UC-NRLF
B 4 25D DED
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
PRESENTED BY
PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
KINGS DETHRONED
A HISTORY OF THE EVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMY
FROM THE TIME OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE UP
TO THE PRESENT DAY ; SHOWING IT TO BE AN
AMAZING SERIES OF BLUNDERS FOUNDED
UPON AN ERROR MADE IN THE
SECOND CENTURY B.C.
By
GERRARD HICKSON
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Copyright U.S.A
Published by
THE HICKSONIA PUBLISHING CO.
2 Bride Court, Fleet Street, London, E.C4.
and
21 Newberry Avenue, Stapleton, Staten Island,
New York, U.S.A.
'922
\l i
KINGS DETHRONED
A history of the evolution of astronomy
from the time of the Roman Empire up
to the present day ; showing it to be an
amazing series of blunders founded upon
an error made in the second century B.C.
By
GERRARD HICKSON
The diagrams in this book, with the exception of Nos. i,
2, 7, 8 and 10, are the original work of the author,
registered, and may not be reproduced for sale, lectures or
motion pictures without his permission.
REFERENCE NOTES.
PAGE
! — 2 Hipparchus and Triangulation. 4 Ptolemy.
5 — g Copernicus and Galileo. Heliocentric Theory. Kepler.
The creation of the Royal Observatory.
Q — !3 Ole Roemer's Blunder. Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites.
14 — 16 Newton, Gravitation, H alley. Diurnal method of
measurement.
16 — 21 Kepler, Relative distances of the planets.
21 — 22 The Theory of the Aberration of Light.
23 — 26 The measurement to the Moon, Atmospheric Refraction,
Equatorial Parallax.
27 — 28 Triangulation of the earth. Kant, Herschell, Laplace.
29 Nebular Hypothesis, Atomic Theory.
29 — 31 Encke — Transit of Venus and distance to sun.
32 Bessel, " 61 Cygni." A Light-year, an angle
33 of Parallax. Stellar measurement.
34 The Theory of Parallax. 35 Perpendicularity, Geo-
centric Parallax.
36 — 37 Conflicting theories. Sidereal time.
38 — 30, The Copernican Theory disproved.
40 — 41 The Lunar Eclipse and Atmospheric Refraction.
41 The measurement of the distance to Mars. 44 Parallax
unsound.
45 — 49 Mars — the two lines of sight diverge.
50 — 56 The Transit of Venus 1882. The various computations
of the distance to the sun.
57 — 59 How to measure distance to the sun. Hipparchus
proven in error.
60 The Michelson-Morley experiment.
62 Sir George Airy. Nordmeyer. The Petrograd lectures.
63 Relativity. 66 Einstein's case simply explained.
68 Einstein's definitions and theories examined.
70 The Law of the Constancy of the Velocity of Light.
73 The Principle of Relativity.
75 The Special Principle and Electro-Magnetic laws.
76 — 78 The Laws of Dynamics i and 2. Theory of Relativity
fails.
79 Einstein's three crucial tests.
80 Light and Gravity. Meeting of the R.A.S.
83 The evidence proven false.
84 Betelgeuse. 86 Spiral Nebula 584.
86 — 87 Conflicting opinions of living astronomers re Pons-
Winnecke,
88 The ridiculous stories about Mars.
90 — 91 Hercules, " N.G.C. 7006," and preposterous figures.
Conclusion.
93 The sequel to " Kings Dethroned/'
PREFACE
In the year 1907 the author made a remarkable dis-
covery which convinced him that the sun was very much
nearer to the earth than was generally supposed. The
fact he had discovered was demonstrated beyond all
doubt, so that he was compelled to believe that — -however
improbable it might seem — astronomers had made a
mistake when they estimated the distance of the sun to
be ninety -three millions of miles.
He then proceeded to examine the means by which
the sun's distance had been computed, and found an
astounding error in the " Diurnal Method of Measure-
ment by Parallax," which had been invented by Dr.
Halley in the early part of the iSth century, and which
was used by Sir David Gill in measuring the distance
to the planet Mars in 1877 ; from which he deduced his
solar parallax 0/8.80".
Seeing that Sir Norman Lockyer had said that the
distance to and the dimensions of everything in the
firmament except the moon depends upon Sir David
Gill's measurement to Mars, the author set himself the
tremendous task of proving the error, tracing its conse-
quences up to the present day, and also tracing it back-
wards to the source from which it sprang.
The result of that research is a most illuminating
history of the evolution of astronomy from the time of
the Roman Empire up to April 1922 ; which is now
placed in the hands of the people in " Kings Dethroned"
The author has taken the unusual course of submitting
these new and startling theories for the consideration of
the general public because the responsible scientific
societies in London, Washington and Paris, failed to
deal with the detailed accounts of the work which he
forwarded to them in the Spring of 1920. He believes
that every newly-discovered truth belongs to the whole of
vi PREFACE
mankind, wherefore, if those whose business it is to
consider his work fail in their duty he does not hesitate
to bring it himself direct to the people, assured of their
goodwill and fair judgment.
Astronomy has ever been regarded as a study only
for the few, but now all its strange terms and theories
have been explained in the most lucid manner in " Kings
Dethroned," so that everyone who reads will acquire a
comprehensive knowledge of the science.
The author takes this opportunity of assuring the
reader that none esteems more highly than he, himself,
the illustrious pioneers who devoted their genius to the
building of astronomy, for he feels that even while point-
ing out their errors he is but carrying on their work,
striving, labouring even as they did, for the same good
cause of progress in the interests of all. On the other
hand, he thinks that astronomers living at the present
time might have used to better purpose the greater ad-
vantages which this century provides, and done all that
he himself has done by fearless reasoning, devoted labour ;
and earnest seeking after truth.
G. H.
Chapter One
WHEN THE WORLD WAS YOUNG
THREE thousand years ago men believed the
earth was supported on gigantic pillars. The
sun rose in the east every morning, passed
overhead, and sank in the west every evening ; then
it was supposed to pass between the pillars under the
earth during the night, to re-appear in the east again
next morning.
This idea of the universe was upset by Pythagoras
some five hundred years before the birth of Christ,
when he began to teach that the earth was round like
a ball, with the sun going round it daily from east to
west ; and this theory was already about four hundred
years old when Hipparchus, the great Greek scientist,
took it up and developed it in the second century, B.C.
Hipparchus may be ranked among the score or so
of the greatest scientists who have ever lived. He
was the inventor of the system of measuring the
distance to far off objects by triangulation, or trigo-
nometry, which is used by our surveyors at the present
day, and which is the basis of all the methods of
measuring distance which are used in modern
astronomy. Using this method of his own invention,
he measured from point to point on the surface of
the earth, and so laid the foundation of our present
systems of geography, scientific map-making and
navigation.
It would be well for those who are disposed to
under-estimate the value of new ideas to consider
how much the world owes to the genius of Hipparchus,
and to try to conceive how we could have made
progress — as we know it — without him.
KINGS DETHRONED
TRIANGULATION.
The principles of triangulation are very simple, but
because it will be necessary — as I proceed — to show
how modern astronomers have departed from them,
I will explain them in detail.
Every figure made up
mm 1. jf of three connected lines
rf is a tri — or three-angle,
// quite regardless of the
// length of any of it s sides .
// The triangle differs from
// all other shapes or
'&!* figures in this ; — that
the value of its three
angles, when added together, admits of absolutely
no variation ; they always equal 180 degrees ; while
— on the other hand — all other figures contain angles
of 360 degrees or more. The triangle alone contains
1 80 degrees, and no other figure can be used for
measuring distance. There is no alternative what-
ever, and therein lies its value.
It follows, then, that if we know the value of any
two of the angles in a triangle we can readily find the
value of the third, by simply adding together the two
known angles and subtracting the result from 180.
The value of the third angle is necessarily the re-
mainder. Thus in our example (diagram 2) an angle
of 90 degrees plus an angle
of 60 equals 150, which
shows that the angle at
the distant object — or
apex of the triangle —
must be 30.
Now if we know the length of the base-line A — B,
in feet, yards, kilometres or miles, (to be ascertained
by actual measurement), and also know the value of
the two angles which indicate the direction of a distant
object as seen from A. and B., we can readily complete
the triangle and so find the length of its sides. In
2.
WHEN THE WORLD WAS YOUNG 3
this way we can measure the height of a tree or church
steeple from the ground level, or find the distance to
a ship or lighthouse from the shore.
The reader will perceive that to obtain any measure-
ment by triangulation it is absolutely necessary to
have a base-line, and to know its length exactly. It is
evident, also, that the length of the base-line must bear
a reasonable proportion to the dimensions of the triangle
intended ; that is to say, — that the greater the distance
of the object under observation the longer the base-line
should be in order to secure an accurate measurement.
A little reflection will now enable the reader to
realize the difficulties which confronted Hipparchus
when he attempted to measure the distance to the stars.
It was before the Roman Conquest, when the
geography of the earth was but little known, and
there were none of the rapid means of travelling and
communication which are at our disposal to-day.
Moreover, it was in the very early days of astronomy,
when there were few — if any — who could have helped
Hipparchus in his work, while if he was to make a
successful triangulation to any of the stars it was
essential that he should have a base-line thousands of
miles in length, with an observer at each end ; both
taking observations to the same star at precisely the
same second of time.
The times in which he lived did not provide the
conveniences which were necessary for his under-
taking, the conditions were altogether impossible, and
so it is not at all surprising that he failed to get any tri-
angulation to the stars. As a result he came to the
conclusion that they must be too far off to be measured,
and said " the heavenly bodies are infinitely distant.'^3
Such was the extraordinary conclusion arrived aj:
by Hipparchus, and that statement of his lies at the
root of astronomy, and has led its advocates into ar|
amazing series of blunders from that day to thisj
The whole future of the science of astronomy was
affected by Hipparchus when he said " the heavenly
bodies are infinitely distant/' and now, when I say
4 KINGS DETHRONED
that it is not so, the fate of astronomy again hangs in
the balance. It is a momentous issue which will be
decided in due course within these pages.
The next astronomer of special note is Sosigenes,
who designed the Julian Calendar in the reign of
Caesar. He saw no fault in the theories of Hipparchus,
but handed them on to Ptolemy, an Egyptian
astronomer of very exceptional ability, who lived in
the second century A.D.
Taking up the theories of his great Greek pre-
decessor after three hundred years, Ptolemy accepted
them without question as the work of a master ; and
developed them. Singularly gifted as he was to carry
on the work of Hipparchus, his genius was of a different
order, for while the Greek was the more original thinker
and inventor the Egyptian was the more accom-
plished artist in detail ; and the more skilful in the
art of teaching. Undoubtedly he was eminently fitted
to be the disciple of Hipparchus, and yet for that very
reason he was the less likely to suspect, or to discover,
any error in the master's work.
In the most literal sense he carried on that work,
built upon it, elaborated it, and established the
Ptolemaic System of astronomy so ably that it stood un-
challenged and undisputed for fourteen hundred years ;
and during all those centuries the accepted theory of the
universe was that the earth was stationary, while the
sun, moon, stars and planets revolved around it daily.
Having accepted the theories of Hipparchus in the
bulk, it was but natural that Ptolemy should fail to
discover the error I have pointed out, though even
had it been otherwise it would have been as difficult
for him to make a triangulation to the stars in the
second century A.D., as it had been for the inventor
of triangulation himself three hundred years earlier.
However, it is a fact that he allowed the theory that
" the heavenly bodies are infinitely distant " to
remain unquestioned ; and that was an error of
omission which was ultimately to bring about the
downfall of his own Ptolemaic system of astronomy.
Chapter Two
COPERNICUS AND GALILEO.
PTOLEMY'S was still the astronomy of the world when
Columbus discovered America, 1492, but there was
living at that time — in the little town of Franenburg,
in Prussia — a youth of 18, who was destined in later
years to overthrow the astronomy of Hipparchus and
Ptolemy, and to become himself the founder of a new
theory which has since been universally accepted in
its stead ; Nicholas Copernicus.
It is to be remembered that at that time the earth
was believed to stand still, while the sun, moon,
planets and stars moved round it daily from east to
west, as stated by Ptolemy ; but this did not seem
reasonable to Copernicus. He was a daring and
original thinker, willing to challenge any theory — be
it ever so long established — if it did not appear logical
to him, and he contended that it was unreasonable
to suppose that all the vast firmament of heavenly
bodies revolved around this relatively little earth,
but, on the contrary, it was more reasonable to believe
that the earth itself rotated and revolved around an
enormous sun, moving within a firmament of stars
that were fixed in infinite space ; for in either case
the appearance of the heavens would be the same to
an observer on the surface of the earth.
This was the idea that inspired Nicholas Copernicus)
to labour for twenty-seven years developing the
Heliocentric Theory of the universe, and in compiling
the book that made him famous : — " De Revolutionibus
Orbium Ccelestium," which was published in the last
year of his life : 1543.
6 KINGS DETHRONED
And now it is for us to very carefully study this
fundamental idea of the Heliocentric theory, for there
is an error in it.
Ptolemy had made it appear that the sun and stars
revolved around a stationary earth, but Copernicus
advanced the theory that it was the earth which
revolved around a stationary sun, while the stars
were fixed ; and either of these entirely opposite
theories gives an equally satisfactory explanation of
the appearance of the sun by day and the stars by
night. Copernicus did not produce any newly-
discovered fact to prove that Ptolemy was wrong,
neither did he offer any proof that he himself was
right, but worked out his system to show that he
could account for all the appearances of the heavens
quite as well as the Egyptian had done, though work-
ing on an entirely different hypothesis ; and offered
his new Heliocentric Theory as an alternative.
He argued that it was more reasonable to conceive
the earth to be revolving round the sun than it was
to think of the sun revolving round the earth, because
it was more reasonable that the smaller body should
move round the greater. And that is good logic.
We see that Copernicus recognised the physical law
that the lesser shall be governed by the greater, and
that is the pivot upon which the whole of his astronomy
turns ; but it is perfectly clear that in building up his
theories he assumed the earth to be much smaller
than the sun, and also smaller than the stars ; and that
was pure assumption unsupported by any kind of
fact. In the absence of any proof as to whether the
earth or the sun was the greater of the two, and having
only the evidence of the senses to guide him, it would
have been more reasonable had he left astronomy as
it was, seeing that the sun appeared to move round
the earth, while he himself was unconscious of any
movement.
When he supposed the stars to be motionless in
space, far outside the solar system, he was assuming
them to be infinitely distant ; relying entirely upon
COPERNICUS AND GALILEO 7
the statement made by Hipparchus seventeen hundred
years before. It is strange that he should have
accepted this single statement on faith while he was
in the very act of repudiating all the rest of the
astronomy of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, but the fact
remains that he did accept the ''infinitely distant"
doctrine without question, and that led him to suppose
the heavenly bodies to be proportionately large ;
hence the rest of his reasonings followed as a matter
of course.
He saw that the Geocentric Theory of the universe
did not harmonise with the idea that the stars were
infinitely distant, and so far we agree with him. He
had at that time the choice of two courses open to
him : — he might have studied the conclusion which
had been arrived at by Hipparchus, and found the
error there ; but instead of doing that he chose t6
find fault with the whole theory of the universe, to
overthrow it, and invent an entirely new astronomy
to fit the error of Hipparchus !
It was a most unfortunate choice, but it is now
made clear that the whole work of Copernicus depends
upon the single question whether the ancient Greek
was right or wrong when he said r' the heavenly
bodies are infinitely distant. " It is a very insecure
foundation for the whole of Copernican or modern
astronomy to rest upon, but such indeed is the case.
Some thirty years after the publication of the work
of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, the Danish astronomer,
invented the first instrument used in modern astronomy.
This was a huge quadrant nineteen feet in height (the
forerunner of the sextant), which he used to very good
purpose in charting out the positions of many of the
more conspicuous stars. He differed with some of
the details of the Prussian doctor's theory, but
accepted it in the main ; and took no account what-
ever of the question of the distance of the stars.
Immediately following him came Johann Kepler,
8 KINGS DETHRONED
and it is a very remarkable circumstance that this
German philosopher, mystic and astrologer, should
have been the founder of what is now known as
Physical Astronomy. Believer as he was in the
ancient doctrine that men's lives are pre-destined and
mysteriously influenced by the stars and planets, he
nevertheless sought to discover some physical law
which governed the heavenly bodies. Having accepted
the Copernican Theory that the sun was the centre
of the universe, and that the earth and the planets
revolved around it, it was but natural that all his
reasonings and deductions should conform to those
ideas, and so it is only to be expected that his con-
clusions dealing with the relative distances, move-
ments and masses of the planets, which he laboured
upon for many years, and which are now the famous
r' Laws of Kepler/' should be in perfect accord with
the Heliocentric Theory of Copernicus.
But, though the underlying principles of Kepler's
work will always have great value, his conclusions
cannot be held to justify Copernican astronomy,
since they are a sequel to it, but — on the contrary —
they will be involved in the downfall of the theory
that gave them birth.
While the life work of Johann Kepler was drawing
to a close, that of Galileo was just beginning, and his
name is more widely known in connection with modern
astronomy than is that of its real inventor, Nicholas
Copernicus. Galileo adopted the Copernican theory
with enthusiasm, and propagated it so vigorously
that at one time he was in great danger of being burnt
at the stake for heresy. In the year 1642 he invented
the telescope, and so may be said to have founded
the modern method of observing the heavens.
Zealous follower of Copernicus as he was, Galileo
did much to make his theory widely known and
commonly believed, and we may be sure that it was
because he saw no error in it that other giants of
COPERNICUS AND GALILEO 9
astronomy who came after him accepted it the more
readily. Nearly eighteen hundred years had passed
since Hipparchus had said the heavenly bodies were
infinitely distant, and still no one had questioned the
accuracy of that statement, nor made any attempt
whatever to measure their distance.
It is interesting to mention here an event which — at
first sight — might seem unimportant, but which —
now reviewed in its proper place in history — can be
seen to have had a marked effect on the progress of
astronomy as well as navigation. This was the
publication of a little book called " The Seaman's
Practice/' by Richard Norwood, in the year 1637.
At that time books of any kind were rare, and this
was the first book ever written on the subject of
measuring by triangulation. It was intended for the
use of mariners, but there is no doubt that " The
Seaman's Practice " helped King Charles IL to realise
how the science of astronomy could be made to render
valuable service to British seamen in their voyages
of discovery, with the result that in 1675 he appointed
John Flamsteed to make a special study of the stars,
and to chart them after the manner of Tycho Brahe
and Galileo, in order that navigators might guide
their ships by the constellations over the trackless
oceans.
That was how the British School of Astronomy came
into existence, with John Flamsteed as the first
Astronomer Royal, employing only one assistant, with
whom he shared a magnificent salary of £70 a year ;
and navigation owes much to the excellent work he
did with an old-fashioned telescope, mounted in a
little wooden shed on Greenwich Hill.
At about the same time the French School of
Astronomy came into being, and the end of the
seventeenth century began the most glorious period
in the history of the science, when astronomers in
England, France and Germany all contested strenu-
ously for supremacy, and worshipped at the shrine
of Copernicus.
Chapter Three
OLE ROEMER'S BLUNDER
AMONG the many ambitious spirits of that time, was
one whose name is known only to a comparative few,
nevertheless he has had a considerable influence both
on astronomy and physics — Ole Roemer, best remem-
bered for his observations of the Eclipses of Jupiter's
Satellites.
A study of the records which have been made during
more than 3,000 years shows that eclipses repeat
themselves with clock-work regularity, so that a given
number of years, months, days and minutes elapse
between every two eclipses of a given kind ; but Ole
Roemer observed that in the case of the eclipses of
the satellites, or moons, of Jupiter, the period of time
between them was not always the same, for they
occurred i6| minutes later on some occasions than on
others. He therefore tried to account for this slight
difference in time, and was led to some strange con-
clusions.
Diagram 3.
These eclipses occur at different seasons of the year,
so that sometimes they can be seen when the earth
is at A (see dia. 3), and at other times when the earth
is at B, on the opposite side of the sun and the orbit,
{according to Copernican Astronomy).
10
OLE ROEMER'S BLUNDER n
So Ole Roemer reflected that when the observer is
at B, he is further from Jupiter than he is when the
earth is at A, by a distance as great as the diameter
of the orbit ; and that gave him a new idea, and a
possible explanation.
He thought that although light appeared to be — for
all ordinary purposes — instantaneous, it really must
take an appreciable time to travel over the immense
distance from Jupiter to the earth, just as a ship takes
so long to travel a given distance at so many miles
per hour. In that case the light from Jupiter's
satellites would take less time to reach the observer
when the earth is at A than it would require to reach
him at B, on the further side of the orbit ; and as a
result of these reflections he reached the conclusion
that the i6| minutes difference in time was to be
accounted for in that way.
Following up this idea, he decided that if it took
16^ minutes longer for light to travel the increased
distance from one side of the orbit to the other, it
would require only half the time to travel half that
distance, so that it would travel as far as from the
sun to the earth in 8J minutes. Therefore he gave it
as his opinion that the distance to the sun was so
tremendous that "Light"' — travelling with almost light-
ning rapidity — took 8£ minutes to cover the distance.
This ingenious hypothesis appealed strongly to the
imagination of contemporary astronomers, so that they
allowed it to pass without a sufficient examination,
with the result that eventually it took its place among
the" many strange and ill-considered theories of
astronomy. . . However, we ourselves will now do
what should have been done in the days of Ole Roemer.
We will stand beside him, as it were, and study these
eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, just as he did, from
the same viewpoint of Copernican astronomy ; and
then we shall find whether his deductions were justified
or not.
The eclipses are to be seen on one occasion when the
observer (or earth) is at A, and on another occasion
12
KINGS DETHRONED
when the observer (or earth) is at B, while the light of
Jupiter's satellites (or the image of the eclipse) is
supposed to cross the orbit at one observation but not
at the other. It is important to note that the observer
at B will have to look in a direction toward the sun,
and across the orbit ; while the observer at A will
see the eclipse outward from the orbit ; in a direction
opposite to the sun. . , Ole Roemer found that the
observer at B saw the eclipse i6| minutes later than
he would have seen it from A, and he believed that
this was because the image of the eclipse had a greater
distance to come to meet his eye.
Let us now consider diagram 4, which shows two
observers in the positions Ole Roemer supposed
7
diag
ram
B
OF THE
the earth to occupy at the respective observations.
We find that A would see the satellite in a state
of eclipse while it would be hidden from B by
the planet Jupiter; (triangle A, i, B). The planet and
its satellite are both moving round the sun toward
OLE ROEMER'S BLUNDER 13
the east, as shown by the arrows, but the satellite is
like a moon, travelling round Jupiter ; so that it
moves faster than the planet, The satellite is eclipsed
by Jupiter only when the two are together on the same
line with the sun, (dotted lines), but, as time passes,
the satellite moves to the eastward of that line ; it
passes Jupiter ; and then it can be seen by the
observer at B. (triangle B, 2, A).
Thus it is that B sees the eclipse a few minutes later
than A, and that is the very simple explanation
which Ole Roemer overlooked. It would be possible
to write a volume on this subject, and there are some
who would want to debate it at interminable length,
but in the end the explanation would prove to be just
this ; which I prefer to leave in all its simplicity.
The i6| minutes difference in time is due to a difference
in the angles from which the eclipses are seen, and is
not in any way connected with distance ; and so
the speculations of Ole Roemer concerning the
Velocity of Light and the probable distance to the
sun amount to nothing.
Chapter Four
GIANTS OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
BEFORE passing on to the more important part of this
work, it is only just to record the fact that the first
practical work in triangulation since the time of
Hipparchus was performed by Jean Picard and
J. and D. Cassini, between Paris and Dunkirk toward
the end of the lyth century ; when Newton was
working out his theories.
At this time the Copernican theory of astronomy
was well established, and was accepted by all the
scientific world, though it is probable that the public
in general found it difficult to reconcile the idea of an
earth careering through space at prodigious speed with
common sense and reason. Even the most ardent
followers of Copernicus and Galileo recognised this
difficulty, and some strove to find a satisfactory
explanation.
Nearly a hundred years ago Kepler had suggested
that some kind of unknown force must hold the earth
and the heavenly bodies in their places, and now Sir
Isaac Newton, the greatest mathematician of his age,
took up the idea and built the Law of Gravitation.
The name is derived from the Latin word " gravis,"
which means " heavy/' " having weight/' while the
Law of Gravitation is defined as " That mutual action
between masses of matter by virtue of which every
such mass tends toward every other with a force
varying directly as the product of the masses, and
inversely as the square of their distances apart/'
Reduced to simplicity, gravitation is said to be " That
which attracts every thing toward every other thing."
That does not tell us much ; and yet the little it
does tell us is not true ; for a thoughtful observer
GIANTS OF MODERN ASTRONOMY 15
knows very well that every thing is not attracted
towards every other thing. . . The definition implies
that it is a force ; but it does not say so, for that
phrase " mutual action " is ambiguous, and not at
all convincing. .
The Encyclopaedia Britannica tells us that " The
Law of Gravitation is unique among the laws of nature,
not only for its wide generality, taking the whole
iini verse into its scope, but in the fact that, so far as
is' yet known, it is absolutely unmodified by any
condition or cause whatever/'
Here again we observe that the nature of gravitation
is not really defined at all ; we are told that masses
of matter tend toward each other, but no reason is
given why they do so, or should do so ; while to
say that "it is absolutely unmodified by any con-
dition or cause whatever " is one of the most un-
scientific statements it is possible to make. There
is not any thing or force in the universe that is
absolute ! no thing that goes its own way and does
what it will without regard to other forces or things.
The thing is impossible ; and it is not true ; wherefore
it has fallen to me to show where the inconsistency in
it lies.
The name given to this mutual action means
[C weight," and weight is one of the attributes of all
matter. Merely to say that anything is matter or
material implies that it has weight, while to speak
of weight implies matter. Matter and weight are
inseparable, they are not laws, but elemental facts.
They exist.
But it has been suggested that gravitation is a force,
indeed we often hear it referred to as the force of
gravitation ; but force is quite a different thing than
weight, it is active energy expressed by certain con-
ditions and combinations of matter. It acts.
All experience and observation goes to prove that
material things fall to earth because they possess the
attribute of weight, and that an object remains sus-
pended in air or space only so long as its weight is
i6 KINGS DETHRONED
overcome by a force, which is contrary. And when
we realize these simple facts we see that gravitation is
in reality conditioned and modified by every other
active force, both great and small.
Again, gravitation is spoken of as a pull, an agent
of attraction that robs weight of its meaning, some-
thing that brings all terrestrial things down to earth
while at the same time it keeps the heavenly bodies
in their places and prevents them falling toward each
other or apart. The thing is altogether too wonderful,
it is not natural ; and the theory is scientifically
unsound. . .
Every man, however great his genius, must be
limited by the conditions that surround him ; and
science in general was not sufficiently advanced two
hundred years ago to be much help to Newton, so
ijthat — for lack of information which is ordinary
knowledge to us living in the 2Oth century — he fell
into the error of attributing the effects of " weight '
and " force " to a common cause, which — for want
of a better term — he called gravitation ; but I have
not the slightest doubt that if he were living now he
would have arrived at the following more reasonable
( conclusions : — That terrestrial things fall to earth by
" gravis," weight ; because they are matter ; while
the heavenly bodies (which also are matter) do not
fall because they are maintained in their courses by
magnetic or electric force.
Another figure of great prominence in the early
part of the eighteenth century was Dr. Halley, who
survived Sir Isaac Newton by some fifteen years, and
it is to him that we owe nearly all the methods of
measuring distance which are used in astronomy at
the present day. So far no one had seriously considered
the possibility of measuring the distance to the sun
planets or stars since Hipparchus had failed — away
back in the second century B.C. — but now, since the
science had made great strides, it occurred to
GIANTS OF MODERN ASTRONOMY 17
Dr. Halley that it might be possible at least to find the
distance from the earth to the sun, or to the nearest
planet.
Remembering the time-honoured dogma that the
stars are infinitely distant, inspired by the magnifi-
cence of the Copernican conception of the universe,
and influenced — no doubt — by the colossal suggestions
of Ole Roemer, he tried to invent some means of
making a triangulation on a gigantic scale, with a
base-line of hitherto unknown dimensions.
Long years ago Kepler had worked out a theory of
the distances of the planets with relation to each
other, the principle of which— when expressed in simple
language and in round figures — is as follows : — " If
we knew the distance to any one of the planets we
could use that measurement as a basis from which to
estimate the others. Thus Venus is apparently about
twice as far from the sun as Mercury, while the earth
is about three times and Mars four times as far from
the sun as Mercury, so that should the distance of the
smallest planet be — let us say — 50 million miles, then
Venus would be 100, the Earth 150, and Mars 200
millions of miles/'
This seems to be the simplest kind of arithmetic,
but the whole of the theory of relative distance goes
to pieces because Kepler had not the slightest idea
of the linear distance from the earth to anything in
the firmament, and based all his calculations on time,
and on the apparent movements of the planets in
azimuth, that is — to right or left of the observer, and
to the right or left of the sun.
Necessity compels me to state these facts in this
plain and almost brutal fashion, but it is my sincere
hope that no reader will suppose that I under-estimate
the genius or the worth of such men as Newton and
Kepler ; for it is probable that I appreciate and
honour them more than do most of those who blindly
worship them with less understanding. I only regret
that they were too ready to accept Copernican
astronomy as though it were an axiom, and did not
i8
KINGS DETHRONED
put it to the proof ; and that, as a consequence, their
fine intelligence and industry should have been de-
voted to the glorification of a blunder.
Kepler's work was of that high order which only
one man in a miliion could do, but nevertheless, his
calculations of the relative distances of the planets
depends entirely upon the question whether they
revolve round the sun or not ; and that we shall
discover in due course.
However, Dr. Halley had these theories in mind
when he proposed to measure the distance to Mars
at a time when the planet reached its nearest point
to earth (in opposition to the sun), and then to multiply
that distance by three (approximate), and in that
manner estimate the distance of the sun. He pro-
ceeded then to invent what is now known as the
" Diurnal Method of Measurement by Parallax/' which
he described in detail in the form of a lecture to
contemporary astronomers, introducing it by remark-
ing that he would probably not be living when next
Mars came into the required position, but others
might at that time put the method into practice.
He began by saying that "If it were possible to
place two observers at points diametrically opposite
to each other on the surface of the earth (as A and B
in diagram 5), both observers — looking along their
respective horizons — would see Mars at the same time,
the planet being between them, to the east of one
observer and to the westward of the other. In
these circumstances the diameter of the earth might
GIANTS OF MODERN ASTRONOMY 19
be used as a base-line, the observers at A and B might
take simultaneous observations, and the two angles
obtained, on being referred to the base-line, would give
the distance of the planet."
But this was in the reign of George II. long before
the invention of steamships, cables or telegraphs, and
Dr. Halley knew that it was practically impossible to
have B taking observations in the middle of the
Pacific Ocean, so he proposed to overcome the diffi-
culty by the following expedient : — He suggested
that both the observations could be taken by a single
observer, using the same observatory, thus — " Let
an observer at A take the first observation in the
evening, when Mars will be to his east : let him then
wait twelve hours, during which time the rotation
of the earth will have carried him round to B. He
may then take his second observation, Mars being
at this time to his west, and the two angles thus
obtained — on being referred to the base-line — will
give the distance of the planet/'
This proposition is so plausible that it has apparently
deceived every astronomer from that day to this, and
it might even now deceive the reader himself were it
not that he knows I have some good reason for describ-
ing it here. It is marvellously specious ; it does not
seem to call for our examination ; and yet it is all
wrong ! and Dr. Halley has a world of facts against him.
He is at fault in his premises, for if the planet was
visible to one of the observers it must be above his!
horizon, and, therefore, could not be seen at the same;
time by the other ; since it could not be above his
horizon also. (See diagram 5.)
Again, his premises are in conflict with Euclid,
because he supposes Mars to be midway between A
and B, that is between their two horizons, which are
parallel lines 8,000 miles apart throughout their entire
length, and so it is obvious that if the planet — much
smaller than the earth — was really in that position it
could not be seen by either of the observers.
The alternative which Dr. Halley proposes is as
20
KINGS DETHRONED
fallacious as his premises, for he overlooks the fact
that — according to Copernican astronomy — during the
twelve hours while the earth has been rotating on its
axis it has also travelled an immense distance in its
orbit round the sun. The results are : —
Diagram 6*
That an observer starting from A can never
arrive at B, but must arrive in twelve hours'
time at a point somewhere about three-quarters of
a million miles beyond it, as shown in diagram 6.
GIANTS OF MODERN ASTRONOMY 21
2. The observer loses his original base-line, which
was the diameter of the earth, and does not
know the length of his new one, A, G, because
the distance of the sun and the dimensions of the
orbit had never previously been measured.
3. The angle of view from G is entirely different
from the one intended from B.
4. Mars itself has moved along its orbit during the
twelve hours, to a new position which is very
uncertain.
5. The triangulation which was intended is utterly
lost, and the combined movements of the earth
and Mars, plus the two lines of sight, make up
a quadrilateral figure, which of course contains
angles of 360 degrees, and by means of which
no measurement whatever is possible.
In conclusion, Dr. Halley was mistaken when he
supposed that two observations made from a single
station with an interval of twelve hours between them,
were equivalent to two observations taken simul-
taneously by A and B. . .
The actual attempt to measure the distance to Mars
by the use of this Diurnal Method will be dealt with in
the proper order of events, but for the present — what
more need I say concerning such ingenious expedients?
^
A curious example of theorising to no useful purpose
is the " Theory of the Aberration of Light/' which is I
regarded by some as one of the pillars of astronomy. /
It aims to show that if the velocity of the earth were
known the velocity of light could be found, while at
the same time it implies the reverse : — that if the
velocity of light were known we could find at what
speed the earth is travelling round the sun. If
Bradley intended to prove anything by this theory
it was that the apparent movement of the stars
proves that the earth is in motion ; which surely is
begging the question.
The fact that the theory of the Aberration of Light
has no scientific value whatever is very well shown by
22
KINGS DETHRONED
the following quotation from its author : — " If the
observer be stationary at B (see dia. 7) the star will
appear to be in the direction B, S ; if,
however, he traverses the line B A in the
same time as light passes from the star
to his eye the star will appear in the
direction A. S."
That is true, but it would be no less
true if the star itself had moved to the
right while the observer remained at B,
but why did he say "if he moves from B
to A in the same time as it takes light to
pass from the star to his eye " ? It is a
needless qualification, for if the observer
moves to A he will see the star at the
same angle whether he walks there at
three miles an hour or goes there by
\ aeroplane at a mile a minute. It has nothing
to do with the speed of light, and the velocity
of light has nothing to do with the direction
of the star, it is merely posing, using words to no
purpose.
Chapter Five
THE DISTANCE TO THE MOON
LET us pass on to something more important, the
measurement of the distance to the moon, the first
of the heavenly bodies to be measured. This was
performed by Lalande and Lacaille in the year 1752,
using the method of direct triangulation. Lalande
took one of the observations at Berlin, while Lacaille
took the other at the same time at the Cape of Good
Hope ; a straight line (or chord) joining these two
places giving them a base-line more than 5,000 miles
in length.
The moon was at a low altitude away in the west,
the two observers took the angles with extreme care,
and at a later date they met, compared notes, and
made the necessary calculations. As a result the
moon was said to be 238,830 miles from the earth,
and to be 2,159.8 miles in diameter, the size being
estimated from its distance ; and these are the figures
accepted in astronomy the world over at the present
day.
K.
I have occasion to call the reader's attention to the
fact that some books — Proctor's " Old and New
Astronomy " for example— in describing the principle
of how to measure to the moon, illustrate it by a
diagram which differs from our diagram 8. Though
the principle as it is explained in those books seems
23
24 KINGS DETHRONED
plausible enough, it would be impossible in practice,
for the diagram they use clearly shows the moon to
be near the zenith. Further, it is often said that the
distance to the moon has been several times measured,
but the fact is that it is of no consequence whether it
has or not, for it is the result obtained by Lalande
and Lacaille which is accepted by astronomy, and
their observations* were taken as I have stated, and
illustrated in diagram 8. Moreover, one of the
greatest living authorities on astronomy tells us that
their work was done with such precision that " the
distance of the moon is positively settled, and is
known with greater accuracy than is the length of
any street in Paris/' Nevertheless we will submit it
to the test.
There is every reason to believe that the practical
work of these two Frenchmen was most admirably
done, and yet their labours were reduced to naught,
and the whole object of the triangulation was defeated,
because, in making the final computations they made
" allowances " in order to conform to certain of the
established false theories of astronomy.
One of these is the Theory of Atmospheric Refrac-
tion, which would have us believe that when we see
the sun (or moon) low down on the horizon, at sunrise
or sunset, it is not really the sun itself that we see,
but only an image or mirage of the sun reflected up
to the horizon by atmospheric refraction, the real
sun being at the time at the extremity of a line drawn
through the centre of the earth, 4,000 miles below
our horizon. (That is according to the astronomy
taught in all schools.)
According to this theory there is at nearly all times
some degree of refraction, which varies with the
altitude of the body under observation, so that (in
simple) the theory declares that the real moon was
considerably lower than the moon which Lalande and
Lacaille actually saw, for that was only a refracted
image.
They had, therefore, to make an allowance for
THE DISTANCE TO THE MOON 25
atmospheric refraction. They had to find (by theory)
where the real moon would be, and then they had to
modify the angles they had obtained in practical
triangulation, by making an allowance for what is
known as " P^quatorial Parallax/'
I will explain it : — Equatorial Parallax is defined as j
" the apparent change in the direction of a body when I
seen from the surface of the earth as compared with
the direction it would appear to be in if seen from
the centre of the earth/'
It is difficult not to laugh at theories such as these,
but I can assure the reader that astronomers take
them quite seriously. If we interpret this rightly,
it is suggested that if Lalande and Lacaille will imagine
themselves to be located in the centre of the earth
they will perceive the moon to be at a lower altitude
than it appeared to them when they saw it from the
outside of the earth ; and modern Copernican
astronomy required that on their return to Paris
they should make allowance for this.
Now observe the result. It has been shown that
" Equatorial Parallax " is only concerned with
altitude ; it is a question of higher
or lower ; it has to do with obser-
vations taken from the top of the
earth compared with others taken
theoretically from the centre.
Really it is an imaginary tri-
angulation, where the line E P
in diagram 9 becomes a base-line.
The line E P is vertical ; there-
fore it follows that the theoretical ^^ Q.
triangulation by which Equatorial
Parallax is found is in the vertical plane. . . We
remember, however, that the moon was away in the
west when seen by Lalande and Lacaille, while their
base-line was the chord (a straight line running north
and south) connecting Berlin with the Cape of Good
Hope. These facts prove their triangulation to have
been in azimuth ; that is, in the horizontal — or nearly
26 KINGS DETHRONED
horizontal— plane ; indicated by the base-line B C in
diagram 9.
Now the three lines of any and every triangle are
of necessity in the same plane, and so it follows that
every calculation or allowance must also be in that
plane ; but we find that while Lalande and Lacaille's
triangulation to the moon was in the horizontal plane
B C, the allowance they made for Atmospheric Refrac-
tion and Equatorial Parallax was in the contrary
vertical plane E P ! . . .
By that almost inconceivable blunder real and
imaginary angles came into conflict on two different
planes, so the triangulation was entirely lost ; and as
a consequence the distance of the moon is no more
known to-day than it was at the time of the flood.
N.B. — All other attempts to measure the distance
to the moon since that time have been
defeated in a similar manner.
Chapter Six
ROMANTIC THEORIES
THIS history of the evolution of astronomy would not
be complete if we omitted to mention here the fact
that, though the French school of astronomers had
been foremost in adopting practical triangulation, it
was not until the British took up the work in 1783
that the triangulation of the earth was seriously begun.
At about this time Immanuel Kant was laying the
foundation of the Nebular Hypothesis — the theory
that the earth and the planets were created by the
sun.
Sir William Herschell became interested, and carried
the thought further, but the Nebular Hypothesis may
be said to have been still only in a nebulous state until
it was taken up and developed by the brilliant French
mathematician and astronomer the Marquis de
Laplace.
According to this hypothesis there was a time, ages
ago, when there was neither earth, nor moon, nor
planets, but only an immense mass of incandescent
nebulous matter (where the sun is now), spinning and
flaming like a gigantic Catherine wheel . . . alone amid
the stars.
In other words there was only the sun, much larger
than it is at the present time. This mass cooled and
contracted, leaving a ring of tenuous blazing matter
like a ring of smoke around it. In the course of time
this ring formed itself into a solid ball, cooled, and
became the planet Neptune.
The sun contracted again, leaving another ring,
which formed itself into a ball and became the planet
27
28 KINGS DETHRONED
Uranus, and so it went on until Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, and then the Earth itself were created in a
similar way ; to be followed later by Venus and
Mercury.
In this way Laplace explained how the earth and
the planets came to be racing round the sun in the
manner described by Copernicus ; and, strange to
say, this Nebular Hypothesis is now taught in the
schools of the twentieth century with all the assurance
that belongs to a scientific fact.
Yet the whole thing contradicts itself, for the laws
of dynamics show that if the sun contracted it would
rotate more rapidly, and if it rotated more rapidly
that would increase the heat, and so cause the mass
to expand.
It appears then, that as every attempt to cool
increases the rotation, and heat, and so causes further
expansion, the sun must always remain as it is. It
cannot get cooler or hotter ! and it cannot grow
bigger or less ! and so it is evident that it never could
leave the smoke-like rings which Laplace imagined.
Therefore we knowT that the earth could never have
been formed in that way ; and never was part of the sun.
This Nebular Hypothesis is pure imagination, and
it is probable that it was only allowed to survive
because it made an attempt to justify the impossible
solar system of modern astronomy. It ends in smoke.
Just like a weed — which is always prolific — the
Nebular Hypothesis soon produced another equally
unscientific concept, known as the Atomic Theory.
The idea that everything that exists consists of —
or can be reduced to — atoms, was discussed by
Anaxagoras and Democritus, away back in the days
of Ancient Greece, but it was not until the beginning
of the igth century that it was made to account for
the creation of the entire universe. Let us dissect it.
An atom is " the smallest conceivable particle of
matter/' that is — smaller than the eye can see, even
ROMANTIC THEORIES 29
with the aid of a microscope ; it is the smallest thing
the mind of man can imagine. And the Atomic
Theory suggests that once upon a time (a long way
further back than Laplace thought of) there was
nothing to be seen anywhere, in fact there seemed to
be nothing at all but everlasting empty space ; and
yet that space was full of atoms smaller than the eye
could see, and in some manner, which no one has been
able to explain, these invisible atoms whirled them-
selves into the wonderful universe we now see
around us.
But if there had ever been a time when the whole
of space was filled with atoms, and nothing else but
atoms in a state of unity, they must have been without
motion ; and being without motion, so they would
have remained for ever ! . . . Of course the idea
that all the elements could have existed in that uniform
atomic state is preposterous, and shows the whole
theory to be fundamentally unsound, but if — for the
sake of argument — we allow the assumption to stand,
the atomic condition goes crash against Newton's
" Laws of Motion/' which show that " every thing
persists in a state of rest until it is affected by some
other thing outside itself."
The tide of events now carries us along to the year
1824, when Encke made the first serious attempt to
find the distance to the sun ; using as the means —
the Transit of Venus.
He did not take the required observations himself,
but made a careful examination of the records which
had been made at the transits of 1761 and 1769, and
estimated the sun's distance from these ; employing
the method advocated by Dr. Halley.
What is meant by the " Transit of Venus " is the
fact of the planet passing between the observer and
the sun (in daylight) when, by using coloured or
smoked glasses to protect the eyes, it may be seen as
a small spot moving across the face of the solar disk.
The method of finding the distance to the sun, at such
a time, is as follows: — Two observers are to be placed
30 KINGS DETHRONED
as far apart as possible on the earth, as B and S in
diagram 10. From these positions B will see Venus
cross the face of the sun along the dotted line 2, while
S will see the
planet projected
nearer to the top
edge of the sun,
moving along the
line i. The
distance which
separates the two
_ projections of Ven-
3><a?*a*nlO. us against the
solar disk, indi-
cated by the short vertical line I — 2 will bear a
certain proportionate relation to the base-line — or
diameter of the earth — which separates the observers
B and S.
On referring to the Third Law of Kepler, laid down
in the I7th century — it is calculated that the ratio
of the line i — 2 as compared with the line B — S will
be as 100 is to 37. Consequently, if we know the
dimensions of the triangle from B and S to Venus it
is a simple matter to find the dimensions of the triangle
from Venus to the points i — 2 by the formula — " as
100 is to 37." Further, when we have found the
number of miles that are represented by the space
which separates the two dotted lines on the face of
the sun, we can use the line i — 2 as though it were a
yard-stick or a rule, and so measure the size of the sun
from top to bottom.
Such is the method which Encke used in his study
of the records of transits of Venus which had been
made fifty years before, and it is stated on the most
reliable authority that the results he obtained were
accepted without question.
In round figures he made the sun to be about
97,000,000 miles from the earth and 880,000 miles
from top to bottom. All this seems reasonable
enough, and it certainly is ingenious ; and yet —
ROMANTIC THEORIES 31
The observers were not — as a matter of fact-
placed at the poles, nor were they diametrically
opposite to each other as in t,he diagram, but they
observed the Transit of Venus from two other points
not so favourably placed, and so "allowances" had
to be made in order to find what the dimensions of
the triangle B S Venus would have been if the observers
had been there to see the transit. . . And in making1
these allowances our astronomers were all unconscious
of the fact that if the observers really had been there
(as in the diagram, and as illustrated in all books and
lectures on the subject) they could not both have
seen Venus at the same time, because A and B are
upside down with respect to each other — their two
horizons are opposite and parallel to each other —
and the planet could not be above the two horizons
at the same time. But the allowances were made,
nevertheless, and the triangle, which, as we see, was
more metaphysical than real, was referred to the
Third Law of Kepler ; which had been designed to
fit a theory of the solar system which, so far, has not
been supported by a single fact. The result of the
entire proceeding was " nil."
Chapter Seven
A GALAXY OF BLUNDERS
THE world of astronomy being satisfied that Encke
had really found the distance of the sun, the time
had come when a triangulation to the stars might be
attempted ; and this was done by F. W. Bessel in the
year 1838. He is said to have been the first man to
make a successful measurement of stellar distance
when he estimated the star known as " 61 Cygni " to
be ioj light-years, or 63,000,000,000,000 miles from
the earth ; its angle of parallax being 0.31 " ; and for
this work Bessel is regarded as virtually the creator of
Modern Astronomy of Precision.
The reader who has followed me thus far will suppose
that I intend to examine this measurement of " 61
Cygni." That is so ; but as it will be necessary to
introduce astronomical terms and theories which will
be unfamiliar to the layman, I must explain these at
some length in order that he, as one of the jury, may be
able to arrive at a just verdict. In the meantime I
respectfully call the attention of the responsible
authorities of astronomy to this chapter, for it is
probable that I shall here shatter some of their most
cherished theories, and complete the overthrow of
the Copernican astronomy they represent.
Light is said to travel at a speed of 186,414 miles
a second ; that is 671,090,400 miles in an hour, or
six billion (six million millions) miles in a year. So
when " 61 Cygni " is said to be io-| light-years distant
it means that it is so far away that it takes its light
ten and a half years to travel from the star to the eye
of the observer, though it is coming at the rate of
671,090,400 miles an hour. One light-year equals
6,000,000,000,000 miles.
32
A GALAXY OF BLUNDERS 33
An " angle of parallax " is the angle at the star, or
at the apex of an astronomer's triangulation. The
angle of parallax 0.31" (thirty-one hundredths of a
second of arc) is so extremely small that it represents
only one u,6i3th part of a degree. There is in
Greenwich Observatory an instrument which has a
vernier six feet in diameter, one of the largest in the
world. A degree on this vernier measures about three-
quarters of an inch, so that if we tried to measure
the parallax 0.31" on that vernier we should find it
to be one 15,484^11 part of an inch. When angles are
as fine as this we are inclined to agree with Tycho
Brahe when he said that " Angles of Parallax exist
only in the minds of the observers ; they are due to
instrumental and personal errors."
The Bi-annual (or semi-annual) method of stellar
measurement which Bessel used for his triangulation
is very interesting, and, curiously enough, it is another
of those singularly plausible inventions advocated by
Dr. Halley.
It will be remembered how Hipparchus failed to get \
an angle to the stars 2,000 years ago, and arrived at ;
the conclusion that they must be infinitely distant ; /
and we have seen how that hypothesis has been
handed down to us through all the centuries without
question, so we can understand how Dr. Halley was!
led to design his method of finding stellar distance^on
a corresponding, in-
finitely distant scale.
Xlt appeared to him
/that no base-line on
earth (not even its dia-
meter) would be of
any use for such an
immense triangulation
as the stars required,
but he thought it might ^ ,,
be possible to obtain a <*£****
base-line long enough if we knew the distance of the
sun ; and his reasoning ran as follows : — As we have
34 KINGS DETHRONED
learned from Copernicus that the earth travels com-
pletely round the sun once in a year, it must be on
opposite sides of the orbit every six months, therefore,
if we make an observation to a star — let us say — to-
night, and another observation to the same star when
we are on the other side of the orbit in six months'
time, we can use the entire diameter of the orbit as a
base-line. t^u^i ^ ctiWTi ^~ ~- *A/>^ .
Of course this suggestion could not be put into
practice until the distance to the sun was found, but
now that Encke had done that, and found it to be about
97,000,000 miles, Bessel had only to multiply that by
two to find the diameter of the orbit, so that the length
of his base-line would be, roughly, 194,000,000 miles.
It seemed a simple matter, then, to make two observa-
tions to find the angle at the star " 61 Cygni," and to
multiply it into the length of the base-line just as a
surveyor might do.
A critical reader might observe that as there is in
reality only one earth, and not two, as it appears in
diagram n, the base-line is a very intangible thing
to refer any angles to ; and he might think it
impossible to know what angles the lines of sight really
do subtend to this imaginary base-line ; but these
questions do not seriously concern the astronomer
because the " Theory of Perpendicularity " assures
him that the star is at all times perpendicular to the
centre of the earth, while the " Theory of Parallax "
enables him to ignore the direction of his base-line
altogether, and to find his angle — not at the base !
but at the apex of the triangle — at the star.
These theories, however, deserve our attention ;
Parallax is " the apparent change in the direction of a
body when viewed from two different points/' For
example, an observer at A in diagram 12, would see
the tree to the left of the house, but if he crosses over
to B, the tree will appear to have moved to the right
of the house. Now in modern astronomy the stars
are supposed to be fixed, just as we know the tree
and the house to be, and an astronomer's angle of
A GALAXY OF BLUNDERS
35
parallax is " the apparent change in the direction of a
star as compared with another star, when both are
viewed from two Gjfa
different points, such y**
as the opposite sides .;
of the orbit." The
' Theory of Paral-
lax " as stated in
astronomy, is " that
the nearer the star
the greater the paral-
lax; hence the
greater the apparent
displacement the
nearer the body or star must be/' In other words,
it is supposed that because the tree in the diagram
is nearer to the observer than the house, it will
appear to move further from the house than the
house will appear to move away from the tree, if the
observer views them alternately from A and B. That
is the principle which Bessel relied upon to find the
parallax of " 61 Cygni." (I will leave the reader to
make his own comments upon it.)
The " Theory of Perpen
dicularity " tells us that
stars are perpendicular t
the centre of the earth, n
matter what direction the
may appear to be in
we see them from differe
points on the surface
and proves it by "Geoce^-
tric Parallax." . . If thjj
is so, then every two obse
vations to a star must b
parallel to each other, th
two angles at the base mus
inevitably equal 180 degrees, and consequently ther
can be no angle whatever at the star ! But the wor
perpendicular is a relative term. It has no meaning
36 KINGS DETHRONED
unless it is referred to a line at right angles. More-
over, no thing can be said to be perpendicular to a
point ; and the centre of the earth is a point as denned
by Euclid, without length, breadth or thickness ;
yet this theory supposes a myriad stars all to be
perpendicular to the same point. The thing is false.
The fact is that the stars diverge in all directions
from the centre of the earth, and from every point
of observation on the surface. (See diagram 13.) It
would be as reasonable to say that all the spokes of a
wheel are perpendicular to the hub.
much for the theories ; but Bessel believed in
hem, because they are among the tenets of astrono-
Imical faith ; and he discovered that '" 61 Cygni "
[appeared to move by an u,6i3th part of a degree,
[as compared with another star adjacent to it. So
(he deduced the parallax 0.31" as the angle of " 61
[ Cygni," the other star (the star of reference) being
presumed to be so much further away as to have no
j angle whatever.
It appears that — in spite of the fact that the theory
of Perpendicularity makes it impossible to obtain any
angle to a star — Bessel is supposed to have found an
"itngle by means of parallax ; for although the two
lines of sight are as nearly parallel as possible, the
parallax 0.31" indicates that they are really believed
to converge by that hair's-breadth. Unfortunately
for this idea, however, the theory of Perpendicularity
is supported by another theory — that of Geocentric
Parallax, which makes every line of sight taken at
the surface of the earth absolutely parallel to a line
from the centre of the earth to the star, wherefore
astronomy has the choice of two alternatives, viz. :
if these two theories are right, neither Bessel nor any-
one else could ever get an angle at the star ; while,
on the other hand, if he did obtain an angle, — then the
two theories are wrong. Still we have not done with
this matter, for the triangulation was made still
further impossible by the use of Sidereal Time.
A GALAXY OF BLUNDERS
37
Hipparchus had observed that whereas the sun
crossed the meridian every 24 hours, the stars came
round in turn and crossed in a little less, so that, for
example, Orion would cross the meridian every 23
hours 56 minutes 4.09 seconds. This is called a
Stellar or Sidereal day. It is divided into 24 equal
parts, or hours, each a few seconds less than the
ordinary hour of 60 minutes which is taken by the
sun, and it is this Sidereal Time which is used by all
modern astronomers, their clocks being regulated to
go faster than the ordinary clock, so as to keep pace
with the stars as they pass. As Sidereal time is
designed to bring every star back exactly on the
meridian every 24 hours by the sidereal clock, it
follows of necessity that the stars re-appear on the
meridian with perfect regularity ; (if they do not the
clock is altered slightly to make them do so.) The
agreement between the star and the sidereal clock
becomes a truism, and a law invincible. It is certain,
therefore, that if " 61 Cygni " did not appear to be
exactly in its appointed place by the astronomer's time,
the clock was wrong. R R
We have now two
theories and the
sidereal clock to
prove that every
line of sight to
" 61 Cygni ' is
parallel to every
other ; that they
cannot possibly
converge, and con-
sequently that no
triangulation was
obtained. Let us
illustrate it in a
diagram : 14. An
observer at A sees the star 61 Cygni, and also R, the
star of reference ; both on his meridian. The earth is
supposed to be moving round the sun in the direction
( > CYGNI.
1 1 CYGNI
38 KINGS DETHRONED
of the arrow, until in 182 or 183 sidereal days the
observer is at B, and then sees both the stars on his
meridian exactly as he saw them before. The two
meridians and lines of sight are parallel, so that if
continued for ever they can never meet at a point,
and the two angles at the base equal 180 degrees, yet
the stars are on both lines.
It is obvious, therefore, that the stars have moved
to the left (east), precisely as much as the earth has
moved to the left in its orbit. If the earth has moved,
so have the stars ; that is clear. We have proved
that Bessel did not get a triangulation to " 61 Cygni,"
because it is impossible to do so by the semi-annual
method ; and that the apparent displacement, or
parallax 0.31" was due to error. No such displace-
ment could be discovered unless the clock was wrong,
or unless Cygni itself had moved in reality, more or
less than the star of reference ; wherefore, as every
astronomer since 1838 has used the same method, it
follows that no triangulation to a star has ever been
successfully made ; and that every stellar distance
given in the modern text-books on astronomy is
hopelessly wrong.
Though my case is now really won, and students
of astronomy will see the justice of my conclusions, this
chapter may not be quite complete without the
following comments with reference to diagram 14 : —
Reasoning entirely from the standpoint of the
Copernican Theories, we have seen that if the earth
has moved from one side of the sun to the other
(from A to B), so also have the stars ; but astronomers
know as well as I do that the stars do not move east-
ward, neither do they — in nature — even appear to
do so ; their movement (real or apparent) being
beyond all doubt — to the westward. So it is
established that the stars have not moved eastward
from A to B, and this — added to the fact that they
really would be in the same positions with respect to
the meridian as shown in the diagram, proves that
the earth has not moved eastward either. And as
A GALAXY OF BLUNDERS 39
the earth has not moved from A to B, as Dr. Halley
and Bessel believed, the base-line disappears, the orbit
no longer exists ; and with the orbit falls the whole ,
solar system of Nicholas Copernicus.
N.B. — If the earth remained at A rotating on its
axis once in every sidereal day, the stars
would appear always as shown at A — on the
meridian at the end of every revolution ;
but then we could not account for the fact
that the sun is on that meridian at the end
of every solar day — which is nearly four
minutes longer than the stellar day. On the
other hand, if we assume the earth to be
rotating on its axis once in every 24 solar
hours, we could not then account for the
stars being on the meridian every 23 hours
56 minutes 4.09 seconds, as we have proven
them to be ; and so we arrive at the only
possible explanation, which is — that the earth
remains always at A and does not rotate at
all ; but the sun passes completely round it
once in 24 hours, while the stars pass round
it (from east to west) once in every sidereal
day ; thus they re-appear on the meridian
at every revolution, including the i83rd ;
and so we find that the star " Number 61 in
the Swan " (Cygni) was observed twice from
the surface of an earth which has never
moved since the creation. Thus we know
that the stars are not fixed, as Copernicus
believed ; and the edifice of modern
astronomy — which Sir Robert Ball described
as " the most perfect of the sciences " might
be more truly described as the most amazing
of all blunders.
Chapter Eight
MARS
IDEAS that have been familiar to us from our very
earliest childhood, which we have heard echoed on
every hand, and seen reflected in a thousand ways,
are tremendously hard to shake. We seem to love
them as part of ourselves, and cling to them in the
face of the most overwhelming evidence to the
.contrary.
So it often happens that men and women whose
common sense and reason tells them that many of the
statements of astronomy are as incredible as the
story of Jack and the Beanstalk, are still loth to part
with their life-long beliefs, and suggest that, after
all, the modern theory must be true because astronomers
are able to predict eclipses.
But the Chaldeans used to predict the eclipses
three thousand years ago ; with a degree of accuracy
that is only surpassed by seconds in these days
because we have wonderful clocks which they had
not. Yet they had an entirely different theory of
the universe than we have. The fact is that eclipses
occur with a certain exact regularity just as Christmas
and birthdays do, every so many years, days and
minutes, so that anyone who has the records of the
eclipses of thousands of years can predict them as
well as the best astronomers, without any knowledge
of their cause.
The shadow on the moon at the lunar eclipse is said
to be the shadow of the earth, but this theory received
a rude shock on February 27th, 1877, for it is recorded
in M. Camille Flammarion's " Popular Astronomy "
that an eclipse of the moon was observed at Paris on
40
MARS 41
that date in these circumstances : " the moon rose
at 5.29, the sun set at 5.39, and the total eclipse of
the moon began before the sun had set/'
The reader will perceive that as the sun and moon
were both visible above the horizon at the same time
for ten minutes ^
before sunset, £E<Z\ P*JIR»S
K-O^*>^ ~*^l Ml 1 O t/ W
the shadow on
the moon could
not be cast by
the earth. (See
diagram 31.) 31.
Camille Flam--\TKe
marion, however, y^'l
offers the follow-
ing explanation : He says, " This is an appearance
merely due to refraction. The sun, already below
the horizon, is raised by refraction, and remains
visible to us. It is the same with the moon, which
has not yet really risen when it seems to have already
done so/'
Here is a case where modern astronomy expects
us to discredit the evidence of our own senses, but to
believe instead their impossible theories. . . This
Atmospheric Refraction is supposed to work both
ways, and defy all laws. It is supposed to throw up
an image of the sun in the west — where the atmosphere
is warm, and at the same time to throw up an image
of the moon in the east — where it is cool ! It is
absurd.
When speaking of the measurement of the distance
to Mars by Sir David Gill, in the same year, 1877,
Sir Norman Lockyer described it as " One of the
noblest achievements in Astronomy, upon which
depends the distance to and the dimensions of every-
thing in the firmament except the moon." Evidently
a very big thing, worthy of our best attention. The
method which Sir David Gill used was the " Diurnal
42 KINGS DETHRONED
Method of Measurement by Parallax," which we have
dealt with in an earlier chapter. He adopted the
suggestion made by Dr. Halley, and took the two
observations to Mars himself, at Ascension Island, in
the Gulf of Guinea.
The prime object of the expedition was really to
find the distance to the sun (though we remember that
that had been done by Encke fifty years before by
the Transit of Venus), which was to be done by first
measuring the distance to Mars, and, having 'found
that, by multiplying the result by 2.6571 (roughly 3),
as suggested by Kepler's Theory of the relative dis-
tances of the sun, earth and planets, in this manner :
Distance to Mars, 35,000,000x2.6571 = 93,000,000
miles.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica tells us that " The
sun's distance is the indispensable link which connects
terrestrial measures with all celestial ones, those of
the moon alone excepted, hence the exceptional pains
taken to determine it," and assures us later that
' The first really adequate determinations of solar
parallax were those of Sir David Gill — result 8.80","
and that his measures " have never been super-
seded."
He found the Angle of parallax of Mars to be about
23", which made its distance to be 35 million miles,
and this, multiplied by 2.6571, showed the sun to be
93 million miles in the opposite direction. We realize
that although the sun's distance is said to be the
indispensable link, it depends upon the measurement
to Mars, so that this is more indispensable still.
It is the key to all the marvellous figures of
astronomy, and for that reason we will give it special
treatment.
The figure 35,000,000 miles depends upon the angle
at the planet, which is an angle of parallax. That is —
the apparent change in the direction of Mars to the
right or left of the star x (star of reference) when both
are viewed from the opposite ends of a base-line,
which, in this case, is the diameter of the earth ; see
MARS
43
diagram 15. Theory : If Mars is much nearer than x,
and both are on a line perpendicular to the centre of
the earth, an observer at A will see
the planet to the left or east of the
star, while B will see it to the right
or west of that star. (East and west
are local terms, and change with the
position of the observer.)
The star of reference is presumed to
be billions of miles away, so far away,
indeed, that it is supposed to have no
angle at all, so that the lines A x
and B x are really parallel to each
other, and at right angles to the base-
line, as shown in diagram 16. Even
Mars is at a tremendous distance, so
that the angle of parallax is the
very small fraction of a degree by
which the planet is less perpendicular
than the star.
T "* Nevertheless,
jjj however slight
the apparent
displacement
of Mars may Diagram 15.
be, if it is be-
tween the two perpendiculars
A x, and B x, the lines of sight
A M and B M would meet
somewhere at a point.
So far we have supposed A
and B to be making observa-
tions at the same time, but
Sir David Gill believed with
Dr. Halley that he might
take the two observations
himself, the first from A in the evening, and the
second from B the next morning, allowing the
rotation of the earth to carry him round from A to B
during the night, and that these two observations
44 KINGS DETHRONED
would give the same result as two observations taken
by A and B at the same Greenwich time. Accordingly
he took two observations at Ascension Island, one to
his east and the other to the west, and, relying upon all
the theories of his predecessors, failed to perceive that
his second line of sight to the planet was on the wrong
side of the perpendicular, and diverged from the first.
The fundamental principle of parallactic angles is
unsound, while it is at the same time in conflict with
quite a host of other astronomical theories, because
the theories of Atmospheric Refraction, Perpen-
dicularity, Geocentric Parallax, and the Aberration of
Light, combined with the use of Sidereal Time, all go
to prove that every observation taken from the
surface of the earth to a star is exactly parallel with a
line from the centre of the earth to the same star,
and that B's line to x is parallel to that of A.
Consequently if Mars were on the line OX (in
diagram 15), as Dr. Halley presumed when he invented
this method, it would be perpendicular to both A and
B, therefore neither one observer or the other would
see it at any angle at all ; as shown in diagram 17.
It is not possible for any observer on earth to see Mars
to the right or left of a star that is perpendicular
unless the planet is in reality to the right or left of
that perpendicular. No apparent displacement could
occur, but the displacement must be physical ; and so
the theory of parallactic angles is exploded.
Of course there will be some ready to contend that
Sir David Gill really did measure an angle. That is
true ; but it will prove to be an actual (physical)
deviation of the planet from the perpendicular, which
is a very different thing than an angle of parallax.
But it was believed to be a parallactic angle, that is to
say — it was supposed to be only an optical or apparent
displacement due to the change in the position of the
observer from A to B, hence a world of romance is
built upon that little angle in this fashion : Angle of
Mars 23" = 35,000,000 miles, .-.35,000,000x2.6571
= 93, 000,000 = solar parallax 8. 80" = distance of the
MARS
45
sun .-.the sun's diameter is 875,000 miles; weight
XYZ Ibs., age 17,000,000 years, and will probably be
burnt out in another 17 million years. 93,000,000 x
2 = 186,000,000 miles diameter of earth's orbit, the
distance to the stars must be billions of miles or even
more, they must be a terrific size, and the earth is only
like a speck of dust in the Brobdinagian Universe,
&c., &c., &c.
But we have not yet done
with that angle. Regarded
as an angle of parallax,
and considered to be
equivalent to just such an
angle as a surveyor would
use in measuring a plot of
land, it was of course pre-
sumed that the two lines
of sight converged so as to
meet at a point thirty-five
million miles away. (See
diagram 18.) This, however,
is a mistake, for the two
lines of observation, when
placed in their proper re-
lations to each other, and in the order as they were
taken, should be as in diagram 19, which shows that
they diverge.
We will prove this in diagram 20. A study of our
earlier diagram 6 — which gives a suggestion of a
small section mapped out with dotted lines to indicate
latitude and longitude in universal space— reveals
the fact that twelve hours' rotation of the earth does
not transfer the observer from A to the point B in
space, because — according to Copernican astronomy —
the earth is not only rotating on its axis during those
twelve hours, but also rushing through space in a
gigantic orbit round the sun at the rate of sixty-six
thousand miles an hour, or thereabouts, and so when
the observer takes his second observation he is some-
thing like three-quarters of a million miles away
46
KINGS DETHRONED
from where he started. He is at latitude G in
diagram 6.
Now let us study diagram 20, which has been made
as simple as possible in order to illustrate the principles
involved the more clearly. The letter C is used in
this diagram to take the place of G in the earlier
diagram 6, because it is simpler to describe the move-
ments of the observer by A, B, C than it is by A, B, G ;
easier to convey my meaning.
E.
OF» EARTH
•i
C7*
All the principles and theories of modern astronomy
have been carefully observed, and the parallelism of
the lines is strictly in accordance with the theories
of Greenwich. As I anticipate that in the course of
time a battle-royal will wage around this question of
the measurement to Mars, I wish to make it quite clear
that diagram 20 is designed only to illustrate the
principles ; it is to clarify the whole proceeding so
that the layman can follow the argument. If the
Royal Astronomical Society have any objection to
make, I will be happy to discuss these questions with
them in a manner worthy of the subject. The dis-
cussion may then, perhaps, be more refined, indeed,
MARS 47
I foresee a very pretty debate, wherefore I advise
them that I know that Sir David did not really take
his observations with a twelve hours' interval as
proposed by Dr. Halley— because it was impossible —
but that he actually waited only seven and a half
hours (hence my use of C in place of G in diagram 20),
but that only elevates the discussion to a higher
plane, while the principle and the net results remain
the same. In the appointed time and place I will
discuss the actual practice if desired, but here I am
dealing with the principle ; and talking to the layman
and the judge.
Now let us get on with this diagram 20. The first
observation is taken at A and the second at C. It
was evening when the observer was at A, but it is
morning when he arrives at C, so that his east and
west are reversed, the sun remaining fixed far below
the bottom of this page. (The sun is at the observer's
west in the evening, and to his east in the morn-
ing, while Mars is in the opposite direction to the
sun.)
In this example I have placed the planet exactly on
the perpendicular from A to the star of reference,
thus " A MARS X." That is the starting point, or
first observation ; taken in the evening to the observer's
eastward. Twelve hours later the observer is at C,
and sees the same star and the planet both to his west ;
but Mars is at this time not exactly on the perpen-
dicular, but a little, a very little, to the left of the star.
The planet is not quite as much west as the star, that
is to say — being to the left — it is to the eastward in
universal geography ; and to the eastward of the
perpendicular line C X.
Now if we were not particularly careful, and had not
this diagram to guide us, it would be quite natural to
think that the first observation (to the east) should be
on the left hand, and the other (west) on the right,
so as to face each other, so that any angle that might
appear, such as an angle of parallax, would be between
the two perpendiculars to the star. In that case
48 KINGS DETHRONED
they would seem to be as shown in diagram 18 ; but
that is wrong !
Referring again to diagram 20, where the obser-
vations are illustrated in the proper order as they
were actually taken, and all in accordance with the
theories of Copernican astronomy, we find that the
angle of Mars is to the EASTWARD ! outside of the
two perpendiculars. This is more simply shown in
diagram 19. A being the first observation, on the
right, and C, the second observation, on the left ;
that is correct.
Starting, as we did, with Mars on the perpendicular
at A, we know that whenever we shall see it again it
must be to the eastward of the star which marks that
perpendicular, because, while the star remains fixed
in space the planet is moving every hour along its
orbit to the eastward round the sun, and so, when
we see it from C the next morning, it is as we have
shown in diagrams 19 and 20. It has moved from
the line A X to a position a little further east in
universal space than the line C X.
Whatever displacement there is, is outside the two
perpendiculars ; so that the second line of sight to
Mars diverges from the first ; consequently no triangu-
lation occurs, and nothing of any material value is
accomplished. The so-called
X angle of parallax was a displace-
» ment due to a real movement
of the planet during the night.
In conclusion, as A X and
C X are one and the same per-
pendicular, and no angle, either
real or apparent, occurs between
'"' ~A them, the first observation A X
Diagram 21. and the base-line are entirely
without value, and may be
discarded as useless. (Diagram 21.) This leaves us
with only the perpendicular C X and the second
observation, which proves to be a narrow inverted
triangle " C X Mars/' where the displacement of the
MARS 49
planet X M — (hitherto known as the parallax of Mars)
— indicates how much the planet has moved to the
left of the star during the night ; while the observer
at C is at the apex. Just that, and no more.
Chapter Nine
THE TRANSIT OF VENUS, AND THE DISTANCE
TO THE SUN.
NOT content with the work already done, all the
world of astronomy set out to try to measure the
distance to the sun again in the years 1874 and 1882,
by observations of the Transit of Venus.
It was a most elaborate affair, 'tis said to be by far
the greatest and most costly business ever undertaken
for the purposes of astronomy. Men were trained
specially for the work, equipped with all the most
expensive things in the way of telescopes and instru-
ments, and sent out by the British, French and German
governments, all allied for the purpose, as expeditions
of astronomers to all parts of the world in order to see
Venus — like a small speck — pass across the face of the
sun. We have it on the best authority that the 1874
transit was a failure ; but, nothing daunted, the
expeditions went out again in 1882, to the Indies,
the Antipodes and the polar regions, but again the
results are admitted to be unsatisfactory ; though we
may at least hope the astronomers found some enter-
tainment by the way.
The Venus method has already been explained in an
earlier chapter, and illustrated in diagram 10. It
required that observations should be taken simul-
taneously by two observers placed as widely apart as
possible in order to have the longest base-line obtain-
able ; the ideal base-line being the entire diameter
of the earth. From among a large number of obser-
vations taken in different parts of the world, two
were selected as being better than the rest ; they
were the observations taken at Bermuda — those lovely
little islands near the West Indies — and Sabrina
THE TRANSIT OF VENUS
Land, on the edge of the icy Antarctic regions ; and
from this pair the distance of the sun was computed,
but the result obtained has never been considered
good enough to take the place of the earlier figures
of Gill. We will give it the coup-de-grace in short
order : — ^
Bermuda is situated in 32° 15' north latitude, and
64° 50' west longitude ; while Sabrina Land is 67°
south, and 120° east of Greenwich. We must also
mention the fact that both the sun and Venus were
somewhere between these places, in the eastern
hemisphere.
These common-place facts alone prove that the two
observations were not taken at the same time, and
consequently were useless for the purpose. ;I will
explain how that is. In their endeavour to secure
the longest possible base-line our astronomers separated
themselves by 99 degrees in the north and south
direction, and by 184° 50' east and west, so it is
perfectly plain that the sun had already set to the
observer at Sabrina Land, before the observer at
Bermuda could see it rise above his horizon at dawn.
N.B. — The sun rises and
sets at a distance of 90
degrees from the ob-
server, so that the
Transit astronomers
should not have been
more than 180 degrees
apart even if they had
wished to see the sun
on the horizon ; but our
observers had exceeded
the limit by nearly five
degrees. (See dia. 22j
The two horizons diverge from each other, and for
some part of the time the sun is between them, and
not visible to either observer, while as it must be
above each of these observer's horizons in turn in
52 KINGS DETHRONED
order to be seen at all, it is ridiculous to imagine that
any observations taken by B and S in a direction
toward the top of this page and above their horizons
could ever meet anywhere in the universe. The whole
business was a fiasco.
Of all the various methods of estimating the distance
of the sun, that by means of the measurement to Mars
is by far the most important, while the second in order
of merit is the one we have just dealt with; the
computation by the transit of Venus, which, it will be
remembered, was first used by Encke in 1824. But
there are, no doubt, many adherents of astronomy
who will still hope to save the time-honoured dogma
which hangs upon the question of the distance to the
sun ; too egotistical to admit that they could have
been mistaken, or too old-fashioned to accept new
truths ; and so — while they cannot any longer defend
the Mars and Venus illusions — they will say that they
know the sun is 93,000,000 miles away because it has
been estimated and verified by quite a number of
other methods, with always the same result, or there-
abouts.
In these circumstances it becomes necessary for us
to touch upon these also. The brief examination we
shall give to them will be illuminating, and Astronomers
will probably be surprised in one way while the layman
will^be surprised in another. ... There are some
things which every man or woman of ordinary intelli-
gence knows are nonsensical ; but when such things
gence nows are nonsensca u wen suc ng
,x^have been permitted to pose for generations as
Ky scientific knowledge it is not sufficient merely to say
that they are absurd ; they must — for the moment —
be treated as seriously as though they really were the
scientific concepts they are supposed to be, and it
must be shown just how, and why, and where, they
are absurd. Then, when that is done, they can
masquerade no more, and will no longer obstruct the
road to knowledge.
Any one of these means of estimating the sun's
distance might be made the subject of a lengthy
THE TRANSIT OF VENUS 53
argument, for they are like " half-truths " which, as
we all know, are harder to deal with than down-right
falsehood ; but I do not wish to worry the reader
with any more words than I am compelled to use, and
so will deal with them as briefly as possible.
Every one of these things which are believed to be
methods of computing the distance to the sun, or means
of verifying the 93,000,000 mile estimate, presumes the
distance of the sun to be already known ; and in every
case the method is the result of deductions from the
figure " 93,000,000 miles." I am not particularly
concerned as to how or why this was done, nor is it
my affair whether it seems incredible or not : but I
do know that it is as I have stated, and that I am
very well able to prove it. I am only interested in
knowing the truth, and in proving it by reason jind
fact.
The verification of the sun's distance by the measure-
ments to the minor planets Victoria, Iris and Sappho,
in 1888 and 1889, was done in the same manner as
the measurement to Mars, and fails in precisely the
same way, by the fallacy of Dr. Halley's Diurnal
Method of Measurement by Parallax.
There is the calculation of the sun's distance by the
' Nodes of the Moon/' which it is not necessary for
me to dilate upon, because it has already been dis-
credited, and is not considered of any value by the
authorities on astronomy themselves.
The computation of the distance to the sun by the
" Aberration of Light " is based upon the theory
that the earth travels along its orbit at the velocity
of 18.64 miles per second. This velocity of the earth
is the speed at which it is supposed to be travelling
along an orbit round the sun, 18.64 miles a second,
66,000 miles an hour, 1,584,000 miles a day, or five
hundred and eighty-four million miles in a year.
54 KINGS DETHRONED
The last of these figures is the circumference of the
orbit, half of whose diameter — the radius — is of course
the distance of the sun itself, and it is from this (pardon
the necessary repetition) distance of the sun, first calcu-
lated by Encke in 1824, and later by Gill in 1877, that
the whole of the figures — including the alleged " veloc-
ity of the earth 18.64 miles a second " — were deduced.
" The 18.64 miles is wrong, because the 93,000,000 is
wrong, because neither Encke nor Gill obtained any
measurement of the sun's distance whatever ; and
the whole affair is nothing more than a playful piece
of arithmetic, where the distance of the sun is first
presumed to be known; from that the Velocity of
the earth per second is worked out by simple division,
and then the result is worked up again by multipli-
cation to the original figure, " 93,000,000," and the
astronomer then says that is the distance to the sun.
That is why it is absurd.
The estimation of the distance of the sun by the
" Masses of the Planets " depends upon the size,
weight, volume or masses of the planets, which depend
upon their distance ; and the distances of the planets
were calculated by Kepler's, Newton's and Bode's
Laws from Sir David Gill's attempt to measure the
distance of Mars ; wherefore, as we have discovered
that he did not find the distance to Mars, all the
calculations which are founded upon his entirely
erroneous conception of the distance, size, and mass
of that planet, go by the board.
It will not do for anyone to say to us that the
distance to Mars is 35,000,000 miles (when in opposi-
tion) and therefore it must be 4,200 miles in diameter,
therefore the distance of the sun must be 93,000,000
miles, therefore its diameter must be 875,000 miles
and its mass 1,300,000 times greater than the mass
of the earth, or three million times greater than Mars,
&c,, &c., &c,, and therefore it must be 93,000,000
miles away. It is neither good logic, good mathematics,
nor good sense. If anyone seeks to show that
THE TRANSIT OF VENUS 55
the distance from the earth to the sun can be measured
by weighing the sun and the planets let him do his
weighing first, and not assume anything ; and he
would do well to remember that " The sun's distance
is the indispensable link which connects terrestrial
measures with all celestial ones/'
Finally the sun's distance as 93,000,000 miles is said
to be justified by the "Velocity of Light." The
Velocity of Light was measured by an arrangement of
wheels ~and revolving mirrors in the year 1882 at the
Washington Monument, U.S.A., and calculated to be
186,414 miles a second.
N.B. — Experiments had been made on several
previous occasions, with somewhat similar
results, but Professor Newcomb's result
obtained in 1882, is the accepted figure.
Taking up this figure, astronomers recalled that ih
the lyth century Ole Roemer had conceived the
hypothesis that light took nearly 8J minutes to travel
from the sun to the earth, and so they multiplied his
8J minutes b}^ Newcomb's 186,414, and said, in effect
— " there you are again — the distance of the sun is
93,000,000 miles." It is so simple ; but we are not
so simple as to believe it, for we have shown in diagram
4 how Ole Roemer deduced that 8£ minute hypo-
thesis from a mistaken idea of the cause of the differ-
ence in the times of the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites ;
and we know that there is no evidence in the world
to show that light takes 8J minutes to come from the
sun to the earth, so the altogether erroneous and
mis-conceived hypothesis of Ole Roemer can not be
admitted as any kind of evidence and used in con-
junction with the calculation of the Velocity of Light
as an argument in favour of the ridiculous idea that
the sun is ninety-three* — or any other number of
millions of miles from this world of ours.
All the extraordinary means used by astronomers
have failed to discover the real distance of the sun,
56 KINGS DETHRONED
and the many attempts that have been made have
achieved no more result than if they had never been
done ; that is to say — that it is not to be supposed
that they may perhaps be somewhere near the mark ;
but it is to be understood, in the most literal sense of
the word, that the astronomers of to-day have no
more knowledge of the sun's real distance than Adam,
indeed we have to forget all the romantic things that
have been said since the time of Copernicus, and look
at the universe, as frankly, and as fearlessly as he did :
then we might acknowledge the debt we owe to such
as he, for even though he was so greatly in error his
originality stimulated the world of thought tremend-
ously ; and in that way furthered the world's progress.
And then, tutored and encouraged by the shades of
Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus ; Kepler,
Newton and all their kind, we might, with the added
experience and advantage of our times, rebuild the
science of astronomy as they would do it now ; true
to the facts of nature.
Chapter Ten
THE BIRTH OF A NEW ASTRONOMY
IT is for me, now, to show how the distance to the sun'
is really to be ascertained, and this may indicate the
way to a new astronomy, and a saner conception of
the universe.
cr
JThe Copernican astronomy has been so hedged about
with specious theories that it would seem to be im-
possible to obtain any kind of triangulation to the
heavenly bodies that cannot be negatived by Per-
pendicularity, Geocentric Parallax or similar theories,
nevertheless it can be done — and that by two simul-
taneous observations taken from a base-line which
is on solid earth ; thus : —
Let two observers be placed on the same meridian ;•
A in the northern hemisphere at about Mansfield,
Nova Scotia, for example, 60° N, 74° W., and B in
57
w
58 KINGS DETHRONED
.v the southern hemisphere at Tierra del Fuego, Cape
Horn, 55° S. 74° W., as shown in diagram 23. As the
two observers are on the same meridian they use the
same north and south, while all lines which cross
that meridian at right angles
indicate east and west, and are
parallel to each other; so that
A's east is parallel to B's, and
to the equator, as in diagram
24. The chord — that is a straight
line connecting the two points
of observation A, B, will give
them a base-line 6,900 miles in
length, which runs in a direction
24-. due north and south as in
diagram 25. The two observers will find their easts
by the compass, when it will be seen that they form
two right angles to the base-line. The two easts, with
the base-line, make a sort of frame, or three sides of
a square; and it is within this frame — between the
two dotted lines running east, that the triangula-
tion will be made to the sun.
Now let our observers take
their places at about 8 o'clock
local time (i p.m. Greenwich
Mean Time) on a morning within
a week or so of Christmas. The
sun will at that time be in the
zenith, and almost exactly over-
head, at the island of St. Helena,
off the coast of South Africa.
The observer at A in Nova
Scotia will see the sun, blood red, just rising above
the horizon to his east-south-east, while the observer
at Tierra del Fuego will see the sun at the same time,
about eight degrees to the northward of his east
(east by north) ; and so the two lines of sight from
A and B converge so as to meet at the sun, which is
between the two easts, a little to the southward of
A and to the northward of B.
25.
THE BIRTH OF A NEW ASTRONOMY 59
A true triangulation is thus obtained, and the two
angles may be referred — either to the parallel easts,
or to the base-line which connects them. No " allow-
ances " of any kind whatever are to be made, and none
of the fantastic theories of astronomy are in any way
concerned. It is a plain, ordinary, common-sense
triangulation, such as any surveyor would make if we
were buying a piece of land ; and that is good enough
for us. The angles at the base-line will equal about
148 degrees, while the angle at the sun, or apex of the
triangle, will be 32 degrees (approximate). When
these are multiplied into the base-line by ordinary
trigonometry, the sun will prove to be about 13,000
miles in a bee-line from A and 10,000 miles from B.
The stars and the planets are to be measured in a \i
similar manner, when it will be found that no star is
at any time further than twenty thousand miles away.
As it is my intention to deal more fully with such
measurements in another book sequel to this — de-
voted to the reconstruction, or rather, to the creation
of a new Astronomy — I have been content here to say
only sufficient to establish my case, and to show that
Hipparchus was mistaken when he thought the
heavenly bodies were infinitely distant.
And that, truly, is my case, for at last I have shown
that the " infinitely distant " hypothesis which has
been the guiding star of astronomers for two thousand
years, was indeed, an error.
Chapter Eleven
THE EARTH STANDS STILL
IT would seem that Copernican Astronomy had
reached its highest development about the year 1882,
and then began to decline, or rather, to fall to pieces.
The first evidence of this devolution is to be found in
the Michelson-Morley experiment of 1887, at Chicago ;
the result of which might have undeceived even the
most devoted believer in the theory of a spinning
earth.
Prpfp^sor^Michelson was one of the physicists fore-
most in determining the Velocity of Light, while he
has recently been described in the New York Times
as America's greatest physicist ; and it was he who — -
working in collaboration with Morley — in 1887 made
the most painstaking experiments by means of rays
of light for the purpose of testing, verifying, or proving
by physical science, what really was the velocity of
the earth. To express this more clearly, Astronomers
have for a very long time stated that the earth travels
round the sun with a speed of more than eighteen
miles a second, or sixty-six thousand miles an hour.
Without in any way seeking to deny this statement,
but really believing it to be thereabouts correct,
Michelson and Morley undertook their experiments in
order to put it to a practical test ; just in the same
way as we might say " The greengrocer has sent us a
sack of potatoes which is said to contain 112 pounds
weight ; we will weigh it ourselves to see if that is
correct/'
More technically, the experiment was to test what
was the velocity with which the earth moved in its
orbit round the sun relative to the aether.
60
THE EARTH STANDS STILL 61
A very well illustrated account of that experiment
will be found in The Sphere, published in London, v
June nth, 1921, and it is from that article I quote
the following, verbatim :— " But to the experimenters'
surprise no difference was discernible. The expert
ment was tried through numerous angles, but the
motion through the aether was NIL ! "
Observe that the means employed represented the
best that modern physical science could do to prove
the movement of the earth through ethereal space,
and the result showed that the earth did not move at
all ! " The motion through the aether was NIL/' . . .
But the world of astronomy has not accepted that
result, for it continues to preach the old dogma ; it
appears that they are willing to accept the decisions
of physicists when it suits their case, but reject them
when otherwise. And so they still maintain the
fabulous theory that the earth is rushing through
space at eleven hundred miles a minute ; which, as
they would say in America, " Surely is some traveling/'
It must be faster than a bullet from a Lewis gun.
What I have now to record, I do with regret, and
only because my sense of duty in the pursuit of truth
compels me. It is the circumstance that Sir George
Airy, who retired from his position as Astronomer
Royal in 1881, related — some nine years later — how
he had for some time been harassed by a suspicion
that certain errors had crept into some of the com-
putations published in 1866, and that, though he had
set himself seriously to the work of revision, his powers
were no longer what they had been, and he was never
able to examine sufficiently into the work. Then he
spoke of a " grievous error that had been committed
in one of the first steps," and pathetically added —
" My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never
heartily proceeded with it since/'
My sympathy goes out to Sir George in his tribulation
of the spirit due to advancing age, while I am not
62 KINGS DETHRONED
unmindful of myself, for I realize that in him I have
lost one who would have been a friend, who would
have listened when I said that all was not as it should
be with the science of astronomy ; and stood by
my side, encouraging and helping, when I, younger
and stronger, strove to put it right. I do not know
whether Sir George Airy was influenced or not by the
result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, but it is
at least a noteworthy coincidence that he made those
comments only three years later ; but in any case
science has need of him, and of such evident open-
mindedness and sincerit as his, now.
Not content to believe that the earth did not move,
further experiments were carried out by Nordraeygr
in the year 1903, to test the earth's velocity in relation
to the Intensities of Light from the heavenly bodies,
he also failed to discover any movement.
Even then astronomers were determined to hold on
to their ancient theories, and deny the facts which had
been twice demonstrated by the best means known
to modern physical science. They preferred to believe
he theory that the earth was gyrating round the sun
with the velocity of a Big Bertha shell, and tried to
account for the physicists' failure to discover its
movement by finding fault with the aether (or ether).
It is not only difficult to understand why they should
prefer theory to fact in this manner, and so deceive
themselves ; but it is strange also that the world in
general could tolerate such nonsense.
However, the results of several years' speculations
concerning ether and space were set forth in the
year 1911, in a series of lectures by Professor Ormoff,
Onspensky and Mingelsky, at Petrograd.
It was suggested that light was not permitted to
come from the stars to earth in a straight line, because
some quality in ethereal space caused it to follow the
earth as it moved round the orbit ; and that might
THE EARTH STANDS STILL 63
account for the failure of the experiments of 1887 and
1903. In other words it was suggested that we
cannot see straight, or that the image of the star as
we see it twinkling there is coming to us in a curve —
following the earth like a search-light, while it describes
the five terrestrial motions ascribed to it by Newton.
When stated even more plainly it means that when
we think we see a star overhead we are mistaken, for
that is merely the end of a ray of light coming to us
from a star which — in the material body — may be
millions of miles to the right of us, or it might even be
behind us ; as in diagram 26.
N.B. — A much greater curvature
than we have illustrated
in the diagram has since
been suggested in all
seriousness by leading
astronomers from the
platform of the R.A.S.
at Burlington House, Diagram 26
Nov. 6th, 1919, in these
words — " .... All lines were curved*
and if they travelled far enough they would
regain the starting point/'
Moreover, Ormoff, Onspensky and Mingelsky had
come to the conclusion that nothing was fixed in the
universe ; so that while the moon goes round the earth
and the earth and the planets go round the sun, the
sun itself is moving with probably a downward ten-
dency, carrying the whole Copernican solar system
with it. Further, even the stars themselves have left
their moorings, so that the entire visible universe is
drifting ; no one knows where.
In brief, these Petrograd lectures of 1911 introduced
many new ideas such as those which have become
familiar to the reader in Einstein's Theory of Rela-
tivity, since the year following the great World- War.
Chapter Twelve.
" RELATIVITY "
THE Theory of Relativity is so complicated, that when
it first came to the public notice it was said that there
were probably not more than twelve people in the
world capable of understanding it. But public interest
was aroused, partly by the novelty of Einstein's
hypothesis, and partly by the spectacular manner in
which it had been received by the British Royal
Astronomical Society on the night of November 6th,
1919, until Mr. Eugene Higgins, of U.S.A., offered a
prize of 5,000 dollars for the best explanation of
relativity, in the form of an essay, describing it so
that the general public could understand what it was
all about.
The prize was won by Mr. L. Bolt on, London ; and
his essay can be found in the Scientific American (New
York and London), June 1921, and also in the West-
minster Gazette, London, June I4th, 1921. The
editor of the Gazette found it necessary to remark,
when publishing the essay, that " Our readers will
probably agree that even when stated in its simplest
form it remains a tough proposition/'
That is just the trouble with it. It is about as far
removed from ordinary " fact " and " plain English "
as it is possible for anything to be ; indeed it is so
intangible that it may well be that Einstein can form
a mental picture of it himself, while he is at the same
time unable to convey his meaning to others through
the. medium of ordinary language.
/^ The thing is elusive ; abounding in inference,
\ suggestion, half-truth and ambiguity; wherefore it
follows that any discussion of it, such as we propose
to enter upon, must of necessity be almost equally
" RELATIVITY ' 65
refined. It might seem tortuous to some readers, and
yet be like a very entertaining game of chess to others ;
while it certainly will be useful to those who are
willing to traverse the long and difficult labyrinth
that leads to truth.
Relativity is clever ; but it belongs to the same
category as Newton's Law of Gravitation and the
Kant-Herschell-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis, in as far
as it is a superfine effort of the imagination seeking to
maintain an impossible theory of the universe in
defiance of every fact against it. ... Let us see
what we can do with it.
First, we will let Professor Einstein himself tell us
what he means by Relativity, in the words he used
in the opening of his address at Princeton Universitv,
U.S.A. :—
" What we mean by relative motion in a general
sense is perfectly plain to everyone. If we think of
of a waggon moving along a street we know that it is
possible to speak of the waggon at rest, and the street
in motion, just as well as it is to speak of the waggon
in motion and the street at rest. That, however, is a
very special part of the ideas involved in the principle
of Relativity."
That would be amusing if we read it in a comic
paper, or if Mutt and Jeff had said it ; but when
Professor Einstein says it in a lecture at the Prince-
ton University, we are expected not to laugh ; that
is the only difference. It is silly, but I may not
dismiss the matter with that remark, and so I will
answer quite seriously that it is only possible for me to
speak of the street moving while the waggon remains
still — and to believe it — when I cast away all the
experience of a lifetime and am no longer able to
understand the evidence of my senses ; which is
insanity. . . . Such self-deception as this is not
reasoning ; it is the negation of reason ; which is the
faculty of forming correct conclusions from things
observed, judged by the light of experience. It is
unworthy of our intelligence and a waste of our
66 KINGS DETHRONED
greatest gift ; but that introduction serves very well
to Illustrate the kind of illusion that lies at the root
of Relativity.
Throughout the whole of his theories there is evi-
dence that Einstein was thinking almost entirely of
their application to astronomy, but it was inevitable
that this should involve him with physics, so that he
had then to engage upon a series of arguments in-
tended to show how his principles would work out on
the plane of general science. The first may be said
to be the motive that inspired him ; while the second
consists of complications and difficulties which he
could not avoid. . . . And when he suggested that
the street might be moving while the waggon with
its wheels revolving was standing still, he was asking
us to imagine that in a similar manner the earth we
stand upon might be moving while the stars that
pass in the night stand still. It is a Case of Appeal,
where Einstein appeals in the name of a convicted
Copernican Astronomy against the judgment of
Michelson - Morley, Nordmeyer, physics, fact, ex-
perience, observation and reason. We, on the other
hand, are counsel for the prosecution, judge and jury.
Under the general heading of Relativity, Einstein
includes an assortment of new ideas — each of
which depends upon another, — and each of which
contributes to support the whole. He says
that there is no ether, and that light is a material
thing which comes to us through empty space. Conse-
quently light has weight, and, therefore, is subject to
the law of gravitation, so that the light coming from
a star may bend under its own weight, or deviate from
the straight line by the attraction of the sun, or of
any other celestial body it has to pass in its journey
to the observer on earth. ... In that case it follows
that no star is in reality where it appears to be, for it
may be even as suggested in diagram 26. . . Conse-
quently the heavenly bodies may be much further
away than they have hitherto been supposed to be,
and every method which is based upon the geometry
" RELATIVITY ' 67
of Euclid and the triangulation of Hipparchus will
fail to discover the distance to a star ; because its real
position is no longer known. Wherefore Einstein
has invented a new kind of geometry, in order to
calculate the positions of the stars by what is nothing
more or less than metaphysics.
We have always been accustomed to measure things
by the three dimensions of Euclid — length, breadth and
thickness, but Einstein (thinking of astronomy), says
that " Time " is a Fourth Dimension ; and proposes
that henceforth things should be measured on the
understanding that they have four dimensions — length,
breadth, time, and thickness.
The introduction of " time " as a fourth proportion
of things makes it necessary for him to invent a
number of new terms, and also to change the names
of some of those that we already know and commonly
use, thus, for example — " Space " is changed to
"Continuum/' while a " point " is called an "event/'
time — as we have always understood it — no longer
exists, and is said to be a fourth dimension ; while
there are no such things as " infinity " or " eternity "
in relativity.
That is the case for Einstein. It is the essence of
his Relativity, clearly stated in plain English. The
details of it represent an immense amount of labour of
a refined character, the whole thing is very imagina-
tive, and the work of an artist in fine-spun reflections ;
indeed, it is of that double-distilled intricacy which
finds favour with those who like mental gymnastics and
hair-splitting argument ; and are fond of marvellous
figures.
But I can conceive that in the course of time this
Relative Phantasmagoria might come to be regarded
as science, and be taught as such to the children of
the near future ; and that is to be prevented only by
dealing with it now ! which I will do, though I grieve
to give so much space to a matter which only calls for
it because it is pernicious.
Chapter Thirteen
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES EXAMINED
WHATEVER it is that Relativity is supposed to establish
is to be disproved backwards, beginning with the
example which Einstein puts forward — where an
observer standing at the centre of a rotating disk is
watching some one else on the same disk measuring
the circumference of a circle round the observer by
repeated applications of a small measuring rod ; and
afterwards measuring the diameter of the circle in the
same wav.
27.
c/
He says that because the disk is in motion, the
small measuring rod will appear to the observer (at
the centre) to be contracted, so that the person who is
measuring (whom I will call " B ") will have to apply
the rod more often to go round that circle than he
would if the disk was at rest. That is not true ! . . .
If B actually lays the rod (or foot rule) down upon the
disk correctly, the number of applications to go round
the circle will be the same whether the disk is moving
or not, and the observer at the centre will see that it
is so, if he is not made too dizzy to count. On the
other hand, if B does not lay the rod down and measure
the circle as one would expect, but only walks around
the disk with the rod in the air (as in diagram 27)
68
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES EXAMINED 6g
then the rotation of the disk will disturb him, so that
he has to make an effort to preserve his balance ;
with the result that he can not place the rod as
accurately as he would if the disk were not in motion ;
and in that case it may take either more or less appli-
cations of the rule to go completely round than it
would if the disk were still ; and that difference would
be seen by the observer at the centre — not as an
optical illusion ! (as Einstein implies) but in reality '.
a result that is entirely physical, and due to physical
causes. When walking across the disk and measuring
the diameter, B is not disturbed to anything like the
same degree as in walking round the circumference,
and so he measures the diameter more accurately.
Most of us have at some time or other witnessed the
antics of a clown trying to run or walk upon a spinning
disk in a circus, and this enables us to understand
how such a motion would affect our friends performing
on Einstein's revolving table.
His example is merely amusing, it serves no useful
purpose, and proves nothing ; unless, indeed, it proves
by analogy that the inhabitants on a spinning earth
would be rendered as incapable of acting and judging
things correctly as his examples.
What we have always known as a " point " in the
terms of Euclid, Einstein calls an " event ! " but if
words have any meaning a point and an event are two
totally different things ; for a point is a mark, a spot
or place, and is only concerned in the consideration of
material things ; while an event is an occurrence, it is
something that happens. ; . . There is as much
difference between them as there is between the
sentence " This is a barrel of apples/1 and " These
apples came from New Zealand/'
While claiming " time " as a fourth dimension,
Einstein explains that " by dimension we must under-
stand merely one of four independent quantities which
locate an event in space." . . . This is to imply
that the other three dimensions which are in common
use are independent quantities, which is not the case ;
70 KINGS DETHRONED
for length, breadth and thickness are essentially found
in combination ; they co-exist in each and every
physical thing, so that they are related — hence they
are not independent quantities. ... On the con-
trary, time IS an independent quantity. It is inde-
pendent of any one, or all, the three proportions of
material things, it is not in any way related ; and
therefore cannot be used as a fourth dimension.
We know that an event is an occurrence ; and we
find that what Einstein really means by his fourth
dimension is " merely the time by which we locate
something that happened in space ; " and that is
just what time has always meant — the period between
one event and another. . . Length, breadth and
thickness, are proportions of each and every finite
thing ; while time is infinite. The dimensions are
finite ; while time is abstract.
Strangely enough, while Einstein claims that every-
thing is in motion and nothing is stable, he allows one
thing, and one thing only, to remain outside the
realm of relativity, independent of everything else ;
and that is what he calls his Second Law, the
Einstein " Law of the Constancy of the Velocity of
Light/' He claims that the velocity of light is constant
under all circumstances, and therefore is absolute.
This is a blunder of the first magnitude, but I do
not imagine that he fell into it through any oversight ;
for it is quite evident that he was driven into this
false position. He was compelled to say that the
velocity of light is constant, because, if he did not
his new geometry would be useless ; for after all his
geometry amounts to this : —
He begins by assuming that light is a material
thing, so that it is affected by the gravitational attrac-
tion of any celestial bodies it has to pass on its way to
earth, which causes it to deviate from its appointed
course so that it comes to us with more or less curve,
according to its distance, and according to the
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES EXAMINED 71
bodies it encounters in its passage. But it always
travels at the same velocity, and so, if we can estimate
— for example — how much the light of Canopus is
made to curve by the gravitation of other bodies
between it and the earth (which would be done by
Kepler's and Newton's laws), we can calculate how
much longer its journey is made by those windings,
twists, and turns. Then we can time its arrival,
because — although it has to travel so much further
than its distance would be in a straight line — it always
travels at the same 671,090,400 miles an hour ; or
186,414 miles every second. It is true that Einstein
uses a number of signs and symbols which are supposed
to simplify the process ; though it is probable that
they do no more than merely make it more mysterious,
but the plain English of it is as I have shown ; and so
we perceive that Einstein uses time pretty much in
the same way as we do, and not as a dimension at all.
Thus we have discovered that the things which he
re-christened an Event, a Fourth Dimension, and a
New Geometry, are false to the titles he has given
them ; the words as he uses them are misnomers,
therefore we dismiss them ; for they are no longer of
any use or interest to us.
Now we are free to deal with his Law of the Con-
stancy of the Velocity of Light.
We are told that Light is a material thing, and that
a beam of light is deflected from a straight line by the
gravitation of any and every thing that lies near its
course as it passes within their sphere of influence ;
and we are further assured that light always maintains
a uniform speed of 186,414 miles a second. . . . We
have, however, to remind Professor Einstein that the «
" Velocity of Light 186,414 miles a second ' was
determined as the result of experiments by the
physicists — Fizeau, Foucault, Cornu, Michelson and
Newcomb, all of which experiments were conducted
within the earth's atmosphere, on terra-firma ; the
last between Fort Myer and the Washington Monu-
ment.
72 KINGS DETHRONED
In all these experiments a ray of light was reflected
between two mirrors several miles apart, so that it
had to pass to and fro always through the atmosphere,
and it is not to be supposed that light, or anything
else, can travel at the same speed through the air as
it would through the vacuum Einstein supposes space
to be.
Let us reverse this in order to realize it better. It
is not to be supposed that any material thing travels
at no greater speed through a vacuum than it does
through air, which has a certain amount of density,
or opacity. If anything does not distinguish the
difference between air and a vacuum, then it is not a
material thing ; it cannot be matter. On the other
hand, anything that is matter must of necessity
make such a distinction, and in that case its velocity
can not be constant.
Again, if a ray of light can deviate from its course
by the gravitational pull of the sun, or of any other
•j celestial body it has to pass, it must accelerate its
speed while approaching that body ; and slacken it
again in reverse ratio after it has passed ; hence it
follows that its velocity is not constant.
Once more, if a ray of light can bend by its own
weight, or by the law of gravitation, it is subject to
other conditions, and therefore is not absolute. . .
The length of the course used by Newcomb in the final
determination of the Velocity of Light was 7.44242
kilometres (return course). If the ray of light had
deviated by a hair's-breadth from an absolutely
straight line, it never could have passed through the
interstices between the very fine teeth of Ms revolving
wheel, or return precisely to the appointed spot on
his sending and receiving mirrors, which were
3.72121 kilometres, or more than two and a quarter
miles apart in a bee-line. The fact that the ray of
light did pass from mirror to mirror, and through the
wheel, proves that it maintained a straight line;
hence it is certain that it was not deflected from its
course by the gravitation of the earth between the two
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES EXAMINED 73
mirrors ; wherefore it is obvious that it was not
affected by gravitation.
So we find that the very experiments by which the
accepted 186,414 miles per second as the Velocity of
Light was measured — experiments which were carried
out with the utmost painstaking and minute attention
to detail — prove that a ray of light is not influenced
by the gravitation of the earth in the slightest degree.
Therefore, if those experiments were good enough to
warrant all the world in accepting the " Velocity of
Light " they may be equally well adduced as proof
that a ray of light does not bend by its own weight ;
and that light is not affected by gravitation. . . .
And if it is not influenced by gravitation a ray of light
cannot be deflected from its course by anything it
has to pass, so that its course remains true to the
direction in which it was discharged ; and that is a
straight line in every direction from the source.
(Lord Kelvin tells us that " Light diverges from a
luminous centre in all directions/1)
In brief — we find that Light is not a material thing,
that it is not subject to gravitation, that it has no
weight and does not bend, and that it does not describe
any kind of curve ; but that it is " an expression,"
in the same sense as sound is an expression, and that —
as such— its velocity varies according to the density
of the medium through which it passes ; and that
therefore the Velocity of Light is not constant, and
Einstein's Second Law is entirely wrong ! . . . . The
question of the " ether versus empty space " remains
unaffected by his theories, and the stars that glitter
like veritable diamonds in the sky are exactly where
they appear to be.
So much for Einstein's Second Law. Now let us
examine the other, the first law, or as he calls it—
' The Principle of Relativity"; which states " That
all inertial systems, that is, all systems which move
with uniform and rectilinear velocity with respect to
74 KINGS DETHRONED
each other, are equivalent in expressing the laws of
natural phenomena/1
That is what the law is stated to mean. It may not
appear very inviting to the general reader, but he will
find it quite interesting as we proceed, though it is, of
course, of very great importance to every student of
general science and mechanics. As a matter of fact
it is not a law at all, it is a statement. . . At the same
time it is not a plain statement ; for it is equivocal,
and means something which it does not say ; it is a
statement by implication. ... It is as though we
were to say — " Hello, Jones, how long have you been
out of gaol ? " That would make it necessary for
Jones to prove that he had not been in gaol, in order
to dispose of the implication ; and so it is with this
statement of the Principles of Relativity ; it is an
implication.
Taken literally it is true ; for it states what is
already known ; but it implies the reverse of what it
states — " that all systems which do NOT move with
uniform and rectilinear velocity with respect to each
other are NOT equivalent in expressing the laws of
natural phenomena ! " and that is very much more
important.
Now if we carry this innuendo to its logical con-
clusion, and put it into simple language, it means —
" that no reliance can be placed upon any deductions
which are obtained by means of observations to the
heavenly bodies, because they are taken from the
surface of the earth, and the observer is moving at a
different speed than the object under observation."
There would be a certain amount of truth in that if
the earth was really moving ; though, even if that
were so, the effects of relative movement could be
easily overcome by taking two observations simul-
taneously from opposite sides of the meridian to which
the object was vertical. The effects of time would
be eliminated in that way ; and a mean would be
found by comparing the two opposite observations.
And so we find that neither the statement (or law), or
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES EXAMINED 75
its implication, have any value. The statement might
just as well have never been made.
With mental agility worthy of a better cause,
Einstein leads from his Mechanical Principle of
Relativity up to the Special Principle of Relativity,
by means of one of the most extraordinary arguments
it is possible to imagine ; but, strange as it is, and
inconsequential as it may seem, this argument really
affects everything that comes within the range covered
by the word " Relativity " ; and for that reason we
will not allow it to pass unnoticed.
After admitting that Electro-magnetic laws do not
alter according to the system in which they occur —
that is to say — after admitting that Electro-magnetic
laws act the same all the world over, he proceeds to
argue precisely the contrary, by saying, quite definitely,
that in reality they do alter, and offers to prove it
by the following statement : — " The motion of each
locality on the earth is constantly changing from hour
to hour, but no corresponding changes occur in electro-
magnetic action/'
Of course this has all the appearance of a man
flatly contradicting himself, and it might even appear
to be nonsense, but in reality it is a very pretty argu-
ment of the most elusive kind which it is a pleasure
to meet. I will confess that I admire Einstein : he
skims so close round the edge of the ice. . . .
What he suggests is this : —
The observer is located on the surface of an earth
which is rotating on its axis, and at the same time
travelling through space at many thousands of miles
an hour, consequently his place, or locality, is con-
tinually changing with respect to an imaginary point
fixed in space. Notwithstanding this change of place,
electro-magnetic laws appear to act precisely as they
would if this place was not changing its position with
respect to that point. Therefore Einstein argues that
electro-magnetic currents must, in reality, vary their
76 KINGS DETHRONED
speed, and so adapt themselves to the changing con-
ditions in such a manner as to " seem the same to
the observer as if he had not changed his position."
Unfortunately he is unable to show any reason why
electro-magnetic action should do this remarkable
thing ; for he treats it as a thing that had intelligence,
as if it wilfully acted in a manner calculated to deceive
the observer. When reduced to its essence, this argu-
ment proves to be no more logical than the idea that
the street might be moving while the waggon was at
rest. Einstein has been betrayed into supposing a
thing that is altogether impossible , i.e. that a physical
law can act in an unnatural manner, and yet produce an
effect which appears to be normal ; because he began
by assuming that the locality of the observer was
changing, and that assumption was untrue ! Now if
he can realize the fact that the earth is actually at
rest, he will find that his difficulties all disappear ;
and that Electro-magnetic laws do not alter, neither
does the locality of the observer change.
as Einstein persisted in shutting his eyes to the
fact that the earth is stationary he did not see the
incongruity of his assumptions concerning electro-
magnetic action, so that — in order to support his
contention — he was led still further into error, and
compelled to repudiate two of the Laws of Dynamics,
viz. : i. " Lengths of rigid bodies are unaffected by
motion of the frame of reference; ".and 2, "Measured
times are likewise unaffected/1
He says that these two laws of dynamics are untrue,
and thought to prove they were wrong by the fore-
going argument, so it becomes necessary for us to
prove the fallacy of that argument in such a manner
as to leave no doubt whatever as to what is true, and
what is false ; the two " Laws of Dynamics" I and 2,
being the stake at issue.
Einstein believes that the earth is rotating on its
axis in the direction of the arrow in diagram 28, at the
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES EXAMINED 77
rate of i,oop miles an hour ; and that at the same time
it is travelling, en masse, in the same general direction
along its orbit at 66,000 miles an hour ; therefore he
thinks that an electro-magnetic current must travel
from B to A in less time than it will take in travelling
from A to B, because B is all the while running away
from A, while A is always going towards B. . . .
Therefore it appears that the
measured length of a current
passing from B to A (and also
the time it takes) will be shorter
than the measured length and
time of a current passing in the
opposite direction from A to
B; (hence his contention that
lengths of bodies and measured
times must both be affected by 3lu*. 28.
the motion of the observer.)
Of course we know that his premises were wrong,
and that A and B are both located on an earth which
is at rest ; but, for the purpose of the argument, we
will waive that, and assume the Copernican astronomy
to be true. Then his argument is not so unreasonable
as it seemed ; indeed it almost has the appearance of
being true ; but Einstein has forgotten that the
observers at A and B are both on the same earth —
that they both use the same Greenwich Mean Time —
and that the Electro-magnetic wave passes from one
place to the other by convexion — so that the earth's
atmosphere offers the same facility to its passage
from A to B, as it does from B to A.
And that is the trifle that turns the scale against
him. The fact that the whole operation takes place
within the terrestrial atmosphere gives equal con-
ditions to an electro-magnetic current passing in any
direction within that atmosphere ; the same being
unaffected by anything that may, or may not, take
place in ethereal space, which the earth and its
atmosphere in its entirety is unconscious of ....
Thus, an electro-magnetic wave passes from A to B
78 KINGS DETHRONED
in the same time as it passes from B to A, just as a
train travelling at a uniform speed of 60 miles an
hour goes from Bristol to London in the same time
as it will go from London to Bristol ; while the length
of the railway track measures the same from Bristol
to London as it does from London to Bristol.
And so the Laws of Dynamics i and 2 remain true ;
while Einstein's contention has been proven false.
The whole hypothesis of Relativity has failed, both
in the mass and in detail, under our examination, so
that, unable to support itself, it can no longer aspire
to support any theory of the universe. Therefore
our judgment remains unaltered. Copernican
Astronomy stands condemned, and has lost its last,
and perhaps its ablest, living advocate.
Chapter Fourteen
EINSTEIN'S EVIDENCE
BUT it will be remembered that he offered three
crucial tests as evidence in support of his theories,
and these we have still to examine. They are : —
1. That certain irregularities in the movements
of the planet Mercury would be accounted
for by Einstein's geometry.
2. That because light has weight it would bend
by gravitation as it passed near another
body on its way to the earth, and that this
could be verified by observations taken at
the time of a solar eclipse.
3. That certain lines in the spectrum would be
found to shift.
We have done with mental athletics, and here we
have something a little more tangible to deal with.
Of the Third it is said by the Authorities of
Astronomy that the observations necessary to prove
or disprove such a shifting of the lines in the spectrum
would be so extremely difficult that it is practically
impossible ever to do it, and therefore it is set aside.
The First is very well handled in an article by
T. F. Gaynor in the London Daily Express of June
6th, 1921.
Mr. Gaynor meets Einstein on his own ground as a
good astronomer should, and uses figures which take
my breath away ; but, nevertheless, I will leave him
to deal with crucial test number i.
He says that the discovery of Neptune, 75 years
ago, by means of Newton's Law, utterly extingiushes
the Einstein theory so far as Mercury is concerned.
79
8o KINGS DETHRONED
Irregularities similar to those of Mercury had been
observed in the movements of Uranus, and in 1841
it was thought that these unaccountable movements
must be due to the gravitation of some other planet
at that time still undiscovered. But I will quote
Mr. Gaynor verbatim : — " Uranus is 1,800,000,000,000
miles from the sun. Adams and Leverrier, applying
Newton's Law, which, according to Einstein is an
exploded theory, located the probable position of the
undiscovered planet a thousand million miles still
further on in space — and there Dr. Galle, the Berlin
astronomer, found it, on September 23rd, 1846.
Thus, 75 years ago, the Newtonian law found a
previously unknown planet (Neptune) at a distance
of 2,800 millions of miles from the sun, yet Einstein
would have us believe that the same law does not hold
good with regard to Mercury ; which is only 36,000,000
miles from the sun ! . . . The " proof " he adduces
from the aberration of the orbit of Mercury can be
disposed of in a sentence. He has made the ele-
mentary blunder of regarding Mercury as globular
instead of spheroidal/'
LIGHT AND GRAVITY.
•
There remains now but one last defence of the
Theory of Relativity, and that is the statement that
light is really matter, and that it is subject to gravi-
tation. (Test No. 2.)
In order to put this to the test, expeditions ot
British Astronomers were sent to Sobral in North
Brazil, and to the island of Principe on the west coast
of Africa, to observe the total eclipse of the sun on
May 29th, 1919, and the results they obtained seemed
to justify Einstein's main test, so that as a conse-
quence the Royal Astronomical Society held a remark-
able meeting at Burlington House on November 6th,
1919 ; and on the next day all the world of astronomy
did homage to Einstein.
EINSTEIN'S EVIDENCE 81
The results of the eclipse appeared to satisfy the
gathering at Burlington House. Sir Frank Dyson,
the Astronomer Royal, described the work of the
expeditions, and convinced the meeting that the
results were definite and conclusive. Dr. Crommelin
explained that the purpose of the expeditions was to
test whether the light of the stars that are nearly in
a line with the sun is bent by its attraction, and if so,
whether the amount of bending is that indicated by
the Newtonian law of gravitation, viz. : seven-eighths
of a second at the sun's limb, or the amount indicated
by the new Einstein Theory ; which postulates a
bending just twice as great. . . . The results of the
observations were 2.08 and 1.94 seconds respectively.
The combined result was 1.98 seconds, with a probable
error of about 6 per cent. This was a strong con-
firmation of Einstein's Theory, which gave a shift
of 1.75 seconds.
The fourth dimension was discussed, and it appeared
that Euclidian straight lines could not exist in
Einstein's space. All lines were curved, and if they
travelled far enough they would regain the starting
point. Mr. de Sitter had attempted to find the
radius of space. He gave reasons for putting it at
about a billion times the distance from the earth to
the sun, or about sixteen million light-years ! This
was eighty times the distance assigned by Dr. Shapley
to the most distant stellar cluster known. The
Fourth Dimension had been the subject of vague
speculation for a long time, but they seemed at last
to have been brought face to face with it.
Even the President of the Royal Society, in stating
that they had just listened to " one of the most
momentous, if not the most momentous, pronounce-
ments of human thought," confessed that no one had
yet succeeded in stating in clear language what the
theory of Einstein really was. . . . But he was
confident that " the Einstein Theory must now be
reckoned with, and that our conceptions of the fabric
of the universe must be fundamentally altered."
82 KINGS DETHRONED
Subsequent speakers joined in congratulating the
observers, and agreed in accepting their results.
More than one, however, including Professor Newell,
of Cambridge, hesitated as to the full extent of the
inferences that had been drawn, and suggested that
the phenomena might be due to an unknown solar
atmosphere further in its extent than had been
supposed, and with unknown properties.
With such a reception as this it is not surprising
that the followers of Copernicus everywhere should be
almost willing to believe in Relativity whether they
understood it or not ; but the Royal Astronomical
Society might have been a great deal more careful
than they were, as we shall see :—
That the Einstein Theories were automatically
coming to be regarded as accepted science, is evidenced
by the fact that the Astronomer Royal himself intro-
duced them into a public lecture on eclipses which he
gave at the Old Vic. in the February of 1921.
Coming to the description of the eclipse of May
2Qth, a slide was thrown upon the screen to illustrate
the result of the
observations that
were said to verify
Einstein's Theory.
(See diagram 29.)
The lecturer des-
cribed how certain
stars which were in the
same direction as the
sun could, of course,
not be seen in the Skaa***. 29.
ordinary way in the
day time, but when the sun was obscured, as at the time
of a total eclipse, they could be seen through a smoked
glass or telescope. The exact position of these stars
was known to astronomy, but if Einstein's Theory was
correct the light coming from them to the observer
would be bent as it passed near the sun, so that they
would not appear to be in their true positions. Then
EINSTEIN'S EVIDENCE 83
he showed how the Einstein Theory was verified ;
for the stars were observed to be a little further from
the sun than their theoretical or true positions.
But the Law of Gravitation is " That mutual action
between masses of matter by virtue of which every
such mass tends towaid every other, &c., &c."
Observe that it tends toward ; it attracts ; it
pulls : therefore — if light was matter, and was affected
by the gravitation of the sun, the stars would be seen
nearer to the sun ; and not as stated by the lecturer
and illustrated on the slide.
In diagram 29 the crosses XX suggest the normal,
true, or theoretical positions of the stars with respect
to the sun. If Einstein's theories had been right the
stars would be seen nearer to the sun than the crosses,
but the Astronomer Royal demonstrated the fact
that they were actually further away !
Such was the real result of the solar eclipse of May
1919. The circumstances had been laid before
the Royal Astronomical Society in Burlington House
on November 6th, and yet, for some unaccountable
reason they failed to perceive that the result was
contrary to the Law of Gravitation ; and clearly
demonstrated the fact that Einstein's Theory is false.
N.B. — The real cause of the displacement of these
stars from their true positions is known to
the author, and will be explained in a
book sequel to this work ; but he does not
consider that explanation necessary to the
present discussion. Einstein's Theory is
disproved ; alternative or no alternative.
Chapter Fifteen
MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY
NOTHING now remains of that astronomy which was
once said to be the most perfect of the sciences ; and
imagination — stretched even to its uttermost— has
failed to support it in the face of reason, and yet these
last two years since Relativity became the vogue
have produced the most remarkable figures astronomy
has ever known.
" BETELGEUSE."
In December 1920, Professor Michelson related how
he had perfected an instrument known as an Inter-
ference-Refractometer, and how he had used it to
measure the angular diameter of the star Betelgeuse,
in the Belt of Orion ; and found it to be 0.046 seconds
of arc. That is to say that he found the measurement
of this star as it appears to the eye (which is only like
a glittering pin-point) to be 0.046" from one side to
the other, and that is one-twentieth part of a second
of arc, or i-72,oooth part of a degree ; very fine
measurement indeed.
Professor Michelson, however, is a physicist, specially
interested with theories of light, and so, having in-
vented the instrument and measured the apparent
diameter of the star, his work was done.
Astronomers then took up the matter, and on
referring to their records, found the distance of Betel-
geuse to be 180 light-years ; that is 180 times
6,000,000,000,000 miles, or one thousand and eighty
billions of miles from the earth ; and so they calculated
84
MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY 85
that if a thing so far away appeared to be i-72,oooth
part of a degree in diameter, its real diameter must
be two hundred and sixty million miles !
Then the world of astronomy pointed with pride to
the mighty star that was 260 million miles from one
side to the other, and told how the sun was a million
times bigger than the earth, while Betelgeuse was 27
million times bigger than the sun. . .
The actual size of Betelgeuse, however, depends
upon its distance, and as we have shown in the chapter
on " 61 Cygni >J that the astronomers' method of
measuring stellar distance is absolutely useless, we
know that they are entirely wrong in supposing
Betelgeuse to be 1,080 billions— or any other number
of billions — of miles from the earth. Therefore it*
follows that as they do not know its distance, they
may not use its apparent diameter and divide that
into unknown billions of miles. Being in reality quite
ignorant of the distance of Betelgeuse, they have no
legitimate means of forming any conception of its
dimensions at all. Those dimensions are to be
ascertained by first finding the star's real distance,
which is something less than twenty thousand miles.
Then that may be divided by Professor Michelson's
0.046", which will show the actual size of that twinkling
little point of light known as " Betelgeuse " to be
not much more than twenty-five feet !
— jf
It has since transpired that the distance to Betel-
geuse had been measured on three different occasions,
each time with a different result. One of these
showed it to be 654 billions, another made it 900
billions, while the other gave it as 180 light-years,
or i, 080 billions of miles away ; and it is surprising
that astronomers did not realise the fact which was
clearly demonstrated by these differences — that their
methods of measuring stellar distance are not to be
relied upon.
In the meantime we can see no reason why they
86 KINGS DETHRONED
preferred to use the greatest of the three various
estimates of the star's distance — in conjunction with
Michelson's angular diameter — rather than the least,
for that only seems to have had the effect of magnify-
ing the dimensions of Betelgeuse to the uttermost.
" PONS-WlNNECKE."
While the excitement over Betelgeuse was at its
height the universe loomed even larger than before,
for Canopus and Rigel were then said to be " 460
light-years away and they may be 1,000 or more/'
Meanwhile Dr. Crommelin gave us a scare with the
story of how a comet called Pons-Winnecke was
rushing toward the earth at a hundred thousand miles
an hour, while Dr. Slipher dicovered a nebulous mass
that was gyrating round the firmament at eleven
hundred miles a second ! ! ! This, so far, has never
been surpassed, and " SPIRAL NEBULA NUMBER
584 " still holds the record of being the fastest thing
in creation ; its velocity being so great that it could
go from Liverpool to New York in two ticks of the
clock.
Pons-Winnecke had been seen somewhere in Africa
in January 1921, and it was predicted that this comet
would be visible at London in June ; and this gave
rise to much speculation. It was said that Pons-
Winnecke might strike the earth with a fearful bump
about the 26th of June, but Mr. E. W. Maunder said
that though there might be a bump it is only a fog of
gas after all ; while Dr. Crommelin thought the comet
might miss the earth this time, and so there appeared
to be no danger. . . Then Sir Richard Gregory said
that if the head of Pons-Winnecke did hit the earth
it might set the world on fire, but we were reassured
again when he told us that there is about as much
chance of the comet hitting the earth as of a random
shot hitting a bird in full flight ; yet it seemed strange
that he should imagine a comet to be like a random
MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY 87
shot in this well-ordered universe ; unless, perchance,
he had forgotten about the Law of Gravitation. And
how are we to understand how the earth could be
set on fire when he tells us that we may pass through
the tail of a comet without harm because it is really
a far higher vacuum than anything that can be pro-
duced in our laboratories ? . " Then what are we to
think of it all when Professor Fowler tells us that we
don't know how a comet is formed, we don't know
where it comes from, and don't seem really to know
what it is ? . . He thought they may come from
gases thrown off from the sun which are gradually
cooled ; but that made it even more difficult to under-
stand how it could set the earth on fire, or what all
the bother was about.
Nevertheless the discussion continued, until at last
the leading authorities advanced the " Fascinating
Theory that Pons-Winnecke may have come from a
distance in space so great that it is impossible to think
or speak of that distance in terms of miles/' That
took our breath away, for it appeared that the comet
might come out of illimitable space, to wander amid
the stars at its own sweet will, regardless of the Laws
of Dynamics and Gravitation. . .
Even yet the romance is not complete— for after
waiting in great expectation for several months the
Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society told us
that " Pons " had been seen again ! this time with
only a stump of his original tail, though even this
stump was five hundred million miles long, and seemed
to be comprised mostly of gas and meteors. . . It is
not recorded how he knew the length of its tail, and
nothing was said as to what had become of the re-
mainder ; but to cut a long tale short — the summer
came and passed — but Pons-Winnecke never arrived !
. . . He was lost ; and even now he may be wandering
on and on, somewhere in fathomless space, no one
knows whither ; and nobodv cares.
88 KINGS DETHRONED
" THE RUDDY PLANET."
At about the same period there was much ado about
the planet MARS.
s*£i had long been supposed that this planet was very
much like the earth, but inhabited by a race of giants,
probably about fifteen feet in height. Some straight
lines which had been observed on the planet were thought
to be irrigation canals made by men ; and one could
imagine fields of cabbages, cauliflowers, and spring
onions growing along the banks ; indeed one could
imagine anything. And so, when wireless operators
in various parts of the world began to hear strange
noises which they could not account for (about the
time of Pons-Winnecke) the rumour spread abroad
that they might be wireless signals from Mars.
It was not suggested that the Martians might be
sending these signals in reply to those we had thought
of flashing to them in 1910, but it was supposed that
the people on Mars might have been hearing things ;
and thought our wireless operators were tic-tacking
to them. So the possibility of sending messages to
the ruddy planet by wireless telegraphy came to be
discussed almost as much as the comet.
Astronomers said that although the earth is about
seventeen million years old, Mars is very much older ;
therefore it was presumed that the Martians would
probably be more advanced in knowledge than we
are, and might have been using wireless for goodness
knows how long, and had now discovered that we had
a Marconi System.
The tappings and cracklings that were heard some-
times at night were rather uncanny, and could not be
understood, but this was not because the Martian's
language was different than ours ; it was because
the vibrations that affected the wireless coherers were
really caused by the splitting of the ice around the
pole !
Spring was advancing in the northern hemisphere,
and the ice-fields were melting and breaking before
MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY
89
the warmth of the advancing sun, so that the colliding
and shifting of huge bergs disturbed the normal
distribution of the magnetic currents from the north
Pole. . . .
Professor Pickering might have made this discovery
if he had had time to think of it ; but at that period
he was busy studying the weather of Mars. I don't
think he knows any more about the weather on earth
than the Meteorological Office, but I recollect that he
told us it was snowing on that little old planet ; and
that was a very remarkable thing, if it was true —
indeed it was remarkable whether it was true or not.
Time was when it was said that water ran uphill
instead of down on Mars, and in the year A.D. 1910,
all sorts of schemes were proposed for signalling to
the planet by means of bonfires and search-lights at
night, or by using mirrors to reflect the sun's rays by
day. It was all very interesting in its way, but very
nonsensical — because the sun is always shining on
that side of Mars
which is presented to
us, whether it is day
or night on our side
of the earth ; and so
it would be impos-
sible for the Martians
— if there were any —
to see our bonfires or
our mirrors, because
with them it must
always be daylight,
and they could not
even see the earth
itseli! . . .
This is because Mars
goes round the sun on
a greater orbit than
the earth, while we travel on the inner circle, accord-
ing to the Heliocentric Theory, (as shown in dia-
gram 30).
go KINGS DETHRONED
It is surprising that astronomers had not thought
of this, but they will find that it is so, if they will only
study their own astronomy.
But the time has come when all the romantic things
that have been said about Mars must take their
proper place among fairy tales, for if the distance to
that planet is measured by two simultaneous obser-
vations, as I have advised for the measurement of the
sun, it will be found to be never more than 15,000
miles from the observer, and too small altogether to
be inhabited ; too small even for Robinson Crusoe
and his man Friday. ...
"N.G.C, 7006."
Before bringing this history of the evolution of
modern astronomy to a close I have yet to mention
the constellation of Hercules, which Dr. Shapley at
Mount Vernon recently estimated to be about 36,000
light-years distant, or 200 times further off than
Betelgeuse ; while we are now told that a star known
as " N.G.C. 7006 " (which is one of those myriad
twinkling little things in the Milky Way) has been
found to be about 200,000 light-years distant ; and
this surely is the limit of even an astronomer's imagina-
tion ; for it means that it is so far off that it would
take an electric current — travelling at the rate of
186,000 miles every second — two hundred thousand
years to go from the earth to the Milky Way ! . . .
In conclusion I quote the following from an article
which was published in London as recently as April
I5th, 1922 :—
r< . . . , By other methods most bodies in the
heavens have been measured, and even weighed,
and the results obtained stagger imagination. One
of such methods consists in watching an object
through the spectroscope and making calculations
from the shifting of the lines in the spectrum. In
this way the mighty flames which leap from the
MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY 91
surface of the sun have been measured. Some years
ago one flame was observed to shoot out with a
velocity of at least 50 miles a second, and to attain
a height of 350,000 miles ! . . . The stars in general
cannot be measured ; but the thing has been done in
some cases, notably by Bessel, who, after three years'
observations of 61 Cygni, announced its approximate
distance from the earth as not more than sixty billion
miles ! Yet this is one of our nearest neighbours
among the distant suns. It is so close to us — com-
paratively— that we have learned a lot about it since
Bessel made his calculations.
Scientists have shown that a difference of a mere
twenty billion miles in distance from the earth is
negligible, and that, though it is tearing through
space at thirty miles a second, it would require about
forty-thousand years to make a journey equal to its
distance from the sun/'
It is difficult to tell whether the journal was joking
or not ; it appears to be so, but, nevertheless, the state-
ments are those given out in all seriousness in the
name of Astronomy. They are the things which are
being taught in colleges and schools as scientific
knowledge in this month of May, 1922 ; for which
astronomers, the Educational Authorities, and the
indifference of parents are responsible.
However, it is to be observed that — with the single
exception of Alpha-Centauri — since Bessel estimated
the distance of the first star to be sixty-three billion
miles away, stellar distances have grown greater and
greater, until at last we have this " N.G.C. 7006,"
said to be twenty thousand times further than 61
Cygni ! or " one million two hundred thousand
billions " of miles from this earth of ours.
And this preposterous figure is the outward and
visible sign of the nature of the science that has been
evolved in twenty centuries through the failure of
astronomers to perceive the error of Hipparchus.
Adieu.
The blocks used to illustrate this work were made
by Messrs. W. E. Briggs 6* Co., Tudor House,
Chichester Rents, Chancery Lane, London, W.C. 2,
while the copy was most admirably typed from the
original MSS. by Miss E. Berry, at Messrs.
Puckey & Co., 153, Fleet Street, E.G. 4.
The author recognises the fact that their excellent
work has done credit to his own, and contributed to
the success of the whole production, wherefore he
finds pleasure in writing this appreciation.
G.H.
The author is now engaged upon another book to
follow as a sequel to (( Kings Dethroned" entitled
" THE UNIVERSE AS IT is ; " which we hope to have
ready for publication by the late Autumn.
The Hicksonia Publishing Co.
Joint Keaiev <*? Son, UA.% Printers, 2, Johnson's Cowrt,
PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR, BY HIMSELF.
(Copyright}.
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