Full text of "A laboratory manual of agriculture for secondary schools"

See other formats

MANUAL OF
AGRICULTURE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.

TORONTO

MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

LELAND E. vCALL, M.S.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SOILS IN THE KANSAS
STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND

E. G. SCHAFER, M.S.

INSTRUCTOR IN FARM CROPS IN THE KANSAS
STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

fforfc

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1912

COPT*IOHT, 1912,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and elect retyped. Published October, 1912.

ICortoooli

J. 8. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE

As population increases, society is demanding greater
efficiency on the part of the producers — the men and women
who feed, clothe, and shelter society. This demand can be
met only by giving the producers an education that will
function in greater social and vocational efficiency. During
the last decade there has been an increasing interest in agri-
cultural education for the secondary schools.

The greatest danger to agriculture as a subject for a course
of study in high schools has resulted from attempting to make
it conform to the organizing ideas of that kind of education
that has for its controlling motive formal discipline, instead
of making it strictly vocational. The result is that agri-
culture is being taught as a textbook subject in too many of
the high schools. This is due largely, no doubt, to the fact
that there have been no laboratory and field guides in agri-
culture adapted to high schools. The controlling motive
in the organization of a course in agriculture should be vo-
cational efficiency.

The authors of this manual are experts in agriculture.
Both of them have spent much time in studying how agri-
culture can be adapted to the needs of secondary education.
Their training and experience in teaching the subject have
admirably fitted them to prepare a workable manual for

365436

Vi PREFACE

the high schools. I have examined carefully every lesson
in the manual and have seen many of them worked out in
the laboratory and field, and I am firmly convinced that it
meets an urgent need in the high schools to-day. It is
scientific, systematic, and, above everything else, it is a
workable manual. It can be adapted to the needs of the
small and the large high schools.

In writing this valuable manual the authors have done
credit to themselves and have rendered a great service to the
high schools.

EDWIN L. HOLTON.

DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION,
KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

IN the preparation of this manual the authors have used
freely every available source of information. They are in-
debted to Pres. H. J. Waters, Prof. E. L. Holton, Prof.
Albert Dickens, Prof. J. W. Searson, Prof. H. L. Kent, Prof.
G. H. Hine, Mr. C. F. Chase, and Mr. W. T; McCampbell,
of Kansas State Agriculture College, for suggestions and
assistance in the preparation of this manual.

They are also indebted to the Animal Husbandry Depart-
ment of Purdue University for illustrations Nos. 15, 21, 22,
and 23 ; to the Animal Husbandry Department of Kansas
State Agricultural College for illustrations Nos. 18 and 20;
to the Dairy Department of Kansas State Agricultural Col-
lege for illustration No. 19 ; and to Mr. H. Yuasa for assist-
ance in the preparation of drawings.

Material taken from other sources has been properly
credited where it appears in the manual.

CONTENTS

EXERCISES FOR SEPTEMBER

EXERCISE PAG*

1. DISTRIBUTION or SEEDS . .1

2. A FIELD LESSON ON THE STUDY OF CORN .... 5

3. A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES ....... 8

4. A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS ....... 14

5. THE INFLUENCE OF VEGETATION ON SOIL TEMPERATURE . 19

6. A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY ........ 23

EXERCISES FOR OCTOBER

7. A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY (Continued} ..... 23

8. THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS .... 30

9. THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS . . . .34

10. THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT 40

11. CAPACITY OF SOILS TO HOLD MOISTURE ..... 44

12. SOIL DRAINAGE ........... 49

13. SOIL MULCHES 53

14. THE EFFECT OF UNDECAYED ORGANIC MATTER ON THE RISE

OF SOIL MOISTURE ......... 59

15. COLLECTING MATERIAL FOR STARTING PLANTS (FIELD LESSON). 63

EXERCISES FOR NOVEMBER

16. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHEAT PLANT ... 66

17. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE RYE PLANT ... 71

18. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE CORN PLANT ... 75

19. THE CORN KERNEL 79

CONTEXTS

RXKRCIHB PAOt

20. THE EAR OK CORN 88

21-23. CORN JUDGINO 88

EXERCISES FOR DECEMBER

24. A STDDT OF SHELLED CORN ....... 100

26. A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD 105

26. A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD . Ill

27-28. A STUDY OF WHEAT 116

20. A STUDY OF RYE 121

30. A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD 124

EXERCISES FOR JANUARY

31. A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD . 129

32. A STUDY OF BARLEY 133

33. A STUDY OF OATS 137

34. A STUDY OF THE SORGHUM HEAD 141

35. A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED ....... 144

36. A STUDY OF COWPEAS OR SOY BEANS ..... 148

37. THE CAPACITY OF GRAIN TO ABSORB MOISTURE . . .161

38. FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS . . . 154

EXERCISES FOR FEBRUARY

39. A GERMINATION TEST OF CLOVER OR GRASS SEED . . . 159

40. A STUDY OF GRASS SEED 162

41. A STUDY OF ALFALFA SEED ....... 165

42. A STUDY OF THE PLOW 168

43. A STUDY OF THE GRAIN GRADER OR FANNING MILL . . 171

44. THE CORN GRADER ......... 175

46. THE CORN PLANTER . . • 178

46. ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER 182

CONTENTS XI
EXEECISES FOR MARCH

EXERCISE I'v.r

47. TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT 185

48. THE IRISH POTATO . . 189

49-50. PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN ...... 193

61. PRUNING 197

62-53. BABCOCK TEST 200

54. MIXING SPRAY MATERIAL . . 205

65. GRAFTING 209

EXERCISES FOR APRIL

56-57. GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN ..... 213

58. THE EARLY DEVELdpMENT OF THE BARLEY PLANT . . 218

59. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT . . . 222

60. JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 226

61. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES ........ 236

62. COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF HORSES ...... 244

63. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 249

EXERCISES FOR MAY

64. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE ........ 257

65. COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF CATTLE . . . . . . 263

66. JUDGING FAT HOGS 268

67. JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP ........ 274

68-69. JUDGING A FARM 280

70. PLANNING THE HOME FARM ....... 287

71. THE ARRANGEMENT OF FARM BUILDINGS AND PLANTINGS . 291

EXTRA EXERCISES

72. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CORN .... 295

73. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT . . . 299

Xll CONTENTS

BXKRCIBB PAOK

74. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OATS .... 808

76. THE GKOOKAIMIICAL DISTRIBUTION OF POTATOES . . . 807

76. TREE IDENTIFICATION ........ 311

77. STARTING PLANTS BY CUTTINGS ...... 316

78. POTTINO PLANTS 317

79. THE DAIRY HERD RECORD 320

80. A STUDY OF THE Er.o 326

81. A STUDY OF THE RICE HEAD ....... 330

EXTRA FOR ARBOR DAY

82. TREE PLANTING 334

APPENDIX

SECTION I. EQUIPMENT 837

SECTION II. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS , 341

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE PAGE

1. A SOIL AUGER 15

2. A TORSION BALANCE 24

3. EQUIPMENT SUITABLE FOR DEMONSTRATING PERCOLATION

OF WATER IN SOILS 35

4. A SOIL MULCH CYLINDER 54

5. YOUNG WHEAT PLANTS 67

6. A CORN KERNEL 79

7. EARS OF CORN THAT APPROACH THE IDEAL TYPE . . 89

8. A HEAD OF WHEAT AND ITS PARTS 106

9. A HEAD OF RYE 112

10. A HEAD OF SIX-ROWED BARLEY 125

11. A HEAD OF OATS 130

12. ROOT GRAFTING 210

13. CLEFT GRAFTING 210

14. A SEED CORN TESTER 214

15. A DRAFT HORSE, SHOWING LOCATION OF PARTS . . 228

16. REAR VIEW OF HIND LEGS OF HORSES .... 230

17. SIDE VIEW OF HIND LEGS OF HORSES .... 231

18. A DRIVING HORSE, SHOWING LOCATION OF PARTS . . 238

19. A DAIRY Cow, SHOWING LOCATION OF PARTS . . 251

20. A BEEF STEER, SHOWING LOCATION OF PARTS . . 259

21. A FAT HOG, SHOWING LOCATION OF PARTS . . . 269

xiii

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

nOUKE PAOB

22-23. A MUTTON SHEEP, SHOWING LOCATION OK PARTS . 276

24. MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THE DISTRIBU-

TION OP CORN 298

25. MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THE DISTRIBU-

TION OF WHEAT 302

26. MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THE DISTRIBU-

TION OF OATS 306

27. MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THE DISTRIBU-

TION OF POTATOES 310

28. SECTION OF AN EGG 326

29. A HEAD OF RICE . 330

A LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

LABORATORY MANUAL OF
AGRICULTURE

EXERCISE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS

Object. — To study natural methods of seed distribution.

Explanation. — It is an advantage for plants to have
their seeds distributed as widely as possible. There is severe
competition among plants for existence. Only a few of
the many seeds produced from year to year find favorable
conditions for growth.

There are four important common methods by which the
seeds of plants are distributed : distribution by wind ;
distribution by birds; forceful expulsion from the pod;
distribution by animals other than birds. There are two
general kinds of seed transported by the wind. Some have
wings, as the ash and maple. Others have feathery pro-
jections and float long distances in the air. The dandelion
and thistle are examples of these.

Seeds of berries and small fruits are often carried long
distances by birds. The pulp of the fruit is digested, but
the seed is uninjured and may be dropped along fence rows
or other places where it may grow. The fleshy part of the
fruit is the attraction that favors distribution.

B 1

2 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Some seeds produced in pods are thrown out with consider-
able violence when the pods burst open. The common pea
and locust are examples of this method of distribution.

Many seeds, known as burrs, bear small hooks or spines
which adhere to the hair of animals and to the clothing of
man. Such seeds are sometimes carried long distances
before they are removed. The sand burr and cockle burr
afford good illustrations of this method of distribution.

Directions. — Make a journey into the fields, visiting, if
possible, a cultivated field, a pasture, a hillside, a wood lot, a
creek bank, and a roadside. Collect as many kinds of seeds
as can be found growing in these places. Make a list of
the names of the seeds that have been gathered. Record
in the accompanying outline form the Hame, the locality
where collected, and the means that the plant uses for dis-
tributing its seeds.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

^•d

' MEANS o

JR
1

P-4

•a

LOCALITY

Cultivated field .

Pasture ....

Hillside ....

TJ
0
O

a
«s

Roadside . . .

4 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 2
A FIELD LESSON ON THE STUDY OF CORN

Object. — To observe field conditions that affect yield
of corn.

Explanation. — There is a wide range in the yield of corn
to the acre, not only in different states and counties, but in
fields adjacent to each other. Close observation in the field
shows that in many case the stand of corn is not good;
that is, there are many vacant places, and the corn is
unevenly distributed. If corn is planted in drills, — one
kernel to the place, — the plants should be from twelve to
thirty inches apart in the row. If checkrowed, two to four
kernels of corn should be planted to the hill, depending
upon the richness of the soil, rainfall, and other climatic
conditions, and the variety of corn.

The ears on the different stalks vary in size. Some are
large and well-shaped, others, commonly known as nubbins, are
smaller, and many stalks fail to produce ears at all. It will
be easily understood that the number of plants for a given
area, the per cent of stalks producing ears, and the size of
the ears are all important factors influencing the acre yield.
In this exercise one stalk for each twenty-one inches will be
considered a perfect stand when drilled, and three stalks to
the hill when checkrowed.

6 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Equipment. — 1. A hundred-foot tape line.

2. Spring balance.

3. Half bushel basket.

Directions. — Go to a neighboring field or patch of corn.
Select an area representing the average of the field. Meas-
ure off a row one hundreth of an acre in area. (A row 125
feet long and 85 feet wide is one hundreth part of an acre.)
Determine the number of stalks that should be in the row
if the stand were perfect. Count the number of stalks
actually in the row. Count the number of stalks producing
ears. Husk and weigh the corn in the row. Count the total
number of ears. Determine the average weight of the ears.
Record all results in the accompanying outline form. Make
the calculations necessary to fill in the form.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
Number of stalks for perfect stand

Actual number of stalks . . .
Number of ear-producing stalks
Weight of corn for the plot . .
Total number of ears . . . .
Average weight of ears . . . .

From the above determine the following :
The per cent of a perfect stand . . .

The per cent of stalk-producing ears
The plot yield in bushels ....
The acre yield in bushels ....

The possible acre yield for a perfect stand, each stalk to produce
an average-size ear .

The possible acre yield for a perfect stand, each stalk to produce
a twelve-ounce ear

(In reducing pounds to bushels count seventy pounds equivalent
to one bushel.)

EXERCISE 3
A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES

Object. — To study the size, shape, color, and character
of the soil particles in different types of soil.

Explanation. — The earth is supposed at one time to have
been solid rock. The soil that now covers the earth was
formed by the breaking up of this rock material. Mixed
with the rock material of the soil is a small amount of plant
material or organic matter.

In the beginning of soil formation the rocks that com-
posed the earth were undoubtedly not all of one kind ; some
were soft and others were hard. The soft rocks gave way
easily to the forces of nature and were soon ground into
very small particles. The hard rocks have resisted this
action, consequently they have been broken up very slowly,
and they form the larger particles of the soil.

Some of these particles are so large that they hinder
plowing and cultivating. These are called stones. Other
particles smaller than these are called gravel, and still
smaller particles are called sand. Thus it is possible to
take a soil, and, by examining it closely, see that it is made
up of a countless number of particles of many different
sizes. These particles representing different sizes have been
given different names, as follows:

A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES 9

1. Stones: particles of soil so large that they interfere
with tillage operations.

2. Gravel: particles smaller than stones but larger than
one twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter.

3. Coarse sand : one twenty-fifth to one fiftieth of an inch
in diameter.

4. Medium sand: one fiftieth to one hundredth of an inch
in diameter.

5. Fine sand: one hundredth to one two hundredth of an
inch in diameter.

6. Very fine sand : one two-hundredth to one five-hundredth
of an inch in diameter.

7. Silt: one five-hundredth to one five-thousandth of an
inch in diameter.

8. Clay: one five-thousandth to one two-hundred-fifty-
thousandth of an inch in diameter.

These different-sized particles of soil are spoken of as soil
components or physical soil constituents. All soils do not
contain all of these components. Some of the most fertile
soils do not contain stones or gravel, yet all of the fertile
soils contain the three other constituents, sand, silt, and clay.

While all soils contain most of the different soil constit-
uents, very few soils contain these constituents in exactly
the same amount. One soil will have the sand particles
predominating, another soil the silt particles, and a third
soil the clay particles. Thus there will be different types
of farm soils produced as the amounts of these different
soil constituents vary. The leading types of farm soils
formed by varying amounts of these different soil constit-
uents are given in the following list :

10 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

1. Sandy soils. — Made up chiefly of the soil constituents
of the sand size.

2. Clay soils. — Soils that contain over one third clay
and a large amount of silt.

3. Loam soils. — Soils made up of about one half sand of
the various grades and the other half silt and clay.

The soil particles vary in color and shape as well as in
size. The color of the soil particles has but little influence
on the color of the soil. The color is due to organic matter
and other coloring material found in the soil.

Equipment. — 1. Microscope magnifying to low power.

2. Microscope slides.

3. Four large test tubes.

4. A few grams of the following soils : gravel, sand, loam,
clay.

Directions. — Place a few grains of the gravel on a piece
of white paper and examine with reference to color.

Estimate the per cent of particles that are white, gray,
brown, black. Record your results in the accompanying
outline form.

Study the shape of the particles and determine the per
cent that are angular and rounded. Record your obser-
vations.

Study the condition of the particles. Are they single or
compound ? Record the percentage of each.

Divide the particles into groups as to size. Record the
per cent that are coarse, medium, and fine.

Place a few grains of sand on a microscope slide and study
under the microscope, making the observations required in
studying gravel. Study in the same way the sample of

A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES ll

loam and clay. Record all observations in the outline form.

Wet a small amount of each of the soils and compare
them as to stickiness ; as to feel, whether gritty or smooth
when rubbed between the fingers. Record your observa-
tions.

Examine the different soils as to color. Is the color the
same as the color of the largest per cent of the soil particles?
Record your observations.

Put a small amount of each kind of soil in a test tube,
fill the tube two thirds full of water, and shake thoroughly.
Set aside and observe the rapidity with which the particles
in each soil settle. Which settles the most rapidly? the
most slowly? Is there any relation between the size of the
particles and the rapidity with which they settle? Record
your observations.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

PER CENT OF PARTICLES

o
j

Medium

CONDITION

PER CENT OF PARTICLES

Compound

*5i
j
co

SHAPE

PER CENT OF PARTICLES

Round

COLOR

PER CENT OF PARTICLES

1
a

>>
o

12
tf

J W

o£

«OH

>
03

1
o
^

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 13

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 4
A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS

Object. — To study the formation of soils and the effect
of location and cultivation upon their depth and value.

Explanation. — A soil can usually be separated into three
distinct layers : first, the surface soil ; second, the subsur-
face; and third, the subsoil. The surface soil is the top
soil and varies in depth with location and manner of forma-
tion. It is distinguished from the subsurface soil by color,
the subsurface soil being lighter in color. The subsoil lies
immediately below the subsurface soil and is also distin-
guished from the subsurface soil by having a lighter color.
The subsurface soil is intermediate between the soil and
subsoil in both location and color.

The different layers of the soil differ in texture, that is, in
the size of the soil particles. Usually the surface soil has a
slightly coarser texture than the subsurface or subsoil.

Equipment. — 1. A soil auger.

2. A piece of oilcloth eighteen inches square.

Directions. — Go to a near-by field in which there is a hill.
Examine the soil on the level land at the top of the hill,
on a steep slope, and in the valley at the bottom of the slope.
Make an examination of the soil in each place as follows :

A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS

Select the exact spot to be examined and clear the surface
of the ground of grass and other vegetation.

Place the auger over the spot to be examined and give
it a few turns, forcing it into the ground four or five inches.
Remove the auger with the soil. In
pulling the auger a slight backward
turn will enable the auger to be pulled
with greater ease, and prevent the cav-
ing in of the soil around the auger
hole.

Remove the soil from the auger and
place it in a pile on the oilcloth provided
for the purpose.

Repeat this operation, forcing the
auger down a few inches at a time until
the subsurface is reached. This may be
determined by the change in color.

Determine the depth of the surface
soil by the distance the auger was sunk
into the ground at the time the subsur-
face soil was struck.

Remove a sample of the subsurface
soil in the same way that the surface
soil was obtained and pile it on the
oilcloth by itself.

Determine the depth of the subsurface soil.

Remove a sample of the subsoil to a depth of three feet.
Place the subsoil in a pile on the oilcloth beside the surface
and subsurface soil.

Examine carefully each layer of soil and record the differ-

FIG. 1. — A soil auger
made by welding a
f-inch gas pipe to a
li-inch wood auger.

16 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTt l;l

ence in color, texture, stickiness, and amount of moisture
and organic matter present. Record your observations in
the accompanying outline.

Examine the soil on a steep slope and in the valley in the
same manner, recording depth of surface, subsurface and
subsoil. Also record difference in color, texture, stickiness,
and amount of moisture and organic matter present. Record
the data in the outline form.

Examine the surface soil of an old cultivated field and the
surface soil of the adjoining fence row. Make careful notes
of any differences observed.

QUESTIONS

1. How do you account for the difference in color between the
surface, subsurface, and subsoil at the top of the hill? How do
you account for the difference in stickiness ? For the difference in
amount of organic matter present ?

2. Explain the cause of the difference in depth of the surface
soil on the hilltop, the hill slope, and in the valley.

3. Explain the difference in color as found in the three places.

4. Which do you think would grow the better crop, the hillside
or the bottom? Why? Can you state from your knowledge of
crops whether this is generally true ?

5. What differences did you observe between the soil in the cul-
tivated field and the soil in the fence row ? How do you account
for these differences ?

6. Was the soil all over the cultivated field originally like the soil
in the fence row ? What has been the cause of the change brought
about by cultivating the soil ?

7. What can the farmer do to make his cultivated land as mellow
and black as the soil in the fence row ?

-f&. What are the uses of humus or organic matter in the soil ?

REFERENCES

1. Elements of Agriculture, Warren, pp. 95-96, 109-110.

2. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian, pp. 98-104.

STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT

0 K

0«

J£

•< jo

ORGANIC

RESENT

S.a<

OBS

H w

3 03

cc ^J

rQ 0

S 02

"Si

S 03

in ^
i-Q O
3 01

3 03

•

4-1

0 .

'o3

18 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 5

THE INFLUENCE OF VEGETATION ON SOIL TEM-
PERATURE

Object. — To determine the difference in temperature
between a soil covered with a growing crop and a bare soil
exposed to the direct sunshine.

Explanation. — The temperature of the soil is influenced
by its color, topography, moisture content, and the vegeta-
tion growing on the soil. The amount of moisture that the
soil contains is the principal factor affecting the temperature.
With soils of the same moisture content the soil upon which
there is a growing crop will be cooler than the one without
vegetation.

Equipment-. — 1. A soil auger.

2. Eleven chemical thermometers.

3. Fifteen feet of picture wire.

Directions. — Go to a garden or field where there is culti-
vated ground and also ground growing a crop such as grass,
alfalfa, clover, or any other dense-growing crop that shades
the ground thoroughly.

With the soil auger make holes in both the cultivated and
the cropped ground to a depth of 3 inches, 6 inches, 1 foot,
2 feet, and 3 feet. In choosing a location for the holes care
should be taken to place them where the ground has the same
general direction of slope and the same angle of slope.

20 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Place a thermometer in each hole. The thermometers
should be lowered into the holes that are two and three feet
deep by means of picture wire attached to the thermometer
and held at the top by being fastened to a short stick. It is
advisable to wrap with paper the bulbs of the thermometers
used in taking temperatures at a depth of two and three feet.
The paper wrapped around the bulb serves as an insulation,
and thus prevents sudden changes in the reading of the ther-
mometer. This makes it possible to remove the thermometer
from the hole and read it before the reading changes. If
wet paper is used in wrapping the bulbs, it should be allowed
to dry thoroughly before the thermometers are used.

Take the temperature of the air four feet above the sur-
face of the ground and also of the soil in each field at
the depths indicated. Make temperature readings fifteen
minutes after the thermometers are placed, and each succeed-
ing fifteen minutes for one hour. Record the readings in the
accompanying outline.

Discuss fully the results of the exercise and account
as fully as possible for the facts observed.

QUESTIONS

1. Why should the slope of the fields be the same upon which the
temperature of the soil is taken ?

2. What effect has the slope of the land upon the temperature of
the soil ?

3. Is the effect of the slope of the land upon the temperature
of the soil ever of practical importance ? When ?

4. Why should not thermometers be used that have the bulbs
wrapped in wet paper ?

5. What effect has growing vegetation upon the temperature
of the soil?

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

B
0

•<

**«

q
|

•

H
i

c
<

H
|

•

)

3
3

a
)

3
^

c
t

•4

•i

•

"cl

"cS

"e3

•§

-4^>

•

bo
9

£>

_fl

O
t-l

0)
cS

ffl

22 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISES 6 AND 7
A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY

Object. — To determine the amount of capillary water in
a cultivated and in an uncultivated soil./rn^

Explanation. — Capillary soil water is the water in the
soil that may be used by plants. It is held in the soil as a
thin film surrounding the soil particles. It is free to move
by the force of capillarity from a moist to a drier portion of
the soil. All capillary water evaporates from the soil when
it is thoroughly dried in the air.

Equipment. — 1 . Soil auger 3 feet in length.

2. Six one-quart mason jars.

3. A piece of oilcloth 18 inches square.

4. Twelve tin pie pans 6 inches in diameter.

5. Balances weighing to half a gram.

Directions. — Secure a sample of soil from a garden or
field where the ground has been kept cultivated all summer,
and another sample from the edge of the garden or edge of
the field where the ground has not been cultivated, and where
the weeds and grass have been allowed to grow.

Clear the surface soil of all trash and vegetation, and where
the ground has been cultivated, brush back the loosest of the
surface soil so that it will not roll down into the auger hole
while removing the sample.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 25

Force the auger into the soil by turning until it has en-
tered three or four inches.

Remove the auger by pulling with a backward twisting
motion. This enables the auger to be pulled more easily and
prevents the breaking off of the soil around the sample hole.

When the auger has been withdrawn, remove the soil
to the oilcloth provided for this purpose and transfer it
immediately to a quart mason jar.

Repeat this operation, forcing the auger into the ground
three or four inches at a time, until the sample is secured
to a depth of twelve inches.

Cap the mason jar tightly and mark with a label that
gives the treatment of the soil, its character, and depth, and
the date.

Place the auger in the hole and move it up and down -
several times, turning it slightly for the purpose of cleaning
the walls of the hole so that the samples of the second and
third feet may be removed without coming in contact with
the surface soil.

Remove the soil loosened in enlarging the hole by sinking
the auger just to the depth reached in taking the first foot
sample. Discard the soil removed in this operation.

Secure a sample of the soil of the second foot (12 to 24
inches) in the same manner as described for the first foot.
Care should be taken to remove any surface soil that may
adhere to the second foot sample as it is removed from the
hole.

After the second foot sample has been placed in a mason
jar and properly labeled, secure a sample of the third foot
(24 to 36 inches) by sinking the auger an additional 12

26 LABORATORY MANUAL OP AGRICULTURE

inches in the same manner as that described in taking the
first and the second foot samples.

Samples from at least three holes on both the cultivated
and the uncultivated fields should be secured. The soil from
each of the three holes for the first foot of the cultivated
field should be placed in the same mason jar. A second
mason jar should be used for the three samples from the
second foot, and a third mason jar for the three samples from
the third foot.

On the uncultivated field three samples from the first
foot should be placed in one mason jar, three samples from
the second foot in another jar, and the three samples from
the third foot in a third jar. Thus for the two fields six
jars will be required, and each jar will contain a composite
of three soil samples.

See that all jars are properly labeled, and that the tops
are screwed on tightly, so that no soil moisture can escape
by evaporation.

Take the samples into the laboratory and set them aside
for the next laboratory period.

At the next laboratory period determine the moisture in
duplicate for each sample of soil secured. Before the jars
are opened to take the samples for the moisture determina-
tions, the contents should be thoroughly mixed by shaking.
The shaking cannot be done too thoroughly.

Number a drying pan to correspond with the sample
of soil to be studied. Weigh this pan and record the weight.
Weigh into the pan 200 grams of the soil. In the same
manner weigh out another 200-gram sample of the same
soil as a duplicate.

A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 27

Weigh out two 200-gram lots of each of the other samples
to be studied.

Spread the soil out over the bottom of the weighing pan
in a thin layer and put in some convenient place to dry.
After four days drying weigh each sample and record weight.
Repeat the drying and weighing each day until a constant
weight is obtained. The loss in weight represents the capil-
lary water content of the soil.

Determine the percentage of capillary moisture computed
on the weight of the air-dry soil. Tabulate the results in
the accompanying outline.

QUESTIONS

1 . Which foot contains the largest amount of water ?

2. Which soil contains the most water, the cultivated or the
uncultivated ?

3. Discuss the reasons for the difference in moisture formerly in
the two soils.

4. From the moisture determination, figure the number of pounds
of water there would be in the acre three feet of soil in the cultiva-
ted and uncultivated field, weight of soil the acre foot 3,500,000
pounds.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

f<B.

H p

\\\

£££

&**

£ss

Jj{

K .

l-H

1— 1

.-H

!-H

Q c£

*" -k3

£ ^

fl *»

0 0

Htn

«J

•^

'•3

•^

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 29

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 8
THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS

Object. — To compare the rate of the rise of capillary
water in soils of different texture.

Explanation. — Capillary water is held in the soil as a
thin film surrounding the soil particles. It moves by the
force of capillarity from a moist to a drier part of the soil.
Capillary water will move upward through the soil if the
soil above is drier than the soil below. The height to which
capillary water will rise in the soil depends upon the soil
texture. In a coarse-grained soil it rises very rapidly, but
for only a short distance. In a fine-grained soil it rises
slowly, but to a greater height. Capillary water rises in the
soil until the force of capillarity is overcome by the force
of gravity.

Equipment. — 1. Four glass tubes 3 feet long and 1
inch in diameter.

2. A tube rack for holding the tubes.

3. A pan for water in which to immerse the bottom of
the tubes.

4. Cheesecloth.

5. String.

6. One-foot rule.

7. Air-dry soil : gravel, sand, loam, and clay.

THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS 31

Directions. — Tie pieces of cheesecloth over one end of
each of the four glass tubes.

Fill each tube with a different type of air-dry soil. In
filling, the tubes should be placed upon the floor with the
end tied with cheesecloth down. The soil may be poured
into the tube, using a tin funnel or a paper funnel made
from a sheet of paper.

Place the tubes in the tube rack in such a manner that
the ends are in the pan.

When all the tubes are in position, fill the pan with water
to a depth of two inches. Take the exact time when the
water is added.

Make readings of the height to which the water has
risen in the soil at the end of 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30
minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days,
4 days, 5 days, and 6 days.

Record your measurements in the accompanying outline
form.

QUESTIONS

1. In which soil was the rise of water the most rapid ?

2. In which soil was the rise of water the highest ?

3. Is the fact that water can rise from a wetter to a drier soil
of any value to growing crops ? When ?

4. Which of the soils used would make the best subsoil ? Why ?

5. What effect would a layer of gravel two feet in thickness in
the upper subsoil have upon growing crops in a period of dry
weather ? Why ?

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

u»

•*

K
EH H

2 &

PH «

0 g
< •<

WATER

CO fe

B 8

H
•

o §

* «

5° o

EH x

fc s

S «

S 8

.S
S

EH «

•

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 33

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 9
THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS

Object. — To compare the rate of percolation of water
through soils of different texture.

Explanation. — The capacity of soils to absorb water that
falls as rain depends upon its texture, or the size of the soil
particles. A coarse-textured soil absorbs moisture rapidly,
but in such a soil the water percolates through it quickly,
and thus a large part of the rain that is absorbed is lost
from the soil as percolating water. A fine-grained soil
absorbs rain water slowly, but holds hi the soil a larger
portion of the water that is absorbed. An ideal soil is one
that is coarse enough to absorb moisture with fair rapidity,
yet fine enough to retain a large portion of the moisture
absorbed.

The condition of the surface of the soil also affects the
capacity of a soil to absorb moisture. A soil that is hard
and compact at the surface will absorb moisture much more
slowly than one that is loose and open. Thus, plowing the
ground when it is compact or cultivating it when it is crusted,
favors the absorption and percolation of moisture into the soil.

Equipment. — 1 . Six percolation cylinders with rack and
supply tank.

2. Six beakers 400 or 500 c.c.

THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS

FIG. 3. — Equipment suitable for demonstrating percolation
of water in soils.

36 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

3. Graduated cylinders 100 c.c.

4. Cheesecloth.

5. Shears.

6. Eighteen inches rubber tubing J-inch diameter.

7. Three soils: sand, loam, and clay.

Directions. — Cut a disk of cheesecloth just large
enough to cover the bottom of each tube. Place the
cheesecloth in the bottom of each tube. Fill with soil
the tubes provided for the purpose within one inch of
the overflow pipes. Fill two tubes with sand, two with
loam, and two with clay. Place a half-inch layer of gravel
on the surface of each to prevent displacement of the
soil by running water. Place the tubes in the rack and
connect the overflow pipes with short pieces of rubber
tubing.

Fill the supply tank with water and invert it in place
over the soil tubes. The supply tank will maintain a water
level automatically.

Note the time at which water was applied.

Place beakers under each tube to catch the drip water.
Note the time at which the water starts to flow from each
tube.

When the flow becomes constant, which will be ten or
fifteen minutes after the flow starts, collect the water which
percolates through each soil in fifteen minutes. Measure
the water carefully and record the amount in the accompany-
ing outline form.

Repeat the process of percolation and measurements twice.
Record the amount of water percolating for each fifteen-
minute period in the outline form.

THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS 37

QUESTIONS

1. In which soil was percolation the most rapid ? The slowest ?

2. Will a soil that is coarse and sandy absorb rain rapidly ?
Will it hold the water well ?

3. Which soil would be the best farm soil ? Give your reasons.

4. Would plant roots, earthworms, molds, and other animals
help water to percolate in loam and clay soil ?

5. Would alfalfa be a good crop to plant on loam or clay soil to
assist percolation ?

365436

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS

TUBE
NUMBER

KIND or
SOIL

TIME PER-
COLATION
STARTS

WATER PERCOLATING IN 15 MINUTES

1st Period

2d Period

3d Period

Average

Sand

Loam

Clay

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 39

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 10
THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT

Object. — To determine the weight of soil per cubic
foot.

Explanation. — The weight of soil depends upon the
weight of the material of which the soil is composed and the
amount of open space or pore space hi the soil. If a cubic
foot of soil contained no pore space and were composed
entirely of rock particles, it would weigh a little more than
two and one half times as much as a cubic foot of water, or
about 165 pounds per cubic foot. A cubic foot of soil
never weighs this much. A soil always contains some pore
space, and this reduces its weight. A soil also contains some
organic matter, and since organic matter is lighter than the
rock particles, the more organic matter it contains the less
it weighs. Thus the weight of soil per cubic foot varies
with its organic matter content and the amount of pore space
in the soil.

Equipment. — 1. Four soil tubes, like those used in
Ex. 9.

2. Cheesecloth.

3. Shears.

4. Torsion balances weighing to half a gram.

5. Four soils: gravel, sand, loam, and clay.

THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT 41

Directions. — Cut disks of cheesecloth to cover the open-
ings in the bottom of the tubes. Place the cheesecloth
in position in the tubes. Number and weigh the tubes.
Record weight in accompanying outline form.

Fill the four tubes level full with air-dried gravel, sand,
loam, and clay, respectively. Compact the soils in each
tube by holding the filled tube three inches above a book
and letting the tube drop bottom downward on the book.
Compact the contents of each tube by letting it drop from a
height of three inches three times.

After compacting, again fill the tubes level full and stroke
with a straight edge.

Weigh and record weight of tube and soil.

Empty the tubes, refill with the same soil, and weigh
again as a duplicate determination.

Record duplicate weighings.

Measure the diameter and height of the tubes and com-
pute the number of cubic inches of soil contained in each.

Calculate the weight of the soil per cubic foot.

Calculate the weight of an acre of the different soils to a
depth of one foot.

Tabulate all weighings and calculations in the following
outline form.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

k. H

°S5

U J U)

§ J w

ill

? O

J O t>

o H

1 §

^* M Q

s *

Is^

p g

I? o

S«j

a g

H J

•

O o

-Tt u

£ &

5^.S

h
oc o

TJ.MM

W 2
g |

3 H

P §

«.5PM

II
M

i H

|5sg

r- (

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 43

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 11
CAPACITY OF SOILS TO HOLD MOISTURE

Object. — To determine the capacity of different types of
soils to hold moisture and to study the effect of organic
matter on the moisture-holding capacity of the soil.

Explanation. — Soil water is held in the soil partly as
a thin film surrounding the soil particles and partly as an
accumulation of water in the pore spaces of the soil. If
a soil is saturated with water, all its pore space will be filled,
and the capacity of a soil to absorb water will be determined
by the amount of its total pore space. If the water is allowed
to drain away from the saturated soil, the free water will
escape. After the free water has percolated away, the water
which remains will represent the amount of film water that
the soil will hold.

Different types of soils differ in the amount of pore space
they contain and in the amount of surface exposed around
the soil particles, and therefore in the amount of free and
film water that they can hold. Other things being equal,
the soil having the smallest-sized particles will have the
greatest amount of pore space and will hold the most water.

Organic matter affects the water-holding capacity of the
soil. Those soils of the same texture supplied with the most
organic matter will absorb and hold the most water. Or-

CAPACITY OF SOILS TO HOLD MOISTURE 45

ganic matter holds the soil particles apart, gives a greater
amount of pore space, and thus increases the total water-
absorbing power of the soil. Well-decayed organic matter
is spongy in nature. It has great ability to absorb and hold
water itself, just as a sponge holds water. Therefore, it greatly
increases the water-retaining power of the soil.

Equipment. — 1. Four soil tubes, the same as used in
Ex.8.

2. A four-gallon crock.

3. Balances weighing to half a gram.

4. Cheesecloth.

5. Pair of shears.

6. Wash pan.

7. Four pieces of glass three inches square.

8. Well-decayed barnyard manure.

9. Three soils: sand, loam, and clay.

Directions. — Cut disks of cheesecloth to cover the open-
ings in the bottom of the tubes. Place the cheesecloth
in position in the tubes.

Number and weigh the four tubes; record weight in ac-
companying outline form.

Fill the tubes to within one inch of the top with the fol-
lowing soils :

No. 1. Sand No. 3. Clay

No. 2. Loam No. 4. Sand and manure.

Prepare the sand and manure for tube No. 4 by mixing
ten parts of sand with one part of manure. Proportions
determined by weight. Weigh and record weight of all
tubes filled with soil.

Place the tubes hi the four-gallon crock provided for the

46 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

purpose. Fill the crock with water until the water stands
about level with the top of the soil in the tubes.

Take the time that the water was added. Note the time
that the first moisture appears on the top of the soil in each
tube. Record time required for water to appear in each
case.

Allow the tubes to remain in the water until the soil is
thoroughly saturated. This will be about ten minutes
after water appears on the surface of the last soil.

Remove the tubes one at a time, wipe off the excess water
with a towel, and quickly weigh. Record weights.

Place the tubes on a draining shelf and cover with glass
plates to prevent evaporation of water at the surface of the
soil.

Weigh after standing 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 day,
2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days. Wipe excess water
from bottom of the tube each time before weighing. Record
each weight in the outline form.

QUESTIONS

1. What is a saturated soil ?

2. What effect has organic matter upon the water-holding power
of the soil ?

3. Calculate the per cent of water held by each soil the sixth day.

4. Calculate the number of pounds of water retained per cubic
foot of dry soil.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

t? o

tit ^ H
D « 3

o t>

Pk O

h d

HM Q

S S5 S5

W "W

«r

PER CENT OF
WATER RETAINED
AT END

•*

•4

'15

48 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 12
SOIL DRAINAGE

Object. — To study the effect of standing water in the
soil upon the growth of plants.

Explanation. — A plant, to develop properly, must be
grown in a soil supplied with both air and water in proper
proportions. When the soil contains too much water, all
the spaces between the soil particles are filled, and there is
no room for air. A plant growing in a soil in this condition
will not thrive because its roots will not receive sufficient
air. The water must be removed from a saturated soil so
that air can enter before crops will grow well. This can
best be accomplished by means of tile drainage.

Equipment. — 1. Two chemical thermometers.

2. Two one-gallon flower pots.

3. A pound of paraffin.

4. A two-quart saucepan in which to melt paraffin.

5. A one-foot rule.

6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c.

7. A few grains of corn.

8. Loam soil, and a small amount of gravel.
Directions. — Melt the paraffin and dip one flower pot

so that it is covered with a thin coating of paraffin.
Allow the paraffin to cool and solidify slightly. While
E 49

50 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

the paraffin is still soft, plug up the hole in the bottom of
the pot.

Place an inch of gravel in the bottom of the second pot
to insure good drainage and see that the hole in the bottom
of the pot remains open.

Fill both pots to within one inch of the top with loam
soil.

Add water slowly by means of the graduated measure to
the soil in the paraffined pot until it has absorbed all that it
will. This will require twenty or thirty minutes. Record
the amount of water added. Add the same amount of water
to the unparaffined pot, allowing any water that will to
escape at the bottom of the pot through the drain. Place
the two pots in the window of the laboratory where they will
receive sunlight.

Let the pots stand two days. At the end of two days
plant three grains of corn in each pot at a depth of two
inches.

Place a thermometer in each pot with the bulb two inches
below the surface soil and record the temperature of the soil
at the tune the corn was planted. Take the temperature
every two days for thirty days. Record data in the accom-
panying outline form.

Add enough water every three days to the pot with good
drainage to keep the corn growing well. Add the same
amount of water to the poorly drained paraffined pot.

Measure the height of growth of plants when temperature
of the soil is taken.

At the end of thirty days remove the plants from both
pots and examine the root growth.

SOIL DRAINAGE

QUESTIONS

1. In which pot did the plants make the best growth ?

2. How do you account for the difference in growth ?

3. Was there any difference in the color of the plants in the two
pots ? How do you account for this difference ?

4. What was the difference in temperature of the soil in the two
pots ? How do you account for this difference ?

5. Would this difference in temperature have any effect on the
growth of the plants ?

6. In which pot did the roots go the deeper ? Why ?

7. Can a farmer expect the best growth of corn on a field poorly
drained ?

8. How can the farmer improve the drainage of a poorly drained
field?

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

TABLE FOR RECORDING TEMPERATURE OF SOIL AND GROWTH OF
PLANTS IN POOR AND WELL DRAINED SOIL

SOIL

OBSERVATION

TEMPERATURE OF SOIL IN DEGREES F.
GROWTH OF PLANTS IN INCHES

•M

Well
Drained

Temperature

Plant growth

Poorly
Drained

Temperature

Plant growth

52 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 13
SOIL MULCHES

Object. — To determine the amount of water that evap-
orates from the soil when cultivated at different depths
and when covered with different material.

Explanation. — A soil mulch is any covering placed upon
the soil that prevents the evaporation of moisture. There
are two kinds of soil mulches, natural soil mulches and arti-
ficial soil mulches. An artificial soil mulch is any material
such as straw, sawdust, or stones placed upon the soil to pre-
vent evaporation, while a natural soil mulch is the loosened
surface of the soil itself produced by cultivation. Natural
soil mulches are the most practical because they can usually
be produced at the smallest cost. Any implement of culti-
vation that leaves the surface soil loose and mellow will
produce a good natural soil mulch.

Equipment. — 1. Four evaporation cylinders.

2. A wash pan.

3. A long-bladed knife or spatula.

4. Scales weighing to one quarter of a pound and having
a capacity of fifty pounds.

5. A small amount of cut straw.

Directions. — Fill the four evaporation cylinders to within
one inch of the top with fine air-dried loam soil.

Fill the water-supply tubes on the cylinders with water.

Fia. 4. — A cylinder suitable for demonstrating the effect of mulches on
evaporation of water from soils. Made of galvanized iron. Dimensions
of cylinder eighteen inches long and four in diameter. The bottom of
the cylinder is incased in a water jacket. The water in the jacket enters
the soil by means of perforations near the bottom of cylinder.

SOIL MULCHES 55

Let the cylinders stand until the soil appears damp at the
surface in all the cylinders. This may require several
hours, and it may be necessary to replenish the water in the
supply tubes during this period of time.

After capillary water appears at the top of the soil on all
the cylinders they should be treated as follows : 1

No. 1. No treatment.

No. 2. Cultivated one inch deep.

No. 3. Cultivated three inches deep.

No. 4. Covered with two inches of cut straw.

Cylinders 2 and 3 should be cultivated by removing the
soil to the required depth into a wash pan by means of a
long-bladed knife. Thoroughly mix the soil and return it in
a loose condition to the cylinder. Just sufficient soil should
be returned to the cylinder to bring it to within one inch of
the surface. Discard any surplus soil.

Cylinder 4, on which the cut straw is used as a mulch,
should be prepared by removing two inches of the soil and
replacing the soil with two inches of finely cut straw.

When the mulches are in place, fill the supply tubes to the
same level with water. Cork the tubes to prevent evapora-
tion. Weigh the cylinders and record the weight in the
accompanying outline form.

Repeat the weighings each day for six days.

Determine the surface area of the cylinders and compute
the number of tons of water evaporated per acre in each case
during a period of one week.

Tabulate your results in the accompanying outline form.

1 The cylinders may be filled at one laboratory period and the
mulches placed in the cylinders at the next period.

56 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

QUESTIONS

1. Which was the best mulch ?

2. Which depth of cultivation saved the most moisture?

3. Was there any difference in the amount of water evaporated
from day to day ? Can you account for this difference ?

4. Does the farmer ever use soil mulches ? When ?

5. How often should the farmer cultivate his fields to keep a
good soil mulch ?

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

J
h
O

w
J

n
<-,
EH

£««

!»1

TOTAL WATER
EVAPORATED
DURING WEEK

£p

•£• r*>

>OO

P '

T3 M

C1! iO

f< 0 J <

TREATMENT OP
CYLINDERS

Untreated

Cultivated 1
inch deep

Cultivated 3
inches deep

Mulched with
straw

fa W

0 0

. >5

o 3

• -1

•*

58 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 14

Object. — To study the effect of plowing under undecayed
organic matter on the rise of soil moisture.

Explanation — Moisture moves from a wetter to a drier
portion of the soil by means of capillarity. In order that
capillary movement of moisture may take place the soil
particles must be in close contact. If the soil particles are
not in close contact, capillary movement of moisture cannot
take place. When large amounts of barnyard manure or
rank growths of green plant material are plowed under in the
soil, the soil particles are held apart by this layer of material
and the capillary rise of water cannot take place in the
surface soil. If a crop is planted on a soil in this condition,
it will be unable to secure moisture from the lower soil in its
early stages of growth, and if the season is dry, will suffer
greatly for water. It is, therefore, undesirable to plow under
barnyard manure, straw, or green manure just before plant-
ing a crop. If manure is to be used just before planting, it
should be applied lightly as a top dressing.

Equipment. — 1. Three glass tubes, rack, and pan, like
those used in Ex. 8.

2. Cheesecloth.

60 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

3. Shears.

4. String.

5. Loam soil.

6. A small amount of green grass.

7. A small amount of manure.

Directions. — Tie a piece of cheesecloth over the end of
each of the glass tubes.

Fill the tubes with soil to a height of twelve inches. In
filling, the tubes may be placed on the desk or floor with
the end tied with cheesecloth down.

Place the tubes in the tube rack in such a manner that
the lower ends are in the pan which is to be used later as
a container for water.

Number the tubes. Treat the tubes as follows :

No. 1. Place two inches of green grass cut into small
pieces in the tube over the top of the soil and fill the tube to
the top with loam soil.

No. 2. Place two inches of finely pulverized barnyard
manure in the tube over the top of the soil and fill the tube
to the top with loam soil.

No. 3. Fill with loam soil as a check.

When all the tubes are filled and in position, fill the pan
with water to a depth of two inches. Take the exact time
of adding the water.

Make readings of the height to which the water has risen
in each tube at the end of 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour,
1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, and 6 days.

Record your measurements in the accompanying outline
form. Describe fully the lesson that you have learned from
conducting this exercise.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

CO «(J

^ 5

1
g

•

M -<

IN <

1-1

1-1 C

-4-3

•
1

IH
§

PJ '

•

(3 ^

I.,

eg s-,

bo
g

i-, 3

— ?!

n 0

•

62 LABORATORY MANUAL OP AGRICLUTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 15
COLLECTING MATERIAL FOR STARTING PLANTS

Object. — To collect and store material to be used for
grafting and making cuttings.

Explanation. — Twigs and branches for grafting and cut-
tings must be collected when they are in a dormant stage.
This can usually be best accomplished in the fall soon after
the leaves have fallen. They should be stored in a cellar
where they will not freeze and where they will remain moist.

Equipment. — 1. A sharp knife.

2. A barrel or box for storing cuttings.

Directions. — Go into an orchard where the variety of the
trees and quality of the apples are known. Collect twigs
only from trees that are thrifty and that produce a good
quality of apples. Use wood of the previous season's growth.
Collect two hundred twigs, ranging in length from four to ten
inches. Tie them in bundles of twenty-five each. Label
each bundle with the name of the variety.

Go into a vineyard and select twigs from grapevines. Col-
lect fifty twigs from grapevines that produce a good quality
of grapes. These twigs should be from five to ten inches
long. Label them with the name of the variety and tie
them in bundles of twenty-five each.

Go into a wood lot and select twigs from willow or cotton-

64 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTl Hi:

wood trees. Collect one hundred twigs of the previous
-< .icon's growth. Tie them in bundles of twenty-five each.

Partly fill the barrel or box with sawdust, sand, or moss.
Carefully place the bundles of twigs in the barrel or box and
cover completely, filling in with the sawdust, sand, or moss.
The material should be moistened and not allowed to dry
out. The apple twigs collected in this exercise will be used
in Ex. 55 for grafting, and the other material will be used in
Ex. 77 for making cuttings.

STUDENTS' NOTES AND REPORT 65

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 16
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHEAT PLANT

Object. — To study the germination of the wheat kernel
and the early growth and development of the plant.

Explanation. — The kernel of wheat incloses a living
plant in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of
the kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When
the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper condi-
tions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and
begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is furnished
by the endosperm.

When the kernel of wheat germinates, it sends out three
temporary roots. As the plant continues to grow it sends
out permanent roots. The depth at which the permanent
roots occur depends upon the condition of the soil. If the
wheat is seeded at a medium depth, the temporary and per-
manent root systems will develop at about the same place.
If the wheat is seeded very deeply, the permanent roots will
develop above the temporary roots and near the surface of
the soil.

Equipment. — 1. Plants of wheat one, two, three, and four
weeks old, seeded one inch deep.

2. Plants of wheat two and four weeks old, seeded three
inches deep.

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHEAT PLANT 67

Directions. — Dig up a number of small wheat plants for
this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing
the plants from the
soil. Remove the
dirt which clings to
the roots, by wash-
ing. Make a study
of plants one week
old, two weeks old,
three weeks old, and
four weeks old,
seeded one inch
deep. Also make a
study of plants two
weeks old and four
weeks old, seeded
three inches deep.
(In determining age
of plant count time
from date of seed-
ing.)

Make drawings of
the plants at the
different stages of

FIG. 5. — Young wheat plants. A, two daya
after planting ; B, five days after planting ;
C, three plants the same age planted at dif-
ferent depths.

growth and at the

different depths of

seeding indicated.

Show in the drawings the three temporary roots which

develop first, and in other drawings show the permanent

roots which develop somewhat later and are sent out in

08 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

whorls from the nodes. Show how tho distance between the
temporary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends
upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants
begin to tiller, by sending up new stems. The drawings
should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their
arrangement.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 69

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

70 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 17

Object. — To study the germination of the rye kernel
and the early growth and development of the rye plant.

Explanation. — The kernel of rye incloses a living plant
in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the
kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When the
kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper conditions
of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and begins
to grow. The food for the young plantlet is furnished by
the endosperm.

When the kernel of rye germinates, it sends out four tem-
porary roots. As the plant continues to grow it sends out
permanent roots. The depth at which the permanent
roots occur depends upon the condition of the soil. If the
rye is seeded at a medium depth, the temporary and per-
manent root system will develop at about the same place.
If the rye is seeded very deeply, the permanent roots will
develop above the temporary roots and near the surface of
the soil.

Equipment. — 1. Plants of rye one, two, three, and four
weeks old, seeded one inch deep.

2. Plants of rye two and four weeks old, seeded three
inches deep.

72 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Directions. — Dig up a number of small rye plants for
this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing
the plants from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings
to the roots, by washing. Make a study of plants one week
old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old,
seeded one inch deep. Also make a study of plants two
weeks old and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. (In
determining age of plant count time from date of seeding.)

Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of
growth and at the different depths of seeding indicated.
Show in the drawings the four temporary roots which develop
first, and in other drawings show the permanent roots
which develop somewhat later and are sent out in whorls
from the nodes. Show how the distance between the tem-
porary roots and the whorl of permanent roots 'depends
upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants
begin to tiller, by sending up new stems. The drawings
should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their
arrangement.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 73

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

74 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 18
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE CORN PLANT

Object. — To study the germination of the corn kernel
and the early growth and development of the corn
plant.

Explanation. — The kernel of corn incloses a living plant
in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the
kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When
the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper con-
ditions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and
begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is fur-
nished by the endosperm until the root system becomes
established.

When the kernel of corn germinates, it sends out four
temporary roots. The largest of the four roots grows
directly out from the tip end of the germ. The other three
roots grow out where the main root and shoot are attached
to the kernel. Just above these three roots a little swelling
appears, and from this point the permanent root system
develops. The permanent root system develops about the
same distance from the surface of the soil regardless of the
depth of planting.

Equipment. — 1. Corn plants one, two, three, and four
weeks old, seeded one inch deep.

76 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

2. Corn plants two and four weeks old, seeded three inches
deep.

Directions. — Dig up a number of small corn plants for
this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing
the plant from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings to
the roots, by washing. Make a study of plants seeded one
inch deep, one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old,
and four weeks old. Also plants seeded three inches deep
two weeks old and four weeks old. (In determining age
of plant count time from date of seeding.)

Make drawings of the plants at different stages of growth
and at the different depths of seeding indicated. Show in
the first drawing the four temporary roots which develop
first, and in drawings of older plants the permanent root
system which develops later. Show how the distance be-
tween the temporary roots and the permanent root system
depends upon the depth of planting.

The drawings should include the root system, stalk, and
leaves and their arrangement.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 77

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

78 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 19

Object. — To make a study of the physical parts of corn
kernels. To show the differences in texture in the different
parts of the same kernel. To show the location of color
in yellow, white, and red kernels of dent
corn.

Explanation. — There are six distinct
types of corn: dent, flint, soft, sweet,
pop, and pod. Dent corn is the type
most generally grown.

There are four distinct parts of the
corn kernel. They are the seed coat,
aleurone layer, endosperm, and embryo.
The seed coat or hull is a thin outer layer
covering the entire kernel. It serves as
a protection for other parts of the kernel
and constitutes about 7 per cent of the
kernel. The aleurone layer lies just
under the seed coat and serves as a second covering for
the kernel. It constitutes about 10 per cent of the corn
kernel. The endosperm comprises the greatest part of the
corn kernel. It is composed largely of starch and is a
source of food supply for the young plant just after

FIG. 6. — A corn ker-
nel, a, crown starch ;
6, hull ; c, horny
starch ; d, shoot of
embryo ; e, germ ;
/, root of embryo ;
g, tip cup.

80 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

germination. The endosperm is composed of two distinct
classes of material': the hard, corneous, and the white, starchy
endosperm. About 73 per cent of the entire kernel is endo-
sperm. The embryo, also called the germ, is the living part
of the corn kernel. It is located near the center and upper
side of the kernel. It contains a large percentage of protein
and oil. About 10 per cent of the kernel is embryo.

Equipment. — 1. A wash basin.

2. Kernels of white, yellow, and red corn.

Directions. — Make a drawing showing the germ side
of a kernel of corn. Make a drawing of a cross section and
a longitudinal section of a kernel of corn. Show in the draw-
ings the difference in structure of the different parts of the
endosperm.

Remove the hulls of white, yellow, and red kernels of dent
corn that have been soaked in water for one day. Observe
the location of color.

Where is the white color located in white corn ?

Where is the yellow color located in yellow corn?

Where is the red color located in red corn ?

What is the color of the endosperm in red corn?

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 81

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

82 LABORATORY MANUAL OP AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 20
THE EAR OF CORN

Object. — To make a study in detail of an ear of corn.

Explanation. — Ears of corn vary in size, shape, number
of rows, number of kernels per ear, and in their general
appearance. This variation occurs in different types of
corn, in different varieties of corn, and in different ears of
corn of the same variety.

Equipment. — 1. Two ten-ear samples of corn of different
varieties.

2. A foot rule.

3. A yard tape line.

4. A torsion balance, weighing to half a gram.
Directions. — Number the ears from one to ten. Use

the blank outline below and fill in the following data for
the two samples of corn. Record the length and circum-
ference of each ear in inches. Record the weight of each
ear in grams. Record the number of rows per ear, the
number of kernels per row, and the number of kernels for
each ear. Record the measurements for each individual
ear and the average for the sample.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

H
X

o
«

AVERAGE

'!>

•<*

EAR NUMBER

Length of ear . .

a
I

•8

*•
,fl
M

Number of rows

No. of kernels per
row ....

No. of kernels per
ear

Counting seventy pounds to the bushel, how many average
ears of the above sample are required for a bushel?

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

•

g
•

£ £

•

H pi

H? •"

^ o

CC H

t-i

EAR NUMBER

Length of ear .

CD
et-i
0

.§

SH
©

4>
'S

Number of rows

No. of kernels pe
row . . .

No. of kernels pe
ear ....

Counting seventy pounds to the bushel, how many average
ears of the above sample are required for a bushel?

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Determine the per cent of shelled corn in at least two of
the ears studied.

EAR NUMBER

Weight of shelled corn

Per cent of shelled corn

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 87

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISES 21, 22, 23
CORN JUDGING

Object. — To acquire skill and obtain practice in select-
ing seed ears of corn.

Explanation. — Corn judging is estimating the value of
ears of corn for seed. It requires a knowledge of different
parts of the ear of corn and an appreciation of quality in
corn characters. Ears of corn are different in size, shape,
and appearance. A good corn judge should be able to select
those ears that are best suited for planting. The score card
is used to designate the parts of an ear of corn and the relative
value of these parts.

A good ear of corn should be nearly cylindrical, approx-
imately 10 to 11 inches hi length, and 7 to 1\ inches in
circumference. The kernels and cob should each be of
a uniform color. The ear should be sound, the kernels
should be firm on the cob, and the butt and tip should be
covered with well-shaped kernels. There should be from six-
teen to twenty rows of corn on the ear, and the kernels should
be deep and well shaped, with little space between the rows.
The germ should be large and bright, and the ear should be
well matured.

Different varieties of corn may differ in their standard
of perfection. Early maturing varieties are usually smaller

CORN JUDGING

FIG. 7. — Ears of corn that approach the ideal type.

90 LABORATORY MANUAL OP AGRICULTURE

than those maturing later, and corn growing in districts of
light rainfall has a more shallow kernel and a smoother
surface than varieties growing in districts with an abundance
of rainfall. Varieties of corn may also differ in color, some
being white, some yellow, and some red. The sample of
corn used for judging should contain ten ears of the same
variety.

Equipment. — 1. One ten-ear sample of corn for each
member of the class.

2. A foot rule.

3. A tape line.

Directions. — Number the ears from one to ten. Com-
mence with ear number one and place in the first vertical
column of the score card the scores that the ear merits.
Deduct from the perfect score for all deficiencies of the ear.

Description of Points of the Score Card

Shape of Ear. — A desirable type of ear should be nearly
cylindrical. This will permit an equal number of rows from
butt to tip of ear, with kernels quite uniform in size. The
rows should run straight the entire length of the ear, and the
ear should present a uniform shape. If the ear is poor in
shape, the score for shape should be decreased.

Length of Ear. — The length of ear may be determined
by measuring from the extreme butt to the extreme tip.
If the ear is below the standard, it should be scored off accord-
ing to the deficiency. If it is too long, it is likely to have
broad and shallow kernels, with an inferior butt and tip, and
the score should be reduced accordingly.

CORN JUDGING 91

Circumference of Ear. — The circumference of ear is
determined by measuring the ear one third the distance
from the butt to the tip. Small circumference of ear in-
dicates a small amount of corn. Ears too large in circum-
ference are likely to be immature, and are, therefore, of less
value. For such deficiencies the score should be decreased.

Color of Kernel. — A uniform color, true to the variety,
indicates purity. If there is a difference in color, or if there
are grains that differ in color from that of the variety stand-
ard, a mixture is indicated, and the score should be reduced.

Color of Cob. — Usually yellow varieties of corn have red
cobs, and white varieties have white cobs. If the cob is
not correct in color, a mixture is indicated, and the score
should be reduced.

Butt of Ear. — The butt of the ear should be well filled
out with kernels of uniform shape.

Tip of Ear. — The rows of kernels should extend the full
length of the ear, covering the tip with kernels of uniform
size and shape.

Shape of Kernels. — Desirable kernels should be wedge-
shaped ; that is, they should be wider across the crown than
at the tip of the kernel. The thickness should be about one
half the width, and they should have a large, well-developed
germ. The kernels on the different parts of the ear should
be uniform in shape and size. This is essential to secure
a uniform distribution in planting.

Depth of Kernels. — The amount of corn on an ear depends
largely upon the depth of the kernels. From this point
of view it would seem desirable to have as deep a kernel
as possible. Experiments seem to indicate, however, that

92 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

kernels of medium depth are preferable to deeper ones, and
will perhaps produce a larger yield and better quality of corn.

Furrows between Rows. — If the crowns of the kernels
are rounded off on top, there is likely to be space between the
rows. This condition is usually associated with a shallow
grain, and indicates a small per cent of corn.

Space between Kernels at Cob. — The kernels should be
close together at the tips. Space between the tips of the
kernels, next to the cob, indicates immaturity and weak
vitality.

Composition and Feeding Value. — By far the largest part
of the corn kernel is starch. It also contains protein and oil.
The protein and oil are higher in feeding value than starch,
and high content of these substances is indicated by a large
per cent of the horny endosperm and large germ.

Vitality. — It is essential that corn used for seed should
be of strong vitality. The ear should be well matured.
The kernels should be sound and firm on the cob. The
germ should be large. Small, wrinkled, or dull-colored germs
indicate low vitality.

Soundness or Freedom from Injury. — Mold or fungous
disease not only indicates decreased vitality, but it decreases
the market value of the corn. Kernels that are cracked,
or injured by various insects, are of less value, and should
be scored against accordingly.

Careful examination should be made of the various parts
of the ear as given on the score card. In examining the
kernels, two or more kernels should be removed from near
the center of the ear so that a better estimate may be formed
of their worth. If an ear is very poor in some quality, it

CORN JUDGING 93

may be scored very low or even zero for that point. After
a score is given for each point the column should be added.
The sum is the score of the ear. It requires a very good
ear to score higher than 85 per cent.

After the ears have been scored, place them in the order
of their worth, placing the best ear first, the second-best
ear second, etc., for the ten ears.

LAtiOHATOKY MANUAL OF AGRICULTUKE

2 *

w t

« 55 -g

- ~
Q o £

£ ° •«

^ § I

02 * a

W o iS

^H 04 r ^

§ «

r_, O
^ «

& *^
g |

c-c

it*

•o

M .

2 '

o •

•

1 :

& '

^ "

•

"2 •

S? *

•

*J*

cylindrical,

s •

o .

1 ;
E" •

f ears, confo

•

°° c9

1 "3
|?

ed out with

1 '

15 i

S. £

g .

•a

•ss

u 7

cumference o
standard .

or of kernels

or of cob .

ts of ears:
about shank

s of ears: fill
sized kernels

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

H K

£8

s £4

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

2 £

W g

* i i
e o -

2J o

<J PS g
CQ fe 1
g g ^

•

02 CJ

FH 8
!? ^
w

U5 "E

H a
00 g

PERFECT

K
O

e
t—

3 t

o "•

•i

iformity

1
1

: |

Shape of ears : cylindrical,

Length of ears, conformity t

•Ml

Circumference of ears, coi

to standard . . .

uoior 01 Kernels . . .

i-i

~s ~,

U |

.* ,

.. 1

S J

s «

Tips of ears : filled out with

.;,,.! L., ,,.,,..i_,

Shape of kernels : uniform,

wedge-shaped, straight

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

i
3

H
PS
O
O
C£

•sa

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

•

> "S

* 'i

5 « *s

2 |

o "

02 S

EH 0

H» O

XH CC .

•E

B I

PERFECT

SCOUE

]

a >i

•5 «

3 e

-s

"* .

,ytostand-

conformity

tJ
5

• -2
' 1

iy. . . .
th regular-

"Z
j;

(ht edges

•c

»7

2 •

3 ^

:§ '

*>
*

)
4

rence o

"^
1

» i'

^ cj
j a>

* _e
S ••

t i
a

1 J

•
1

Shape of
rowa

Length o

orH

Circumfe

a
2

Color of

3 "5

3 a-

3 1

I 1

"» *c

s S

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

O a

£§

PS o

(X,M

O "5 "5 O O 10

POINTS

. • • ... 0 • 1* * ' •

a> g o
"3 tj * g1

; ; | || |l if ;

j£ o -«x "3 '5 oo

o t; _-B fe-081^

_ ^ o ^fl p-o3

•S « -^ S§ * S a '

V C) rt rt i-; o*J «"•» .S

f 2 1 |1 f § I e

f1 S o, o ;S §

Q h n O > 02

EXERCISE 24
A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN

Object. — To study corn with reference to its quality
and commercial grade ; and to become familiar with different
classes and grades of corn.

Explanation. — Practically two thirds of the corn crop
of the United States is produced in eight states: Illinois,
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and
Texas. Within these same eight states the live-stock in-
dustry has been developed to the greatest extent. While
corn is used almost exclusively as a food for live stock, large
quantities are sold on the commercial market before reaching
final destination. For the proper classification of corn of
varying quality it is necessary to have a system of grading.
In determining quality it is necessary to consider purity,
condition, color, and size of kernels.

Equipment. — 1. Four ten to twelve pound samples of
corn representing different grades.

2. A weight-per-bushel tester.

3. A balance weighing to a half gram.

Directions. — Weigh out fifty grams of corn from one of
the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the out-
line form " A Study of Shelled Corn " to record the results
of the examination. Classify the sample of corn under ob-

100

A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 101

servation as yellow, white, or mixed, according to the rules
governing the inspection and grading of corn that are in-
cluded in this exercise. Record the class name in the col-
umn for that sample number for classification.

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study for each of the divisions given below.

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the
sample into the following groups : corn, other grains,
foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight
and percentage in the blank form in the column of the sample
number. Weigh to one half of one gram. Quantities less
than one half of one gram may be indicated as " trace."
All the groups of the division should total 100 per cent for
purity.

For the remainder of the determinations in the study
of this exercise use twenty-five grams of the corn from which
other grain and foreign matter have been removed.

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating
this sample into the following groups : sound kernels ;
cracked or broken kernels; rotten, decayed, or otherwise
injured kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of
each group. The total for condition should be 100 per cent.

Color. — The predominating colors in corn are white and
yellow. Other common colors are red, speckled, and blue.
Corn of the latter colors are less likely to be pure in color
in large lots, and are usually designated as mixed. Make
a study of color by separating the sample into the following
groups : white, yellow, and mixed. Weigh and record the
weight and per cent in each group. The total for color
should be 100 per cent.

102 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for
size: large kernels; medium-size kernels; small kernels.
Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each group.
The total for size should be 100 per cent.

Separate from the sample one hundred average-size ker-
nels. Weigh them and record their weight. Compare the
weight of one hundred average-size kernels in the different
samples studied.

The weight per bushel may be determined by using the
weight-per-bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel
of the sample by pouring the corn in very lightly over the top
or side of the tester and without shaking or packing. Draw
the bar or straight edge once across the top of the tester so
that it will be filled just level with the top. Adjust the
tester by moving the weight out on the bar until it just bal-
ances. The scale on the bar by the weight indicates the
weight per bushel. Record weight per bushel of sample.

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing
factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the
sample. The grain inspection departments of the various
states provide rules for the inspection and grading of corn.
The following rules govern the inspection of corn in Kansas :

White Corn

No. 1. White Corn. — Shall be pure white corn and sweet.

No. 2. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white and
sweet.

No. 3. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white and
sweet.

A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 103

No. 4. , White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white,
but shall include tough, musty, and damaged corn.

(Mixed corn and yellow corn have separate rules, but
the rules are the same other than color. In yellow, seven-
eighths is used instead of fifteen-sixteenths, as in white.)

The per cent of moisture contained in corn affects its
quality. Corn with a high per cent of moisture is usually
tough and is given a lower grade.

Corn to grade No. 1 is not allowed to have over 15
per cent of moisture ; to grade No. 2 not over 16 per cent ;
to grade No. 3 not over 19 per cent; to grade No. 4 not
over 22 per cent.

Make a study of as many samples as the time given per-
mits.

104

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND KKI'oKT
A STUDY OF SHELLED COKN

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Purity

Con-
dition

Color <

Size <

Weight
size k
Weight
Comme

'Corn ....
Other grains
Foreign matter .

Sound corn . .
Cracked or
broken . . .
Rotten, decayed,
or injured . .

'White ....
Yellow . . .
.Other colors . .

'Large ....
Medium . . .
.Small ....

of 100 average-
ernels ....
of one bushel
rcial grade . .

100

1(K)

100

Too

100

JOO

100

Student's name

EXERCISE 25
A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD

Object. — To examine the head of wheat and become
familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different
parts.

Explanation. — The head of wheat is commonly called a
spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is
the most important. The head is composed of a single rachis
and several spikelets. The spikelets are attached to the
rachis. A fully developed spikelet has two or more kernels,
usually only two. There is an outer glume, flowering glume,
and a palea for each kernel, except when a third kernel de-
velops. The third kernel of a spikelet does not have an outer
glume. There is an undeveloped flower for each spikelet.
Sometimes the spikelets near the base of the head fail to
develop. The two divisions of a spikelet are similar in ar-
rangement of parts. There is an outer glume on each side
of the spikelet, and they partly inclose the flowering glumes.
The uppermost part of the outer glume is called the beak.
The notch just below the beak forms the shoulder, and the
heavy line running from the beak to the base is called the
keel. The flowering glume is just within the outer glume and
bears the beard or awn. The kernel is inclosed by the flower-
ing glume on the outside and by another husk called the palea

105

10G

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD 107

on the inside. The germ of the kernel is at the base and it faces
toward the outside. The crease is on the inside next to the
palea. The brush end of the kernel extends upward. There
is an undeveloped flower between the two divisions of the
spikelet. The attachment of the spikelet to the rachis is
called the rachilla. Figure 8 shows all the different parts of
the spike.

Equipment. — Heads of wheat sufficient to supply all
members of the class.

Directions. — Make two drawings of the entire head of
wheat, one showing the side and one showing the edge view.
Remove a single well-developed spikelet and make a drawing
of it. Draw a single outer glume ; a single flowering glume;
and the palea. Make a drawing of the kernel showing the
crease side, one showing the germ side, and one showing the
cross section. Remove all the spikelets from the head and
make a drawing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least
four times the natural size except the head and rachis. Make
them in careful detail and name all the different parts.

Fill out the following description for five average-size
heads of wheat.

108

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

&H
00

•

'3,

•

«•

•

A
CM
O

f empty spikelets .

' developed spikelets

"o
a

t-i

cS
1

o
6

6
fc

o
o

E
0)

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 109

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

110 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 26
A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD

Object. — To examine the head of rye and become
familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different
parts.

Explanation. — The head of rye is commonly called a spike.
It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is the most
important. The head is composed of a single rachis and
several spikelets. The spikelets are attached to both sides
of the rachis. There are two divisions of the spikelet, each
division containing one kernel. There is an outer glume,
a flowering glume, and a palea for each kernel. The kernel is
inclosed by the flowering glume on the outside and the palea
on the inside. The flowering glume does not entirely inclose
the kernel, and a small portion of it is exposed. The outer
glume is small and does not inclose the flowering glume. The
rye kernel is similar to the kernel of wheat, though it is some-
what more slender, more pointed at the germ end, and the
crease is not so deep. There are only two flowers in a spike-
let, and both of them develop.

Equipment. — Heads of rye sufficient to supply all the
members of the class.

Directions. — Make two drawings of the entire head of rye.
Make a drawing showing the side view, then turn the head

111

112

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

one fourth way around and
make the second drawing.
Remove a single well-
developed spikelet and
make a drawing of it.
Draw a single outer glume,
a single flowering glume,
and the palea. Make a
drawing showing the crease
side, one showing the germ
side, and one showing the
cross section of the kernel.
Remove all the spikelets
from the head and make
drawing of the rachis.
Make all drawings at least
four times their natural
size, except those of the
A head and rachis. Make

FIG. 9 — ^, a head of rye; B, a single them in careful detail and
spikelet ; C, a kernel of rye showing

germ side. name all the different parts.

A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD

113

Fill out the accompanying outline for five average-size
heads of rye.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

No. OF HEAD

No of spikelets

No. of kernels for the head . .

Average no. of kernels for each
spikelet

Give length of awns ....

Give color of glumes ....

114 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 115

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISES 27 AND 28
A STUDY OF WHEAT

Object. — To study samples of wheat with reference to
their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar
with different classes and grades of wheat.

Explanation. — The principal use of wheat is for the pro-
duction of flour. Wheats differ in their milling value, de-
pending largely upon the quality. In determining quality
it is necessary to consider purity, soundness, color, texture,
size, and other conditions of the kernel. The student should
become familiar with the quality of different classes of wheat,
such as hard winter, soft winter, hard spring, durum, etc.
Representative samples of different classes and grades of
wheat are used in this study.

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of wheat.

2. Type samples of wheat, showing color and class.

3. Balances weighing to one half of one gram.

4. A weight-per-bushel tester.

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of wheat from one
of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the
outline form " A Study of Wheat" to record the results of the
examination. Compare the sample of wheat under observa-
tion with named type sample for identification. Record the
type name in the column for that sample number for classi-
fication.

116

A STUDY OF WHEAT 117

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below.

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample
into the following groups : wheat of class ; other wheats ;
other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record
its weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the
column of that sample number. Weigh to one half of one
gram. Quantities less than one half gram may be indicated
as "trace." All the groups of the division should total 100
per cent for purity.

For the remainder of the determinations in this exercise
use ten grams of the wheat from which other grains and for-
eign matter have been removed. This includes " wheat of
class " and " other wheats," as obtained by the first separa-
tion.

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating the
kernels of this sample into the following groups : sound ;
broken; shriveled; sprouted; heat damaged. Weigh and
record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for
soundness should be 100 per cent.

Color. — Color in wheat is represented by different colors
and shades, as amber, dark amber, yellowish, and white.
Kernels subjected to adverse weather conditions are likely
to be discolored, and are known as bleached. The kernels
should be compared with type samples representing the dif-
ferent colors found in wheat. Light amber is represented by
durum wheat ; amber by the common hard winter wheats ;
dark amber by hard winter wheats of a very dark color;
yellowish includes those kernels which are yellow or have
yellow sides, and are often found in the hard winter wheats.

118 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

White wheats are represented by the very light colored wheats
grown largely on the Pacific coast. Bleached wheat may be
kernels of any color which have been badly discolored by
adverse weather conditions. Make a study of the color by
separating the sample into the following groups: light
amber, amber, dark amber, yellow, white, and bleached.
Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each group.
The total for color should be 100 per cent.

Texture. — Texture in wheat may be classed as hard,
medium, and soft. Texture is closely associated with color.
Amber-colored wheats are usually hard in texture. Wheats
that have a tendency to become yellowish are usually of a
medium texture. Wheats that are yellow or white are likely
to be soft. Texture may also be determined by crushing
typical kernels.

Make a study of the texture by separating the sample into
the following groups : hard, medium, soft. Weigh, and record
the weight and per cent in each group. The total for tex-
ture should be 100 per cent.

Size. — Divide the sample into the following groups :
large kernels, medium kernels, and small kernels. Weigh
and determine per cent of each group. Record weight and
per cent in the blank form. The total for size should be
100 per cent.

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh
and record weight. Compare the weight of 100 average-size
kernels in the different samples studied. The size of kernels
differs in different classes of wheat.

The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight-
per-bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the

A STUDY OF WHEAT 119

sample by pouring the wheat in lightly over the top or sides
of the tester without shaking or packing. Draw the bar
or straightedge once across the top of the tester so that it
will be filled just level to the top. Adjust the tester by
moving the weight out on the bar until it just balances. The
scale on the bar by the weight indicates the weight per bushel.
Record weight per bushel of the sample.

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing
factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the
sample. The grain inspection departments of the various
states provide rules for the inspection and grading of wheat.
The following rules govern the inspection of hard winter
wheat for Kansas :

Hard Winter Wheat

No. 1. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the
dark variety, sound, sweet, dry, plump, and clean, and shall
weigh not less than sixty-one pounds to the bushel.

No. 2. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the
dark variety, sound, sweet, dry, plump, and clean, and shall
weigh not less than fifty-nine pounds to the bushel. ,

No. 3. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the
dark variety, sound, sweet, dry; some grains may be
bleached ; not clean or plump enough for No. 2 ; shall weigh
not less than fifty-six pounds to the bushel.

No. 4. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the
dark variety, tough, sprouted, or from other causes so badly
damaged as to render it unfit for No. 3.

Other classes of wheat are graded in a similar manner.

Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits.

120

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF WHEAT

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

Purity
Soundness

Color

Texture

Size
Weight of

Wheat of class . .
Other wheat .
Other grains . . .
Foreign matter . .
Total . . . .

Sound kernels . .
Broken kernels
Shriveled kernels .
Sprouted kernels
Heat-damaged ker-
nels ....
Total ....

Light amber . . .

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

100

Dark amber . . .
Yellowish ....
White
Bleached ....
Total ....

Hard (flinty) . . .
Medium ....
Soft (starchy) . .
Total ....

[Large

100

Medium ....
Small

Total ....
100 average-size ker-

100

Weight per
Commercia

bushel

Date

Student's Name

EXERCISE 29
A STUDY OF RYE

Object. — To study samples of rye with reference to their
quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar with
different grades of rye.

Explanation. — Rye is used for the production of flour for
bread, for malting purposes, and to some extent for feed for
live stock. Rye is not extensively grown in the United
States. There are not as many varieties of rye as of wheat.
There is a variation in texture and color, but it is not as im-
portant as in wheat. There is usually but one class of rye
recognized on the commercial market. Different grades of
rye are recognized, and the commercial grade given depends
upon the quality. The student should become familiar with
the different factors that affect the quality of rye. Repre-
sentative samples of different grades of rye are used in this
study.

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of rye.

2. A weight-per-bushel tester.

3. A balance weighing to one half gram.

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of rye from one of
the samples and make a careful study of it. Use the ac-
companying outline form "A Study of Rye," to record the
results of the examination.

121

122 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below.

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sam-
ple into the following groups : rye ; other grains ; foreign
matter. Weigh each group and record the weight and per
cent. For the remainder of the determinations in this study
use ten grams of rye from which other grains and foreign
matter have been removed.

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating
the kernels of the sample into the following groups : sound,
broken, shriveled ; sprouted ; heat damaged, or otherwise
injured. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each
group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent.

Size. — Separate the sample into kernels of the following
groups : large, medium, small. Weigh, and record weight
and per cent of each group on the blank form. The total for
size should be 100 per cent.

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh
and record the weight of the sample on the blank form in
the column for that sample number. Quantities less than
one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace."

The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight
per bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the
sample as described in Ex. 27. All samples of rye are
placed in the same class for commercial grading and given a
commercial grade similar to wheat. Designate the com-
mercial grade of the sample.

A STUDY OF RYE

123

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF RYE

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Purity .

Soundness

Size . . <

Weight of
ncls .

Rye
Other grains . .

Foreign matter . .
Total

'Sound ....
Broken ....
Shriveled ....
Sprouted ....

Heat damaged, or
otherwise injured

Total

100

Medium ....
Small

Total
100 average-size ker-

100

Weight per
Commercia

bushel

grade

Date

Student's Name

EXERCISE 30
A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD

Object. — To examine the head of barley and become
familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different
parts.

Explanation. — The head of barley is commonly called a
spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is
the most important. The head of barley is composed of a
single rachis and several spikelets. The spikelets bear the
grain and are attached to the rachis. A spikelet of barley
is made up of two outer glumes, a flowering glume, a kernel,
and palea. The outer glumes are small and awl-shaped and
do not inclose the flowering glume as in wheat and oats. The
flowering glume bears the beard or awn when present and
incloses the greater part of the kernel. The palea incloses
the inner side of the kernel. In most barleys the flower-
ing glume and palea adhere to the kernel when threshed.
Some varieties of barley, however, are hull-less. In hull-less
barleys the flowering glume and palea do not adhere to
the kernel. The germ is at the base of the kernel, as in'
wheat, and faces outward. The crease is on the inside
next to the palea. There are both two-rowed and six-rowed
barleys.

In the six-rowed barleys the spikelets develop in groups of

124

A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD

125

three on opposite sides of the rachis. In two-rowed barleys
there is a single row of spikelets on each side of the rachis.
There is an undeveloped spikelet on either side of the devel-
oped spikelet. Each de-
veloped spikelet contains
but one kernel of barley.
Figure 10 shows the differ-
ent parts of the barley
spike.

Equipment. — Heads of
barley for each member of
the class.

Directions. — Make two
drawings of the entire head
of a six-rowed barley, one
showing the side and one
showing the edge view.
Make a drawing of a group
of three spikelets. Make
a drawing of a single spike-
let, showing the flowering
and outer glume. Make
drawings of the kernel, one

FIG. 10. — A, a head of six-rowed barley ;
B, a single spikelet of barley ; C, a
kernel of barley with glumes and
palea removed.

showing the germ side and
one showing the cross sec-
tion. Remove all the
spikelets and make a draw-
ing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least four times the
natural size, except the head and rachis. Make them in
careful detail and name all the different parts.

126 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Fill out the following description for four heads of barley

NUMBER or HEAD

Kind of barley

Length of head .

Number of kernels the head ....

Length of awns if present

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 127

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

128 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 31
A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD

Object. — To examine the oat head and become familiar
with the shape and arrangement of its different parts.

Explanation. — The head of oats is commonly called a
panicle. It is made up of several parts, of which the oat grain
is the most important. The head is composed of a branching
stem and spikelets containing the grain. The branches of
the panicle are attached in groups to the main stem. The
spikelets are attached to these branches.

Each spikelet has two or more kernels, usually only two.
Each kernel is inclosed within a flowering glume and palea.
The kernel, together with the flowering glume and palea, is
known as the grain, and is inclosed within the outer glume.
When the oat grain has an awn or beard, it grows out from
the back of the flowering glume. A sterile flower often de-
velops near the base of the second kernel. The flowering
glume and palea adhere tightly to the kernel and are not
removed by threshing. One kernel is a little larger than
the other. The smaller kernel develops near the base of the
larger kernel and is sometimes almost inclosed within the
flowering glume of the larger kernel. Figure 11 shows the
parts of the oat panicle.

K 129

130

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Equipment. — Heads of oats for each member of the class.

Directions. — Make a drawing of the entire head of oats,
showing the arrangement of the spikelets. Remove a single
well-developed spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw a
single outer glume, a single flowering glume, and the palea.

A ' B

FIG. 11. — A, a head of oats; B, a single spikelet;
C, the oat kernel with glumes and palea removed,
showing the germ side.

Make a drawing of the kernel, showing the crease side,
one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross section.
Make all the drawings at least four times the natural size,
except the one of the panicle. Make them in careful detail
and name the different parts.

A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD 131

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

132 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 32
A STUDY OF BARLEY

Object. — To study samples of barley with reference to
their quality and commercial grade ; and to become familiar
with different classes and grades of barley.

Explanation. — A large amount of barley is used as
a grain feed for live stock on farms where it is produced.
Approximately one half of the barley produced is sold on
the commercial market, where it is finally used either for
brewing or feeding purposes. The value of barley depends
largely upon the quality of the grain. In determining quality
it is necessary to consider purity, soundness, color, texture,
size, and other conditions of the grain. The student should
become familiar with different classes and grades of barley.

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of barley.

2. A weight-per-bushel tester.

3. A balance weighing to one half of one gram.
Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of barley from

one of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use
the outline form "A Study of Barley" to record the results
of the examination. Compare the sample of barley under
observation with named type samples for identification.
Record type name in the column for that sample number
for classification.

133

134 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below.

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the
sample into the following groups : barley of class ; other
barleys ; other grains ; foreign matter.

Weigh each group and record the weight and per cent of
the sample in the blank form in the column of the sample
number. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may
be indicated as " trace." All the groups of the division
should total 100 per cent for purity.

For the remainder of the determinations in this study
use ten grams of the barley from which other grains and
foreign matter have been removed. This includes " barley
of class " and " other barleys," as obtained by the first
separation.

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating
the sample into the following groups: sound kernels;
broken kernels; shriveled kernels; sprouted kernels; other
damaged kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per
cent of each group. The total for soundness should be 100
per cent.

Color. — The color of barley may be injured by adverse
weather conditions during harvesting. A bright light color
is desirable. Make a study of color by separating the sample
into the following groups : good color ; slightly bleached ;
discolored. Weigh and record the weight and per cent in
each group. The total for color should be 100 per cent.

Texture. — Texture in barley may be classed as hard and
soft. The barleys of hard texture are more vitreous and
contain a higher per cent of protein than others. The

A STUDY OF BARLEY 135

barleys that are soft are usually higher in starch content.
Crush typical kernels and observe their hardness.

Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups
for size : large, medium, small. Weigh and record the per
cent of each group. The total for size should be 100 per
cent.

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh
them and record their weight. Compare the weight of 100
average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The
size of kernels differs in different classes of barley. The
weight per bushel is determined by using the weight-per-
bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the
sample.

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing
factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the
sample. The grain inspection departments of the various
states provide rules for the inspection and grading of barley.
The following rules govern the inspection of barley hi Kansas :

Barley

No. 1. Barley. — Shall be sound, bright, sweet, clean, and
free from other grain.

No. 2. Barley. — Shall be sound, dry, and of good color.

No. 3. Barley. — Shall include shrunken, stained, dry
barley, unfit to grade No. 2.

No. 4. Barley. — Shall include tough, musty, dirty barley.

Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits.

136

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF BARLEY

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NCMBKB

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Purity .

Soundness

Color. .

Size . .

Weight of 1
Weight of (
Commcrcia

Barley of class . .
Other barleys . .
Other grains .
Foreign matter . .
Total ....

Sound kernels . .
Broken kernels . .
Shriveled kernels
Sprouted kernels
Other damaged kernels
Total ....

Good color (bright) .
Slightly bleached
Discolored ....
Total ....

Large
Medium ....
Small
Total ....

00 average-size kernels
>ne bushel ....
1 grade

100

UK)

100

Date _ _ . Student's Name

EXERCISE 33
A STUDY OF OATS

Object. — To study samples of oats with reference to
their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar
with different classes and grades of oats.

Explanation. — A large proportion of the oats produced
in the United States is used as grain for live stock on farms
where grown. Some oats is sold on the commercial market,
a part of it being used for cereal foods and for feeding
purposes. The value of oats depends largely upon the quality
of the grain. In determining value it is necessary to con-
sider purity, soundness, color, size, and other conditions of
the grain. The student should become familiar with dif-
ferent classes and grades of oats.

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of oats.

2. Weight-per-bushel tester.

3. Balance weighing to one half gram.

4. Named type sample of oats.

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of oats from one
of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the
accompanying outline form " A Study of Oats" to record the
results of the examination. Compare the sample of oats
under observation with named type samples for identifica-
tion. Record the type name in the column for that sample

137

i:»S LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

number under classification in the accompanying outline
form.

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below :

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample
into the following groups : oats of class ; other oats ; other
grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record the
weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the
column of that sample number. Quantities less than one
tenth of one gram may be indicated as "trace." All the
groups of the division should total 100 per cent for purity.

For the remaining determinations in this study use ten
grams of the oats from which other grains and foreign matter
have been removed.

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating
this sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; in-
jured kernels. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of
each group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent.

Color. — There is considerable variation in the color of
oats, as white, yellowish, brownish, red, and black. Oats
is sometimes discolored by adverse weather conditions,
and the original color is obscure. Separate the sample into
the different colors named above. Weigh, and record the
weight and per cent in each group. The total for color
should be 100 per cent.

Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for
size : large, medium, small. Weigh, and record the weight
and per cent of each group. The total for size should be
100 per cent.

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh

A STUDY OF OATS 139

them and record their weight. Compare the weight of 100
average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The
size of kernels differs in the different classes of oats.

The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight-
per-bushel tester, as has been described in Ex. 27. Deter-
mine the weight per bushel of the sample.

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing
factors, and the grade is given according to the quality of
the sample. The grain inspection department of the various
states provide rules for the grading of oats. The following
rules govern the inspection and grading of white oats in
Kansas :

No. 1. White Oats. — Shall be pure white oats, dry,
sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain.

No. 2. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound,
dry, and contain not more than 1 per cent each of dirt and
foreign matter or 3 per cent of other grain.

No. 3. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound,
dry, and not more than 3 per cent of dirt or foreign matter
nor 5 per cent of other grain.

No. 4. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, tough,
musty, or from any cause unfit for No. 3.

Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits.

140

LABORATORY MANUAL OP AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF OATS

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Purity . .
Soundness •

Color . .

MH . . j

Weight of 1
nels

Oats of class . .
Other oats . . .
Other grains . .
Foreign matter . .
Total ....
[Sound kernels . .
Injured kernels
Total ....
White
Yellowish . . .
Brownish ....
Red
Black
Total ....
'Large
Medium ....
Small
Total ....
00 average-size ker-

100

Weight per bushel
Commercial grade ....

Date

Student's Name

EXERCISE 34
THE SORGHUM HEAD

Object. — To study the shape and structure of the sorghum
head.

Explanation. — Sorghum resembles corn somewhat in
its method of growth, but unlike corn the seed is produced
in heads on the top of the plants. The heads of different
types of sorghum vary in shape and appearance. Some are
oval and compact ; some are long and compact ; and others
are open and branching. The variety or kind of sorghum
is most easily determined by a study of the head characters.
The head of sorghum is called a panicle.

Equipment. — Typical heads of at least three types of
sorghum, one each of kafir, milo, and a sweet sorghum for
each member of the class.

Directions. — Make an outline drawing of a typical head
of kafir. Split the head longitudinally through the center,
so that the method of branching may be more easily observed.
Study the branches of the panicle and their arrangement
and make a drawing of the panicle. Make a similar study
and drawings of the head of milo and of the head of sweet
sorghums. Fill in the detail of these drawings as far as time
permits.

141

142 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 143

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 35
A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED

Object. — To study the purity and worth of sorghum seed.

Explanation. — There are two general classes of sorghum,
saccharine and nonsaccharine. Saccharine sorghum is
used extensively for forage and for the production of sorghum
sirup. The seed of saccharine sorghum has a bitter taste
and is not generally used as feed for live stock. However, it
has a commercial value as it is used extensively for planting.
The nonsaccharine sorghums are used extensively for forage
and their seed is used for feed.

Sorghum seed is more easily injured in handling than most
of the other small grain cereals. The 'kernels crack easily
in threshing, and their vitality is often reduced by improper
storing. Sorghum seed of different varieties is often some-
what mixed.

Equipment. — 1. Four ten to twelve pound samples of
sorghum seed representing the different types of sorghum.

2. A weight-per-bushel tester.

3. A balance weighing to one half gram.

4. Type samples of sorghum seed.

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of sorghum seed
from one of the samples and make a detailed study of it.
Use the outline form " A Study of Sorghum Seed " to record

144

A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED 145

the results of the examination. Compare the sample under
observation with named type samples for identification.
Record the name in the column of that sample number for
classification.

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below.

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample
into the following groups : sorghum of class ; other sorghums ;
other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record
its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column of
that sample number. Weigh accurately to one half of one
gram. Quantities less than one half of one gram may be
indicated as " trace." All the groups of this division should
total 100 per cent for purity.

For the remainder of the determinations in the study of
this exercise use ten grams of sorghum seed which have been
separated from other grains and foreign matter.

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating
the ten-grams sample into the following group : sound
kernels ; cracked or broken kernels ; rotten, decayed, or
otherwise injured kernels. Weigh and record the weight
and per cent of each group. The total for condition should
be 100 per cent.

Color. — The color of sorghum seed depends largely upon
the type and variety. In a pure variety there should be
little variation in color. Make a study of color by separat-
ing the sample into the following groups : white, yellow, red,
brown, and tan. Use named type samples of color in deter-
mining color of sample. Weigh and record the weight and
per cent of each color. The total for color should be

146 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average-
size sound kernels. Weigh them and record their weight.
Determine weight per bushel of sample as described in
Ex. 27. Record the weight per bushel on blank form.
From the data recorded on blank form, compute the per cent
of the sample that is sound seed.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

147

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Purity .
Condition

Color .

Weight of
nels

Sorghum of class
Other sorghum .
Other grains . . .
Foreign matter . .
Total

100

Cracked or broken .
Rotten, decayed, in-
jured . . . .
Total ....
White

100

Red

Brown

Tan

Total. . . .
100 average-size ker-

100

Percentage
Weight per
Per cent of

of germination
bushel

sound seed . . .

Date Student's Name

EXERCISE 36
A STUDY OF COWPEAS*

Object. — To study the purity, condition, and worth of
cowpea seed.

Explanation. — Cowpeas make nutritious feed for live
stock, but the value of the seed is greater for planting
than for feed. The seed is seldom used for feed unless it
is badly cracked or broken. Cowpeas are very easily broken
by threshing, and commercial samples usually contain
broken seed. The worth of cowpea seed depends largely
upon its purity and condition.

Equipment. — 1. Two five to six pound samples repre-
senting different types of cowpeas.

2. A weight-per-bushel tester.

3. A balance weighing to one half of one gram.

4. Type samples of cowpea seed.

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of cowpeas from
one of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use
the outline form " A Study of Cowpeas " to record the
results of the examination. Compare the sample under
observation with named type samples for identification.
Record the name in the column of that sample number for
classification.

* If soy beans are more commonly grown in your community
than cowpeas, substitute soy beans for cowpeas in this exercise.

148

A STUDY Of COWPEAS 149

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a detailed study of it for each of the divisions given below.

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample
into the following groups : cowpeas of variety class ; cow-
peas of other varieties ; other seeds ; foreign matter. Weigh
each group and record its weight and per cent on the blank
form in the column of that sample number. Weigh ac-
curately to one half of one gram. Quantities less than one
half of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups
for this division should total 100 per cent for purity. For
the remainder of the determinations of this study use ten
grams of cowpea seed which has been separated from
other grain and foreign matter.

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating
the ten-gram sample into the following groups : sound seed ;
cracked or broken seed ; moldy and otherwise injured seed.
Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of each group.
The total for condition should be 100 per cent.

Color. — The color of cowpea seed depends largely upon
the type and variety. There is little variation in color
in a pure variety. Make a study of color by separating
the sample into the following groups : white, light brown,
dark brown, mottled, gray, black, white with black eye.
Use named type samples of color in determining color of
sample. Weigh, and record weight and per cent of each color.
The total for color should be 100 per cent. Separate from
the sample 100 average-size seeds. Weigh, and record
their weight. Determine the weight per bushel of sample
as described in Ex. 27. Record all data on blank form.

150

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OP COWPEAS

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

WEIGHT

PER
CBMI

WEIGHT

PER

CENT

Purity .
Condition

Color. . <

Weight of ]
Weight pei

Cowpeas of variety class .
Cowpeas of other varieties
Other seeds

Foreign matter
Total

100

Broken seeds . ..'...

Moldy and otherwise injured
seeds

Total

100

White

Light brown to tan . . .
Dark brown

Mottled gray
Black

White with black eye . .
Total

100

00 average-size seeds of class

Date.. Student's Name.

EXERCISE 37
THE CAPACITY OF GRAIN TO ABSORB MOISTURE

Object. — To determine the amount of moisture that corn
and other grains will absorb when submerged in water;
also the rate at which such absorption takes place.

Explanation. — The outside covering of the corn kernel
and other grains is called the hull. It presents a smooth
and somewhat glossy surface. The hull serves as a pro-
tection for the main portion of the kernel. Because of its
smooth surface it is not likely to adhere to other material
or absorb moisture readily from the atmosphere. When
placed in water or damp earth, it immediately absorbs
moisture. It is necessary for the kernel to absorb mois-
ture before it will germinate.

Equipment. — 1. Four washpans.

2. A balance weighing accurately to one half of one gram.

3. A large blotter.

4. A small sample each of dent corn, sweet corn, wheat,
and beans.

Directions. — Weigh out twenty-five grams each of dent
corn, sweet corn, wheat, and beans. Place each sample in
a washpan and pour in enough water to submerge the
grain completely. Weigh each sample after it has soaked
for 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 1 day, and 2 days, respectively,

151

152 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

and record the weights on the accompanying outline form.
Before weighing, drain the water off and place the grain
on the blotter for a few seconds to absorb excess moisture
clinging to it. After each weighing replace sample in wash-
pan and again submerge in water.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

153

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

TABLE FOR RECORDING THE MOISTURE ABSORBED BY DIFFERENT

GRAINS

KIND OF GRAIN

1ST

WEIGHT

AFTER

30 MIN.

WEIGHT

AFTER

1 HB.

WEIGHT

AFTER

2 I Ins.

WEIGHT

AFTER

1 DAY

WEIGHT

AFTER

2 DAYS

Dent corn . .

25 gms.

Sweet corn . .

25 gms.

Wheat ....

25 gms.

Beans ....

25 gms.

EXERCISE 38
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION -OF SEEDS

Object. — To study the factors affecting the germination
of seeds.

Explanation. — In order that a seed may grow it must be
supplied with the proper amount of moisture, air, and heat.
It is well known that seeds will not germinate if planted
when the soil is too cold. The proper temperature for
seeds to grow varies with the seed of different plants. Some
seed, like oats and clover, will germinate when the soil is very
cool, while other seeds, like pumpkin and tomato, require
much higher temperatures for germinating. A temperature
of 70° to 80° F. is sufficiently high to germinate the seeds
of most farm crops.

Seeds will not germinate unless supplied with moisture
in proper amounts. If the soil is too dry, the seeds will not
germinate, while if it is too wet, the soil is often too cool for
germination to take place. Oxygen or air is also necessary
for germination. Seeds will not germinate well when the
soil is badly crusted because they do not receive sufficient
air.

Equipment. — 1. Six washpans.

2. A stick with blunt end for compacting the soil.

3. Two soils, sand and clay.

154

FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS 155

4. One hundred and twenty kernels of corn of uniform
size and known to be of strong vitality.

5. Balances weighing to one half gram.

6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c.

Directions. — Number the washpans from one to six.
Put into the first three pans equal amounts by weight of air-
dry sand and into the last three equal amounts by weight
of air-dry clay. The pans should be about two thirds
full.

Add water slowly by measure to one pan containing sand
until the soil, when thoroughly mixed, appears to contain the
proper moisture content for the best growth of seeds. Add
the same quantity of water to the second and third pan,
mixing it well with the soil.

In the same way determine the proper amount of water
to add to the clay soil for the best growth of plants. Make
up all three pans containing clay to the same moisture
content.

Smooth the surface of the soil in all the pans and plant
twenty kernels of corn in each pan. Plant the kernels at
a depth of one inch.

Treat the pans as follows :

1. Sand. No treatment. Set in a warm place to ger-
minate.

2. Sand. Thoroughly saturate with water. Set in a
warm place to germinate.

3. Sand. No treatment. Place where the temperature
is cool, but not cold enough to freeze.

4. Clay. No treatment. Set in a warm place to ger-
minate.

156 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

5. Clay. Thoroughly pack the surface of the soil by
compacting. Set in a warm place to germinate.

6. Clay. Thoroughly pack the surface of the soil by
compacting and thoroughly saturate the soil. Set hi a warm
place to germinate.

It will usually be sufficiently warm behind the stove or
in the furnace room of the school building to maintain the
proper temperature for germination.

Pans 1, 3, 4, and 5 should be watered to maintain the proper
moisture for the best growth of the seeds.

Pans 2 and 6 should be wet until water just stands on the
surface and should be maintained in this condition by adding
additional water each day.

Examine the pans each day for two weeks and count the
number of seeds that have germinated.

Record your count in the following outline form. Dis-
cuss fully the cause for the difference in germination observed.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

157

y
cc

NOTES

H
O

IFFERENT

o
g

fr^

"44

o ^

° W B

o w 5

•<*<

3
•

«,

CONDITION OF SOIL

Good moisture and tem-
perature

Wet. Good tempera-
ature

Good moisture. Cold .

Good moisture and tem-

Good moisture and tem-
perature. Air excluded

Wet. Good temperature
Air excluded . . .

•a
a
a
02

a
02

c
i

i:>X LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 39

Object. — To test the vitality of clover or grass seed.

Explanation. — There are many factors affecting the
quality of seed, and many commercial samples of clover
and grass seed are low in vitality. The vitality of these
seeds is more easily injured than the vitality of the seed of
the common "cereals. It is essential, therefore, before sowing
clover or grass seed to make a germination test to determine
its vitality.

In making germination tests the seeds should be kept
moist and at a proper growing temperature. The most fa-
vorable temperature differs with different seeds. The clovers
should germinate well at 60° to 80° F.

Equipment. — 1. A pound of red clover seed.

2. Two paper plates or pieces of blotting paper for each
student.

3. A pair of forceps for each student.

Directions. — Count out 100 sound seeds. Place them
between the paper plates or blotters, and moisten well.
Keep at a temperature of 60° to 80° F. Examine the seed
at the end of four days. Count and record the number of

159

160 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

seeds that have produced sprouts. Carefully remove the
sprouted seeds so that they will not interfere with later
countings. Count and remove the additional seeds that
germinate each second day for eight days. Record data in
the outline form.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

161

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
RECORD OF GERMINATION

NAME OF
SAMPLE

No. OF

SEEDU IN
SAMPLE

NUMBER OF SEEDS SPROUTED

TOTAL PER
CENT OF
SEEDS
SPROUTED

4
Days

6
Days

8
Days

10
Days

12
Days

EXERCISE 40
A STUDY OF GRASS SEED

Object. — To study the purity and worth of grass seed.

Explanation. — The perennial grasses include such grasses
as timothy, Kentucky bluegrass, orchard grass, brome grass,
and redtop. The seeds of different kinds of perennial
grasses are not as generally known as are the seeds of cereal
grains. They are not produced in such large quantities,
commercial samples often contain seeds of other grasses,
weed seeds, and foreign matter, and their vitality is often
low because of unfavorable conditions during harvesting
and storing. To insure good results hi seeding grasses it
is essential that the seed be free from other seed and foreign
matter, and that its vitality be reasonably strong.

Equipment. — 1. A one-pound sample of timothy seed
or other grass such as has been named under explanation.

2. A balance weighing to one tenth of one gram.

3. A pair of forceps.

4. A hand lens.

5. Type sample of grasses.

Directions. — Weigh out two grams of grass seed from the
samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline
form " A Study of Grass Seed " to record the results of the

162

A STUDY OF GRASS SEED 163

examination. Record the name of the grass in the column
of that sample number for classification.

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a study of it for purity. Separate the sample into the follow-
ing groups : grass seed true to name ; seed of other grasses ;
weed seeds ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record
its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column for
that sample number. Weigh accurately to one tenth of
one gram. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram
may be indicated as " trace." All the groups under purity
should total 100 per cent.

Separate from the sample one hundred seeds true to
name and make a germination test as described in Ex.
39. Record the data of the germination test in Ex. 39.
Record the per cent of germination on the blank form.
From the data recorded on the blank form compute the per
cent of the sample that will grow and that is true to name.

164

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF GRASS SEED

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Wt.

Per

Cent

Wt.

Per
Cent

Seed true to name . . .
Grass seed of other classes
Weed seeds
Foreign matter ....
Total

loo"

100

Per cent of germination .
Per cent of seed of sample
that will grow . . .

Date__ Student's Name .

EXERCISE 41
A STUDY OF ALFALFA SEED

Object. — To study the purity and worth of alfalfa seed.

Explanation. — Alfalfa is more likely to be adulterated
with other material than the seed of cereals. Very often
samples of alfalfa contain seed of obnoxious weeds, im-
mature alfalfa seed, and trash. Such samples are of an
inferior quality, and the man who procures alfalfa seed
should guard against such impurities. To insure good re-
sults in seeding alfalfa, it is essential that the seed be free
from other seeds and foreign matter and that its vitality
be reasonably strong.

Equipment. — 1. A one-pound sample of alfalfa seed.

2. A balance weighing to one tenth of one gram.

3. A pair of forceps.

4. A hand lens.

Directions. — Weigh out two grams of alfalfa seed from
the sample and make a detailed study of it. Use the out-
line form "A Study of Alfalfa Seed" to record the results
of the examination. Record the sample, name, and source
of the seed at the top of the vertical column for classification.

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make
a study of it for purity. Separate the sample into the follow-
ing groups : sound alfalfa seed ; broken and immature
alfalfa seed ; seed of clover and grasses ; weed seeds ; foreign

165

166 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per
cent on the blank form in the column for that sample number.
Weigh accurately to one tenth of one gram. Quantities
less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace."
All the groups of the sample should total 100 per cent.

Separate from the sample one hundred sound seeds and
make a germination test as described in Ex. 39. Record
the data of the germination test in Ex. 39. Record the per
cent of germination on the blank form. From the data
recorded on the blank form compute the per cent of the
sample that will grow and that is true to name.

STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT

167

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF ALFALFA SEED

CLASSIFICATION

SAMPLE NUMBER

WEIGHT

PER
CENT

WEIGHT

PER
CENT

Sound alfalfa seed

Broken and immature alfalfa seed . . .

Seed of clover and grasses

Weed seeds

Foreign matter

Per cent of germination

Per cent of seed of sample that will grow

Date__ Student's Name.

EXERCISE 42
A STUDY OF THE PLOW

Object. — To study the structure of the plow and to be-
come familiar with the different parts and their purpose.

Explanation. — The plow is the most generally used of
all farm implements. The purpose of the plow is to invert
and pulverize the soil and to turn under weeds and other
vegetation. Its construction is not complex, and when prop-
erly adjusted, it is easy to operate. If improperly adjusted,
the plow is often difficult to operate, and it does an inferior
grade of work. The principal parts of a plow are the share,
landside, and the moldboard.

Equipment. — 1. A walking plow.

2. A riding plow.

3. A three-foot rule.

4. A three-foot tape.

Directions. — Make the necessary measurements and ob-
servations to answer the following questions.
Record answers in the following outline form :

168

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 169

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
Walking Plow

1. Give name of plow.

2. Give the manufacturer's name.

3. Give location of manufacturer.

4. Is the plow a stubble, sod, or landside plow ?

5. Give size of plow.

6. Measure and record distance from point of share to center
of hitch.

7. Measure and record distance from floor to highest point
under beam. (Clearance.)

8. Measure and record distance from point of share to point
on plow just below end of beam.

9. Measure and record distance that the end of beam extends
outside of the line of the landside.

10. Why is the plow made with the end of the beam extending
outside of the line of the landside ?

11. Measure and record the suction of the plow.

12. What is the purpose of the suction of the plow?

13. What is the purpose of the high polish on the moldboard ?

170 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

14. How should the moldboard be protected when toot in use
so as to retain this high polish ?

Riding Plow

1. Give the name of plow.

2. Give the manufacturer's name.

3. Give location of manufacturer.

4. Is the plow a single or a gang plow?

5. Give the size of plow.

6. Is the plow drawn from the beam or the frame ?

7. Has the plow a foot lift ?

8. Have the wheels hard oilers ?

9. Are the wheels difficult to oil ?

10. Place a straightedge along landside and measure and record
distance from this line to furrow wheel.

11. Measure and record the height of hitch above plow with
plow resting on the floor.

EXERCISE 43

A STUDY OF THE GRAIN GRADER OR FANNING

MILL

Object. — To study the structure of the grain grader,
and test its efficiency for grading grain for planting.

Explanation. — Small grain as it comes from the thresh-
ing machine is usually unfit for planting. It contains small
pieces of straw and chaff, which obstruct the grain drill in
seeding, and make uniform seeding impossible. Besides
straw and chaff, grain as it is threshed contains broken,
shriveled, and small kernels. This material is unfit for
planting, but will make valuable feed if separated from the
seed grain.

It is estimated that twenty per cent of the grain as it
comes from the thresher is unfit for planting, but suitable
for feeding. By using the grain grader in preparing grain
for seed, a more uniform stand of vigorous plants is
obtained, and the broken and small kernels may be saved
for feed.

Apparatus. — 1. A fanning mill.

2. A weight-per-bushel tester.

3. One bushel of uncleaned wheat as it comes from the
thresher.

171

172 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

4. Scales weighing one hundred pounds or more and weigh-
ing accurately to one half pound.

Directions. — Part I. Structure of Grain Grader. —
Make the necessary measurements and observations to an-
swer the following questions. Record answers in the outline
form on the following page.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 173

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

1. Give name of grader.

2. Give the manufacturer's name.

3. Give location of manufacturer.

4. Does the mill depend upon specific gravity or size of grain
or both for separation?

5. Does the grader have sieves ?

6. Are the sieves horizontal or sloping ?

7. When the machine is in motion, do the sieves move verti-
cally, horizontally, or lengthwise with the machine ?

8. Can the length of the stroke of the sieves be varied ?

9. How many sieves has the machine ?

i
10. Give the purpose of each sieve.

11. Give size of mesh of each sieve (the number of holes for
inch of length) .

12. Does the grader have a bagger attachment ?

13. What is the rated capacity of the grader ?

174

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Part II. Test of Grain Grader. — Weigh out sixty pounds
of unclcancd wheat. Use scales for weighing. Determine
weight per bushel of wheat by using weight-per-bushel
tester. Adjust the grain grader properly for grading wheat.
Run the bushel of wheat through the grader, making tlm <•
grades if possible. Weigh the amount of wheat in first
grade and determine per cent. Determine the weight per
bushel with weight-per-bushel tester. Determine per cent
and weight per bushel of the second and third grades. Ob-
serve the difference in quality of the different grades of
wheat.

Record data in the following outline :

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
TABLE SHOWING WHEAT AS GRADED BY THE GRAIN GRADER

WEIGHT

PER CENT OF SAMPLE

WT. PER BUSHEL

Bushel sample

60 pounds

100%

Best grade

Second grade .

Third grade .

EXERCISE 44
THE CORN GRADER

Object. — To study the construction of the corn grader
and test its efficiency for grading corn.

Explanation — Even though seed corn is selected with
considerable care, the ears will not be uniform and the kernels
will not be of the same shape and size when shelled. It is
necessary for seed corn to be uniform in shape and size for
uniform distribution in planting. A good corn grader will
remove those kernels that are very large, very small, or ir-
regular in shape.

Equipment. — 1. A corn grader.

2. One half bushel of shelled corn.

3. A scale weighing one hundred pounds or more and
weighing accurately to one half pound.

Directions. — Part I. Structure of the Grain Grader. —
Make the necessary measurements and observations to
answer the following questions. Record answers in the
following outline form :

175

176 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
THE CORN QRADEB

1. Give name of grader.

2. Give manufacturer's name.

3. Give location of manufacturer.

4. How is the corn separated into different grades ?

5. Into how many grades is the corn separated ?

6. How many sieves has the grader?

7. What is the method of agitating the corn on the sieve?

8. What is the capacity of the grader ?

THE CORN GRADER

177

Part II. Test of Corn Grader. — Weigh out twenty-
five pounds of corn. Adjust the grader properly for grading
corn. Run the corn through the grader and separate into
three grades, if possible. Weigh the amount of corn in the
first grade and determine its per cent. Weigh and determine
the per cent of both the corn that is too large and the corn
that is too small.

Record data on following outline :

TABLE SHOWING GRADE OF CORN AS SEPARATED BY THE CORN

GRADER

WEIGHT

PBB CENT OF SAMPLE

Entire sample ....

100

First grade

Large kernels . . .

Small kernels ....

EXERCISE 45
THE CORN PLANTER

Object. — To study the structure of the corn planter, and
become familiar with its different parts and their purpose.

Explanation. — The corn crop is the most valuable crop
grown in the United States. More acres of land are planted
to corn in the Central United States than to any other cul-
tivated crop. It would be impossible to plant this vast
acreage of corn without the aid of the corn planter. The
corn planter, therefore, is absolutely necessary upon nearly
all farms in the corn belt.

Equipment. — 1. A two-row corn planter.

2. A one hundred foot tape line.

Directions. — Make the necessary observations to answer
the following questions. Record the answers in the follow-
ing outline form.

17-

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 179

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
THE CORN PLANTER

1. Give name of planter.

2. Give the manufacturer's name.

3. Give the location of manufacturer.

4. What kind of furrow opener has the planter — stub or curved
runner, single or double disk ?

5. What kind of wheel has the planter — open, solid, or double ?

6. Are the wheels high or low ?

7. Has the planter a drill or full hill drop ?

8. Has it an edge selection or flat plate ?

9. Will the seed box tip over ?

10. How many valves has each planter shank ?

11. Trace the path of the corn from the seed box to the ground.

12. What is the object of the upper valve ?

180 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

13. Of the lower valve ?

14. Does the lower valve counteract the speed of the team ?

15. Can the width of the row be varied ?

16. What is its greatest width ?

17. What is its least width ?

18. How is the reel attached and driven ?

19. How is the number of kernels in each hill determined ?

20. Do the plates rotate continuously in accumulating a hill ?

21. Do the plates revolve vertically or horizontally?

22. Has the planter sight feed ?

23. Can the planter be arranged to drill the corn ?

24. Adjust the planter for drilling and to drop one kernel every
eighteen inches. After properly adjusting the planter for this
rate of drop, measure off a stretch of one hundred feet on the bare
ground and pull the planter over this distance to determine the
accuracy of drop.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 181

25. If you were to buy a planter, what kind would you buy?
What kind of wheels and furrow openers would you select? Give
fully the reasons for your answer.

EXERCISE 46
ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER

Object. — To test the accuracy with which the corn
planter drops the kernels of corn.

Explanation. — Nearly every corn planter is equipped both
to drill the corn in the row and to plant it in the hill.
When the corn planter is set to drill the corn in rows, the dis-
tance apart at which the kernels are dropped may be varied
by changing the plates in the hopper and by varying the
size of the drive wheel that governs the speed of the planter
plates. When planting in hills, the planter may be adjusted
in the same way to drop from two to six or seven kernels in
the hill. Since the yield of corn on a given area of ground
is greatly influenced by the stand secured, it is very de-
sirable to use a planter that will plant accurately at the
proper rate. Before using the planter in the field it should
be adjusted to plant at the rate desired and thoroughly
tested to make sure that it is planting accurately.

Equipment. — 1. A two-row corn planter.

2. Four quarts of shelled corn.

Directions. — Adjust the corn planter with the proper
plates to drop two kernels in a hill. Place a few handfuls
of corn in the hopper. Jack up the planter so that the wheels
turn free from the ground. Run the planter slowly by hand

182

ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER 183

and count the number of kernels dropped in each hill until
one hundred hills have been dropped.

Record in the accompanying outline form the number of
hills in which no kernels were dropped, one kernel, two ker-
nels, three kernels, four kernels, five or more kernels.

Repeat the count for another hundred hills and record
results as before.

Adjust the corn planter to drop three kernels in a hill.
In the same manner as before count the number of kernels
dropped in each hill until one hundred hills have been
dropped.

Record in the outline form the number of hills in which
no kernel was dropped, one kernel, two kernels, three ker-
nels, four kernels, five or more kernels. Repeat the count
for another hundred hills and record the results as before.

184

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
ACCURACY OP DROP OF CORN PLANTER

HILLS RECEIVING THE
FOLLOWING KERNELS

ADJUSTMENT or PLANTER

To DROP 2 KERNELS

To DROP 3 KERNELS

1st
Count

Count

Average

lat
Count

2d
Count

Average

No kernels . . .

One kernel . . .

Two kernels . .

Three kernels . .

Four kernels . .

Five or more ker-
nels ....

EXERCISE 47
TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT

Object. — To demonstrate a practical method of treating
seed oats for smut.

Explanation. — Smut in grain is caused by a parasitic
plant growing through the tissue of the grain plant. Smut
usually appears as a black, powdery mass of spores, and
may destroy the entire head of grain. Smut is produced
from smut spores as other plants are produced from seeds.
Smut frequently appears in oats and often greatly reduces
the yield.

A solution made of one pint of formaldehyde added to
fifty gallons of water is effective in treating oat smut.

The smut spores become ripe soon after the oats head out
and are then blown about through the field by the wind.
Many of the smut spores cling to other heads and kernels.
When the seed is planted the next year, the fungus grows
up within the young seedling. At flowering time the smut
becomes visible and the head develops into a mass of smut
spores.

Equipment. — 1. One half bushel of oats.

2. 50 c.c. of 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde.

3. A four-gallon crock.

185

186 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

4. Paper plates or blotters for making germination test.

5. A cotton sack.

Directions. — Reserve twenty grams of the sample for
study and germination test. Pour four liters of water into
the crock. Add to the water 30 c.c. of the formaldehyde
solution. Put four pounds of oats into a cotton sack large
enough to hold ten pounds, and submerge it in the prepared
solution. Move the sack around in the solution so that all
the grain may become thoroughly wet. Remove after thirty
seconds. Empty the sack and spread the grain out on a
clean surface to dry. Submerge another four-pound sample
in a similar manner and remove after two minutes. Spread
it out on a clean surface to dry. Submerge a third four-
pound sample for five minutes and place it out to dry. Make
a germination test of the untreated sample and each of the
treated samples. Use one hundred grains of each for the
germination test as shown in Ex. 39. Record the vitality
of each sample on the outline form. Seed oats should be
thoroughly treated, but not left in the solution long enough
to injure their vitality.

TREATMENT

VITALITY

°/

Submerged 30 seconds

Submerged 2 minutes ....

Submerged 5 minutes

°7

After oats are treated for smut they should not be put in
bins or sacks that have smut in them.

TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT 187

The loose smut of oats, the stinking smut of wheat, the
covered smut of barley, and the sorghum grain smut may all
be treated effectively in a similar manner. The loose smut
of wheat cannot be successfully combated by the above
treatment.

188 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 48
THE IRISH POTATO

Object. — To become familiar with the structure of the
potato and to determine the qualities that affect its value.

Explanation. — The potato is an underground enlarge-
ment of the potato plant. It is commonly called a tuber.
The tuber serves as a means of storing reserve plant food to be
used later in the development of new plants. The eye of the
potato is a dormant bud from which the new plant develops.
The interior of the potato is filled with starch and serves
as food for the new plant. The potato is used as one of the
principal foods of man. Its value for food is affected by
its freedom from injury and disease, smoothness, depth of
eyes, and size. A good potato should be smooth, free from
disease, of medium size, and have medium shallow eyes.

Equipment. — 1. Twenty pounds of potatoes of various
shapes and sizes, and if possible of different varieties.

2. Balance weighing to one half of one gram.

3. A paring knife.

Directions. — Weigh out fifteen pounds of potatoes and
make a detailed study of them. Use the outline form "A
Study of the Potato " to record the results of the examina-
tion.

Shape. — Make a study of the shape of the potatoes by

189

190 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

separating the sample into the following classes: round,
cylindrical, oval, flat oval. Count and record the number
of potatoes in each group.

Size. — Separate the potatoes into groups of large, me-
dium, and small size. Count and record the number in
each group.

Color of Skin. — Separate the potatoes into the following
groups : yellowish, white, pink, russet, red, and other colors.
Count and record the number of potatoes in each group.

Texture of Skin. — Separate the sample into the following
groups based upon the texture of the skin: corky, netted,
medium smooth, very smooth. Count and record the num-
ber in each group.

Depth of Eyes. — Separate the sample into the following
groups, based upon depth of eyes: deep, medium, and
shallow. Count and record the number in each group.

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating
the sample of potatoes into the following groups: clean,
broken or cracked, and diseased. Count and record the
number of potatoes in each group.

Select from the sample five large, five small, and five very
rough and knotty potatoes. Weigh each group of five sep-
arately and record weight. Peel the potatoes in each group,
removing as nearly as possible the same thickness of peeling
in each case. Weigh, and record the weight of the peeled
potatoes of each group. Subtract these weights from the
first weights to determine the weight of peeling in each group.
Determine the per cent of waste in each group.

Record the data in the accompanying outline form.

191

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
A STUDY OF THE IRISH POTATO

SAMPLE

DUMBER

Cylindrical

Shape ....

Oval

Flat oval

Size . . .

Small

Yellowish white ....

Pink

Color of skin .

Red

[ Corky

Netted

Texture of skin

Medium smooth ....

Very smooth

Deep

Depth of eyes .

Medium

f Clean

Condition . .

Cracked or broken

Diseased

Date__ Student's name.

192 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

GROUP No.

WEIGHT or
WHOLE
POTATOES

WEIGHT or
PEELED
POTATOES

WEIGHT OF

I'M. MM;

PER CENT
or WASTE

Large potatoes . .

Small potatoes . . .

Rough potatoes . .

EXERCISES 49 AND 50
PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

Object. — To plan the arrangement and succession of
crops in the home garden.

Explanation. — It is practically impossible for the farmer
to have fresh vegetables during the summer unless he pro-
duces them in his own garden. There should be a small plot
of ground set aside on every farm for the home garden. A
garden well planned and growing a succession of vegetable
crops will be a great convenience in furnishing fresh vege-
tables in the summer time. The home garden should afford
pleasure and reduce the cost of living expenses.

The garden should be large enough to make cultivation
with horses possible. The rows will have to be further apart
and more ground will be needed for the same amount of crops,
but much hand labor will be saved. A home garden might
well occupy a space of one half to one acre of land. Where
this much space is not available the rows may be placed
closer together, and hand cultivation resorted to. The
site for the garden should be conveniently arranged close to
the house, on a plot of land of good texture and fertility.

It is advisable to apply a dressing of well-rotted manure to
the garden each year. Cultivation should be frequent to
prevent the growth of weeds.

o 193

194 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Garden crops are more valuable than field crops consider-
ing the space they occupy, and the grower can afford to give
them more cultivation.

The garden should be fenced with a woven wire fence to
protect it from rabbits, chickens, and " live stock."

The home garden may include annual and perennial vege-
table crops and small fruit crops. The following are some of
the annual crops that may be grown successfully : radishes,
lettuce, peas, beans, onions, carrots, parsley, turnips, toma-
toes, cabbage, sweet corn, celery, and cucumbers. Radishes,
lettuce, peas, and beans are often ready for use in early
summer, and the space they occupied may be reseeded with
other vegetables, as cucumbers, celery, and turnips.

Perennial plants, such as horseradish, rhubarb, asparagus,
blackberries, raspberries, currants, and grapes, may well oc-
cupy a permanent place in the garden. If the entire garden
is not occupied by the above crops, the remainder of it may
well be planted with more sweet corn and potatoes.

Directions. — Take the measurements of your home gar-
den. Plan what portion of it should be devoted to each of
the crops given. Figure the area to be occupied by each crop.
If the garden is not already properly planned, make such
changes as you think advisable. Draw a plan for the
garden and show where all the crops are to be located.
Estimate the amount of seed needed for each crop. Go to
your seed dealer and ascertain the price required to purchase
the seed. Give the quantity and approximate cost of each
kind of seed to be used in the garden.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 195

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

196 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 51
PRUNING

Object. — To study methods of pruning, and the benefits
derived from removing undesirable branches from trees.

Explanation. — It is often necessary to remove branches
from trees in order to promote their best development.
There are two important objects to be secured by pruning.
One is to beautify the tree by giving it a better shape ; the
other is to make it more fruitful or increase its vigor. Prun-
ing may be performed at various times during the year,
and the best time depends largely upon the purpose for
which it is done. Pruning in the winter tends to promote
growth of wood, while pruning during the growing season
tends to promote the production of fruit buds. It is usually
well to prune orchard trees late in the winter or early in the
spring while they are in dormant condition. Pruning may
be done successfully almost any time of year except when
the buds are starting. Pruning is a means of thinning out
undesirable branches. Very severe pruning tends toward the
production of a new growth of wood and a light production
of fruit. For the best results an orchard should be pruned
a little every year. When a limb is cut off, it should be re-
moved as near its main branch as possible, and parallel to it.
The wound will heal much more rapidly if the limb is re-

197

198 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

moved close to the main branch than if the stub is left
longer. The healing of the wound takes place at the cam-
bium layer. The hard wood itself at the center of the limb
never heals, but is partly covered over by the growth of
the cambium layer. When large limbs are removed, the
wound is often covered with paint to protect it during the
process of healing.

Equipment. — 1. Pruning shears.

2. Pruning saw.

3. Pruning knife.

Directions. — Go to a near-by orchard of mature apple
trees. Other fruit trees may be chosen, or even forest trees
may answer the purpose if orchard trees are not accessible.
Select a tree in need of pruning. Remove all broken, injured,
or diseased limbs. Remove limbs that are likely to rub or
injure other portions of the tree. Remove all water sprouts.
Remove a sufficient number of the least desirable limbs so
that the light may penetrate to the center of the tree.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 199

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISES 52 AND 53
THE BABCOCK TEST1

Object. — To determine the per cent of butter fat in milk.

Explanation. — The value of a cow as a milk producer de-
pends not only on the quantity of milk produced, but also on
the per cent of butter fat in the milk. The amount of butter
fat in milk may be determined by the Babcock test.

Equipment. — 1. One or more pint samples of milk.

2. A Babcock testing outfit.

Directions. — Bring the acid and milk to be used to a tem-
perature of 70° F. This can best be done by placing them
in the hot-water bath. Mix the milk thoroughly by pouring
it from one vessel to another no less than five times.

Take pipette between thumb and second and third fingers,
leaving the index finger free, draw milk into pipette immedi-
ately after stirring and place index finger over the tip of
pipette ; now release the finger very slightly until top of the
milk column is even with the mark of the pipette.

Hold the milk bottle on a slant and place the end of the
pipette in the neck of the bottle, leaving an opening for air so
that air bubbles cannot form and throw milk out of the neck ;

1 Adapted from O. E. Reed in the Dairy Primer, Chapters in
Elements of Agriculture, Extension Department, Kansas State
Agricultural College.

200

THE BABCOCK TEST 201

then release finger and allow the milk to flow into the bottle,
blowing the last drop from the pipette. A second sample of
the milk should be taken in the same way as a duplicate.

Fill acid measure to the mark (never draw acid into pipette) .
The acid is very strong and should be handled with the great-
est caution. Water should be at hand to remove quickly any
acid coming in contact with the hands or other parts of the
body. Take the milk bottle by the neck between thumb and
fingers of the left hand so that the bottle can be turned ;
now bring the lip of the acid measure to the mouth of the
bottle and pour the acid into the bottle so that all of the
milk will be washed from the neck into the bottle. Hold the
bottle at a slant while doing this so that the acid will not fall
directly on the milk and form pieces of charred curd.

Give the bottle a rotary motion in order to cause a gradual
mixture of milk and acid; sudden mixing will cause large
amounts of heat and gas and will throw the material out of
the bottle.

After the bottle has been stirred thoroughly and the curd
is dissolved, place the bottle in the Babcock tester and whirl
five minutes.

Place the bottles in the water bath of 180° F. for five
minutes and fill with hot water to the neck.

Whirl for two minutes.

Place in water bath for five minutes and fill with hot water
to within one half inch of the top of the bottle.

Whirl for two minutes.

Place in water bath, 130° F., for five minutes.

Measure the fat column by placing one point of the dividers
at the bottom and the other at the top, then keeping dividers

202 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

at this spread, place one point on the zero mark and note
where the other point falls on the scale. The reading on
the scale at this point indicates the per cent of butter fat
in the milk. Record the per cent of butter fat of both the
first and second determinations. Additional tests should be
made as time will permit.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 203

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

204 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 54
MIXING SPRAY MATERIALS

Object. — To prepare Bordeaux mixture for spraying
apples.

Explanation. — Apple trees are sprayed to destroy fungi or
insects which may injure or completely destroy the crop if
their growth and development are not checked. In order
that spraying may be effective it is necessary to apply a sub-
stance that will destroy the fungi or insects without injury
to the apple tree or fruit.

The spray material known as Bordeaux mixture has been
found to be effective in destroying fungi such as apple scab,
apple blotch, and bitter rot, usually without injury to
the tree or fruit. Lime sulphur, another spray material, is
less likely to injure some varieties of apples, but does not
effectively destroy the apple blotch. Where the apple blotch
is not present, lime sulphur may be used instead of Bordeaux
mixture. Lead arsenate is effective in controlling the cod-
ling moth, one of the insects most destructive to the apple
crop. A strong solution of lead arsenate will destroy the
cankerworm and other insects that feed upon the foliage
and fruit. A strong solution of lime sulphur is used to com-
bat the San Jose* scale.

A common formula for making Bordeaux mixture is :

205

206 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Three pounds of copper sulphate.

Four pounds of fresh lime.

Fifty gallons of water.

The proportion of lime is sometimes increased if there is
danger of spray burn. The lime is slacked by pouring water
over it, and the copper sulphate is dissolved in water. Both
the copper sulphate solution and the lime solution should be
diluted to twenty-five gallons and then poured together.
The entire solution should be poured through a strainer to
remove coarse material.

Lime sulphur can be purchased on the market as such.
Commercial brands usually test 32° or 33° Baume". Material
of this strength should be diluted about thirty to thirty-
five times with water before using on trees that are in
leaf.

Lead arsenate spray may be prepared* by dissolving two to
four pounds of lead arsenate in fifty gallons of spray material.
Lead arsenate may be used in the same spray with Bordeaux
mixture or lime sulphur. Spray burn sometimes results
from the use of Bordeaux mixture in wet weather, and from
the use of lime sulphur in dry weather. When both
sprays are used together, one application will be effective
in combating both the codling moth and fungous diseases.
Spraying must be done at various periods to protect the
apple crop successfully.

Equipment. — 1. Thirty grams of copper sulphate.

2. Fifty grams of fresh lime.

3. Two two-gallon crocks.

4. One four-gallon crock.

5. Ten grams of potassium ferrocyanide.

MIXING SPRAY MATERIALS 207

. 6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c.

7. Balance weighing to one half gram.

Directions. — Dissolve thirty grams of copper sulphate in
two liters of water, in a two-gallon crock. Slack forty grams
of fresh lime by pouring water over it and mixing. Pour in
water to bring the solution up to two liters. Pour the two
solutions together into the large crock. The resulting solu-
tion is the Bordeaux mixture.

The Bordeaux mixture should be alkaline in reaction.
Dissolve the ten grams of potassium ferrocyanide in 50 c.c. of
water. Pour a drop of potassium ferrocyanide solution into
the spray material. If it turns brown on striking the liquid,
the reaction is acid, and more limewater must be added to
make it alkaline. If the reaction is acid, add 50 c.c. of lime-
water and test again with a drop of potassium ferrocyanide
solution. Continue adding limewater and testing until the
solution no longer gives the brown color when potassium
ferrocyanide is added.

L'OS LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 55
GRAFTING

Object. — To study the principal simple methods of grafting.

Explanation. — Grafting is the operation of inserting a
small branch or twig (called a cion) into an incision of another
branch (called the stock). The cion must bear one or more
buds, and its cambium layer must be placed next to the cam-
bium layer of the stock so that the wood of the two may
unite and grow. The main object of grafting is to propagate
plants that do not readily reproduce themselves in desired
forms from the seed. There are several methods of grafting.
Two important ones are root and top grafting. Root grafting
is practiced with apples in starting young trees. The fruit
produced from a seedling apple tree is uncertain in kind and
value. One-year-old seedlings are used for the root stock.
Twigs of the previous summer's growth taken from good
apple trees are used for the cions. Top grafting is employed
to change the character of fruit of an older tree by replacing
the branches of the tree with small twigs of a desirable variety.

Equipment. — 1. Grafting knife. 2. Saw.

3. Grafting wax.1 4. Ten one-year-old apple seedlings.2

1 Grafting wax may be made by melting together four parts, by
weight, of resin, two parts of beeswax, and one part of tallow. When
thoroughly melted, pour the mixture into a pail of cold water. After
it hardens it should be pulled and worked until it becomes tough.
The hands should be greased with tallow when handling grafting wax.

2 Apple seedlings may be secured from nurseries in lots of one
hundred.

P 209

210

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

FIG. 12. — Root grafting. A, cion
shaped ready for insertion ; B, por-
tion of seedling root shaped to
receive the cion ; C, the cion and
portion of root put together;
D, the same as C, wrapped with
grafting paper. (After Goff.)

FIG. 13. — Cleft-grafting. A, cion
shaped ready for insertion in
cleft (after Bailey) ; B, cions in-
serted in cleft ready for waxing.
(After Goff.)

GRAFTING 211

Directions for Root Grafting. — Select a proper root stock
and cion for grafting. Cut both the stock and the cion across
diagonally, so that the cut surface will extend from one to
two inches. Make a vertical &lit in each cut surface and press
the tongue of the cion into the cleft of the stock. (See illus-
tration.) Wrap the graft firmly with a bandage and apply
grafting wax over the bandage for protection.

Directions for Top Grafting. — Select an apple tree which
is barren or produces an inferior variety of apples. Remove
with a saw a branch that is one half inch to one inch in
diameter. Make a split down the center of the stock. Pre-
pare two cions four to five inches in length and wedge-
shaped at the base. Place the cions in the split, one on
each side, so that the cambium layer of the outside of
each cion comes into exact contact with the cambium layer
of the stock. Cover all the wounds carefully with grafting
wax.

212 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISES 56 AND 57
GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN

Object. — To test the vitality of seed corn.

Explanation. — If the field of corn examined in Exercise 2
shows a poor stand, the largest possible yield was not
secured. A poor stand of corn may be due to a poorly
prepared seed bed, but is very often due to the low vitality
of the seed corn. Early in the winter corn usually contains
an abnormally high per cent of moisture. If a severe freeze
occurs while it is in this condition, the vitality is likely to be
impaired or destroyed. If seed corn contains a high per
cent of moisture at husking time, it should be properly
dried out to keep it from molding, and placed under shelter
to keep if from freezing.

A man experienced in corn selection may be able to deter-
mine with some accuracy by inspection whether or not corn
will grow. But often an ear that will not grow has no out-
ward indication of reduced vitality. It is impossible to
determine definitely which ears of corn will not grow without
making a germination test.

Equipment. — 1. One hundred ears of corn.

2. A germination tester or box as shown in Fig. 14.

3. Sand.

Directions. — Lay the ears of corn that are to be tested
in a long row, side by side, where they will be undisturbed

213

214 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

« a MM

GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN 215

until after the test is completed. Number the ears from one
to one hundred. Commencing at the left end of the row,
remove six kernels from each ear — two near the butt, two
near the middle, and two near the tip. These kernels may
be pulled out with the aid of a penknife and without injury
to the kernels. Place the six kernels from ear No. 1
in the sand of the germinator tip downward in square No. 1.
Place the six kernels from ear No. 2 in square No. 2 in a
similar manner. Place the kernels from all other ears which
are to be tested in a like manner in the germinating tester in
squares assigned to them. Keep the germinating tester
moist and at a temperature of from 70° to 85° F. In five
or six days the test should be complete. If the temperature
has been below 70° F. much of the time, a longer period
for the test will be required. Remove the kernels from the
tester and count the number that germinated from each ear.
Record on the squares of the diagram on the next page the
number of kernels that germinated from each ear.

QUESTIONS

1. What per cent of ears shows perfect germination?

2. What per cent of the kernels tested shows perfect germination?

3. How many acres of corn will one hundred ears plant after
the ears have been tipped, butted, and graded, assuming that one
fourth of each ear is rejected for seed, if the rows are planted forty-
two inches apart and the kernels twenty-one inches apart in the
row? (Use figures determined in Ex. 20 for size of ear.)

4. How many ears are necessary to plant sixty acres of corn?

5. How many bushels are necessary to plant sixty acres of corn,
counting seventy pounds of ear corn to the bushel?

6. How much time is actually required to perform the work of
the germination test for one hundred ears ?

7. How much time is required to perform the work of the ger-
mination test for sixty acres ?

216

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
DIAGRAM OF SQUARES SHOWING RECORD OF GERMINATION

Number of tester. ___

Date of starting test

Date of completing test.

Name of variety

Source of seed.

123456789 10

1).

(1.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 217

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 58

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE BARLEY
PLANT

Object. — To study the germination of the barley kernel
and the early growth and development of the plant.

Explanation. — The kernel of barley is not like the kernel
of wheat, though it is somewhat similar. It is inclosed within
a hull. The hull adheres to the kernel as in oats, and with it
comprises the grain. The germ of the barley kernel occupies
a small place at one end of the kernel, as in wheat and oats.

When the kernel of barley germinates, it usually sends out
five temporary roots. These five roots help supply the small
plant with food until the permanent root system develops.

Equipment. — 1. Plants of barley, one, two, three, and four
weeks old, seeded one inch deep.

2. Plants of barley two and four weeks old, seeded three
inches deep.

Directions. — Dig up a number of small barley plants for
this study. Observe the same precautions in preparing the
plants for study as were observed with wheat. (See Ex. 16.)

Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three
weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch. Also make a
study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, seeded
three inches. (In determining age of plant count time from

218

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE BARLEY PLANT 219

date of seeding.) Make drawings of the plants at the differ-
ent stages of growth and from the different depths of planting.
Show in drawings the five temporary roots which develop
first, and in other drawings the permanent roots which de-
velop somewhat later, and are sent out in whorls from the
nodes. Show how the distance between the temporary roots
and the whorl of permanent roots depends upon the depth of
planting. Show how the older plants, by sending out new
stems, begin to tiller. Group the drawings so that they will
appear well on the page. The drawings should include the
root system, stems, and leaves and their arrangement.

220 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 221

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

• EXERCISE 59
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT

Object. — To study the germination of the oat kernel and
the early growth and development of the plant.

Explanation. — The kernel of oats is not like the kernel of
wheat, though it is somewhat similar. It is inclosed within
a hull. The hull adheres to the oat kernel and with it com-
prises the oat grain. The germ of the oat kernel occupies a
small place at one end of the kernel, as in wheat.

When the kernel of oats germinates, it sends out three
temporary roots. These three roots help supply the small
plant with food until the permanent root system develops.

Equipment. — 1. Plants of oats one, two, three, and four
weeks old, seeded one inch deep.

2. Plants of oats two and four weeks old, seeded three
inches deep.

Directions. — Dig up a number of small oat plants for
this study. Observe the same precaution in preparing these
plants for study as was observed with wheat.

Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three
weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. Also
make a study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old,
seeded three inches deep. (In determining age of plant count
time from date of seeding.)

222

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT 223

Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of
growth and from the different depths of planting. Show in
drawings the three temporary roots that develop first, and
in other drawings the permanent roots that develop some-
what later and are sent out in whorls from the nodes. Show
how the distance between the temporary roots and the whorl
of permanent roots depends upon the depth of planting.
Show how the older plants begin to tiller by sending out new
stems.

Group the drawings so that they will appear well on the
page. The drawings should include the root system, stems,
and leaves and their arrangement.

224 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 225

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 60
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES

Object. — To study the draft horse and observe those
factors that affect its quality and worth.

Explanation. — The draft horse is used principally for
hauling heavy loads. In order to perform its work success-
fully it must be large of frame, well muscled, and heavy
in weight. It is not necessary for the draft horse to
be a rapid mover, yet freedom of action and good move-
ment, when associated with weight and good muscular
development, are always desirable. In judging draft horses
care should be taken not to mistake fat for muscle.
It is often difficult to observe defects in a fat draft horse
that would be perfectly evident in an animal of thin
flesh.

Equipment. — A good draft horse.

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate
the value of each point given in the accompanying score card.
While judging the animal by the score card, have in mind an
ideal draft horse. You can obtain an idea of an ideal draft
horse from the best individuals seen at fairs or stock shows,
and from pictures of prize-winning animals that appear in
every good farm paper. With the picture of an ideal animal in
mind compare each point of the animal you are scoring with

226

JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 227

the ideal. The standard score on the score card refers to an
ideal animal. In judging each point record the number of
points that the animal falls below the ideal. The accom-
panying photograph, Fig. 15, shows the location of the
points described on the score card that should be observed
in judging a draft horse.

General Appearance 19 Per Cent. — The height, weight, form,
quality, and temperament are the most important factors
to consider in the general appearance of the draft horse.
Estimate the height of the horse. The height of a horse is
taken by measuring from the ground to the top of the withers,
and is usually expressed in hands. A hand is four inches.
After recording the estimated height, measure the horse and
record its actual height.

A draft horse must weigh 1600 pounds. If a draft horse
weighs less than this and is of draft type, it is called a " wagon
horse," or " chunk." The best draft horse weighs a ton or
over.

The heavy weight of the draft horse should be due to its
massiveness and great muscular development rather than to
fat. Great weight is desirable in a draft horse because it
holds him on the ground and enables him to secure a foot-
hold when starting heavy loads.

Estimate the weight of the horse and record the estimate.
If possible, take the horse to a scale and weigh it and record
its actual weight.

In form the draft horse should be blocky, well proportioned,
and symmetrical. It should have good quality, as indicated
by clean bone, fine hair, and loose skin. The temperament
should be energetic and the disposition good.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 229

Head and Neck 9 Per Cent. — The head and neck of the
draft horse should be of such form and shape as to give
the horse a stylish and pleasing appearance. The face should
be straight; the eyes large, clear, and bright; the ears erect
and of medium size, and the neck well muscled and arched.
Note the teeth and eyes to see that they are good.

Forequarters 24. Per Cent. — The shoulder furnishes the
surface against which the collar rests. It should be smooth
and strong. If rough and uneven, continual pulling against
the collar will develop sores and unsoundness. See that the
shoulders are not sweenied. This is a sinking of the muscles
of the shoulder, making it appear flat and bare of muscle.
The slope of the shoulder should be about forty-five degrees as
this affords the greatest comfort under the collar. The forearm
should be clean and strongly muscled. The cannon should
be short, wide, and clean. Examine the cannon for splints.
Splints may occur on any part of the region and appear as
hard, rough protrusions on the bone. Do not mistake the
two small bones associated with the cannon for splints.
These bones occur in the same location on both legs and may
be recognized in this way. The pasterns should have an
angle of about forty-five or fifty degrees when viewed from
the side. This affords spring to the gait and tends to pre-
vent foot and leg troubles.

The feet of the draft horse should be large, even sized, and
sound. The foot should be attached to the leg so that the
toe is straight ahead. If the horse toes in, it will " wing,"
or throw its feet out when it brings them forward. If the
horse toes out, it will " paddle," or throw its feet in when it
brings them forward. The toe should slope at an angle of

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

about forty-five or fifty degrees, thus harmonizing with the
slope of the pastern.

Body 9 Per Cent. — The chest should be deep and wide, and
the ribs should be long and well sprung. This affords plenty
of room for the development of the heart and lungs and thus
indicates a good strong constitution. The back and loin

Fio. 16. — Rear view of hind legs of horses. A vertical line drawn down-
ward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the
hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. Cut A represents the right conforma-
tion. B and C are common defects. (After John A. Craig. )

should be straight, short, broad, thickly and strongly muscled.
The underline should be low and flanks full.

Hindquarters 80 Per Cent. — The hindquarters of the draft
horse should be heavy and well muscled, for it is in this part
of the animal that the greatest force is exerted when pulling.
The hips of the draft horse should be broad but smooth, and in
proportion to the rest of the body. The croup should be
level, wide, and fairly long. The quarters and thighs should
be broad and heavily muscled.

JUDGING DRAFT HORSES

231

Examine the hock from the front of the horse and observe
its outline. It should be large, clean, strong, and well set.
See Figs. 16 and 17. Examine the hocks for bone spavins.
This is the most common trouble of the hocks, and when

FIG. 17. — Side view of hind legs of horses. A vertical line drawn downward
from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the
gaskin in tho middle ; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the
buttock should coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern joints.
Cut A represents the right conformation. B and C are common defects.
(After John A. Craig.)

visible, appears as a bony enlargement on the lower inner side
of the hock joint.

The fetlocks should be wide, strong, and clean, and the pas-
terns strong and springy. The feet should be large, even
sized, and clean.

Action 9 Per Cent, — Walk the horse and observe its action.
Its movement should be fast for a heavy horse, elastic, and
regular, and the feet should move in a straight line.

Trot the horse and see that its movement is free, springy,
straight, and balanced. See that it does not " wing " or
" paddle." Examine the horse for unsoundness of wind
after trotting.

232

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

SCORE CARD
DRAFT HORSES

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

12. Neck, well muscled, arched ; throat-
latch, clean ; windpipe, large . .

Carried forward

General Appearance — 19 per cent

1. Height, estimated, hands; actual,

hands

2. Weight, over 1600 lb., estimated,

Ib. ; actual, lb., according to

age 6

3. Form, broad, massive, well propor-

tioned, blocky, symmetrical ... 4

4. Quality, refined ; bone, clean, hard,

large, strong ; tendons, clean, de-
fined ; skin and hair fine ....

5. Temperament, energetic; disposition,

good

Head and Neck — 9 per cent

6. Head, lean, proportionate size ; pro-

file, straight

7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert

8. Forehead, broad, full

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color

10. Lower jaw, angles wide, clean . . .

11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils, large, open,

free from discharge ; lips, thin, even,
firm

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
DRAFT HORSES — Continued

233

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Brought forward
Forequarlers — 24 per cent
13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth,
snug, extending into back

14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown

15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean

16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly
supported

17. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons,

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean

19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping,
strong, clean

20. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn,
dense, waxy ; sole, concave ; bars,
strong; frog, large, elastic; heel,
wide, and one fourth to one half
the lineal length of toe ....

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular
line from the point of the shoulder
should fall upon the center of the
knee cannon, pastern, and foot.
From the side, a perpendicular line
dropping from the center of the
elbow joint should fall upon the cen-
ter of the knee and pastern joints
and back of the hoof

Carried forward

234 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

DHAFT HORSES — Continued

SCALE or POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Brought forward

Body — 9 per cent
22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth . . .

23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close ; coupling,
strong

24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled
25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled

26. Underline, low ; flanks, full ....

Hindquarters — 30 per cent

27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well mus-
cled

28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide,
heavily muscled

29. Tail, stylishly set and carried . . .
30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily mus-

31. Gaskins, long, wide, heavily muacled .

32. Hocks, large, clean, strong, wide, well
act

Carried forward

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
DRAFT HORSES — Continued

235

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Brought forward
33. Cannons, short, wide, clean ; tendons,

34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean .
35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong,

36. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn,
dense, waxy ; sole, concave ; bars,
strong ; frog, large, elastic ; heel,
wide, and one fourth to one half the

37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpen-
dicular line from the point of the but-
tock should fall upon the center of
the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot.
From the side, a perpendicular line
from the hip joint should fall upon
the center of the foot and divide the
gaskin in the middle, and a perpen-
dicular line from the point of the
buttock should run parallel with the
line of the cannon

Action — 9 per cent
38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight .

39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight .
Total

100

EXERCISE 61
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

Object. — To study the light horse and observe those
factors that affect its quality and worth.

Explanation. — There are three general types of light
horses ; namely, the coach or carriage horse, the saddle
horse, and the roadster horse. The coach or carriage horse
is distinguished by its plumpness, symmetry, and action. It
is well muscled over all parts of the body. Its head is small,
lean, and attractive ; neck long and graceful ; limbs clean,
and body plump and round. It is valued for its graceful
carriage and stylish action. In the roadster horse style and
graceful movement have been sacrificed somewhat for speed
and endurance. Besides having speed and endurance the
roadster must be well mannered and safe. In conformation
this type lacks the fullness and symmetry of the coach horse,
is lighter in weight, and is more rangey in appearance.

In conformation the saddle horse is intermediate between
the coach and roadster horse. It resembles the roadster
more than the coach horse. The saddle horse is prized for
its graceful movement and comfortable gait under the saddle.

Equipment. — A good driving or riding horse.

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate
the value of each point given on the accompanying score

236

JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 237

card. Have in your mind a picture of the ideal light horse.
An idea of a good light horse may be obtained by studying
the pictures of the best animals as they appear in good farm
papers, and by observing good light horses at fairs and stock
shows. The standard score on the score card refers to an
ideal animal. In judging each point record the number of
points that the animal falls below the ideal. The accom-
panying photograph, Fig. 18, shows the location of the
points described on the score card that should be observed
in judging a light horse.

General Appearance 12 Per Cent. — In general appearance
the light horse should have a smooth, symmetrical form and
stylish appearance. The quality of the animal should be
good, as shown by a firm, clean bone and fine skin and hair.
In temperament it should be energetic and active, but gentle
and kind in disposition.

Head and Neck 6 Per Cent. — The shape of the head and
neck of the horse adds greatly to its appearance. It is chiefly
from this standpoint that they are important. The head
should be straight and thin, the features of the face distinct
and broad enough between the eyes to give a pleasing appear-
ance. The nostrils should be large and open ; eyes large,
bright, and indicating vigor ; ears erect and somewhat pointed,
and neck well muscled, arched, and joined smoothly to the
body.

Forequarters 23 Per Cent. — The shoulders should be long
and oblique to give the action desired, and to add strength to
the back and length to the underline. The forelegs should
present a clean-cut appearance, should be broad, cordy,
straight, and free from coarseness. The cannon should be

238

LABORATORY V \\i'.\L OF AGRICULTURE

JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 239

wide, showing very little shrinkage below the knee, as a broad
support is necessary for the knee joint. A common-size driv-
ing horse should measure at least eight inches around the
cannon at this joint. The pasterns should be strong and
should slope at an angle of forty-five degrees with the
ground. The feet should be of medium size and of good
quality, the frog large, and the heel wide. Examine the
feet and legs for unsoundness as in judging the draft horse.

Body 10 Per Gent. — The light horse should have a deep
rather than a broad chest as it is not called upon for heavy
work, and a broad chest would interfere with the free play
of the shoulder, which is very desirable in this class of horses.
The ribs should be well sprung, as horses with well-sprung
ribs present a better appearance and are usually easier
keepers. In proportion the body should be short above
and long underneath, as this adds strength and gives the
legs free play. The loin should be short, broad, and
muscled.

Hindquarters 29 Per Cent. — The croup should be well
muscled and long. Length of croup allows greater length of
muscle in this region and insures greater speed. The hind-
quarters should be heavily muscled and when viewed from
behind should show a heavy muscular development between
the legs. The hind legs should be well carried ; if bent too
far forward they are likely to develop a curb, while if too
straight, they are more subject to thoroughpins or spavins.
The hock should be broad, allowing plenty of room for the
attachment of muscles. The hock should be carefully exam-
ined for unsoundness. The hind cannon should be wide,
short, and clean ; the hind pasterns of medium size and length.

240 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

The hind feet should be of medium size, and should have
strong, wide heels and full fronts.

Action 20 Per Cent. — Walk the horse back and forth and
observe the action. The step should be quick, elastic, and
balanced. Trot the horse and notice its action when moving
more rapidly. It should have free action, a rapid, straight,
and regular movement, and if a coach horse, its action should
be high.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

241

SCORE CARD

LIGHT HOUSES

SCALE or POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

General Appearance — 12 per cent
1. Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish . .

2. Quality, bone, clean, firm, and indicat-
ing sufficient substance ; tendons,
defined ; hair and skin, fine ....

3. Temperament, lactive ; kind disposition
Head and Neck — 6 per cent

5. Muzzle, fine ; nostrils, large ; lips, thin,
even ; teeth, sound

6. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large . . .
7. Forehead, broad, full

8. Ears, medium sized, pointed, well car-
ried, and not far apart

9. Neck, muscled ; crest, high ; throat-
latch, fine ; windpipe, large ....

Forequarters — 23 per cent
10. Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle
oblique, extending into back . . .

11. Arms, short, thrown forward . . .
12. Forearms, muscled, long, wide . . .

13. Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep,
strongly supported

14. Cannons, short, wide ; sinews, large, set

Carried forward

242 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

LIQHT HORSES — Continued

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Boon

Brought forward
15 Fetlocks wide straight

10. Pasterns, strong; angle with ground

17. Feet, medium, even sized, straight;
horn, dense ; frog, large, elastic ; bars,
strong ; sole, concave ; heel, wide .

18. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular
line from the point of the shoulder
should fall upon the center of the
knee, cannon, pastern, and foot. From
the side, a perpendicular line drop-
pin? from the renter of the elbow
joint should fall upon the center of
the knee and pastern joints and back

Body — 10 per cent
10. Withers, muscled and well finished at

20. Chest, deep, low ; large girth . . .
21 Ribs long, sprung, close

22. Back, straight, short, broad, muscled .

24. Underline, long; flank let down . .

Hindquarters — 29 per cant
25. Hips, smooth, wide, level

20. Croup, long, wide, muscular ....
27. Tail, attached high, well carried . . .

Carried forward

STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT
LTQHT HORSES — Continued

243

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Brought forward
28. Thighs, long, muscular, spread ; open

29. Quarters, heavily muscled, deep . . .
30. Gaskin or lower thighs, long, wide,

31. Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight .
32. Cannons, short, wide ; sinews, large, set

33. Fetlocks, wide, straight

34. Pasterns, strong, sloping

35. Feet, medium, even sized, straight;
horn, dense ; frog, large, elastic ; bars,
strong ; sole, concave ; heel, wide, high

36. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendic-
ular line from point of the buttock
should fall upon the center of the
hock, cannon, pastern, and foot.
From the side, a perpendicular line
from the hip joint should fall upon
the center of the foot and divide the
gaskin in the middle ; and a perpen-
dicular line from the point of the
buttock should run parallel with the
line of the cannon

Action — 20 per cent
37. Walk, elastic, quick, balanced . . .

38. Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high . .
Total

100

EXERCISE 62
COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF HORSES

Object. — To place the animals of a class of horses accord-
ing to their worth.

Explanation. — When a good horseman selects a valuable
horse, he has in mind an ideal of the type of animal that
he wants. He makes a careful study of all the points of
the animal and chooses the individual that most nearly
meets his ideal. If he is placing a class of horses, he makes
a careful study of each individual in the class and places
the best individual first. The other animals of the class
are in a similar way placed in the order of their worth.

It is necessary for the beginner who wants to become pro-
ficient in the judging of horses to study the quality of the
individuals of the class and to become familiar with the
characteristics that affect value. After becoming familiar
with each animal, he can then place them according to their
merits.

Equipments. — A class of four good draft horses or a class
of four good driving horses. All the animals of the class
should be of about the same age and same condition of flesh.1

1 The instructor may use his own judgment in selecting a class
of animals. Sometimes one class will be more easily available than
the other. If it is impossible to obtain a class of four, the exercise
can be conducted with two animals.

244

COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF HORSES 245

Directions. — Number the animals from one to four and
place them side by side. Examine thoroughly and systemati-
cally all the animals in the class. Keep in mind the relative
value of the points discussed on the score card. After this
thorough examination decide which animal is best. This
can be done by balancing the good and bad points of one ani-
mal against those of another. When the best animal is
selected, record its rank in the blank space opposite its num-
ber on the outline form of Student's Notes and Report. In
like manner choose the second best animal in the class and
record its rank in the space opposite its number. The third
and fourth animals are to be placed and recorded in the same
manner.

Discuss fully under " Student's Notes and Report " the good
and bad points of each animal in the class. Discuss them in
the order of your placing. Give in detail the reasons for
placing each animal as you did.

246 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

ORDER or NUMBERING
THE CLAM

ORDER or STUDENT'S
PLACING

CORRECT PLACING

STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT
STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

247

IMS LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 63
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE

Object. — To study the dairy cow and observe those
factors that affect her quality and worth.

Explanation. — A dairy cow is used primarily for the pro-
duction of milk and butter fat. The most profitable dairy
cow is the one that produces the maximum amount of milk
and butter fat for a given amount of feed. Two methods
are used in selecting profitable dairy cows. One method of
selection is to consider the record of the animal and from
this record to determine her ability to produce milk and
butter fat. The other method of selection is to consider
the form or conformation of the animal. The first method
is the better because the actual record of the animal is con-
sidered. This method cannot always be employed because
the record of the dairy cow is not always available. When
the record of the cow is not available, the only means of de-
termining her value is by studying her form and conforma-
tion. High milk production is usually associated with a
definite form or conformation. The dairy cow is thin and
muscular and in this respect differs from the beef animal.
This condition is due not to her inability to utilize food
economically, but to her tendency to convert the food con-
sumed into milk rather than into body fat.

249

250 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Equipment. — A good dairy cow.

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate
the value of each point given on the accompanying score
card. While judging the animal by the score card, have in
mind an ideal animal. You can obtain an idea of an ideal
animal from the best individuals that you have seen at stock
shows and fairs, or from pictures of the winners at the Inter-
national Live Stock Show. With the picture of an ideal
animal in mind compare each point of the animal you are
scoring with the ideal.

The standard score on the score card refers to the ideal
animal. In judging each point record the number of points
that the animal falls below the ideal. The accompanying
photograph, Fig. 19, shows the location of the points de-
scribed on the score card that should be observed in judging a
dairy cow.

The Head 8 Per Cent. — Examine the general appearance
of the head and note the size of the muzzle. The muzzle
should be broad, for this is usually associated with a good
feeder. The face of the dairy cow should be of good length
and free from extra flesh. A fleshy face is not associated with
high milk production. The eyes should be large, mild, and
quiet but not drowsy. A large milk production is not asso-
ciated with a drowsy eye. The ears should be of medium
size, fine textured, and well supplied on the inside with waxy
secretion of yellow color. The waxy secretion yellow in
color indicates vigor and general good health in the animal.

Forequarters 10 Per Cent. — The throat should be thin and
clean-cut. The neck should be of medium length, thin, and
free of flesh, in direct contrast to the beef animal. A short,

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE

251

252 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

beefy neck does not denote high milk production. The
neck should be joined smoothly to the shoulders, which
should be sloping. It should be smooth and have a light
brisket. The withers should be narrow and sharp, not
broad and flat, as this indicates beefiness. The forelegs
should be straight, clean, set well under the body, and well
apart. Legs set too close together indicate lack of room
for the development of lungs and heart, and therefore a poor
constitution.

Body 25 Per Cent. — The chest of the dairy cow should
be deep and roomy, and have a broad floor, as these charac-
teristics all indicate more room for the heart and lungs, and
consequently a strong constitution. The back should be
straight and strong. A weak, sunken back is a common de-
fect in dairy cows. It indicates insufficient strength to carry
a heavy barrel. The vertebra or spinal processes along the
spinal column should be prominent and open. The lateral
nerves pass out between the vertebra, and plenty of room
for these nerves is desirable. The barrel of the dairy cow is
her storehouse for food. The dairy animal, to be profitable,
must consume a large quantity of food and she must have a
large barrel in which to store it. The ribs should be well
sprung and wide apart, thus making a large barrel possible.
The loin should be broad and strong, especially broad to
avoid trouble at time of parturition.

Hindquarters 12 Per Cent. — The hips of the dairy cow
should be prominent and wide apart, as this indicates both
capacity in the barrel and room in the pelvic region. The
rump should be long, and high at the tail head. A long
rump is associated with plenty of room for udder attachment.

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 253

The tail should be thin, tapering, and long, the tail bone ex-
tending at least to the hocks, as a long tail is associated with
a high nervous development, much desired in a dairy cow.
The hind legs should set well apart, especially at the hocks,
thus allowing plenty of room for the development of the
udder.

Mammary Development 80 Per Cent. — The udder is the
most important part of the dairy cow. It should be attached
high behind and carried well forward, thus affording the
maximum amount of room for its development. It should
be flexible, and when empty, drop into folds. A fleshy udder
is not desirable, as there is not sufficient room for the secre-
tory glands. The quarters should be even and not cut up.
The teats should be wide apart, uniformly placed, and of
convenient size, which qualities aid in milking and insure
greater capacity in the udder. A thorough examination
should be made to see that all teats are perfect. A stream
of milk should be drawn from each teat. The milk veins
should be large and twisting, and should extend well forward.
The size of the milk veins indicates the amount of blood
that can pass through the circulation to the udder. The
milk wells or cavities where the milk veins pass into the body
should be large and numerous. Examine the cow and de-
termine the number of milk wells. Every cow has two milk
wells, and some cows have as many as fourteen.

General Appearance 15 Per Cent. — The disposition of the
dairy cow should be quiet and gentle, yet she should show
indications of a high nervous development well under con-
trol, since this characteristic indicates milk production.
Health and vigor will be determined by her wide-awake

254 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

appearance and by the quality of her hair and hide. A
strong constitution is shown by a deep, broad chest. Quality
is indicated by a soft, thin, mellow hide. Determine this by
gathering up a handful of hide over the last two or three
ribs. The hair should be fine and the secretions oily and
abundant, as this indicates a healthy condition.

Temperament, or the tendency to dairy performance, is
indicated by the general appearance of the animal. She
should give the impression of being an individual capable of
converting food into milk.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

255

THE SCORE CARD
DAIRY CATTLE — Cow

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

1
POINTS DE-
FICIENT

2
POINTS DE-
FICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor- '

rected
Score

Head — 8 per cent
1. Muzzle, broad

2. Jaw, strong, firmly joined ....
3. Face, medium length, clean ....
4. Forehead, broad between eyes, dishing
5. Eyes, large, full, mild, bright ....
6. Ears, medium size, fine texture, secre-
tions oily and abundant, yellow color
Forequarters — 10 per cent
7. Throat, clean

8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to
shoulders, free from dewlap . . .
9. Withers, narrow, sharp . . .

10. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, brisket, light
11. Forelegs, straight, clean, well set under

Body — 25 per cent
12. Crops, free from fleshiness ....
13. Chest, deep, roomy ; floor, broad
14. Back, straight, strong, vertebra open .
15. Ribs, long, deep, sprung, wide apart .
16. Barrel, deep, long, capacious ....
17. Loin, broad, strong

1 "

Carried forward

256 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

DAIRY CATTLE — Cow — Continued

SCALE or POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DE-
FICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

POINTS D»-

riCIENT

Stu-
,|. i.t1,
BOON

Cor-

r, , •. ,|

Boon

Hindquarters — 12 per cent

18. Hips, prominent, wide apart .... 1

19. Rump, long, level, not sloping ... 4

20. Pin bones, wide apart 1

21. Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering . . 1

22. Thighs, spare, not fleshy 3

23. Hind legs, well apart, giving ample

room for udder 2

Mammary Development — 30 per cent

24. Udder, large, very flexible, attached

high behind, carrying well forward ;
quarters, even, not cut up .... 15

25. Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed,

convenient size 5

26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending

well forward 4

27. Milk wells, large 6

General Appearances — 15 per cent

28. Disposition, quiet, gentle 2

29. Health, thrifty, vigorous 3

30. Quality, free from coarseness through-

out; skin, soft, pliable; secretions,
abundant ; hair, fine 4

31. Temperament, inherent tendency to

dairy performance 6

Total . . 100

EXERCISE 64
JUDGING BEEF CATTLE

Object. — To study the beef animal and observe those
factors that affect its quality and worth.

Explanation. — The principal purpose of beef cattle is the
production of meat. The beef animal that 'most nearly meets
the demands of the butcher is the one that the farmer
should produce. The animal that brings the highest price on
the market is the one that will dress the highest per cent of
salable meat and will have a maximum amount of this meat
located in those parts of the body from which the most valu-
able cuts are secured.

Equipment — 1 . A good beef steer.

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate
the value of each point given on the accompanying score
card. While judging the animal by the score card, have in
mind an ideal animal. You can obtain an idea of an ideal
animal from the best individuals that you have seen at stock
shows and fairs, or from pictures of the winners at the In-
ternational Live Stock Show. With the picture of an ideal
animal in mind compare each point of the animal you are
scoring with the ideal. The standard score on the score
card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each point record
the per cent that the animal falls below the ideal. The
s 257

IMS LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

accompanying photograph, Fig. 20, shows the location of
the points described on the score card that should be ob-
served in judging a beef animal.

General Appearance 40 Per Cent. — The value of an animal
as a meat producer depends upon its form, quality, condition,
and weight. Form has reference to the shape of the animal.
The shape of the animal should be such that it will carry
the maximum amount of the most valuable cuts of meat.
Quality is determined by the condition of the bone, hair,
skin, and flesh. Good quality means that the animal has
clean bone, soft, mellow skin, general refinement of features
and appearance, and all parts of the body covered thickly
and evenly with firm, mellow flesh. Condition refers to the
finish of the animal. The animal is said to be finished when
it is fat. A fat animal will produce a higher per cent of
dressed meat, and the meat is more valuable because it is
more tender and palatable.

In addition to these factors the weight of the animal for
its age should also be considered. Estimate the weight of
the animal before weighing and record your estimate on the
blank in the score card. Take the animal to stock scales
if possible and determine its actual weight.

Head and Neck 7 Per Cent. — Examine the general appear-
ance of the head and neck. Note the size of muzzle ; the
muzzle should be broad, the mouth large, and the nostrils
large and open, for these qualities denote a good feeder.
The neck should be short, broad, and refined, and in correct
proportion to the rest of the body.

Forequarters 9 Per Cent. — The shoulder should fit smoothly
into the body without too much prominence of shoulder

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE

259

/ S

on CJ ...

C O »C • I - 00
.« §5 <N<N<NN

73 o •- "• s 3

__J w o •— •— 3

H^ -ffiWA,

fe/l ? i-< IN M •*'

a .li C^MMN

: 2 1

s a
C.o <c

73 Q.

t; g

tr "O oi o -j N
i« a

J3 M 'S

" -2 ^ a

O r-j ^-S

flH i-< tv» M •*

260 LABORATORY MANUAL OP AGRICULTURE

blades. The lower part of the shoulder should be smooth,
well covered with flesh, and not too heavy. The forelegs
should be short, standing well apart, and the foreflank should
be full.

Body 30 Per Cent. — Observe the body from the side ; it
should present the general outlines of a rectangle. The top
line should be straight from head to tail. The bottom line
should be low, straight, and parallel to the top line. The
chest should be deep and full, and the hind flank should be
full and even with the underline.

Hindquarters 14 Per Cent. — Observe the animal from the
rear. The hindquarters should be deep and as broad as
the shoulders. The rump should be long and wide, and the
tail head smooth. The twist should be deep and plump.
The legs should be wide apart, straight, and short.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

261

THE SCORE CARD

BEEF CATTLE — FAT

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ABO

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

General Appearance — 40 per cent

1. Weight, estimated, Ib. ; actual,

lb., — according to age ..... 10

2. Form, straight top and underline,

deep, broad, low set, stylish, smooth,
compact, symmetrical

3. Quality, fine, soft hair; loose, pliable

skin of medium thickness; dense,
clean, medium-sized bone ....

4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm,

mellow flesh ; free from patches, ties,
lumps, and rolls ; full cod and flank
indicating finish 12

Head and Neck — 7 per cent

5. Muzzle, broad; mouth, large; nostrils,

large and open 1

6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 1

7. Face, short ; jaw, strong 1

8. Forehead, broad, full

9. Ears, medium size ; fine texture ... 1

10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly

with shoulder ; throat, clean with light
dewlap 2

Foreguarters — 9 per cent

11. Shoulder vein, full 1

12. Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact.

snug, neat 4

Carried forward

262 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

BEEF CATTLE — FAT — Continued

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
AKD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-

<l< nt.^
Score

Cor-
rected
Boon

Brought forward
13. Brisket, trim, neat ; breast, full . . .

52
2

14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; arm,

full ; shank, wide

Body — 30 per cent

15. Chest, full, deep, wide; girth, large;

crops, full

16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly

fleshed

17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and

smoothly fleshed S

18. Loin, thick, broad

19. Flank, full, even with underline ... 2

Hindquarters — 14 per cent

20. Hips, smooth

21. Rump, long, wide, level ; tail head,

smooth ; pinbones, wide apart, not
prominent 3

22. Thighs, deep, full 4

23. Twist, deep, plump 4

24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ;

shanks, fine, smooth 2

Total . 100

EXERCISE 65
COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF CATTLE

Object. — To place the animals of a class of cattle accord-
ing to their worth.

Explanation. — When a stockman goes into a herd of
cattle, or when a judge goes into a show ring, he has in
mind the type of animal that he desires for his purpose.
If the judge is placing a class of beef cattle, he examines
the entire class, keeping in mind the ideal beef animal, and
chooses that individual for first which most nearly meets
this ideal. In the same way he places in the order of their
merit the other animals of the class. In a similar manner
the judge of dairy cattle, keeping in mind the ideal dairy
cow, awards the places in the dairy cattle class.

It is necessary for the beginner who wants to become pro-
ficient in judging cattle to study the characteristics of the
individuals of the class and to become familiar with the char-
acteristics that affect value. After becoming familiar with
each animal the beginner can place it according to its
merits.

Equipment. — A class of four good dairy cows, or a class
of four good beef steers, all the animals of the class to be of
about the same age and same condition of flesh.1

1 In selecting a class of animals for this exercise the instructor
should be governed by the relative importance of the two classes of

263

264 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

When the best animal is selected, record its rank in the
space opposite its number. In like manner choose the
second-best animal of the class and record its rank in the
space opposite its number. The third and fourth animals in
the class are placed in the same manner. Record their
placings.

Discuss fully under Student's Notes and Report the good
and bad points of each animal in the class. Discuss them in
the order of your placing. Give in detail the reasons for
placing each animal as you did.

animals in the community. If the dairy industry is of greater
importance, a dairy class should be selected If not, a beef class
should be selected.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 265
STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

ORDER or NUMBERING)

OKDER OF STUDENT'S
PLACING

CORRECT PLACING

266 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 2G7

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 66
JUDGING FAT HOGS

Object. — To study the hog and observe those factors that
affect its quality and worth.

Explanation. — There are two general classes of hogs,
commonly sold on the market, the fat or lard hog and the
bacon hog. The lard or fat hog is short legged, broad, and
of medium length. It fattens easily and is used on the
market for making lard, supplying hams and shoulders, and
furnishing cheap side meat. The bacon hog is long, deep,
and narrow in body, has long legs, and is used chiefly for the
production of bacon.

The fat hog is best suited to the north central United
States because of the abundance of corn in this region and
the ability of the fat hog to fatten rapidly on this food. In
some of the northern states of the United States and in
Canada the bacon hog is generally produced.

The fat hog that is in greatest demand is the one that will
dress the largest percentage of good salable meat. It sup-
plies the demand for good hams and shoulders, and furnishes
a large amount of lard.

Equipment. — A good fat hog.

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate
the value of each point given on the accompanying score

268

JUDGING FAT HOGS

269

4) O —

r i O TTI

l! irf <D
O <N C*

S cc K

'5 "° * O

— •* 3 v

4111

a .r. 3 3

a •>> « «

03 K fe W

270 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

card. Have in your mind a picture of the ideal fat hog. An
idea of an ideal hog may be obtained by studying pictures
of winners at the International Live Stock Show or by ob-
serving good individual specimens. The standard score on
the score card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each
point record the number of points that the animal falls
below the ideal. The accompanying photograph, Fig. 21,
shows the location of the points described on the score card
that should be observed in judging a fat hog.

General Appearance 30 Per Cent. — The general appear-
ance of the fat hog is determined by the weight, form, quality,
and covering of the animal. The weight of the hog will
vary with age. Record your estimate of the weight of the
hog. If possible, weigh the hog and record its actual weight.
The best weight at which to market the fat hog varies with
the demand and the supply of the market. As a rule fat
hogs weighing from 200 to 300 pounds are the most profit-
able for selling.

The fat hog should be compactly built, round ribbed,
and deep chested. Good quality is indicated by smooth,
fine hair, clean, strong bone, and a general appearance of
refinement.

Head and Neck 8 Per Cent. — The head and neck of the
fat hog have very little commercial value. In fact this
portion of the animal is nearly all waste to the butcher. The
head of the hog, however, shows character and feeding
capacity. A broad head and a short neck are desirable
because they are usually associated with feeding capacity,
broad back, and heavy hams.

Forequarters 12 Per Cent. — The most important part of the

JUDGING FAT HOGS 271

forequarters of a fat hog is the shoulders, which should
be level on top, well packed with flesh, and broad and deep.
The breast should be full, as this indicates a vigorous consti-
tution. The legs should be straight, short, and strong, with
hard, clean bone.

Body 83 Per Cent. — The body is the most important part
of the animal from the butcher's standpoint, for it is this part
of the animal that supplies most of the dressed meat. The
back should have a straight top line, although a gradual rise
from both the neck and the tail to the center of the back
usually renders the animal stronger and able to carry more
flesh. The back should be broad and carry its width well
forward and back. It should be evenly and thickly fleshed.
The underline should run nearly parallel with the top line.

Hindquarters 17 Per Cent. — The hams are the most im-
portant part of the hindquarters. The ham should be wide,
plump, full, and carry down well to the hock. The hind legs
should be short, strong, and placed wide apart.

272

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

SCORE CARD
JUDGING FAT HOGS

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected

Score

Stu-
dent's
'Score

Cor-
rected
Score

General Appearance — 30 per cent
' Est.

i. weight | A8ct- ;;;;;;;;

Score according to age

2. Form, deep, broad, medium length ;
smooth, compact, symmetrical,
standing square on medium short
legs

3. Quality, hair, smooth and fine ; bone,
medium size, clean, strong ; general
appearance, smooth and refined . .

4. Covering, finished, deep, even, mellow,
free from lumps and wrinkles . . .

Head and Neck — 8 per cent
5. Snout, medium length, not coarse .
6. Eyes, not sunken, clear, not obscured

7. Face, short; cheeks, full

8. Ears, fine, medium size attached neatly
9. Jowl, full, firm, neat

10. Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder

Poreyuarters — 12 per cent
11. Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, com-

12. Breast, full, smooth, neat

13. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone,
clean, hard ; pasterns, short, strong,
upright ; feet, medium size . . .

Carried forward

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
JUDGING FAT HOGS — Continued

273

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Brought forward

Body — 33 per cent

14. Chest, deep, wide, large girth . . .

15. Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium

length

16. Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly

and evenly covered _

17. Loin, wide, thick, strong 9

18. Belly, straight, smooth, firm ....

Hindquarters — 17 per cent

19. Hips, wide apart, smooth 3

20. Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed 3

21. Ham, heavily Seshed, full, firm, deep,

wide 9

22. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone,

clean, hard ; pasterns, short, strong,
upright ; feet, medium sized ... 2

Total . 100

EXERCISE 67
JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP

Object. — - To study the mutton sheep and observe those
factors that affect its quality and worth.

Explanation. — Sheep may be divided into two general
types based upon the purpose for which they are bred. One
type is bred chiefly for the production of mutton and the
other type principally for the production of wool. For
mutton purposes the most desirable sheep to produce is the
one that most nearly fills the market demands. The sheep
that most nearly meets the market demand for mutton is
the ideal described in the accompanying score card.

Equipment. — A good mutton sheep.

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate
the value of each point given in the accompanying score
card. Have in mind a clear understanding of the ideal
mutton sheep. This may be gained by studying photographs
of prize-winning sheep or by examining prize animals at fairs
and stock shows. The standard score on the score card re-
fers to the ideal animal. In judging each point record the
number of points that the animal falls below the ideal. It
is more difficult for beginners to judge sheep than any other
class of live stock. On account of the length of the fleece it
is difficult to determine by observation alone the form of the

274

JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP 275

animal. It is necessary to handle every part of the sheep to
determine its form. Therefore, sheep judging is done more
with the hand than with the eye. To add to the difficulty
of judging sheep by outside appearances nearly all showmen
trim their sheep before placing them on exhibition. It is
thus possible to cover up any weak points in the animal, and
to make judging by any other method than that of handling
absolutely impossible.

In handling sheep do not disturb or break the fleece. Hold
the hand flat with the fingers together in a sloping manner.
Press the hand over the fleece and feel the form in this man-
ner. Do not stick the fingers into the fleece, it makes breaks
and allows both dirt and water to enter. When studying
the length of wool, place the two hands, palms downward,
over the spot to be examined and separate the wool by slowly
moving the hands apart while firmly pressing the wool. This
spreads the fleece naturally and does not injure it in any way.

The accompanying photographs, Figs. 22 and 23, show the
location of the points described on the score card that should
be observed in judging a mutton sheep.

General Appearance 38 Per Cent. — Most mutton sheep are
sold on the market while they are lambs, under one year of age.
Lambs weighing in the neighborhood of eighty pounds usually
sell at the highest price on the market. In general appear-
ance the mutton sheep should present a fullness and smooth-
ness of outline which indicates thick and evenly distributed
flesh. The animal should show good quality, as indicated
by a clean bone, silky fleece, and fine pink skin.

Head and Neck 7 Per Cent. — The head should show char-
acter and should be short and broad. The eyes should be

FIGS. 22 and 23. — A mutton sheep, showing location ot parts.

1. Muzzle

2. Mouth

3. Nostril

4. Lips

5. Nose

6. Face

7. Forehead

8. Eye

9. Ear

10. Neck

11. Shoulder vein

12. Top of shoulder

13. Shoulder

14. Chest

15. Brisket

16. Foreleg

17. Back

18. Loin

19. Hip

20. Ribs or side

21. Fore flank

22. Belly

23. Flank

24. Rump

25. Leg of mutton

or thigh

26. Crop

27. Dock or tail

28. Twist

29. Hind leg

JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP 277

clean, bright, and placid. The muzzle should be broad and
open, indicating feeding capacity. The neck should be thick,
short, and set well into the shoulders.

Forequarters 7 Per Cent. — The shoulders should be com-
pact on top, well covered with flesh, and of the required
smoothness to give good form. The brisket should be neat
and extend well forward. The breast should be wide and
full, indicating health and a vigorous constitution.

Body 20 Per Cent. — The chest should be wide, deep, and
full, and the ribs well sprung to give plenty of room for the
development of the lungs, heart, and digestive system. The
back should be broad, straight, of good length, and thickly
fleshed, and the loin should also be thick and broad, for in this
region is located some of the highest priced meat.

Hindquarters 16 Per Cent. — The leg of mutton, which repre-
sents over 40 per cent of the value of the mutton carcass,
is located in the hindquarter. For this reason a good de-
velopment of this portion of the animal is highly desirable
from the butcher's standpoint. The rump should be long,
level, and wide, thighs full and deep, twist plump, and legs
straight, short, and strong.

Wool 12 Per Cent. — The wool should be of good length,
dense, and evenly distributed over all parts of the body. A
dense fleece is desirable because it produces more wool and
affords greater protection to the sheep. The condition of
the fleece should be good. It should be well supplied with
yolk or oil, although too much is not desirable. It should
be soft, light, and free from dirt and trash. The skin under
the fleece should have a bright, pink color. A bluish tint is
not desirable, as it indicates lack of vigor and health.

278

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

SCORE CARD

MUTTON SHEEP

SCALE or POINTS

STAND-
ARD

SCORE

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's

S-MM-

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Boon

Age...

General Appearance — 38 per cent

1. Weight, score according to age . . .

2. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set,

stylish .... . .

Carried forward

3. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; fine

pink skin; light in offal, yielding
high percentage of meat ....

4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm

Besh, especially in regions of valuable
cuts. Points, indicating ripeness, are,
thick dock, back thickly covered
•with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full
flank, breast 10

Head and Neck — 7 per cent

5. Muzzle, fine; mouth, large; lips, thin;

nostrils, large and open 1

6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 1

7. Face, short, features clean-cut ... 1

8. Forehead, broad, full 1

9. Ears, fine, alert 1

10 Neck, thick, short, free from folda . 2

Foreguarlers — 7 per cent

11. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact

on top, snug 5

12. Brisket, neat, proportionate; breast,

wide .

STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 279

MUTTON SHEEP — Continued

SCALE OF POINTS

STAND-
ARD
SCORE

POINTS DEFICIENT

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Stu-
dent's
Score

Cor-
rected
Score

Brought forward

13. Legs, straight, short, wide apart,

strong ; forearm, full ; shank, smooth,

fine 1

Body — 20 per cent

14. Chest, wide, deep, full 4

15. Ribs, well sprung, long

16. Back, broad, straight, long, thickly

fleshed 6

17. Loin, thick, broad, long . .

Hindquarters — 16 per cent

18. Hips, far apart, level, smooth ... 2

19. Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head . . 4

20. Thighs, full, deep, wide 4

21. Twist, plump, deep 5

22. Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank,

fine, smooth 1

Wool — 12 per cent

23. Quantity, long, dense, even .... 4

24. Quality, fine, pure ; crimp, close, regu-
lar, even .... 4

25. Condition 4

Total . 100

EXERCISES 68 AND 69
JUDGING A FARM1

Object. — To study a farm and become familiar with the
factors that affect its value.

Explanation. — The farm is the place of business and the
manufacturing plant of the farmer. The farmer is a manu-
facturer as truly as the man who builds stoves from iron or
the man who produces iron from the ore. As the manu-
facturer of stoves uses iron as raw material and produces
stoves as the finished product, so the farmer uses the elements
of nature, and manure or fertilizer, the plant food of the
soil, as raw material, and from these produces grain and hay
as finished products. He may carry the process of manu-
facture one step farther and by feeding the grain and hay to
cattle, produce beef or milk as the finished product. The
farm, therefore, is a manufacturing plant and should be as
well suited to the type of farming that the farmer wishes
to pursue as the shop that the manufacturer builds is suited
to his business.

The farm, however, is more, or should be more, than a man-
ufacturing plant merely. It should furnish a pleasant and
healthful home for the farmer and his family. Thus, in
judging a farm, both the advantages of the place for the

1 Adapted from G. W. Warren's score card for judging farms.

280

JUDGING A FARM 281

type of farming to be pursued and the desirability of the
farm as a place to live must be considered.

Directions. — Go to a near-by farm and make a thorough
examination of the place. Keep in mind the purpose for
which the farm is being used, whether grain farming, dairy-
ing, fruit farming, general farming, etc. Make a journey
over the fields, noting their shape, topography, character of
the soil, drainage, and condition of the fences. After thor-
oughly examining the fields, return to the farmstead and ob-
serve the improvements, house, barn, orchards, water supply,
etc.

After the farm has been thoroughly examined fill in the
score of the different points on the accompanying score card.
In scoring designate the condition of each point by marking
with E., V.G., G., F., P., V.P., standing for excellent, very
good, good, fair, poor, or very poor. The figures in the
standard score give the relative importance of the different
points that appear on the score card for a farm used for gen-
eral farming. The distribution of points would be differ-
ent in specialized farming. For instance, for truck farms
all points that have to do with ease of tillage would be given
a higher rating, while fertility would be of less importance.

Size 2 Per Cent. — The farm should not be too small.
There are many farm operations that require two or more
men for economical work, and a small farm requires as much
machinery as a larger one. The fields should be long enough
to be easily tilled, which is impossible on too small a farm.
On the other hand, the farm should not be larger than it is
possible to handle with the equipment and labor available.

Fields 6 Per Cent. — The fields should be of good shape.

282 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

If they must be fenced, a square field is the most economical.
They should be of sufficient size to till easily and should be
arranged as near the barns or feed lots as possible.

Topography 6 Per Cent. — The farm should be level enough
to make tillage easy and to prevent loss of fertility by wash-
ing and the loss of soil by erosion. The fields should be roll-
ing enough to furnish good, natural drainage.

Fertility 12 Per Cent.— The soil should be in as high a
state of natural fertility as possible. A soil in a low state
of natural fertility cannot be made productive without the
extensive use of expensive fertilizers.

Physical Properties of the Soil 12 Per Cent. — The physical
properties of the soil are as important as the soil's fertility.
They determine the ease and earliness at which the soil can
be worked.

Drainage 5 Per Cent. — The soil should be well drained,
either naturally or artificially. It is unprofitable to farm
poorly drained land.

Condition 5 Per Cent. — Condition refers to waste land,
weeds, stone, stumps, etc. It is generally cheaper to buy a
farm in good condition than to improve one in this respect.

Climate. — While not given a score, climate should be
considered in judging a farm, especially when topography
or proximity to water influences the climate of different
farms in the community.

Healthfulness 4 Per Cent. — From a personal standpoint
the healthfulness of the farm might be the most important
fact to consider, and even from an economical standpoint it
is an important factor.

Location 25 Per Cent. — The location of the farm is undoubt-

JUDGING A FARM 283

edly the most important factor influencing its value. The
distance to railways and markets influences greatly the cost
of producing farm products and is the most important factor
in determining the kind of farming to be practiced on the
farm. Many kinds of farming, such as gardening and fruit
growing, are possible if the farm is located a great distance
from markets and railroads. The labor supply, the neigh-
bors, the conveniences, such as telephone, trolleys, and rural
mail routes, should be observed in considering the location
of the farm. The distance to school, church, grange, etc.,
should also be considered.

Taxes 1 Per Cent. — Taxes should be considered, for some
farms admirably located near cities may be less desirable on
account of the high tax rate.

Water Supply 4 Per Cent. — Running streams always add
to the value of a farm. If running water is not present, the
farm should have good wells.

Improvements 18 Per Cent. — The house, barns, and other
buildings should be suitable to the farm. Too extensive
buildings or too poor or too small buildings are not desirable.
The condition of the fences and their arrangement should
be considered. Good orchards and vineyards are an asset
to a farm.

284 * LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE
SCORE CARD FOR FARMS

NAME or FARM

Poom

STANDARD

Size —

1. Adapted to kind of farming 2

Fields —

1. Shape and size 3

2. Nearness to farmstead 3 6

Topography —

1. As affecting ease of cultivation 3

2. As affecting production .... .... 1

3. As affecting erosion and loss of fertility .... 1.5

4. As affecting air drainage 0.5 6

Fertility ~

1. Natural 8

2. Condition 4 12

Physical Properties of the Soil —

1. As affecting economy of cultivation 1 Q

2. As affecting number of days of labor /

3. As affecting loss of fertility 1

4. As affecting kinds of possible crops 2 12

Drainage —

1. Natural 1

2. Artificial / '

Condition —

1. Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land. etc. 5

Climate —

1. As affecting animal and plant production

2. As affecting number of days of labor .

Health fulness —

1. As an economic factor

Location —

1. Distance to market 4

2. Railroads 5

3. Local markets 3

4. Shipping facilities 2

5. Neighbors as an economic factor 4

6. Labor supply of neighborhood 1

7. R. F. D., telephone, trolleys, etc 3

8. Churches, school, grange, etc., as an economic factor 3

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
SCORE CARD FOR FARMS — Continued

285

POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

Taxes —

1. Per cent on cash value 1

Water —

1. Running water, wells 4

Improvements —

1. Site of farmstead 1

2. House as adapted to needs of farm 6

3. Other buildings 6

4. Fences — kind, condition, arrangement .... 3

5. Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc 2 18

Total acres,

Acres tillable,

Per cent pasture,

Acres, pasture not tillable,

Acres, woods,

Acres, roads, waste, etc.,

Estimated total value of

Tillable area,

Pasture,

Woods,

Barns,

Houses,

Total,

Average value per acre,

Price asked,

Is the farm worth the price asked ?._.

286 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

What is the probable increase in land value of this farm ?

Give the striking desirable features of the farm.

Give the striking undesirable features of the farm.

EXERCISE 70
PLANNING THE HOME FARM

Object. — To study the shape and arrangement of the
fields of a farm in order to suggest ways for improvement.

Explanation. — The cost of operating a farm is greatly
influenced by the way in which the fields are laid out and
arranged. On some farms, due to poor arrangement of the
fields, it is often necessary to haul the crops produced a much
greater distance to the barn or feed lot than would be nec-
essary if the fields were more systematically arranged. The
cost of fencing or cultivating fields poorly shaped and
arranged is often greater than would be necessary with a
better arrangement.

In laying out the fields of a farm there are a number of
factors that should be observed :

1. The fields should be arranged so that long stretches of
land may be cultivated without turning. It is always
cheaper to cultivate long rows than short ones. Therefore, if
the farm is small, the fields should be long and narrow.

2. The roadways to the fields should be arranged to per-
mit easy and direct access to all parts of the farm.

3. The buildings should be so located that the haul to the
fields will be as short as possible. The ideal arrangement
on a large farm is to have the buildings centrally located.

287

288 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

4. The fields should be arranged to provide for a good
rotation of crops.

5. The fields should be arranged to reduce the cost of
fencing to the minimum. As far as possible, the fences
should run straight and at right angles to each other. A
farm that has straight fences, roads, and fields presents a
neat appearance.

Equipment. — A foot rule divided into one-sixteenth inch
divisions.

Directions. — Make a drawing showing the plan of your
home farm. Show the arrangement of fields, the position
of the barns, feed lots, orchards, etc. If there are any wood
lots on the farm, show their location and size ; show also the
position of any waste lands, streams, etc. Show all fences,
lanes, and roads on the place. Indicate on the map the crop
that was on each field last year. Indicate also the crop that
will be on the field next year.

Make a careful study of the arrangement of the farm to
see if the fields could be more conveniently arranged or
changed in shape so that the expense for fencing would be
less. Redraw the plan of the farm, making all changes that
you think would better the farm in any way.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 289

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

290 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 71

THE ARRANGEMENT OF FARM BUILDINGS AND
PLANTINGS

Object. — To study the arrangement of the buildings and
plantings of a farm.

Explanation. — The buildings and plantings around the
farm home are usually located in what is called the farm-
yard. The farmyard affords a setting for the buildings,
provides access to the highway, well, and outbuildings, and
provides space for various kinds of work. Everything about
the yard should be convenient, the grades should be easy,
the surface should be smooth and easy to mow, the walks
should be pleasant, and the drives smooth and clean.

The plantings around the farm buildings should be plain
and simple. The trees and shrubs, to look best, should
not be set in rows, but should be bunched around the sides
of the yard and at the rear. It is usually advisable to have
the center of the yard open to the front to afford a good
view of the road from the house. The large plantings, such
as trees, should be at the rear of the buildings and at the sides
of the yard, where they will furnish shade and a background
for the house without obstructing the view. Care should be
taken not to overcrowd the house with trees. Shrubs should
be planted plentifully, but always in groups or clumps, and

291

292 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

not as scattering plants. Common shrubs growing wild in
fields are often more attractive to plant than uncommon
shrubs that come from the nurseries. The flower gardens
and vegetable gardens should be at one side or in the rear of
the house. It is often desirable to plant low-growing plants
against the foundation of the house.

The barns and other outbuildings should be conveniently
located at one side or hi the rear of the house and should
be connected by as few walks as will serve the needs of those
using them.

In general appearance the place should look simple, large,
and generous, and should have a free, countrylike appearance.
All parts of the place, and especially the yard, should have
good care.

Equipment. — A foot rule with one-sixteenth inch sub-
divisions.

Directions. — Make a drawing of a farm site, showing the
size and location of the yard, garden, orchard, feed lots, roads,
lawns, etc. Show the location of the house, barn, well, and
all outbuildings. Show the location of all trees and shrubs
used in the plantings around the yard. Make a list of the
trees and shrubs you know that would be suitable for planting
in the farmyard.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 293

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

294 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 72
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CORN

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of corn
over the United States.

Explanation. — The most important farm crops are usually
produced where the conditions of environment are most
favorable to their growth and development. The Corn Belt
of the United States lies in the Central States in the valleys
of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Nearly all the
states produce corn, but three fourths of the corn crop of the
United States is produced in less than ten states, which are
known as the Corn Belt.

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture.

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre
yield of corn for each state in the United States. On the
accompanying map show the distribution of corn by placing
a star in each state for each 10,000,000 bushels of corn pro-
duced. For each state producing less than 10,000,000 bushels
record on the map the amount produced.

295

296 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 297

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

298

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

EXERCISE 73
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of wheat
over the United States.

Explanation. — Wheat is adapted to growth in warm,
temperate, and cool climates, and on various types of soils.
Because of its general adaptation, it is widely distributed
over the United States.

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture.

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre
yield of wheat for each state in the United States. On the
accompanying map indicate the distribution of wheat by
placing a star in each state for each 5,000,000 bushels of wheat
produced. For each state producing less than 5,000,000
bushels record on the map the number of bushels produced.

299

300 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 301

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

302

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

r--

;

I r

L j

1
j

r~.i

•*> —

., /

— /

K-^

(_'

EXERCISE 74
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OATS

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of oats
over the United States.

Explanation. — Oats will grow in practically all localities
in which wheat will grow. When grown in the same districts
with wheat, it is usually grown in rotation with wheat and
other crops. It reaches its highest development on the
better lands and in a climate which is medium, moist, and cool.
Of ail the grains it ranks next to corn in number' of bushels
produced in the United States.

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture.

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre
yield of oats for each state in the United States. On the
accompanying map indicate the distribution of oats by placing
a star in each state for each 5,000,000 bushels of oats produced.
For each state producing less than 5,000,000 bushels record
on the map the amount produced.

303

304 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 305

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

306

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

EXERCISE 75

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
POTATOES

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of
potatoes over the United States.

Explanation. — Potatoes are generally grown throughout
the United States, but the localities in which they develop
best are restricted. Maximum yields are usually produced
on a well-drained, sandy loam soil that contains an abun-
dance of humus.

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture.

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre
yield of potatoes for each state in the United States. On the
accompanying map show the distribution of potatoes by
placing a star in each state for each 5,000,000 bushels of
potatoes produced. For each state producing less than
5,000,000 bushels record on the map the amount produced.

307

308 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 309

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

310

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

EXERCISE 76
TREE IDENTIFICATION

Object. — To study trees and become familiar with their
general form, method of branching, shape and arrangement
of leaves, and character of bark.

Explanation. — There are many kinds of trees, present-
ing a great variety of shapes and individual character-
istics. The form of trees differs; some grow tall and
slender, while others are spreading and grow close to the
ground. The number of branches and their arrangement
vary greatly. The shape, size, and arrangement of
leaves are individual characteristics and may be used in
distinguishing different kinds of trees. Botanical classifica-
tion is based largely upon the method of reproduction, and
upon the kind and character of the seed vessels and seed
coverings.

Directions. — Go to the city park or a near-by woods and
make a list of as many trees growing there as you can identify.
Select a typical elm, maple, and ash, and make a drawing of
each. The drawing should show the outline form of the tree
and the arrangement of the branches. What is the difference
in the shape of these trees ? What is the principal difference
in the arrangement of the branches?

311

312 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

Select a twig one foot to eighteen inches long from each of
these trees and make a drawing of each, showing the shape
of the leaves and their arrangement on the twigs.

Describe the difference in the shape of the leaves and in
their arrangement.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 313

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

314 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 77
STARTING PLANTS BY CUTTINGS

Object. — To prepare cuttings for setting in pots and in
the nursery.

Explanation. — A cutting is a small portion of a plant re-
moved from the parent and placed under proper conditions
for favorable growth. Cuttings may be made from many
hard wood and herbaceous plants. Wood cuttings should be
collected in the fall and stored in a cellar during the winter,
where they will partly heal over. Herbaceous cuttings may
be taken directly from the green plant and placed in the
starting box.

Equipment. — 1. Twigs of grape and willow or cotton-
wood which have been stored in the cellar during the winter.

2. Plants of geranium or wandering jew.

3. A starting box two by three feet, one foot deep.
Directions. — Fill the starting box with sand and wet it

thoroughly. Use the twigs or branches of grapevines and
willow or cottonwood that were collected and stored in
Ex. 15. Remove all but two buds on the top part of the
plant. Make holes in the sand with a sharp stick or lead
pencil about three inches apart. Insert the twigs in the
holes and press the sand firmly about them.

Obtain small slips or branches of the geranium or wandering

315

316 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

jew. They should be from one to three inches long. Re-
move some of the leaves. This will reduce the amount of
moisture lost by transpiration while the roots are becoming
established. Place the slip in the sand one to two inches
deep, as in the case of the wood cuttings. If possible, the
bottom of the box should be kept at a higher temperature
than the air above. Keep the sand well watered. The hard
wood cuttings may be transferred to the nursery and the
herbaceous plants to pots after their root systems are estab-
lished.

EXERCISE 78
POTTING PLANTS

Object. — To study and practice methods of potting
plants.

Explanation. — Small seedlings or cuttings are often potted
in the greenhouse previous to setting in the soil out of doors.
Flowering plants and ferns are often left in the pot for an
indefinite length of time. The process of potting a plant is
quite simple, and can be properly accomplished with a little
thought and practice. The plant should be well placed in
the center of the pot neither too deep nor too high. The
size of the pot should correspond to the size of the plant.
When the plant becomes too large for the pot, it should be re-
potted. The bottom of the pot should be open to allow
drainage, and the soil should contain sufficient fine gravel
and sand to insure perfect drainage.

Equipment. — 1. Ten three-inch flower pots.

2. Ten geranium plants four weeks old, from cuttings.

3. A loam soil.

4. Small amounts of gravel and sand.

Directions. — Prepare the soil for potting by mixing to-
gether three parts of loam, one part of thoroughly rotted
manure, and one part of sand. Fill the pot with gravel to a
depth of one half inch. Sprinkle over the gravel a sufficient

317

318 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

depth of the prepared soil so that the plant will have the proper
position in the pot when its roots just touch the soil. Re-
move a plant from the starting box and place it in position
in the pot. Spread the roots of the plant out well and
sprinkle prepared soil between them. Press the soil firmly
about the roots and stem. Fill the pot with soil to within
one half inch of the top. Add water slowly until it starts to
run from the drain at the bottom of the pot. Place the pot
in the laboratory window or in some other convenient place
where it will have sufficient light and heat for growth.
Water the plant at frequent intervals to keep it in good
growing condition. Pot each plant in a similar manner.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 319

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 79
THE DAIRY HERD RECORD l

Object. — To keep a record of the production of milk
and butter fat of a herd of dairy cows.

Explanation. — It is impossible to determine the value of a
dairy cow for milk or butter fat production without keeping
a record of her products. The products of the dairy cow are
usually sold from the farm in one of the following ways :
first, as milk, either retail or wholesale ; second, as cream
to creameries or to retail trade ; third, as butter sold direct
from the farm. In keeping records of the cows the dis-
position made of the milk should be considered and the prof-
its figured on these terms. When whole milk is sold, the
milk record of each cow should be kept. When the milk
is separated and the cream sold on the butter-fat basis, a
record should be kept of the pounds of butter fat produced
by each cow. When the butter is sold direct from the farm,
it is equally important to know the record of each cow.

Equipment. — Spring balance scales weighing to one fourth
pound.

Directions. — Let each student who can do so keep a rec-
ord of the dairy cows on his home farm for one month.

1 Adapted from O. E. Reed, A Dairy Primer, Chapters in Ele-
ments of Agriculture, Kansas State Agricultural College, Man-
hattan, Kansas.

320

THE DAIRY HERD RECORD 321

Rule a sheet of paper as the accompanying milk record sheet
in " Student's Notes and Report " l is ruled. Tack the milk
record sheet on the wall in the barn, near the cows. Sus-
pend the pair of spring balance scales from the ceiling near
the milk sheet. Fasten a lead pencil to a spring and attach
it to the wall near the milk sheet. Keep a record of the
milk of each cow for one month. (To determine the value
of a cow for milk production, a complete record must be kept
of the milk produced from the time she freshens until she is
dry.) A test of each cow's milk for butter fat should be
made at the beginning and end of the month. To secure a
sample of the milk for testing, take a small quantity (about
three tablespoonfuls) of the milk of each cow from each
milking for two days. The milk should be thoroughly mixed
before sampling. Place the milk from each cow in a sepa-
rate bottle and label. Test each sample for butter fat by
means of the Babcock test (Ex. 52).

Figure up the total amount of milk given by each cow
during the month. Determine the value of the milk sold
from each cow during the month. If whole milk is sold, figure
the value in pounds or gallons. A gallon of milk weighs
8.66 pounds. If cream is sold, figure the value of the butter
fat from each cow. Get the market price of whole milk and
the market price of butter fat in your community and figure
in which way it would be the most profitable to sell your
milk.

1 A milk record sheet can undoubtedly be obtained without cost
from your State Agricultural College or Experiment Station.

322

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT
MILK RECORD SHEET

MILK RECORD FOR THE MONTH ENDING...

.191

DAT

TIMD

NAME OR NUMBER OF Cows

A.M.
P.M.

A M.
P. If.

A.M.
P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

323

MILK RECORD

MILK RECORD SHEET — Continued

FOR THE MONTH ENDING. . . . . 191

DAY

TIME

NAME OR NUMBER OF Cows

A.M.
P.M.

19
20

A.M.
P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.
P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.
P.M.

—

A.M.
P.M.

Total
Milk

Per cent
Butter fat

Total
Butter fat

324 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 80
A STUDY OF THE EGG1

Object. — To study the egg and become familiar with its
parts.

Explanation. — In structure the egg consists of three
principal parts : the shell, white, and yolk. The eggshell is
a structure composed principally of lime for the purpose of
protecting the egg. Just under the shell are two thin, tough
membranes that serve further to protect the egg and prevent
its drying out too rapidly. Near the larger end of the egg
is usually found an air space. This air space is compara-
tively small when the egg is fresh, but becomes larger as the
egg grows older, due to the drying out and shrinking of the
white and yolk of the egg. The size of the air space serves as
a means of determining the age of the egg. The air space
is for the purpose of furnishing a ready supply of fresh air to
the young developing chick. The air space lies between
the outer and inner membranes.

The white of the egg consists of three important parts :
the outer, thicker albumen ; the inner, thinner albumen ; and
the chalaza. The albumen supplies in liquid form the food
by which the chick grows within the shell. The chalaza
consists of white cords of denser albumen that adhere to the

1 Adapted from J. E. Rice in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet,
Vol. I, No. 2.

325

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

side of the yolk toward either end. These cords serve to
keep the yolk suspended properly within the albumen.

The yolk of the egg consists of three parts : the germ spot,
light yolk, and dark yolk. The germ spot appears as a
light-colored spot usually found on the upper surface of the
yolk. It is from this germ that the young chick develops.

There is a tendency
for the yolk to float
at the surface of the
egg. It is therefore
necessary to turn fre-
quently eggs that are
to be used for hatching.
If the egg is not turned
frequently, the yolk
will rise until the germ
comes in contact with
the shell membrane.
It will then become
dry by evaporation and adhere to the membrane. If the
egg is then turned, the germ will be killed. Figure 28 shows
a cross section of an egg.

Equipment. — 1. Two eggs, one light and one dark, for
each member of the class.

2. Two saucers for each member of the class.

3. A sauce pan.

4. Some means of boiling an egg.1

5. A knife.

FIG. 28. — Sections of an egg. 1, germ spot;
2, light yolk ; 3, dark yolk ; 4, chalaza ;

5, the inner, thinner white or albumen ;

6, the outer, thicker white or albumen ;

7, inner membrane ; 8, air space ; 9, outer
membrane ; 10, shell.

1 If the eggs cannot be boiled at school, have each student bring
a boiled egg from home.

A STUDY OF THE EGG 327

6. An egg tester which may be made from a box large
enough to hold a small lighted lamp. In the box opposite
the lamp cut a hole slightly smaller than the egg.

Directions. — Examine several eggs in the egg tester by
holding them in the hole of the egg tester and looking through
the egg toward the light. The egg tester must be. used in a
darkened room. Observe the size of the air space. The
size of the air space gives some indication of the age of the
egg. A spoiled egg does not look clear and distinct as a
fresh egg does.

Break a fresh, uncooked egg in a saucer by separating the
shell in the middle. Observe the germ on the upper surface
of the yolk. Note the chalaza and the transparent watery
appearance of the albumen. Examine the shell and observe
the air space and the two outer membranes best seen at the
air space. Note the pigment of the shell which gives the
egg its color.

Boil an egg hard. Crack the large end of the egg and re-
move the shell piece by piece. Observe the air space and the
two outer membranes. Cut the egg lengthwise and make a
drawing of the longitudinal section showing:

1. The air space.

2. The two outer membranes.

3. The three layers of the white.

4. The white yolk and the dark yolk.

5. The germ.

;>-JS LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 329

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 81

A STUDY OF THE RICE HEAD

Object. — To examine the head of rice and become famil-
iar with the shape and
arrangement of its dif-
ferent parts.

Explanation. - The
head of rice is com-
monly called a panicle.
It is composed of a
branching stem with
spikelets attached.
Each spikelet contains
but one kernel. The
kernel is inclosed within
a flowering glume on
one side and the palea
on the other. The
flowering glume incloses
about two thirds of
the kernel. The outer
glumes in rice do not

Fio. 29-^ a head of rice; B a single coyer the flowering
spikelet ; C, the kernel of nee with glumes
and palea removed. glumes, but are small

330

A STUDY OF THE RICE HEAD 331

projections at the base of the kernel. The kernel is flat-
oval in shape with lines or small depressions running from
top to bottom. The spikelets are placed singly at various
intervals along the branches. Figure 29 shows the rice head.

Equipment. — Heads of rice for each member of the
class.

Directions. — Make a drawing of the entire head of rice.
Remove a spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw the
outer glumes ; a single flowering glume ; and the palea.
Make a drawing of the kernel showing the broad or side
view, one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross
section. Make all drawings at least four times natural
size, except the one of the panicle. Make them in careful
detail and show all the different parts.

332 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 333

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

EXERCISE 82
TREE PLANTING

Object. — To observe the conditions which are necessary
for the successful transplanting of trees and shrubs.

Explanation. — Trees are usually started in the nursery,
where at small cost special attention may be given them
during their early development. Desirable shade trees often
may be obtained along the creek bank or in the wood lot.
Small trees may be safely transplanted after they have made
two or three years' successful growth in the nursery. Trees
may be reset either in the fall or in the spring. Spring
planting is usually more successful. They should be trans-
planted when they are in a dormant stage just before the
buds begin to swell.

There are three distinct steps in tree transplanting. They
are : removing the tree from the soil, preparing the tree for
resetting and transferring it to its new location, and replacing
it in the soil.

In removing the tree from the soil care should be taken not
to injure the roots. In preparing it for transplanting, the
top should be cut back. This will reduce the leaf surface
and amount of transpiration as the plant begins to grow.
If this is not done, the tree may be stunted or perhaps may
even die while the root system is becoming established. All

334

TREE PLANTING 335

injured limbs or injured roots should be removed with a sharp
knife. The roots should not be allowed to become dry
through exposure to the sun during the transfer to the new
location.

The hole for resetting must be sufficiently large to accom-
modate the roots without crowding them. After the tree
has been properly adjusted in its new location, loose soil
should be worked in carefully about its roots. The soil should
be compacted about the roots so that they will more readily
s+art. The soil on the surface should be left loose to serve
as a mulch.

Equipment. — A good shade tree.

2. Spade.

3. Pruning knife. '

Directions. -7- Select a desirable tree from the nursery or
wood lot. It is best to use a tree two or three years old.
Dig around it and remove it from the soil, injuring as few
roots as possible. Keep the roots covered while transferring
it to its new location. Cut the top back and remove all un-
desirable branches. Dig a hole sufficiently large to accom-
modate all the roots. Adjust the tree properly and fill in
between the roots with loose soil. Compact the soil firmly
about the roots. Water the tree when you have the hole
about two thirds full of dirt. Fill the hole level to the top
with loose soil.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE
STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT

APPENDIX

SECTION I
EQUIPMENT1

AMOUNT NECESSARY FOR A CLASS OF TEN STUDENTS

1 Babcock testing outfit (c).

1 balance, torsion, weighing to fa gram (&).

1 balance, spring (a).

1 basket, \ bushel (a).

6 beakers, 500 c.c. (6).

1 burner, alcohol or gas (6).

1 crock, 4-gallon (a).

2 crocks, 2-gallon (a).

1 The letter in parenthesis following the items of equipment refers
to the place where the equipment may be secured :

(a) Local dealer. (6) Chemical Supply Houses, (c) Creamery
Package Manufacturing Co., Chicago, 111. (d) Central Scientific
Co., Chicago, 111. (e) The authors of this Manual will supply a
limited number of sets of type samples of grain for secondary school
work at a price sufficient to cover cost of material and packing.
(See suggestions to teachers.) (/) Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.,
Rochester, N.Y. (g) E. and T. Fairbanks & Co., St. Johnsbury,
Vt. (h) Apple seedlings can usually be purchased in lots of 100
from nurseries at very small cost.

NOTE. — The following are a few reliable chemical supply houses :
E. H. Sargent & Co., Chicago, 111. ; Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.,
Rochester, N.Y. ; Eimer & Amend, New York City, N.Y.
z 337

338 APPENDIX

4 cylinders, evaporation (d).

6 cylinders, percolation, with rack and supply tank (d).

1 cylinder, graduated 100 c.c. (6).
10 forceps (6).

4 glass plates, 3 inches square (a).

1 grain, set of type samples of (e).

1 knife, long-bladed (a).

6 jars, Mason, 1 quart (a).
10 lenses, hand (a).

1 microscope, magnifying to low power (/).

6 microscope slides (/).

1 oilcloth, 18 inches square (a).

1 pan, galvanized iron 5 X 14 inches, 3 inches deep (a).
12 pans, tin, 6 inches in diameter (pie pans) (a).

50 plates, paper (a).

2 pots, flower, 6 inches in diameter (a).

10 pots, flower, 3 inches in diameter (a).
1 pruning shears (a).

1 pruning saw (a).
1 pruning knife (a).
1 rule, foot, division ^ inch (a).
1 sieve, for sifting soil, 12 meshes to inch (a).
1 saucepan, 2 quarts (a).
20 saucers (a).

1 scales, weighing 100 lb., accurate to \ pound (a).
1 shears (a).

1 soil auger, 3 feet in length (a).
1 string, ball (a).
1 tape line, 100 feet in length (a).
4 test tubes, large size (6).

11 thermometers, chemical (6).

4 tubes, glass, 3 feet long, 1 inch in diameter (6).

6 wash pans (a).

1 weigh t-per-bushel tester (g).

APPENDIX 339

SUPPLIES

The most of which can be provided by the teacher or secured
at a small cost.

100 apple seedlings, one year old (h).
2 boxes 2x3 feet and 1 foot deep (starting boxes).
1 box, large, for storing cutting and grafting material.
1 pound beeswax.
5 yards cheese cloth.
30 grams copper sulphate.

1 corn tester, for germinating seed corn.
24 eggs.

1 egg tester, for candling eggs.
Grain in the following amounts :
1 pound alfalfa seed.
4 pounds beans.
Barley —

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of barley.
1 bundle of barley heads.
1 pound clover seed.

1 pound sweet corn.
Field corn —

12 ten-ear samples.

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of shelled corn.
\ bushel of shelled corn.
Cowpeas —

2 six-pound lots of different samples.

1 pound grass seed (timothy, orchard grass, or redtop).
Oats —

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of oats.

^ bushel of oats.

A bundle of oat heads.
Rye —

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of rye.

A bundle of rye heads.
Sorghum —

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of sorghum.

Heads of milo, kafir, and sweet sorghum.

340 APPENDIX

Wheat—

4 ten-pound samples of different lots of wheat.
A bundle of wheat heads
1 bushel of uncleaned wheat.
2 pints milk, different samples.
1 plant, geranium to use for cuttings.
1 bushel sand for germination.
Soil. — Three bushels each of the following kinds of air-dry soil :

gravel, sand, loam, and clay.
1 tube rack for holding capillary soil tubes.
18 inches rubber tubing, \ inch inside diameter.

APPENDIX

SECTION II
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

The laboratory work of this manual is outlined to meet the needs
of secondary schools giving a year's instructional work in agri-
culture. It is impossible to give satisfactory instruction in agri-
culture without practical demonstrations, which can only be given
in the field and laboratory. In planning this laboratory manual
the authors have assumed that five periods a week will be devoted
to the subject of agriculture : three to be used for classroom and
lecture work and two periods of one and one half or two hours'
duration to be spent in the laboratory and field. Since it is occa-
sionally necessary to make short trips and excursions during the
laboratory period, it will be found most satisfactory to devote the
last periods in the afternoon to this work. If this is done, it will
be possible to make longer trips than could be made if the work
occurred at some other time of the day.

Suggestions concerning Equipment. — The list of equipment
given in Section 1 of the Appendix gives in detail all apparatus
and supplies required to carry out successfully the exercises given
in the manual. Very few schools will find it necessary to purchase
this entire list of equipment, for most schools are well equipped to
teach laboratory work in botany, chemistry, and physics. Ordi-
narily the same microscope, balances, scales, and much of the glass-
ware that are used for botany, chemistry, and physics may also
be used in agriculture, to avoid the expense of duplication.

Soils. — There are a number of exercises in soils that demand
special equipment. It is to the best interest of the work to provide
this equipment when possible. Where funds are limited, less ex-

341

342 APPENDIX

pensive equipment may be substituted. Student lamp chimneys
may be used to replace glass tubes in Ex. 8 and 14. Tin cans
with perforated bottoms may be used to replace the percolator
equipment in Ex. 9. The same cans may also be used in Ex.
11. Solid-bottom quart tin cans may be used to replace the
equipment called for in Ex. 10. In Ex. 13 four-gallon crocks may
be used to replace the soil cylinders. If crocks are used to replace
the evaporation cylinders, the soil must be saturated with water by
applying water at the top before the mulches are added.

Four types of soil are needed in the laboratory : gravel, sand,
loam, and clay. The gravel and sand may be obtained along
streams, or if no stream is convenient, it can be secured as concrete
sand from local lumber dealers. The concrete sand should be sifted
through a sieve twelve meshes to the linear inch. The coarser
material will furnish gravel and the finer material sand. Loam
and clay can usually be obtained near the school. All the soils
should be thoroughly air dry, pulverized, and sifted before they
are used.

Crops. — The laboratory exercises in crops require head samples
and seeds of a number of the common cereals and legumes. It will
be necessary for the instructor to secure samples of heads of the
grains to be studied. This can best be done by collecting the ma-
terial in the field. If field samples have not been secured, it
may be possible to obtain them from stacks or barns where this
material has been stored. Samples of threshed and shelled grain
may be obtained from local mills and elevators. Some of the more
uncommon grains and seeds can be secured from seed houses.

Type Samples. — It is impossible successfully to study types
and classes of grain without using a standard for comparison.
It may be possible for schools to obtain type samples of grains from
their state agricultural experiment stations. The authors of this
manual, realizing the difficulty that many schools will have in obtain-
ing suitable type samples, have arranged to supply this material
at a cost of 50 cents per case of six samples or $3.50 for an entire
set of 48 samples. (This price does not include postage or express.)
These samples will be put up in glass-front cases, properly labeled,
and will include type samples of wheat, oats, rye, barley, legumes,
and grass seeds.

APPENDIX 343

Farm Machinery. — A number of farm implements will be used
as equipment in the exercises of this manual. This machinery
can be borrowed from local implement dealers. If it is not con-
venient to bring this machinery to the school grounds or laboratory,
the class should be taken to the implement house for the work.
If there are several implement dealers in the town, the class should
be taken to the different dealers for the different exercises.

Live Stock. — A very limited amount of work on live stock is
outlined in the manual. Where live stock is of special interest,
more time should be devoted to this phase of the work. In com-
munities where dairying is important several exercises should be
devoted to judging dairy cattle. The animals used for class judg-
ing can undoubtedly be secured from farmers or live-stock owners
in the community. Good live stock for school purposes can be
obtained in nearly every place.

Field Lessons. — Field lessons can be made the most valuable
part of the work in agriculture, but to accomplish this the instructor
must carefully plan the work. The instructor must be familiar
with everything to be observed and studied on the trip. In Ex.
68 and 69, on judging a farm, the farm chosen for the field trip should
be located as near the school as possible. The first day should be
spent studying the farm in the field and the second day used in
discussing the good and poor points of the farm and completing
the score card.

Home Garden. — For the exercise on the home garden, Ex. 49
and 50, the first day should be devoted to drawing the plan of
the garden, spacing and arranging the crops. The second day
should be used to figure the area devoted to each crop and the cost
for seed as determined by prices secured from seed dealers.

Extra Exercises. — A few more exercises appear in the manual
than it is possible to give in a year's work in agriculture. This
will allow some choice of exercises by the instructor. "Where
equipment is not available to perform a regular exercise, an extra
exercise may be substituted. Of the extra exercises 76 is adapted-
for the fall, while 77 and 78 are suited for spring. Where Ex. 78
is used, it should follow one month after Ex. 77.

A Final Word to the Teacher. — Nearly every exercise in this
manual is of such length that all the time possible for the laboratory

344 APPENDIX

period will be required to complete the work successfully. It will,
therefore, be necessary for the teacher to have all material at hand
to start the work promptly at the beginning of the period. The
instructor should plan for each laboratory period far in advance.
This is absolutely necessary in the case of Ex. 16, 17, 18, 58, and 59,
for which material must be prepared four weeks in advance of the
class period.

E following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Rural Economy,
Cornell University.

With IOO full-page plates and more than 2OOO illus*
trations in the text; four -volumes; the set, $20.00 net;
half morocco, $32.00 net; carriage extra

VOLUME I — Farms VOLUME III — Animals

VOLUME II — Crops VOLUME IV — The Farm and the Community

"Indispensable to public and reference libraries . . . readily compre-
hensible to any person of average education." — The Nation.
"The completes! existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on
modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must
pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, prac-
tical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every library
in the country." — Record-Herald, Chicago.

Cyclopedia of American Horticulture

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

With over 2800 original engravings; four volumes; the
set, $20.00 net; half morocco, $32.00 net; carriage extra

"This really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in
its class. Illustrations and text are admirable. . . . Our own convic-
tion is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the
work, it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing its impor-
tance, the publishers have given it faultless form. The typography leaves
nothing to be desired, the paper is calculated to stand wear and tear,
and the work is at once handsomely and attractively bound." — Net*
York Daily Tribune.

PUBLISHED BY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 Fifth Avenue. New York

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE

ON SELECTION OF LAND, Etc.

Thomas F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm . . .

E. \V. litigant's Soils: Their Formation and Relations
to Qimate and Plant Growth

Isaac P. Roberts's The Farmstead

ON TILLAGE, Etc.

F. H. King's The Soil

Isaac P. Roberts's The Fertility of the Land .

Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions ....

F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage ....
William E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America
Edward B. Voorhees's Fertilizers .....
Edward B. Voorhees's Forage Crops ....
II. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life .

H. Snyder's Soil and Fertilizers. Third edition

L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture ....

W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture, Southern and

Western

J. F. Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools

G. F. Warren's Elements of Agriculture ....
T. L. Lyon and E. O. Fippin's The Principles of Soil

Management ........

Hilgard & Osterhout's Agriculture for Schools on the

Pacific Slope ........

J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming

ON GARDEN-MAKING

L. H. Bailey's Manual of Gardening

L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening

L. II. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book

L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book ....

A. French's How to Grow Vegetables . .

ON FRUIT-GROWING, Etc.

L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book

L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing

L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book

F. W. Card's Bush Fruits

J. T. Bealby's Fruit Ranching in British Columbia

ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK

D. E. Lyon's How to Keep Bees for Profit . .
Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals
W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals

I. P. Roberts's The Horse

George C. Watson's Farm Poultry .....
C. S. Valentine's How to Keep Hens for Profit
O. Kellner's The Scientific Feeding of Animals (trans.)
M. H. Reynolds's Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Stu-
dents

$i 75 net

400 net
I 50 net

I 50 net
I 50 net
I 25 net
I 50 net
I 50 net
I 25 net
I 50 net
I 25 net
I 25 net
I 25 net

75 net

I 10 net

I 75 net

i oo net
I 50 net

200 net
I 50 net
75 net
I 25 net
I 75 net

I 50 net
I 50 net
I 50 net
I 50 net
I 50 net

I 50 net
I 50 net
I 50 net
I 25 net
I 25 net
I 50 net
I 90 net

I 75 net

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE — Continued

ON DAIRY WORK

Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products . . $1 50 net

C. M. Aikman's Milk I 25 net

Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry I oo net

W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bacteri-
ology I 60 net

I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy . . . i oo net
Chr. Barthel's Methods Used in the Examination of Milk

and Dairy Products I 90 net

ON PLANT DISEASES, Etc.

George Massee's Diseases of Cultivated Plants and Trees 2 25 net

J. G. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation to Country Life . i 50 net

E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants . . . i 25 net

H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English) . . . i 60 net

A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology . . . 4 50 net

ON PRODUCTION OF NEW PLANTS

L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding I 25 net

L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike . . . 2 oo net

L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits . 2 oo net

W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life . . i 75 net

ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION

J. B. Green's Law for the American Farmer ... 50 net

J. McLennan's Manual of Practical Farming ... 50 net

L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer ... 25 net

Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics ... 25 net

I. P. Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook . . 25 net

George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare . - . 25 net

S. E. Sparling's Business Organization . . . . i 25 net

In the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter on Farm-
ing

Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-supporting Home . . . I 75 net

Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty . . . . I 75 net
G. F. W'arren and K. C. Livermore's Exercises in Farm

Management 80 net

H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene I 50 net

ON EVERYTHING AGRICULTURAL

L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture :
Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils.
Vol. II. Farm Crops.
Vol. III. Farm Animals.
Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.

Complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations.
Price of sets: cloth, $20 net; half morocco, $32 net.

For further information as to any of the above, address the publishers.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

By G. F. WARREN

Professor of Farm Management and Farm Crops, New York State College of
Agriculture, at Cornell University

Cloth, izmo. 434 pages. $1.10 net

Upon the appearance of this volume, Mr. W. J. Spillman of
the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.,
wrote as follows :

" I wish to congratulate you upon this book. It is a type of book
which has been much needed. We have had a large number of
good books recently that were not up to high school grade. Dr.
Warren's book will evidently make an excellent text for high school
work in agriculture. It is comprehensive and at the same time in-
tensive, considering the scope which it must necessarily cover. The
subjects are well chosen and are excellently treated. I predict great
usefulness for this book."

This prediction has been confirmed not only by the words of
hundreds of teachers who have used the book and found it emi-
nently satisfactory, but by the fact that it is now used in more
than one thousand schools and the number is rapidly increasing.

PUBLISHED BY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES

THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below

»<.nn I. •

UCMM)

Call -

A laboratory
manual of ag-
riculture for
secondary
schools.

S495
C13 1

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

A 001 107 464 8

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "A laboratory manual of agriculture for secondary schools"

See other formats