, grasses, and a few hairs. Eggs 3-4, 0.65
X 0.50, pure white, speckled and wreathed with pale red-
dish-brown ; Apr.-June.
S. minia'ta. (Lat. miniata, miniated, rubricated,
marked with red.) Red-bellied Redstart. Adult
(J 9 • Diirk bluish-ash or slate-gray above, and on the
sides below. A square patch of chestnut on crown.
Forehead and sides of head, with whole fore-neck and
sides of jugulum black; breast and belly vermilion red;
lining of wings and tips of under tail-coverts white.
Wing-feathers dusky; tail-feathers black with the lat-
eral one white, and more restricted white areas on the
next two. Very young : Sooty blackish, little darker on
the head, the dark parts of the adults much overlaid with brown ; most of the under parts-
chocolate-brown, lighter on the belly, where the feathers have whitish bases ; wing-coverts
tipped with rusty brown ; under tail-coverts pale fulvous. Length 5.10; wing 2.50; tail 3.00;
tarsus 0.75. Highlands of Mexico to Texas. An extralimital species, admitted to the 3d ed.
of the Key, 1887, p. 870, on the authority of Giraud ; not in either of the Coues Check Lists;
A. O. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. [689].
CARDELLiI'NA. (Apparently derived from Lat. carduelis, a kind of Finch ; carduus, a
thi.stle.) Rose Fly-catching Warblers. Bill Parine in shape, much shorter than liead,
high at base, culmen convex throughout ; commissure curved. Rictal bristles stiff, but hardly
reaching half-way from nostrils to tip of bill, which shows scarcely a trace of notch. Wings
long and pointed ; 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal and longest; 1st a little longer than
5th. Tail shorter than wings, nearly even. Feet small; tarsal scutella indistinct externally;
tarsus longer than middle toe and claw.
C. ru'brifrons. (Lat. ruber, red ; frons, front, forehead. Fig. 203.) Red-fronted Fly-
catching Warbler. Adult ^ 9 • Upper parts ash ; wings and tail rather darker, edged
with ashy- white; a broader and
whiter bar aci'oss ends of median
coverts. Below, from breast, white,
more or less shaded with ashy on
sides, and tinged with rosy. Rump
and a nuchal patch white, or rosy-
white. Whole head, throat, sides of
neck, and fore breast, bright red,
with a broad black cap extending
down on sides of head, involving
eyes and ears, ending in a point be-
low auriculars. The border of this
cap is squarely transverse against
the red of the forehead from eye to
eye; behind it, the red reaches up
sides of neck, but not across back
of neck, the white nuchal area there
meeting the ashy of back. Bill and ^'S- 203. - Red-fronted Fly-catching Warbler.
feet dark. In the highest summer plumage, the red is rich carmine, the cap glossy-black ;
the under parts are much tinged with rosy ; the rump is snowy-white. Less richly-feathered
MNIOTILTID.E: AMERICAN WARBLERS. 345
specimens have the head plain red, the cap sooty-black. There is much difference in the char-
acter of the white on nape. Length 5.00; wing 2.66; tail 2.50; tarsus 0.66; bill 0.33,
quite different in shape from that of Setophaga. Young, newly fledged : Ash of upper parts
much shaded with brown, as is white of under parts. Rump snowy-white, as in the adult, but
the nuchal patch obscure or inappreciable. Wings and tail as in the adult, but with browner
edgings. Black cap restricted to top of head, and of a dull sooty cast. Red parts of the
adult, including those parts of side of head which are occupied in the adult with the extension
of the black cap, dull grayish -brown, tinged or irregularly slashed with red, especially on fore-
head and throat. Bill light brown ; feet pale. Arizona, New Mexico, and doubtless Texas ;
S. to Guatemala; common in pineries of southern Arizona, especially during migration, and
also breeding there in mountains up to 7,000 feet. May and June. Nest on ground, under a
tuft of grass, of hay and leaves; eggs 4, pure white, fully speckled and blotched.
ERGA'TICUS. (Gr. (pyariKos, ergatikos, able or willing to work, industrious, diligent, ac-
tive.) Carmine Fly-catchixg Warblers. Bill Parine in appearance, as in Cardellinaj
and other characters much as in that genus, of which the present has often been considered a
subgenus. Tail about equal to the wings, both lengthened; 1st quill about equal to the 6th.
Rictus well bristled, as in other genera of this group. Plumage nearly unicolor, rich red, with
white auriculars ; sexes alike. One species.
E. ru'ber. (Za^., red.) Carmine Fly-catching Warbler. Adult $ 9 : Rich carmine
red, obscured on the back; ear-coverts silvery- white; wing- and tail-feathers dusky, edged
externally with reddish ; middle wing-coverts mostly pink or rosy white. Young simply rusty
brown, paler and more rufous below ; but known by the silver ears, which show plainly with
the first feathering. Length 4.75; wing 2.40; tail 2.50, graduated 0.20; tarsus 0.75. A
very beautiful extralimital species, inhabiting the highlands of Mexico, like Setophaga miniata,
and believed to extend N. to Texas. Not in either of the Coues Check Lists ; admitted to the
Sd ed. of the Key, 1887, p. 870; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. [691], on the authority
of GiRAUD.
BASILEU'TERUS. (Apparently the comparative degree of QaaiXevros, hasileutos, kingly,
regal, regnant, from fiaaiXevs, basileiis, a king, monarch.) Crowned Fly-catching War-
blers. Bill Muscicapine, more or less widened at base, as in Setophaga and Wilsonia, but
deep, with gently curved culmen ; rictal bristles variable, but obvious. Wings rather short,
more or less rounded ; 1st quill equal to 7th, or still shorter. Tail about equal to or longer
tlian wings with narrow feathers unmarked in color. Coloration olivaceous and yellow, the
head (in our species) marked with black stripes bordering a yellow, rufous, or orange-brown
field, strikingly after the pattern of Siurus auricapillus. Sexes alike. A large genus of tropi-
cal and subtropical American species, two of which reach the Mexican border of Texas. These
represent Tesi)ecti\e\y Basileuterus proper of Cabanis, 1848, and the subgenus Idiotes Baird,
1865.
Anahj/tis of Specie.i.
Top of head with black stripes bordering a yellow or orange-brown median one ; no yeUow superciliary line or any
chestnut on side of head ciilkirorus
Top of head with black stripes bordering a rufous median one ; front black, a bright yellow superciliary line, and
sides of head chestnut belli
B. culici'vorus. (Lat., gnat-eating ; culex, a gnat, midge, mosquito ; rorare, to devour.)
Brasher's Ply-catching Warbler. Adult ^ 9 : Above, grayish -olive, or olivaceous-
ash, fif variable shade with age or season. Below, yellow, shaded with olive on sides. Crown
yellow, varying to orange-brown, rufous, or somewhat greenish-yellow, bordered on each side
with a stripe of black ; some dusky loral or ocular markings, not well defined, but no bright
yellow or chestnut on sides of head. No special markings of wings or tail. Length 5.00 or
less; wing 2.40 or less; tail 2.00-2.20, graduated 0.15; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.7.'>. Central
346
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
America and Mexico to Texas. An extralimital species admitted to our fauna in the 3d ed. of
the Key, 1887, p. 871, on the authority of Giraud, 1841, who called it muscicapa brasieri (for
brasheri) ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. [692].
B. bell'i. (To J. G. Bell of New York.) Bell's Fly-catching Warbler. Somewhat
similar to the foregoing, but readily distinguished, and belonging to the subgenus Idiotes.
Adult ^ 9 : Above, plain greenish-olive, or olive-green ; below, yellow, including the edge
of the wing, shaded with olivaceous on sides and lining of wings. Sides of head rich chest-
nut, blackening on the lores ; a long bright yellow superciliary stripe, extending on the side
of nape ; frontal bar and lateral stripe on crown black, enclosing a chestnut or rufous area.
Bill black; feet pale. Length 5.10 ; wing 2.40; tail rather more, graduated 0.3-3; bill 0.50 ;
tarsus 0.80. Central America and Mexico to Texas. Another extralimital species, admitted
to our fauna in the 3d ed. of the Key, 1887, p. 871, on the authority of Giraud, 1841;
A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. [693].
Family CCEREBID-^ : Honey Creepers.
Primaries 9, and other external characters very nearly as in the last family ; but bill gen-
erally slenderer and sharper, often a little decurved. The line between the two families has
never been drawn with precision, and has become
more difficult of expression since some of the Mniotil-
tidce have proven possessed of a peculiarity of the
CcerehidcB : deeply bifid, penicillate tongue. As com-
monly understood, it is a small group containing
perhaps 70 species of pretty little birds, of about a
dozen genera, which are arranged by Sclater (1880)
lu 4 subfamilies — Diglossince, Dacnidime, Coerebince,
and Glossiptilin(e. All are confined to tropical and sub-
trt>pical America, being especially numerous in the
West Indies. Our species is merely a stray visitor to
Florida.
CCE'REBA. (Brazilian name of some guitguit or
small creeping bird, perhaps of this family. Fig. 204. )
Honey Creepers. Bill little shorter than head,
stout at base, but rapidly tapering to the extremely
acute tip ; whole bill much curved, culmen very con-
vex, outline of under mandible concave from base to
tip. Rictus uubristled. Wings long, exceeding the
short rounded tail. Tarsus longer than middle toe
without claw. Contains about 19 species or varieties,
mostly West Indian. (Certhiola of previous eds. of
the Key, as of authors generally ; but Vieillot,
Ois. Am. Sept. i., 1807, p. 70, based his genus
Ccereba upon Certhia ^frtreo/aLiNN. and consequently
Certhiola of Sundevall, 1835, becomes a synonym.)
C. bahamen'sis. (Lat., of the Bahamas.) Bahaman Honey Creeper. Dark brown above ;
long superciliary line and under parts dull white ; breast, edge of wing, and rump, bright yel-
low; wings dusky, with a white spot at base of primaries, and whitish edging of quills ; tail
dusky, tipped with white ; bill and feet black ; eyes blue. Length 4.50 ; wing 2.33 ; tail 1-75.
Florida ; Bahamas ; closely related to the stock species, C. flareola.
Fig. 204. —Honey Creeper (Ccrtehu jintenla ;
not distinguishable in a cut from C. ba/wmehiti),
J nat. size. (From Brehm.)
TANAGRID.E: TANAGERS. 347
Family TANAGRID^ : Tanagers.
An extensive, brilliant family, confined to America, abounding in species between the
tropics. Its position is a point at issue with ornithologists ; it may naturally follow Coerebidce
and MniotiltidcB, though certainly no families should
stand between it and Fringillidce. In fact, certain
tropical forms might be assigned to either indifferently.
The best definition of Tanagers is that given by the
distinguished ornithologist who called them '' deuti-
rostral finches ; " but this generalization, like other
happy epigrams, is insusceptible of application in de-
tail, and Tanagers remain to be precisely characterized. Fig. 205. — Dentirostrai bill of a Tanager
As a consequence, the number of species can hardly be ('P»''-°«^« hepatica), nat. size,
approximately estimated; but upward of 300 are usually enumerated.
The principal North American genus, Piranga, may be recognized among all the birds
of our country by the combination of 9 primaries and scutellate tarsi with a turgid bill, notched
tit tip and toothed or lobed near middle of the maxillary tomia (fig. 205) ; though this last
character is sometimes so obscure that it might be looked at without being seen. It is better
marked in the Scarlet and Hepatic Tanagers than in the Summer Tanagers. The species of
Piranga are birds of brilliant colors, with great seasonal and sexual differences of plumage.
They are frugivorous and insectivorous, and consequently migratory in the United States.
They inhabit woodland, lay 3-5 dark-colored, speckled eggs, about 0.95 X 0.65, nest in trees,
and are no great songsters. In distribution they are rather southerly, scarcely passing north-
ward beyond tlie U. S.
EUPHO'NIA. (Gr. fvcjxovos, euphonos, euphonious, sweet-voiced, musical; one of the species
is E. musica, the Organist Tanager of the West Indies.) Musician Tanagers. A large
genus of tropical and subtropical species, one of which is supposed to occur in Texas ; but no
specimens are known to have been taken over our border since Giraud's time. The following
species may be recognized by its small size and peculiar, coloration.
E. elegantis'sima. (Lat., superlative degree of elegans, choice, select, elegant.) Blue-
HEAOED Tanager. Adult ^ : Above, black, with a purplish gloss ; crown and nape blue ;
frontlet chestnut, bordered behind by a black line. Below, deep brownish-orange, the throat
black. Lining of wings and inner edges of wing-feathers white. Bill black ; feet light brown.
Length 4.50; wing 2.50; tail L50. 9 '• Upper parts olive-green with blue cap and chestnut
frontlet ; Ix'low, olive-yellow, brightest in middle of belly. Eggs creamy white, sparsely
marke<l, and chiefly at the larger end, with different shades of brown. Mexico to Texas.
This beautiful little Tanager was duly noted in the Key, 1872, and 1884, but first formally
introduced in the 3d ed., 1887, p. 871 ; it is No. [606] of the A. O. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895.
PIRAN'CJA. (Barbarous name of some South American bird.) Summer Tanagers. Bill
stout, turgid, conoidal, usually notched at tip, with one or more denticulatious of cutting edge
of upper mandible near middle of commissure. Kictal bristles well developed. Nostrils basal,
the frontal antite reaching them. Wings lengthened and pointed; first 4 feathers subequal and
longest. Tail moderate in length, shorter than wings, emarginate. Tarsus not shorter than
middle toe; lateral toes about equal, outer coherent with middle by nearly all of the length of
its basal joint. Sexes more or less unlike in color; red usually prevailing in the ^. Habits
migratory, insectivorous, arboreal; voice not musical. Eggs spotted. Four species of this
beautiful genus inhabit the IJ. S., three of them representing, according to ])attern of color-
ation, as many o{ the sections into which it is divisible. Numerous others are found in the
348 S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
warmer parts of America. The name of this genus has been commonly spelled Pyranga, after
VrEiLLOT, Analyse, 1816, p. 32 ; but as Vieillot used Piranga in the first instance, Ois. Am.
Sept., i, 1807, p. iv, this form is to be preferred as a choice of evils in the barbarous name.
Analysis of Species.
(f Crimson or scarlet, with black wings and tail : $ clear olive and yellow. No wing bars .... erythromelas
ij Vermilion or rose-red, including wings and tail : $ brownish-olive and buffy-yellow. Bill light.
Smaller : length about 7.50 ; wing 3.75 rubra
Larger : length about 8.00 ; wing 4.'i5 cooperi
(f Dusky-red above, including wings and tail. $ ashy-oli^e and yellow. Bill dark hepatica
(J Yellow, vrith scarlet head and black back, wings and tail ; two wing-bars. 5 clear olive and yellow. ludoviHana
no wing-bars, but lesser and middle coverts yellow. (ExtraUmital.) riibriceps
P. erythro'melas. (Gr. tpvOpos, eritthros, red, imd fieXas, melas, black.) Scarlet Tanager.
Black-winged Redbird. Adult ^ in summer : Crimson or scarlet ; wiugs and tail black ;
bill and feet dark horn-color. Adult 9 • Above, clear olive-green ; below, clear greenish-
yellow ; wings and tail dusky, glossed with color of back. Winter ^ similar to 9 j but wings
and tail black. Young ^ : Similar to 9 ; later, when changing, patched with red, green, and
black. Adult males often show abnormal coloring, the body being yellow, orange, or flame-
color; or red patches appearing on wing-coverts. Length 6.75-7.00; extent 11.00-12.00;
wing 3.50-3.90; tail about 3.00. Eastern U.S. and adjoining British Provinces; W. to
Kansas, Indian Ten, and Texas; not common N. of Massachusetts; breeds nearly through
U. S. range ; winters in W. Indies, E. Mexico, Cent. Am., and northern S. Am. This brilliant
creature nests in woods, groves, and orchards, upon the horizontal bough of a tree, building a
rather loose and shallow fabric of twigs, fibres, rootlets, etc. Eggs 3-5, 0.95 X 0.65, dull
greenish-blue, fully spotted with brown and lilac. This is P. rubra of authors generally, and
of all former eds. of the Key; but, unfortunately, according to our rules of nomenclature, the
name rubra must be transferred to the Summer Tanager, and the Scarlet Tanager become
known as P. erythromelas Vieillot, 1819 ; A. 0. U. Lists, No. 608.
P. rub'ra. (Lat. rubra, red.) Rose Tanager. Summer Redbird. Adult $ : Rich
rose-red or vermilion, including vrings and tail ; the former dusky on unexposed portions of
the feathers ; biU pale ; feet darker. Adult 9 : DnW brownish-olive above, below dull
brownish-yellow ; no wing-bars. Young ^ : Like 9 • <? changing plumage shows red,
greenish and yellowish in irregular patches, but no black. The 9 distinguished from 9 ^'"Z/"
thromelas by the dull brownish, ochrey, or buffy shades of the olive and yellowish, the greenish
and yellowish of 9 erythromelas being much clearer and paler ; by paler bill and feet, and also
by lack of any evident tooth of upper mandible, as this formation is obsolete in the present
species. The tint of mature males varies greatly ; from rosy to bricky red. Size of erythro-
melas, or rather larger. Eastern U. S., strictly, and rather southerly ; N. rarely to Connecti-
cut, only casually farther, as in Massachusetts, Nova Scotia, Ontario, etc. ; W. to Kansas,
Indian Territory, and Texas, Migratory, abundant ; breeds throughout its range ; winters
extralimital in Cuba, Mexico, Cent. Am., and as far S. as Peru. Nesting and eggs like
those of erythromelas. It is unluckily the fact that Linn.«US first named the Summer Tan-
ager Fringilla rubra in the 10th ed. of the Systema Naturae, i, 17.58, p. 181, and Muscicapa
rubra in the 12th ed., 1766, p. 326; for by our rules we umst accept the specific name rubra,
and that of course debars us from using it for the Scarlet Tanager, which LiNNiEUS named
Tanagra rubra in 1766, Syst. Nat., i, 12th ed., p. 314. This necessary change caused some
confusion at first, but we have already become used to it, and it is not likely to make any trouble
in future. See my "Birds of the Colorado Valley," i, 1878, p. 351 , where I made the point 20
years ago, stating that " the name rubra should stand in place of (estiva for the summer red-
bird," though I was not enough of a stickler for strictness to make in former editions of the Key
TA r^A GR ID.E : TA NA GER S.
349
a change which I am perfectly willing to follow, now that it has been made and generally
adopted by other writers.
P. r. coo'peri. (To Dr. J. G- Cooper, of California.) Cooper's Tanager. Western
Summer Redbird. Characters of P. rubra; back rather darker than head; larger; length
about 8.00; extent about 13.00; wing 4.25; tail 3.60; bill 0.75; tarsus 0.80. Southern
Rocky Mt. region; Texas to Lower Colorado Valley, Cal., and southward; originally based
as a full species, Pi/ranga cooperi, upon $ 9 specimens which I shot at Los Pinos, N. M., oa
the Rio Grande, iu June, 1864; P. cestica cooperi of all previous eds. of the Key; Pirtmga
rubra cooperi Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., viii, 1885, p. 354 ; A. O. U. Lists, No. 610 a.
P. hepa'tica. (Lat. hepar, hepatis, the liver.) Hepatic Tanager. Adult ^ : Upper
parts brownish-ashy, intimately mixed with dull red ; top of head, upper tail-coverts, and
edgings of wings and tail, brighter brownish-red. Inner webs and ends of wing-quills dusky ;
tail-feathers throughout decidedly tinged with red. Sides of head like back ; edges of eyelids red.
Below, bright red; sides and Hanks shaded with color of back, many feathers often also with
ashy skirting. Bill and feet blackish-plumbeous, the cutting edge of the upper mandible fur-
nished with a tooth more prominent than iu most species (fig. 205). Length about 8.00;
wing 4.00 ; tail 3.33 ; bill 0.66 ; tarsus 0.80. Adult 9 : Bill and feet as in <?. Upper parts
greenish-olive, with an ashy-gray tinge ; crown and rump clearer and more yellowish-olive.
Sides of head like back. Beneath, yellow, clear and nearly pure medially, shaded on sides
with color of back, sometimes brightening almost into orange on throat. Quills and tail
fuscous, with olivaceous-yellow edgings, former darker than latter. Young ^ : Like 9 ! in
males changing, the characters of the two sexes confused. Very young : There is an earlier
streaky stage, before the assumption of a plumage like that of 9 • Upper parts grayish-brown
with an olive tinge; lower parts graj'ish- white with a yellowish shade; both everywhere
streaked with dusky. Wings and tail like those of adult 9 > but former with ochraceous
bands across ends of greater and middle coverts. Southern Rocky Mt. region and southward
to Guatemala. Pyranga hepatica Swainson, Philos. Mag., i, 1827, p. 438, and of former
eds. of the Key.
P. ludovioia'na. (Lat., of Louisiana, formerly of great extent in the West ; name now iuap-
plicable. Fig. 206.) Crimson-headed Tanager. Adult J: Middle of back, wings, and tail
black ; wings crossed by two
yellow or yellowish-white bars
on ends of greater and middle
coverts ; inner secondaries
marked with white or yellowish.
Head all around scarlet or even
criuLSon, the color extending
diluted on breast. Other parts
bright yellow, generally purest
on rump. Iris brown ; bill horn-
color ; legs livid bluish. Length
about 7.00; wing 3.50-4.00;
tail 2.7.5-3.25 ; bill 0.60; tarsus
0.75. Adult 9 : Above, olive,
darker and somewhat ashy-
shaded on middle of back,
clearer and briirhter on rump
and crown. Below, greenish- Fio. 200. - Crimson-headed Tanager.
yellow, shaded with olive on sides. Wings and tail fuscous, with edgings of color of upper
parts ; greater and median coverts tipped with white or yellowish ; inner secondaries edged with
350 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES— OSCINES.
the same. Averaging rather less than ^. The bird lacks the buffy shades characteristic of 9
rubra, besides being decidedly smaller. The general coloration, in its clear olive and yellow, is
exactly that of 9 erythromelas ; from which distinguished by white or yellow markings on
wings. The ^ at first resembles the 9 , >^^^ in progress toward maturity every gradation be-
tween the two is presented. The distinctive dark dorsal area, and traces of the red of the head
soon appear. In a usual condition of incomplete dress, the black of the back is mixed with gray
or olive the yellow of the back of the neck is obscured, that of the under parts is shaded with
olive, and the head is only partly red. Western U. S., from the Great Plains and eastern foot-
hills of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific ; British Columbia, S. in winter to Guatemala ; accidental
eastward, as in New York and New England. Breeds in all its N. Am. range and winters
extralimital. Habits, nests, and eggs like those of our other Tanagers ; eggs 0.95 X 0.65.
This beautiful bird was discovered by Lewis and Clark, in their Camp Chopuunish, on the
Kooskooskee River, in Idaho, June 6, 1806: see my ed. of their Travels, 1893, p. 1035;
but it was first named and described by Wilson, Am. Orn., iii, 1811, p. 27, pi. 20, fig. 1.
P. rub'riceps. (Lat. rubriceps, red-headed.) Gray's Tanager. Adult J": Whole head
and more or less of the neck and breast bright red ; rest of under parts rich yellow ; back
olive-green, changing to yellowish on rump and upper tail-coverts; tail blackish with oliva-
ceous edgings of the feathers ; wings the same, excepting the lesser and middle coverts, which
are yellow. About the size of the last, and somewhat resembling it, but quite distinct ; wing
3.75 ; tail 3.40. The sexual differences, and changes of plumage of young males, are probably
coincident with those of P. hidoviciana. U. S. of Colombia ; accidental in Dos Pueblos, Santa
Barbara Co., California. Pyranga rubriceps G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, ii, 1844, pi. 89;
Piranga rubriceps Bryant, Auk, Jan. 1887, p. 78; Ridgw., Man., 1887, p. 589; CouES,
Key, 4th ed., 1890, p. 899; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 255, No [007. 1].
Family HIRUNDINID JE : Swallows.
Swallows are fissirostral Oscine Passeres with nine primaries. Bill short, broad, fiat,
somewhat triangular, deeply cleft ; gape wide, about twice as long as culmen ; mouth thus
opening to about beneath eyes. This is the strongest character of the family in comparison
with its Oscine allies, and one perfectly distinctive, though some genera of Hirundines, espe-
cially Progne, approach Amp>elidce in form of bill. The bill narrows rapidly to the compressed
acute tip. Nasal fossfe short and wide ; nostrils directed laterally or upward, sometimes cir-
culai and completely exposed, sometimes scaled over. Culmen convex, scarcely a thii-d as long
as head; tip of upper mandible overhanging, usually nicked. Rictus smooth (or with a few
inconspicuous bristles?). Wings extremely long and strong, the pinion bearing only 9 prima-
ries, 1st of which equals or exceeds 2d in length, rest so rapidly graduated that 9th is scarcely
or not half as long as 1st ; secondaries and their coverts also very short ; all these quill-feathers
broad and stout. An acute, thin-bladed and somewhat falcate wing, of surpassing volatorial
power, results from these modifications. Tail of 12 rectrices, perhaps abnormally only 10,
usually forked, or at least emarginate, often deeply forficate, the outermost feathers being in
this latter case narrowly linear for a considerable distance. Feet short, small, and weak, ill-
adapted to secure foot-hold, and very badly formed for walking. Swallows scarcely use their
feet for locomotion, relying mainly upon their prowess of pinion. Tarsal envelop thoroughly
Oscine in structure, being scutellate in front and laminate behind; sometimes partially, or
almost entirely, feathered ; tarsi commonly shorter than lateral toes. The digits possess the
normal number of phalanges; basal phalanx of middle digit commonly coherent with one or
both lateral toes ; hallux ordinary, not reversible. Digits commonly naked and scutellate,
rarely feathered to the claws. Claws comparatively strong, compressed, well-curved, and
acute, apt for clinging. Plumage soft, smooth, and blended, most frequently glogsy or even
HIRUNDINID.E: SWALLOWS. 351
iridescent, but sometimes lustreless. Head short, broad, and depressed; neck short. Mouth
capacious, its greatest width equalling that of head.
This is a perfectly natural group, well distinguished by the foregoing characters. The
Swallows alone represent, among Oscines, the fissirostral type of structure ; they have a close
superficial resemblance to Swifts and Goatsuckers, of anotht-r order, but the relation is one of
analogy, not of affinity, though all these birds were formerly classed together in the highly
unnatural " order " Fissirostres. (See beyond, under Micropodidce and Caprimulgidce.)
A hundred species of Swallows are pretty well ascertained to be genuine. They are dis-
tributed all over the world ; the most generalized types, like Hirundo itself, are more or less cos-
mopolitan, but each of the great divisions of the globe has its peculiar subgenera or particular
sets of species. Thus, all the American groups except Hirundo and Clivicola are peculiar to
this continent.
Swallows are insectivorous, and therefore migratory in cold and temperate latitudes;
unsurpassed in powers of flight, they are enabled to pass with ease and swiftness from one
country to another, as the state of the weather may require. With us a few warm days in
February and March often allure them northward, only to be driven back again by the cold,
giving rise to the well-known adage : " One Swallow does not make a summer." No birds
are better known to all classes than these, and none so welcome to man's abode — cherished
witnesses of peace and plenty in the homestead, dashing ornaments of the busy thoroughfare.
The habits of Swallows best illustrate the modifying influences of civilization on indigenous
birds. Formerly, they all bred on cliffs, in banks, in hollows of trees, and similar places, and
many do so still. But most of our species have forsaken these primitive haunts to avail them-
selves of the convenient artificial nesting-places that man, intentionally or otherwise, provides.
Some are just now in a transition state ; thus the Purple Martin, in settled parts of the country,
chooses the boxes everywhere provided for its accommodation, while in the West it retains its
old custom of breeding in hollow trees. The nesting of our Swallows now presents the follow-
ing categories of method : —
1. Holes in the ground, dug by the birds, slightly furnished with soft material : Clivicola
riparia, Stelgidojyteryx serripennis.
2. Holes in trees or rocks not made by the birds, fairly furnished with soft material :
Progne suhis, Tachycineta bicolor, T. thalassina.
3. Holes, or their equivalents, not made by the birds, but secured through human agency,
and more or less fully furnished with soft material, according to the shallowness or depth of the
retreat. (Formerly, no species ; now, all the species excepting Clivicola riparia.)
4. Holes constructed by the birds, of mud, plastered to surfaces, whether artificial or natural,
and loosely furnished with soft material. This is seen in perfection in the nesting of Petro-
chelidon lunifrons, and is imperfectly illustrated by the nidification of Hirundo erythrogastra.
5. Eggs pure white, unmarked : Tachycineta bicolor, T. thalassina, Clivicola riparia^
Stelgidopteryx serripennis, Progne subis.
6. Eggs thickly speckled : Hirundo erythrogastra, Petrochelidon lunifrons.
Aside from three extralimital species (Progne cryptoleuca, Petrochelidon fulva, and Calli-
chelidon cyaneoviridis), lately ascertained to occur as stragglers in Florida, the seven estab-
lished North American species, referable to six genera, may readily be determined by the
following
Analysis 0/ Genera and Species.
Tail deeply forficate, with linear lateral feathers ; lustrous steel-blue above, rufous below . Hirundo erythrogaster
Tail simply emarginate ; lustrous green ; beneath wliite Tachycineta bicolor
Tail simply emarginate ; opaque velvety green ; beneath white Tachycineta thalassina
Tail nearly even ; lustrous steel-blue ; rump rufous Petrochelidon lunifrons
Tarsus with tuft of feathers below ; lustreless gray ; below white Clivicola riparia
Outer edge of first primary serrate ; lustreless brownish ; paler below . Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Bill very stout, curved ; male entirely lustrous blue-black .... Progne subi*
352
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES— OSCINES.
Fig. 207. — Generic details of Hirundo [H. erythro-
gastra, uat. size). (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
HIRUN'DO. (Lat. hirundo, a swallow. Fig. 207.) Barn Swallows. Tail deeply
forficate, nearly or about as long as wings ; lateral feather linear-attenuate, about twice as
long as middle feather. Tarsi shorter than
middle toe and claw, above feathered for a little
distance ; basal joint of middle toe partly adherent
to both lateral toes. Bill of moderate size for
this family, of usual shape, with straight com-
missure ; nostrils lateral, overarched by a mem-
branous scale. Upper parts glossy, dark-colored ;
a dark pectoral collar ; forehead and under parts
rufous ; tail spotted with white. Eggs colored.
Sexes similar. This is the geuuiue genus Hi-
rundo Linn., 1758, type H. rustica, the com-
mon Swallow of Europe, as restricted by
SCHAEFFER, Elem. Orn., 1774 : see Coues, Auk,
July, 1898, p. 271 ; Sharpe, Monograph of Hi-
rundinida;, p. xxxv. Hirundo of former editions
of the Key, and of A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk,
Jan. 1899, p. 122. But Chelidon (after FoR-
•Ster, Synop. Cat. Brit. Birds, 1817, p. 55).
Stejneger, Proceedings U. S. Naticmal Mu-
seum, V, June 5, 1882, p. ."31 ; A. 0. U. Lists,
1st and 2d editions, 1880-95.
H. erythrogas'tra. (Gr. epvdpos, eruthros,
ruddy, and yaa-TTjp, gaster, belly. Fig. 208.) American Barn Swallow. Adult ^ :
Deep lustrous steel-blue ; forehead and entire under parts rufous, generally deepest on fore-
head and throat ; an imperfect steel-blue collar. Wings and tail blackish, with steel-
blue or somewhat greenish gloss;
lateral pair of tail-feathers much
lengthened and filiform at the end,
all but central pair with a white
spot. Length 6.00-7.00, very va-
riable, according to development
of tail ; extent 12.50-13.50 ; wing
4..50-5.00; tail 3.00-5.00, the fork
2.00-3.00 deep. Adult ?: Quite
like (J; colors rather less intense
and lustrous ; average size smaller.
Young : Lacking in great measure
elongation and attenuation of lateral
tail-feathers, the fork being an inch
or less in depth. Similar to the
adults, but much duller, and with
rather a greenish than steel-blue
lustre — at an early age quite
brown, with scarcely any lustre ;
rump and upper tail-coverts skirted with rusty; frontlet obscurely marked or reduced to a mere
tawny line ; under parts, especially behind the dark collar, very pale, even brownish-white.
N. Am. at large ; abundant ; breeds throughout its range ; migrates through the West
Indies, and winters in Cent, and S. Am. Hirundo erythrogaster Boddaert, 1783; H. hnr-
Fio. 208. — Barn Swallow.
HIR UNDINID.E : S WA LL 0 WS.
353
reoriim Barton, 1799; Baird, J858; Coues, 1872, in 1st ed. of the Key; H. eri/tJirogasfra
horreonim of other eds. of the Key; Chelidon enjthrogasier, A. 0. U. List, 188(i, p. 292,
wrong for genus and wrong for gender; C erytlirogastra, A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 258,
Nt). 613. This means that attempts to distinguish the North American bird from that of
South America have finally failed.
TACHYCINE'TA. (Gr. TaxvKivqros, tachiikmetos, moving rapidly.) Iris Swallows.
Violet-velvet Swallows. Similar to the last, but lacking elongation and attenuation of
lateral tail-feathers, which also lack white spots. Tail simply emargiuate. Under parts
snowy white. Sexes alike. Eggs S-G, colorless. Ividoprocne and Taclujcineta of 2d, 3d,
and 4th eds. of the Key, p. 322.
Analysis of Subgenfi-a and Species.
Iridoprocne. Plumage of upper parts lustrous aud uuicolor ....
Tachyclneta proper. Plumage of upper parts lustreless and versicolor
. biro
(li/iiass,
Swallow.
Ln-es black.
T. (I.) bi'folor. (Lat. hicolor, two-colored. Fig. 209.) White-bellied
Adult ^ : Entire upper parts glossy dark green ; wings aud tail blackish, lustrous;
Entire under parts pure white. Bill black ; feet dark.
Length about 0.00; extent 13.00; wing 4.50-5.00;
tail 2. .50. 9 : Similar, the colors rather less intense
aud lustrous. Young : Birds of the year slowly acquire
a plumage differing only in less lustre and intensity
from that of adults; but, (m leaving the nest, they are
dark mouse-gray or slate-color above, including wings
and tail; interscapulars and inner quills tipped with \ ^
rusty; white below, slightly shaded with ashy: thus
curiously similar to Clivicola riparia. Feet yellow.
The first plumage is worn longer than usual, the
autumnal dress being slowly gained — one or two of the Fig. 200. — White-beliied Swallow, nat.
metallic-tinted feathers at a time. The quills of the «'"«• ^^^- "''*• <^'^^- ^- ^'^
wing are moulted by the young as well as by the adult, and in both, in autumn, the ii.ner
secondaries are white-tipped. Temperate N. Am. Breeds indifferently in most parts of its
range, aud winters abundantly on the southern border, sometimes even from South Carolina,
to tlie West Indies and Cent. Am.
T. thaias'sina. (Gr. BoKacra-Lvo^, thalassinos, sea-green.) Violet-green Swallow. Adult
^ : Entire under parts, including sides of head to just above eyes, and an enlarged fluffy tuft
on flanks tending to join its fellow over rump, pure silky white. Upper parts rich velvety-
green, mixed with a little vicdet-purple ; crown of head similar, but rather greenish-brown,
with purplish tinge. Cervical region, in some cases a well-defined though narrow cervical
collar, and u])])er tail-coverts, violet-purple. These rich colors opaque, without gloss or sheen ;
wiiiiTS and tail blackisli, with violet and i)ur])lish gloss. Bill black ; feet brownish- black,
small; iris brown; mouth pale yellow. Length 4.50-5.50; extent 11.50-12.50; wing 4.50;
tail 2.00, lightly forked; bill 0.25; tarsus 0.40. The 9 , and immature birds in general, differ
simply in less purity and intensity of colors of ujjper parts. In highest plumaged specimens,
tlu- back is nearly pure green, the cervical collar distinct, and tiie several contrasts of crown,
collar, back, and upper tail-coverts are strong; in general, the back has a brownish-purple
sliade, more like that of crown. Very young birds are like 1'. hicolor, though smaller, being
dark mouse-gray above and white btdovv. But traces at least of the special tints speedily ap-
])ear. Young or autumnal birds usually have the inner secondaries whit('-tipi)ed, as in T. hicolor.
Mid.llc and Western Provinces, U. S., and a<ljoining portions of British America; E. to the
23
354
SrSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
Upper Missouri, N. to the Yukou, S. iu winter to Costa Rica. Breeds throughout its rauge,
and winters extraliuiital. A lovely species.
CALLICHELI'DON. (Gr. koXXi-, kalli-, usual combining form of koXos, kalos, beautiful:
XeXtSwj/, cJielidon, a swallow.) Blue-green Swallows. Resembling Tackycineta, espe-
cially that section of the genus in which the upper parts are not iridescent, though versicolor-
ous; tarsus rather longer, exceeding middle toe without claw; points of folded wings reacliing
about to end of tail, which is forked for about 1.00. One species, a straggler from the
Bahamas.
C. cyaneovir'idis. (Lat. cyaneus, blue; viridis, green.) Bahaman Swallow. Adult ^ :
Upper parts beautiful soft velvety green with golden gleam but without sheen, gradually
changing to bluish-greeu or violet on wings and tail. Entire under parts pure white,
this color extending upon sides of head to include auriculars ; feathers of chin and throat
snowy to the very base. Adult 9 : Similar, but the white somewhat soiled with grayish
on sides of head, body, and lining of the wings. Length 5.75; wing 4.50; tail 3.00,
forked nearly or quite 1.00; tarsus 0.50. Baliamas, casually on the Dry Tortugas and
at Tarpon Springs, Florida. A lovely species, first described as Hirundo cyaneoviridis
by Dr. H. Bryant, Pr. Bost. Soc N. H., vii, 1859, p. Ill, from the Bahamas, type
No. 11946, Mus. Smiths. Inst.; Hirundo (Ccdlichelidon) cyaneoviridis Baird, Rev. Am. B.,
i, 1865, p. 30.'?; Callichelidon cyaneoviridis Bryant MS., ibid.; not in previous eds. of
the Key; not in A. O. U. List, 1886; first added to our fauna by W. E. D. Scott ; see
Auk, July, 1890, p. 265, and Oct. 1890, p. 303, specimen taken Apr. 9, 1890; Brewst.,
Auk, Apr. 1897, p. 221, Tarpon Springs, Sept. 3, 1890; A. O. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 259,
No. [615. 1].
PETKOCHELI'DON. (Gr. TreVpa, petra, a rock ; ;(6XtScoi', chelidon, a swallow. Fig. 210.)
Cliff Swallows. Bill stout and deep (for this family) ; nostrils superior, opening with-
out nasal scale. Tail unusually short,
the tips of the folded wings reaching
beyond it, about even, or only slightly
emarginate, with the feathers broad to
their ends. Feet much as in Hirundo ;
^^^^^^^^—^^g^— t^i'si feathered above; toes extensively
I , ^^^^^^^^^^l^^^k. adherent at base. A bristly appearance
of front and chin, different from what is
seen in other groups. The tuft of crissal
feathers is full, reaching nearly to end
of tail. The species agree well in a
special pattern of coloration, being
steel-blue above, with rufous rump
and nuchal band, and usually a front-
^*«/% [j"'^ A-p^'"'^5' ^^ let of difi'erent color from the rest of
the upper parts ; under ])arts not con-
FiG. 210. - cuff Swallow. tiuuously white as iu Tachycineta and
Callichelidon. Nidification peculiar; eggs colored. Sexes alike.
P. lu'nifrons. (Lat. luna, the moon, or a crescent; frons, forehead. Fig. 211.) Cliff
Swallow. Eaves Swallow. Crescent Savallow. Mud Swallow. Adult ^ 9 '■
Back and top of head, with spot on throat, deep lustrous steel-blue, that of crown and back
separated by a grayish nuchal collar. Fi-ontlet white or brownish-white. Shorter upper tail-
coverts rufous. Chin, throat, and sides of head intense rufous, sometimes purplish-chestnut,
prolonged around side of nape. Under parts dull grayish-brown, with usually a rufous tinge
(rusty-gray), and dusky sliafr-lines, whitening on belly ; under tail-coverts gray, wliitish-
HIR UNDINIDyE : S WALLOWS.
355
Fig. 211. — Cliff SwaUow, nat.
(Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
edged and tinged with rufous. Wings and tail blackish, with slight gloss. Bill black; feet
browu. Length 5.00-5.50; extent 12.00 or more; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 2.25, nearly square.
Sexes not distinguishable; both vary much in tone of C(»lorati(m,
especially of the rufous parts. Forehead sometimes white, some-
times quite brown. In young birds, the frontlet may be alto-
gether wanting ; upper parts lustreless dark brown, most of the
feathers being skirted with' whitish; rufous of throat and rump
a mere tinge ; spot on throat wanting, and the parts often speckled
with white. N. Am. at large, abundantly but irregularly dis-
tributed, breeding in colonies wherever suitable sites may be
found for its curious retort-shaped or bottle-nosed nests of mud.
It has been traced N. to the limit of trees in Brit. Am., S. to
Cent, and S. Am. According to Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus., x,
1885, p. 193, the proper name of our Cliff Swallow is P. pyr- ®'^®
rhonota (Vieill., 1817), with a possibility of P. americana (Gm., 1788) ; both these names
being based on the South American species.
P. ful'va. (Lat., fulvous.) Cuban Cliff Swallow. In general, like the last; differing
as follows: no blue-black spot on throat; frontlet rich chestnut; chin, throat, and sides of head
pale rufous, like the flanks; rump darker rufous. Smaller; length under 5.00; wing 4.50-
4.75, thus relatively longer; tail 2.00 or rather less. Greater Antilles and some parts of
Cent. Am. Accidental on the Dry Tortugas, Florida. This is the true Hirundo fulva
Vieill., Ois. Am. Sept. i. 1807, p. 62, pi. 30, though the name used to be misapplied to our
Cliff Swallow; PcfrochcJidon fifJrn Cab., Mus. Hein. i. 1850, p. 47; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.,
1895, No. [612. 1] ; not in any pre-
vious ed. of the Key ; see W. E. D.
Scott, Auk, July, 1890, p. 264,
.specimen taken Mar. 22, 1890.
CLIVIC'OLA. (Lat. divus, a
.slcipe, acclivity or declivity, such
as the birds breed in ; and colere,
to inhabit, (in)cola, an inliabitant.)
Bank Swallows. Tarsus with a
tuft of feathers at base below, near
insertion of hind toe. Edge of wing
not rough. Claws little curved, the
ateral reaching beyond base of middle
one. Bill very small, nostrils opening
iterally, overhung by a membrane. Tail
shorter than wings, emarginate. Col-
dull and simple — lustreless brown
d across l^reast, white below. Eggs
laid in holes in the ground excavated
Sexes alike. (Cotile of all previous
Key, and of most autliors ; but Riparia
and Clicicola (»f I. It. For.ster, Syn. Cat. lirit. B., 1817,
pp. 17 and 55, antedate Cotile of
BoiE, Isis, 1822, J). 550 ; see CouES,
and Oberh., Auk, July, 1899, p. 281.)
riparian; ripa, bank of a stream. Fig. 212.) Bank Swal-
inouse-brown ; wings and tail fuscous. Below, white,
Fig. 212
Auk, July, 1898, p. 27
C. ripa'ria. (Lat. riparin
low. Adult ^ 9 : Lustreless
gned by H. W. Elliott.)
356 S Y STEM A TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
with broad pectoral band of color of back. A dusky ante-orbital spot. Length about 5.00 ;
extent 10.50; wing 4.00; tail 2.00. Sexes similar. Young differ chietiy in whitish edgings
of the feathers, especially of wings and tail. Even in the adult, the upper parts are apt to be
not quite uniform, there being paler gray edgings of most feathers. The dark pectoral band
sometimes extends backward along middle of under parts (not shown in fig. 212). Autumnal
specimens have the secondaries white-tipped. Very young birds have rather rusty than whit-
ish skirting of the dark feathers, and white throat speckled with the same. Almost cosmo-
politan: Europe, Asia, Africa, America; abundant in N. Am., breeding in immense troops in
holes in the ground, wherever suitable sites offer, as natural embankments, railn^id cuttings,
gravel-pits, etc. ; N. to the limit of trees, S. into S. Am.
STELGIDOP'TERYX. (Gr. arfXyis, stelgis, a scraper; 7rT€pv$, pterux, wing.) RouGH-
wiNGED Swallows. General aspect of Clivicola ; form and coloration much the same.
Outer web of 1st primary converted into a series of stiff, recurved hooks. (Other Swallows, as
Psalidoprocne Cab., have this peculiar wing structure, but are otherwise different.) The de-
sign of the structure is not clear, but we may readily suppose that the hooks assist the birds
in crawling into their holes, and in clinging to vertical or hanging surfaces. Tarsus slightly
feathered above, but lacking the curious tuft seen at base of hind toe in Clivicola. Lateral
claws curved, and not reaching beyond base of middle. Basal joint of middle toe extensively
adherent to the outer, much less so to the inner. Bill small, with oval, superior nostrils mar-
gined by membrane behind, but not overhung. Tail short and slightly emargiuate. Eggs
uncolored, in holes dug by the birds, or elsewhere. Sexes alike.
S. serripen'nis. (Lat. serra, a saw; penna, a feather.) Rough- winged Swallow. Adult
(J 9 : Lustreless mouse-brown or brownish-gray, paler below, gradually whitening posteriorly.
Wings and tail darker than upper parts. Rather larger than the last species. No dark pec-
toral baud contrasting with white. No tuft of feathers at base of hind toe. Young : At a very
early age, the feathers of the back, rump, and wings are suffused or edged with rich rusty-
brown, while the under parts are more or less tinged with a paler shade of the same. The
booklets of the wings are only fully developed in adult birds, and aie not appreciable in young
ones. U. S. and adjoining British Provinces; rare in New England States; breeds through-
out its N. Am. lange, and in Mexico ; extends in winter to Cent. Am.
PROG'NE. (Gr. Hponvrj, Procne, a mythological character.) Of large size and robust Ljviu
for this family. Bill long and stout, with much-curved commissure and deflected tip ; culmen
convex, its tomial edge concavo-convex like '^. Nostrils circular, opening upward, without
nasal scale. Feet large, with strong, much-curved claws ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and
claw ; lateral toes about equalling each other in length ; basal joint of middle toe freer from
lateral toes than usual. Tail forked. Sexes dissimilar. Eggs colorless.
P. su'bis. (Lat. subtil, name of an unknown bird. Fig. 213.) Purple Martin. Adult
(J : Intense lustrous steel-blue. Wings and tail blackish, with bluish lustre. Bill black ;
feet blackish. Length 7.50-8..50; extent 15.50; wing 5.50-6.00; tail 3.00-3.50, forked;
bill 0.50, very stout, broad at base, somewhat decurved at end; nostrils circular, exposed,
opening upward. 9 : Dark grayish-brown, glossed on back and head with steel-blue.
Wings and tail fuscous, paler on inner webs, with narrow gray edgings. Beneath, whitish,
shaded with dark gray in most parts, the feathers very generally with dusky shaft-line. Young
birds of both sexes resemble adult 9 , though the young males are rather darker. The steel-
blue appears at first in patches. Eggs 3-5, 0.95 to 1.00 X 0.70 to 0.75. U. S. and British
Provinces, abundant and generally distributed ; breeds throughout its range, usually in the East
in boxes provided for its accommodation, in the West in holes in trees ; winters extralimital. in
S. Am.
P. s. hespe'ria. (Gr. (anepia. licaperia, feminine form of fampioi, hcspcrios, western ; eanepa,
hespera, the evening, lunice western, equivalent to Lat. rexpcra, vosjier; "Eanepos, Hef<peros,
A MPELID.E : CHA TTERERS.
357
in Lat. and English, Hesperus, the evening star, i. e., Lucifer or Venus, when setting in the
evening ; 'EfrnepiSfs, Hesperides, the nymphs who guarded the golden apples in the garden of
the same name, supposed to be
in Africa somewhere in the vi-
cinity of Mt. Atlas.) West-
ern Martin. Vesper Mar-
tin. Closely resembling the
last, the (J not satisfactorily
distinguishable. 9 differing in
having the belly, vent, and
crissum white, nearly or quite
immaculate ; flanks, breast,
throat, forehead, and nuchal
collar grayish-white ; feathers
of the back and rump with pale
edgings; bend of wing and
under wing-coverts spotted with
white. California and Arizona,
from lat. 40"^ S. to Nicaragua.
Brewster, Auk, Apr. 1889,
p. 92 ; CouES, Key, 4th ed.,
1890, p. 899 ; A. 0. U. List,
2ded., 1895, p. 257, No. 61 1 a.
P. cryptoleii'ca. (Gr. KpvTrros,
krKjitos, hidden, concealed, oc-
cult, secret ; XevKos, leukos,
white.) Cuban Martin. In
general, resembling P. subis ;
smaller on an average, hardly
reaching 8.00 ; wing about 5.50 ;
tail about 3-00, with narrower
feathers and relatively deeper
forking than in P. suhis.
Adult $ : feathers of belly with concealed white spttts or bars. Adult 9 and young $ :
Belly and crissum quite white, in contrast with the grayish-brown of other under parts. Cuba,
Florida. Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, i, 1865, p. 277; not recognized in the Key, 1st, 2d, and 3d
eds., nor iu A. 0. U. List, 1st ed. ; P. stcbis cryptolenca, Key, 4th cd., 1890, p. 899; P. cryp-
toleuca, A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 257, No. [611. 1].
Fig -213. —Purple Martiu.
Family AMPELIDiE : Chatterers.
This appears to be an arbitrary and unnatural association of a few genera tliat agree in
some particulars, but are widely different iu others. Tlie (•< imposition and position of tlie group
iliffer with almost every writer; someplace it in Clamatores, ne.xt to Tyrannidce. I think that
the family should be dismembered ; and doubtless the two subfamilies here presented may be
properly dissociated. They are discriminated, so for as our forms are concerned, by the char-
acters given under the heads of tlie only two genera with wliicii we have here to do.
358
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
Subfamily AMPELIN/E: Waxwings.
Of this subfamily, as here restricted, there is only one genus with three species — one of
Europe, Asia, and America, one of Asia and Japan, one peculiar to America.
AM'PEJLIS. (Gr. a/uTreXis, Lat. ampelis, name of a bird.) Waxwings. Bill, short, broad,
flat, rather obtuse, plainly notched near tip of each mandible, with wide and deeply-cleft gape ;
convex culmen and gonys less than half as long as tlie nearly straight commissure ; width of
rictus more than two-thirds the length of gape. Nasal fossae broad, but filled with short,
erect or antrorse, and close-set, velvety feathers ; nostrils narrowly elliptical, overarched by a
(feathered) scale. Rictal vibrisste few and short. Wings long and pointed, much longer than
tail, their point formed by 3d primary, closely supported by 2d and 4th, 5th abruptly shorter,
the rest rapidly graduated. Primaries 10, but 1st spurious, so very short as readily to escape
Fig. 214 — Bohemian Waxwings,
observation, and sometimes displaced to the outer side of the 2d, — a condition like that seen
among Vireos. Inner quills, as a rule, and sometimes the tail-feathers, tipped with curious
red horny appendages, like sealing-wax. Tail short, narrow, even, two-thirds or less of the
length of wing. Feet rather weak ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw, distinctly scu-
tellate with five or six divisions anteriorly and somewhat receding from strict Oscine character
by subdivision of the lateral plates. Lateral toes of nearly equal lengths ; ends of their claws
scarcely reaching base of middle claw ; hallux about as long as inner lateral toe. Basal
phalanx of middle toe coherent with outer toe for about two-thirds its length, with inner toe
for about half its length. Body stout. Head conspicuously crested. Plumage peculiarly soft,
A MPELID.E — A MPELIN.E : WA X WIiXGS.
369
smooth, and silky. Tail tipped with yellow (or red, in the Japanese A. phcenicoptera). Sexes
alike; young different. Eggs spotted. Nest on trees.
A. gar'rulus. (Lat. 5iam<Ze<s, a jay-bird : from its loquacity. Fig. 214.) Bohemian Wax-
wing. Black-throated Waxwing. Lapland VVaxwing. Silk-tail. Adult ^ ?:
General color brownish-ash, shading insensibly from the clear ash of the tail and its upper
coverts and rump into a reddish-tinged ash anteriorly, this peculiar tint heightening on head,
especially on forehead and sides of head, into orange-brown. A narrow frontal line, and
broader bar through eye, with chin and throat, sooty black, not or not sharply bordered with
white. No yellowish on belly. Under tail-coverts orange-brown or chestnut. Tail ash,
deepening to blackish-ash toward end, broadly tipped with rich yellow. Wings ashy-blackish ;
primaries tipped (chiefly on outer webs) with sharp spaces of yellow, or white, or both ; seconda-
ries with white spaces at ends of outer webs, the shafts usually ending with enlarged, homy,
red appendages. Primary coverts tipped with white. Bill blackish-plumbeous, often paler at
base below; feet black. Length 7.00-8.00 ; wing 4.50 ; tail 2.50. The sexes of this beauti-
ful bird are alike, and the principal variations, aside from mere shade of the body-color, con-
sist in the markings of the wings. In the finest specimens, the ends of the primary quills are
rich yellow, like the tips of the tail-feathers, forming broad firm spaces, in a continuous line
when the wing is closed, with narrower offsets going around the ends of the quills. In less
perfect specimens, these markings are simply white, are less firm, and do not appear on all
the quills. The secondaries may or may not show the red " sealing-wax '' tips, but in adult
birds at least probably always show white markings at the ends, and the same is the case
w'ith the primary coverts. These
wing-markings, with chestnut cris-
sum, and absence of yellowish on
belly, will always distinguish the
species from A. cedrornm, indepen-
dently of its much superior size.
Young : There is an early streaked
stage, like that of A. cedrorum.
Northern hemisphere, northerly,
wandering S. in vast troops at ir-
regular periods. In America, S.
regularly in winter to the northern
tier of States; in the Rocky Mts.
much farther; casually to about 35^.
Rare on the Pacific coast except in
Alaska. Breeds in high latitudes,
but down to the U. S. border in the
Ro(;ky Mts. Nesting substantially
the same as that of A. cedrorum,
and eggs only different in their
greater size — about 1.00 X 0.67.
A. oedro'rum. (Lat. cedrus, gen.
jil. cedrorum, the cedar. Figs. 215,
21(5.) Cedar Waxwing. Caro-
lina Waxwing. Canada Wax-
wing. Cedar-bird. Cherry-bihd.
The Polite Bird. Recollet. Adult ^ 9 : General color shading from clear pure ash on
upper tail-coverts and rump through olivaceous-cinnamon into a richer and somewhat purplish-
cinnamon on foreparts and head. On under parts, the color shades through yellowish on belly
Fio. 215. — Cedar W
360 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES— OSCINES.
into white on under tail-cuverts. Tliere is uo detnarcatiun of color whatever, and the tints
are scarcely susceptible <if adequate description. Frontlet, lores, and stripe through eye,
velvety-black ; chin the same, soon shading into color of
breast. A sharp white line on side of under jaw; a nar-
rower one bordering the black frontlet and lores ; lower
eyelid white. Quills of wings slate-gray, blackening at
ends, paler along edges of inner webs; without white or
yellow markings, as a rule ; inner quills tipped with red
horny appendages. Tail-feathers like primaries, but tipped
with yellow, and sometimes also showing red horny append-
ages. Bill plumbeous-black, sometimes paler at base be-
low; feet black. Length 6.50-7.2.5; extent 11.50-12.00;
wing 3.50-3.75; tail 2.25. Young: Brownish-gray, with
a slight olive shade ; paler below, whitening or becoming
slightly yellowish on belly ; everywhere streaked with dingy
whitish ; the markings most evident on breast and sides.
Fig. 21G.— Cedar-bird, nat. size. (Ad. AViugs and tail as in adults, but Usually lacking red ap-
nat. del. E. c.) pendages. The velvety-black and white on head imper-
fectly defined. Bill pale at base below ; feet plumbeous. Specimens apparently mature and
full-feathered frequently lack the sealing-wax tips. These are normally confined to the sec-
ondaries, but occasionally appear on one or several primaries, and some or all rectrices (as in
fig. 214) ; a case is recorded in which an under tail-covert was similarly embellished. Both
sexes possess these ornaments, but as a rule they are best developed in the ^. The normal
period of their appearance is not known — it is probably not constant ; birds in the earliest
known plumage may possess one or more. They are possibly deciduous, independently of
moult of the feather. Their use is unknown. N. Am. at lai-ge to lat. 54° N. at least; breeds
indifferently throughout its N. Am. range, and migrates or rather wanders according to fo(jd-
supply ; winters in most of the U. S. ; goes in flocks nearly the whole year, and is especially
fond of resorting to cedar thickets to feed upon the berries; breeds late (June, July), in
orchards and groves ; nest in trees or bushes, in crotch of a bough or saddled on a limb ; eggs
3-6, livid or pale bluish, sharply and usually thickly marked with blackish surface spots and
others paler in the shell ; narrow and elongate, about 0.82 X 0.60.
Subfamily PTILOCONATIN/E : Fly-snappers.
Bill much as in the last sul)faniily, Init .slenderer for its Icngtli : nasal scale naked ; a few
short bristles about base t)f bill. Tarsus scutellate anteriorly, sometimes also on sides; about
as long as middle toe and claw; hind toe remarkably short. Wing not longer than tail, ninch
rounded, of 10 primaries; first short, less than half as long as 2d, w^hich is only about as
long as 8th; point of wing formed by 4th, 5th, and 6th or 3d quills. Tail long, nearly even,
with broad plane feathers (Phdinopepla) ; or much graduated, with tapering central feathers
{Ptihgonijs). Head conspicuously crested ; sexes (in our genus) dissimilar ; young not streaked
or spotted. The two leading genera of the subfamily are Phainojjepla and Ptilofjoinjs, the
latter with two strongly marked species of Mexico and Central America — P. cinereus and
P. {splienoteliis') caudatus.
PHAINOPEP'LA. (Gr. (paflvos, x>liaeinos, shining; ttcVAos, 2'>eplos, a robe.) Shining Fly-
SNAPPERS. Bill somewhat as in Ampelis, but slenderer for its length; nostrils naked, scaled;
antia; bristly, reaching nostrils; a few short rictal bristles. Tarsus scutellate anteriorly,
slightly subdivided on sides below. Hind toe very short; middle toe and claw about as long
as tarsus; lateral toes a little unequal, outer the longer, reaching a little beyond base of middle
VIREONID.-E: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS. 361
claw, its basal joint adhering to middle ; inner lateral toe nearly free to the base ; claws all
much curved. Wing not longer than tail, rounded, of 10 primaries, 1st developed, though only
about half as long as 2d, which about equals length of secondaries : point of wing formed
by 4th, 5th, and 6th quills. Tail long and fan-shaped, not emarginate, of broad plane feathers
widening to their obtuse ends. Head with a long, thin, occipital crest. Sexes dissimilar : ^
glossy-black, with large white wing-patch; 9 dull-colored; young not spotted or streaked.
Fine songsters. Nidification arboreal ; eggs colored.
P. ni'tens. (Lat. nitens, shining.) Shining Fly-snapper. Adult ^: Entirely rich lus-
trous black, with steel-blue or greenish reflections. Primaries with a large white space on
inner webs. Bill and feet black. Length about 7.50; extent 11.50; wing 3.50-3.70; tail 3.50-
4.12; bill 0.40-0.50; tarsus 0.60-0.66; middle toe and claw 0.66-0.75. Adult ?: Crested,
like (J. Entirely brownish-gray, paler beneath; wings and tail blackish; white on inner
webs of primaries much reduced or extinguished, and in its stead much whitish edging of quills
and coverts, tail-feathers, and crissum. Young ^ : Like 9 ! during progress to maturity
every gradation between characters of the two sexes is observed. Sometimes nearly all
the feathers are skirted with white. Middle and Western Provinces, U. S., from Utah,
Nevada, and Colorado southward in Lower California and Mexico. A bird of remarkable
characters and appearance, restless and vigilant ; feeds on berries and insects ; sings beautifully.
Nest a slight shallow structure, about 4.00 in diameter by 2.50 high, with a cavity about 2.00
deep, saddled on a bough, loosely fabricated of twigs, plant- fibres, and down ; eggs 2-5 (rarely
single), averaging 0.93 X 0.65, greenish-white, distinctly and profusely speckled with blackish
or dark brown.
Family YIREONID-^ : Vireos, or Greenlets.
Small dentirostral Oscines, related to Shrikes, with hooked bill, 10 primaries, and exten-
sively coherent toes. Bill shorter than head, stout, compressed, distinctly notched and hooked
at tip ; rictus with conspicuous bristles ; nostrils exposed, over-
hung with a scale, but reached by small bristly erect frontal
feathers. Toes soldered at base for the whole length of basal
joint of middle one, which is united with basal joint of inner and
two basal joints of outer, all these coherent phalanges very short.
(Lateral toes unequal in the genus Vireo.) Tarsus equal to
or longer than middle toe and claw, scutellate in front, laterally
undivided, except at extreme base. Wings moderate, of 10
primaries, of which 1st is short (one-half to one-fourth the 2d), Fio. 217. — Warbling Vireo.re-
or spurious, or apparently wanting (being rudimentary and dis- "*^® ' ^ ™'" ennej.)
placed). Size small, under 7.00; coloration simple, mostly and oftenest greenish; young not
spotted or streaked.
Tins family was formerly united with Laniidce, cliiefly on account of resemblance in shape
of bill of certain species to that of Shrikes ; but the likeness is never perfect, and there are other
more important characters, especially in the structure of the feet, by which the two groups may
be discriminated. Vireonidee are peculiar to America; they are a small family of five or six
genera and nearly 70 recorded species, of which about five-sixths appear to be genuine. The
typical and principal genus, Vireo, containing nearly 30 species, is especially characteristic of
North America, though several species occur in the West Indies and Central America ; one
genus and species, Laletes osbtirni, is exclusively West Indian ; the rest — Cydorhis, Hylo-
philus, Vireolanius, and Neochloe — are, with one exception. South and Central American. In
further illustration of the group, I offer some remarks under liead of the only genus with which
we have to do in the present connection.
362 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
VIR'EO. (Lat. rireo, I am green or flourishing.) Greenlets. Vireos. Bill like that of
a Shrike in miniature, moderately or very stout, shorter than head, compressed at least toward
end, distinctly hooked and notched at tip, sometimes with trace of a tooth behind notch of
upper mandible, and usually a nick in under mandible also. Rictal bristles conspicuous, and
others present among the frontal and mental feathers. Nasal fossae nearly filled with short
erect feathers. Toes extensively coherent at base, as explained under head of the family ; lat-
eral toes of unequal lengths ; claws stout, narrowly compressed, much curved and acute.
Wing at least as long as tail, more or less rounded ; sometimes much longer and quite pointed ;
of 10 primaries, 1st usually evident, though short or spurious, but sometimes (in the section
Vireosylvia and in Vireo flavifrons) rudimentary and more or less completely concealed (excep-
tionally obvious even in these species). Tail short, even, of narrow feathers. Size small;
length usually 5.00-6.00. Coh)ration simple; above olivaceous or grayish, crown like back,
or ashy (in one case brown, in another black) ; under parts white, or white and yellow, or
partly olivaceous. Sexes quite indistinguishable ; young similar, not spotted or streaked.
Migratory in N. Am. Insectivorous, arboricole. Nest jiendulous; eggs w^iite, spotted (except
in V. atricapillus) .
The numerous species of this genus have been divided into several groups, but no violence
will be done by considering them all as Vireo — in fact it is ditBcult to do otherwise. For
even the seemingly substantial division into two genera, according as there is an evident spu-
rious 1st primary or apparently none, separates species, like gilv^is and phUadelphicus, slightly
otherwise specifically distinguishable ; while another division into two genera, according to
shape of wings and length of spurious 1st primary or its absence, is subject to some uncertainty
of determination, and unites species, like oliraceus and flavifrons, most dissimilar in other re-
spects. Probably the best way is to recognize three subgenera — Vireosylvia for barbatulus,
oUvaceics, flaviviridis, gilvus, and philadelphicus ; Lanivireo iov flavifrons and solitarius ; and
Vireo for all the rest. The fact is, that almost every single species of Vireo has its own peculiar
form, in shape of bill, proportions of primaries, etc, and these details cannot well be consid-
ered as of more than specific value. These slight differences are perfectly tangible and surpris-
ingly constant, rendering the determination of the species comparatively easy, though these birds
bear to each other a close general resemblance in size and color, and some of the subspecies are
not easily discriminated. They are all more or less olivaceous above, sometimes inclining to
gray or plumbeous, with crown either like back, or else ashy — in one species, however, brown,
and in another black ; and white or whitish below, usually more or less tinged with yellow.
The coloration is very constant, the sexes being indistinguishable, and young differing little, if
at all, from adults. All are small- birds, — about 5 or 6 inches long. As a group the student
will probably have no difficulty in recognizing them by the foregoing diagnosis, as the charac-
ter of the feet seems to be peculiar, among North American birds, and is at any rate diagnostic
when taken in connection with the character of the bill — all those Oscines, as Wrens, Creep-
ers, or Titmice, that show much cohesion of the toes, having an entirely different bill. Some of
the weaker-billed species might be carelessly mistaken for Warblers ; but there is no excuse
for this, nor for confounding them with any of the little Clamatorial Flycatchers. Vireos were
long supposed to possess either 9 or 10 primaries. But that the important character of number
of primaries — one marking whole families, as we have seen — should here subside to specific
value only, seemed suspicious ; and the fact is that all the species really have 10, only that, in
some instances, the 1st is rudimentary and displaced, lying concealed outside the base of the 2d.
The North American species are distributed over the temperate portions of this continent, and
several of them are abundant birds of the Atlantic States, inhabiting woodland and shrubbery.
Tliey are exclusively insectivorous, and are therefore necessarily migratory in our latitudes.
They build a neat pensile nest in tiie fork of a branchlet, and commonly lay four or five white,
speckled eggs. All are alike in tliis respect, the nest and eggs of none of the species (except-
VIREONIDJE: VI RE OS, OR GREENLETS.
363
ing atricapillus) being distinguisliable with certainty, though differing in size with that of the
parent, and somewhat in position, according as the parents are birds of woodland or shrubbery ;
it would be useless, therefore, to give particular descriptions for each species. Next after
Warblers, Greenlets are the most delightful of our forest birds, though their charms address
the ear and not the eye. Clad in simple tints that harmonize with the verdure, these gentle
songsters warble their lays unseen, while the foliage itself seems stirred to music. In the quaint
and curious ditty of the White-eye — in the earnest, voluble strains of the Red-eye — in the
tender secret that the Warbling Vireo confides in whispers to the passing breeze — he is insen-
sible who does not hear the echo of thoughts he never clothes in words.
Analysis of Species and principal Subspecies.
Primaries apparently 9 (the Ist rudimentary and displaced), (a)
Primaries evidently 10 (the 1st short or spurious), (b)
(a) Tliroat yellow flavifrons
— white ; crown ashy, not black-edged, hardly contrasting with back philudelphicus
— black-edged ; back olive ; with maxillary streaks calidris barbatulus
— no maxillary streaks ; crissum merely yellowish
oliiaeews
— bright yellow
Jiaiiiiridis
(b) Crown black. Eggs white atricapillus
— not black; the 1st quill at least i as long as 2d, and wing '2.50 long vicinior
— not J as long as 2d, or wing not 2.50 long (c)
(c) Wing-bands wanting : coXoraXXori s,\T:m\a,T to philadelphiciis gilvus
— present ; length over 5.00 ; back olive, contrasting with ashy-blue crown solitarius
— plumbeous, crown scarcely different pluinbeus
— 5.00 or less ; wing =; tail, both about 2.25 ; 1st quill = J the 2d pusillus
— > tail ; crown ashy, chin and superciliary line white . . . belli
— olive, chin white, superc. line yellowish . . novebor.
— and imder parts yellowish . . . huttoni
{Subgenus Vireosylvia Bonajmrte.)
V. cal'idris barba'tulus. (Gr. Ka\i8pis or (TKoXiSpis, kalidris or sJcalidris, the name in Aris-
totle of some small spotted water-bird known to the Greeks, of no applicability to the present
species ; Lat. barbatulus, having a little beard.
Fig. 218.) Black-whiskered Greenlet.
Whip-tom-kelly. Similar to olivaceus ; dis-
tinguished by a narrow dusky maxillary line,
or line of spots, on each side of the chin ; bill
longer, 0.75-0.80 ; proportion of quills slightly
different. (See the figs.) Cuba, Bahamas, and
casually in Florida. V. altiloquus is the West
Indian stock -form, to which I have hitherto
Fig. 218. - V. c. barbatulus, nat. size. (From Baird.) referred our Whip-tom-kelly ; but it now ap-
pears to be itself but a form of the South American V. calidris ; hence the change of name from
former eds. of the Key.
V. oliva'ceus. (Lat. olivaceus, olive-colored. Fig. 219.) Red-eyed Greenlet. The
Preacher. Above, olive-green ; crown ash, edged on each side with a blackish line, below
this a white superciliary line, below this again a dusky stripe through eye ; under parts white,
faintly shaded with greenish -yellf)w ahnig sides, and tinged with the same on under wing- and
tail-coverts ; wings and tail dusky, the feathers edged with olive outside, with whitish inside :
bill dusky above, pale below; feet leaden-blue; eyes red: no dusky maxillary streaks; no
apparent spurious quill. Little different with age, sex, or season ; young and fall birds the
364
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. - PA SSERES - OSCINES.
brightest colored, especially on sides, crissum, and lining of wings. Large ; length 5.75-6.25 ;
extent 9.75-10.75 ; wing 3.00-3.33; tail 2.33-2.50 ; bill about 0.66 ; tarsus 0.75. Eastern N.
Am. ; N. to Hudson's
Bay and even Green-
land; W. sometimes
to Utah, Washington,
and British Columbia;
breeds throughout its N.
Am. range, and winters
from the Gulf States
southward to northern
Fig. 21d. — V. olivaeeus, nat. size. (From Baird.) g. Am. In most
places the most abundant species of the genus, in woodland; a voluble, tireless songster.
Eggs 0.80 X 0.55; nest often in a sapling.
V. flavivi'ridis. (hat. flavus, yeWow ; viridis, green. Fig. 220.) Yellow-green Green-
let. Resembling the last; more yellowish below; under wing- and tail-coverts decidedly
yellow; sides of body decidedly greenish-
yellow; length 6.25-6.75. Lower Rio Grande
valley of Texas and southward to Ecuador,
Peru, and upper Amazon region ; accidental
in California and Quebec.
V. philadel'phicus. (Gr. (piXto), pMleo, I
love; d8e'\(p6s, brother. Fig. 221.) Broth-
erly-love Greenlet. Above, dull olive-
green, brightening on rump, fading insensibly
into ashy on crown, which is not bordered Fia. 220. - V. /taviviridis, rya.t. size. (From Baird.)
with blacki.sh ; a dull white superciliary line ; below, very pale sulphur-yellow, whitening
on throat and belly, slightly olive-shaded on sides; sometimes a slight creamy or buft'y shade
throughout the under parts ; no obvious wing-bars ; no apparent spurious quill. Length
4.80-5.10; extent 8.00-8.50; win<r2.66; tail 2.15; bill hardly or about 0.50; tarsus 0.66.
Eastern N. Am., strictly; N. to Hudson's Bay ; breeds from the northern tier of states nortli-
ward; S. in winter to Cent. Am. A small, plainly-colored species, distinguishable from gilnis
by apparent absence of a spurious quill ; not very common in the Atlantic States, more so in
the Mississippi Valley. (Best account of this species by Dwight, Auk, July, 1897, pp. 259-
272, pi. 2.)
Fio. 221. — V. philadelphicus, nat. size. (From Baird.)
"V. gil'vus. (Lat. (jilcusj yellowish. Figs. 21
Fio. 22:
222 )
— T'. gilvHS, nat. size. (From Baird.)
Warbling Greenlet. Cidors
spurious quill present and
much as in the last species, but below with very litth! yellowish
evident, ;|- to ^ as long as 2d primary. Length 5.50-6.00; extent 8.50-9.25; wing 2.80; tail
2.25; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.65. Eastern N. Am. to the high central plains, breeding throughout
its range ; wintering extralimital ; an abundant little bird and an exquisite songster. Its voice
is not strong, and many birds excel it in brilliancy of execution ; but not one of tliem all can
VIREONID.E: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS.
365
rival the tenderness and softness of the liquid strains of this modest vocalist. Not born to
" waste its sweetness on the desert air," the- Warhling Vireo forsakes the depths of the wood-
land for the park and orchard and shady street, where it glides through the foliage of the tallest
trees, the unseen messenger of rest and peace to the busy, dusty haunts of men.
V, g. swain'soiii ? (To Wm. Swainson. Fig. 223.) Western Warbling Greenlet.
" Similar to V. gilrus, but smaller; colors paler; bill more depressed; upper mandible almost
black; 2d quill much shorter than 6th." Eocky Mts. to the Pacific, U. S. This Western form
has long been described as distinct, but the characters assigned will not be found constant or
always appreciable. It is simply a dull-colored race, like many other birds of this region. It
is ignored in both A. 0. U. Lists; retained in Ridgv^., Man., 1887, p. 472; and now left here
with this explanation.
FiQ. 223. — r. ff. su-ainsoni, nat. size. (From Baird.) Fig. 224. — T'. flavifrons, nat. size. (From Baird.)
{Subgenus Lanivireo Baird.)
V. fla'vifrons. (Lat. flavus, yellow ; frons, front. Fig. 224.) Yellow-THROATED Green-
i.ET. Above, rich olive-green, crown the same or even brighter, rump insensibly shading into
bUiish-ash ; below, bright yellow, belly and crissum abruptly white, sides anteriorly shaded
with olive, posteriorly with plumbeous ; extreme forehead, superciliary line and ring round eye,
yellow ; lores dusky ; wings dusky, with inner secondaries broadly white-edged, and two broad
white bars across tips of greater and median coverts ; tail dusky, nearly all the feathers com-
pletely encircled with white edging; bill and feet dark leaden-blue; no apparent spurious quill.
Length 5.75-6.00 ; extent 10.00 ; wing 3.00; tail only about 2.25. A large, stout, highly-
colored species, curiously resembling Icteria virens, common in Eastern U. S. and adjoining
British Provinces ; W. to edge of the plains ; winters in Florida and southward to Colombia ;
breeds in all its N. Am. range. Its proper name may be V. ochroleucus.
V. solita'rius. (Lat. solitarius, solitary ; solus, alone. Fig. 225.) Blue-headed Green-
let. Solitary Greenlet. Above, olive-green ; crown and sides of head bluish-ash in
marked contrast, with a broad white line from
nostrils to and around (not beyond) eye, and a
dusky loral line ; below, pure white, flanks
washed with olivaceous, and axillars and cris-
sum pale yellow; wings and tail dusky, most
t>f the feathers edged with white or whitish, and
two conspicuous bars of the same across tips
of middle and greater coverts ; bill and feet
blackish-plumbeous; iris brown. Length
5.25-5.75; extent 8.50; wing 2.75-3.00 ; tail 2.25-2.33; bill about 0.40, stout, nearly 0.20
deej) at base; spurious quill 0.50-0.66 long, about ^ as long as 2d primary. Young and fall
specimens more brightly colored. A stoutly-built species, known at a glance by the bluish
cap. Eastern U. S. and Canada, N. to Hudson's Bay and Great Slave Lake ; S. in winter
to Guatemala; breeds from southern New England and the northern tier of States northward,
Pig. 225. — V. solitarius, nat. size. (From Baird.)
366 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
and thus, like philadelphicus, is chiefly found as a migrant in tlie U. S. It is not rare, but
not so common as oUvaceus, fluvifrons, or noveboracensis ; inhabits woodknd ; a delicious
songster.
v. s. alti'cola. (Lat. alius, high ; colere, to inhabit, or (in)cola, an inhabitant.) Mountain
Solitary Greexlet. Like solitariiis proper, but larger, with stouter bill, and darker color-
ation ; upper parts nearly uniform dark plumbeous, only tinged with olive on back, instead of
being quite olivaceous contrasting whh bluish ash of head. Wing 3.00-3.30; tail 2.25.
Mountains of North Carolina, S. in winter to Florida. Brewster, Auk, Jan. 1886, p. Ill ;
CouES, Key, 3d ed., 1887, p. 872; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds., 1886 and 1895, No. 629 c.
v. s. cas'sini. (To John Cassin.) Cassin's Greenlet.) Like solitarius proper; duller
and more brownish-olivaceous ; under parts tinged with buff or ochrey where solitarius is pure
white; loral line and eye-ring impurely whitish. "Western U. S., especially the Pacific coast
region, in which it breeds from British Columbia southward to Lower California; Arizona, and
probably other portions of the Great Basin, where it is associated with V. s. plumbeus, but is
not to be confounded with the latter.
V. s. lucasa'nus. (Lat., of or pertaining to any one named Luke or Lucas; in this case re-
ferring to Cape St. Lucas.) Like the last; rather smaller; the bill longer and stouter, the
sides and flanks much yellower. Young in autumn resembling that of solitarius proper. Wing
2.70; tail 2.00-2.15. Lower California, apparently a very slightly marked form. Brewster,
Auk, Apr. 1891, p. 147; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 265, No. 62U cl.
V. s. plum'beus. (Lat. plumbeus, lead-colored. Fig. 226.) Plumbeous Greexlet.
Leaden-gray, rather brighter and more ashy on crown, but without marked contrast, faintly
glossed with olive on rump; a conspicuous
white line from nostril to and around eye,
and below this a dusky loral stripe ; below,
pure white, sides of neck and breast shaded
with color of back ; flanks, axillars, and
crissum with a mere trace of olivaceous, or
none ; wings and tail dusky, with conspicu-
ous pure white edgings and cross-bars. Size
Fig. 226. — V. s. plumbeus, nat. size. (From Baird.^ r tj. ■ ^ -r ^^ - ~- /-. ,/>
^ ' ^ ■'of solitarius or larger. Length O./O-6.10;
extent 9.75-10.25; wing 2.90-3.10; tail 2.50; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.66; middle toe the same;
spurious quill exposed about 0.75, ^ as long as the 2d quill. Central Plains to the Great Basin,
U. S., and especially southern Rocky Mts., where it is abundant ; N. to Wyoming, S. in winter
to Oaxaca, Mexico ; accidental in New York. A large stout species, a near ally of solitarius,
but nearly all the olivaceous of that species replaced by plumbeous, and the yellowish by
white, so that it is a very diflereut-lookiug bird. Fall specimens, however, are more oliva-
ceous, and the bird evidently grades closely up to solitarius.
(Subgenus Vireo proper.)
V. vici'nior. (Lat. vicinus, neighboring.) Gray Greenlet. With the general appearance
of a small faded specimen oi plumbeus : leaden-gray, faintly olivaceous on rump, below white,
with hardly a trace of yellowish on sides; wings and tail hardly edged with white; no mark-
ings about head except a whitish eye-ring. Length 5.75 ; extent 8.66 ; wing and tail each
2.50; tarsus nearly 0.75; middle toe and claw hardly over 0.50; tip of inner claw falling short
of base of middle claw ; tail decidedly rounded ; first primary exposed 0.75, ^ as long as 2d
primary, which latter is not longer than 8th. These peculiar proportions of the original type-
specimen are constant, and the species is distinct from any other. It is our plainest-colored
species, resembling 29?»mi>e»s, but more closely allie.l to the suiallor rounder-winged species
VIREONID.E: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS.
367
like nofeboracensis aud especially j^usillus ; toes almost abnonnally short, and tail as long as
wing. Southwestern U. S., in western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, southern and
Lower California ; northwestern Mexico. My type-specimen from Fort Whipple, Arizona,
long remained unique, but others have since been found, extending the known geographical
range considerably. Nest in bushes ; eggs 0.72 X 0.52.
V. noveboracen'sis. (Lat. novus, new ; Ehoracum, York. Fig. 227.) White-eyed
Greenlet. The Politician. Above, bright olive-green, including crown ; a slight ashy
gloss on cervix, and
rump showing yellow- ^-— =^
ish when tlie featliers ^^^^^
are disturbed ; below, '^
white ; sides of breast A ^ A
and belly, with axil- J\ \
lars and crissum, bright ^^j^"^^/^'^
yellow ; a bright yel-
low line from nostrils „
to and around eye ;
lores dusky ; two broad yellowish wing-bars
noveboracensis, nat. size. (From Baird.)
mer secondaries widely edged with the same ;
bill and feet blackish-plumbeous; eyes white. About 5.00; extent 8.00; wing 2.33-2.50;
tail 2.05; spurious quill exposed 0.75, ^ as long as 2d, which about equals 8th ; tarsus about
0.75; middle toe and claw 0.50; bill nearly 0.50. A small, compact, brightly-colored
species, abundant in shrubbery and tangle of the Eastern U. S. ; W. rarely to the Rocky Mts. ;
rather southerly, N. to Massachusetts aud Minnesota ; winters from Florida southward to
Cent. Am. ; resident in the Bermudas ; noted for its sprightly manners and emphatic voice.
V. n. may'nardi. (To C. J. Maynard.) Key We.st Greenlet. Coloration much as in
the last, but grayer above and paler below ; size and proportions as in V. crassirostris (an extra-
limital species), the bill being notably large aud stout. Wing 2.20-2.50 ; tail 1.90-2.05; bill
0.5.5-0.65, its depth at nostrils 0-18-0.20. Southern Fhn-ida. Brewster, Auk, Apr. 1887,
p. 148 ; Coues, Key, 3d ed., 1887, p. 872 ; 4th ed., 1890, p. 899 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed., 1895,
p. 266, No. 631 a.
V. hut'toni. (To Wm. Hutton, of California. Fig. 228.) Hutton's Greenlet. Sim-
ilar to noveboracensis, but difl'ering much as flavwiridis does from olicaceiis, in having the
under parts almost entirely yellowish. First quill
rather less than half 2d, which about equals 10th ;
3d a little longer than 7th ; 4th and 5th nearly equal
and longest. Tail slightly rounded, shorter than
A 1 JE^^^^ wings. Bill very small. Above olive-green ; bright-
i/\ _==^^ ^^^ behind, especially on rump and edging of tail ;
duller and more ashy toward and on top and sides
of head and neck. Wings with two bauds ou cov-
F.G. -jiK - V. hnttmn, nat. -size. (From Baird.) g^^g^ ^^^ ^^j^j. ^j^^g ^f junermost secondaries rather
broailly (divaceoiis-white ; other quills edged externally with olive-green, paler toward outer
l)rimary, internally with whitish. Lateral tail-feathers edged externally with yellowish-white.
Feathers of rump with much concealed yellowish-gray. Under parts pale olivaceous-yellow-
ish, purest behind, lightest on throat and abdomen ; breast more olivaceous, soiled with a
slight buffy tinge ; sides still deeper olive-green. Axillars and crissum yellowish ; inside of
wings whitish. Loral region and narrow space around eye dull yellowish, in faint contrast
to olive of head. Bill horn-color above, paler below; legs dusky. Length 4.70; wing 2.40;
tail 2.05. Coast region of Southern and Central California, resident. (Description from
Baird.)
368
SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
V. h. obscu'rus. (Lat., obscure.) Obscure Greenlet. Anthony's Yireo. The dark
fi)rin of V. huUnni from the Pacific coast regiou, breeding in British Columbia, Washington,
and Oregon, and migrating S. in winter. Anthony, Zoe, i, Dec. 1890, p. 30(J; A. 0. U.
List, 2d ed., 1895, p. 266, No. 632 c; not in any previous ed. of the Key.
V. h. ste'vensi. (To F. Stephens.) Stephens' Greenlet. Like V. huttoni. Bill stout;
wino-s 0.30-0.40 longer than tail. Above, grayish-ash ; crown, vertex, and sides of head and
neck nearly pure ash; back faintly tinged with olive; rump and edging on tail-feathers dull
olive-green. AVings with two nearly confluent bauds on coverts, and outer edges of inner
secondaries broadly white ; outer quills edged more narrowly with the same color. Beneath
brownish or smoky-white, with a mere wash of yellowish on sides and crissum. Upper eyelid
dusky-browu : remainder of orbital region, with lores, ashy-white in decided contrast with the
nearly clear cinereous vf tlie head generally. Lining of wings white. Length 5.20 ; extent
8.50; wing 2.55-2.90; tail 2.25; tarsus 0.73; culmen 0.50. Lower California, Arizona, and
New Mexico, especially in mountain ranges. Related to huttoni, which has bill less stout,
wing 2.40 0)- less, and is olive-green above and olivaceous-yellow below, without clear white
anywhere. The differences are nearly parallel with those between belli and pusillus, —
sterensi being grayish-ash above with no decided olive-green excepting on rump and tail,
brownish-white below, untinged with yellowish excepting on sides and crissum, the wing-
bands pure white and nearly confluent. (Not in Check List, 1880. Description from Brews-
ter, Bull. Nutt. Club, vii, July, 1882, p. 142.)
V. belli. (To J. G. Bell, of New York. Fig. 229.) Bell's Greenlet. Olive-green,
briiihter on rump, ashier on head, but without decided contrasts ; head-markings almost ex-
actly as in gilvus ; below, sulphury-j-el-
lowish, only whitish on chin and middle of
belly ; inner quills edged with whitish ;
two whitish wing-bands, but one more
conspicuous than the other. Hardly or
not 5.00 long ; wing scarcely over 2.00 ;
tail under 2.00 ; spurious quill about | the
2d, which equals or exceeds the 7th. A
V. belli, nat. size. (From Baird.)
like a miniature of gilvus, but readily distinguished from that s})ecies by
pretty little species
its small size, presence of decided wing-bars, more yellowish under-parts, and different wing-
formula. Middle region of the U. S., W. to the Rocky Mts., E. to the valley of the Ohio, N.
to the valley of the Red River in Minnesota and Dakota ; an abundant species, inhabiting
copses and shrubbery in open country, with much the same sprightly ways and loud song as
those of noveboracensis. Nest in bushes; eggs 0.67 X 0.48.
v. b pusillus. (Lat. 2»isillus, puerile, petty. Fig. 230.) Least Greenlet. Olivaceous-
gray, below white, merely tinged with yellowish on sides ; head-markings obscure ; wing-
bands and edgings, though evident, nar
row and whitish ; no decided olive or yel-
low anywhere. Size of belli ; wing and
tail of equal lengths, little over 2.00 ; bill
0..33; tarsus 0.66; middle toe and claw
0.50 ; spurious quill about ^ as long as 2d,
which is intermediate between 7th and
8th. A small, obscure-looking bird, re-
sembling belli, but much grayer, tail relatively longe
shorter. Questionably right to reduce this to a subspecies of belli, for the difference is obvi-
ous at a glance, and more decided than that separating most of the subspecies. It has held
specific rank in all previous editions df tlif Key. Arizona and Southern and Lower California ;
'. ptisiUtis, nat. size. (From Baird.)
spurious (|uill longer, and 2d primary
LANIID.E — LANIIN.E : SHRIKES.
369
western Mexico; comniou. Eggs uutlistiuguishable from those of belli, and nesting the
same.
V. atricapil'lus. (Lat. ater, bhick ; capUhis, hair.) Black-capped Greexlet. ^ : Top
and side of head bhtck, excepting a white eye-ring and white loral stripe. Upper parts oliva-
ceous ; lower parts white, tinged witli pale greenish on sides and flanks. Wings and tail
blackish, edged with olivaceous, the former with two dingy whitish bars across ends of greater
and median coverts; lining of wings yellowish. Bill black ; feet dark; iris red. Length 4.75;
extent 7.2.5; wing 2.25; tail nearly 2.00; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw 0.50 ;
1st primary exposed 0.66. 9 '• Black of head replaced by dark slate color; upper parts duller
olive, lower somewhat huffy. The black cap of the $ renders the species conspicuous among
all its congeners. Kansas to Texas and Mexico. Nest in small trees or bushes, near the
ground, pensile from a forked twig as usual in the genus, but eggs white, unmarked ; 0.65-
0.75 X 0.50-0.55; usually 4 in number.
Family LANIID^
Essentially characterized by the combination of
comparatively weak, strictly passerine feet with a
notched, toothed, and hooked bill, the size, shape, and
strength of which recalls that of a bird of prey (fig.
231). The family comprises about 200 recorded spe-
cies, referable to numerous genera and divisible into
tliree groups, not very well defined, however, of which
the following typical subfamily is the only one occur-
ring in America : —
Shrikes.
Shrikes' Bills, nat. size. (From Baird.)
Subfamily LANIIN>E: True Shrikes.
In this group the wing has 10 primaries and the tail 12 rectrices ; both are much rounded
and of nearly equal lengtlis. Tlie rictus is furnished with strong bristles. The circular nostrils
are more or less perfectly covered and con-
cealed by dense tufts of antrorse bristly
feathers. The tarsi are scutellate in front
and outside — in the latter respect devi-
ating from a usual Oscine character. Our
Shrikes will thus be easily distinguished ;
additional features are given under head
I of the genus Lanius, the only representa-
FiG. 232. — Butcher-bird, reduced. (From Temiey, after tive of this group in America.
^'''*°") Shrikes are bold, spirited birds, quar-
relsome among tlioinselves, and tyrannical toward weaker species ; in fact, their nature seems
as liighly rapacious as that of the true l)irds of prey. They are carnivorous, feeding on insects
and such small birds and quadrupeds as tliey can capture and overpower; many instances have
been noted of tlieir dashing attacks upon cage-birds, and their reckless pursuit of otlier species
under circumstances that cost them their own lives. But the most remarkable fact in the
natural history of Shrikes is their habit of impaling their prey on thorns or sharp twigs.
They build a rather rude and bulky nest of twigs, and lay 4-6 speckled eggs. They are not
strictly migratory, althougli our northernmost species usually retires southward in the fall.
The sexes are alike, and the young differ but little. There are only two well-determined
American species.
24
370
S YS TEMA Tl C S YXOPSIS. — PA SSER ES — OSCINES.
LA'XIUS. (Lat. laniits, a butcher. Fig. 232.) Gray Shrikes. Wing of 10 primaries, and
tail of 12 rectrices, both rounded in shape, and of nearly equal lengths. Point of wing formed
by 3d, 4th, and 5th quills ; 2d not longer than 6th, 1st about half as long as 3d. Tarsus equal-
ling or slightly exceeding in length the middle toe and claw, strongly scutellate in front, with
outer lateral plate usually more or less subdivided, as is unusual anuing Oscines. Lateral toes
of about equal lengths, their claws reaching base of middle claw ; inner toe cleft nearly to base,
outer more extensively coherent with basal joint of middle toe. Feet large and strong, but
without specially ■' raptorial " development either of the digits or of their claws. Bill large
and powerful, compressed, deep, completely notched and toothed, and strongly hooked, pre-
senting the full accomplishment of a raptorial character. Kictus ample and deeply cleft,
strongly bristled ; gouys short, only about half the length of lower mandible. Nostrils circular
or nearly so, placed well forward in the nasal fossfe, more or less perfectly overhung and con-
cealed by tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. Body stout; neck short; head relatively large.
Coloration simple, the black, white, and bluish or grayish tints being UBrelieved by red or
other bright color. In amount of dusky vermiculation of under parts the species are graded
from borealis (most) to exciiUtoricles (least or none), and each one is graded from young to old.
In all, the general resemblance to a Mocking-bird is striking.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Large : length 9.00 or over. Black head-stripe broken on under eyelid and across forehead. Always waved below
with dusky borealis
Small : length under 9.00. Black head-stripe unbroken across forehead : no white on under eyelid. Adults unwaved
below.
Lighter : much white on rump and scapulars ; long white patch on primaries I. exciibifoiides
Darker : Uttle white on rump and scapulars ; short white patch on primaries /tidoviciayius
Darkest : Pacific coast form I. gambeli
Li. borealis. (Lat. borealis, northern. Figs. 233, 234.) Great Northern Shrike.
Butcher-bird. Nine-killer. Shamble-sticker. Adult ^ 9 '■ Above, clear bluish-
ash, blanching on rump and
A , \ scapulars ; below, wliite,
)j»~- always vermiculated trans-
'X/ V ^**'*^.*^/ 1 ^"^ \/| versely with fine wavy
A ^X. ^"x^ ^^****A ^ blackish lines ; a bmad
'-^^ / ^^ V^ \^^^^^ black bar along side of
If ^^^^^J^^^^ -,-'^^^^S^^^^ head, woi meeting its fellow
_^^..i^ '^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^\^- across forehead, interrupted
by a white crescent on under
eyelid, and bordered above
by hoary white that also
k/ '^ occupies extreme forehead ;
-ijp5^ -^—^^ "MT^rr ^S ^V^^'* wings and tail black, former
f i ^^BbH^^/ /^ ^^C '^^ with a large white spot near
'*' ^ "Jw^mA 1 ^^ -""S^ base of primaries and white
* J ^^0\\\ ' latter with outer web of
' TJ ( outer feather edged, and all
^ the feathers excepting the
Fig. 'j;?:'.. — Northern Shrike. middle pair broadly ti[»ped,
witli white, and with con-
cealed white bases; bill and feet blui.sh-black : eyes blacki.sh. Length 9.00-10.00; extent
13.50-14. .^0; wing 5.00-.3.50; tail rather more; bill 0.75; tarsus 0.00; middle toe and claw
i'
"■-yf
Fig. 234. - Butcher-bird (L. bormlU),
nat. size. (Ad.
del. E. C.)
ver seen it absent altogether.
Tliis feature,
LANIID.E — LANIIN.E : SHRIKES. 371
0.75. Young : Colors much less pure and clear. Above, grayish-brown, scarcely or not
whitening on scapulars, tail-coverts, and ftjrehead. The younger tlie browner, sometimes
almost with a rusty tinge ; grayer accord-
ing to age. Below brownish-white (the
younger the browner), the wavy dark mark-
ings stronger than in the adult. The bar
along the head poorly defined, merely dusky, ^
or quite obsolete. Wings and tail brown-
ish-black, with less white than in the adult.
Bill ])lumbeous-brown, flesh-colored at base
below. At a very early age, the upper parts
are probably vermiculated somewhat like
the lower, as in the same stage of L. liido-
ricianus : but this state I have not observtnl. .
' nat.
In old age, the dusky vermiculation of the
under parts is much diminished, but I have ne
coupled with the particular character of the head-markings, the large size, and comparatively
short tarsi, will always distinguish the species from L. ludovicianus or excubitorides. N. Am.,
northerly; in winter, usually extends S. to about 35°. The castle of this ''feudal baron and
brigand bold " is built in a bush or low tree with a basement of sticks, upon which is matted
and felted a thick warm superstructure of bark-strips, grasses, and soft vegetable substances :
eggs 4-6, about 1.10 X 0.80, rather elliptical in shape, so profusely speckled, scratched, and
marbled with reddish, brownish, and purplish shades that the greenish-gray ground color is
scarcely perceptible.
L. liidovicia'nus. (Lat. ludovicianus, of Louisiana. Fig. 235.) Loggerhead Shrike.
Adult ^ 9: Above, slate-colored, slightly whitish on upper tail-coverts and ends of scapulars;
below, white, sometimes a little ashy-shaded, but no wavy black lines, or only a few slight
ones; white on wings and tail less extensive than in horealis or excubitorides; black bridle
meeting its fellow across forehead, not interrupted by white on lower eyelid, scarcely or not
bordered above by hoary white. Smaller: length 8.00-8.50 ; wing and tail each 4.00 or little
more ; tarsus at least 1.00, thus relatively longer than in borecdis ; bill about 0.50. Young :
dift'criiig from the adult much as young borecdis does, and decidedly waved below, as in that
species : but the size and other characters are distinctive. Eastern and Southern U. S., resi-
dent, common ; in its typical manifestation it is characteristic of the S. Atlantic States, and is
known to occur in the Bahamas ; but specimens more like ludovicianus than excubitorides
occur N. to New England and W. to the Great Plains.
L. 1. excubitori'des. (Lat. excubitor, a sentinel; Gr. ei8os, eidos, resemblance; i. e., like the
European L. excuhitor.) White-rumped Shrike. Common American Shrike. Adult
^ 9 : Leaden-gray or light slate-color, whitening on scapulars and upper tail-coverts. Be-
neath white, slightly shaded with French gray on sides, but without dusky vermiculation.
A narrow stripe across forehead, continuous with a broad bar along side of head, embracing
eye, black, .slightly, if at all, bordered with whitish. Lower eyelid not white. Wings and
tail black, with white markings, much as in the last species. Bill and feet plumbeous-black.
Length under 9.00 ; extent 12.00-13.00; wing and tail, each, about 4.00; bill 0.66: tarsus
1.00 or more. Young: Vermiculated beh)W with dusky, upon a brownish ground, about to
the same extent as is seen in very old examples of L. boreaUs. General tone of upper parts
less pure than in the adult; scapulars and tail-coverts not purely white; black bar of head less
firm, but as far as it goes maintaining the characters of the species. At a very early age, the
upi)er parts, including the whitish of scapulars and tail-coverts, are finely vermiculated with
dusky waves. The ends of the quills, wing-coverts, and tail-feathers often have rusty or rufous
372
SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
markings. Extreme examples of exciibitorides look very different from hidoncianus proper,
but the two are observed to melt iut(j each other when many specimens are compared, so that
no specific character can be assigned. Middle and Western N. Am. and Mexico ; N. to the
Fig. l'SS. — Loggerhead Shrike.
Saskatchewan, E. to Ohio, New York, Canada, and even New England. It is an arbitrary
distinction which assigns this variety a range restricted to Western N. Am. The nest and
eggs are indistinguishable from those of ludovicianus proper ; both resemble those of L. horeaUs,
but the eggs average smaller — about 0.97 X 0.72.
L,. 1. gam'beli. (To Wm. Gambel.) California Shrike. The Pacific coast form, doubt-
fully attempted to be distinguished by its sordid coloration. Ridgw., Man. 1887, p. 467;
CouES, Key, 4th ed. 1890, pr899; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 262, No. 622 6.
L. 1. aiitho'nyi. (To A. W. Anthony.) Island Shrike. An insular form, said to be
darker than gamheli, even darker than ludovicianus proper, and quite small. Santa Barbara
Islands. L. I. gamheli Anthony, Pub. No. 1, Pasadena Acad. Sci. Aug. 1897, p. 19.
L. I. anthomji Mearns, Auk, July, 1898, p. 261; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899,
p. 122.
Note. — Yet anotlier despairing aspirant for recognition is L. I. migran.i of W. Palmer, Auk, July, 1S98, pp. 244-
25S. This consists of 104 specimens intermediate between ludovicianus proper and excubitorides, or not exactly refer-
able to either. When the A. 0. U. Committee of 1800 readied tliis case, it was "deferred for lack of material" I I
should say that it simply proves the position I have taken in tlie Key since 1872, when I iirst reduced eicubitnrides to a
subspecies of ludoHcianus; for these 104 intermediates attest that intergradation between the two forms which is the
test of any subspecies. Mr. Palmer's ir>-page painstaking discussion of 104 specimens adds nothing to what he might
have learned in a few lines, if he had looked at the Key, 2d^th eds., 1884-90, p. 338.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 373
Family FRINGILLID^ : Finches, etc.
Conirostral Oscines with 9 primaries. — The largest North American family, comprising
about one-seventh of all our birds, and the most extensive group of its grade in ornithology.
As ordinarily constituted, it represents, in round numbers, 600 current species and 100 genera,
of nearly all parts of the world, except Australia, but more particularly of the northern hemi-
sphere and throughout America, where the group attains its maximum development. Any one
United States locality of average attractiveness to birds has a bird-fauna of over 200 species ;
and if it be away from the sea-coast, and consequently uninhabited by marine birds, about one-
fourth of its species are MniotiltidcB and Fringillidce together — the latter somewhat in excess
of the former. It is not easy, therefore, to give undue prominence to these two families.
The Fringillidce are more particularly what used to be called " Conirostral " birds, in dis-
tinction from " Fissirostres," as the Swallows, Swifts, and Goatsuckers ; " Tenuirostres," as Hum-
ming-birds and Creepers ; and " Deutirostres," as Warblers, Vireos, and most of the preceding
families. The bill approaches nearest the ideal cone, combining strength to crush seeds with
delicacy of touch to secure minute objects. The cone is sometimes nearly expressed, but is
more frequently turgid or conoidal, convex in most directions or, again, so contracted that some
of its outlines are concave. The nostrils are always situated high up — nearer culmen than
cutting edge of bill ; they are usually exposed, but in many, chiefly boreal, genera, the base of
the bill is furnished with a ruff or two tufts of antrorse feathers more or less completely cover-
ing the openings. The cutting edges of the bill may be slightly notched, but are usually plain.
There are usually a few inconspicuous bristles about the rictus, sometimes wanting, sometimes
highly developed, as in our Grosbeaks. The wings are endlessly varied in shape, but agree in
possessing only 9 developed primaries; the tail is equally variable in form, but always has 12
rectrices. The feet show a strictly Oscine or laminiplantar podotheca, scutellate in front, cov-
ered on each side with an undivided plate, producing a sharp ridge behind. None of these
members offer extreme phases of development in any of our species.
But the most tangible characteristic of the family is angulation of the commissure. The
commissure runs in a straight line, or with a slight curve, to or near to the base of the bill, and
is then more or less abruptly bent down at a varying angle — the cutting edge of the upper
mandible forming a re-entrance, that of the lower mandible a corresponding salience. In
familiar terms, we might say that the corners of the mouth are drawn duwn — that the Finches,
though very merry little birds, are literally " down in the mouth." In most cases this feature
is unmistakable, and in the Grosbeaks, for example, it is very strongly marked indeed; but in
some of the smaller-billed forms, and especially those with slender bill, it is hardly perceptible.
On the whole, however, it is a good character, and at any rate it is the most reliable external
feature that can be found. It separates our fringilline birds pretty trenchantly from other
9-primaried Oscines except Icteridcc, and most of these may be distinguished by the characters
given beyond.
Taking their characters all together, Fringillidce may be defined as 9-primaried, coniros-
tral, laminiplantar, oscine Pa.sseres with axis of bill at an angle with that of skull, and nostrils
nearer culmen than cutting edge of bill.
When we come, however, to consider this great group of conirostral Oscines in its entirety,
as compared with bordering families like the Old World Ploceidce, or the Icteridce, and espe-
cially the Tanagridfc, of the New, tlie difficulty, if not tlie impossibility, of framing a perfect
diagnosis bec(jmes apparent, and I am not aware tliat any attempts at rigid definition have
proven successful. Ornitliologists are nearly agreed what birds to call fringilline, witliout being
so well pn^pared to say what " fringilline " means. Tlie subdivisions of the family, as might
be expected, are still conventional, and varying with every leading writer. Our species might
be thrown into several groups, but the distinctions would be more or less arbitrary and not
374 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES—OSCINES.
readily perceived. It is therefore best to waive the question, and simply collocate the genera in
orderly sequence.
Fringillidce are popularly known by several different names. Here belong all the Spar-
roivs, with the allied birds called Finches, Buntings, Linnets, Grosbeaks, and Crossbills.
The species and subspecies ascertained to occur within our limits are mostly well deter-
mined, although the number of genera to which they are customarily referred is, I think,
altogether too large. Three of them, Carduelis carduelis, Passer domesUcus, and P. vion-
taniis, are imported and naturalized. Species occur throughout our country, in every sit-
uation, and many of them are among our most abundant and familiar birds. They are all
granivorous — seed-eaters, but many feed extensively ou buds, fruits, and other soft vege-
table substances, as well as on insects. They are uot so perfectly migratory as the exclu-
sively insectivorous birds, the nature of whose food requires prompt removal at the approach
of cold weather; but, with some exceptions, they witlulraw in the fall from their breeding
places to spend the winter farther south, and to return in the spring. "With a few signal
exceptions, they are uot truly gregarious birds, though they often associate in large companies,
assembled in community of interest. The modes of nesting are too various to be here summa-
rized. Nearly all the Finches sing, with varying ability and effect ; some of them are among
our most delightful vocalists. As a rule, they are plainly clad — even meanly, in comparison
with some of our sylvau beauties ; but among them are birds of elegant and striking colors.
Among the highly-colored ones, the sexes are more or less unlike, and other changes, with age
and season, are strongly marked ; the reverse is the case with the rest.
The unpractised student will have more trouble with this family than elsewhere in identi-
fying his specimens. In the first place, the genera and species are very numerous, and so vari-
ously interrelated that no satisfactory subfamilies have been established ; they are thereft)re
not parcelled out in sets. Secondly, all the genera cannot be discriminated in a line of type.
To meet the difficulty, I have caused the family to be profusely illustrated with cuts of more
than average excellence, and have attempted a tabular analysis of the genera, which, though
necessarily defective, will doubtless help to some extent. Speaking roundly, there are three lots
of genera : («) Loxiine, mostly boreal birds, sexed unlike, ^ often red, 9 dull, no blue, colors
massed or streaky, bill usually ruffed at base, wings pointed, tail forked, feet weak ; (&) Sjyi-
zelUne, everywhere, mostly small streaked and spotted species, sexed alike, may be yellowed
but are never red or blue, wings, tail, and feet various ; (c) Spizine, mostly southerly, sexed
unlike, $ often red or blue, bill unruffed, wings, tail, and feet various ; — but nothing will
serve to distinguish these groups unexceptionally, and I therefore refrain from presenting them
formally as subfamilies. The British Museum Catalogue of 1888 arranges tlie Fringillidce of
the world in .3 subfamilies (Coccothraustinee, FringillincB, and Emherizince, or Grosbeaks,
Finches proper, and Buntings), with 99 genera and about 575 species or subspecies.
Analysis {partial) of Fringilline Genera.
Bill inetagnalhous, both mandibles falcate, their points crossed, ^f red, $ dark and yellowish Loxia
Bill enormous, nearly =: tarsus, greenish-yellow. Wings black and white ; tail and tibiie black. (Western.)
Hesperiphona
Bill parrot-like, ichitisli. Head conspicuously crested. (^ $ gray and carmine, face not black. Length 7..')l) or
more. (S. W. U. S.) Ptjrrlmloiia
Bill reddish. Head conspicuously crested. ^ vermilion, face black. $ gray and reddish. Length 7.50 or more.
(E. and S. U. S.) Cardinalis
Bill with a ruff, or pair of nasal tufis, of antrorse plumules, at base of upper mandible.
Length S.OO or more, cf red and gray, $ gray and yellowish, uncrested. Bill liirgid, hooked. (Boreal.)
Pinirnla
— under 8.00. — 5Z!(uA-£rray, below reddish-gray, crown, wings, and tail black. (Alaska.) . . Pi/rrhida
— White, with black on back, wings, and tail ; or washed with clear brown. (Boreal.)
Passerina
— Chocolate-brown, unstreaked, with rosy edgings ; black or clear ash on head. (Western.)
Lencosticte
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 375
— Streaky ; no yeWovi; cf extensively rcrf,- 9 <l'irk and white. Ji\\\ turgid. (E. and W. U. S.)
Cnrpoihwus
— Streaky, with dusky or flaxeu-brown and wliite ; crown crimson. Bill acute. (Boreal.)
Acanthis
— (SVreaiy everywhere ; ?(o red or pure black, some yf^'o"'"'''- 'BiiX acute, {pinus.) (N.Am.)
Spinus
— much ye'Wou', wings and tail i/acA-; ?! 9 red. Bill moderate. (N.Am.) . . Astragalinu.t
— JV'o/ streaky ; ?-erf, black and gold. (Imported.) Carduelis
Bill ivithout ruff ; nostrils exposed.
Hind claw lengthened, ^/m/p/i/en^f/. — Bill moderate; (f with a colored cervical collar; oblique white on tail.
(N. and W. N. A.) Calcarius
— Bill turgid ; no cervical collar: transver.se white on tail. (Western.)
Mhynchophanes
Hind and for3 claws lengthened ; all much curved ; inner reaching at least J way to end of middle one —
— Spotted and streaked foxy or slaty sparrows, about 7.00 (or more) long. (N. Am.) . Passerella
— Black, white and chestnut, in masses. (A Western species of) Pipilo
Hind and fore claws not peculiar.
Length 4.50 or te.s. — {f Black and white, $ olivaceous and yellowish. (Texas.) Sporophila
(J Greenish blackening on head, 5 greenish. (Florida.) Euetheia
Length 7.50 or more. — Tail longer than wings. Plain brown, etc., or black, white, and chestnut. (U. S.)
Pipilo
— Tail shorter than wings, (f breast rose or orange ; § sulphur or saffron under wings.
(U. S.) Zamelodia
Length over i.m, under 7.50.
Colors green ish — with yellow — on edge of wing, and — 2 rufous crown-stripes. (Texas. ) A rremon ops
— Crown chestnut, breast ashy. (Western.)
Oreospisa
— on all under parts — no head markings. ( $ of a southern species of)
Cyanospiza
Colors 7wi greenish, and 7iot extensively and decidedly spotted or streaked.
Black, with great u:hite wing-patch ; longest secondary about = longest primary. (Western.)
Calamospiiza
Blue with rhest7iut onwings, ^f ; plain browni, $; over COO long. (U. S.) . . . . Guiraca
Blue, with red, purple, gold, wliite, or not, (f ; brown, with white or not, $ ; under 6.00
long. (N. Am.) Cyanospiza
5/a<e or ashy, red-backed or not, belly and 1-3 tail-feathers ?('Aae. (N.Am.) . . . Junco
dray, throat and tail black, head with 2 white stripes, belly white. (Western.) Amphispiza
Colors not greenish, but somewhere or everywhere spotted or streaked.
Inner secondaries lengthened, about equalling primaries in the closed wing.
Alarge udiite tcing-patch. Upper parts much streaked. ( $ of ) .... Calamospiza
Bend of wing chestnut'; outer tail-feather irhite; no yellow anywhere. (N. Am.) Pocecetes
i\'o white or chestnut area on wing, its edge (usually) 2/e//o«uA. (N.Am.) . . Pa.'-serculus
Inner secondaries not enlarged ; wing decidedly longer than tail.
Edge of wing and loral spot yellow; breast buff ; wing 2.50 or under.
Ammndramus (Coturniciilus)
With ?/e//o!r on breast, edge of wing, over eye ; 6/flcA; throat-patch or stripes. (Eastern.) Spiza
No yellow ; head striped with black, white, and chestnut; tail black, white-tipped. (Western.)
Chondestes
No yellow; wings wM<"-6orred; throat black, cf. (Imported.) Passer
Inner secondaries not enlarged ; wing not, or not decidedly, longer than tail.
Tail-feathers — very acute; bill — very slender. (Eastern, chiefly maritime.) ( Ammodramus
— very .'itout (Eastern. ) or slender (Interior.) I (Coturniculus)
— not acute; tail — forked. Length G.OO or less ; 7io yellow on wing. (N. Am.)
Spizella
— rounded — black; edge of wing yellowisli. (Western.)
Amphi.'ipiza
— not black. — Streaked below, or crown chestnut.
(N. Am.) Melospiza
— not streaked below. (S. and W. U.S.)
edge of wing — yellow . Peuccea
— not yellow
Hcemophila
or (N. Am. ) large G.50-7.50
Zonolrichia
*#* The commonest " Sparrows " of Eastern U. S., which the student will be most likely to find first, belong to the
genera Passer, Spizella, Melospiza, Xonotrichia, Passerella, Pa.■<.^<erculus, Poivcete.t, Coturniculus (these anywhere), Am-
modramus{ma,Tshea only) ; common but more distinguished Friugillines are Carpodacus, Asiragalinus, Cyanospiza, Spiza,
876 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES—OSCINES.
Pipilo, and Cardinalis. Winter visitors, in flocks, are Loria, Pinicola, Pnsserina, Calcarius, Acanthis, Spinus, and
Junco. Genera confined to the West or Southwest are He.sperip/iona, Pijrrfiiila, Pyrrhuloxia, Leucosticte, Rhyncho-
phanes, Sporophila, Arremonops, Oreospiza, Calamospiza, Hcemophila, and Amphispiza. The genera Pijrrlnda, Sporo-
phila, and Euetheia are properly extralimital. Imported genera are Passer and Carduelis.
HESPERIPHO'NA. (Gr. eanepis, hesperis, a peculiar feminine of eo-Trepios, hesperios, west-
ern, as uouu in the plural 'Ea-neplBes, Hesperides, the Daughters of Night, who dwelt on the
western verge of the world; ea-nepos or ia-rrepios, hes-
peros or hesperios, as adjective, of time, at evening,
at sunset; of place, western, occidental, where the
sun goes down, in feminine form eairepa, liespera,
Lat. Vespera, used as noun, for eve, evening, and for
the west, Lat. occiclens; also 'Earrepia, Hesperia, the
west. The forms of the classic word are much con-
fused, and usable both as nouns and adjectives. The
second element of the genus name is Gr. cjicov^,
phone, voice, sound.) American Hawfinches.
Bill enormously large, vaulted, nearly as wide as
higli at base ; culmen nearly straight to the decurved
end ; commissure curved without obvious angula-
tion ; gonys very long, and mandibular rami short,
Fig. 23(;. — Evening Grosbeak, reduced. (Shep- not reaching back of base of upper mandible ; man-
pard del. Nichols so.) jjl^^^g ^^ ^q^^j thickness, lower not so deep as upper ;
lateral outlines of bill converging straight to tip. Nasal fossfe extremely short and broad ;
nostrils slightly overhung by antrorse plumulae. Wings long, pointed, folding beyond middle
of tail, pointed by first two primaries, the rest rapidly graduated ; no peculiar shape of inner
primaries or outer secondaries. Tail rather short, emarginate, with long coverts, the under
reaching nearly to the forking. Feet small and weak ; tarsus shorter than middle toe without
claw: lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws reaching hardly base of middle claw.
Coloration black, white, and yellow. Sexes dissimilar. Little diSierent from Old World Cocco-
thraustes, excepting in coloration and the simplicity of wing-quills ; yet I hardly think it ad-
visable to follow the A. 0. U. in reducing this well-marked American group to a subgenus
of Coccothraustes. We have one strongly marked species, with one subspecies ; another good
species, H. aheillcei, occurs in Mexico and Central America.
H. vesperti'na. (Lat. vespertina, of Hespa-us. Fig. 23(1) Evening Grosbeak. Adult
$ : General color sordid yellow, overlaid with a sooty-olive shade, deepest on fore parts, quite
black on crown, clearest below behind. Forehead and line over eye, scapulars, and rump, yel-
low. Wings and tail black ; several inner secondaries and inner half of greater coverts white ;
lining of wings black and yellow. A narrow black line around base of upper mandible ; tibiae
black. Bill greenish-yellow ; iris brown; feet light brown ; claws dark brown. Length 7.50-
8.50; wing 4.00-4.50; tail 2.50-3.00; bill 0.75"long, 0.67 deep, 0.60 broad. ?: Brownish-
ash, paler below, whitening on belly ; mixed with little, if any, yellowish ; white of wings
imperfect, or tinged with yellow; primaries, which are quite black in ^, with large white
spaces on inner webs, and sometimes tipped with wliite ; the distinctive head markings of the
$ wanting. Adults of both sexes differ much in the shade of the yellow and degree of obscu-
ration of the white on the wings ; there is also much difference in the extent of yellow and
black on the head. Young of both sexes resemble the adult 9 ; ^"t the general coloration is
duller and more brownish, the under parts are paler and more buffy, and all the special mark-
ings less sharply defined; bill plain brownish, or horn-color. In full plumage this is a bird of
distinguished appearance, whose very name suggests the far-away land of the dipping sun, and
the tuneful romance which the wild bird throws around the fading light of day ; clothed in
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 377
striking color-contrasts of black, white, and gold, he seems to represent the allegory of diurnal
transmutation ; for his sable pinions close around the brightness of his vesture, as night encom-
passes the golden hues of sunset, while the clear white space enfolded in these tints foretells
the dawn of the morrow. Western U. S., northerly, and adjoining British Provinces, N. to the
region of the Saskatchewan, E. regularly to Lake Superior, irregularly to Kansas, Kentucky,
Ohio, Outario, Quebec, New York, Pa., and New England ; common in its ordinary range,
but somewhat irregularly distributed, especially during its migrations, when it may appear
unexpectedly in large roving flocks. In some places it is known as "sugar-bird,'' from its
fondness for the maple (Acer saccharinum). A history of the Evening Grosbeak may be read
in Bull. Nutt. Club, iv, Apr. 1879, pp. 65-75; and several later articles in the Auk trace its
movements and habits in various localities. The nest and eggs remained unknown till those
of its western variety were discovered in Yolo Co., Cala., May 10, 1886, as recorded in Bull.
Cala. Acad, ii, No. 8, 1887, p. 450. Another nest with eggs, taken June 18, 1896, in El
Dorado Co., Cala., is figured in colors in the Nidologist for Sept. 1896. This nest was in a
pine tree at a height of 35 feet, in the fork of a limb, substantially built with a foundation of
twigs upon which was a neat superstructure of fine rootlets ; it contained 4 eggs, averaging
0.92 X 0.G4, light bluish-green, spotted and blotched irregularly with dark brown and black.
H. V. mouta'na. (Lat., of mountains.) Western Evening Grosbeak. As noted in the
Key, '2d ed., 1884, p. 343, specimens from the Southern Eocky Mts. were said to have the bill
less turgid and the yellow frontlet narrow. This was the alleged character of the j^resent sub-
species, to which is now ascribed a range in the U. S., from the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, and
8. in Mexico to Orizaba. The alleged distinction does not hold goodj but the 9 averages
browner than that of vespertina proper, and is more mixed with yellowish, instead of being
plain brownisli-ash or gray on most parts. Hesperiphona vespertina var. montana Bd.,
Brew., and Ridgw., Hist. N. A. B. i, 1874, p. 449; Coccothraustes vespertina montana
Mearns, Auk, July, 1890, p. 246; Coccothraustes {Hesperiphona) vespertinus montanus,
A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 514 a. (Not in A. 0. U. List, 1st ed. 1886 ; nor in Eidgv^^.,
Man. 1887.)
PINI'COLA. (Lat. pmHS, a pine ; co?e/T, to inhabit, cultivate.) Pine Bullfinches. Bill
short, stout, about as high as broad, sides convex in all directions, culmen convex throughout,
tip hooked; commissure gently curved throughout, without decided angulation; gouys rela-
tively long, rami of under mandible short, former nearly straight, latter coming together in a
very broad gentle curve ; commissural edge inflected. Nostrils small, round, basal, concealed
by the ruff of antrorse plumules ; nasal fossae short and broad. Wings of moderate length,
tipped by 2d-4th quills, 1st and 5th a little shorter; 2d-5th with outer webs incised ; no pecu-
liarity of inner quills. Tail little shorter than wings, emarginate, its short coverts scarcely or
not reaching half-way to end. Feet small ; tarsus not longer than middle toe without claw,
7-scutellate in front, laminiplantar behind, but the outer of these plates commonly subdivided
into 3 or 4 below ! Lateral toes short, their claws scarcely surpassing base of middle, outer
rather longer tlian inner ; hind toe less in length than inner lateral ; its claw shorter, though
stouter and more curved than the middle. Sexes unlike ; (J red, 9 ff''iiy- One species.
P. enuolca'tor canadensis. (Lat. enucleator, one who shells out. Fig. 237.) Canadian
Pine Grosbeak. Pine Bullfinch. Adult $ : Light carmine or rosy-red, feathers of
back with dusky centres; lower belly and under tail-coverts gray, and, in general, the red
continuous only in higlily plumaged specimens. Nasal tufts and lores blackish. Wings black-
ish ; primaries witli narrow white or rosy edging, inner secondaries more broadly edged with
white, ends of greater and middle coverts white or rosy, forming conspicuous wing-bars. Tail
like wings, with narrow edgings like those of primaries. Bill blackish, with or without paler
base below ; feet blackish. Length about 8.50 ; wing 4.50 or more ; tail 4.00 ; bill 0.55 ; tar-
sus 0.90. The plumage of the $ is extremely variable in tint, and some apparently adult indi-
378
S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
M(lu.il> of tlii-- 'sov <iio indi'-t
leathci- <if back uitli ilaiL
Fig. 237. — Pine G
del. Nichols sc. )
mailable 111 colors from the 9. Adult 9 : Ashy-gray, paler below ;
(lutus-, those of head, rump, aud fore parts generally skirted
^^^rf^^ --^ " '•■ with a saffron or yellowish color, very variable in
^^^i*-% ■" '^t extent aud tint, from dull gamboge-yellow to olive-
orange, or rusty-orange, or even reddish ; in some
specimens crown and rump quite bricky-red. Throat
sometimes abruptly paler than surrounding parts.
Eatlier smaller than ^ . Young ^ resembles 9 •
Northern portions of N. Am. to about the limit of
trees ; in summer, most of British America and N.
border of U. S., E. of the Rocky Mts. ; in winter,
range extended irregularly sometimes to Maryland,
Ohio, Illinois, and Kansas. Inhabits chiefly conif-
erous woods, in flocks when not breeding, feeding
upon the fruit of such trees. A fine musician, of
amiable disposition and gentle manners, often caged,
and in contiueineut often failing to develop or retain
the red color. Nest usually in conifers, composed
(Sheppard of a basement of twigs and rootlets, within which
is a more compact fabric of finer materials; eggs
usually 4, 1.05 X 0.74, greenish -blue, spotted and blotched with dark brown and blackish sur-
face-markings and lilac shell-spots. P. enudeator of former eds. of Key, as of A. 0. U. Lists,
1886-95. P. canadensis Cab., 1851. P. e. canadensis, A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899,
p. 113, No. 515. I agree with A. 0. U. that this is a good subspecies of P. emicleator. It is
decidedly larger than the European bird : wing sometimes up to 5.00, rarely under 4.50, or tail
under 4.00, while these parts in enudeator average only 4.25 and 3.65 ; and the 9 of canadensis
fails to show the peculiar olivaceous tint characteristic of 9 enudeator. I have not such a good
opinion of the following subspecies, which I spread on my page in deference to the A. 0. U.
P. e. monta'na, (Lat., of mountains.) Rocky Mountain Pine Grosbeak. "Similar to
P. e. californica but decidedly (f) larger and slightly darker, the adult ^ with the red of a
darker, more carmine, hue." Wing 4.71 ; tail 3.72; ouhnen 0.63; depth of bill at base 0.47;
width 0.39; tarsus 0.92; middle toe without claw 0.66. Rocky Mts., breeding from Montana
and Idaho to New Mexico. Included under the stock form in former eds. of the Key. P. e.
Montana Ridgw., Auk, Oct. 1898, p. 3J9; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 113,
No. 51 5 a.
P. e. califor'nica. (Lat., Californian.) Californian Pine GROSBEAK. Said to differ
from P. e. canadensis in "larger, more hooked, and less turgid bill," together with deficiency
of dark centres of dorsal and scapular feathers, and to inhabit the Sierras Nevadas of California
from 7,000 feet up to timber line. Included under the stock form in former eds. of the Key.
P. e. californica Price, Auk, Apr. 1897, p. 182 ; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899,
p. 113, No. 515 b.
P. e. alascen'sis. (Lat., of Alaska.) Alaskan Pine Grosbeak. " Similar to P. e. can-
adensis but decidedly (?) larger, with smaller or shorter bill and paler coloration ; both sexes
with the gray parts distinctly (?) lighter, more ashy." ^ : Wing 4.61 ; tail 3.65 ; culmen
0.57; depth of bill at base 0.48; width 0.40; tarsus 0.90; middle toe without claw 0.60.
9 : Wing 4.57 ; tail 3.68, etc. Northwestern N. Am., " including wooded portions of Alaska,
except Kadiak and the southern coast region; " S. in winter to eastern British Columbia, Mon-
tana, etc. Included distinctly in the stock form in former eds. of the Key; I say ''Alaska"
expressly, though the concordance as published fails to give "C 190 part." P. e. alascensis
Ridgw., Auk, Oct. 1898, p. 319; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 114, No. 515 c.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
379
p. e. flam'mula. (lyM. JhiDimtila, a little flame, or other small red thing; dimin. oi flamma,
a flame, lilaze, tire.) Kadiak Pine Grosbeak. ''Smaller than P. e. canadensis, with pro-
portioually much larger bill aud shorter tail." Length given as 8.00-8.50; wing 4.25-4.60 ;
tail 3.60-3.80 ; culmen 0.60 ; tarsus 0.90. Kadiak to Sitka, Alaska. P. flammula Homeyer,
J. f. 0. 1880, p. 156. P. e. flammula, A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 114,
No. 515 (I. P. e. kodiaca Ridgw., Man. 1887, p. 388. Included with all the others in former
eds. of the Key.
PYR'RHULA. (Lat. |jy/7-7i»?rt, a bullfinch.) Bi'llfixches. Generic characters of P/»/co?a
as above given ; the diflerent shape of the bill and diflerent style of coloration being the prin-
cipal distinction. Bill as wide at base as long,
its under outline twice concave. Colors in
masses of black, white or gray, and red.
P. cas'siui. (To John Cassin. Fig. 238.)
Cassin's Bullfinch. Adult ^ : Above, clear
ashy-gray ; below, paler ashy-gray ; rump and
under wing- and tail-coverts white ; wings, tail,
crown, chin, and face, black ; greater wing-
coverts broadly tipped with whitish ; bill black ;
feet dusky. Length 6.50 ; wing 3.50 ; tail 3.25.
In less perfect plumage, some of the tail-feath-
ers are patched with white, and there may be
some white edging of the primaries. The lesser F'S- 238. -Cassin's Bullfinch, reduced. (Fi-om Baird.)
and median wing-coverts are like the back, contrasting with the greater coverts. The 9
closely resembles the ^ , but has the under parts tinged with cinnamon. Nulato, Alaska, a stray
from E. Siberia; the type specimen marked ^, but having all the characters c>f a 9 ! nearly
related to P. coccinea of Asia (especially its subspecies Kamtschatica), and originally described
as a variety of that species ; identical with P. cineracea Cab., J. f. O. 1872, p. 316, and with
P. cineracea pallida Seebohm, Ibis, 1887, p. 101.
PAS'SER. (Lat. passer, a sparrow ; this very species.) Sparrows. Form stout and
stocky. Bill very stout, shaped somewhat as in Carpodacus, but without nasal ruff. Culmen
curved : commissure little angulated ; gonys convex, ascending ; lateral outlines of bill bulging
to near end. Wing pointed; 1st, 2d,
and 3d primaries nearly equal and long-
est ; 4th little shorter, rest graduated ;
inner secondaries not elongate. Tail
shorter than wings, nearly even. Feet
small ; tarsus about equal to middle toe
aud claw; lateral toes of equal lengths,
their claws not reaching to base of mid-
dle claw. Sexes unlike. $ with black
and chestnut on head. Middle of back
only streaked. Old World : two species
naturalized in North America, out of the
26 which compose this genus.
P. domes'ticus. (Lat. domesticus, do-
mestic. Figs. 239, 240.) The Spar-
row. Philip Sparrow. House
Sparrow. Parasite. Tramp.
Hoodlum. Gamin. Adult ^ : Up-
oldly streaked with black and bay. A
Fio. 239. —English Sparrow. (L. A. Fuertes.)
per parts ashy-gray ; middle of back and scapulars 1
380
SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
dark chestnut or niahogauy space beliind eye, spreading on side of neck. Lesser wing-coverts
deep chestnut; median tipped with white, forming a conspicuous wing-bar, bordering which is a
black line. Greater coverts and inner quills with central black field bordered with bay. Tail
dusky-gray, unmarked. Lower parts ashy, gray or whitish ; chin and throat jet black, spread-
ing on the breast and lores, bordered on side of neck with white. Bill blue-black ; feet brown.
Wing about 3.00 ; tail 2.50. Adult?: Above, brownish-gray ; streaking of back light ochrey-
brown and black; wing-edgings liglit ochrey-brown, the white bar impure. No black, ma-
hogany, or white on head ; a pale brown postocular stripe ; bill blackish-brown, yellowish at
base below. Varies endlessly in purity or dinginess of coloration. Young ^ at first like 9 •
Europe, etc. Repeatedly iu)ported since 1858, and especially in the sixties, during a craze
which even affected some ornithologists, making people fancy that a granivorous conirostral
species would rid us of insect-pests, this sturdy and invincible little bird has overrun the whole
country, and proved a nuisance without a redeeming quality. The original ofi'ender in the
case is said to have been one Deblois, of Portland, Me., in 1858; but the pernicious activity
of Dr. T. M. Brewer affected the city fathers of Boston in 1868-69, and even the Smith-
sonian Institution at Washington, about the same years. New York had the sparrow-fever
in 1860-64, and Philadelphia was not as slow as usual in catching the contagion, in 1869.
There is no need to follow the sad record further. Well-informed persons denounced the
bird without avail during the years when it might have been abated, but protest has long
been futile, for the sparrows have had it all their own way, and can afford to laugh at
legislatures, like rats, mice, cockroaches and other parasites of the human race which we
must endure. This species, of all birds, naturally attaches itself most closely to man, and
easily modifies its habits to suit such artificial surroundings ; this ready yielding to condi-
tions of environment, and pi'ofiting by them, makes it one of the creatures best fitted to
survive in the struggle for existence under whatever conditions man may afford or enforce;
hence it wins in every competition with native birds, and in this country has as yet developed
no counteractive influences to restore a disturbed balance of forces, nor any check whatever
upon its limitless increase. Its habits need not be noted, as they are already better known to
every one than those of any native bird whatever, but few realize how many million dollars
the bird has already cost us. Nest
anywhere about buildings, also in
tites, bushes, and vines, built of any
rubbish, usually lined with feathers,
and making a bulky, unsightly ob-
ject amidst dirty surroundings ; eggs
indefinitely numerous, usually 5 to
7, about 0.90 X 0.60, dull whitish
thickly marked with dark brown and
1)1 utral tints ; several broods a year
aie raised, as the birds breed in and
out of season.
1* monta'nus. (Lat. moutinuis, of
mountains. Fig. 240.) Mountain
Sparrow^. European Tree Spar-
row. Somewhat like the last, but
smaller and otherwise dift'erent. ^ :
Crovv-n and nape a peculiar purplish-
brown. Lores, chin, and throat
black, the throat-patch narrow and short, not spreading on breast, contrasted with ashy-
white on side of head and neck; ear-coverts blackish. ^Ba-^^k and scapulars streaked with
P. m07i/(mus ; reduced. (From
FRINGILLID.E: FIXCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 381
black aud bay, the streaking Teaching to the purplish nape ; rump and tail plain grayish-
brown. Wings marked mueli as in P. domesticus, with a black and white bar across tips
of median coverts, but also a narrow white bar across tips of greater coverts. Primaries
more varied with ochrey-browu on outer webs, forming a basal spot and other edging. Be-
low, ashy-gray, shaded on sides, Hanks, and crissuin with grayish-brcjwn. Bill blue-black;
feet brown. Wing 2.75; tail 2.25. 9 differs much as before. Europe; naturalized about
St. Louis and elsewhere. Nesting aud general habits like those of P. domesticus ; eggs
similar, smaller, 0.77 X 0.55.
CARPO'DACUS. (Gr. Kapnos, Tcarpos, fruit; Soko?, dakos, biting.) Purple Bullfinches.
Bill smaller and less turgid than in Pinicola or Pijrrlnda, more regularly conic aud more acute ;
sides convex in all directions, but with distinct ridge prolonged
in a point on forehead where not concealed by the antise, its out-
line moderately curved ; commissure decidedly angulated, about '' r~\
straight before and behind the bend; gonys quite straight. Na- ^-"^
sal ruff little developed, barely concealing the slight nasal fossEe,
thence falling over sides of bill, but discontinuous across culmen.
Wings long and pointed, folding half-way to end of tail or fur-
ther, pointed by first 3 or 4 quills. Tail much shorter than Fig. 24L — Bill of Purple Finch,
wings, emarginate to even, with rather narrow feathers; both
sets of coverts reaching more than half-way to end. Feet small and weak ; tarsus shorter than
middle toe; lateral toes subequal, outer rather longer than inner, their claws reaching base of
middle claw. Sexes unlike. $ extensively red of some shade, 9 streaky brown and white.
Head with erectile feathers, but not fairly crested. A beautiful genus, of 25 or mcjre species
of New and Old World.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies (cf).
Bill conic-acute, with scarcely convex culmen ; edgings of wing- and tail-feathers reddish. (Carpodacus proper.)
Large : length G.50-7.00 ; bill at least 0.50 along culmen. Under tail-coverts streaked with dusky centres of the
feathers. Crimson crown well distinguished from merely reddish-brown back. (Southwestern U. S.) . cassini
Medium: length 5.75-0.25; bill not 0.50 along culmen. Under tail-coverts scarcely or not streaked. Crimson of
crown not well distinguished from that of back. (U.S.) purpureus
Like the last ; coloration darker and more diffuse (Pacific Coast) purpureus cali/ornicus
Bill conoid-obtuse, with very convex culmen. Edgings of wing- aud tail-feathers whitish. (Subgenus Burrica.)
Small : length scarcely G.OO ; bill about 0.40 along culmen. Front, line over eye, rump and throat red, more or less
contrasting with brown or white of other parts.
Red pretty definitely restricted to the areas said (Southwestern U. S.) mericanus frontalis
Red spreading over other parts (Lower California) meiicanus ruberrimus
Large : length G.OO or more ; bill over 0.40 ; wing 3.25. (Insular forms.)
Red of cf as usual. Guadalupe Island ampins
Santa Barbara Islands cleinenlis
Red of cf replaced by orange. San Benito Island macgregori
C. purpu'reus. (\^i\l. imrpurens, \)\w\Ao. Figs. 241, 242.) Purple Finch (better Crim-
son Fixcu). Purple Linnet. Red Linnet. Adult J': Rose-red, paler below, insensibly
whitening on belly and crissum, brightest anteriorly, intensified to crimson on crown, darker
and more brownish -red on back, where also streaked with dark brown. Wings and tail dusky,
cpiills edged and coverts tipped with browmi.sh-red. Lores and feathers about base of bill hoary-
whitish. Bill and feet brown ; under mandible rather paler. Length G.00-6.25 ; extent 10.00-
10.60; wing 8.00-3.25 ; tail 2.25-2.50 ; tarsus 0.62; middle toe and claw 0.87 ; bill under 0.50.
The shade of red is very variable, almost anything but purplish — according to season, and age
and vigor of the individual. In high feather, the crown is richer crimsou than any other part,
but does not form a definite cap. The auriculars are dusky, and there is an appreciably light
rosy stripe over them. Younger $ ^ have frequently a bronzy shade. 9 ^"d young : Oliva-
ceous-brown, more clearly olivaceous on rump, everywhere streaked with dusky. Below,
382
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSEKES — OSCINES.
-■- i
Fig. 242. — Purple Fiucli, (f, reduced.
(Sheppard del. Nichols, sc.)
the most miscellaneous materials,
white, inarked everywhere except on throat, belly, and crissum with streaks and arrow-heads
of dusky olive-brown ; the latter pretty evenly distributed on breast, former the same on sides,
on sides of neck and throat confluent and gathered into a maxillary series running up to bill,
separated by a poorly-defined whitish area from olive-
brown auriculars, over which is a whitish postocular streak.
Wings and tail as in ^, but the edgings plain brown.
Length 5.70-5.90 ; extent 9.50-10.00 ; wing about 3.00.
Young J cannot be certainly distinguished from 9? in
•general, duller and grayer brown, with less olive shade ;
the red first shows pale or bronzy in slight touches. Cage-
)irds sometimes turn yellowish after moulting, as is the case
with various other red Finches. U. S- from Atlantic to
the Great Plains; N. to Labrador, Hudson's Bay, and the
Saskatchewan. Breeds from the Middle States, Minnesota
and N. Dakota northward; winters in most of the U. S.,
rticularly the Middle and S. States. An engaging
l)u-d, of bright colors, sweet song, and many amiable traits,
among them its fondness for the society of man ; it comes
fearlessly about our houses to build its own, which is gen-
erally situated on a horizontal bough or fork, composed of
ilmost any vegetable fibre being available for the flat and
shallow structure ; it is usually lined with hair, and the eggs, to the number of 4 or 5, are pale
dull greenish, or almost whitish, sparsely sprinkled and scratched with blackish surface-mark-
ings and lilac shell-spots ; size about 0.85 X 0.65; two broods are often reare<l. When not
breeding the birds are generally found in flocks, and it is to be feared they damage in spring
the blossoms of fruit-trees.
C. p. califor'nieus. (Lat., Californian.) Califokxiax Purple Finch. Like the last;
first quill said to be usually shorter than the 4th (not longer as usual m purpureus) ; $ with
sides and flanks suffused with brownish, the streaks there broad and not sharp; streaks of
back indistinct; red of crown and rump dark and dull. 9 differs correspondingly from
that of purpureus. Pacific Coast region from British Columbia to southern California.
Not in any previous ed. of the Key, in consequence of a consultation held many years ago
by Prof. Baird, Mr. Cassin, and myself, in which it was decided against unanimously;
and I only admit it now pro forma, in my desire to bring about as far as possible nom-
inal conformity of the Key with the A. 0. U. Lists. C californicus Bd. B. N. A. 1858,
p. 413; C- purpureus californicus of most authors since 1874; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and
1895, No. 517 r/.
C. eas'sini. (To John Cassin.) Cassin's Purple Finch. Adult $ : In highest plumage
duller than C purpureus, excei)tiug on crown. Middle of back brown, tinged witli red, the
feathers dusky-centred, gray-edged; crown crimson, the cap not so extensive as in purpureus,
and quite well defined, separated by a dusky and gray interval from color of back. Under tail-
coverts with dusky shaft-lines, usually wanting in purpureus. Larger: length 6.50-7.00;
extent 11.00-11.50; wing 3.50 ; tail 2.50; bill at least 0.50 along culmen, usually more, rela-
tively less turgid than in purpureus. Iris brown ; feet blackish-brown ; bill above dark bluish
horn-color, below dusky flesli-tinted. The sexual changes are the same as in the last species;
it is not easy to distinguish 9 and young ^ from those of ^JHrjj»)-ei<s, but they are larger, with
longer and less tumid bill, and more streaked crissum. Very young birds have an ochraceous
or light rufous suffusion, especially noticeable on the under parts; the streaks are more numer-
ous and diffuse. Rocky Mts. of U. S. and westward, esi)eci:illy the Southern Rocky Mt. region,
as Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico; N. to British Columbia; E. to Wind River
FRINGllLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARIIOWS. 383
Mountains ; S. to table lauds of Mexico. Habits tbe same as those of the common Purple
Finch ; eggs ntit fairly distinguishable.
C. mexica'nus frontalis. (Lat. mexicanus, Mexican; fro )i talis, pertaining to tlie front.)
Crimson-fronted Finch. House Finch. Burion. Adult J : Grayish-brown above,
somewhat varied with darker centres and paler edges of the feathers, and for the most part
tinged with red. Below dull white, streaked with dark brown, often tinged with red. Fore
part of crown, superciliary line, rump, throat, breast, and sometimes side of head, crimson.
Wings and tail dark brown, with narrow pale edgings. Bill dusky-brown above, paler below ;
feet and eyes brown. Length about 6.00 ; extent scarcely 10.00 ; wing 3.00 ; tail 2.50,
scarcely forked ; tarsus 0.67 ; bill 0.40, very turgid, almost as in Pinicola or Pyrrhula. 9 •
Like ^, but without any red ; upper parts more varied with darker centres and paler edges of
the feathers, and entire under parts streaked like belly of ^. Young ^ resembles 9) but at
an early age is browner, and apt to have buffy edgings of the wings. Colors of adult ^ as
variable as those of purpureus or more so. In winter, the red less intense and more difi'use,
and may have a rosy or purplish tint, or be interrupted with grayish edgings of the feathers.
Generally in the Colorado Valley, where the typical form is developed, the red is restricted to
the parts said, but the constant tendency is to spread ; the back and belly have usually in fact
a tinge of red, and in some cases the whole head and fore parts are thus encrimsoiied. U. S.,
rather southerly, from the Kocky Mts. to Oregon and California; western Texas, Colorado,
Utah, Nevada, Arizona, western Kansas, New Mexico, and northern Mexico; familiar as a
Swallow or Chip-bird, nesting in streets and gardens, where its bright colors, hearty song, and
sprightly ways make it a welcome visitor. Nesting like that of the Purple Finch in essential
particulars; eggs smaller, paler, and of more fugitive bluish tint, with the blackish sprinkling
sparser ; size 0.68 X 0.60 to 0.75 X 0.54. C. frontalis of earlier eds. of the Key, lately as-
certained to intergrade with C. mexicanus (Fringilla mexicana P. L. S. Muller, Syst. Nat.
Suppl. 1766, p. 165), and therefore reducible to a subspecies of the latter. See Ridgw.
Man. 1887, p. 391 ; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 899; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 213,
No. 519.
C. m. ruber'rimus. (Lat., superlative degree oi ruber, red.) Red-breasted Finch. St.
Lucas House Finch. This alleged variety resembles the last ; crimson tints more diffuse.
Lower California and probably Sonora. This is C. frontalis rlwdocolpus of the 2d, 3d, and
4th eds. of the Key, p. 348, and A. 0. U. List, 1st ed. J886, p. 257, after C. rhodocolpus
Cab. Mus. Hein. i, 1851, p. 166; and if the variation be worth any name, I fail to see why
this is not available, as it certainly covers the present case, though Dr. Cabanis may not have
indicated satisfactorily the geographical distribution. The bird in question has received three
different names from Mr. Ridgway ; being his C. frontalis var. rhodoco^ms of Am. Journ.
Sci. V, Jan. 1873, p. 39 ; his C. frontalis ruberrimus, Man. 1887, p. 391 ; and his C. mexi-
canus ruberrinms, ibid. p. 594; which latter is tlie clioice of the A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895.
p. 214, No. 519 b.
C. m. cleiuen'tis. (Lat. clemens, gen. clementis, adj., clement, mild; proper name of Sauctus
Clemens, St. Clement, a person, applied in Spanish form San Clemente to an island.) San
Cle.mente House Finch. " Intermediate between the form of frontalis inhabiting the neigh-
boring mainland of California and C. Mcgregori.^' San Clemente and Santa Barbara Islands.
Mearns, Auk, July, 1898, p. 258; C. mexicanus clementis, A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan.
1899, p. 114, No. 519 c.
C. am'plus. (Lat. umplus, ample, large.) Guadalupe House Finch. An insular form,
resembling C. m. frontalis proper, but with darker tints, and considerably larger ; ^, wing
3.10-3.35; tail 2.60-2.90 ; bill 0.40-0.45 from nostril, and same in depth; tarsus 0.75-0.85 :
9 somewhat smaller. Guadalupe Island, Lower California. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. ii, Apr.
1876, p. 187; Key, 3d ed. 1887, p. 872; A. 0. U. Lists, No. 520.
384
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES —OVCINES.
C. mcgreg'ori. (To R. C McGregor, of Palo Alto, Cal.) McGi.egor's House Fixch.
Nearest C. ampins; slightly smaller, with more compressed, somewhat grooved bill, and longer
tail ; red of $ replaced by orange. San Benito Island, Lower California. Anthony, Auk,
Apr. 1897, p. 165, fig. h; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 114, No. 520. 1.
LOX'IA. (Gr. \o^6si loxos, crooked.) Crossbills. Bill metagnuthoiis ; both mandibles
falcate, deflected to opposite sides, their points crossed (unique among birds). Upper mandible
stout and broad at base, rapidly narrow-
ing to the elongate, decurved, laterally de-
flected and overhanging tip, its sides nearly
flat, culminal ridge well marked and very
s;X con vex throughout ; its base beset with a
ruff of antrorse plumules concealing nostrils
and nasal fossae. Lower mandible with
ij^"^'^*^^ gonys very long, occupying nearly all the
'^v^ I " ^'^^'^^^fe^ exposed part of bill, convex throughout,
" ^ ^^- /^^ end of mandible prolonged, curved upward
^^^^JK^^^ x"" ^^ and deflected to one side. Commissural
~"^~ ~ /^ ^ ~ line of either mandible curved in the op-
-J*^'"^" _, ^^psr- posite direction from its fellow. Mouth
^^f^ very narrow anteriorly, ample at base;
Fig. 243. — white-wiiiir,-,! Ciussbiu, reduced. (After Au- tougue horny and concave at end; u?soph-
dubon.) .11 .1 11.
agus with a large special crop, bulging to
the right side. Wings long, pointed by tips of first three primaries, rest rapidly graduated.
Tail very short, only about § as long as wing, eniarginate and divaricate, covered nearly to
the fork by coverts both above and below. Feet small ; tarsus shorter than middle toe with-
out claw ; covered with 3 or 4 large overlapping plates, and smaller ones above and below ;
postero-lateral plates much broken up below. Latei'al toes of subequal lengths, tips of their
claws falling opposite base of middle claw. Hind claw about equal to its digit, longer, stouter,
and more curved than middle one. Form stout, thick-set ; neck short ; head broad and flat-
tened on top. Plumage soft and blended. Sexes dissimilar in color. $ red, 9 brown with
olive or yellowish tinge. There are several species of these singular Finches, in which not
only the horny envelop of the beak, but the bony framework, and to some extent the liga-
ments and muscles acting upon it, are unsymmetrical. The conformation is only completed at
maturity, for in nestlings the points of the bill are not crossed. The structures concerned in
what would appear at first sight to be a deformity constitute a handy tool for cracking nuts of
some kinds and shelling out their kernels ; it acts like a pair of cutting pliers, — pincers and
scissors in one, — and the tongue comes into play at the same time as a scoop to secure the seed
or pip thus exposed in a pine-cone or fleshy fruit. Our two species inhabit the northern parts
of America, coming southward in flocks in the fall ; but they are also resident in northern and
mountainous parts of the U. S., where they sometimes breed in winter. They are irregularly
migratory according to exigencies of weather and food-supply; are eminently gregarious, and
feed principally upon pine seeds, which they skilfully husk out of the cones with their curious
bills.
Annli/si.i of Species and Subspecies.
Wings with two white bars, (f rosy-red ; $ brownish-olive, streaked and spotted with dusky, the rump saffron-
yellow leucoptera
Wings without bars, cf bricky-red. 9 as before, without wing-bars.
Bill small, about j of an inch long curvirostrn minor
Bill large, J-J of an inch long stricklandi
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
385
L. leucop'tera. (Gr. Xei^Ko's, leitJi-Qs, white; nrepov, pteron, wing. Figs. 243, 244.) White-
winged Crossbill. Adult $: Rosy-red, sometimes carmined or even crimsoned, obscured
on middle of back, paling on lower belly and crissum, latter whitish with dusky centres of the
feathers. Scapulars black, this color sometimes
meeting across lower back. Wing- and tail-
feathers black, with slight white or rosy edgings ;
inner secondaries and greater and middle coverts
tipped with white, forming two cross-bars, some-
times confluent in one large patch. Rather larger
than the next, the bill thinner and more attenuate.
9 and young : Though the differences are paral-
lel with those of L. minor, some peculiarity in
tone of color usually serves to distinguish the two
species, independently of the white wing-marks, Fig. 244.-Wh.te-vvmge.i ( ■ ..i„ii l \ Fuertes.)
which exist in both sexes at all ages. The difference is something like that between the 9 9
of Pinmga rubra and P. erytliromelas, in the presence of ochrey or bnffy tints, instead of clear
olivaceous or yellowish. Upper parts fuscous, closely lined with an ochrey-olive or dingy ochre,
the rump bright yellow-ochre. Below, the gray overlaid with ochreous, and further varied with
dark gray centres of the feathers, tending to streaks on the flanks. The whole tone of colora-
tion varies interminably ; the under parts and rump are sometimes bright tawny yellow, or
brownish-orange. Some $ $ are brilliant carmine, some 9 9 pale orange, almost uniform.
North Am., northerly; Alaska; Greenland; casual in Europe. In winter S. to about 38° in
U. S., in flocks like the next, not so common. Resident in N. New England, and along whole
N. tier of States, probably breeding also in alpine U. S. localities to Pennsylvania and Colo-
rado. Breeds in winter and early spring ; nesting like that of the next species ; eggs pale
blue, dotted chiefly at the larger end with black and lilac; 0.80 X 0.56.
L. curviros'tra mi'nor. (Lat. curvirostris, curve-billed ; minor, lesser, smallei-. Figs. 245,
246.) Aaierican Red Crossbill. Adult ^ : Red; wings and tail blackish, without white
markings. Middle of back
darker, more brownish -red
than elsewhere, the feathers
with dusky centres. In the
highest feather, even, the red
is scarcely continuous except
on head and rump, where
brightest ; lower belly and
crissum usually gray or pale.
Though the shade of red is
never rosy or carmine as in
the last, it varies intermina-
)ly. It is usually tile -red or
cinnabar, heightening in some
cases to vermilion, in olhers
shading to brownish-red, and
often mixed not only with
gray, but with olivaceous or
saffron-yellowish tints. Orange, chrome, or gamboge ^ ^ are sometimes seen, and in captivity
the European species of which ours is a variety is well known to lose the rod tints; the same
is doubtless true under some circumstances of all the members of this genus, in a state of na-
ture. Length about 6.00; wing 3.50 ; tail 2.25 ; tarsus 0.65; bill (chord of culmen) 0.67 or
25
Fio. 245. —Common CrossbiU, cf 9, rediiced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
886
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES - OSCINES.
-American Red Crossbill. (L. A. Fuertes.)
Carolina and Louisiana; resident in Maine.
less, very variable; deptli at base 0.35; under mandible usually weaker than upper. 9 and
young : Dull gre<'nish-olive, inueh mixed with gray or dusky, brighter and more yellowish
on head and rump ; below, gray, most feathers
skirted with dingy yellowish, overcasting most
of the plumage. Very young are dusky, streaked
with grayish-white, usually no trace of oliva-
ceous ; below, gray, streaked with dusky ;• bill
weak. From such state as this the ^ usually
passes through stages resembling the 9 » being
found in every possible patchy state of mixed
gray, olive and dusky-reddish ; sometimes ap-
pears to pass directly into the red state, and the
same is doubtless the case with other species.
N. Am., alpine and northerly; S. in most of
the U. S. in winter, sometimes even to South
etc., mountains S. to Georgia, and in the Rocky
and other mountains of the West ; abundant irregularly, in unwary but timid flocks, usually in-
cluding some individuals of the other species, fluttering and creeping about in the foliage of
coniferous trees. Nesting often in winter or early spring when snow still covers the ground;
nest in forks or among twigs of a tree, founded on a mass of twigs and bark-strips, the inside
felted of finer materials, including small twigs, rootlets, grasses, hair, feathers, etc. ; eggs
8-4, 0.75 X 0.57, pale greenish, spotted and dotted about larger end with dark purplish-brown,
with lavender shell- markings. L. c. americana of former eds. of the Key ; name changed
because of the prior Loxia americana Gm. 1788, which is a species of the genus Sporophila.
Our bird is recognizable as a subspecies distinct from L. curvirostra of Europe, and named as
Crucirostra minor by Brehm, Naum. 1853, p. 93; it has many synonyms, among which is
L. e. hendirei Kidgw. Pr. Biol. Soc. Wash, ii, Apr. 1884, p. 101, and Man. 1887, p. 392,
bestowed upon specimens intermediate between this form and the following :
L. c. strick'landi. (To H. E. Strickland. Fig. 247.) Mexican Crossbill. Like the
last; larger; length about 7.00 ; wing nearly or quite 4.00 ; tail 2.50 ; tarsus 0.70; bill 0.75
or more long, depth at base 0.50 ; the under
mandible especially more robust. Southern
Eocky Mts. ; westward to the Sierras Ne-
vadas, and southward on the table lands of
Mexico to Guatemala. L. c. mexicana of
former eds. of the Key ; L. c. stricklancli, Pr.
U. S. Nat. Mus. viii, 1885, p. 354; A. 0. U.
Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 521 rt.
LEUCOSTIC'TE. (Gr. XfVKos, leukos, -._^
white ; (ttiktt], sticte, varied. Fig. 248.) Rosy
Finches. Bill small, conic-acute, ruffed at
base with antrorse plumules meeting over cul-
men and concealing short nasal fossa^ and
small nostrils. Side of under mandible (in
typical species) with a sharp ridge running
obliquely upward and forward. C'ulmen
ridged between two slight dejiressions parallel with itself, gently convex throughout. No
obvious angulation of commissural edge of upper mandible; that of lower with decided bend ;
gonys straight. Wings long, folding beyond middle of tail, tipped by first 3 primaries, 4th
shorter. Tail of moderate length, forked, its feathers rather broad, its coverts reaching about
Mexican Crossbill. (L. A. Fuertes.)
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
387
^ way to end. Tarsus not sliorter than middle toe without cdaw ; lateral toes unequal, inner
sliorter, its claw not reaching base of middle claw. Hind claw about as long as its digit, more
curved and longer than middle claw. Sexes somewhat dissimilar. Coloration peculiar; usually
cliocolate-brown, enriched with rose or carmine, shaded with silvery-gray or black; one species
mostly silvery-gray. The American representative of the Old World genus MontifringUla, of
which some authorities make it a subgenus. Terrestrial, highly gregarious ; nest on ground;
eggs -immaculate white. Numerous species of this very interesting genus are scarcely stable.
I present the forms that are usually recognizable. The nearest American relative is Acanthis;
the general economy is more that oi Passerinu.
Analysis of Subgenera, Species, and Subspecies.
Under mandible ridged. Nasal tufts white. Body-color chocolate-brown or darker. {Leucosticte proper.)
No ash on head (Colorado and New Mexico) aiistmUs
Ash on head confined to the top.
Coloration blackish (Colorado and Utah to Idalio) atraia
Coloration chocolate (W. America) tephrocolis
Ash spreading on sides of head.
Smaller : wing 4.20. (W. America) (ephrocotis Utnnilis
Larger : wing 4.00. (Alaska) f/riseinuc/ia
Under mandible smooth. Nasal tufts blackish. (Subgenus Hypolia.)
Dusky-purplish and silvery-gray, with rosy arctoa
L. atra'ta. (Lat. atmta, blackened.) Ridgway's Rosy Finch. Black Leucosticte.
Sexes unlike. Adult $ : Pattern of coloration and distribution of tints as in tephrocotis
proper (see beyond) ; nasal tufts white, and occiput ashy, as in that species, but the chocolate-
brown of tephrocotis replaced by black, deepest anteriorly and on under parts, sooty-brownish
on back. Bill black (April) or yellow (September). 'Si'ize ol tephrocotis. Adult?: Black of
$ represented by dark slate-gray, more brownish on back, the rosy markings duller and more
restricted; size rather less. Rocky Mountain region of the U. S., breeding in Idaho and prob-
ably other northern regions, S. in winter to Colorado and Utah.
L. austra'lis. (Lat. anstralis, southern.) Allen's Rosy Finch. Brown-capped Leu-
costicte. Sexes unlike. (^, breeding plumage: Rich chocolate or umber-brown ; feathers
of back with darker shaft-lines and paler edges, those of under parts darker and somewhat
purplish-brown. Red parts of the body heightened to intense crimson, extending farther for-
ward than in tephrocotis, sometimes skirting all feathers of under parts ; especially strong on
tlie wing- and tail-coverts and belly. No pure ash whatever on head ; whole pileum black or
blackish, purest anteriorly, duller behind. Bill and feet black. Length 6.75 ; wing 4.00-
4.40, averaging in 69 specimens 4.30; tail 2.80-3.35, average 3.10; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 0.75.
When not in highest feather, carmine toned down to more pink or rosy. In winter, bill yel-
low, changing to black through various cloudings. 9 > i^ summer: Generally like $, having
black bill and no ash on head ; averages
a little smaller, and is much duller col-
ored : lirown parts of a grayish cast ; rosy
reduced or almost extinguished, chiefly -^^^^^Ml. Vf'^^^'-r
traceable on ruujp and wing-coverts ; ab-
domen scarcely tinted; quills and t.iil- ---^^^'■f ■ ,s^*
feathers with whitish instead of rn-y ^^B^ '^"^^a^^H,"
edgings. Wing 4.00-4.20, averaeing
little \)\vx 4.00;^ tail 2.90-3.25, average
3.00. Cohirado, breeding up to 12,0(10 _^.^^_- ^^. ^^
feet ; S. in winter to New Mexico. ' ''~>^lrl^*vt. .
L. tephroco'tis. (Gr. Tf(f>p6s, tephros, "*" — — -
gray ; ol,, ^tos, OUS, Otos, the ear. Fig. ^"'- ^-^S- -R°«y F»»«'>' ^^'l"'^^^- iSheppard del. Nichols so.)
249.) Swainson's Rosy Finch. Gray-crowned Leucosticte. Sexes similar. Adult ^,
388 SVSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
in breeding plumage or nearly so: Bill and feet black. Frontlet black; rest of pileum hoary-
ash, not descending below level of eyes and upper border of auriculars (for when ash invades
sides of head to any extent, the bird takes the first step
toward litoralis, in which the head is extensively hooded
in ash). General color, sides of head included, choco-
late or liver-brown of varying intensity, many feathers
skirted with gray or whitish, especially the interscapu-
lars, which also have dusky centres, and inclining to
blackish on chin and throat. Hinder parts of body above
and below, including tail-coverts, rich rosy or carmine
red, this color due to broad edgings of dusky feathers
of these parts. Wings and tail blackish ; wing-coverts
and primaries edged with rosy, showing nearly continu-
FiG. 249.- Swainsou's Rosy Finch. (L. ""s iu the closed wing ; edgings of inner secondaries
A. Fuertes.) rosy-white or white. Length (average) 6.75 ; wing 4.00-
4.45, average 4.25; tail 2.50-3.00, average 2.75; culmen 0.40-0.50, average 0.45; tarsus 0.75-
0.85, average 0.80. Adult 9 : Very similar; pattern identical; tone subdued; size a little
less; length 6.60; wing 4.10; tail 2.65. ^^ in win-
ter : Bill yellow ; pattern unchanged ; coloration less
vivid, the brown rather umber than chocolate, the red
rather rosy than carmine. Rocky Mt. region, from the
Saskatchewan or beyond, through most of W. U. S. in
winter; breeding limits unknown, supposed to be Nortli-
ern Rocky Mts. of U. S. and beyond, known to bi-eed in
the Sierras Nevadas of California. This is the central
figure in the genus. It runs directly into
L. t. litora'lis. (Lat. litoralis, littoral. Fig. 250.)
Baird's Rosy Finch. Hepburn's Leuoosticte.
Like the last; ash spreading over head more or less,
sometimes almost enveloping it like a hood, and even Fig. 250. - Baird's Rosy Fiuch. (L. A.
occupying chin in extreme cases. Size of the last, ^"^rtes.)
Northwest coast ; in summer, mountains of S. E. Alaska ; in winter, Kadiak S. and E. to Cali-
fornia, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado; very abundant, in flocks mixed with tephrocotis proper.
L. griseiiiu'cha. (Low Lat. griseus, gray, and nucha, nape. Figs. 251, 252.) Brandt's
Rosy Finch. Aleutian Leucosticte. Like the littoral vnriet j of tephrocotis, in having
the ashy extending over sides of head; this color settled in a defi-
nite hood, said to never invade chin. The resident form of the N.
W. islands, from Kadiak and Uualaska, N. to the Prybilof and
'^fc j^ Couiniander Islands. Much larger than the foregoing; length
1^ ^.^' 7.00 (,r more ; wing 4.50 (4.25-4.85) ; tail 3.50 (3.r5-3.90) ; cu\-
^KfkMf^ men (1.57; tarsus 0.95. Sexes scarcely distinguishable. Bill black
^^^ or yellow according to season. Young •' uniform brownish-gray,
Fincr^'lAfir^a^rd.'r'' ^^'^ ^y-Mihcd with umber ; wings and tail dusky-slate, the feathers bor-
dered with paler ; the edges of the lesser wing-coverts and remiges
very pale pinkish; of the greater wing-coverts and tertials pale dull ochraceous ; no black or
gray about head ; bill liorn-color." Nest well made of grasses and mosses, lined with feathers,
on ground or among rocks ; eggs 3-6, generally 4, pure white, 0.97 X 0.67.
Note. Lmcosticte {Hi/polin) nrc/oa, the Silver-winged Leucosticte, or Pallas' Rosj- Finch, of Siberia, has been nd-
mitted to our famia uymn insufficient evidence, and is therefore now withdravni from the position it has occupied in the
2d, 3d, and 4tli i.l^. i.f tin- Key. It maybe recognized by the following description : Dusky-purplish; neck above pale
yellowish; fon l..;i<l aiil icisal featliers blackish ; outer webs of quills and wing-coverts, tail-coverts, rump and crissum
silvery-gray, rosy .margined. Subgenerically different from any of the foregoing.
; tone subc
1i
^^'^^^^K
FRINGILLIDJE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
389
Fig. 'ITyl. — Aleutian Leucosticte.
ACAN'THIS. {Qy. aKavdis, akanthis,\mnet. Fig. 253.) Red-poll Linnets. Bill small,
short, straight, very acute, more or less compressed, lateral outlines usually a little concave,
those of eulmen and gonys straight; commissure straight to tlie
slight angulation. Base of bill thickly beset with a ruff of an-
trorse plumules, concealing small nasal fossaj and round nostrils.
Wings longer than tail, pointed by first 3 primaries. Tail rather
long for this group, forked. Feet small and weak, but tarsi longer
than middle toe without claw ; lateral toes of equal lengths, their
claw-tips falling beyond base of middle claw. Hind claw much
longer, stouter and more curved than the middle, e.xceeding its ^-^eauriiv
(Hgit in length. Size small; plumage streaky with dusky, white,
and flaxen colors, crown crimson, face and throat blackish ; sexes
otlierwise dissimilar ; $ with rosy or carmine on breast, wanting
in 9 • Arboreal, higlily boreal, gregarious Finches of circumpolar
distribution, breeding in hiafh latitudes and alpine regions, roving ^ „^^ ^ ., ^ ^
' n , -VT TIT ^'°- 2.^3. — Details of Acan-
south in winter in great flocks. Nest in trees and bushes; eggs this (A. homemanni, uat. size),
colored. The species are much involved ; we have five recogniza- (From EUiot.)
ble forms (if two distinct species.
Annlysis of Species and Subspecies,
Tarsus as long as middle toe and claw. Heavily streaked below. Rump always fully streaked.
Smaller : length about 5.50 ; wing 3.00 ; bill moderate (N. Am. at large) linaria
Larger: lei'sth about 0.00; wing 3.-.'o; bill large, acute (Canada, etc.) linnria liolhoelli
bill very stout (Greenland) linnriu rostnita
Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Liglitly or scarcely streaked below. Rump of adult ^ immaculate white
to some extent.
Smaller : length about .5..50 ; wing 3.00. Bill and feet small (Brit. Am., etc.) Iioniemanni eiiUpes
Larger : length about G.OO ; wing 3.30. Bill and feet large (Greenland) honieinanni
A. lina'ria. (Lat. ?wwmf, flaxen : a linnet. P'ig. 254.) Common Red-poll. Adult $ :
Frontlet, lores, and throat-spot sooty-black. Crown crimson. Above, variegated with brown-
390
SYSTEM A TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
FiG. •Jo4. — Common R
del. Nichols sc.)
ish-yell(«v and dusky, the feathers having dark centres and tiaxen edges. Rump streaked with
dusky and white, uud tinged with rosy, more or less so according to age and season. Below,
white ; sides and crissum streaked with dusky ;
entire fore parts colored with rose-red, more or
less rich and extensive according to same cir-
cumstances. Wings and tail dusky, the feathers
edged with whitish ; middle and greater coverts
tipped with the same, forming two cross-bars.
Bill black or yellow, usually found yellow with
dusky tip and edges. Feet blackish. Length
5.50; extent 9.00; wing 3.00; tail 2.40; bill
0.33 ; tarsus 0.65 ; middle toe and claw the same.
Adult 9 '■ Wanting entirely or having but a trace
of rosy uu rump and under parts. Breast with
a dingy yellowish wash, streaked with dusky.
Slightly smaller. Young : Like 9 , but $ soon
showing rosy. Young may usually be distin-
guished from adult 9 ^y ^ generally bufty suffu-
poii. reduced. (Sheppard sit)n, especially on fore parts; edgings of wing
likewise buffy ; streaks below less sharply de-
fined; crimson of crown restricted, or of a coppery or bronzy tint. In worn midsummer plum-
age the bird is very dark colored, almost entirely dusky. This bright little bird inhabits
northerly parts of both hemispheres, irregularly south in winter in N. Am. to about 35°; at
times abundant, but erratic. Eggs 4-5, very pale bluish, finely speckled all over with red-
dish-brown, 0.65 X 0.52. Nest in low trees and bushes.
A. 1. hol'boelli. (To C. HolboU, a Danish naturalist.) Holboll's Red-poll. Like the
last; larger: length 6.00 or about; wing 3.25; tail 2.45; bill longer and less constricted, witli
straight lateral outlines and rather curved culmen. Europe, Asia, X. Am., northerly ; Canada
(Quebec, Ontario) and New England occasionally in winter.
A. 1. rostra'ta. (Lat. rostrata, beaked.) Greater Red-poll. Size of the last ; bill very
stout. Greenland, S. in winter to New
England, New York, and the Great
Lake region. I originally described this
bird in 1861 upon dark midsummer
skins from Greenland. At that time I
did not know holboelli, and was insuffi-
ciently informed on seasonal variation in
this genus. I do not now see how it
differs tangibly from holboelli, but others
seem to be able to draw a distinction.
^giothus rostratus CouES, Proc. Acad.
Philada. 1861, p. 378 ; Aeanthis linaria
rostrata Stejxeger, Auk, Apr. 1884,
p. 153; RiDGw. Man. 1887, p. 397;
A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 528 b.
A. hor'nemanni. (To J. W. Home-
man n. Figs. 253, 255.) Greenland
Mealy Red-poll. Bill regularly conic,
only moderately compressed and acute,
as high at base as long, color varying Fio. uso.— Greenland Red-pou.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 391
with season troin black to yellow. Fioiitlet black, overlaid with hoary. A recognizable
light superciliary stripe, reaching to the bill. Crimson cap over nearly all the crown. Upper
parts streaked with brownish-black and white, the latter edging and tipping the feathers;
tills white nearly pure, only slightly tlaxen on sides of head and neck. Wings and tail as in
other species. Rump and entire under parts from the sooty throat white, free from spots,
the rump and breast rosy. Feet large and stout ; tarsus rather longer than middle toe and
claw. Length 6.00; wing 3.30 ; tail 2.80; bill 0.34; tarsus 0.65; middle toe and claw 0.58.
Sexual and seasonal changes as before ; quite dark in midsummer. Greenland, Arctic America,
and X. Europe. This large hoary northern form is resident; never known to occur iu the
U.S.; and most of the continental Red-polls of even Arctic N. Am. behmg to the next
species.
A. h. exilipes. (Lat. exilis, exiguous, small ; jjes, foot.) American Mealy Red-poll.
Bill small, short, stout at base, regularly conic, little compressed, all its outlines about straight ;
nasal plumules very heavy, sometimes reaching half-way to tip of bill. Frontlet dusky, but
the feathers tipped with hoary; an appreciable light superciliary line; h^res and throat-spot
dusky. General color of upper parts as in linaria, but the dusky streaks are smaller and less
distinct, especially on the anterior parts ; and the flaxen is very pale, nearly white, disappear-
ing entirely on lower back, leaving a space streaked only with dusky and white. Rump snowy-
white, rosy-tinted, immaculate. Wings and tail as in other species; under parts white, the
breast with a rosy tint, paler than in linaria of same age and season ; the sides streaked with
dusky, the markings sparser and less definite than in linaria ; crissum almost immaculate.
Feet very small and weak, the toes e'specially shorter. Length 5.50 ; extent 9.00 ; wing 3.00 ;
tail 2.50; tarsus 0.55 ; middle toe without claw 0.28 ; middle toe and claw shorter than tarsus ;
bill 0.32. Seasonal and sexual differences as before. This form inhabits X. Europe, X. Asia,
and the whole of boreal X. America, reaching the U. S. regularly along the northern tier of
States sometimes in flocks in company with A. linaria.
A. brew'steri? (To Wm. Brewster of Cambridge.) Buewster's Linnet. With the
general appearance of an iunnature A. linaria, this bird will be recognized by absence of
crimson on crown, no black throat-spot, a sulphur-yellowish shade on lower back, and some-
what different proportions. Wing 3.00; tail 2.50 ; tarsus 0.50. Waltham, Mass., Xov. 1,
1870; one specimen known. ^Jgiothus flavirostris, var. breivsterii Ridgw. Am. Xat. vi,
July, 1872, p. 433; Hist. X. A. B. i, 1874, p. 501 ; Acanthis brewsterii Ridgw. Man. 1887,
]). :ii»8; A. 0. U. Hypothetical List, 1895, p. 330, Xo. 17. See Brewster, Bulk Xutt.
Orn. Clul), vi, 1881, p. 225. Conjectured to be Acanthis linaria X Spinus pinus.
SPI'XUS. (Gr. anluoi, ftpinos ; Lat. sjnnus, a linnet, siskin, or some other related bird.)
Linnets. Siskins. Bill exceedingly acute ; its lateral outlines concave by compression of
sides toward end, culmen and gonys about straight, commissure angulated, cutting edges in-
flected, no ridges on either mandible. Xasal tufts concealing nostrils in their short fossae.
AVings long, exceeding the short, emarginate tail; point formed by 1-3 or 4 quills, 5 and rest
rapidly shorter. Tarsus about as long as middle toe with claw; lateral toes of equal lengths,
tlicir claws reaching base of middle claw; hind claw shorter than its digit. Everywhere
thickly streaked (jrinus) or black and yellow (notatns). Xo red. Sexes alike. Habit gre-
garious. Xe.st in trees. Eggs speckled.
S. pi'nus. (Lat. pinits, a pine. Fig. 2.56.) Pine Linnet. Pine Finch. Pine Siskin.
American Siskin. Adult ^ 9 : Continuously streaked, above with dusky or dark olivaceous-
brown and flaxen or whitish, below with dusky and whitish, the whole body usually suffused
with yellowish, most evident on rumj). Wings dusky, the basal portion of all the quills and
tlu'ir inner webs for some distance suli)hury-yeUow, usually showing externally as a spot just
b(>yond the coverts, sometimes restricted and hidden. Outer webs of (juills also narrowly edged
with yellow, separated from the basal yellow patch by a blackish interval. Tail dusky, its basal
392
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
Fig. 25G. — Pine Finch, reduced. (Sheppard
del. Nichols sc.)
half yellow, aud outer webs edged with yellow. Ijill and feet hrowu. Leugth about 4.75 ;
extent 8.75; wiug 2.75; tail 1.75. Very variable in yellowness of tone, sometimes quite
bright, again plain streaky, dusky and whitish or
flaxen ; but the yellow coloration of the wings and
tail is distinctive. Young birds have the markings
diffuse, with a general bulfy-browuish suffusit)n. N.
Am. at large, breeding northerly and in alpine re-
gions southerly (to Rocky Mts. of New Mexico and
Arizona, aud Sierra Xevadas of California) ; X. New
England, etc.; in winter through most of U. 8. into
Lower California aud Mexico; abundant. Nest in
trees, preferably conifers ; a well-concealed, flattish
structure, compactly built of small twigs, rootlets,
plant fibres, and hair ; eggs 3-4, pale greenish,
speckled with reddish-brown, aud blackish chiefly
about the larger end, about 0.70 X 0.50. Flight
undulatory ; voice querulous. This bird closely re-
sembles no other of our coiintry, bnt is the exact
representative in America of the European Siskin, Tarin, or Aberdevine, S. spinus. (Chnjso-
mitris pinus of former eds. of the Key. Spinus pinus of A. 0. U. Lists.)
S. nota'tus. (Lat. notatus, noted.) Black-headed Goldfinch. Adult ^■. Bright yel-
low, obscured on back ; head all around glossy black, extending on fore breast; wings black,
with large yellow basal area on all the quills, forming
a conspicuous patch ; tail black, witlj basal lialf or
more of all feathers except middle pair yellow. Young :
Similar: lacking black on head, and general coloration
duller. Length 4.60; wing 2.50-2.70; tail 1.80; bill
0.45, extremely acute. Cent. Am. and Mexico; a
straggler in the U. S. (Kentucky, Audubon). Astra-
galinus notatus of former eds. of the Key ; Spinus
notaUis, A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. [.532.]
ASTRAGALI'^NUS. (Gr. atTTpayaXivos, astragalinos,
name of some bird.) American Goldfinches.
Like Spinus. Bill stouter, less acuminate, without
extreme lateral compressitm, culmen rather convex,
gonys quite straight ; commissure strongly angulated ;
upper mandible usually showing longitudinal strife.
Nasal ruff evident, though short. Wings and tail as
in Spinus; feet smaller; toes shorter; lateral digits
of unequal lengths ; outer claw rather overreaching, inner not reaching, base of middle claw.
Coloration massed, not streaky ; yellow, olive, black and white, no red. Sexes unlike. Eggs
white. The A. O. U., Auk, Jan. 1899, pp. 115, 11(5, reverted to the nomenclature of this
genus, which has stood in the Key since 1884.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
,f yellow (in summer) or flaxen (in winter), with black cap, and black and white wings and tail.
Eastern ''""''«
Western, interior *■ pa'lidus
Western, Pacific coast t.srilicamnvs
(f gray, varied witli yellow on back and breast, face black, wings black and yellow, tail black and wliite . hiu-rencei
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 393
(f olive or black above, or mixed with both ; yellow below ; wings aud tail black and white. Western.
Back olive ; crown black, not below eyes ; large white tail-spots psaltria
Back mixed olive and black ; crown black ; moderate white tail-spots p,,. arizonoe
Back black ; crown black to below eyes ; small white tail-spots
ps. mextcani,
A. tris'tis. (Lat. tristis, sad ; from its note. Fig. 2.57.) American Goldfinch. Yellow-
bird. Thistle-bird. " Wild Canary." c?) iu sumnier: Rich yellow, changing to whit-
ish on tail-coverts ; a black patch on crown ; wings
black, more or less edged with white ; lesser wing-
coverts white or yellow; greater coverts tipped
with white ; tail black, every feather with a white
spot ; biU and feet flesh-colored. In September,
the black cap disappears; the general plumage
changes to a pale Haxen-brown above and whitey-
brown below, with traces of yellovp, especially
about head; wings aud tail much as in summer;
sexes then much alike : this continues until the
following April or May. Length 4.80-5.20; ex-
tent 8.75-9.25; wing 2.75; tail 2.00; 9 oliva-
ceous above, including crown; below soiled yel- Fig. 258. —Lawrence's Goldfinch, reduced.
h)Wish; wings and tail dusky, whitish-edged; tered from Audubon.)
rather smaller than ^. Young like winter 9 i when very young, sufi'used with fulvous, and
wings edged with tawny. N. Am., especially Eastern U. S. ; an abundant and familiar species,
conspicuous by its bright colors, and plaintive lisping notes ; in the fall, collects in large flocks,
and so remains until the breeding season ; irregularly migratory, but winters as far north as
New England ; feeds especially on seeds of thistle and button-wood ; flies in an undulating
course. Nest small, compact, built of downy and other soft pliant substances, placed in a
crotcli of a low tree, bush, or tall weed; eggs 3-6, usually 4 or 5, faintly bluish-white, normally
unmarked, 0.65 X 0.50.
A. t. pal'lidus. (Lat- pallidus, pale, pallid.) Western American Goldfinch. Like the
last ; paler ; the various white markings more extensive ; black cap larger. Rocky Mt. pla-
teau district, British Columbia and Manitoba to iMexico; a local race. Spinus tristis pallidus
MearnS; Auk, July, 1890, p. 244; see also Auk, July, 1887, p. 198; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, p. 218, No. 529 a. Astragaliniis t. pallidus A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899,
p. 115, No. 529 «.
A. t. sali'camans. (Lat. salix, gen. salicis, willow ; amans, pres. partic. of amarc, to love.)
Willow Goldfinch. Like tristis; darker, with broader wiug-nuirkings. Pacific coast
form. Spinus tristis salicamans Grinnell, Auk, Oct. 1897, ji. 397. Astragalinus tristis
salicamans A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 115, No. 529 b.
A. lawren'cei. (To G. N. Lawrence, of New York. Fig. 258.) Lawrence's Goldfinch.
California Canary. ^, in summer: Gray, more or less tinged with yellowish, whitening
on belly and crissum ; rump greenish-yellow; a large breast-patch rich yellow; crown, face,
and chin black ; wings black, variegated with yellow, most of the coverts being of this color,
and the same broadly edging the quills ; inner secondaries edged with hoary gray ; tail black,
most of the feathers with large square white spots on inner webs and whitish edging of outer;
bill and feet flesh-color more or less ol)scured. 9 resembles ^, but there is no black on
head, and the yellow places are not so bright ; yellow of back often wanting. (? 9 ? i" win-
ter: yellowish of upper parts changed to olive-gray, but yellow of other parts often as bright
as in summer, and black of (^'s head the same. Young birds like 9, l^"t may be somewhat
streaky. Size of tristis, or rather less ; an elegant species. California, Arizona, and New
594
SYSTE.MA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
Mexico; N. Lower Califoruia : breeds W. of Sierra Xevadas. Xest and eggs similar to tliose
of tristis; eggs smaller, O.tIO X 0.45, 3 to 5 iu immber, pure white or with a creamy tiuge.
A. psal'tria. (Gr. ylraXTpia. psaUrifi, a lutist
Fig. 259. — Arkansaw Goldfinch, reduced. (After Au-
dubon. )
Fig. 259.) Arkansaw Goldfinch. Tar-
weed Canary. Adult ^ : Upper parts uui-
fnrm (dive-greeo, without any black; below
yellow; crown black, ')iot extending below
eyes; wings black, most of the quills and
greater coverts white-tipped, and primaries
white at base : tail black, outermost three
pairs of feathers with a long rectangular white
spot on inner web. 9 ^''^^ young similar, not
so bright ; no black on head ; sometimes, also,
no decided white spots on tail. Length 4.25-
4.50; wing 2.40; tail 2.00. Plains to the
Pacific, U. S., southerly ; N. at least to Ore-
gon; S. to Cape St. Lucas. A pretty species,
nest and eggs similar, latter rather smaller.
of the same habits as the common Goldfincl
0.60 X 0.45. Southward this form passes directly into
A. p. arizo'nae. (Lat. of Arizona.) ARIZONA Goldfinch. The upper parts mixed olive
and black iu about equal amounts; in W. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, portions of Utah and
Nevada, and S. California ; thus leading directly into
A. p. mexica'nus. (Lat. Mexican. Fig. 260.) Mexican Goldfinch. The u])per parts
continuously black, and black of crown extending below eyes, enclosing olive uudrr eyelid.
Mexican border and southward. This bird looks
quite unlike typical psaltria, but the gradation
through arizonce is perfect ; and mexicana, more-
over, leads directly into coliimhiana, a Central
American form in which the tail-spots are very
small or wanting. The females of these several
varieties cannot be distinguished with certainty.
My original determination of this case may be read
in Pr. Philada. Acad. 1866, p. 82.
CAKDUE'LIS. (Lat. a thistle-bird, from car-
clum, Gr. KapBos, kardos, a thistle.) Old World
Goldfinches. Generic characters of Spintts, hut fig. -^f,
bill exceedingly acute, attenuated to a length nearly ^"^"boii.)
equalling that of the tarsus, and plumage gaudily variegated with red, yellow, black, and white
in both sexes. (Extralimital genus, introduced.)
C. cardue'lis. EUROPEAN Goldfinch. Adult ^ 9 '■ Head varied with crimson, black, and
wliitish ; wings and tail varied with rich yellow, black, and white; back brown, whitening
on rump and upper tail-coverts; lower parts whitish, shaded with brown on the sides; bill
white. Length 5.00-5.50; wing 3.00; tail 2.00; bill nearly or about 0.50. Young birds
lack the crimson red, rich yellow, and pure black ; but this well-known cage-bird can hardly
be mistaken in any plumage. Europe, and portions of Asia and Africa ; introduced arti-
ficially in the United States, and naturalized to the extent of breeding sometimes, as in New
York city and Cambridge, Mass. The nest resembles that of our Giddfinch ; eggs diff'erent,
being marked with reddish-brown spots, chiefly at the larger end. on a pale bluish or green-
ish ground ; 4-6 in number, 0.70 X 0.50.
PASSERl'NA. (Lat. pctsfterimis, sjiarrow-like.) Bill vtry small and truly conic, well exhib-
iting '• emberizine " or " bunting " characters ; i. e., strong angulation of commissure ; inflected
Mexican Goldfinch, reduced. (After
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 395
cutting edges ; a palatal kiiol). Culineii slightly curved ; gouys perfectly straight, and very
short, less in length than width of bill ; lower mandible heavier than upper. A dense nasal
rutf. Wings very long and pointed ; 1st or 1st and 2d quills longest, rest rapidly graduated.
Tail |- shorter than wings, nearly square. Tarsus longer than middle toe without claw; lateral
toes of subeqnal lengths, and much shorter than middle one. Claws slender and compressed,
witli deep lateral grooves at base ; hind claw lengthened and less curved than the rest, but not
straiglit. Gullet very distensible. Sexes alike. Colors very different with season ; in sum-
mer $ entirely black and white. Terrestrial, gregarious ; nest on the ground ; eg<^s colored.
One species of circumpolar distribution, and another peculiar to Arctic America. (Plectro-
phanes of all former eds. of the Key.)
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Adults in summer with black on more tliau middle pair of tail-featliers, and much black on the back and wings.
Smaller ; bUl about 0.40 along culmeu nivalis
Larger; bill about 0.50 along culmeu. Alaska only nivalis toxcnsendi
Adult (^ in summer with black on tail reduced to spots on two middle feathers, and back wliite ; $ with only 4 tail-
feathers black, and back only streaked with black. Alaska only hyperboreus
ni,r, mvis, snow.
LAKE. WhITEBIRI
Figs. 261, 202.)
. rT, in full dress
Snow Bunting.
Pure white; bill,
P. niva'lis. (Lat. nivalis, snowy
Snow Lark. Snowbird. Snow
feet, middle of back, scap-
ulars, primaries except at
base, most inner second-
aries, bastard quills, and
several tail-feathers, black.
Length about 7.00; ex-
tent 12.50-13.00; wing
4.00-4.25; tail 2.50-2.75.
In less perfect summer
dress, black of back, inner
secondaries and tail-feath-
ers varied with white. 9 •
in breeding plumage : The
black impure or brownish,
and most or all upper
parts brownish-black, va-
ried with white. Rather
smaller. Dimensions of
many specimens of both
.><exes: Length 0 50-7.00 ;
extent 12.00-13.00; wing
4.00-4.25; tail 2.50-2.75 ;
bill 0.40; tarsus 0.80;
middle toe and claw 0.90 ; hind toe and claw 0.07-0.75 ; claw alone 0.33-0.44. Adults, in
winter, as generally seen in the U. S. (where black-and-white birds are rarely if ever found) :
Upper parts overcast with rich warm chestnut-brown and grayish-brown, mixed with black
of back, and clouding other upper parts which are white in summer, becoming dusky or even
blackish on head ; this brown also usually forming a patch on ears, a collar on breast, edging
of inner wing- and tail-feathers, and a wash on flanks ; but specimens vary interminably ; other
parts white or black as in summer; bill yellowish, usually black-tipped, but drying reddish-
brown. Fledglings : Dark ashy-gray above and on fore parts below.
Fig. 2G1 . — Snow Bunting, winter plumage.
this coh)r overlaid with
396 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSFS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
brown, aud streaked on back with dusky; below, from breast, white; hiteral tail-feathers
mostly white; iuuer secondaries black with brown edging. The Snowflake is a good ex-
ample of what I call aptosochromatism, or
""^ ^ , ' X f change of color wnthout moult ; for the pure
black-and-white coloration is acquired in
spring by the wearing away of the edges of
the brown featiiers; this brown being confined
to the surface of the plumage, the deeper parts
of which are black or white. It is a notable
bird, inhabiting the N. hemisphere, breed-
ing in arctic and subarctic regions, whence
migrating south in vast flocks with the snow,
as if one with those pure crystallizations.
Thousands whirl into the U. S. in the fall on
Fig. 262. -Snow Buntmg,m summer, reduced. (.Shep- thewiugs of the storm, relieving by their
pard del. Nichols so.) animated presence the desolation of places
exposed to the fury of the blast. South regularly only to the Northern States, but often roving
flocks reach 35°. Nest on ground in sphagnum and tussocks of arctic regions, of a great quan-
tity of grass and moss, lined profusely with feathers : eggs 4-6, very variable in size and color,
about 0.90 X 0.65, white or whitish, speckled, veined, blotched, and marbled with deep browns
and neutral tints.
P. n. town'sendi. (To C. H. Towusend.) Pribilof Snow Bunting. Townsend's
Snowflake. Like the last ; averaging larger, with heavier bill. $ : Wing 4.50 ; tail 3.00 ;
bill 0.50; 9 not quite so large as this, but exceeding average size of P. nivalis proper.
Pribilof and Aleutian Islands, Alaska; Commander Islands, Kamtschatka. Plectrophenax
nivalis townsendi Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 403; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. J 895, p. 220, No. 534 o;
Plectrophanes nivalis townsendi Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 899; Passerina n. townsendi
A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 117.
P. hyperbor'eus. (Lat. hyperhoreus, hyperborean. Fig. 263.) Polar Sno^v Bunting.
McKay's Snowflake. Adult ^, in breeding dress: Pure white, except tips of wings, which
are black for about 1.50, one or two black touches on inner secondaries, and a subterminal
black spot on middle tail-feather ; white edging of black part of wings ; bill and feet black.
In winter: washed with rusty brown ou head, nape, back, rump, and across breast; bill yel-
lowish, with dusky tip. The full plumaged ? is less extensively white than $, having more
black ou wiugs and tail, and back also streaked with black ; seasonal changes are corre-
spondent. Larger than P. nivalis: $ averaging over 7.00; extent over 13.00 ; wing 4.60;
tail 3.10 ; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 0.90. 9 less, about as large as $ P. nivalis. A beautiful Snow-
flake, apparently quite distinct from the foregoing. Pacific coast of Alaska in winter ; known
to breed on Hall Island in Bering Sea. Plectrophenax hyperhoreus Eidgw. Proc U. S. Nat.
Mus. vii, June, 1884, p. 68; Man. 1887, p. 403 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 221, No. 535;
Plectrophanes hyperhoreus Coues, Key, 3d and 4th eds. 1887 aud 1890, p. 873; Passerina
hyperborea A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 117.
CALCA'RIUS. (Lat. calcar, a spur ; in plural calcaria, from calx, genitive calcis, tlie heel ;
i.e., the hind claw lengthened and straightened.) LoNGSPURS. Characters oi Passerina ;
hind claw and its digit more developed, longer than middle ; bill relatively and absolutely
larger, rather " friugilline " than thoroughly "emberizine," but still with a palatal knob; no
decided nasal ruff, but antrorse plumules in nasal fossse ; a little tuft at base of rictus. Wings
less acute, the point formed by lst-3d primai'ies, 4th abruptly shorter ; tail emarginate. Sexes
very unlike : ^ with black liood and chestnut cervical collar. Gregarious, terrestrial ; nest
on the ground; eggs 3-6, colored. (Centrophanes of former eds. of the Key; but Calcarius
has priority.)
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
397
SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSLS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
Analysis of Adult Males.
Whole head and throat black ; Delly white ; bill yellow ; feet black lapponicus and alascensis
Crown black ; whole under parts fawn-colored ; feet flesh-colored pictus
Crown black ; throat white ; belly black or mahogany ; feet dark ornatus
C. lappon'icus. (Lat. lapponicus, of Lapponia, Lapp-land. Figs. 43, 264.) Lapland
LONGSPUR. $ , iu full dress (seldom seen in U. S.) : Whole head, throat and breast jet-black,
bordered with buffy or whitish, which forms a
postociilar stripe separating black of crown
from that of sides of head, sometimes contin-
ued to bill. A broad cervical chestnut collar,
separated from black cap by whitish or buffy
line and nuchal spot. Upper parts brownish-
■ ^^^^ ^.&c;*KJE?- ■ -^^ black completely streaked with buff or whit-
m^^^ "^^^^^l^^SSs^^ ^^^^ '^'^^ edges of the feathers ; under parts white,
\.^^& ^^^fe~^^^^^^^^^&f^ ^^^ sides streaked with black. Wings dusky,
I^W^^g. "■ -, :^r-^ ."""'"' ^S~^ ~~.^^ ^__ with pale or brownish edgings of the feathers,
^ ^ ^' - — ^ _ -' -~ ijut QQ Strong markings. Tail like wings,
with large oblique white spaces on outer 3
feathers. Bill yellow, black-tipped. Legs
and feet black. Length about 6.50; extent
1L25; wing 3.50-3.75; tail 2.50-2.75; tar-
sus 0.75 ; jniddle toe and claw rather more ;
?. '2C4. — Lapland Longspur, in summer, reduced hind chiw about 0.50, slender, sharp, and little
(Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) ^^^,.^g^_ Adult ^, in winter : The black hood
overcast with brown or gray tips of the feathers, or otherwise imperfect. Chestnut collar also
overlaid with gray. Edges of secondaries and wing-coverts ruddy-brown ; sides of flanks
washed with brown. White tail-spots less extensive. Yellow of bill obscured. 9» i>i breed-
ing plumage: Upper parts of body, wings and tail, as in $. No continuous pure black on
sides of head, chin, or throat. Cervical collar indicated, but dull and obscured. Black of
crown overlaid with gray ; superciliary and postocular stripe buffy ; sides of head blackish,
overlaid with gray; throat similarly varied, but chin nearly white; on the whole, the pattern
of J"s black hood clearly indicated, but interrupted and ill-defined. Sides of breast and belly
with few small sharp dark streaks, instead of heavy black stripes ; other under parts as in J.
Bill obscure yellowish, dusky-tipped ; feet dark brown, not black. Rather smaller. $ 9 ,
young, in winter, as usually seen in U. S., without any continuous black, resemble adult 9
as to coloration of head and fore parts, and are like winter $ in other i-espects. The cervical
collar may be scarcely appreciable, but usually shows a trace at least ; sides often quite brown.
Fledglings : Continuously streaked on upper and fore parts with blackish and brownish-yellow ;
wings and tail broadly edged with chestnut ; bill dark ; feet pale. A species of circumpolar
distribution, like P. nivalis ; breeding range and winter rovings much the same, but less com-
monly observed in the U. S. South irregularly to the Middle States, Ohio, Kansas, Colorado,
etc., casually to South Carolina. Nesting like that of P. nivalis ; eggs 4-6, 0.80 X 0.62,
dark-colored, very heavily mottled and clouded witli cliocolate-brown, througli wliicli the
greenish-gray ground scarcely appears.
C. 1. alascen'sis. (Lat. of Alaska.) Alaskan Longspur. Like the last; paler, especially iu
winter: in summer, upper parts with a ground color of light grayish-brown with little if any
rusty tinge, even on wings, and the black streaks narrow. Alaska, including Aleutian and
Prybilov Islands, E. to Fort Simpson, S. in winter to Kansas, Colorado, and Nevada. Included
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
399
under lapponicus iu former eds. of the Key, and hardly worth recognition by name. Ridgw.
Auk, Oct. 1898, p. 320; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. Il7.
C. pic'tus. (Lat. ^«ci«<s, painted.) Painted LoNGSPUR. Smith's Loxgspur. Adult c^:
Cervical collar and entire under parts rich fawn color ; crown and sides of head black, bounded
below by a white line, and interrupted by a white superciliary and auricular line and white
occipital spot. Upper parts streaked with black and brownish-yellow. Lesser and middle
wing-coverts black, tipped with white, forming conspicuous patches. One or two outer tail-
feathers mostly white. No white on the rest. Legs pale or Hesh-colored. Length 6.50; ex-
tent 11.25; wing 3.75; tail 2.50 ; tarsus 0.75 ; middle toe and claw, about the same; hind toe
and claw, rather less (ornatus is much less in all its dimensions). Young, and generally iu
winter: Bill dusky-brown above and at tip, paler below; feet light brown (drying darker);
t<)(^s rather darker. Entire under parts rich yellowish-brown, or buffy (in ornatus never thus);
paler on chin and tlimat, which, Mith fore-breast, are obsoletely streaked with dusky; tibiae
white. Tail white only on two or three outer feathers (in ornatus all the feathers, excepting
sometimes the central pair, are white at base). Upper parts much as iu the adult, but distinc-
tive head-markings wanting, or only obscurely indicated. Interior X. Am. from the region of
the Yukon, McKenzie, Saskatchewan, and Upper Missouri to Texas and Illinois in winter. It
is not found in the Atlantic States, but is common on prairies of both Dakotas, Montana, and
southward, associated in the fall with ornatus, but breeding ranges farther north. Habits and
general aspect of ornatus, but easily distinguished by larger size, buffy under parts, black
and white wing-patch, and white only on some lateral instead of all the tail-feathers. Nest
on ground ; like that of other species of this genus, but a less elaborate structure and less warmly
lined than that of C. lapponicus ; eggs 3-6, about 0.82 X 0.60, less heavily colored than those
of lapponicns usually are, and thus closely resembling those of ornatus.
C. orna'tus. (Lat. ornatus, adorned. Fig. 265.) Chestxut-collared Longspur.
Black-shouldered Longspur. White-tailed Longsplr. ^, in full dress: Cervical
collar intense chestnut.
Crown black ; a whitish
spot on nape, and broad
white superciliary stripe.
Auriculars black, mixed
with color of throat :
tlm.at and most of sides
of liead below eyes rusty-
wliite, changing to pure
white which extends
aroinid sides of neck,
partly bordering the
chestnut collar. Breast
and belly lustrous black,
often mixed with intense
ferruginous or mahogany
feathers, sometimes
largely overlaid with this
rich sienna color. Lining
of wings pure white. Sides of body, flanks, lower belly, and under tail-coverts white, all but
the last usually rusty-tinged. Back, rump, and scapulars brownish-black, varied with gray-
ish-brown edges of the feathers. Wings dark brown without decided markings, though the
feathers arc pale-edged, excepting jet-black lesser coverts, with or without white tips. Tail
like wings, but two or three lateral feathers entirely white, and all the rest basally wliite in
Fig.
jllared Longspur. (L. A. Fuertes.)
400
S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA SSER ES— OSCINES.
decreasino- amount : in Hicht the " white tail" is very conspicuous. Bill blackish-plumbeous;
feet dark. Smaller than the foregoing: Length 5.75-6.00, rarely 6.25; extent 10.25-10.75,
rarely 11.00; wing 3.00-3.30; tail 2.00-2.30. ?, in full dress: Rather smaller; size aver-
aging about the lesser figures just given. Upper parts, wings, and tail as before, but lesser
coverts not black ; chestnut collar obscured : crown like back, separated from the back-mark-
ings by a slight rufous dusky-streaked interval. Sides of head, and throat, whitish, with
dusky speckling on cheeks and ears. Under parts dull brown, fading to white on belly and
crissum, the feathers sometimes with dusky streaks. Thus an obscure bird : but observe ge-
neric characters, and extensively loliite tail. Adult $ , after fall moult : The full dress is confined
to the breeding season ; afterward, the colors are much obscured. Cervical collar and black
of head and belly veiled by gray ends of the feathers, but visible on raising the plumage.
Crown like back, with concealed black ; superciliary stripe and other distinctive head-markings
obliterated ; bill brownish-plumbeous. Changes in 9 parallel, but there is less to be altered.
Youne ^ 9 , before first moult : Whole upper parts blackish-brown, with semicircular gray
or whitish markings, and a slightly lighter cervical interval. Throat definitely white. Under
parts dull brown, heavily streaked with dusky, especially on breast. Much light brown
edging and tipping of quills and wing-coverts. Feet and bill pale. This stage is transitory ;
with first moult the young acquire characters above described for winter. A beautiful species
of interior plains, British America and U. S. and Mexico ; breeds in profusion on prairies of
Dakotas, Montana, and whole Upper Missouri and Saskatchewan regions, S. to Kansas or fiir-
ther ; has occurred in Massachusetts ; rarely W. of the Rocky Mts. Breeds in June and July ;
nest on ground, sunken flush with surface, of a few grasses and weed-stalks ; eggs usually 4,
about 0.75 X 0.55, white clouded with purplish shell-markings, gray the prevailing tone, this
irregularly dotted and veined with sharp dark-brown surface-marks. Young covered with
whitish down. In the breeding season the birds are fond of soaring and singing as they fly,
rising to great height and letting themselves down with the wings held like parachutes ; they
curiously resemble butterflies when so engaged. The white tail shows very conspicuously.
Ordinary flight wayward and vacillating ; song weak and twittering, but pleasing. The birds
flock as soon as young are fairly on wing, and leave the northern prairies in October. They
are associated in the breeding season with E. maccoicni, and joined in October by C jiictus
and lapponicus from the north.
RHYNCHO'PHANES. (Gr. pCyxos, rhugchos, beak, and ^aiVco, phaino, I appear ; in allu-
sion to the turgid bill.) LoNGSPURS. Similar to Calcarius, but departing in the direction of
MontifringiUa (an exotic genus). Bill turgid, very stout and large in comparison ; culmen
rising high on forehead, its outline
almost concave. Hind toe and
claw less developed. Hind claw
not longer than its digit, not nota-
bly straightened. Sexes dissim-
ilar. No cervical collar. $ with
black pectoral crescent and bay
bend of wing. Habits of Calca-
rius strictly.
II. iiiaccown'i. (To Capt. J. V.
McCown, U. S. A. Fig. 266.)
"^-' -\ Black-breasted Long spur.
_ ^ Bay-winged Longspur. J', in
~-=^^^ -z^^"^-- " ^^^' f"^' dress: Upper parts slate-
, , ,„ , , sjrav, streaked with dusky and
Fio. 266. — Black-breastec' Longspur, reduced. (Sheppard del. ^ » '
Nichols SC.1 grayish or yellowish-brown, es-
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 401
pecially on interscapulars. No cervical collar, but a chestnut patch on wings, formed by me-
dian coverts. Crown jet-black, bounded by a white superciliary line ; sides of head whitish,
but auriculars more or less slaty. Throat white, bounded by firm black maxillary stripes.
Breast jet-black, in broad crescentic form, sharply defined against white throat, shading behind
into slaty-blackish, becoming more and more mixed with white on belly and sides, till pos-
teriorly the parts are pure white ; lining of wings white. All tail-feathers, except middle'
pair, and bases and tips of intermediate ones, white, ending squarely across both webs. Bill
blackish-plumbeous, pale at base below; feet brownish-black. Length about 6.00; extent
11. 00-] 1.50; wing 8.30-3.60; tail 2.25; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.67; middle toe and claw rather
less. 9 J in breeding plumage : Upper parts, wings, and tail as in the $ — coverts with at
least a trace of chestnut, and tail displaying rectangular shape of white area; crown like back
instead of black ; no black maxillary stripes, and breast-crescent slaty-gray ; throat whitish ;
bill and feet yellowish-brown, more or less obscured. The seasonal changes of plumage, as
well as the sexual diff"erences, are parallel with those of ornatus ; there is the same veiling
of black parts by gray, etc. Though so different from ornatus in full dress, the bird is very
.similar in other conditions, age for age, and sex for sex : but larger ; no trace of chestnut on
nape; trace at least on wing-coverts; peculiar pattern of tail-feathers shown as soon as they
sprout, and never lost. Very young birds have curved edgings of feathers of upper parts;
under ]iarts quite purely white, with some dusky streaks, and a buff suffusion on breast. Re-
gion of the Upper Missouri and its tributaries ; N. to the Saskatchewan ; casual W. of Rocky
Mts. ; S. in winter to Arizona, Texas, and Mexico ; E. to probably Iowa and Missouri. Breeds
in profusion on prairies from Colorado northward, in parts of Dakotas and in Montana asso-
ciated with ornatus ; winters from Colorado southward. Its habits and numners are the same
as those of ornatus. It has the same soaring singing flight, and parachute-like descent, " slid-
ing down on the scale of its own music;" nesting the same; eggs resembling the paler vari-
eties of ornatus; 0.80 X 0.60.
POCE'CETKS. (Gr. norj, poe, grass ; oIksttjs, oiketes, an inhabitant.) Grass Sparrows.
Bill moderate, culmen, gonys, and commissure nearly straight. Wings long, longer than
tail, tip fiirmed by first 4 quills; inner secondaries somewhat elongate, less so than in Pas-
sercalus. Tail emarginate, witli rather broad firm feathers, not acuminate at ends. Tar-
sus nearly equalling middle t<ic with its claw; lateral toes of about equal lengths, tlieir
claws scarcely reaching base of middle claw ; hind claw as usual, not longer than its digit.
Plumage thickly streaUeil everywhere above, on sides below and across breast ; bend of wing
chestnut; 1-3 outer tail-feathers white; crown without light median stripe; no trace of yel-
low anywhere. Pocecetes Baird, B. N. A. 1858, p. xx, p. xxxix, and p. 927, misspelled
Poocd'tes on pp. 439, 447, and 994. The A. 0. U. picked out one of the places where the
false orthograiihy occurs citing it for this wrong form of the name. The error was promptly
detected and corrected by Dr. Sclater and myself, and the proper form of the word occurs
in all the editions of the Key, as well as in both editions of my Check List — in fact, in the
works of most authors from 18.59 to date. I know tiiat Professor Baird felt sore over this
solecism as well as tiiat of " Nephocajtes," because he told me so. Neither the spirit nor
tlic letter of the A. 0. U. code reciuired us to pcrix'tuate such a perpetration, which was
not coiTccted till 18!)!): see Gill, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 20; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, ibid.
p. 117.
P. grami'neus. (Lat. gramineus, applied to a grass-loving bird ; gramen, grass. Fig. 267.)
Grass Finch. Bav-wixged Bunting. Vesper Sparrow. Above, grayish-brown,
closely and uniformly marked with dusky-centred brown-edged streaks, and furtlier variegated
by pale gray edging of the feathers. Crown quite like back, though the marking is in smaller
])attern ; superciliary line and eye-ring whitish. Under parts dull white, usually noticeably
buff-tinged in the streaked areas, thickly streaked across breast and along sides with dusky-
26
40:
S rS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
centred browu-edged streaks, anteriorly tending to concentrate in lateral chains bounding the
white throat ; above this chain a maxillary brown stripe ; auriculars varied with light and dark
brown. Quills fuscous, the longer ones
- =^zzi^^^^^^— — "'i^^'i grayish-white edging, the secondaries
and greater and median coverts with broad
firm brown and white edges and tips ;
lesser coverts bright chestnut, whence the
name "bay-winged." Outer tail-feather
largely or wholly white, next pair or two
pairs largely white in decreasing amount.
Upper mandible brown; lower, and the
t, tlesh-colored or yellowish. Length
5.75-6.25; extent 10.00-10.50; wing
2.80-3.25 ; tail 2.25-2.75. Eastern N.
Am. to the Great Plains, N. to the Brit-
isli Provinces adjoining the IT. S., breed-
ing throughout its range, but partially
migratory, chiefly nesting northward, and
Fig. -07.
Nichols sc. )
Bay-uiiiged Buutiug, reduced. (Sheppard del.
wintering southward. A large, stout, full-chested Sparrow of plain appearance, but recognized
on sight by bay bend of wing and white lateral tail-feathers, — the latter conspicuous as it
flies. Very abundant in fields, along roadsides ; terrestrial, gregarious to some extent when
not breeding. Nest sunken in the ground, thick-rimmed, well cupped ; eggs 4-6, variously
colored, as in P. savanna, 0.80 X 0.60 ; two or three broods may be reared. One of the sweet-
est songsters among the Sparrows.
P. g. confi'nis. (Lat. confinis, near.) Western Grass Finch. Hesperian-bird. Like
the last; paler and grayer, with narrower streaks; wings and tail averaging longer, and liill
somewhat slenderer. The difference in length, when existent, is due to the tail, which aver-
ages near the extreme of length of the common form. Habits, nest, and eggs the same.
Western IT. S. and adjoining British Provinces, S. into Mexico.
P. g. affl'nis. (Lat. qffinis, allied, affined.) Oregon Grass Finch. Miller's Vesper
Sparrow. Like P. g. confinis in respect of slender bill and narrow dorsal streaks ; ground
color above buff"y brown rather than grayish-brown, and the white of the under parts, includ-
ing crissuin and lining of wings, suffused with pinkish -buff. Size of the Eastern bird. Pacific
coast region of Oregon and northern California ; apparently a slight local race. G. S. Miller,
Jr., Auk, Oct. 1888, p. 404; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 899; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, p. 223, No. 540 b.
PASSER'CUI^US. (Lat. passerculus, a little sparrow ; diminutive of passer, a sparrow.)
Savanna Sparrows. Ground Sparrows. Bill rather slenderly conical, culmen, commis-
sure, and gonys about straight (bill more turgid iu rostratus and r. guttatus). Wing longer
than tail, point formed by outer 4 primaries, of nearly equal lengths ; inner secondaries more
or less enlarged and flowing, reaching nearly or quite to end of primaries in the closed wing.
Tail short, nearly even or emarginate, of narrow pointed feathers. Feet slender, pale-colored,
usually reaching when outstretched nearly or quite to end of tail ; tarsus and middle toe with
claw of about equal lengths; lateral toes of equal lengths, their claws underreaching base of
middle claw; hind toe rather longer than its claw, which has no special development. Plumage
thickly streaked everywhere above, and below on breast and sides ; crown with median light
line and lateral dark ones ; no decided markings on tail-feathers. In most species edge of wing
yellow, and traces at least of yellow on head; no red, blue, or greenish. Sexes alike. Em-
bracing small plain streaked ground Sparrows of slender build, mostly with a touch of lemon-
yellow on edge of wing, long inner secondaries and pale slender legs ; one species abounding
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUXTINGS, SPARROWS. 403
in the East, tlie others all of more special distributiou, aud with one exception Western. Nest
on the ground, in prairie, meadoM', or marsh ; eggs colored.
Note. — The genus PajioCMZia has been reduced to a subgenus of Ammodramus hy thQ A. O. \J. Committee, but
without sufficient reason, as I thuik. The " Savanna Sparrow group " is a well-marked one, to which as good characters
can be assigned as those of most genera of friugillines, and nothing is gamed, either scientifically or conventionally, by
putting it under Ammodramus ; for the same diagnosis has to be drawn up, to distinguish this group from its relatives,
whether we call it a genus or only a subgenus. Moreover, in puzzling out the species and subspecies of this difficult
group, it is practically most convenient, at the outset, to distinguish them collectively from ^wmorfrnrnw^. With this
explanation, I must decline to follow my respected colleagues in this needless iimovation upon long-established usage,
and continue to keep the genus Passerctdiis, as in all former eds. of the Key, and as nearly all writers have done since
1858, until recently. As to Centronyx, which I admitted to full rank in the orig. ed., 1872, and suppressed entirely in
the later eds., 1884-90, I am quite willing to adopt the middle course of the A. O. U. and give it as a subgenus of Passer-
c'lhis. As to Cofiirnictiliis, it shades directly into -4 /» Hi orfra»Hi/s through certain of its species, which moreover do not
very closely agree among themselves, as stated in former eds. of the work ; and I am therefore very well satisfied to
degrade it to subgeneric rank, following the A. O. U. We thus have, in the case of the four genera in mention, Passer-
eiiliis (with Centronyr) on the one hand, and on the other Ammodramus (with Coturnicuhi.i). This seems to me the
most judicious stand to take, and it is also the one taken by eminent British authority : see Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
xii, 1888, p. GS3.
Analysis of Subgenera, Species, and Subspecies.
Tail short, less than thrice as long as tarsus, obviously emarginate and with very narrow, pointed feathers. {Sub-
genus Centronyx. )
Bill typical. Cromi with median light stripe. Inner secondaries seldom quite equalling primaries. No decided
lemon-yellow on edge of wing. Top of head with two black stripes, and suffused with rich brownish-yellow
bairdi
Tail longer, thrice as long as tarsus, not obviously emarginate, and with broader, less pointed feathers. (Subgenus
Passerculds. )
Bill typical. Crown with median liglit stripe. Inner secondaries at full lengtli. Edge of wing with lemon-yellow ;
same shade on head, if any. Upper parts much variegated ; under white, with sharp streaking.
Large, pale ; little or no yellowish ; length 0.00 or more ; wing 3.25. Atlantic coast princeps
Large, dark, with decided yellow ; length about 6.00 ; wing 3.00. Northwest coast sandwichensis
Medium, of average coloration ; length about 5..50; wing 2.75. N. Am. at large s. savanna
Medium ; pale ; size of savanna proper. Interior and western s. alaudinus
Small, dark ; yellow very decided. Length about 5.25 ; wing 2.50. Cala. coast s. bryanti
Small, very dark ; head stripes obscure ; under tail-coverts streaked. Length about 5 00 ; wing 2. CO. Cala.
coast bi-ldingi
Bill enlarged, turgid, with convex culmen. Crown-stripe obsolete. No yellow on head or wing.
Larger: bill 0.50. Length 5.30; wing near 3.00. Pale brownish -gray, with obsolete streaking; the streaks
below light brown. Coast of California rostraius
Smaller : bill 0.33. Length 5.00 ; wing 2. .50. Darker, the streaks below dusky. L. Cala. ... r. guttalus
BiU size of that of roslratus, but conic, with straight culmen.
Like guttalus, but larger. San Benito Isl. L. Cala sanctorum
{Subgenus Centronyx.)
P. (C.) baird'i. (To Prof. S. F. Baird. Fig. 268.) Baird's Sparrow. Prairie Spar-
row. Adult ^ 9? "* breeding plumage : With a general resemblance to the common Savanna
S[iarr()\v. Tuner secondaries less elongated, rarely equalling primaries in the closed wings.
First 4 ipiills about equal and longest. Hind toe and claw about eciualling middle toe and
claw, its claw about equalling the digit. Tail shorter than wing, lightly double-rounded
(central and outer pair of feathers both a little shorter than intermediate ones). Top of head
streaked with black <ind rich brownish-yellow, or buff, the former predominating laterally, the
latter chieily as a median stripe, but also suffusing nape and sides of head in greater or less
degree. Back varied with brownish-black and gray, together with a little bay, the two latter
colors forming edgings of interscapulars and scapulars. Rump variciiatcMl with gray and
chestnut-brown, different in shade from that of back. Under jiarts dull white, usually witli a
faint ochrey tin<ie on breast, but often witliout; a circlet of small, sharp, sparse, dusky streaks
across breast, continuous witli otliers, longer and mostly lighter, along whole sides, and with
others, again, extending up sides of neck into small vague maxillary and auricular markings.
When the feathers are perfectly arranged these lateral head-markings are seen to be a post-
404
SYSTEMA TIC S YXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Fig. 268. — Baird's Savanna Sparrow, reduced,
(Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
ocular stripe just over auriculars, a post-auricular spot, a streak starting from angle of mouth,
and another heavier one parallel with and helow this, running directly into the pectoral ones.
Quills without special markings, excepting elongated inner secondaries, which correspond with
scapulars. Tail the same, slightly whitish-edged.
Upper mandible mostly dark, lower pale. Feet
liesh-colored. Length 5.10-5.85, averaging 5.67 ;
extent 8.60-9.85, average 9..50; wing 2.75-3.00;
tail 2.00-2.25; culmeu about 0.40; tai-sus about
0.75 ; middle toe and claw, and hind toe and claw,
each, rather less ; 9 averages rather smaller. Au-
tumnal plumage : Soft, with brighter, more suffused
colors, in bolder pattern. Whole top and sides of
head, as well as nape and part of neck, suffused
witli rich buff, in many instances as bright a golden -
brown as that on head of Siurus auricapillus. A
paler, rather ochraceous shade of the same also
suffusing the whole fore under-parts. Pectoral and
lateral dusky streaks, as well as two rows on each
side of throat, large, heavy, diffuse. Bay and whit-
ish edgings of secondaries broad and conspicuous,
contrasting with black central fields. Whitish
edgings of tail-feathers the same ; and, in general, the same character is stamped over all the
upper plumage. Neioly-fledged young have each feather of the dorsal plumage conspicuously
bordered with white, producing a set of semicircles, much as in Anthus spraguei. There is
the same general buffy suffusion of head and fore parts as in autumnal adults, but the tint is
dull and ochrey. The markings below have a short, broad, guttiform character. When just
from the nest, the edging of secondaries and tail-feathers is of a peculiar pinkish-rusty shade.
Central Plains ; N. to the Saskatchewan ; E. to Red River of the North ; S. to Nebraska ; S.
to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Chihuahua in migration ; W. to Rocky Mts., casually
beyond, in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. An interesting Sparrow, long almost unknown
till I found it breeding in profusion in Dakota, taking 75 specimens in the summer of 1873. Tn
general habits and appearance in life quite like the Savanna Sparrow ; mixing freely with these
and Otocorys, Anthus spraguei, and Calearius ornatus. Song peculiar, of two or three tinkling
syllables and a trill, like zip-zip-zip-zr-r-r-r. Nest on ground, very hard to find, a slight
structure of grasses and weed-stalks, about 4 inches across; eggs 5, 0.80 X 0.60, white,
irregularly speckled and blotched wdth pale and dark reddish-browns, laid in June and July.
(Subgenus Passerculus.)
P. prin'ceps. (Lat. princeps, chief.) Ipswich Sparrow. Pallid Sparrow. Barren
Ground Sparrow. ^ : General appearance of a large Savanna Sparrow, but with a resem-
blance to a Bay-winged Bunting. Upper parts grayish-brown, with blackish rufous-edged
centres of the feathers; median crown-stripe not strong, and scarcely yellowish; a whitish su-
perciliary stripe, not yellow anteriorly; ear-coverts grayish, with rufous tinge. Scapulars,
coverts, and secondaries blackish-brown, broadly edged with rufous, brightest on secondaries;
scapulars also edged with white, and both median and greater coverts white-tipped. Tail
brownish, tipped and edged with whitish. Whole under parts white, breast and sides of thr-.at
and body streaked, the streaks dusky-centred, rufous-edged. Bill dark brown, base of under
mandible paler; eyes and feet brown. Length 6.30; extent 11.00; wing 3.25; tail 2.60; bill
0.45; tarsus 0.95 ; middle toe and claw 1.05 : hind toe and claw 0.72. (Foregoine condensed
from original description of the type, taken iu winter. Following as redescribed by Ridawav:)
frixgillidjE: finches, buntings, sparrows. 405
Bill of size and shape as iu P. hairdi exactly ; inner secondaries little lengthened. Outstretched
feet not reaching to end of tail. In color almost exactly as iu P. rostratiis, hut difl'ereut iu
markings ; ahove light ashy, the dorsal feathers hght saudy-hrown centrally, their shafts hlack.
Surface of wings pale sandy-brown, the feathers darker-centred ; inner secondaries with whitish
outer webs, and conspicuous black central field. Crown becoming darker brown anteriorly,
where an indistinct median line of ochrey-white ; an indistinct superciliary stripe, and conspic-
uous maxillary stripe of the same, the latter bordered above by a narrow dusky stripe ; lores
and cheeks like the superciliary stripe; auriculars like crown. Below, white, slightly ashy on
flanks; whole breast and sides of body with narrow streaks of blackish -centred sandy-brown;
belly, crissuni, and lining of wings immaculate; throat with a few minute specks, but on each
side a bridle of suifuse streaks. ^ : Wing2.9U; tail 2.40; culmen 0..50 ; tarsus 0.8,5. (Follow-
ing notes taken by me of a specimen received from Maynard ; 9 > Ipswich, Oct. 18, 1872,
No. 73,553, Mus. S. I. : About size of largest P. sandicichensis from Alaska. No trace of
yellow i>n head or wing. Upper parts even paler and grayer than extreme of P. cdaudinus
from the West — the streaks of upper paits having only shaft-lines of blackish-brown, brown-
edged, the edges of the feathers finally gray ; nape, rump, and upper tail-coverts gray, scarcely
streaked at all. Crown streaked like interscapulars, but in smaller pattern ; divided by a me-
dian light line. A long whitish (not yellowish) superciliary line ; lore gray below this. Inner
secondaries and greater coverts blackish, broadly edged on outer webs with bay, fading to
whitish at tips ; median coverts similar, but more noticeably whitish -tipped; these edgiugs of
wing-feathers making the strongest coloration of all the upper parts. Below, white ; throat
and ndddle of belly only immaculate, flanks a little shaded with gray ; whole breast, sides of
neck and body, and crissum, with brown streaks, pale in comparison with those of P. savanna,
and rather suffuse. On the sides of head below auriculars the stripes tend to form two chains
— a uuixillary one and another above it separated by an immaculate interval.) The breeding
plumage shows yellow on the superciliary line anteriorly and on bend of the wing. This curious
Sparrow was originally discovered on the sand hills of the Massachusetts coast in Dec. 1868, by
C. J. Maynard. It was at first mistaken for P. (c.) hairdi, to which it bears no special resem-
blance (see Am. Nat. 1869, p. 554 and p. 631 ; 1872, p. 307; Naturalist's Guide, p. 112, with
frontispiece plate; Key, orig. ed. 1872, p. 1.35). The range of the species was long a mystery ;
it is now known to be a local form, breeding on Sable Island, SQ miles from Nova Scotia, and
ranging in migration along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to Georgia. Its peculiar char-
acters have been developed in direct ccmsequence of its insular environment in the breeding
season. For full history, synonymy, bibliography, de-
scription of breeding plumage, see DwiciiiT, Mem. Nutt.
Orn. Club, No. 2, Aug. 1895, 4to, pp. 56, colored plate.
Eggs 4-5, 0.80 X 0.60, colored like those of the com-
mon species. (P. j)rinceps Mayx. Am. Nat. vi, 1872,
p. 637; Ammodramus prineeps Ridgw. Pr. U. S.
Nat :\rus. viii, 1885, p. 354; A. (P.) princepa, A. 0. U.
Lists, 1886 and 1895. No. 541.)
P. sanrtwichen'sis. (Of the Sandwicli, one of the
Aleutian Islands. Fig. 269.) Sandwich Si'ARKOw.
Similar to tlie ordinary Savanna Sparmw; averaging
in size about the maximum <>f tlic latter: length about
6.00; wing .3.00; tail 2.25; <Mihiiru 0.45; depth of
bill at base 0 25 ; tarsus, and middle toe and claw,
1 rv ^r, i.-i, 1 . 1 ,. 1 ,. 1- Fio. 2C0. - Sandwich Sparrow,
each O.HU. Hill nearly twice as bulky as that ot ordi-
nary savanna. A firm bright yellow superciliary stripe from nostril to eye, thence fading over
auriculars (i.e., chrysops Pall.). Under parts precisely as in savanna; upper similar, but
406
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
gi-ayer — less mfous and more gray iu edgings of feathers. Such are the peculiarities of a
specimen from the very spot whence Latham described his Sandwich Bunting iu 1783, basis of
Emberiza sandwichensis Gm. ]788, the same as the Aoonalashka Bunting of Pexnant, 1785,
and Emberiza arctica Lath. 1790. The differences are appreciable on laying the skin along-
side a large varying series of Eastern savanna; but it does not follow that all Alaskan and
Aleutian Savanna Sparrows are like this. Birds more or less exactly like this are now known
to range along the X. W. coast from Oregon to tlie Aleutian Islands. They are not specifically
distinct from the common Savanna Sparrow, but represent a fairly well marked form. It is
unfortunate that, as in the case of our Hermit Thrushes, we have to go to this extreme for our
name of the stock species, and treat the common Savanna Sparrow as nominally a subspecies
of sandwichensis; but our rules of nomenclature leave us no alternative. I first reduced the
several subspecies to their proper status iu the original edition of the Key, 1872, and first
adopted the present nomenclature in the second edition, 1884. This is the same course now
taken by the A. 0. U., excepting that, Passerculus being reduced to a subgenus oi Anwwd ra-
mus, the present species appears as Ammodramus sandwichensis in the Lists, 1886 and 1895,
No. 542.
P. s. savan'na. (Spanish sabana or sarana, a meadow. Fig. 270.) Cojimon Savanna
Sparrow. Adult ^ 9 , in spring : Thickly streaked everywhere above, on sides, and across
'breast ; a superciliary line, and edge of
wing, yellowish ; lesser wing-coverts not
chestnut ; legs tiesh-eolor ; bill rather
slender and acute ; tail nearly even, its
outer feathers not white ; longest secon-
dary nearly as long as primaries iu the
ch)sed wing. Above, brownish -gi-ay,
streaked with blackish, whitish-gray and
pale bay, the streaks largest on interscap-
ulars, smallest on cervix ; crown divided
by an obscure M'hitish line ; sometimes an
obscure yellowish suffusion about head
besides the streak over the eye. Below,
white, pure or with faint buffy shade,
thickly streaked, as just stated, with dusky
— the individual spots edged with brown,
(Siieppird mostly arrow-shaped, running in chains
along sides, and often aggregated in an
obscure blotch on breast. Wings dusky; coverts and inner secondaries black-edged and tipped
with bright bay ; tail-feathers rather narrow and pointed, dusky, not noticeably marked. Ex-
treme dimensions of both sexes: Length 5.20-6.00 ; extent 8.50-10.00! wing 2.40-3.00 ; tail
1.75-2.25; tarsus 0.75-0.88 ; but such figures are rare. Average of both sexes 5.25: extent
8.75; wing 2.60; tail 2.00; tarsus 0.84. ^ J usually 5.30-5.60; extent 9.00-9.50; wing 2.67-
2.75; 9 usually 5.00-5.30 ; extent 8.75-9.00; wing 2.50-2.67. Ordinarily, bill about 0.40;
tarsus, middle toe and claw together 1.50. Fall and winter specimens much more brightly
C(dored than spring and summer ones ; the young particularly having much ochrey or buffy
suffusion, instead of clean colors, more brown and bay, instead of dusky and gray. It is not
easy for an unpractised person to discriminate the small Sparrows, and so variable a one as tliis
offers special difficulty; attention to the points of form as well as of color is requisite. Nortli
America, eastern ; very abundant N. in its breeding range, in fields, on plains, by the way-
side, and along the seasliore ; a thoroughly terrestrial bird, migratory, and in fall somewliai
gregarious. Has au agreeable though weak song in spring. "Winters at least from Middle
Fig 270. — Common Savanna Sparrow, reduced
del. Nichols sc.)
FRINGILLWM: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
407
Fig. 271. — Western Savanna Sparrow.
States southward, and breeds at least from New England and other northern States to Lab-
rador and the region of Hudson's Bay. Nest sunken in ground, flush with surface, of a few
grasses and weed-stalks; eggs 4-G, 0.70 X 0.50, bluish-white, spotted with brown, varying
interminably in their motley coloring ; often heavily clouded and blotched with dark brown;
most like those of Pocecetes, but smaller.
P. s. alaudi'nus. (Lat. alaudinus, lark-like; no applicability. Fig. 271.) Western
Savanna Sparrow. So similar to the last as only to be distinguislied by rather duller and
paler coloration on an average, and weaker bill, about
0.35 long by 0.20 deep at the base. If the " savanna
sparrow " be split into several races, this may possibly
be allowed with the rest. Western N. Am. from tlie
Great Plains to the Pacific and Arctic Oceans.
P. s. bry'unti. (To W. E. Bryant.) Bryant's
Marsh Sparrow. A form from the marshes of the
California coast from San Francisco southward. Bill as
long as that of savanna, but slenderer ; general coloration
darker; under parts more sharply, darkly, and exten-
sively streaked ; yellow eyebrc>w and bend of wing quite
as well marked as in savanna, and whole head sometimes
suffused with yellowish. This general heaviness of col-
oration contrasts with the paler and grayer alaudinus of
the West ; but is not very different from some specimens of true savanna ; the size averages
about the minimum of the latter. This is P. s. anthinus of earlier eds. of the Key — a name
which has proved inapplicable. P. s. hryanti Eidgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. vii, Jan. 1885,
!>. 517, and A. s. hryanti Id. ibid, viii, 1885, p. 354; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1896, No. 542 c.
P. bel'dingi. (To L. Beldiug.) Belding's Marsh Sparrow. Similar to the last, but
apparently specifically different in lack of distinct median and superciliary stripes, decidedly
streaked under tail-coverts, and general dark coloration, being more heavily streaked with
black above and with dusky below; wings and tail rather shorter; bill comparatively larger.
Length about 5.00 ; wing 2.60 ; tail 2.00 ; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 0.80. Salt marshes of the Pacific
coast from Santa Barbara southward to Todos Santos Island, Lower California. Nest of grass,
in the grass, usually lined with hairs ; eggs 4, pale bluish, irregularly marked with different
shades of brown, laid in April. Not in earlier eds. of the Key. P. heldingi Ridgw. Pr.
U. S. Nat. Mus. vii, Jan. 1885, p. 516; Ammodramus heldinrji Id. ibid, viii, 1885, p. 354;
A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 543.
P. rostra'tus. (Lat. rostrattts, beaked ; rostrum, beak. Large-billed Sparrow. Beaked
Sparrow. San Diego Sparrow. Seashore Sparrow. With the form of a Savanna,
but bill elongated as in Ammodramus, yet very stout and turgid, with decidedly convex cul-
men 0.50 long. No yellowish over eye or on edge of wing; no evident median stripe ou
crown. Brownish-gray, obsoletely streaked with dark brown, most noticeable on crown and
middle of back; entii-e under parts dull white, confluently streaked with clear brown every-
where except on tliroat, middle of belly, and crissum. Wings and tail dusky gray ; rectrices
with paler edges, primaries with whitish edges, wing-coverts and secondaries broadly edged
and tipped with grayi.sh-bay. An obscure whitish superciliary line. Bill light brown, under
mandible i)alpr or yellowish; legs pale. Length 5.25; wing 2.50-2.75; tail 2.00. Pacific
coast of Southei-n and Lower California and N. W. parts of Mexico ; a curious species, com-
mon, maritime, representing, like the two foreg()ing, the Ammodrami in the marshes of the
Pacific seashore. Emheriza rostrnta Cass. 1852 ; Ammodramus rostratus Cass. 111. 1855,
p. 226, pi. .38; A. (Passerculus) rostratus A. O. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 544; Passer-
culus rostratus of all eds. of the Key, 1872-90.
408 5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
P. r. gutta'tus. (Lat. guttutits, spotted ; gutta, a drop.) St. Lucas Sparrow. Bill
shaped as in rostratus, relatively as stout, but smaller ; culuien 0.45; depth at base 0.25. Bird
smaller : pattern of coloration the same, but tone darker ; streaking of under parts sharper,
heavier, and darker. Instead of the light brownish-gray of rostratus the upper parts are here
dark, almost olivaceous, brown, so that the dark streaking of crown and interscapulars is less
noticeable. The same difference characterizes the under parts. Cape St. Lucas, and some
other portions of L. Cala. Passerculus gtUtatiis Lawr. 1867; COUES, all eds. of the Key,
1872-90; Ammodramus (P.) rostratus guttatus Ridgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. viii, 1885,
p. 355 ; Man. 1887, p. 410 ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 544 a.
P. sancto'rum. (Lat. genitive plural of sanctus, holy, sacred, saintly ; as noun, a saint.
There are so many places named in Lower California for persons of such description, that I
concluded to dedicate this Sparrow impartially to the whole calendar of them.) All Saints'
Sparrow, luike guttatus : larger; wing 2.75 ; bill 0.50, at base 0.30 deep, thus as large as
that of rostratus, but regularly conic, with straiglit culmen suddenly deflected at end, and
perfectly straight commissure; upper mandible and tip of lower blackish ; rest apparently yel-
lowish. Eggs 0.82 X 0.60, flecked and blotched with umber on bluish white ground, as usual
in the genus, laid March and later. San Benito Isl., on the Pacific coast of Lower California,
lat. 28° 18' N., long. 115° 35' W. (See Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. v, 1882, pub. March 21, 1883,
p. 538.) This species, which has stood in the Key since 1884, p. 364, was ignored by the
A. 0. U. until confirmed by better specimens than my types in Mus. S. I. See CouES, Auk,
Jan. 1897, p. 92. Ammodramus sanctorum, A. 0. U. List, Eighth Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1897,
p. 121, No. .544. 1.
AMMO'DRAMUS. (Gr. a^fjios, ammos, sand; Spafxelv, dramein, to run.) Grasshopper
Sparrows and Seaside Sparrows. (Thus including the two genera Coturniculus and
Ammodramus of all previous editions of the Key, the former being now reduced to a subgenus
of the latter : see under Passerculus for explanation.) Bill in typical Ammodramus remarkably
slender and lengthened for this family, with culmen decurved toward end, gonys straight, and
sometimes an evident lobation of cutting edge of upper mandible ; in some species of Coturni-
culus, bill much shorter and stouter. Wings short and rounded, so that the inner secondaries
reach nearly to its tip when closed, without special elongation on tlieir part. Tail variable
with the species, in most of them shorter than wings, in some about equal, in C. lecontei longer
than wings ; in form rounded or even graduated, with narrow, pointed feathers, quite stifBsh
and sharp in some species, in others weak and lanceolate, in C lecontei extremely attenuate
and acuminate — in fact, the tails of these Spairows differ more than is usual among species
which are allowed to be of the same genus. Feet large and stout, reaching when outstretched
nearly or quite to the end of the tail; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw; lateral toes
equal, short, their claws underroaching base of middle claw. Coturniculus contains three
remarkably distinct North American species (besides several extralimital (jnes) of queer little
•' grasshopper" Sparrows of grass, weeds, and reeds, with greatly variegated plumage and con-
spicuous buffy tints on under parts ; they show a greater range of variation in form than our
finical modern genera usually allow, and grade through C. lecontei into the Ammodrami. The
latter are the true " seaside " Sparrows, embracing several species of small Sparrows of marshes,
especially of the seacoast. but not sit exclusively maritime as was long supposed ; tliey are re-
markable for slenderncss of liill, sliarp, narrow tail-feathers, and stout feet fitted for grasping
slender, swaying reeds ; they have edge of wing yellow, a yellow spot or buff stripe on head,
and upper parts olive-gray or quite blackish, streaky. I have several species and subspecies
to add to those given in former editions of the Key; they are best analyzed under separate
heads of their respective subgenera.
fringillidjE: finches, buntings, sparrows.
409
{Subgenus Coturniculus.)
Analysis of Species.
Tail shorter than wing, nearly even or a little double-rounded ; outstretched feet reaching to or beyond its end. Bill
stout, nearly as deep as long, brown. Adults not evidently streaked below. Edge of wing conspicuously yellow
savammrum passerinus and s. peipallidus
Tail about equal to wing. Bill stout, nearly as deep as long, brown. Adults with sharp maxillary, pectoral and lat-
eral black streaks. Edge of wing yellow henslowi and h. otcidentnlis
Tail longer than wing, graduated, with very narrow, tapering, pointed feathers. BiU slender, not nearly as deep as
long, bluish. Adults with sharp lateral but not ma.\illary or pectoral black streaks. Edge of wing not yeUow
lecontei
A. (C.) savanna'rum passeri'nus. (Lat. savannarum, of savannas, genitive plural of sa-
cuiina, Spanish, subcma, a meadow. Lat. passerinus, sparrow-like. Fig. 272.) Yellow-
winged Sparrow. Quail Sparrow. Grasshopper Sparrow. Adult ^ ?: Edge of
wing conspicuously yellow; lesser wing-coverts greenish-yellow; a yellow loral spot; short
line over eye buffy yellow. Crown with
median stripe of pale brownish-yellow. Be-
low, ochraceous or pale buff or tawny, fading
to whitish on belly, not evidently streaked,
though a few dark touches may appear on
sides of breast. Above, singularly vari-
egated with black, gray, yellowish -brown
and a peculiar purplish-bay, in short streaks
and specks ; crown nearly black with sharp
median brownish-yellow stripe; middle of
back cliietly black with bay and brownish-
yellow edgings of the feathers; cervical re-
gion and rump chiefly bay and gray. When
tlie feathers are not disturbed, the peculiar
pattern of cervical region separates tliat of
crown and back; the markings extend on
sides of neck, but sides of head are plain,
like under parts. Wing-coverts and inner fig. 272. - Yellow-winged Sparrow, reduced. (Shep-
secondaries variegated in intricate pattern, pard del. Nichols sc.)
in general effect like back. Primaries and tail-feathers plain dusky, with narrow light edg-
ings; outer tail-feathers paler, but not white. Feet flesh -colored. Small: Length 4.80-5.25 ;
extent 8.00-8.50; wing 2.25-2.50 ; tail 2.00 or less, thus shorter than wing, outstretched feet
reaching beyond it; rounded or rather double-rounded at end, tlie featliers narrow and lanceo-
late; tarsus 0.75. Bill brownish, very stout and full, culnicn about 0.40, depth at base 0.30.
In autumn, fresh-moulted birds are as usual richer in color, the markings more blended and
diffuse ; fore parts below and sides rich butt'y brown in which vague lighter and darker marl<-
iiigs usually appear. Young: Before moult, like the adult above, but with less of the reddisli-
brown and more of the buff markings; whitish below, with decided dusky maxillary and
pectoral streaks, thus resembling C. henslowi. Eastern U. S. and southern Canada, W. to the
Plains; breeds throughout its range; resident in the Southern States, elsewhere a migrant and
suMHiier visitant, extends in winter to some of tlic West India Islands, Mexic(), and evcMi Cen-
tral America. Abundant in rank licrl>iigc of old fields, but less frequently observed tlian it
would be did it not hide so persistently. This little Sparrow bus a curious rcscmlil;in<-(' to
a miniatuH! Quail, whence the subgeneric name Coturniculus, diminutive of caiiinii.r, a (piail.
It has a peculiar cbii-ring note, like the stridulation of a grasshopper, wliich made me give the
name of " Grasshopper Sparrows " to this subgeneric group. Tlie nest is built on the ground.
410
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
of grasses, rather large fur the size of the bird, and often somewhat domed or arched over ;
eggs 4-5, sometimes only 3, 0.72 X O.GO, crystal white, flecked with reddish-brown, iu which
markings a few neutral tints or blackish specks may also appear. Coturniculus imsseriniis of
all previous editions of the Key, as of most American writers ; but our Yellow- winged Sparrow
proves to be only a subspecies of that which inhabits some of the West Indies, and was origi-
nally described from Jamaica as the savanna bird by Sloane, Nat. Hist, ii, p. 306, pi. 259,
whence Fringilla savannarum Gm. 1788. This record, in connection with reduction of Cotur-
niculus to a subgenus of Ammodramus, explains the name which I now adopt, following the
A. 0. U. List, No. 546.
A. (C.) s. perpal'lidus. (Lat. perpaUidus, very pale.) Bleached YELLOW-wixdED
Sparrow. Western Grasshopper Sparrow. Very similar to tlie last ; size the same ;
coloration paler and grayer; less black and more slaty- gray on upper parts; ochrey crown-
stripe and edgings of dorsal feathers, as well as under parts generally, paler. Western U. S.,
Plains to the Pacific, S. to Mexico and Cape St. Lucas. Coturniculus passerinus perpallidus
CouES, Key, 1872, p. 137, and of all later eds. ; Ammodramus savannarum perpallidus
RiDGW. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. viii, 1885, p. 355; Man. 1887, p. 411 ; Ammodramus (^Cotur-
niculus) savannarum p)erpallidus A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 546 a.
A. (C.) hen'slowi.
HOPPER Sparrow.
(To Prof. J. S. Henslow, of England. Fig. 273.) Henslow's Grass-
Somewhat resembling a yomui Yellow-winged Sparrow. Adult $ 9 •
Under parts whitish, tinged strongly along
whole sides, across breast, and on tianks and
crissum, with buff, all these buff parts sharply
and distinctly streaked with blackish in fine
pattern ; pectoral streaks connecting along sides
of neck with decided black maxillary stripes.
The brownish -yellow shade is very variable in
extent and intensity, but it usually leaves only
throat and belly decidedly whitish. Ground-
color of head and hind neck peculiar pale olive-
gray, with decided greenish -yellow tinge : top
of head with broad lateral blackish strijjes,
continued on cervix in much smaller pattern,
divided by a greenish-brownish-yellow niedian
stripe. The peculiar color of hind neck extend-
ing far around on sides of neck, and sides of
head of much the same tint; a blackish post-
ocular stripe bounding auriculars above ; below
and anterior to them a black maxillary stripe
starting from angle of mouth ; below this usu-
ally other maxillary streaks ; dark specks often
behind auriculars. Dorsal and scapular feath-
ully chestnut, then mostly narrowly edged with
contrasting with peculiar greenish-gray cervical
region with its fine black streaks. Edge of wing yellow. Greater wing-coverts and most
secondaries colored to correspond with back, the closed wing showing chiefly chestnut with
black field of three innermost secondaries. Tail-feathers extremely narrow and acute, brown,
the inner at least with long blackish sliaft-stripe, and reddish-brown on inner webs. Bill
brownish, usually quite dusky above, pale below; feet pale. Length 5.00; extent 7.50; M-ing
and tail, each, 2.00-2.10; bill from extreme base of culmen 0.45; 0.30 deep at base: tarsus or
middle toe and claw 0.65. Young resemble the adults sufticicntly to be unmistakable, but are
Fig. 273. — Henslow's Grasshopper Sparrow.
ers with broad black central field, then bro
whitish, these markings in bold pattern, and
FRINGILUDM: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 411
ratht-r dark buff above, with black streaks and spots, and very pale buff below, without black
pectoral and most of the maxillary streaks, though there is one stripe starting from the cornei*
of the mouth. The lesser streaking of the under parts is the reverse of the case of the Yellow-
winged Sparrow, the young of which are more streaked below than the adults. Eastern U. S.,
strictly, N. to New England, Mich., Minn., and Ontario, not very commonly ; W. to the edge of
the Great Plains ; winters in the Gulf States. Not abundant on the whole, nor easily observed ;
song a simple zip, zip, zip, zirip, zipzirip, zipzirip, zirip, with head held back, bill up, and tail
down. Common about Washington, D. C, where it breeds, in fields and meadows; nest on
the ground, in tufts of grass. Eggs 4-5, greenish- white, profusely speckled with reddish,
0.75 X 0.57. Coturniculus henslowi of all previous eds. of the Key; Emberiza hensloicii
Aui). 1831- Ammodromus henslowi Gray, 1849; Am mod ramus (Coturniculus) henslowii
A. O. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 547.
A. (C.) h. occidenta'lis. (Lat. of the Occident, western.) Western Henslow's Spar-
row. Dakota Grasshopper Sparrow. Similar to A. (C) henslowi, but general color-
ation paler (as in the corresponding case of A. (C.) savannarum perpalUdus) ; under parts
whiter; back and scapulars with broader black streaking and much less chestnut, the wings
and tail grayer. Wing 2.18; tail 1.95; tarsus 0.69; bill from nostril 0.31 ; its depth at nostril
0.32. Moody Co., S. Dakota, and probably other places along the E. border of the Great
Plains (the Nebraska record of henslowi probably belongs here). Brewst. Auk, Apr. 1891,
p. 145 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 547 a.
A. (C.) lecon'tei. (To Maj. J. Le Conte, of Philadelphia.) Le Conte's Grasshopper
Sparrow. Le Conte's Bunting. Adult $ 9 : Bill smaller and slenderer than in either of
the foregoing, dark horn-blue above, paler bluish below ; iris black. Tail long, decidedly ex-
ceeding wing when full grown, and remarkably graduated ; lateral feathers ^|- inch shorter
than central pair; all extremely narrow, tapering, and acuminate, even more so than in the
Sharp-tailed Finch (Animodramus caudacutus) ; outstretched feet not reaching to its end.
Wings short and much refunded ; primaries in closed wing hardly ^ inch longer than second-
aries. Length 4.90-5.10; extent 6.90-7.10; wing 1.90-2.00; tail 2.00-2.25 or a little more;
bill 0.40; tarsus 0.67. No trace of yellow on bend of wing, nor any yelk)W loral spot. No
black maxillary or pectoral streaks ; markings of under parts confined to sparse, sharp, blackish
streaks on sides. General coloration Tnore or less buff, according to age and season. Crown
with black lateral stripes, separated by a whitish stripe becoming ochi-ey on forehead. Sides
of head buff, brightest on long broad superciliary line, enclosing slaty-gray auriculars, which
are bordered above by a black postocular line, sometimes chiefly appearing as a dark speck
behind them. Cervical feathers bay, black-shafted and whitish -edged, forming a distinct in-
terval between markings of back and crown. Dorsal feathers in bold pattern, with black ter-
minal central field, little rufous and much whitish or bufiy edging: streaking extending on
rump and upper tail-coverts. Wing-coverts and inner secondaries colored boldly to correspond
with the back. Under parts buffy-white, sometimes quite whitish, again much more buffy,
with season, usually quite buff with only belly whitish. Fresh moulted fall birds are often en-
tirely deep buff below, excepting belly, which is white, in mai'ked contrast. Young: Bill still
smaller, reddish-brown instead of bluish ; general color buff above, whitish below, more or less
buffy on breast and sides; markings of upper parts black, without bay and brown variegation,
except on wings and tail, which are nearly as in the adults ; sparse black streaks of under parts
usually appearing across breast as well as on sides. An interesting, long-lost species, but re-
discovered: Yellowstone region (Atidubon, 1843); Texas (Lincecum); N. Dakota, breeding
(Cones, 1873); Illinois (^Nelson, 1875); Iowa (Newton, 1875); Minnesota (Tiffany, 1878);
North Carolina (Brimley, 1894); South Carolina (Loomis, 1881) ; New York (Fuertes, 1897).
The normal range of the species may now be given as the Great Plains of the U. S. and ad-
joining British Provinces, from Assiniboia and Manitoba to Texas, and E. iu migration to the
412
S YS TEMA Tl C S Y NOP SIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
S. Atlautic and Gulf States, including Florida. It breeds in uortlierly parts of this range, but
only in moist or uiarshy spots; nest buUcy, on the ground or in thick grass or a clump of
reeds ; eggs 3-5, 0.72 X 0.54, white, profusely flecked with brown, sometimes chiefly marked
about the larger end with darker brown or blackish spots. Cotumictiliis lecontii of all pre-
vious eds. of the Key; Emberizu leconteii Aud., 1843; Ammodronms leconteii Gray, 1849;
Ammodramus {Cotiirniculus) leconteii A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 548. Approaching
Ammodramas caudacutus in many respects, aud inhabiting similar resorts in the interior.
(Subgenus Ammodramus.)
A7ialt/sis of Species.
Coloration much variegated ; general tone buffy. No briglit yellow on lore or edge of wing ; long buif superciliary
and malar stripes caudacutus, nelsoni, n. subvirgalus
Coloration little variegated ; general tone dark. Loral spot and edge of wing bright j-ellow.
Upper parts olive-gray, obscurely streaked maritimus, in. peninsuUc, m. sennrlli
Upper parts quite blackish nkjresceus
A. caudacu'tus. (Lat. Cauda, tail ; acutus, sharp. Fig. 274.) Sharp-tailed Finch.
Quail-head. Olive-gray, sharply streaked on back with blackish and whitish, less so on
rump with blackish alone. Crown
darker than nape, with brownish-
black streaks, tending to form lateral
stripes and obscure olive-gray median
line ; no yellow loral spot, but long line
over eye and sides of head rich buff
or orange-brown, enclosing olive-gray
auriculars and a dark speck behind
them, or dark postocular stripe over
them. Olive-gray of cervix extend-
ing on sides of neck. Below, white;
fiire parts and sides tinged with yel-
lowish-brown or buff" of variable inten-
sity, breast and sides sharply sti'eaked
with dusky. Greater coverts and in-
ner secondaries with blackish field
toward their ends, broadly margined
with rusty brown and whitish. Tail-
feathers brown, with dusky shaft-stripes
and tendency to " water" with crosswise wavy bars. Bill blackish above, pale or not below,
feet brown. Coloration in spring and summer clearer and paler, in fall and in young birds moi-e
brightly aud extensively buff. Rather smaller than A. maritimus; bill still slenderer and tail-
feathers still narrower and more acute. Length 5.10-5.50; extent 7.50; wing 2.25; tail 2.00;
bill 0.45-0.50; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 0.75. Salt mar.shes of the Atlantic and Gulf
States, N. to Maine, abundant; range similar to that of ^. maritimus, but on the whole more
northerly, especially in the breeding season ; nest and eggs similar and scarcely distinguishable ;
eggs rather smaller, 0.75 X 0.55, and perhaps less boldly marked.
A. nel'soni. (To E. W. Nelson, of Illinois.) Nelson's Sharp-tailed Finch. Similar
to the last, but smaller, with bill slenderer and shorter; colors brighter and markings more
sharply defined, especially the dead white streaks on the rich brown ground of the back. Fresh
marshes of Mississippi Valley; breeds from N. Illinois to Manitoba, winters to Texas; in
migrations on the Atlantic coast from New England to South Carolina; has occurred in Cali-
FiG. 274. — Generic details of
nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
{A. caudacutus),
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
413
foniia (the so-called A. c. hecki Ridgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. xiv, 1891, p. 483). A. c. nelsoni
oi 3d-4th eds. of Key. A. nelsoni Norton, Pr. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist, ii, Mar. 15, 1897,
p. 102; A. 0. U. Suppl. Li.st, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 118, No. 549. 1 (formerly No. 549 a).
A. n. subvirga'tiis. (Lat. sub-, under, less than, somewhat, and virgatus, striped, streaked.)
Acadian Sharp-tailed Finch. Said to be "similar in size and coloring to A. caudacutus,
but paler and much less conspicuously streaked beneath with pale greenish-gray instead of
black or deep brown. Bill averages smaller. Compared witli nelsoni it is much paler and
grayer, generally larger and with a longer bill." Range said to be "coast of southern New
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island (and probably Nova Scotia), and southward in migration to
South Carolina." A. caudacutus subvirgatus J. Uwight, Jr. Auk, July, 1887, p. 233;
CouES, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 228, No. 549 ft. See
Auk, Oct. 1896, p. 272, pi. iv. A. nelsoni subvirgatus Norton, Pr. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist.
il, Mar. 15, 1897, p. 102; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 118; No. 549. 1 a.
A. mari'timus. (Lat. JHanfewMS, maritime, coast- wise ; ware, the sea. Fig. 275.) Sea-
side Finch. Seaside Sparrow. Adult ^ 9 : Olive-gray, obscurely streaked on back
and crown with darker and paler ; below,
whitish, often washed with brownish, shaded
on sides with color of back, and with ill-
defined dark streaks on breast and sides ;
maxillary stripes of the same ; wings and
tail plain dusky, with slight olivaceous edg-
ings; wing-coverts and inner quills some-
what margined with brown ; edge of wing
bright yellow ; a bright yellow spot on lore,
and often some vague brownish and dusky
markings on side of head ; bill plumbeous,
or dark horn-blue ; feet dark. Length 5.75-
6.25; extent 8.50; wing 2.25-2.50: tail
about 2.00. Recognizable on sight by
bright yellow edge of wing and loral spot,
with little varied olive-gray upper parts.
Salt marshes of Atlantic coast from southern
New England to Florida, abundant ; breeds
throughout its range, and resident in the
south, but screened from casual observation by the nature of its haunts and habits. Nest in a
tussock of grass just out of water; eggs 3-5, 0.80 X O.GO, grayish-white, thickly and pretty
evenly marked with umber-brown.
The foregoing descriptif)n is applicable to all the forms of the stock species, and re(iuires
to be particularized if we wish to recognize the several slight local races into which maritimus
was lately sj)lit with the sanction of the A. O. U. For the race to wiiich the name maritimus
lias thus been restricted, observe the following points: Sides of crown olive, with occasionally
black shaft-streaks; median bluish-gray line well defined; nape pale greenish-olive; back
(dive, margined with bluish-gray; breast streaked with bluish-gray, margined with buff": flanks
obscurely streaked with bluish-gray and faintly washed with buff. Wing averaging 2.50;
tail 2.2.5.
A. III. macKillivrayi. (To William Macgillivray) MacgillivRAV's Seaside Finch.
Scarcely different from the last. Sides of crown black, margined with brown ; median bluish-
gray line ill-defined; nape tawiiy-olivc ; back black, bordered by greenish-olive and margined
with bluish-gray ; breast and flanks streaked with dusky, margined with buff". Wing averag-
ing 2.36 ; tail 2.18. Said to be confined to coasts of South Carolina and Georgia; originally
Fig.
Nichols i
Seaside Finrh, reduced (.Sheppard
414 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSER ES — OSCINES.
described aud figured from Charleston, S. C; pri>bable type specinieii a young bird now
No. 2894 U. S. Nat. Mus., examined by me. Included under maritimiis in former eds. of the
Key. Fringilla macgiUivraii Aud. Oru. Biogr. ii, 1834, p. 285; iv, 1838, p. 394; v, 1839,
p. 499; folio pi. ccdv — in part; for the account includes the race below given as fisheri.
Ammodramus macgillivrayi Aud. B. Am. iii, 1841, p. lOG, 8vo, pi. clxxiii — in part; range
given from South Carolina to Texas, thus including other races. A. m. macgiUivraii Chapm.
Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 5 (not o{ Kidgw. 1896, nor of A. O. U. List, Eighth Suppl. 1897,
No. 550 c, which is fisher i); A. O. U. List, Ninth Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 118, No. 550 rf.
A. m. penin'sulae. (Lat. peninsula, a peninsula, almost an island ; pene, almost ; insula,
island.) Scott's Seaside Finch. Peninsular Seaside Sparkow. Crown as in mac-
gillivrayi; nape greenish-olive, about as in maritimus proper; back dull black, margined with
greenish-olive ; breast streaked with dusky margined with bufi" or with bluish-gray ; Hanks
streaked with dusky, margined with grayish or olive-buff. Wing averaging 2.32; tail 2.09.
These comparative characters may be thus amplified : Adult ? : Differing from maritimus
proper in some points by which it approaches nigrescens (see beyond) ; like the latter in size
and proportions, including size and shape of bill. Feathers of upper parts with dull brownish
centres, broadly edged with olive and gray. Black streaks of under parts stronger and sharper
than in maritimus, less so than in nigrescens. Throat and belly white ; other under parts
shaded with brownish-ash, besides the streaks. Young in first plumage : Black prevailing
above, the feathers narrowly edged with ochraceous ; throat and midtlle of belly white; sides
bright ochraceous, narrowly streaked with black. Wing 2.20; tail 2.00; tarsus 0.83; bill 0.52.
Type Locality Tarpon Springs, Florida; breeding range not made out; general range given as
from South Carolina to Texas, probably by error, in A. 0. U. List. Included under maritimus
in lst-3d eds. of Key. Allen, Auk, July, 1888, pp. 284, 286; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890,
p. 899; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 228, No. 550 a.
A. m. fish'eri. (To Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the U. S. Biological Survey.) Fisher's Sea-
side Finch. Louisiana Seaside Sparrow. An alleged subspecies, sadly mixed up in
synonymy, geography, and diagnosis with both the foregoing races. One account is : Sides of
crown deep black, margined with mummy brown, median line ill-defined, bluish-gray; nape
mummy brown; back deep black, bordered by mummy brown and margined by bluish-gray;
breast and flanks streaked with black, widely margined with pale ochraceous. Wing 2.29 ;
tail 2.12. Another diagnosis is: Upper parts deep black, in fresh plumage the feathers bor-
dered by mummy brown aud margined with bluish-gray ; breast and flanks streaked with black
and more or less heavily washed with pale ochraceous. Type No. 163,722 U. S. Nat. Mus.,
Grande Isle, L(nusiana, June 9, 1886. Range given by its describer as coast of Gulf States ;
breeding from Grande Isle, Louisiana, westward, probably to N. E. Texas, S. in winter to
Corpus Christi, Texas, and Tarpon Springs, Florida. Range restricted by A. 0. U. to coast
of Louisiana; in migration, coast of Texas. Included under maritimus or peninsula in all
former eds. of Key. Said to be Fringilla macgiUivraii Aud., in part. Said to be A. m.
macgillivrayi Ridgw. Man. 2d ed. 1896, p. 602. Said to be A. m. peninsulce Allen, Auk,
July, 1888, p. 284, in part, and Chapm. Bull. Amer. Mus. iii, 1891, p. 324. Finally, it
turned up as A. m. fisheri Chapm. Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 10, pi. i, upper fig.; A. 0. U. Suppl.
List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 118, No. 550 c.
A. m. sen'netti. (To George B. Sennett.) Sknnett's Seaside Flinch. Texan Sea-
side Sparrow. Closely resembling maritimus proper, from which separated geographically
by the foregoing races, and otherwise distinguished by the greenishness of the black-centred
feathers of upper parts. It thus differs from the typical form in the opposite direction from
that taken by peninsulfe and nigrescens. Adult $ 9 : Upper parts lighter than in maritimus
proper i nape streaked with black. Under parts liglit gray, white on tliront and belly, with
distinct narrow blackish streaks on l)rcast and flanks, tliose of breast bordered with wliitc or
FRIXdILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
41i
pale ochraceous. Young, first pluiiiai^e : Gniyisli-browii i)revailiiiji,' above, streaked with
black, streaks broadest on middle of back; below pale fulvous, shaded on sides, where alsf>
sparsely streaked with black. Confined to coast of Texas, as far as known ; resident at Corpus
Christi, breeding abundantly in marshes
of Nueces Bay. Allen, Auk, July,
1888, p. 28G ; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 181)0,
p. 89l> ; Chapm. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist, iii, 1891, p. 323 (liabits); A. (). U.
List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 228, No. 550 h. A.
scnnetti Ciiapm. Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 3,
pi. i, lower fig.
A. nigres'cens. (Ijat. nifjrescens, grow-
ing black. Fig. 270.) Florida Sea-
side Finch. Du.skv Seaside Spar-
row. Like maritimiis; rather smaller
bodied, though members not shorter, and
conspicuously different in color, being
almost entirely black and white. Upper
parts sooty-black, slightly variegated
with slate-colored edgings of the feathers,
and some pale gray edgings of interscap-
ulars. Below white, heavily streaked
Dusky Seaside Sparrow.
with blackish everywhere excepting on throat and middle of belly. A bright yellow loral spot,
and Ix'ud of wing bright yellow (both very consjiicuous in the black plumage). Wing-f(uiils
bhickish, inuer secondaries quite black ; all narrowly edged with brownish. Tail black, with
gray edgings of the feathers, these edgings tending to form scallops witli the black central field,
liill and feet as in mariUmus. A curiously localized si)ecies, resident in Florida, on the Atlan-
tic side, discovered by C. J. Maynard near Titusville, March, 1891. A. m. nigrescens of 2d-4th
eds. of Key, now rated as a distinct species.
A. melunoleucus Mayn. Am. Sportsm. v,
1875, p. 248; Birds of Eastern N. Am. 1881,
p. 119, pi. V.
MELOSPI'ZA. (Gr. /xAof, mchs, song,
melody, and (TiriCa, spiza, name of some Finch
in Aristotle.) SoNG Sparrows. Bill mod-
erate, conic, without special turgidity or com-
pression, outlines of culmen, commissure,
gonys, and sides nearly or about straight.
Wings short and much rounded, folding little
beyond base of tail; l.st primary quite sliort;
point of wing formed by 3d, 4th, and 5th, sup-
ported clo.sely by 2d and Gth : inner .seconda-
ries not elongated. Tail long, about equalling
or rather exceeding wings, much rounded, with
Fw. 277. - Lincoln's Song Sparrow, reduced. (Shep- fi'"'" f'^fUhers broad to their rounded ends. Feet
parddel. Nichols sc.) moderately .Stout ; tarsus scarcely or not longer
than middle toe and claw ; lateral toes slightly unequal, outer the longer, it.s claw scarcely or
not reaching base of middle claw. Embracing a large number of middle-sized and large Spar-
rows, without a trace <jf yellow anywhere, and of ])rowni.sh -yellow only in Uncolni ; upper
parts, including crown, thickly streaked; under parts white or ashy, thickly .streaked across
■■-iJ^
I Song Sparrow, reduced. (Shep-
416 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
breast and along sides (excepting adult M. georgiana). No bright color anywhere, and no
colors in masses. The type of the genus is the familiar and beloved Song Sparrow, which the
authors of Citizen Bird call "Everybody's Darling" — a bird of constant characters in the
East, but which in the West is split into numerous geographical races, some of them look-
ing so different from typical melodia that they have been ctmsidered as distinct species, and
even placed in other genera. This differentiation affects not only color, but size, relative
proportion of parts, and particularly shape of bill. Nevertheless, the gradation is complete,
and effected by imperceptible degrees. Some Northwestern forms of great size and dark
colors are easily discriminated, but there are U. S. birds from Atlantic to Pacific which are
not readily told apart. The student should not be discouraged if a subject which has tried
the chiefs perplexes him ; nor must he expect to find drawn on paper hard and fast lines
which do not exist in nature. The curt antithetical expressions used in constructing the
analysis of species and varieties necessarily exaggerate the case, and are only true as indi-
cating the typical style of each ; plenty of specimens lie " between the lines " as written.
Analysis of Species and leading Subspecies.
Breast streaked, and with a transverse belt of brownish-yellow ; tall nearly equal to wings lincolni
Breast ashy, unbelted, with few streaks, or none ; tail about equal to wings georgiana
Breast white, or brownish-white, with numerous streaks ; tail usually longer than the wings, both rounded. Thickly
streaked above, on sides, and across breast melodia and its subspecies
The streaks distinct, decidedly blackisli-centred (in breeding plumage).
Tone of upper parts grayish-brown or reddish-gray. Streaked from head to tail. Dorsal streaks black, rufous,
and grayish-white. Wing 2.00 ; tail under 3.00 melodia CEasternN. A.) and juddi
Tone of upper parts gray. Streaks obsolete on rump. Dorsal streaks narrowly blackish and grayish-white,
with little rufous Tail about 3.00. Great Basin and Rocky Mt. regions fnllax and montana
Tone of upper parts ashy-gray. Streaks obsolete on rump. Dorsal streaks broadly black, with little rufous and
scarcely any grayish-white. Size of the first. California heermnnni
Tone of upper parts olive-gray. Streaks on rump and upper tail-coverts. Dorsal streaks as in the last. Very
small. Wing 2.25 ; tail 2.50. Coast of California samiteiis
The streaks diffuse, not black-centred nor whitish-edged. Bill slender.
Tone of upper parts rufous-brown. Streaks above and below dark rufous. Medium-sized; wing 2. CO ; tail under
3.00. P.icific coast, U. S. and British Columbia ; Idaho morphna; merrilli
Tone of upper parts olive-brown. Streaks sooty. Larger : wing and tail about 3.00. Pacific coast, British
Columbia and Alaska rufina
Breast plumbeous, with numerous diffuse streaks.
Tone of upper parts dark cinereous. Streaking reddish-brown. Largest ; wing and tail 3.25 or more.
Kadiak Island insignis
Aleutian islands at large cinerea
M. lin'colni. (To Thomas Lincoln, who accompanied Audubon to Labrador in 1833. Figs.
277, 278.) Lincoln's Song Sparrow. $ 9 : Below, white, with a broad brownish-yellow
belt across breast; sides of body and neck, and crissum, washed with the same; extent and
intensity of this buff very variable, often leaving only chin, throat, and belly purely white, but
a pectoral band is always evident. All the huffy parts sharfdy and thickly streaked with
dusky. Above, grayish-brown, with numerous sharp black-centred, brown-edged streaks.
Top of head ashy, with a pair of dark brown black-streaked stripes ; or, say, top of head
brown, streaked with black, and with median and lateral ashy stripes. Below the superciliary
ashy stripe is a narrow dark brown one, running from eye over ear; anriculars also bounded
below by an indistinct dark brown stripe, below which and behind auriculars the parts are suf-
fused with buff. Wings with much rufous-brown edging of all the quills; inner secondaries
and coverts having quite black central fields, with broad bay edging, becoming whitish toward
their ends. Tail brown, the featliers with pale edges, and central pair at least with dusky
shaft-stripes. Bill blackish, lighter below; feet brownish. Length 5.50-6.00; extent 7.75-
8.25; wing and tail, each, about 2.50, latter rather shorter. There is little variation in color,
except as above said. Fall specimens are usually most huffy. Very young : Before fall moult.
FRINGILLIDJE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
417
Lincoln's Song Sparrow.
Forbush's Song Sparrow. Similar to
birds of the year are much browner above, with considerable brownish-yellow streaking besides
the black markings ; top of head quite like back, the ashy stripes not being established ; whole
under parts brownish-yellow, merely
paler on throat and belly, dusky-streaked
throughout. N. Am. at large; a pecu-
liar species, not so well known as it might
be, less numerous in the Atlantic States
than in the interi'ir and West ; and keep-
ing very close in shrubbery. Migratory ;
winters in the South ; breeds at least
from N. New York and New England to
Arctic regions, and in the West S. at
least to mountains of Colorado and Cali-
fornia; S. in winter to Panama. Nest-
ing like that of the Song Sparrow, and
<'ggs not distinguishable with certainty;
they average smaller, about 0.75 X 0.55;
the ground color varies from whitish to
greenish-white or brownish- white, and the
markings are usually coarsely blotched.
M. 1. stria'ta. (Lat. striata, streaked, striped.)
31. Uncolni ; superciliary stripe and whole upper parts more strongly olivaceous, with the dark
streaks coarser, blacker, and more numerous, especially on pileum, back, and upper tail-
coverts. British Columbia. Brewster, Auk, April, 1889, p. 89; CouES, Key, 4th ed.
1890, p. 900; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 243, No. 583 a.
M. georgia'na. (Lat. Georgian, i. e., of the State of Georgia, named for King George II.
of England, 1083-1760. Figs. 279, 280.) Swamp Song Sparrow. $ 9 , perfect plumage :
Crown bright chestnut, blackening on
forehead, the red cap and black vizor as
conspicuous as in a Chipping Sparrow ;
but oftener, crown with obscure median
ashy line, and streaked with black. An
ashy-gray superciliary line ; a dark brown
postocular stripe, bordering auriculars ;
sides of head ashy, with grayish-brown
auriculars, dusky speckling on cheeks and
lores, and slight dusky maxillary spots or
streaks. An ashy cervical collar sepa-
rating chestnut crown from back, some-
times pure, oftener interrupted with black-
ish streaks. The general ash of sides of
head and neck spreads all over breast and
under parts, fading to whitish on throat
and belly; sides, Hanks, and crissum
marked with brown, and obsoletely
streaked with darker brown. Back and
rump brown, rather darker than sides
Fio. 279. — Swamp Song Sparrow. (L. A. Fuertes.) i. i ■, i i n • i • i i i i
of body, boldly variegated with black
central streaks of the feathers and their ])ale brown or grayish edges. Wings so strongly edged
with bright bay as to appear almost uniformly brownish-red when closed ; but iuner seconda-
418
SYSTEMA TIC S YXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
ries aud greater coverts showing some black and whitish besides the bay. Tail likewise
strongly edged with bay, and usually showing sharp black shaft-lines. Thus well marked by
emphasis of black, bay, and ash. Length 5.40-5.80, usually 5.60; extent 7.50-8.00; wing
and tail, each, 2.20-2.40. Varies lit-
tle except as above noted, and in ex-
tent aud intensity of the ash on fore
and under parts. In birds of the first
autumn, the crown may be quite
blackish, with little chestnut and an
ashy median stripe. Very young
birds may be conspicuously streaked
below, and a few streaks may persist
on sides of breast. Eastern N. Am.,
W. regularly to the Great Plains,
casually Utah, N. to Hudson's Bay
and Labrador, but chiefly Eastern
U. S. and Canada ; breeding from
the N. States northward, wiuteiing
chiefly in the Southern States. Abun-
dant, but in the breeding season closely
confined to watery tracts, and seldom
seen by the profanum vulgus; a good
musician, like all the genus. Nesting
and eggs generally like those of the
- Swamp Song Sparrow,
reduced. (Sheppard del.
Fig. 280
Nichols sc.)
Song Sparrow, the eggs perhaps averaging a little smaller, 0.75 X 0.55, and rather coarsely
blotched than finely speckled with the darker colors. 31. jycilnstris of most authors, and all
previous editions of the Key ; but there is no doubt that this is FringiUa georgiana Lath.a.m,
Ind. Oru. i, 1790, p. 460, as indicated by Nuttall, Man. 2d ed. 1840, p. 588, and doubtfully
by Baikd, B. N. a. 18.58, p. 483.
M. melo'dia. (Gr. fieXatia, melodia, Lat. melodia, a noun, meaning melody, or a melodious
song. The adj. would be meloda or melodicus. Figs. 281, 282.) Song Sparrow. Silver-
tongue. " Everybody's Darling." Below, white, slightly shaded with brownish on flanks
and crissum ; with numerous black-centred, brown-
edged streaks across breast and along sides, usually
forming a pectoral blotch and coalescing into maxil-
lary stripes bounding white throat ; crown dull bay,
with fine black streaks, divided in the middle aud
bounded (m either side by ashy-whitish lines ; vague
brown or dusky and whitish markings on sides of
head ; a brown postocular stripe over gray auricu-
lars, and another, not so well defined, from angle
of mouth below auriculars ; interscapular streaks
black, with bay and ashy-white edgings; rump and
cervix grayish-brown, with merely a few bay marks ;
wings with dull bay edgings, coverts and inner quills
marked like interscapulars ; tail plain brown, with
darker shaft-lines, on middle feathers at least, and
often with obsolete transverse wavy markings. Very constant in plumage, the chief differ-
ences being in sharpness and breadth of markings, due in part to the wear of the feathers.
In worn midsummer plumage, the streaking is very sharp, narrow, and black, from wearing
- Song Spam
Fuertes.)
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
419
Song Sparrow, reduced. (Sheppard del.
of rufous and whitish, especially observable below where the streaks contrast with white,
and giving tlie impression of heavier streaking than in fall and winter, when, in fresher feather,
tlie markings are softer and more sutl'use.
The aggregation of spots into a blotch on
middle of breast is usual. Bill dark brown,
paler below ; feet pale brown. Length 5.90-
6.50, usually 6.30 ; extent 8.25-9.25, usually
8.50-9.00; wing 2.40-2.75, usually about
2.60 ; tail nearer 3.00. 9 averaging near
the lesser dimensions, but the species remark-
ably constant in size, form, and coloring.
Eastern U. S. and Canada ; breeds in nearly
all its range, wintering nearly throughout;
one of the common winter Sparrows of the
Middle States. A very abundant bird every-
where in shrubbery and tangle, garden, or-
chard, and park, as well as swamp and brake.
A hearty, sunny songster, whose quivering
liipe is often tuned to the most dreary scenes ;
tlie limpid notes being one of the few snatches
of bird melody tliat enlivens winter. Nesting
various, usually near the ground in bush or
grass tuft, or on the ground: eggs 4-6, 0.75-
0.85 X 0.55-0.60, greenish or grayish-white,
endlessly varied with browns, from reddish to
chocolate as surface-markings, and lavender or purplish shell-markings, either speckled,
blotched, or clouded; no general effect describable in few words. Two or three broods may be
reared. (Jf. fasciata of 2d-4t.h eds. of Key and A. 0. U. Lists to 1899, after Fringilla fasciata
Gm. 1788, but this specific name is preoccupied by F. fasciata Mull. 1776 (see Auk, Apr.
1899, p. 183). We may therefore gladly revert to the name M. melodia of the orig. ed. of the
Key, 1872, after Baird, 1858, from F. melodia WiLS. 1810.)
M. m. jud'rti. (To E. T. Judd, of Cando, N. Dak.) Dakota Song Sparrow. The least
departure from melodia proper, apparently in the direction of the Oregon Song Sparrow.
Ground color of upper parts ratlier paler than in melodia, especially the superciliary streak and
sides of neck ; interscapulars with broader black centres, narrower reddish-brown portions, and
paler gray edgings ; markings of under parts restricted and more sharply defined on a clearer
white ground. Length 6.75; wing 2.62; tail 2.78; tarsus 0.81 ; culmen 0.51 ; depth of bill
at base 0.31. North Dakota, breeding about Turtle Mt. in June and July. Eggs 0.75 X 0.60,
with alleged tendency to a subpyriform figure unusual in those of tnelodia, but indistinguish-
able in color. I became familiar with this bird wliile camping on Turtle Mt. in 1873, without
suspecting any difference from the common Song Sparrow of tlie East; however the A. 0. U.
Committee admitted it to the List at the Cambridge meeting, Nov. 13, 1896. 31. fasciata
Jmldi Bishop, Auk, Apr. 1896, )>. 1-32; A. 0. U. List, 8th Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 122,
No. .581 j. (Included under melodia or fasciata in former eds. of Key.)
>I. m. fal'lax. (Lat. fallax, fallacious, deceitful : well named.) Gray Song Sparrow.
Desert S(»X(t Sparrow. Very similar to both the foregoing; tail rather longer; tone of
upper parts paler and grayer ; streaks less obviously blackish in centre and with less rufous;
o])solete on rumj). Southern Rocky Mt. region and portions of the Great Basin, in desert
})laces ; type specimen from Pueblo Creek, N. M., on Whipjde's route, Jan. 22, 1854; range
mainly in New Mexico, Arizona, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah. Zonotrichia fallax
420 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
Baird, 1854; M. fallaxBAiRo, 1858; 31. in. fallax Coves, Key, 1872, p. 139; 31. f. fallax
of later eds. of Key, p. 372, and A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 581 a.
M. m. monta'na. (Lat. montana, of mountains.) Mountain Song Sparrow. Scarcely
distinguishable from fallax, and the form which most authors have called fallax. Upper parts
umber-brown with gray margins of the feathers, giving a strong grayish cast ; back streaked
with blackish-brown ; streaks of under parts also of this color. This is the form characteristic
of the Great Basin at large. 31. f. montana Hensh. Auk, July, 1884, p. 224 ; Coues, Key,
3d ed. 1887, p. 874; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 581 b. 31. m. montana Oberh.
Auk, Apr. 1899, p. 183. (Included under fallax in 1st and 2d eds. of Key.)
M. m. heer'manni. (To Dr. A. L. Heermann, of Philadelphia.) Heermann's Song Spar-
row. Similar to the foregoing, and size of melocUa proper. Tone of upper parts grayish, the
streaks numerous, broad, distinct, with little rufous, mostly lacking pale edgings, and obsolete
on rump. Portions of California, and western Nevada; type from Tejon Pass, Cal. 31. heer-
manni Bd. 1858 ; 31. m. heennannii Coues, Key, 1872, p. 139 ; 31. f. heermanni of 2d-4th
eds. of Key, p. 372, and of A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 581 c.
M. m. samue'lis. (To E. Samuels, of California.) Samuels' SoNG Sparrow. Similar to
heermanni in distinctness of the black streaks, which are not obsolete on rump ; under tail-
coverts also streaked. Bill long, slender, acute ; wings very short, much rounded. Size very
small. Baird gives length only 5.00 ; wing 2.20 ; tail 2.35 ; Ridgway gives length 4.70-5.75 ;
wing 2.15-2.50; tail 2.00-2.68, — measurements manifestly impossible to a single subspecies
so finely drawn as those oi melospiza ! Bill along culmen about 0.50, its depth at base about
0.25; tarsus 0.85. Eggs said to measure 0.74 X 0..58. Coast region of California; type
specimens from Petaluma, Cal. Ammodromus Samuelis Baird, Pr. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.
June, 18.58 ; B. N. A. 18.58, p. 455; later ed. pi. 71, fig. 1. Melospiza gouldii Baird, B. N. A.
1858, p. 479. 31. m. gouldii Coues, Key, 1872, p. 1-39 ; 31. f. Samuelis, Coues, Key, 2d-4th
eds. p. 372, and of A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 581 d.
M. m. coop'eri. (To Dr. J. G. Cooper.) San Diego Song Sparrow. Like heermani;
slightly smaller ; coloration lighter, grayer. Back grayish-olive, broadly streaked with black,
the streaks with little or no rusty edging. Wing and tail 2.50 on an average ; culmen 0.48 ;
depth of bill at base 0.29 ; tarsus 0.85. Southern coast region of California, N. to Monterey
Bay, S. to San Queutin Bay, Lower California. Ridgw. Auk, Jan 1899, p. 35.
M. m. pusil'lula. (Lat. pusillula, very small, dimin. of pusilla, small.) Salt Marsh Song
Sparrow. Like samuelis ; still smaller ; coloration less rusty and more olivaceous above ;
superciliary line and under parts more or less tinged with yellowish. Wing averaging 2.29 ;
tail 2.16 : culmen 0.47 ; depth of bill at base 0.25 ; tarsus 0.82. Salt marshes of San Fran-
cisco Bay, California. Ridg^v. Auk, Jan. 1899, p. .35.
M. m. cleonen'sis. (Lat. of Cleone, a town of Mendocino Co., Cal.) Mendocino Song
Sparrows Size of samuelis ; lighter and more rusty ; black marks of back restricted ; spots
of breast broadly edged with rusty ; black markings of sides of head and neck almost entirely
replaced by reddish-brown. Wing 2.28-2.38 ; tail 2.10-2.22 ; culmen 0.42. Coast of Mendo-
cino Co., California. 31. melodia cleonensis McGregor, Bull. Coop. Club, Sept. 15, 1899, p. 87.
M. m. rivula'ris. (Lat. rividaris, of small rivers or creeks, fluviatile; rivtdns, a rivulet,
dimin. of rivus, a river.) Brown's Song Sparrow. With this alleged subspecies we pass
to some peninsular and insular forms, before resuming the series with forms from northwestern
U. S. and northward. Lower California. 3£. f. rividaris Brya.nt, Proc Cala. Acad. 2d ser.
i, Sept. 1888, p 197; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 581^.
31. m. rividaris Oberh. Auk, Apr. 1899, p. 183.
M. m. gramin'ea. (Lat. graminea, of grass or herbage.) Santa Barbara Song Spar-
row. Described as being of the size of samweZis; tail shorter; feet larger; coloration lighter,
with an ashy cast; hind neck decidedly ashy; dark markings of back and sides of throat
FRINGILLIDJE: FIXCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 421
smaller and less blended. Wing given as 2.35; tail 2.25. The alleged characters may be due
in part to abrasion of plumage by the coarse grass in which the bird lives. Santa Barbara Isl.,
breeding, and adjacent coast of California in winter. M. f. graminea Townsend, Pr. U. S.
Nat. Mus. xiii, 1890, p. 139; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 242, No. 581 h. M. m. graminea,
Oberh. Auk, Apr. 1899, p. 183.
M. m. clemen'tae. (Dog-Lat., intended to mean of San Cleinente, the island named in Span-
ish form for St. Clement, bishop of Rome in the 1st century, A. d. ; Lat. clementinus, from
dementia, clemency, mildness, from clemens, clement, mild ; preferable forms of the specific
name would be clementice, Clementina, or dementensis.) San Clemente Song Sparrow.
Like the last; larger; bill longer. Wing and tail each 2.50; culmen 0.45; tarsus 0.85. San
Clemente and Santa Rosa Islands, California. 31. f. dementcB Towns. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. xiii,
1890, p. 139; A. O. U. List, 2.1 ed. 1895, p. 243, No. 581 i.
31. m. morph'na. (Gr. fxopcpvos, morphnos, Lat. morphnus, epithet of an eagle, supposed to
mean dark-colored, dusky, swarthy, like Lat. furvus.) Oregon Song Sparrow. Rusty
Song Sparrow. Decidedly different from any of the foregoing ! Streaking diffuse ; streaks
above and below dark rufous-brown, without black centres or pale edges. Coloration blended ;
general tone ruddy ; under parts extensively shaded with brownish, except on belly. Rather
larger than typical melodia. Pacific coast, U. S., and British Columbia, breeding northerly,
S. ill winter to S. California. This well-marked form was first distinguished by Nuttall,
Man. 2d ed. 1840, p. 581 ; he named it Fringilla guttata, and compared it with the Fox Spar-
row, from its resemblance to Passerella iliaca; but the name he bestowed is ruled out by the
prior F. guttata Vieill. 1817, an Australian bird. This Song Sparrow was also recognized
by Audubon, who wrongly called it Fringilla cinerea Gm., a name belonging to the distinct
species described below. It was not recognized as different from riifina by Baird in 1858, the
M. riifina of this author, B. N. A. p. 480, being a composite. I disengaged the two forms in
the orig. ed. of the Key, 1872, p. 139, calling the present one 31. melodia guttata, and changed
the name to 3f.fasciata guttata in the2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 372, after Ridgw. Bull. Nutt.
Club, iii, 1878, p. 66. It has since so stood in A. 0. U. Lists, No. 581 e; but as the name
guttata has proven untenable, a new one has been proposed by Oberholser, Auk, Apr. 1899,
])• 183, and this I now adopt.
M. m. iiigersol'li. (To Albert M. Ingersoll, of San Diego, Cal.) Tehama Song Spar-
row. Nearest morphna; said to be darker, without rusty wash, with under parts more
streaky. Types from Sacramento Valley, California. McGregor, Bull. Cooper Club, Mar. 15,
1899, p. 35, and Sept. 15, 1899, p. 88.
M. m. mer'rilli. (To Dr. James C Merrill, U. S. A.) Merrill's Song Sparrow.
Most like morphna; bill smaller; ground color of upper parts and sides of head and neck
lighter and more ashy, with darker and sharper markings, especially of back ; white of under
parts clearer and more extensive. Length 6.10; wing 2.63; tail 2.58; tarsus 0.84; bill 0.44,
its depth at nostril 0.25. Fort Sherman, Idaho. 31. f. merrilli Brewst. Auk, Jan. 1896,
p. 46; A. 0. U. List, 8th Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 122, No. 581 k.
M. 111. rufl'na. (Lat. rufina, rufous, reddish.) SooTY SoNG Sparrow (called Risty Song
Sparrow in 2d-4th eds. of Key). Quite like morphna, of which it is a larger, darker north-
ern form. Tone of upj)er parts sooty or smoky brown ; streaking very dark. Length 6.50 or
more ; wing and tail about 3.00; tarsus 1.00. Pacific coast region, British Columbia to Sitka;
latter the type locality. Passerella rufina Bp. Consp. Av. i, July 15, 1850, p. 477, as based
on Emheriza rufina Brandt, 1836 (Sitka). 31. rufina Baird, 1858, in part (includes gut-
tata = morphna). 31. melodia rttfina CoiES, Key, orig. ed. 1872, p. 139; 3I.fasciata rufina
<.f Key, 2d-4tli eds. p. 372, and of A. 0. U. Lists, No. 581/.
M. m. cauri'nas. (Lat. caurinus, nortliwesteru ; caurus or corus, the northwest wind.)
Yakutat Song Sparrow. Like rufina; described as having bill longer, and coloration
422
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
M. insig'nis. (Lat
a sign, mark, token.
grayer, the superciliary stripe, most of auriculars, sides of neck, and edges of interscapulars
being quite gray, in contrast with the brown markings; streaks below "seal-brown;" ground
color of flanks "olive-grayish." Wing 3.00; tail 2.85; culmen 0.56; depth of bill at base
0.30; tarsus 0.95. Range ascribed to Alaska from Cook's Inlet to Cross Sound, and south-
ward in winter. 31. f. caurina Eidgw. Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 36; M. m. caurinn Oberh.
Auk, Apr. ]899, p. 183.
nsignis, signal, notable, well marked, as this species is ; in, and signum,
Fig. 283.) Bischoff's Song Sparrow. Kadiak Song Sparrow.
Specific characters receding from those of
rufina and approaching those oi cinerea; col-
oration most like that of rufina, size nearly
that of cinerea. Wing 3.20; tail 3.10; tar-
sus 1.00; bill 0.55. Eggs 0.89 X 0.65. An
isolated species only known from Kadiak, etc.,
Alaska. Baird, Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci.
i, 1869, p. 319, pi. 29, fig. 1. M. meloclia
insignis Coues, Key, orig. ed. 1872, p. 140:
in later eds. wrongly combined with cinerea
under the name of the latter, as it also is in
A. O. U. List, 1st ed. 1886 ; see especially
Richmond, Auk, Apr. 1895, pp. 144-150,
for best account of this species and the next.
It is No. 58] . 1 of A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895,
p. 243.
M. cine'rea. (Lat. cinerea, ashy, ash-col-
ored; cinis, e:en. cineris, ashes. Fie. 284.)
Fio 283. -Kadiak Song Sparrow. (L. A. Fuertes.) CiNEREOUS ^SONG SpARROW. ALEUTIAN
Song Sparrow (called also " Kadiak Song Sparrow " in 2d-4th eds. of Key). A distinct
species, peculiar in size, shape, and color. Above, brownish-slate color, more rufous on
wings; the streaking broad and blended, very dark. Below, plumbeous-whitish, shaded with
brown on sides ; the streaks broad, dif-
fuse, and dark. Spring and fall plu-
mages diflFer much, but the bird may
always be recognized by its great size
and long slender bill. Length about
7.50 ; wing 3.30 ; tail 3.50 ; tarsus 1.10 ;
bill 0.65, its depth at base 0.30. Fort
Kenai, Alaska; Aleutian Islands (not
Kadiak, however). FringiUa cinerea
Gm. S. N. i, 1788, p. 922; Melospiza
cinerea Finsch, Abhandl. Nat. Verein,
Bremen, iii, 1872, p. 20. Not in orig.
ed. of Key, and M. cinerea of Key, 2d-
4th eds. p. 372, and of Ridgw. Man.
1887, p. 432, includes both this species
and M. insignis. It is No. 582 of
A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 243,
where " Pribilof Islands " are wrongly
included in its ascribed habitat.
PEUC^'A. (Gr. TTfVKr], pence, a pine ; not well applied except to P. eestivalis.) Summer
Fio. 284. — Aleutian Song Sparro
FRINGILLIDJE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 423
Finches. Bill of moderate size, rather elongate-conic, upper inaudible declivous toward end.
commissure bent. Wings short and much rounded, folding little if any beyond base of tail;
inner secondaries not elongated. Tail little or much longer than wing, much rounded ; lateral
feathers some i an inch shorter than middle ; of weak, narrowly linear feathers with elliptically
rounded ends. Feet small and weak, not reaching when outstretched nearly to end of tail ;
tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw ; lateral toes equal, short, their claws not nearly
reaching base of middle claw. Adults scarcely or not streaked below ; crown quite like
back, streaked with rusty-brown, black, and gray. A superciliary and postocular stripe, but
usually none running under auriculars ; more or less distinct black maxillary stripes (in cassini
Hanks also striped). Edge of wing yellow. Nest on ground ; eggs white. Sexes alike ; young
different, being more or less streaked below. Aside from this, seasonal differences in plumage
of adults, due to wear and tear of the feathers, are very great, and in some respects peculiar ;
they have occasioned much perplexity and confusion in determination of several closely allied
species or subspecies.
Analysis of Species {adults).
Edge of wing yellow. Crown not uniform chestnut ; no chestnut on lesser wing-coverts. Maxillary stripes slight.
Nest on ground ; eggs white.
No stripes on tlie flanks, and no cross-bars on the tail.
Broadly marked above with rufous streaks or blotches on ashy ground, with black centres of streaks on middle
of back. Tail-feathers plain, or only with obscure whitish area.
Eastern species, mostly dull wliitish on the under parts (eslirulis and ft. bnchmani
Western species, mostly grayish-buff on the under pans.
Soutliem Arizona and Souora arizonce
Texas and Mexico mezicana
Flanks distinctly striped ; tail cross-barred.
Marked above with pale brown black-centred streaks, these black centres enlarged transversely at their ends on
middle of back. Tail-feathers shafted and barred with blackish, outer broadly edged and tipped with white
cassini
P. aestiva'lis. (Lat. (cstivalis, like (Bstivus, summery ; cestus, summer.) Florida Summer
Finch. Pine-woods Sparrow. Adult $ 9 : Upper parts, including crown, continuously
streaked with blackish, dull chestnut and ashy-gray ; no yellow about head; wing-coverts and
inner secondaries marked like back ; edge and bend of wing yellow, as in Coturniculus pas-
serinus. Below, dull brownish-ash, or brownish -gray, whitening on belly, deepest on sides
and across breast, nowhere obviously streaked in adult plumage. Some obscure dusky max-
illary streaks, some vague dusky markings on auriculars, a slight ashy superciliary line, and
very obscure median ashy line on crown. Bill dark above, pale below ; legs very pale ; lateral
claws falling far short of base of middle claw ; hind claw much shorter than its digit ; tarsus
not longer than middle toe and claw; tail much rounded, with obscure grayish-white area on
lateral feathers. Young have breast and sides evidently streaked. Length 5.75-6.20, average
5.00; extent 7.60-8.30, average 8.00; wing 2.17-2.55, average 2.40; tail 2.25-2.68, average
2.50. South Atlantic States, strictly, especially Florida and southern Georgia; a bird of pine
barrens, common in suitable localities ; a fine songster. Nest on ground, of grasses ; eggs 4,
0.75 X 0.60, pure white. As the first described species of the genus, this has been used as a
standard of comparison; but it is the most modified offshoot of a genus which focuses in the
Southwest and Mcxicn.
P. ae. bach'niaiii. (To the Kev. John Bachman.) Bachman's Summer Finch. Oak-
woods Sparrow. Adult ^ 9 '■ Above, sandy-ferruginous, indistinctly streaked with light
ashy-gray; streaks broadest on back and middle line of crown; interscapulars sometimes with
narrow black streaks. Wings light ferruginous ; greater coverts less reddish and edged with
paler; inner secondaries dusky, bordered at ends with pale reddish-ash. Tail plain grayish-
brown, with ashy edgings of the feathers. Sides of head, neck, and body and breast quite
across, dingy buflf-color, deepest on breast, paler ou throat and chin ; a postocular rusty-brown
424 S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
streak over auricular^ ; sides of neck streaked with the same ; an indistinct dusky streak on
side of throat ; belly dull white ; crissum buff; edge ot wing bright yellow; bill pale horn-
color, darkest above; feet pale brown; iris brown. Size of cestivalis; wing a little longer,
2.35-2.60, average 2.50; tail 2.55-2.80. average 2.70; bill thicker; black streaks of upper
parts, instead of being generally distributed, few and confined to the interscapulars ; breast and
sides more bufi"y. Thus much like (Estivalis proper, but quite different from any of the follow-
ing forms. Southern states at large, from southern Virginia, southern Indiana, and southern
Illinois, to Florida and Te.xas, breeding in most of its range, but migratorv to some extent, its
range including that of true cestivalis only in winter • casually N. to Maryland (Auk, 1897,
p. 219). This is the genuine original " Bachman's Finch" of Audubon (type examined: see
Brewst. Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 105). When the species was divided into its two subspecies,
Mr. Eidgway unluckily named the wrong one ; fur he identified P. hachmani with the dark
coast form from Georgia and Florida, which is true (sstivalis, and accordingly gave a new name
to the reddish bird of the interior, calling it P. illinoensis in Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, iv, 1879,
p. 219. It consequently stands as P. cb. illinoensis in the 2d-4th eds. of the Key, 1884-90;
but must be known as P. ce. hachmani, as in the A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 575 a;
and -the required change in the English names of the two forms must also be made.
P. arizo'nae. (Of Arizona.) Arizona Summer Finch. With a general likeness to asti-
valis, in pattern of coloration, streaking of all upper parts, similarity of back to crown, yellow
edge of wing, and plain tail-feathers ; size same, wing and tail a triiie longer (as in hachmani).
Colors duller and less variegated ; maxillary stripes obscure or obsolete. Upper parts light
dull chestnut or reddish-brown, moderately streaked with plumbeous-gray, but reddish the
prevailing tone ; interscapular feathers, and sometimes those of crown, with blackish centres ;
a poorly defined light superciliary stripe. Beneath, dull whitish, unstreaked, breast and sides
with a decided ochrey-brown tinge. Wings dusky, inner secondaries darker and with more
conspicuous rusty-brown edgings than those of longer quills, and also some whitish edging or
tipping. Bill blackish above, pale below; legs flesh-color. Young: Above streaked with
blackish and yellowish-gray, showing little reddish ; under parts more or less streaked with
dusky. Southern Arizona and southward in Sonora. (This is in part what I meant by P.
var. cassini -of orig. ed. of Key; but true cassini is entirely different.) P. (estivalis arizonce
RiDGW. Am. Nat. Oct. 1873, p. 615; Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 374.? P. ari-
zonce RiDGW. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. i, Aug. 1878, p. 127; P. arizonce of A. 0. U. Lists, 1st
and 2d eds. 1886 and 1895, No. 576. The bird is distinct from the foregoing, but I doubt
that it is specifically separable from the following :
P. mexica'na. (Lat. Mexican.) Mexican Summer Finch. Very similar to the last.
Adult $ 9 : Upper parts gray suffused with bay, streaked on most of back with bold black bay-
edged stripes ; crown similar, rather darker in smaller pattern of markings and without lighter
median line. Bend of wing yellow ; coverts blackish, with .broad grayish-bay edgings ; flight-
feathers dusky, several inner secondaries blackish, with firm light edgings. Tail-feathers
dusky, with obsolete scarcely discernible cross-waves, middle pair with paler edges their whole
length, lateral ones fading toward their ends. Under parts pale grayish-brown, blanching on
throat and abdomen, unstreaked excepting for a slight pair of black maxillary stripes. Bill
dark horn-color; feet light brown. Length 6.30; wing 2.65; tail 2.80; tarsus 0.80. (De-
scribed from Mexican specimens.) Mexico to the Valley of the Lower Rio Grande in Texas ;
a late addition to our fauna, not given in the 1st or 2d eds. of the Key. Cotitrniculus mexi-
canus Lawr. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y. viii, May, 1867, p. 474, described from Colima,
Mex. Peuccea mexicana Ridgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. viii, May, 1885, p. 99; Coues, Key,
3d ed. 1887, p. 874; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886 and 1895, No. 577 (P. mexicana of
Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 428, includes both this species and P. arizonce, the latter being aban-
doned by its author). P. hotferii Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xii, 1888, p. 711, who considers
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 425
that this is the true Zonotrichia botterii of ScL. P. Z. S. 1857, p. 214. Dr. Sharpe indicates
by his synonymy that he considers this to be also P. arizoncB of Kidgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Miis.
i, Aug. 1878, p. 127. It would appear that Mr. Ridgway has at different times confounded
the two supposed species under the one name of P. arizon(e. This does not invalidate his
original P. cestivalis arizoncB of 1873, as above cited, but brings in question his P. arizonce of
1878, which the A. 0. U. Committee cites as authority for the name of the foregoing species.
P. cas'sini. (To John Cassin.) Cassin's Summer Finch. Belonging to the cestivalis
group, with yellow edge of wing, and most resembling arizonce; but perfectly distinct. A
peculiar character of marking raises groundless suspicit)n of immaturity. Adult ^ 9 : Entire
upper parts, from bill to tail, alike in pattern of coloration — a peculiarly intimate variegation
of ashy-gray, rufous-brown and blackish — the ruddy color occupying most of the feathers,
which have a blackish central field and gray edging ; the blackish area on each feather, espe-
cially of back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, where it is most conspicuous, being hammer-
headed, or widened toward end of the feather. Pattern of markings smallest on cervix. No
special head-markings, but a tendency toward a lateral browner band on side of crown, and
browner postocular stripe, separated by a gray interval. Variegation of upper parts descending
on sides of neck; sides of head with vague markings. Innermost secondaries showing quite
blackish in general field of upper parts, and edged all around with a firm border of ashy-white
or hoary-white. Greater and middle coverts exactly like inner secondaries ; prhnaries similar,
but the edging not so clear. Edge of wing clear yellow, and some of the least coverts tinged
with this color. Tail curiously particolored ; middle pair of feathers light grayish -brown, with
a strong dusky shaft-line throwing off numerous dusky cross-bars, so that these feathers seem
" watered " with lighter and darker shades. Other tail-feathers, except outermost pair, dusky-
brown, AA'ith pale grayish-brown terminal spots increasing in size from inner feathers outward.
On outermost feather this pale gray space is very large, and rimmed all around with white.
An indistinct maxillary stripe on each side of chin. A number of strong well-defined dusky
stripes on flanks ; otherwise, entire under parts unmarked, and of a dingy whitish color, clear-
est on belly and throat, more grayish on sides and across breast. Bill brown, pale below ; feet
pale. Length 6.00-6.25; extent about 8.25; wing 2.50; tail 2.75. Young: Similar, but with
a few drop-shaped streaks on jugulum and along sides ; feathers of upper parts with a more
appreciable terminal border of buft". Texas to California and southern Nevada, N. to Kansas
in summer, S. through New Mexico and Arizona into Alexico. Habits, nest, and eggs as in
P. crstivalis (eggs pure white, 0.75 X 0.55).
H^MO'PHILA. (Gr. alixa, haima, blood; 0/Xof, lihilos, loving: what application?) Re-
lated to Peuccpxi; crown chestnut or rufous (in our species) ; no yellow on edge of wing ; eggs
not white. This is an extensive and varied genus of chiefly extralimital species, to which our
birds of the ruficeps group and carpalis group prove to be more closely related than they are to
the cestivalis group, arizonce, and cassini. This distinction, first indicated in Key, 2d ed.
1884, p. 374, under head of ruficeps, was confirmed by Ridgway, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 80, and
formally adopted in A. 0. U. Suppl. List, ibid. p. 119, where the name of the genus is mis-
spelled ^'Aimophila,^^ as by Swainson, 1837.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies (adults).
No chestnut on lesser wing-coverts.
California coast region ruficeps
Mountains of Lower California sororia
Southern Arizona, southern New Mexico and southward • scoHi
Southwestern Texas and southward ... eremoeca
Chestnut on lesser wing-coverts carpalis
P. ru'ficeps. (Lat. ruficeps, red-headed ; rufus, rufous ; caput, head.) RUFOfS-CROWNED
Summer Finch. Lesser wing-coverts not chestnut as iu carpalis. Strong maxillary streaks.
426 SrSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Adult ^ 9 : Crown chestnut, iu perfect condition bright and continuous, blackening on fore-
head, where divided by a short whitish line (whole cap thus as in Spizella socialis or Melospiza
georgiana) ; crown, however, oftener streaked with olive-ash, especially along a median divid-
ing line, thus assimilating more nearly with colors of other upper parts. An obscure olive-
ashy superciliary line, wliiteuing over lores. Back streaked with olive-ash and chestnut-brown,
latter sometimes distinct, as bold streaking with ashy edging of the feathers, sometimes spread-
ing almost to extinction of the ashy ; brown also varying in shade from a purplish-bay to
light rusty-brown, apparently according to wear and tear of plumage. Wings and tail dusky,
with varying amount of reddish-browu edgings of the feathers. Under parts dull whitish,
strongly shaded with olive-gray or olive-brown, paler on belly, quite whitish on throat, which
latter is bounded by strong black maxillary stripes. Size of P. cassini, or rather less ; length
6.00 or less ; wing 2.20-2.40 ; tail 2.60 ; tarsus 0.77 ; bill 0.48, its depth at base 0.22. Young :
Crown like back ; under parts streaked with dusky, especially the breast. California coast
region, from about lat. 40° to Cape St. Lucas ; a strongly marked bird, which cannot be mis-
taken. The eggs are not pure white as in all the foregoing species of the genus, but of a pale
bluish or greenish-white ground color, unmarked, somewhat like those of the Indigo Bird or
Bluebird; size about 0.77 X 0.58. Peuccea mficeps of all former eds. of Key, ^'Aimophila"
ruficeps A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 120.
H. r. soro'ria. (Lat. sororia, sisterly, like a sister.) Laguna Sparrow. Said to be like
ruficeps proper, with chestnut of pileum somewhat lighter, supraloral line whiter, and supra-
auricular line grayer; to be smaller than scotti, with back less ashy, chestnut strtaks darker
and narrower, and under parts more buffy ; and to differ from all our other forms in thicker and
relatively shorter bill. Wing 2.20-2.50; tail 2.40-2.58; culmenO.45; depth of bill at base
0.26 ; tarsus 0.80. Mountains of Lower California. Included under Peuccea rnficeps in all
former eds. of Key. Ridgw. Auk, July, 1898, p. 226 ; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899,
p. 120.
H. r. scot'ti. (To W. E. D. Scott.) Scott's Sparrow. Larger than ruficeps proper ;
length over 6.00, sometimes 6.50; wing 2.50-2.75 ; tail 2.75-.3.00; tarsus 0.80; bill 0.55, its
depth at base 0.27. Coloration duller and paler than iu rtficeps ; crown less intensely rufous ;
upper parts more uniformly brownish, lacking the black shaft-streaks of eremceca. S. Arizona
and S. New Mexico, S. in Mexico to Puebla. Nest said to be built on ground, and eggs to be
3-4, 0.83 X 0.60, plain white (if this be true, it is a good character, as eggs of ruficeps are
tinted). Peuccea ruficeps houcardi, in part, of 2d-4th eds. of Key; my former description,
giving black shaft-streaks, etc., being based upon specimens of eremoeca, with Arizona habitat
assigned. P. ruficeps houcardi of A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 580 a, but not the true hou-
cardi ScL. P. r. scottii Sennett, Auk, Jan. 1888, p. 42 ; '■'■ Aimophila " r. scottii A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 120, No. 580 a. Peuccea homochlamys Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. xii, 1888, p. 713, is this bird, and the name probably has priority, as the Introduction is
dated Dec. 10, 1887, and the Preface Jan. 6, 1888.
H. r. eremoe'ca. (Gr. epr/^os, eremas, a desert ; olicia,, oikeo, I inhabit.) Desert SUiMMER
Finch. Rock Sparrow. Like scotti (homochlamgs), and quite as large ; length 6.25 ; ex-
tent 8.60 ; wing 2.60-2.75 ; tail 2.7.5-3.00 ; tarsus 0.80 ; bill 0.50. General aspect dull gray ;
back grayish-ash, the feathers there with brownish centres and black shaft-lines — a good
color mark in comparison with scotti. Caj) mixed rufous and gray, with black frontlet divided
by a wOiite median line, as in other members of the rificeps group; ear-coverts conspicuously
ashy. Below dear gray, whitening on abdomen, tinged witli fulvous on flanks and vent ;
maxillary stripes indistinct. Southern and middle Texas ; S. in Mexico to Orizaba. Peuccea
ruficeps houcardi, in part, of 2d-4th eds. of Key ; for in describing what I thought was hou-
cardi I actually had eremoeca in view, and so could see no difference from the latter! This bird
is also P. r. houcardi of Sennett, Auk, Jan. 1888, p. 42, and P. houcardi of Sharpe, Cat. B.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPAR HOWS. 427
Brit. Mus. xii, 1888, p. 714, at least in part (descriptiou from Sclater's type of Zmiotrichia
boucardi, synouyiny and habitat iucluding eremoeca) . P. r. eremoeca Brown, Bull. Nutt.
Cliib, Jau. 1882, p. 2t) and p. 38; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 580 ?>. " Aimophila" r.
eremosca A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 120, No. .580 b.
H. carpa'lis. (Lat. carpalis, relating to carpus, wrist-joint.) Bay-winged Summer Finch.
Adult ^ 9 : Lesser wing-coverts chestnut, forming a patch as conspicuous as in Pocecetes or
Auripurus. Strong black maxillary stripes. Whole crown rufous, or dull bay, divided on
forehead by a short pale stripe, and bordered with a pale grayish-ash superciliary stripe.
Cervix like crown, but mixed with ashy-gray. Middle of back and scapulars grayish- brown,
mixed with a little bay, and sharply streaked with blackish; lower back gray, with little or
no black or brown. The general effect of the upper parts, crown, aud back is like that of
Spizella socialis. Wings and their greater coverts dusky, with grayish-fulvous edging and
tipping ; primaries and tail-feathers with whitish edging ; one or two outer tail-feathers white-
tipped. Under parts white, shaded on breast and sides with ashy ; throat pure white, bounded
on «ach side by a sharp black maxillary stripe, above which is another dark line from angle of
mouth. Bill apparently reddish tlesh color below, dusky above; feet pale brown, toes rather
darker. Length about 6.00 ; extent 8.50 ; wing 2.25-2.50 ; tail 2.75, graduated about 0.50 ;
bill 0.40 ; tarsus 0.67. Less mature : Crown less different from back, being streaked with ashy,
blackish, and rufous. Very young : No chestnut on wing-coverts ; upper parts, including
crown, dull brownish broadly streaked with blackish ; under parts streaked with dusky ; thus
much like the earliest stage of Spizella socialis ; after this the chestnut bend of the wing is
always conspicuous. Arizona and Sonora. A very distinct and curious species, nesting in
bushes and laying a plain greenish egg. Eggs 4-5, 0.72 X 0.58, June-September; nest in a
fork of bush, deeply cupped, of grasses, rootlets, and hairs. Peuccea carpalis CouES, Am.
Nat. June, 1873, p. 322, and of 2d-4th eds. of Key, p. 375; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 579.
" Aimophila^'' carpalis, A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 119.
AMPHISPI'ZA. (Gr. a/i0i, amj)1ii, on both sides ; (nrl^a, spiza, a finch : alluding to the
close relation of the genus to those about it.) Sage Sparrow's. Bill moderate, conical, not
peculiar. Wings folding considerably beyond base of tail, without elongated inner seconda-
ries ; point of wing formed by 2d-5th quills, 1st between 6th and 7th. Tail nearly equal to
wings, of rather broad firm feathers, rounded at ends. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw ;
lateral toes of unequal lengths, outer (longer) not reaching base of middle claw. Embracing
two Southwestern species, with rounded blackish tail, grayish-l)rown above, plumbeous-black
bill and feet, and few decided streaks, or none. These do not particularly resemble each other,
and are very different from the exotic Poospizn to which they were formerly referred. I based
this genus in 1874 (B. N. W. p. 234) on A. bilineata, and also included A. belli ; since then,
several extralimital species have been referred to it, as A. Immeralis, A. mystacalis, and
A. quinquestriata, whicli had before been placed in the genera Hci'inophila and Zonotrichia.
Annlysis of Sjifcies and Subspecies.
Adult with throat black, a long white superciliary stripe, sides not streaked, and no yellow on edge of wing.
Smaller, darker, with larger white tip of lateral tail-feather. E. Texas and southward hilmenta
Larger, lighter, with smaller white tip of lateral tail-feather. W. Texas, westward and southward b. dfsertkoln
Adult witli throat white, no long white superciliary stripe, sides streaked, and yellow on edge of wing.
Smaller : wing and tail under 3.00 ; dorsal streaks obsolete.
Darker. California belli
Paler; very small. Lower California b. chierea
Larger : wing and tail 3.00 or more ; dorsal streaks distinct b- neradensU
A. bilinea'ta. (Lat. hilineata, two-lined ; bis, twice, linea, a line; alluding to the stripes on
the head. Fig. 285.) Black-throated Finch. Black-faced Sage Sparrow. The
typical form, to which the name is now restricted, averages somewhat smaller, with darker
428
SYSTE^fA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
Via. 285. — Black-throated Finch, reduced. (Shep-
pard del. Nichols sc.)
ashy or fulvous-brownish, but no streaks.
upper parts and more white tipping of lateral tail-feathers, than the next form. Eastern and
Central Texas, N. to W. Kansas, S. to San Luis Potosi. Emberiza bilineata Cass. Pr.
Phila. Acad, v, Oct. 18.)U, p. 104, pi. 3, and Illust. B. Cal. and Tex. pt. v, 1854, p. 150,
pi. xxiii, in part; includes both forms. Poo-
spiza bilineata ScL. 1857; Bd. 1858; and CouES,
Key, 1st ed. 1872, p. 140, in part. Amphispiza
bilineata CouES, Birds N. W. 1874, p. 234, and
Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 258, in part ; A.
0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 573, in part.
A. b. desertic'ola. (Lat. desertus, deserted,
perf. partic. of deserere, to desert, forsake ; de-
serta, n. pi., deserted places, deserts; desertum,
a desert ; and colere., to inhabit.) Desert
Black-throated Finch. Adult $ 9 : Face,
chin, and throat sharply jet-black; a strong
white superciliary line, and another bounding
black of throat; under eyelid white ; auriculars
dark slate. No yellow anywhere. Below, pure
white ; sides, flanks, and crissum shaded with
Above, uniform grayish-brown ; clearer ash in
high plumage, otherwise browner, generally more ashy anteriorly than behind, and shading
insensibly into the black face. Wings dusky; coverts and inner quills edged with color of
back. Tail black, with narrow grayish edgings ; outer feather sharply edged and tipped with
white, and several others similarly tipped ; white spot on inner web of outer tail-feather under
0.50, sometimes only 0.10. Bill and feet plumbeous-black. Length 5.00 or more, sometimes
5.50; wing 2.50-2.75; tail nearly same; culmen 0.40; depth of bill at base 0.25; tarsus 0.75.
Young: Head-markings obscure ; little or no black on throat; a few pectoral streaks. Owing
to absence of black on throat, the white maxillary stripe is ill-defined, but the other stripe is
conspicuous. Back rather brown than ashy ; tail blackish, not pure black. A jaunty little
Sparrow, haunting sage-brush and chaparral of the Southwest, from western Texas and New
Mexico W. to coast region of California, N. throughout the Great Basin, S. in Chihuahua,
Sonora, and Lower California ; breeds throughout its U. S. range, migratory from noi'therly
parts. An effective songster, with its sweet simple notes. Nest in bushes slight and frail,
close to the ground; eggs 2-5, 0.72 X 0.58, white with a pale greenish or bluish tinge, un-
marked ; laid in May, June, and later. A. bilineata, in part, of 2d-4th eds. of Key, and of
A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95. A. b. deserticola Ridgw. Auk, July, 1898, p. 229; A. 0. U. Suppl.
List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 119, No. 573 a.
A. belli. (To J. G. Bell, of N. Y.) Bell's Finch. California Sage Sparrow.
Adult S 9 '• Breast with a black or dusky spot ; edge of wing slightly yellowish. Forehead,
supraloral spot, and edges of eyelids, inconspicuously white. Below, white, more or less tinged
with pale brownish ; sides with slight sparse streaks that anteriorly become aggregated into
dusky maxillary stripes cutting off from white throat a white stripe that runs from corner of
bill ; lores and circumocular region dusky. Above, grayish -brown, ashicr on head ; middle of
back with small obscure blackish streaks ; wing-coverts and inner quills with much fulvous
edging ; tail black with slight pale edgings, outer web of outer feather simply whitish. Bill and
feet plumbeous-blue. Length $ ? under 6.00 ; wing and tail under 3.00 ( $ wing 2.50-2.80 ;
tail 2.60-2.90 ; in 9 rather less). Young: Similar ; more streaked below, and wings with two
grayish-buff bars. Resident in California W. of the Sierra Nevada, N. to 38° at least, S. into
Lower California. Breeds nearly or quite throughout its range; nest on ground or very near
it, in sage brush, built of bark shreds, grasses, etc. Eggs 3-4, 0.70 X 0.50, pale greenish
blue, speckled.
FRIXGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 429
Note. — A. b. dementis is described as " exactly like A. belli, but larger and with relatively larger bill " ; but the
dimeusious assigned do not bear out this statement : Length of skins 5.20-5.70 ; wing 2.45-2.72 ; tail 2.30-2.68 ; culmen
0.38-0.41; depth of bill at base 0.22-0.23; tarsus 0.79-0.85 ; middle toe 0.49-0.53. San Clemente Island. A. 6. "cte-
vtentetp " Rmow. Auk, July, 1898, p. 230 ; not adopted by A. O. U., 1899.
A. b. cine'rea. (Lat. cinereiis, ashy in color). Gray Sage Sparrow. Resembling the
next subspecies (nevadensis) in lightness of coloration, but even paler and less streaked, lacking
dark streaks on back, having those on breast and throat few and small. Very small : length
5.50 or less; wing 2.25; tail 2.15; tarsus 0.75; bill 0.35. Lower California. Towns. Pr.
U. S. Nat. Mus. xiii. 1890, p. 136; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 574 6.
A. b. iievaden'sis. (Lat. of Nevada; Span, nevada, snowy, applied to the Sierra Nevada or
main range of mountains of California by Padre Pedro Font in 1775-76.) Artemisia Spar-
row. Nevada Sage Sparrow. Similar to A. belli in coloration. Edge of wing, and
sometimes lesser coverts, yellowish. Above, ashy-brown, much as in deserticola, clearer ash
anteriorly, more brownish behind ; also clearer in high plumage, and more overcast with brown
in less mature specimens ; middle of back and scapulars very notably streaked with fine black
lines. Below, white; sides, and sometimes, especially in fall specimens, most under parts
shaded with pale fulvous-brown ; sides, and sometimes breast, with dusky streaks, which on
side of neck tend to run in a chain, partly distinguishing a pure white lateral stripe above them
from the general whitish of under parts. Sides of head slaty, becoming dusky on lores ; a con-
spicuous white eye-ring. A short white line above lores, and another on middle of forehead.
Wings and tail as in A. belli; outer feather edged and tipped with white. Bill dark bluish-
plumbeous, under mandible sometimes yellowish. Paler and larger than belli proper ; wing
and tail averaging fully 3.00, if not more; bill 0.35; tarsus 0.75. The strongly marked form
of the Great Basin, N. to 40^ and beyond, resident breeding throughout its range; abounding
in the sage-brush deserts of eastern Oregon, portions of Idaho and Montana, interior California,
Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. Nesting as in belli ; eggs 3-4, 0.80 X
0.60, pale greenish or grayish, profusely speckled with reddish-brown and blackish-brown,
with purplish shell-markings.
JUX'CO. (?Lat. jimciis, a reed.) Snow Sparrows. Snowbirds. Bill small, strictly
conic. Wings rather long, primaries much surpassing short inner secondaries in the closed
wing; usually 2d, 3d, and 4th quills longest, 5th little shorter, then 1st and 6th. Tarsus a
little longer than middle toe and claw ; lateral toes subequal, their claws about reaching base
of middle claw. Tail about as long as wing, slightly emarginate or about even, of rather
narrow but firm feathers, rounded oval at ends. A beautiful genus; adults unspotted, uu-
streaked, the colors massed in large definite areas; belly, crissum, and 2-3 lateral tail-feathers
white ; bill whitish, or black and yellow. Length 6.00-7.00; wing and tail about 3.00. Sexes
subsimilar, but ^ clearer and purer in coloration; young entirely difterent, quite streaky.
Nest normally on the ground, rarely in a bush ; eggs speckled. One common Eastern species ;
in the West Junco is split into numerous forms, which intergrade with one another, and with
the Eastern bird ; the degree of diflerence between almost any two of the nearest related ones is
about the same. The distinctions between typical styles of each are very nice and easily per-
ceived. The theory of hybridization advanced to account for connecting links simply restates
without explaining the case; for interbreeding is just one of the conditions of intergraded
s))ecies, keeping them from positive distinctness. Adult male birds of the several forms afibrd
the following
Analysis of Species or Subspecies.
Two white wing-bars. Ashy, without any reddish tints. Western aikeni
No white wing-bars.
Bill flesh-color ; eyes brown.
Eastern species. Blackish-ash, with no reddish anjTvhere hietnalis and carolinensis
Western species.
Sides pinkish, or of some tint different from that of the breast.
430
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Sooty blackish, with reddish-brown back. Pacific coast region oregonus
Like the last ; coloration less vivid.
Rocky mountain region at large and eastward connectens
Sierra Nevada and Coast range of California . . thurberi
Bay of Monterey, California pinosus
Clear ash, with reddish interscapulars and blackish lores. Rocky Mts. at large . . . nnnec/ens
Like the last. Arizona and New Mexico to Wyoming . ridgwayi
Like the last. Lower California lownsendi
Sides ashy, like the breast. Clear ash, witli reddish interscapulars and blackish lores. Rocky Mts.
ca?i)ceps
Insular species, with very short wings and tail. Guadalupe Isl insularis
Bill black and yellow ; eyes yellow.
Sides pinkish. Lower California bairdi
Sides ashy.
Reddish of back confined to the interscapulars. New Mexico and Arizona dor.^nlis
Reddish of back spreading on the wings. Southern Arizona palliatus
J. ai'keni. (To C. E. Aikeu, of Colorado.) AVhite-winged Snowbird. Aiken's Junco.
Adult : Plain plumbeous-gray, ueither blackish ou head nor tinged with pinkish anywhere,
but uniform on back, head, breast, and sides ; belly, crissum, and lateral tail-feathers white, as
usual in this genus ; VA'ings crossed with two conspicuous white bars formed by tips of greater
and median coverts, and sometimes inner secondaries edged with white. Bill nearly or quite
as in hiemalis. Large, the average being at if not beyond the maximum of hiemalis ; J,
length, 6.25 to nearly 7.00; wing 3.20-3.60, averaging about 3.40; tail 3.25 or more; bill over
0.50; tarsus 0.85; 9 I'ather smaller. Young of the year after the first moult resemble adults,
but diflfer in having no white wiug-bars, or these only indicated by two rows of small white
dots, and the gray somewhat overcast with brown. (J", h. danhyi of COUES, Nidologist, iii,
1895, p. 14 : see CoUES, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 94.) A good species, readily distinguished from
hiemalis in any plumage ; the appearance in life is quite different, as I ascertained during a
visit to the Black Hills of S. Dakota and Wyoming in 1895. It breeds abundantly there, but
_^_- -^ _ disappears in the fall, retiring S., chiefly in
,*A? the mountains, to Colorado, where it winters,
aud also straggles E. to Kansas. The whtde
geographical range is quite restricted.
J. liiema'lis. (Lat. 7wemr<Zis, wintry ; hicmSf
winter. Fig. 286.) Eastern Snowbird.
Black Snowbird. Slate-colored Junco.
Blackish-ash, below abruptly pure white from
the breast, the sides sliaded with ashy. In the
- 9 > ^wJ most fall and winter specimens, the
upper parts have a more grayish, or even a
decidedly brownish, cast, and the inner second-
^ ^^^ aries are edged with pale bay. ^, in full dress :
^^ Jy^^^^^^FJi^'' " Slaty-black intense on head ; belly and crissum
>£^_kiy'' jf^A^^^^l^^yt ~ P"^'^ vvhite, the line bet\A-een the two trans-
^I— "^ \^^.^^< ^m^m^^^^i^ - '^ erse or convex forward ; wings and tail black-
^"^-^"^T .^/—tl^^^'-^)]^^^!^— ~ -^~ ^s^' ^^'ith slightly hoary edging of some feath-
^^^~" Jr ^^''^'^^^'^n ~~^ =^ T^ ^""^ ' ^~'^ l«iteral tail feathers pure white, wholly
^/ I J ~' ^ or in greatest part. No rusty-brown on back
Fig. 286. —Eastern Snowbird. (Sheppard del. Nich- or sides ; any shade on sides ashy, not pinkish.
Bill pinkish-white, or flesh-color, usually black-
tipped. Length 6.00-6.50; extent 9.50-10.00; wing 3.00-3.25; tail rather less. These ex-
tremes uncommon ; average 6.25-9.75—3.10. 9 , in summer : Slate-color less intense, overlaid
with brown (not reddish), sometimes quite brown; edging of inner secondaries rusty-brown;
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 431
average less white on tail ; rather smaller ; average about at the lesser of the above dimensions:
sometimes only 5.75— 9.25 — 2.75. ^^, in winter: Resembling 9 in summer. Young of the
year : General color rather brown than slate, with conspicuous bay edgings of inner seconda-
ries ; bill much obscured with dusky. The brown overcast is a general shading, not of par-
ticular areas, and not pinkish. Young before first moult: Entirely streaked and spotted, like
most very young Sparrows. Upper parts streaked with blackish and rusty-brown ; secondaries
and wing-coverts conspicuously edged with the latter. Under parts streaked or speckled with
dusky and ochrey brown, on all fore parts and sides ; belly and crissum soiled whitish. Bill
dusky, paler below. Eastern N. Amer., N. W. to Alaska, W. to the Rocky Mts. and spar-
ingly even to Utah, Washington, California, and Arizona; still chiefly Eastern. One of our
most abundant and familiar winter birds, in flocks in shrubbery, from October to April. Re-
tires to high latitudes or altitudes to breed. Nests in mountains of the Middle and some of the
Northern States, and down to sea level from limits of Canadian fauna in Maine; winters most
numerously from Massachusetts southward to the Gulf of Mexico; a cheery bright little bird,
coming fearlessly to the threshold and window-sill in bad weather. Its snapping note is better
known than is the pleasant song with which it takes leave in spring. Nest on ground; eggs
4-(j, white, sprinkled with reddish and darker brown dots, about 0.80 X 0.60.
J. li. carolinen'sis. (Lat. of Carolina.) Carolina Snowbird. Brewster's Junco.
Tliis is the form which breeds in the southern Alleghany region. I have found it abundant
in summer in the mountains of Virginia and North Carolina, where its usual nesting-place is
in the cut banks of roadsides, just under the overhanging fringe of weeds and grass. The
ascribed characters are not very tangible, but the bird can be distinguished at gunshot range
from typi(!al hiemalis by one who is familiar with both. I hesitated to accept it in former edi-
tions of the Key, but have since seen reason to modify my opinion. See Brewster, Auk,
Jan. 1886, p. ]08; Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 567 e.
J. h. connec'tens. (Lat. cownecicMS, connecting ; co«, with; «ecto, I join.) Hybrid Snow-
bird. Rocky Mountain Junco. Possessing in varying degree characters of hiemalis and
oregonus; rufous back of latter and ashy sides of former, or, oftener, ashy back of former and
jiink sides of latter; coloration less vivid, with less contrast between the blackish, reddish,
and white parts; head and neck with a somewhat mottled appearance; "sides slaty rufous";
wing little over and tail little under 3.00 ; tarsus 0.73; bill 0.43. This form shades on the one
Ijand into hiemalis, on the other into oregonus, but more generally resembles the latter. Rocky
Mt. region of the U. S. and adjoining British provinces ; W. in the Great Basin to California ;
S. in Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and adjoining portions of Mexico; straggUng E. to Michi-
gan, Illinois, Maryland, and Massachusetts. This form, which I named and characterized in
the 2d ed. of the Key, 1884, p. 378, is the one afterward named J. h. shiifeldti by Mr. H. K.
Coale, Auk, Oct. 1887, p. 330 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 567 h. This fact was inad-
vertently overlooked both by the Committee and by myself in preparing the new List, but the
oversight has since been rectified: see Coues, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 94; A. 0. U. Suppl. List,
iV)id. ]). 128, No. 567 6; since then my connectens has been again renamed J. montanus by
Mr. Ridgway, Auk, Oct. 1898, p. 321 ; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 119, No.
.567. 1, by error.
J. h. ore'sonus. (Lat. of the Oregon River. Fig. 287.) Oregon Snowbird. J. K.
Townsend's Junco. Head and neck all around and fore breast sooty-black, ending sharply
against white with a rounded outline convex backward ; middle of back dull reddish-brown j
feathers of wings much edged with the same; below from fore breast abruptly wiiite, tinged on
sides with pale reddish-brown — a peculiar "pinkish" shade. Bill white, black-tipped. In
9 and young the black is obscured by brownish, but the typical form may always be distin-
guished by an evident contrast in color between interscapulars and head, and fulvous or pinkish
wash on sides. The seasonal and sexual changes of plumage are parallel with those of hiemalis.
432
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
Pacific coast, breeds from British Columbia to Alaska, S. in winter to California and Nevada.
Under this form were long included all the black-headed, red-backed, pink-sided Juncos from
the Koeky mountain region to the Pacific, but oregonus is now restricted to the Pacific coast
form, and others have aflFt)rded the basis
of connectens and thiirberi. This is the
bird named Fringilla oregana by Town-
send in 1837 ; and this form of the word,
assumed by the A. 0. U. Committee to
be a typographical error, is not necessa-
rily such, for the country used to be
called Oregan, Ouragan, etc. However,
Townsend changed it to oregona in 1839
(Narr., p. 345).
J. h. thur'beri. (To Eugene Carl-
ton Thurber of California.) Sierra
Snowbird. Thurber's Junco. Like
/. h. oregonus; sides paler and less ex-
tensively pinkish ; dorsal patch paler
and more sharply defined. SieiTa Ne-
vada to southern coast ranges of Cali-
fornia. Formerly included under ore-
gonus, and named since the last ed. of
238; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No.
Fig. 287. — Oregon Snowbird.
the Key appeared. Anthony, Zoe, i, Oct. 1890, p.
567 c.
J. h. pino'sus. (Lat. full of pines, though it appears that the pines were full of the birds,
the implication being Point Piuos, a place on Monterey Bay, Cal.) Point Pinos Snow-
bird. LoOMis' Junco. " Most nearly like J. h. thurberi, but throat, jugulum, and fore breast
slate-gray, varying to dark slate-gray, and upper portions of head and neck slate-gray, varying
to blackish-slate ; " this dark color abruptly defined against the colors of the body ; interscap-
ulars and scapulars pale chestnut ; rump gray, tinged with chestnut ; sides faintly washed with
" vinaceous-buff." A local race, breeding down to sea level about the bay of Monterey, Cal.,
in pine woods. J. pinosus LooMis, The Auk, Jan. 1893, p. 47 ; reduced to a subspecies, as
J. h. pinosus by A. 0. U. Committee in The Auk, Jan. 1894, p. 47 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, No. 567 d.
J. annec'tens. (Lat. annectens, annexing; ad, to, and necfo, I join.) Pink-SIDED Snow-
bird. Annex Junco. Quite different from any of tlie foregoing, and resembling caniceps.
General color clear ashy plumbeous, or leaden gray, that of the breast abruptly defined against
the white of the belly ; lores distinctly blackish, in contrast with rest of the head ; interscapu-
lars and scapulars reddish-brown, or light chestnut rufous, this color spreading more or less
over the wing-coverts ; sides pinkish, or pale cinnamon fulvous, like a lighter shade of the
color of the back, well marked against the white of the belly. Bill in life pinkish white, with
more or less dusky tip ; iris dark brown. Sexes alike. The general characters are thus those
of caniceps, from which tbis species is distinguished by the more abrupt definition of the ashy
breast from the white belly, and especially by the pink sides : and by so much it approaches
oregonus, though it is quite difi'erent in most respects. The eggs, 4 or 5 in number, 0.80 X 0.60,
are indistinguishable from those of other species of the genus. This bird, too curtly though
not incorrectly described in the 2d, 3d, and 4th eds. of the Key, was originally characterized
by Baird in Coop. Orn. Cal. i, 1870, p. 564 : see also my Birds N. W. 1874, p. 145 ; it has
turned out better than I expected, and may now be given specific rank. It breeds in the moun-
tains of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, is especially abundant in winter in Colorado, and
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 433
extends S. through Arizuna and New Mexico, even into northern Mexico. It was among sev-
eral species of Snowbirds I took at Fort Whipple in Arizona in the winter of 1805-66.
J. ridg'wayi. (To E,. Ridgway.) Ridgway's Snowbird. Mearns' Junco. " Above
similar to J. cmiiceps; below indistinguishable from J. annectens." The adult ^ is said to
liave the outer webs of inner tertiaries tinged with rufous ; outer tail-feather white, next white
except a dusky line along each edge, third with a long white terminal stripe nearly confined to
the inner web. Bill fiesh color, slightly tipped with bhick. Feet and claws light brown. The
specific character is given as above by its describer, Dr. E. A. Mearns, U. S. A., in The Auk,
Oct. 1890, p. 243; type taken at Fort Whipple, April 22, 1884; range extended in A. 0. U.
List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 568. 1, to include New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. (Not in
former eds. of the Key.) J. annectens A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Jan. 1897.
J. town'sendi. (To Chas. H. Townsend.) San Pedro Snowbird. C. H. Townsend's
Junco. " Similar to J. annectens, but diftering in smaller size, darker gray of the head, neck,
and chest, the back less brown and the sides less extensively pinkish." Bill flesh color, as in
all the foregoing and in caniceps; iris brown. San Pedro Mts., Lower California, where ap-
parently resident and difi'erentiated as a species. Anthony, Proc. Cala. Acad. 2d ser. Oct.
1889, p. 76; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 57L 1 ; /. h. townsendi of the Key, 4th ed. 1890,
p. 900.
J. ca'niceps. (Lat. caniceps, gray-headed; caniis, gray.) Gray'-headed Snowbird.
Woodiiouse's Junco. Clear ash, purest on head, paler below, and fading gradually into
white on belly ; interscapulars abruptly, definitely, chestnut or rusty-brown ; lores black-
ish ; bill flesh color ; iris brown ; no fulvous wash on sides ; no chestnut on wings. Rather
larger than /iie»i«fe; length nearly 7.00 ; wing over 3.00; tail about 3.00. The sexual and
seasonal changes are not so well marked as in the heavily-colored hiemalis and oregonus, but
parallel as far as they go. Very young birds are streaked, like all the rest. Eggs 0.80 X
0.00, white or whitish, specked with reddish-brown, usually minutely and chiefly about the
larger end. Rocky Mts. of the U. S., from Wyoming southward to Mexico; Wahsatch and
Uintah Mts.
J. phaeono'tus dorsa'Iis. (Gr. (f)ai6s, pliaios, of a dun color ; vcotos, notos, back. Lat. dor-
salis, pertaining to the back; dorsum, the back.) Red-backed Snowbird. Henry's Junco.
Characters in general of caniceps; but with the bill black and yellow, as in palliatus, and iris
yellow. In this case the reddish of the back is confined to the interscapulars, not spreading
over the wings, as in palliatus. Eggs whitish, with a greenish tinge, immaculate or with only
minute reddish-brown sprinkling about the larger end. Mountains of New Mexico and Ari-
zona, and S. into Mexico. This is J. dorsalis of Henry, 1858, long considered a synonym of
caniceps ; but it is one form of a distinct Mexican species, J. phceonotus of Wagler, 1831 (or
Fringilla cinerea Swains. 1827, which name is preoccupied). It is also J. h. dorsalis of the
2d-4th eds. of the Key ; J. cinereus dorsalis A. 0. U. List, ist ed. 1886, and Ridgw. Man.
1887, p. 423; J. pluconotus dorsalis A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 570a: see Auk, Oct.
1895, p. :391.
J. p. pallia'tus. (Lat. palliatus, palliated, /. e., wearing the pallium or mantle, with allu-
sion to the rod(Ush which mantles the back and wings.) CINEREOUS Snowbird. Arizona
Junco. Like the last. Chestnut of back intense, and spreading over wing-coverts and inner
secondaries; upper mandible black; lower yellow; iris yellow. Eggs greenish-white, un-
marked. Mexico to U. S. border of Arizona. This is the form which most nearly approaches
in the U. S. the Mexican stock species j)h(eonotiis (or cinereus), and conducts to the Guate-
malan alticola. It is /. h. cinereus of the 2d-4th eds. of the Key, p. 379 ; J. cinereus palliatus
Ridgw. The Auk, Oct. 1885, p. 304, and Man. 1887, p. 424; A. 0. U. List, 1st ed. 1886,
p. 275; J. pluconotus palliatus Ridgw. The Auk, Oct. 1895, p. 391; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, No. 570.
434 SYSTEMA TIC SVXOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
J. baird'i. (To Prof. S. F. Baird.) Baird's Snoavbird. Beldixg's Jun'CO. Head and
neck ashy-gray, paler on throat, tinged on hind head with brown, the lores distinctly blackish.
Back, scapulars and adjoining wing-feathers pale rufous-brown, tinged with olivaceous ; rump
and upper tail-coverts, with lesser, middle, and outer wing-coverts grayish-olive ; inner webs
of tertials dusky ; primaries gray, edged with paler, outermost with white ; outer tail-feather
mostly white, two next with white in diminishing amount. Jugulum pale buffy-gray, con-
trasting with the white of abdomen; sides and flanks cinnamon-buff; crissum dull whitish.
Upper mandible dark brown, lower yellow; iris yellow; feet pale brown. Wing 2.80 ; tail
2.75; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.80. A form lately discovered in the mountains of southern Lower
California, resembling a bright-colored 9 orcgonus, but presenting the peculiar combination
of "pink" sides with yellow eyes and under mandible. Belding, Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. vi,
Oct. 1883, p. 155 ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 571 ; J. h. haircli of 3d and 4th eds.
of the Key, p. 875.
J. iusula'ris. (Lat. insularis, insular; insula, an island.) Guadalupe Snowbird. In-
sular JuNCO. Eesembling annectens; darker, with somewhat diflerent proportions. Crown
and nape dark slate ; lower tail-coverts dusky, the feathers edged with whitish ; lores blackish.
Wings and tail relatively short: wing 2.5.5-2.85; tail 2.30-2.60; bill 0.37 long, 0.27 deep.
(In annectens, etc., wing and tail about 3.00.) Added to our Fauna by the inclusion of Guada-
lupe Island, off Lower California; the characters ascribed are
specific, as in the nature of the case intergradation is unlikely
^J^^s^^^^^^if to occur. EiDGW. Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr, ii,
^^ - - ' No. 2, Apr. 1876, p. 188 ; Man. 1887, p. 425 ; Coues, Key, 3d
and 4th eds. p. 875; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 572.
^ ^;^ 1""^^ -'"" SPIZEL'LA. (Ital. diminutive form of Lat. spiza, from Gr.
^^.\ (TTTiCa, S2n::a, a finch.) Chipping Sparrows. Embracing
^\^^^^"^ , small species, 5.00-6.00 long ; long, broad-feathered, forked tail
^^^' about equalling (more or less) rather pointed wings ; no yel-
FiG. 288. — Chippy's head, as lowish anywhere ; no streaks on under parts when adult ;
large as life. (E.G.) interscapular region distinctly streaked; rump plain (except
atrigularis) ; young fully streaked. Point of wing formed by 2d to 4th or 5th quill; 1st
usually between 5th and 6th. Bill small, conic. Tarsus little if any longer than middle toe
and claw ; lateral toes about equal. Tail-feathers widening a little to broadly oval tips.
Sexes alike; young somewhat diflerent. Nest usually in bushes; eggs colored. Numerous
species. Eastern and Western, inhabiting shrubbery ; three of them familiar Eastern birds.
Analysis of Species.
Eastern and Western species with the crown of the adult chestnut or bright brown, little or not streaked.
Bill black and yellow ; forehead not black ; two distinct white wing-bars ; dark spot on breast ; large : about
6.00 long iiion/icola And ni. ochracea
Bill and forehead black ; wing-bars not conspicuous ; breast ashy-white, without spot ; length under G.OO. Tail
decidedly shorter than wing socialis and s. arizonce
Bill brownish-red ; forehead not black ; wing-bars indistinct ; breast bufify white, without spot. Length under
6.00 pusilla andy^. arenacea
Southwestern species, with the crown tawny brown, obscurely streaked, rest of head ashy, no dusky postocular streak,
and one wing-bar across median coverts ; bill reddish-brown icortheni
Western species, with the crown not chestnut, and streaked like the back.
Crown divided by a median stripe, and its streaks separated from those of the back by an ashy interval. Tail
equal to wings pallida
Crown not evidently divided, and streaked continuously with the back. Tail longer breueri
Southwestern species, with the crown of the adult dark ash. Face and throat black. Bill brownish-red. Tail de-
cidedly longer than wing atrignlaris
S. monti'cola. (Lat. monticola, inhabiting mountains; mons, montis, a mountain; cola, I
dwell; incola, an inhabitant. Fig. 289.) Tree Sparrow. Tree Bunting. Canada
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
435
Fig. 289. — Tree Sparrow.
Sparrow. Winter Chip-bird. Winter Chippy. Arctic Chipper. Adult $ 9 : Bill
black above, yellow below ; legs brown ; toes black. No black on forehead ; crown chestnut
(in winter specimens the feathers
usually skirled with gray), bor- V-
dered by a grayish-white super-
ciliary and loral line ; a postocular
chestnut stripe over auriculars, and
some vague chestnut marks on
cheeks ; sides of head and neck
otherwise ashy-gray. Below, im-
purely whitish, tinged with ashy an-
teriorly, washed with pale brownish
posteriorly, middle of breast with
an obscure dusky blotch. Middle
of back boldly streaked with black,
bay, and flaxen ; middle and greater
wing-coverts black, edged with bay
and tipped with white, forming
two conspicuous cross-bars; inner
secondaries similarly variegated ;
other quills and tail-feathers plain
dusky, with pale or whitish edges. Remarkably constant in coloration ; sexes indistinguish-
able, and young very similar, the chief variation being in the veiling of the cap with gray.
There is a very early streaky stage, however, as in other species. A handsome sparrow, the
largest of the genus. Length 5.80-6.20, usually 6.00 ; extent 8.75-9.75, usually 9.25; wing
and tail 2.7.5-3.10. Ea.stern N. Am., northerly, W. to the Plains, S. in winter to the Caro-
linas, Kentucky, Kansas, and corresponding latitudes. Abundant in the U. S. in winter,
flocking in shrubbery; breeds N. of the U. S. and E. of the Rocky IMts., even to the Arctic
coast. Nest in low bushes or on ground, loosely constructed of bark-strips, weeds, and grasses,
warmly lined with feathers. Eggs 4-6 or even 7, 0.75 x 0.55, pale green, minutely and regu-
larly sprinkled with reddish-browu spots.
S. m. ochra'cea. (Lat. ochracea, of an ochrey color.) Western Tree Sparrow. Like
the last; paler above, with sparser, sharper, and narrower dorsal streaks; sides and throat
more ochraceous. Western N. Am., from the
Dakotas and Kansas to the Pacific; breeds in
Alaska, and extends S. in winter to Texas, New
Mexico, and Arizona. Brewst. Bull. Nutt.
Oruith. Club, Oct. 1882, p. 228 ; Coues, Key,
3d and 4th eds. 1887-90, p. 875; Ridgw. Man.
1887, p. 418; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds.
1886-95, No. 559 a.
S. socia'lis. (Lat. socialis, given to society,
sociable. Figs. 288, 290.) Social Sparrow.
Chipping Sparrow. Chip-bird or Chippy.
IIair-biri). Adult ^ 9 '■ Rill black ; feet pale ;
crown chestnut; extreme forehead black, usually
divided by a pale line; a grayish-white super-
ciliary line; below this a blackish stripe through
eye and over auriculars ; lores dusky. Below, a variable shade of pale ash, nearly uniform
and entirely unmarked ; back streaked with black, dull bay and grayish-brown ; inner seconda-
Fio. 290. — Chippiiig-Sparrow, reduced. (Sheppard
del. Nichols sc.)
436 S YS TEMA TIC S YXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
ries and wiug-coverts similarly variegated ; tips of greater and median coverts forming whitish
bars ; rump ashy, with slight blackish streaks or none; primaries and tail-feathers dusky, with
paler edges. Smaller than the Tree Sparrow; length 5.00-5.50; extent 8.00-9.00; wing
2.66-2.75 ; tail less, about 2.50. Sexes alike, but very young birds quite different : crown
streaked like back ; breast and sides thickly streaked with dusky ; bill pale brown ; and head
lacking definite black. In this stage, which, however, is of brief duration, it resembles some
other species, but may be known by a certain ashiness the others lack, and from the small
Sparrows that are streaked below when adult, by its generic characters. Eastern N. Am., N.
to subarctic regions, W. to Rocky Mts., S. into Mexico ; migratory in most regions, but breed-
ing throughout its range; extremely abundant, and the most familiar species about houses, in
gardens, and elsewhere, nesting in trees or shrubbery ; nest of fine dried grass, lined with hair ;
eggs 4-5, bluish, speckled sparsely and chiefly about the larger end with blackish-brown, with
purplish shell-markings ; size about 0.70 X 0.55. {S. domestka of 2d-4th eds. of the Key, after
Passer domesticus Bartram, Trav. 1791, p. 291— an author to whom North American orni-
thology owes much, but one whom the A. 0. U. Committee decline to recognize on the ground
that he was not a strict binomialist.)
S. s. arizo'nae. (Lat. of Arizona.) Arizona Chippixg Sparrow. Like an immature
S. socialis. Paler than this species, the ashiness in great measure brown; crown grayish-
brown streaked with dusky like back, and showing evident traces of rich chestnut, but never
becoming wholly chestnut; black frontlet lacking or obscure, and no definite ashy superciliary
line, the sides of crown merely lighter brown ; bill brown above, pale below. Western N. Am.,
generally, from the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific ; S. in winter in Mexico and Lower California.
A curious form, as it were an arrested stage of socialis. Some specimens, with least chestnut
on head, look remarkably like hreweri, but this last is evidently smaller, without chestnut uu
head, and otherwise different.
S. pusil'la. (Lat. pusilhts, petty, small ; ^jmsms, a little boy.) Field Sparrow. Bush
Sparrow. Adult ^ 9 : Bill pale reddish ; feet very pale ; crown* dull chestnut ; auriculars and
postocular stripe the same ; no decided black or whitish about head. Below, white, unmarked,
but much washed with pale brown on breast and sides ; sides of head and neck with some
vague brown markings; all the ashy parts of socialis replaced by pale brownish. Back bright
bay, with black streaks and some pale flaxen edgings ; inner secondaries similarly variegated ;
tips of median and greater coverts forming whitish cross-bars. Size of socialis, but more nearly
the colors of monticola. Length 5.25-5.75; extent 7.75-8.40 ; wing 2.30-2.50; tail quite as
much, or more, thus not shorter than wing, as it is in the last. Young for a short time streaked
below, as usual in SpizeUa. Eastern U. S. and Canadian border, strictly; hardly N. through-
out New England, W. only to edge of the Plains; migratory; breeds from the Carolinas and
corresponding latitudes northward, and winters from the same southward; very abundant in
fields, copses, and hedges, in flocks when not breeding. Nest indifferently in low bushes or on
ground; eggs 3-5, white or whitish, speckled with rusty-brown, 0.68 X 0.50. (.S*. agirstis of
2d-4th eds. of the Key, after Bartram: see remark under ^S". socialis.)
S, p. arena'cea. (Lat. arenaceus, sandy.) Western Field Sparrow. Like the last, but
with the rufous replaced by brownish-ash ; tail somewhat longer. Length about 6.00; wing
2.70; tail 2.80. Western U. S., from Montana and N. Dakota to Texas and Louisiana.
This form, described as a migrant or winter resident in southern Texas (Chadbourne, Auk,
Apr. 1886, p. 248), was recognized by the name of S. agrestis arenacea in the First Appendix
of the Key, 1887, p. 875, and as S. pusilla arenacea by Mr. Ridgway in his Manual, 1887,
p. 420, though not admitted to the orig. ed. of the A. 0. U. List, 1886 ; but the Committee,
on reconsideration, endorsed its subspecific validity in the A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 233,
No. 563 a. It seems to me as well entitled to recognition as either of the other subspecies <if this
genus. It is the form of Field Sparrow which inhabits the Great Plains from Texas to Dakota
and Montana. See Auk, Oct. 1897, pp. 345-347, pi. 3.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 437
S. worth'eni. (To C. K. Worthen.) Worthen's Sparrow. Resembling the Field Spar-
row, but quite distinct, and in some respects approaching S. atrigularis, especially in coloration
of upper parts. Much less rufous than S. pusilla, with broader black dorsal streaks, no rufous
auricular streak nor pectoral spots, a whitish eye-ring, and slender bill. Length about 5.00 ;
wing 2.70; tail about the same; bill 0.35; tarsus 0.70. Western Texas and New Mexico,
S. to Puebla, Mex. EiDGW. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. vii, Aug, 1884, p. 259; Man. 1887, p. 419;
COUES, Key, 3d ed. 1887, p. 875 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 233, No. 564.
S. pal'lida. (Lat. pallida, pale.) Clay-colored Sparrow. Adult ^ 9 : Crown and back
clay-colored or flaxen, distinctly streaked with black, without evident bay ; dorsal streaks
noticeably separated from those of crown, by an ashier, less streaked, cervical interval ; rump
lirownish-gray. Crown divided by a pale median stripe; a distinct whitish superciliary line;
lural and auricular regions decidedly brown, with a dark postocular stripe over auriculars, anci
another from angle of mouth, bounding the brown area inferiorly ; below this a dusky maxil-
lary streak ; wing-coverts and inner secondaries variegated like back, being black with broad
tiaxen-brown edging and whitish tipping. Below, white, soiled with clay-color. Bill dusky
above, pale below ; feet pale. Small : Length 5.00-5.25, rarely 5.50 ; extent 7.40-7.75, rarely
S.UO; wing and tail, each, about 2.50. Young birds lightly streaked below. Central region
of the U. S. into British America, in the Saskatchewan and Red River regions; AV. to the
Rocky ]\Its. only in most localities, but reaching Lower California ; S. to Texas and thence
through much of Mexico; E. to Iowa and Illinois. Abundant; migratory; breeds from Iowa,
Kansas, Nebraska and corresponding latitudes northward ; nest in bushes close to ground ; eggs
3-(», pale green sparsely speckled with rich brown, 0.65 X 0.50.
S. brew'eri. (To Dr. T. M. Brewer, of Boston.) Brewer's Sparrow. Similar; paler and
uullor, all the markings indistinct ; streaks of crown and back small, numerous, not separated
by a cervical interval; no definite markings on sides of head. Upper parts grayish-brown,
with marked dorsal area of brighter brown, and continuously streaked from head to tail. Size
of the last, but tail relatively longer, equalling wings — about 2.66 long, thus equalling, if it
does not somewhat exceed, that of socialis, although the latter is a larger bird. Western
U. S., especially New Mexico and Arizona, but N. to Montana and even British Columbia;
S. to Lower California and some parts of Mexico ; accidental in Massachusetts. Breeds
throughout its U. S. range ; habits those of iMllida ; nest and eggs indistinguishable.
S. atrigula'ris. (Lat. atrirjularis, black-throated ; ater, black ; gida, throat.) Black-
cHiNXEi) Si'ARROw- Adult $ 9 '• TJark ash, fading insensibly into whitish on belly, deepen-
ing to black on face and throat ; interscapulars bright bay. streaked witli black ; wing-coverts
and inner secondaries variegated with the same colors; tail blackish, with pale edgings; bill
coral reddish, as in S. pusilla; feet dark brown. A small-bodied species, but full 6.00 long,
on account of length of tail (2.75-3.00), which much exceeds wings (2.25-2.50 ; extent 7.75).
The young lack black on face, have crown washed with ashy-brown, middle of back duller
cliestnut, and bill dusky above; but may be known by length of tail. Mexico, Lower Cali-
fornia, Arizona, and New Mexico; N. in California to about 37° in desert regions, S. in Mexico
on the tablelands to Puebla. Nest in bushes, eggs 3-5, 066 X 0..50, pale greenish-blue,
normally unmarked; May, June.
ZOXOTRICH'IA. (Gr. fwwj, zone, a girdle, band; rptx'af, trichias, name of a bird. Figs.
291, 2!>2.) Crown Sparrows. Embracing our largest and handsomest Sparrows, 6.50 to
7. .10 inches long ; rounded wings and tail each 3.00 or more ; under parts with very few streaks,
or none; middle of back streaked; rump plain; wings with two white cross-bars; head of
adults with black, and usually with white or yrdlow also, or both. Bill moderate, conical,
culmen and gonys just appreciably curved, commissure very little angulated. Point of wing
formed usually by 2d-4th (piills, 1st about equal to 5tli ; f(dding decidedly beyond inner secon-
daries, and to near middle of tail. Tail-fcatlu is of moderate width and consistency, rounded
438
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OS CINES.
oval at end ; tail as a whole
rounded. Tarsus about equal
., to middle toe and claw ; lateral
L. •J)r!L»y^^ ^Qgg about equal to each other.
Sexes similar; young similar in
most respects, but lacking the
1^ I distinctive markings which
adorn the heads of the adults. ,^^^^mt,S5
Nest on the ground or in bushes
^, ^ c ■ near it; eggs colored. The ^ „„ „
291.— Cron-n Sparrow (white- \ °° . Fio. 20-2. — Crown Sparrow
throated), uat. size. (Ad. uat. del. Crown SparroWS are peculiar (white-crowned), nat. size. (Ad.
^- C.) to America, where they are °^t- ^^^- ^- C)
represented by about nine beautiful and perfectly distinct species, four of wliicli (one of them
with two subspecies) occur N. of Me.xico.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies {adtd/s only).
Crown black and white ; no yellow on head ; throat ash.
Lores black. Dorsal streaks purplish-bay ; uo yellow on wing. Eastern leucophrys
Lores gray. Dorsal streaks purplish-bay ; no yellow on wing. Western I. intermedia
Lores gray. Dorsal streaks sooty-black ; edge of wing yellowish. Pacific coast I. gambeli
Crown black and white ; yellow spot before eye ; throat white ; edge of wing yellow. Eastern .... ulbicoUis
Crown black, yellow and ash ; edge of wing yellow ; throat ashj*. Pacific coast coronata
Crown, face, and throat black ; no yellow on head or wing. Interior regions querula
Z. albicol'lis. (Lat. alhicollis, white-throated ; albus, white ; collum, neck. Fig. 293.)
White-thhoated Crown Sparrow. Peabody-bird. Adult ^: Crown black, divided
by a median white stripe, bounded by a white superciliary line, and yelloiv spot from nostril to
eye; below this a black stripe through
1^^ , ^ .^..\>, "^^fe . ^y^' below this a maxillary black stripe
^^^^. „^'' '■'^^]^W" ' Mil- bounding definitely pure white throat,
^^^^^r^'' ' '^^^^T f^'^^^^ i^hai ply contrasted with dark ash of breast
^*\ ' -► _ ^ <^^^ ^ ^^~^ iind sides of neck and head. Edge of
-^s^j^ ^^-*^r^3^ -^ ' vine/ yellow. Back continuously streaked
"^K^^^^^*" j.^— - -z::;;^jit^'^ V "^ with black, chestnut, and fulvous-white;
v^^^B"^" *^ ~*^^^^=^r^~ -'"^^ lump ashy, unmarked. Wings much
^^^P^;^t / ^li ^^ Jt^ ^ c~ ( dged with bay; white tips of median
' "^m^^^^ jCm''' 'fe^ ' <^^r '^"^^ '""^ greater coverts forming two con-
^^^^Bj^^^ff** ^ ^\ '^''^^y <'l'^^ -l)icuous bars; quills and tail-feathers
V ^]^^Sv^^l^P'""i-wi'J*^'- ^"^^A " i' y^ dusky, with pale edges. Below, white,
/ ^^^kt'S^^^^^^ ^ *" L "'"' '"''^ '' '^"^^ ^ '-had(!d with ashy-brown on sides, deei)er
/ -' ^^'^'''^^i^i J -" y ) and })urer on breast ; bill dark ; feet pale.
,~^ ^t, ""/ /»'^r^ "■ ^^^^^ ^' """'^ture birds, and specimens as
/ / JT ^ " '-* ~^ generally seen in the U. S. in fall and
Fig. 2'.I3. - White-throated Crown Sparrow, reduced. (Shep- winter, having black of head replaced
pard del. Nicliols sc.) i "" , . ,. , i
by brown, the white of throat less con-
spicuously contrasted with duller ash of surrounding i)arts, and frequently with obscure dusky
streaks on breast and sides ; but the species may always be known by the yellow over eye
and on edge of wing (these never being imperceptible), coupled with large size and generic
characters. Length 6.50-6.90; extent 9.20-9.90; wing 2.75-3.00; tail about the same. A
fine Sparrow, abundant throughout eastern N. Am. ; W. to Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming,
and casually to Utah, California, and Oregon ; 9 California specimens have been reported ;
breeds from N. New England and other Northern States N. to about 65° in the fur countries ;
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
439
winters from Massachusetts southward. Fouuil in all situations, but especially in shrubbery,
generally in flocks, except wlien breeding; a pleasing if not brilliant songster, with its limpid
pea-peuhodij, peahochj, peahochj in cadence. Nest on the ground, rarely in bushes ; eggs 4-6,
about 0.90 X O.GO, witli the endless diversity of tone and pattern of those of the Song Spar-
row, from wliich only distinguished by greater size.
Z. leuco'phrys. (Gr. Xeu/cos, leucos, white ; 6(i>pvs, ophrus, eyebrow. Fig. 294.) AVhite-
BUOWED Crown Sparrow. Adult $ 9 : Crown pure white, enclosing on either side a
broad black stripe that meets its fellow on forehead and descends lores to level tif evos, and
bounded by another narrow black stripe
that starts behind eye and curves around
side of hind head, nearly meeting its fel-
low on nape ; edge of under eyelid white.
Or, we may say, crown black, enclosing a
median white stripe and two lateral white
stripes, all confluent on hind head. No
yellow anywhere. General color a fine
dark ash, paler below, whitening insen-
sibly on chin and belly, more brownish on
rump, changing to dull brownish on flanks
and crissum, middle of back streaked with
dark purplish-bay and ashy-white. No
bright bay, like that of albicolUs, any-
where, except some edging on wing-
coverts and inner secondaries ; middle
and greater coverts tipped with white,
forming two bars. Bill and feet reddisli.
Length G.25-7.00 ; extent 9.20-J0.20;
wing and tail 2.90-3.20; usually 6.75 — 9.50—3.10. Young: Black of head replaced by very
rich warm brown, white of head by pale brownish; the general ash has a brownish suQ'u-
sion, and the back is more like that of alhicollis, being streaked with dusky and ochrey-
brown ; but the two species cannot be confounded. Very young : Beft)re the first moult, there
are indications of head-markings as last described ; but whole upper parts, sides of neck and
fore under parts, are streaked with blackish and ochrey-brown or whitish. N. Am., esj)ecially
eastern and rather northerly; W. in the Rocky Mts., where mixed with intermedia ; Cali-
fornia; Greenland ; Cape St. Lucas ; S. in winter in Mexico. Not nearly so abundant in the
U. S. as albicoUis, but common in many sections in winter and during migrations. Breeds
occasionally in northern New England, and plentifully in Labrador, where it is one of the
commonest Sparrows ; also, in the Rocky Mountains, and the Sierras Nevadas. Nesting same
as tliat of alhicollis, and eggs indistinguishable.
Z. 1. interme'dia. (Lat. intermedia, intermediate, in the middle.) Interxikdiate Crown
Sparrow. Exactly like the last, but lores gray or ashy, continuous with white stripe over eye,
i. e., black of forehead does not descend to eye. Perhaps averaging a trifle smaller, and duller
C(dored. Some specimens resemble leucophrys on one side of head, and intermedia on tiie
other. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, mostly rejilacing true leucophrys from Mexico and Lower
California to Alaska ; breeds mainly beyond the U. S. (Z. (jamheli Bi). 1858, CouES, 1872,
nee NuTT.)
Z. 1. gam'beli. (To Wm. Gambcl, of Phila.) Gambel's Crown Sparrow. Markings of
head much tlie same as in intermedia; body colors entirely difi'erent, almost exactly as in coro-
nata. Streaking of back sooty-black. Edge of wing yellow, as in coronata and alhicollis.
Bill in dried sjiocimens blackish and yellow, not reddish. About coronata size. Pacific coast
Fio. 294. — White-browed Crown Sparrow, reduced,
pard del. Nichols sc.)
(Shep-
440
SYSTEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
region, from Lower California to British Columbia. {Z. gamheli NuTT. 1840, nee Baird,
1858, CouES, 1872. This is given as a full species in the 2(l-4th eds. of the Key, 1884-90 ;
in the A. 0. U. List, 1886, No. 55G; and
KiDGW. Man. 1887, p. 416 ; but is re-
duced to a subspecies in the A. 0. U.
List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 554 h. It cer-
tainly seems to me an entirely different
bird, and I have seen no intermediates ;
but such no doubt occur, as otherwise
the Committee would not have reversed
its former ruling.)
Z. corona'ta. (Lat. coronctta, crowned ;
corona, a crown. Fig. 295.) Goldek
Crowned Sparrow. Adult ^ ? :
Forehead and sides of crown black,
enclosing a dull yellow coronal patch
anteriorly, an ashy one posteriorly; a
yellow spot over eye ; lores black.
Edge of wing yellow. Above, much
like albicollis, but with less bay and
no whitish ; two white wing-bars.
Below, including sides of head and
neck, ashy, passing insensibly into
whitish on belly, and much shaded
with brownish on flanks and crissum;
Fig. 295. -Golden-Crowned Sparrow. ^j^^g ,^^^(.1^ jjl-p leiicoplmjS, but the
ashy not so pure; larger than leucophrys ; length 7.00 or more; wing and tail over 3.00.
Young : Black of crown replaced by brown ; but always traces of yellow on crown and wings.
The yellow eye-spot is small, and not always evident. This large and handsome species in-
habits the Pacific coast region,
from Alaska S. to Lower Cali-
fornia, and has occurred casu-
ally in Colorado, Wisconsin,
and on Guadaloupe island ;
breeds in Alaska. Eggs
0.85 X 0.65.
Z. que'rula. (Lat. querula,
(pierulous, plaintive ; queror,
I complain, lament.
Fig. 296.) Hooded Crown
Sparrow. Harris's Spar-
row. Adult ^ , in breeding
})lumage : Whole crown, face,
and throat, jet-black; sides
of head pale ash ; auriculars
darker ash, bounded by a
black line starting behind
<'ye and curving around them.
Under parts nearly pure white, but slightly ashy before and faintly brownish-washed behind ;
sides with a few dusky streaks; breast with a few black spots continued from tlie black ihroat-
FiG. 296. — Harris's Sparrow.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 441
patch. Back nearly as in coronata, streaked with dusky and reddish-brown. Bill coral-red ;
toes dark ; tarsi pale. No yellow anywhere. Very large : Length 7.00-7.75; extent 10.75-
11.25; wing 3.25-3.50 ; tail 3.40-3.G0 ; bill 0.45; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw rather less.
9 similar, but with much less black on head and throat, the hood being restricted or imperfect ;
but its outline usually traceable. ,^ 9 , in fall : Bill light reddish-brown, usually obscured
on ridge and at tip, and paler at base below; feet flesh -colored, obscured on toes; eyes brown.
Crown grayish-black, every feather with a distinct, narrow, pale gray edge all around, producing
a peculiar effect ; this area bounded with a light ochrey-brown superciliary and frontal line.
Sides of head like the superciliary, but auricular patch rather darker grayish-brown, and loral
region obscurely whitish. Chin pure white, bounded on each side by a sharp maxillary line of
blackish, with a rusty-red tinge. On lower throat, a large, diffuse and partially discontinuous
blotch of this same blackish-red, cutting off white chin from white of rest of under parts, con-
necting with maxillary streaks, and stretching along sides of neck and breast in a series of rich
dusky-chestnut streaks. Ou middle of breast the blotch generally runs out into the white in a
sharp point, but its size and shape vary interminably. The markings here described are all
included in the jet-black hood and breast-plate of the perfect spring dress; and between the
two extremes every intermediate condition may be observed at various seasons. The rest of
the plumage does not differ very materially from that of the adult ^ in summer. This is the
largest of our Sparrows ; a bird of imposing appearance — for a Sparrow ! Interior U. S. and
British Provinces, especially the valley of the Mississippi, Lower Missouri, and Red Eiver of
the North; E. to Minnesota, Missouri, Iowa, and even Illinois; S. to Texas; accidental in
Oregon and British Columbia. It is abundant in the line of its migration, as in Kansas, Ne-
braska, Iowa, Dakota, etc., but its breeding resorts are not well made out — probably Mani-
toba, Assiniboia, N. to Hudson Bay. I found it in Dakota at 49° coining early in September
from the North.
CHONDES'TES. (Gr. x"''V°f> chondros, cartilage ; also grain, seeds ; ibfarris, edesies, an
eater; badly formed.) Lark Sparrows. Framed for a single species, with long pointed
wings, exceeding long rounded tail ; point of wing formed by 2d and 3d primaries, but 1st and
4tli scarcely shorter ; rest rapidly graduated. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw ;
lateral toes short, tips of claws not reaching base of middle claw. Bill swollen-conic, with
culmen sliglitly convex, commissure little angulated. Species large, for a Sparrow, streaked
above, white behjw, head and tail parti-colored.
C. gram'inacus. (Gr. ypafijiiKos, (jrammicos, marked with a ypafifxa, (jrainma, a line, word ;
badly selected to indicate the stripes of the head, and badly
spelled. Fig. 297.) Lark Sparrow. Lark Finch.
Adult $ 9 : Head variegated with chestnut, black, and
white ; crown chestnut, blackening on forehead, divided by
a median stripe, and bounded by superciliary stripes, of
white ; a black line through eye, and another below eye,
ench)sing a white streak under eye and chestnut auriculars;
next, a sharp black maxillary stripe not quite reaching bill,
cutting off a white stripe from vi'hite chin and throat. A
black blotch on middle of breast. Under parts white, faintly
sliaded with grayish-brown ; upper parts grayish-brown ;
middle of back with fine black streaks. Tail very long, its Fio. 207. -Lark Sparrow, nat. size,
c.ntral feathers like back, the rest jet-black, broadly tipped ^^^- ""*• ^"^^ ^- ^'^
with pure wliite in diminishing amount from the lateral pair inward, and outer web of outer
pair entirely white. Length (i.OOHi. 75 ; wing 3.20-3.50, jiointed; tail 3.00 or less, rounded.
Very young: Crown, back, and nearly all under parts streaked with dusky; no chestnut ou
head, nor are the black stripes firm ; but witli the first moult the peculiar pattern of the head-
442 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
markings becomes evident, and there is little variation afterward with age, sex, or season. A
beautiful species, abundant from the Great Plains to the Great Lake region, in the Mississippi
Valley at large, Texas to Ontario, and irregularly or casually farther East, even in various
Atlantic localities from Massachusetts to Florida. A sweet songster; breeds throughout its
regular range ; nest usually on ground, of dried grass ; eggs 4-7, white, with straggling zig-
zag dark lines, as in many Icteridte ; size 0.75-0.85 X about 0.65.
C. g. striga'tus. (Lat. strigatus, striped, marked with strigcea, stripes.) Western Lark
Sparrow. Quite like the last ; averaging paler or dingier, with duller chestnut on head, and
narrower black streaks on back ; wings and tail rather longer. Length 6.50-7.25 ; wing 3.50
or rather more; tail 2.75-3.25. Plains to the Pacific, U. S. and adjoining British Provinces,
S. through L. Gala, and Mexico to Guatemala. C grammica of previous
eds. of the Key includes this form, which I have hitherto declined to recog-
nize. C. strigatus Sw. 1827; C. grammaca strigata Ridgw. 1880; C.
grammacus strigatus A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 552 a.
PASSEREL'LA. (Ital. diminutive form of Lat. passer, a sjjarrow.)
Fox Sparrows. Remarkable for size of feet and claws: lateral toes
elongated to about equal degree ; ends of their claws reaching about half-
\ way to end of middle claw ; claws all very large ; middle toe and claw
Fig. 298. —Bill of about as long as tarsus. Wings long and pointed, folding about to middle
Fox Sparrow, nat. of tail ; point formed by 2d-4th quills, 1st and 5th little shorter. Tail
moderate, little rounded or nearly even. Bill strictly conic, with straiglit
outlines and scarcely angulated commissure, very variable in size. Large handsome reddish or
slate-colored species, marked below with triangular spots and streaks of the color of the back.
Habits terrestrial and somewhat rasorial. Nest indifferently in trees or bushes or on ground ;
eggs greenish, fully speckled. The species, if more than one, are, like those of Junco, Melo-
spiza, Peuccea, Pijnlo, etc., still imperfectly differentiated.
Analysis of Subspecies.
Tail decidedly shorter than wing. General coloration foxy or ferruginous. Two whitish wing-bars well marked.
Eastern (chiefly) iliaca
Tail about equal to wing. General coloration ruddy olive. Wing-bars obsolete. Pacific coast region i. unnlasceiisis
Tail little or not shorter than wing. General coloration slaty olive. Markings of upper parts obsolete.
Bill moderate, 0.30 deep at base. Rocky Mt. region i. sc/iistarea
Bill immoderate, 0.40 deep at base. Mts. of California v. :iie;;nr/ii/nc/ia
Bill enormous, 0 50 deep at base. Mts. of California i. stephensi
P. ili'aca. (Lat. iliaca, relating to the ilia, or flanks, which are conspicuously marked.
Figs. 298, 299.) Eastern Fox Sparrow. Foxy Finch. Ferruginous Finch. Fox-
tail. (J 9 '• General color above ferruginous or rusty-red, purest and brightest on rump,
tail, and wings, on other upper parts appearing in streaks laid on an ashy ground. Below,
white, variously but thickly marked except on belly and crissum with rusty-red — the mark-
ings anteriorly in the form of diffuse confluent blotches, on breast and sides consisting chiefly
of sharp arrow-heads and pointed streaks. Tips of middle and greater wing-coverts forming
two whitish bars. Upper mandible dark, lower mostly yellow; feet pale. One of the finest
singers of the family ; quite unlike any other Eastern Sparrow. A large handsome species:
Length 6.50-7.25; extent 10.50-11.50; wing 3.25-3.60, averaging 3.40 ; tail little or not over
3.00, thus decidedly shorter than wing ; bill, along culmen, 0.40 ; tarsus 0.90 ; hind claw about
0.35. Sexes alike, and young not particularly different after first moult, though in an early
stage much darker; back rufous-brown with darker streaks; no wing- bars; all under parts
heavily marked. There is much individual variation in color, independently of age, sex, or
season. Eastern N. Am.; W. in tlie U. S. regularly only to the edge of the Plains, occasion-
fringillidjE: finches, buntings, sparrows.
443
's Fox Sparrow. J 9:
•u tiiiyo, ami the stivakiiii;;
ally to Colorado, casually to Califoniia ; but in Alaska regularly to Bering Sea ; N. to the Arctic
coast. Breeds throughout British America and in Alaska ; not known to do so anywhere in the
U. S. Winters from the Middle States southward. Nest on ground or in bushes or trees ;
eggs 3-5, O.'Jo X 0.70, greenish-white, thickly speckled with rusty-brown ; general aspect as
in Zonotrichia and Melospiza.
P. i. unalascen'sis. (Of the Island of Uiialashka.) Townsenii
General color above dark olive-brown, overcast witli a reddish-bro\
obsolete, — thus giving a uniform
and continuous ruddy-olive tone,
becoming more foxy-red on rump,
wings, and tail. Wing-bars ob-
solete. Beneath, white, thickly
marked, excepting on the middle
of the belly, with triangular spots
of about tlie same dark color as
the back, — aggregated on breast,
and entire sides of neck and body
almost like back in uniformity
of color, still showing ill-defin
confluent dark reddish-browii
streaks on a more olive-brown
ground. Cheeks and auriculars
with some whitish speckling. No
obvious markings on wings. Bill
dusky above, apparently reddish
or yellowish below; feet reddish- Fia 290 -Fox Sparrow, reduced (Shepparddel ^lchoU «,t )
brown. Size of iliaca, but very different in color, and somewhat differently proportioned ; wing
averaging 3.25, and tail scarcely or not shorter ; bill about 0.50 ; hind claw the same, and as
long as its digit. Eggs not distinguishable with certainty from those of iliaca in size, form,
or color, but tending to be rather distinctly spotted than heavily clouded. A curious form,
related to iliaca much as Melospiza rufina is to the Eastern Song Sparrow. Pacific coast
region, from Alaska Peninsula to southern California in winter, breeding north of the United
Stat(>s. (P. townsendi Aud. The A. 0. U. spells the name unalaschcensis, after Gm. 1788.)
An attempt has been made to split this subspecies into two, distinguishing as P. i. townsendi
the bird which breeds in the Sitka district of Alaska.
P. i. fuligino'sa. (Lat. fuliginosa, fuliginous, sooty.) SooTY Fox Sparrow. Like Town-
send's, but darker and less rufescent ; ui)per parts and sides sooty-brown; upper tail-coverts
and tail more rufescent; spots of under parts ve-y dark brown, large and confluent. Coast
H'gion of British Columbia, Vancouver's Island, and Washington State, breeding; S. in winter
along coast to San Francisco, Cal. RIOGW^ Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 3().
P. i. scliista'cea. (Lat. schistacea, slaty; Gr. <txi(tt6s, schistos, fissile or cleft, as slate-stone
is ; the allusion, however, is to color. Fig. 300.) Slate-colorep Fox Sparrow. Adult
^ 9 : General color above uniform slate witli a slight olive tinge, beci)ming dull foxy-red on
■wings and tail ; streaking of back obsolete, but whitish wing-bars sometimes indicated.
Below, white, shaded along sides with color of back, but not so as to obscure tlie decided
markings of the parts; under parts at large spotted and streaked with dusky-brown, usually
aggregated into a blotch on breast. This is the connecting link between iliaca and mialas-
■cemis ; the upper parts are nearly of the slaty-ash that forms the ground color i>f iliaca, only
the foxy streaks of the back are obsolete. The spotting below is correspondingly darker. The
form lias, however, some peculiarities : tail decidedly longer in comparison with wings. Length
444
SYSTEM A TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCTXES.
Fig. 300. — Slate-colored Fox Sparrow. (From The Osprey.)
7.00-7.50; wing 3.05-3.45 ; tail 3.00-3-30 ; bill 0.45 along culinen, 0.30 deep at base; tarsus
0.90. Eggs 0.85 X 0.C5, with the same tendency to distinct spotting seen in those of all the
other Western Fox Sparrows. Kocky Mt. region, chiefly, but noted from Kansas to California.
FRINGILLID/E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
445
p. i. megarhyn'clia. (Gr. fieyas, megas, great ; pvyxos, hrugchos, in Lat. rhynchus, beak.)
Thick-billed Fox Sparrow. Coluratiou as in schistacea. Tail at niaximum length, aver-
aging at the extreme of that of schistacea : claws and beak highly developed ; bill very thick,
its depth at base 0.40, rather more than its length from nostril to tip; culmen 0.45 ; hind claw
hmgcr than its digit. A local race, in mountains of California and Nevada.
P. i. ste'phensi. (To F. Stephens.) Stephens' Fox Sparrow. Like the last; rather
larger; the bill still larger, its average about at the maximum of that of megarhynclm , its
maximum 0.5.5 aU)ng culmen, 0.50 deep at base. This is simply the extreme diiferentiation
of the foregoing, in the San Jacinto and San Bernardino Mts. of California. P. i. megarhyncha,
in part, of previous eds. of the Key; of Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 434; and of the A. 0. U. Lists,
188G-95, No. 585 6. P. i. stephensi Anthony, Auk, Oct. 1895, p. 348; admitted to full
communion with other holy subspecies by the A. 0. U. Committee on Nov. 13, 1896, at the
Union's Congress at Cambridge, Mass. A. 0. U. List, Eighth Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 122,
No. 585 d.
CALAMOSPI'ZA. (Gr. KuXafioi, kalamos, Lat. calamus, a reed; (nri(a, spiza, a finch.)
Lark Buntings. Bill large and stout at base, culmen a little curved, conmiissure well au-
gulated ; rictus bristly. Wing long and pointed; tip formed by lst-4th quills, rest rapidly
graduated ; inner secondaries enlarged and flowing, one of them about reaching point of wing
when closed. Tail shorter than wing, nearly even. Feet stout, adapted to terrestrial habits ;
middle toe and claw about as long as tarsus ; lateral toes nearly equal to each other, scarcely
reaching base of middle claw; hind claw about as long as its digit, but not straightened. A
well-marked genus, with wing-structure reminding one of Antlnis or Alauda ; the turgid
strongly-angulated bill resembles that of a Grosbeak. Sexes very dissimilar; ^ black and
white, in masses of color. 9 brown and white, streaky. Nest on the ground ; eggs w^hole-
colored, as in Spiza, etc. There is a curious analogy if not affinity of this genus to some of
tlie Icteridte.
C nielaiio'corys. (Gr. fiiKas, gen. neXauos, melas, melanos, black, and Kopvs, Jcorus, a lark.
Fig. 301.) Lark Bunting. White- winged Blackbird. ^, in summer. Black, witli a
large white patch on wings,
formed by the median and
greater coverts; quills and
tail-feathers frequently
marked with white ; bill
dark horn-blue above, paler
below ; feet brown. Length
6.00-7.00; extent 10.00-
11.00; wing 3.25-3.50 ; tail
2.50-2.75; bill 0.50-0.55;
tarsus, or middle toe and
claw, 0.90-1 .00. Sexes un-
like : 9 niore resembling a
Spain pw. Above, grayish-
brown, streaked with dusky-
brown, on the back the edges
of the dark streaks often <.f ~ ' — ^'"'^'^^^g^^k^^^-^ ^
a purer brown than tlie gen- *^^
oral ground-C<d()r. Below, Fio. 301. -Lark Buntinp, cf 9- reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
white, shaded on sides with grayish-brown, thickly streaked with blackish-brown everywhere
excepting tliroat and belly, the streaks mostly sharp and distinct, but blended on sides, tending
to aggregate on breast.
id run forward as a maxillary chain. A poorly-defined light sujier-
446
S YS TEMA TIC S YXOPSTS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
ciliary stripe. Wings dusky, with a large white or whitish speculum, much as in ^, but not
so pure nor so extensive ; inner secondaries edged with brown and white. Tail-feathers, the
middle excepted, blackish tipped with white. Young ^ like 9 > hut colors more suffuse and
brighter; upper parts pure brown; under parts tinged with fulvous; wing-markings quite ful-
vous ; under surface of wing quite blackish. In very young birds the markings more motley
than streaky ; feathers of the upper parts edged with pale buff; bill brownish, flesh-colored
below. ^ wears the black plumage only during the breeding season, like the Bobolink ; when
changing, the characters of the two sexes are confused. The change of the adult ^ from a
winter plumage resembling that of the 9 to the full breeding dress is accomplished by apto-
sochromatism — that is, without moulting ; for the black comes to the surface by the wearing
away of light tips and edgings of the feathers, as in the Bobolink. In form of bill, this inter-
esting species is closely allied to Grosbeaks ; and this, with the singularly enlarged secondaries,
as long as the primaries in the closed wing, renders it unmistakable in any plumage. A
prairie bird, abundant on the Great Plains ; N. to 49° at least, in the Missouri and Milk River
region, and beyond, in Manitoba and Assiniboia ; W. to the Rocky Mts., and in the winter to
Southern and Lower California ; S. in Mexico to Guanajuato; accidental in New York, Mas-
sachusetts, and S. Carolina. The male has a habit of soaring and singing on wing like a
Lark ; nest on ground, sunken flush with the surface, of grasses ; eggs 4-5, 0.90 X 0.65, pale
bluish ; normally unmarked, occasionally speckled. C. hicolor of all previous eds. of the Key,
after Fringilla hicolor Tow'ns. 1837 ; name changed on account of there being already a
FringiUa hicolor Lixn. 1766, which is an entirely different bird, now known as Exetheia
hicolor. C. melanocori/s Stej. Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 49; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds.
1886-95, No. 605.
SPI'ZA. (Gr. a-TTiCa, spiza, a kind of Finch, probably F. coelebs.) SiLK Buntings. Bill
much as in Calamospiza, but longer fur its depth and not so strongly angulated. Wings very
long and pointed ; 2d primary usually longest, 1st and 3d little shorter, 4th and rest rapidly
graduated ; one inner secondary a little elongated, but not nearly reaching point of wing. Tail
short, nearly even, but a little emargiuate. Tarsus and middle toe and claw of about equal
lengths ; lateral toes of nearly ecpial lengths, not
reaching base of middle claw; hind toe with claw
as long as middle toe without claw.
S. ameriea'na. (Lat., of America. Fig. 302.)
Black-throated Bunting. $ : Above, gray-
ish-brown ; middle of back streaked with black ;
hind neck ashy, becoming on crown yellowish-olive
with black touches. A yellow superciliary line, and
maxillary touch of the same ; eyelid white ; ear-
coverts ashy like cervix ; chin white ; throat with
a large jet-black patch. Under parts in general
white, shaded with gray on sides, extensively tinged
with yellow on breast and belly. Edge of wing
yellow ; lesser and middle coverts rich chestnut,
other coverts and inner secondaries edged with paler.
Bill dark horn-blue; feet brown. Length 6.00-
7.00; extent 10.50-11.00; wing 3.25-3..50, sharp-
pointed ; tail 2.30-2.75, emarginate. 9 '■ Snialler ;
wing under 3.00, etc. ; above, like J, but head and neck plainer; below, less tinged with
yellow ; black throat-patch wanting, replaced by sparse sharp maxillary and pectoral streaks ;
wing-coverts not chestnut, though so indicated by rufous edgings of individual feathers.
Young ^ : Larger than 9, but in general similar; throat-patch indicated by blackish
^^1^ fW'
Fio ,302 — BHck tliroited Bunting, reduced
ISheppard del. NicliuU sc )
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 447
feathers; wing-coverts chestnut. An elegant species, of trim form, tasteful colors, and very
smooth plumage, abundant in fertile portions of the Eastern U. S. ; N. to Massachusetts ; W.
to Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and S. W. even to Arizona; rather southerly, scarcely reach-
ing the N. border of the U. S. anywhere, except in the region of the Great Lakes, where it
extends into southern Ontario ; winters wholly extralimital, in Central and even South Amer-
ica; breeds throughout its U. S. range. The local distribution of the birds within their gen-
eral range is irregular, apparently fortuitous, and seems to have changed of late years, the
species being rare E. of the Alleghanies, and absent from many Atlantic localities where it
used to be common, as in the District of Columbia, for example. Not a good vocalist ; the
simple ditty sounds like chip-chip-chee, chee, chee. Nest on the ground, or in a low bush ; eggs
4-.5, normally plain greenish-white, rarely speckled ; 0.80 X 0.65.
S. town'sendi. (To J. K. Townsend.) Townsend's Bunting. " Upper parts, head and
neck all round, sides of body and fore part of breast, slate-blue ; back and upper surface of wings
tinged with yellowish-brown; interscapulars streaked with black ; superciliary and maxillary
line, chin and throat and central line of under parts from breast to crissum, white ; edge of
wing, and gloss on breast and middle of belly, yellow; a black spotted line from lower corner
of lower mandible down tlie side of the throat, connecting with a crescent of streaks in the
upper edge of the slate portion of the breast.'' Chester Co., Pennsylvania, J. K. Townsend,
May 11, J 833; one specimen known, a standing puzzle to ornithologists, in the uncertainty
whether it is a " good species," or merely an abnormal plumage of the last, or a hybrid, pos-
sibly of S. americana 9 X (? Guiraca ccerulea. While it is not improbable that the type
came from an egg laid by S. americana, even such immediate ancestry would not forbid recog-
nition of " specific characters ; " the solitary bird having been killed, it represents a species
which died at its birth. The type is extant in the U. S. National Museum. An unfinished
sketch of this specimen, diflferent from Audubon's published plate, forms the frontispiece of
Audubon and his Journals, Vol. ii. 1897.
ZAMELO'DIA. (Gr. fa, za, much, very; /neXwSi'a, melodia, melody. Fig. 303.) Song
Grosbeaks. Bill extremely heavy ; lower mandible as deep as upper or deeper ; commis-
sural angle strong, for in advance of feathered base of bill ;
rictus overhung with a few long stiff bristles. Wing with
outer 4 primaries abruptly longer than 5th. Tail shorter
than wing, even or scarcely rounded. Feet short and stout.
P^inbracing two large species, of beautiful and striking colors,
the sexes disshuilar. ^ black and white, with carmine-red
or orange-brown; 9 otherwise, but with lining of wings
yellow. Brilliant songsters ; nest in trees and bushes ; eggs
spotted. (Zamelodia Coues, 1880, and of 2d-4th eds. of the
Key, 1884-90, must stand as against Hahia Reich. 1850,
and of 1st and 2d eds. of the A. 0. U. List, 1886-95; for Via. m.- mn of Zamelodia indori-
,. ^T 1 . . , J , , TT 7 ■ !• r^ ■ ^atn, p ciana, n&t. Bize. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
this Hnfnn is antedated by Hama or Cuvier, 1849. tor a
genus of South American Tanagers (Saltator Vieill.). Compare Stej. Auk, Oct. 1884,
p. :^6, with Coues, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 39. (The introduction of Ha bin into Nortii Ameri-
can ornithology for our Song Grosbeaks was rectified by the A. 0. U. Committee in 8th Suppl.
List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 130.)
Analysis o/ Species.
<f black and white, vrith carmine-red on breast and under wings. 9 with lining of wings saffron-vellow. Easteni
liitioiieiana
{f black and white, with orange-brown on breast : (f $ with lining of wings and belly yellow. Western
meliniocephala
448
5 YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
Fig. 304. — Rose-breasted Grosbeak, reduced. (Shep-
pard del. Nichols sc.)
Z. ludovicia'na. (Lat. of Louisiana. Figs. 303, 304, 311.) Rose-breasted Song Gros-
beak. Adult $: Head and neck all around, and most of upper parts, black; rump, upper
tail-coverts, and under parts white ; breast
and under wing-coverts exquisite carmine or
rt>se-red ; wings and tail black, variegated
with white; bill white; feet grayish-blue;
iris brown. 9 nbove, streaked with blackish
and olive-brown or Haxen-brown, with me-
dian white coronal and superciliary line ;
below, white, more or less tinged with ful-
vous and streaked with dusky; under iving-
corerts saffron-yellow ; upper coverts and
inner quills with a white spot at end ; bill
brown. Young ^ at first resembling 9 ; but
rt)se color appears with first full feathering
(if the first autumn. It then resembles the
adult winter ^, but has brown instead of
black quills and tail-feathers. At the first
spring moult it becomes black, white, and
rose as soon as some brownish bordering of
the black feathers disappears, apparently by
wearing off. Sexes of same size. Lengtli
7.75-8.50 ; extent 12.00-13 00 ; wing 3.90-
4.25; tail 3.25: tarsus 0.90. Eastern U. S. and British Provinces, N. to Labrador and region
of the Saskatchewan; W. in U. S. to the Red River Valley, and edge of the Missouri River
plains; winters extralimital in Cuba. Central Am., and northern S. Am. ; breeds frcnn the Mid-
dle States, Kansas, etc., northward, and in mountains S. to the Carolinas. A splendid bird !
Few combine such attractions for eye and ear. Nest in bushes and low trees, a thin, fiat struc-
ture, chiefly composed of rootlets and other slender fibres; eggs 3-5, rarely only 2, 1.00 X 0.75,
dull greenish, fully splashed and dotted with various dark browns, laid in June.
Z. melanoce'phala. (Grr. /xeXas, neXavos, melas, melanos, black; KffjiaXr], kephale, head. Fig.
305.) Black-headed Song Grosbeak. Adult ^: Crown, sides of head, back, wings, and
tail black ; back usually varied with whitish or ciunamon-brown ; wings spotted with white
on ends of coverts, and usualh
also toward ends of quills, and
with a large white patch at base
of primaries ; several lateral
tail-feathers with large white
spots on inner webs near their
ends. Neck all around, rump,
and under parts rich orange-
brown, changing to bright pure
yellow on belly and under wing
coverts ; bill and feet dark gray-
ish-blue. Size of the last. The
9 and young diflPermuch as in
the last species, but may be rec-
ognized by the rich sulphur-
yelloio under wing-coverts; bill shorter and more tumid, 0,66-0.75 along culmen, 0.60 deep at
base. Adult 9 : Under parts like tliose of $, but paler, though belly and lining of wings are
#r#"f#&
Fio. 305.
»\\h.h.m.
■Black-headed Grosbeak, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
FRI^GILLID.^: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROJCS.
449
as pure yellow. Upper parts dark brown with an olive shade, varied with whitish or brownisli-
whit'j; liead blackish with white or brownish coronal and superciliary stripes. Wings dusky
marked as in ^, but basal white spot on priniai'ies restricted ; tail as in J', but the M-hite spots
reduced or obsolete. Bill light-colored below. In ^ the tendency is to perfectly black head,
back, tail, and wings, the two former pure and continuous, the two latter boldly spotted with
white as described ; but such faultless full dress is not often seen. This stylish western repre-
sentative of the elegant Rose-breast is common in suitable woodland. Plains to the Pacific, U. S.,
and adjoining British Provinces, wintering in Mexico and portions of Lower California, breed-
ing throughout its U. S. and Brit. Am. range; its habits are similar. Nest in trees of various
kinds, often willows, up to 20 feet from ground ; a flimsy structure, on a foundation of weed-
stalks, openworked with grass and rootlets, 4.50-5.50 in outside diameter, 3.00 inside, cupped
1.00; eggs 2-5, usually 3-4, averaging 1.00 X 0.70, moderately variable in size, fugacious
greenish-blue, speckled, spotted, and blotched with reddish and darker brown, with lavender
shell spots, mostly laid in May; both sexes incnbate. There is a nearer relationship between
the Song Grosbeaks and the Evening Grosbeak than would appear from the distance apart of
their respective genera in the present book ; but I hesitate to
remove Hef^peripliona from the place it has always occupied
in tlie Key.
OUIRA'CA. [Vox barb., Mexican or S. Am. name of some
bird. Fig. .306.) Blue Grosbeaks. Bill with commissure
strongly angulated far beyond base, with deep under mandible
and bristly rictus as in Zamelodia, but not so swollen, the
culmen nearly straight. Wings long and pointed, folding
about to middle of tail ; tip formed by 2d-4th quills, 1st little
shorter, 5th rapidly graduated. Tail shorter than wings,
even. Tarsus rather less than middle toe and claw; outer
lateral toe slightly longer than inner, but scarcely reacliing
base of middle claw. One species, large, ^ blue, 9 brown.
<i. coeru'lea. (Lat. ccerulea, cerulean. Fig. 307.) Blue Grosbeak. Adult $: Eicli dark
l)lue, nearly uniform, but darker or blackish across middle of back; feathers around base of
bill, wings, and tail black ; middle and greater wing-coverts tipped with chestnut ; bill dark
h.M-n-blue, paler below; feet blackish. Length fi 50-7.00; extent 10..50-11.00; wing 3.30-
3.00; tail 2.7.5-3.00; bill 0.60-0.07;
tarsus 0.75 ; middle toe and claw rather
more. 9 smaller, plain warm brown
above, paler and rather tiaxen-browu
below, sometimes whitey-brown on
tliroat and belly, or with slight streaks
on belly and crissum ; wings and tail
fuscous, sometimes sliglitly bluish-
glossed or edged, fiinncr witli whitey-
brown cross-bars : bill and t'cet brown.
Young (J at first like 9 '• when cliang-
ing, shows confused bmwn and blue;
afterward, blue interrupted with white
below. Eastern U. S., but southerly;
rarely N. to Massachusetts, and even
Maine ; winters wholly extralimital in
Its limit of Tiorthward migration with
regularity and in any numbers is about the latitude of Philadelphia, in the Atlantic States,
W^
V>N
Fio. 3(17. — Blue Grosbeak, reduced. (Slieppard del. Nichols sc.)
Cuba and Mexico; breeds throughout its V . S. range.
450 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — FASSERES — OSCINES.
Illinois, Nebraska, etc., in the interior. Nest in bushes, vines, or other shrubbery, sometimes
a low tree, of grasses and rootlets; eggs 3-4, averaging 0.90 X 0.65, palest bluish, normally
unspotted : quite like those of the Indigo-bird, but larger.
G. c. eurhyn'cha. (Gr. ev, well, as intensive prefi.\ ; pvyxos, hnigchos, beak.) Western-
Blue Grosbeak. Larger; length 7.00 or more; wing nearly 4.00; tail 3.00 or more; bill
notably larger. ^ paler blue, with broader wing-bars, that on the greater coverts paler than
the other. 9 f^'^'^l yon^g S grayish-brown. Western U. S., from Neb., Col., Utah, and Sac-
ramento Valley, Cal. in summer to Mexico ; winters to Costa Rica. I first described this form
in Am. Nat., 1874, p. 563, from Mexican examples; it was not taken up in the Key till 1890,
p. 900, through deference to the A. 0. U. Committee, who first recognized it after Ridgw.
Man. 1887, p. 446 ; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 597 a. It was next supposed to be a
synonym oi Pitylus lazula Less. Rev. Zool. v, 1842, p. 174, and so given as Guiraca cccrulea
lazula in A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 121 ; but that remains to be proven.
CYANOSPI'ZA. (Gr. Kvavos, kuanos, blue; cririCa, spiza, a finch.) Painted Finches.
Bill relatively smaller and weaker than in Guiraca, with less conspicuous angulation; cul-
men regularly a little convex, gonys nearly straight. Outer 4 primaries longest; 1st usu-
ally between 4th and 5th, latter much shorter. Tail little shorter than wing, about even or
emarginate. Feet moderate; tarsus about equal to middle tt>e and claw; lateral toes about
equal to each other, their claws falling short of base of middle claw. Embracing several
elegant Finches of small size: ^ of very showy hues, especially blue, but also red, purple,
yellow, and green, usually in masses ; 9 of simple and tasteful greenish or brownish shades.
Nest in bushes and lovv' trees, sometimes close to the ground ; eggs oftenest whole-colored,
very pale, sometimes spotted. The name of this genus has been changed back from Pas-
serina to Cyanospiza Baird, 1858, as in 1st ed. of Key, 1872, in A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk,
Jan. 1899, p. 121. (Passerina of 2d-4th eds. of Key ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886and
1895.)
Analysis of Spfcies.
(f rich blue, intense red and golden-green ; 2 greenish and yellow. Southern cirif
(f purplish-blue, dusky and reddish. 9 brown. Southwestern versicolor and v. pulchra
{f lazuli-blue and white, the breast brown ; $ brown and whitish. Western amnena
tf indigo-blue ; $ brown. Eastern cyanea
C. ci'ris. (Gr. Kflpij, keiris, name of a bird into which Scylla, daughter of Nisus, was trans-
formed.) Painted Finch. Painted Bunting. Nonpareil. Pope. Adult J: Crown
and hind neck and sides of head and neck rich blue ; back and scapulars beautiful golden-green ;
eyelids and entire under parts intense vermilion-red ; rump duller red ; wings dusky, glossed
with green and reddish ; tail dusky reddish or purplish-brown. Bill dark horn-color ; feet dark
brown. Size of a/wcena; wing 2.70; tail 2.50, a little emarginate. 9= Above, plain yellow-
ish-green, or light olive, nearly uniform, this color glossing the dusky wings and tail ; below,
yellowish ; bill brownish, pale below : thus quite different from the brown 9 9 of all the fol-
lowing species. Young ^ at first like 9 > though rather duller, with some buff"y and grayish-
brown shades ; acquiring the red and blue with every possible gradation between the colors of
the two sexes. In confinement the ^ is liable to lose its brilliant colors, the scarlet turning to
orange, etc. South Atlantic and Gulf States, abundant ; up the coast to Carolina, and in the
interior to Illinois and Kansas; winters in Mexico, C. Am., Cuba, etc.; accidental in Mass.
An exquisite little creature of matchless hues, well named the " incomparable" ; a fair song-
ster, and a favorite cage-bird in Louisiana. Nest in bushes, hedges, and low trees ; eggs 0.7.5
X 0.55, pearly white, speckled with reddish and purplish browns, chiefly about the larger end.
C. versi'color. (Lat. versicolor, various in color; verto, I turn, color, color.) Purple
Painted Finch. Varied Bunting. Western Nonpareil. Prusiano. Adult ^ :
Hind head, throat, and fore breast brownish-red or claret-color, the former sometimes scarlet:
^RINGILLWJE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
451
hind neck and middle of back similar, but more obscured; fore part of crown purplish-red;
rump and upper tail-coverts purplish-blue; below, from breast, and wings and tail, dusky,
tinged or glossed with purplish ; concealed white in feathers of side of rump ; lores and circum-
rostral feathers black. Bill horn-bluish, paler below, stouter than iu other species, with very
convex culnien and concave cutting edge of upper mandible. Feet dark. The versicoloration
is difficult to describe ; the general aspect is that of a purplish-dusky bird, redder or bluer here
and theie. Size of the others. 9 plain brown above, whitey-brown below, like amcena and
cyanea; no whitish wing-bars ; no black stripe on gonys; concealed white on sides of rump.
Eastern Mexico, S. to Guatemala, N. to U. S. border, in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, where
common in some localities ; accidental in Michigan. Eggs 0.78 X 0.58, plain bluish-white,
like those of the Indigo-bird.
C V. pul'chra. (Lat. pulcher (masc.) or pulchra (fem.), beautiful.) Peninsula Painted
Finch. Beautiful Bunting. Like the last; wings and tail said to be shorter; wing
about 2.50; tail 2.20; ^ said to have the '' red on occiput brighter, purple on throat less red-
dish (never decidedly red?), flanks brighter plum-purple, and rump more purplish-blue or
lavender." Lower Calif(jrnia and western Mexico. Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 448 ; Coues,
Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 600 a.
C. amoe'iia. (Lat. a>n«Ma, delightful, charming, dressy.) Lazuli Painted Finch. Adult (^:
Head and neck all around, entire upper parts, and lining of wings, rich azure or lapis-lazuli
blue, more or less obscured on middle of back ; lores black. Below, from the blue neck, chest-
nut-brown, changing to white on belly and crissum. A firm white wing-bar across ends of
median coverts, and usually another weaker one across tips of greater coverts. Wings and tail
dusky, glossed with blue. Bill and feet bluish -black. Length 5.25-5.50; extent 8.00-8.50;
wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25-2.50; bill 0.37; tarsus 0.65. Adult 9 : Above, flaxen-brown, nearly
uniform, but with slightly darker centres of the feathers, and sometimes ;•. faint bluish gloss.
Below, bufly or brownish-white, most colored on breast, palest on throat and belly. Wings
and tail fuscous, with faint bluish edgings usually, crossed with two decided brownish-white
bars, — the chief distinction from 'i cyanea. Young (^: Like 9; when changing, patched
with brown and blue ; when very young, ^ 9 somewhat streaky, especially on under parts.
Replacing cyanea from the Plains to the Pacific, U. S. and interior of British Columbia, S.
into Mexico ; common iu suitable places ; habits, nest, and eggs the same.
C. cya'nea. (Lat. cyanea, Gr. Kvavfos, kuaneos, dark blue. Fig. 308.) Indigo Painted
Finch. Indigo-bird. Adult (J : Indigo-blue, intense and constant on head, glancing green-
ish with difi"erent lights on other parts ;
wings and tail blackish, glossed with
greenish-blue ; feathers around base of
bill black ; bill dark above, rather paler
below, with a curious black stripe along
gonys. 9 • Above, plain warm brown,
below whitey-brown, obsoletely streaky
on breast and sides ; wing-coverts and
inner quills palo-edged, but not whitish ;
no whitish wing-bars ; upper mandible
blackish, lower i)ale, with the black
stripe just mentioned, — this is a pretty
constant feature, and will distinguish the
species from any of our Eastern little
brown birds. Young $ : Like 9 , but
soon shows blue traces, and afterward is blue with white variegation below. Size of the fore-
going. Eastern U. S., N. t(j Maine and some parts of Canada; W. to Kansas, Indian Terri-
Indigo-bird, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
452 5 YSTEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
tory, and Texas ; S. iu winter to Central America ; breeds throughout its N. Am. range.
Abundant in fields and open woodland, in summer ; a well meaning but rather weak vocalist,
whose low rambling strain is delivered as if the little performer were tired or indifferent. Nest
in crotch of a bush, large for size of the bird, and not at all artistic; eggs usually 4, rarely 5
averaging 0.72 X 0.52, white, usually with a faint bluish tint, and normally plain, though not
seldom a little speckled.
Obs. It is probable that yet another species of this beautiful genus is to be added to our
Fauna, as follows: C parelli'na. (Lat. uncertain, perhaps h-om paralius, from Gr. TrapoKios,
paralios, beside the sea, maritime, with reference to the " ultra marine" blue of the J ; com-
pare Paralus, name of a man beautifully painted by Protogenes ; the expression Paralum pic-
*M??i occurs in Cicero.) Paraline Painted Finch. Mexican Blue Bunting. Adult (J:
Eich dark blue, brightening on the front and sides of the head, the rump, and lesser wing-
coverts, into azure blue ; lores, chin, tail, and bill black ; eyes brown ; feet dark. 9 '■ Brown,
paler below, whitening on throat and belly. Young ^ : Like 9 ! l>ut iu any plumage this
species may be recognized by the large turgid bill and much rounded wings with 3d-5th quills
longest, 2d about equal to 6th, 1st shortest of all. The species represents a connecting link
between Cyanospiza and Guiraca, and is type of the subgenus Cyanocompsa Cab. J. f. 0. 1861,
p. 4. Very small; length 5.00 or little more ; wing 2.70; tail 2.30; culmen 0.40-0.45; gonys
up to 0.30. Eastern Mexico, said to extend into Texas in the valley of the Lower Rio Grande.
Not noted in previous eds. of the Key. Cyanoloxia parellina Bp. Consp. Av. 1, Aug. 1850,
p. 502; Cyanospiza parellina Baird, B. N. A. 1858, p. 502, Tamaulipas and New Leon;
Passerina parellina Ridgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. iii, 1880, p. 182; P. (Cyanocompsa) parel-
lina RiDGw. Man. 1887, p. 446.
SPORO'PHILA. (Gr. a-nopos, sporos, seed; cf)i\os, philos, loving.) Pygmy Finches.
FiNCHLETS. Bill like that of a Bullfinch in miniature, short and extremely turgid; swollen
in all directions, culmen convex nearly in the sextant of a circle ; cutting edge of upper man-
dible very concave ; gonys short, about straight in outline. Wings short and greatly rounded ;
2d-4th quills longest, 1st, 5th, and even 6th, little shorter, and secondaries nearly ct)vering pri-
maries iu the closed wing. Tail rather shorter than wings, slightly rounded, with abruptly
pointed tips of the feathers. Tarsus equal to middle toe and claw, and lateral toes to each
other, their claws about reaching base of middle claw. A large Central and South American
genus of Pygmy Finches, one of which reaches our border. (Name changed from Spermophila
of former eds. of the Key because this is preoccupied for the mammalian genus Spermophilus
of F. CuviER, 1822, or Spermophila Richardson, 1825.)
S. morelet'i sharpe'i. (To Arthur Morelet, a French traveller, shell-collector, and author,
and to Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, the famous English ornithologist.) Sharpe's Pygmy Finch.
Sharpe's Finchlet. Little Seed-eater. ^: Top and sides of head, back of neck,
broad band across upper part of breast, middle of back, wings, and tail, black; chin, upper
throat, neck nearly all around, rump, and remaining under parts, white, the latter often tinged
with pale buff; two wing-bands, and bases of all the quills, also white, that on secondaries
hidden by coverts, that on primaries forming an exposed spot ; inner secondaries usually edged
with white ; tail-feathers sometimes with obscurely whitish tip. Bill blue-black ; feet dark.
9 olivaceous-brown above, brownish-yellow or dull buff below; wings with whitish bars, but
no white bases of quills; bill brown; feet dark. Length about 4.00; wing 2.00-2.10; tail
1.90; tarsus 0.60. Mexico to Texas, in the Lower Rio Grande Valley. Spermophila moreleti
of most American writers, and of lst-3d eds. of the Key, but subspecifically different from the
true S. morelleti Bp. of Guatemala; Sporophila morelleti sharpei Lawr. Auk, Jan. 1889, p. 53;
CouES, Key. 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 602. (S. parva Sharpe.
Cat. Brit. Mus. Birds, xii, 1888, p. 124, includes this form, doubtless distinct from S. parva
Lawr. Ann. N. Y. Acad, ii, 1883, p. 382.)
fringillidjE: finches, buntings, sparrows. 453
EUETHEI'A. (Gr. evr]6eia, euetheia, guilelessness, simplicity, innocence.) Grass Quits.
Bill small, acute, culmeu slightly convex, commissure about straight to the angulation at base.
Wings short, rounded, 2d-5th primaries subequal and little longer than 1st, 6th, 7th. Tail
still shorter, about even. Tarsus if anything shorter than middle toe and claw; lateral toes
subequal to each other in length, scarcely reaching base of middle claw. West Indian and
tropical American genus of diminutive finches, two of which occur casually in Florida. (Pho-
niparu of previous eds. of the Key, and of most writers ; but Phonipara Bp. Consp. Av. i,
p. 494, July .30, 1850, is antedated by Euetheia Reich. Syst. Av. pi. Ixxix, fig. 13, June 1,
1850, the correct form of wliich is Euethi'a Cab. Mus. Heiu. i, 1851, p. 146.)
E. bi'color. (Lat. fcicoZor, of two colors.) Black-faced Grass Quit. Adult (J : Upper
parts, including exposed surfaces of wings and tail, dull olivaceous, passing on face, throat, and
breast, into sooty-black, fading on other under parts into olive-gray, more or less varied with
whitish; wings and tail unmarked; no decided demarcation of colors and no yellow anywhere.
Bill blue-black ; feet dark brown. 9 lighter olivaceous, passing to olive-ashy where $ is
black; bill pale below; feet light brown. Length about 4.00; wing 2.00-2.10; tail 1.75.
West Indies and of rare or casual occurrence in southern Florida, where it was taken in 1871
by C. J. Maynard. One of the common House Finches in various West Indian Islands ; nest
in bushes and shrubbery, large, domed, with lateral entrance; eggs 3-6, 0.65 X 0.50, white,
speckled with umber-brown. {Phonipara zena of 2d-4th eds. of the Key, and most American
writers, after Fringilla zena Linn. Syst. Nat. 10th ed. 1758, p. 183, as based on Catesby,
1731, pi. 37 (but not F. zena Linn. ihid. p. 181, which is the Bahaman Tanager now called
Spinadalis zena); F. bicolor Linn. 12th ed. p. 324; Phonipara bicolor Bp. Consp. i, 1850,
p. 494 ; Euethia bicolor Gundlach, J. f. 0. xxii, 1874, p. 312; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds.
1886 and 1895, No. 603 or [603]) : see Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 48.
E. cano'ra. (Lat. canorits (masc.) or canora (fem.), singing, tuneful, melodious; canor,
song, melody; cano, 1 sing.) Melodious Grass Quit. Adult ^: Upper parts bright
olive-green ; lower parts gray, whitening on the crissum ; most of head black ; a black pecto-
ral band, and a broad bar of bright yellow curving upon each side of the head behind the ears
to the eyes. 9 similar, but the black of the ^ replaced by chestnut-brown, the yellow curve
paler or broken. About the size of the last. A Cuban Quit, one specimen of which was taken
on Sombrero Key, Florida, April 17, 1888, by M. E. Spencer: see Auk, July, 1888, p. 322.
{Lo.ria canora Gm. S. N. I. 1788, p. 858, based on the Brown-cheeked Grosbeak of Brown,
111. 1776, ])1. xxiv, fig. 1; Phonipara canora Bp. 1850; Euetheia canora Brewer, 1860;
CouES, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. [603. 1]).
PYRRHULO'XIA. (Lat. pijrrhula ■}- hxia ; pyrrhula, a bullfinch; loxia, a cross-bill.
Gr. TTvppos, purhros, red ; 'Koalas, loxias, crooked.) Bullfinch Cardinals. Pyrrhu-
LOXIAS. Bill very short and stout, hooked almost like a Parrot's, its depth at base exceeding
its length ; under mandible deeper than upper at nostrils ; culmen curved almost to the quad-
rant of a circle ; commissure forcibly angulated in advauce of nostrils ; gonys about straij^ht.
Otherwise generally like Cardinalis. Colors grayish and red; head crested; sexes unlike.
One large species, with two subspecies.
P. sinua'ta. (Lat. sinuata, bent, bowed, curved ; simif, a bend, hay: alhiding to tlie liiU.
Fig. .309.) Beckham's Cardinal. Arizona Pyrruuloxia. Like the common Bullfinch
Cardinal or Texan Pyi"rhuloxia as below described ; said to difler in lighter and browner tone
of tlie gray parts, greater extent of red on tail, little if any blackish suffusion in red of the cap-
istrum of ^, and lighter red of crest ; 9 less grayish on fore breast and along sides. <?, wing
3.60-.3.90; tail 4.25; depth of bill 0.51. S. W. Texas, S. New Mexico, S. Arizona, and
soutliward. Tliis is the true P. sinuata, originally described by Bonaparte from W. Mexico
as Cardinalis sinuatus, and erroneously renamed P. simtata beckhami by Ridcw. Auk, Oct.
1887, p. 347; CouES, Key, 4th ed. 1890, \^. 90(»: A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 189.5, No. 594 a.-
454
SYS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
see Palmer, Nidologist, iii, May, 189G, p. 102, and Eidgw. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 95. P. sinu-
ata, A. 0. U. Siippl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 130, No. 594 (not 594 a).
P. s. penin'sulae. (Lat. of a peninsula, to wit, that of Lower California.) Peninsula
Cardinal. St. Lucas Pvrrhuloxia. Said to be colored like the last, but smaller, with
larger bill: wing of ^ 3.30-3.60; tail 3.80-
4.15 ; depth of bill 0.52-0.55. Lower Cali-
fornia. References as above ; A. 0. U. No.
594 b. Both of these forms are included under
P. sinuata in earlier eds. of the Key.
P. s. texa'na. (Lat. Texan.) Common
Bullfinch Cardinal. Texas Pvrrhu-
loxia. Conspicuously crested, and otherwise
like the common Cardinal in form, but bill ex-
tremely short and crooked. J' : Ashy brown,
paler or whitish below ; crest, face, throat,
breast, middle line of belly, wings, and tail,
more or less perfectly crimson or carmine red ;
bill whitish. Length 8.00-8.50 ; extent 11.00-
12.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail 3.7.5-4.25. 9
similar to ^ , more so than 9 Cardinalis : red
of crest, wings, and tail much the same;
rather brownish -yellow below, usually with
w
Fig. 3U9. — Ai
Pyrrhuloxia.
traces of red on breast and belly, sometimes witliout. Young ^ like 9 • At an early age,
both sexes have the bill obscured. In this species the crest is long, but thin, consisting of a
few coronal feathers, without general elongation of head-plumage. The shade of red is very
variable in equally adult males. In highest feather it is continuous on under parts from bill to
tail along median line ; but it is often broken into patches on throat, belly, and crissura. The
tint is always carmine, not vermilion as usual in the common Cardinal. The intense rose-
color is well displayed on spreading the wings. A singular bird, inhabiting Texas near the
Mexican border ; abundant in the valley of the Lower Eio Grande, sometimes extending thence
into Louisiana; S. through much of E. Mexico. The habits, nest, and eggs are substantially
the same as those of the common Cardinal : eggs rather smaller, averaging 0.95 X 0.75. (P.
sinuata of former eds. of Key ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95,
No. 594 ; P. s. texana Eidgw. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 95 ;
A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 129, No.
594 a.)
CARDINA'LIS. (Lat. cardinalis, pertaining to cordo,
a door-hinge; cardinal, that upon which something
hinges or depends ; hence important, principal, cardi-
nal point ; cardinal, a chief ecclesiastical official, wear-
ing the red hat ; hence cardinal-red, from which color
the bird is named. Fig. 310.) Cardinal Gros-
beaks. Bill very large and stout, but quite conic ;
culmen a little convex ; gonys about straight ; com-
missure sinuate, not abruptly angulated ; lower man-
dible about as deep as upper; rictus bristled. Wings
very short and rounded; usually 4th and 5th quills
longest, others rapidly graduated both ways — 5th to 1st, 5th to 9th. Tail longer than wings,
rounded, of broad feathers with obliquely oval tips. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw ;
lateral toes subef[ual. Size large. Head crested. Color mostly red, including bill. Sexes
Fio. 310. — Head of Cardinal Grosbeak,
nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
FRINGILLIDjE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS.
455
subsimilar. There are several species of this strildiigiy heautiful genus, as C- carneus and
C. phoeniceu!^, but only one of them, with several of its subspecies, occurs in our Fauna.
C. cardina'lis. (Figs. 310, 311.) Cardinal Grosbeak. Cardinal Redbird. Crested
Redbird. Virginia Redbird. Virginia Nightingale. Adult $ : Rich red, usually
vermilion, sometimes rosy; pure and intense on crest and under parts, darker on back, where
obscured with ashy-gray, as it is also on upper surfaces of wings and tail ; feathers of wings
Fio 311 —Cardinal Gro^bt ik iii)ik i Ro',( Ijrt l•^t(.(l Gio-.beak, lower, reduced (From Breliiu )
-==#' x,-nr-*^
fuscous on inner webs. A jet-black mask on face, entirely surrounding l)ill, extending on
throat. Bill coral-red ; feet brown. Length 8.00-9.00; extent 11. OO-l^'.OO; wing .•3.50-4.00;
tail 4.25-4.75 ; billO.G7-0.75; tarsus 0.90-1 .00. 9 ratlier less : Ashy-bmwn, i>aler and some-
what ycUowisli-brown below, witli traces of red ; reddening much as in J on crest, wings, and
tail. Young ,$■. At first like 9? 1^>'t soon reddening; at an early age, bill dark. Eastern
U. S. southerly, seldom N. to the Connecticut Valley
Lakes region, and only casually finther N. ; W. to th
lower Hudson Valley, and Great
Great Plains; resident in the Hermu-
456 SYSTEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
das ; along the Mexican border shading into other varieties. A bird uf striking appearance
and brilliant vocal powers, resident and abundant from the Middle States southward; inhabits
thickets, tangle, and undergrowth of all kinds, whence issue its rich rolling whistling notes,
while the performer, brightly clad as he is, often eludes observation by his shyness, vigilance,
and activity. The nest, built loosely of bark-strips, twigs, leaves, and grasses, is placed in a
bush, vine, or low thick tree; eggs 1.00-1.10 X 0.70-0.80, profusely marked with browns,
from reddish to dark chocolate, with neutral tint in the shell, usually in fine dotting or mar-
bling pattern. Two or three broods are reared in the South. Like the Rose-breasted Gros-
beak, the Cardinal is a fiivorite cage-bird. (C. virginianus of all former eds. of the Key; but
by the canons of the A. 0. U., in tlie formulation of which I took part, I am obliged to use
the miserable tautonymy of Cardinalis cardinalis, so offensive to literaiy good taste.)
C. c. florida'nus. FLORIDA Cardinal. Resident birds of Florida are attempted to be dis-
tinguished by somewhat brighter color by Ridgw. Man. 2d ed. 1896, p. 606. The alleged
distinction was denied by a majority of the A. 0. U. at Cambridge in Nov. 1896, and affirmed
by a majority of the same at Washington in December. Hence A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk,
Jan. 1897, p. 122, No. 593 d.
C. c. canicau'dus. (Alleged Lat. for canicaudaUis, having a gray tail; Lat. ccmus, gray,
Cauda, tail.) Gray-tailed Cardinal. ^ like that of true cardinalis, but with a less con-
spicuous black frontlet, in this respect approaching superbus. 9 grayer than 9 cardinalis,
" and with the tail-feathers broadly margined with gray, instead of being narrowly edged with
olivaceous brown." This form seems to be of the " new woman " type, the 9 being more dis-
tinguished than the ^. Vicinity of Corpus Christi, Texas, and southward. C cardinalis
canieaudus Chapm. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. N. Y. iii, Aug. 1891, p. 324; A. O. U. List,
2d ed. 1895, No. 593 c. Included under cardinalis proper in all former eds. of the Key.
C. c. super'bus. (Lat. superhiis, proud, haughty.) Superb Cardinal. Arizona Car-
dinal. Like the next form, but larger, and 9 more richly colored. $ , wing 4.10 ; tail 5.00;
tarsns 1.05; bill along culmen 0.85, its depth at base 0.70: 9 smaller. S. Arizona and
N. W. Mexico. C c. superbus Ridgw. Auk, Oct. 1885, p. 344 ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d
eds. 1886 and 1895, No. 593 a; C. r. superbus CouES, Key, 3d and 4th eds. 1887 and 1890,
p. 876.
C. c. ig'neus (Lat. igneus, fiery.) Fiery-red Cardinal. St. Lucas Cardinal. Like
the typical form ; not redder, but if anything lighter red ; black mask narrowed on forehead,
or so interrupted there that the red reaches bill; crest inclining to light red, more like that of
belly than of back. Bill tending to swell, with more decidedly curved culmen. Tail rather
longer, on an average. Lower California, common. This form, described in 1859 by Baird
as a full species, was reduced to its proper subspecific grade in the Key, orig. ed. 1872; the 2d
ed. included superbus under the name o^ igneus from the valley of the Colorado and Gila, these
two forms being discriminated in the 3d ed. 1887.
PI'PILO. (Lat. pipilo or jyipio, I pip, peep, chirp.) Towhee Buntings. Embracing
numerous species and subspecies of large Fringillidce, varying much in system of coloration
and details of form, and therefore not easy to characterize concisely. Excepting one species, all
are over seven inches long. Bill moderate in size, conic without extremes of turgidity or com-
pression, but varying much in precise shape with the species. Feet large and strong, fitted
for ground work ; tarsus about equalling or rather exceeding middle toe and claw; lateral toes
subequal, outer usually a little the longer, its claw reaching, in some cases exceeding, base of
middle claw ; claws all stout and much curved, in some species highly developed. Wings
short and greatly rounded ; 4th-5t]i primary longest, whence tlie quills are rapidly graduated
to 1st and 9th; 1st very short. Tail long, exceeding wings, rounded or much graduated, of
broad firm feathers with rounded ends. Large species, inhabiting shrubbery, and partly ter-
restrial. Tliey fall in two subgenera. I. Black Toivhees or Pipilo proper: of wliich the
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 457
only eastern species is a typical example. In this, the sexes are very unlike, but the sexual
differeuce is less in western subspecies of P. maculatus : all North American forms are
black on head and upper parts, with black, white-marked wings or tail, the back also white-
marked or not; belly white, sides chestnut. II. Brown Totchees or subgenus Kieneria :
variously brown above, paler, etc., below, the sexes alike. These are confined to the south-
west, where they stand in the same relation to Fringillidce that the southwestern forms of
Harporhijnclms bear to Mimincc. (On recent rupture of the genus, see Coues, Auk, 1897,
p. 221.)
Obs. I. The black series of Pipilo offers a case nearly parallel with those of Melospiza,
Peuccea, Passerella, and Junco, already discussed. There is one eastern form much more
distinct from the several western ones than these are from one another. It is uniform black
above, seldom with a trace of white spotting on scapulars : 9 distinctively brown where ^ is
black. The western ones all have spotted scapulars and sometimes also interscapulars ; and
9 9 are blackish, much like ^ ^. (These furthermore shade into the olivaceous Mexican
stock-form P. maculatits.) It might be more consistent to treat all the black Towhees as races
of one incompletely differentiated stock ; but it is not easy to so far ignore the sexual distinc-
tiveness, nor the fact that though erythrojihthalmus has occasional spots on the scapulars,
its intergradation with the Mexican maculatus is not established. II. The Brown Towhees
afford one remarkably distinct species, P. aberti, to be likened to Harporhynchus crissalis ;
and several subspecies of the Mexican P. fuscus, incompletely separated from one another,
like some of the forms of Harporhynchus.
Analysis oj Species and Subspecies.
1. Black Towhees. Colors of the male black, white, and chestnut in definite areas.
No white on the scapulars or wing-coverts. Sexes very unlike.
Eyes red. Eastern U. S. at large erythrophthalmus
Eyes white. Florida, resident e. alleni
Scapulars and wing-coverts witli wliite spots ; sexes more alike. Western.
Little if any white at bases of primaries ; none on outer web of outer tail-featliers except at end. Pacific
Coast region maculatus oregonus
White on wings and tail as in erythrophthalmus, but interscapulars streaked. Western, interior m. arcticus
Like the last ; claws highly developed ; sexes nearly alike. Rocky Mt. region m, megalonyx
Like m. oregonus in color ; mucli smaller ; wing about 3.00 ; taU 3.50. Guadalupe Isl. . . . consobrinus
2. Brown Towhees. Colors not definitely black, white, and chestnut ; no greenish ; sexes alike. Southwestern.
Grayish-brown, paler below, without blackish face ; throat and crissum fulvous or rufescent.
Light ; belly whitening ; crissum yellowish-brown ; necklace of dusky streaks. Texas to Arizona.
fuscus mesoleucus
Similar ; more white on throat. L. Gala /. albigula
Dark ; belly only paler ; crissum cinnamon-brown ; throat fulvous, speckled. Pacific Coast region.
/. crissalis
Like the last ; darker above, grayer below ; smaller. S. and L. Cala f. .^euicuhis
Grayisli-brown, paler below ; face blackish ; no other decided markings aberti
(Black Toivhees : subgenus Pipilo.)
P. erythrophthal'mus. ((Jr. (pvdp6s, eruthros, red; 6(f)6a\fi6s. ophthalmos, eye. Fig. 312.)
TownEK l?i:NTiN("r. Marsh Robix. Ground Kobin. Tlrkey Sparrow. Bush-bird.
C'liEwiNK. Joreh-Grasel. Adult ^ : Glossy black; belly white; sides chestnut; cris-
sum fulvous-brown; primaries and inner secondaries with white touches on outer webs ; outer
tail-feather with outer web and nearly terminal half of inner web white, next two or three
with white spots decreasing in size ; bill black ; feet pale brown ; iris red in the adult,
ashy or brown in the young. Normally, the black pure and continuous; occasionally, white
touches on wing-coverts and scapulars. White on primaries confined to bases of outer 6,
and then- outer webs at about their middle; on secondaries to outer webs of inner 2 or 3.
Bhu-k feathers of throat with concealed whitisli bases. Length T.ilO-S./o ; extent 10.00-
458 SYSTEMATIC SVyOPSIS. — PASSERES - OSCINES.
12.00; wing 3.20-3.90; tail 3.35-4.00; tarsus 1.00-]. 12; but these extremes are rare; aver-
age length 8.00; extent 11.25; ^^ing 3.75; tail 4.50. 9: Eich warm brown where the
male is black; otherwise similar, but smaller. Very young birds are streaked brown and
dusky above, below whitish tinged with brown and streaked with dusky ; but this plumage is
of brief duration; sexual distinctions may be noted in birds just from the nest, and they rapidly
become much like the adults. Eastern U. S. and adjoining parts of the British Provinces ; N.
to Canada, Manitoba, and N Dakota, where meetixig (ircticus ; W. To Kansas, and in Missouri
River region to about 43°. Northerly perfectly migratory ; winters from middle U. S. south-
ward ; breeds nearly throughout its range. An abundant and familiar inhabitant of thickets,
undergrowth, and briery tracts, spending much of its time on the ground, scratching among
fallen leaves. Nest on the ground, bulky, of leaves, grasses, and other fibrous material ; eggs
4-5, 0.95 X 0.70, white, thickly speckled with reddish. The curious names " Towhee,"
" Joree," and "Chowink" arc from its cry; "Ground Robin" from its haunts and the chest-
nut of the sides.
P. e. al'leni. (To J. A. Allen, the eminent naturalist.) White-eyed Towhee Bunting.
Similar; smaller; less white on wings and tail; claws longer; iris yellowish- white. ^, ex-
tremes: Length 7.25-8.50 ; extent 9.50-11.55; wing 2.80-3.50 ; tail 3.25-4.00; tarsus 0.80-
1.10; average length 7.90 ; extent 9.90; wing 3.12; tail 3.50; tail relatively longer than in
northern specimens, producing less diflFerence in total length than there is in length and ex-
tent of wings. White on outer tail-feather about as much as on next feather of erythroph-
thalmus. Florida ; resident ; a local race.
[P. macula'tus. (Lat. macula/us, spotted.) Olive-black Spotted Towhee. A Mexican species, with extensively
olivaceous coloration and streaked back, into wliich the following three subspecies are supposed to shade imperceptibly, —
oregonus being furthest removed and most like eri/l/iropktkalmus, arcticus, and megalonyi successively nearing the Mex-
ican stock-form.]
P. m. orego'uus. (To the Territory of the Oregon.) Oregon Towhee. $ : Very similar
to erythrophthohnns ; (juite as black, but not continuously so ; chestnut of sides dark; wing-
coverts with small rounded, and scapulars with larger oval, white spots on outer webs near
end. (Interscapulars sometimes also with white touches ?) White marks on primaries and inner
secondaries very small or wanting, usually none at bases of the former ; white spots on tail-
feathers very small ; outer web of outer rectrix not white except at end ; greatest extent of
white on tail 1.00 or less. Excepting these particulars, this form looks more like erythroph-
thalmus than like typical muculatus, in which the body colors are olivaceous. ? dark umber-
brown, but not quite blackish. About the same size as erythrophthalmus ; but averaging rather
less; J, wing 3.40; tail 3.90; tarsus 1.10; culmen 0.54. Pacific coast region, N. to British
Columbia, S. to Southern California, melting eastward into arcticus, southeastward into
meyalony.T.
P. m. arc'ticus. (Lat. arcticus, arctic.) Arctic Towhee. Similar to the foregoing; less
purely and continuously black, with tendency to olivaceous on back and rump ; white spots of
wing-coverts larger, those of scapulars still larger and lengthening into streaks ; interscapulars
also streaked with white; white on rpiills and tail-feathers at a maximum, as in erythrophthal-
mus ; usually, also, concealed white specks in black of throat. ? comparatively dark, but
not quite blackish. In this form, the white on the wing-quills and tail-feathers, so much re-
duced in the glossy black oregonus, is as extensive as in erythrophthalmus ; but the wing-
coverts, scapulars, and interscapulars are fully marked with white; the black tends to olive, at
least on rump, and the 9 is not feirly brown. The dimensions do not diftcr appreciably from
those of oregonus. Central region of N. Am., from limit of erytlirophthalmus in Kansas, Ne-
bra.ska, and Dakota, to that oi oregonus in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia; N. in
summer to the region of the Saskatchewan ; S. in winter to Texas ; in the S. Rocky Mt. region
melting into megalonyx.
FRINGILLID.E: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 459
460 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSFS. — PA S SERES - OSCINES.
P. m. inegalo'uyx. (^leyaXr), me(]ale, great; ow$, omu; claw.) Spurred Towhee. The
prevailing form in the S. Kucky Mt. region, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Similar
to arcticus, but feet larger, with highly-developed claws ; hind claw decidedly longer than its
digit ; lateral claws reaching to or beyond middle of middle claw. In this form at any rate,
the 9 is hardly distinguishable in color from the ^, being slaty-blackish with an appreciable
olivaceous shade, thus exhibiting a decided approach to the typical Mexican stock. The note
is entirely dififerent from that of the eastern Towhee, being so exactly like the scolding " mew "
of a Catbird, that I have heard persons stoutly contend that there are Catbirds in Arizona.
The general habits, nest, and eggs of all these western Towhees are substantially the same as
those of the eastern. (P. m. magnirostris, Brewst. Auk, Apr. 1891, p. 146, is described as
similar to megalonyx ; but bill much larger, rufous of under parts paler, upper parts browner,
and tinged with olive; 9 decidedly lighter than $ : bill from nostril 0.42, its depth there 0.40.
Laguna, L. Cala. Not admitted in A. 0. U. List, 189.5.)
P. m. atra'tus. (Lat. afrai«<s, blackened ; ater, black.) San Diego Towhee. Like we-
galonyx ; white markings more restricted; ^ black even on rump; 9 dark brown, even sooty
on throat and breast. Type from Pasadena, Los Angeles Co., Cal.; range ascribed from
southern coast region into Lower California. Ridgw. Auk, July, 1899, p. 254.
P. m. clemen'tis. (For etym. see under Carpodacus dementis.) San Clemente Towhee.
Insular form of we^fZowyx, scarcely differentiated ; slightly larger, and lighter colored ; $ about
like 9 megalonyx in tone of dark parts ; call note said to be different. Average dimensions of
$ : Length 8.65; wing 3.45; tail 4.25; tarsus 1.10; hind claw 0.53; culmen 0.55. San Cle-
mente Island. Not in former eds. of Key. Pipilo " clementce,''^ by error for dementis. Grin-
NELL, Auk, July, 1897, p. 294. P. maculatus " dementce^^ (sic!) A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk,
Jan. 1899, p. 120, No. 588 c.
P. consobri'nus. (Lat. as adj., related, as are those who are the children of brothers or sis-
ters; as noun, consobrinus, a first-cousin, ^, or cotisohrina, the same, 9 ; co», with, and sobri-
nus for sororinus, sisterly, from soror, a sister ; originally referring only to the children of sisters.)
Guadalupe Towhee. An insular form, distinct from any of the foregoing, though belong-
ing to the same group. Coloration most nearly as in oregonus, in the reduction, restriction, or
extinction of the white markings in the black of the ^. Head, neck, and back black; white
on outer webs of scapulars usually bordered with black ; indications of white wing-bars in rows
of spots on ends of median and greater coverts; inner secondaries and a middle portion of pri-
maries with narrow and short white edgings; two or three lateral tail-feathers with short white
patches. Below, as usual, white with chestnut sides and buflf crissum. 9 similar, but dull
brownish-black where the J is black, and smaller white tail spots. Decidedly smaller than
the three foregoing; ^ wing 3.00-3.25 ; tail 3.50-3.75; 9 somewhat less. The dimensions
are the main characteristic of the species in comparison with oregonus. Guadalupe Island,
Lower California. P. maculatus consobrinus, Ridgw. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. ii. Apr.
1876, p. 189, and as such taken up in the 3d ed. of the Key, 1887, p. 876, after the admission
of Lower California and its islands to ornithological union with the North American Fauna;
P. consobrinus Ridgw. Bull. Nutt. Club, July, 1877, p. 60; Man. 1887, p. 437 ; A. 0. U.
Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886 and 1895, No. 589.
(Tiroivn Toivhees : subgenus Kieneria.)
[P. fus'cus. (Lat. /((scifs, dark brown.) Mexican Brown Towhee. An obscure Mexican
stock-form, carelessly described by Swainson, to which the five following N. Am. birds are
probably referable as subspecies.]
P. f. mesoleu'cus. (Gr. fitcros, mesos, middle ; 'KevKos, leucos, white ; tlie middle under parts
whiter than in crissalis.) Brown Towhee. Canon Towhee. ^ 9 : Above, uniform
grayisli-browi) with slight olivaceous shade ; crown brown in decided contrast ; wings and tail
FRINGILLIDyE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS. 461
like back, unmarked, or some tail-feathers with rusty tips. Below, a jialer sliade of color of
back, wliiteuing ou belly, tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky on sides of throat aud
middle of breast, washed with rich rusty-brown on Hanks and crissum ; belly usually quite
white, contrasting with rusty Hanks and vent ; throat ochrey, usually immaculate aud embraced
necklace-wise with dusky spots in series on each side, aggregated and blotched on breast. Bill
dusky, paler below; feet brown, toes usually darker than tarsus. Sexes indistinguishable. In
fresh fall specimens, tawny suffuses nearly all the under parts except middle of belly, and the
tliroat-spots are diffused instead of being in series. In the very early streaked stage, there is
no distinction of a brown cap ; wing-coverts rusty-edged; whole under parts dusky-streaked.
Length 8.00-8.50; wing .3.60-4.00; tail 4.25-4.60; tarsus 1.05; bill 0.60. S.W.U. S., chiefly
New Mexico and Arizona; but also W. Texas, S. Colorado, Utah, and Nevada; south to N.
Sonora aud Chihuahua. Nest in bushes ; eggs, as in all the Brown Towhees, speckled and
scratched with dark brown and blackish on a pale greenish ground, 1.00 X 0.70. (P. fuscus
of the Key, orig. ed. 1872.)
P. f. albi'gula. (Lat. albus, white; gida, throat.) White-throated Brown Towhee.
St. Lucas Towhee. Exactly like the last, but white of under parts extending farther up
breast ; gular spots more restricted, sparser, and better defined. Slightly distinguished ; but in
good spring specimens rusty is restricted to crissum ; ochraceous of the throat less extensive,
paler, and mainly confined within the necklace, and the size averages less : wing 3,40-3.70 ; tail
3.85-4.2.). Lower California, N. to about lat. 30°.
P. f. seni'culus. (Lat. seniciilus, diminutive of senex, an old man.) Anthony's Towhee.
Intermediate between the last; and the next. Said to be distinguished from alhigula by its
darker lower parts, more pronounced throat-patch (which is very pale buffy in alhigula), aud
chestnut lower tail-coverts ; and to differ from crissalis in smaller size, less rusty on lower
parts, darker upper parts and more grayish lower parts. " Above, clear grayish sepia: pileum
indistinctly Vandyke brown ; below, smoky gi-ayish with rusty wash on flanks and buffy on
lower abdomen ; lower tail-coverts chestnut; throat tawny clay-color, about as in crissalis ;
mahir region grayish-brown." Size of the foregoing. Southern California and S. in Lower
California to lat. 29°. P. f. senicula, Anthony, Auk, Apr. 1895, p. 1 11 ; A. O. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, No. 591 c ; but whatever may be the question regarding the propriety of recognizing
tliis connecting link by name, there can be none respecting the gender of the word seniculus.
P. f. crissa'lis. (Low Lat. crissalis, relating to the crissmn, the under tail -coverts, which are
highly colored.) Crissal Towhee. California Towhee. Similar to mesoZcMC»s ; crown
like back ; rather darker above, with an olivaceous tinge, decidedly so below ; middle of belly
scarcely or not whitening, gula fulvous strong, and, with its dusky streaks, definitely restricted
to throat; flanks and crissum chestnut or deep cinnamon-brown. Rather larger. ^ : Length
8.50-9.00 ; wing 3.75-4.00 ; tail 4.50-5.00 ; tarsus 1.12 ; culmen 0.60 ; 9 rather less. Pacific
Coast region, N. to Umpqua Valley, Oregon, S. through southern California, abundant. Nest
in bushes, proba1)ly also on ground ; eggs 3-4, 0.95 X 0.72, pale greenish or bluish-white,
fully spotted with blackish and neutral tints. This is the dark coast form, bearing tiie same
relation to mesoleucus that the coast Harporhynchus redivivus bears to the paler H. lecontei of
the interior. The crown is brownish, but not forming a cap contrasting with back : throat
fulvous ratlicr than ochrey ; this color of very limited extent, and speckled with dusky
througliout ; crissum rich rusty. P. fuscns, Cass. 111. 1854, pi. 17; Bd. B. N. A. 1858,
]). 517 ; but not Una fuscus of Sw. Philos. Mag. i, 1827, p. 434 ; Fringilla crissalis Vigors,
Voy. Blossom, 1839, p. 19; P. fuscus, var. crissalis CoiiES, Key, orig. ed. 1872, p. 153, and
of later writers.
P. f. carolas (To Charlotte C. McGregor.) Northern Bkown Towhee. Described as
grayer and more uniform above, with paler throat and slightly longer tail. Battle Creek. Cal.
McGregor, Bull. Cooper Club, i. No. 1, Jan. 1899, p. 11.
462 SYSTEMA riC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
P. a'berti. (To Lieut. J. W. A])ert.) Abert's Towhee. Gray Towhee. Somewhat
similar to foregoiug species of this section of the geuus, but entirely distinct ; a very large,
long-tailed form, with no decided markings anywhere excepting the dark face. Adult ^ 9 :
Above, grayish-brown, with a slight fulvous tiuge ; wings and tail darker and purer
brown; tail-feathers slightly rusty-tipped. Below as above, but paler, by dilution with a
peculiar pale pinkish-brown shade (like that on sides of an Oregon Snowbird), particularly
on throat ; crissuui more cinnamon-brown ; lores and chin blackish. Bill and feet brown -^
under mandible paler than upper. Young more rusty. There is much individual variation
in shade, but this large dingy whole-colored bird with dark face is always easily recognized.
Length 8.50-9.00; wing 3.40-3.90; tail 4.50-5.00; tarsus LOO-I.IO. New Mexico and
Arizona, abundant, especially in the valley of the Gila and Colorado, where we find it a wild
and shy inhabitant of thickets and chaparral; N. to Colorado, Nevada, and Utah. Nest in
bushes, loose and bulky ; eggs 3-4, LOO X 0.75, bluish-white, sparingly speckled and scrawled
with blackish-browu, chiefly about the large end.
OREOSPI'ZA. (Gr. opos, oros, gen. opeos, oreos ; a-niCa, sjnza, a fringilline bird, perhaps
tlie Chaflinch.) Ilehited to Pipilo, especially to the section of that genus which coutaius
greenish species : smaller than any of the foregoing Towhees; best recognized by the pattern
of coloration, which is olivaceous, with yellow under the wing, rufous cap, and white throat
in ashy surroundings, the latter feature strikingly as in Zonotrichia albicollis — indeed it is not
easy to see how Oreospiza difi'ers in form from Zonotrichia. One western species. {Pipilo,
section III. of Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90; Oreospiza Ridgw. Man. 2d ed. 1896, p. 605;
A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 129.)
O. chloru'ra. (Gr. ^apos, chloros, green; ovpa, aura, tail.) Green-tailed Towhee.
Blandixg's Finch. Adult ^ 9 • Above, grayish-green, sometimes quite olive-gray, at
others bright olive-green ; exposed surfaces ofwiugsand tail with brighter greenish edgings.
Edge of wing and under coverts and axillaries bright yellow. Crown rich chestnut ; forehead
blackish, with a whitish loral spot on each side. Chin and throat pure white, bounded by
dusky maxillary stripes, as sharply contrasted with dark surroundings as in the White-throated
Sparrow. Whole breast and sides of head, neck, and body fine clear-ash, or slate-gray, ob-
scured on flanks and crissum with brownish, fading to white on belly — completing the
resemblance to Zonotrichia albicollis. Bill blackish-plumbeous ; feet brown, toes ilarker.
Length about 7.00 ; extent 9.50 ; wing 2.80-3.20 ; tail 3.40-3.70 ; tarsus 0.95. Less mature
birds have the chestnut cap veiled by gray tips of the feathers. Youug : Crown like back.
Upper parts dull brown tinged with greenish in places, streaked throughout with dusky, but
wings and tail as in adult ; under parts forecasting pattern of adults, but dusky-streaked
throughout. This stage is brief; birds resemble adults after first fell moult. Western U. S.,
especially S. Rocky Mt. region and aci-oss the Great Basin to Coast Range of Cal.; N. to Wy-
oming, Montana, Idaho, and eastern Oregon; S. in Lower California and Mexico; migratory;
winters over our border. A sprightly inhabitant of shrubbery ; nest in bush or on the ground ;
eggs 0.90 X 0.68, pale greenish or grayish-white, freckled all over with bright reddish-brown,
usually aggregating or wreathing at the larger end. (Pipilo chlorurus Baird, 1 858, and of most
later authors, as of all former eds. of the Key. Oreospiza chlorura Ridgw. 1896; A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 121, No. 592* 1.)
ARKE'3IONOPS. (Gr. dppT)fia>v, arhremon, s{)eechless, silent ; ayjr, oj^s, face, aspect: i. e. re-
sembling the S. Am. genus Arremon.) Bill not notable in any way. Tarsus exceeding mid-
dle toe and claw; lateral toes short ; outer a little longer than inner; claw of neither reaching
base of middle claw; fore claws all small and weak; hind claw about as long as its digit.
Wings very short and much rounded ; 4th -7th primaries about equal and longest ; 2d as long
as 9th ; 1st equalling 3d from innermost secondary. Tail about as long as wings, much
rounded ; outer featlieis 0..50 shorter than middle ones ; all broad to their rounded ends. Color-
ICTERID.E: AMERICAN STARLINGS; BLACKBIRDS, ETC.
46a
ation olivaceous with yellow edije of wine: 'ind inconspicuous head-stripes. (Embernagra of
former eds. of the Key, ami of A. 0. U. Lists as of U. S. writers generally ; hut our bird
proves not to belong to that S. Am. genus. Arremonops RiDGw. Man. 189(J, 2d ed. p. 434;
A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 129.)
A. rufivirga'ta. (Lat. rufiis, rufous, virgata, striped; virga, a rod.) Greex Fixch,
Texas Sparrow. Adult ^ : Above, dull olive-green, brighter on wings and tail. Under
I)arts shading from color of the upper through grayish-(dive and olive-gray to sordid whitish,
purest on middle of belly. Inner webs of wing-quills fuscous ; tail the same, but more glossed
with greenish, and sometimes showing traces of crosswise watering with darker waves, as often
seen in the Song Sparrow. Whole bend and lining of wing bright clear yellow. Crown like
back, with two broad stripes of dull rufous from nostrils to nape; a similar rufous stripe behind
eye, sometimes traceable past eye to the lore, then defining a superciliary line of light olive-
gray or whitisli. A whitish eye-ring. Upper mandible light brown, lower drying yellowish ;
feet pale. Length 6.25-6.75 (not 5.50, as in Baird) ; extent 8.50-9.00; wing 2.40-2.75; tail
the same; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.90 ; middle toe and claw 0.75. 9 does not differ materially,
and young lacks the head-stripes. Young, first plumage: Above, mi.Ked brown and (dive-
tawny; wings brown, edged with olive, the coverts edged and tipped with tawny; breast like
back; belly tawny. Texas, in Lower Rio Grande Valley. Inhabits shrubbery, chaparral,,
and close cover of all kinds, where it is difficult to discover, owing to its quiet ways and green-
ish tints. Keeps near the ground, but builds a domed nest of twigs and grasses in bushes and
low trees; two broods are reared, in May-June and Aug.-Sept. Eggs 2-4, pure white, un-
marked, averaging 0.85 X 0.65, but from 0.75-0.90 by 0.60-0.70. (Embernagra rufovirgata
of 2d-4th eds. of the Key. Arremonops rufivirgata A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897,.
p. 129, No. 586.)
Family ICTERID^ : American Starlings ; Blackbirds, etc.
Cidtrirostral Oscines with 9 primaries, 9 secondaries, 12 rectrices and scuteUatc tarsi. — A
family of moderate extent, confined to America, where it represents the Sturnidce, or Starlings
of the Old World, and to some extent
the Ploceid(B or Weaver-birds and
their allies; but the latter family is
well distinguished by conirostral bill
and 10 primaries. It consists of the
Blackbirds and Orioles, among tlie
former being included the Bobolinks,
Cowbirds, and Meadow " Larks."
The family Icteridce is composed of
about l.'JO species, distributed among
over 30 genera or subgenera. The
relationshijis are very close with
Fringillidce, on the one hand ; on the
other, they grade toward Crows (Cor-
vidce). They share with fringilline
birds the characters of angulated com-
missure and only 9 developed prima-
ries, whicli distinguish tliem from all
other famiHes wiiatst)ever ; but tlie
Fig. 313. — A typical Irlmis i /.
listinctions from FringiUid<c
In fact, I know of no character tliat will relegate the Bob(dink and ('
re not
.wbird
(After Amliibon.)
easily expressed.
() IctcridfC rather
464 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
than to Fringillidce, iu the current acceptation of these terms; and Dolichonijx orrjHvorus is
curiously similar in some respects to Ammodramus caiidacutus. In general, however, IcteridcB
are cultrirostral rather than strictly conirostral Osciues, having that cutting rather than
crushing style of bill seen in perfection in the Crows, toward which some Icteridce approach ;
being thus distinguished by length, acuteness, and not strictly conical shape of the uunotched,
unbristled bill, which has a peculiar extension of culmen on forehead, dividing the prominent
antife of close-set velvety feathers that reach to or on nasal scale, — a character well exhibited
in Stiirnella, for instance. In length, the bill usually equals if it does not exceed the head; the
tip is unnotched, rictus unbristled, commissure obtusely but evidently angulated. The bill is
shortest and most fringilline in Dolichonyx and Molothrus ; most acute in Orioles (Icterus),
where it is sometimes actually decurved ; most thrush-like in the genus Scolecophagus ; most
crow-like in Grackles (Quiscalus). (See any figs, beyond.) In some exotic genera (of the
subfamily Cassicince or Cassiques) the bill acquires enormous dimensions and very peculiar
shapes, from expansion of the mesorhinium into a frontal shield; and in these the nostrils open
flush with the bill. Excepting in arboreal Orioles and Cassiques, the feet are gressorial, large
and strong, fitted for the more or less terrestrial life which most of the species lead, walking
on the ground with ease instead of hopping like most Fringillidce. No specialties of wing or
tail ; former usually pointed, latter rounded, sometimes very large and fan-shaped.
Among our moderate number of species are representatives of four of the five subfamilies
into which Icteridce are conveniently and quite naturally divisible. In most genera black is
the prevailing color — either uniform and of intense metallic lustre, or contrasted with masses
of red or yellow. In Sturnella the pattern is " niggled." In nearly all, the sexes are conspic-
uously dissimilar, the 9 being smaller and brownish or streaky in the iridescent black species,
greenish and yellowish in the brilliantly colored ones. All are migratory in this country. As
a rule they are strictly monogamous, and build elaborate nests ; but our genera Molothrus and
Ccdlothrus offer the striking exception of polygamy and polyandry among Oscines ; for these,
like the Old World Cuckoos, do not pair and make no nest. Other details are best given under
heads of the four North American subfamilies first established in the 2d ed. of the Key, 1884.
The A. 0. U. Lists take no note of these; but they are recognized in the British Museum Cat-
alogue of Birds, xi, 1886, by so eminent an authority as Dr. P. L. Sclater, and should not have
been ignored by our Committee. These groups, with their component genera, may be ana-
lyzed as follows by the salient features more likely to attract the attention of the student than
less obvious technical characters : —
Analysis of SubfaniiUes and Genera.
Agf.l«in«. Marsh Blackbirds, etc. Terrestrial and gregarious. Bill conic-acute, sometimes quite fringilline, shorter,
or scarcely longer tlian head. Feet stout.
Bobolinks. Sexes unlike in summer only. Black, white, and buff (f, or yellowish (f in winter and 5 ; no red.
Bill fringilline. Tail-feathers very acute. Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw .... Dolichonyx
Cowbirds. Sexes unlike. Lustrous black (f, brown $ ; no red or yellow Molothrus
Cowbirds Sexes less unlike, cf with erectile ruff on neck, sinuated primaries and red eyes . . Callothrus
Marsh Blackbirds. Sexes unlike. Lustrous black (;f, red on wing; streaky 9; no yellow .... Agelaus
Prairie Blackbirds. Sexes unlike. Lustrous black (J, brown 9, both with yellow head . . Xanlhocephalus
8tdrneli,in.e. Meadow Larks. Terrestrial and imperfectly gregarious. Bill of peculiar shape. Tail very short. Some
of the secondaries elongated. Feet large and stout.
Sexes alike. Motley-colored, extensively yellow below, with black breastplate Sturnella
IcTERiN«. Orioles. Arboreal, non-gressorial, non-gregarious. Bill extremely acute, sometimes decurved. Feet weak.
Sexes unlike.
Black, with yellow or orange or chestnut in masses, in the cf; 9 greenish and yellowish Icterus
QmscALiNiE. Grackles. Terrestrial and gregarious. Bill elongate, turdine or corvine. Feet stout, gressorial. Color
of (f entirely iridescent black ; 9 brown or blackish.
Thrush Blarkhirds. Bill shorter than head, turdine ; even tail shorter than wings Scolecophagus
Crow Blackbirds. Bill not shorter than head, corvine ; graduated tail shorter or not than wings Quiscalus
ICTERID.E — A GELJEIN/E : MARSH BLACKBIRDS.
465
(J, iu breeding plumage: Black
Subfamily ACEL/EIN/E : Marsh Blackbirds.
Gregarious, graiiivorous species, more or less completely terrestrial, and chiefly pulustrine,
uot ordinarily conspicuous vocalists ; building rather rude, not pensile, nests, laying 4-6 spotted
or curiously limned eggs. Feet strong, fitted both for walking and for grasping swaying reeds;
wings more or less pointed, equalling or exceeding the tail in length; bill conic-acute, shorter
or little longer than head, its cutting edges more or less inflected. Five well-marked genera,
species of four of which abound in the U. S., on plain and prairie, in marsh and meadow. In
the West, they swarm about the settlements, stage and railroad stations, military posts, and
other habitable places. We have half of the ten genera which compose this subfamily, the
extra-limital ones being Amblyrhamphus, Leistes, Pseudoleistes, Nesopsar, and Curaus.
DOLICHO'NYX. (Gr. 8o\ix6s, dolichos, long ; 6W|, onux, claw.) Bobolinks. Sexes
unlike, but only in the breeding season: ^ black, buff, and white ; 9 brownish and yellowish.
Bill short, conic, fringilline, not nearly as long as head. Wings long and pointed, 1st and 2d
quills longest, others rapidly graduated. Tail stiffened, with rigid very acute feathers, almost
like a Woodpecker's, shorter than wing. Feet stout ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw ;
claws very large. One remarkable species noted for the peculiar changes of plumage and the
" mad music" of the ^; abundant iu marsh and meadow of eastern U. S.
D. oryzi'vorus. (Gr. opv^a, oruza, Lat. oryza, rice ; roro, I devour. Fig. 314.) BOBOLINK.
Meadow-wink. Maybird. Skunk Blackbird, Northern States. Reed-bird, Middle
States. Rice-bird and Butter-bird, Southern States,
cervix buff; scapulars, rump, and upper
tail - coverts ashy - white ; interscapulars
streaked with black, buff, and ashy ; outer
quills edged with yellowish ; bill blackish -
horn ; feet brown. The faultless full dress
of black, white, and buff is worn only for
a brief period ; and even in spring and
summer, nn)St males are found to have
yellowish t<juches in the black, especially
of the under parts. The change occurs
in spring by aptosochromatism, without
moult ; the yellow ends of the feathers are
dro))ped, bringing the black to the surface.
A similar wliiteuing of the buff" cervix oc-
curs in summer, whence the untenable D.
0. ulbinucha Ridgw., based on speciinens °^^ ®'^''
I collected in N. Dakota in 1873. The "delirious song," which has stimulated so many poets
to the exercise of their versifying craft, is only heard while the males are trooping their way to
their breeding-grounds, and before the midsummer change of feather. <J in fall, 9 > J^nd young,
entirely difl'erent in color: Yellowish-brown above, brownish-yellow below ; crown and back
conspicuously, nape, rump, and sides less broadly, streaked with black ; crown with median and
lateral light stripes ; wings and tail blackish, pale-edged ; bill brown, paler below. In this, the
ordinary condition, ^ is best known by superior size. Fall birds are more buffy than spring 9 ;
<y changing shows confused characters of both sexes (see p. 94) ; but in any plumage the
species may be recognized by stiflisli, extremely acute tail-feathers, in connection with special
dimensions. ^: Length 7.00-7.50 ; extent 11.50-12.25 ; wing 3.50-3.80 ; tail 2.75-3.00; tarsus
1.00; middle toe and claw 1.25. 9: Length (5.50-7.00 ; extent 10.50-11.25 ; wing 3.25-3.50,
etc., averaging 0.50 in length and 1.00 iu extent less than ^. Chiefly eastern U. S. and Can-
30
Fio 314 —Bobolink, jf, reduced.
(Slieppard del Nuh-
466 S YS TEMA TIC S YXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
ada; X. to 54° in the region of the Saskatchewan, W. not ordinarily beyond the central plains,
but occurs in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Utah, Nevada, etc. Winters wholly extralimital ;
breeds mainly in about the northern half of its N. Am. range, but sometimes S. to the Gulf
States. In May, the vivacious, voluble, and eccentric "Bobolinks" pass North, spreading
over meadows of the Middle and Northern States from the Atlantic to Kansas and Dakota,
perfecting their black dress, and breeding in June and July. After the midsummer change the
"Eeed-bird" or " llice-bird " comes back, thronging the marshes in immense flocks with
Blackbirds, has simply a clinking Bote, feeds on wild oats and rice, to which it is highly de-
structive while the grain is in the milk, becomes extremely fat, and is accounted a great deli-
cacy for the table, as well as a pest in the field. The name "Ortolan," applied by some
gunners and restaurateurs to this bird, as well as to the Carolina Rail {Porzana Carolina), is
in either case a strange misnomer, the Ortolan being a fringilline bird of Europe, Emheriza
hortulana L. (Lat. hortulanus, relating to a garden). In the West Indies, where this bird
retires in winter, as it does also to Central and South America, it is called " Butter-bird." The
names " Bobolink " and " Meadow- wink " are in imitation of its cry; " Skunk Blackbird " notes
the resemblance in ccdor to the obnoxious quadruped. The migrations are performed mostly
at night, when in May and early September one may hear the mellow metallic "chink" of the
invisible passengers. Nest on the ground or close to it, artfully concealed in the grass, com-
posed of weed stems, grasses, and finer materials, 4.00 X 2..50 outside, cupped 2.50 X 1.50
inside ; eggs 4-7, usually 5 or 6, from 0.90 X 0.65 to 0.70 X 0.60, averaging 0.82 X 0.63,
stone-gray, dotted, mottled, and clouded with dark browns, and lighter neutral tints, usually
also marked with some tine blackish scrawls, the whole pattern intricate and very variable.
MOL'OTHRUS. (Gr. fjLoXodpos, or jjioXo^pos, vagabond, tramp, parasite.) COWBIRDS.
Bill short, stout, conic, and fringilline, about f as long as head ; entirely unnotched and un-
bristled, with little bend of commissure, the broad culmen running well up on forehead, nostrils
well in advance of the feathers. Wings long and pointed; first 3 primaries entering into tip;
rest rapidly graduated. Tail shorter than wings, neai"ly even or a little rounded, tending to
divaricate in the middle, the feathers broad and plane to their rounded ends. Feet strong;
tarsus not shorter than middle toe. ^ black and lustrous on the body, brown on the head,
without red or yellow ; 9 plain brown. Terrestrial, but not specially palustrine ; eminently
gregarious and polygamous, or rather communistic, never mating or building nests; thus
parasitic, like Old World Cuckoos ; no musical ability. There is a single notorious species
in the I:. S., and another subspecies. Several other species in the warmer parts of Amer-
ica, all of the same irregular and objec-
tionable tendencies, are usually brought
under Molothrus, but sometimes dissociated
in other genera.
M. a'ter. (Lat ater, black. Fig. 315.)
Brown - headed Blackbird. Cow
Blackbird. Common Cowbird. Cow-
bunting. COW-TROOPIAL. COWPEN-
^. BIRD. Buffalo - BIRD. Lazy -bird.
^ Clodhopper. Cuckold. Shiny-eye.
^ Adult (J: Lustrous green-black, with steel-
"" -^ -«s -r;jr »^ — =^ blue, purple, and violet iridescence. Head
'"'' - "^-^ and neck deep wood-brown, with some pur-
Fig. 315. - Cowl,.,, , i M.-ppard del. Nich- pUshlustre. Bill and feet black. Length
ols sc.) ' '^
7..50-8.00; extent 13.50; wing about 4.50,
at least over 4.00; tail about 3.25; bill 0.70 ; tarsus 1.00-1.10. Adult ? : An obscure-looking
bird, dusky grayish -brown, nearly uniform, but paler below than above, where most of the
icterid.e — agel.eiNjE: marsh blackbirds. 467
feathers have dusky centres ; and most of those of the under parts have dark shaft-liues, giving
a somewhat streaky appearance. Some gloss on upper parts, particularly on wings and tail,
where a slight greenish lustre is usually evident. Bill blackish -brown, paler below; feet
blackish-brown. Smaller than $: Length 7.00-7.50: wing about 3.75; tail 2.75. Young
^ 9 '• Similar to 9 adult; still duller, and more variegated; upper parts dusky brown, the
feathers skirted with gray, producing a set of semicircles on back ; below, pale grayish, or even
ochrey-brown, everywhere streaked with dusky. Sexual difference in size is soon appreciable,
and black of $ soon begins to appear in patches. Temperate N. Am., S. in winter through
Mexico ; migratory, abundant, gregarious, polygynous, polyandrous, parasitic. The singular
habits of this bird, shared by others of the genus, form one of the most interesting chapters in
ornithology. Like the European Cuckoo, it builds no nest, laying its eggs by stealth in nests
of various other birds, especially Warblers, Vireos, and Sparrows ; and it appears to constitute,
furthermore, a remarkable exception to the rule of conjugal affection and fidelity among birds.
A wonderful provision for perpetuation of the species is seen in its instinctive selection of smaller
birds as the foster-parents of its offspring ; for the larger egg receives the greater share of warmth
during incubation, and the lustier young Cowbird asserts its precedence in the nest; while the
foster-birds, however reluctant to incubate the strange egg (their devices to avoid the duty are
sometimes astonishing), become assiduous in their care of the foundling, even to the neglect of
their own young, which usually perish in consequence. The Cowbird's egg hatches in 10 or
11 days, and thus sooner than that of most birds; this obviously confers additional advantage.
The list of birds in whose nests Cowbirds' eggs have been found is now about 100, and includes
a large number of Finches, Warblers, Chats, Greenlets, Wrens, Larks, Thrushes, Guatcatchers,
Flycatchers, etc.; there seems to be really little choice. While small species are usually vic-
timized, this is not always the case ; we have found eggs in nests of the Kingbird, Towhee,
Robin, Bobolink, Marsh Blackbird, Brewer's Blackbird, Yellow-headed Blackbird, various
Orioles, Red-headed Woodpecker, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, and Carolina Dove. In the West,
where Cowbirds swarm about the ranches and settlements, it is the rule, I had almost said, to
find their eggs in nests of the prairie FringilUdce, etc. Egg usually single ; sometimes 2, 3,
and even 4 are found in a nest ; they range 0.75-1.00 X 0.60-0.70, averaging 0.85 X 0.65, and
are white or whitish, fully speckled and dashed with browns and neutral tints, in very variable
details of pattern. The number which may be laid by any one 9 is unknown, supposed to be
8 or more ; the laying season is from middle of May to end of July.
M. a. obscu'rus. (L,a,t. obscurus, dark.) Dwarf Cowbird. Similar; smaller; j;^ the size
of 9 ater; 9 under 7.00; wing 3.33; tail 2.33. The difference is strongly marked, and ap-
parently constant. Southwestern U. S., Texas toS. Arizona, and S. into Mexico; the resident
form, breeding there, while ater passes on, though the two are associated during the migration
of the latter. Swarming like ater; eggs as in that species, but smaller; only up to about 0.80
X 0.60, laid from middle of April to end of July in the nests of such birds as the Common
Cowbird usually selects ; the ascertained list of species victimized is now 25.
CAL'LOTIIKUS. (A word apparently formed to agree in termination with Blolothnis, from
Gr. KdXXoi, beauty, + {Mol-)othnts : Cassin, Pr. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1866, j). 18.) Brazkn
Cowbirds. Generic characters nearly those of Molothrits; but feathers of neck of $ elon-
gated, forming an erectile ruff, like the pile of velvet, and inner webs of 4 outer primaries sinu-
ated and emarginated in a peculiar manner. Sexual difi'ereuces in coloration less marked than
in Molothrus. Eggs whole-colored. Our single species has been given in 2d-4th eds. of Key
as 31. (fneus; but the Mexican birds have proven to be of two species, to one of which, from
western Mexico, the original Psarocoliits ceneus of Wagler has been restricted, while for the
other, M. robustus of Cabanis, Mus. Hein. i, 1851, p. 11)3, has been adopted, this being the
bird of eastern Mexico, with which ours is identical. See Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 589; Coues,
Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 900; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, p. 203, No. 49t).
468 5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
C. robus'tus. (Lat. y-obustus, sitciut, strong, robust; robur, strength.) Brass Cowbird.
Bronzed Cowbird. Red-eyed Cowbird. Adult $: Entire body and head black, splen-
didly lustrous with bronzy reflections, the tint much like that of the back of Quiscalus ceneus.
This rich brassy-black uniform over the whole bird, there being no distinction of color between
head and body, as in 31. ater. The bronze only on ends of the feathers, the covered parts of
which are violet-black, with plain dusky roots. Wings and tail black, with violet, purple,
and especially green metallic lustre on upper surfaces. Under wing- and tail-coverts chiefly
violaceous-black ; purplish and violaceous tints most noticeable on upper coverts of both wings
and tail; reflections of quill-feathers themselves chiefly green. Bill ebony-black. Feet black.
Iris red. Length 8.00-8.50; extent about 15.00; wing 4.50-475; tail 3.25-3.50; tarsus 1.15-
1.25; bill 0.90 along culinen, very stout and especially deep at base, much compressed; lateral
outlines concave ; under outline straight ; upper gently convex throughout ; tip very acute.
9 notably smaller : wing scarcely over 4.00; tail about 3.00; culmen scarcely 0.75; tarsus
1.00. Color not brown, as in 31. ater 9 , but uniformly quite black, with considerable gloss,
though nothing like the brassy splendor of ^. Wings and tail with greenish reflections.
Young (J: Uniform dull black, faintly violaceous on back and rump, greenish on wings and
tail. Early spring birds, in imperfect dress, are exactly like adult 9 iu color, but much larger.
Central America and Mexico to the Lower Rio Grande of Texas, abounding in some places ; a
large and very handsome Cowbird, added to our Fauna in 1877. It is a bird of striking aspect,
with its bloody eyes and top-heavy attitudes. Polygamous and parasitic like the others, but
egg entirely diSerent, being greenish-white, or pale bluish-green, without markings ; size 0.85-
0.95 X 0.65-0.75; average 0.90 X 0.70. Found in nests of Icferia, Icteras, Cardinalis, Gui-
raca, 3Iilvulus, Tyrannus, etc., the birds victimized thus being much larger than the average of
those selected by the common Cowbird.
AGELiE'US. (Gr. dyeXaior, agelaios, gregarious ; dyeXr], a flock. The A. 0. U. continues to
misspell the word ^^Agelaius," after Vieillot's original error.) Red-wing Marsh Black-
birds. Maize-birds. Maizers. Bill about as long as head, stout at base, where deeper
than broad, upper and under outlines on an average about straight ; commissure variously sinu-
ate or bent; culmen high on forehead, where flattish and broadly parting the feathers; bill
rapidly tapering to acute tip. Wings pointed, but 1st primary not longest ; usually 2d-4th
entering point of wing. Tail even or little rounded, of broad feathers widening a little to very
obtuse ends, somewhat divaricate in the middle. Tarsus a little longer than bill. Our three
species are very closely related : ^ uniform lustrous black, with bend of wing red ; 8.00-9.00
long; wing 4.50-5.00 ; tail 3.50-4.00. 9 everywhere streaked ; above blackish -brown with
pale streaks, inclining on head to form median and superciliary stripes; below, whitish, with
many sharp dusky streaks ; sides of head, throat, and bend of wing, tinged with reddish or
fulvous; length under 8.00; wing about 4.00; tail 3.00. The young ^ at first like the 9,
but larger, apt to have a general buff"y or fulvous suffusion, witli bright bay edgings of feathers
of back, wings, and tail, and soon showing black patches. The 9 9 are scarcely distinguish-
able: the J (J may be determined as foUows:
Annlysis of Species.
cf Middle wing-coverts buff, bordering the bright red patch pJxienireus
(f Middle wing-coverts buff, but black-tipped, u.sually leaving red patch without buff border .... ftiihrniufnr
(f Middle wing-coverts white, bordering the dark red patch tricolor
A. phoeni'ceus. (Gr. (^oiviKeos, jjhoinikeos, Lat. phamiceiis, red, of a color introducfnl in
Greece by the Phceniciaus. Fig. 310.) Blackbird. Marsh Blackbird. Swamp Black-
bird. Red-winged Blackbird. Red-and-buff-shouldered Marsh Blackbird.
Maize-thief. Hussar. $: Lesser wing-coverts scarlet, like arterial blood, broadly bordered
by brownisli-yellow, or brownish-white, the middle row of coverts being entirely of this cnh.r;
IC TERILLE — A GEL.EIX.E : MA RSH BLA CKBIRDS.
469
sometimes the greater row, likewise, are mostly similar, producing a patch on the winj; nearly
as large as the red one ; occasionally, there are traces of red on the edge of the wing and below ;
in some specimens the bordering is almost pure white, instead of buff. Extremes : $, length
8.25-9.85; extent 13.60-15.;30; wing 4.35-5.00; tail 3.12-3.90; bill 075-1.00; average:
Length 9.00; extent 14.50; wing 4.()5; tail 3.60. 9, length 7.35-8.55; extent 11.85-13.55;
wing 3.65-4.25; tail 2.65-3.20; bill 0.70-0.80; average: Length 7.65; extent 12.35; wing
3.85; tail 3.00; bill 0.75. The extremes here given not often seen. Southern-bred birds are
much smaller as well as glossier (see varieties given below). Temperate X. Am., N. to lat.
62°, but chiefly E. of the Eocky Mts. ; breeding anywhere in its range, wintering from about
lat. 35° S. to Central America ; accidental
iu Europe. From its general dispersion
in low or wet thickets or fields, swamps,
and marshes, the Blackbird collects in
August and September in immense flocks,
thronging extensive tracts of wild oats and
other aquatic plants in marshes and along
water courses, also visiting and doing much
damage to grain-fields. Thousands are
destroyed by boys and pot-hunters, but
the hosts scarcely diminish, and every
known artifice fails to protect the crops
from the invasion of the dusky hordes. At
other seasons the " maize-thief" is innocu-
ous, if not positively beneficial, as it de-
stroys its share of injurious insects and
seeds of troublesome weeds. Nest usually
in reeds or bushes near the ground, or in a
tussock of grass, or on the ground ; occa-
sionally in small trees, vines, and shrubbery; a bulky structure of coarse fil)rous materials,
usually strips of bark, rushes, sedges, or marsh grass, lined with finer grasses, sometimes hair,
occasionally snake skins ; size 4 or 5 inches broad outside, 4 to 6 deep outside ; cavity about
3 either way. The breeding season in northerly parts of the U. S. and Brit. Am. is mostly
from the middle of May to that of June, and often again iu July ; in the south it begins a
month earlier ; incubation about 14 days. Eggs 2-6, usually 3 or 4, ranging from the rare
extremes of 0.80 to 1.10 X 0.62 to 0.75, averaging scant 1.00 X 0.70; color pale bluisli,
bluish-green, or smoky-gray, fantastically dotted, blotched, clouded, and scrawled over with
dark or even blackish-brown, and paler or purplish shell-marks; in very rare instances an un-
marked egg is laid. The usual note is a guttural chuclc; in the breeding season the *' creak-
ing chorus" makes an indescribable medley.
A. p. sonorien'sis. (Lat. of Sonora.) SoNORAN Red-wing. Like the typical form, but
averaging rather smaller in each sex than northern-bred birds. J indistinguishable in plu-
mage from phoiniceus proper; 9 lighter colored, with more conspicuous light markings of tlie
upper parts, and white in excess of dusky in the streaking of the under parts; tinge i>f throat
rather pinkish than creamy or buff. Southwestern U. S., from tiie valley of the Lower liio
Grande to that of the Lower Colorado in southern California; south into Mexico. A. p. sono-
riensis Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 370; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, No. 498 a.
A. p. bryant'i. (To II. Bryant.) Baham.\n Rkd-wing. .'somewhat smaller than A. p.
sonoriensis, with relatively larger bill; coloration of 9 darker, and tlierefgre about as in 9 "f
phceniceus proper. Length of <J 8.00-8.50; wing 4.50; tail 3.50; culmen 1.00-1.05; depth of
Fig. 316
Nichols sc.)
■Marsh Blackbird, ^f, reduced (Sheppard del.
470 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSEBES — OSCINES.
bill at base 0.40-0.42; 9: length 6.50-7.00; wing 3.65; tail 2.80; culnieu 0.80. Bahamas
and southern Flurida to Louisiana, S. to Yucatan and Nicaragua. Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 370 ;
COUES, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 498 b.
Obs. a. }). floridanus Mayn. Birds E. N. Am. pt. xl, 1896. p. 689, is another form, ac-
cepted by the A. 0. U. in Eighth Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 121, No. 498 c; but I find there
is nothing in it.
A. guberna'tor califor'nicns. (Lat. guhernator, a governor, alluding to the red epaulettes,
as if a sign of rank or conmiaud.) Red -shouldered Marsh Blackbird. Bicolor
Blackbird. $: Lesser wing-coverts scarlet, as before, narrowly or not at all bordered with
buff, the next row having black tips for all or most of their exposed portion, so that the brown-
ish-yellow of their bases does not show much, if any. 9 indistiuguishable from 9 phceniceus.
Coast region of central and northern California ; western Oregon ; N. to Cape Disappointment,
Wasliington. Nest and eggs indistinguishable from those of phoeniceus., and general habits
identical. (Given as a subspecies of pliceniceus in all former eds. of the Key. The further
separation of our bird from typical Mexican guhernator is made by Nelson, Auk, Jan. 1897,
p. 59, on ground of rather smaller size, slenderer bill, and more streaking of upper parts of
the 9 . A. 0. U. List, Eighth Suppl. Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 128, No. 499.)
A. tri'color. (Lat. tricolor, three-colored; red, white, and black.) Red-and-white-
SHOULDERED Marsh Blackbird. TRICOLOR BLACKBIRD. $: Lesser wiug-coverts dark-
red (like venous blood), bordered with pure white. Besides this obvious distinction from
2}hoeniceus, bill is usually slenderer and tail less rounded ; gloss of plumage bluish, not greenish
(appreciably so in 9 as well as in ^ ?). 9 ^^'ith median wiug-coverts white-edged. California
and Oregon, especially coastwise, or at any rate W. of the Sierras Nevadas ; northern L. Cala. ;
scarcely migratory. General habits like those of phoeniceits ; nest and eggs indistinguish-
able ; average size of eggs a trifle less, and sets of 3 eggs the rule ; first sets are found late
in April and early in May, and there is usually a second brood. The congregations of this
Blackbird in some favorite breeding-places are enormous, and vast flocks may be seen at other
times.
XANTHOCE'PHALUS. (Gr. ^av06s, xanthos, yellow; KtcpaX^, kej^hale, head. ) Yellow-
HEADED Blackbirds. Prairie Blackbirds. General characters of Agelceus; claws more
developed, lateral reaching much beyond base of middle ; feet relatively longer. Tail more
nearly even, with narrower feathers. Wings long and pointed ; tip formed by outer 3 quills.
Colors black, white, and yellow. Eggs spotted, not scrawled.
X. xanthoce'phalus. (Fig. 317.) Yellow-headed Blackbird. ^•. Black, including
lores and small space around eye and bill ; whole head otherwise, neck, and breast, rich yellow,
orange in high feather, the color extending interruptedly to or toward belly ; some feathers
around vent, and the tibias, usually yellow also. A large white patch on wing, formed by ]iri-
mary and many greater secondary coverts, interrupted by black of bastard quills. Bill and feet
black. Length 10.00-11.00; extent 16.50-17.50; wing about 5.50 ; tail 4.50 ; bill 0.75-1.00;
tarsus 1.25. In less perfect dress, the yellow overcast with dusky. Adult 9= Dark brown,
including back of head and neck ; line over eye, throat, and breast, dull yellow, with dusky
maxillary streaks ; usually whitish feathers in the yellow, and sometimes the same iu black of
breast. No white wing-patch. Bill dark brownish horn-color; feet blackish. Much smaller:
Length 8.00-9.50; extent scarcely 14.00; wing under 5.00; tail under 4.00. Nestlings are
sniiff'y-brown; sprouting wing-feathers black, already showing white; feet flesh-color. It is
useless to pursue the endless color variations ; the species is unmistakable. Western U. S. and
British Provinces, N. to lat. 58®; E. regularly to Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, etc., casually to
Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania, New York, New England, District of Columbia, S. Carolina,
and Florida, accidentally to Cuba and Greenland ; S. into Mexico ; migratory, very abundant.
Its distribution is general on the prairies, but irregular; it flocks about ranches and settlements,
ICTERID.E — STURNELLIX.E : MEADOW STARLINGS.
471
aud collects iu colonies to breed iu marshy spots, sloughs, and coulees, anywhere in its general
range ; I have myself found it breeding from New Mexico to Manitoba. Nest a light but large
thick-brimmed fabric of dried reeds and
grasses, slung to growing ones, at no
considerable elevation above the water ;
it is usually built late in May and in
June; 5-6 inches iu outside diameter,
and about as deep ; eggs 2-6, usually
3-4, 0.95 to 1.12 long'by 0.G9 to 0.78
broad, averaging 1.00 X 0.70; ])ale
grayish-green, spotted as in Scolecopha-
gus with reddish and other browns, aud
neutral tints, but seldom scrawled as in
Agelceus. A line large species, con-
spicuous by its yellow head among the
several Blackbirds that troop together
in the West. (Icterus icterocephahis
and I. xanthocephalus Bp. ; Xantho-
cephalus icterocephahis Baird, 1858,
and of all former eds. of the Key ; Xan-
thocephalus xanthocephalus Jordan,
1884, aud A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 497; Agelaius longipes Sw. 1827; Xaniho-
cephahis longipes ScL. 1884; Psarocolius i:)erspicillatus Wagler, 1829; Xanthocephalus per-
spicdlatus Bp. 1850 ; and with all these names to select from, it is sad to think that the A. 0. U.
rules require us to perpetuate the tautonym above adopted.)
Yellow-headed Bli( kbird, reduced (Slieppard del
Subfamily STURNELLIN/E : Meadow Starlings.
If Marsh Blackbirds, Orioles, and Grackles be respectively considered t<« represent sub-
families of Icteridfe, Meadow Starlings seem to be equally entitled to such distinction : aud I
find that by making Sturnella (with Trupialis) type of a subfamily, Agelceincc are susceptible
of better definition. The characters are included under head of the type genus, as follows :
STURXEL'LA. (Irregular dimin. of Lat. sturnus, a starling. Fig. 318.) Meadow Larks.
(Name "lark" objectionable aud misleading, but apparently ineradicable.) A remarkable
genus of Ictericla. Bill along cubneu
longer than head, shorter than tarsus;
depth at base about ^ the length ;
outlines about straight ab(»ve and be-
low, and along commissure to the
strong bend near its base. Culmeu
fiattened throughout, extending broad
and far into feathers of forehead ; lat-
erally, fniutal feathers reaching uar-
rnw .scaled nostrils. Inner lateral ttic
ratlicr longer than outer, daw of
neither reaching base of middle claw.
Hind toe long, with a great claw
twice as large as middle one. Feet very large aud stout, reaching beyond end of tail when
outstretched; eminently fitted for terrestrial locomotion. Wings short and much rounded; little
difference in lengths of lst-5th quills; enlarged inner secondaries nearly covering them in
472 S YSTEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
closed wing. Tail very short, rounded, of narrow, acute feathers. Feathers of crown stiffish,
bristle-tipped. No other genus approaches Sturnella, excepting TmpiaUs, which is much the
same, with red instead of yellow. Contains several imperfectly difterentiated conspecies, li of
this country.
Analysis of Conspecies.
Common Characters. — Plumage highly variegated ; each feather of back blackish, with terminal reddish-brown
area, and sharp brownish-yellow borders ; neck similar, the pattern smaller ; crown streaked with black and brown, and
with a pale median and superciliary stripe ; a blackish line behind eye ; several lateral tail-feathers white, the others,
with inner quiUs and wing-coverts, barred or scalloped with black, and brown or gray. Edge of wing, spot over eye, and
under parts generally, bright yellow ; sides and crissum flaxen-brown, with numerous sharp blackish streaks ; breast with,
a large black crescent (obscure in young).
Prevailmg tone brown above : yellow of chin confined to space between forks of jaw ; wings and tail with confluent
black bars and gray scallops.
Larger; black less predominant ; wing 4.50 or more magna.
Smaller ; black more predominant ; wing 4.50 or less '"• hoopesi
Prevailing tone gray above : yellow of chin spreading on cheeks ; wings and tail with alternatmg black and gray bars
■neglecla
S. mag'na. (Lat. magna, large. Fig. 319.) Field Lark. Old-field Lark. Meadow
Lark. Colors as above described rich and pure, the prevailing aspect brown; black streaks
prevailing on crown ; yellow of chin usually confined between rami of under mandible ; black
bars on wings and tail usually confluent along shaft of the feathers, leaving the gray in scal-
lops. Sexes similar : ? duller colored, the yellow paler. Young at first have little if any pale
yellow, and pectoral crescent indicated by a few streaks. Length of $ 10.00-11.00; extent
about 17.00; wing 4.50 or more; tail 3.50; bill 1.35; tarsus 1.40. ?: Length 9.00-9.50;
extent about 15.00 ; wing 4.25 ; tail 3.00. Varies greatly in size, like Agelcmis ; southern-
bred birds much smaller than northern. Eastern U. S. and British Provinces ; N. to about 54° ;
mixing in the Upper Mississippi valley with neglecta, and extending to edge of the Plains ;
everywhere abundant in open country; winters usually from the Middle States southward ; im-
perfectly migratory ; partially gregarious when not breeding ; strictly terrestrial ; an agreeable
vocalist. Breeds throughout its range; nest of* dried grass, etc., on the ground, usually domed
or covered in some way in the grass-clump, occasionally at the end of a long arch-way ; the
fabric is thick-walled, with comparatively small cavity, measuring usually 6 or 7 inches acros.s
outside, and 3 or 4 in depth, with a cavity of only about 3x2 inches. Eggs 3-7, usually
4-6, oftenest 5, crystal white, rarely tinged, speckled with reddish and pur[)lisli, in endless,
variation of size, number, and shade of the markings, but neither veined nor clouded ; very
variable in size, from 0.85 X 0.72 to 1.20 X 0.90, averaging 1.10 X 0.80. Two or three
broods may be reared.
S. m. argu'tula. (Lat. argntula, rather noisy, somewhat talkative.) Florida Meadow
Lark. Slightly different from the foregoing; averaging a little smaller, yellower below,
browner above. Florida to Louisiana ; Mississippi valley to S. E. 111. and S. W. lud. Bangs,
Proc. N. E. Zool. Club, Feb. 28, 1899, p. 20.
S. m. hoopes'i. (To Josiah Hoopes, of Westchester, Pa.) Rio Grande Meadow Lark.
Very siniihir ; the browns intense, approaching reddish-brown : black at a inaxunum ; yellow
very rich. Size smaller; wing of $ about 4.25; bill and feet relatively larger; bill 1.20;
tarsus 1.60. Northern Mexico to S. border of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona; not so well
marked as the next. (S. m. mexicana of 2d-4th eds. of Key. S. vi. hoopesi Stone, Pr.
Phihi. Acad. 1897, p. 149; A. 0. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 113, No. 501 a.)
S. ueglec'ta. (Lat. neglecta, not selected, overlooked ; as the variety long was.) Western
Meadow Lark. The colors duller and paler, the prevailing aspect gray; black at a mini-
mum, not prevailing over gray on the crown ; yellow of chin usually encroaching on sides of
lower jaw; black on wings and tail usually resolved into distinct bars, alternating witli gray
ICTERID.E — STURNELLIN.E : MEADOW STARLINGS.
473
bars. Western U. S. and British Provinces; N. to Manitoba, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Al-
berta, and British Columbia, chicHy in southern portions (jf these provinces; E. regularly to the
edge of the Great Plains, as in both Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas
thence less regularly or more sparingly iu Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois*
S. in Lower California and st)me parts of Mexico ; in the Upi)er Mississippi valley at large
Meadow Lark.
preserving its own characteristics, though there often associated with marina proper. The gen-
eral habits are the same as those of the eastern bird ; but the appeai'ance in life is quite differ-
ent, and the peculiarities of the song are attested by numberless hearers of tliis tine melody,
from tlie time wlien the notes fell on the surprised ears of Audubon, Sprague, Harris, and Bell,
in ascending tlie Missouri together in 1843, to the present day. I am a competent witness to
these facts, and also to the fact th;it I have never seen a specimen that could not be distin-
guished from magna: under which circumstances I do not f(dlow the A. (). V. in reducing
nef/lecta to a subspecies of magna. The nest and eggs are indistinguisliable from those of
magna, tliougli the average of very extensive series is sliglitly larger, and the average spotting
474 5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
slightly less. As in the case of the eastern species, the Western Meadow Larks are affectionate
and faithful mates ; both sexes share the labors of nidification and incubation; the period of
the latter is 15 or Ifi days; the young leave the nest in two weeks or less, and run about before
they can fly, like young quails.
Subfamily ICTERIN/E: American Orioles; Hang-nests.
Non-gregarious, insectivorous, and frugivorous species, strictly arboricole ; of brilliant or
strikingly contrasted colors, and pleasing song ; distinguished as architects, constructing elabo-
rately woven pensile nests. Bill relatively longer, as well as slenderer and more acute than in
most Icteridce ; feet weaker, uon-gressorial, exclusively litted for perching. Three of our spe-
cies are migratory birds, abundant in summer; the rest merely reach our southern border from
tropical America, vA^here the subfamily focuses. Icterince number altogether about 40 spe-
cies, all referable to the genus Icterus, with the single exception of Gymnomystax melanic-
tems, a remarkable species with naked circumorbital region, commonly referred to AgelcBince,
but by Sclater brought under Icterince. In their modes of nidification Icterince agree with
Cassicince: and the extraordinary fabrics constructed by some members of both these sub-
families recall those of the Old World Ploceidce or Weaver-birds. To call our Icterince " Ori-
oles " is to misapply to them the name which belongs to Old World Oriolidce — an entirely
difi'erent family; but " Orioles " will they continue to be miscalled, to the end of ornithological
time.
ICTERUS. (Gr. 'Urepos, ikteros, Lat. icterus, yellow. Fig. 320.) American Orioles.
Troupials. Hano-nests. Our single genus of the subfamily : characters practically the
same. Bill averaging as long as head (more or less) ; very acute, sometimes decurved. Feet
fitted for perching, not for walking ; tarsus not longer
than middle toe and claw. Lateral toes, if not of equal
lengths, outer longest (the rule in Fringillidce ; in Icte-
ridce the reverse). Wings usually pointed and averag-
ing equal to (longer or shorter than) the rounded or
graduated tail. A large and beautiful genus of about
40 species, which vary much in details of form, but are
not easily divided otherwise than specifically. The
colors are strikiue : ^ black with oranee or yellow,
Fig. 320.- BiU of an Oriole. „ , .,,.". . ,, , , ,
usually also with white ; in one species, bhick and chest-
nut. Sexes very unlike in some species, in others quite alike. ? 9 of several species closely
resemble one another, though $ ^ are very different. We have two eastern species ; one west-
ern ; three southwestern ; and one southern straggler. These seven species represent the three
current subgenera of the genus which, as Dr. Sclater observes, "may be used as a make-
shift " ; for when we come to consider the whole genus, we find the numerous species so vari-
ously interrelated that no satisfactory sections can be established. To iny eye. Icterus icterus
looks more different from all the rest than any of these are from one another. I also observe
that though Dr. Sclater and the A. 0. U. adopt the same three subgenera — Hyphantes (or
Yphantes), Pendulinus, and Icterus proper — these authorities disagree in the way they re-
spectively allocate the species under two of the three sections. My respect for the A. 0. U.
and B. 0. U. being equal, my patriotism must be allowed weight in a case in which I have no
prejudice and no preference. I accordingly follow the American method in the following sorry
Analysis of Subgenera.
Bill stoutly conic, straight ; its depth at base equal to half the leugtli of culmen Hyphantes
(Species galbula and bullocki ; the cf black and orange.)
Bill slenderly conic, not quite straight ; its depth at base not equal to half the length of culmen . . . Pendulinus
(Species spurius, cf black and chestnut ; and cucuUntit.'i. fj black and orange.)
ICTERID.E — ICTERIN.E: AMERICAN ORIOLES: HANG-NESTS. 475
Bill slenderly conic, straight ; its depth at base not equal to half the length of culmen Icterus
{Species parisorum, cf black and yellow ; auduboni (f § black and yellow ; and icterxis (J $ black and yellow,
with throat-feathers lanceolate and orbits naked.)
*^* Further refinement of the foregoing would place auduboni (with melanocephalus) in the subgenus Ateleopsar
Cass. 1807 ; and ma^e par isorum type of the subgenus Cassiculoides Cass. 1867.
Analysis of Species.
The cf black and chestnut : spurius.
The cf black and orange : gnlbida, bullocki, cuciillotus.
The cf black and clear yellow : parisorum, atiduboni, icterus.
Feathers of the throat soft and normal.
^ black and chestnut ; $ olivaceous and yellowish. Length 7.00 or less spurius
<f black and orange, or flame-color.
Tail rounded, not longer than wings.
(5" head and neck all around black ; white on wings in bars ... galbula
cf crown and throat black, sides of head orange. White patch on wings bullocki
Tail graduated ; outer feathers an inch shorter than middle ones ; longer than wings.
cf head orange, with black mask ; $ olivaceous and yellow cucullatus
(f black and pure yellow.
(f head, neck, breast, and back black. Sexes unlike ; length about 8.00 parisorum
(f 5 head, neck, and breast black ; body yellow, greenish on back ; length about 9.50 auduboni
Feathers of throat elongate and lanceolate. Sexes alike. Length about 10.00.
cf $ Jilack and yeUow, with white on wings icterus
(Subgenus Hyphaxtes.)
{Yphantes Vieillot, 181C, and so misspelled by the A. O. U. Gr. v^6.vTe<;, hyphantes, a weaver.)
I. gal'bula. (Lat. galgiila or galbula, some small yellow bird of the ancients. " Baltimore"
is not from the city of tliat name, but from the title of Sir George Calvert, first baron of Balti-
more; the colors of the bird being chosen for his livery, or resembling those of his coat-of-
arms. Fig. 321.) Baltimore Oriole. Golden Robin. Fire-bird. Pea-bird. Ham-
mock-bird. Hanging-bird. Hang-nest. Adult $: Black and orange. Head and neck
all round, and back, black ; rump,
upper tail-coverts, lesser and under
wiug-coverts, most tail-feathers, and
all under parts from throat fiery orange,
of varying intensity according to age
and season. Middle tail-feathers black ;
wings black, the middle and greater
coverts, and inner quills, more or less
edged and tipped with white, but white
on coverts not forming a continuous
patch. Bill and feet blue-black, or
dark grayish-blue. Length 7.50-8.00;
extent 11.50-12.50; wing 3.00; tail Fio. 321.- Baltimore Oriole, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nich-
3.00. 9 smaller, and much paler, the o\s sc.)
black obscured by olive, sometimes entirely wanting. Above, mixed dusky and yellowish -
olive, somewhat overcast with a gray shade. Below, dull orange, more or less mixed with
whitish, and usually with black traces on throat. Tail and its upper coverts dull yellowish,
the central feathers usually blackish. Bill and feet lighter plumbeous than in $. Young $
entirely without black on throat and head, otherwise colored nearly like 9 • Below, dull orange
yellow, whitening on throat, shaded with olive on sides. Above, olive, more yellowish on rump
and tail, but latter without black ; middle of back obscured with dusky centres of the feathers;
wings dusky, with two white bars and white edgings of inner quills. In some splendid feath-
erings, particularly from the Mississippi valley, the orange becomes intense flauie-color, and
476 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
there is so much white ou the wings as tf> approach the character of I. hulloeki- U. S. and
adjoining British Provinces; in the interior N. to Saskatchewan and Keewatin, about lat.
55° ; W. in the U. S. nearly or quite to the Rocky Mts. of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado,
and in Brit. Am. to Assiniboia; S. in winter through Mexico and Central Am. to Panama;
accidental in Cuba and the Shetland Islands; migratory; breeds nearly tlmjughout its N. Am.
range, the Gulf coast region probably only excepted. It passes N. in late April and May,
reaching our northern districts about the middle of the latter mouth. This is one of our famous
beauties of bird-life, noted alike for its Hash of color, its assiduity in singing, and its skill at
the loom ; its elaborately fabricated and perfectly pensile nests swaying from the tops of our
shade-trees, which have one charm added when fired with such brilliancy as the Oriole brings
to contrast with verdure. Both sexes work diligently and intelligently at the nest, in the com-
position of which scarcely anything that can be woven or fitted seems to come amiss, and the
materials consequently vary interminably ; the shape is pouch-like, with the entrance some-
what contracted; the walls are firm, but thin, so that the cavity is comparatively large. The
depth of the nest is commonly 5 or 6 inches, sometimes more, the width less; the situation is
generally high in large trees, and out at the end of a branch, where it may be quite inac-
cessible. Eggs 4-6, oftenest 4 or 5, from 0.85 X 0.60 to 1. 00 X 0.65, thus rather elongate ;
ground color a shaded white, irregularly spotted, blotched, clouded, and especially scrawled
with blackish-brown and other heavy surface colors, together with subdued shell-markings.
I. bul'locki. (To Wm. Bullock, of London. Fig. 313.) Bullock's Oriole. Adult $ :
Black and orange, like the last, but orange invading sides of head and neck and forehead,
leaving only a narrow space on throat, lores, and a line through eye, black ; a large continuous
white patch ou wing, formed by middle and greater coverts. Larger than the Baltimore.
Length 8.00-8.50 ; extent 12.50-13.50; wing 4.00 ; tail 3.40. 9 : Olive-gray, below whitish,
all fore parts of body and head tinged with yellow ; wings dusky, with two white bars, but tail
and its under coverts quite yellowish. 9 thus very closely resembling 9 Baltimore, and more
detailed description may be desirable. Larger : Length about 8.00 ; extent 12.00 ; wing 3.75 ;
tail 3.25. Above olive-gray, becoming quite gray on rump, brightening into olive-yellow on
nape, upper tail-coverts, and tail. Forehead, superciliary line, sides of head and neck, and
large space on breast, bright yellow; lores and throat white. Other under parts grayish-white,
tinged with yellow ou under tail-coverts. Edge and lining of wing yellow ; middle coverts
broadly edged and tipped with white ; greater coverts and quills less conspicuously edged.
Young $ at first like 9 > soon, however, showing black and orange; in one stage with a black
throat patch. Western U. S. and adjoining British Provinces of Assiniboia. Alberta, and
British Columbia, E. to both Dakotas, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, and W. Texas ; Lower
California, and in winter S. into Mexico ; accidental in Maine. It is abundant in woodland, re-
placing the Baltimore, to which it is so closely allied, and with which it corresponds iu habits
and manners. The nest and eggs are indistinguishable with any certainty : sets run, however,
from 3 to 6. The third species of this secticm of the genus is the Mexican I. aheillei, with a
black rump.
(Sitbgenns Pendulinus.)
I. spu'rius. (Lat. spurius, spurious; the species was formerly called "Bastard Baltimore
Oriole," whence the undeserved name.) Orchard Oriole. Basket-bird. Adult ^: Black
and chestnut. Head and neck all around, fore breast and back, black. Rump and upper tail-
coverts, lesser and under wing-coverts, and whole under-parts from breast, chestnut or choco-
late-brown. Wings and tail black, former except as said, and some white or whitish edging
of quills and tipping of greater coverts, latter forming a wing-bar; outer tail-feathers some-
times with a touch of chestnut. Bill and feet blue-black. Length about 7.00 ; extent about
10.00; wing 3.00-3.25 ; tail nearly as long, much rounded, its graduation nearly 0.50 ; bill
ICTERID.E — ICTERIN^: AMERICAN ORIOLES: HANG-NESTS. 477
0.70 along culmeu, very sleniler and acute, somewhat decurved ; tarsus 0.1)0. Adult 9 =
Smaller than ^. Above, dull yellowish-olive, clearest on head, rump, and tail, obscured on
the back. Below, sordid yellowish. Wings plain dusky, glossed with olivaceous, with whit-
ish edging, much as in ^. An inconspicuous object, but kncjwn from other 9 Orioles by its
small size and slender bill, a little curved. Young ^: First year like 9, but larger ; second
year like 9 , but with black mask on face and throat. Afterward showing confused characters
of both sexes. Three years required to assume full dress. Eastern U. S., strictly; rarely N.
to Maine, and even New Brunswick, but regularly reaching Ontario; W. to the high central
])hiius of the Dakotas, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Indian Territory, and Texas. Breeds
throughout its N. Am. range ; winters extralimital. Abundant in orchards, parks, streets,
skirts of woods, etc, from April to August. The song is loud, clear, and volubly delivered
during the whole breeding season. The nest is one of the most perfect examples of a woven
fabric, even in a group of birds distinguished as the Orioles are for the dexterity and assiduity
they display in their elaborate textile rostrifactures. They antedate Howe in the expedient of
placing the eye of a needle at its point — that which revolutionized hand-sewing, and made
sewing-machines practicable : for their bill works precisely to the same efl'ect. The Orchard
Oricde's nest is generally more compact and homogeneous than the Baltimore's, woven chiefly
of slender grass-blades which cure in the sun like good hay, long retaining some greenness,
which tends to its concealment in tlie foliage. It is smaller, less deep in proportion, often not
strictly pendant from its forked twig, and generally placed lower down in a tree. Both sexes
work at its speedy construction, but only the 9 incubates. Eggs 4-6, oftenest 5, smaller than
the Baltimore's, ranging from 0.72 X 0.56 to 0.85 X 0.60, averaging about 0.80 X 0.55, and
spotty rather than scrawly, with predominance of the heavy markings over the neutral ones ;
tlie markings prevail about the larger end, but the general Icteriue tracery is always
unmistakable.
I. s. affi'nis? (Lat. affinis, affined, allied.) Texas Orchard Oriole. Smaller: ^ little
over 6.00; wing usually under 3.00. Texas: Southern race, scarcely distinguishable ; ignored
by the A. 0. U.
I. cuculla'tus. (Lat. cucullatus, wearing the cucidla, a kind of hood or cowl.) Hooded
Oriole. Adult ^i Orange and black. General color orange — from rich chrome yellow to
lhime-c(dor. Middle of back (scapulars and interscapulars) black. A black nuisk, embracing
eyes, narrow frontal line, and patch on chin, cheeks, and throat. Wings black, with white
edging of quills and coverts. Tail black, some or all feathers usually with narrow whitish
tips. Bill and feet blue-black, former extremely slender and somewhat decurved, 0.80; tarsus
0.90. Length 8.00; extent 10.50; wing 3.30-3.60 ; tail 3.50-4.25, thus longer than wings,
feathers narrow and lanceolate, outermost an inch or so shorter than central pair; sucli length,
narrowness, and extreme graduation of tail being a strong character. Adult 9 '■ Above, dull
grayish-olive; tail and under j)arts dull yellowish ; wings dusky, the quills and coverts edged
with dull white. 9 thus resembles other species, but the long slender graduated tail and at-
tenuated decurved bill are diagnostic. Fairly smaller than ^. Young ^i At first like 9,
but bill pale at base below. Various intermediate states during progress to maturity; some-
times the black dorsal band interrupted by yellowish -gray, and the general orange obscured
with the same. A frequent condition, when the general plumage is like that of 9 , is to have
a black frontlet and gorget, like I. spuriua under the same circumstances. Texas, chiefly near
the Mexican border, and southward to Honduras. Nest woven like that of other Orioles, very
substantial and durable though thin-walled, and more like a saucer than a cup: in places
where Spanish moss grows, it is usually made of this material, and jilaced in a truss of the
same. Eggs 3-4, sometimes 5, varying from 0.75 to 0.90 long by 0.60 to 0 65 broad, usually
quite pointed at both ends ; color white or whitish, irregularly spotted and blotched with
shades of brown and neutral tints, especially about the larger end, with less scrawling than
478 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
usual in this genus, and altogether less heavily marked. In the Lower Rio Grande valley this
is the commonest Oriole in some places, Apr.-Sept. ; nests with full sets of eggs are found from
middle of April to first week in July.
I. c. nel'soni. (To E. W Nelson.) Arizona Hooded Oriole. Palm-leaf Oriole. A
paler-colored race, in which the yellow is not supposed to become orange or flame-color, from
New Mexico, Arizona, California, and southward to Mazatlan. The distinction is trivial,
hardly indicating a geographical race. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. viii, Apr. 1885, p. 19; Key, 3d
ed. 1887, p. 877 ; A. O.V. List, 2d ed. 1896, p. 208, No. 505 a.
(Subgenus Icterus.)
I. pariso'rum. (To the brothers Paris.) Black-and-yellow Oriole. Paris' Oriole.
Scott's Oriole. Mountain Oriole. Adult ^ : Black and clear yellow. Below from
breast, rump, and upper tail-coverts, lesser, middle, and under wing-coverts, and basal por-
tions of all the tail-feathers, except central ones, clear yellow ; greater wing-coverts tipped,
inner quills edged, with white. Head, neck, breast, back, and wings, except as said, black.
On the tail, the yellow occupies the basal half of lateral feathers, but only extreme base of
central pair. Length 8.00 ; extent 12.00; wing 4.00; tail 3.40-3.60, moderately rounded, lat-
eral feathers graduated about 0.50 ; bill 0.90, attenuate and slightly decurved ; tarsus 1.00.
Young (J: Black parts all overcast with grayish-olive skirting of the feathers, giving the pre-
vailing tone on upper parts, but on breast the black showing more clearly ; yellow likewise
obscured with grayish-olive, especially on rump. Tail greenish-yellow, middle feathers black-
ening. Wings dusky, all quills and greater and middle coverts broadly edged and tipped with
white. Adult 9 : Dull greenish or grayish olive above, with dusky shaft-streaks on the back ;
dull yellowish below; greater and median wing-coverts tipped with white, forming two bars;
tail like under parts, but darker on middle feathers and toward the ends of the others. Smaller
than the ^ on an average. Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Southern and Lower Cali-
fornia, and some portions of Nevada and Utah; S. in Mexico to Puebla and Vera Cruz;
migratory, entering the U. S. late in March and early in April, and breeding throughout its
U. S. range ; a voluble and persistent songster. Nesting essentially the same as that of other
Orioles ; the purse-like fabric is well woven of grasses and fibres, the latter oftenest of the
yuccas, in which the structure is habitually suspended at little elevation; but it is also placed
in various other trees or bushes, sometimes in bunches of moss or vines hanging in cactuses,
quite near the ground ; eggs 2-4, oftenest 3, averaging 0.95 X 0.66, ranging from 1.05 X 0.70
to 0.90 X 0.60, white with a fugacious pale bluish tint, variously blotched and dotted with pur-
plish and blackish -browns, chiefly about the larger end, and with little if any tracery ; to be
found in May, June, and even July. Best biography in Scott, Auk, Jan. 1885, pp. 1-7;
and Bend, ii, " 1895" (pub. Sept. 1896), pp. 471-474.
I. aud'uboni. (To J. J. Audub<m.) Black-headed Oriole. Audubon's Oriole. Adult
(J: Black and clear yellow. Entire body rich gamboge-yellow, without orange or flame tint,
but shaded with greenish on back, sides, and upper tail-coverts; under tail-coverts pure yel-
low, like belly. Middle and lesser wing-coverts and lining of wings pure yellow, former with
black bases concealed by yellow tips. Head all around, fore neck and breast, glossy jet-black,
without any concealed yellow, except at edges of the black on breast — the black tliere thus
ending ragged, difi"erent from the clean-cut border of cucullatus. Wings black; outer webs of
quills white-edged, especially on inner secondaries and outer primaries toward their end ; -greater
coverts with white spot at end of outer web. Tail black ; outer feathers more or less edged
and tipped with white. Bill and feet plumbeous-blackish, former paler at base below. Length
9.25-9.75 or more ; extent 12.50-13.00 or more ; wing averaging 4.00 ; tail rather more, much
graduated, outer feathers 1.00 or more sliorter than middle. Bill stout, straight, almost as in
ICTERID.E—QUISCALIX.E: AMERICAN GRACKLES. 479
AgelcBZis ; culmen 0.90-1.10, averaging 1.00. Tarsus 1.10; middle toe and daw tlie same.
Adult 9: Quite like (^; not smaller, and little different in color, contrary to the rule in this
genus and family. Back rather more olivaceous; wings rather more edged with white : outer
tail-feather edged and tipped with whitish. Young <J 9 : No black or white; plain olive-green
above, yellow below, shaded on the sides with olive. This is a large, beautiful Oriole, occur-
ring in the U. S. only, as far as known, in the Lower Rio Grande valley ; thence S. in Mexico
to Oaxaca: a inaguificent songster, and a favorite cage bird. Nest half-pensile, woven of
grasses like that of the Orchard Oriole, placed in trees and bushes, oftenest mezquite, at no
great elevation ; eggs laid Apr.-June, 3 to 5 in number, the set often incomplete from im-
position of Red-eyed Cowbird's eggs ; they measure from 1.05 X 0.75 to 0.90 X 0.70, averaging
1.00 X 0.72, and are pale bluish or grayish white, dusted with fine brown specks, over which
are stains and splashes of dark brown and lilac, with occasionally some of the blackish hiero-
glyphs usual in this genus. /. melanocephalus auduboni of former eds. of the Key, and I do
not feel sure of its specific distinction, as its difference from the Mexican melanocephalus con-
sists only in the white markings on the wings, extent of greenish on the scapulars, and of yel-
low on the middle wing-coverts, these parts being nearly or quite black in the stock form ;
however, I follow the A. 0. U. List in now presenting it as a good species.
I. ic'terus. Tkoupial. Bill elongate, attenuated, acute, straight, or scarcely decurved.
Throat feathers lengthened, loosened, and lanceolate. Bare space about eye, and in other re-
spects entirely difierent from any of the foregoing species. Adult $ 9 '■ Head and neck all
round, fore breast, isolated dorsal area, wings, and tail, black, the wings with a white patch
on the coverts, and much whitish edging of the secondaries. Rump, upper tail-coverts, lesser
wing-coverts, cervical collar, and under parts fr(.)m the breast, including lining of wings, rich
yellow, ordinarily clear and pure, sometimes intensified to orange. Large : length nearly or
quite 10.00; wing 4.60; tail less; bill 1.25-1.50; tarsus about the same. A common and well-
known species of Tropical America, also introduced in the West Indies, and often seen as a
cage-bird, said by Audubon to have occurred at Charleston, S. C This case is its only claim
to a place in our Fauna. (/. vulgaris of former eds. of the Key ; /. icterus A. O. U. Lists,
No. [502].)
Subfamily QUISCALIN/E: American Crackles.
Closely resembling Ageltcince botli in structure and in habits, these birds are distinguished
by length and attenuation of bill, with decidedly curved culmen, especially toward end, more
or less sinuate connnissure, and strongly inflected tomia. The bill is quite cultrinjstral, and
typical Quiscali have a certain crow-like aspect, but are readily distinguished by several fea-
tures, besides 9 instead of 10 primaries; one species of Scolecophagus so much resembles a
Thrush that it was originally classed as a Turdus. In Scolecophagus the tail is slightly rounded
and shorter than wings ; in Quiscalus the tail is graduated, and nearly equals or exceeds wings.
They are not specially palustrine. The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much
time on the ground, where they walk or run instead of advancing by lef.ps. The Quiscalince
generally build rude, bulky, non-pensile nests, lay spotted, clouded, or streaked eggs, and their
best vocal efforts are hardly to be called musical. The $ of all our species is lustrous black,
with various iridescence, the 9 merely blackish or brown, and vmch smaller. Individuals of
all our species abound, especially in the South and West; only two are common eastern birds.
The equivocal extralimital genus Cassidir, usually referred to the Quiscalinfc, is placed by
Sclater in the Cassicimc. C- oryzirora is glossy black, with a rufiF on the neck of the J.
Other extralimital forms of this subfamily, according to the same authority, are Lampropsar
tanagrinus, black, vvitli a fnjntal hood of erect feathers ; Aphohus chopi ami Hi/popj/rr/ius pi/ro-
hi/pognster, in both of which the feathers of the head are lanceolate ; together with Macragelceus
subalaris and several s{)ecies of the genus Dives. In the cases of the two last-named genera,
480 SrSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
the relationship of Dives appears to be with Scolecophagus, and that of Macragelcpus with
Quiscalui^.
SCOIjECO'PHAGUS. (Gr. (tkoKt]^, gen. (TKU)Kr)K09, scolex, scolecos, a worm : cpayos, phagos,
eating.) Kusty Grackles. Thrush Blackbirds. Bill shorter or not longer than head,
slender for the subfamily — somewhat like a Robin's, for instance; culmen little convex, if
any, except at decurved tip ; gonys slightly convex ; cutting edges inflexed ; commissure little
sinuated. Wings pointed, decidedly longer than nearly even tail ; point formed by outer
4 primaries. Tail much as in Agelceus in size and shape. Tarsus rather longer tlian middle
toe and claw. Lateral toes short, with moderate claws, scarcely or not reaching base of
middle claw. Nest in bushes. Eggs spotty, not veiny and streaky.
All all/sis of Spfcies.
Smaller : wing under 5.00. Bill slender, thrush-like, (f greenish-black, including head. Sexes very unlike : $ quite
rusty-brown, even with chestnut ; a light line over eye carolinus
Larger : wing 5.00 or more. Bill stouter, more blackbird-like, (f greenish-black, head more violet. 9 subsimilar,
sooty-brown ; no pale superciliary stripe cyanocephalus
S. caroli'nus. (Lat. Carolinus, of or pertaining to Carolus, Charles (whether King Charles II.
of England or IX. of France), referring to the present N- or S- Carolina, name of which is
found in French as early as 1564; see CouES, Check List, 2d ed. 1882, p. 25.) Rusty
Grackle. Thrush Blackbird. Adult ^, in summer: One lustrous black with green
metallic reflections ; head not notably different from other parts in its iridescence. Bill and
feet black. Iris creamy or leratm. (Not ordinarily seen in the U. S. in this full dress —
usually with some rusty.) Length 9.00-9.50 ; extent 14.00-15.00 ; wing under 5.00 ; tail
4.00 or less ; bill 0.80, only about 0.35 deep at base ; tarsus 1.20 ; middle toe and claw less.
Adult 9 in summer : Slaty-blackish, duller below, with greenish reflections chiefly on wings
and tail ; in winter the upper parts overlaid with rich rusty-brown, and under parts with a
paler shade of the same; inner secondaries brown-edged; a whitey-brown streak over eye;
iris brown. Moderately smaller than J'. Young ^ at first resembles 9) but is larger, and
shows more decidedly lustrous black, especially on wings and tail. As usually found in flocks
in the U. S., in fall, winter, and early spring, young and old of both sexes are very rusty,
with light line over eye. E. N. Am., N. to Labrador and the Hudson Bay region, thence
N. W. to Alaska and Behring Sea ; in the U. S. extending W. regularly to the Dakotas, Ne-
braska, Indian Territory, and Texas, sparingly to the Rocky Mts., in these regions meeting
and mixing in the fall with the next species ; accidental in Greenland and Lower California.
Migratory, abundant ; in winter, more or less dispersed in the U. S. ; in summer, breeding from
N. New England, New York, and Michigan northward, in loose coh)nies, in swampy tangle.
Nest in bushes and low trees, of sticks and grasses mixed with moss and mud, lined with fine
grasses and rootlets; it is a firm, durable structure, quite bulky, 7 inches or more across out-
side, and 5 deep, with a cavity about 3.50 X 2.50. Eggs 4-5, usually 4, from 1.05 X 0.80
down to 0.90 X 0.70, dull greenish, bluish, or grayish white, flecked and mottled with dark
browns, but with little or no line-tracery, and thus resembling those of the Yellow-headed
rather than of the Red-winged or Crow Blackbird. Incubation is said to last 14 days, and
the young to leave the nest in 16 days; the nestling plumage is gray. (S. ferrngineus of most
writers, as of all former eds. of tlie Key; but Titrdus carolinus Mull., 1776, is prior to Oriolus
ferrugineiis Gm., 1788, and I am glad to be able to do away with a name which does not
apply to the adult ^ .)
S. cyanoce'phaliis. (Gr. Kvavos, kuanos, Lat. c^anMS, blue ; (cec^aXij, Jcephale, head.) Blue-
headed Grackle. Brewer's Blackbird. Similar to the last, but quite a different bird,
type of the subgenus Ei(2)hagi(s (Cass. 1866). Adult (J, in summer: Very lustrous green-
black, as before, but with purple and violet iridescence, especially on head, where the violet or
steel-blue sheen contrasts with the general greenish hue. Bill and feet black. Iris creamy or
ICTERID.E—QUISCALIN.E: AMERICAN CRACKLES.
481
Icmou. Larger: length averaging 10.00 — 9.75-10.25; extent 16.00 or more ; wing 5.00-
5.25; tail 4.00-4.25 ; hill 0.80, stout at hase, where about 0.40 deep — more like an abbre-
viated Quiscalus bill than a Thrush's; tarsus 1.25-1.30; middle toe and claw 1.10-1.15.
Adult 9, in summer: Blackish, with dull-greenish shade on back, wings, and tail; more slaty-
blackish below. Fore parts of body above, head and most under parts overlaid with brown-
ish-gray, lightest on head and throat, never rich rusty-brown. No light superciliary line. Iris
brown. There is thus much less sexual difference than in S. carolinus. Smaller ; size about
that of ^ carolinus ; length 9.00-9.50 ; extent 14.50-15.50 ; wing 4.50-4.90, etc. Young $ re-
sembling 9 ; soon, however, shcnving more lustre, overcast with grayish (not rusty) brown,
in same style as carolinus, but different shade. Western U. S. and British Provinces ; E.
regularly to eastern edge of the plains, overlapping the migratory range of S. carolinus,
occasionally extending to Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois, casually to Louisiana, and
Soutli Carolina; X. to the region of the Saskatchewan ; S. in Mexico to Oaxaca ; very abundant
in most parts of the west, both in prairie and mountain, in large flocks when not mated;
then in small colonies. Breeds nearly throughout its range, in suitable places; migratory to
and from extremes of its range. Nidificatiou substantially the same as that of the Rusty
Grackle, but the nest is sometimes built on the ground ; eggs 4-8 rarely, usually 5 or 6, rang-
ing from 1.10 X 0.80 to 0.80 X 0.60, but such extremes exceptional, the average 1.00 X 0.70 ;
l)attern of the markings fundamentally, as in S. carolinus, but in the endless diversity of color-
ation some specimens show tracery. The spotting is sometimes so heavy and uniform as to
jiroduce a dark brown egg; but the pale greenish or grayish ground-color is usually visible in
the profuse blotching and marking with dark browns, reddish browns, and neutral tints.
QUIS'CALUS. Derivation questionable. In New Latin of the Linna^an period and back to
Gesner, about 1550, quiscula appears as a name of the European Quail ; quisquila is said to be
a Portuguese name of the same bird ; compare Spanish quisquilla. Middle Latin quiscula,
quisquila, quisquilla, quaquila, quaquara, and quaquadra mean quail, which English word is
tlie same, etymologically, as French caille, Port, calha, Ital. quaglia, etc., all being no doubt
onomatopoetic. (See CouES, Check List, 2d ed. p. 64; Stej. Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 43.)
Crow Blackbirds. Bill about as long as head, quite cultrate and crow-like, but more at-
tenuate and acute, with
deflected cutting edges ;
upper and under out-
lines straightish to ter-
minal curve of culmen,
but variable ; commis-
sure variously sinu-
ate. Wings relatively
shorter and less acute
than in Scolecopliagus,
usually pointed by 2d-
4th quills, 1st and 5tli
shorter. Tail of varyi
wings ; at its least, decidedly shorter ; always graduated, lateral feathers 1-3 inches shorter
than middle pair, in life capable of slanting upward on each side, so that the middle feath-
ers make a keel below; whence the name "boat-tail." (Tail usually described as "longer
than wings" in Quiscalus ; but in most species it is decidedly sliorter.) Feet stout; tarsus
about equal to middle toe and claw. The ^ J' in species " black." but so magnificently irides-
cent that little dead black is seen, ])cing brassy, steel-blue, violet, i)urple, greenish, etc. 9 sub-
similar (in Quiscalus proper), or plain l)rown, and much smaller than the J (in the subgenus
3[pgaquiscalus).
31
Fio. 322. — Foot of a Quiscalus (Q. macrurus. nat. size). (From Baird.)
Icvelopment with the species; at its greatest, much longer tlui
482 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSEKES—OSCINES.
Ajialysis of Subgenera, Species, and Subspecies.
Sexes subsimilar in size and color. (Subgenus Quiscalus.)
Tail decidedly shorter than wings, graduated 1.00-1.50.
Iridescence various — green, blue, purple, violet, jf usually over 12.00 pnrpureus
Iridescence of back brassy ; head steel-blue, cf usually over 12.00 p. (tneus
Iridescence greenish, neck purple. J" usually under 12.00 p. (igUrus
Sexes dissimilar ; $ brown much smaller than the (^. {^Vibgenns Megaquixcalus.)
Tail about equal to wings, graduated about 2.50 mnjor
Tail decidedly longer than wings, graduated 2.50-3.50 macrurus
{Subgenus Megaquiscalus.)
Q. macru'rus. (Gr. fiuKpos, macros, long, large ; ovpa, oura, tail. Fig. 322.) Fan-tailed
Crow Blackbird. Texas Grackle. Of largest size, with longest, most keeled and graduated
tail. Sexes very unlike. Bill very stout at base, tapering to strongly deflected tip. Adult ^ :
Iridescence chiefly purplish and violet, more greenish posteriorly. Length 17.00-20.00, aver-
aging about 18.50 ; extent 23.00-24.00 ; wing 7.50-8.00; tail about 9.00, graduated 2.50-3..50 ;
bill 1.75. Adult 9 '■ Dark brown; paler, grayish, or whitish below. Length 11.50-13.50;
extent 18.00-19.00 ; wing 5.50-6.50; tail about the same ; bill 1.30. The species tluis pre-
sents dimensions Q. major has not shown. Lower Rio Grande of Texas and S. through Mexico
to Nicaragua, very abundant, swarming in towns, where conspicuous by its curious antics as
well as great size and numbers. Breeds in colcjnies, either in reedy marshes, when the nest
is placed in the rushes over water, or anywhere about settlements in trees away from water ;
sometimes there are many nests in one tree, some at an altitude of 30 or 40 feet. Nests
built of any trash, usually with mud. Eggs in April, May, and June, usually 3, often 4, rarely
5, 1.12-1.45 by 0.82-0.90, averaging 1.25X0.85; greenish- or purplish- white, clouded
ofteuer over smaller end than at the other, irregularly spotted, veined, and scratched with dark
brown, blackish, and neutral tints.
Q. ma'jor. (Lat. major, greater (than Q. jmrpurens).} Boat-tailed Crow Blackbird.
Boat-tailed Grackle. Jackdaw. Of large size, with l(.)ng, much keeled and graduated
tail. Sexes very unlike. Bill stout at base, tapering to deflected tip. Adult $ : Iridescence
mostly green, becoming purple or violet chiefly on head and neck. Length 15.50-17.00, aver-
age 16.50; extent 21.00-23.50, average 22.50; wing and tail, each, 6.25-7.25, average 7.00,
latter rather the longer of the two ; its graduation about 2.50; bill 150; tarsus nearly 2.00;
middle toe and claw about the same. Adult 9 '• Astonishingly smaller than J*, lacking any
great development of tail, and easily to be mistaken for another species. Length 12.00-13.50,
average 13.00; extent 17.25-18.25, average 17.75; wing 5.25-6.00, average 5.67; tail 4.75-
5.50, average 5.25. General color plain brown, only darker on wings and tail ; below brownish-
gray, frequently whitening on throat. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, coastwise, abundant ; N.
regularly to Virginia and Maryland, casually to New Jersey ; breeds throughout its range,
which meets that of Q. macrurus in Texas, and winters from Virginia southward. This
species differs from the common Crow Blackbird in being strictly maritime, with conse(picnt
modification in food and habits ; it may be seen at times wading in water, and small fish and
crustaceans form much of its fare. Nesting and eggs as in macrurus ; eggs averaging smaller,
but not distinguishable with certainty.
(Sitbcjeniis Quiscalus.)
Q. quis'cula. (For etym<dogy, see tlie generic name, whicli is another form of tlie same
word. Fig. 323.) Purple Crow Blackbird. Common Crow Blackbird. Keel-
tailed Grackle. Purple Grackle. Rusty Hinge. Of medium size, with moderately
keeled and graduated tail, shorter than wings. Sexes sul)similar. Bill usually less tapering
and deflected at ti}), but very variable. Adult ^ : Iridescence very variable with season,
ICTERID.E- QUISCALIN^E: AMERICAN CRACKLES.
483
age, and sexual vigor, as well as on different parts of the body ; but always intense iu liealthy
adults, and at its height during the love-ardor; variously purple, green, blue, violet, and
bronzy ; not the extensive green of the last species, nor usually the decided brassy of the next
variety ; wings and tail mostly purplish ; dark purplish and steel-blue on head, neck, and breast;
bacli more greenish or bronzy. J3ill and feet ebony black. Iris straw-yellow. Length 12.00-
13.50; extent 17.00-18.50; wing 5.00-0.00, averaging 5.60; tail 4.50-6.00, usually under
5.50 ; bill 1.25, very variable ; tarsus 1.25; graduation of tail 1.00-1.50. Adult 9 : Blackish,
quite lustrous; sufficiently similar to $; length 11.00-12.00; wing about 5.00; tail about
4.50. Birds of this character, without perfectly brassy back and steel-blue head, are usual iu
the Atlantic States ; abundant
and generally distributed, mi-
-gratory and gregarious, breed-
ing anywhere in their range,
but chietly northerly. Nesting
vai-iable, in tree or bush, on
bough or in a hollow, at any
height ; sometimes in an arti-
ficial retreat, or a Fish-hawk's
nest. Nest bulky, of any trash,
usually with mud ; eggs of the
character and with all the in-
describable variability of others F'"- 3-3- —Purple Grackle, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
of the genus; usually bluish or greenish, with purpliish veiiiing and clouding, zigzagged and
flourished with dark browns or blackish ; averaging about 1.15 X 0.85, but ranging from 1.25 X
0.90 to 1.00 X 0.80 in size; 4-6 in number, rarely 7, oftenest 5. Grackles are absent from
their northerly breeding-grounds for only a small part of the year, when they flock southerly,
often in immense bands scouring about for food. At times they are very injurious to crops,
but this is ofi'set by tlieir destruction of noxious insects. The courtsliips of the males look very
curious to a dispassionate observer, being carried on with the most grotesque actions and ludi-
crous attitudes, as well as curious vocalization. {Q. purimreiis of all previous eds. of the
Key. Gracula quiscida Linn. S. N. 1758, p. 109, and 1766, p. 165, whence necessarily, by
our rules, the peculiar literary atrocity of the pseudotautonym Qiiisadiis quiscida of the A.
O. U. Lists, No. 511.)
Q. q. ae'neus. (Lat. feneiis, brassy.) Brass Crow Blackbird. Western Crow Black-
bird. Bronzed Grackle. Birds from the interior of N. Am., es])ecial]y the Mississipjii
valley, ac<|uirc in full plumage a s])h'ndid iridescence of three kinds, in pretty distinct areas.
Body uuifdrni siiiuing brassy. Hind neck and breast chieHy steel-blue. Wings and tail chiefly
violet and purple. This brilliant coloration is represented liy .Viidnboii. folio pi. 7, 8vo, pi.
221. Such birds occur from New England, Nova Scotia, New (nniKllaiKi, I.,abrador, Hudson's
Bay, tlie region of the Saskatchewan and Great Slave Lake, and the Rocky .Mts. to Texas and
the Gulf States ; also passing to sonic extenr into Mexico, and freipiently invading those At-
lantic States which our Lists reserve as the peculiar demesne of the foregoing species. Nest
and eggs indistinguisliable from tho.se of quiscida proper; general liabits the same. {Q. piiv-
jjitrexs ffrieiis of 2d-4th eds. of the Key.)
Q. q. asLne'us. (Gr. ayXnios. nplnios, sjdendid.) Im.orida Ckdw Blackrird. Grekn
Grackle. Birds resident in Florida and otliersof the S. Atlantic and Gulf States are smaller
than average quiscidn, with relatively longer and slenderer bill more decurved at tip ; body-
lustre cliiefly greenish ; head and neck chiefly vi(daceous steel-blue ; wings and tail steel-blue,
bccdiiiiiiii- viulct n\[ c.ivcrts. ..VviTMi^iiii,' an inch less in hMiirtli than quiscida, and other parts in
proportion, excepting bill and feet, wliich ;ire ([uite as long. The eggs are said to average 1.20
484 SYSTEMATIC SYXOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
X 0.82, thence runniug up to 1.43 X 0.84, and down to 1.06 X 0.76; and to be only :3-5 in
number. {Q. haritus Bd. 1858, nee auct. Q. aglcBus Bd. 1866. Q. purpureus aglceus Coues,
1872, and all other eds. of the Key; Q. qitiscitla aglceus, A. 0. U. Lists, No. 511 a.)
Family CORVID^ : Crows, Jays, Pies, etc.
CuUrirostral Oscines ivith 10 ^jruHrtries. — A rather hirge and important family, compris-
ing such familiar birds as Eavens, Crows, Eooks, Jackdaws, Magpies, Jays, Choughs, with
their allies, and a few diverging forms not so well known ; nearly related to the famous
Birds of Paradise {Paradiseidce), to the Old World Oricdes (Oriolidce), and to the Old World
Starlings (Sturnidce). There are 10 primaries, of which 1st is short, generally about half
as long as 2d, and several outer ones are more or less sinuate-attenuate on inner web toward
end. The tail has 12 rectrices, as usual among higher birds ; it varies much in shape, but is
generally rounded — sometimes extremely graduated, as in the Magpie; and is not forked in
any of our forms. The tarsus has scutella in front, separated on one or both sides from rest
of tarsal envelope by a groove, sometimes naked, sometimes filled in by small scales. The
bill is stout, about as long as head or shorter, tapering, rather acute, generally unnotched,
with convex culmen ; it lacks the commissural angulation of Fringillidce and Icteridee, the
deep cleavage of Hirundinidee, the slenderness of Certldidce, Sittida, and most small insectivo-
rous birds. The rictus usually has a few stiffish bristles, and there are others about base of
bill. The gonys is rather short, i. c, the matidibular rami usually unite in advance of a per-
pendicular line let down from the nostrils; and these are normally placed high up, near
the culmen (they are lower in the Choughs, Fregilince). An essential character is seen in
dense covering of nostrils with large long tufts of close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers (ex-
cepting, among our forms, in Cyunocepliahis and Psilorhinus). These last features (in con-
nection with the presence of 10 primaries) distinguish Corvida from all our other birds
excepting Paridce ; the mutual resemblance is here so close, that I cannot point out any
obvious technical character of external form to distinguish, for example, Cyanocitta from io-
phophanes, or Perisoreus from Parus. But as already remarked, size is here jierfectly dis-
tinctive, all Corvidce being much larger than any Paridte.
Although technically Oscine, Corvidce are non-melodious ; their vocal organs are well
developed, but none of them can sing. This shows that musical ability depends upon some-
thing more than mere complexity of the syrinx or sound-making apparatus. The voice of
the larger corvine birds is hoarse and raucous, that of the smaller garruline ones harsh and
strident — hear the ominous croak of the Raven, the cacophony of the Crow's cawing, the
shrill scream of the Jay.
Owing to uniformity of color in leading groups of the family, and an apparent plas-
ticity of organization in many forms, the number of species is difficult to determine, and is
very variously estimated by difl'erent writers. Mr. G. R. Gray admits upward of 200, which
he distributes in 50 genera and subgenera ; but these figures are certainly excessive. Dr.
R. B. Sharpe, in the Brit. Mus. Catalogue of 1877, describes about 160 species or subspecies,
arranged in 43 genera, with 4 genera under a subfiimily Fregilince, all the rest under Cor-
vince. Corvidce have also been divided into 5 subfamilies ; 3 of these are small specialized
groups confined to the Old World, where they are represented most largely in the Australian
and Indian regions ; the other two, constituting the great bulk of the family, are more nearly
cosmopolitan. These are Corvince and Garridince, or Crows and Jays, readily distinguish-
able, at least so far as our forms are concerned, by the longer pointed wings and shorter, less
rounded tail of the former, as contrasted with the shorter, rounded wings and longer, more
rounded or graduated tail of the latter. This is the subdivision of the family which I have
kept in all the eds. of the Key, and the one followed by the A. 0. U.
CORVID.E — CORVIN.E: CROWS. 485
Subfamily CORVIN/E : Crows.
Wings long and pointed, much exceeding tail, tip formed by 3d, 4th, and 5th quills; 2d
much shorter, 1st only about ^ as long as 3d. Legs stout, fitted for walking as well as perch-
ing. As a rule, the plumage is sombre or at least unva-
riegated, — blue, the characteristic color of Jays, being
here rare. Sexes alike, and changes of pknnage slight.
Crows frequent all situations, and walk firmly and easily
on the ground, where Jays hop. They are among the
most nearly omnivorous of birds, and as a consequence,
in connection with their hardy nature, they are rarely if
ever truly migratory. Their nesting is various, accord- Fig. 324. — Typical Corvme bill,
ing to circumstances, but the fabric is usually rude and bulky; the eggs, of average oscine
number, are commonly bluish or greenish, speckled. Although not properly gregarious, as a
rule, they often associate in large numbers, drawn together by community of interest. In
illustration of this may be instanced the extensive roosting-places in the Atlantic States, com-
parable to the rookeries of Europe, wliitlier immense troops of Crows resort nightly, often from
great distances, recalling the hue line <if the poet, —
" The blackening trains of crows to their repose."
Our 3 genera of CorviiKe are readily known by the black color of Corvus, the gray, white,
and black of Nucifraga (Picicorvus), and the blue of Ci/anocephalus. In the latter, as in
Psilorhinus of Garrulince, the nostrils are exposed, contrary to the rule in each subfamily.
COR'VUS. (Lat. corvus, a crow. Fig. 324.) Ravens. Crows. The species throughout
uniform lustrous black, including bill and feet; nasal bristles about half as long as bill, which
exhibits the typical cultrirostral style. Nostrils large, entirely concealed. Wings much longer
than tail, folding about to its end. Several outer primaries sinuate-attenuate on inner webs.
Tail I'ounded, with broad feathers, sinuate-truncate at ends, with mucronate shafts. Feet
stout; tarsus more or less nearly equal to middle toe and claw, roughly scutellate in front,
laminar beliind, with a set of small plates between.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Karens, with throat-feathers acute, lengthened, disconnected.
About 24.00 long ; wing 16.00-18.00 ; tail about 10.00. Bases of cervical feathers gray.
Largest : bill averaging 3.00. Chiefly northern corax principalis
Not so large ; bill not averaging 3.00. Chiefly western corai sinualus
About 20.00 long ; wing 13.00-14.00 ; tail 7.50-8.50 ; concealed bases of cervical feathers pure white. South-
western cryploleucus
Crows, with throat-feathers oval and blended.
Length 18-20 ; wing 12-14 ; tail 7-8 ; bill 1 J-2, its height at base J ; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw,
longer than bill ; 1st quill not longer than 10th. Chiefly eastern americanus and pascuus
Small. Length 14-10; wing 10-11 ; tail 0-7 ; bill lJ-2; tarsus rather longer than bill or middle toe and claw;
Ist quill longer than 10th. Northwestern cuitrinus
Small; 14-lG inches long ; wing 10-11 ; tail G-7 ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw, longer than bill ; 1st
quill not longer than 10th. Eastern, chiefly southerly and maritime ossi/ragiis
C. co'ra.x; sinua'tus. (Gr. K()f}u$, korcu; Lat. cora.r, a croaker — the raven. Lat. sinxatus,
have a sinus, re-entrance, or incision ; sinuated, as the inner webs of the outer primaries are.
Fig. 325.) Amkhican Raven. Feathers of throat somewhat stiftened, lengthened, pointed,
lying loose from one another ; those of neck witli gray downy bases, as elsewhere on the body.
Color entirely lu.strous black, with chiefiy purplish and violet burnishing. Length about 2 feet
— at least over 20 inches; expanse of wings 4 or 4^ feet — much over a yard. Wing about
U feet — at least over 15 inches. Tail about 10 inches; its feathers graduated L50-2.50
486
SVSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES.
inches. Bill along cliord of ciilmcii, and tarsus, about 2.50, the hill ranging Tip to 3.00.
Varies much in size. Greenland, Labrador, and boreal or arctic specimens generally, are of
great size, witli immense bill averaging 3.00 (in the so-called var. principalis). The bill
is usually longer and relatively less deep in the American than in the European Raven
(^corax proper) ; whole bird more sturdy and robust. The usual wing-formula is : primary
4>.3 = 5>2>6>1^8; but these quills grow and moult so gradually the proportionate
leugtlis differ much in specimens examined. 9 i^ indistinguishable from ^, though averaging
smaller. N. Am. ; but now rare in the U. S. east of the Mississippi, and altogetlier wanting
in most localities; Labrador, ranging southward, rarely, along the coast and in mountainous
regions to the Middle districts, casually even to South Carolina, Georgia, and A.labama ; very
abundant in the West, where the sable plume and the bleaching skeleton, the ominous croak and
the Indian war-whoop, are not entirely things of the past. Wherever in the West the Raven
Head of a very large American Raven, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del.
C.)
abounds, the Crow seems to bo supplanted. Nests sometimes in trees, but as a rule on cliffs
or in other rocky places, selecting the most inaccessible sites. Eggs 4-8, oftener 5 or 6, about
2.00 X J. 30 on an average, ranging from 1.60 X 1-25 to 2.35 X 1-50, though sucli extremes
of length are rare ; the color is pale green, often shaded with drab or (dive, and the whole sur-
face is profusely dotted, blotched, and clouded with neutral tints, purplisli, and various shades
of brown.
Regarding the vexed question of relationship of the American to the European Raven, I
have throughout successive eds. of the Key, and in other works, since 1872, contended against
specific distinction; and I observe tliat the two forms are united in one by such high autliority
as that of Dr. Sharpe, in the British Museum Cat. iii, 1877, p. 14. But we may have gone
too far in ignoring some differences, particularly in average size, which appear to exist, and I
am now billing to take tlie safest middle course of recognizing subspecific distinction. Our
bird has plenty of names from which to choose. The earliest of these is C. carnironis Bar-
tram, 1791, against wiiich certain technical objections have been alleged, tliougli it was
CORVID.E — CORVIN.E : CROWS.
487
adopted by Baird in 1858, and bocame current for some years. The next in order of date
ai)pears tt) be C. siniiatus Wagleh, Isis, 1829. p. 748, based on Mexican specimens; this I
am willing to adopt, in deference to my colleagues of the A. 0. U., though my well-known
contention has long been in favor of Bartram. Other names are C luguhris of Agassiz, 1846,
denounced as a nomen nudum, though nobody doubts what he meant by it ; and C. catototl or
cacalotl of Bonaparte, 1838 and 1850, and of Baird, 1858 (after Wagler, Isis, 1831, p. 748).
For the case of C littoralis or principalis, see next article.
C. c. principa'lis. (Lat. principal, foremost, chief; princeps, adj. first in time or order,
and as noun a chief, a prince ; from primus, first, and capere, to take, choose. Fig. 32G.)
Northern Raven. Size at a maximum of the dimensions above given, with very large bill
Fig, 320. — Northern Raven.
and stout feet; chord of culmen averaging 3.00, and de))th of bill at base 1.00. Individuals
answerinir to such requirements occur cliielly in Greenland, Labrador, and British America at
large, but also in northerly parts of the United States, and on the Atlantic coast even to Nortli
("arolina. Figure 325, drawn preciseli/ of life size, is fully up to average ptrincipalis ; the
speciuien was taken by me at Fort Randall, South Dakota, Feb. 4, 1873. Tlie large uortheru
bird of Greenland and Labrador was first named C. c. littoralis by IIoLBOLL, in Kriiyer's Tiilsk.
iv, 1843, p. 390; but this name is preoccupied in the genus by A. E. Brehm, 1831. It is C. c.
principalis Ridow. Man. 1887, p. 301; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901; A. O. U. List, 2d
ed. 1895, p. 200, No. 486 a. With this may be compared the Kamtschatkan C c. hchriiu/ianus
of DvROw.sKi, Bull. Soc. Z<.ol. France, 1883, p. 363.
C cryptoleu'cus. (Gr. Kpvnroi, kniptos, crypted or liiddeu ; XevKos. Iciikos, wliite.) Wiiitk-
NECKEi) Ravkn. Tiiroat-featliers as in eorax ; but bases of feathers of neck snowy-wliite.
488 SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
Smaller than the Raven; length 19.00-21.00; wing 13.25-14.25 ; tail 7.50-8.50 ; bill along-
culineu 2.00-2.25, its depth at base about 0.85 ; tarsus 2.25-2.50 ; thus this Raven is about as
large as a good-sized Crow, and often mistaken for one in those regions where it occurs with the
common Raven, the difference between them being obvious in life; the accounts of " Crows"'
in some regions where americanus does not omm being based upon the presence of cryptoleucus.
Southwestern U. S., Llano Estacado, and higher Rio Grande of Texas, Indian Territory, Okla-
homa, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, and
some portions of California ; S. some little distance in Mexico. Nest in trees and bushes, at
no great height, and resembling that of the common Crow. Eggs 3-8, usually 4, 5 or 6, averag-
ing 1.75 X 1-20, ranging from 1.90 X 1-30 to 1.50 X 1.10; ground color greenish or grayish,
markings lighter and fewer than is usual in this genus, with a tendency to be lengthwise
streaky rather than spotty ; some eggs are almost unmarked, but as a rule the brown, purplish,
and neutral tints are conspicuous. They are laid late in May, and in June, sometimes in April.
C. america'nus. (Lat. American. Fig. 329.) Common American Crow. The common
Crow is a foot and a half long, or rather more, ranging from 17.00 to 21.00 inches; wing^
12.00-14.00; tail 7.00-8.00 ; bill 1.75-2.00, about 0.75 high at base ; tarsus 2.25-2.35, about
equal to middle toe and claw, rather exceeding the bill. First primary not longer than 10th.
Feathers of throat oval, soft, and blended; no snowy-white under-plumage. The burnishing
is chiefly on the wings, tail, and back, the head being nearly dead-black. ? is decidedly
smaller than ^, and under-sized cabinet specimens are not seldom labelled " ossifragus." N.
Am. at large, chiefly U. S. and easterly, not ordinarily found westward in the interior, where
Ravens abound; rare or wanting in the Upper Missouri and Southern Rocky Mt. regions;
common, however, in some parts of California and other localities on the Pacific slopes ; resident
or only irregularly migratory. In settled parts of the country the Crow tends to colonize, and
some of its '' roosts " are of vast extent. Mine is on the Virginia side of the Potomac, near
Washington. Crows are always flying west over the city in the afternoon, and when as a
boy I used to see the gray of the morning, Crows were flying the other way. Nest in trees,
anywhere in the woods, usually high up and concealed with some art, though so bulky as to
measure about 24.00 X 12.00 outside, with a cavity 12.00 X 6.00 ; built of sticks and trash ;
eggs 3-8, oftenest 5 or 6, about 1.60 X 1.15, with extremes of 1.85 X 1.20 to 1.45 X 1.00,
like the Raven's in color and markings, and equally variable. The Crow lays betimes, the
season iov eggs being from February in tlie Southern states, March and Ajiril in the Middle,
and early May in the Northern ; incubation occupies about 17 days; the young remain in tlie
nest for about three weeks ; there is only one brood annually. In its relations to man the
Crow is rather beneficial than injurious on the whole, the damage it unquestionably does
under some circumstances being more than offset by its habitual destruction of noxious in-
sects; it should therefore be protected not persecuted. But such is its sagacity that it man-
ages to hold its own, unterrified by scarecrows, undismayed by man's many devices for its
destruction, and quite regardless of legi.slatures which declare it to be an outlaw. (C fru-
givorus Bartram, 1791, of 2d-4th eds. of the Key. C- americanus Aud. 1834; Key, orig.
ed. 1872, p. 162; A. 0. U. List, No. 488. C a. hesiieris Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 362, based
on Pacific slope specimens, is ignored by the A. 0. U.)
C. a. pas'cuus. (Lat. pascmts, relating to meadows ; pascuum, a pasture. Name intended
to connote the same as fioridanus, with allusion to the Spanish name of the country, said to
have been called Pascua Florida or Pascua de Flores by Ponce de Leon, because he discovered
it on Paschal or Easter day of 1512. Cf. Lat. paseualis, paschalin, paschal, relating to pa scha,
feast of the Passover.) Florida Crow. Represents the greater relative size of bill and feet
shown by many resident birds of Florida and corresponding latitudes. Average size somewhat
less, not over 20.00; wing 11.50-12.50; tail under 8.00; bill 2.00 or rather more along cul-
men, its depth at base 0.75-0.85; tarsus 2.45. Eggs 3-5, indistinguishable from those of the-
COR VID.E — COR YIX.E : CROWS.
489
common Crow, laid iu Feb. and Mar. (('•/■ floridanus fif 2d-4tl) ods. of Key. C. a. pascuiis
CouES, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 84. A. 0. U. Suppl. List, ibid. p. 112, No. 488 a.)
C. cauri'nus. (Lat. caurus, tlie N. W. wind, whence caurinus, northwestern. Fig. 327.)
Northwestern Fish Crow. Small: about the size of tlie common Fish Crow, but feet
Fig. 327. —Northwestern Fish Crow. (L. A. Fuertes.)
Fig. 328. — Corvus Americaiius.
more as in americanus ; tarsus not shorter than middle toe and claw, though rather less than
bill; 1st primary longer than 10th. Length 14.00-16.00; wing 10.50; tail 6.50; bill 1.75-
2.00 along culmen, 0.70 deep at base ; tarsus averaging under 2.00. N. Pacific coast, from
N. California and Oregon to S. Alaska; maritime; piscivorous ; voice said to be different from
that of americanus. The species seems to be well established ; it is smaller than the common
■ American Crow.
Crow, with decidedly shorter tarsus, the extreme length of which does not quite equal the least
length in C americanus. It abounds from the mouth of tlie Columbia N. to Sitka, and occu-
pies the same position on the Pacitic that C ossifragiis has on the Atlantic coast. Eggs usu-
490
5 r STEM A TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSER ES — OS CINE S.
ally 4-5, iudistiuejuishable from those of the common Crow, only averaging a trifle smaller,
laid in April, May, and June.
C. ossi'fragus. (Lat. ossifragus, as adj. ossifragous, bone-breaking ; as noun also ossifraga,
the ossifrage, osprey, or sea-eagle, i. e., the Fish Hawk now called Pandion haUaetus ; os,
gen. ossis, a bone; fmngere, to break.) Southeastern Fish Crow. Small. Length
14.00-16.00; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 6.00-7.00 ; bill 1.50; tarsus 1.60; middle toe and claw
1.75. First primary not longer than 10th; a bare space about gape I South Atlantic and
Gulf States, Louisiana to southern New England, rare or casual beyond Long Island, in
summer only in the lower Hudson and Connecticut valleys, resident from New Jersey south-
ward. Common ; maritime, piscivorous. A different bird from any of the foregoing, as it
presents some tangible distinctions, although constantly associated with C americanus. It is
decidedly smaller, with maxima not reaching minima of the common species ; the voice is
different, and the habits are not the same. Nest and eggs not to be distinguished with cer-
tainty from those of the common Crow, though averaging smaller. Eggs usually 4 or 5, aver-
aging 1.45 X 1-05, laid from Feb. through May. (C. maritimus Bartram, 1791, and of CoiiES,
Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 417. C ossifragus WiLS. 1812,' of orig. ed. of the Key, 1872,
p. i63. and of the A. 0. U. Lists, No. 490.)
PICICOR'VUS. (Compounded of piciis, a woodpecker, or pica, a magpie, and corvus, a crow.
Fig. 330.) American Nutcrackers. General characters of the European iV^/c/fra^a. BiU
slenderer, more acute, with more regularly curved culmen and commissure, and straight ascending
gonys ; as a whole some-
what decurved. Nos-
trils circular, concealed
by a full tuft of plu-
mules. Wings long and
pointed, folding to end of
tail; 5th quill longest;
4th, 3d, 6th little less;
2d much shorter, 1st not
half as long as 5th. Tail
little over half as long
as wing, little rounded.
Fig. 330. —Head of Picicon'tis, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) Tarsus shorter than mid-
dle toe and claw ; the envelop divided into small plates on sides behind toward the bottom.
Claws very large, strong, acute, and much curved, especially that of the hind toe ; the lateral
reaching beyond base of the middle claw. Coloration peculiar; gray, with black-and-white
wings and tail. Habits much the same as those of N. caryocatactes ; alpine and sub-boreal, pini-
coline, and pinivorous. One species, confined to W. Am., differing from Nucifraga chiefly in the
pattern of coloration. Picicorvus Bp. 1850, of all previous eds. of the Key, and of the A. 0. U.
List, 1st ed. 1886, p. 246; later reduced to a subgenus of Nucifraga — a needless procedure.
P. columbia'nus. (Of the Columbia River. Fig. 331.) Clark's Crow. Clark's Nut-
cracker. Adult ^ 9 '■ Gray, often bleaching on head ; wings glossy black, most of the sec-
ondaries broadly tipped with white : tail white, including under coverts ; central feathers and
usually part of the next pair, together with upper coverts, black. Bill and foet black. Iris
brown. Length about 12 50; extent 22.00: wing 7.00-8.00; tail 4.00-5.00; tarsus 1.35;
bill averaging 1.67; feet from 1.25-1.75. Sexes alike in color, but 9 smaller than ^. Young
similar, but browner a.sh. There is great difference in the .shade in adults, the plumage when
fresh being more glaucous ash, wearing browner, and also bleaching in patches, especially on
head. Coniferous belt of the West, N. to northern Alaska, within the Arctic circle, S. to Mex-
ico and Lower California, W. to the Coast Ranges, E. regularly to the eastern si)urs and foot-
COR VID.E — COR VINyE : CRO WS.
491
roving in search of
liills of the Rocky Mts., as the Black Hills of S. Dakota, and casually to Kansas, Nebraska,
Missouri, and Arkansas ; the only American representative of tlie European Nutcracker, N.
caryocatactes ; abundant, imperfectly gregarious. A remarkable bird, wild, restless, and
noisy, sometimes congregating by thousands in the pineries of the West
food. Breeds in pines, usually
on a iiorizontal bough at no great
elevation, in alpine and north-
erly localities ; the compara-
tively few nests thus far known
liave been taken in Colorado and
Oregon, containing eggs in April
and May ; nest of sticks as a
basis, on which bark -strips,
grasses, and other fibrous sub-
stances are well matted together.
Eggs 2-3, 1.35 X 0.90^ light
grayish-green, speckled and
blotched with brown and lilac, Fm. 331. - Clark's Crow, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
especially about the larger end, but often quite evenly over the whole surface; the general
effect is of a lighter colored egg than usual in this family. I have observed this bird in many
parts of the AVest, from Arizona to the Black Hills of S. Dakota, the National Yellowstone
Park in Wyoming, the Bitter Root valley of Montana, and the Salmon River region of Idaho,
and always found it a striking object, with something in its flight and other actions to remind
one of a Woodpecker. I have more than once known it to be mistaken for the Rocky Moun-
tain Jay, Perisoreus canadensis capitalis, whence probably the reas<jn why it shares with the
latter the names of " Moose-bird," " Meat-bird," and " Camp-robber," which are stated to be
ai^plied to it by Major Beudire in his biography of the bird. (Life Histories, ii, 1896, p. 418.)
The species was discovered by Capt. AVra. Clark near the site of Salmon City, Idaho, Aug. 22,
180.5 : see my History of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ii, 1893, p. 530.
CYANOCEPH'AIiUS, (Gr. Kvavos, kimnos, hlne: Kfcf)aXr}, kephale, head.) Bluk Crows.
Bill of peculiar shape, with nearly straight culmen mounting on forehead, thus somewhat as
in Sturnella, between promi-
nent and somewhat antrorse
antise, which, however, do not
hide nostrils; slender, taper-
ing, acute, not notched ; gonys
straightish, scarcely ascend-
ing. Nostrils small, oval, en-
tirely exposed. Tail nearly
square, much shorter tlian
wings. Wings long, pointed,
folding nearly to end of tail ;
4tli primary longest, 3d and
Fig. 3.3'.'. — Blue crow, nat. size. ; culmen too convex. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) 5th scarcely shorter; 2d
shorter, 1st sliorter still. Feet stout, indicating somewliat terrestrial habits ; tarsus longer
than middle toe without claw, tlie envelop subdivided behind towards the bottom. Claws all
large, strong, and much curved. Color Itluish, nearly uniform ; sexes alike. One species.
(G>/tnnokittn and Gi/mnocittaitf former cds. of tlie Key; but Cuanoceplutlus Bp. 1842, antedates
Gymnokitta Maxim. 1850 (as given in Bp. Consp. 1850, p. 3S2), the latter being j)roposed
as a substitute for Gymnorhinus Maxim. 1841, which is jireoccupied by Gyvniorhiua GuAV,
1840, in another connection.)
492 SYS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. —PA S SERES — OS CINES.
C. cyanoce'phaluG. (For etym. see the generic name. Fig. ;i32.) Blue Crow. Maxi-
milian's Jay. Cassin's Jay. Pinon Jay. Pinonero. $ : Dull blue, very variable
in intensity, nearly uuifi)rm, but brightest on head, fading on belly; throat with whitish
streaks; wings dusky on inner webs. Bill and feet black. Iris brown. Length 11.00-12.00;
extent 16.50-19.00 ; wing 5.50-6.00 ; tail about 4.50 ; bill 1.3:3, but from 1.25-1.50 ; ? smaller,
duller. Young grayish-blue, paler below. Rocky Mt. region to the Pacific coast ranges ;
much the same elevated distribution as the last, in the region of conifers, but rather more
southerly; X. only to British Columbia; S. to Lower California, western Texas, and northern
Mexico; E. casually to Kansas and Nebraska; decidedly gregarious, and very abundant in
some places, especially where the nut-pine {Pinus edulis) flourishes. A remarkable bird, com-
bining the form of a Crow with the color and habits of a Jay, and a peculiarly shaped bill. It
roves about in noisy restless flocks, sometimes of thousands, in search of food, which is pine
seeds, especially pinones, juniper berries, acorns, maize, etc. Breeds in c<jlonies of 10-150
pairs ; nest iu pinon pines and other evergreens, compact but bulky, measuring about 10.00
X 7.00 outside, with a cavity of 4.00 X 3.00, built of twigs, and fibrous bark-strips, grasses,
and rootlets well worked together; eggs 3-5, oftenest 4, 1.05 to 1.20 X 0.87, greenish- or
bluish-white, profusely spotted with brown and purplish in small and nearly uniform pattern
over the whole surface ; mostly laid in April and May ; young flocking by July.
Subfamily CARRULIN>E: Jays and Pies.
Wings much shorter than or about equalling tail, both rounded ; tip of wing formed by
4th-7th quills. Feet, as well as bill, usually weaker than in true Crows, and the birds are
more strictly arboricole, usually advancing by leaps when on the ground, to which they do not
habitually resort. In striking contrast to most Corvince, Jays are usually birds of bright and
varied colors, among which blue is most prominent ; and the head is frequently crested. The
sexes are nearly alike, and the changes of jilumage do not appear to be as great as is usual
among highly-colored birds, although some difi"erences are frequently observable. Our well-
known Blue Jay is a familiar illustration of the habits and traits of the species in general. They
are found in most parts of the world, and reach their highest development in the warmer por-
tions of America. With one boreal exception (Perisoreus), the genera of the Old and New
World are entirely different.
It is proper to observe that while American Corvinre and GarniUu(r, upon which the fore-
going paragraphs are mainly drawn up, are readily distinguishable, the characters given may
require modification iu their application to the whole family, the different divisions of which
appear to intergrade closely. Our 6 genera are easily discriminated.
Analysis of Genera.
Nostrils large, naked.
Not crested. General color brown Psilorhinus
Nostrils moder.ite, covered by feathers.
First primary attenuated, falcate : tail exceedingly long, graduated.
Not crested. Colors black, white, and iridescent Pica
First primary not attenuated. Tail moderate.
Crested. Blue : wings and tail barred with black Cynnocitia
Not crested. Blue : wings and tail unbarred Ap/iflncoma
Green and yellow, witli blue and black on Iiead Xan/liura
Gray, with slaty wings and tail Pcrisoreus
PSILORHl'NUS. (Gr. ■v//'tXdf, jisHos, smooth, bare, bald; pis, pivos, hris, hrinos, nose.)
Brown Jays. Smoky Pies. Nostrils exposed, lai-ge, rounded. Bill stout, with very con-
vex culmen, curved from the base. Wing and tail of about equal lengths, both rounded. Of
large size, and smoky-brown colur; not crested.
CORVID.E—GARRULIXJE: JAYS AND PIES.
493
p. nio'rio. (Lat. morio, a fool; Gr. fiwpos, mows, foolish, silly.) Brown Jay. Siuoky-
browu, darker ou head, fading ou belly ; wings and tail with bluish gloss. Bill and feet black,
sometimes yellow. Length about IG.OO; wing and tail about 8.00; graduation of latter about
2.00; bill 1.25. Eio Grande Valley and southward; not yet actually taken over our border,
and not given in the A. 0. U. Lists.
PI'CA. (Lat. j^ica, a pie.) Magpie.s. Tail extremely long, when fully developed forming
more than ^ the total length, graduated for about | its own length ; the feathers with rounded
ends, the middle pair at least tapering, and specially lengthened beyond the rest. Bill of ordi-
nary corvine shape ; nostrils concealed by long nasal tufts. Wings short and rounded, with very
short, narrow, falcate first primary. Feet stout; tarsus little longer than middle toe and claw.
Head not crested. A naked space about eye. Plumage black, iridescent, with masses of white:
bill black or yellow. Sexes alike. Habits arboreal and somewhat terrestrial, — very irregu-
lar, in fact, a Magpie's general char-
acter being none of the best, though
the generic characters are excellent
P. pi'ca hudson'ica. (Of Hud-^on &
Bay. Fig. 338.) American Mag-
pie. Black-billed Magpie. Lus-
trous black, with green, purple, violet,
and even golden iridescence, espe-
cially on tail and wings. Below, from
breast to crissum, a scapular pudi,
and a great part of inner webs of
primary quills, white; some whitish
touches on throat; lower back sho\\
iug gray, owing to mixture of wlnti
with black; bill and feet black; e\(-
blackish. Length 15 or 20 inche-
according to development of tail, w Iik ' i
is a foot or less long, extremely giad-
uated ; extent about 2 feet; wing about
8.00 ; outer primary short, slendei, and
falcate; bill 1.25; tarsus 1.67; nndtile
toe and claw 1..50. 9 rather smalkr
than ^ , but alike in color. W(&tein
N. Am. from the Great Plains 1o tlu
Pacific, except most parts of Califoi
nia, common ; N. to the Yukon valley ;
occasionally in the upper Mississippi
and Great Lake region even to Onta-
rio. The American Magpie is ex-
tremely similar to the notorious bird
of Europe, and attempts to establish
specific characters have failed. It is
a rather larger and "bctti'r" bud
though quite as luucii of a rascal.
The nest is usually jdaced in thickets or shrubbery, more rarely high in trees, and is as big as
a bushel, bristling with a cheraux-de-frise of sticks outside, with a lateral covered way leading
to the nest proper inside, which is built of finer materials and is of ordinary dimensions, with
a cavity about 6.00 in diameter by 4 deep. Eggs 6-9, even 10, usually 7; commonly 1.20 to
494
SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES - OSCIXES.
1.40 long by 0.85 to 1.00 broad, averaging 1.30 X 0.90, pale drab, soinetiine.s with a greenish
tint, heavily dotted, dashed, aud blotched with purplish and variniis brown shades, which usu-
ally cover the whole surfiice and sometimes hide the ground color: laid April-June or even
July, iu different latitudes.
P. nut'talli. (To Thos. Nuttall.) Yellow-billed Magpie. Bill and bare space about
eye yellow. Smaller. Otherwise like the last, of which it is a perpetuated accident ! The
European Magpie sometimes shows the same thing, and in some other species, like Psilorhinus
morio, the bill is indifferently black or yellow. California, common W. of the Sierras Nevadas.
General habits, nest, and eggs the same as those of the other species.
CYANOCIT'TA. (Gr. /ci^ai/o?, Jcuanos, blue ; kItto, kitta, a jay.) Crested Blue Jays.
Conspicuously crested ; wings and tail blue, black-barred ; bill and feet black. Length 11.00-
12.00 ; wing or tail 5.00-6.00. Nostrils large, subcircular, but concealed. Wing aud tail of
equal lengths, both rounded. Hind claw large, equalling or exceeding its digit in length.
There are two subgenera and species of this beautiful genus, one hght blue aud white, short-
crested, eastern, standing quite alone, with its subspecies florincolu; the other dusky-bodied,
long-crested, western, running into three subspecies.
Analysis of Subgenera, Species, and Subspecies.
Purplish-blue, whitening below, with a black collar. (Cyanocitta proper.)
The ordinary form of Eastern N. Am cristata
The smaller form of Florida c.florincola
Sooty-brownish or -blackish, bluing on body behind, wings aud tail; both the latter black-barred. [Subgenus
Steliekocitta. )
Sooty-blackish ; little if any blue on forehead ; none about eye ; wing-coverts unbarred stelleri
Sooty-blackish ; but blue on forehead and above eye ; wing-coverts unbarred ........ i. anneclens
Sooty-brownish, blue on forehead ; little if any blue about eye ; wing-coverts unbarred .... .s. frontalis
Sooty-brownish, the crest quite black. Bluish-white streaks on forehead and about eye; wing-coverts black-
barred •5- macrolopha
(Subgenus Cyaxocitta.)
C. crista'ta. (Lat. cristata, crested. Fig. 334.) Blue Jay. ^ : Purplish-blue, below
pale purplish-gray, whitening
_^ ^— ~^~"^ — _~_~^^^^=— on throat, belly, aud crissum.
" xX A black collar across lower
-^>; . -,^'- ^^^ throat and up sides of neck
aud head behind crest ; a black
'■^^i^' frontlet bordered with whitish.
^ _ Wings aud tail pure rich blue,
'"'*^-'''-' ■** ~" with black bars; greater cov-
erts, secondaries, and tail-feath-
ers, except central ones, broadly
tipped with pure white ; tail
S'^:;^/'^'"'^ ^/y^^\f^ '^^ .' ■'X''^^ much rounded, graduated over
■ --^^?f^>-^ ' ^^. P>.,^C-~,^r^ an inch. Length 11.00-12.00;
'^."^•^ • vX'* ''^tent 16.00-17.50; wing and
^ ;/|^ -J>%Wy tail, each, 5.00-6.00; biiri.25;
A^^l.^ /'^-''W'kv^^ tarsus 1.35. 9 similar, not so
^^v ( % -^ richly blue ; smaller. There is
much difference in size between
FIG. 33-l.-Blue Jay, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) uortheru and Southern bred
birds, as iu Ageheus. Eastern N. Am., especially U. S., but N. to Hudson's Bay; W. to the
central plains; a very abundant resident or half-migratory bird, breeding throughout its range;
CORVID.E—GARRULIN.E: JAYS AND PIES.
495
a well-known character! Nest in trees and bushes, or any tuld nook, lare^e and substantial,
7 or 8 inches across outside X 4 or 5 deep, cupped 3 or 4 X ^-50, with twigs outside, inside
(if mixed materials ; eggs in April, May, and June according to locality, 3-G in number, usually
4 or 5, 1.00-1.20 X 0.80-0.85, drab-colored varying from greenish to buff, irregularly but
generally fully spotted and blotched with the usual brown surface spots and purplish shell-
markings. The Jay is one of our handsomest birds, of the worst possible reputation ; it prob-
ably destroys more nests, eggs, and young of other birds than any Shrike or Hawk.
C. c. florin'cola. (Lat. /os, gen. floris, a flower; incola, an inhabitant; with implied allu-
sion to Florida as the " Land of Flowers," though the country was so named in J 512 by Ponce
de Leon because he discovered it on Easter Day, Spanish Pascua florida or Pascua deflores.)
Florida Blue Jay. Like the last ; smaller, with relatively larger bill, shorter crest, and
less white on wings and tail. Length 10.00-11.50; wing and tail about 5.00, rather less than
more; white on outer tail-feather under 1.00 in extent. Florida, resident; a local race main-
taining its subspeciflc character along tlie Gulf coast to Texas. CouES, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-
*)0, p. 421, in text; RiuGW. Man. 1887, p. 353; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 477 o.
{Subgenus Stellerocitta.)
C. stel'leri. (To G. W. Steller. Fig. 335.) Steller's Jay. Mountain Jay. Pine
Jay. J 9 : Whole head, neck, and back sooty blackish, little if any lighter on throat, and
with little if any
blue on forehead or
about eyes ; this
sooty color passing
insensibly on rump
and breast into dull
blue. Wings and
tail richer blue,
crossed with numer-
ous black bars, not
on secondary cov-
erts. Bill and feet
black. Young more
fuliginous ; wing-
bars faint if not
wanting. Size of the
Eastern Blue Jay,
or rather larger. Pa-
cific coast region,
from portions of Cal-
ifornia tlirougli Ore-
gon, Washington,
and British C<dum- K,o. 3&-,. - Steller's Jay.
bia to Cook Inlet, Alaska, especially in ]>ine belts, as of the ("oast and Casca<k' ranges; but E.
to the Rocky Mts., where inosculating witii mncwlopha. This is the typical form, with little
or no blue, no whitish on head, and unbarred wing-coverts; running through anuectens, fron-
talis, and macrolophn into some very different Mexican forms. Ilaliits, nest, and eggs as
described under mncrolopha. (('. s. litorrilis >LvYNARn, Orn. and (>(')1. Apr. 1880, j). 50, Van-
couver Island, is rejected as untenable by the .V. 0. U. Committee: see Auk, .Ian. 18!>0, p. (15
and p. 91.)
496 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCIXES.
C. s. annec'tens. (Lat. onnedens, annexini^.) Black-headed Jay. This name has been
given to specimens directly connecting stelleri and macrolopha. General tone of the former j
quite blackish, short-crested, with plain wing-coverts; but blue frontal streaks and whitish eye-
patch of the latter. N. Rocky Mts., U. S., W. to eastern Oregon and Washington, S. to the
Wahsatch range, N. to B. Col.; originally named by Baiid in 1874, but disallowed by the
A. O. U. Committee for some years before it was recognized as entitled to the place it had
continuously occupied in the 2d and 3d eds. of the Key.
C. s. frontalis. (Lat. frontalis, pertaining to frons, the forehead.) Blue-froxted Jay.
Sierra Jay. An offset from stelleri; sooty color rather brownish than blackish ; blue of dif-
ferent shade on body from the deep indigo on wings and tail ; whole crest glossed with bluish,
and conspicuous blue streaks on forehead ; no whitish eye-patches ; wing-coverts obsoletely or
not barred. This form is best developed in the Sierras Nevadas of California, whence it extends
less typically in all directions, shading directly into the several other subspecies iu different
regions.
C. s. macro'loplia. (Gr. fiaKpos, makros, long ; Xd^os, lophos, crest. Fig. 336.) LoNG-
CRESTED Jay'. Better marked than the connecting links; were these not forthcoming, it
would rank as a good species. ^ 9 • l^pper parts sooty uniber-hrown, with a faint blue tinge,
blackening on head
and neck all around in
decided contrast, pass-
ing on rump and upper
tail-coverts into beau-
tiful light cobalt-blue,
on fore breast into the
same blue which oc-
cupies all the rest of
tlie under parts. Crest
black, but faced on
forehead with bluish-
white, which, when
the feathers are not
Fio. 330. - Lo„g-crest.a .lay. „at. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) disturbed, runS in tWO
parallel lines from nostrils upward — these colored tips of the feathers of firmer texture than
their basal portions. One or both eyelids patched with white. Chin abruptly whitish, streaky.
Exposed surfaces of wings rich indigo-blue, most intense on inner secondaries, which, with
greater coverts, are regularly and firmly barred across both webs with black ; outer webs of
primaries lighter blue, more like that of rump or under parts. Upper surface of tail rich in-
digo, like the secondaries, and similarly black-barred; these bands most distinct towards the
ends and on outer webs of the feathers; tail viewed from below appearing mostly blackish.
Iris dark. Bill and feet black. Length 12.00-13.00; extent 17.00-19.00; wing 5.50-6.50;
tail the same: bill 1.12; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 1.33. Sexes quite alike, but 9 at
the lesser dimensions given. Crest longer than in northern stelleri, sometimes 3.00. Young :
Much more sooty ; below entirely fuliginous, with the future blue indicated by an ashy or gray-
ish shade. Wings and tail nearly as bright blue as in the adult, but black bars faint or want-
ing. Crest shorter, not quite black, not faced with blue, and no white about eyes. Rocky Mt.
region, U. S., especially southerly; N. to Wyoming, where grading into annectens ; W. to
Utah, where melting into frontalis; S. into Mexico, where intergrading with the bluer diade-
mata, which latter in its turn is directly connected with the quite blue coronata. The Long-
crested Jay is a common resident of the pine belt, disjilayiug in marked degree the notorious
attributes of its genus, or genius. Nest iu trees and bushes, usually concealed witli art, though
CORVID^E—GARRULIN.E: JAYS AND PIES. 497
bulky; eggs 3-6, usually 4 or 5, fn.in 1.10 to 1.30 X 0.85 to 0.95, averaging 1.20 X 0.87,
pale bluish-greeu, profusely spotted and blotched with dark olive-brown and lighter brown
surface markings, with the usual neutral-tint shell-spots, commonly called ''lavender" or
"lilac"; the pigmentation being pretty evenly distributed, with little tendency to aggregation
about the large end of the egg. They are mostly laid in May, but the season runs from April
to June.
APHELO'COMA. (Gr. d({)(\T]s, aphdes, smooth, sleek; ko/xj;, kome, liair: alluding to the
lack of cre:st.) Crkstless Blue Jays. Generally as in Cyanocitta. Head uncrested. Tail
longer or shorter than wings, instead of about equal, graduated (in some extralimital forms
about equal to wing and even). Tarsus rather longer than middle toe and claw. Wings and
tail blue, without black bars, aud blue the chief body-color ; whitish underneath, with (usually)
<ir without a gray patch on the back. All southern and western. Several species abound ia
tliose portions of the U. S. and in Mexico, where they are as characteristic of thickets of
scrub-oak and other low deciduous trees as the western forms of Cyanocitta are of the pine-
ries. The nest is placed in such trees and bushes, and is rather a saucer than a cup. being a
less substantial structure than usual in this group ; the eggs are particoUu'ed in Aphelocoma,
but whole-colored in the subgenus Sieherocitfa, which I now base upon our representative of
Sieber's Jay.
Analysis of Species, Subgenera, and Subspecies.
Tail longer than wings, graduated. Blue above, with gray dorsal area ; belly white or whitish ; usually a superciliary
stripe, aud streaks ou the throat. Eggs spotted. (Aphelocoma proper.)
Crissum blue or bluisli, more or less contrasted with white or whitish belly.
Continental species.
Forehead hoary white ; superciliary stripe ill-defined ; dorsal area well-defined ; crissum blue, contrasting with
grayish belly cyanea
Forehead blue ; superciliary stripe distinct ; dorsal area ill-defined, spreading and bluish ; crissum bluish, but not
well contrasted with dingy whitish belly. Southern Rocky Mts uoodhousei
Insular species, resembling the last. Santa Cruz Isl insular is
Crissum white or whitish, like the belly.
Sides of liead not decidedly blue, but rather blackish.
Forehead blue ; superciliary stripe distinct ; dorsal area well defined.
Larger, medium colored. California, Oregon, Nevada cali/ornica
Smaller, lighter colored. Lower California c. hypoleuca
Larger, darker colored. San Pedro Mts., Lower CaUfornia c. obscura
Sides of head decidedly blue, like the crown.
Forehead blue ; superciliary stripe indistinct or obsolete. Mexico and W Texas cyanotis
Tail shorter than wings, rounded. Blue above, without definite dorsal area ; no superciliary stripe or streaks on the
throat. Eggs plain. (Subgenus Siebeuocitta. ) sieberi ari:once
A. cya'nea. (Gr. Kvavtos, kuaneos, Lat. cyaneus, blue.) Florida Jay. Scrub Jay.
Adult ^ 9 : Blue ; back with a small well-defined gray patch not invading scapulars ; ])clly
and sides pale grayish ; under tail-coverts and tibise blue in marked contrast ; much hoary
whitish on forehead and sides of crown, but no sharp white superciliary stripe; chin, throat,
and middle of breast vague streaky whitish and bluish ; ear-coverts dusky ; the blue that
.seems to encircle head and neck well defined against the gray of back and breast. Bill com-
paratively short, very stout at base. I..ength 11.00-12.50, average 11.75; extent 13.50-15.00,
average 14.50 ; wing 4.00-4.75, average 4.40 ; tail 4.50-5.50, average 5.00, always longer
tlian wing; bill about 1.00. Fh»rida (and Gulf States?), abundant. Very local, and not au-
thentic as occurring outside of Florida. Usual habits of Jays. Nest a flat structure, in the
scrubs, of twigs lined with fibres. Eggs 3-5, bluish-green, s|)aringly speckled, chiefly at larger
cTid, with brnwii. I ()5 X 0.80 ou an average, but ranging from 1.00 to 1.20 in length, laid
mnstly in April and May. (A. jloruhnm of former eds. of Key, after Bartram, 1791.
Garniliis ci/iowNs \'ir,ii.i,. 1817. A phchcoma cyanea Couks, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 84 ; A. 0. U.
Suppl. List, ihid p. 1 12.)
498 SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES.
A. Tvoodhou'sei. (To S. W. Woodhousc) Woodhouse's Jav. Dorsal patch dark,
glossed with blue, shading into the blue of surroundhig parts ; under parts rather darker tlian
in C. ci/anea, somewhat bluish-gray ; the under tail-coverts bluish but not contrasted ; on
breast the blue and gray shading into each other, gular and pectoral streaks whitish and well
defined, superciliary line definite white, but no hoary on forehead ; bill slenderer. Adult J J :
General color blue, rich and pure on wings, tail, rump, crown, back and sides of neck, and on
breast surrounding the streaky white area. Middle of back and scapulars dark gray much
tinged with blue, shading insensibly into surrounding blue. Upper and under tail-coverts blue.
Under parts from breast gray, with blue tinge (in caUfornica nearly white). Chin, throat, and
breast with a series of whitish blue-edged streaks, enclosed in surrounding blue. Lores, orbits,
and aui-iculars dusky. A series of sharp white streaks over and behind eye. Wings and
tail blue; the inner webs of most quills, and tail viewed from below, dusky. The inner secon-
daries and tail-feathers, closely examined, show obsolete barring, like that wliich becomes pro-
nounced in Cyanocitta, but the traces are faint, and the feathers may be properly called plain.
Iris brown; bill and feet black. Length of ^, about 12.00; extent 1G.50 ; wing 5.00; tail
G.OO; bill 1.12; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 1.33. 9 smaller: average 11.25; extent
15.50, etc. Young : Wings and tail as in adult ; upper parts mostly gray ; under parts gray-
ish-white, with little or no blue on breast; pectoral streaks undefined, as are those over eye.
Rocky Mt. region, from S. E. Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, S. through Coh)rado, parts
of Utah and Nevada, S. E. California, Arizona, New Mexico, W. Texas, into N. Mexico. In
regions where Woodhouse's and Long-crested Jays occur together, the latter lives chiefly in
pines, the former in scrub-oak and other thickets, like its Florida relative. Nest in such situa-
tions, rather frail and flattish in comparison with those built by Jays of the genus Cijanocittcif
made of twigs as a basement, with the inner structure of rootlets, hairs, etc Eggs laid mostly
in April and May, but from late in March to early in June; 3-6 in number, oftenest 4 or 5,
pale greenish, rather sparingly flecked all over the surf\ce with rusty brown and duller shell-
markings; 1.10 X 0.80 on an average, witli a variation from 1.00 to 1.15 in length.
A. insula' ris. (Lat. of an island, insular) Santa CruZ J.\Y. Above, dark azure blue,
including exposed surface of wing- and tail-feathers, this color deepest on crown, and ex-
tending on sides of head and well down on neck and breast; back dark sepia brown. A
white superciliary line ; a black loral and auricular spot. Feathers of throat and breast ashy-
white edged with blue; crissumblue; other under parts dull white. Wing 5.35; tail G.25 :
tarsus 1.80; bill 1.25. Santa Cruz Island, one of the Santa Barbara group, off the coast of
California. The relationships of this species are rather with tcoodhousei than with caUfornica,
as it has the bluish under tail-coverts of the former; but its insulation keeps it apart from both,
and it may be allowed to stand. Nesting as usual in the genus : eggs 2-3, averaging 1.18 X
0.88 ; markings rather light brown, lavender, and grayish. Henshaw, Auk, Oct. 1886,
p. 452; A. 0. U. List, No. 481. 1. A. floridana insularis of the Key, 3d and 4th eds. 1887
and 1890, p. 878 and p. 901.
A. cyano'tis. (Gr. Kvavos, kuanos, a dark blue substance, and as adj. blue, like Lat. cijaneus ;
and -Otis, combining form of Gr. ovs, gen. wTo'y, the ear.) Blue-EARED Jay. Closely resem-
bling Woodhouse's and the California Jay, especially the latter, having the belly and cris-
sum white; but sides of head bright blue, like the crown, and superciliary stripe obsolete ;
interscapular patch dark gray tinged with blue. Size of the nthers. A Mexican species to
which specimens taken in July, 1890, in western Texas near the border have been referred.
See Auk, Oct. 1894, p. 327, and A[)r. 1895, p. 165; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 480. 1.
This bird is new to the Key : orig. descr. in RiDGW. Man. 1887, p. 3.57.
A. califor'nica. (Of California.) CALIFORNIA Jay. Dorsal patch light and distinct, as in
cijanea, but under parts, including tail-coverts and tibite, nearly white: gular streaks very
large, aggregated, and white, causing throat to be nearly uniform; a white superciliary line,
CORVID.E — GARRULIN.E : JAYS AND PIES. 499
as in woodhousei, but no hoary mi fcjrehead ; bill slender. Thus it is seen that each of the three
forms presents a varying emphasis of common characters. Adult ^ J : General color blue.
Scapulars and interscapulars gray, with little if any tinge of blue; rump and upper tail-coverts
bluish-gray, usually mixed with some white. Forehead and nasal tufts blue like crown ; a
sharp white superciliary stripe over and behind eye ; lores, eyelids, and auriculars blackish.
Under parts from breast soiled white, with little or no tinge of blue except on crissuni ; breast
appearing as if blue, overlaid with broad white stripes, which become continuous on tliroat and
chiu; the breast is really white, in streaks edged with blue, and with a surrounding of blue in
which the streaks are as if framed. Iris brown; bill and feet black. lieugth 12.00 or less;
wing 5.00; tail 5.50; bill 1.00; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 1.25. In comparison with
ivoodhousei, differences are seen in the well-defined gray dorsal patch ; nearly white under-
jjarts witliout decidedly blue crissum ; broader and more continuously white gular streaks. The
general habits, nest, and eggs are the same. This species is common in the State for which it
is named, and there generally distributed, on botli sides of the main mountain range ; but it
extends S. into Lower California, N. through Oregon to the Columbia and thus to Wasliing-
ton, in the Pacific coast region, and E. into some parts of Nevada.
A. c. hypoleu'ca. (Gr. vno, hupo, under, below, and "KevKos, leucos, white.) Xantus' Jay.
Said to be smaller than the last (though the dimensions as alleged do not bear this out), with
lai-ger bill and feet, paler blue back and whiter under parts. Lower California. RiDGW. Man.
1887, p. 356; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901 ; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 481 a.
A. c. obscu'ra. (Lat. obscura, fem. of obscurus, dark, obscure: applicable in a double sense
to the alleged distinctness of this local race.) San Pedro Jay. Belding's Jay. Differing
from A. californica in much darker colors and weaker feet. San Pedro range, L. Cala., up to
10,000 feet. Anthony, Pr. Cal. Acad. Sci. 2d ser. ii, Oct. 1889, p. 75; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed.
189.>, No. 481 b. A. floridana obscura Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901.
(Subgenus Sieberocitta.)
A. sieb'eri arizonae. (To Sieber. Of Arizona.) Arizona Jay. Belonging to a different
.section of the genus, distinguislied by having tail rather shorter tliau longer than wings, upper
parts uniform blue, no tliroat-streaks, and eggs plain. Adult ^ 9 : Above, light blue, purer
on head, wings, and tail than on back, where rather dull. Beneath, sordid bluish-gray, bluest
on breast, paler on throat, wliitening on belly, flanks, and crissum. Lores blackish ; orbits
and auriculars dark. No superciliary stripe, nor decided streaks on throat or breast. Bill nor-
mally black, sometimes irregularly patched with whitish. Feet black. Length about 18.00;
wing G.2.5-6.75 ; tail (5.00-0. .50, rounded, the lateral feathers graduated about 050: bill 1.25,
0.40 deep at base ; tarsus 1.G7 ; middle toe and claw 1.33. Young : Little if any blue except-
ing on wings and tail, being dull gray above ; below, much like the adult. Bill flesh-colored
on most of under mandible. Arizona and New Mexico, N. to about 35°, S. into Sonora and
Chihuahua. This Jay abounds in the t'notliills of the mountains of southern Arizona and
southwestern New Mexico, where it goes in troops. The nest is built in scrub-oaks at no great
height, rather flattish, sometimes quite flimsy, with small sticks and twigs as a basis, upon
which are woven rootlets and horse hairs; some nests measure 10.00 across outside, and 4.00
deep, with a .shallow cup 4..50 X 2.00. In some cases additional "cock-nests " are built, but
never used for eggs, as is also the case with various other birds, — the Long-billed Marsh Wren,
f.ir cxainiile. Eggs 3-7, usually 4 or 5, averaging 1.18 X 0.87, but ranging in length from
1.05 to L.T), laid in April and May. They are remarkable in this genus, indeed in the family,
for being whole-colored, of the jieculiar light greenish-blue tint commonly called " robin-blue,"
entirely free from spots. The synonymy of this bird became much involved while authors were
groping their way to its identification. Waiving any question of Gnrrulus sordidus SwAiNS.
Phil. Mag. i, 1827, p. 437, Zool. 111. 2d ser. pi. 8G, it is now regarded as the northern form of
500 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCIXES.
Pica sieberii Wagl. Syst. Av. 1827, Pica No. 23, and its synonymy is as follows : Cyanocitta
sordida Bd. B. X. A. 1858, p. 587, and Mex. B. Surv. ii, p. 21, pi. 22, fig. 1 ; Cooper,
Orn. Cal. i, 1870, p. 305 ; Coues, Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1866, p. 92 (p. 56 of reprint) ;
Sieber's Jay, Ap]ielocoma sordida Coves, Key, 1st ed. 1872, p. 166; Cyanocitta ultramarina
var. arizonce KiDGW. Bull. Essex Inst, v, Dec. 1873, p. 199; Bd. Brew, and Ridgw. B. N. A.
1874, ii, p. 292; Subsp. a, Aphelocoma [sordida^^ arizonie Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. iii, 1877;
p. 117 ; Aphelocoma idtramarina arizona; Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 424, where the
reference of this bird to idtramarinus of Bonaparte, 1825, is criticised ; and finally Aphelo-
coma sieberii arizonce Ridgw. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. viii, 1885, p. 355; Man. 1887, p. 357;
A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886-95, No. 482.
XANTHU'RA. (Gr. ^avdos, xanthos, yellow; ovpa, oura, tail.) Green Jays. No crest.
Wings short, much rounded, with lengthened inner secondaries folding nearly over primaries.
Tail longer than wings, graduated. Bill short and deep, with culmen curved from the base.
Colors green and yellow, with black and blue on head. Several tropical species of these luxu-
rious Jays, one reaching our border. (Name originally and now usually in the bad form of
Xanthoura.)
X. luxuo'sa. (Lat. ?Ma;MOsa, luxurious.) Green Jay. Rio Grande Jay. Adult ^: Back
and exposed surface of wings yelhnvish-greeu ; inner webs of nn)st quills blackish edged with
clear yellow; their shafts black above, yellow or whitish below ; lining of wings clear yellow.
Four middle tail-feathers greenish-blue, at base little difi'erent from back, bluing toward ends;
these feathers, seen from below, quite black ; other tail-feathers all clear rich yellow, includ-
ing their shafts. Under parts from breast light greenish -yeUow, yielding to pure yellow on
middle of belly. Top of head and nasal plumules beautiful rich blue, yielding on forehead to
hoary-white. Sides of head to above eyes, and whole chin, throat, and fore breast jet black,
enclosing a large triangular patch of blue on side of lower jaw, and blue touches on eyelids.
Bill and feet black. Length 11.25-12.00; extent 14.50-15.50; wing 4.50-5.00; tail 5.25-
5.75; tarsus 1-50; middle toe and claw 1.25; bill 1.00, very stout. 9 near the lesser dimen-
sions given. This gay and gaudy bird is abundant in some localities in the Lower Rio Grande
valley as high up as Rio Grande city, and extends thence S. in Mexico to Puebla and Vera
Cruz. As in the case of the Blue Jay its truly elegant attire hides a heart full of mischief and
malice ; it is an equally merciless despoiler of other birds' nests, eggs, and young. Nest in
bushes and small trees, bulky, of twigs, oftenest thorny, with finer lining of rootlets, etc. ;
eggs 3-5, usually 4, 1.10 X 0.80, on an average ranging from 1.00 X 0.75 to 1.20 X 0.85,
the ground color varying from greenish-drab to whitish, profusely and evenly marked as usual
with browns and neutral tints; they are laid in April and May.
PERISO'REUS. (Gr. irepLa-copdco, perisoreuo, I heap up ; probably in allusion to the hoard-
ing or thievish propensities of Jays.) Gray Jays. Not crested. Plumage soft, full and lax,
grayish or sooty. Bill very short, not deep but wide at base ; cubnen little curved ; gonys
ascending. Wings and tail of approximately equal lengths ; latter graduated. A circumpolar
and boreal or alpine genus, type P. infaustus of Europe; with two species in America, one of
them with three subspecies.
AnnlysU of Species and Subspecies.
Back without distinct whitish shaft-lines ; belly gray, darker than throat.
Dark hood moderate ; white forehead extensive ; back grayish canadensis
Dark hood extensive ; whitish forehead restricted ; back grayish. Labrador coast .... c. nigiicapillus
Dark hood extensive ; smoky forehead restricted ; back brownish. Alaska coast c. fumifrons
Dark hood restricted ; white forehead extensive ; back clear ash. Rocky Mts c. capitalis
Back with distinct whitish shaft-lines ; belly wliite like throat.
Dark hood extensive ; smoky forehead restricted ; back brownish. N. Pacific coast obscurns
P. canadensis. (Of Canada. Fig. 337.) Canada Jay. Whiskey John. Whiskey
Jack. Moose-bird. Grease Bird. Meat Hawk. Carrion Bird. Camp Robber.
CORVID^E—GARRULINJE: JAYS AND PIES.
501
Fig. 3o7. —Canada Jay, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols so.)
H. aud Vermont, the Adirondacks of N. Y., Michi
Adult $ 9- Gray, paler below than above, whitening on head, neek, and breast; a dark cap
on crown, hind head and nape, separated by a gray cervical collar from the ashy-plumbeous
back; wings aud tail dark plumbeous, the feathers obscurely tipped with whitish. Bill and
feet black. The dark hood not quite black, not extending over auriculars, and scarcely includ-
ing the eyes ; the forehead quite white,
reaching to the eyes ; the throat aud
sides of neck decidedly lighter than the
belly and flanks ; tlie back without any
distinct whitish shaft-lines. Young :
Much darker, sooty slate color, with
black face, and an obscure whitish
maxillary streak ; the bleaching pro-
gresses indefinitely with age. Length
11.00-12.00 ; extent about 16.00; wing
5.25-5.75; tail rather more, graduated;
tarsus 1.33; bill 1.00 or less, shaped
like a Titmouse's. Subarctic Am. to
the limits of trees, S. into the N. States,
X. W. to Alaska; common in some
parts of the White and Green Mts. of N.
gau, Minnesota, etc. ; breeds in Maine and northward ; resident, and seldom seen south of its
breeding range. The " Wisskachon " (whence " Whiskey John " and then " Whiskey Jack '')
is noted for the fiimiliarity and impudence with which it hangs about the hunter's camp to steal
provisions, for consorting with moose, and for nesting in late winter or early spring, Feb.-
March. Young birds may be found flying early in April in the U. S., though eggs may be taken
in May in arctic regions. Nest usually on the bough of a spruce or other conifer, a large sub-
stantial structure, of twigs, grasses, mosses, plant down, and feathers, measuring 7 or 8 inches
across outside by 4 deep, with a cavity about 3.00 X 2.50; eggs 3-4, rarely 5, 1.15 X 0.85,
yelldwish-gray to pale green, finely dotted and blotched with brown and slate, or lavender,
especially about the larger end ; others more uniformly and largely blotched ; variation wide,
as in other Jays, both in size and coloration, the range in length from 1.05 to 1.20.
P. c. nigricapil'lus. (Lat. niger, black; cnpillus, hair; meaning black-headed.) Labra-
dor Jay. Said to differ from true canadensis in altogether darker coloration, blacker hood,
black auriculars, less extensive white or pale smoky front, and more marked contrast of white
and dark areas of head and neck. Coast region of Labrador, N. to Ungava Bay. RiDGW. Pr.
U. S. Nat. Mus. V, June, 1882, p. 15 ; Man. 1887, p. 359 ; Coues, Key, 3d-4th eds. 1887-90,
p. 878 ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886 and 1895, No. 484 c
P. c. fu'mifrons. (Lat. /«»m.<!, smoke; frons, forehead.) Alaskan Jay. Smutty-nosed
Jay. Similar: coloration darker and dingier throughout; white of forehead obscured or oblit-
erated by smoky-gray. Young differing from the adults as before, but of a dingy brownish-
slate rather than blackish-slate as in canadensis proper and c. nigricapillus. Wings and tail
averaging a trifle shorter than in the typical form. Alaska, except in the soutliern coast dis-
trict ; in the interior melting niio canadensis proper, on tiie coast tlic characters best pronounced.
Nesting in March and April.
P. c. capita'lis. (Lat. capitalis, capital, relating to the head, caput.) RocKY Mountain
Jay. White-headed Jay. General color ashy-plumbeous, or leaden-gray, paler below ;
wings and tail blackish, with a peculiar glaucous shade, as if frosted or silvered over. The
liddy-colnr iriving way on breast and neck to whitish, established as hoary-white on head, iso-
lating the narrow well-defined nuchal band of sooty-gray. No white lines cm back ; tail-feath-
ers distinctly tipped with whitish, and much edging of the same on wings. The clearer colors
502 5 YSTEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — OSCINES.
generally — back rather bluish-gray than br<nvnish-gray, very white head with narrow nuchal
dark baud — produce a bird diflering so obviously from the ordinary Canada Jay as to look
like a diflfereut species at gunshot range, as I can affirm from repeated observation of the bird
in various mountains of the West. The changes of plumage with age are parallel. Size at a
maximum. Length 12.00-13.00; extent 17.00; wing and tail, each, about 6.00; bill 1.00 or
more; tarsus 1.40; middle toe and claw 1.00. Rocky Mt. region of the U. S., especially New
Mexico and Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana, N. to British America, north-
ward shading into typical canadensis. The high mountains of Colorado furnish the extreme
cases. The bird is resident throughout its range, and breeds up to an elevation of at least
10,000 feet ; nest and eggs indistinguishable from those of the stock form ; eggs laid in March.
P. obscu'rus. (Lat. obscurns, obscure, dark.) Obscure Jay. Oregon Jay. In general,
similar to P. canadensis, but apparently distinct. Adult ^ 9 '■ Above, rather brown than
plumbeous ; feathers of back with obvious whitish shaft-stripes ; below, white or whitish,
nearly uniform over all under parts; dark hood extensive, sooty black, but forehead and nasal
plumules white or whitish ; wings and tail brownish-gray, with little whitish edging or tipping.
Rather small; length 11.00 or less; wdng and tail 5.50; bill 0.90 ; tarsus 1.25. Young differ
as before, but are dark dingy brown rather than sooty blackish. Pacific coast region from N.
California through Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia; common; re.sident ; habits
the same as those of the Canada Jay; nest and eggs indistinguishable; breeding season Mar.-
May. P. c. obscurus of former eds. of the Key, now rated as a separate species : see Sharpe,
Brit. Mus. Cat. iii, J 877, pi. v. for colored figures of this and P. c. capitalis.
P. o. gris'eus. (Lat. griseus, gray.) Gray Jay. Described as like obscurus, but larger
(except feet) and grayer ; back " deep mouse gray instead of brown " ; quills and tail " between
gray (No. 6) and smoke gray, instead of drab gray"; under parts grayish-white instead of
brownish-white. California to British Columbia, E. of the Coast and Cascade ranges.
RiDGW. Auk, July, 1899, p. 2.55.
Family STURNID^ : Old World Starlings.
A family confined to the Old World: difficult to characterize, owing to the variety of
forms it includes. Apparently related to Icteridce, from which distinguished by presence of ten
primaries, the 1st short or quite spurious ; and certainly close to the Corr,id<B, with which they
share 10 primaries and some other characters. There is also evidence of affinity with the
Ploceidce. There are about 40 genera and 140 species of Sturnidce., among them several cele-
brated birds of Europe and Asia, as those called Religious Grackles, Mina-birds, etc. ; many
are also splendidly iridescent, as in the genus Lamprocolius and others. The only genus with
which we have here to do is Sturnus, belonging to the
Subfamily STURNIN/E: Typical Starlings.
STUR'NUS. (Lat. sturnus, a stare or starting.) Starlings. Bill shaped somewhat as in
Sturnclla or Icterus, but widened and flattened ; rather shorter than head ; eulmen and gonys
about straight, both gently rounded in transverse section, and at tip ; eulmen rising high on
forehead, dividing prominent antise which extend into well-marked nasal fossae; a conspicuous
nasal scale, overarching nostrils ; tomial edges of mandibles dilated, especially those of upper
mandible; commissure obtusely angulated ; sides of lower mandible extensively denuded and
somewhat excavated ; feathers filling interramal space ; no bristles about bill. Wings long
and pointed; 1st primary spurious and very small ; 2d and 3d longest, rest rapidly graduated.
Tail of 12 feathers, emarginate, little more than half as long as wing. Feet short ; tarsus of
strictly Oscine podotheca, scutellate and laminiplantar, about as long as middle toe without its
A L A UDILLE : L A RKS.
503
claw. Lateral toes of subequal lengths, their claws falliug short of base of middle claw ;
hind claw about as long as its digit. Plumage metallic aud iridescent, the feathers all dis-
tinctly outlined.
S. vulga'i-is. (Lat. t'M/^am, vulgar, common. Fig. 338.) The Starling. Adult: Gen-
eral plumage of metallic lustre, irides-
cing dark green on most parts, more
ste;'l-blue on under parts, and violet or
purplish-blue on fore parts ; more or
less variegated throughout with pale
ochraceous or whitish tips of the feath-
ers. Wings and tail fuscous ; exposed
parts of feathers somewhat frosty <ii'
silvery, with velvety-black and pale
ochrey margiuings, the former within
the latter. Bill yellowish ; feet red-
dish. Young and in winter: Plumage
more heavily variegated throughout,
with larger tawny-brown spots on up|)(r
parts, and white ones below ; wiiii:s
and tail strongly edged with Itrnwn ;
bill dark. Length about 8.50; wing
5.00; tail 2.75; bill 1.00; tarsus 1.00;
middle toe and claw L25. Europe,
etc., one of the longest and best known
instance : imported and now naturalized in New York City, where it breeds about buildings
in Central Park and elsewhere, like the European Sparrow; eggs 4-7, L15 X 0.85, pale
greenish-blue, unmarked.
Fig. 3jS. — The starling. (From Uixon.)
birds. Has straggled to Greenland in one known
Family ALAUDID^ : Larks.
A rather small group, well defined by tlie character of tlie feet, in adaptation to terrestrial
life. The subcylindrical tarsi are scutellate and blunt behind as in front, with a deep groove
along the inner side, and a slight one, or none, on the outer face. That is to say, there is au
anomalous structure of the tarsal envelop ; the tarsus being covered with two series of scu-
tella, one lapping around in front, the other around behind, the two meeting along a groove
on the inner face of the tarsus, which is consequently blunt behind as well as in front. There
is a simple suture of the two series c»f plates on the outer face of the tarsus; the individual
plates of each series alternate. Other characters (shared by some MotacilUdcc) are the very
long, straight, hind claw, which equals or exceeds its digit in length ; long, pointed wings
(with 1st primary apparently wanting in Otocorys), and inner secondaries lengthened and
flowing. The nostrils are usually concealed by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. The shape
of bill is not diagnostic, being sometimes short, stout, aud couic, much as in some Fringillidce,
while in otiier cases it is slenderer, and more like that of insectivorous Passeres. Almididfc
differ from MotacilUdfC hi liaving the moult single. Tlie family is composed, nominally, of 100
<ir more species ; with the exception of two genera and several species or subspecies, it is con-
fined to the Old World. Its systematic position is ojx'u to question; some place it at the end
(tf tlie Oscinc series, or remove it from Oscines altogether, on account of tlie peculiarities of the
podotlieca ; authors generally ])lace it near Fringillidce, from t]i(> reseiiil)lauce of the bill of
some speci<'s to that of some Finches, and .'siiecialiy of some liuntings. In former editi<ms of
the Key I put Alaiidiilrc next t«i MuUmUida; with which it lias certain relationships. But I
504 SYSTEM A TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES— OSCINES.
have uo prejudices in favor of this arrangement, no convictions to he overcome, and no t)hjection
now to transfer the fiimily to a place whicli will put it in line with the A. 0. U. List — i. e. as
nearly as is possible in the nature of a, case which traverses the same series of birds in an opposite
direction. Our latest monographer, Dr. Sharpe of the British Museum, handles the Alaudidce iu
the group of Passeres sturniforines, in the same volume with Sturnidce and Ploceidce ; and the
presentation of the family next after Sturnidfe, in the present instance, is in practical con-
formity with such an arrangement, as we have no Ploceid(B in America. The fact that Alaii-
dida appear to have indifferently 9 or 10 primaries may indicate a natural position between the
sets of families in which number of primaries is among the diagnostic features. The musical
apparatus is certainly well developed, as testified by the eminent vocal powers of the celebrated
Skylark of Europe. The unpractised reader must be careful not to confound the Larks proper
with certain birds loosely called "Larks:" thus the Titlarks, or Pipits, though sharing the
lengthened, straightened hind claw and elongated inner secondaries of Alaudid(S, belong to an
entirely different family, Motacillidce ; wliile the American Field Lark is one of the Icteridce,
much farther removed.
According to shape of hill, structure of nostrils, and apparent number of primaries, the
family has been divided into two subfiimilies ; AlaudincE, typified by tlie celebrated Skylark
of Europe, and Calandritince, of which our well-known Horned Lark is a typical representa-
tive. But the development of the spurious quill is very variable in the series of genera, and
does not seem to be correlated with other structural characters of bill, feet, and wings. It is
therefore ineligible as a classificatory character in this family, and the supposed distinction
between Alaudince and Calandritince fails of effect. I therefore abolish these groups, here-
tofore presented in the Key, and proceed directly to consider our two genera — one of them,
Alauda, only represented iu our fauna by stragglers or naturalized residents, the other shared
by America with other parts of the Northern Hemisphere. These are but a small percentage
of the total of about 20 genera of Larks which are recognized by late authorities, and seem to
be established. (See Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xiii, 1890, pp. 512-658.)
OTOC'ORYS. (Gr. ovs, gen. oitos, ous, ofos, the ear, i. e. plumicorn; and Kopvs, korus, a
helmet, also a lark, supposed to be the Kopv86s, korudos, or crested lark of Europe now called
Galerita cristata.) Horned Larks. Primaries apparently only 9 (no obvious spurious
1st pritnary.) Point of wing formed by the first 3 developed primaries ; inner secondaries
elongated. Tail of medium length, nearly even ; middle pair of feathers different in shape and
color from the rest. Bill compressed-conoid, acute, shorter than head. Nostrils completely
concealed by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. Head not crested, but with erectile plumicorns —
a peculiar tuft of feathers over each ear, somewhat like the so-called " horns " of some Owls.
Feet of ordinary Alaudine characters, as already given. Coloration peculiar in the presence of
yellowish tints and strong black bars on tlie head and breast. Birds of this genus frequent
open places, are strictly terrestrial, and never hop when on the ground, like most Passeres ;
they are migratory in most localities, and gregarious when not breeding ; nest on the ground,
and lay 4-5 speckled eggs ; sing sweetly in the spring time. Eremophila of previous editions
of the Key, and of most authors, after BoiE, Isis, 1828, p. 322, preoccupied in ichthyology by
Eremophilus Humb. 1805; Otocoris Bp. N. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bolog. ii, 1838, p. 407; but it
is better to regard this as a typographical error, even if we have to strain a point to do so,
than to uncharitably suppose Bonaparte did not know how to spell Otoconjs ; f<>r we cannot
imagine that he meant to compound the word with Gr. Kopis, koris, a bug. The bird is not
an " eared bug," or any sort of an earwig, but a lark ! To the single species, with two sub-
species, of former editions of the Key, we have now to add eight other races, lately characterized
by Henshaw and by Dwight, largely upon geographical considerations. Some of these could
not be distinguished if they were not labelled for locality ; and in general, only adult males in
the breeding season can be characterized at all. The student of these puzzling birds need not
ALA UDID.E : LA RKS.
506
therefore despair if many or most of his specimens are equivocal. The peculiarities of the
several races are developed only in their respective breeding ranges, and the extensive wander-
ings of the birds mix them up during the migrations, so that ditterent races may be found
together in the same locality, and only one of them be that bred in that locality. Hence the
impossibility of identifying specimens which do not typically represent adult males in breeding
dress taken within the area of their breeding range. The following attempt to discriminate
them is based on DwiGirr, Auk, Apr. 1890, p. 156.
Analysis oj Subspecies (cf in full plumage).
Back grayish or brow-nisli.
Coloration pale ; nape, rump, and bend of wing pinkish.
No yellow anywhere ; wing 4.40. Bred in interior of Brit. Am., westerly, and Alaska leucolcema
Yellow on throat.
Back dark ; eyebrows white ; wing 4.10. Bred chiefly in the U. S, Dakota to New England .... praticola
Back pale ; wing 4.10. Bred chiefly in tlie U. S., Great Plains and Great Basin nrenicola
Back " very pallid " ; wing 3.75. Bred in Lower California and Sonora pallida
Back light gray ; wing 3.85. Bred in E. and S. E. Texas giraudi
Coloration dark ; nape, rump, and bend of wing reddish.
Browner, less streaked, eyebrows and throat always yellow; wing 4.30. Bred in Brit. Am., easterly, Greenland,
Europe alpestris (typica .')
Darker, more streaked, eyebrows and throat sometimes white.
Back blacker, nape paler ; wing 4.00. Bred in interior of Oregon, Wash, Brit Col merriUi
Back "yellower, greenish tinged," nape darker; wing 3.90. Bred on coast of Oregon, Wash., Brit. Col. sirigata
Back reddish.
Color of nape in marked contrast with back; wing 3.90. Bred on coast of Gala, and in Mexico .... c/irysolceina
Color of nape merging in that of back.
General appearance rich rufous ; wing 3.90. Bred in Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, Gala rubea
General appearance " pallid and scorched ;" wing 4.05. Bred in W. Tex., New Mex., and S. Ariz. . . . (uiusla
O. alpes'tris. (Lat. alpestris, alpine. Figs. 339, 340.) Horned Lark. Shore Lark.
Adult ^ 9) '" breeding plumage: Upi)er parts in general pinkish-brown, this pinkish or
vinaceous or lilaceous tint brightest nu nape, lesser wing-coverts, and tail-ci. verts ; rest of
Fig. 3.30. — Shore Lark, mud
jfter Baird.)
Fig 340. — Shore Lark, nat.
nat. del. E. C.)
upper parts duller and umre grayisli-bn.wn, boldly variegated with dark ])rown streaks;
middle pair of tail-feathers and several iimer secondaries rufous-brown, with darker centres.
Under parts, from breast backward, white ; sides strongly washed witli color of upper parts,
and mottling of same across lower part of ])reast. A large, distinct, shield-shaped black area
on breast. Tail-feathers, except middle pair, black; outermost edged with wliiiish. Wing-
quills, except innermost, plain fuscous; outer web of 1st primary whitisii. Lesser wing-
coverts usually tipped with grayish-white. Top of head like nape ; bar across front of vertex,
thence extended along sides of crown, and produced into a tuft or " horn." Mack ; front and line
over eye, aho somewhat produced to form part of the tuft, sulphur-yei
: a bro;ul bar
506
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA S SERES — OSCINES.
from nostrils along lores, thence curving below eye and widening as it descends in front of
auriculars, black ; remainder of sides of head and whole throat sulphury-yellow. Bill
plumbeous-blackish, bluish-plumbeous at base below (sometimes there yellowish); feet and
claws black; iris brown. Length of ^ 7.00-7.50; extent 13.00-14.00; wing 4.2r)-4.o0; tail
2.75-3.00; bill, from extreme base of culnien, 0.40-0.50; tarsus 0.88-0.90; middle toe and
claw rather less; hind claw about 0..50, usually longer than its digit, but very variable. 9
duller and smaller than ^ ; length 0.75-7.25; extent 12.75-13.25; wing about 4.00, etc.
Adult (^ 9 , in winter : As usually seen iu most of the United States in fall, winter, and early
spring, differ from the above in more sordid coloration of the upper parts, which may be simply
grayish-brown, heavily streaked with dusky, even on the crown, with little or none of the
pinkish tints ; and in lack or restriction of the black markings of the head and breast, or their
being veiled with whitish tips of the individual feathers; nevertheless the sulphury tinge of the
white parts about the head is usually very conspicuous. Fledglings have the ujjper parts
dusky, mixed with some yellowish-brown, and sprinkled all over with whitish or light tawny
dots, each feather having a terminal speck. Most of the wing- and tail-feathers have rusty,
tawny, or whitish edging and tipping. The under parts are white, mottled with the colors of
the upper parts along sides and across back ; no traces of definite black markings about head
and breast, nor any yellow tinge. Bill and feet pale or yellowish. This peculiar speckled
stage is of brief duration ; with an early autumnal change, a dress little if at all different from
that of the adults in winter is acquired. Nesting of this species, or some of its subspecies,
begins very early iu April, or even in March, sometimes before the snow is gone, and fre-
quently other broods are reared through the summer; nest of grasses, etc., sunken in the
ground ; eggs 3-5, 0.90-1.05 X 0.60-0.75, usually about 0.95-0.70, very variable in tone, but
always profusely and heavily marked with brownish -gray or dark stone-gray upon a grayish
or greenish-white ground ; in some cases the whole surface nearly uniform. Northern Hemi-
sphere at large; the typical form, identical with alpestvis of Europe, etc., breeds beyond
U. S. in easterly parts of British America, as the region about Hudson's Bay, and abun-
dantly in Labrador; also Green-
land ; common in flocks in the
E. U. S. in winter S. to the
Carolinas and Illinois, or about
lat. 35°; replaced in the West
by the following varieties :
O. a. pratic'ola. (Lat. an in-
habitant of prat urn, a meadow;
Colo, I inhabit or cultivate. Fig.
341.) Prairie Hdrxeu Lark.
First and least departure from
alpestris typica ; nape, rump,
and lesser wing-coverts vina-
ceous, as before, but not so dark,
and back flat gray, in contrast ;
yellow of throat pale, reduced
<ir even wanting; white over
eye ; smaller ; $ wing 4.20 or
less. Breeding range along the
northern tier of States, from
Fig 341. -Prairie Honied Lark. (L. A. Fuertes.) the Valley of the Red Rivcr of
the North in E. Dakota, Upper Mississippi Valley, region of the Great Lakes, and adjoinin<:
5, to New York, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts; in migration
British Province;
ALAUDID/E: LARKS. 507
S. to S. Car. ami Texas; mixed with alpestris proper in winter, and not sej)arated therefrom in
former eds. of tlie Key. 0. a. praticola Hensh. Auk, July, 1884, p. 264 ; Dwight, Auk, Apr.
1890, p. 144, area marked "3" on the map; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 474 b.
O. a. leucolae'nia. (Gr. Xeuxd?, leukos, white; Xai/idy, laimos, throat.) Pallid Horxed
Lark. Size of typical alpestris ; J wing 4.40, etc. General coloration extremely pale —
Imnvuish-gray, the peculiar pinkish tint of certain parts sharing the general pallor. Black
markings on head and breast nmch restricted in extent, and white surroundings correspondingly
increased — thus, the black post-frontal bar scarcely or not broader than the white of forehead.
No yellow about head, excepting perhaps a slight tinge on chin. Changes of plumage parallel
with those already given ; even nestlings show the same decided pallor. Breeding range in
the interior of British America, westerly, and Alaska ; in migration scattering over western
U. S., mixed with arenicola and other varieties. My leucoleema was based primarily (Birds
N. W. 1874, p. 33) upon types I shot at Fort Randall, S. Dak., February, 1873, and extended
to cover pallid birds I shot in N. Dakota in summer and fall of 1873, ahmg the parallel of 49°,
and included breeders of arenicola ; but the name may conveniently be restricted to the present
form, as was done by Mr. Henshaw. 0. a. lioyti Bishop, Auk, Apr. 1896, p. 130, is considered
not sufficiently different from leucoleema by the A. 0. U. Committee, Auk, Jan. 1897, p. 133.
O. a. arenic'ola. (Lat. arena or harena, sand, a sandy place, as the arena of a Roman am-
phitheatre was; hence a desert; colo, I inhabit or cultivate.) Desert Horned Lark.
Smaller than alpestris proper; size of praticola ; $ wing 4.20 or less. Coloration pallid, as
in leucol(ema, but with decided yellow on throat. Breeding range extensive in western parts of
the U. S. on the Great Plains, in the Rocky Mountains and Great Basin, N. through N.
Dakota and Montana beyond 49° to the region of the Saskatchewan ; in migration S. into
Mexic(j, scattered about and mixed with other varieties. 0. a. leucoleema, in part, of previous
eds. of the Key ; 0. a. arenicola Hensh. Auk, July, 1884, p. 265 ; Dwight, Auk, Apr. 1890,
p. 14G, area marked " 5 " on the map ; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886-95, No. 474 c.
O. a. giraud'i. (To J. P. Giraud, the writer on 16 species of Texas birds, etc.) Giraud's
Horned Lark. Texan Horned Lark. Smaller still than leucoleema ; $ wing under 4.00.
Pallid, like leucoleema and arenicola, the back gray with very indistinct streaks, but the throat
bright yellow, and this color usually tingeing the breast also. A very local race, so far as
known, confined to E. and S. E. Texas. Alauda minor Giraud, 1841, type examined ; not in
any previous ed. of the Key; O. a. giraucli Hensh. Auk, July, 1884, p. 266 ; Dwight, Auk,
Apr. 1890, area marked " 4 " on the map; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886-95, No. A7Ad.
O. a. pallida. (Lat. pallid, pale, wan.) SoNORAN Horned Lark. Small as gircmdi ;
$ wing 3.75. Pallid, like the three last, but with yellow ou throat ; resembling a miniature
arenicola; back "very pallid," the whitish edging of the feathers evident. Another local
race, supposed to be confined in the breeding season to Sonora and Lower California.
Dwight, Auk, Apr. 1890, p. 154 (from MS. of C. H. Townsend, pub. same year in Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus. xiii, p. 138), area marked " 11." This ends the imle series, and we revert
to dark birds like alpestris, with the following :
O. a. striga'ta. (Lat. striguta, marked with strigee, streaks or stripes.) Streaked Horned
Lark. Smaller than alpestris proper ; ^ wing 4.00 or rather less. Dark and streaky above,
with nape, rump, and bend of wing reddish ; more or less extensively yellowish below. Coast
region of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia; also, Santa Cruz Islands, off coast of
S. Cala. Hensh. Auk. July, 1884, p. 267; Dwight, Auk, Ajn-. 1890, p. 151, area marked
"9" on the map; A. 0. U. Li.sts, 1st and 2d eds. 1886-95, No. 474 ^r. '" This race has credit
for more streaking and more yellow than it deserves. By rumiiling the feathers of the back
of almost any of tlie other forms a heavily streaked effect may be obtained, and the extreme
yellowness below of the type specimens is not supported by the small series I have before me "
(Dwight). Nests May-July; eggs 2-4, ofteuest 3, 0.83 X 0.60, pale slate-gray, thickly
508 SYSTE.VA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES.
speckled all over with iireenish-browu and reddisli-bmwu. Specimens frwin the Californian
Islands have also been called 0. a. insularis Towns. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. xiii, 1890, p. 140.
O. a. mer'rilli. (To Dr. J. C Merrill, U. S. A.) Merrill's Horned Lark. Dusky
Horned Lark. Most like tlie last in size and color ; ^ wing 4.00; " more broadly streaked
above and blacker than. strigata, with less yellow about the head and throat, the nape pinker."
Interior of Oregon, Washingtcjn, and British Columbia, between the Cascade range and the
Rocky Mts., S. in winter to California and Nevada. 0. a. merrilli Dwight, Auk, Apr. 1890,
p. 153, area on the map marked " 10" ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 474 i. From these
two dark forms we turn to three reddish ones, as follows :
O. a. chrysolaema. (Gr. xpv<reos, chruseos, golden ; Xaifios, laimos, throat.) Mexican Horned
L.\RK. Smaller than alpestris proper: ^ wing scarcely or not 4.00; a very small specimen,
probably 9, has the wing only 8.50; in another, marked ^, it is 3.75. The pinkish tinge
intensified into cinnamon-brown, and pervading all the upper parts except middle of back,
which is contrasted with nape; yellow of head intensified, but breast white; black markings
very heavy, — the black on the crown widened to occupy more than half the cap, reducing the
white frontlet to a mere trace. Coast region of California, N. to Nicasio; coast region of
Lower Calift)rnia, northerly ; and most of Mexico. U. S. specimens whicth have been referred
to chrijsolccma belong mostly to adusta or rubea, both of which were included under chri/so-
Iccmn in earlier eds. of the Key. Alauda rufa AuD., type examined, agrees with rubea, but
habitat assigned includes other races; name unavailable also as antedated hy A. rufa Gm.,
1788, which is our Titlark. See Hensh. Auk, July, 1884, p. 261 ; Dwight, Auk, Apr. 1890,
p. 149, separate areas marked "7"; A. O. U. Lists, No. 474 e.
O. a. atlus'ta. (Lat. scorched; adurere, to burn, parch, scorch.) Scorched Horned
Lark. "Similar to chrysokema, but of a uniform scorched pinkish or vinaceous-cinnamon
above," without (*()ntrast of color between nape and middle of back; lower parts creamy white,
reddish-tinged ; ^ wing about 4.00. S. W. U. S. in W. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and
probably parts of Utah, Nevada, and S. Cala. ; S. into Mexico. E. chrysolcema of American
writers, for the most part, and of previous eds. of the Key, in part. 0. a. adusta Dwight,
Auk, Apr. 1890, p. 148, area on map marked " 6 " ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 474 h.
O. a. ru'bea. (Lat. red.) Ruddy Horned Lark. " Bright rufous suffusing the whole
plumage and merging into the ruddy brown of the back without abrupt change, distinguishes
this race from chri/solcema ; " ^ wine 3.90. " General color above, deep cinnamon or ferrugi-
nous; throat bright yellow ; streaks on dorsum nearly obsolete." An extremely local race, of
the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys in California. Hensh. Auk, July, 1884, ]>. 267;
Dwight, Auk, Ai)r. 1890, [u 150, small area on map marked " 8" ; A. O. U. List, 2d ed.
1895, No. 474/
ALAU'DA. (h-dt. alauda, ii lurk; supposed Celtic al, high, and aud, song.) Skylarks.
Primaries 10; spurious 1st primary minute but evident. Head subcrested, but without lateral
ear-tufts. Wings long, pointed, the tip formed by first 3 developed primaries ; inner sec-
ondaries long and flowing. Tail emarginate, little more than half as long as wing. Tarsus
equal to middle toe and claw. Lateral toes of unequal lengths. Sexes alike. Nest on the
ground. Eggs 3-6, thickly speckled.
A. arven'sis. (Lat. arvemis, relating, to arable land ; arvttm, a ploughed field.) Skylark.
Upper parts grayish-brown, the feathers with darker centres; under parts whitish, tinged
with buff across breast and along sides, where streaked with dusky; a pale superciliary line;
wings with much whitish edging; outer tiiil-feather mostly white; next one or two with white
borders. Length of ^ 7.50; extent 14.75; wing about 4.00; tail 2.50; bill 0.50 ; tarsus
or middle toe and claw 1.00; hind toe 0.45, its claw up to nearly 1.00. 9 smaller. Eggs
0.90 X 0.60. This celebrated bird, whose music so often ius))ires the poet, occurs as a
straggler from Europe in Greenland and Bermuda. It has repeatedly been imported and
PASSERES MESOMYODI OR CLAMATORES. 509
turned out in this country, \Ahore it niiiy become naturalized, as it seems to lie already estab-
lished in some localities on Long Island, N. Y. The closely related Kamtschatkau Sky-
lark {A. blakistoni) may occur in Alaska.
Suborder PASSERES MESOMYODI, OR CLAMATORES :
Non-melodious or Soxoless Passeres.
Mesomyodian scutelliplantar Passeres tvith ten fully developed primaries. — Syrinx with
fewer than four distinct pairs of intrinsic muscles, iuserted at middle of upper bronchial half-
rings, representing the mesomyodian type of voice-organ, and constituting an uncomplicated
and ineffective musical apparatus. (The word mesomyodian is from the Gr. fiecros, mesos, mid-
dle, and iJLvd)8r]s, muodes, muscular, referring to such insertion of the syringeal muscles into
the middle of the upper bronchial cartilages, not at their ends as in Oscines or Acromyodi ; Gr.
aKpos, akros, at the tip or end, apical.) Side and back of tarsus, as well as the front, covered
with variously arranged scutella, so that there is no sharp undivided ridge beliiud (as, e. g. in
lig. 344, a). Ten fully developed primaries, the 1st of which, if not equalling or exceeding the
2d, is at least two-thirds as long. (See p. 246, where the Oscines are defined as acromyodian
laminiplantar Passeres with 9 fully-developed primaries, or 10 and the 1st short or spurious.)
In most Mesomyodi or Clamatores, the lower end of the trachea itself, aside froiri its nniscles,
undergoes no further modification fnmi an ordinary Passerine type; and the birds which are
thus not further affected in their windpipes form a group called Oligomyodce (Gr. oA/yoy, oUgos,
few, as the syringeal muscles are). All our mesomyodian birds are also oligomyodian ; there
are also several extralimital families, as the OxyrhamphidcB, Pipridce, and Phytotomidte of
Neotropical America, and the Old World Philepittidce. Pittidce, Xenicidce, and Eurylcemidce.
Again, some mesomyodian birds exhibit a further modification of the same organ, which affects
the structure of the lower end of the trachea itself; and such are called Tracheophonce. These
tracheophonous birds are all Neotropical ; they form the four families, Dendrocolaptid(V, Formi-
cariidiB, Conopophagidce, and Pteroptochida:
The essential character of Passeres Mesomyodi or Clamatores, as distinguished froui Pas-
seres Acromyodi or Oscines, is thus seen to be an anatomical one, consisting in non-development
of a singing apparatus; the vocal muscles of the lower larynx (syrinx) being small and few,
or else forming simply a fleshy mass, not separated into particular muscles ; in either case in-
serted in a special manner into the bronchial half-rings ; in the case of oligomyodian forms
without further modificatiim of the trachea itself, such as occurs in tracheophonous forms.
This character, though subject to some difficulty of determination, corresponds well with the
principal external character assignable to the whole suborder, — namely, a certain condition
of the tarsal envelop rarely if ever seen in higher Passeres. If tlie leg of a Kingbird, for ex-
ample, be closely examined, it will be seen covered with a row of scutella forming cylindrical
plate.s continuously enveloping the tarsus like a segmented scroll, and showing on its postero-
internal face a deep groove where the edges of the envelop come together; this groove widen-
ing into a naked space above, partially filled in behind with a row of small plates. Such a
tarsus is called exaspideun (Gr. e'^, e.r, outside, and aanis, aspis, a shield, scute, plate) ; it
characterizes the whole family Tyrannidcc. When the arrangement of the scndls is reversed,
so that they lap round the inner side of the tarsus, it is called endaspidean (Gr. eVSo-, endo-,
within, inside): it is shown by the South American Dendrocolaptidtc, for example. When the
whole back side of the tarsus is broken up into many little dose-set scutella, the forniation is
termed pycnaspidean (Gr. ttvkvos, jmknos, ch)se, firm, compact); Cotingidfe show this feature.
In some rare cases, as Philepittidrc, the plantar laminae are rectangular, in regular series, giving
the taxaspidean arrangement (Gr. rd^ts, taxis, a rank or row). As a rare anomaly in this sub-
order, Pittid(B and Xenicidre have ochreate or booted tarsi, as if tln-y l»elonged to the highe.^t
510
SYSTEMA TIC SYXOPSIS. — PA SSERES — CLAMA TORES.
Oscines, though they are in fact oligoinyodiau Clamatores. With such modifications, and
the exceptions noted, this scutelliplantar condition marks all Clamatorial birds, and is some-
tliing tangibly different from the typical Oscine or laminiplantar character of tarsus, which
consists in the presence on the sides of entire corneous laminse meeting behind iu a sharp ridge.
And even when, as in cases of the oscine Otocorys -auA Ampelis, there is extensive subdivision
of laininfe on the sides or behind, the arrangement does not exactly answer to the above
description.
The Clamatores, especially the Tracheophones, represent the lower Passeres, approaching
the large order PicaricB (see beyond) in the steps by which they recede from Oscines, yet well
separated from Pieariaa birds. Of the families composing the suborder, as above named, only
one occurs in North America, north of Mexico, to any considerable extent, but another (Cotin-
gidce) is represented on our southern border by at least one species ascertained to occur iu
Arizona, and I describe others beyond.
Analysis of Xorth American Families.
Tarsus exaspidean Ttrannid*
Tarsus pycnaspidean Cotingid^
Fig. 342. — Bill of a
Flycatcher. {Tyrannus
verticalis, nat. size.)
Family TYRANNID^ : American Flycatchers.
While having a close general resemblance to some of the ff
foregoing insectivorous and oscine Passeres, the North Ameri-
can TyrannidcB will be instantly distin-
guished by the above-described condi-
tion of the tarsus, together with the
presence of 10 primaries, whereof the
1st is long or longest ; and from birds
of the following Picarian order by the
Passerine characters of 12 rectrices,
greater wingcoverts not more than
half as long as secondaries, and hind
claw not smaller than middle claw.
This family is peculiar to America; it is one of tlie most
extensive and characteristic groups of its grade in the New
World, Tanagridce and Trochilidce alone approaching it iu
these respects. There are over 400 current species, distributed
among about 100 genera and subgenera. Only a small frag-
ment of the family is represented within our limits, giving l>ut
a vague idea of the numerous and singularly diversified forms
abounding iu tropical America. Some of these grade so closely
toward other families, that strict definition of Tyrannida be-
comes extremely difficult ; and I am not prepared to offer a
satisfactory diagnosis of the whole group. Our species, how-
ever, are closely related to eacli other, and may readily be de-
fined in a manner answering tlie requirements of the present
volume. With a possible exception, not necessary to insist
upon iu tliis connection, they belong to the
Subfamily TYRANNIN/E: True Tyrant Flycatchers,
presenting the following characters : Wing of 10 primaries ;
1st never spurious nor very short ; one or more frequently emarginate or attenuate on inner
Fig. 343. — Eraargination of pri-
maries in Tyrannince. a. Milvtilus
fijrficatus ; b. Tyrannus tyrantuis ;
c. Tyrannus verticalis; d. Tyrannus
rociferans ; all nat. size. (Ad. nat.
del. E. C.)
tyrannid.e—tyranninjE: tyrant flycatchers.
511
web near end. Tail of 12 rectrices, usually nearly even, sometimes deeply forfieate. Feet
small, weak, exclusively fitted for perching ; tarsus little if any longer than middle toe and
claw ; anterior toes, especially the outer, extensively coherent at base. Bill very broad and
more or loss depressed at base, tapering to a fiue point, thus presenting a more or less perfectly
triangular outline when viewed from above ; tip abruptly deflected and usually plainly notched
just behind the bend ; culmeu smooth and rounded transversely, straight or nearly so length-
wise, except toward end ; commissure straight (or slightly curved) except at end ; gonys long,
Hat, not keeled. Nostrils small, circular, strictly basal, overhung but not concealed by bristles.
Mouth capacious, its roof somewhat excavated ; rictus ample and deeply cleft ; commissural
point almost beneath anterior border of eye. Rictus beset with a number of long stiff vibrissfe,
sometimes reaching nearly to end of bill ; generally shorter, and flaring outward on each side ;
other bristles or bristle-tipped feathers about base of bill. Bill very light, giving a resonant
sound in dried specimens when tapped. On being broken open, the upper mandible will be
found extensively hollovr. These several jjeculiarities of the bill (to most of which Omithion
offers signal exception) are the most obvious features of the group ; and should prevent our
small olivaceous Flycatchers from being confounded even by the tyro with insectivorous Oscines,
as Warblers and Vireos. (See Figs. 342, 344.)
The structure of the bill is admirably adapted for the capture of winged insects; broad
and deeply fissured mandibles f(jrm a capacious mouth, wliile long 'Dristles are of service in
entangling the creatures in a trap and re-
straining their struggles to escape. The
shape of the wings and tail confers the power
of rapid and varied aerial evolutions neces-
sary for successful pursuit of active flying in-
sects. A little practice in field ornithology
will enable one to recognize Flycatchers from
their habit of perching in wait for their prey
upon some prominent outpost, in a peculiar
attitude, with wings and tail drooped and
vibrating in readiness for instant action ; and
of dashing into the air, seizing the passing
insect with a quick movement and a click of
the bill, and then returning to their stand.
Although certain Oscines have somewhat the
same habit, these pursue insects from place
to place, instead of perching in wait at a par-
ticular spot, and their forays are not made
with such admirable elan. Dependent en-
tirely upon insect food. Flycatchers are neces-
sarily migratory in our latitudes ; they a{)pear
with great res^ularitv in spring, and depart „ „,. „ .,..,,,. ,, .
'^ ^ •' If I p,Q 344. — Generic det.ails of J;/iar>)nnir. a. Mij^r-
on tlie approach of cold weather in fall. They archus; b. Sayornix; c. Contopus; d. Empidowix ; all uat.
arc distributed over temperate North Amer- «'^e. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.)
ica; many are common birds of tlie Ivistern States. The voice, susceptible of little modula-
tion, is usually harsh and strident, though some species have no unmusical whistle or twitter.
The sexes are not ordinarily distinguishable (remarkable exception in Pyrocepludus), and
dianges of plumage with age and season are not ordinarily great. The modes of nesting are
too various to be collectively noted. The larger kinds of Flycatchers are unmistakalde, but
several of the smaller species, of the genera Sayornis, Contopus, and especially Emjndonax,
look much alike, and their discrimination becomes a matter of much tact and diligence.
512 SYSTEMA TIC SVXOPSIS. —PA SSERES— CLAM A TORES.
To the genera of Tyrannid(C long known to be North American have been added four
from Mexico — the immense-billed Pitangus ; the short-billed Myiozetetes with tlaniing
crown-spot and yellow under parts ; the streaky, yellow-bellied, ruft)us-tailed Myiodynastes ;
and the curious little " beardless" Ornithion ; while Mitreplumes has been merged in Empi-
donax. The 11 genera may be readily discriminated by the following characters :
Analysis of Genera.
Bill flattish, fully bristled and hooked as usual iu Ti/rannidw.
One or more outer primaries attenuate at end. A flame or yellow spot on crown.
Tail deeply forficate, much longer than wings Milvulus
Tail simple, not longer than wings Tyrannus
Outer primaries not attenuate. A yellow orange crown-spot. Belly yellow.
Wings and tail extensively rufous ; uo streaks except on head . . . . ' Pitangus
Wings and tail without any rufous ; no streaks except on head Myiozetetes
Tail but not wings extensively rufous. Streaked above and below Myiodynastes
Outer primaries not attenuate. Tail moderate. No yellow spot on crown.
Tail chestnut and dusky, iu lengthwise pattern. Belly yellow ; throat ashy Myiarchus
Tail without chestnut.
Tail about equal to or little shorter than wing, slightly or not forked. Bill narrow. Tarsus not shorter
or rather longer than middle toe and claw. Coloration black and white, cinnamon-brown, or oli-
vaceous Sayornis
Tail decidedly shorter than wing, a little forked. Bill broad and flat. Tarsus shorter or not than mid-
dle toe and claw. Olivaceous ; length 6.25 or more Contnpvs
Tail a little shorter than wing, about even. Bi'l flat. Tarsus not sliorter or rath^^r longer thm middle
toe and claw. Coloration olivaceous and yellowish, but no red, buff or pure brown. Length G.25 or
less — usually under G 00 Empidonax
Tail and tarsus as in Empidonax. Bill narrow. Hiud not longer than lateral toe. Sexes unlike.
(f full-crested, vermilion and pure brown Pyrocephalus
Bill compressed, quite parine in appearance, unbristled, unnotclied. General color ashy, with yellow lining of wings.
Very small : length under 5.00 Onnthion
MIL'VULUS. (Lat. viilcidi(s, diminutive of mihus, a kite.) Swallow-tailkd Fly-
catchers. Tail in adult deeply forficate. about twice as long as wing. Outer primary or
primaries abruptly attenuate, and (»ther characters as in Ti/rannus j)roper (beyond). A yellow
or flaming crown -spot.
Analysis o.f Species.
Three or four primaries emarginate. Crown-spot yellow, in black cap ... tyrannus
One primary emarginate. Crown-spot flaming, in ashy cap . • forficatus
M. tyrao'nus. (Lat. tyrannus, a tyrant.) Fork-tailed Flycatcher. Adult ^9:
Outer 3 or 4 primaries emarginate. Crown-patch yellow. Above clear ash; below, white
including lining of wings; top and sides of head black; tail black, the outer feather white on
outer web for about half its length ; wings dusky, unmarked. 9 duller. Young similar, but
primaries not emarginate, nor tail lengthened; no crown-spot; wing- and tail-coverts edged
with brown. Wing 4.50; tail up to a foot long, forked 6-S inches. A beautiful bird of Central
and most of S. Am., accidental in the U. S. in four recorded instances (Mississippi, Kentucky,
New Jersey, and southern California).
M, forfica'tus. (Lat. /o>-^crt<(fs, forked like /o)/ex, a pair of scissors. Fig. 345.) Swal-
low-tailed Flycatcher. Scissor-tail. Texan Bird-of-Paradise. Adult ,$ 9:
First primary alone emarginate (fig. 343 «). Crown-jiatch orange or scarlet. General cidor
hoary-ash, paler or white below; sides at insertion of wings and lining of these, scarlet or
bloody-red ; other parts of body variously tinged with the same, f)r a paler salmon-red or pink.
Wings blackish, with whitish edgings. Tail black, but several of the long feathers extensively
white or rosy; these are narrow and linear, sometimes widening somewhat in spoon-shape.
Wing 4.50-5.00; extent of wings 14.50-15.50; tail up to a foot long, usually 8.00-10.00 inches,
forked 5.00-6.00. 9 averaging smaller than ^, with tail commonly less developed. Young:
TYRANNID^—TYRANNIN.^: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS.
513
Similar; primary not abruptly emarginate ; tail undeveloped; no crown-spot, and little or no
red. Central America, Mexico, and in the U. S., the Lower Mississippi valley, and Texas;
usually N. to Indian Territory and Kansas, even Mis-
souri ; E. to Louisiana ; accidental in Illinois, Florida,
Virginia, New Jersey, New England, and Manitoba,
at Hudson's Bay, and in the Mackenzie River valley !
A most elegant, graceful, and showy bird, abundant
in Texas, conspicuous by the display it makes in open-
ing and closing the tail, like scissor-blades ; very ac-
tive, dashing and noisy, like a Kingbird, — all the
large Flycatchers sharing this same impetuous, irrita-
ble disposition. It makes a very good sort of a " Bird-
of- Paradise " to the average apprehension of a Texan.
Breeds throughout its regular U. S. range. Nesting
like the Kingbird's ; eggs 4-6, usually 5, white, boldly
blotched with reddish and darker browns on the sur-
face, and lilac shell-spots ; size averaging 0,90 X 0.66,
l>ut length ranging from 0.80 to 0.95; they are mostly
laid in May, but may be taken from April to July.
TYRAN'NUS. (Lat. tyrannus, a tyrant.) King
Flycatchers. Tail moderate in size and shape,
rather shorter than wing, even or little rounded, emar-
ginate or lightly forked. Wings long, pointed by 2d-
3d quills, 1st and 4th little if any shorter, 5th and rest
rapidly graduated. Several outer primaries abruptly
emargiuate or sinuate-narrowed on inner webs toward
end. Bill stout, flattish, fully bristled, notched, and
hooked (fig. 342). Feet small and weak ; tarsus with
scales obviously lapping around. Size large ; length
8.00 or more; wing over 4.00. Sexes alike; 9 sharing the flaming crown-patch. Young
lacking crown-spot and attenuation of primaries. Nest bulky, on a bough, compactly woven
and felted. Eggs white, boldly marked with oval or tear-shaped spots of reddish -brown, etc.
Contains numerous species, 5 of N. Am., which have been divided into several named sub-
genera, but are closely interrelated through various exotic species. They are the Kingbirds
proper.
Analysis of Species.
No olive nor decided yellow ; blackish and whitish.
Only two primaries obviously emarginate. Tail about even, conspicuously white-tipped. Bill small, under 1.00.
{Tyrannus) tyrannus
Five or six primaries emarginate. Tail emarginate, merely lighter at end. Bill big, 1.00 long. (Melittarchus)
dominicensis
Olivaceous, with pure yellow on belly, ashy on head. Bill moderate. {Laphycles.)
Tail blackish, merely emarginate ; wings dark brown.
Several outer primaries gradually attenuate for a long distance. Outer web of outer tail-feather white
verliealis
Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a short distance. Outer web of outer tail-feather merely
whitish-edged voci/erans
Tail dark brown, like wings, obviously forked.
Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a short distance mdanchoUcus couchi
FiQ. 345. — Swallow-tailed Flycatcher.
(Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
T. tyran'nus. (Fig. 346.) Kingbird. Bee-biro. Bee-martin. Adult $ 9 : No
olive nor decided yellow. Only two outer primaries obviously emarginate (fig. 343, b). Tail
nearly even — if anything a little rounded. Blackish-ash, still darker or quite black on head,
33
514
SYSTE^fA TIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— CLAMA TORES.
crown with a flaming spot. Below, pure white, the breast shaded with plumbeous. Wings
dusky, with much whitish edging. Tail black, broadly and sharply tipped with white, the
outer feather sometimes edged with the same. Bill and feet black. Young: Lacking emar-
gination of primaries, and no crown-spot ; very young birds show rufous edging of wings and
tail. Length about 8.00; extent 14.50; wing 4.50; tail 3.50, even or slightly rounded ; bill
small; under 1.00. Temperate N. Am., but chiefly U. S. to Rocky Mts. ; rare or casual on the
Pacific slope ; N. in the interior to Saskatchewan and Athabascan regions, about lat. 57° ;
abundant in summer ;
migratory mainly in
April and September ;
breeds throughout its-
range ; winters oti the
southern border and
beyond in some of the
West Indies, and
through Central Am.
and S. Am. to Bo-
livia. This trim and
shapely ''martinet,"'
in severe black and
white but with fiery
pompon, is familiar to
all, and equally noted
for irritability, pug-
nacity, intrepidity,
and its inveterate
enmity to Crows,
Hawks, and Owls,
wliich it does not
hesitate to attack,
cither in defence of
its nest or just to
show its spunk ; but
in its turn it is at-
tacked and sometimes-
worsted by the Hummingbird. Nest a conspicuous object in the orchard or by the wayside,
on the horizontal bough of a tree, large, cupped, compactly woven and matted with fibrous^
and disintegrated vegetable substances; eggs 3-5, usually 3 or 4, rarely more, 0.85 to 1.05
long, averaging 0.95 X 0.72, white, rosy, or creamy, variously spotted or blotched in bold
(often beautiful) pattern with reddish and darker brown surface-spots and lilac shell-markings.
They are laid mostly in June, but in difi"erent latitudes are found also in May and July. The
Kingbird destroys a thousand noxious insects for every bee it eats ! (T. carolinensis of all
previous eds. of the Key.)
T. dominicen'sis. (Of St. Domingo.) Gray Kingbird. Adult ^ 9 : Five or six outer
primaries usually emarginate. Crown-spot as before. Grayish-plumbeous, rather darker on
head : auriculars dusky. Below, white, shaded with ashy on breast and sides ; under wing- and
tail-coverts faintly yellowish ; wings and tail dusky, edged with whitish or yellowish ; tail-
feathers merely indistinctly lighter at extreme tip. Larger than the last: Length about 9.00;
wing 4.50; tail nearly 4.00, more or less emarginate; bill 1.00, very turgid. AVest Indies;
Florida regularly, in abundance; N. to S. Carolina rarely, to Massachusetts accidentally; has-
Fig. 346. — Kingbird.
TYRANNIDuE—TYRANNIN.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 515
even been found astray in British Columbia ! General appearance, habits, and nesting of the
Kingbird; eggs indistinguishable, averaging a triiie larger, 1.00 X 0.73, 3 or 4 in number,
sometimes 5, in the U. S. laid in May and June, but much earlier in the West Indies.
T. vertica'lis. (Lat. verticalis, relating to the vertex, or top of head, which has a flame-patch.
Fig. 342.) Arkansas Tyrant Flycatcher. Western Kingbird. Several outer pri-
maries gradually attenuated for a long distance (fig. 343, c). Adult J' 9 : Coloration oliva-
ceous and yellow; belly and under wing- and tail-coverts clear yellow; back ashy-olive,
changing to clear ash on head, throat, and breast, chin whitening, lores and auriculars dusky ;
wings dark brown with whitish edging; tail black or blackish ; bill and feet black ; iris brown.
Outer web of outer tail-feather entirely white. Ash of fore parts pale, contrasting with dusky
Inres and auriculars, fading insensibly into white on chin, and changing gradually to yellow on
belly ; olive predominating over ashy on back. Length about 9.00; extent about 16.50; wing
5.00; tail 4.00; bill 0.75; tarsus 0.75. Young: Similar; general ash of body dull, with a
brownish cast ; little or no olivaceous on back ; tail not quite black ; yellow of under parts pale
and sulphury, even whitish ; bill light-colored at base below ; no color on crown, and primaries
scarcely or not attenuate. Very young with rusty edgings, especially on wing- and tail-coverts.
Western U. S. and adjoining British Provinces, from the Great Plains to the Pacific, abundant;
accidental in Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Maine ; E. regularly to Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa, and Minnesota ; N. to British Provinces in the Mouse and Milk Kiver regions
and westward; S. in winter in Lower California, Mexico, and Guatemala; migratory; breeds
throughout its U. S. and Brit. Am. range, but winters nearly or quite extraliinital. General
traits those of the King-bird; nest similar, rather larger, with more fluffy and less fibrous ma-
terial, but very variable in size, shape, make, and position, usually in a tree; eggs 3-5, usually
4, not distinguishable with certainty from those of the common Kingbird, averaging a trifle
smaller, under 0.95 X 0.70..
T. voci'ferans. (Lat. vodferans, vociferous, voice-bearing; rox, voice, and /ero, I bear.)
Cassin's Tyrant Flycatcher. Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a short
distance (fig. 343, d). Adult $ 9= Outer web of outer tail-feather barely or not edged with
whitish. General coloration as in verticalis; but ash of fore parts dark, little different on lores
and auriculars, changing rather abruptly to white on chin and to yellow on belly ; ashy pre-
dominating over olive on back. The difference is decisive on comparison. The outer prima-
ries are abruptly nicked and narrowed within half an inch of the end. The mere edging of the
outer tail-feather with white instead of the whole web being white is also a good character.
Changes of plumage the same as in verticalis; size the same; bill rather stouter, about 0.85;
tarsus slightly longer, on an average. Southwestern U. S., and southward to Guatemala; N.
to Wyoming and Idaho, even to Oreg(m ; abundant in the S. Rocky Mt. region, there mostly
replacing verticalis in the breeding season, and also on the Pacific slopes in California, but rare
in the Great Basin ; breeds throughout its U. S. range, and resident in some parts. Nesting
and eggs like those of the foregoing ; nest usually on horizontal bough of a tree at considerable
height, bulky, rather flattish, about 8.00 across outside by 3 deep, with a cup 3.50 X 2.00;
eggs 2-5, usually 3 or 4, indistinguishable from those of other Tyrants, averaging 0.95 by 0.70,
mostly laid in June, but sometimes earlier.
T. melancho'licus couch'i. (Gr. iiiKayxoKiKoi, melagcholikos, Lat. melancholicus, melan-
clioly, i. e., atrabilious; /le'Xa?, fiiXavos, melas, melanos, black; x^°^' cholos, gall, bile. To
Lieut. D. N. Couch.) Couch's Tyrant Flycatcher. Very similar to the last; primaries
abruptly emarginate for a short distance, as in vodferans, and outer web of outer tail-feather
not white; but tail dark brown, like wings, and obviously forked (about 0.50; in vodferans
tail quite black, slightly emarginate or nearly even); all its feathers with slight pale edges,
and their shafts pale on under surface. Yellow of under parts very bright, reaching liigh up
on breast ; throat as well as chin extensively white. Size of the foregoing, and changes of
516
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSERES - CLA MA TORES.
plumage coincident. T. melancholictis is a universally distributed South and Central Am. spe-
cies, of which this northern subspecies reaches over our Mexican border in the valley of the
Lower Rio Grande of Texas, where it is common in some localities, and breeds. Nest in trees
at a moderate height, of twigs, Spanish moss, rootlets, etc., outside 6.00 X 2.50, inside 3.00 X
1.50; eggs 3-4, 0.95 X 0.72, indistinguishable froni those of the foregoing, laid usually in May
in Texas.
PITAN'GUS. (Vox barb.: a Mexican or S. Am. name of some bird.) Derby Fly-
catchers. Outer primaries not emarginate. An orange crown-patch. Bill as long as head,
exceeding tarsus, straight, stout, but narrow, as deep as broad at nostrils, with rigid culmen
straight to the hooked end ; gonys about straight, ascending, commissure and also lateral out-
lines perfectly straight. Nostrils rounded, nearer commissure than culmen. Wings rounded,
tipped by 3d-5th quills ; 2d and 6th about equal and shorter, 1st only about equal to 9th.
Tail shorter than wings, nearly even, but somewhat double-rounded. Tarsus about as long
as middle toe and claw. Largest-bodied of any N. Am. Flycatcher. Brown above, yellow
below, with black, white, and orange head ; quills and tail-feathers extensively chestnut, as
in Myiarchus.
P. derbia'nus. (To Lord Derby, 13th earl of that name, many years president of the Zoo-
logical Society of London as Lord Stanley, proprietor of the Knowsley Menagerie, died 1850.
Fig. 347.) Derby Flycatcher. Bull-headed Flycatcher. Upper parts light wood-
brown, with an olive tinge ; wnngs and tail the same, but the feathers extensively bordered
without and within with chestnut, forming a conspicuous continuous area on wiug-quills in
closed wing, and on most wing-
and tail-feathers more extensive
than brown portion of inner
webs. Below from breast, in-
cluding lining of wings, clear
and continuous lemon-yellovA'.
Chin and throat pure white,
widening behind up under ear-
coverts. Top and sides of head
black, a circle of white from fore-
head over eyes to nape, the en-
closed black enclosing a lemon
and orange patch. Or, middle
of crown yellow and orange,
Fio. 347. — Derby Flycatcher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) enclosed and partly concealed in
black, this black enclosed in white, then the long and broad black bar on side of head, separat-
ing white of side of crown from that of side of throat. The coronal feathers lengthened and
erectile as in a Kingbird, or more so; crown-patch of same character but more extensive.
Bill and feet black ; iris hazel. Sexes alike. Length of ^ about 10.50; wing about 5.00;
tail about 4.00 ; bill 1.20 ; tarsus 1.00. A great Flycatcher of aggressive appearance, long
known in Mexico and Central and S. Am., in 1878 ascertained to occur on the Lower Rio Grande
in Texas, where it is common in some places, breeds in May and June, and is sometimes called
the Bull-headed Flycatcher. Nest in trees at no great height, very large, thick-walled, roofed
over with lateral entrance, composed of miscellaneous coarse mateiials well compacted with
the finer lining ; size nearly a foot across by half as much in depth, with comparatively small
cavity; eggs 4-5, averaging 1.15 X 0.85, creauiy white, sparingly speckled and splashed, chiefly
about the larger end, with dark brown and neutral tints.
MYIOZETE'TES. (Gr. /ii/ia, muia, a fly, and Cn'^T^^s, a seeker, inquirer.) Inquisitive Fly-
catchers. Bill short, stout, very broad at base, with curved culmen, hooked and notched
tyrannidjE—tyrannin.E: tyrant flycatchers. 517
tip, and heavily bristled rictus ; its length from nostril not half the length of tarsus. Primaries
not emarginate ; 2d-4th longest, 5th shorter, 1st about equal to 6th. Tail shorter than wings,
nearly square ; feet small ; tarsus rather less than middle toe and claw. A widely distributed
Neotropical genus, related to Elainea, with about 7 species, one of which is believed to reach
our border in Texas, on the authority of J. P. Giraud, though nobody has fctund it there of
late years. It has an orange crown -spot, as iu Pitangus, Mtjiodynastes, Tijr annus, 3Iilvulus,
etc., but its relationships are elsewhere iu the family.
M. texen'sis. (Lat. of Texas.) Giraud's Flycatcher. Texan Flycatcher. Crown
with concealed orange patch, as in a Kingbird. A conspicuous white superciliary stripe.
Under parts, including lining of wings, yellow ; but throat definitely white. Above, (divaceous,
duller and grayish on head, dusky on lores and auriculars, hoary on forehead. Quills and tail-
feathers fuscous, most of them with dull yellowish edging, but no clear rufous or chestnut. Bill
and feet black. Young lack the crown-spot, and have some rusty edgings of the feathers,
especially of wings and tail. Length 7.00 or less ; wing 3.50 ; tail under 3.00 ; bill 0.60 ; tar-
sus 0.75 ; middle toe and claw 0.85. Texas, S. through Mexico to Central and S. Am. Nest
like that of the Derby Flycatcher, domed; eggs said to be only 2 or 3 in number; they average
0.92 X 0.66, and are white, sparingly flecked all over with brown and neutral tints. This
species was introduced formally in the text of the 2d ed. of the Key, 1884, p. 430 ; A. 0. U.
Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. [450.].
MYIODYNAS'TES. (Gr. fiv'ia, mttia, a fly ; Swaa-rrji, dimastes, a ruler.) Striped Fly-
catchers. Related to Myiarchus; tail extensively chestnut, as in that geuus, but no chest-
nut on wings. No primaries emarginate. A yellow crown-spot. Bill shorter than head, as
long as tarsus, very turgid, much broader than high at nostrils, lateral outlines slightly con-
vex, culmen nearly straight to little hooked tip ; gonys long, ascending ; rictus moderately
bristled. Wings long and pointed ; 3d quill slightly longer than 2d, 4th little shorter, 5th
much shorter, 1st betj\'een 5th and 6th. Tail shorter than wings, nearly even. Feet very
small, relatively as weak as iu Contopus ; tarsus rather shorter than middle toe and claw.
Several species of Mexican and tropical American Flycatchers, with crown-spot, rufous tail, and
whole plumage streaked.
M. luteiven'tris. (Lat. luteus, yellow, rentris, of renter, the belly.) Sulphur-BELLIED
Striped Flycatcher. Entire upper parts, including the head, streaked ; the feathers with
broadly dusky centres and olive-brown borders, finally edged slightly with yellowish-brown. A
yellow crown-spot, concealed as in the Kingbird. Tail and its upper coverts rich chestnut, all
the feathers with blackish shaft-stripes — on the middle feathers about half the width of either
web, on the outer narrowed to the shaft itself and a slightly clubbed end ; from below, shafts
of the feathers white except at ends. Wings blackish: median and greater coverts and
inner quills, both externally and internally, conspicuously edged with yellowish-white ; some
rufous edgings also on lesser coverts. Under parts, including lining of wings, sulphur-yellow,
fading to white on the throat; everywhere, excepting on middle of belly and crissum, heavily
streaked with blackish, these dark stripes suffused and blended on throat, particularly along
its sides. Lores and auriculars dusky ; forehead and streak over eye whitish. Bill blackish,
pale at base below. Wing 4.40 ; tail 3.40 ; bill and tarsus 0.75 ; middle toe and claw rather
more. Central Am. and Mexico to S. Arizona and S. New Mexico, common, breeding in
mountainous regicms at elevations of 5,000-7,000 feet. It was originally found within our
limits, in the Chiricahua Mts. in 1874. and I think that I saw it at Fort Verde, 40 miles E. of
Fort Whipple, in May, 1881. Nest in a h(de of a tree, jjrcferably a sycamore near running
water, 20-.")0 feet up, mainly composed of walnut leaf-stems without special lining; eggs 2-3,
1.04-0.95 X 0.77-0.72, creamy white, heavily and profusely spotted and blotched or streaked
with light and dark purplish-browns, thus resembling those of Myiarchus; laid in July
and August.
518 S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSFS. — PA S SERES — CLA MA TOR ES.
MYIAR'CHUS. (Gr. fxvla, muia, a fly; apxos, archos, a ruler. Fig. 344, o.) Crested
Flycatchers. Ash-throated Flycatchers. Rufous-tailed Flycatchers. No
colored patch on crown, but head slightly crested by lengthened erectile feathers. Primaries
emargiuate. Olivaceous; more or less yellow below, throat ash, primaries margined with
chestnut, tail-feathers the same or mostly chestnut — such coloration the best mark of the
genus. Tail nearly even, if anything rounded, about as long as wings, of broad flat feathers
with rounded ends. Wings rounded, tip formed by 2d-4th quills (usually), 5th shorter, 6th
and 1st much shorter. Tarsus about as long as middle toe and claw, — if any difi"ereut, longer.
Bill moderate, variable in shape and relative size. Next to the characteristic rufous on wings
and tail, size is a good clue to this genus among our olivaceous Flycatchers without colored
crest ; for the Myiarchi excepting M. laivrencei are much larger than any others excepting
Contopus borealis and C pertinax. Only one eastern species, but three others in the South-
west, and each of these with a subspecies, requiring nice discrimination. Peculiar, all of them,
in nesting in holes, and laying heavily-colored eggs, scratched and snarled, but chiefly scrawled
lengthwise, with dark brown, in close and intricate pattern.
Analysis of Species and Subspecies.
Lnrge : Length 8.00 or more. Inner webs of tail-feathers extensively rufous. Bill subcorneal. {Subgenus Wnonxx.)
Rufous occupying nearly or quite all of the inner webs of several lateral tail-feathers. Eastern N. Am. crinitus
Rufous occupying inner webs of several lateral tail-feathers to nearly equal extent with a fuscous stripe of equal
width throughout S. W. U. S.
Length 9.00 or less ; wing and tail about 4.00 ; bill about 0.75. Texas mexicanus
Length over 9.00 ; wing and tail over 4.00 ; bill nearly or quite 1.00. Arizona m. magister
Rufous occupying inner webs of several lateral tail-feathers to greater extent than a fuscous stripe which widens
at end.
Outer web of outer tail-feather whitish. Western U. S cinerascens
Outer web of outer tail-feather not distinctly whitish. Arizona c. nuttingi
Small : Length about 7.00 or rather less. Inner webs of taU-feathers with little or no rufous. S. W. U. S. Bill flat.
(Myiarchus proper.)
Darker and smaller. Texas lawrencei
Lighter and larger. Arizona I- olivascens
*^* This genus is unfortunate in having the names of our southwestern species and subspecies much confused and
changed about by various writers : see synonjTny under head of each, beyoud. The several forms now given are the same
as those of the 2d-4th eds. of the Key, with different names for mexicanus and its subspecies rnagisler, and with an addi-
tional subspecies for cinerascens and lawrencei, respectively. My present nomenclature is strictly conformed to the
A. O. U. List, with some misgiving in one or two instances.
M. criui'tus. (Lat. crinitus, haired, i. e. crested ; crinis, hair. Fig. 348.) Great
Crested Flycatcher. Adult ^ 9 '■ Decidedly olivaceous above, a little browner on head,
where the feathers have dark centres ; throat and fore breast pure dark ash ; rest of under
parts bright yellow, the two colors meeting abruptly ; primaries margined on both edges with
chestnut ; secondaries and coverts edged and tipped with yellowish-white ; tail with all the
feathers but the central pair chestnut on whole of inner web (excepting perhaps a very narrow
space next the shaft) ; outer web of outer feathers edged with yellowish ; middle feathers,
outer webs of the rest, and wings except as stated, dusky-brown. The foregoing phrases are
intended to be chiefly antithetical to those used in describing cinerascens, below. Other diag-
nostic points are : bill dark but not quite black, pale at base below, stout and comparatively
short, hardly or not as long as tarsus, the latter perhaps never 0.90 ; olive back, ash throat,
and yellow belly severally pure in color ; all tail-feathers but middle pair so extensively rufous
on inner webs that a mere line, if any, of fuscous persists next the shaft (compare mexicanus
and m. magister), and this fuscous line, if any, running of same narrowness to ends of the
feathers (compare cinerascens) ; never more than a trace of rufous on outer webs. Very young
birds have rufous skirting of many feathers, in addition to the chestnut above described, but
TYRA NNIDjE — TYRA NNIN.E : TYRA N T FL YCA TCHERS.
519
this soon disappears. Large: length 8.00-9.00; extent about 1.3.00; wing and tail about
4.00(3.80-4.20); bill 0.75-0.80 ; tarsus 0.70-0.80 ; middle toe and claw 0.65-0.75 ; breadth
of bill at base 0.33-0.40, or about ^ the length of culmen. Eastern U. S. and adjoining
portions of Canada, west to Manitoba, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Arkan-
sas, and about half of Texas; S. to Mexico, Central Am., and U. S. of Colombia in winter.
Migratory, chiefly iu April-May, and Aug.-Sept. ; breeds throughout its N. Am. range; win-
ters chiefly extralimital, but a few remain on our extreme
southern border. An abundant bird, locally and irregu-
larly distributed in woodland, of loud harsh voice and
<luarrelsome disposition, noted for its habitual use of cast-
off snake-skins in the structure of its nest. Nest iu hol-
lows of trees and simihir retreats, which are filled with
trash of the most miscellaneous description, sometimes
accumulated in astonishing bulk ; eggs unique (outside
this genus) in pattern : ground color buff or rich creamy,
heavily overlaid with numberless markings of purplish-
chestnut, or purplish-chocolate, and others paler, sharp
and scratchy, mostly lengthwise, but especially at the butt
tangled up ; size about 0.87 X 0.67 on an average, rang-
ing from 0.80 X 0.60 to 0.95 X 0.70; number 4-8, usu-
ally 5 or 6 ; laid in May and Juue.
M. mexiea'iius. (Lat. Mexican.) Mexican Crested
Flycatcher, On comparing this bird with crinitiis, it
is immediately perceived to be different. The lateral tail-
feathers have a stripe of fuscous on inner web adjoining
shaft, this stripe equalling or exceeding width of whole
outer web of the respective feathers, and being about half-
and-half with the rufous, whereas in crinitus there is only the narrowest possible dusky stripe
on inner web, or none at all. This dusky stripe is of imiform width throughout, not enlarged
at the end to occupy most or all of the feather, as is the case with cinerascens. Entire upper
parts darker than those oi crinitus — that is, they have a sordid brownish-olive cast, instead
of the clearer and purer greenish-olive of crinitus ; yellow of belly much paler ; ash of throat
decidedly lighter and clearer, and coming farther down breast, yielding to yellow without in-
tervention of the olivaceous pectoral area which is usually conspicuous iu eri)iitus. The gen-
eral aspect of the under parts is much as in cinerascens, both the distribution and shade of the
colors being more as witnessed in the latter than as seen in crinitus. The light edgings oi
the wing-feathers are also paler than those of crinitus. The bill is black, not dark brown,
slenderer than in crinitus ; nor has it the very constricted shape of tliat of cinerascens. Tlie
general body-coloration is almost exactly as in cinerascens, from which it is at once distin-
guished by different shape of bill and different pattern of tail-feathers. Average length 8.75 ;
extent about 12.75; wing 3.60-4.00 ; tail 3.75 ; bill 0.75; tarsus 0.85 ; middle toe and daw
0.75. Lower Rio Grande valley of Texas, and southward to Guatemala. Common, migra-
tory, arriving in Texas early in April, and leaving in Sept., breeding in Ajiril and May. Nest
and eggs like those of crinitus, said to average paler, but not distinguishable ; number -1-6,
usually 5 ; size ordinarily 0.88 X 0.69. This bird is now identified with the badly described
Tyranmda mexicana Kaup, P. Z. S. 1851, p. 51 ; it is M. me.ricanus Dresser, Ibis, 1865,
p. 473 (Texas), and Lawr. Ann. Lye N. Y. May, 1869, p. 202, but not M. mexicanus Bd.
B. N. A. 18.58, p. 179 (which is M. cinerascens) ; A. O. U. Suppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1897,
p. 127, No. 4.53); 31. mexicanus Kidgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. ii, p. 14; Man. 1887, p. 3.'J;J;
M. crinitus var. irritabilis CouES, Pr. Phila. Acad. 1872, p. 65, iu part, tiec Tyrannus
Fig. 348. — Great Crested Flycatclier,
reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
620
S YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSTS. — PA S SERES — CLA MA TORES.
irritabilis Vieill. ; M. crinitus var. cooperi Bd. Brew, and Kidgw. Hist. N. A. B. ii, 1874,
p. 331, in part; 31. mexicmms var. cooperi Kidgw. Pr. Nat. Mus. i, p. 138, in part, nee 31.
cooperi Bd. ; 31. erijthrocercus Brew. Ibis, 1878, p. 205 (Texas); 31. crinitus erythrocercus
CouES, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. iv, 1878, p. 32; v, 1879, p. 402; Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-95,
p. 435 (Te.xas).
M. m. magis'ter. (Lat. magister, a master, magistrate.) Large-billed Crested Fly-
catcher. Arizona Crested Flycatcher. Like the last; differing in greater size, espe-
cially of the bill, which runs from 0.80 to 1.10 in length of culmen, equalling or even exceeding
the tarsus, which is itself 1.00, and thus fully 0.10 longer than in mexicanus proper ; wing over
4.00 ; tail the same ; total length 9.00 or more. The coloration of the tail-feathers is as in
the stock-species, not as in crinitus, of which I formerly regarded both magister and mexicanus
as subspecies. Southern Arizona, S. through western Mexico to Tehuantepec. In our country
the bird is characteristic oi the region of the giant cactus, in holes in which, made by the Gila
and other Woodpeckers, the nest is placed as a rule. Eggs 3-5, 1 .00 X 0.70, like those of
mexicanus in coloration, laid in May and June. ( ? Tyrannula cooperi Kaup, P. Z. S. 1851,
p. 51. 3Iyiarchus cooperi Baird, B. N. A. 1858, p. 180, and of most authors, wholly or in
part. 31. crinitus var. cooperi Coues, Pr. Phila. Acad. 1872, p. Q7 ; Key 2d-4th eds. 1884-
90, p. 435 (Arizona) ; Bd. Brew, and Ridgw. Hist. N. A. B. ii, 1874, p. 33J , in part (includes
mexicanus proper). 31. mexicanus magister Ridgw. Pr. Biol. Soc. Wash, ii, 1884, p. 90; Man.
1887, p. 333; A. 0. U. Lists, 1886-95, No. 453 «. The name cooperi proves to be unavail-
able for this bird.)
M. cineras'cens. (Lat. cinerascens, ashy. Fig. 349.) Ash-throated Crested Fly-
catcher. Adult ,^9: Rather olivaceous-brown above, quite brown on head; throat very
pale ash, sometimes almost whitish, changing gradually
to very pale yellow or yellowish-white on rest of under
parts. Primaries edged as in crinitus, but secondaries
and coverts edged with grayish-white. Tail-feathers
as in crinitus, but rufous of inner webs hardly or not
reaching their ends, being cut off from the tip by widen-
ing of the fuscous stripe (in young bii'ds, in which the
quills and tail-feathers are more extensively rufous-
edged, the last distinction does not hold) ; outer web
of outer tail-feather whitish. Size of crinitus, or rather
less, 8.00-8.50; wing and tail about 4.00; but tarsi
longer and bill slenderer; tarsus 0.80-0.90 ; bill 0.75-
0.85, but only 0.27-0.33 broad at base, where only about
as wide as higli, and obviously narrower than in aini-
tus : though in Cape St. Lucas specimens (3L pertinax
Bd. Pr. Phila. Acad. 1859, p. 303) shaped quite as in
crinitus, but smaller. Western U. S. ; N. to Oregon,
Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada; S. through Mexico to Guatemala; W. from west-
ern Texas through New Mexico, Arizona, Southern and Lower California to the Pacific;
said to winter in the Lower Colorado valley, IT. S., but ordinarily comes over our border early
in March, passes on in that month and April, and lays in May and June; nesting like others
of the genus, and eggs indistinguishable, though averaging paler, with finer markings than
those of crinitus ; they number 3-6, usually 4, and measure on an average 0.87 X 0.65.
Though so similar to the foregoing, it is a different bird from any of them. (31. mexicanus
Bd. B. N. a. 1858, p. 179, nee Kaup, 1851. Tyrannula cinerascens Lawr. Ann. Lye. N. Y.
1851, p. 121. 31. cinerascens ScL. and Salv. Ibis, 1859, p. 121 ; Coues, Pr. Phila. Acad.
1872, p. 69; Key, orig. ed. 1872, p. 171. 31. cinerescens Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90,
Fig. 349. — Ash-throated Flycatcher
dueed. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
TYRA NNID^ — TYRA NNIN.E : TYRA XT FL YCA TCHERS. 521
p. 436. M. crinitus var. cinerascens Kidgw. in Bd. Brew, and Ridgw. Hist. N. A. B. ii,
1874, p. 332.)
M. c. nut'tingi. (To C. C. Nutting.) Nutting's Crested Flycatcher. Like the last,
and especially like its young, which have the tail-feathers more e.\tensively rufous than the
adults. Outer web of outer tail-feather not distinctly whitish, and its inner web wholly rufous,
or with only a narrow dusky stripe, not widening at the tip. Kather small ; wing 3.40-3.70 ;
tail 3.35-3.80; tarsus 0.85; bill from nostril 0.50. Arizona, from the vicinity of Prescott
southward through western Mexico to Costa Rica. A nest found in a giant cactus June 12,
1892, contained 4 fresh eggs 0.95 X 0.67, indistinguishable from those of cinerascens proper.
(M. nutUngi Ridgw. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. v, 1882, p. 394; Man. 1887, p. 334. M. cinerascens
nuttingi Allen, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist, iv, Dec. 1892, p. 346; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895,
No. 454 a. Not in any earlier ed. of the Key.)
M. lawren'cei. (To Geo. N. Lawrence.) Lawrence's Crested Flycatcher. Similar
in color to M. crinitus, but much smaller, and belonging to a different section of the genus.
Bill broad, flat, shaped much as in Contopus, about i its own length wide at the nostrils. No
chestnut on tail-feathers except a narrow bordering on outer webs, and, in the young, an inner
margining also. Wing-coverts and inner secondaries as well as primaries edged with rufous
(rarely yellowish on inner secondaries) ; pileum dark or quite blackish. Very small : length
7.00 or less; wing and tail only 3.00-3.40; bill 0.62-0.70 ; tarsus 0.75. Lower Rio Grande
valley of Texas through eastern Mexico to Guatemala; only included in our fauna on the
authority of Giraud, 1841. It is a long but not yet well known species.
M. 1. olivas'cens. (Lat. olivascens, growing olivaceous, somewhat olivaceous.) Olivaceous
Crested Flycatcher. Like the last ; lighter colored ; crown little darker than back ; wing-
and tail-feathers usually without rufous edging. Wing 2.90-3.25 ; tail 3.00-3.25. Western
Mexico, S. to Yucatan, N. to Arizona regularly, casually to Colorado (Fort Lyon, May 11,
1883). (M. lawrencei Brewst. Bull. Nutt. Club, 1881, p. 252, Santa Rita Mts. Ariz, in
May of that year; first record for the species in the U. S. since 1841.) But the bird is now
known as a common summer resident of mountains in Arizona and New Mexico, up to about
7,000 feet. Nest in Woodpecker holes and natural cavities in trees, of fur, feathers, and other
material; eggs 2-4, with finer markings than usual in this genus, laid in May and June.
31. I. olivascens Ridgw. Pr. Biol. Soc. Wash. Apr. 1884, p. 91 ; Man. 1887, p. 335; A. 0. U.
List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 455 a. Not noted in former eds. of the Key.)
SAYOR'XIS. (Name of Thos. Say, with Gr. Spvis, ornis, a bird.) Pewit Flycatchers.
The 3 following species do not particularly resemble one another ; most authors place them in
separate genera, and some even under different subfamilies, of Tyrannidce. But the discrep-
ancies of form are not startling, and for the purposes of this work the species may be properly
kept together, as they agree in presenting a certain aspect not shown by other N. Am. groups.
(Fig. 344, b.) They are small — about 7.00 or less in length. Head with a slight crest of
erectile feathers. Tarsus rather longer than middle toe and claw (the reverse in C. ^orea/i«).
Bill narrower than in other little Flycatchers, with nearly straight lateral outlines, its width at
base about ^ length of culmen. Wing pointed by 2d-5th quills, 1st shorter than 6th. Tail
about as long as wing, emarginate, with broad feathers tending to divaricate in the middle.
One eastern, two western species. Nest affixed to rocks and buildings, with mud; eggs white,
normally unmarked, but often sparingly dotted with brownish. (Name spelled Sayornis origi-
nally by Bonaparte, 1854; A. O. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895; Sai/iornis CouES, Key, 2d-4th
eds. 1884-90. Type of genus Tyrannula nigricans Swains. 1827.)
A nnlysis of Species.
Ashy-brown, with cinnamon belly and black tail fi/a
Blackish, with white belly nif/rirnm
Olivaceous and yellowish. {Subgenus or genus Empioias) phoebc
522 SYSTE3IA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — CLAMA TORES.
S. say'a. (To Thos. Say.) Say's Pewit Flycatcher. Sayax Phcebe. Adult '^ 9 :
Grayish-brown, sometimes witli faiut olivaceous tinge, rather darker on head, where the
feathers have dusky centres, paler on throat and breast, then changing to cinnamon-brown on
the rest of under parts. Wings dusky, lined with tawny-whitish, edged with whitish on coverts
and inner quills. Tail perfectly black. Bill and feet black. Iris dark brown. Length about
7.50; extent 11.00; wing 3.75-4.35 ; tail 3.25-3.50; bill 0.50-0.60, narrow and slender for a
Flycatcher; tarsus 0.80; middle toe and claw 0.67. Young: More extensively fulvous or
paler cinnamon than the adults, this color extending far up the breast, skirting the feathers
of back and rump, forming conspicuous cross-bars and edgings on wings, and even tipping tail.
But no other bird of our country resembles this one. Western U. S. and British Provinces, N.
to Arctic regions in Alaska, E. to Kansas, Iowa, Wisconsin, etc., S. in Lower California and
Mexico ; accidental in Massachusetts ; common in open or rocky country, where seen singly or
in pairs ; the principal Flycatcher of univooded regions, in weedy, brushy places, displaying the
usual activity of its tribe, and uttering a melancholy note of one syllable, or a tremulous twit-
ter. Nests naturally on rocks, but soon adapts itself to buildings like the eastern Pewee.
Nest of mud, straw, moss, feathers, etc. ; eggs 3-6, usually 4-5, 0.80 x 0.60. {Sayiornis saiji
of 2d-4th eds. of the Key.)
S. nig'ricans. (Lat. nigricans, blackening.) Black Pewit Flycatcher. Black Phcebe.
Spiuer-bird. Adult ^ 9 '• Sooty-brown or blackish, deepest on head and breast ; belly and
other under parts pure white, abruptly defined ; lining of wings, outer web of outer tail-feathers,
and edges of inner secondaries, whitish ; bill and feet black ; iris red. The coloration is curi-
ously like that of J"i<HCO kiemalis. Length about 7.00; wing 3.50-3.75 ; tail 3.25-3.50; bill
0..50 or less, very weak; tarsus 0.67; middle toe and claw 0.60. Southwestern U. S. and
southward, but on the Pacific to Oregon, rarely to Washington; S. through Lower California
and Mexico to Oaxaca ; chiefly in unwooded country, and especially along rocky streams, and
in canons — I have seen it at the bottom of the Grand Canon of the Colorado, some 6,000 feet
below the surface of the earth ! Breeds throughout its U. S. range, April and later northward :
resident southerly. Nest of mud, etc., on rocks and walls ; eggs 3-6, usually 4 or 5, averaging
0.75 X 0.56, ranging in length from 0.70 to 0.80.
(Subgenus Empidias.)
S. phoe'be. (Name in form Gr. (fioi^r], Phoibe, Lat. Phoebe, a Titaness, daughter of Uranus
and Gsea ; also, a title or surname of Diana, as the Moon goddess ; but as applied to this bird
probably a mere onomatopoeia, like " pewit " and " pewee." Fig. 350.) Pewit Flycatcher.
Water Pewee. Bridge Phcebe. Phcebe-bird. Adult ^ 9 '■ Dull olivaceous-brown ; head
much darker fuscous brown, almost blackish, usually in marked contrast with back ; below,
soiled whitish, or palest possible yellow, particularly on belly ; sides, and breast nearly or
quite across, shaded with grayish-brown ; wings and tail dusky ; outer tail-feather, inner sec-
ondaries, and usually v^'ing-coverts, edged with whitish ; a whitish ring round eye ; bill and feet
black. Varies greatly in shade ; the foregoing is the average spring condition. As summer
passes, plumage becomes much duller and darker brown, from wearing of the feathers; then,
after moult, fall specimens are much brighter than in spring, the under parts being decidedly
yellow, at least on the belly. Very young birds have some feathers skirted with rusty, par-
ticularly on edges of wing- and tail-feathers. Sexes alike ; 9 averaging at the lesser dimen-
sions of ^. The species requires careful discrimination, in the hands of a novice, from any of
the little olivaceous species of the next two genera. It is larger ; length 6.75-7.25 ; extent
10.75-11.75; wing 3.00-3..50, usually 3.40 ; tail about the same, slightly emarginate; bill 0.50
or slightly more, little depressed, not so broad for its length as is usual in Contopus and Empi-
donax, its lateral outlines straight ; tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding middle toe and claw,
these together about 1.-33 ; point of wing formed by 2d-5th quill; 2d shorter than 6th ; 3d and
TYRANNID^—TYRANNIN.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 523
4th generally a little the longest ; 1st shorter than 6th. Eastern U. S. and British Provinces,
N. to the Fur Countries, W. to the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory and most of
Texas, casually to Colorado and British Columbia ; S.
into Mexico in winter ; Cuba ; very abundant in open
places, fields, along streams, and almost as domestic as the
Barn Swallow, or House Wren. One of the very earliest
arrivals in spring (whence Wilson's name of nunciola,
*' little messenger"), becoming generally distributed in the
U. S. in March, and a late loiterer in fall through Septem-
ber or even October ; winters abundantly in the Southern
States, and breeds thence northward throughout its range.
Its ordinary note is harsh and abrupt, unlike the drawling
pe-a-wee' of Contopus virens — sounding like pe-tcW p)M'-
be, whence the name. The typical nest is affixed to the
side of a vertical rock over water, often itself moist or drip-
ping, and composed of mud, grass, and especially moss,
making a pretty object, lined with hay or feathers. The
bird now builds anywhere about houses, bridges, and
other buildings ; its attachment to particular spots is so
strong that it will return year after year, and often persist Fio. 350. — Pewit Flycatcher, reduced,
in nesting under the most discouraging circumstances. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.)
Eggs 3-8, usually 4-5-6, from 0.80 X 0.60 to 0.67 X 0.55, averaging 0.75 X 0.57; normally
pure white, not seldom sparsely dotted with reddish-brown. (5*. fusca of previous eds. of the
Key, as of most late writers, after Muscicapa fusca 6m. 1788, based on M. carolinensis fusca
Briss. 1760, but this is antedated twice, by M. fusca Mull. 1776, and 31. fusca Bodd. 1783,
both of which are different birds. The next name in date, M. atra Gm. 1788, based on the
Dusky Flycatcher of Pennant's Arct. Zool. ii, 1785, p. 389, is likewise preoccupied by 31.
atra Mull. 1776, a third different bird. The earliest available name is therefore 31. phoebe
Lath. Ind. Orn. ii, 1790, p. 489, based on Pennant as just cited. See Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 51.
A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 456. In the probable event of the removal of this species
from the genus Sayoniis, it will be known as Empidias phoebe CouES.)
CON'TOPUS. (Gr. kovtos, kontos, an adj., meaning short (not koutos, kontos, noun, a pole or
perch) and novs, pious, foot. Fig. 344, c) Wood Pewee Flycatchers. Feet extremely
small ; tarsus shorter or not longer than bill, shorter than middle toe and claw (in Nuttallor-
nis) ; tarsus, middle toe, and claw tt)gether, barely or not one-third as long as wing ; bill flattened,
very broad at base; wings pointed, much longer than emarginate tail; proportions of primaries
varying with the species. Medium-sized and rather small species, brownish-olivaceous, with-
out any bright colors or very decided markings ; coronal feathers lengthened and erectile, but
hardly forming a true crest. A small group of woodland species, near Empidona.r, but char-
acterized, as above described, by the feeble diminutive feet. Nest on boughs ; no mud ; eggs
creamy, spotted. This genus has enjoyed unchallenged the name Contopus ?>\viCG 1855; but
there is a genus Contipus, De Marseul, 1853, in entomology, and if this be held to void
Contopus in ornithology, our Wood Pevvoes must be called Horizopus Obeuh. Auk, Oct.
1899, p. a30.
Analysis of Species.
A conspicuous tuft of white fluffy feathers on the flank, and under parts streaky. (Subgenus NurxAtLORNis.)
Length 7.00-8.00 ; tail about .3.00 ; wing about 4.00, pointed by 2d primary, supported nearly to end by 1st and
3d, 4th much shorter. Tarsus shorter than bill. N. Am borealis
Less conspicuous white fluffy tuft on flank, or none at all ; under parts not streaky. (Contopcs proper.)
Large : length about 8.00 ; tail 3.50 or more ; wing about 4.00, pointed by '2d-4th quills, the 1st much shorter.
Tarsus not shorter than middle toe and claw. Western periinax pallidivenlrU
524
S YS TEMA TIC S Y NOP SIS. — PA S SERES — CLA MA TORES.
Small : length under 7.00. Tarsus, middle toe, and claw, together, hardly or not 1.00 long.
Clearer olivaceous above, paler grayish on breast. Eastern
Darker olivaceous above, darker grayish on breast. Western
. . virem
riehardsoni
{Suhgenus Nuttallornis.)
C. (N.) borea'lis. (Lat. 6orea?is, northern. Fig. 351.) Olive-sided Flycatcher. Nut-
tall's Pewee. Pepe-bird. Adult $ 9 : Dusky olivaceous-browu, usually darker on
crown, where the feathers have blackish centres, and paler on sides below ; chin, throat, belly,
crissuni, and middle line of breast, white,
more or less tinged with yellowish and
quite streaked; wings and tail blackish,
unmarked, excepting inconspicuous gray-
sh-brown tips of wing-coverts, and some
whitish edging on inner quills; feet and
upper mandible black, lower mandible
mostly yellowish. The olive-brown below
has a peculiar streaky appearance hardly
seen in other species, and extends almost
entirely across breast. This ragged aspect
of mixed dusky-olive and whiti.sh, together
with the large white fluffy flank-tufts, is
diagnostic. Young have the feathers, es-
pecially of wings and tail, skirted with
rufous. Length 7.00-8.00; wing 3.87-
4.33, averaging 4.00, very long, folding
to terminal third of tail, and remarkably
pointed ; 2d quill longest, supported nearly
to end by 1st and 3d, 4th abruptly shorter ;
tail about 3.00, thus about | the wing,
emarginate ; tarsus only 0.50, shorter than
bill, or than middle toe and claw ; tarsus,
middle toe, and claw together only about
1.25; bill 0.G7-0.75. N. Am. at large,
apparently nowhere very abundant, rather
Fig. 351. — Olive-sided Flycatcher.
common in some New England localities, very rare in the Middle and Southern States, less so
in the West. N. in interior British America to lat. 60°, and still farther in Alaska ; accidental
in Greenland ; S. through Central America to ihe U. S. of Colombia ; not known to winter
anywhere within our limits. Breeds in most of the Appalachian ranges, more commonly from
New England northward, and much farther south in the West ; a common breeder in the
mountains of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, California, and even Lower California. Gen-
erally seen high on some exposed outpost ; note querulous, but loud and harsh. Nest usually
high, 30-GO feet, on a horizontal bough of a tree (generally coniferous) rude and flat, of twigs,
rootlets, grass, moss; eggs 2-4, often 3, 0.85 X 0.65, ranging in length from 0.80 to 0.90,
buffy or creamy-white, fully spotted, and usually wreathed with lighter and darker reddish-
browns, with purplish or lilac shell-markings; they are laid late, in June and July. A
stocky, able-bodied, dark and streaky species, quite unlike any other : type of the subgenus
Nuttallornis, Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 337.
( Subgenus Contopu s . )
C. per'tinax pallidiven'tris. (Lat. pertinax, pertinacious ; pertaining to C. borealis ; per,
and tenax, tenacious. L,At. palUdus, pallid, pale; venter, gen. ventris, belly.) Coues' Fly-
TYRANNID.'E—TYRANNINJE: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 525
CATCHER. Adult $ 9 • Somewhat similar to borealis ; colors more uniform and more clearlj'
olive ; below, dull brownish-olive, lighter ou throat, fading insensibly on belly into dingy yel-
lowish-white ; lacking the peculiar streaky appearance of borealis. Cottony tufts on Hanks
less conspicuous but tibservable. Bill longer and comparatively narrower than in borealis ;
black above, yellow below; feet black. Wing-formula entirely different; 2d, 3d, and 4th
quills nearly equal and longest, 1st abruptly 0.50 shorter, about as long as 5th, or between 5th
and 6th. Feet small, weak, and properly " contopine," but tarsus if anything longer, not
shorter, than middle toe and claw, about equalling bill (reverse proportion of bill, tarsus, and
toe obtains in borealis). Length of ^ about 8.00; extent 13.00; wing 4.00-4.30; tail 3.50-
3.80 ; bill and tarsus, each, about 0.G7 ; middle toe and claw 0.60. 9 rather less. Young:
Lower mandible and mouth orange-yellow; feathers of wings and tail and their coverts skirted
with rusty, and a shade of the same on under parts generally. Midsummer adults wear
browner, like the common Wood Pewee ; in fact, the whole coloration of the species is the
counterpart of a Wood Pewee's. Northern Mexico, where resident in mountains and on high-
lands, N. to New Mexico and Arizona, casually to Colorado ; common in mountainous pine-
ries, where it nests in June, both on coniferous and deciduous trees, withdrawing southward in
September. I took the first specimen known within our limits at Fort Whipple, Ariz., Aug.
20, 1864. Nest like that of the common Wood Pewee, but larger, 4.00-5.00 in diam. outside
by 2.00 deep, cupped 2.00-3.00 by about 1.00, composed mostly of grasses, with some leaves,
catkins, mosses, lichens, cobwebs, etc Eggs 3, about 0.83 X 0.63, creamy buff, spotted with
lighter and darker reddish-brt)wns and lilac, the markings sparse and tending to wreathe about
large end. C. jfjer^i««.c of all former eds. of the Key. C. p. imllidicentris Chapm. Auk,
Jufy, 1897, p. 310; A. 0. U. Snppl. List, Auk, Jan. 1899, p. 112.
C. vi'rens. (Lat. virens, virent, greenish. Fig. 352.) Wood Pewee. Adult $ 9 : Oli-
vaceous-brown, rather darker on head ; below, with sides washed with a paler shade of the
same, reaching nearly or quite across breast; throat and belly whitish, mure or less tinged
with dull yellowish; under tail-coverts the same, usually streaked
with dusky; tail and wings blackish, former unmarked, inner
wing-quills edged, and greater and middle coverts tipped, with
•whitish ; feet and upper mandible black ; under mandible usu-
ally yellow, sometimes dusky; iris brown. Spring specimens
])urer olivaceous; early fall birds brighter yellow below ; in sum-
mer, before the worn feathers are renewed, the plumage is quite
brown and dingy whitish. Very young birds have the wing-
bars and edging of quills tinged with rusty ; feathers of upper
parts skirted, and lower plumage tinged, with the same; but in
any ))lumage the species may be known from all birds of the f 'j^B^'^^ ^ ^^>i5''^3^'-r-
fullovving genus, by these dimensions : Length 6.00-6.50; ex- »->^^B l£^'t\''-"^S^'c^^
tent 10.00-11.00 ; wing 3.25-3.50 ; tail 2.75-3.00 ; tarsus, mid- j^ ^rp'^^'f'^ W"^^
die toe, and claw together hardly 1.00, or evidently less; tarsus "^W '^^'^^Jf Tt'i. «^
alone about 0.50, not longer than &(7^ Bill very flat, its breadth ' ^ •'^T/.'i^
at base more than ^ its length : lateral outline bulging. Wings Fio. 35-->. — Wood Pewee, re-
very long and pointed ; 2d quill longest, 3d little if any less, 4th ^uced. (Sheppard del. NichoU sc.)
shorter, 1st between 4th and 5th. Tail but little (about 0.50) shorter than wing, emargiuate.
Eastern N. Am., in woodland; extremely abundant in most U. S. localities, May-Sept., enter-
ing U. S. from the South usually in March, reaching its limit of dispersion in adjoining Cana-
<lian localities from New lirunswick to Manitoba by the end of April or early in May. Possibly
winters along the southern border, but extends at that season through E. Mexico and Central
Am. to equatorial regions. West only to the high central plains, as of the Dakotas, Nebraska,
Indian Territory, and Texas. In the breeding season the peculiarly plaintive, drawling note
526 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES — CLAM A TORES.
may be heard in almost any piece of woods, while the dolorous little bird is at his post, perched
on some exposed twig near his nest, and continually raiding after insects, which he captures
with a quick twist in the air and a click of the bill, regaining his perch adroitly, and standing
erect with hanging tail and wings, saying pe'-d-ivee' — Ah! poor me! Nest a very pretty
structure, saddled on a horizontal bough, at little or great height, flat and thin-bottomed, with
thick walls and well-turned brim, of fine fibres stuck over with lichens, the whole looking
much like a natural excrescence of the tree, or, if in a pine, a lichen-bunch. Eggs 2-4, oftenest
:J, but rarely 4, creamy-white, marked with reddish-brown and lilac in various pattern, usually
wreathing and blending about the larger end, sparser elsewhere; size about 0.75 X 0.55, with
tlie usual range of variation both in length and breadth, some being only 0.65 X 0.50.
C. rich'ardsoni. (To Sir John Richardson.) Western Wood Peavee. Similar; darker,
more fuscous-olive above ; shading of sides reaching almost uninterruptedly across breast; belly
rather whitish than yellowish ; outer primary usually not obviously white-edged ; bill below
oftener dusky than yellow, sometimes quite black. I fail to appreciate any reliable differences
in size or shape, though some have been alleged ; the wing and tail average a trifle longer.
It is impracticable to pronounce upon a Pewee, in the closet, without knowing the locality ;
but those familiar with both eastern and western Pewees in the field will agree with me that
they are not the same bird. Note not exactly like that of rirens, being abrupt and emphatic,
rather than drawling and listless. The eggs are indistinguishable, but the nesting is somewhat
difl'ereut; the fabric is often or usually placed in the forking of small horizontal branches, con-
trary to its saddling on a larger bough by virens ; conformably with which practice, the shape
is usually deeper for its breadth, more like a cup than a saucer, measuring about 2.50 X 2.00
outside, with a cavity 2.00 X 1-00 or more. Eggs 2-4, usually 3, averaging 0.70 X 0.55, with
a range of variation in length of at least 0.10. They are laid mostly in June, in any region,
but may also be taken fresh during the first half of July. The range of this species extends
from the eastern slopes and foothills of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, N. to Saskatchewan,
Alaska, and British Columbia, S. in winter to equatorial America; breeds throughout its N.
Am. range, but vvinters extralimital ; migrates mainly in April, May, and SejDtember. The
range is for the most part separated from that of virens by the treeless plains, but the two
species are found together in the valley of the Red River of the North, in Manitoba; " Labra-
dor" (A^idiibon'). (Tyrannula richardsonii Sw. Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 1831, p. 146? Contopus
rkhardsonii Bd. B. N. Am. 1858, p. 189 ; C. rirens richardsoni Coues, Key, orig. ed. 1872,
p. 174, and of later eds. 1884-90, p. 440. Muscicapa phoehe Aud. B. Am. 8vo ed. i, 1840,
p. 219, pi. 61 ; NuTT. Man. i, 2d ed. 1840, p. 319. See Coues, B. N. W. 1874, p. 247.)
C. r. penin'sulae. (Lat. peninsula, that which is almost an island.) Large-billed West-
ern Wood Pewee. Brewster's Pewee. Like the last ; smaller, but with bill abso-
lutely as well as relatively longer and broader; upper parts slightly grayer; yellowish of throat
and belly clearer and more extensive ; pectoral band narrower and grayer ; light edgings of the
wings broader and clearer, AVing 3.30; tail 2.38 ; tarsus 0.52 ; bill from nostril, 0.42 ; width
there 0.31. Sierra de la Laguna, Lower California. Brewster, Auk, Apr. 1891, p. 144;
A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 462 a.
EMPIDO'NAX. (Gr. ifinls, gen. etiniSos, empis, empidos, a gnat; "wa^, (ina.v, king. Fig.
344, d.) The Little Olivaceous Flycatchers. Small olivaceous species, 5.00-6.00 (rarely
6.25) long ; wing 3.12 or less ; tail 2.75 or less ; whole foot at least | as long as wing; tarsus
more or less obviously longer than middle toe and claw, much longer than bill ; 2d, 3d, and
4th quills entering into point of wing, 1st shorter or not obviously longer than 5th ; tail not
over ^ an inch shorter than wings. As in allied genera^ several outer primaries are slightly
emarginate on inner web, but tliis character is obscure, often inappreciable, and may be dis-
regarded. The coronal feathers are lengthened and erectile, but scarcely form a true crest.
There are never any more conspicuous color-marks than in Smjornis phoehe or Contopus rirens.
TYRANNIDJE—TYRAXNIN.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 527
Tlie bill varies with the species in size and shape, from almost as broad and flat as in a Wood
Pewee in E. rirescens (formerly called acadicus) to the narrower shape of a Pewit in E. wrighti;
but it is always much shorter than tarsus. The sexes are alike in this genus, as usual in
the family; the young similar, usually rather more yellowish or buffy. The nest is placed
in trees or bushes ; the eggs are white, spotted or not in different species, thus affording good
clews in some cases of doubt. It sht)uld not be difficult to recognize Empidonax as different
from Contopus, due attention being given to the nice points of diagnosis; but it is not easy to
discriminate the numerous species without much tact, care, and patience. The following ac-
count, carefully prepared after examination of a great amount of material from all parts of the
country, will probably suffice to determine nearly all specimens. How much alike are these
interesting little birds may be inferred from the fact that Wilson in 1810 knew but a single
species, virescens, which he called museicapa querula, to which Audubon added but one, which
he named traillii, in 1832, until Baird in 1843 showed him two more, minimus Rxxd Jlaviventris.
Yet these four are perfectly distinct birds. Any experienced collector knows these four to be dif-
ferent, not only when he has them in hand, but in life, by their haunts and habits, their notes,
nests, and eggs — indeed, the nests and eggs of each of them are readily discriminated. Three
of them occur in New England as breeders — traiUi alnorum, minimus, and flavirenfris ; while
rirescens is the common breeder in the Middle States. The case is complicated, however, in the
West. Since 1858, when Baird first fixed our species upon anything like a satisfactory footing,
few changes of his determinations and characterizations have been established ; but several
species which were unknt)wn to him have been added to our Fauna, and some changes of
nomenclature have been introduced (see especially the cases of the so-called " Acadian" and of
eastern and western "Traill's" Flycatchers, as treated by Brewster, Auk, Apr. 1895, pp. 157-
Hj3). It is not reasonably possible to analyze all the forms in concise phrase ; the student
must go at once to the detailed descriptions ; but the following may help him somewhat :
A. Species clearly olivaceous of some shade above : below ivhiiish more or less shaded on breast, or clearly yellouish,
but adults never buffy. (Empidonax proper )
Eastern.
Largest : rather over than under 6.00 ; wing nearly or over 3.00 ; tarsus 0.67 ; middle toe and claw 0.50 ; bill
nearly or quite 0.50. Clear light o\\\&-green above, below whitish ; wing-bars and eye-ring tawny. Nest fiat
in fork of a horizontal bough ; eggs speckled. Hardly N. to New England. Virescens (formerly called acadicus)
Medium : rather under 6.00 ; wing 2.70 ; tarsus 0.C7, but middle toe and claw 0.60 ; bill hardly 0.50. Olive-
broun above, below grajush ; wing-bars and eye-ring whitish. Nest a bulky cup in a bush; eggs speckled.
New England, etc trailli alnorum
Small : rather under 5.,50 ; proportions and colors nearly as in trailli. Nest a neat cup in upright crotch of a
tree; eggs white. Commonest breeder in S. New England, etc minimus
Medium: under parts thoroughly yellow. Nest near ground in a stump, moss, etc., bulky. Eggs speckled.
Northern New England, etc fiaviientris
Western.
The stock-form of traiUi alnorum as above described. Eggs speckled. Mississippi valley and westward
trailli (formerly called pusillus)
The representative of flarirentris in the west. Thoroughly yellow-bellied. Eggs speckled .... difficilis
The representative of difficilis in Lower California. \ot thoroughly yellow-bellied cineritius
Tlie representative of difficilis. Santa Barbara Isls insulicola
Small, and otherwise like minimus; dark below, breast not very different from back ; bill extremely narrow.
Eggs white. Western N. Am. at large hammondi
Large, about the size of acadicus ; olive-brown above ; breast dark ; outer tail-feather white on outer web ; bill
very narrow. Y.ggs while. Western U. S wrighti (iormtrXy caiXeA obscurus)
Tlie representative of wrighti in Lower California. Larger, grayer, etc gri-seus
B. Species more or less decidedly buffy. Exclusively southwestern. (Section Mitrbphanes. ) fulvi/rons and /. pygmiTus
Another analysis may be made which will suit some students, as follows: —
A. Empidonax proper ; no buff-bellied species.
Belly decidedly yellow.
Eastern flavivenlris
Western difficilis
Lower California cineritius
628 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. — PA SSERES - CLAMA TORES.
Belly not decidedly yellow.
Width of bill at nostrils more than half the length of culmen.
Largest : length 6.00 or more. Olive-green. Eastern virescens
Medium : length COO or less. Olive-brown.
Western trailli
Eastern trailli alnorum
SmaUest. Length 5.50 or less. Eastern minimus
Width of bill at nostrils less than half the length of culmen. Western.
Outer web of outer tail-feather not decidedly wliitish ... hammondi
Outer web of outer tail-feather decidedly whitish.
Western U. S ivrighti
Lower California griseus
B. MiTREPHANEs. One buff-bellied species and one subspecies.
Texas Jidvifrons
New Mexico and Arizona J'ulvifrons pygmwus
Observe that the eggs are speckled only in the "Acadian" and "Traill" and yeUow-beUied groups of species —
white in all the others.
E. vires'cens. (Lat. virescens, growiug green, greenish.) Small Green-crested or so-
called "Acadian" Flycatcher. Adult $^: Above, oYwe-green, clear, light, continuous
and uniform (though the crown may show rather darker, owing to dusky centres of the
slightly lengthened, erectile feathers) ; below, whitish, olive-shaded on sides and nearly
across breast, yellowish -washed on belly, flanks, crissum, and axillars ; wings dusky, inner
quills edged, and coverts tipped, with taivny yellow; all quills whitish-edged internally ; tail
dusky, olive-glossed, unmarked; a tawny eye-ring; feet and upper mandible brown, under
mandible pale. In midsummer, rather darker ; in early fall brighter and especially more yel-
lowish below ; in the young, wing-markings more fulvous, general plumage slightly bufi"y-
suff"used ; when very young, said to be mottled transversely with pale ochraceous. Largest :
5.75-6.2.T — rather over than under 6.00 ; extent rather over than under 9.50 ; wing 2.75-3.00
(even 3.12) ; tail 2.50-2.75 ; bill nearly or quite 0.50, about 0.25 wide at nostrils, broad and flat,
like a Pewee's; tarsus 0.66; middle toe and claw 0.50; point of wing reaching nearly an inch
beyond secondaries; 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal and much (^ inch or more) longer
than 1st and 5th, which about equal each other ; 1st mucJi longer than 6th. The ? near the
lesser of all the dimensions given. Eastern U. S., southerly, scarcely known in New Enrjland,
where it is rare or casual as far N. as Massachusetts ; N. in the interior to southern New York,
southern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, rarely Manitoba ; W. to the limit of trees in Ne-
braska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas ; S. in winter through Mexico to Ecuador ; Cuba ;
an abundant bird of woodland in our middle districts in summer; migratory; breeds through-
out its N. Am. range, mostly in June, but in May in the South ; winters extralitnital. This
is the Empidonax which most resembles Contopus virens, and is readily recognized by the
points of size and shape, without regarding coloration ; it has a harsh abrupt note of two sylla-
bles. Nest in trees, low or at no great elevation, seini-peusile in horizontal fork of a slender
bough, thin and open-worked, shallow, flat, saucer-shaped, hardly 3.00 in diameter outside,
and 2.00 or less deep, with a cavity about 2.00 X ] -00. Eggs 2-4, mostly 3, creamy or pale
buff, boldly spotted with reddish and darker browns, especially about the larger end, like a
Wood Pewee's; size from 0.78 X 0.56 down to 0.67 X 0.50, averaging about 0.73 X 0.53.
{Muscicapa subviridis Bartram, 1791 ; Empidonax subviridis Coues, 1882. Muscicapa
querula WiLS. Am. Orn. 1810, ii, 77, pi. 13, f. 3, nee Yieill. 1807; Platyrhynchos virescens
Yieill. Nouv. Diet. 1818, p. 22 ; Empidonax virescens Brewst. Auk, Apr. 1895, p. 157;
A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 465. Musdcapa acadica Aud. B. Am. 8vo ed. 1840, i, 221,
pi. 62, nee Gm. 1788, Lath. 1790; Empidonax acadicus Bd. B. N. A. 1858, p. 197, and of
all previous eds. of the Key, as of most writers since 1858. The long-established name acadi-
cus, geographically false for a bird which never reaches Acadia (Nova Scotia), can fortu-
nately be done away with by rules in favor of the entirely appropriate designation virescens, if
rYRANNID^—TYRANXIX.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 529
we ignore the earlier name subviridis of Bartram, on the ground that it is unaccompanied by a
description, though it certainly belongs to tliis species.)
E. trail'li alno'rum. (To T. S. Traill, of Edinburgh. Lat. alnorum, gen. pi. of alnus,
the alder.) Traill's Flycatchek of the East. Aldeu Flycatcher. " Kewink."
Adult ^ 9 : Above, olive-broivn, lighter and duller brownish posteriorly, darker on head,
owing to obviously dusky centres of coronal feathers ; below, nearly ae in rirescens, but darker,
the olive-gray shading quite across breast; wing-markings grayish-ivliite with slight yellowish
or tawny shade ; under mandible pale ; upper mandible and feet black. Averaging smaller
Xhaxi virescens ; length 5.50-6.00; extent under 9.50, usually 8.75-9.00; wing 2.66-2.75, more
rounded than in rirescens, its tip only reaching about f of an inch beyond secondaries, formed
by 2d, 3d, and 4th quills, as before, but 5th not so much shorter (hardly or nf>t ^ of an inch),
1st ranging between 5th and 6th ; tail 2.50, not emarginate, but even or slightly rounded ;
tarsus 0.66, as in rirescens, but middle toe and claw 0.60, the feet thus diflerently proportioned,
owing to length of toes; bill not so broad and flat as in rirescens. Eastern N. Am. to the
Plains, common ; an entirely different bird from rirescens, but difficult if not impossible to dis-
tinguish from the fidlowing western stock-form ; almost the same in color as minimus, but
larger, and otherwise perfectly distinct. The Alder Flycatcher, commonly called "Traill's"
(though Audubon distinctly says of his trailUi, "Arkansas to the Columbia"), ranges much
farther N. than the foregoing, breeding from the mountains of New York and probably of
otlier Middle States, in much of New England, and most of the Canadian Provinces to 63° or
farther; its western limits cannot be given with precision, because this form shades into trnilli
proper in the Mississippi valley ; S. in winter to Central America ; winters extralimital ;
migrates chiefly in May and Sept., and breeds in the last half of June and first half of July.
This is a bird of thickets and shrubbery rather than of woodland, especially common in low
wet places among the alders, willows, and other bushes in which its nest is placed, as a rule in
an upright crotch of two or more twigs. It is thick-walled, deeply cupped, more or less com-
pact, sometimes quite slovenly, like an Indigo-bird's, and in any case cpiite different from the
frail flat saucer of rirescens ; it measures about 3.00 across outside by 2.50 high, with a cavity
nearly as deep as broad ; the materials are miscellaneous, as various grasses, bark strips, weed
fibres, plant down, hairs, etc. Eggs 3 or 4, sometimes only 2, indistinguishable from those of
rirescens, quite difi'erent from those of minimus ; ground white, whitish, or bufiy-, well speckled
and blotched with the usual browns, the markings tending to aggregate at or wreathe about the
larger end, and occasional specimens being nearly immaculate; average size 0.73 X 0.53, with
extremes of 0.78 X 0.55, and 0.68 X 0.50. " Song" notes a harsh k'wink or kewee' and a soft
ke-wing'. {Empidonax traillii Vivt . B. N. A. 1858, p. 193; Coues, Key, orig. ed. 1872, p.
175; 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 441, and of most writers, but not the true Muscicapa traillii
AuD. 1832, which is the western form. E. traillii alnorum Brewst. Auk, Apr. 1895, p. 161 ;
A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 466 a. E. pusillus var. trailli Ridgw. in Bi>. Brew, and
RiDGW. Hist. N. A. B. ii, 1874, p. 369. E. pusillns traillii A. 0. U. 1st ed. 1886, No. 466 a ;
RioGW. Man. 1887, p. 343; Bendire, Life Hist, ii, dated 1895, pub. Sept. 1896, p. 310.)
E. trail'li (proper). Traill's Flycatcher of the West. Little Western Fly-
catcher. The stock-form or species of the foregoing particularly described subspecies. May
usually be recognized by its duller or more fuscous coloration, the quite lively olivaceous and
yellowish shades of nlnorum being subdued or overcast ; wing-bars duller and less cons[»icuous ;
bill larger; tarsi longer, the feet being nearly as in rirescens. Rei)laces alnorum in western
N. Am. from the Plains to the Pacific; but specimens absolutely Wke alnorum are found in the
W^est even to British CVdumbia, and others like trailli proper E. to Michigan, Illinois, Indiana,
Ohio, etc., showing that in the Mississippi valley at large no line can be drawn between the
two forms. The present species is the usual "Little Flycatcher" of western U. S. and ad-
joining British Provinces, S. in winter to Central America; abundant, uiigratory, generally
34
530 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— CLAMA TORES.
distributed in suitable places ; habits, appearance in life, and eggs the counterparts of those of
alnorum as above described. (The original Tyrannula pusilla Swains. F. B. A. ii, 1831, p. 144,
pi. 46 ; AuD. B. Am. 8vo ed. ii, 1840, p. 236, pi. 66, is uncertain, and just as likely to have been
minimus as trailli ; and the case is further complicated by Platyrhijnchus pusillus Swains.
Phil. Mag. i, 1827, p. 366, described from Mexico. I therefore continue to pass over the name,
which, if belonging here, antedates trailli; and I also now drop pusillus Baird, 1858, as
untenable by our rules, though it certainly belongs here; taking trailli for the western stock-
form, and alnorum Brewst. for the eastern subspecies. Muscicapa traillii Aud. Orn. Biogr.
i, 1832, p. 236, Arkansas River. Empldonax traillii Brewst. Auk, Apr. 1895, p. 159, not
of Bd. 1858, nor of authors referring to the eastern bird ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 466.
? E. pusillus Cab. J. f. 0. 1855, p. 480, uncertain, same as jiifsillns Swains. jE". pusillus
Baird, B. N. A. 1858, p. 194; Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 442; Ridgw. Man. 1887,
p. 343. E. traillii var. pusillus Coues, Key, orig. ed. 1872, p. 175. E. pusillus var. pusillus
Ridgw. in Bd. Brew, and Ridgw. Hist. N. A. B. ii, 1874, p. 365.)
E. min'iinus. (Lat. wwmmMS, smallest) Least Flycatcher. " Chebec." Adult <? 9 =
Colors almost exactly as in trailli; usually, however, olive-<7ra?/ rather than olive -brown ;
wing-markings, eye-ring, and loral feathers plain grayish- white, and rather more conspicuous
than in trailli, especially the wing-bars ; w^hole anterior parts often with a slight ashy cast ;
under mandible ordinarily dusky; feet perfectly black. It is a smaller bird than trailli, and
not so stoutly built ; the wing-tip projects only about 0.50 beyond secondaries ; 5th quill but
very little shorter than 4th, 1st apt to be nearer 6th than 5th ; tail slightly emarginate, not
even or slightly rounded ; feet diflerently proportioned, being much as in virescens ; bill obvi-
ously under 0.50. Length 5.00-5.50 ; extent about 8.00; wing 2.60 or Zess ; tail about 2.25.
A series of ^ ^, measured fresh, runs 5.20-5.50 long, by 7.60-8.30 in extent ; several 9 9 ^re
4.80-5.10 long, by 7.40-7.90 in extent. Although a large ^ may grade up to 9 trailli in size,
and there is no obviously different coloration, it is a totally different bird. Eastern N. Am. to
the Plains, less commonly to the Rocky Mts., casually to Idaho ; very abundant in the U. S.
during the migrations in April, May, and again in Sept., in orchards, coppices, hedgerows, and
the skirts of woods rather than in heavy forests ; ranges N. to about lat. 63°, in the region of
Great Slave Lake and the Mackenzie River, but farther East goes little N. of the U. S. ; win-
ters wholly extralimital, as far S. as Panama. This is the commonest breeder of its genus in
New England, especially Massachusetts, and common thence to the Red River of the North ;
it also breeds freely in our Middle districts, and sparingly in the Alleghanies, even S. to North
Carolina; mostly in June. The nidification resembles that oi trailli most nearly, in that the
nest is as a rule placed in an upright crotch. It is small, neat, compact-walled, deeply-cupped,
in size about 3.00 X 2..50 outside, and 2.00 X 1-50 inside, thus somewhat like the Goldfinch's
structure ; it is built of the most miscellaneous materials, exceptionally varies in position to a
horizontal bough (like that of E. virescens or Contopus virens), and is placed in a tree or sap-
ling, 10-20 feet from the ground. Eggs 3-4, oftenest 4, rarely 5 or 6, tohite, normally un-
marked, rarely speckled, 0.60-0.67 long, averaging 0.65 X 0.50. Note a sharp che-bec', or
se-wick', quickly uttered.
E. flaviven'tris. (Lat. flavus, yellow ; rentris, of the belly.) Yellow-bellied Fly-
catcher. Adult (J 9 '• Above, oVixe-green, clear, continuous and uniform as in virescens, or
even brighter; below, not merely yellowt's/j, as in the foregoing, but emphatically yellow,
bright and pure on belly, shaded on sides and anteriorly with a paler tint of color of back ;
eye-ring and wing-markings yellow; under mandible yellow; feet black. In respect of color,
this species differs materially from all the foregoing; none of them, even at their autumnal yel-
lowest, quite match it. Size of trailli, or rather less ; feet proportioned as in virescens ; bill
nearly as in minimus, but rather larger ; 1st quill usually equal to 6th. Eastern U. S. and
British Provinces, N. regularly to Labrador and Hudson's Bay, casually to Greenland, W. only
TYRANNID.E—TYRANNIN.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 531
to the eastern edge of the Plains ; migratory ; winters extraliniital, as far S. as Panama, com-
mon, in woodland, swamps, and shrubbery. Breeds from the mountains of the Middle States
and at any altitude from the northern tier of States, northward ; probably also in the Allegha-
nies S. to the Carolinas. There has been much misunderstanding about the nest and eggs of
this bird; the latter are described by Brewer and by Coues (J 874) as white. Nest in swamps,
close to ground, in a stump, log, moss, or among roots of an upturned tree, thick and bulky,
deeply-cupj)ed, composed chiefly of mosses and rootlets; eggs 4, sometimes 5, about 0.67 X
0.51, white, spotted with rusty brown in fine pattern and mostly about the larger end ; laid in
June. Thus the nidification is as distinctive as the coloration of this species, in comparison
with its eastern congeners. Note a low soft pe-a' , slowly delivered; but this species, like
others of the genus, has in the breeding season a certain twittering, which may be called by
courtesy warbling, quite different from the ordinary call-notes or cries of agitation. This bird
is described by Nuttall, Man. ii, 1834, p. 568, but not named, and not noted in his 2d ed.
1840: see Coues, Auk, Apr. 1897, p. 218.
K. diffi'cilis. (Lat. difficilis, dis-facilis, difficult, un-doable ; very appropriate I) Western
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Baird's Flycatcher. Very closely resembling flavi-
rentris in its yellowness, but coloration dingy, instead of pure olivaceous and yellow, the latter
dulled with an ochrey or buffy shade, especially on lining of wings ; tail said to be longer, but
no tangible difference in dimensions from flaviventris. Western N. Am., Rocky Mts. to the
Pacific, N. in summer to Alaska, S. in winter to Costa Rica; abundant. Nest quite like that
of flaviventris, and eggs indistinguishable; but the position of the nest extremely variable, on
the ground, in trees or bushes, even in odd nooks about buildings; eggs 3-4, rarely 5, laid in
May and June. Some individuals of this species winter over our southern border. (E. diffi-
cilis Bd. 1858, A. 0. U. Lists, No. 464; E. flaviventris var. difficilis Coues, Key, orig. ed.
1872, p. 176 ; E. f. difficilis f Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 442.)
E. cinerit'ius. (Lat. cineritiiis, cinereous, ashy in color.) St. Lucas Flycatcher. Most
Vike E. difficilis : general coloration much duller; upper parts scarcely tinged with greenish ;
no decided yellowish below, except on jugulum and abdomen; wing-bands brownish-white.
Sexes similar. Wing 2.65; tail 2.40 ; tarsus 0.68. Lower California. Brewster, Auk, Jan.
J888, p. 90; Coues^ Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 464. 1.
E. insulic'ola. (Lat. msi^^ot, an island ; cohere, to cultivate, or mcoZrt, an inhabitant.) Island
Flycatcher. Like difficilis ; darker and more brownish above; paler below, breast scarcely
Mashed with ochraceous-brown. Also closely resembling cineritiiis; darker, less ashy and
somewhat more olivaceous above, and more continuously yellowish below. Santa Barbara
Islands : locality the best diagnostic ! Oberholser, Auk, July, 1897, p. 300. For breeding,
see Auk, Oct. 1897, p. 405 ; eggs 2-3, dead white, speckled about large end with reddish ; July.
E. ham'mondi. (To Dr. W. A. Hammond, U. S. A.) Hammond's Flycatcher. Dirty
Little Flycatcher. Adult $ 9 : Above, (Ai\G-graij, decidedly grayer or even ashy on the
fore parts; whole throat and hrenst almost continuously olive-gray, but little paler than back;
belly alone more or less decidedly yellowish ; wing-markings and eye-ring dull soiled whitish ;
bill very small, and extremely narroiv, being hardly or not 0.20 wide at nostrils ; this distin-
guishes the bird from all but minimus and ivrighti ; under mandible usually blackish; tail
usually decidedly forked, more so than in other species (though in all of them it varies from
slightly rounded to slightly emarginate); outer tail-feather usually whitish-erf^erf externally (a
character often shown by trailli and minimus), but 7iot decidedly tvhite. About the size of
minimus; $, length under 6.00; wing 2.75; tail 2.40, both thus relatively longer ; 9 a little
smaller than ^, as usual in the genus. Plains to the Pacific, U. S. and Brit. Am., N. to Sas-
katchewan, Alberta, the N. W. Territory and Alaska, S. to L. Cala. and southern Mexico in
winter; migrates in May and Sept., and breeds mainly in June. This is the western repre-
sentative of minimus, but is tangibly distinct; the general tone of coloration is Jieavy, fall
532 5 YS TEMA TIC S YNOPSIS. — PA SSER ES— CLA MA TOR ES.
specimens in particular giving somewhat the eflPect of a d\vty flavirentris ; the tiny bill is a
good mark. Nesting substantially like minimus; eggs normally ichite, niunarked, rarely
speckled a little, 3-4 in number, 0.(35 X 0.50. Note " a soft pit."
E. wright'i. (To C Wright.) Wright's Flycatcher. Gray Little Flycatcher.
Adult (J 9 '• Colors not very tangibly different from those of trailli or minimus, but outer iceb
of outer tail-feather abruptly ivhite in decided contrast. General tcjue quite gray; gray below
quite across breast, giving the effect there of Contopus richardsoni; under mandible obscured ;
eye-ring and wing-edgings quite whitish. Geueral dimensions approaching those of rirescens,
owing to length of wings and tail. Length doubtless up to 6.00, and extent to 9.50; wing
2.66-3.00; tail 2.50-2.75; tarsi 0.70-0.75; bill 0.50 or more, extremely narrow (much as iu
Sayornis phcebe) , its width at nostrils only about ^ its length. The bird looks singularly like
the western Contopus, though of course immediately seen to be Empidonax. Western U. S.,
N. to British Columbia, Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, S. in winter through most of Mexico ; es-
pecially a bird of the mountains, where found up to 10,000 feet or more, common in woodland,
groves, and thickets. To complete the analogies between the eastern and western Empidona-
ces, this may be considered to represent virescens. Nesting, however, substantially as in mini-
mus : a neat, compact, deep-cupped nest in crotch of a bush or sapling, often deeper than broad^
and commonly lined with feathers or hair; eggs 3-4, white, unmarked, large, up to 0.75 X
0.58, and averaging 0.68 X 0.52. Note "a weird sweer," "a soft liquid whit.^' (This is E.
obscurus Baird, B. N. A. 1858, p. 200, and of lst-3d eds. of the Key, but questionably Ty-
rannula obscura Sw. Phil. Mag. i, 1827, p. 367; it is E. icriyhtii of Baird, I. c, in text, the
name preferably adopted in view of the uncertainty of Swainson's bird : see Brewster, Auk,
Apr. 1889, p. 89, and Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 901 ; A. O. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 469.
E. gris'eus. (Lat. griseus, grisly, gray.) Gray Flycatcher. Nearest E. ivrighti: larger
and much grayer ; bill longer, flesh-colored on basal half of lower mandible, in contrast with
its blackish terminal portion. ^, wing 2.68; tail 2.45; tarsus 0.72; bill 0.62. Sonora, L.
and S. California, and southern Arizona. Brewster, Auk, Apr. 1889, p. 87 ; Coues, Key,
4th ed. 1890, p. 901 ; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895, No. 469. 1 .)
(Subgenus Mitrephanes.)
E. (M.) ful'vifrous. (Lat. fulrus, fulvous; frons, forehead.) Fulvous Flycatcher.
Little Buff Flycatcher. Quite different from any of the foregoing, and type of a genus
Mitrephorus Sclater, 1859, or Mitrephanes Coues, 1882. Coronal feathers and rictal bristles
longer than is usual in Empidonax, and general cast of plumage bufl'y or fulvous rather than
olivaceous. Above, umber brown ; below, buff, paler or wliitish on the belly and under tail-
coverts. Length about 5.25 ; wing 2.70; tail 2.40; bill 0.. 50; tarsus 0.60. Eastern Mexico to
the Rio Grande of Texas. Mitrephanes fulvifrons of the Key, 3d ed. 1887, p. 879 ; Empi-
donax fulmfrons, A. 0. U. List, 1886, p. 236; Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 344; A. 0. U. List, 2d
ed. 1895, p. 189 No. [470.].
E. f. pygmae'us. (Lat, pygmeeus, pigmy, dwarf.) Little Buff-breasted Fly-
catcher. Adult $ 9 '• Above, dull grayish-brown tinged with olive, particularly on back ;
below, pale fulvous, strongest across breast, whitening on belly ; no fulvous on forehead ; sides
of head light brownish-olive; wings and tail dusky, outer web of outer tail-feathers, edges of
inner primaries except at base, and tips of wing-coverts, whitish ; iris brown ; bill yellow be-
low, black above; feet black. Length 4.75; extent 7.-33; wing 2.20; tail 2.00; tarsus 0.55;
middle toe and claw 0.45 ; bill 0.40. New Mexico, Arizona, and southward ; apparently not
common, and not yet well known. I discovered it at Fort Whipple, Ariz., May 9, 1865; it
has been seen in the same territory in Sept. ; and fledglings were observed at Inscription Rock,
N. M., July 24. Nests in mountainous regions up to 9,000 feet, in June and July. The
nest is saddled on a limb, 20-50 feet from the ground, resembling that of the Blue-gray
TYRANNID.E—TYRANNIN.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 533
Gnatcatcher, being small, neat, and compact, of leaves, straws, rootlets, and other fibres ; eggs
3-4, pale buff or dull whitish, immaculate. {Euipidonax pygmmis Coues, Ibis, 1865, p. 537;
Mitrephorus pallescens Coues, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, p. 63; Elliot, B. N. A. pi. 19; M.
fulvif rons viir. pallescens Coues, Key, Isted. 1872, p. 176; Mitrephanes fidvifrons pallescens
Coues, Key, 2d-4th eds. 1884-90, p. 443; Empidonax fulrifrons pygimeus Ridgw. Pr. U. S.
Nat. Mus. viii, 1885, p. 3.56; Man. 1887, p. 345; A. 0. U. Lists, 1st and 2d eds. 1886-95,
No. 470 a. My original specimens, affording the descriptions quoted, and the first known to
have been taken in the United States, do not appear to be specifically distinct from Muscicapa
fulvif rons of Giraud (B. of Tex. 1841, pi. 2, f. 2j ; they are clean spring birds, and the spe-
cies is more fulvous in fall plumage.)
PYROCE'PHALUS. (Gr. irvp, gen. trvpos, pur, puros, fire ; Kec^aXij, hephale, head.) FiRE-
CROWNED Flycatchers. Sexes very dissimilar: head of $ with a full globular crest
(fig. 353), and all under parts (usually) scarlet-red; other parts deep brown; 9 brown and
whitish. Bill slender, narrow at base, much as in Sayornis. Wings moderate, pointed; 2d-
4th quills longest, 1st between 5th and 6th. Tail nearly even, shorter than wings, of broad
feathers. Tarsus scarcely longer than middle toe and claw. A tropical genus of several spe-
cies, one of which reaches our border.
P. rubi'neus mexica'nus. (Lat. ruhineus, ruby-red.) Vermilion Flycatcher. Adult $ :
Pure dark brown, including stripe along side of head ; wings and tail blackish with slight pale
edgings ; full globular crest, and all under parts scarlet or vermilion ; bill and feet black. 9 •
Dull brown, including the little-crested crown ; below, white, tinged with red, reddish or or-
ange in some places ; breast and sides with slight dusky streaks. Immature $ shows grada-
tion between characters of both sexes ; at first there is no red what-
ever, the bird otherwise resembling 9 > but pale yellowish where she
is reddish ; upper parts gray ; all the feathers may be skirted with
whitish, especially on the wing-coverts and inner secondaries; tail
quite blackish ; under parts more purely white than in 9) '"^^J rather
speckled than streaked with gray. But reddish soon replaces the
yellow of the crissum and axillars. Adult $ $ are subject to much
variation ; the red is sometimes rather orange. Length about 6.00;
wing 3.25; tail 2.50; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.55; middle toe and claw fio. 353.— Head of Ver-
0.50. Valleys of the Rio Grande and Colorado, and N. to the bor- miiion Flycatcher,
ders of Utah, S. in Lower California and Mexico to Guatemala ; common in Arizona on the
Gila ; a very showy little bird, of the usual flycatcher habits. Some individuals winter over
our border, but most enter there in March and depart in October. Breeds from late April to
early July, and may raise two broods. Nest in trees or bushes at very variable height, set in
a horizontal fork, flat, frail, flimsy, of twigs, plant fibres and down, cobwebs, feathers, fur,
hair, etc. Eggs 3, sometimes only 2, 0.70 X 0.52, pale buff or creamy, boldly sjiotted and
blotched with various dark brown and neutral tints, the markings tending to aggregate at or
wreathe around the large end.
ORNITH'ION. (Gr. opvidiov, ornithion, dimin. of opvis, ornis, a bird.) Beardless Fly-
catchers. General aspect of Empidonax, but remarkably distinguished hy purine shape of
bill and almost entire absence of rictal bristles so conspicuous in most genera of Tyrannida,
though a few slight ones may be seen on close inspection. Bill much shorter than liead, stout,
compressed, not depressed as usual in Tyrannida, with high-ridged arched culmen and scarcely
overhanging tip; commissure gently decurved ; gonys about straight. Head a little crested,
as in Empidonax, Contopus, etc. Wings of moderate length, much rounded; 2d to 5th pri-
maries subequal and longest, 6th shorter, 1st about equal to 7th. Tail a little shorter than
wings, even or scarcely rounded. Tarsus long, exceeding middle toe and claw; lateral toes
subequal, their claws about reaching base of middle claw; hind claw shorter than its digit. Of
534 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES — CLAMATORES.
diminutive size, and dull plain colors, as in the small olivaceous Flycatchers generally ; but for
the bill, tlie species might be mistaken for an Empidonax.
O. imber'be. (Lat. imberbis, beardless; in, not, and harba, a beard.) Texas Beardless
Flycatcher. Adult ^ 9 : Above, dull olive-gray, a liitle darker (browner) on the length-
ened erectile feathers of crown, a little brighter (greener) on rump and upper tail-coverts.
Below, pale dull gray, sometimes almost grayish-white anteriorly, clearing on belly and under
tail-coverts to pale yellowish. Wings and tail fuscous, with pale gray or wliitish edgings of
middle and greater coverts and most of the quills of the wings, as in an Emjndonax. Bill dark
brown above, pale below. Worn specimens are quite brownish above, and whitish below,
with little edging of the wings and tail. Young and fresh fall specimens are more clearly oli-
vaceous above and yellowish below, shaded with gray across the breast ; young with wing-bars
tinged with buff or tawny — all quite as usual in Etnjndonax. Very small: Length 4.50;
wing 2.10; tail 1.80; bill scarcely 0.30, its depth at nostrils 0.11-0.13; tarsus 0.55; whole foot
scarcely 1.00. A curious little Flycatcher of Mexico and Central Am., discovered in the Lower
Kio Grande valley at Lomita, Texas, by G. B. Sennett, Apr. 24, 1879. Nest and eggs
unknown.
O. i. ridg'wayi. (To R. Ridgway.) Ridgway's Flycatcher. Arizona Beardless
Flycatcher. Like the last ; bill more robust ; coloration darker and ashler ; pale ash be-
low, with scarcely any yellowish. <J, length 4.60; extent 7.20; wing 2.25; tail 2.00 ; tarsus
0.55; culmen about 0.40; depth of bill 0.15. 9 somewhat smaller. Southern Arizona and
southward to Puebla and Jalisco, Mexico. Discovered at Tucson, Ariz., by F. Stephens,
Apr. 20, 1881; young just from the nest May 28; but nest and eggs still unknown. This
bird is said to have a sort of " song," besides the usual call note. (Omitted from 2d-4th eds.
of the Key. Brewst. Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, Oct. 1882, p. 208; Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 346;
A. 0. U. Lists, 1886 and 1895, No. 472 a.)
Family COTINGID^ : Cotingas.
An extensive family of tropical and subtropical American clamatorial passerine birds,
lately formally added to the North American fauna, in which the Clamatores had long been
supposed to be represented only by Tyrannidce. Cotingidte, though related to Tijrannidts,
may be distinguished by the pycnaspidean instead of exaspidean tarsi (see p. 509), 'and so far as
the two following genera are concerned at least, by the extensive cohesion of inner and middle
toes, and especially by shortness of the 2d primary in ^, together with slight hooking of bill.
" The Cotingidfe are one of the great fruit-eating families of tropical America, and amongst
the passerine birds addicted to this kind of diet are the most numerous and important after the
Tanagridce. In plumage, structure, and size they are much varied. Nothing can be more bril-
liant in colour than the typical Cotingas and some allied forms, while the Lipaugi and others
are of uniformly dull plumage in both sexes. As regards structure, the second aborted primary
of the Tityrina;, the feet and crest of Rupicola, and the wattles of Cliasmorhynchus and Cepha-
lopterns show such extraordinary excesses of development as are almost unequalled in the Pas-
serine series. . . . Like the Tyrannidce the Cotingidce are dentirostral Oligophones, and have
ten well-formed primaries instead of nine, or nine and a shortened outer primary, as is the case
with the dentirostral Oscines. They number about 110 species." (Sclater.) This author-
ity divides the family into six subfamilies: Tityrince, Lipaugince, Attilincr, Rupicolina, Cotin-
gince, and Gymnoderina. The following genera belong to the
Subfamily TITYRIN/E: Tityrines.
Characterized by the abnormal shortness of the second primary, typical pycnaspidean tarsi,
and usually stout. Shrike-like bill. The plumage is not brilliant, and the females differ from
the males decidedly.
COTINGIDJi—TirYRIN.E: TITYRINES. 535
PLATYPSAK'IS. (Gr. TrXarvr, ^?a<MS, broad ; y\rap, psar, a starling. Bonaparte, 1854;
ScLATER, P. Z. S. 1857, p. 72. Type Pachyrhaviphus latirostris Bonap.) Becards. Nos-
trils hidden by bristly feathers ; hook of bill very slight, and bill not much flattened ; rictal
bristles long ; head somewhat crested ; tail rounded ; tarsus with large scutella on the inner
side. Sexes dissimilar. Two species occur on and near the Mexican border of the U. S.
P. aglai'ae. (Gr. 'AyXaia, Agldia, one of the Three Graces.) Rose-throated Becard.
Adult J : Above, slate-gray ; crown glossy black ; below, ashy-gray, with a rosy patch on
throat. 9 above dark rusty brown, becoming slaty on crown. Length 6.60; wing 3.50; tail
2.75; bill 0.65. Eastern Mexico, north to valley of the Rio Grande. (Pachijrhynchus aglaice
Lafr. Rev. Zobl. 1839, p. 98; Pachyrhamphus aglaice Baird, Birds North America, 1858,
p. 164, and Mex. Bound. Survey, 1859, ii, pt. ii, pi. ix, fig. 1 ; Platypsaris aglaioi SuMi-
CHRAST, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, i, 1869, p. 558; Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 324; CouES, Key,
4th ed. 1890, p. 902 ; not admitted in the A. 0. U. List, not having as yet been actually taken
over our border.)
P. albiven'tris. (Lat. aZfews, white; tJen^er, the belly.) White-bellied Becard. Xan-
Tus' Becard. Adult $ : Resembling the preceding, but lighter and more ashy-gray above ;
crown slaty ; under parts pale grayish, whitening on belly. 9 correspondingly paler than that
of P. aglaice. Western Mexico, north into southern Arizona ; Huachuca mountains. (Hadro-
stomus albicentris Lawrenxe, Ann. Lye Nat. Hist, viii, 1867, p. 475 ; Platypsaris albiventris
Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 325; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 902; A. 0. U. List, 2d ed. 1895,
p. 179, No. 441. ].)
PACHYRHAM'PHUS. (Gr. naxvs, pachiis, thick ; pdfKpos, hramphos, beak. G. R. Gray,
List. Gen. B. 1838, p. 41.) Billed Becards. Resembling the preceding; bill more flat-
tened, with shorter rictal bristles ; tail graduated about J an inch ; tarsus naked on inner side.
Sexes very unlike. One species found near the ]\Iexican border of the U. S.
P. ma'jor. (Lat. major, greater.) Greater Becard. Adult $ : Above, ashy-gray, be-
coming glossy black on the back and crown, and white on scapulars ; below, pale ash, whiten-
ing on throat, belly, and crissum ; wings black, with white edging or tipping of coverts and
some inner secondaries; tail black, with white tips of the feathers. 9 mostly chestnut brown,
paler below, black on crown and ends of tail-feathers. Length 6.50; wing 325; tail 2.65;
bill 0.60. Eastern Mexico, north to valley of the Lower Rio Grande ; introduced to our
fauna by Baird in 1858 under the name of Bathmidurus major, and figured in Report of the
Mexican Boundary Survey, 1859, pi. ix, fig. 2, but like Platypsaris aglaice lost sight of for
some years, and not yet recognized in the A. 0. U. List: see ScL. P. Z. S. 1857, p. 78;
Ridgw. Man. 1887, p. 326; Coues, Key, 4th ed. 1890, p. 902.
CO
to
en
>
A'
1
V
-P
t_l >
o
CD
ii-
i-H
O
cr>
•o
8 .'^^
^ Oj
tA
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11